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Тарелка Кировская
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Игрове Недельник Делюн
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C Y N ( 302 ) C Y NTel a pint of the infufion of fixty or feventy grains ofthe mod tranfparent ifing-glafs, or fifh-glue, in a littlewhite-wine and river or rain water, ftirred well toge¬ther, after being drained through a linen cloth. Whenthis vifcous fubftance is put into the calif, it fpreadsit-felf over the furface like a net, and carries all the dregsto the bottom with it.Ginger added to cyder, not only correds its windi-nefs, but makes it more bride; and a few drops ofcurrant juice, befides tinging, adds a pleafant quick-nefs to it. Honey, or fugar, mixed with fome fpices,and added to flat cyder, will very much revive it.Some commend boiling of cyder-juice, which Ihouldbe done as i'oon as it is preffed, fenmming it continu¬ally, and obferving to let it boil no longer than till itacquires the colour of fmall beer: when cold, put itinto a calk, leaving a fmall vent; and when it beginsto bubble up out of the vent, bottle it for ufe.CYDONIA, in botany. See Crateva.CYGNUS, in ornithology. See Anas.Cygnus, in aftronomy. See Vol. 1. p, 486.CYLINDER, in geometry, a foiid body, fuppofed tobe generated by the rotation of a parallelogram.Rolling, or loaded Cylinder. See Mechanics.CYLINDROID, in geometry, a foiid body, approach¬ing to the figure of a cylinder, but differing from it infome refped, as having the bafes elliptical, but parallei and equal.CYLINDRUS, in natural hiftory. See Voluta.CYMA, in botany, the tender ftalks which herbs fendforth in the beginning of the fpring, particularly thgfeof the cabbage-kind.CYMATIUM, in architedure, a member or moulding,of the corniche, the profile of which is waved, thatis, concave at top, and convex at bottom. See Ar-CHITECTURE.CYMBAL, a mufical inftrument in ufe among the an¬cients. The cymbal was round, made of brafr, likeour kettle-drums, and, as fome think, in their form,but fmaller, and of different ufe.CYMBAL ARIA, in botany. See Antirrhinum.CYMBARIA, in botany, a genus of the didynamia an-giofpermia clafs of plants The calix is divided intomany parts ; and the capftile is unilocular. There isbut one fpecies.CYN^EDUS, in ichthyology. See Sparus.CYNANCHE, among phyficians, denotes an inflamma¬tion of the larynx.CYNANCHUM, in botany, a genus of the pentandriadigynia clafs. The nedarium is cylindrical, and hasfive teeth. There are five fpecies, none of them na¬tives of Britain.CYNANTHROPIA, in medicine, the diftemper occasi¬oned by the bite of a mad dog. See Medicine.CYNAPIUM, in botany. See Ethusa.CYNARA, the Artichoak, in botany, a genus of thefyngenefia polygamia asqualis clafs. The calix is di¬lated and imbricated, with flelhy feales Sharp at thepoints. There are four fpecies, none of them natives-of Britain. The ufe of the artichoke as a food is wellknown.CYNICS, a fed of ancient philofophers, who valuedthemfelves upon their contempt of riches and ftate,arts and fciences, and every thing, in ihort, exceptvirtue or morality.The cynic philofophers owe their origin and inftitu-tion to Antifthenes of Athens, a-difciple of Socrates,who, being afked of what ufe his philofophy had beento him, replied, “ It enables me to live with myfelf.”Diogenes was the moft famous of his difciples, inwhofe life the fyftem of this philofophy appears in itsgreateft perfedion: he led a moft wretched life, a tubhaving ferved him for a lodging, which he rolled be¬fore him where ever he went; yet he was, neverthelefs,not the mote humble orf account of his ragged cloak,bag, and tub; for, one day, entering Plato’s houfe,at a time that there was a fplendid entertainment therefor feveral perfons of diftindion, he jumped up upon avery rich couth, in all his dirt, faying, “ I trample onthe pride of Plato.” “ Yes (replied Plato,) but withgreat pride, Diogenes.” He had the utmoft contemptfor all the human race, for he walked the ftreets of A-thens, at noon-day, with a lighted lantern in his hand,telling the people, “ He was in fearch of a man.”Amongft many excellent maxims of morality, he heldfome very pernicious opinions ; for he ufed to fay,that the uninterrupted goad fortune of Harpalus,who generally paffed for a thief and a robber, was ateftimony againft the gods. He regarded chaftity andmodefty as weakneffes; hence Laertius obferves ofhim, that he did every thing openly, whether it be¬longed to Ceres or Venus, though he adds that Dio¬genes only ran to an excefs of impudence to put othersout of conceit with it: but impudence was foe charac-teriftic of thefe philofophers, who argued, that whatwas right to be done, might be done at all times, andin all places. The chief principle of this fed, in com¬mon with the ftoics, was, that we Ihould follow nature;but they differed from the ftoics in their explanation ofthat maxim, the cynics being of opinion that a manfollowed nature, that gratified his natural motions andappetites; while the ftoics underftood right reafon,by the word nature.Cynic spasm, a kind of convulfion, wherein the patientimitates the howlings of dogs.CYNIPS, in zoology, a genus of infeds belonging to theorder of hymenoptera. The mouth confifts of twojaws, without any probofeis; and the fting in the tailis fpiral, and generally hid. There are nineteen fpecies,diftinguifhed by their colour, and the plants they in¬habit.CYNOCEPHALUS, in zoology, the trivial name of afpecies of fimia. See S1 m 1 a .CYNOGLOSSUM, in botany, a genus of the pentan¬dria monogynia clafs. The corolla is tunnel-fhaped ;the feeds are depreffed, and the ftylus is fixed to theinterior fide of them. There are eight fpecies, only•one of which is a native of Britain, viz. the officinale,or hound’s-tongue; the root is faidto be pedoral andnarcotic.CYNOMETRA, in botany, a genus of the decandriamonogynia clafs. The calix confifts of four fegments,the
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sel a pint of the infusion of sixty or seventy grains of the most transparent icing-glass, or fish-glue, in a little white-wine and river or rain water, stirred well together, after being strained through a linen cloth. When this viscous substance is put into the cask, it spreads itself over the surface like a net, and carries all the dregs to the bottom with it.
Ginger added to cyder, not only corrects its windiness, but makes it more brisk; and a few drops of currant-juice, besides tinging, adds a pleasant quickness to it. Honey, or sugar, mixed with some spices, and added to flat cyder, will very much revive it.
Some commend boiling of cyder-juice, which should be done as soon as it is pressed, scumming it continually, and observing to let it boil no longer than till it acquires the colour of small beer: when cold, put it into a cask, leaving a small vent; and when it begins to bubble up out of the vent, bottle it for use.
CYDONIA, in botany. See Crateva.
CYGNUS, in ornithology. See Anas.
Cygnus, in astronomy. See Vol. I. p. 486.
CYLINDER, in geometry, a solid body, supposed to be generated by the rotation of a parallelogram.
Rolling, or loaded Cylinder. See Mechanics.
CYLINDROID, in geometry, a solid body, approaching to the figure of a cylinder, but differing from it in some respect, as having the bases elliptical, but paralel and equal.
CYLINDRUS, in natural history. See Voluta.
CYMA, in botany, the tender stalks which herbs send forth in the beginning of the spring, particularly those of the cabbage-kind.
CYMATIUM, in architecture, a member or moulding, of the corniche, the profile of which is waved, that is, concave at top, and convex at bottom. See Architecture.
CYMBAL, a musical instrument in use among the ancients. The cymbal was round, made of brass, like our kettle-drums, and, as some think, in their form, but smaller, and of different use.
CYMBALARIA, in botany. See Antirrhinum.
CYMBARIA, in botany, a genus of the didynamia angiospermia class of plants. The calix is divided into many parts; and the capsule is unilocular. There is but one species.
CYNEDUS, in ichthyology. See Sparus.
CYNANCHE, among physicians, denotes an inflammation of the larynx.
CYNANCHUM, in botany, a genus of the pentandria digynia class. The nectarium is cylindrical, and has five teeth. There are five species, none of them natives of Britain.
CYNANTHROPIA, in medicine, the distemper occasioned by the bite of a mad dog. See Medicine.
CYNAPIUM, in botany. See Ethusa.
CYNARA, the Artichoak, in botany, a genus of the syngenesis polygamia xqualis class. The calix is dilated and imbricated, with fleshy scales sharp at the points. There are four species, none of them natives of Britain. The use of the artichoke as a food is well known.
CYNICS, a sect of ancient philosophers, who valued themselves upon their contempt of riches and state, arts and sciences, and every thing, in short, except virtue or morality.
The cynic philosophers owe their origin and institution to Antisthenes of Athens, a disciple of Socrates, who, being asked of what use his philosophy had been to him, replied, "It enables me to live with myself." Diogenes was the most famous of his disciples, in whose life the system of this philosophy appears in its greatest perfection: he led a most wretched life, a tub having served him for a lodging, which he rolled before him where ever he went; yet he was, nevertheless, not the more humble or account of his ragged cloak, bag, and tub; for, one day, entering Plato's house, at a time that there was a splendid entertainment there for several persons of distinction, he jumped up upon a very rich couch, in all his dirt, saying, "I trample on the pride of Plato." "Yes (replied Plato,) but with great pride, Diogenes." He had the utmost contempt for all the human race, for he walked the streets of Athens, at noon-day, with a lighted lantern in his hand, telling the people, "He was in search of a man." Amongst many excellent maxims of morality, he held some very pernicious opinions; for he used to say, that the uninterrupted good fortune of Harpalus, who generally passed for a thief and a robber, was a testimony against the gods. He regarded chastity and modesty as weaknesses; hence Laertius observes of him, that he did every thing openly, whether it belonged to Ceres or Venus, though he adds that Diogenes only ran to an excess of impudence to put others out of conceit with it: but impudence was the characteristic of these philosophers, who argued, that what was right to be done, might be done at all times, and in all places. The chief principle of this sect, in common with the stoics, was, that we should follow nature; but they differed from the stoics in their explanation of that maxim, the cynics being of opinion that a man followed nature, that gratified his natural motions and appetites; while the stoics understood right reason, by the word nature.
CYNIC SPASM, a kind of convulsion, wherein the patient imitates the howlings of dogs.
CYNIPS, in zoology, a genus of insects belonging to the order of hymenoptera. The mouth consists of two jaws, without any proboscis; and the sting in the tail is spiral, and generally hid. There are nineteen species, distinguished by their colour, and the plants they inhabit.
CYNOCEPHALUS, in zoology, the trivial name of a species of simia. See Simia.
CYNOGLOSSUM, in botany, a genus of the pentandria monogynia class. The corolla is tunnel-shaped; the seeds are depressed, and the stylus is fixed to the interior side of them. There are eight species, only one of which is a native of Britain, viz. the officinale, or hound's-tongue; the root is said to be pectoral and narcotic.
CYNOMETRA, in botany, a genus of the decandria monogynia class. The calix consists of four segments, the
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SOUTH HAVEN
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VENEZUELA
COLOMBIA
BRAZIL
CHILE
ARGENTINA
SURINAME
PACIFIC OCEAN
TROPICAL OCEAN
INDIAN OCEAN
GREEN ISLANDS
THE GULF OF CARIBBEAN
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270
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270 A N A TAt the upper part of the bladder, they approach eachother ; and, joining the urachus, form that rope, whichmay be termed the fuperior ligament of the bladder.The lower part of the bladder, which deferves thename of fundus much better than the upper part, is per¬forated by three openings, one anterior, and two pofte¬rior. The anterior opening is formed by an elongationof all the proper coats, in form of a gullet, turned muchin the fame manner with the inner orifice of the roftrumof the head of an alembic. This elongation is Called theneck of the bladder, the defcription of which belongs tothat of the parts of generation in men.The other two openings in the true fundus af thebladder, are formed by the ureters, which, in theircourfedownward already defcribed, run behind the fpermaticveffels, and then behind the lower part of the bladder,approaching each other. Each ureter lies between theumbilical artery and vas deferens of the fame fide, theartery lying on the outfide of the ureter, and the vas de¬ferens on the infide.Afterwards they get between the vafa deferentia andthe bladder, eroding thefe canals: and then at about afinger’s breadth from each other, they begin to piercethe coats of the bladder. They run a little way betweenthe mufcular and nervous coats, and open into theblad-.dcr obliquely, fomething nearer each other than whenthey firft entered its coats.The orifices of the ureters in the bladder, arc fome¬thing oval, and narrower than the cavity of the uretersimmediately above them The edge of thefe orifices isvery thin, and feems to be formed merely by the union©f the internal coat of the bladder with that of theureters.Befides the ligaments already mentioned, there arelikewife two fmall ones, by which the anterior part ofthe true fundus of the bladder is connected to the oflapubis, which lhall be defcribed with the neck and fphinc-ter after the hi Rory of the parts of generation in bothfexes.THE PARTS OF GENERATION INMALES.The fpermatic arteries go out mod commonly fromthe anterior part of the inferior aorta, near each other,and about an inch lower than the arteriae renales.They run down obliquely in the pofterior part of theabdomen, within the cellular fubftance of the perito-nscum, palling infenfibly from behind forward; and foparting gradually more and more from 'the aorta, theycrofS over the forefide of the ureters, and run throughthe openings or rings of the abdominal mufcles, alongwith the elongations or produftions of the cellular portionof the peritonseum.They are fmall at their origin; and in their courfedownward, they give off pretty confidcrable lateral ra¬mifications to the membrana adipofa, peritonaeum, andalfo to the mefentery.They fonjetimes pafs through the areolae, or mefhes ofthe fpermatic veins; and before they go out of the ab¬domen, they are divided into very fine rami, which runO M Y. Part Vr.in a more or lefs winding courfe, almoft parallel to eachother.Afterwards they enter the cellular productions of theperitonaeum, which ferve them for vaginae. They do notfluctuate indifferently from one fide to the other of thefevaginae; but are connected along their inner furface bythin membranous laminae, which are likewife continua¬tions of the cellular fubftance of the peritonaeum.The arteries continue the fame winding courfe withinthefe vaginae, pailing before the vafa deferentia, whichare likewife contained in them; and at length they ter¬minate by ramifications in the epididymes and teftes.The teftes are two glandular bodies, fituated neareach other, without the abdomen, below the interfticebetween the groins in an adult. The ancients namedtb^m didymi or gejnini, Their fize is nearly that of apigeon’s egg, and they are of an oval figure, a little flat¬ted at each fide. We may confider in each tefticle, twoextremities, two edges, and two fides. One extremityis fituated forward, and a little upward ; the other back¬ward, and a little downward; and their edges lie up¬ward and downward.At the upper edge, they have each an appendix, cal¬led epididymis, together with which it is involved infe-veral coverings; and they are both fufpended in a com¬mon covering, called the ferotum.Each tefticle is a fpermatic gland formed by a vaft'number of fine whitilh tubes, folded and twifted in dif¬ferent manners, and diftributed in different fafciculi, be¬tween membranous fepta; the whole being furroundedby a ftrong common covering, named tunica albuginea.Thefe fepta are difpofed longitudinally, divaricatingfrom each other on one fide, and approaching on the 6-ther. They approach each other along one edge of thetefticle, and terminate in a long narrow whitilh body, asin a kind of axis.From thence they divaricate in a regular manner, andare fixed by their oppofite edges in the inner furface ofthe tunica albuginea, of which they appear to be a con¬tinuation. This white body may be termed the nucleusof the tefticle.From this defcription, we fee that all thefe fepta arenot of an equal breadth; that the interftices betweenthem are in fome meafure trangular; and that the extentof the fmall tubes, which lie therein, muft be very con-fiderable. They have been reckoned to amount to manyells, by taking the fum of all their feveral portions ; andthey may be eafily unfolded by a long maceration, whichdeftroys the delicate fubftance by which all their folds andconvolutions are connected and tied down.All thefe fmall canals feem to teiminate by a fmallernumber of common trunks at the white body or nucleus al¬ready mentioned; which trunks do afterwards pierce theupper part of the anterior extremity of the tefticle, andare difpofed in feveral folds along the lateral external partof the upper edge, all the way to the pofterior extremi¬ty. From this union arifes a long whitilh plaited fafei-culus or bundle, called epididymis, or appendix to thetefticle.The epididymis thus formed, may be reckoned a pro¬duction of the tefticle, or a kind of teftis accefforius;and
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At the upper part of the bladder, they approach each other; and, joining the urachus, form that rope, which may be termed the superior ligament of the bladder.
The lower part of the bladder, which deserves the name of fundus much better than the upper part, is perforated by three openings, one anterior, and two posterior. The anterior opening is formed by an elongation of all the proper coats, in form of a gullet, turned much in the same manner with the inner orifice of the rostrum of the head of an alembic. This elongation is called the neck of the bladder, the description of which belongs to that of the parts of generation in men.
The other two openings in the true fundus of the bladder, are formed by the ureters, which, in their course downward already described, run behind the spermatic vessels, and then behind the lower part of the bladder, approaching each other. Each ureter lies between the umbilical artery and vas deferens of the same side, the artery lying on the outside of the ureter, and the vas deferens on the inside.
Afterwards they get between the vasa deferentia and the bladder, crossing these canals; and then at about a finger's breadth from each other, they begin to pierce the coats of the bladder. They run a little way between the muscular and nervous coats, and open into the bladder obliquely, something nearer each other than when they first entered its coats.
The orifices of the ureters in the bladder, are something oval, and narrower than the cavity of the ureters immediately above them. The edge of these orifices is very thin, and seems to be formed merely by the union of the internal coat of the bladder with that of the ureters.
Besides the ligaments already mentioned, there are likewise two small ones, by which the anterior part of the true fundus of the bladder is connected to the offa pubis, which shall be described with the neck and sphincter after the history of the parts of generation in both sexes.
THE PARTS OF GENERATION IN MALES.
The spermatic arteries go out most commonly from the anterior part of the inferior aorta, near each other, and about an inch lower than the arteriæ renales.
They run down obliquely in the posterior part of the abdomen, within the cellular substance of the peritonæum, passing insensibly from behind forward; and so parting gradually more and more from the aorta, they cross over the foreside of the ureters, and run through the openings or rings of the abdominal muscles, along with the elongations or productions of the cellular portion of the peritonæum.
They are small at their origin; and in their course downward, they give off pretty considrable lateral ramifications to the membrana adiposa, peritonæum, and also to the mesentery.
They sometimes pass through the areola, or meshes of the spermatic veins; and before they go out of the abdomen, they are divided into very fine rami, which run in a more or less winding course, almost parallel to each other.
Afterwards they enter the cellular productions of the peritonæum, which serve them for vaginae. They do not fluctuate indifferently from one side to the other of these vaginae; but are connected along their inner surface by thin membranous laminæ, which are likewise continuations of the cellular substance of the peritonæum.
The arteries continue the same winding course within these vaginae, passing before the vasa deferentia, which are likewise contained in them; and at length they terminate by ramifications in the epididymes and testes.
The testes are two glandular bodies, situated near each other, without the abdomen, below the interstice between the groins in an adult. The ancients named them didymi or gemini. Their size is nearly that of a pigeon's egg, and they are of an oval figure, a little flattened at each side. We may consider in each testicle, two extremities, two edges, and two sides. One extremity is situated forward, and a little upward; the other backward, and a little downward; and their edges lie upward and downward.
At the upper edge, they have each an appendix, called epididymis, together with which it is involved in several coverings; and they are both suspended in a common covering, called the scrotum.
Each testicle is a spermatic gland formed by a vast number of fine whitish tubes, folded and twisted in different manners, and distributed in different fasciculi, between membranous septa; the whole being surrounded by a strong common covering, named tunica albuginea.
These septa are disposed longitudinally, divaricating from each other on one side, and approaching on the other. They approach each other along one edge of the testicle, and terminate in a long narrow whitish body, as in a kind of axis.
From thence they divaricate in a regular manner, and are fixed by their opposite edges in the inner surface of the tunica albuginea, of which they appear to be a continuation. This white body may be termed the nucleus of the testicle.
From this description, we see that all these septa are not of an equal breadth; that the interstices between them are in some measure trangular; and that the extent of the small tubes, which lie therein, must be very considerable. They have been reckoned to amount to many ells, by taking the sum of all their several portions; and they may be easily unfolded by a long maceration, which destroys the delicate substance by which all their folds and convolutions are connected and tied down.
All these small canals seem to terminate by a smaller number of common trunks at the white body or nucleus already mentioned; which trunks do afterwards pierce the upper part of the anterior extremity of the testicle, and are disposed in several folds along the lateral external part of the upper edge, all the way to the posterior extremity. From this union arises a long whitish plaited fasciulus or bundle, called epididymis, or appendix to the testicle.
The epididymis thus formed, may be reckoned a production of the testicle, or a kind of testis accessorius;
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2
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C-L
| 503
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554
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Normal
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554 FAR T,walk, he is ready to fall at every ftep, unlefs he be care¬fully fupported ; his eyes are fo fixed with the ina&ion ofthe mai'des, as give hin> a deadnefs ia his looks; heInorts and fneezes often, pants continually with fhortnefsof breath ; and this fymptom increafes continually tillhe drops down dead; which generally happens in a fewdays, unlefs fome fudden and very effe&ual turn can begiven to the diflemper.In all thefe cafes the horfe {hould firft be bled plenti¬fully, unlefs he is low in flefli, old, or lately come offany hard continued duty, then you muff be more fparingof his blood; afterwards give the following ball.Take affa fcetida half an ounce, Ruflia caftor powder¬ed two drams, valerian root powdered one ounce ;make into a ball with honey and oil of amber.This ball may be given twice a-day at firft; and thenonce, wafhed down with a decoction ef mifletoe or vale¬rian fweetened with liquorice or honey : an ounce of affafcetida may be tied up in a piece of ftrong coarfe linenrag, and put behind his grinders to champ on.The laxative purges and emollient glyfters Ihould begiven intermediately to keep the body open ; but when theformer balls have been taken a week or ten days, the fol¬lowing may be given once a-day with the valerian de-coftion.Take cinnabar of antimony fix drams, affa fcetidahalf an ounce, ariftolochia myrrh and bay-berries ofeach two drams ; make into a ball with treacle andoil of amber.This is the mod effectual method of treating thefe dif-orders; but when they are fufpedled to arife from bots,and worms, which is generally the cafe, mercurial medi¬cines moll lead the way, thus:Take mercurius dulcis and philonium of each halfan ounce; make into a ball with.conferve of rofes,and give the horfe immediately; half the quantitymay be repeated in four or five days.The following infufion fhould then be given, to thequantity of three or four horns, three or four times a-day, till the fymptoms abate; when the above nervousballs may be continued till they are removed.Take penny-royal and rue of each two large handfuls,chamomile flowers one handful, affa fcetida and ca¬ftor of each half an ounce, faffron and liquorice-Toot fliced of each two drams ; infufe in two quartsof boiling water ; pour off from the ingredients aswanted.If the caftor is omitted, add an ounce of affa fcetida.The following ointment may be rubbed into the cheeks,temples, neck, fhonlders, fpines of the back and loins,and where-ever there is the greateft contractions andftiff-nefs.Take nerve and marflimallow ointment of each fourounces, oil of amber two ounces, with a fufficientquantity of camphorate fpirit of wine; make a lini¬ment.When the jaws are fo locked up that medicines can¬not be given by the mouth, it is more eligible to givethem by way of glyfter ; for forcing open the jaws byviolence often puts a horfe into fuch agonies, that thefymptoms are thereby increafed.I E Tt T.In this cafe alfo he muft be fupported by nouri/hingglyfters, made of milk-pottage, broths, &c. which multbe given to the quantity of three or four quarts a-day ;glyfters of this kind will be retained, and abforbed intothe blood; and there have been inftanced of horfes thusfupported for three weeks together, who muft otherwifehave perilhed.Mr Gibfon mentions fome extraordinary in fiances offuccefs in cafes of this fort by thefe methods, and repeat¬ed frictions, which are extremely ferviceable in all con-vulfive diforders, and often prevent their being jaw fet,;they fhould be applied with unwearied diligence everytwo or three hours, where ever any ftiffnefs or contrac¬tions in the mufcles appear ; for a horfe in this conditionnever lies down till they are in fome meafure removed.The ufeof rowels in thefe cafes is generally unfiiccefs-ful, the fliin being fo tenfe and tight, that they feldomdigeft kindly, and fometimes mortify ; fo-that if they areapplied, they Ihould be put under the jaws, and in thebreaft.The red-hot iron fo frequently run through the fore¬top and mane, near the occipital bone, for this purpofe,has often been found to have deftroyed the cervical liga¬ment.In paralytic diforders, where the ufe of a limb or limbsis taken away, the internals above recommended Ihouldbe given, in order to warm, invigorate, and attenuate theblood; and the following ftimulating embrocation fhouldbe rubbed into the parts affeCted.Take oil of turpentine four ounces, nerve ointmentand oil of bays of feach two ounces, camphor rub¬bed fine one ounce, rectified oil of amber threeounces, tindlure of cantharides one ounce.With this liniment the parts affeCted, fhould be wellbathed for a confiderable time, to make it penetrate ; andwhen the hind parts chiefly are lame, the back and loinsfhould be well rubbed with the fame. To the nervousmedicines above recommended, may be added fnake-root, contrayerva, muftard-feed, horfe-raddifh root deep¬ed in ftrong beer, or wine where it can be afforded. Takethe following for an example, which may be given to thequantity of three pints a-day alone, or two horns fuilmay be taken after the nervous balls.Take fnake-root, contrayerva, and valerian, of eachhalf an ounce; muftard-feed and horfe-raddifh rootferaped, of each two ounces; long pepper two drams,:infufe in three pints of ftrong wine.When the horfe^is recovering from any of the abovediforders, the following alterative purge may be repeatedtwo or three times, as it operates very gently.Take fuccotrine aloes one ounce, myrrh half anounce, , affa fcetida and gum ammoniacum of eachtwo drams, faffron one dram; make into a ball withany fyrup.Where a retention of dung is the caufe of this diforr-der, the great gut Ihould firft be raked thoroughly with afmall hand, after which plenty of emollient oily glyftersfhould be thrown up, and the opening drink given, tillthe bowels are thoroughly emptied of their imprifoneddung. Their diet Ihould for fome days be opening, and.confift
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walk, he is ready to fall at every step, unless he be carefully supported; his eyes are so fixed with the inaction of the muscles, as give him a deadness in his looks; he snorts and sneezes often, pants continually with shortness of breath; and this symptom increases continually till he drops down dead; which generally happens in a few days, unless some sudden and very effectual turn can be given to the distemper.
In all these cases the horse should first be bled plentifully, unless he is low in flesh, old, or lately come off any hard continued duty, then you must be more sparing of his blood; afterwards give the following ball.
Take assa foetida half an ounce, Russia castor powdered two drams, valerian root powdered one ounce; make into a ball with honey and oil of amber.
This ball may be given twice a-day at first; and then once, washed down with a decoction of misletoe or valerian sweetened with liquorice or honey: an ounce of assa foetida may be tied up in a piece of strong coarse linen rag, and put behind his grinders to champ on.
The laxative purges and emollient glysters should be given intermediately to keep the body open; but when the former balls have been taken a week or ten days, the following may be given once a-day with the valerian decoction.
Take cinnabar of antimony six drums, assa foetida half an ounce, aristolochia myrrh and bay-berries of each two drams; make into a ball with treacle and oil of amber.
This is the most effectual method of treating these disorders; but when they are suspected to arise from bots, and worms, which is generally the case, mercurial medicines most lead the way, thus:
Take mercurius dulcis and philonium of each half an ounce; make into a ball with conserve of roses, and give the horse immediately; half the quantity may be repeated in four or five days.
The following infusion should then be given, to the quantity of three or four horns, three or four times a day, till the symptoms abate; when the above nervous balls may be continued till they are removed.
Take penny-royal and rue of each two large handsfuls, chamomile flowers one handful, assa foetida and castor of each half an ounce, saffron and liquorice-root sliced of each two drams; infuse in two quarts of boiling water; pour off from the ingredients as wanted.
If the castor is omitted, add an ounce of assa foetida.
The following ointment may be rubbed into the cheeks, temples, neck, shoulders, spines of the back and loins, and where ever there is the greatest contractions and stiffness.
Take nerve and marshmallow ointment of each four ounces, oil of amber two ounces, with a sufficient quantity of camphorate spirit of wine; make a liniment.
When the jaws are so locked up that medicines cannot be given by the mouth, it is more eligible to give them by way of glyster; for forcing open the jaws by violence often puts a horse into such agonies, that the symptoms are thereby increased.
In this case also he must be supported by nourishing glysters, made of milk-pottage, broths, etc. which must be given to the quantity of three or four quarts a-day; glysters of this kind will be retained, and absorbed into the blood; and there have been instanced of horses thus supported for three weeks together, who must otherwise have perished.
Mr Gibson mentions some extraordinary instances of success in cases of this sort by these methods, and repeated friction, which are extremely serviceable in all convulsive disorders, and often prevent their being jaw-set; they should be applied with unwearied diligence every two or three hours, where ever any stiffness or contractions in the muscles appear; for a horse in this condition never lies down till they are in some measure removed.
The use of rowels in these cases is generally unsuccessful, the skin being so tense and tight, that they seldom digest kindly, and sometimes mortify; so that if they are applied, they should be put under the jaws, and in the breast.
The red-hot iron so frequently run through the foretop and mane, near the occipital bone, for this purpose, has often been found to have destroyed the cervical ligament.
In paralytic disorders, where the use of a limb or limbs is taken away, the internals above recommended should be given, in order to warm, invigorate, and attenuate the blood; and the following stimulating embrocation should be rubbed into the parts affected.
Take oil of turpentine four ounces, nerve ointment and oil of bays of each two ounces, camphor rubbed fine one ounce, rectified oil of amber three ounces, tincture of cantharides one ounce.
With this liniment the parts affected should be well bathed for a considerable time, to make it penetrate; and when the hind parts chiefly are lame, the back and loins should be well rubbed with the same. To the nervous medicines above recommended, may be added snake-root, contrayerva, mustard-seed, horse-raddish root steeped in strong beer, or wine where it can be afforded. Take the following for an example, which may be given to the quantity of three pints a-day alone, or two horns full may be taken after the nervous balls.
Take snake-root, contrayerva, and valerian, of each half an ounce; mustard-seed and horse-raddish root scraped, of each two ounces; long pepper two drams: infuse in three pints of strong wine.
When the horse is recovering from any of the above disorders, the following alterative purge may be repeated two or three times, as it operates very gently.
Take succotrine aloes one ounce, myrrh half an ounce, assa foetida and gum ammoniacum of each two drams, saffron one dram; make into a ball with any syrup.
Where a retention of dung is the cause of this disorder, the great gut should first be raked thoroughly with a small hand, after which plenty of emollient oily glysters should be thrown up, and the opening drink given, till the bowels are thoroughly emptied of their imprisoned dung. Their dict should for some days be opening, and consist
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1
|
A-B
| 743
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Normal
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BOS ( 624 ) BOSBorough bridge, a town in the North Riding ofYorkfhire, about 15 miles norh-weft of York; in i°1 W. long, and 540 10' N. lat.BOROZAIL, or the zail of the Ethiopians, a difcafeepidemic in the countries about the river Senega. Itprincipally affeifls the pudenda, but is different fromthe lues venerea. It owes its rife to excellive venery:In the men this diftemper is called afab, and in thewomen affabatus.BORRAGE. See Anchusa.BORRELLISTS, in church-hiftory, a Chriftian feft inHolland. They reject the ufe of churches, of the fa-cramcnts, public prayer, and all other external aftsofworfhip. TheyafTert, that all the Chriftian churchesof the world have degenerated from the pure apofto-lical doctrines, becaufe they have fuffered the word ofGod, which is infallible, to be expounded, or rathercorrupted, by doftors, who are hot infallible. Theylead a very auftere life, and employ a great part oftheir goods in alms.BORSALO, a kingdom of Africa, in Nigtitia: It ex¬tends along the north fide of the river Gambia, as faras Tantaconde.BOS, in zoology, a genus of quadrupeds belonging tothe order of pecora. The chara&ers of this genus aretaken from the horns and teeth. The horns are hol¬low within, an3 turned forward, in the form of cref-eents: There are eight fore-teeth in the under jaw,and none in the upper, their place being fupplied by ahard membrane; and there are nd dog-teeth in eitherjaw. Lmnseus enumerates fix fpecies, viz. 1. Thetaurus, including the bull and cow, has cylindricalhorns, bent outwards, and loofe dewlaps. The bullor male is naturally a fierce and terrible animal. Whenthe cows are in feafon, he is perfectly ungovernable,and often altogether furious. When chaffed, he hasan air of fullen majefty, and oft t^ars up the groundwith his feet and horns. The principal ufe of the bullis to propagate the fpecies; although he might betrained to labour, his obedience cannot be dependedon. A bull, like aftallion, fhould be the mod hand-fome of his fpecies. He fhould be large, well made,and in good heart; he fhould have a black eye, a fierceafpeefl, but an open front; a fhort head; thick, fhort,and blackifh horns, and long fhaggy ears; a fhort andftraight nofe, large and full breaft and fhoulders,thick and flefhy neck, firm reins, a ftreight back,thick flefhy legs, and a long tail well covered withhair. Caftration remarkably foftens the nature of thisanimal ; it deftroys all his fire and impetuofity, andfenders him mild and tradable, without diminifhinghis ftrength; on the contrary, after this operation,his weight is increafed, and he becomes fitter for thepurpofes of plow’.g, <bc.The beft time for caftrating bulls is at the ageof puberty, or when they are eighteen months ortwo years old ; when performed fooner, they oftendie. However, it is not uncommon to caftrate'calvesa few' days after birth. But fuch as furvive an ope¬ration fo dangerous to their tender age, generally growlarger and fatter, and have more courage and adivitythan thofe who are caftrated at the age of puberty. Whenthe operation is delayed till the age of fix, feven, oreight years, they lofe but few of the qualities of bulls,are much more furious and untradable than other oxes,and when the cows are in feafon, they go in queft ofthem with their ufual ardor. See Plate LII. fig. 2.The females of all thofe fpecies of animals which wekeep in flocks, and whofe increafe is the principal objed,are much more ufeful than the males. The cow pro¬duces milk, butter, cheefe, <&c. which are principal ar¬ticles in our food, and befides anfwer many ufeful pur¬pofes in various arts.Cows are generally in feafon, and receive the bull,from the beginning of May to the middle of July. Theirtime of geltation is nine months, which naturally bringsthe veal or calves to our markets from the beginning ofJanuary to the end of April. However, luxury hasfalleD upon methods of interrupting this natural courfe,and veal may be had almoft every month in the year.Cows, when improperly managed, are very fubjed toabortion. In the time of geltation, therefore, theytrught to be obferved with more than ordinary care, left:they fiiould leap ditches, Neither fhould they befuffered to draw in the plough or other caniage, whichis a pradice in fome countries. They fhould be put intothe beft pafture, and Ihould not be milked for fix weeksor two months before they bring forth their young. TheCalve ihould be allowed to ‘fuck and follow its motherduring the firft fix or eight days. After this it begins toeat pretty well, and two or three fucks in a day will befufficient. But if the objed be to have.it quickly fat¬tened for the market, a few raw eggs every day, withhotted milk, and a little bread, will make it excellentveal in four or five weeks. This management of calvesapplies only to fuch as are defigned for the butcher.When they are intended to be nourifhed and brought up,they ought to have at leaft two months fuck; becaufethe longer they fuck, they grow the ftronger and larger.Thofe that are brought forth in April, May, or June,are the mod proper for this purpofc; when calved laterin the feafon, they do not acquire fufficient ftrength tofupport them during the winter.The cow comes to the age of puberty in 18 months,but the bull requires two years: But although theyare capable of propagating at thefe ages, it is betterto reftrain them till they be full three years. Fromthree to nine years thofe animals are in full vigour ; butwhen older, they are fit for nothing but to be fed for thebutcher. A milk cow ought to be chofen young, flefhy,and with a brifk eye.The heavieft and moft bulky animals neither fleep fpprofoundly, nor fo long as the fmkller ones. The fleepof the ox is fhort and flight; he wakes at the leaft noife.He lies generally on the left fide, and the kidtiey of thatfide is always larger than the other. There is great va¬riety in the colour of oxen. A reddifh or black colouris moft efteemed. The hair fhould be gloffy, thick, andfoft; for, when otherwife, the animal is either not inhealth, or has a weakly conftitution. The beft time forinuring
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BOROUGH BRIDGE, a town in the North Riding of Yorkshire, about 15 miles north-west of York; in 1° 15′. W. long. and 54° 10′ N. lat.
BOROZAIL, or the zail of the Ethiopians, a disease epidemic in the countries about the river Senega. It principally affects the pudenda, but is different from the lucs venerea. It owes its rise to excessive venery: In the men this distemper is called afab, and in the women affabatus.
BORRAGE. See Anchusa.
BORRELLISTS, in church-history, a Christian sect in Holland. They reject the use of churches, of the sacraments, public prayer, and all other external acts of worship. They assert, that all the Christian churches of the world have degenerated from the pure apostolical doctrines, because they have suffered the word of God, which is infallible, to be expounded, or rather corrupted, by doctors, who are not infallible. They lead a very austere life, and employ a great part of their goods in alms.
BORSALO, a kingdom of Africa, in Nigritia: It extends along the north side of the river Gambia, as far as Tantaconde.
BOS, in zoology, a genus of quadrupeds belonging to the order of pecora. The characters of this genus are taken from the horns and teeth. The horns are hollow within, and turned forward, in the form of crescents: There are eight forc-teeth in the under jaw, and none in the upper, their place being supplied by a hard membrane; and there are no dog-teeth in either jaw. Linnæus enumerates six species, viz. 1. The taurus, including the bull and cow, has cylindrical horns, bent outwards, and loose dewlaps. The bull or male is naturally a fierce and terrible animal. When the cows are in season, he is perfectly ungovernable, and often altogether furious. When chassed, he has an air of fullen majesty, and oft tears up the ground with his feet and horns. The principal use of the bull is to propagate the species; although he might be trained to labour, his obedience cannot be depended on. A bull, like a stallion, should be the most handsome of his species. He should be large, well made, and in good heart; he should have a black eye, a fierce aspect, but an open front; a short head; thick, short, and blackish horns, and long shaggy ears; a short and straight nose, large and full breast and shoulders, thick and fleshy neck, firm reins, a streight back, thick fleshy legs, and a long tail well covered with hair. Caltration remarkably softens the nature of this animal; it destroys all his fire and impetuosity, and renders him mild and tractable, without diminishing his strength; on the contrary, after this operation, his weight is increased, and he becomes fitter for the purposes of plowing, &c.
The best time for castrating bulls is at the age of puberty, or when they are eighteen months or two years old; when performed sooner, they often die. However, it is not uncommon to castrate calves a few days after birth. But such as survive an operation so dangerous to their tender age, generally grow larger and fatter, and have more courage and activity than those who are castrated at the age of puberty. When the operation is delayed till the age of six, seven, or eight years, they lose but few of the qualities of bulls, are much more furious and untractable than other oxes, and when the cows are in season, they go in quest of them with their usual ardor. See Plate LII. fig. 2.
The females of all those species of animals which we keep in flocks, and whose increase is the principal object, are much more useful than the males. The cow produces milk, butter, cheese, &c., which are principal articles in our food, and besides answer many useful purposes in various arts.
Cows are generally in season, and receive the bull, from the beginning of May to the middle of July. Their time of gestation is nine months, which naturally brings the veal or calves to our markets from the beginning of January to the end of April. However, luxury has fallen upon methods of interrupting this natural course, and veal may be had almost every month in the year.
Cows, when improperly managed, are very subject to abortion. In the time of gestation, therefore, they ought to be observed with more than ordinary care, left they should leap ditches, &c. Neither should they be suffered to draw in the plough or other carriage, which is a practice in some countries. They should be put into the best pasture, and should not be milked for six weeks or two months before they bring forth their young. The calve should be allowed to suck and follow its mother during the first six or eight days. After this it begins to eat pretty well, and two or three sucks in a day will be sufficient. But if the object be to have it quickly fattened for the market, a few raw eggs every day, with boiled milk, and a little bread, will make it excellent veal in four or five weeks. This management of calves applies only to such as are designed for the butcher. When they are intended to be nourished and brought up, they ought to have at least two months suck; because the longer they suck, they grow the stronger and larger. Those that are brought forth in April, May, or June, are the most proper for this purpose; when calved later in the season, they do not acquire sufficient strength to support them during the winter.
The cow comes to the age of puberty in 18 months, but the bull requires two years: But although they are capable of propagating at these ages, it is better to restrain them till they be full three years. From three to nine years those animals are in full vigour; but when older, they are fit for nothing but to be fed for the butcher. A milk cow ought to be chosen young, fleshy, and with a brisk eye.
The heaviest and most bulky animals neither sleep so profoundly, nor so long as the smaller ones. The sleep of the ox is short and slight; he wakes at the least noise. He lies generally on the left side, and the kidney of that side is always larger than the other. There is great variety in the colour of oxen. A reddish or black colour is most esteemed. The hair should be glossy, thick, and soft; for, when otherwise, the animal is either not in health, or has a weakly constituted. The best time for inuring
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||
3
|
M-Z
| 112
|
91
| null |
Normal
| 3,905
| 5,132
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M E D rOf a l^ERlPNEUMONy.There are fever&l kinds of this difeafe. For it mayarife from a violent inflammation of the lungs, by a veryflzy denfe blood obftruding very many of the pulmonicand bronchial arteries : or from an obftru(5lion of the lungsby a heavy, vifcid, pituiious matter; which is called afpurious or baftard peripneumony : or from a thin, acriddefluxion on the lungs ; and then it is a catarrhal perip-.neumony.The fymptoms common to all, are, a load at the breafl,a fhort difficult breathing, and more or lefs of a fever.But in a true peripneumony, there is a more tenfive painthan in the pleurify; beffdes, it is ratber more obtufe andpreffing than acute, and fhoots as far as the back and fca-pulse. But the difficulty of breathing is greater, as wellas the anxiety and expecfloration, whereby a variega*ted fpittle is brought up, which lay as it were deep:for in this difeafe the veffels of the lungs themfelves,whereby the blood circulates from one ventricle of theheart to the other, , are afFe(51ed ; being fluffed and obftru^l:-ed with a thick blood, which is apt to grow more vifcidand folid. Wherefore it is the more dangerous and fatal,efpecially if it attacks old perfons, and if bleeding is nottimely adminiflred. Boerhaave fays, the pulfe is foft.fiender, and in every fenfe unequal; and Huxham, thatif the pulfe is hardly felt before bleeding, it will after¬wards beat very ftrongly.In the cure, great regard mufl be had to the differentftages of this difeafe, and the different fymptoms that at¬tend it. Bleeding is indifpenfably neceflary at the begin¬ning of a fevere inflammation of the lungs ; but if, afterthe fecond or third bleeding, the patient begins to fpit awell conceded matter, freely tinged with blood, youmufl forbear to repeat it, otherwife the patient will beWeakened, and a fatal fuppreflion of the expedorationwill enfue. But if he brings up a conffderable quantityof florid, thin, fpumous blood, by fpitting; then bleed a-gain, quiet the cough with diacodium, and give properacids pretty freely, with foft cooling incrafl'ants. If athin, gleety, dark-coloured matter is expedorated, it isgenerally a mark of greater malignity, and that the bloodis in a putrefying diflblving ftate, and will not bear a largeiofs of blood.Generally the more violent the rigor or horror is at theattack, the more violent the fucceeding fever will be,which will in fome meafure guide us in drawing of bloodsIf the fymptoms are not relieved by the firrt bleeding, af¬ter eight, ten, or twelve hours, let it be repeated; orfoonef, if they become aggravated If the fever, anxiety,oppreffion, and difiicuhy of breathing, increafe, bleed a^-gain, efpecially if it appears very firm and denfe, or co¬vered over with a thick yeliowilh coat or buff. How¬ever, it does not appear fometimes till the fecond or thirdbleeding, though the fymptoms indicate a very high in¬flammation. This often happens from the blood not fpout-ing out in a full ftream. This appearance of the blood,with a firm flrong pulfe, will warrant the taking awaymore, till the breathing becomes free and eafy.If the craffamentum is of a very loofe texture, and notcovered with.^ buff coat, and the pulfe on bleeding finks,CINE.flutters, or grows more weak and fraall, it is time todefift. A bluifli film on the blood, with a kind of a foftgreeniffi jelly underneath, while the cruor itfelf is livid,loofe and foft, with a turbid, reddifh, or green ferum,is afign of a very lax crafis of the blood, and great acri¬mony, which will not bear great quantities to be drawnoff. If the blood is very florid, thin and loofe, withlittle or no ferum after flanding for fome time, it gene¬rally argues a confiderable advance to a putrid and veryacrid ftate.A flrong, throbbing, thick pulfe, always indicates far¬ther bleeding ; at leaft till the patient breathes more eafi-ly, ora free expedloration of laudable matter is obtained.It often happens, that the pulfe at the very beginningfeems.obfcure and oppreflTed, irregular, fluggifli,and fome¬times intermitting, with weaknefs and oppreffion. Butthis does not arife from the defeft, but from the toogreat quantity of blood; for the blood-veflels being o-ver-Ioaded and diftended, cannot a(fl with fufficient vi¬gour. This is fucceeded with a dreadful train of fymp¬toms, and even death itfelf, if not prevented with fuffi¬cient bleeding.-In fome very violent peripneumonies, an immediateand exceffive weaknefs conies on, with an inexpreffibleanxiety and oppreffion of the breaft ; a very fmall, weak,trembling pulfe, coldnefs of the extremities, with clam¬my, coldifh, partial fweats, the eyes flaring, fixed andinflamed, the face bloated and almofl livid. This hasfoon been followed with a flupor, delirium, and fometimeswith a complete paraplegia.Some kinds of peripneumonies will not bear large bleed¬ing, efpecially the epidemic or malignant The pulfeand ftrength of thefe patients have funk to a furprifing_degree; and the difeafe has turned into a fort of a nervous-fever, with great tremors, fubfultus tendinum, profufefweats, or an atrabilious diarrhoea, with a black tongue,coma, or delirium; though at the beginning the pulfefeemed to be full and throbbing,, and the pain, cough,and oppreffion fovery urgent, as to indicate bleeding pret¬ty ftrongly. In thefe cafes the blood was feldom buffyto any confiderable degree, but commonly very florid, ofa very loofe and foft confiftence, or very dark-coloured,,and coated with a thin and bluifh or greeniffi film, underwhich was a foft greeniffi jelly, and a dark livid cruorat the bottom. Sometimes the. coat was much thickerand more tough, but of a pale red colour, refembJing the'cornelian flone, or .a dilute jelly of red curr ants . Whenthe blood is thus diffolved, abftain from farther bleeding,efpeciallydf the pulfe or patient becomes more languid af*ter it, though the oppreffion, load^ or even pain, mayfeem to require it.When the fizy coat on the blood is exceffively tough,and extremely yellow, or of a pale red colour, it threatensdanger ; for the inflammatory lentor wUi fcarcely mixwith any diluents. Sometimes, after repeated bleeding;the crafTamentum has fcarce been a fixth part of the vo¬lume of the blood, and yet as folid as a piece pf flefli.This is generally mortal.When the peripneumonic fymptoms continue for fouror five days or more, we may jufliy fear an abfeefs, or amortification;,and little advantage is to be expeded fromfartherr
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Of a Peripneumony.
There are several kinds of this disease. For it may arise from a violent inflammation of the lungs, by a very sizy dense blood obstructing very many of the pulmonic and bronchial arteries; or from an obstruction of the lungs by a heavy, viscid, pituitous matter; which is called a spurious or bastard peripneumony; or from a thin, acrid desluxion on the lungs; and then it is a catarrhal peripneumony.
The symptoms common to all, are, a load at the breast, a short difficult breathing, and more or less of a fever. But in a true peripneumony, there is a more tensive pain than in the pleurisy; besides, it is rather more obtuse and pressing than acute, and shoots as far as the back and scapulae. But the difficulty of breathing is greater, as well as the anxiety and expectoration, whereby a variegated spittle is brought up, which lay as it were deep: for in this disease the vessels of the lungs themselves, whereby the blood circulates from one ventricle of the heart to the other, are affected; being stuffed and obstructed with a thick blood, which is apt to grow more viscid and solid. Wherefore it is the more dangerous and fatal, especially if it attacks old persons, and if bleeding is not timely administrated. Boerhaave says, the pulse is soft. Slender, and in every sense unequal; and Huxham, that if the pulse is hardly felt before bleeding, it will afterwards beat very strongly.
In the cure, great regard must be had to the different stages of this disease, and the different symptoms that attend it. Bleeding is indispensably necessary at the beginning of a severe inflammation of the lungs; but if, after the second or third bleeding, the patient begins to spit a well concocted matter, freely tinged with blood, you must forbear to repeat it, otherwise the patient will be weakened, and a fatal suppression of the expectoration will ensue. But if he brings up a considerable quantity of florid, thin, spumous blood, by spitting; then bleed again, quiet the cough with diacodium, and give proper acids pretty freely, with soft cooling incrassants. If a thin, gleety, dark-coloured matter is expectorated, it is generally a mark of greater malignity, and that the blood is in a putrefying dissolving state, and will not bear a large loss of blood.
Generally the more violent the rigor or horror is at the attack, the more violent the succeeding fever will be, which will in some measure guide us in drawing of blood. If the symptoms are not relieved by the first bleeding, after eight, ten, or twelve hours, let it be repeated; or sooner, if they become aggravated. If the fever, anxiety, oppression, and difficulty of breathing, increase, bleed again, especially if it appears very firm and dense, or covered over with a thick yellowish coat or buff. However, it does not appear sometimes till the second or third bleeding, though the symptoms indicate a very high inflammation. This often happens from the blood not spouting out in a full stream. This appearance of the blood, with a firm strong pulse, will warrant the taking away more, till the breathing becomes free and easy.
If the crassamentum is of a very loose texture, and not covered with a buff coat, and the pulse on bleeding sinks, flutters, or grows more weak and small, it is time to desist. A bluish film on the blood, with a kind of a soft greenish jelly underneath, while the cruor itself is livid, loose and soft, with a turbid, reddish, or green serum, is a sign of a very lax crasis of the blood, and great acrimony, which will not bear great quantities to be drawn off. If the blood is very florid, thin and loose, with little or no serum after standing for some time, it generally argues a considerable advance to a putrid and very acrid state.
A strong, throbbing, thick pulse, always indicates farther bleeding; at least till the patient breathes more easily, or a free expectoration of laudable matter is obtained. It often happens, that the pulse at the very beginning seems obscure and oppressed, irregular, sluggish, and sometimes intermitting, with weakness and oppression. But this does not arise from the defect, but from the too great quantity of blood; for the blood vessels being over-loaded and distended, cannot act with sufficient vigour. This is succeeded with a dreadful train of symptoms, and even death itself, if not prevented with sufficient bleeding.
In some very violent peripneumonies, an immediate and excessive weakness comes on, with an inexpressible anxiety and oppression of the breast; a very small, weak, trembling pulse, coldness of the extremities, with clammy, coldish, partial sweats, the eyes staring, fixed and inflamed, the face bloated and almost livid. This has soon been followed with a stupor, delirium, and sometimes with a complete paraplegia.
Some kinds of peripneumonies will not bear large bleeding, especially the epidemic or malignant. The pulse and strength of these patients have sunk to a surprising degree; and the disease has turned into a sort of a nervous fever, with great tremors, subsultus tendinum, profuse sweats, or an atrabilious diarrhoea, with a black tongue, coma, or delirium; though at the beginning the pulse seemed to be full and throbbing, and the pain, cough, and oppression so very urgent, as to indicate bleeding pretty strongly. In these cases the blood was seldom buffy to any considerable degree, but commonly very florid, of a very loose and soft consistence, or very dark-coloured, and coated with a thin and bluish or greenish film, under which was a soft greenish jelly, and a dark livid cruor at the bottom. Sometimes the coat was much thicker and more tough, but of a pale red colour, resembling the cornelian stone, or a dilute jelly of red currants. When the blood is thus dissolved, abstain from farther bleeding, especially if the pulse or patient becomes more languid after it, though the oppression, load, or even pain, may seem to require it.
When the sizy coat on the blood is excessively tough, and extremely yellow, or of a pale red colour, it threatens danger; for the inflammatory lentor will scarcely mix with any diluents. Sometimes, after repeated bleeding, the crassamentum has scarce been a sixth part of the volume of the blood, and yet as solid as a piece of flesh. This is generally mortal.
When the peripneumonic symptoms continue for four or five days or more, we may justly fear an abscess, or a mortification; and little advantage is to be expected from farther.
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592 . S H O R T - H A N Dmen in fliort-hand, which is the Lord's prayer, with thofeufecl wlien it is wrote in the common way, he will End, thatthe former contains only about 150* while the latter con-•PARN alphabet, formed upon the moE juft and natural plan,by whi ; h, with the help of a few general rules, all thewords of the language to which it is particularly adapted,m^y be eaftiy, neatly, and fpeedily written, will not befufficientto fatisfy the CKpeiftations of an inquifitive reader;who muft be fenfible, that however complete the alphabetmay be, yet many compendious applications of it may beobtained by a proper inquiry into the nature of our language,and the abbreviations which it admits of. He will not beLtisfied with being taught only how to exprefs all the let¬ters of a word by the fhorteft and eafieft ftrokes, but willalfo require further inftruftion how to defcribe intelligiblywords and fentences by as few of thofe ftrokes *as poflible.To inveftigate, from a few things given, many which areomitted, wilf be found no unpleafant nor unprofitable ex-ercife of the learner’s fagacity ; and if the few be properlygiven, the fenfe of the paftage, and a due attention to theidiom of our language, will render the difcovery of the o-rxiilBons more certain,'and alfo !efs difficult, than the unex¬perienced can eafily imagine.—Without fome fuch rules ofabbreviation, one end of fhort-hand, that of following afpeaker, would fcarcely be attainable.Before the invention of the art of printing, the tediouf-nefs of writing all the words at full length put the copiersof books upon forming many ways of abbreviating them, asappears in all manufcripts. In thofe of the New Tcfta-rnent we find many principal words defcribed by their initialand final letters only, with a dafh over them. In Latinmanufcripts, thofe terminations, by which the relations ofwords to one another are in that language ufually exprcffed, were generally omitted: nor was there any need ofwriting them at length ; for the principal, word being given,of which the reft were governed in cafe, gender, and num¬ber, any reader who underftood that language could eaft-ly fupply thofe omiffions. Our language, generally ex-prrffing thofe relations by Iltrle particles, does not indeedaitard that particular mode of abbreviation. Upon a care¬ful examination, however, It will be found capable of fur-jcifhitig many others as ufeful and extenfive.But it will be proper, before we proceed further in t^hisart of abbreviation, to advertife the learner, -who is apt tobe too eager to pufli/orward. not to embarrafs himfelf withit, till, by a competent praftice of writing according to therules laid clown in the firft part, he is become fo well ac¬quainted with the characters, as to be ^ble to write andread them with as much eafe as his own common hand.The beft way to learn any art is to proceed by degrees, notven uring upon a fecond ftep before the firft is perfe<5t]yraaftered. And it is evident, that this method of proceed¬ing is, on this occafion, particularly neceftary : for though,in many fentences, the fenfe, and the particular conftruCtionof the words, may plainly enough pcdnt out fuch of them, asare defcribed with unufual brevity ; yet how lliali an un-praCliJed learner,, unable to embrace in one view the wordsdenoted by the preceding and following marks, determine'what the ifttermediaic contracted ones ,mu.ft needs be ? But,WRITING.tains near fix tinies that number ; which fhews hdw muchtime and labour may be faved, even by the fev/ fimple rulesalready given.T II.if he will have patience to abftain from this fecOnd part,until he can write readily, and read without hefitationwhatever is written, according to the rules of the firft, hemay reft affured that he will meet with little more diffi-^culty in readmg wor4s contracted than he did in thofe writ¬ten more at length, provided that the rules of abbreviationbe duly attended to. But, if the reader expects that weare to give him every particular manner of abbreviationwhich can poffibly be invented, he will be difappointed.The principal and mod ufeful rules are given;, and it is leftto the fagacity of the practifer, by obferving the nature ofthefe, and proceeding upon the fame princi; les, to makefuch further advances as his occalions may require. Itwould be vain to pretend to have exhaufted a fubjc^l whichis as extenfiTe as the language itfelf in which we write ;and confequently may be earned further and further by e-very one, in 'proportion to his Ikill in the language, and hisknowledge of the fubjeeft treated upon.The learner has been already taught how to write allthe confonants of any word by one continued mark, thofewords only excepted which may be more briefly defcribedhy the help of prepofltions and terminations. He may nowadvance a ftep further, and join together fuch fhort wordsas are either reprefented by the letters^of the alphabet a-lone ; or fuch as, by their frequent occurrence, are becomefo familiar, as to be readily known, though denoted bytheir firft con'pnants only, This will be found* a greater fa-ving of time than can eafily be imagined ; and muft there¬fore, when difpatch is required, be done in ali 'inftances inwhich they may be joined neatly and without ambiguity.Rule I. I’he different times and modes of the verbsare generally expreffed, in the Englifli language, by the helpof other verbs, for that reafon called auxiliary; as, .‘u;///,Jhall^ hcivet had, can, could, may, muft be, &c. Thefemuft, upon that account, occur very frequently; and, beingfignified by their firft confonant, they may be joined to oneanother; as, can be, nuHl be have or has been, to be,ought to be, 7Huft be, Plate CLIII i. and vvhen thenegative particle not intervenes, it may be denoted by itsfirft confonant, and be joined with them; as, cannoCbe,2- 'Tu/// not be, have not been, not to be, ought not tobe, 3. When thefe joinings are,'by^a little pra<ftice,become eafy to the learner, he may proceed iurther, andjoin the preceding pronouns to thefe auxiliary ve^rbs; as, hemuft he, he cannot be, N° 4. This can occafion no* ambi¬guity: for though he taught in his alphabet, that thefetwo marks (N® 5.) denoted, the former and the latterbad\ yet, when, placed immediately before muft and can,their, ficuation {hows that th y cannot, in that cafe, fignifyhave and had, thofe auxiliaries never admitting ot fuch anarrangement. And further, as •w and are often dr.opt incommon fpeech and writing, as he*/l for he nvill, we^ve for<we have: fo.they may, tor the fake of joining, be omittedin fliort-hand ; as, he nvtU, he nssill not be, they'have been,,N" 6,Rule IL The learner was taught in the firft part, That;in,
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PART II.
An alphabet, formed upon the most just and natural plan, by which, with the help of a few general rules, all the words of the language to which it is particularly adapted, may be easily, neatly, and speedily written, will not be sufficient to satisfy the expectations of an inquisitive reader; who must be sensible, that however complete the alphabet may be, yet many compendious applications of it may be obtained by a proper inquiry into the nature of our language, and the abbreviations which it admits of. He will not be satisfied with being taught only how to express all the letters of a word by the shortest and easiest strokes, but will also require further instruction how to describe intelligibly words and sentences by as few of those strokes as possible. To investigate, from a few things given, many which are omitted, will be found no unpleasant nor unprofitable exercise of the learner's sagacity; and if the few be properly given, the sense of the passage, and a due attention to the idiom of our language, will render the discovery of the omissions more certain, and also less difficult, than the unexpected can easily imagine.—Without some such rules of abbreviation, one end of short-hand, that of following a speaker, would scarcely be attainable.
Before the invention of the art of printing, the tediousness of writing all the words at full length put the copiers of books upon forming many ways of abbreviating them, as appears in all manuscripts. In those of the New Testament we find many principal words described by their initial and final letters only, with a dash over them. In Latin manuscripts, those terminations, by which the relations of words to one another are in that language usually expressed, were generally omitted: nor was there any need of writing them at length; for the principal word being given, of which the rest were governed in case, gender, and number, any reader who understood that language could easily supply those omissions. Our language, generally expressing those relations by little particles, does not indeed afford that particular mode of abbreviation. Upon a careful examination, however, it will be found capable of furnishing many others as useful and extensive.
But it will be proper, before we proceed further in this art of abbreviation, to advertise the learner, who is apt to be too eager to push forward, not to embarrass himself with it, till, by a competent practice of writing according to the rules laid down in the first part, he is become so well acquainted with the characters, as to be able to write and read them with as much ease as his own common hand. The best way to learn any art is to proceed by degrees, not venturing upon a second step before the first is perfectly mastered. And it is evident, that this method of proceeding is, on this occasion, particularly necessary: for though, in many sentences, the sense, and the particular construction of the words, may plainly enough point out such of them, as are described with unusual brevity; yet how shall an unpractised learner, unable to embrace in one view the words denoted by the preceding and following marks, determine what the intermediate contracted ones must needs be? But, if he will have patience to abstain from this second part, until he can write readily, and read without hesitation whatever is written, according to the rules of the first, he may rest assured that he will meet with little more difficulty in reading words contracted than he did in those written more at length, provided that the rules of abbreviation be duly attended to. But, if the reader expects that we are to give him every particular manner of abbreviation which can possibly be invented, he will be disappointed. The principal and most useful rules are given; and it is left to the sagacity of the practiser, by observing the nature of these, and proceeding upon the same principles, to make such further advances as his occasions may require. It would be vain to pretend to have exhausted a subject which is as extensive as the language itself in which we write; and consequently may be carried further and further by every one, in proportion to his skill in the language, and his knowledge of the subject treated upon.
The learner has been already taught how to write all the consonants of any word by one continued mark, those words only excepted which may be more briefly described by the help of prepositions and terminations. He may now advance a step further, and join together such short words as are either represented by the letters of the alphabet alone; or such as, by their frequent occurrence, are become so familiar, as to be readily known, though denoted by their first consonants only. This will be found—a greater saving of time than can easily be imagined; and must therefore, when dispatch is required, be done in all instances in which they may be joined neatly and without ambiguity.
Rule I. The different times and modes of the verbs are generally expressed, in the English language, by the help of other verbs, for that reason called auxiliary; as, will, shall, have, had, can, could, may, must, be, &c. These must, upon that account, occur very frequently; and, being signified by their first consonant, they may be joined to one another; as, can be, will be have or has been, to be, ought to be, must be, Plate CLIII. No 1. and when the negative particle not intervenes, it may be denoted by its first consonant, and be joined with them; as, cannot be, N° 2. will not be, have not been, not to be, ought not to be, N° 3. When these joinings are, by a little practice, become easy to the learner, he may proceed further, and join the preceding pronouns to these auxiliary verbs; as, he must be, he cannot be, N° 4. This can occasion no ambiguity: for though he was taught in his alphabet, that these two marks (N° 5.) denoted, the former have, and the latter bad; yet, when placed immediately before must and can, their situation shows that they cannot, in that case, signify have and bad, those auxiliaries never admitting of such an arrangement. And further, as w and h are often dropt in common speech and writing, as he'll for he will, we've for we have; so they may, for the sake of joining, be omitted in short-hand; as, he will, he will not be, they have been. N° 6.
Rule II. The learner was taught in the first part, That
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472 P E R S P EBC : from v/bich you have a front view of the whole bodycf the church, with all the pillars, on each fide: thenhx your horizon at any height you think proper, as at DE:hifed it by the perpendicular EA: and where thefe twolines inferfei^)-, is the point of fight F. This perpendicu¬lar will p:ifs through the centres of all the arches in the .dome or cupola: which centres may be found by any threegiven points. Next divide your bafe line into any givennumber'of feet; and the vifual lines, ruled from thefe di-vifions to the point of fight, will reduce all your objedls totheir jufl proportion, by fetting off their height upon a per¬pendicular railed at their refpedllve diltances. The bafe,in the example here given, is divided into twelve equal partsof fi ve feet each ; from which (fuppofingyour front columnto be, 35 feet high) take feven divifions from the bafe line ofyour'drawing, and fet them off upon the perpendicular GH;then (fuppofing this column to be five feet thick at the bafe)fet off one of thofe divifions upon the parallel IK, which isthe breadth required. !>o that, by proportioning this fcaleto any dillance by the foregoing direflions, you may notonly find the dimenfions of all your columns, but aifo of e-very difiindt part of them, as well as of all the doors, win¬dows, and other obje(5Is that occur. Forinftance: Havingfound the height and breadth of your firft or neared columnG, draw from the top and bottom "bf the faid column tothe point of fight the lines HF and KF; after which', rulethe line IF froor the bafe of the column to the point of fight,and you have the height and breadth of ail the reft of the co¬lumns, as has been already (hewn in fig. 3.By ruling lines from the points a,bjC,di See. to the pointof fight, you will fee that all the fummits and bafes ofyour columns, doc , , windows, muft tend immediate¬ly to that point; and by lines drawn from the points 1,2,3,4, 6^. on each fide, to the correfpondent points on the op-pofite fide, may be feen all the parts of your building lyingi:pon the fame parallel.“To draiu an oblique vievj. See fig. 6. of Plate CXLIV.Firft draw your horizontal line AB ; then, if your favou¬rite obje<5t,bc on.the right hand, as at C, place yourfelf onthe left hand upon the bafe line, as at D; then from that fta-tion eredl a perpendicular DE, which will pafs through thehorizon at the point of fight F v to which rule the diagonalsGF and HF, which will fhew the roof and bafe of yourprincipal building C, and will alfo, as before directed, ferveas a fiahdard for all the reft.Obferve alfo, either in direifl or oblique views, whetherthe profpeifl bef^ore you make a curve ; for if it does, youmnft be careful to make the fame curve in your drawing.To drav3 a perfpeftive mohersin are accidental points.See fig. 7. Of Plate CXLIV.Rule your horizontal line ah^ and on one part of it fixyour point of fight, as at c*; from which rule the diagonalscd and ce on the one fide, and cf and cq on the other; whichwill fhew the roofs and bafes of all the houfes in the ftreetdirectly facing you ; (fuppofing yourfelf placed at A in thecentre of the bafe line ;) Then fix your accidental points gapd h upon the horizontal line, and rule from them to theangles and Iniy (where, the ftreeis on each fide take a dif¬ferent direction, towards the accidental points^ and h) andthe lines and gk give the roofs and bafes of all the build-'logs on one fide, as lb mb do on the other..C T 1 V E.Accidental points feldom intervene where the difiance isfmalJ, as in noblemens feats, groves^ canals, whichmay be drawn by the ftrid rules of perfpedive : but wherethe profpedl is extenfive and varied, including mountains,bridges, caftlcs, rivers, precipice*, w'oods, cities, 6'r. itwill require fuch an infinite number of accidental points,that it will be better to do them as nature fliail di*flate, andyour ripened judgment approve.To find the centre for the roof of ahoufe^ in an oblique viem.,See fig. 8. of Plate CXLIV.Suppofe from the point of fight A, the vifual lines ABand^C be drawn, BC being one perpendicular given, andDE the other, rule the diagonals from D to C, and fromE to E, and the perpendicular FG, raifed through thepoint of their interfedion, will fliew the true centre of theroof, as will appear by ruling the liaes GE and GC.For want ofbeing acquainted with this neceffary rule, manywho have been well verfed in other parts of perfpedive, havt*fpoiled the look of their pidure, by drawing the roofs oftheir houfes oat of their true perpendicular.We fiidi conclude by giving a few pradical rules, i.Let every line, which in the objed, or geometrical figure,is Ih-aight, perpendicular, or parallel to its bafe, be fo alfoin its fcenographic delineation. 2. Let the lines, whichin the objed return at right angles from the fore-right fide,be drawn fcenographicaily from the vifual point. 3. Letall firaight lines, which in the objed return from the fore¬right fide, run in a fceriographic figurejnto the horizontalline. 4. Let the objed you intend to delineate, Handingon your right-hand, be placed alfo on the right hand of thevifual point; and that on the left-hand, on the left-hapdofthe fame point; and that which is juft before, in the mid¬dle of it. 5. Let thofe lines which are (in the objed) e-quidiftant to the returning line be drawn in the fcenogra¬phic figure, from that point found in the horizon. 6. lufetiing off the altitude of columns, pedeftals, and the like,meafure the height from the bafe line upwards, in tlie frontor fore-right fide ; and a vifual ray down that point in thefront fhall limit the-altitude of the column or pillar, all theway behind the fore-right fide, or orthographic appearance,even to the vifual point. This rule you muft obferve in allfigures, as well where there is a front or fore-right fide,as where there is none. 7. In delineating ovals, circles,arches, croffes, fpiralr, and crofs-arches, or any other fi¬gure in the roof of any room, firft draW ichnographically,and fo with perpendiculars from the moft eminent pointsthereof, carry it up unto thecieling; from which feveral-jjoints, carry on the figure. 8. The centre in any feeno-graphic regular figure is found by drawing lines from oppo-fite angles: for the point where the diagonals crofs, is thecentre. 9. A ground-plane cf fquares is alike, both aboveand -b^elow the horizontal line ; only the more it is diftantabove or beneath the horizon, the fquares wdll be fo muchthe larger or wider. 10. In drawing a perfpeftlve figure,where many lines come together, you may, for the direft-ing of your eye, draw the diagonals in red ; the vifual lines .in black ; the perpendiculars in green, or other different co¬lour, from that w'hich you intend the figure (hail be of,II. Having confidered the height, diftance, and pofition ofthe figure, and drawn it accordingly, with fide or angle a-gaiaft the bafe \ raife perpendiculars from the feveral angles.
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BC: from which you have a front view of the whole body of the church, with all the pillars, &c. on each side: then fix your horizon at any height you think proper, as at DE: bisect it by the perpendicular EA: and where these two lines intersect, is the point of sight F. This perpendicular will pass through the centres of all the arches in the dome or cupola: which centres may be found by any three given points. Next divide your base line into any given number of feet; and the visual lines, ruled from these divisions to the point of sight, will reduce all your objects to their just proportion, by setting off their height upon a perpendicular raised at their respective distances. The base, in the example here given, is divided into twelve equal parts of five feet each; from which (supposing your front column to be 35 feet high) take seven divisions from the base line of your drawing, and set them off upon the perpendicular GH; then (supposing this column to be five feet thick at the base) set off one of those divisions upon the parallel IK, which is the breadth required. So that, by proportioning this scale to any distance by the foregoing directions, you may not only find the dimensions of all your columns, but also of every distinct part of them, as well as of all the doors, windows, and other objects that occur. For instance: Having found the height and breadth of your first or nearest column G, draw from the top and bottom of the said column to the point of sight the lines HF and KF; after which, rule the line IF from the base of the column to the point of sight, and you have the height and breadth of all the rest of the columns, as has been already shewn in fig. 3.
By ruling lines from the points a,b,c,d, &c. to the point of sight, you will see that all the summits and bases of your columns, doors, windows, &c. must tend immediately to that point; and by lines drawn from the points 1,2,3,4, &c. on each side, to the correspondent points on the opposite side, may be seen all the parts of your building lying upon the same parallel.
To draw an oblique view. See fig. 6. of Plate CXLIV.
First draw your horizontal line AB; then, if your favourite object be on the right hand, as at C, place yourself on the left hand upon the base line, as at D; then from that station erect a perpendicular DE, which will pass through the horizon at the point of sight F; to which rule the diagonals GF and HF, which will shew the roof and base of your principal building C, and will also, as before directed, serve as a standard for all the rest.
Observe also, either in direct or oblique views, whether the prospect before you make a curve; for if it does, you must be careful to make the same curve in your drawing.
To draw a perspective view, wherein are accidental points. See fig. 7. of Plate CXLIV.
Rule your horizontal line ab, and on one part of it fix your point of sight, as at c; from which rule the diagonals cd and ce on the one side, and cf and cq on the other; which will shew the roofs and bases of all the houses in the street directly facing you; (supposing yourself placed at A in the centre of the base line:) Then fix your accidental points g and h upon the horizontal line, and rule from them to the angles ik and lm, (where the streets on each side take a different direction, towards the accidental points g and h) and the lines gi and gk give the roofs and bases of all the buildings on one side, as lb and mb do on the other.
Accidental points seldom intervene where the distance is small, as in noblemens seats, groves, canals, &c. which may be drawn by the strict rules of perspective: but where the prospect is extensive and varied, including mountains, bridges, castles, rivers, precipices, woods, cities, &c. it will require such an infinite number of accidental points; that it will be better to do them as nature shall distate, and your ripened judgment approve.
To find the centre for the roof of a house, in an oblique view. See fig. 8. of Plate CXLIV.
Suppose from the point of sight A, the visual lines AB and AC be drawn, BC being one perpendicular given, and DE the other, rule the diagonals from D to C, and from E to E, and the perpendicular FG, raised through the point of their intersection, will shew the true centre of the roof, as will appear by ruling the lines GE and GC.
For want of being acquainted with this necessary rule, many who have been well versed in other parts of perspective, have spoiled the look of their picture, by drawing the roofs of their houses out of their true perpendicular.
We shall conclude by giving a few practical rules. 1. Let every line, which in the object, or geometrical figure, is straight, perpendicular, or parallel to its base, be so also in its scenographic delineation. 2. Let the lines, which in the object return at right angles from the fore-right side, be drawn scenographically from the visual point. 3. Let all straight lines, which in the object return from the fore-right side, run in a scenographic figure into the horizontal line. 4. Let the object you intend to delineate, standing on your right-hand, be placed also on the right hand of the visual point; and that on the left-hand, on the left-hand of the same point; and that which is just before, in the middle of it. 5. Let those lines which are (in the object) equidistant to the returning line be drawn in the scenographic figure, from that point found in the horizon. 6. In setting off the altitude of columns, pedestals, and like measure the height from the base line upwards, in the front or fore-right side; and a visual ray down that point in the front shall limit the altitude of the column or pillar, all the way behind the fore-right side, or orthographic appearance, even to the visual point. This rule you must observe in all figures, as well where there is a front or fore-right side, as where there is none. 7. In delineating ovals, circles, arches, crosses, spirals, and cross-arches, or any other figure in the roof of any room, first draw ichnographically, and so with perpendiculars from the most eminent points thereof, carry it up unto the cieling; from which several points, carry on the figure. 8. The centre in any scenographic regular figure is found by drawing lines from opposite angles: for the point where the diagonals cross, is the centre. 9. A ground-plane of squares is alike, both above and below the horizontal line; only the more it is distant above or beneath the horizon, the squares will be so much the larger or wider. 10. In drawing a perspective figure, where many lines come together, you may, for the directing of your eye, draw the diagonals in red; the visual lines in black; the perpendiculars in green, or other different colour, from that which you intend the figure shall be of. 11. Having considered the height, distance, and position of the figure, and drawn it accordingly, with side or angle against the base; raise perpendiculars from the several angles,
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A-B
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298
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294 A N A Tf cited in tHe moveable cartilage which forms the ala ofliie nares.'1 he oblique or lateral mufcle is a thin flefhy plane,lying on die fide of the former. The lateral mufcle isfixed by its upper extremity ;to tire apophyfis nafalis ofthe os maxillare, below its articulation with the os fron¬ds,, and fometimes a little lower than the middle of thebluer edge-of the orbit. From tiience it runs towardthe.ala narium, and is infer ted in the moveable cartilage,near the os maxillare, being covered laterally by a por¬tion of the neighbouring mufcle of the upper lip.. The tranfverfe or inferior mufcle, called alfo myrti-formes, is inferred by one end in the os maxillare, nearthe lower edge of the orbi-c, much about the place whichanfwers to the extremity of the.focket of the dens cani-nus on the fame fide. From thence it runs almoft-tranf-verfely upward, and is fixed in die lateral cartilages of thenote, over which it fometimes runs to the aise of thegreat cartilage, to be inferted there,The fit ft two pairs of thefe mufcles raife and dilatethe alas of the nares when they aft; and at the fametime raife die upper lip, by reafon of their conneftion withthe mufcles of that part. They likewife wrinkle theikin on the Tides of the nofe., The membrana pituitaria is that which lines the wholeinternal nares, the cellular convolutions, the concha;,the Tides of the feptum narium, and, by an uninterruptedcontinuation,, the Loner furface of the finus frontales andmaxillares, and of the duftus lacrymalcs, palatini, and fphe-n aid ales. It is likewife continued down from the nares tothe pharynx, feptum palati, isc.It is termed pituhnria, becaufe, through the greateftpant of its large extent, it ferves to feparate from thearterial blood a mucilaginous lympha, called pituha bythe ancients, which in the natural ftate is pretty liquid ;but it is fubjeft to very great changes, becoming fome-times. glutinous or fnotty, fometimes limpid, 6e. nei¬ther is it feparated in equal quantities through the wholemembrane.When we carefully examine this membrane, it appearsto be of a different ftrufture in different parts. Nearthe edge of the external nares it is very thin, appearingto be the fkin and epidermis in a degenerated ftate. Allthe other, parts of it in general are fpungy, and of diffe¬rent thickneffes. The thickeft parts are thofe on theieptum narium, on the whole lower portion of the. inters-r,al nares, and on die conchas.On tire fide next tlie periofteum and perichcndrium itis plentifully ftored with final! glands,, the excretorydufts of which are very lung near the feptum narium,and their orifices very vifible.The frontal, maxillary and fplienoidal fnufes open in¬to the internal nares, but in different manners. Thefrontal finufes open from above downward, anfwering tpthe in 'undibula of the os ethmoides. The fpheaoidalesopen forwards, oppofite to the poftertor orifices of thenares; and the maxillares open a little higher, betweenthe two conchae.The opening of the finus maxillaris in fome fubjeftsis Angle, in others double; it lies cxaftly between thetwo conphac, about the middle of their depth,.O M Y. Part VI,It is proper here to obferve the whole extent of themaxillary finus. Below, there is but a very thin par?tition between it and the dentes molares, the roots ofwhich do, in fome fubjefts, perforate that feptum. A-bove, there is only a very thin tranfparent lamina be¬tween the orbit and the finus. Backward, above the tu-berofity of the os maxillare, the fides of the finus arfevery thin, efpecially at the place which lies before dieroot of the apophyfis pterygoides, through which the in¬ferior maxillary nerve fends down a ram,us to the fora¬men palatinum pofterius, commonly called guflatoriuni.Inward, or toward the conchas narium, the bony partof the finus is likew ife very thin.The lachrymal facculus is an oblong membranous bag,into which the ferous fluid is difeharged from the eyethrough the punfta lachrymalia; and from which the famefluid paffes to the lower part of the internal nares. It. islituated in a bony groove and canal, formed partly bythe apophyfis nafalis of the os maxillare and os unguis,partly by the fame os maxillare and lower part of the osunguis, and partly by this lower portion of the os unguisand a fmall fuperior portion of the concha narium in¬ferior.This bony lachrymal duft runs down for a little wayobliquely backward, toward the lower and lateral part ofthe internal nares on each fide, where its lower extremi¬ty opens on one fide of the fiDUs maxillaris under theinferior concha. The upper part of this duft is only anhalf canal or groove; the lower is a complete canal, nar¬rower than the former.The facculus lachrymalis may be divided into a fuperioror orbitary portion, and an inferior or nafal portion.The orbitary portion fills the whole bony groove, beingfituated immediately behind the middle tendon of themufculus orbicularis. The nafal portion lies in thebony canal of the nofe, being narrower and Ihorter thanthe former.The oibitary portion is difpofed at its upper extremi¬ty, much in the manner of an inteftinum caecum, andat the lower extremity is continued with the portio na¬falis. Towards the internal angle of the eye, behindthe tendon of the orbicular mufcle, it is perforated bya fmall fliort canal formed by the union of the lachrymaldufts.The nafal portion having reached the lower part ofthe bony duft under the inferior concha, terminates ina fmall, flat, membranous bag, the bottom of which- isperforated by a round opening.The fubftance of this facculus is fomething fpongy orcellulous, and pretty thick, being ftrongly united by itsconvex fide to the periofteum of the bony canal.The duftus inciforii, or nafi>palatini of Steno, aretwo canals which go from die bottom of the internal na¬res crofs the arch of the palate, and open behind thefirft or largeft dentes inciforii.. Their two orifices maybe difrinftly feen in the fkekton at the lower part of thenafal foffa:, on the anterior aad lateral; fides of the Crifta;maxillares; and we may likewife perceive their obliquepaflage through the maxillary hopes, and laftly their in¬ferior orifices in a fmall cavity or folia! a, called for ormen palaiinum anterius.,. The
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ferred in the moveable cartilage which forms the ala of the nares.
The oblique or lateral muscle is a thin fleshy plane, lying on the side of the former. The lateral muscle is fixed by its upper extremity to the apophysis nasalis of the os maxillare, below its articulation with the os frontis, and sometimes a little lower than the middle of the inner edge of the orbit. From thence it runs toward the alae narium, and is inserted in the moveable cartilage, near the os maxillare, being covered laterally by a portion of the neighbouring muscle of the upper lip.
The transverse or inferior muscle, called also myrtiformes, is inserted by one end in the os maxillare, near the lower edge of the orbit, much about the place which answers to the extremity of the socket of the dens caninus on the same side. From thence it runs almost transversely upward, and is fixed in the lateral cartilages of the nose, over which it sometimes runs to the alae of the great cartilage, to be inserted there.
The first two pairs of these muscles raise and dilate the alae of the nares when they act; and at the same time raise the upper lip, by reason of their connection with the muscles of that part. They likewise wrinkle the skin on the sides of the nose.
The membrana pituitaria is that which lines the whole internal nares, the cellular convolutions, the conchæ, the sides of the septum narium, and, by an uninterrupted continuation, the inner surface of the sinus frontales and maxillares, and of the ductus lacrymales, palatini, and sphenoidales. It is likewise continued down from the nares to the pharynx, septum palati, &c.
It is termed pituitaria, because, through the greatest part of its large extent, it serves to separate from the arterial blood a mucilaginous lympha, called pituita by the ancients, which in the natural state is pretty liquid; but it is subject to very great changes, becoming sometimes glutinous or snotty, sometimes limpid, &c. neither is it separated in equal quantities through the whole membrane.
When we carefully examine this membrane, it appears to be of a different structure in different parts. Near the edge of the external nares it is very thin, appearing to be the skin and epidermis in a degenerated state. All the other parts of it in general are spungy, and of different thicknesses. The thickest parts are those on the septum narium, on the whole lower portion of the internal nares, and on the conchæ.
On the side next the periosteum and perichondrium it is plentifully stored with small glands, the excretory ducts of which are very long near the septum narium, and their orifices very visible.
The frontal, maxillary and sphenoidal sinuses open into the internal nares, but in different manners. The frontal sinuses open from above downward, answering to the infundibula of the os ethmoides. The sphenooidales open forwards, opposite to the posterior orifices of the nares; and the maxillares open a little higher, between the two conchæ.
The opening of the sinus maxillaris in some subjects is single, in others double; it lies exactly between the two conchæ, about the middle of their depth.
It is proper here to observe the whole extent of the maxillary sinus. Below, there is but a very thin partition between it and the dentes molares, the roots of which do, in some subjects, perforate that septum. Above, there is only a very thin transparent lamina between the orbit and the sinus. Backward, above the tuberosity of the os maxillare, the sides of the sinus are very thin, especially at the place which lies before the root of the apophysis pterygoides, through which the inferior maxillary nerve sends down a ramus to the foramen palatinum posterius, commonly called guftatorium. Inward, or toward the concha narium, the bony part of the sinus is likewise very thin.
The lachrymal sacculus is an oblong membranous bag, into which the serous fluid is discharged from the eye through the puncta lachrymalia; and from which the same fluid passes to the lower part of the internal nares. It is situated in a bony groove and canal, formed partly by the apophysis nasalis of the os maxillare and os unguis, partly by the same os maxillare and lower part of the os unguis, and partly by this lower portion of the os unguis and a small superior portion of the concha narium inferior.
This bony lachrymal duct runs down for a little way obliquely backward, toward the lower and lateral part of the internal nares on each side, where its lower extremity opens on one side of the sinus maxillaris under the inferior concha. The upper part of this duct is only an half canal or groove; the lower is a complete canal, narrower than the former.
The sacculus lachrymalis may be divided into a superior or orbitary portion, and an inferior or nasal portion. The orbitary portion fills the whole bony groove, being situated immediately behind the middle tendon of the musculus orbicularis. The nasal portion lies in the bony canal of the nose, being narrower and shorter than the former.
The orbitary portion is disposed at its upper extremity, much in the manner of an intestinum cecum, and at the lower extremity is continued with the portio nasalis. Towards the internal angle of the eye, behind the tendon of the orbicular muscle, it is perforated by a small short canal formed by the union of the lachrymal ducts.
The nasal portion having reached the lower part of the bony duct under the inferior concha, terminates in a small, flat, membranous bag, the bottom of which is perforated by a round opening.
The substance of this sacculus is something spongy or cellulous, and pretty thick, being strongly united by its convex side to the periosteum of the bony canal.
The ductus incisorii, or naso-palatini of Steno, are two canals which go from the bottom of the internal nares cross the arch of the palate, and open behind the first or largest dentes incisorii. Their two orifices may be distinctly seen in the skeleton at the lower part of the nasal fossae, on the anterior and lateral sides of the crista maxillares; and we may likewise perceive their oblique passage through the maxillary bones, and lastly their inferior orifices in a small cavity or fossula, called foramen palatinum anterius.
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2
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C-L
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G E O MC 0 R 0 L L A R Y.Hence any trigonometrical problem in rght-iined tri¬angles, may be refolvcd by delineating the triangle fromwhat is given concerning t, as in this propofition. Theunknown lides are examined by a line of equal parts, andthe angles by a protra&or or line of chords.PROPOSI riON XXII.The diameter of a circle being given, to find its cir¬cumference nearly.—The periphery of any polygon in-fcribed,*in' the circle is lefs than the circumference, andthe periphery of any polygon defcribcd about a circle isgreater than the circumference. Whence Archimedesfirft drfcovered that tlje diameter was in proportion to thecircumference, as 7 to 22 nearly, which ferves for com¬mon ufe. But the moderns have computed the proporti¬on of the diameter to the circumference to greater exaCt-nels. Suppofing the diameter 100, the periphery will bemore'than 314, but lefs than 315. The. diameter ismore nearly to the circumference, as 113 to 355. ButLudolphus van Cuelen exceeded the labours of all ; forby immenfe ftudy he found, that, fuppofing the diameter100,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,coo,000,the periphery will be lefs than314,159,265,338,979,323.846,264,338,327,951,but greater than314,159,265,358,979,323,846,264,338,327,950;whence it will be eafy, any part of the circumference be¬ing given’in degrees and minutes, to affign it in parts ofthe diameter.Of Surveying and Meafuring of Land.Hitherto we have treated of the- meafuring of an¬gles and lides, whence it is abundantly eafy to lay downafield, a plane, or an entire country : for to this nothingis rgquifite but the protraction of triangles, and of otherplain figures, after having meafured. their lides and an¬gles. But as this iselteemed an important part of prac-.tical geometry, we lliall -fir-join here an account of itwith ail polfible brevity; fuggelling withal, that a furvey-or wil Uni prove himfelf more by one day’s practice, thanby a great deal of reading.PROPOSITION XXIII.To explain what furveying is, and what tnfirumentsSurveyors ufe.—Firlt, it is neceffary that the forveyorview the field that is to.be meafured, and invelligate itslides and angles, by means of an iron chain (having a par¬ticular mark at each foot of length, or at any numberof feet, as may be mod convenient for reducing, lines orlurfaces to the received meafures), and the graphometerdeferibed above. Secondly, It is neceffary to delineatethe field in piano, or to form-a map of it ; that ib, tolay down on paper a figure limilar to the field ; which isdone by the protra&or (or line of chords) and of the lineof equal parts. Thirdly, It is necelfary to find out thearea of the field fo furveyed and reprefented by a map.Of this lad we are to treat below.The fides and angles of fmall fields are furveyed by thehelp of a plain table; which is generally of.an oblongrectangular figure, and fupported" by a fulcrum, fo as toturn, every way by asdics of a tall R-.kst, It ji&s *E T R Y.moveable frame, which fur rounds the board, and fervesto keep a clean paper put on the board clofe and tight toit. The lides of the frame facing the paper are dividedinto equal parts every way. The board hath bolides a-box with a magnetic needle, and moreover a large indexwith two lights. On the edge of the frame of the boardare marked degrees and minutes, fo as to fupply the roomof a graphometer.PROPOSITION XXIV.Fig. 8. To delineate a field by the help of a plain-table, from one fialion ’whence all its angles may be feen,and their dijiances meafured by a chain.—Let the fieldthat is to be laid down be ABODE. At any convenientplace F, let the plain-table be ere&ed ; cover it with cleanpaper, in which Jet fome point near the middle reprefentthe ftation. Then applying at this place the index withthe lights, direCt it fo as that through the fights fomemaikmay be feen at one of the angles, fuppole A; andfrom the point F, reprefenting the ftation, draw a faintright line along the fide of the index : then, by the helpof the chain, let FA the'diftance of the ftation from theforefaid angle be meafured. Then taking what part youthink convenient for a foot or pace from the line of equalparts, fet off on the faint line the parts correfponding tothe line FA that was meafured ; and let there be a markmade reprefenting the angle of the field A. Keeping thetable immoveable, the Line is to be done with the reft:of the angles ; then right lines joining thofe marks IhaUinclude a figure like to the field, as is evident from 5. 6VEucl.COROLLARY.The fame thing is done in like manner by the grapho—meter: for having obferved in each of the triangles, AFB-,BFC, CFD, <bc. the angle at the ftation F, and havingmeafured the lines from the ftation to the angles of thefield, let limiiar triangles be protracted on paper (by the2 J. prop. 6f this) having their common vertex in thepoint of ftation. All the lines, excepting thofe whichreprefent the lides of the field, are to. be drawn faint orobfeure.Note 1. When a furveyor wants to lay down a field,let him place ciftinclly in negifter all the obfervations ofthe angles, and the meafures of the fick-s, until, at timeand place convenient, he draw out the figure on paper.Note 2 The obfervations made by the help of thegraphometer are to be examined: for all the angles aboutthe point F ought to be equal to four right ones, (by con.2. art. 30. of part I.).P R O P O S I T I O N XXV.Fig 9 To lay down a field by means of two Jhstions,from each: of which all the angles can be fen, by meafu¬ring only the dijlance of the fiations—Let the iriftm-ment be placed at the ftation F: and having chofen apoint reprefenting it upon the paper which is laid uponthe plain table, let the index be applied at this point, foas to be moveable about it. Then let it be direCled fuc-cefiively to the feveral angles of the field: and when anyangle is fee-n through the fights, draw an obfeure line a-long the fide of the index. Let the index, with thefights, be directed after the fame manner to the ftation<!': on the cbfcure line drawn along its fide, pointing. toA,
|
GEOMETRY.
COROLLARY.
Hence any trigonometrical problem in right-lined triangles, may be resolved by delineating the triangle from what is given concerning it, as in this proposition. The unknown sides are examined by a line of equal parts, and the angles by a protractor or line of chords.
PROPOSITION XXII.
The diameter of a circle being given, to find its circumference nearly.—The periphery of any polygon inscribed in the circle is less than the circumference, and the periphery of any polygon described about a circle is greater than the circumference. Whence Archimedes first discovered that the diameter was in proportion to the circumference, as 7 to 22 nearly; which serves for common use. But the moderns have computed the proportion of the diameter to the circumference to greater exactness. Supposing the diameter 100, the periphery will be more than 314, but less than 315. The diameter is more nearly to the circumference, as 113 to 355. But Ludolphus van Cuelen exceeded the labours of all; for by immense study he found, that, supposing the diameter 100,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,00
|
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|
||
3
|
M-Z
| 762
|
657
| 92
|
Normal
| 3,965
| 5,140
|
S U R Gt^;•c cells; in ’Cv'lilch cafe, if the ovary is greatly magnified,the undulaiioo will be readily felt, and the operation be ad-vifeable.When the afates and anafarca are complicated, it isfeldom proper to perform the operation, fince the water maybe much more effedualiy evacuated by fcanfications in thelegs than by tapping.Upon the fuppofition nothing forbids the extradition of the•water, the manner of operating is this : Having placed thepatient in a chair of a convenient height, let' him join hishands ‘fo as to prefs upon his ftomach ; then dipping thetrocar in oil, you flab it fuddenly through the teguments,and, •withdrawing the perforator, leave the waters to emptyby the canula: abdon/en being, when filled, in the cir-cumflance of a bladder ddtended with a fluid, would makeit indifferent where to wound; but the apprehenfion of hurt¬ing the liver, if it be much enlarged, has induced opera¬tors rather to chufe the left fi^e, and generally in that part•which is about three inches obliquely below the navel; ifthe navel pro*ubcrates, you may make a fmall pun<5lure witha iance't through the fit n, and the Xvaters will be readilyvoided by that orifice, v/ithout any danger of a hernia fuc-ceeding but it fhould be carefully attended to, whetherthe protuberance is formed by the water or an exomphalos\in v^-hich latter cafe, the intefline would be wounded, and notwithout the greatefl danger, Thefurgeon neither in open¬ing with the lancet, nor perforating with the trocar, needfear injuring the inteflines, unlefs there is but little water inthe abdomen^ fince they are too much confined by the me-fentcry to come witbrn reach of danger from thefe intlru-meats ; but it fomeiiraes happens that when the water isalmofl all emptied, it is fuddenly flopped by the intdlineoromentum prefllng againfl the end of the canula ; in‘whichcafe you may pufli them away with a probe : during the eTacuation, your afliflants mufl keep prelling dn each tide ofthe abdomeni with a force equal to that of the waters be¬fore contained there ; for by neglc(5ling this rule, the patientwill be apt to fall into faintings, from the weight on thegreat vtfTels of the abdomen being taken off and the fink¬ing of the diaphragm fucceedino ; in confequence of which,more blood flowing into the inferior veffels than ufual, leavesthe fuperior ones of a fudden too empty, and thus interrupts the regular progrefs of the circulation. To obviatethis inconvenience, the co.mpreffion mufl not only be madeV/ith the hands during the operation, butvbe aftetwardii centinned, by fvvathing the abdomen with a roller of flannel,about eight yards long, and five Inches broad, beginning at"the bottom of the belly, fo rhat the inteflines may be bornenp againfl the diaphragm : you may change the roller everyday till the third or fourth day, by which time the fevc-ral parts will have acquired their due tone. For the dref-fing a piece of dry lint and plaifler fufficc ; bat bcti^eemthe fl>in and rolled it may be proper to lay a double flannela foot fquare, dipt in brandy or fpirits of wine.Tbis operation, though it does not often abfolutely cure,yet it fometimes preferves life a great many years, and evena pleafant one, efpecially if the waters have been long col-k<^ing.Explanation of Fig. 3. Plate CLVII.' *Ai A trocar of the mofl. convenient fize for emptying theay omen when the \\'ater is net gelatinous, It, is here re-E R Y/ 657prefented with the perforator in the canula, jufl as it'isplaced when we perform the operation.Bj The canula of a large trocar, recommended In caEs.where the water is gelatinous.C, The perforator oFthe large trocar.The handle of the trocar is generally made of wood, the'canula of filver, and the perforator of fleel. Great carefhould be taken by the makers of this inflrument, that theperforator fhould exadly fillup the cavity of the canula; forvunlefs the extremity of the canula lies quite clofc and fniooth-on the perforator, the introdu^lion of it into the abdomenwill be very painful* To,make it flip in more eafily, theedge of the extremity of the canula fhould be thin and fharpyand thatthc canula fhould be of ileel; for the filver one be¬ing of too foft a metal, becomes jagged or bruifed at itstremity with very little ufe.Of the Fistula in Ano.The fiflula in am is an abfeefs running upon or intothe intefinum return.The piles, which are little tumours formed abodt theverge of the immediately v;ithin the memhrana in¬terna of the refiu77iy do fometimes fuppurate, and becomethe fore-runners of a large abfeefs ; aifo external injurieshere, as in every other part of the body, may produce it ;but from whatever caufe the abfeefs arife, the manner of 0-perating upon it will be according to the nature and direc¬tion of its cavity.If the furgeon'have the firfl management of the abfeefs,and there appear an external inflammation upon one fide efithe buttock only ; after having waited for the proper matu¬rity, let him with a knife make an incifion the whole length^of it ; and in all probability, even though the bladder be-afFe<flcd, the largenefsof the wound, and the proper applica--tion of dofliis lightly preffed in, will prevent the putrefadioncf the intefline, and make the cavity fill upjike inapofthu-«mations of other parts.If theyf/zw/be continued^ to the other buttock, almofl fur^rounding the intefline, the whole courfe of it mufl be dila^*ted in like manner; fince, in fuch fpungy cavities, a genera¬tion of flefh cannot be procured but by large openings ;■whence aifo, if the flein is very thin, lying loofe and flibby^over the JintiSy it is abfoluteiy ireceffary to cut it quite a-wsy, or the patient will be apt to fink under theTdifcharge,which, in the circumflance here defcribedj.is foraerimes ex-cefSve. By^this method, which cannot be tog much re¬commended, it is amazing how happy the event is likely tobe; v/nereas, from neglcding it, and trufling only to a nar¬row opening, if the difeharge do not deflroy the patient, atleafl the matter, by being confined, corrupts the gut, andinfinuating itfelf about it, forms many other channels, whichrunning in various diredions often baffle an operator, andhave been the caufe of a fiitula being lo generally efleemed. very diflicult of cure.Here we have confidered the impoflhumation as pofTeffinga great part of the buttock ; but it more frequently happens,that the matter points, with a fmall extent of inflammationon the fldn, and the direction of the Jinus is even wflth the-gut ; in this cafe; having made a pundure, you may with aprobe learn if it has penetrated into the intefline. by paflin!?-your finger op it, and feeling the probe mtrodiiced through^the .wound into its cavity; though, for the mcfl part, ithiay
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SURGERY.
two cells; in which case, if the ovary is greatly magnified, the undulation will be readily felt, and the operation be advisable.
When the ascites and anasarca are complicated, it is seldom proper to perform the operation, since the water may be much more effectually evacuated by scarifications in the legs than by tapping.
Upon the supposition nothing forbids the extraction of the water, the manner of operating is this: Having placed the patient in a chair of a convenient height, let him join his hands so as to press upon his stomach; then dipping the trocar in oil, you stab it suddenly through the teguments, and, withdrawing the perforator, leave the waters to empty by the canula: the abdomen being, when filled, in the circumstance of a bladder distended with a fluid, would make it indifferent where to wound; but the apprehension of hurting the liver, if it be much enlarged, has induced operators rather to chuse the left side, and generally in that part which is about three inches obliquely below the navel: if the navel protuberates, you may make a small puncture with a lancet through the skin, and the waters will be readily voided by that orifice, without any danger of a hernia succeeding: but it should be carefully attended to, whether the protuberance is formed by the water or an exomphalos; in which latter case, the intestine would be wounded, and not without the greatest danger. The surgeon neither in opening with the lancet, nor perforating with the trocar, need fear injuring the intestines, unless there is but little water in the abdomen, since they are too much confined by the mesentery to come within reach of danger from these instruments; but it sometimes happens that when the water is almost all emptied, it is suddenly stopped by the intestine or omentum pressing against the end of the canula; in which case you may push them away with a probe during the evacuation, your assistants must keep pressing on each side of the abdomen, with a force equal to that of the waters before contained there; for by neglecting this rule, the patient will be apt to fall into faintings, from the weight on the great vessels of the abdomen being taken off and theinking of the diaphragm succeeding; in consequence of which, more blood flowing into the inferior vessels than usual, leaves the superior ones of a sudden too empty, and thus interrupts the regular progress of the circulation. To obviate this inconvenience, the compression must not only be made with the hands during the operation, but be afterwards continued, by swathing the abdomen with a roller of flannel, about eight yards long, and five inches broad, beginning at the bottom of the belly, so that the intestines may be borne up against the diaphragm: you may change the roller every day till the third or fourth day, by which time the several parts will have acquired their due tone. For the dres-fing a piece of dry lint and plaister suffice; but between the skin and roller it may be proper to lay a double flannel a foot square, dipt in brandy or spirits of wine.
This operation, though it does not often absolutely cure, yet it sometimes preserves life a great many years, and even a pleasant one, especially if the waters have been long collecting.
EXPLANATION of Fig. 3. Plate CLVII.
A, A trocar of the most convenient size for emptying the abdomen when the water is not gelatinous. It is here presented with the perforator in the canula, just as it is placed when we perform the operation.
B, The canula of a large trocar, recommended in cases where the water is gelatinous.
C, The perforator of the large trocar.
The handle of the trocar is generally made of wood, the canula of silver, and the perforator of steel. Great care should be taken by the makers of this instrument, that the perforator should exactly fill up the cavity of the canula; for unless the extremity of the canula lies quite close and smooth on the perforator, the introduction of it into the abdomen will be very painful. To make it slip in more easily, the edge of the extremity of the canula should be thin and sharp; and that the canula should be of steel; for the silver one being of too soft a metal, becomes jagged or bruised at its extremity with very little use.
Of the Fistula in Ano.
The fistula in ano is an abscess running upon or into the intestinum rectum.
The piles, which are little tumours formed about the verge of the anus, immediately within the membrana interna of the rectum, do sometimes suppurate, and become the fore-runners of a large abscess; also external injuries here, as in every other part of the body, may produce it; but from whatever cause the abscess arise, the manner of operating upon it will be according to the nature and direction of its cavity.
If the surgeon have the first management of the abscess, and there appear an external inflammation upon one side of the buttock only; after having waited for the proper maturity, let him with a knife make an incision the whole length of it; and in all probability, even though the bladder be affected, the largeness of the wound, and the proper application of dosils lightly pressed in, will prevent the putrefaction of the intestine, and make the cavity fill up like impostuations of other parts.
If the sinus be continued to the other buttock, almost surrounding the intestine, the whole course of it must be dilated in like manner; since, in such spungy cavities, a generation of flesh cannot be procured but by large openings; whence also, if the skin is very thin, lying loose and flabby over the sinus, it is absolutely necessary to cut it quite away, or the patient will be apt to sink under the discharge, which, in the circumstance here described, is sometimes excessive. By this method, which cannot be too much recommended, it is amazing how happy the event is likely to be; whereas, from neglecting it, and trusting only to a narrow opening, if the discharge do not destroy the patient, at least the matter, by being confined, corrupts the gut, and insinuating itself about it, forms many other channels, which running in various directions often baffle an operator, and have been the cause of a fistula being to generally esteemed very difficult of cure.
Here we have considered the imposthumation as possessing a great part of the buttock; but it more frequently happens, that the matter points with a small extent of inflammation on the skin, and the direction of the sinus is even with the gut: in this case, having made a puncture, you may with a probe learn if it has penetrated into the intestine, by passing your finger up it, and feeling the probe introduced through the wound into its cavity; though, for the most part, it may
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|
|
2
|
C-L
| 223
| null |
Normal
| 2,474
| 3,337
|
C I B ( .198 ) C I C•ftomach: by the commixture of tbefe liquors, whe¬ther of faliva or the juice of the ftomach, a propermcnftruum is compofed, by which the parts of thealiment are ftill more and more divided by its infinua-ting into their pores, and acquire ftill a greater like-nefs to the animal fluids. The ftomach, by means ofits mufcular fibres, contracting itfelf, does graduallydicharge its contents by the pylorus into the duode¬num; in which gut, after a fmall femicircul-ir defcent,it meets with the pancreatic juice and bile; both■which joining it, renders fome part of the alimentmore fluid, by ftill difuniting the grofler part from themore pure, and here the chylifadtion is made perfedt.The bile which abounds with lixivial falts, and apt toentangle with the grofler parts of the concodted ali¬ment, ftimulates the guts, and cleanfes their cavitiesof the mucous matter feparated from the blood by theglands of the guts, and lodged in their cavities ;which not only moiftens the infide of the guts, but de¬fends the mouth of the ladteal veflTels from being in¬jured by alien bodies which often pafs that way.The contents of the inteftines move ftill on, bymeans of the periftaJtic motion of the guts; whilftthofe thinner parts, fitted to the pores of the ladtealveflels, are abforbed by them: the thicker move ftillmore flowly on, and by the many ftops they continual-' ly meet with by the -connivant valves, all the chyle orthin parts are at length entirely abforbed: the remainsbeing merely exorementitious, are only fit to be pro¬truded by ftool.In the paflage through the fmall inteftines, the finerpart of the mafs, which we call the chyle (as has beenalready obferved) enters the orifices of the ladteal veffels of the firft kind, wherewith the whole mefenteryis intermixed, which either alone, or together withthe meferaic veins, difcharge themfelves into theglands, at the bafis of the mefentery.Then the chyle is taken up by the ladteals of thefecond kind, and is conveyed into glands between thetwo tendons of the diaphragm, called Pecquet’s refer-varory; whence it is carried to the heart by the tho¬racic dudt, and the fubclavian vein : and here it firftmixes with the blood, and in time beqomes aifimilatedthereto.CHYLOSIS, among phyficians, the adl of reducing thealiment in the ftomach to chyle.CHYME, or Chymus, in the common fignification ofthe word, denotes every kind of humour which is in-cralfated by concodtion, under which notion it compre¬hends all the humours fit or unlit for preferring andnouriftiing the body, whether good or bad. It fre¬quently imports the fineft part of the chyle, when fe¬parated from the fasces, and contained in the ladtealand thoracic dudt, -CHYMISTRY, or Chemistry. See Chemistry.CHYMOLOGI, an appellation given to fuch natnraliftsas have employed their time in inveftigating the pro¬perties of plants from their tafte and fmell.CHYMOSIS, in medicine, the adt of making or preparingchyme. See Chyme.C«ymosis is alfo a diftortion of the eye-lids, arifingfrom an inflammation ; alfo an inflammation of thecornea tunica in the eye.CIALIS, the name of the capital of a kingdom of thatname n independant Tartary, fituated on the roadfrom Sama cahd to China.CIBDELOPLACIA, in natural hiftory, a genus offpars debafed by a very large admixture of earth : theyare opaque, formed of thin crufts, covering vegetablesand other bodies, byway ofincruftations.Of this genus we have the following fpecies : 1.A greyifh-white one, with a rough furface. 2. Awhitifh brown one: both thefe are friablfe. 3. Ahard, pale-brown kind, which is the oftecolla of theIhops. 4. The whitifh-grey kind, with a fmooth fur-face : this is the unicornu foflile and ceratites of au¬thors. 5. The whitifli-brown coralloide kind.CIBDELOSTRACIA, in natural hiftory, terrene fpars,^deftitute of all brightnefs and tranfparence, formed in-*to thin plates, and ufually found coating over the fidesof fiflures, and other cavities of ftone, with congeries. of them of great extent, and of plain or botroyide fur-faces.Of thefe there are ufually reckoned feven kinds :the firft is the hard, brownilh-white cibdeloftracium,found 'in Germany : the fecond is the hard, whitifhcibdeloftracium, with thin crufts, and a fmoother fur--face, found alfo in the Harts-foreft in Germany: thethird is the hard, pale-brown cibdeloftracium, withnumerous very thin crufts, found in fubterra’nean ca¬verns in many parts of England as well as Germany ithe fourth is the white, light, and friable cibdeloftra¬cium, found alfo in Germany, but very rafely in anypart of England: the fifth is the light, hard, pale-brown cibdeloftracium, with a fmooth furface, foundin almoft all parts of the world : the fixth is the w.hi-tifh, friable, cruftaceous cibdeloftracium, with a rough¬er furface, frequent in Germany and England; andthe feventh is the brovvnifh white, friable cibdeloftra¬cium, with a dufty furface, found jn feveral parts ofIreland, as well as Germany.CICADIA, in zoology, a genus of infers belonging tothe order of hemiptera. The beak is infledted; theantennae are fetaceous; the four wings are membrana¬ceous and defledted ; and the feet, in moft of the fpe¬cies, are of the j-umping kind. The fpecies are fifty-one. The larvse of feveral of this genus evacuategreat quantities of a frothy matter upon the branchesand leaves of plants, in the midft of which thej^con-ftantly refide.CICATR1CULA, among natural hiftorians, denotes afmall whitiih fpeck in the yolk of an egg, fuppofed to'be the firft rudiments of the future chick.CICATRIX, in furgery, a little feam or elevation ofcallous flefti rifing on the flcin, and remaining thereafter the healing of a wound of ulder. It is common¬ly called a fear. See Surgery.CICATRIZANTS, in pharmacy, medicines which afliftnature to form a cicatrix. Such are arminian bole,powder of tutty, dificcativum rubrum, <bc.Cicatrizants are otherwife called efcharotics, epulo-tics, incarnatives, agglutinants, drc.CICELY.
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stomach; by the commixture of these liquors, whether of saliva or the juice of the stomach, a proper menstruum is composed, by which the parts of the aliment are still more and more divided by its ininuating into their pores, and acquire still a greater likeness to the animal fluids. The stomach, by means of its muscular fibres, contracting itself, does gradually discharge its contents by the pylorus into the duodenum; in which gut, after a small semicircular descent, it meets with the pancreatic juice and bile; both which joining it, renders some part of the aliment more fluid, by still disuniting the grosser part from the more pure, and here the chylifaction is made perfect. The bile which abounds with lixivial salts, and apt to entangle with the grosser parts of the concocted aliment, stimulates the guts, and cleanses their cavities of the mucous matter separated from the blood by the glands of the guts, and lodged in their cavities; which not only moistens the inside of the guts, but defends the mouth of the lacteal vessels from being injured by alien bodies which often pass that way.
The contents of the intestines move still on, by means of the peristaltic motion of the guts; whilst those thinner parts, fitted to the pores of the lacteal vessels, are absorbed by them: the thicker move still more slowly on, and by the many stops they continually meet with by the connivant valves, all the chyle or thin parts are at length entirely absorbed; the remains being merely exorementitious, are only fit to be protruded by stool.
In the passage through the small intestines, the finer part of the mass, which we call the chyle (as has been already observed) enters the orifices of the lacteal vessels of the first kind, wherewith the whole mesentery is intermixed, which either alone, or together with the meseraic veins, discharge themselves into the glands, at the basis of the mesentery.
Then the chyle is taken up by the lacteals of the second kind, and is conveyed into glands between the two tendons of the diaphragm, called Pecquet's reservoir; whence it is carried to the heart by the thoracic duct, and the subclavian vein: and here it first mixes with the blood, and in time becomes assimilated thereto.
CHYLOSIS, among physicians, the act of reducing the aliment in the stomach to chyle.
CHYME, or Chymus, in the common signification of the word, denotes every kind of humour which is incrassated by concoction, under which notion it comprehends all the humours fit or unfit for preserving and nourishing the body, whether good or bad. It frequently imports the finest part of the chyle, when separated from the faeces, and contained in the lacteal and thoracic duct.
CHYMISTRY, or Chemistry. See Chemistry.
CHYMOLOGI, an appellation given to such naturalists as have employed their time in investigating the properties of plants from their taste and smell.
CHYMOSIS, in medicine, the act of making or preparing chyme. See Chyme.
Chymosis is also a distortion of the eye-lids, arising from an inflammation; also an inflammation of the cornea tunica in the eye.
CIALIS, the name of the capital of a kingdom of that name in independant Tartary, situated on the road from Sama cadd to China.
CIBDELOPLACIA, in natural history, a genus of spars debased by a very large admixture of earth: they are opaque, formed of thin crusts, covering vegetables and other bodies, by way of incrustations.
Of this genus we have the following species: 1. A greyish-white one, with a rough surface. 2. A whitish-brown one: both these are friable. 3. A hard, pale-brown kind, which is the ostecolla of the shops. 4. The whitish-grey kind, with a smooth surface: this is the unicornu fossil and ceratites of authors. 5. The whitish-brown coralloide kind.
CIBDELOSTRACIA, in natural history, terrene spars, destitute of all brightness and transparency, formed into thin plates, and usually found coating over the sides of fissures, and other cavities of stone, with congeries of them of great extent, and of plain or botroyide surfaces.
Of these there are usually reckoned seven kinds: the first is the hard, brownish-white cibdelostracium, found in Germany: the second is the hard, whitish cibdelostracium, with thin crusts, and a smoother surface, found also in the Harts-forest in Germany: the third is the hard, pale-brown cibdelostracium, with numerous very thin crusts, found in subterranean caverns in many parts of England as well as Germany: the fourth is the white, light, and friable cibdelostracium, found also in Germany, but very rarely in any part of England: the fifth is the light, hard, pale-brown cibdelostracium, with a smooth surface, found in almost all parts of the world: the sixth is the whitish, friable, crustaceous cibdelostracium, with a rougher surface, frequent in Germany and England; and the seventh is the brownish-white, friable cibdelostracium, with a dusty surface, found in several parts of Ireland, as well as Germany.
CICADIA, in zoology, a genus of insects belonging to the order of hemiptera. The beak is inflected; the antennæ are setaceous; the four wings are membranaceous and deflected; and the feet, in most of the species, are of the jumping kind. The species are fifty-one. The larvae of several of this genus evacuate great quantities of a frothy matter upon the branches and leaves of plants, in the midst of which they constantly reside.
CICATRICULA, among natural historians, denotes a small whitish speck in the yolk of an egg, supposed to be the first rudiments of the future chick.
CICATRIX, in surgery, a little seam or elevation of callous flesh rising on the skin, and remaining there after the healing of a wound or ulcer. It is commonly called a scar. See Surgery.
CICATRIZANTS, in pharmacy, medicines which assist nature to form a cicatrix. Such are arminian bole, powder of tutty, disiccativum rubrum, &c.
Cicatrizants are otherwise called escharotics, epulotics, incarnatives, agglutinants, &c.
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Plate CP.IIysthix <<.y /rtvyuni'S
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HYDROMETERS
Plate C1.
Fig. 1.
Fig. 2.
Fig. 3.
Fig. 4.
Fig. 5. HYSTRIX or Porcopine
A. Bell So.
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( 3'^s 3N A M .ABOB, a vicero}' or governor of one of the pro*X vinces of the Mogul's empire, in India.NABONASSAR, or jE/’a cf Nabonassar. SeeAstronomy, p. 493. ^ ^N ADIR, in afiroiomy, that point of the heavens wh^chis diametrically oppofite to the zenith, or point dire^Ilyover our heads. See Astronomy, p. 435.N^Vl, in forgery, marks or excrefcences made on theficin of an infant before its birth, vulgarly Tuppofed tobe occafioned by the imagination of the mother.NAHUM, or th: prophecy ^/'Nahum, a canohical bookcf the Old Teftament.Nahum, the feventh of the twelve lefler prophets,was-a native of Elkofnai, a little village of Galdee.The ful^jed of his prophecy is the dedruflion of Ni*nevehr which he (Jefcribes in the moll lively and pa¬thetic manner; his flyle is bold and figurative, andcannot be exceeded by the moll: pevfeift mailers oforatory. 4'his prophecy was verified at the fiege ofthat city by Allyagos, in the year of the world 3378,622 years before Chrill.NAIADS, in mythology, the nymphs of the fountains.See Mythology. ^NAIANT, inXeraldry, a term ufed in blazoning ffhes,when borne in an horizontal pollure, as if fwimming.NA{AS, in botany, a genus of’the monoecia monandriaclafs. The calixofthe male is cylindrical and bifid ; thecorolla confilhoffourfegments; and there are no fila¬ments: The female has neither calix nor corolla, but onepillil and an ovated capfule. There is only one fpecies,vi^z, the marina, found in the European,feas.NAIL, unbuilt in anatomy. See Anatomy, p. 256.Nails, in'building, ^c. fmall fpikes of iron, brafs, he.which being drove into wood, ferve to bind feveralpieces together, or to fallen fometjiing upon them.Nail, is alfo a meafurc of length, containing the fix-teenth part of a yard.NAIRN, a borough and port town of Scotland, eighteenmiles call of the town of Invernefs.NAISSANT, in heraldry, is applied to any animal if-fuing out of the midfl of Tome ordinary, and (hewingonly his head, ftioulders, forefeet and legs, with thetip of his tail ; the reft of his body being hid in theftiield, or fome charge upon it ; in which it differsfronX iffuant, which denotes a living creature arifingout of the bottom of any ordinary or charge.>^KED SEEDS, in botany, are thofe that are not in-clofed in any pod or cafe. ^KAMA, in botany^ a genus of the pentandria digyniaclafs. The calix confifts of five leaves, and the corol-•K 'NAPla of five fegrnents; and the capfule Has one cell andtwo valves. There are two fpecies, none of them na¬tives of Britain. fNAME, denotes a word whereby men have agreed toeXprefs foms idea ; or'v.hich ferves to fignify.a thingor fubjefl rpokea of. See Grammar. ,NAMUR, a ftrong city cf the Auftrian Netherlands,capital of the province of Namur, (itupied at the con¬fluence of the Sambre and Maefe : E, Jong. 4*'* 50^N, lat. 50^ 30'.NANCY, the capiral cf Lorrain in Germany, fituatedin K. long. 6^’, N. lat. 48° 44^NANFIO> one of the iflands in the Archipelago, fix-teen miles round, and fituated in E. long, 26®, N.. fit. 35°.NANKING, the capital of the province of Nanking,and formerly of the Empire of China, is fituated in E.long. 118° 3o^ N. lat. 32’"'.NANSAMUND, a coupty of Virginia, in North Ame¬rica, foath of the Ifle of'Wight county, t’lrcugh whichthe river ofNanramund rims.NANTZ, a city of France in the province of Brittany,'fituated on the river Loire, in W. long, 30', N.lat,_47® 15. -NANTWICH, a market town of Chefhire, fituated.fc-venteen miles fouth-weft of Chefter. *NAPASA, in botO!iy, a genus of the monadelphia poly-andria clafs. The calix is fimple and cylindrical ; andthe capfule contains one feed. There are two fpecies,none of them natives of Britain.NAPHTHA, in natural hiftory, a fluid mineral Body,of a thin confiftence, bright and pellucid, of a ftrongfmell, very readily inflammable, and, when pure, burn^ing away without leaving any lefidcum.The naphtha is found in cSnfiderable quantities float¬ing on the water of certain fprings, principally breakingOut at the fidcs cf hifls in Petfia, Tartary, and fomepart's of the empire of China ; where if a lighted candlebe held near the furface, it takes fire and overfpreadsthe furface of the water for a great extent, with aftrong wXite flame, and emits a very difagreeabJe fmell.The genuine naphtha is very rare in Europe ; it is notknown to be any where naturally produced here, andwhat we fee of it is generally fophifticated. Diftiliedby the retort, it yields an oil fomewhat thinner tbarjit was originally, and of a w’eaker fmell. The fub-ftance rerhaining at the bottom of the retort, has muchthe refemblancc of amber; and Dr Hill thinks it highlyprobable, that the origin of all the amber is from thefame fort of principle ; nay, he tells us that he has fuc-* ceeded
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N. ABOB, a viceroy or governor of one of the provinces of the Mogul's empire, in India.
NABONASSAR, or Era of NABONASSAR. See Astronomy, p. 493.
NADIR, in astronomy, that point of the heavens which is diametrically opposite to the zenith, or point directly over our heads. See Astronomy, p. 435.
NEVI, in surgery, marks or excrescences made on the skin of an infant before its birth, vulgarly supposed to be occasioned by the imagination of the mother.
NAHUM, or the prophecy of Nahum, a canonical book of the Old Testament.
Nahum, the seventh of the twelve lesser prophets, was a native of Elkoshai, a little village of Galilee. The subject of his prophecy is the destruction of Nineveh, which he describes in the most lively and pathetic manner; his style is bold and figurative, and cannot be exceeded by the most perfect masters of oratory. This prophecy was verified at the siege of that city by Astyages, in the year of the world 3378, 622 years before Christ.
NAIADS, in mythology, the nymphs of the fountains. See Mythology.
NAIANT, in heraldry, a term used in blazoning fishes, when borne in an horizontal posture, as if swimming.
NAJAS, in botany, a genus of the monoccia monandria class. The calix of the male is cylindrical and bisid; the corolla consists of four segments; and there are no filaments: The female has neither calix nor corolla, but one pistil and an ovated capsule. There is only one species, viz. the marina, found in the European seas.
NAIL, unguis, in anatomy. See Anatomy, p. 256.
Nails, in building, &c. small spikes of iron, brass, &c. which being drove into wood, serve to bind several pieces together, or to fasten something upon them.
Nail, is also a measure of length, containing the sixteenth part of a yard.
NAIRN, a borough and port town of Scotland, eighteen miles cast of the town of Inverness.
NAISSANT, in heraldry, is applied to any animal issuing out of the midst of some ordinary, and shewing only his head, shoulders, forefeet and legs, with the tip of his tail; the rest of his body being hid in the shield, or some charge upon it; in which it differs from issuant, which denotes a living creature arising out of the bottom of any ordinary or charge.
NAKED seeds, in botany, are those that are not inclosed in any pod or case.
NAMA, in botany, a genus of the pentandria digynia class. The calix consists of five leaves, and the corol-
la of five segments; and the capsule has one cell and two valves. There are two species, none of them natives of Britain.
NAME, denotes a word whereby men have agreed to express some idea; or which serves to signify a thing or subject spoken of. See Grammar.
NAMUR, a strong city of the Austrian Netherlands, capital of the province of Namur, situated at the confluence of the Sambre and Maese: E. long. $4^\circ$ 50', N. lat. $50^\circ$ 30'.
NANCY, the capital of Lorrain in Germany, situated in E. long. $6^\circ$, N. lat. $48^\circ$ 44'.
NANFIO, one of the islands in the Archipelago, sixteen miles round, and situated in E. long. $26^\circ$, N. lat. $35^\circ$.
NANKING, the capital of the province of Nanking, and formerly of the Empire of China, is situated in E. long. $118^\circ$ 30', N. lat. $32^\circ$.
NANSAMUND, a county of Virginia, in North America, south of the Isle of Wight county, through which the river of Nansamund runs.
NANTZ, a city of France in the province of Brittany, situated on the river Loire, in W. long. $1^\circ$ 39', N. lat. $47^\circ$ 15.
NANTWICH, a market town of Cheshire, situated seventeen miles south-west of Chester.
NAP/EA, in botany, a genus of the monadelphia polyandria class. The calix is simple and cylindrical; and the capsule contains one seed. There are two species, none of them natives of Britain.
NAPHTHA, in natural history, a fluid mineral body, of a thin consistence, bright and pellucid, of a strong smell, very readily inflammable, and, when pure, burning away without leaving any residuum.
The naphtha is found in considerable quantities floating on the water of certain springs, principally breaking out at the sides of hills in Persia, Tartary, and some parts of the empire of China; where if a lighted candle be held near the surface, it takes fire and spreads the surface of the water for a great extent, with a strong white flame, and emits a very disagreeable smell. The genuine naphtha is very rare in Europe; it is not known to be any where naturally produced here, and what we see of it is generally sophisticated. Distilled by the retort, it yields an oil somewhat thinner than it was originally, and of a weaker smell. The substance remaining at the bottom of the retort, has much the resemblance of amber; and Dr Hill thinks it highly probable, that the origin of all the amber is from the same sort of principle; nay, he tells us that he has succeeded
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429
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O P. Twill be refle<5lecl at the furface BC, The rays, ^yhich pafsthrough the bafe, foim an oblong coloured pi<5lure HK,where MH is a more refrangible ray, and MK a lefs re¬frangible one. If the few rays of the beara^ which arerefleded from M in the diredi.on MN, are made to pafsthiough another prifm XYV, they will like wife form anoblong coloured pidure //, where p is the mod refran¬gible and t the lead refrangible ray. This pidure willbe a very/aint one, becaufe ibere are, but few r;^s re-fleded from M.Now if the prifm A.CB is turned flowly round uponits axis in the diredion ACB, the obliquity of the raysEM to the bafe BC will keep increafing, till at lad thisobliquity may become To great, that no rays will pafsout at M, but all of them will be refleded. When thistotal refiedibn is made, the oblong pidure //, which wasfaint before, will become much brighter, becaufe thennot only a few rays, but all the btam, will be recededthither. This total reflection will not be made all atonce ; but as the prifm is turned flowly round upon itsaxis, the mod refrangible rays .MH will be fird refleded,for the violet colour will difappear in the oblong pidureHK, whild all the ocher colours continue as bright asthey were before ; and when this colour difappears atHK, the fame colour at p will become bright, and allthe other colours at pt will continue ais faint as they werebefore. When the prifm is turned a little farther uponits axis, the indigo colour, which confids of rays that havethe next greated degree of refrangibiiity, will be reflec¬ted, fb that this colour will difappear at HK and willbecome bright at pt. The fame thing will happen to allthe rays in their order ; as the prifm is turned round,each different fort of*rays will be reflected foonef as therays have a greater degree of refrangibiiity, or latter asthey have a lefs degree. The red rays at K, which are thelead refrangible of all, will be reflected lad of all. Fromhence therefore it appears, that the rays of the fun aredifferently reflex!ble, and that thofe which are mod re¬frangible are-likewife mod reflexible.Homogeneous light is refraCied regularly nuiihout any di¬latation or fcattering of the rays.' When the rays of any one particular colour in the ob-Icng picture of the fun, as the green rays, for indance,are feparated from one another; if feme of thefe greenrays which are homogeneal, or are all equally refrangible,are tranfmitted through a very fmall round hole in a diffpadeboard, and ate refracted by a prifm on the other fideof the hole, the picture formed by thefe green rays afterjrefractioff upon a white paper held beyond the prifm willcot be oblong, but circular, as the hole is through whichthey paffed. Therefore this homogeneous light is notdilated, nor are therays of it fcattered by this refraction.'Xhe confufed appearance of oljeHsy nnhen they are feen'through refracting bodiest is enving to the different re-frangihiliiy of light.If flies, or the letters of a fmall print, or any otheriBiauteobjects, are placed ip heterogeneal light, fuch as adirect beam ot the fun’s, which has never been feparatedby any refraction into its homogeneous parts thefe ob¬jects being viewed through a glafs-prlfm will be feen con-fufedly, their edges will appear/o midy that ihefmailerparts of minute animals cannot eafily be dlflingulfficd fremone another, and the lettejs of the fmall print cannot beread, ^But if the fame objects are placed in a btam ofhomogeneous light, which is feparated from all other raysof a differeq^ refrangibiiity in the manner already deferi-bed, they will appear as didinct through a prifm as ifthey were viewed with the naked eye. Therefore wsmay conclude, that this confufion is owirg to the differentrefrangibiiity of thofe rays which come from the objects ;fince objects never appear confufed when they are feenthrough refracting bodies, unlefs they are enlightenedwith feveral forts of rays which, have different degreesof refrangibiiity.IIt is probable that any Jingle ray of the leaf refrangi¬ble fort contains a greater quasitity of matter than anyfngle ray of the mof refrangible fort.• WE have already feen, that at the fame angles of in¬cidence violet rays will be more refractedor more turned"out of the way than red rays. And we have likewtfe feepathat rays arc refracted when they pafs out of one mediuminto another, by being either more or lefs attracted in onemedium than they are in the other. Now fince, whenall other circumdances are equal, when red rays and violetrays fall at equal obliquities, and are to pafs out of glafsinto air, fo that the mediums, and confequently the at¬tractive force or caufe of refraction, is given ; if the famecaufe can turn the violet rays more out of the way, orrefract them more, than it does the red rays, thefe raysmud have different moments ; the mod refrangible rays,or thofe which are mod eafily turned out of the way, havethe lead moment;^ and the lead refrangible rays, or thofewhich are mod dilfficuJt to turn out of the way, have thegreated moment. But if all forts of rays have the famevelocity, their refpective quantities of matter will be aS'their moments; and confequently any Tingle ray of themod refrangible fort contains a lefs quantity of matter'than any fingic ray of the lead refrangible fort.It may be upon this account that a red colour, or aipale purple, is lefs pleafant to the eye than a blue, green,or a yellow, The red. rays drike the eye with fo greata force as to be offenfive to it; and the fmall force ofthe pale-purple ones will produce too faint a fenfation tobe agreeable. The intermediate colours are thereforemore pleafant to the eye, as the force of the rays is neithertoo gre^t to be offenfive, nor too fmall to produce a quick .and lively fenfation.The colours of homogeneous light are fo invariable, thatneither any refraCiion nor any refe Cl ion can alterthem.If abeam of homogeneous light paffes through a roundhole in a padeboard, and then is refrafted by .a prifm onthe other fide of the hole, this refraction will make noalteration in the colour of the rays ; if they were red, orwhatever was their colour, before they entered the prifm,their colour will dill be the fame, when they have paffedthrough it, and fall upon a white paper held beyond the.piifra. This proves the fird part of the propofition, thatthe
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will be reflected at the surface BC. The rays, which pass through the base, form an oblong coloured picture HK, where MH is a more refrangible ray, and MK a less refrangible one. If the few rays of the beam, which are reflected from M in the direction MN, are made to pass through another prism XYV, they will likewise form an oblong coloured picture pt, where p is the most refrangible and t the least refrangible ray. This picture will be a very saint one, because there are but few rays reflected from M.
Now if the prism ACB is turned slowly round upon its axis in the direction ACB, the obliquity of the rays EM to the base BC will keep increasing, till at last this obliquity may become so great, that no rays will pass out at M, but all of them will be reflected. When this total reflection is made, the oblong picture pt, which was saint before, will become much brighter, because then not only a few rays, but all the beam, will be reflected thither. This total reflection will not be made all at once; but as the prism is turned slowly round upon its axis, the most refrangible rays MH will be first reflected, for the violet colour will disappear in the oblong picture HK, whilst all the other colours continue as bright as they were before; and when this colour disappears at HK, the same colour at pt will become bright, and all the other colours at pt will continue as saint as they were before. When the prism is turned a little farther upon its axis, the indigo colour, which consists of rays that have the next greatest degree of refrangibility, will be reflected, so that this colour will disappear at HK and will become bright at pt. The same thing will happen to all the rays in their order; as the prism is turned round, each different sort of rays will be reflected sooner as the rays have a greater degree of refrangibility, or latter as they have a less degree. The red rays at K, which are the least refrangible of all, will be reflected last of all. From hence therefore it appears, that the rays of the sun are differently reflexible, and that those which are most refrangible are likewise most reflexible.
Homogeneous light is refracted regularly without any dilatation or scattering of the rays.
When the rays of any one particular colour in the oblong picture of the sun, as the green rays, for instance, are separated from one another; if some of these green rays which are homogeneal, or are all equally refrangible, are transmitted through a very small round hole in a stiff pasteboard, and are refracted by a prism on the other side of the hole, the picture formed by these green rays after refraction upon a white paper held beyond the prism will not be oblong, but circular, as the hole is through which they passed. Therefore this homogeneous light is not dilated, nor are the rays of it scattered by this refraction.
The confused appearance of objects, when they are seen through refracting bodies, is owing to the different refrangibility of light.
If flies, or the letters of a small print, or any other minute objects, are placed in heterogeneal light, such as a direct beam of the sun's, which has never been separated by any refraction into its homogeneous parts; these objects being viewed through a glass-prism will be seen confusedly, their edges will appear so misty that the smaller parts of minute animals cannot easily be distinguished from one another, and the letters of the small print cannot be read. But if the same objects are placed in a beam of homogeneous light, which is separated from all other rays of a different refrangibility in the manner already described, they will appear as distinct through a prism as if they were viewed with the naked eye. Therefore we may conclude, that this confusion is owing to the different refrangibility of those rays which come from the objects; since objects never appear confused when they are seen through refracting bodies, unless they are enlightened with several sorts of rays which have different degrees of refrangibility.
It is probable that any single ray of the least refrangible sort contains a greater quantity of matter than any single ray of the most refrangible sort.
We have already seen, that at the same angles of incidence violet rays will be more refracted or more turned out of the way than red rays. And we have likewise seen, that rays are refracted when they pass out of one medium into another, by being either more or less attracted in one medium than they are in the other. Now since, when all other circumstances are equal, when red rays and violet rays fall at equal obliquities, and are to pass out of glasses into air, so that the mediums, and consequently the attractive force or cause of refraction, is given; if the same cause can turn the violet rays more out of the way, or refract them more, than it does the red rays, these rays must have different moments; the most refrangible rays, or those which are most easily turned out of the way, have the least moment; and the least refrangible rays, or those which are most difficult to turn out of the way, have the greatest moment. But if all sorts of rays have the same velocity, their respective quantities of matter will be as their moments; and consequently any single ray of the most refrangible sort contains a less quantity of matter than any single ray of the least refrangible sort.
It may be upon this account that a red colour, or a pale purple, is less pleasant to the eye than a blue, green, or a yellow. The red rays strike the eye with so great a force as to be offensive to it; and the small force of the pale purple ones will produce too saint a sensation to be agreeable. The intermediate colours are therefore more pleasant to the eye, as the force of the rays is neither too great to be offensive, nor too small to produce a quick and lively sensation.
The colours of homogeneous light are so invariable, that neither any refraction nor any reflection can alter them.
If a beam of homogeneous light passes through a round hole in a pasteboard, and then is refracted by a prism on the other side of the hole, this refraction will make no alteration in the colour of the rays; if they were red, or whatever was their colour, before they entered the prism, their colour will still be the same, when they have passed through it, and fall upon a white paper held beyond the prism. This proves the first part of the proposition, that the
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The following is a summary of the text from the image provided:
1. The document appears to be an old book or manuscript with a worn, yellowed appearance.
2. It contains several lines of text that are not clearly legible due to the quality of the scan.
3. The text seems to be in English and includes some formatting such as indentation and underline.
4. There are no visible images or illustrations within the document.
Given the nature of the document, it is likely that it is a historical record or a legal document from the past. However, without a clearer view of the text, it is difficult to determine its exact content.
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tS L I ( ) S M Etide of the traffick in America. The Briti(h fouth-fea^ company have, by treaty, the foie privilege of farnifli-ing the Spanifh Weft Indies with flaves.SLAUGHTER. See Manslaughter, Homicide,Murder, &c.SLEDGE, a kind of carriage without wheels, for theconveyance of very weighty things, as hugeftones,SLEEP, is defined to be that ftate wherein the body ap¬pearing perfedly at reft, external objects move the or¬gans of ienfe as ufual, without exciting the ufual fenfa-tions.Sleep is broken off unnaturally, when any of the or¬gans of fenfation is fo bnflcly afled on, that the adion ispropagated to the brain.Sleep being one of the non-naturals, it is not pofliblefor thofe to preferve their health, who do not go tofleep in a regular manner: for ilcep repairs the fpirits,which are di.fiipated by watching; and confequently it re-ftores theftrength of thofe who are weak, indifpofed, or la¬bour much. It likewife promotesperfpiration, contributesgreatly to digeftion, and more to nutrition. The nightis the moft proper for fleep; for the vigour of the mindand body are better reftored in the night than in theday ; thus nodurnal labour and lucubrations impair the' health.•SLEEPER, or the great sleeper, in zoology. SeeMus. VSleepers, in natural hiftory, a rfame given to fome ani¬mals which are faid to fleep all the winter ; fuch as bears,marmotes dormice, bats, hedge hogs, fwaliows, 6'tf.Thcfe do not feed in winter, have no fenfible evacu¬ations, breathe little or not at all, and moft of the vifce-ra ceafe from their fundions. Some of thefe creaturesfeem to be dead, and others to return to a ftate like thatof the fetus before the birth: in this condition theycontinue, till by length of time maturating the process,or by new heat, the fluids are attenuated, the folids fti-mulated, and the fundlions begin where they left off.Sleepers, in the glafs-trade, are the large iron-bars crof-fing the fmaller ones, and hindering the paflage of thecoals, but leaving room for the afties.Sleepers, in a (hip, timbers Jying before and aft, in thebottom of the fliip, as the rung-heads do: the lowermoftof them is bolted to the rung-heads, and the uppermoftto t;he futtocks and rungs.SLESWICK, the capital of the duchy of Slefwick, other-wife called South Jutland, fituatcd on the river Sley :E. long 45:', and N. lat. 54® 45'. See Jutland.’SLIDING, in mechanics, is when the fame point of abody, moving along a furface, defcribes a line on thatfur face.^SLIGO, a county of Ireland, in the province of Connaught,bounded by the ocean on the north, by Letrim on theeart, by Rofcoramon on the fouth, and by Mayo on theweft.SLING, an inftrument ferving for calling ftones with greatviolence.. The inhabitants of the Balearic iflards werefamous in antiquity for the dexterous management ofthe fling : it is faid they bore three kinds of flings, fomelonger, others fliorter, which they ufed according as their/enemies were either nearer or more remote. It is ad-{^ed, that the firft ferved them for a head-band, the fe-cond for a girdle, and that a third they conftantly carriedwith them in the hand.SLIPPING, among gardeners, the tearing off a fprigfrom a branch, or a branch from an arm of the tree.Tiiefe fort of flips take root more readily than cuttings,SLOANEA, in botany, a genus of the polyandria mono-gytia clafs. The corolla confifts of five petals, and thecalix of five deciduous leaves ; the ftigma is perforated;and the berry contains many feeds.SLOATH, in zoology. See Bradypus,SLOE. See Prunus.SLOOP, a fort of floating veflel, otherwife called (hallop.In our navy, floops are tenders on the men of war, and arcufually of about fixt)r tons-, and carry about thirty men.SLOUGH a deep muddy place. The caftfldn t>f a fnake,the damp of a coal-pit, and the fear of a wound, are al-fo called by the fame appellation. The flough of a wildboar, is the bed, foil, or mire, wherein he wallows, orin which he lies in the day time,SLUeZK, the capital of the palatinate of the fame name,in the duchy of Lithuania and kingdom of Poland : fitua-ted in E. long 27®, and N, lat. 53®*SLUICE, in hydraulics, a frame of timber, ftone, earthyferving to retain and raife the water of the Tea, a ri¬ver, and on occafion to let it pafs : fuch is.thefluice of a mill, which flops and colle<fts the water of arivulet, drir. in order to difeharge it at length in greaterplenty upon the mill-wheel; fuch alfo are thofe ufed indrains, to difeharge water off lands ; and fuch are thefluices of FJanders, 6’r. which ferve to prevent the wa¬ters of the fea overflowing the lower lands^ except whenthere is occafion to drown them. See Canal.SLUTTELBURG, a town of Ruflia, in the province ofIngria, fituated on the fouth-fide of the Jake Ladogo, in' E. long. 31® 20', N. lat. 60°.SLUYS, aport-town of Dutch Flanders, fituate oppofitetothe ifland of Cadfant: E. long 3® 15', N. lat. 51^18^*•SMACK, a fmall veflel with but one mail.SMALAND, a province in Sweden, in the territory ofGothland, bounded by Eaft Gothland, on the north: bythe Baltic Tea, on the eaft; by Blecking, on the fouth;and by Halland, on the weftSMALLAGE, in botany. Sec Apium,SMALT, a preparation of arfenic. See Chemistry, p:M5- „ •SMARAGDUS, in natural hiftory. See Emerald.SMARIS, in ichthyology. See Sparus.SMELL, with regard to the organ, is an impreflion madeon the nofe, by little particles continually exhaling fromodorous bodies: with regard to the objed, it is the figureand difpofition of odorous effluvia, which ftriking on theorgan, excite the fenfe of fmelling: and with regard tothe foul, it is the perception of the impreflion of the ob¬ject on the organ, or the affection in the foul refultingtherefrom.The principal organs of fmelling are the noftrils, andthe olfadfory nerves; the minute ramifications of whichlatter are deferibed throughout the whole concave of theformer. See Anatomy, p. 293.SMELT, in ichthyology, a fpecies of falmo. See Salmo.SMELTING, in metallurgy, the fufion or melting of theores of metals, in order to feparate the metalline part' from'
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ticle of the traffick in America. The British south-sea company have, by treaty, the sole privilege of furnishing the Spanish West Indies with slaves.
SLAUGHTER. See Manslaughter, Homicide, Murder, &c.
SLEDGE, a kind of carriage without wheels, for the conveyance of very weighty things, as huge stones, &c.
SLEEP, is defined to be that state wherein the body appearing perfectly at rest, external objects move the organs of sense as usual, without exciting the usual sensations.
Sleep is broken off unnaturally, when any of the organs of sensation is so briskly acted on, that the action is propagated to the brain.
Sleep being one of the non-naturals, it is not possible for those to preserve their health, who do not go to sleep in a regular manner: for sleep repairs the spirits, which are dissipated by watching; and consequently it restores the strength of those who are weak, indisposed, or labour much. It likewise promotes perspiration, contributes greatly to digestion, and more to nutrition. The night is the most proper for sleep; for the vigour of the mind and body are better restored in the night than in the day; thus nocturnal labour and lucubrations impair the health.
SLEEPER, or the Great Sleeper, in zoology. See Mus.
Sleepers, in natural history, a name given to some animals which are said to sleep all the winter; such as bears, marmotes, dormice, bats, hedge hogs, swallows, &c. These do not feed in winter, have no sensible evacuations, breathe little or not at all, and most of the visceral cease from their functions. Some of these creatures seem to be dead, and others to return to a state like that of the factus before the birth: in this condition they continue, till by length of time maturing the process, or by new heat, the fluids are attenuated, the solids stimulated, and the functions begin where they left off.
Sleepers, in the glass-trade, are the large iron-bars crossing the smaller ones, and hindering the passage of the coals, but leaving room for the ashes.
Sleepers, in a ship, timbers lying before and ast, in the bottom of the ship, as the rung-heads do: the lowermost of them is bolted to the rung-heads, and the uppermost to the futtocks and rungs.
SLESWICK, the capital of the duchy of Sleswick, otherwise called South Jutland, situated on the river Sley: E. long 9°45', and N. lat. 54°45'. See Jutland.
SLIDING, in mechanics, is when the same point of a body, moving along a surface, describes a line on that surface.
SLIGO, a county of Ireland, in the province of Connaught, bounded by the ocean on the north, by Letrim on the east, by Roscommon on the south, and by Mayo on the west.
SLING, an instrument serving for casting stones with great violence. The inhabitants of the Balearic islands were famous in antiquity for the dexterous management of the sling: it is said they bore three kinds of slings, some longer, others shorter, which they used according as their enemies were either nearer or more remote. It is added, that the first served them for a head-band, the second for a girdle, and that a third they constantly carried with them in the hand.
SLIPPING, among gardeners, the tearing off a sprig from a branch, or a branch from an arm of the tree. These sort of slips take root more readily than cuttings.
SLOANEA, in botany, a genus of the polyandria monogyna class. The corolla consists of five petals, and the calix of five deciduous leaves; the stigma is perforated; and the berry contains many seeds.
SLOATH, in zoology. See Bradypus.
SLOE. See Prunus.
SLOOP, a sort of floating vessel, otherwise called shallop. In our navy, floops are tenders on the men of war, and are usually of about sixty tons, and carry about thirty men.
SLOUGH a deep muddy place. The cast skin of a snake, the damp of a coal-pit, and the scar of a wound, are also called by the same appellation. The slough of a wild boar, is the bed, soil, or mire, wherein he wallows, or in which he lies in the day-time.
SLUCZK, the capital of the palatinate of the same name, in the duchy of Lithuania and kingdom of Poland: situated in E. long. 27°, and N. lat. 53°.
SLUICE, in hydraulics, a frame of timber, stone, earth, &c. serving to retain and raise the water of the sea, a river, &c. and on occasion to let it pass: such is the fluice of a mill, which stops and collects the water of a rivulet, &c. in order to discharge it at length in greater plenty upon the mill-wheel; such also are those used in drains, to discharge water off lands; and such are the fluices of Flanders, &c. which serve to prevent the waters of the sea overflowing the lower lands, except when there is occasion to drown them. See Canal.
SLUTTELBURG, a town of Russia, in the province of Ingria, situated on the south-side of the lake Ladogo, in E. long. 31°20', N. lat. 60°.
SLUYS, a port-town of Dutch Flanders, situate opposite to the island of Cadsant: E. long 3°15', N. lat. 51°18'.
SMACK, a small vessel with but one mast.
SMALAND, a province in Sweden, in the territory of Gothland, bounded by East Gothland, on the north; by the Baltic Sea, on the east; by Blecking, on the south; and by Halland, on the west.
SMALLAGE, in botany. See Apium.
SMALT, a preparation of arsenic. See Chemistry, p: 145.
SMARAGDUS, in natural history. See Emerald.
SMARIS, in ichthyology. See Sparus.
SMELL, with regard to the organ, is an impression made on the nose, by little particles continually exhaling from odorous bodies: with regard to the object, it is the figure and disposition of odorous effluvia, which striking on the organ, excite the sense of smelling; and with regard to the soul, it is the perception of the impression of the object on the organ, or the affection in the soul resulting therefrom.
The principal organs of smelling are the nostrils, and the olfactory nerves; the minute ramifications of which latter are described throughout the whole concave of the former. See Anatomy, p. 293.
SMELT, in ichthyology, a species of salmo, See Salmo.
SMELTING, in metallurgy, the fusion or melting of the ores of metals, in order to separate the metalline part from
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580
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580F A R . ROf the Running Thrush, Canker, andLoss of Hoof.The thrujh or frujh is an impofthume that fometinies■gathers in the frog; or a fcabby and ulcerous difpofitioq,which fometimes caufe.s it to fall off: when the difchargeis natural, the feet Ihould be kept clean, but no dryingwafhes made ufe of, it being thought as unfafe to repelfome of thefe difeharges, as to cure fome fweaty feet.When an impofthume, or gathering appears, the fafeftway is to pare out the hard part of the frog, or whateverappears rotten ; and wafh the bottom of the foot two orthree times a-day with old chamber-lye ; this is the fafeftand beft way , of treating them. But when a horfe hasbeen neglected, and there is is a ftrong flux to the part,it is apt to degenerate into a canker; to prevent which,■ufe the following walh.Take fpirit of wine and vinegar of each two ounces,tin&ure of myrrh and aloes one ounce, iEgyptia-cum half an ounce ; mix together.Bathe the thrufh with this, where ever there appearsa more than ordinary moifture, and lay over the ulcer alittle tow dipped in the fame. The purges and diureticsrecommended in the greafe, fhowld be given at this time,to prevent the inconveniencies that the drying up thefe dif¬eharges frequently occafion.A canker in the foot proceeds, for the moft part, fromthrufhes, when they prove rotten and putrid, thoughmany other caufes may produce this diforder. The me¬thod ufed by farriers for the cure is generally with hotoils, fuch as vitriol, aqua-fortis, and butter of antimony,which are very proper to keep down the rifing flefh, andIhould be ufed daily, till the fungus is fuppreffed, whenonce in two days will be fufficient, ftrewing fine precipi¬tate powder over the new-grown flefh, till the foie begins•to grow.There is one great error committed often in this cure,tftat is, in riot having fufficient regard to the hoof; forit fhould not only be cut off, where-ever it preffes on thetend( r parts, but fhould he kept foft with linfeed oil;and as often as it is drefled, bathe the hoof all round thecoronet with chamber-lye. Purging is very proper tocomplete the cure.The lofs of the hoof may be occafioned by whatever ac¬cident may bring an impoftbumation in the feet, wherebythe whole hoof becomes loofened, and falls off from thebone. If the coffin-bone remains uninjured, a new hoofmay be procured by the following method.The old hoof fhould by no means be pulled off, unlefefome accident happens that requires its removal ; for itferves as a defence to the new one, and makes it growmore fmooth and even ; and indeed nature will general¬ly do this office at her own proper time.—On the re¬moval of the hoof, a boot of leather, with a ftrong foie,fhould be laced about the pattern, bolftering and flop¬ping the foot with foft flax, that the tread may be eafy:drefs the fore with the wound ointment, to which fhouldbe added the fine powders of myrrh, maftich, and oliba-,num. If this medicine fhould not be fufficient to pre¬cept a fungus, burnt alum or precipitate may be added toI E R Y.it, and the luxuriant flefh may be daily wafhed with diefublimate water.Of Ruptures, Anticor, Colt-evil or Gonor¬rhoea, and Dtfeafes of the Mouth.In regard to ruptures, though they are general¬ly divided into particular claffes, we fhall only obferve,that by violent efforts of the horfe, or other accidents,the guts or caul may be forced between the mufcles of thebelly at the navel, and through the rings of the mufclesinto theferotum or cod. The fwellings are generally a-bout the fize of a man’s fift, fometimes much larger, de-feending to the very hock ; they are frequently foft, andyield to the preffure of the hand, when they will returninto the cavity of the belly with a rumbling noife ; and,in moft, the vacuity may be felt through which theypaffed.On their firft appearance, endeavours fhould be made Nto return them by the hand; but if the fwelling fhould behard and painful, in ordet to relieve the ftridlure, andrelax the parts, through which the gut or caul has paf¬fed, let a large quantity of blood be immediately takenaway, and the part fomented twice or thrice a-day, ap¬plying over it a poultice made with oatmeal, oil andvinegar, which fhould be continued till the fwellinggrows foft and eafier, or the gut is returned. In themean time it would be proper to throw up emollient oilyglyfters twice a-day, and to let the horfe’s chief diet beboiled barley, Scalded malt, or bran.Should the fwelling afterwards return, we apprehendthe reftringent applications, ufually recommended on thefeoccafions, will avail little without a fufpenfory bandage ;fo that an ingenious mechanic in that art is chiefly to berelied on for any future affiftance ; though it has beenobferved, that with moderate feeding, and gentle exer-cife, fome horfes have continued to be very ufeful underthis complaint.The anticor is a diforder not very common among ourhorfes, or thofe in northern .climates ; but is particular¬ly taken notice of by the French, Spanifh, and Italianwriters ; who deferibe it a malignant fwelling in thebreaft, which extends fometimes to the very fheath under.the belly; it is attended with a fever, great depreffions,and weaknefs, and a total lofs of appetite.The cure fhould firft be attempted by large and repeat¬ed bleedings, to abate the inflammation ; emollient gly¬fters fhould be injedted twice or thrice a-day, with anounce of fal prunella in each, and the cooling drink inthe Sedlion on Fevers fhould be given inwardly ; thefwelling fhould be bathed with the marfhmallow oint¬ment, and a ripening poultice, with onions boiled in it,fhould be daily applied over it. If by this method, con¬tinued four or five days, the inflammation in the throatand gullet is removed, our attention fhould more particu¬larly turn to encourage the fwelling at the breaft, andbring it, if poflible, to matter: to which end, continue thepoultice, and give two ounces of Venice treacle difl’olvedin a pint of beer every night; when the (welling is grownfoft, it mult be opened with the knife, and drefled withturpentine digeftive, the danger now being over.But
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FARRIERY.
Of the RUNNING THRUSH, CANKER, and LOSS of HOOF.
The thrush or frush is an imposthume that sometimes gathers in the frog; or a scabby and ulcerous disposition, which sometimes causes it to fall off: when the discharge is natural, the feet should be kept clean, but no drying washes made use of, it being thought as unsafe to repel some of these discharges, as to cure some sweaty feet.
When an imposthume, or gathering appears, the safest way is to pare out the hard part of the frog, or whatever appears rotten; and wash the bottom of the foot two or three times a day with old chamber-lye; this is the safest and best way of treating them. But when a horse has been neglected, and there is a strong flux to the part, it is apt to degenerate into a canker; to prevent which, use the following wash.
Take spirit of wine and vinegar of each two ounces, tincture of myrrh and aloes one ounce, Egyptiacum half an ounce; mix together.
Bathe the thrush with this, where ever there appears a more than ordinary moisture, and lay over the ulcer a little tow dipped in the same. The purges and diuretics recommended in the grease, should be given at this time, to prevent the inconveniencies that the drying up these discharges frequently occasion.
A canker in the foot proceeds, for the most part, from thrushes, when they prove rotten and putrid, though many other causes may produce this disorder. The method used by farriers for the cure is generally with hot oils, such as vitriol, aqua-sortis, and butter of antimony, which are very proper to keep down the rising flesh, and should be used daily, till the fungus is suppressed, when once in two days will be sufficient, strewing fine precipitate powder over the new-grown flesh, till the sole begins to grow.
There is one great error committed often in this cure, that is, in not having sufficient regard to the hoof; for it should not only be cut off, where-ever it presses on the tender parts, but should be kept soft with linseed oil; and as often as it is dressed, bathe the hoof all round the coronet with chamber-lye. Purging is very proper to complete the cure.
The loss of the hoof may be occasioned by whatever accident may bring an imposthumation in the feet, whereby the whole hoof becomes loosened, and falls off from the bone. If the coffin-bone remains uninjured, a new hoof may be procured by the following method.
The old hoof should by no means be pulled off, unless some accident happens that requires its removal; for it serves as a defence to the new one, and makes it grow more smooth and even; and indeed nature will generally do this office at her own proper time.—On the removal of the hoof, a boot of leather, with a strong sole, should be laced about the pastern, bolstering and stopping the foot with soft flax, that the tread may be easy: dress the sore with the wound ointment, to which should be added the fine powders of myrrh, maftich, and olibanum. If this medicine should not be sufficient to prevent a fungus, burnt alum or precipitate may be added to it, and the luxuriant flesh may be daily washed with the sublimate water.
Of Ruptures, Anticor, Colt-evil or Gonorrhoea, and Diseases of the Mouth.
In regard to ruptures, though they are generally divided into particular classes, we shall only observe, that by violent efforts of the horse, or other accidents, the guts or caul may be forced between the muscles of the belly at the navel, and through the rings of the muscles into the scrotum or cod. The swellings are generally about the size of a man's fist, sometimes much larger, descending to the very hock; they are frequently soft, and yield to the pressure of the hand, when they will return into the cavity of the belly with a rumbling noise; and, in most, the vacuity may be felt through which they passed.
On their first appearance, endeavours should be made to return them by the hand; but if the swelling should be hard and painful, in order to relieve the stricture, and relax the parts, through which the gut or caul has passed, let a large quantity of blood be immediately taken away, and the part somented twice or thrice a-day, applying over it a poultice made with oatmeal, oil and vinegar, which should be continued till the swelling grows soft and easier, or the gut is returned. In the mean time it would be proper to throw up emollient oily glysters twice a-day, and to let the horse's chief diet be boiled barley, scalded malt, or bran.
Should the swelling afterwards return, we apprehend the restringent applications, usually recommended on these occasions, will avail little without a suspensory bandage; so that an ingenious mechanic in that art is chiefly to be relied on for any future assistance; though it has been observed, that with moderate feeding, and gentle exercise, some horses have continued to be very useful under this complaint.
The anticor is a disorder not very common among our horses, or those in northern climates; but is particularly taken notice of by the French, Spanish, and Italian writers; who describe it a malignant swelling in the breast, which extends sometimes to the very sheath under the belly; it is attended with a fever, great depressions, and weakness, and a total loss of appetite.
The cure should first be attempted by large and repeated bleedings, to abate the inflammation; emollient glysters should be injected twice or thrice a-day, with an ounce of sal prunella in each, and the cooling drink in the Section on Fevers should be given inwardly; the swelling should be bathed with the marshmallow ointment, and a ripening poultice, with onions boiled in it, should be daily applied over it. If by this method, continued four or five days, the inflammation in the throat and gullet is removed, our attention should more particularly turn to encourage the swelling at the breast, and bring it, if possible, to matter: to which end, continue the poultice, and give two ounces of Venice treacle dissolved in a pint of beer every night; when the swelling is grown soft, it must be opened with the knife, and dressed with turpentine digestive, the danger now being over.
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2
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C-L
| 58
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Normal
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CAS ( .'tandria digynia clafs. The fruit is oblong and ftriated ;the involucrum confifts of but one leaf; and the petalsare carinated and emarginated. There is but one fpe¬cies, viz. the caroi, a native of Britain. The feedshave an aromatic fmell and pungent talle ; and are fre¬quently employed as a ftomachic and carminative inflatulent cafes.CARUNCULA, in anatomy, a term denoting a littlepiece of flefh, and applied to feveral parts of the body,thus :CARUNCUUE myrtiformes. See p. 276.CARUS, in medicine, # fudden deprivation of fenfe andmotion, affedting the whole body.CARWAR, a to^wn on the coaft of Malabar, in the Hi¬ther India, fixty miles fouth of Goa s E. long. 73%and N. lat. xj°. Here our Eaft-India company havea fadlory, from whence they import pepper.CARYATIDES, or Caraites, in architecture. SeeP- 3*3-CARYOCATACTES, in ornithology, the trivial nameof a fpecies of corvus. See Corvus.CARYOCOSTINUM, or electorium et scam-mo n 10, in pharmacy, is compofed of the followingingredients : An ounce antj a half of fcammony; ofcloves and ginger, each fix drams ; half a pound ofhoney; half a dram of effential oil of caraway-feeds ;the fpices mull be ground together and mixed withthe honey; then add the powdered fcammony, andafterwards the oil. This electuary is a warm brilkpurgative.CARYOPHYLLATA, in botanv. See Geum.CARYOPHYLLUS, the Pink,' in botany. See Di-ANTHUS.Caryophyllus, the clove-tree, in botany, a ge¬nus of the polyandria monogynia clafs. The corollahas four petals ; the calix confifts of four duplicatedleaves ; and the berry contains one feed. There isbut one fpecies, viz. the aromaticus, a native of theMolucca iflands._ The cloves are the flower-cups,have a ftrong agreeable aromatic fmell, and a bitterilhpungent tafte. The effential oil of cloves is an ingre¬dient in many of our officinal compofitions.CARYOTA, in botany, a genus of plants ranged underthejialmae bipennatifolias. The calix of the male iscommon ; the corolla is divided into three parts ; andthe ftamina are numerous. The calix and corolla ofthe male are the fame with thofe of the female ; thereis but one piftillum ; and the berry contains two feeds.There is but one fpecies, viz. the urens, a native ofIndia.CASAL, the capital of the duchy of Montferrat, inItaly, fituated on the river Po* forty-five miles eaft ofTurin : E. long. 8° 3f, and N. lat. 450.CASAN, or Kasan, a province of Ruflia, lying be¬tween the province of Mofcow on the weft, and Sibe¬ria on the eaft.CASCADE, a deep fall of water from a higher into alower place.They are either natural, as that at Tivoli,- <&c. orartificial, as thofe of Verfailles, <&c. and either fallingVol. II. Numb. 31. 3i y c a swith gentle defcent, as thofe of Sceaux { or in formof a buffet, as at Trianon ; or down fteps, in form ofa perron, as at St Clou ; or from bafon to bafon, <bc.CASCAIS, a town of Eftremadura, in Portugal, fi¬tuated at the mouth of the river Tagus, feventeen.miles eaft of Lilbon : W. long. io° 15', and N. lat.38° 40'.CASCARILLA, in botany. See Cinchona.CASE, among grammarians, implies the different in¬flexions or terminations of nouns, ferving to exprefsthe idifferent relations they bear to each other, and tothe things they reprefent.Case, among printers, denotes a Hoping frame, dividedinto feveral compartments, each containing a numberof types or letters of the fame kind. See Print¬ing.Case of crown glafs contains ufually twenty-four tables,each table being nearly circular, and about three feetfix inches diameter.Case of NcwcaJUe glafs contains thirty-five tables ; ofNormandy glafs twenty-five.Case-hardening, a method of preparing iron, fo asto render its outer furface hard, and capable of refill¬ing any edged tool.This is a leffer degree of fteel-making, and is prac-tifed by baking, calcination, or cementation in an ovenor other clofe veffel, ftratified with charcoal and pow¬dered hoofs and horns of animals, fo as to exclude theajr. See Steel*Case-shot, in the military art, muflcet-ball, Itones,:old iron, <bc. put into cafes, and Ihot out of greatguns.CASERTA, a city of the province of Lavoro, in thekingdom of Naples, about fixteeii miles north of thecity of Naples : E. long. 15 0 5', and N. lat. 410 10'.It is a bilhop’s fee.CASH book. See Book-keeping, p. 618.CASHELL, or Cas hill, a city of the county of Tip¬perary, in Ireland, about eighty miles fouth-weft ofDublin : W. long. 70 40', and N. lat. $2° 16'. Itis a bifhop’s fee.CASHEW-NUT, in botany. See Anacardium.CASIA, in botany. SeeOsYRis.CASK, a veffel of capacity, for preferving liquors ofdivers kinds ; and alfo fometimes dry goods, as fugar,almonds, isc.A calk of fugar is a barrel of that commodity, con¬taining from eight to eleven hundred weight. A calkof almonds is about three hundred weight.CASPIAN-SEA, a large fea, or lake of Alia, boundedby the province of Aftracan on the north, and by partof Perfia on the eaft, fouth, and weft. It is upwardsof four hundred miles long from fouth to north, andthree hundred miles broad from eaft to weft.CASSANDRA, the fame with the lyra, or harp-lhell, afpecies of dolium.CASSANO, a fortrefs, in the Milanefe, in Italy, fi¬tuated on the river Adda, about twelve miles north-eaft of Milan : E. long to0, and N. lat. 450 20'.CASSEL, the capital of the landgravate of Heffe-caffel,L in
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tandria digynia class. The fruit is oblong and striated; the involucrum consists of but one leaf; and the petals are carinated and emarginated. There is but one species, viz. the caroi, a native of Britain. The seeds have an aromatic smell and pungent taste; and are frequently employed as a stomachic and carminative in flatulent cases.
CARUNCULA, in anatomy, a term denoting a little piece of flesh, and applied to several parts of the body, thus:
CARUNCULAE MYRTIFORMES. See p. 276.
CARUS, in medicine, sudden deprivation of sense and motion, affecting the whole body.
CARWAR, a town on the coast of Malabar, in the Hither India, sixty miles south of Goa: E. long. $73^\circ$, and N. lat. $15^\circ$. Here our East-India company have a factory, from whence they import pepper.
CARYATIDES, or CARAITES, in architecture. See p. 353.
CARYOCATACTES, in ornithology, the trivial name of a species of corvus. See Corvus.
CARYOCOSTINUM, or ELECTORIUM ET SCAMMONIO, in pharmacy, is composed of the following ingredients: An ounce and a half of scammony; of cloves and ginger, each six drams; half a pound of honey; half a dram of essential oil of caraway-seeds; the spices must be ground together and mixed with the honey; then add the powdered scammony, and afterwards the oil. This electuary is a warm brisk purgative.
CARYOPHYLLATA, in botany. See Geum.
CARYOPHYLLUS, the Pink, in botany. See Dianthus.
CARYOPHYLLUS, the CLOVE-TREE, in botany, a genus of the polyandria monogynia class. The corolla has four petals; the calix consists of four duplicated leaves; and the berry contains one seed. There is but one species, viz. the aromaticus, a native of the Molucca islands. The cloves are the flower-cups, have a strong agreeable aromatic smell, and a bitterish pungent taste. The essential oil of cloves is an ingredient in many of our officinal compositions.
CARYOTA, in botany, a genus of plants ranged under the palmæ bipennatifoliae. The calix of the male is common; the corolla is divided into three parts; and the stamina are numerous. The calix and corolla of the male are the same with those of the female; there is but one pistillum; and the berry contains two seeds. There is but one species, viz. the urens, a native of India.
CASAL, the capital of the duchy of Montferrat, in Italy, situated on the river Po, forty-five miles east of Turin: E. long. $8^\circ$ $35'$, and N. lat. $45^\circ$.
CASAN, or KASAN, a province of Russia, lying between the province of Moscow on the west, and Siberia on the east.
CASCADE, a steep fall of water from a higher into a lower place.
They are either natural, as that at Tivoli, &c. or artificial, as those of Versailles, &c. and either falling with gentle descent, as those of Sceaux; or in form of a buffet, as at Trianon; or down steps, in form of a perron, as at St Clou; or from bason to bason, &c.
CASCAIS, a town of Estremadura, in Portugal, situated at the mouth of the river Tagus, seventeen miles east of Lisbon: W. long. $10^\circ$ $15'$, and N. lat. $38^\circ$ $40'$.
CASCARILLA, in botany. See Cinchona.
CASE, among grammarians, implies the different inflexions or terminations of nouns, serving to express the different relations they bear to each other, and to the things they represent.
CASE, among printers, denotes a sloping frame, divided into several compartments, each containing a number of types or letters of the same kind. See Printing.
CASE of crown glass contains usually twenty-four tables, each table being nearly circular, and about three feet six inches diameter.
CASE of Newcastle glass contains thirty-five tables; of Normandy glass twenty-five.
CASE-hardening, a method of preparing iron, so as to render its outer surface hard, and capable of resist ing any edged tool.
This is a lesser degree of steel-making, and is practised by baking, calcination, or cementation in an oven or other close vessel, stratified with charcoal and powdered hoofs and horns of animals, so as to exclude the air. See Steel.
CASE-shot, in the military art, musket-ball, stones, old iron, &c. put into caeses, and shot out of great guns.
CASERTA, a city of the province of Lavoro, in the kingdom of Naples, about fifteen miles north of the city of Naples: E. long. $15^\circ$ $5'$, and N. lat. $41^\circ$ $10'$. It is a bishop's see.
CASH-BOOK. See Book-keeping, p. 618.
CASHELL, or Cashill, a city of the county of Tipperary, in Ireland, about eighty miles south-west of Dublin: W. long. $7^\circ$ $40'$, and N. lat. $52^\circ$ $16'$. It is a bishop's see.
CASHEW-NUT, in botany. See Anacardium.
CASIA, in botany. See Osyris.
CASK, a vessel of capacity, for preserving liquors of divers kinds; and also sometimes dry goods, as sugar, almonds, &c.
A cask of sugar is a barrel of that commodity, containing from eight to eleven hundred weight. A cask of almonds is about three hundred weight.
CASPIAN-SEA, a large sea, or lake of Asia, bounded by the province of Astracan on the north, and by part of Persia on the east, south, and west. It is upwards of four hundred miles long from south to north, and three hundred miles broad from east to west.
CASSANDRA, the same with the lyra, or harp-shell, a species of dolium.
CASSANO, a fortress, in the Milanese, in Italy, situated on the river Adda, about twelve miles north-east of Milan: E. long. $10^\circ$, and N. lat. $45^\circ$ $20'$.
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632 G E O G Fllowly round betwixt *~your eye and the ftarry heaven,until you find it cuts any two known ftars at once Thenguefling at the hour of the night, turn the globe until theindex points to that time in the hour-circle ; which done,lay the graduated edge of the quadrant over any one ofthefe two liars on the globe, which the thread cut in theheaven. If the faid edge of the quadrant cuts the otherftar alfo, you have guefled the time exadtty ; but if it doesnot, turn the globe flawly backwards or forwards, untilthe quadrant (kept upon either ftar) cuts them boththrough their centres: and then, the index will pointout the exact time of the night; the degree of the hori¬zon, cut by the quadrant, will be the true azimuth ofboth thefe ftars from the fouth ; and the ftars themfelveswill cut their true altitude in the quadrant. At whichmoment, if a common azimuth-compafs be fo fet upon afloor or level pavement, that thefe ftars in the heavenmay have the fame bearing upon it (allowing for the va¬riation of the needle) as the quadrant of altitude has inthe wooden horizon of the globe, a thread extended o-ver the north and fouth points of that compafs will be di¬rectly in the plane of the meridian: and if a line bedrawn upon the floor or pavement, along the cotirfe ofthe thread, and an upright wire be placed in the fouth-moft end of the line, the (hadow of the wire will fall up¬on that line, when the fun is on the meridian, and Ihinesupon the pavement.Prob. IX. Tip find the place of the moon, or of anyplanet; and thereby to Jheou the time of its rijing, fouth-ing, and fetting.—Seek in Parker’s or Weaver’s ephe-meris the geocentric place of the moon or planet in theecliptic, for the given day of the month ; and, accordingto its longitude and latitude, as fhewn by the ephemeris,mark the fame with a chalk upon the globe. Then, ha-A V II Y.ving rectified the globe, turn it round its axis weft ward ;and as the faid mark comes to the eaftern fide of the ho¬rizon, to the brafen meridian, and to the weftern fide ofthe horizon, the index will (he w at what time the planetrifes, comes to the meridian, and fets, in the fame man¬ner as it would do for a fixed ftar.For an explanation of the harveft moons by a globe, feeAstronomy, p. 463.For the defcription and ufe of a planetary globe, feeAstronomy, p. 498.For the equation of time, fee Astronomy, p. 458.Having thus explained the ufe of the globes, andgeneral principles of geography, we muft refer to themaps for the fituation of each particular country, withregard to longitude, latitude, he. The ufe of maps isobvious from their conltruftion, The degrees of themeridian, and parallels, drew the longitudes and latitudesof places; and the fcale of miles annexed, their diftances.The fituation of places, with regard to each other, aswell as the cardinal points, appears by infpeftion; thetop of the map being always the north, the bottom thefouth, the right-hand the eaji, and the left the we/?, un-lefs the compafs ufually annexed fhew the contrary.The brevity, which we are neeeflarily obliged to ob-ferve, prevents us from taking any notice of many parti¬culars, which are to be found in large treatifes on thisfubjeCt. A general account of countries, cities, rivers,mountains, he. is given under their refpeftive names,as they occur in the order of the alphabet. We flralltherefore conclude this article with the following table,which will ferve to give an idea of the general divifion ofthe habitable earth ; and at the fame time ferve to ex¬plain the maps in Plates 87. 88. 89. 90. 91. and 92.The Divifion of the Habitable Earth, the fquare Miles o f each Divifion and Subdtvifion, CapitalCities, with the Dijlance and. Bearing of each from London ; alfo the Time of each Countrycompared with that of England.The terraqueous globe is divided intoI. EuropeII. AsiaIII. AfricaIV. AmericaHabitable earthSeas, and unknown parts2J49.34910,257,4878,506,2089»i53>76230,666,806117,843,821Square miles, 60 miles inlength to a degree.Superficies of the whole globe 148,510,627Divifion asd fubdivifion.I. EUROPE.1. Spain2. Portugal3. FranceSquaremiles.Capital cities.DilUnce and bear¬ing from London.DifF. of timefromLondon.150,243Madrid690 s*H.M.0 r6 W27,851Lijbon840 S w0 38 W138,837Paris203 E0 9 E4’* A degree of longitude being 4 minutes in time, therefore by having the longitude we have the time. A watchthat is fet to time at London would be 16 minutes too fall at Madrid, as it lies to the weft of t he meridian at London:and Vienna being 16 degrees and 20 minutes to the eaft of the meridian of London, confequently a watch fet at Londonwould be 1 hour and $ minutes too flow at Vienna.
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flowly round betwixt your eye and the starry heaven, until you find it cuts any two known stars at once. Then guessing at the hour of the night, turn the globe until the index points to that time in the hour-circle; which done, lay the graduated edge of the quadrant over any one of these two stars on the globe, which the thread cut in the heaven. If the said edge of the quadrant cuts the other star also, you have guessed the time exactly; but if it does not, turn the globe slowly backwards or forwards, until the quadrant (kept upon either star) cuts them both through their centres: and then, the index will point out the exact time of the night; the degree of the horizon, cut by the quadrant, will be the true azimuth of both these stars from the south; and the stars themselves will cut their true altitude in the quadrant. At which moment, if a common azimuth-compass be so set upon a floor or level pavement, that these stars in the heaven may have the same bearing upon it (allowing for the variation of the needle) as the quadrant of altitude has in the wooden horizon of the globe, a thread extended over the north and south points of that compass will be directly in the plane of the meridian: and if a line be drawn upon the floor or pavement, along the course of the thread, and an upright wire be placed in the southmost end of the line, the shadow of the wire will fall upon that line, when the sun is on the meridian, and shines upon the pavement.
PROB. IX. To find the place of the moon, or of any planet; and thereby to shew the time of its rising, southing, and setting—Seek in Parker’s or Weaver’s ephemeris the geocentric place of the moon or planet in the ecliptic, for the given day of the month; and, according to its longitude and latitude, as shewn by the ephemeris, mark the same with a chalk upon the globe. Then, having rectified the globe, turn it round its axis westward; and as the said mark comes to the eastern side of the horizon, to the brasen meridian, and to the western side of the horizon, the index will shew at what time the planet rises, comes to the meridian, and sets, in the same manner as it would do for a fixed star.
For an explanation of the harvest moons by a globe, see Astronomy, p. 463.
For the description and use of a planetary globe, see Astronomy, p. 498.
For the equation of time, see Astronomy, p. 458.
HAVING thus explained the use of the globes, and general principles of geography, we must refer to the maps for the situation of each particular country, with regard to longitude, latitude, &c. The use of maps is obvious from their construction. The degrees of the meridian, and parallels, shew the longitudes and latitudes of places; and the scale of miles annexed, their distances. The situation of places, with regard to each other, as well as the cardinal points, appears by inspection; the top of the map being always the north, the bottom the south, the right-hand the east, and the left the west, unless the compass usually annexed shew the contrary.
The brevity, which we are necessarily obliged to observe, prevents us from taking any notice of many particulars, which are to be found in large treatises on this subject. A general account of countries, cities, rivers, mountains, &c. is given under their respective names, as they occur in the order of the alphabet. We shall therefore conclude this article with the following table, which will serve to give an idea of the general division of the habitable earth; and at the same time serve to explain the maps in Plates 87. 88. 89. 90. 91. and 92.
The Division of the Habitable Earth, the square Miles of each Division and Subdivision, Capital Cities, with the Distance and Bearing of each from London; also the Time of each Country compared with that of England.
I. EUROPE
II. ASIA
III. AFRICA
IV. AMERICA
Square miles, 60 miles in length to a degree.
Habitable earth
Seas, and unknown parts
Superficies of the whole globe 148,510,627
Division and subdivision.
I. EUROPE.
1. Spain
2. Portugal
3. France
Capital cities.
Madrid
Lisbon
Paris
Distance and bearing from London.
690 S
840 SW
203 E
Diff. of time from London.
*H.M.
0 16 W
0 38 W
0 9 E
4. Italy
*A degree of longitude being 4 minutes in time, therefore by having the longitude we have the time. A watch that is set to time at London would be 16 minutes too fast at Madrid, as it lies to the west of the meridian at London; and Vienna being 16 degrees and 20 minutes to the east of the meridian of London, consequently a watch set at London would be 1 hour and 5 minutes too slow at Vienna.
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ALP ( JALOIDES, in botany, an obfolete name of the ftrati-otes. See Stratiotes.ALOOF, in fea-language, a word of command from the^ perfon who conns to the mart at the helm, td keepthe (hip near the wind, when failing upon a quarter-wind.ALOPECIA, ii? medicine, fignifies a falling off of thehair, occafoncd either by want of nouriffirrient, or abad ftate of the.humours. It is alfo ufed by Galenfor a change in the solour of the hair.ALOPECIAS, in zoology, an obfolete name of a fpe-cies of the fqualus or mark. See Squalus.ALOPECOPITHECUS, in zoology, an obfolete nameof a fpecies of the didelphis. See Didelphis.ALOPECURUS, or Fox-tail grass, in botany, agenus of the triandria digynia clafs. The calix isbivalved, and the flower confifts of one hollow valve,with a long awn inferted near the bate on the backpart. There are feven fpecies of the alopecurus, viz.the pratenfis, or meadow fox-tail grafs; the btilho-fus, or bulbofe fox-tail grafs; the geniculatus, or flotefox-tail grafs; and' the myofuroides, or field fox-tailgrafs; the above four grow wild in Britain : theagreftis, the monfpelienfis, the paniceus, and the hor-deiformis, ail natives of France, and the fouthern partsof Europe, except the laft, which is a native of India.ALOSA, the lhad, or mother of herrings, a fpecies ofthe clupea. See Cuupea.AL.OST»atown in the Aufhian Flanders, upon th? riverDcndcr, half-way between Pruffels and Ghent.ALP, in ornithology, an obfolete name of a fpecies ofthe loxia. See Loxia.ALPHA, among grammarians, the name of the firft let¬ter of the greek alphabet, anfwering to our A.ALPHABET, in matters of literature, the natural oraccuftomed fciies of the feveral letters of a language.See Language, and Character.Alphabet,is alfo ufed for a cypher, or table of the ufualletters of the alphabet, with the correfponding fecretcharacters, and other blank fymbols intended to render*the writing more difficult to be , decyphered. SeeDe cyphering.ALPH ABETICAL, fomething belonging to, or parta¬king of the nature of an alphabet. Thus we fay, al¬phabetical order, method, &c.ALPHENIC, a name fometimes ufed for white barley-fugar, or twilled fugar.ALPHESERA, in botany, an obfolete name of a fpeciesof bryonia. See Bryonia-.ALPHEST^IS, in ichthyology, an obfolete name of afpecies of labrus. See Laerus.ALPHETA, in aftronomy, the fame withlucida corona!.See Lucida CoRon.e.ALPHITIDION, a term for a fraCture, wherein thebone is cruffied to pieces..ALPHITOMANCY, a fpecies of divination, other-wife called aleuromancy. See Aleuromancy.ALPHONSIN, in furgerv, an inftrumeot ufed in ex¬tracting bullets, in gun-lhot-wounds. See Surgery,Of G?/»-foot woundsALPHONSINE TABLES, allronomical tables, cal-2 6 ) A L Sculated by order Of Alphonfus king of Caflile, in theconftruCtion of which that prince is fuppofed to havecontributed his own labour.ALPHOS, among phyficians, a difeafe of the Ikin, whichis rough, and Ipnnkled with white fpots.ALPINE, fomething belonging to the Alps. See Alps.ALPINIA, in botany, a genus of the monandria mono--gynia clafs, of which there is but one fpecies. Theflower is tubulous, and divided into fix legments ; thecaplule, which becomes a fruit, is divided into threecells, each containing one feed. It is a native ofAmerica.ALPS, a chain of exceeding high mountains, feparating" Italy from France and Germany.ALQL IER, a liquid meafure, ufed in Portugal to mea-fure oil, two of which make an almond. See Al¬mond. .ALRAMECH, in aftronomy, the name of a ftar of the• firft magnitude, otherwise called arCturus. See Arc-turus, and Astronomy.ALRU M, in botany , an obfolete name of the tree fromwhich the gum bdellium is procured. See Bdellium,ALSACE, a province formerly belonging to Germany, butalmoll entirely ceded to France by tne peace of Mun-fter ; is fituated between the river Rhine on the eaft,and Lorrain on the weft, Switzerland on the iouth,and the palatinate of the Rhine on the north.'ALSAD'AF, in materiajnediea, an obfolete name of theunguis odoratus. See Unguis.ALSAHARATICA, in botany, an obfolete name of theparthenium. See Parthen ium.ALSEN, an illand in the lefler belt, at the entrance ofthe Baltic fea, between Slefwic and Funen. E. long.IG° 12', N. lat. 550 12'.ALSCHARCUR, in materia medica. See Skink.ALSFIELD, or Asfield, a town of Hefle Cafl’el, inGermany. E. long. 90 5'. N. lat. 50° 40'.ALS1MBEL, in botany, an obfolete name of a fpeciesof nardos. See Nardus.» ALSINA, in botany, a fynonyme of the theligonum.See Theligonum.ALSINASTRUM, in botany, the trivial Dame and alfo afynonyme of the elatine. See Elatine.ALSINE,Cbick>weed, in botany, a genus of the pentan-dria trigynia clafs : The calix is divided into five parts ;the flowers confift of five petals divided in the middle;andthe capfulehas threevalves. There are three fpeciesof the affine* oviz. the media, or common chickweed, anative of Britain ; the mucronata, a native of Switzer¬land ; and the fegetalis, a native of France.The aifine media has fometimes been recommendedin hedtical cafes.ALSIRAT, in the Mahometan theology, derates abridge laid over the middle of hell, the paflage orpath whereof is (harper than the edge of a fword ;over which every body muft pafs at the day of judge¬ment, when the wicked will tumble headlong intohell, whereas the good will fly over it like the wind.ALSONE, a fmall city of Languedoc in France, uponthe river Frefquel, between CarCafione and St.Papoul.• ALSWANGEN,
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ALOIDES, in botany, an obsolete name of the stratiotes. See STRATIOTES.
ALOOF, in sea-language, a word of command from the person who conns to the man at the helm, to keep the ship near the wind, when sailing upon a quarter-wind.
ALOPECIA, in medicine, signifies a falling off of the hair, occasioned either by want of nourishment, or a bad state of the humours. It is also used by Galen for a change in the colour of the hair.
ALOPECIAS, in zoology, an obsolete name of a species of the squalus or shark. See SQUALUS.
ALOPECOPITHECUS, in zoology, an obsolete name of a species of the didelphis. See DIDELPHIS.
ALOPECURUS, or Fox-tail grass, in botany, a genus of the triandria digynia class. The calix is bivalved, and the flower consists of one hollow valve, with a long awn inserted near the base on the back part. There are seven species of the alopecurus, viz. the pratcnis, or meadow fox-tail grass; the bulbosus, or bulbose fox-tail grass; the geniculatus, or flote fox-tail grass; and the myofuroides, or field fox-tail grass; the above four grow wild in Britain: the agrestis, the monspeliennis, the paniceus, and the hordeiformis, all natives of France, and the southern parts of Europe, except the last, which is a native of India.
ALOSA, the shad, or mother of herrings, a species of the clupea. See CLUPEA.
ALOST, a town in the Austrian Flanders, upon the river Dender, half-way between Brussels and Ghent.
ALP, in ornithology, an obsolete name of a species of the loxia. See LOXIA.
ALPHA, among grammarians, the name of the first letter of the greek alphabet, answering to our A.
ALPHABET, in matters of literature, the natural or accustomed series of the several letters of a language. See LANGUAGE, and CHARACTER.
ALPHABET, is also used for a cypher, or table of the usual letters of the alphabet, with the corresponding secret characters, and other blank symbols intended to render the writing more difficult to be decyphered. See DECYPHERING.
ALPHABETICAL, something belonging to, or partaking of the nature of an alphabet. Thus we say, alphabetical order, method, &c.
ALPHENIC, a name sometimes used for white barley-sugar, or twisted sugar.
ALPHESERA, in botany, an obsolete name of a species of bryonia. See BRYONIA.
ALPHESTES, in ichthyology, an obsolete name of a species of labrus. See LABRUS.
ALPHETA, in astronomy, the same with lucida coronæ. See Lucida Coronæ.
ALPHITIDION, a term for a fracture, wherein the bone is crushed to pieces.
ALPHITOMANCY, a species of divination, otherwise called aleuromancy. See Aleuromancy.
ALPHONSIN, in surgery, an instrument used in extracting bullets, in gun-shot-wounds. See SURGERY, Of Gun-shot-wounds.
ALPHONSINE TABLES, astronomical tables, calculated by order of Alphonsus king of Castile, in the construction of which that prince is supposed to have contributed his own labour.
ALPHOS, among physicians, a disease of the skin, which is rough, and sprinkled with white spots.
ALPINE, something belonging to the Alps. See ALPS.
ALPINIA, in botany, a genus of the monandria monogynia class, of which there is but one species. The flower is tubulous, and divided into six segments; the capsule, which becomes a fruit, is divided into three cells, each containing one seed. It is a native of America.
ALPS, a chain of exceeding high mountains, separating Italy from France and Germany.
ALQUIER, a liquid measure, used in Portugal to measure oil, two of which make an almond. See ALMOND.
ALRAMECH, in astronomy, the name of a star of the first magnitude, otherwise called arcturus. See ARCTURUS, and Astronomy.
ALRUM, in botany, an obsolete name of the tree from which the gum bdellium is procured. See BDELLIUM.
ALSACE, a province formerly belonging to Germany, but almost entirely ceded to France by the peace of Munster; is situated between the river Rhine on the east, and Lorrain on the west, Switzerland on the south, and the palatinate of the Rhine on the north.
ALSADAF, in materia medica, an obsolete name of the unguis odoratus. See UNGuis.
ALSAHARATICA, in botany, an obsolete name of the parthenium. See PARTHENIUM.
ALSEN, an island in the lesser belt, at the entrance of the Baltic sea, between Sleswic and Funen. E. long. 10° 12', N. lat. 55° 12'.
ALSCHARCUR, in materia medica. See SKINK.
ALSFIELD, or Asfield, a town of Hesse Cassel, in Germany. E. long. 9° 5'. N. lat. 50° 40'.
ALSIMBEL, in botany, an obsolete name of a species of nardus. See NARDUS.
ALSINA, in botany, a synonyme of the theligonum. See THELIGONUM.
ALSINASTRUM, in botany, the trivial name and also a synonyme of the elatine. See ELATINE.
ALSINE, Chickweed, in botany, a genus of the pentandria trigynia class: The calix is divided into five parts; the flowers consist of five petals divided in the middle; and the capsule has three valves. There are three species of the alpine, viz. the media, or common chickweed, a native of Britain; the mucronata, a native of Switzerland; and the segetalis, a native of France.
The alpine media has sometimes been recommended in hectical cases.
ALSIRAT, in the Mahometan theology, denotes a bridge laid over the middle of hell, the passage or path whereof is sharper than the edge of a sword; over which every body must pass at the day of judgement, when the wicked will tumble headlong into hell, whereas the good will fly over it like the wind.
ALSONE, a small city of Languedoc in France, upon the river Fresquel, between Carcafone and St. Papoul.
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A D V ( 28 ) A D VADRA, in geography, a fea-port town of Spain, in thekingdom of Granada, 37 miles^, S. E. of Granada,and 12 S. W. of Almeria, 1. 10. W; long. 36. o. lat.ADRACANTH. See Tragacanth.ADRACHNE, in botany, an obfolete name of a fpeciesof arbutus. See Arbutus.ADRAMMELECH, in antiquity, or mythology, adeity worfhipped by the inhabitants of Sepliarvaim, apeople planted in the Holy Land by the kings of Af-l'yiia, after Salmanazar had taken Samaria, and puta final period to the kingdom of Ifrael. The wor-lhippers of Adrammeleeh burnt their children in thefire to the honour of that idol. The name is Perfian,and fignifies the magnificent king.ADRIUNE, in botany, an obfolete name of the cycla¬men. See Cyclamen.ADROBE, the name of two rivers in that part of Afia-tic Tartary which is fubjeft to Mofcovy: They both. fall into the Wolga beneath Cazan.ADSCRIPTS, a term,ufed by fome mathematicians forthe natural tangents. See Tangent.ADSIDELLA, in antiquity, the table at which theflamens fat during the facrifices.ADSTAT, a fmall town belonging to Denmark in theifiand of Iceland, not far from Holar.ADSTRICTION, among phyficians, a term ufed to de¬note the rigidity of .any part.ADVANCE, in the mercantile ftyle, denotes moneypaid before goods are delivered, work done, or bufi-nefs performed.ADVANCED ditch, in fortification, is that which fur-rounds the'glacis or efplanade of a place.Advanced guard, or vanguard, in the art of war, thefirft }ine or divifion of an army, ranged, or marchingin order -of battle; or, it is that part which is nextthe enemy, and marches firft towards them.Advanced guard, is more paticularly ufed for a fmallparty of horfe ftationed before the main-guard.ADVANCER, among fportfmen, one of the ftarts, orbranches of a buck’s attire, between the back antlerand the palm.ADUAR, in the Arabian and Moorifh cuftoms, a kindof ambulatory village, confiding of tents, which thefepeople remove from one place to another, as fiats theirconveniency.ADVENT, in the kalendar," properly fignifies the ap¬proach of the feaft of the Nativity. It includes fourfundays, which begin on St Andrew’s day, or on theSunday before or after it. During advent, and to theend of the oftaves of Epiphany, the folemnizing ofmarriage is forbid, without a fpecial licence.ADVENTITIOUS, an epithet applied to any thing thatis accidental or fortuitous.AD VENTREM infpiciendum, in law, a writ by whicha woman is to be fearched whether file be with childby a former hufband, on her vith-holding of landsfrom the next, fading ifliie of her own body.ADVENTURE, in a general fenfe, fome extraordina¬ry or accidental event. It alfo denotes a hazardousor difficult undertaking.Bill of Adventure, among merchants, a writing fign-ed by a merchant, teftifying the goods mentioned init to be flapped on board a certain veflfel belongingto another perfon, who is to run all hazards; themerchant only obliging himfelf JO account to him forthe produce.ADVENTURER, in a general fenfe, denotes one wbohazards lomething. •ADVERB, in grammar, a word joined to verbs, ex¬prefling the manner, time, <bc. of an aftion: thus,in the phrafe, he ijjas warmly attached to the inter eftof his mafter, the'word warmly is an adverb. SeeGrammar. VADVERSARIA, among the ancients, a book of ac¬counts, not unlike our journals, or day-books. It ismore particularly ufed for a kind of common-place-book. See Common-place-book.ADVERSARY, a perfon who is an enemy to, or oppo-fes another.ADVERSATIVE, in grammar, a word exprefling fomedifference between what goes before and what follows»it. Thus, in the phrafe, he is an honeft man, but agreat enthuftaft, the word but is an adverfative con¬junction.ADVERSATOR, in antiquity, a fervant who attendedthe rich in returning from fupper, to give them noticeof any obllacles in the way, at which they might be aptto Humble.ADVERTISEMENT, in a general fenfe, denotes anyinformation given to perfons interefted in an affair;-and is more particularly ufed for a brief account of anaffair inferted in the public papers, for the informationof all concerned.ADULT, an appellation given to any thing that is ar¬rived at maturity : Thus we fay, an adult perfon, anadult plant, <bc. Among civilians, it denotes a youthbetween fourteen and twenty-five years of age.ADULTERATION, the aft of^ebafing, by an impro¬per mixture, fomething that was pure and genuine'ADULTERY, an unlawful commerce between one mar¬ried perfon and another, or between a married and un¬married perfon. See Scots Law, titles, Marriage,and Crimes.ADVOCATE, among the Romans, a perfon who un¬dertook the defence of caufes. The term is Hill keptup in all countries where the civil law obtains.King's Advocate, is the principal crown-lawyer inScotland. His bufinefs is to aft as a public profecu-tor, and to plead in all caufes lhat concern the crown;but particularly in fuch as are of a criminal nature.The office of King’s advocate is not very ancient: It-feems to have been ellabliflied about the beginning ofthe 16th century. Originally he had no power toprofecute crimes without the concurrence of a privateparty; but in the year 1597, he was impowered toprolecute crimes at his own inftance.Faculty of A dvo cates, in Scotland, a refpeftable bo¬dy of lawyers, who plead in all caufes before theCourts of Seffion, Jufticiary, and Exchequer. Theyare alfo intitled to plead in the houfe of peers, and o-ther fupreme courts in England.In the year 1660, the faculty founded a libraryupon
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ADRA, in geography, a sea-port town of Spain, in the kingdom of Granada, 37 miles S. E. of Granada, and 12 S. W. of Almeria, 1. 10. W. long. 36. o. lat.
ADRACANTH. See Tragacanth.
ADRACHNE, in botany, an obsolete name of a species of arbutus. See Arbutus.
ADRAMMELECH, in antiquity, or mythology, a deity worshipped by the inhabitants of Sepharvaim, a people planted in the Holy Land by the kings of Assyria, after Salmanazar had taken Samaria, and put a final period to the kingdom of Israel. The worshippers of Adrammelech burnt their children in the fire to the honour of that idol. The name is Persian, and signifies the magnificent king.
ADRIUNE, in botany, an obsolete name of the cyclamen. See Cyclamen.
ADROBE, the name of two rivers in that part of Asiatic Tartary which is subject to Moscow: They both fall into the Wolga beneath Cazan.
ADSCRIPTS, a term used by some mathematicians for the natural tangents. See Tangent.
ADSIDELLA, in antiquity, the table at which the flamens fat during the sacrifices.
ADSTAT, a small town belonging to Denmark in the island of Iceland, not far from Holar.
ADSTRICTION, among physicians, a term used to denote the rigidity of any part.
ADVANCE, in the mercantile style, denotes money paid before goods are delivered, work done, or business performed.
ADVANCED ditch, in fortification, is that which surrounds the glacis or esplanade of a place.
ADVANCED guard, or vanguard, in the art of war, the first line or division of an army, ranged, or marching in order of battle; or, it is that part which is next the enemy, and marches first towards them.
ADVANCED guard, is more particularly used for a small party of horse stationed before the main-guard.
ADVANCER, among sportsmen, one of the starts, or branches of a buck's attire, between the back antler and the palm.
ADUAR, in the Arabian and Moorish customs, a kind of ambulatory village, consisting of tents, which these people remove from one place to another, as suits their convenience.
ADVENT, in the calendar, properly signifies the approach of the feast of the Nativity. It includes four Sundays, which begin on St Andrew's day, or on the Sunday before or after it. During advent, and to the end of the octaves of Epiphany, the solemnizing of marriage is forbid, without a special licence.
ADVENTITIOUS, an epithet applied to any thing that is accidental or fortuitous.
ADVENTREM inspiciendum, in law, a writ by which a woman is to be searched whether she be with child by a former husband, on her with-holding of lands from the next, failing issue of her own body.
ADVENTURE, in a general sense, some extraordinary or accidental event. It also denotes a hazardous or difficult undertaking.
Bill of Adventure, among merchants, a writing sign-ed by a merchant, testifying the goods mentioned in it to be shipped on board a certain vessel belonging to another person, who is to run all hazards; the merchant only obliging himself to account to him for the produce.
ADVENTURER, in a general sense, denotes one who hazards something.
ADVERB, in grammar, a word joined to verbs, expressing the manner, time, &c. of an action: thus, in the phrase, he was warmly attached to the interest of his master, the word warmly is an adverb. See Grammar.
ADVERSARIA, among the ancients, a book of accounts, not unlike our journals, or day-books. It is more particularly used for a kind of common-place-book. See Common-Place-Book.
ADVERSARY, a person who is an enemy to, or opposes another.
ADVERSATIVE, in grammar, a word expressing some difference between what goes before and what follows it. Thus, in the phrase, he is an honest man, but a great enthusiasm, the word but is an adversative conjunction.
ADVERSATOR, in antiquity, a servant who attended the rich in returning from supper, to give them notice of any obstacles in the way, at which they might be apt to stumble.
ADVERTISEMENT, in a general sense, denotes any information given to persons interested in an affair; and is more particularly used for a brief account of an affair inserted in the public papers, for the information of all concerned.
ADULT, an appellation given to any thing that is arrived at maturity: Thus we say, an adult person, an adult plant, &c. Among civilians, it denotes a youth between fourteen and twenty-five years of age.
ADULTERATION, the act of debasing, by an improper mixture, something that was pure and genuine.
ADULTERY, an unlawful commerce between one married person and another, or between a married and unmarried person. See Scots Law, titles, Marriage, and Crimes.
ADVOCATE, among the Romans, a person who undertook the defence of causes. The term is still kept up in all countries where the civil law obtains.
King's Advocate, is the principal crown-lawyer in Scotland. His business is to act as a public prosecutor, and to plead in all causes that concern the crown; but particularly in such as are of a criminal nature. The office of King's advocate is not very ancient: It seems to have been established about the beginning of the 16th century. Originally he had no power to prosecute crimes without the concurrence of a private party; but in the year 1597, he was impowered to prosecute crimes at his own instance.
Faculty of Advocates, in Scotland, a respectable body of lawyers, who plead in all causes before the Courts of Session, Justiciary, and Exchequer. They are also intitled to plead in the house of peers, and other supreme courts in England.
In the year 1660, the faculty founded a library upon
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2
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C-L
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C II A ( 6>chapters have chantors and chaplains to aflill the ca¬nons, and officiate in their abfenee.Chantor is ufed by Vay of excellence for the praecen-tor or niafter of the choir, which is one of the firft dig¬nities of the chapter. At St David’s in Wales, wherethere is no dean, he is next in dignity to the biffiop.The ancients called the chantor prtmicerius cantor mu.To him belonged the. dire&ios of the deacons and o-ther inferior officers.Chantors in the temple of Jerufalem, were a num¬ber of Levites employed in finging the praifes of God,and playing upon inftruments before his altar. Theyhad no habits diftintft from the reft of the people ; yetin the ceremony of removing the ark to Solomon’s tem¬ple, the chantors appeared dreffed in tunics of byffusor fine linen. 2 Chron. v. 12.CHANTRY, or Chauntry, a church or chappel, en¬dowed with lands, fyc. for the maintenance of one ormors priefts to fay mafs for the fouls of the do¬nors. Hence,Chantry-w*//, are rents ftill paid to the crown by thepurchafers of thofe lands.CHAOS, that - confufion in which matter lay whennewly produced out of nothing at the beginning ofthe world, before God, by his almighty word, hadput it into the order and condition wherein it was af¬ter the fix days creation.Chaos, in zoology, a genus of in feds belonging to theorder of vermes zoophyta. The body has no (hellor covering, and is capable of reviving after beingdead to appearance for a long time: It has no joints orexternal organs of fenfation. There are five fpecies,moftly obtained by infufions of different vegetables inwater, and only difcoverable by the microfcope.CHAPEAU, in heraldry, an ancient cap of dignity wornby dukes, being fcartlet-coloured velvet on the out-lide, and lined with a fur. It is frequently borne a-bove an helmet inftead of a wreath, under gentlemen’screfts.CHAPEL, or Chappel, a place of divine worlhip,ferved by an incumbent under the denomination of achaplain.Chapel is alfo a name given to a printer’s work-houfe;in which fenfe they fay, the laws of the chapel, thefecrets of the chapel.Knights of the Chapel, called alfo poor knights ofWindfor, were inftitutedby Henry VIII. in his tefta-ment. Their number was at firft thirteen, but hasbeen fince augmented to twenty-fix. Theyaffift in thefuneral fervices of the kings of England : They arefubjeft to the office of the canons of Windlor, andlive on penfions affigned them by the order of the gar¬ter. They bear a blue or red cloke, with the arms ofSt George on the left ffioulder.CHAPELET, in the menage, a couple of ftirrup lea¬thers, mounted each of them with a ftirrup, and join¬ed at top in a fort of leather buckle, called the headof the chapelet, by which they are made fall to thepummel of the faddle, after being adjufted to the ri¬der’s length and bore. They are ufed both to avoid3 ) C H Athe trouble of taking up or letting down the ftirrups,every time that the gentleman mounts on a differenthorfe and faddle, and to fupply the place of the aca¬demy faddles, which have no ftirrups to them.CHAPITERS, in architecture, the fame with capitals.Chapiters, in law, formerly fignified a fummary offuch matters as were inquired of, or prefented beforejuftices in eyre, juftices of aflize or of the peace, intheir feflions.Chapiters, at this time, denote fuch articles as aredelivered by the mouth of the juftice in his charge tothe inqueft.CHAPLAIN, an ecclefiaftic who officiates in a chapel.See Chapel.The king of Great Britain hath forty-eight cha¬plains in ordinary, ufually eminent dodifrs in divinity,who wait four each month, preach in the chapel, readthe fervice to the family, and to the king in his privateoratory, and fay grace in the abfenee of the clerk ofthe clofet. Befides, there are twenty-four chaplainsat Whitehall, fellows pf Oxford or Cambridge, whopreach in their turns, and are allowed 301. per annumeach. According to a ftatute of Henry VIII. theperfons veiled with a power of retaining chaplains, to¬gether with the number each is allowed to qualify, isas follows: An archbilhop, eight • a duke or biffiop,fix; marquefs or earl, five; vifeount, four; baron,knight of the garter, or lord-chancellor, three; adutchefs, marchionefs, countefs, barotiefs, the treafu-rer and comptroller-of the king’s houfe, clerk of theclofet, the king’s fecretary, dean of the chapel, al¬moner, and mailer of the rolls, each of them two;chief juftice of the king’s bench, and warden of thecinque-ports, each one. All thefe chaplains may pur-chale a licence or difpenfation, and take two beneficeswith cure of fouls. A chaplain mull be retained byletters tellimonial under hand and feal; for it is notfufficient that he ferve as chaplain in the family.Chaplain of the order of Malta, otherwife called dLaco, and clerk conventual, the fecond clafs of the or¬der of Malta. The knights make the firft rank.CHAPLET, a firing of beads ufed by the Roman Ca¬tholics, to count the number of their prayers. Theinvention of it is aferibed to Peter the hermit, whoprobably learned it of the Turks, as they owe it tothe Eall-Indians.Chaplets are fometimes called pater-no Hers, and aremade of coral, of diamonds, of wood, <bc. Thecommon chaplet contains fifty ave-marias, and five pa-ter-nollers. There is alfo a chaplet of our Saviour,confiding of thirty-three beads, in honour of his thir¬ty three years living on earth, inftituted by father Mi¬chael the Camaldulian.CHAPPE', in heraldry, the dividing an efcutcheon bylines drawn from the centre of the upper edge to theangles below, into three parts, the fe&ions on thefides being of a different metal or colour from the reft.CHAPPEL in frith, a market town of Derbyffiire, a-bout twenty-fix miles north-well of Derby; W. long.1° 50V N. lat. J3° 22'.CHAPTER,
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chapters have chantors and chaplains to assist the canons, and officiate in their absence.
Chantor is used by way of excellence for the preceptor or master of the choir, which is one of the first dignities of the chapter. At St David's in Wales, where there is no dean, he is next in dignity to the bishop. The ancients called the chantor primicerius cantorum. To him belonged the direction of the deacons and other inferior officers.
Chantors in the temple of Jerusalem, were a number of Levites employed in singing the praises of God, and playing upon instruments before his altar. They had no habits distinct from the rest of the people; yet in the ceremony of removing the ark to Solomon’s temple, the chantors appeared dressed in tunics of byssus or fine linen. 2 Chron. v. 12.
CHANTRY, or Chauntry, a church or chappel, endowed with lands, &c. for the maintenance of one or more priests to say mass for the souls of the donors. Hence,
CHANTRY-rents, are rents still paid to the crown by the purchasers of those lands.
CHAOS, that confusion in which matter lay when newly produced out of nothing at the beginning of the world, before God, by his almighty word, had put it into the order and condition wherein it was after the six days creation.
CHAOS, in zoology, a genus of insects belonging to the order of vermes zoophyta. The body has no shell or covering, and is capable of reviving after being dead to appearance for a long time: It has no joints or external organs of sensation. There are five species, mostly obtained by infusions of different vegetables in water, and only discoverable by the microscope.
CHAPEAU, in heraldry, an ancient cap of dignity worn by dukes, being scartlet-coloured velvet on the outside, and lined with a fur. It is frequently borne above an helmet instead of a wreath, under gentlemen’s crests.
CHAPEL, or Chappel, a place of divine worship, served by an incumbent under the denomination of a chaplain.
Chapel is also a name given to a printer’s work-house; in which sense they say, the laws of the chapel, the secrets of the chapel.
Knights of the Chapel, called also poor knights of Windsor, were instituted by Henry VIII. in his testament. Their number was at first thirteen, but has been since augmented to twenty-fix. They assist in the funeral services of the kings of England: They are subject to the office of the canons of Windsor, and live on pensions assigned them by the order of the garter. They bear a blue or red cloke, with the arms of St George on the left shoulder.
CHAPELET, in the menage, a couple of stirrup leathers, mounted each of them with a stirrup, and joined at top in a sort of leather buckle, called the head of the chapelet, by which they are made fast to the pummel of the saddle, after being adjusted to the rider’s length and bore. They are used both to avoid the trouble of taking up or letting down the stirrups, every time that the gentleman mounts on a different horse and saddle, and to supply the place of the academy saddles, which have no stirrups to them.
CHAPITERS, in architecture, the same with capitals.
Chapiters, in law, formerly signified a summary of such matters as were inquired of, or presented before justices in eyre, justices of assize or of the peace, in their sessions.
Chapiters, at this time, denote such articles as are delivered by the mouth of the justice in his charge to the inquest.
CHAPLAIN, an ecclesiastic who officiates in a chapel. See Chapel.
The king of Great Britain hath forty-eight chaplains in ordinary, usually eminent doctors in divinity, who wait four each month, preach in the chapel, read the service to the family, and to the king in his private oratory, and say grace in the absence of the clerk of the closet. Besides, there are twenty-four chaplains at Whitehall, fellows of Oxford or Cambridge, who preach in their turns, and are allowed 301. per annum each. According to a statute of Henry VIII. the persons vested with a power of retaining chaplains, together with the number each is allowed to qualify, is as follows: An archbishop, eight; a duke or bishop, six; marquess or earl, five; viscount, four; baron, knight of the garter, or lord-chancellor, three; a dutchess, marchioness, countess, baroness, the treasurer and comptroller of the king’s house, clerk of the closet, the king’s secretary, dean of the chapel, almoner, and master of the rolls, each of them two; chief justice of the king’s bench, and warden of the cinque-ports, each one. All these chaplains may purchase a licence or dispensation, and take two benefices with cure of souls. A chaplain must be retained by letters testimonial under hand and seal; for it is not sufficient that he serve as chaplain in the family.
Chaplain of the order of Malta, otherwise called diaco, and clerk conventual, the second class of the order of Malta. The knights make the first rank.
Chaplet, a string of beads used by the Roman Catholics, to count the number of their prayers. The invention of it is ascribed to Peter the hermit, who probably learned it of the Turks, as they owe it to the East-Indians.
Chaplets are sometimes called pater-nosters, and are made of coral, of diamonds, of wood, &c. The common chaplet contains fifty ave-marias, and five pater-nosters. There is also a chaplet of our Saviour, consisting of thirty-three beads, in honour of his thirty three years living on earth, instituted by father Michael the Camaldulian.
CHAPPE', in heraldry, the dividing an escutcheon by lines drawn from the centre of the upper edge to the angles below, into three parts, the sections on the sides being of a different metal or colour from the rest.
CHAPPEL in frith, a market town of Derbyshire, about twenty-five miles north-west of Derby; W. long. $10^\circ$ 50'; N. lat. $53^\circ$ 22'.
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115
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V M E D IOf VOMI T1N G'.Vomiting is a fpafmodic, retrograde motion of the rauf-cular fibres of the oefophagus, iiomach and inteftines,together withftrong convulfions of the abdominal mufclesand diaphragm. Thofe that are flight, create naufeas;thofe that are ftrong, vomiting.Vomiting generally begins with a naufea, a tenfion andweight in the epigallric region, a bitternefs in the mouth,anxieties of the prascordia, plenty of thin faliva in themouth, a trembling of the neither lip ; to thefe may beadded, a dizzinefs of tfie head, a fudden dimnefs of fight,rednefs of the face, a fruitlefs eructation; and then thecontents of the flomach are difcharged upwards.Vomiting is caufed by excefles in eating and drink-ing ; by the .aci imony of the aliments ; by the tranflatioaof the morbific matter of ulcers, the gout, eryfipelas, andother difeafcs.-to the flomach ; from a loofenefs or bloo¬dy flux too fuddenly flopped ; from a congeflion of bloodin the flomach, which happens to women in the firfl monthsof pregnancy, or v.'hen there is a fupprellion of the men*fes, or bleeding piles j from fympathy, by tickling or irri¬tating the throat or cefophagus with the finger or a fea¬ther; from the colic, iliac pafilon, a rupture, fit.of thegravel, worms; from poifons; from hurts of the brain,fuch as contufions, compreflions, wounds or inflammationsof the diaphragm, flomach, inteftines, fpleen, liver, kid¬neys, pancreas or mefentery; from an unufual motion ofthe fpiiitsin a cart, coach, orfiiip; from the idea offomenaufeous thing, or which has formerly occafioned fick-nefs or vomiting; from a regurgitation of bile into theflomach.As to the prognoflics ; a critical vomiting is falutary;a fymptomatic bad ; and that which proceeds from a fub-til cauflic acrimony, which vellicates the nerves, worftof all. All violent exceflive vomiting is bad, as it mayOccafion abortions, ruptures, <bc. Bilious vomiting,^e-fpecially the green, porraceous, and seruginous, cenfiflingof a corroding acid, portends danger of an inflammatiorr ;vomiting from worms which gnaw the flomach, is gene¬rally pernicious ; vomiting of dead worms, if at the fametime the convulfions of the limbs and other grievousfymptoms fuddenly ceafe, (hews a mortification. AH fae-tid vomiting is a fign of internal corruption, and thereforebad.When vomiting proceeds from crapula, late fuppers,diflurbed digeflion by riding, and the like, it may be pre¬vented by deep infplrations often repeated, by which thediaphragm is made to prefs on the flomach, and accele¬rate the difcharge of it contents ; but if an inclination tovomit, from the fame caufes, comes on unawares, a pretty ftrong and often repeated fri^^ion of the hypograflricregion with the hand, will prevent it.Pituitous vomiting, from crudities of the primce vise, isheft cured by a vomit, and efpecially if there is a trouble-*fome reaching to vomit ; attended with a naufea and acardralgia ; then having firfl preferibed neutralTalts, orfqaills, to incite the phlegm, give warm water mixedwith unfalted butter, very plentifully, or powder of ipe¬cacuanha. *Bilious vomiting, which proceeds from a depraved digeflion, and has its feat in the duodenum, is cured byCINE. 115abforbents and gentle laxatives of manna and rhubarb.When it proceeds from too great a laxity of the biliarydu^ls, then cortex Peruvianas, cortex eleutherice, and bit¬ter tinflures and chalybeates, will be moft efficacfous ; iffrom a coagulum or ftone in the gall bladder, mineralwaters are more likely to fucceed.When vomiting is caufed by a Iharp matter vellicatingthe nerves of the flomach, proceeding from the gout, oran eryfipelas, befides giving quieting medicines, it oughtto be drove back by diaphoretic powders, with a fmalladdition of camphor. Alfo externally, frictions, pedi-luvia, and clyfters, are ufeful.When it proceeds from poifons, nothing is better at thebeginning than dririking large quantities of milk, and fatoily things, to flieath their acrimony, and bring them upby vomiting.Vomiting from a fuppreflion of the menfes, or fromthe ftoppage of the bleeding piles, is cured by abfor¬bents, by gentle laxatives, by clyfters and ftrergtheners;and more efpecially by bleeding or caufing the flux toreturn. Emetics, in this cafe, are as bad as poifon, andeither caufe a vomiting of blood, or a fatal inflammationof the flomach.Morning reachings, aiufed by hard drinking, are cured:by abforbents and anti-acids, and by flrengthening thedigeftive faculty, by bitters, candied orange-peel,The immoderate and frequent vomiting of pregnantwomen requires bleeding in the foot, and reft both ofmind and body.^ Vomiting (^ Bloou.Vomiting of blood is generally preceded with a ten>five pricking pain in the left hypochondrium; and theeruption itfelf is almoft always attended with anxiety ofthe prsscordia, and a comprefling pain, as alfo a kind ofgirding on the fame fide. It is frequently attended withfaintingfits, efpecially if the blood has an illfmell, or iscorrupted.The feat of this difeafe is in the flomach, though thefpleen fometimes has a (hare in its produdion.Perfons more fubjed to it are the lean and fiender ;women irregular in their menfes, and who have beenhaftiJy cured of intermitting fevers, which has broughton a rupprefiion of the menfes, and then have taken hotforcing emmenagogues ; as alfo women about the timetheir menfes leave them; likewife plethoridwomen in thetime of pregnancy, and hard labour ; and men of a weakconflitution, fubjeeft to the bleeding piles, which eitherceafe to flow, or flow in too fmall a qulintity.The danger which attends this difeafe, is not the famein all, though no haemorrhage is more dangerous thanthis. If there is no fever, and if it proceeds from fup-,prefied evacuations, caufed by a plethoia, the cafe is notfo defperate. On the contrary, if there is a fever; ifthe blood is corrupted, flinking, and black ; if it pro¬ceeds from a large, difeafed fpleen, or an indurated liver,attended with fw'ooning; there is no hope of recoveryleft. It is ftill worfe, when the flools are black ; thenthe feat of the difeafe is in the ilium, from a rupture ofthe mefaraic vefiels.In the paroxyfm, if the patient is plethoric, bleed ac¬cording to his age and flrength.Wliea
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Of Vomiting.
Vomiting is a spasmodic, retrograde motion of the muscular fibres of the oesophagus, stomach and intestines, together with strong convulsions of the abdominal muscles and diaphragm. Those that are slight, create nauseas; those that are strong, vomiting.
Vomiting generally begins with a nausea, a tension and weight in the epigastric region, a bitterness in the mouth, anxieties of the præcordia, plenty of thin saliva in the mouth, a trembling of the neither lip; to these may be added, a dizziness of the head, a sudden dimness of sight, redness of the face, a fruitless eructation; and then the contents of the stomach are discharged upwards.
Vomiting is caused by excesses in eating and drinking; by the acrimony of the aliments; by the translation of the morbific matter of ulcers, the gout, erysipelas, and other diseases, to the stomach; from a looseness or bloody flux too suddenly stopped; from a congestion of blood in the stomach, which happens to women in the first months of pregnancy, or when there is a suppression of the menSES, or bleeding piles; from sympathy, by tickling or irritating the throat or oesophagus with the finger or a feather; from the colic, iliac passion, a rupture, fit of the gravel, worms; from poisons; from hurts of the brain, such as contusions, compressions, wounds or inflammations of the diaphragm, stomach, intestines, spleen, liver, kidneys, pancreas or mesentery; from an unusual motion of the spirits in a cart, coach, or ship; from the idea of some nauseous thing, or which has formerly occasioned sickness or vomiting; from a regurgitation of bile into the stomach.
As to the prognostics; a critical vomiting is salutary; a symptomatic bad; and that which proceeds from a subtil caustic acrimony, which vellicates the nerves, worst of all. All violent excessive vomiting is bad, as it may occasion abortions, ruptures, &c. Bilious vomiting, especially the green, porraceous, and αruginous, consisting of a corroding acid, portends danger of an inflammation; vomiting from worms which gnaw the stomach, is generally pernicious; vomiting of dead worms, if at the same time the convulsions of the limbs and other grievous symptoms suddenly cease, shews a mortification. All fætid vomiting is a sign of internal corruption, and therefore bad.
When vomiting proceeds from crapula, late suppers, disturbed digestion by riding, and the like, it may be prevented by deep inspirations often repeated, by which the diaphragm is made to press on the stomach, and accelerate the discharge of it contents; but if an inclination to vomit, from the same causes, comes on unawares, a pretty strong and often repeated friction of the hypogastric region with the hand, will prevent it.
Pituitous vomiting, from crudities of the primæ viæ, is best cured by a vomit, and especially if there is a troublesome reaching to vomit; attended with a nausea and a cardialgia; then having first prescribed neutral salts, or squills, to incite the phlegm, give warm water mixed with unsalted butter, very plentifully, or powder of ipecacuanha.
Bilious vomiting, which proceeds from a depraved digestion, and has its seat in the duodenum, is cured by absorbents and gentle laxatives of manna and rhubarb. When it proceeds from too great a laxity of the biliary ducts, then cortex Peruvianus, cortex eleutheria, and bitter tinctures and chalybeates, will be most efficacious; if from a coagulum or stone in the gall-bladder, mineral waters are more likely to succeed.
When vomiting is caused by a sharp matter vellicating the nerves of the stomach, proceeding from the gout, or an erysipelas, besides giving quieting medicines, it ought to be drove back by diaphoretic powders, with a small addition of camphor. Also externally, frictions, pediluvia, and clysters, are useful.
When it proceeds from poisons, nothing is better at the beginning than drinking large quantities of milk, and fat oily things, to sheath their acrimony, and bring them up by vomiting.
Vomiting from a suppression of the menses, or from the stoppage of the bleeding piles, is cured by absorbents, by gentle laxatives, by clysters and strengtheners; and more especially by bleeding or causing the fluux to return. Emetics, in this case, are as bad as poison, and either cause a vomiting of blood, or a fatal inflammation of the stomach.
Morning reachings, caused by hard drinking, are cured by absorbents and anti-acids, and by strengthening the digestive faculty, by bitters, candied orange-peel, &c.
The immoderate and frequent vomiting of pregnant women requires bleeding in the foot, and rest both of mind and body.
Of the Vomiting of Blood.
Vomiting of blood is generally preceded with a ten-five pricking pain in the left hypochondrium; and the eruption itself is almost always attended with anxiety of the præcordia, and a compressing pain, as also a kind of girding on the same side. It is frequently attended with fainting fits, especially if the blood has an ill smell, or is corrupted.
The seat of this disease is in the stomach, though the spleen sometimes has a share in its production.
Persons more subject to it are the lean and slender; women irregular in their menses, and who have been hastily cured of intermitting fevers, which has brought on a suppression of the menses, and then have taken hot forcing emmenagogues; as also women about the time their menses leave them; likewise plethoric women in the time of pregnancy, and hard labour; and men of a weak constitution, subject to the bleeding piles, which either cease to flow, or flow in too small a quantity.
The danger which attends this disease, is not the same in all, though no hæmorrhage is more dangerous than this. If there is no fever, and if it proceeds from suppressed evacuations, caused by a plethora, the case is not so desperate. On the contrary, if there is a fever; if the blood is corrupted, stinking, and black; if it proceeds from a large, diseased spleen, or an indurated liver, attended with swooning; there is no hope of recovery left. It is still worse, when the stools are black; then the seat of the disease is in the ilium, from a rupture of the mesaraic vessels.
In the paroxysm, if the patient is plethoric, bleed according to his age and strength.
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SUP ( ^40 ) SUPSULPHUR. See Chemistry, p. 72, 118.SULTAN, a tide of honour, gi^en to the emperor of theTurks, The wife of a fultan is called fultana, and thefavourite one hhafeki-fultana, /. <?. the privateTuItana.SUM, fignihes the quantity that arifes from the additionof two pr more magnitudes numbers, or quantities to¬gether. See A^rithmetick.SUMACH, in botany. See Rhus.SUMATRA an ifland in the Ealt-jndian ocean, fitnatedbetween. 95° and (04® E. long, and between 5^ 30' N,iat. and 5^ 30' S. iat, extending from north-weit t.< louth-eaft, nine hundred miles long, and from one hundred toone hundred and fifty broad.SUMMARY, in matters of literature. See Abridge¬mentSUMMEil, one of the feafons of the year, commencing inthele northern regions on the day the fun enter Cancrr,and ending when he quits Virgo. See Astronomy,•P 554SUMMIT, the top or vertex of anybody, or figure; asof a triangle, cone, pyramid,SUMMONS, in Scots hw. Se? Law, Tit. xxx. 28.SUN, m kft onoray. See Astronomy, p 435.SuN-FLoWER. in botany. See Helianthus.SUNDA-i SL ANDs, thofe fiiuated near the (traits of Sunda,in the Indian ocean ; the cliief of which are Borneo, Ja¬va, Sumatra, SeeBoRNE'o, ipc,SUNDAY, or the Lord’s-day, a folemn feftival obfervedby ChAltian^ on tRe fir(t day of every week, in memoryof our Saviour’s refurredl-on.This is the principal and mofl noted of the Chriftianfeitivals, and was obferved with great veneration in theancient church, from the time of the apodles, who them-felves arc often faid to have met on that day for divinefervicc. It is likewife called the Sabbath-day, as be’ngfubfticuted in the room of the Jewifii fabbath. SeeSabbath.The ancients retained the name Sunday, or dies folistin compliance with the ordinary forms of fpeech, the firltday of the week being fo called by the'Romans, becaufeit was. dedicated to ihe worfhip of the fun.SUNDERLAND a port-town of Durham, fituated onthe Germ .n lea, at the mouth of the river Ware, tenmiles norih-eafl of Durham city. . ~SUNTGOW, a territory in the circle of the upper Rhinein Germany, bounded by Alface on the north ; by theriver Rhine, which divMes it from the Bnfgow, on theeait; by Switzerland on the fouth; and by Franche-Compte on the w'efl.SUOVETAURILIA, an ancient Roman facrlfice, focal!ed becaufe it confided of a pig (/«/), a (heep, or ratherram {ovis)y and a bull {taurus,) They were all males,to denote the mafculme courage of the Roman people.I- WMS likew'ife called folitaunlia, becaufe the animals of-f'red ui) were al ways i^folida) wdiole or uncut.SUPERC.ARGO, a perfon employed by merchants to goa voyage, and overfee their cargo, or lading, and difpofeof it the bed advantage.SUPRRCILIUM, in anatomy. See Anatomy, p. 294.SUPEREROG ATION, injheology, what a man does be¬yond his uty, or more than he vhs commanded to do.SUPEPvFETA * ION, ^ fecond, or .Tter conception, hap¬pening, whea the.raoiher, already preg^iant, conceives ofa latter coition ; fo that fhe bears at once two foetufes ofunequal age and bulk, and is delivered of them at dif¬ferent times. AVe meet with indances of fuperfoeiationsin H ppocrates, Aridotle, Du Laurens, ^c. But they* are faid to be much more frequent in hares and fows.Ntituralids hold, that female rats are frequently bornwith young rats in their wombs; and we arc told of ex¬traordinary indances of this kind in the female part ofthe human fpecies, by Bariholine, Mentzehus, and inthe hitiory ot the Royal Academy ot Sciences.SUPERFICIES, or Surface, in geometry, a magnitudeconlidcred as having tvvo dimenfions; or extended inlength and breadth, but without thickoefs or depth.SUPERfINE, in the manufactories, a term ufed to ex-prefs the luperlative linenefs of a duff; thus a cloth, ^camblet are laid to be fuperfine, when made of thefined wool, <bc. or when they are the finelt that canbe made.SUPERINTENDAN r, in the French cudoms, an officerwhofias the prime management and dire(5tion of the fi-nan or revenues of the king.SUPERIOR, fomething raifcd above another, or that hasa right to command another.Superior, in Scots law. See Law, Tit. x 3,SUPERLATIVE, in grammar, one of the three degreesof comparilon, being that inde6lion of nouns-adjedtivethat ferves to augment and heighten their (ignitlcatioa,and fliews the quality of the thing denoted to be in thehigheltdegree. Ste Grammar.SUPERNUMERARY, lorn thing over and above a fixednumber. In te.veral of the offices are fupernumeraryclerks, to be ready on extraordinary occafions.SUPERSEDEAS, in law, is a writ which lies in diverscafes, and in general fignifies a command to llay forne ofthe ordinary proceedings in law, which, on good caufeffiewn, ought not to proceed. ^ .SUPERSTITION, extravagant devotion, or religionwrong direided or condutded.,SUP^ RVISOR, a furveyor or overfeer.it wasformerjy, and (fill remains, a cufiom among fomeperfons, to appoint a fupervijor of a will, to fee that the‘executors thereof do pundually obferve and perform thefame.SUPINATION, in anatomy, the adion of a fupinator-mulcle, or the morion whereby it'turns the hand fo asthat the palm is lifted up towards heaven.SUPINATOR, in anatomy. See Anatomy, p. 198.SUPPLfilMENT, in matters of literature, an appendageto a hook, to fupply what is wanting therein.SUPPORTED, in heraldry, a term applied to the upper-permoll; quarters of a ffiicld when divided into feveralquarters, ihefe feeming as it were fupported-or fulfainedby th.o^e below The chief is faid to be fupported whenit is of two colours, and the upper colour takes up twothirds of it. In this cafe it is fupported by thft colourunderneath, vSUPPORTERS, in heraldry, figures in an atchievementplaced by the fide of the (liicld, and feeming to fupportor hold up the fame. Supporters arc chiefly figures ofbeaftis i figures of human creatures, for the like purpofe,arc properly c<*ljed tenantsSUPPOSITORY, a kind of medicated cone, or ball, hicli-is introduced to the anus for opening the belly. Suppo-fitones
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SULPHUR. See Chemistry, p. 72, 118.
SULTAN, a title of honour, given to the emperor of the Turks. The wife of a sultan is called sultana, and the favourite one hhafeki-sultana, i.e., the private sultana.
SUM, signifies the quantity that arises from the addition of two or more magnitudes, numbers, or quantities together. See Arithmetick.
SUMACH, in botany. See Rhus.
SUMATRA, an island in the East-indian ocean; situated between 93° and 104° E. long, and between 5° 30' N. lat. and 5° 30' S. lat. extending from north-west to south-east, nine hundred miles long, and from one hundred to one hundred and fifty broad.
SUMMARY, in matters of literature. See Abridgement.
SUMMER, one of the seasons of the year, commencing in these northern regions on the day the sun enters Cancer, and ending when he quits Virgo. See Astronomy, p. 554.
SUMMIT, the top or vertex of any body, or figure; as of a triangle, cone, pyramid, &c.
SUMMONS, in Scots law. See Law, Tit. xxx. 28.
SUN, in astronomy. See Astronomy, p. 435.
Sun-flower, in botany. See Helianthus.
SUNDA-ISLANDS, those situated near the straits of Sunda, in the Indian ocean; the chief of which are Borneo, Java, Sumatra, &c. See Borneo, &c.
SUNDAY, or the Lord's-day, a solemn festival observed by Christians on the first day of every week, in memory of our Saviour's resurrection.
This is the principal and most noted of the Christian festivals, and was observed with great veneration in the ancient church, from the time of the apostles, who themselves are often said to have met on that day for divine service. It is likewise called the Sabbath-day, as being substituted in the room of the Jewish sabbath. See Sabbath.
The ancients retained the name Sunday, or dies solis, in compliance with the ordinary forms of speech, the first day of the week being so called by the Romans, because it was dedicated to the worship of the sun.
SUNDERLAND a port-town of Durham, situated on the German sea, at the mouth of the river Ware, ten miles north-east of Durham city.
SUNTGOW, a territory in the circle of the upper Rhine in Germany, bounded by Alface on the north; by the river Rhine, which divides it from the Brisgow, on the east; by Switzerland on the south; and by Franche-Compte on the west.
SUOVETAURILIA, an ancient Roman sacrifice, so called because it consisted of a pig (fus), a sheep, or rather ram (ovis), and a bull (taurus.) They were all males, to denote the masculine courage of the Roman people. It was likewise called solitaurilia, because the animals offered up were always (solida) whole or uncut.
SUPERCARGO, a person employed by merchants to go a voyage, and oversee their cargo, or lading, and dispose of it to the best advantage.
SUPERCILIUM, in anatomy. See Anatomy, p. 294.
SUPEREROGATION, in theology, what a man does beyond his duty, or more than he was commanded to do.
SUPERFETATION, a second, or after conception, happening, when the mother, already pregnant, conceives of a latter coition; so that she bears at once two fetuses of unequal age and bulk, and is delivered of them at different times. We meet with instances of superfetations in Hippocrates, Aristotle, Du Laurens, &c. But they are said to be much more frequent in hares and fows. Naturalists hold, that female rats are frequently born with young rats in their wombs; and we are told of extraordinary instances of this kind in the female part of the human species, by Bartholine, Mentzelus, and in the history of the Royal Academy of Sciences.
SUPERFICIES, or Surface, in geometry, a magnitude considered as having two dimensions; or extended in length and breadth, but without thickness or depth.
SUPERFINE, in the manufactories, a term used to express the superlative fineness of a stuff; thus a cloth, a camblet, &c. are said to be superfine, when made of the finest wool, &c. or when they are the finest that can be made.
SUPERINTENDANT, in the French customs, an officer who has the prime management and direction of the finances or revenues of the king.
SUPERIOR, something raised above another, or that has a right to command another.
Superior, in Scots law. See Law, Tit. x 3.
SUPERLATIVE, in grammar, one of the three degrees of comparison, being that inflection of nouns-adjective that serves to augment and heighten their signification, and shews the quality of the thing denoted to be in the highest degree. See Grammar.
SUPERNUMERARY, something over and above a fixed number. In several of the offices are supernumerary clerks, to be ready on extraordinary occasions.
SUPERSEDEAS, in law, is a writ which lies in divers cases, and in general signifies a command to stay some of the ordinary proceedings in law, which, on good cause shewn, ought not to proceed.
SUPERSTITION, extravagant devotion, or religion wrong directed or conducted.
SUPERVISOR, a surveyor or overseer.
It was formerly, and still remains, a custom among some persons, to appoint a supervisor of a will, to see that the executors thereof do punctually observe and perform the same.
SUPINATION, in anatomy, the action of a supinator-muscle, or the motion whereby it turns the hand so as that the palm is lifted up towards heaven.
SUPINATOR, in anatomy. See Anatomy, p. 198.
SUPPLEMENT, in matters of literature, an appendage to a book, to supply what is wanting therein.
SUPPORTED, in heraldry, a term applied to the upper-permort quarters of a shield when divided into several quarters, these seeming as it were supported or sustained by those below. The chief is said to be supported when it is of two colours, and the upper colour takes up two thirds of it. In this case it is supported by the colour underneath.
SUPPORTERS, in heraldry, figures in an achievement placed by the side of the shield, and seeming to support or hold up the same. Supporters are chiefly figures of beasts: figures of human creatures, for the like purpose, are properly called tenants.
SUPPOSITORY, a kind of medicated cone, or ball, which is introduced to the anus for opening the belly. Suppositories.
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2
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C-L
| 292
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265
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CON (2ftributed into feveral chambers, after the manner ofour offices and courts : the firft whereof is the pope’scongregation, whofe bufinefs it is to prepare the moddifficult beneficiary matters to be afterward debated inthe confiftory : the fecond is the congregation of theholy office, or the inquifition : the third is the congre¬gation dt propaganda fide: the fourth is the congre¬gation for explaining the council of Trent: the fifth isthe congregation of the index, deputed to examine in¬to pernicious and heretical books: the. fixth is thecongregation of immunities, eftablilhed to obviate thedifficulties that arife in the judgments of fuch fuits asare carried on again!! churchmen : the feventh is thecongregation of bilhops and regulars : the eighth is thecongregation for the examination of bilhops, &c. Itis alfo ufed for a company or fociety of religious, can¬toned out of any order, fo as to make a fubdiviGon ofthe order itfelf; as the congregation of Cluny, foe.among the Benedidtines. It is likewife ufed for affem-blies of pious perfons, in manner of fraternities.CONGREGATIONALISTS, in church-hiltory, a feflof p rote Hants who rejedt all church-government, ex¬cept that of a Angle congregation.CONGRESS, in political affairs, an affembly of com-miffibners, envoys, deputies, foe. from feveral courtsmeeting to concert matters for their common good.Congress, in a judicial fenfe, the trial made by ap¬pointment of a judge, before furgeons and matrons,in order to prove whether or no a man be impotent,before fentence is paffed for the diffolution of a mar¬riage, folicited upon fuch a complaint.CONGRUITY, a fuitablenefs or relation of agreementbetween things.The terms congruity and propriety are not applica¬ble to any Angle objedt: they imply a plurality, andobvioufly fignify a particular relation between differentobjedts. Thus we fay currently, that a decent garb isfuitable or proper for a judge, model! behaviour for ayoung woman, and a lofty ftyle for an epic poem : and,on the other hand, that it is unfuitable or incongruousto fee a little woman funk in an overgrown farthingale,a coat richly embroidered cohering coarfe and dirtylinen, a mean fubjed! in an elevated ftyle, an elevatedfubjedt in a mean ftyle, a firft minifter darning hiswife’s Hocking, or a reverend prelate in lawn fteevesdancing a hornpipe.The perception we have of this relation, whichfeems peculiar to man, cannot proceed from any othercaufe, but from a fenfe of congruity or propriety;for, fuppofing us deftitute of that fenfe, the termswould be to us unintelligible.It is a matter of experience, that congruity or pro¬priety, where.-ever perceived, is agreeable ; and thatincongruity or impropriety, where-ever perceived, isdifagreeable. The only difficulty is, to ascertain whatare the particular objedts that in conjundtion faggeftsthefe relations ; for there are many objedts that donot: the fea, for example, viewed in conjundtion witha pidture, or a man viewed in conjundtion with amountain, fuggeft not cither congruity or incongrui-6$ ) CONty. It feems natural to infer, what will be found trueby indudtion, that we never perceive congruity nor in¬congruity but among things that are connedted togetherby fome relation ; fuch as a man and his adtions, a prin¬cipal and its acceffories, a fubjedt and its ornaments. Weare indeed fo framed by nature, as among things fo con¬nedted, to require a certain fuitablenefs or correfpon-dence, termed congruity or propriety ; and to be difplea-fed when we find the oppofite relation of incongruity orimpropriety.If things connedted be the fubjedt of congruity, it isreafonable beforehand to expedt, that a degree of congrui¬ty Ihould be required proportioned to the degree of theconnedtion. And upon examination we find this to hold infadt: where the relation is intimate, as between a caufe andits effedt, a whole and its parts, we require the ftridteftcongruity ; but where the relation is flight, or acciden¬tal, as among things jumbled together in the fame place,we require little or no congruity : the ftridteft proprietyis required in behaviour and manner of living; becaufe aman is connedted with thefe by the relation of caufe andeffedt: the relation between an edifice and the groundit Hands upon, is of the moft intimate kind, and there¬fore the fituation of a great houfe ought to be lofty; itsrelation to neighbouring hills, rivers, plains, being thatof propinquity only, demands but a fmall (hare of con¬gruity: among members of the fame club, the congruityought to be confiderable, as well as among things placedfor Ihow in the fame niche : among paffengers in a ftage-coach, we require very little congruity; and lefs Hill ata public fpedtacle.Congruity is fo nearly allied to beauty, as commonly tobe held a fpecies of it; and yet they differ fo effentially,as never to coincide : beauty, like colour, is placed up¬on- a Angle fubjedt; congruity upon a plurality: further,a thing beautiful in itfelf, may, with relation to otherthings, produce the ftrongeft fenfe of incongruity.Congruity and propriety are commonly reckoned fy-nonymous terms ; but they are diftinguilhable; and theprecife meaning of each muft be afcertained. Congruityis the genus, of which propriety is a fpecies; for we callnothing propriety, but that congruity or fuitablenefs,which ought to fubfift between fenfible beings and theirthoughts, words, and adtions.In order to give a full view of thefe fecondary rela¬tions, we (hall trace them through fome of the moft con¬fiderable primary relations. The relation of a part tothe whole, being extremely intimate, demands the ut-raoft degree of congruity; even the flighted deviation isdifguftful.Examples of congruity and incongruity are furnifhed inplenty by the relation between a fubjedt and its ornaments.A literary performance intended merely for amufement, isfufceptible of much ornament, as well as a mufic-room,or a play-houfe; for in gaiety, the mind hath a peculiarrelilh for (how and decoration. The moft gorgeous ap¬parel, however improper in tragedy, is not unfuitableto opera-adtors : the truth is, an opera, in its prefentform, is a mighty fine thing; but as it deviates from na¬ture in its capital circumftances, we look not for naturenor
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attributed into several chambers, after the manner of our offices and courts: the first whereof is the pope's congregation, whose business it is to prepare the most difficult beneficiary matters to be afterward debated in the consistory: the second is the congregation of the holy office, or the inquisition: the third is the congregation de propaganda sive: the fourth is the congregation for explaining the council of Trent: the fifth is the congregation of the index, deputed to examine into pernicious and heretical books: the sixth is the congregation of immunities, established to obviate the difficulties that arise in the judgments of such suits as are carried on against churchmen: the seventh is the congregation of bishops and regulars: the eighth is the congregation for the examination of bishops, &c. It is also used for a company or society of religious, canonized out of any order, so as to make a subdivision of the order itself; as the congregation of Cluny, &c. among the Benedictines. It is likewise used for assemblies of pious persons, in manner of fraternities.
CONGREGATIONALISTS, in church-history, a sect of protestants who reject all church-government, except that of a single congregation.
CONGRESS, in political affairs, an assembly of commissioners, envoys, deputies, &c. from several courts meeting to concert matters for their common good.
CONGRESS, in a judicial sense, the trial made by appointment of a judge, before surgeons and matrons, in order to prove whether or no a man be impotent, before sentence is passed for the dissolution of a marriage, solicited upon such a complaint.
CONGRUITY, a suitableness or relation of agreement between things.
The terms congruity and propriety are not applicable to any single object: they imply a plurality, and obviously signify a particular relation between different objects. Thus we say currently, that a decent garb is suitable or proper for a judge, modest behaviour for a young woman, and a lofty style for an epic poem: and, on the other hand, that it is unsuitable or incongruous to see a little woman sunk in an overgrown farthingale, a coat richly embroidered covering coarse and dirty linen, a mean subject in an elevated style, an elevated subject in a mean style, a first minister darning his wife's stocking, or a reverend prelate in lawn sleeves dancing a hornpipe.
The perception we have of this relation, which seems peculiar to man, cannot proceed from any other cause, but from a sense of congruity or propriety; for, supposing us destitute of that sense, the terms would be to us unintelligible.
It is a matter of experience, that congruity or propriety, where-ever perceived, is agreeable; and that incongruity or impropriety, where-ever perceived, is disagreeable. The only difficulty is, to ascertain what are the particular objects that in conjunction suggests these relations; for there are many objects that do not: the sea, for example, viewed in conjunction with a picture, or a man viewed in conjunction with a mountain, suggest not either congruity or incongruity. It seems natural to infer, what will be found true by induction, that we never perceive congruity nor incongruity but among things that are connected together by some relation; such as a man and his actions, a principal and its accessories, a subject and its ornaments. We are indeed so framed by nature, as among things so connected, to require a certain suitableness or correspondence, termed congruity or propriety; and to be displeased when we find the opposite relation of incongruity or impropriety.
If things connected be the subject of congruity, it is reasonable beforehand to expect, that a degree of congruity should be required proportioned to the degree of the connection. And upon examination we find this to hold in fact: where the relation is intimate, as between a cause and its effect, a whole and its parts, we require the strictest congruity; but where the relation is slight, or accidental, as among things jumbled together in the same place, we require little or no congruity: the strictest propriety is required in behaviour and manner of living; because a man is connected with these by the relation of cause and effect: the relation between an edifice and the ground it stands upon, is of the most intimate kind, and therefore the situation of a great house ought to be lofty; its relation to neighbouring hills, rivers, plains, being that of propinquity only, demands but a small share of congruity: among members of the same club, the congruity ought to be considerable, as well as among things placed for show in the same niche: among passengers in a stage-coach, we require very little congruity; and less still at a public spectacle.
Congruity is so nearly allied to beauty, as commonly to be held a species of it; and yet they differ so essentially, as never to coincide: beauty, like colour, is placed upon a single subject; congruity upon a plurality: further, a thing beautiful in itself, may, with relation to other things, produce the strongest sense of incongruity.
Congruity and propriety are commonly reckoned synonymous terms; but they are distinguishable; and the precise meaning of each must be ascertained. Congruity is the genus, of which propriety is a species; for we call nothing propriety, but that congruity or suitableness, which ought to subsist between sensible beings and their thoughts, words, and actions.
In order to give a full view of these secondary relations, we shall trace them through some of the most considerable primary relations. The relation of a part to the whole, being extremely intimate, demands the utmost degree of congruity; even the slightest deviation is disguisful.
Examples of congruity and incongruity are furnished in plenty by the relation between a subject and its ornaments. A literary performance intended merely for amusement, is susceptible of much ornament, as well as a music-room, or a play-house; for in gaiety, the mind hath a peculiar relish for show and decoration. The most gorgeous apparel, however improper in tragedy, is not unsuitable to opera-actors: the truth is, an opera, in its present form, is a mighty fine thing; but as it deviates from nature in its capital circumstances, we look not for nature.
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LOGIC. 989two predicates may be affirmed feverally of each fubje£f,whence we have four diftindl propofitions. The otherfurniffies an example of the negative kind, where thefame predicate being disjoined from both fubjedts, maybe alfo denied of them in feparate propofitions.The other fpecies of compound propofitions are thofecalled disjunctives; in which, comparing feveral predicateswith the fame fubjedt, we affirm that one of them neceffa-rily belongs toit, but leave theparticularpredicateundeter-mined. If any one, for example, fays, 'This world eitherexijfs of itfelf, or is the work of fame all •wife and powerfulcaufe; it is evident, that one of the two predicates muftbelong to the world ; but as the propofition determinesnot which, it is therefore of the kind we call disjuntlive.Such too are the following. The fun either moves roundthe earth, or is the centre about which the earth revolver.Friendjhip finds men equal, or makes themfo. It is thenature of all propofitions of this clafs, fuppofing them tobe exadt in point of form, that upon determining the par¬ticular predicate, the reft are of courfe to be removed;or if all the predicates but one are removed, that one ne-ceffarily takes place. Thus in the example given a-bove ; if we allow the world to be the work of fome wifeand powerful caufe, we of courfe deny it to be felf-exift-«nt; or if we deny it to be felf exiftent, we muft neceffarilyadmit that it was produced by fome wife and powerfulcaufe. Now this particular manner of linking the predi¬cates together, fo that the eftablifhing of one difplaces allthe reft, or the excluding all but one neceffarily eftablifhesthat one, cannot otherwife be effected than by means ofdisjunctive particles. And hence it is, that propofitionsof this clafs take their name from thefe particles, whichmake fo neceflary a part of them, and indeed conftitute•their very nature confidcred as a diftindl fpecies.Of the divifion of proportions into felf evident anddemonjlrable.When any propofition is offered to the view of themind, if the terms in which it is expreffed areunderftood ;upon comparing the ideas together, the agreement or dif-agreement afferted is either immediately perceived, orfound to lie beyond the prefent reach of the underftand-ing. In the firft cafe, the propofition is faid to be felfe-vident, and admits not of any proof, becaufe a bare at¬tention to the ideas themfelves produces full convidlionand certainty ; nor is it poflible to call in any thing moreevident, by way of confirmation. But where the con-nedtion or repugnance comes not fo readily under the in-fpedlion of the mind, there we muft have recourfe to rea¬foning.; and if by a clear feries of proofs we can makeout the truth propofed, infbmuch that felf-evidence (hallaccompany every ftep of the procedure, we are then ableto demonstrate what we affert, and the propofition iifelfis laid tabs demonjlrable. When we affirm, for inftance,that it is impojjiblefor the fame thing to be and not to be ;whoever underftands the terms made ufe of, perceives atfirft glance the truth of what is afferted; nor can he byany efforts bring himfelf to believe the contrary. Thepropofition therefore is felf evident, and fuch that it isimpoffible by reafoning to make it plainer ; becaufe thereas no truth more obvious, or better known, from whichVol. II. No. 68. 2as a conference it may be deduced. But if we fay.This world had a beginning; the affection is indeed e-qually true, but fhines not forth with the fame degree ofevidence. We find a great difficulty in conceiving howthe world could be made out of nothing ; and are notbrought to a free and full confent, until by reafoning weairive at a clear view of the abfurdity involved in thecontrary fuppofition. Hence this propofition is of thekind we cal! demonjlrable, in as much as its truth is notimmediately perceived by the mind, but yet may be madeappear by means of others more known and obvious,whence it follows as an unavoidable conference.From what has been faid it appears, that reafoning isemployed only about demonftrable propofitions, and thatour intuitive and felf evident perceptions are the ultimatefoundation on which it refts.Self-evident propofitions furniffi the firft principles ofreafoning; and it is certain, that if in our refearcheswe employ only fuch principles as have this charafter offelf evidence, and apply them according to the rules tobe afterwards explained, we fhall be in no danger of er¬ror in advancing from one difeovery to another. Forthis we may appeal to the writings of the mathematicians,which being conducted by the exprefs model here men¬tioned, are an inconteftable proof of the firmnefs andliability of human knowledge, when built upon fo fore afoundation. For not only have the propofitions of thisfcience flood the tell of ages; but are found attended withthat invincible evidence, as forces the affent of all whoduly confider the proofs upon which they are eftablilhed.Firft then it is to be obferved, that they have beenvery careful in afeertaining their ideas, and fixing the fig-nification of their terms. For this purpofe they beginwith definitions, in which the meaning of their words isfo diftindly explained, that they cannot fail to excite inthe mind the very fame ideas as are annexed to them bythe writer. And indeed the dearnefs and irrefiftable e-vidence of mathematical knowledge is owing to nothingfo much as this care in laying the foundation. Wherethe relation between any two ideas is accurately and juft-Iy traced, it will not be difficult for another to compre¬hend that relation, if, in fetting himfelf to difeover it, hebrings the very fame ideas into comparifon. But if, onthe contrary, he affixes to his words ideas different fromthofe that were in the mind of him who firft advanced thedemonftration ; it is evident, that, as the fame ideas arenot compared, the fame relation cannot fobfift, infomuchthat a propofition will be rejefted as falfe, which, hadthe terms been tightly underffood, muft have appearedunexceptionably true. A fquare, for Inftance, is a figurebounded by four equal right lines, joined together atright angles Here the nature of the angles makes nolefs a part of the idea, than the equality of the fides;and many properties demonftr^ted of the fquare flow en¬tirely from its being a re&angniar figure. If thereforewe fnppofe a man, who has formed a partial notion of afquare, comprehending only the equality of its fideswithout regard to the angles, reading fome demonftrationthat implies allb this latter confideration ; it is plain hewould reject it as not univerfally true, in as much as itcould not be applied where the fides were joined to-10 R. gether
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two predicates may be affirmed severally of each subject, whence we have four distinct propositions. The other furnishes an example of the negative kind, where the same predicate being disjoined from both subjects, may be also denied of them in separate propositions.
The other species of compound propositions are those called disjunctives; in which, comparing several predicates with the same subject, we affirm that one of them necessarily belongs to it, but leave the particular predicate undetermined. If any one, for example, says, This world either exists of itself, or is the work of some all-wise and powerful cause; it is evident, that one of the two predicates must belong to the world; but as the proposition determines not which, it is therefore of the kind we call disjunctive. Such too are the following. The sun either moves round the earth, or is the centre about which the earth revolves. Friendship finds men equal, or makes them so. It is the nature of all propositions of this class, supposing them to be exact in point of form, that upon determining the particular predicate, the rest are of course to be removed; or if all the predicates but one are removed, that one necessarily takes place. Thus in the example given above; if we allow the world to be the work of some wise and powerful cause, we of course deny it to be self-existent; or if we deny it to be self-existent, we must necessarily admit that it was produced by some wise and powerful cause. Now this particular manner of linking the predicates together, so that the establishing of one displaces all the rest, or the excluding all but one necessarily establishes that one, cannot otherwise be effected than by means of disjunctive particles. And hence it is, that propositions of this class take their name from these particles, which make so necessary a part of them, and indeed constitute their very nature considered as a distinct species.
Of the division of propositions into self-evident and demonstrable.
When any proposition is offered to the view of the mind, if the terms in which it is expressed are understood; upon comparing the ideas together, the agreement or disagreement asserted is either immediately perceived, or found to lie beyond the present reach of the understanding. In the first case, the proposition is said to be self-evident, and admits not of any proof, because a bare attention to the ideas themselves produces full conviction and certainty; nor is it possible to call in any thing more evident, by way of confirmation. But where the connection or repugnance comes not so readily under the inspection of the mind, there we must have recourse to reasoning; and if by a clear series of proofs we can make out the truth proposed, insomuch that self-evidence shall accompany every step of the procedure, we are then able to demonstrate what we assert, and the proposition itself is said to be demonstrable. When we affirm, for instance, that it is impossible for the same thing to be and not to be; whoever understands the terms made use of, perceives at first glance the truth of what is asserted; nor can he by any efforts bring himself to believe the contrary. The proposition therefore is self-evident, and such that it is impossible by reasoning to make it plainer; because there is no truth more obvious, or better known, from which as a consequence it may be deduced. But if we say, This world had a beginning; the assertion is indeed equally true, but shines not forth with the same degree of evidence. We find a great difficulty in conceiving how the world could be made out of nothing; and are not brought to a free and full consent, until by reasoning we arrive at a clear view of the absurdity involved in the contrary supposition. Hence this proposition is of the kind we call demonstrable, in as much as its truth is not immediately perceived by the mind, but yet may be made appear by means of others more known and obvious, whence it follows as an unavoidable consequence.
From what has been said it appears, that reasoning is employed only about demonstrable propositions, and that our intuitive and self-evident perceptions are the ultimate foundation on which it rests.
Self-evident propositions furnish the first principles of reasoning; and it is certain, that if in our researches we employ only such principles as have this character of self evidence, and apply them according to the rules to be afterwards explained, we shall be in no danger of error in advancing from one discovery to another. For this we may appeal to the writings of the mathematicians, which being conducted by the express model here mentioned, are an incontestable proof of the firmness and stability of human knowledge, when built upon so sure a foundation. For not only have the propositions of this science stood the test of ages; but are found attended with that invincible evidence, as forces the assent of all who duly consider the proofs upon which they are established.
First then it is to be observed, that they have been very careful in ascertaining their ideas, and fixing the signification of their terms. For this purpose they begin with definitions, in which the meaning of their words is so distinctly explained, that they cannot fail to excite in the mind the very same ideas as are annexed to them by the writer. And indeed the clearness and irresistible evidence of mathematical knowledge is owing to nothing so much as this care in laying the foundation. Where the relation between any two ideas is accurately and justly traced, it will not be difficult for another to comprehend that relation, if, in setting himself to discover it, he brings the very same ideas into comparison. But if, on the contrary, he affixes to his words ideas different from those that were in the mind of him who first advanced the demonstration; it is evident, that, as the same ideas are not compared, the same relation cannot subsist, infomuch that a proposition will be rejected as false, which, had the terms been rightly understood, must have appeared unexceptionably true. A square, for instance, is a figure bounded by four equal right lines, joined together at right angles. Here the nature of the angles makes no less a part of the idea, than the equality of the sides; and many properties demonstrated of the square flow entirely from its being a rectangular figure. If therefore we suppose a man, who has formed a partial notion of a square, comprehending only the equality of its sides without regard to the angles, reading some demonstration that implies also this latter consideration; it is plain he would reject it as not universally true, in as much as it could not be applied where the sides were joined together.
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B L ABLAYE, afortrefs of Guienne, in France, fituated onthe river Garonne, about twenty-one miles north ofBourdeaux; W. long. 4.5', and N. lat. 45° 70VThe intention of it is, to hinder any Ihip from go¬ing to Bourdeaux without permiflion.BLAZE, a white fpot in a horfe’s face.Blaze. See Blare.BLAZONING, or Blazonry, in heraldry, thedecy-phering the arms of noble families.The word originally fignified the blowing or wind-B L Eing of a horn, and was introduced into heraldry as aterm denoting the defeription of things borne in arms^with their proper fignifications and intendments, froman ancient cuftom the heralds, who were judges, hadof winding an horn at juds and tournaments, whenthey explained and recorded the atchievements ofknights.BLEA, in the anatomy of plants, the inner rind or bark.See Agriculture, parti;( 5^‘ )BLEACHING.BLEACHING is the art of Whitening linen cloth,thread, <bc. ; which is conduced in the followingmanner by the bleachers of this country.After the cloth has been forted into parcels'of an e-qual finenefs, as near as can be judged, they are latched,linked, and then deeped. Steeping is the fird operationwhich the cloth undergoes, * and is performed in thismanner. The linens are folded up, each piece diftimfl,and laid in a large wooden veffel; into which is thrown,blood-warm, a fufficient quantity of water, or equal partsof water and lye, which has been ufed to white cloth only,or water with rye-meal or bran mixed with it, till the wholeis thoroughly wet, and the liquor rifes over all. Then acover of wood is laid over the cloth, and that cover is fecu-red with a poll betwixt the boards and the joiding, to pre¬vent the cloth from riling during the fermentation whichenfues. About fix hours after the cloth has1 been deepedin warm water, and about twelve in cold, bubbles of airarife, a pellicle is formed on the furface of the liquor,and the cloth fwells when it is not preffed down. Thisintedine motion continues from thirty-fix to forty-eighthours, according to the warmth of the weather; aboutwhich tiny the pellicle or feum begins to fall to the bot¬tom. Ignore this precipitation happens, the cloth mull:be taken out; and the proper time for taking it out, iswhen no more air-bubbles arife. This is allowed to bethe judett guide by the mod experienced bleachers.The cloth is then taken out, well rinfed, difpofed re¬gularly by the felvage, and walhed in the put-mill tocarry off the loofe dud. After’this it is fpread on thefield to dry: When thoroughly dri6d, it is ready forbucking ; which is the fecond operation.Bucking, or the application of falts, is performed inthis njanner. The fird. or mother lye, is made in a"copper, which we fliall fuppofe, for example, when full,holds 170 Scots gallons of water. The copper is filledthree fourths full of water^ which is brought to boil:jud when it begins, the following proportion of allies isput into it, viz. 30 lb. of blue, and as much white pearl-■afnes; 2oa.Ib. of Maicoft alhes, (or, if they have not■thefe, about 300 tb. of Cafhub.) ; 300 lb. of Mufcovy,or blanch afhes ; the three lad ought to be well pounded.Vol.I. Numb. 24. 3This liquor is allowed to boil for a quarter of an hour,dirring the alhes from the bottom very often; afterwhich the lire is taken away. The liquor mud Hand tillit has fettled, which takes at lead fix hours, and then it *is fit for life.Out of their fird, or mcither-lye, the fecond, or thatufed in.bucking, is made in this manner. Into anothercopper, holding, for example, 40 Scots gallons, -are put38 gallons of water, 2 lb. foft foap, and 2 gallons ofmother-lye ; or, for cheapnefs, in place of the loap, whenthey have lye which has been ufed to white linen, called1white-linen lye, they take 14 gallons of it, leaving outan equal quantity of water. This is called bucking-lye.After the linens are taken up from the field dry, theyare fet in the vat or cave, as their large veffel is called,'in rows, endwife, that they may be equally wet bythe lye; which, made blood-warm, is now thrown onthem, and the cloth is afterwards fqueezed down by aman-with wooden (hoes. Each row undergoes the fameoperation, until the veffel is full, or all the cloth in it. Atfird the lye is put on milk-warm, and, after danding alittle time on the cloth, it is again let off by a cock intothe brcking-copper, heated to a greater degree, and thenput on the cloth again. This courfe is repeated for fixor feven hours, and the degree of heat gradually increa-fed, till it is, at the lad turn or two, thrown on boilinghot. The cloth remains after this for three or four hoursin the lye; after which the lye is let off, thrown away,or ufed in the fird buckings, and the cloth goes on to an¬other operation.It is then carried out, generally early in the morning,fpread on the grafs, pinned, corded down, expofed tothe fun and air, and watered for the fird fix hours, fooften, that it never is allowed to dry. Afterwards it isallowed to lie till dry fpots appear before it is watered.After feven at night it gets no more water, unJefs it be avery dr-ing night. Next day, in the morning and fore¬noon, it is watered twice or thrice if the day be verydry; but if the weather be not drying, it gets no wa¬ter : After which it is taken up dry if the green beclean ; if not, it is rinfed, mill-wadied, and laid out todry again, to become fit for bucking.This
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BLAYE, a fortress of Guienne, in France, situated on the river Garonne, about twenty-one miles north of Bourdeaux; W. long. 45', and N. lat. 45° 70'.
The intention of it is, to hinder any ship from going to Bourdeaux without permission.
BLAZE, a white spot in a horse's face.
BLAZE. See BLARE.
BLAZONING, or Blazonry, in heraldry, the decyphering the arms of noble families.
The word originally signified the blowing or wind-ing of a horn, and was introduced into heraldry as a term denoting the description of things borne in arms, with their proper significations and intendments, from an ancient custom the heralds, who were judges, had of winding an horn at justs and tournaments, when they explained and recorded the atchievements of knights.
BLEA, in the anatomy of plants, the inner rind or bark. See AGRICULTURE, Part I:
BLEACHING is the art of whitening linen cloth, thread, &c.; which is conducted in the following manner by the bleachers of this country.
After the cloth has been sorted into parcels of an equal fineness, as near as can be judged, they are latched, linked, and then steeped. Steeping is the first operation which the cloth undergoes, and is performed in this manner. The linens are folded up, each piece distinct, and laid in a large wooden vessel; into which is thrown, blood-warm, a sufficient quantity of water, or equal parts of water and lye, which has been used to white cloth only, or water with rye-meal or bran mixed with it, till the whole is thoroughly wet, and the liquor rises over all. Then a cover of wood is laid over the cloth, and that cover is secured with a post betwixt the boards and the joisting, to prevent the cloth from rising during the fermentation which ensues. About six hours after the cloth has been steeped in warm water, and about twelve in cold, bubbles of air arise, a pellicle is formed on the surface of the liquor, and the cloth swells when it is not pressed down. This intestine motion continues from thirty-six to forty-eight hours, according to the warmth of the weather; about which time the pellicle or scum begins to fall to the bottom. Before this precipitation happens, the cloth must be taken out; and the proper time for taking it out, is when no more air-bubbles arise. This is allowed to be the justest guide by the most experienced bleachers.
The cloth is then taken out, well rinsed, disposed regularly by the selvage, and washed in the put-mill to carry off the loose dust. After this it is spread on the field to dry: When thoroughly dried, it is ready for bucking; which is the second operation.
Bucking, or the application of salts, is performed in this manner. The first or mother lye, is made in a copper, which we shall suppose, for example, when full, holds 170 Scots gallons of water. The copper is filled three fourths full of water, which is brought to boil: just when it begins, the following proportion of ashes is put into it, viz. 30 lb. of blue, and as much white pearl-ashes; 200 lb. of Marcoft ashes, (or, if they have not these, about 300 lb. of Cashub); 300 lb. of Muscovy, or blanch ashes; the three last ought to be well pounded.
This liquor is allowed to boil for a quarter of an hour, stirring the ashes from the bottom very often; after which the fire is taken away. The liquor must stand till it has settled, which takes at least six hours, and then it is fit for use.
Out of their first, or mother-lye, the second, or that used in bucking, is made in this manner. Into another copper, holding, for example, 40 Scots gallons, are put 38 gallons of water, 2 lb. soft soap, and 2 gallons of mother-lye; or, for cheapness, in place of the soap, when they have lye which has been used to white linen, called white-linen lye, they take 14 gallons of it, leaving out an equal quantity of water. This is called bucking-lye.
After the linens are taken up from the field dry, they are set in the vat or cave, as their large vessel is called, in rows, endwise, that they may be equally wet by the lye; which, made blood-warm, is now thrown on them, and the cloth is afterwards squeezed down by a man with wooden shoes. Each row undergoes the same operation, until the vessel is full, or all the cloth in it. At first the lye is put on milk-warm, and, after standing a little time on the cloth, it is again let off by a cock into the bucking-copper, heated to a greater degree, and then put on the cloth again. This course is repeated for six or seven hours, and the degree of heat gradually increased, till it is, at the last turn or two, thrown on boiling hot. The cloth remains after this for three or four hours in the lye; after which the lye is let off, thrown away, or used in the first buckings, and the cloth goes on to another operation.
It is then carried out, generally early in the morning, spread on the grass, pinned, corded down, exposed to the sun and air, and watered for the first six hours, so often, that it never is allowed to dry. Afterwards it is allowed to lie till dry spots appear before it is watered. After seven at night it gets no more water, unless it be a very drying night. Next day, in the morning and forenoon, it is watered twice or thrice if the day be very dry; but if the weather be not drying, it gets no water: After which it is taken up dry if the green be clean; if not, it is rinsed, mill-washed, and laid out to dry again, to become fit for bucking.
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SAN (S^S) SANSANGUIFICATION, in the animal oeconomy, thc con-verfion of chyle into true blood. See Chyle.SANGUINARIA, blood-wort, in botany, a genus of thepolyandria tnonOgynia clafs. The corollaconlifts of eightpetals,, and the calix of two leaves; the pod is oval, withone ceil. There is but one fpecies, a native of America.SANGUINE, in general, fomething abounding with, orref^mbling blood See BloodSANGUIS. Se Blood.SANGUISORBA, in botany, a genus of the tetrandriamopogynia clafs. The calix hVs two leaves; and the ger-men is htuate between the calix and corolla. There arethree fpecies, only one of them, u/2r. the officinalis, orburnet, a native of Britain, the leaves of which are mildlyadringenr. ' .SANHEDRIM, among the Jews, the great council of theration, confiding of feventy fenators, taken partly fromamong ih? priefis and levites, and partly out of the in¬ferior judges, who formed what was called the lefTer fan-hedrini The room they met in was’ a rotunda, half ofwhich was. built without the temple, and half within.I'he nafi, or prefident of the fanhedrim, fat upon a throne,with his deputy on his right hand, his fub-deputy on hisleft, and the other fenators ranged in order on each fide.The authority of this council WcS very extenfive : forthey decided fuch caufes as were brought be/ore them byway of appeal from the inferior courts ; and the king,the high-priefts, and prophets, were under the jurifdiftionof this tribunal. They had the right of judging in ca¬pital cafes, and fenience of death might not be pronouo-cd in any other place ; for which reafon the Jews wereforced to quit this hall, when the power of life and deathwas taken out of iheir bands, forty years before the de-ftruffion of the temple, and three years before the deathof Chrift.There were feveral inferior faahedrims in Paleftine,each of which confifted of twenty three perfons ; albthefedepended on the great fanhedrim of Jerufalem.SANICULA, .in botany, a genus of the pentandria digyniaclafs. The umbella? are thick ; the fruit is rough ; andthe flowers of the diflc are abortive. The fpecies arethree, only one of them, r/z the europsea, or fanicle,is a native of Britain. The leaves are fdppofed to bevulnerary.SANIDIUM, in natural hiflory, the name of a genus offofiils, of the clafs of the fejenitae, but neither, of therhomboidal nor columnar kinds, nor any other way dif-tinguifiiable by its external figure, being made up of fe-veral plain flat plates.SANIES, in medicine, a ferous putrid matter, iffiuingfrom wounds ; it differs from pus, which is thicker andwhiter.SANQUHAR, a borough-town of Scotland, in the countyt of Nithfdale, twenty-one miles north of Dumfries.SANTA CLARA, an ifland in the Pacific Ocean, fituatedin the bay of Guayquil : W. long." 8o^, S. lat, 3° ^Santa CRui, a port-town on the north fide of the iflandof Cuba, in North America : W. long. 85® 30^ N. lat.22° 30'.Santa fe, the capital of New Mexico : W. long. 109°,N. lat. 36®.Santa fe de sagota, the capital of Terra Firma, inSouth America : W. long. 74®, N. lat. 4® 30'.Santa maria, a town of Terra Fit ma, in the province ofDarien, fituated on a river of the fame name, a little eadof the bay of Panama : W. long. 80°, N. lat 7® 40'.SA^rtTALUM, in botany, a genus of the oetandJ'ia mono-gynia clafs. The corolla confifis of one petal ; the ffa-mina lie upon the tube ; the fligma is fimple ; and thefruit is a berry. There is but one fpecies, a native ofIn(iia, The wood is reckoned to be attenuant and cor¬dial.SANTILLANA, a city and port-town of Spain, the ca¬pital of the eaflern Afturia, fituated on the bay of Bifcay:W. long. 5°, and N. lat. 43^ 35' <BANTOLINA, a genus of the fyngenefiapolygamik ff^qua-Jis clafs. The receptacle is paleaceous ; the pappus isvery ffiort ; and the calix is hemifpherical and imbrica¬ted. The fpecies are four, none of them natives of Bri¬tain.SANTORINI, an ifland of the Archipelago, thirty-fivemiles in circumference: E. long. 25^ N. lat. 36° 10'.SAONE, a river of France, which rifes in Lorrain", andfalls into the Rhone at Lyons.SAP, a juice furnifhed by the earth, and changed into theplant. See Agriculture, p. 45.SAPHENA, in anatomy. See Anatomy, p. 243.SAPIENZA, an ifland and cape in the mediterranean fea, •on the fouth-weft point of the Morea, E. long. 2 1$,N. lat. 36^ 45'.SAPPHIC, in poetry, a kind of verfe much ufed by theGreeks and Latins, denominated from the invcntrefs Sap¬pho. The Sapphic verfe confifts of five feet, whereofthe firft, fourth, and fifth are trochees, the fecond a fpondee,and the third a dadyl.SAPINDUS, in botany, a genus of the otflandria digyniaclafs. The calix confifts of four leaves ; and the corol¬la of four petals ; and there are three round, connate^ventricofe capfules. The fpecies are three, none of themnatives of Britain.SAPO. See Soap. *SAPONARIA, in botany, a genus of the decandriadigynia clafs. The calix confifts of one leaf, and the co-'rolla of five clawM' petals; and the.capfiile is oblong;vyith one cell. There are fix fpecies, only one of them,v/z, the officinalis, or foap-wort, a native of Britain.The root of this fpecies is fuppofed to be aperient, cor¬roborant, andfudorific. ^ ^ .SAPPHIRE, a pellucid gem, which, in its fineft ftate, isextremely beautiful and valuable, and fecond only to thediamond in luftre, hardnefs, and price. Its proper co¬lour is a pure blue ; in the fineft fpecimens it is of thedeepeft azure, and in others varies into palenefs in fliadesof all degrees, between that and a purecryftal brightnefsand water, without the leaft tinge of colour, but with aluftre much fuperior to the cryftal.. They aredlftinguifli-ed into four forts, v/z. the blue fapphire, the white fapphire, the water fapphire, and the milk fapphire.The gem known to us by this name is extremely dif¬ferent from the fapphire of the ancients, vvhtah was onlya femi-opake ftone, of a deep blue, veined with white,and fpotted with fmall gold-coloured fpangles, in theform of ftars, and was only .a more beautiful kind of thelapis lazuli : but our fapphire they have deferibed underthe name of beryllus aeroides, or the ffiy blue beryl. •The fineft fapphires in the world are brought from thekingdem;
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SANGUIFICATION, in the animal economy, the conversion of chyle into true blood. See Chyle.
SANGUINARIA, blood-wort, in botany, a genus of the polyandria monogynia class. The corolla consists of eight petals, and the calix of two leaves; the pod is oval, with one cell. There is but one species, a native of America.
SANGUINE, in general, something abounding with, or resembling blood. See Blood.
SANGUIS. See Blood.
SANGUISORBA, in botany, a genus of the tetrandria monogynia class. The calix has two leaves; and the germen is situate between the calix and corolla. There are three species, only one of them, viz. the officinalis, or burnet, a native of Britain, the leaves of which are mildly astringent.
SANHEDRIM, among the Jews, the great council of the nation, consisting of seventy senators, taken partly from among the priests and levites, and partly out of the inferior judges, who formed what was called the lesser sanhedrim. The room they met in was a rotunda, half of which was built without the temple, and half within. The nasi, or president of the sanhedrim, sat upon a throne, with his deputy on his right hand, his sub-deputy on his left, and the other senators ranged in order on each side.
The authority of this council was very extensive: for they decided such causes as were brought before them by way of appeal from the inferior courts; and the king, the high-priests, and prophets, were under the jurisdiction of this tribunal. They had the right of judging in capital cases, and sentence of death might not be pronounced in any other place; for which reason the Jews were forced to quit this hall, when the power of life and death was taken out of their hands, forty years before the destruction of the temple, and three years before the death of Christ.
There were several inferior sanhedrims in Palestine, each of which consisted of twenty-three persons; all these depended on the great sanhedrim of Jerusalem.
SANICULA, in botany, a genus of the pentandria digynia class. The umbellae are thick; the fruit is rough; and the flowers of the disk are abortive. The species are three, only one of them, viz. the europæa, or sanicle, is a native of Britain. The leaves are supposed to be vulnerary.
SANIDIUM, in natural history, the name of a genus of fossils, of the class of the selenitæ, but neither of the rhomboidal nor columnar kinds, nor any other way distinguishable by its external figure, being made up of several plain flat plates.
SANIES, in medicine, a serous putrid matter, issuing from wounds; it differs from pus, which is thicker and whiter.
SANQUHAR, a borough-town of Scotland, in the county of Nithsdale, twenty-one miles north of Dumfries.
SANTA CLARA, an island in the Pacific Ocean, situated in the bay of Guayquil: W. long. 80°, S. lat, 3° 15′.
SANTA CRUZ, a port-town on the north side of the island of Cuba, in North America: W. long. 85° 30′, N. lat. 22° 30′.
SANTA FE, the capital of New Mexico: W. long. 109°, N. lat. 36°.
SANTA FE DE BAGOTA, the capital of Terra Firma, in South America: W. long. 74°, N. lat. 4° 30′.
Santa Maria, a town of Terra Firma, in the province of Darien, situated on a river of the same name, a little east of the bay of Panama: W. long. 80°, N. lat. 7° 40′.
Santalum, in botany, a genus of the ochandria monogynia class. The corolla consists of one petal; the stamina lie upon the tube; the sigma is simple; and the fruit is a berry. There is but one species, a native of India. The wood is reckoned to be attenuant and cordial.
Santillana, a city and port-town of Spain, the capital of the eastern Asturia, situated on the bay of Biscay: W. long. 5°, and N. lat. 43° 35′.
Santolina, a genus of the syngenesia polygamia aqualis class. The receptacle is paleaceous; the pappus is very short; and the calix is hemispherical and imbricated. The species are four, none of them natives of Britain.
Santorini, an island of the Archipelago, thirty-five miles in circumference: E. long. 25° 35′, N. lat. 36° 10′.
Saone, a river of France, which rises in Lorrain, and falls into the Rhone at Lyons.
SAP, a juice furnished by the earth, and changed into the plant. See Agriculture, p. 45.
Saphena, in anatomy. See Anatomy, p. 243.
Sapienza, an island and cape in the Mediterranean sea, on the south-west point of the Morea, E. long. 21° 15′, N. lat. 36° 45′.
Sapphic, in poetry, a kind of verse much used by the Greeks and Latins, denominated from the inventress Sappho. The Sapphic verse consists of five feet, whereof the first, fourth, and fifth are trochees, the second a spondee, and the third a dactyl.
Sapindus, in botany, a genus of the ochandria digynia class. The calix consists of four leaves; and the corolla of four petals; and there are three round, connate, ventricose capsules. The species are three, none of them natives of Britain.
Sapo. See Soap.
Saponaria, in botany, a genus of the decandria digynia class. The calix consists of one leaf, and the corolla of five clawed petals; and the capsule is oblong; with one cell. There are six species, only one of them, viz. the officinalis, or soap-wort, a native of Britain. The root of this species is supposed to be aperient, corroborant, and sudorific.
Sapphire, a pellucid gem, which, in its finest state, is extremely beautiful and valuable, and second only to the diamond in lustre, hardness, and price. Its proper colour is a pure blue; in the finest specimens it is of the deepest azure, and in others varies into paleness in shades of all degrees, between that and a pure crystal brightness and water, without the least tinge of colour, but with a lustre much superior to the crystal. They are distinguished into four sorts, viz. the blue sapphire, the white sapphire, the water sapphire, and the milk sapphire.
The gem known to us by this name is extremely different from the sapphire of the ancients, which was only a semi-opake stone, of a deep blue, veined with white, and spotted with small gold-coloured spangles, in the form of stars, and was only a more beautiful kind of the lapis lazuli: but our sapphire they have described under the name of beryllus aeroides, or the sky-blue beryl.
The finest sapphires in the world are brought from the kingdom.
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M E D Irentine orris, an ounce; of dried red rofes, a dramand a half. Infufe thefe, after they have been cutand bruifed, in two quarts of fmall ale; and let thepatient drink a glafs oF thecolature twice a-day, withthe quantity of a nutmeg of the following eleduary:2. Take of the powder of the Peruvian bark, (ix drams;of falfafras bark in powder, tw'o ounces. Make theminto an eledluary with afuflicient quantity of the fyrupof fugar.Dr Fothergill has likewdfe long given the bark in fcro-phulous dlforders, and affirms that it may not only be givenwith fafety, but to manifeft advantage in many pf thefecafes.He gives the bark in a liquid form, in the followingmanner :5. Take of Peruvian bark in powder, an ounce; andboil it in a quart of pure w'ater to a pint. Towardsthe end, add of fliced liquorice-root half an ounce.To the colature add of nutmeg-water two ounces,and mix them. The dofe is two, three, or fourfpoonfuls, with ten, twenty, to forty drops of thevolatile tindure of guaiacum, twice or thrice in aday.A fmall quantity of winter’s bark, added to this me¬dicine, gives it a grateful warmth, and renders a quantityof the compound water lefs neceffary ; and a little li¬quorice, a few raifins, gum arable, or the like, added tothe decodlion before it is taken off the fire, by makingthe liquor vifeid, enables it to fufpend more of the fineparticles of the bark, and at the fame time renders it lefsdifagreeable.The fwellings of the joints, commonly called white-fw'eliings, are of the ftrumous kind, and of two forts :they are both made by congefiion, and increafe gradually;the one arifes externally upon the tendons, and betweenthem and the ffiin, or between them and the bone ; theoiber internally, within the bone itfelf.That which arifes externally affeds the ligaments andtendons firft; and fometimes relaxes them to fuch a de¬gree, that the heads of the joints frequently feparate onefrom 'another, and the member waftes away and growsnfelels. But moft commonly the humours, by over-moifiening the ligaments and tendons, produce a weak-nefs and uneafinels in the joints, railing a tumour exter¬nally, and, in its progrefs, the membranes and bones arecorroded by the humour.. It will be more certain thatthe tumour is the offspring of the king’s evil, if there are.firumous fymptoms in any other part of the bodyIn order to the cure, in the beginning of the fluxion,apply aftringent and drying plaflers of red lead and bole,with moderate bandage, and place the member in fuch apofiilon as may prevent the defcent.of the humours. Theinternal remedies maybe the fame as in the general cure.Gheync and Allen fay, water pumped on the tumour is acertain remedy.Of the Cancer.A Cancer is a hard, round, unequal, painful, and ge-nerHlly-immoveable tumour, of a livid, blackifh, or leadencolour, furrounded with fwtlled, crooked, varicous vef-CINE. 1-9fels, in fome fort refembling the feet of a crab, fromwhence this tumour takes its name.A cancer is either occult or manifeff. An occultbegins at firff with a fmall and almoft indolent tur*«our, a-bout the fize of a pea, or a hazle-mut, which does notchange the colour of the fkin, and fometimes lies dormantfor feveral years without making any progrefs,*But as foon as the virulent humour begins to be¬come more a<5live, the .fmall tubercle becomes all of afudden a large, round, livid tumour, with an unequalfuperficies. It is generally attended wuth an intenfeffiooting pain. At length it begins to eat and breakthrough the fldn, and lo becomes a mamfefl of iflceratedcancer, from whence proceeds a fordid, vifeid, bloody,fanious or ichorous matter, attended with an inlupportabieffenchThough a cancer may infeff any part of the body, kgenerally appears in the breafts, armpits, behind the ears,in the lips, nofe, and private parts: women are more fub-jea to them than men. Its general feat is the glands,and is a-kin to a feirrhus,An occult cancer is known to be formed, when, afterthe figns of a preceedmg feirrhus,' a titiilatiori, itching,heat, rednefs, are gradually perceived, with a fliooting^burning, pricking pain. The colour of the fldn likewiTechanges from a carnation to a deep red ; then it becomespurple, blueifli, livid, and at length black: The partfeels very hard, unequal, and rough ; then ir rifes withan apex in the middle; the fwelling increafes, and the.adjacent veins become tumid, knotty, varicous, thick,,and black.When it begins to break, the fldn is excoriated, andthere tranfudes through it a thin fliarp ichor.After this the found veffels on the edges of the cancer^being diftended by the rifing of the turngur, are broken ;hence arifes a putrefatfHon, which turns into a fubti3>fliarp, fetid, cadaverous fanies, which, corroding and-eating away the found parts, makes a progrefs in depthas well asdn circumference, and fends forth malignantroots, by which it takes faft hold ; the lips become tumid,parched,^ and ofTenfive to the fight; the pain is intoler^able, with a fenfe of burning, pricking, and gnawing;the colour becomes cineritious, livid and black. After-W'ards arifeoccult cancers communicating with the glands*haemorrhages; convulfions; a flow fever ; a generalwafting; lofsof fmell; callous tubercles in the ears with¬out pain ; fainting fits. The parts being thus eaten a-;way and confumed, death enfues.In perfonsof a good habit, an occult cancer may bepretty eaGlyborne; but if it bedifturbed, the precedingravage muft be expelled.A fmall, incipient, free cancer, feated in a fuitableplace-, not joining to large veffels, arifing from an ex¬ternal caufe, in a juvenile, found body, and being theonly one in .the body, fliould be extirpated without delaysOutward applications of all kinds,. except the plum^beous and narcotic, are to be fliunned, becaufe they h^vea tendency to ulcerate an occult cancer.If the cancer be large, old, adherent, in a place unaptfor extirpation, growing to or lying upon large veffels
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rentine orris, an ounce; of dried red roses, a dram and a half. Infuse these, after they have been cut and bruised, in two quarts of small ale; and let the patient drink a glass of the colature twice a day, with the quantity of a nutmeg of the following elecuary:
2. Take of the powder of the Peruvian bark, six drams; of sasafras bark in powder, two ounces. Make them into an elecuary with a sufficient quantity of the syrup of sugar.
Dr Fothergill has likewise long given the bark in scrophulous disorders, and affirms that it may not only be given with safety, but to manifest advantage in many of these cases.
He gives the bark in a liquid form, in the following manner:
3. Take of Peruvian bark in powder, an ounce; and boil it in a quart of pure water to a pint. Towards the end, add of sliced liquorice-root half an ounce. To the colature add of nutmeg-water two ounces, and mix them. The dose is two, three, or four spoonfuls, with ten, twenty, to forty drops of the volatile tincture of guaiacum, twice or thrice in a day.
A small quantity of winter's bark, added to this medicine, gives it a grateful warmth, and renders a quantity of the compound water less necessary; and a little liquorice, a few raisins, gum arabic, or the like, added to the decoction before it is taken off the fire, by making the liquor viscid, enables it to suspend more of the fine particles of the bark, and at the same time renders it less disagreeable.
The swellings of the joints, commonly called white-swellings, are of the strumous kind, and of two sorts: they are both made by congestion, and increase gradually; the one arises externally upon the tendons, and between them and the skin, or between them and the bone; the other internally, within the bone itself.
That which arises externally affects the ligaments and tendons first; and sometimes relaxes them to such a degree, that the heads of the joints frequently separate one from another, and the member wastes away and grows useless. But most commonly the humours, by over-moistening the ligaments and tendons, produce a weakness and uneasiness in the joints, raising a tumour externally, and, in its progress, the membranes and bones are corroded by the humour. It will be more certain that the tumour is the offspring of the king’s evil, if there are strumous symptoms in any other part of the body.
In order to the cure, in the beginning of the fluxion, apply astringent and drying plasters of red lead and bole, with moderate bandage, and place the member in such a position as may prevent the descent of the humours. The internal remedies may be the same as in the general cure. Cheyne and Allen say, water pumped on the tumour is a certain remedy.
Of the Cancer.
A cancer is a hard, round, unequal, painful, and generally immoveable tumour, of a livid, blackish, or leaden colour, surrounded with swelled, crooked, varicous velvets, in some sort resembling the feet of a crab, from whence this tumour takes its name.
A cancer is either occult or manifest. An occult begins at first with a small and almost indolent tumour, about the size of a pea, or a hazle-nut, which does not change the colour of the skin, and sometimes lies dormant for several years without making any progress.
But as soon as the virulent humour begins to become more active, the small tubercle becomes all of a sudden a large, round, livid tumour, with an unequal superficies. It is generally attended with an intense shooting pain. At length it begins to eat and break through the skin, and so becomes a manifest or ulcerated cancer, from whence proceeds a sordid, viscid, bloody, farious or ichorous matter, attended with an insupportable stench.
Though a cancer may infest any part of the body, it generally appears in the breasts, armpits, behind the ears, in the lips, nose, and private parts: women are more subject to them than men. Its general seat is the glands, and is a-kin to a scirrhus.
An occult cancer is known to be formed, when, after the signs of a preceeding scirrhus, a titillation, itching, heat, redness, are gradually perceived, with a shooting, burning, pricking pain. The colour of the skin likewise changes from a carnation to a deep red; then it becomes purple, blueish, livid, and at length black: The part feels very hard, unequal, and rough; then it rises with an apex in the middle; the swelling increases, and the adjacent veins become tumid, knotty, varicous, thick, and black.
When it begins to break, the skin is excoriated, and there transudes through it a thin sharp ichor.
After this the sound vessels on the edges of the cancer, being distended by the rising of the tumour, are broken; hence arises a putrefaction, which turns into a subtil, sharp, setid, cadaverous sanies, which, corroding and eating away the sound parts, makes a progress in depth as well as in circumference, and sends forth malignant roots, by which it takes fast hold; the lips become tumid, parched, and offensive to the sight; the pain is intolerable, with a sense of burning, pricking, and gnawing; the colour becomes cineritious, livid and black. Afterwards arise occult cancers communicating with the glands; haemorrhages; convulsions; a slow fever; a general wasting; loss of smell; callous tubercles in the ears without pain; sainting fits. The parts being thus eaten away and consumed, death ensues.
In persons of a good habit, an occult cancer may be pretty easily borne; but if it be disturbed, the preceding ravage must be expected.
A small, incipient, free cancer, seated in a suitable place, not joining to large vessels, arising from an external cause, in a juvenile, sound body, and being the only one in the body, should be extirpated without delay.
Outward applications of all kinds, except the plumbeous and narcotic, are to be shunned, because they have a tendency to ulcerate an occult cancer.
If the cancer be large, old, adherent, in a place unapt for extirpation, growing to or lying upon large vessels arising.
|
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|
|
2
|
C-L
| 810
|
815
| 93
|
Normal
| 2,474
| 3,337
|
HYDROSTATICS.815HYDROSTATICAL TABLES.3 Inches diameter.gf Inches diameter.5 Inches diameter.Inches diameter.Feet high. |Solidityin cubicinches.Weightin .ToyIn avoirdupoifeounces.Solidityin cubicinches.Weightin Troyounces.In avoirdupoifeounces.hrSolidityin cubicinches.Weight: in Trovounces.In avoirdupoifeounces.Solidityin cubicinches.Weightin Troyounces.In avoirdupoifeounces.234584.8169.6254-5239-3424.144.768953t 34-29179-06223.8249.1698.31147.47199.63245-782345115-4230.9346.4461.8577-360.9121.8182.8243-7304.666.9133.8200.7267.6334-523452 35.6471-2706.8942.51178.1124.3248.7373-o497-4621.8136.5273-1409.6546.2682.72345285.157°-2855.31140.41425-5'50.5300.945'-4601.8752.2164.3328.5492-8657.1921-3678910508.9593-7698.6763-4848.2268.583'3-35358. it402.87447.64294.94344-10393-25442.4149'-57678910692.7808.2923.61039.11154.5365-6426.5487.4548.j609.2401.4468.4535-3602.2669.1.678910'413-71649.31884.92120.62356.2746.1870.4994-81119.11243.4819.3955.81092.41228.91365.56789'O,1710.6'995-72280.82565.92851.0902.71053.21203.6'354-'1504-6985.6"49-9'3'4-21478.4'642.7203040SO601696.52244-73392-94241-15089.4895.281342.921790.562238.192685:83983-'4'474-701966.272457-842949.4120304050602309.13465.64618.15772-76927.21218.61827.91437-13046.43655 71338.22007.22676.33345-44014.5203040506047'2-47068.69424.811781.614I37-22486.93730.34973-86217.27460.62730.94096.45461.96827.38192.820304050605702.08553-011404.0'4255-017106.03009.14513-76018.27522.99027.43285.44928.1657088213.59856.2| 8 80 005937-66785.87634-18482.316964.63133-473581.114028.754476.398953.783440.983932-554424-124915 689821.367080901002008081.79256.310390.811545-42 ,090.74265.64874-35485.66092.913185.74683.65352.66021.76690.813381.57°8090IOO20016493-418849.621205.823562.047134.08704.19947-511191.012434-424868.89558.310923.712289.213654-7i 27309.3708090IOO200.'9957-o22808.025659.028510.057020.0.10531.9I20,$.513541-1'5°45-I30091.2M 498.913141.6I4784-316426.932853-94 inches diameter.4-^ Inches diameter.6 Inches diameter.6t Inches diameter.1345150.8301.6452*4603.2754-079.6159.22,8.7318.;■ 497-987.4174.8262.2349-6436.912345190.8381.7572 6763.4954-3100.7201.4302.2402.9503.6110.6221.233'-8442-4553-012345337-3698.61017.9i?57.21696.5179.0358.1537-2716.2895.3196.6393-3589.9786.5983.1234‘5398.2797-41195.6'59>8'99'-9210.1420.3630.484O.6IOJO.8230.7461.4692.1922.8irj3-66789904.81055.61206.41357-21508.0477-5557-1636.6716.2795-8524.3611.7699.1 .786.5873-9678910II45-I1337.91526.817i 7-71908.5604.3705.0805.7906.51007.2663.6774-28848995-41106 06789102035-72375-027I4-33053-63392-91074-31253.414 ',2.41611.51790-61179-81 *76.401769.61966.36789102.390.12788.331S6.53584.7398201260.9I47I.I1.681.21891.32IOI.5'384-31615.01845-72076.42307.120304050603JI5.9452 3.96631.97539-89047.8159'-62387.43183.23997-o4774-8'747-82621.73495-64369.55243-420304050603817.05725.67644.17542.611451-12014.43021.64028.75035 96043.1381* 8 !4424.15530.166.6.2 !203°40506c6785.810178.8I357I.716964.62^57.53581.15371-77162.28953.810743-33932-55898.87865.19831.411797.6203°40' 50607965.811941.8'J9j'"719914.62.897.64202.96504.4■ 8405.910507:412608.94614.36921.49228.6"535-715842.9708090IOO20010555.812063.7'3571-7I 5079-730159-35570.66366.47162.27958.015916.06117.36991.27865.18739-I17478.270809010020013359-615268.217176.719085.238170.47050.38057.59064.7T007I,92014 ,37742.2 |8848 2 j9954-3 !11060.3 !22120.6 1708090IOO20c2 750.527143.430536.3; 929.267858.112533-914324-416115.017905.635811-2'3763-915730 217696.519662.739325-4708090IOO20027880.531863.435846.339829.379658.6I47IO.416811.818913-321014.842029.616150.018457.220764.323071-546143.0If
|
HYDROSTATIC TABLES.
3 Inches diameter.
| Feet high. | Solidity in cubic inches. | Weight in Toy ounces. | In avoir dupoise ounces. |
| :--- | :--- | :--- | :--- |
| 1 | 84.8 | 44.76 | 49.16 |
| 2 | 169.6 | 89.53 | 98.31 |
| 3 | 254.5 | 134.29 | 147.47 |
| 4 | 239.3 | 179.06 | 199.63 |
| 5 | 424.1 | 223.82 | 245.78 |
| 6 | 508.9 | 268.58 | 294.94 |
| 7 | 593.7 | 313.35 | 344.10 |
| 8 | 698.6 | 358.11 | 393.25 |
| 9 | 763.4 | 402.87 | 442.41 |
| 10 | 848.2 | 447.64 | 491.57 |
| 10 | 1696.5 | 895.28 | 983.14 |
| 10 | 2244.7 | 1342.92 | 1474.70 |
| 10 | 3392.9 | 1790.56 | 1966.27 |
| 10 | 4241.1 | 2238.19 | 2457.84 |
| 10 | 5089.4 | 2685.83 | 2949.41 |
| 10 | 5937.6 | 3133.47 | 3440.98 |
| 10 | 6785.8 | 3581.11 | 3932.55 |
| 10 | 7634.1 | 4028.75 | 4424.12 |
| 10 | 8482.3 | 4476.39 | 4915.68 |
| 10 | 16964.6 | 8952.78 | 9821.36 |
4 Inches diameter.
| Feet high. | Solidity in cubic inches. | Weight in Toy ounces. | In avoir dupoise ounces. |
| :--- | :--- | :--- | :--- |
| 1 | 150.8 | 79.6 | 87.4 |
| 2 | 301.6 | 159.2 | 174.8 |
| 3 | 452.4 | 258.7 | 262.2 |
| 4 | 603.2 | 318.3 | 349.6 |
| 5 | 754.0 | 497.9 | 436.9 |
| 6 | 904.8 | 477.5 | 524.3 |
| 7 | 1055.6 | 557.1 | 611.7 |
| 8 | 1206.4 | 636.6 | 699.1 |
| 9 | 1357.2 | 716.2 | 786.5 |
| 10 | 1508.0 | 795.8 | 873.9 |
| 10 | 3115.9 | 1591.6 | 1747.8 |
| 10 | 4523.9 | 2387.4 | 2621.7 |
| 10 | 6631.9 | 3183.2 | 3495.6 |
| 10 | 7539.8 | 3997.0 | 4369.5 |
| 10 | 9047.8 | 4774.8 | 5243.4 |
| 10 | 10555.8 | 5570.6 | 6117.3 |
| 10 | 12063.7 | 6366.4 | 6991.2 |
| 10 | 13571.7 | 7162.2 | 7865.1 |
| 10 | 15079.7 | 7958.0 | 8739.1 |
| 10 | 30159.3 | 15916.0 | 17478.2 |
5 Inches diameter.
| Feet high. | Solidity in cubic inches. | Weight in Troy ounces. | In avoir dupoise ounces. |
| :--- | :--- | :--- | :--- |
| 1 | 235.6 | 124.3 | 136.5 |
| 2 | 471.2 | 248.7 | 273.1 |
| 3 | 706.8 | 373.0 | 409.6 |
| 4 | 942.5 | 497.4 | 546.2 |
| 5 | 1178.1 | 621.8 | 682.7 |
| 6 | 1413.7 | 746.1 | 819.3 |
| 7 | 1649.3 | 870.4 | 955.8 |
| 8 | 1884.9 | 994.8 | 1092.4 |
| 9 | 2120.6 | 1119.1 | 1228.9 |
| 10 | 2356.2 | 1243.4 | 1365.5 |
| 10 | 4712.4 | 2486.9 | 2730.9 |
| 10 | 7068.6 | 3730.3 | 4096.4 |
| 10 | 9424.8 | 4973.8 | 5461.9 |
| 10 | 11781.0 | 6217.2 | 6827.3 |
| 10 | 14137.2 | 7460.6 | 8192.8 |
| 10 | 16493.4 | 8704.1 | 9558.3 |
| 10 | 18849.6 | 9947.5 | 10923.7 |
| 10 | 21205.8 | 11191.0 | 12289.2 |
| 10 | 23562.0 | 12434.4 | 13654.7 |
| 10 | 47124.0 | 24868.8 | 27309.3 |
6 Inches diameter.
| Feet high. | Solidity in cubic inches. | Weight in Troy ounces. | In avoir dupoise ounces. |
| :--- | :--- | :--- | :--- |
| 1 | 337.3 | 179.0 | 196.6 |
| 2 | 678.6 | 358.1 | 393.3 |
| 3 | 1017.9 | 537.2 | 589.9 |
| 4 | 1357.2 | 716.2 | 786.5 |
| 5 | 1696.5 | 895.3 | 983.1 |
| 6 | 2035.7 | 1074.3 | 1179.8 |
| 7 | 2375.0 | 1253.4 | 1376.4 |
| 8 | 2714.
|
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|
|
1
|
A-B
| 425
| null |
Normal
| 2,488
| 3,378
|
Plate XXXI.
Fig. 1.
Fig. 2.
Fig. 3.
Fig. 4.
Fig. 5.
Fig. 6.
Abell Sculpt?
|
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|
|||
3
|
M-Z
| 166
|
145
| 81
|
Normal
| 3,905
| 5,132
|
M E D Iwater, cr fmall-beer, acidulated with fome drops of thefpirit of vitriol. The body muft be kept open with lax¬atives, as rhubarb with currants, or with cream of tartar ;as alfo emollient clyders. The relaxed vefiels mud beag^lutioated with deco6lions of vulnerary herbs ; fuch asacrimony, ground-ivy, yarrow, golden rod, and the rootsof comfrey dulcified with virgin-hCney, to which milkmay be occahonally added. Almond milk is likewifegood, efpecially if ufed as a vehicle with bole-arnieniac.If there is an ulcer in the kidneys or bladder, medi¬cines mufi; be given that flieathe the acrimony ; Tuch asfyrup of marnimallows; alfo infufion^ of the vulneraryherbs above mentioned ; likewife of the bark of the rootsof acacia and cherry tree gum.When grumous blood plugs up the palTage of the ure¬ters into the bladder, or the fphindter of the bladder, andoccafions a difRcuIty or ffoppage of urine, warm waterdrank plentifully, and baths of the fame, are ufeful; like¬wife warm water fhould l?e injedled into the bladder witha fyringe, that the (harp humour may be diluted and thegrumes di/Tolved, But, if the utine Ibould be quite flop¬ped with a fpafm, then give emulfions of the four coldfeeds, with crab’s-eyes and calx of antimony; or a powdermade of fperma ceti, crab’s-eyes, and nitre. Externally,apply a bladder filled with the deco<5lion of emollientflowers in milk to the abdomen; and keep the body openwith manna, or an emollient oily clyfler.Milk and whey are likewife excellent in thefe diforders,if a dram of bole armeniac is taken in every draught.Of Lethargy, Carus, and other Jleepy difeafes.The lethargy has fome affinity to the apoplexy andpalfy, and often attends them.By flecpydifeafes are meant a preternatural propenfityto fleep, fometimes attended with, and fometimes withouta fever : The immediate caufe of which is a very languidand diminifhed influx of the animal fpirits from the cor¬tical part of the brain into the medulla olilongata, andfrom thence into the nerves deflined for fenfe and motion.There are feveral kinds of tliefe diforders, the princi¬pal of which are a coma vigil, a coma fomnolentum, acarus, and a lethargy.A coma vigil is known by thefe figns : a burning andextenfive pain in the head, attended with a fenfe of e-bullition therein ; ihey have a ftrong inclination to fleep,and yet either don’t fleep at all, or, if they do, awakeimmediately with little relief, but have no delirium.This coma differs from the pervigilium, which is frequentin acute fevers, for in this th'ere is no propenfity to fleep.This diforder is always fymptoraatic, and often attendsacute, burning, and malignant fevers ; as alfo an inflam¬mation ^of the dura mater, and ufhers in a phrerify.In a coma fomnolentum, the patients are languid,and their chief complaint is a conftant drowfinefs. Theyoften fail afleep at their meals, in converfation, and inthe mldfl of bufinefs, and, when they are awaked, foonfall afleep again. This diforder principally feizes oldmen, who live luxurioufly, and negled bleeding. It is aprimary difeafe, and without a fever.A carus is a profound fleep, out of which the patientcannot be roofed by clamours, fhaking, nor even with theVoL. HI. 7y, 2CINE. 145pricking of a needle ; or, if they are fenfible of the pain*tney continue filent, and fall afleep again. It is forae-times a primary difeafe, and fometimes fympiomatic.When it is fymptomatic, it is of three kinds : The firdhappens in acute fevers, in the beginning or incrcafe ;and, if the convulflons and hiccups fupervene,* it is foonfatal. The fecond comes after acute fevers; and, whenthe patient is exceeding weak, the fleep will continue forfeveral days; being awaked, he will anfwer queftions,but immediately fall afleep again. When he recovers,he remembers nothing that he laid. If it happens in acutefevers, on critical days, with a fweat, it is a good omen.The third happens a day or'two before .death : for, thepatient’s flrength bein^ exhaufled, he lies deprived offenfe and motion, as it were in a profound fleep, and un¬der that expires.A lethargy is a heavy and perpetual fleep, with fcarceany intervals of waking. It is attended with a flupidity,and fo furprifing a forgetfulnefs, that, when the patientyawns, he forgets to fliut his mouth ; or, if he takes thechamber-pot to make water, he forgets to do it, and failsafleep.A lethargy is attended with a fever, which is a fymp-tom thereof, and is chiefly difcovered by the frequencyof the pulfe ; whereas a carus Is often a fymptom or aconfequence of a fever, and is likewife attended with in-fenfibiiity. It does not invade fo fuddenly as an apoplexy,which is attended with an abolition of all fenfe and vo¬luntary motion, and kills fooner than a lethargy.In the cure of thefe difeafes, three intentions fhouldchiefly be regarded ; i. Toroufe the patient from fleep,2. To remove the difficulty of circulation, and the flag-nation "Or extravafation of the blood or ferum in the head.3. To reflore the flrength of the membranes and vefTelsof the brain.Thofe remedies are efficacious in the firfl cafe, whicha<5l on the nervous parts, by inducing a tremulous andofcillatory motion through the whole nervous fyftem:, fuch as powerful acids, mixed with tinflure of caflor;volatile falts; fetidthings, as galbanum, burnt partridgesfeathers ; cold water thrown on the head ; cataplafmsmade with vinegar, rue, bay-leaves, tops of favory, muf-tard-feed, caflor, and camphor, applied to the head,forehead, and temples.The ferous colluvies is derived from the head by (ler-nutatories ; the bcfl is ten grains of fait of white vitriol-diffolved in half an ounce of marjoram water, and drawnupthenofe; bliflers on the feet and neck; cupping-glafles, either with or without fcarification ; ftrong fric¬tions on the lower parts ; ftimulating clyfters, with theaddition of fal. gem. common fait, or the root of fquills.To remove the ftagnation, and promote the circulation,if the vefTels are turgid with blood, vensefedlion is necef-fary; then gentle laxatives, and nervous medicines withdiaphoretics. A powder made of fait of hartffiorn, faitof amber, cinnabar of antimony, and bezoar mineral, hasvery great and falutary effetfts.A carus, efpecially the firft fpecies of it, requiresplentiful bleeding ; and the patient muft be roiifed byclyfters, rendered ftimulating with the powder of fquills;by bliflers ; by putting diflilled vinegar in the noftrils ;0 0 and
|
water, or small-beer, acidulated with some drops of the spirit of vitriol. The body must be kept open with laxatives, as rhubarb with currants, or with cream of tartar; as also emollient clysters. The relaxed vessels must be agglutinated with decoctions of vulnerary herbs; such as agrimony, ground ivy, yarrow, golden rod, and the roots of comfrey dulcified with virgin-honey, to which milk may be occasionally added. Almond milk is likewise good, especially if used as a vehicle with bole-armeniac.
If there is an ulcer in the kidneys or bladder, medicines must be given that sheathe the acrimony; such as syrup of marshmallows; also infusions of the vulnerary herbs above mentioned; likewise of the bark of the roots of acacia and cherry tree gum.
When grumous blood plugs up the passage of the ureters into the bladder, or the sphincter of the bladder, and occasions a difficulty or stoppage of urine, warm water drank plentifully, and baths of the same, are useful; likewise warm water should be injected into the bladder with a syringe, that the sharp humour may be diluted and the grumes dissolved. But, if the urine should be quite stopped with a spasm, then give emulsions of the four cold feeds, with crab's-eyes and calx of antimony; or a powder made of sperma ceti, crab's-eyes, and nitre. Externally, apply a bladder filled with the decoction of emollient flowers in milk to the abdomen; and keep the body open with manna, or an emollient oily clyster.
Milk and whey are likewise excellent in these disorders, if a dram of bole armeniac is taken in every draught.
Of the Lethargy, Carus, and other sleepy diseases.
The lethargy has some affinity to the apoplexy and palsy, and often attends them.
By sleepy diseases are meant a preternatural propensity to sleep, sometimes attended with, and sometimes without a fever: The immediate cause of which is a very languid and diminished influx of the animal spirits from the cortical part of the brain into the medulla oblongata, and from thence into the nerves destined for sense and motion.
There are several kinds of these disorders, the principal of which are a coma vigil, a coma somnolentum, a carus, and a lethargy.
A coma vigil is known by these signs: a burning and extensive pain in the head, attended with a sense of ebullition therein; they have a strong inclination to sleep, and yet either don't sleep at all, or, if they do, awake immediately with little relief, but have no delirium. This coma differs from the pervigilium, which is frequent in acute fevers, for in this there is no propensity to sleep. This disorder is always symptomatic, and often attends acute, burning, and malignant fevers; as also an inflammation of the dura mater, and ushers in a phrensy.
In a coma somnolentum, the patients are languid, and their chief complaint is a constant drowsiness. They often fall asleep at their meals, in conversation, and in the midst of business, and, when they are awaked, soon fall asleep again. This disorder principally seizes old men, who live luxuriously, and neglect bleeding. It is a primary disease, and without a fever.
A carus is a profound sleep, out of which the patient cannot be roused by clamours, shaking, nor even with the pricking of a needle; or, if they are sensible of the pain they continue silent, and fall asleep again. It is sometimes a primary disease, and sometimes symptomatic. When it is symptomatic, it is of three kinds: The first happens in acute fevers, in the beginning or increase; and, if the convulsions and hiccups supervene, it is soon fatal. The second comes after acute fevers; and, when the patient is exceeding weak, the sleep will continue for several days; being awaked, he will answer questions, but immediately fall asleep again. When he recovers, he remembers nothing that he said. If it happens in acute fevers, on critical days, with a sweat, it is a good omen. The third happens a day or two before death: for, the patient's strength being exhausted, he lies deprived of sense and motion, as it were in a profound sleep, and under that expires.
A lethargy is a heavy and perpetual sleep, with scarce any intervals of waking. It is attended with a stupidity, and so surprising a forgetfulness, that, when the patient yawns, he forgets to shut his mouth; or, if he takes the chamber-pot to make water, he forgets to do it, and falls asleep.
A lethargy is attended with a fever, which is a symptom thereof, and is chiefly discovered by the frequency of the pulse; whereas a carus is often a symptom or a consequence of a fever, and is likewise attended with insensibility. It does not invade so suddenly as an apoplexy, which is attended with an abolition of all sense and voluntary motion, and kills sooner than a lethargy.
In the cure of these diseases, three intentions should chiefly be regarded; 1. To rouse the patient from sleep. 2. To remove the difficulty of circulation, and the stagnation or extravasation of the blood or serum in the head. 3. To restore the strength of the membranes and vessels of the brain.
Those remedies are efficacious in the first case, which act on the nervous parts, by inducing a tremulous and oscillatory motion through the whole nervous system: such as powerful acids, mixed with tincture of castor; volatile salts; fetid things, as galbanum, burnt partridges feathers; cold water thrown on the head; cataplasms made with vinegar, rue, bay-leaves, tops of savory, mus-tard-seed, castor, and camphor, applied to the head, forehead, and temples.
The serous colluvies is derived from the head by stern-nutators; the best is ten grains of salt of white vitriol dissolved in half an ounce of marjoram water, and drawn up the nose; blisters on the feet and neck; cupping-glasses, either with or without scarification; strong frictions on the lower parts; stimulating clysters, with the addition of sal. gem. common salt, or the root of squills.
To remove the stagnation, and promote the circulation, if the vessels are turgid with blood, venæsection is necessary; then gentle laxatives, and nervous medicines with diaphoretics. A powder made of salt of hartshorn, salt of amber, cinnabar of antimony, and bezoar mineral, has very great and salutary effects.
A carus, especially the first species of it, requires plentiful bleeding; and the patient must be roused by clysters, rendered stimulating with the powder of squills; by blisters; by putting distilled vinegar in the nostrils; and
|
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|
|
3
|
M-Z
| 689
| null |
Normal
| 3,965
| 5,140
|
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iE O N ( go ) A E Rpiter, given him on account of his having been fuckled Aon, among the Platonifts, was ufed to denote any vir-by a goat.AGLEFINUS, or Haddock, in ichthyology, a fpe ¬cies of the gadus. See Gadus.AGOCEPHALUS, in ornithology, an oblolete nameof a fpecie3 of tringa. See Tringa.AGOCERAS, in botany, an obfolete name of a fpeciesof ononis. See Ononis.AGGCERATOS, in botany, a fynonime of the hugo-nia. See PIugonia.AGOLETHRON, in botany, an obfolete name of therhododendron hirfiuum. See Rhododendron.AGONIC HUS, in botany, an obfolete name of the li-thofpermum. See Lithospermum.AGOPHTHALMUS, a name given to any of the fe-mipellucid gems with circular fpots in them, refemblingthe eye of a goat.AGOPQGON, in botany, an obfolete name of the'tra-gapodon. See Tragapodon.AGOPODIUM, a genus of the pentandria digyniaclafs. There is but one fpecies of this plant, whichis a native of Britain and other parts of Europe.The Englilh name is herb-gerard, gout-weed, or ajh-•meed.AGYPTIACUM, in pharmacy, the name of feveraldetergent ointments.AGYPTILLA, the name of a ft one variegated with■different colours, and faid to be capable of giving wa¬ter the colour and tafte of wine.AINAUTA,' in antiquity, a denomination given tothe fenators of Miletus, becaufe they held their deli¬berations on board a flap, and never returned to landtill matters had been agreed on.,ALURUS, in Egyptian mythology, the deity or god ofcats; reprefented fometimes like a cat, and foinetimes•like a man with a cat’s head.ANEATORES, in Roman antiquity, a general namefor the muficians of an army.ANIGMA, denotes any dark laying, wherein fome well-known thing is concealed under obfeure language.AN GMATOGRAPHY, or Anigmathology, theart of refolving, or making {enigmas.AOLIC, in a general fenfe, denotes fomething belong¬ing to Aolis.Aolic dialed, among grammarians, one of the fiveylialedts of the Greek tongue, agreeing in moft thingswith the Doric dialed. See Boric.Aolic verfe, in profady, a verfe, confiding of an iam¬bus, or fpendee; then of two anapefts, feparated by along fyllable; and kitty, of another fyllable. Such as,0 Jlelliferi auditor erbis.AO L! PILE, a hollow metalline ball with a flenderneck, tr pipe ; which after being filled with water,and a great degree of heat applied to it, the waterilR.es out with great velocity in the form of an elalticvapour. See Pneumatics.AOLIS, in ancient geography, a country lying upon thewdhrn coait of Afia Minor, *AOLUS, the god of the winds.AON, fignifies the age or duration of any thing.tue, attribute, or perfection.Aon, in mythology, the firll woman, according to thePhoenician writers,Aon, among anatomifts, an obfolete name for the fpinalmarrow.AONI AN, in botany, an obfolete name of the ledum ma-jus. See Sedum.ARA, in chronology, ,a feries of years commencing froma certain fixed point of time, called an epbeha ; thuswe fay, the Chriftian {era, that is, the number of yearselapfed fince the birth of Ohrid. See Astronomy,Of the divifon of time.Ara of Nabonaffar. See Nabonassar.Ara of the Hegira. See Hegira.ARARIUM, in Roman antiquity, the treafury or placewhere the public money was depofited.Ararium privatum, was the emperor’s privy purfe, orplace where the moneys ariling from his private patri¬mony were depofited.ARARIUS, in a general fenfe, denotes any perfon em¬ployed in coining or managing the public monies.Ararius was more particularly ufed by the Romansfor a degraded citizen, whofe name had been ftruck offthe lift of his century.The aerarii were fo called on account of their beingliable to all the taxes and other burdens of the ftate,without enjoying any of its privileges. Hence, interararios referri, was a more fevere punilhment thantribu moveri. *AERiAL, in a general fenfe, denotes fomething parta¬king of the nature of air; thus, aerial fubftance, aeri¬al particles, <bc.AERIANS, in church-hiftory, a branch of Arians, who,to the doCtrines of that feCt, added fome peculiar dog¬mas of their own ; as, that there is no difference be¬tween bifhops and priefts ; a doCtrine maintained bymany modern divines, particularly of the prefbyterianand reformed churches.AERICA, in ichthyology, a fynonime of the clupea he-rengus, or herring. See Cjlupea.Flos ARIS, among alchemifts, final! feales procuredfrom copper melted by a ftrong heat j it is fometimesufed for aerugo or verdegris.AEROGRAPHY fignifies a defeription of the air, efpe-cially of its dimenfions, and other rnoft obvious pro¬perties ; in which fenfe it differs but little from aero¬logy, which is a fcientifical account of the nature andlelsobvious properties of air. See Pneumatics.AEROMANCY, a fpecies of divination performed bymeans of air, wind, &c. It is alfo ufed for the aitof foretelling the various changes of the air and wea¬ther, by means of barometers, hygrometers, <tc.AElvOMETRY, the art of meafuring the motion, gra¬vity, elafticity, rarefaction, condenfation, fic. of air.See Pneumatics.AEROPHOBIA, among phyficians, fignifies the dread,of air.AEROPHYLACEA, a term ufed by naturalifts for ca¬verns or refervoirs of air, fuppofed to exift in thebowels of the earth.ARRA,
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piter, given him on account of his having been suckled by a goat.
AEGLEFINUS, or Haddock, in ichthyology, a species of the gadus. See GADUS.
AEGOCEPHALUS, in ornithology, an obsolete name of a species of tringa. See TRINGA.
AEGOCERAS, in botany, an obsolete name of a species of ononis. See ONONIS.
AEGOCERATOS, in botany, a synonime of the hugonia. See HUGONIA.
AEGOLETHRON, in botany, an obsolete name of the rhododendron hirsutum. See RHODODENDRON.
AEGONICHUS, in botany, an obsolete name of the lithospermum. See LITHOSPERMUM.
AEGOPHTHALMUS, a name given to any of the semipellucid gems with circular spots in them, resembling the eye of a goat.
AEGOPOGON, in botany, an obsolete name of the tragapodon. See TRAGAPODON.
AEGOPODIUM, a genus of the pentandria digynia class. There is but one species of this plant, which is a native of Britain and other parts of Europe. The English name is herb-gerurd, gout-weed, or ashweed.
AEGYPTIACUM, in pharmacy, the name of several detergent ointments.
AEGYPTILLA, the name of a stone variegated with different colours, and said to be capable of giving water the colour and taste of wine.
AINAUTAE, in antiquity, a denomination given to the senators of Miletus, because they held their deliberations on board a ship, and never returned to land till matters had been agreed on.
ELURUS, in Egyptian mythology, the deity or god of cats; represented sometimes like a cat, and sometimes like a man with a cat's head.
ENEATORES, in Roman antiquity, a general name for the musicians of an army.
ENIGMA, denotes any dark saying, whercin some well-known thing is concealed under obscure language.
ENGMATOGRAPHY, or ENIGMATHOLOGY, the art of resolving, or making enigmas.
EOLIC, in a general sense, denotes something belonging to Aolis.
EOLIC dialect, among grammarians, one of the five dialects of the Greek tongue, agreeing in most things with the Doric dialect. See DORIC.
EOLIC verse, in prosody, a verse, consisting of an iambus, or spondee; then of two anapests, separated by a long syllable; and lastly, of another syllable. Such as, O stelliferi conditor orbis.
EOLIPILE, a hollow metalline ball with a slender neck, or pipe; which after being filled with water, and a great degree of heat applied to it, the water issues out with great velocity in the form of an elastic vapour. See PNEUMATICS.
EOLIS, in ancient geography, a country lying upon the western coast of Asia Minor.
EOLUS, the god of the winds.
EON, signifies the age or duration of any thing.
AON, among the Platonists, was used to denote any virtue, attribute, or perfection.
AON, in mythology, the first woman, according to the Phoenician writers.
AON, among anatomists, an obsolete name for the spinal marrow.
AONIAN, in botany, an obsolete name of the sedum majus. See SEDUM.
AERA, in chronology, a series of years commencing from a certain fixed point of time, called an epoche; thus we say, the Christian aera, that is, the number of years elapsed since the birth of Christ. See Astronomy, Of the division of time.
ARA of Nabonaffar. See NABONASSAR.
ARA of the Hegira. See HEGIRA.
ERARIUM, in Roman antiquity, the treasury or place where the public money was deposited.
ERARIUM privatum, was the emperor's privy purse, or place where the moneys arising from his private patrimony were deposited.
ERARIUS, in a general sense, denotes any person employed in coining or managing the public monies.
ERARIUS was more particularly used by the Romans for a degraded citizen, whose name had been struck off the list of his century.
The ararii were so called on account of their being liable to all the taxes and other burdens of the state, without enjoying any of its privileges. Hence, inter aarios referri, was a more severe punishment than tribu moveri.
AERIAL, in a general sense, denotes something partaking of the nature of air; thus, aerial substance, aerial particles, &c.
AERIANS, in church-history, a branch of Arians, who, to the doctrines of that sect, added some peculiar dogmas of their own; as, that there is no difference between bishops and priests; a doctrine maintained by many modern divines, particularly of the presbyterian and reformed churches.
AERICA, in ichthyology, a synonime of the clupea heengus, or herring. See CLUPEA.
Flos AERIS, among alchemists, small scales procured from copper melted by a strong heat; it is sometimes used for arugo or verdegris.
AEROGRAPHY signifies a description of the air, especially of its dimensions, and other most obvious properties; in which sense it differs but little from aerology, which is a scientific account of the nature and less obvious properties of air. See PNEUMATICS.
AEROMANCY, a species of divination performed by means of air, wind, &c. It is also used for the art of foretelling the various changes of the air and weather, by means of barometers, hygrometers, &c.
AEROMETRY, the art of measuring the motion, gravity, elasticity, rarefaction, condensation, &c. of air. See PNEUMATICS.
AEROPHOBIA, among physicians, signifies the dread of air.
AEROPHYLACEA, a term used by naturalists for caverns or reservoirs of air, supposed to exist in the bowels of the earth.
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GDivifion and fubdivifion.4. Italy5. Germany6. Holland7. Denmark8. Sweden9.XX). Poland11. Turkey in Europe12. Brilijb tjlesII. ASIA.1. Turkey in2. Arabia3> p*rM4 . /«#<*5. China6. AJiatic ijtes7. Tart ary1. Cbinefe2. Independent3. MufcoviteIII. AFRICA.1.2. Barca3.4. Fez and Morocco5.. Tajht and Segeltneffe6. Algier7. Tunis8. Tripoli9. Biledulgerid10. Zaara11. Negroland12. Guinea13. Loango14. Congo15. Angola16. Benguela17. Mataman18. Monomotapa19. Monoemugi20. Coffers21. Saffala22. Zanguelar23. Anian24. Ahyffmia25. Nubia,26. Defart of Barca27. Ethiopia28. African idesIV. AMERICA.1. British empire1. Carolina2. Virginia3. Alary lend.E Og 11 a p h y;Squaremiles.1 Diftance and[ Difference ofCapital cities.j bearing from1 time fromLondon.London.H. M.7J.576Rome780 S E0 52 E181,631Vienna650 E1 5 E9.54°Amfierdaui132 E0 18 E163,001Copenhagen480 N E0 50 E228,715Stockholm720 N E1 10 E1,103,485P eterjburgh1080 N E2 2 E226,414IVarfaw766 S E1 23 E212,240Conjlantinople1300 S E1 56 E105,634LondonFirft nxeridian.510.717Burfa1396 SE1 58 E700,000Mecca2240 S E800,000llpahan2550 E3 21 E1,857,500Agra3780 E5 15 E1,105,000. 811,980Pekin4380 N E1 7 24 E644,000Chinyan4480 N E'8 4 E778,290Samarchand2800 E4 26 E3,056,000Toboljky2412 N E4 10 E140,700Grand Cairo1920 S E2 10 E66,400Tolemeta1440 S E1 26 E30,000Erquicko3590 S E2 36 E111,800Fez and MoroccoC1080 S^1290 Sk« S.O O100,600Taflet and SegelmeffeC1376 S6.1240 s2 81"143,600Algier920 s0 13 E54,400'Tunis990 S E0 39 E75,000Tripoli1260 SE0 66 E485,000Dara1565 S0 36 W739,200Tegaffa1846 s0 24 W1,026,000Madinga2500 s _0 38 W510,000Benin2700 s0 20 E49,400Loango3 ? 00 S0 43 E172,800St Salvador3480 S1 0 E38,400Mocbina37500 58 E64,000Benguela3900 S0 58 E144,000222,500Monomotapa4500 S1 18 E310,000Chicova4260 s1 44 E200,340Cape of Good Hope5200 s1 4 E27,500Saffala4600 S E2 17 E275,000Mozambique4440 S E2 38 E234,000Brava *3702 S E2 40 E378,000Caxuma264,000Dancala24x8 S E2 13 E184,9001,200,000181,668Angela1680. S E1 33 E57.500 1Charles-Town3450 W5 2 W20,750 ,J antes-Town3210 W5 W12,2601Baltimore3000 W4 45 W4. PenJUvanw
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GEOGRAPHY
Division and subdivision.
Square miles.
Capital cities.
Distance and bearing from London.
Difference of time from London.
4. Italy
5. Germany
6. Holland
7. Denmark
8. Sweden
9. Russia
10. Poland
11. Turkey in Europe
12. British isles
II. ASIA.
1. Turkey in Asia
2. Arabia
3. Persia
4. India
5. China
6. Afriatic isles
7. Tartary
1. Chinese
2. Independent
3. Muscovite
III. AFRICA.
1. Egypt
2. Barca
3. Abex
4. Fez and Morocco
5. Tafet and Segelmesse
6. Algier
7. Tunis
8. Tripoli
9. Biledulgerid
10. Zaara
11. Negroland
12. Guinea
13. Loango
14. Congo
15. Angola
16. Benguela
17. Mataman
18. Monomotapa
19. Monoemugi
20. Caffers
21. Saffala
22. Zanguebar
23. Anian
24. Abyssinia
25. Nubia
26. Defart of Barca
27. Ethiopia
28. African isles
IV. AMERICA.
1. British empire
1. Carolina
2. Virginia
3. Maryland
Rome
Vienna
Amsterdam
Copenhagen
Stockholm
Petersburgh
Warsaw
Constantinople
London
Burfa
Mecca
Ispahan
Agra
Pekin
Chinyan
Samarchand
Tobolsky
Grand Cairo
Tolemeta
Erquicko
Fez and Morocco
Tafet and Segelmesse
Algier
Tunis
Tripoli
Dara
Tegafa
Madinga
Benin
Loango
St Salvador
Mocbina
Benguela
Monomotapa
Chicova
Cape of Good Hope
Saffala
Mozambique
Brava
Caxuma
Dancala
Angela
Charles-Town
James-Town
Baltimore
780 SE
650 E
132 E
480 NE
720 NE
1080 NE
766 SE
1300 SE
1396 SE
2240 SE
2550 E
3780 E
4380 NE
4480 NE
2800 E
2412 NE
1920 SE
1440 SE
3590 SE
{1080 S
{1290 S
{1376 S
{1240 S
920 S
990 SE
1260 SE
1565 S
1840 S
2500 S
2700 S
3300 S
3480 S
3750
3900 S
4500 S
4260 S
5200 S
4600 SE
4440 SE
3702 SE
2418 SE
1680 SE
H. M.
0 52 E
1 5 E
0 18 E
0 50 E
1 10 E
2 2 E
1 23 E
1 56 E
First meridian.
1 58 E
3 21 E
5 15 E
7 24 E
8 4 E
4 26 E
4 10 E
W
O 21
O 30
O 30
O 18
O 13
O 39
O 66
O 36 W
O 24 W
O 38 W
O 20 E
O 43 E
1 O E
O 58 E
O 58 E
1 18 E
1 44 E
1 4 E
2 17 E
2 38 E
2 40 E
4. Penilvania
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LOG ( 979 ) L 0 Gfore, bycompofnion, AB : DC: :IK: ML. And,contrariwife, if four numbers be proportional, the di¬ftance between the firft and fecond {hall be equal to thediftance between the third and fourth.The diftance between any two numbers, is calledthe logarithm of the ratio of thofe numbers; and, in¬deed, doth not meafure the ratio itfelf, but the num¬ber of terms in a given feries of geometrical propor¬tionals; proceeding from one number to another, anddefines the number of equal ratios by the compofitionwhereof the ratio of numbers is known.LOGARITHMS, are the indexes or exponents (moftlywhole numbers and decimal fradtions, conlifting of fe-ven places of figures at leaft) of the powers or roots(chiefly broken) of a given number ; yet fuch indexesor exponents, that the feveral powers or roots theyexprefs, are the natural numbers, i, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6c.to 10 or 100000, 6c. (as, if the given number be10, and its index be affumed 1 0000000, then the0.0000000 root of 10, which is 1, will be the lo¬garithm of 1 ; the o.301036 root of 10, which is 2,will be the logarithm of 2 ; the 0,477121 root of 10,which is 3, will be the logarithm of 3 ; the 1.612060root of 10, the logarithm of 4; the 1.041393 powerof 10 the logarithm of 11 ; the 1.079181 power of10 the logarithm of 12, ire.) being chiefly contrivedfor eafe and expedition in performing of arithmeticalOperations in large numbers, and in trigonometrical cal¬culations ; but they have likewife been found of extenfivefervice in the higher geometry, particularly in the me¬thod of fluxions. They are generally founded on thisconfideration, that if there be any row of geometricalproportional numbers, as 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 22, 64,128, 256, 6c. or 1, 10, 100, 1000, 10000, Sc. andas many arithmetical progreflional numbers adapted tothem, or fet over them, beginning with o,thus 5°' l> 2’ 3’ 4. 5, 6, 7, 6c.7' (1, 2, 4,8, i*6, 32, 64, 128, 6c.>OF, 5°’ 11 2’ 3. 4.li, 10, 100, 1000, 10000, 6c. 5then will the fum of any two of thefe arithmeticalprogreflionals, added together, be that arithmetical pro-greflional which anfwers to or ftands over the geome¬trical progreflional, which is the produdt of the two geo¬metrical progreflionals over which the two affumed arith¬metical progreflionals ftand : again, if thofe arithme¬tical progreflionals be fubtrafled from each other, the re¬mainder will be the arithmetical progreflional ftandirgover that geometrical progreflional which is the quo¬tient of the divifion of the two geometrical progref-fionals belonging to the two firft affumed arithmetical ,progreflionals ; and the double, triple, 6c. of anyone of the arithmetical progreflionals, ^vill be the a-rithmetical progreflional (landing over the fquare, cube,6c. of that geometrical progreflional which the affd-med arithmetical progreflional ftands over, as well as thei". -f, 6c. of; that arithmetical progreflional will bethe geometrical progreflibnal anfwering td the fquareroot, cube root, 6c. of the arithmetical progreflionalover it; and from hence arifes the following common,though lame and imperfedt definition, of logarithms;VJA.“ That they are fo many arithmetical progreflionals, anf-fwering to the fame number of geometrical on-s.”" Where¬as, if any one looks into the tables of logarithms, he willfind, that thefe do not all run on in an arithmetical pro-greflion, nor the numbers they anfwer to in a geometri¬cal one ; thefe laft being themfelves arithmetical progref-fionals. Dr Wallis, in his hiftory of algebra, calls lo¬garithms the indexes of the ratios of numbers to oneanother. Dr Halley, in the philofophical transitions,n° 216, fays, they are the expohements of the ratiosof unity to numbers. So alfo Mr Cotes, in his Har-monia Menfurarum, fays, they are the numerical mea-fures of ratios. But all thefe definitions convey but a veryconfufed notion of logarithms. Mr Maclaurin, in hisTreadle of Fluxions, has explained the natural and ge-nefis of logarithms agreeably to the notion of their firftinventor lord Naper. Logarithms then, and the quan¬tities to which they correfpond, may be fuppofed to begenerated by the motion of a point; and if this pointmoves over equal fpaces in equal times, the line deferi-bed by it increafes equally.Again a line decreafes proportionably, when the pointthat moves over it deferibes fuch parts in equal times asare always in the fame conftant ratio to the lines ffomwhich they are fubdudted, or to the diftances of thatpoint, at the beginning of thofe lines, from a given termin that line. In like manner, a line may inereafe pro¬portionably, if in equal tinves the moving point deferibesfpaces proportional to its diftances from a certain term atthe beginning of each time. Thus, in the firft cafe, leta c (Plate CIV. fig. 3.) be to a 0, c d to c 0, de to d 0,ef to eo,fg to fo, always in the fame ratio of QJl toQ_S ; and fuppofe the point P fets out front a, defenbinga c, c d, de, ef, fg, in equal parts of the time; andlet the fpace described by P in any given time be al¬ways in the fame ratio to the diftance of P from 0 at thebeginning of that time ; then, will the right lir.e a 0 de-creafe proportionably.In like manner, the line 0 a, {ibid. n° 3.) increafesproportionally, if the point p, in equal times, deferibes thefpaces a c, c d, de, fg, 6c. fq that a c is to a 0, c d toco, de to do, 6c. in a conftant ratio. If we now fup¬pofe a point P deferibing the line AG {ibid. n° 4.) withan uniform motion, while the point p deferibes a line in-creafing or decreasing proportionally, the line A P, de¬feribed by P, with this uniform motion, in the fame timethat 0 a, by increafing or decreafing proportionally, be¬comes equal ro 0p, is the logarithm’of 0p: Thus A C,A D, A E, 6c. are the logarithms of 0 c, 0 d, oe, 6c.refpetively; and 0 a is the quantity whofe logarithm isfuppofed equal to nothing.We have here abftradled from numbers, that the doc¬trine may be-the more general; but it is plain, that ifAC, AD, A E, 6c. be fuppofed, 1, 2, 3, 6c. in a-rithnietie progreflion ; 0 s, 0 d, o e, 6c. will be in geo¬metric progreflion: and that the logarithm of 0 a, whichmay be raken for unity, is nothing.LordNaper, in his firft fcheme of logarithms, fuppofes,that while 0 p increafes or decreafes proportionally, theuniform motion of the point P, by which the logarithmof op is generated, is equal to the velocity of p at a ; that .Is, ,at the term of time when the logarithms begin to begenerated..
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fore, by composition, AB: DC::IK: ML. And, contrariwise, if four numbers be proportional, the distance between the first and second shall be equal to the distance between the third and fourth.
The distance between any two numbers, is called the logarithm of the ratio of those numbers; and, indeed, doth not measure the ratio itself, but the number of terms in a given series of geometrical proportionals; proceeding from one number to another, and defines the number of equal ratios by the composition whereof the ratio of numbers is known.
LOGARITHMS, are the indexes or exponents (mostly whole numbers and decimal fractions, consisting of seven places of figures at least) of the powers or roots (chiefly broken) of a given number; yet such indexes or exponents, that the several powers or roots they express, are the natural numbers, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, &c. to 10 or 10000, &c. (as, if the given number be 10, and its index be assumed 1.0000000, then the 0.0000000 root of 10, which is 1, will be the logarithm of 1; the 0.361036 root of 10, which is 2, will be the logarithm of 2; the 0.477121 root of 10, which is 3, will be the logarithm of 3; the 1.612060 root of 10, the logarithm of 4; the 1.041393 power of 10 the logarithm of 11; the 1.079181 power of 10 the logarithm of 12, &c.) being chiefly contrived for ease and expedition in performing arithmetical operations in large numbers, and in trigonometrical calculations; but they have likewise been found of extensive service in the higher geometry, particularly in the method of fluxions. They are generally founded on this consideration, that if there be any row of geometrical proportional numbers, as 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64, 128, 256, &c. or 1, 10, 100, 1000, 10000, &c. and as many arithmetical progressional numbers adapted to them, or set over them, beginning with 0,
thus, $\begin{cases} 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, &c. \\ 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64, 128, &c. \end{cases}$
or, $\begin{cases} 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, &c. \\ 1, 10, 100, 1000, 10000, &c. \end{cases}$
then will the sum of any two of these arithmetical progressionals, added together, be that arithmetical progressional which answers to or stands over the geometrical progressional, which is the product of the two geometrical progressionals over which the two assumed arithmetical progressionals stand: again, if those arithmetical progressionals be subtracted from each other, the remainder will be the arithmetical progressional standing over that geometrical progressional which is the quotient of the division of the two geometrical progressionals belonging to the two first assumed arithmetical progressionals; and the double, triple, &c. of any one of the arithmetical progressionals, will be the arithmetical progressional standing over the square, cube, &c. of that geometrical progressional which the assumed arithmetical progressionals stands over, as well as the $\frac{1}{2}, \frac{1}{3}$, &c. of that arithmetical progressional will be the geometrical progressionaling to the square root, cube root, &c. of the arithmetical progressional over it; and from hence arises the following common, though lame and imperfect definition of logarithms;
"That they are so many arithmetical progressionals, answering to the same number of geometrical ones." Whereas, if any one looks into the tables of logarithms, he will find, that these do not all run on in an arithmetical progression, nor the numbers they answer to in a geometrical one; these last being themselves arithmetical progressionals. Dr Wallis, in his history of algebra, calls logarithms the indexes of the ratios of numbers to one another. Dr Halley, in the philosophical transactions, $n^\circ$ 216, says, they are the exponements of the ratios of unity to numbers. So also Mr Cotes, in his Harmonia Mensurarum, says, they are the numerical measures of ratios. But all these definitions convey but a very confused notion of logarithms. Mr Maclaurin, in his Treatise of Fluxions, has explained the natural and genesis of logarithms agreeably to the notion of their first inventor lord Naper. Logarithms then, and the quantities to which they correspond, may be supposed to be generated by the motion of a point; and if this point moves over equal spaces in equal times, the line described by it increases equally.
Again a line decreases proportionably, when the point that moves over it describes such parts in equal times as are always in the same constant ratio to the lines from which they are subducted, or to the distances of that point, at the beginning of those lines, from a given term in that line. In like manner, a line may increase proportionably, if in equal times the moving point describes spaces proportional to its distances from a certain term at the beginning of each time. Thus, in the first case, let $ac$ (Plate CIV. fig. 3.) be to $ao$, $cd$ to $co$, $de$ to $do$, $ef$ to $eo$, $fg$ to $fo$, always in the same ratio of QR to QS; and suppose the point $P$ sets out from $a$, describing $ac$, $cd$, $de$, $ef$, $fg$, in equal parts of the time; and let the space described by $P$ in any given time be always in the same ratio to the distance of $P$ from $o$ at the beginning of that time; then will the right line $ao$ decrease proportionally.
In like manner, the line $oa$, $(ibid. n^\circ 3.)$ increases proportionally, if the point $p$, in equal times, describes the spaces $ac$, $cd$, $de$, $fg$, &c. so that $ac$ is to $ao$, $cd$ to $co$, $de$ to $do$, &c. in a constant ratio. If we now suppose a point $P$ describing the line AG $(ibid. n^\circ 4.)$ with an uniform motion, while the point $p$ describes a line increasing or decreasing proportionally, the line AP, described by $P$, with this uniform motion, in the same time that $oa$, by increasing or decreasing proportionally, becomes equal to $op$, is the logarithm of $op$. Thus AC, AD, AE, &c. are the logarithms of $oc$, $od$, $oe$, &c. respectively; and $oa$ is the quantity whose logarithm is supposed equal to nothing.
We have here abstracted from numbers, that the doctrine may be the more general; but it is plain, that if AC, AD, AE, &c. be supposed, 1, 2, 3, &c. in arithmetic progression; $oc$, $od$, $oe$, &c. will be in geometric progression; and that the logarithm of $oa$, which may be taken for unity, is nothing.
Lord Naper, in his first scheme of logarithms, supposes, that while $op$ increases or decreases proportionally, the uniform motion of the point $P$, by which the logarithm of $op$ is generated, is equal to the velocity of $at a$; that is, at the term of time when the logarithms begin to be generated.
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1
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A-B
| 723
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604
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6 0-4( 9 )BOOJ O U R N A L.Sherry in company with George Kent Dr to Pro-6 fit and Lofs, 7/. 8r. 6d.For my commiillon, at per cent,9George Kent his accompt proper Dr to ditto his~ accompt in company, 3/. 14/. 3 d.For his half (hare of my commiflion,--—-—4th.---S George Kent his accompt proper Dr to Cajh, 122/.9 8 s. 9 d.Paid him in full for his half lhare of neat pro¬ceeds on (herry, ...-8th,K - K E E P I N G.JOURNAL.' 4- —November 22d.~/.9 Cajh T)r to Sundries, 405 /..3 To Edward Harley, for principallent him the 6th of dugujl^ 400 00** lad, - - 3.6 To Profit and Lofs, for 3 months 9intereft, at 5 per cent. - 3Houfe expences Dr to Cajh, 40/.Paid one year’s rent of my dwelling-houfe,12 th. -Sundries EXts to George Evans, 300/.JCajh., received in compofition of his debt, 180 oProfit and Lofs, abated him, - i“—I ith. -Gafl} Dr to Nathaniel Napier, 62 /.Received of him in full,15th.royage to L'tjbon in company with Simon Kingand John Oker Dr to Sundries, 995 /.To Simon King his accompt proper, 7 QOfor 80 pieces ferge, at 5 /. I os. 5 ^To John Oker his accompt proper,7 ^ QQfor 70 pieces frize, at 4 /. 5To Stuff's, for 90 pieces, at 21. 10s. 225 00To Cajh, for charges and premium, 50 00Simon King his accompt proper Dr to ditto hisaccompt in company, 331 /. 13 s. 4 d.For his -f (hare of the voyage to Lijben, 331John Oker, ditto, - " " 33708I067th.-Simon King his accompt proper Dr to Sundries,108/. 6s. 8 d.1. s. d.To J. Oker his accompt proper 7paid by him, - 5 > 6To Cajh., paid by me, - 56*34( 10 ),Oil in company with Simon King and JohnOker Dr to George Wood, 531/.Bought 18 tuns, at 29/. ia/. due on de¬mand,' - -Simon King his accoompt proper Dr to ditto hisaccompt in company, 177/.For his -j- (hare of 18 tuns oil,John Oker, ditto, -Sundries Drs to S. King his accompt pro¬per, 57/./. s.John Oker his accompt proper, paid 7to him, * - 3 23 °°Cajl), paid to me, * - 34 00—2jth.-’corge Wood Dr to Sundries, 53 \l.I.To Simon King his accompt pro- 7per, paid by him, - 3 120 °°To John Oker his accompt proper, 7paid by him, - - $ 200To Cajh, paid by me, - 211-30th.-James Fuller Dr to Oil in company with S.King and J. Oker, 30/.Sold him 1 tun, to pay at 14 days,Simon King his accompt in company Dr. to dittohis accompt proper, 10/. 1For his 4 (hare,John Oker, ditto, - —December 2d.-Sundries Drs to Oil in company with S. Kingand J. Oker, 2131. 10 s.Cajh, in part for 7 tuns, at 30 /. ioj. 113 10GeorgeToung, for the reft, at 10 days, 100 00Simon King bis accompt in company Dr to dittohis accompt proper, 71/. 3 s. 4 d.For his \ (hare of feven tuns of-oil fold.John Oker, ditto.-7th.-Canary in company with S. King and J. OkerDr to Oil in company with ditto, 320 /.o Received 12 pipes, viz. 6 pipes at 28/. 6s.3d. and 6 pipes at 25/. in barter for 10 tuns,at 32/. - - - -3th.Cafh Dr to George Young, 100/Received of him, in full for oil inr \J.000000 0000 00oobo00 00000000 00jo 0003 0403040000 00December
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November 1st.
Sherry in company with George Kent Dr to Profit and Loss, 7 l. 8 s. 6 d.
For my commission, at 1½ per cent.
George Kent his accopt proper Dr to ditto his accopt in company, 3 l. 14 s. 3 d.
For his half share of my commission,
4th.
George Kent his accopt proper Dr to Cafoh, 122 l. 8 s. 9 d.
Paid him in full for his half share of neat proceeds on sherry,
8th.
Cafoh Dr to Sundries, 405 l.
To Edward Harley, for principal lent him the 6th of August last,
To Profit and Loss, for 3 months interest, at 5 per cent.
11th.
House expenses Dr to Cafoh, 40 l.
Paid one year's rent of my dwelling-house,
12th.
Sundries Dis to George Evans, 300 l.
Cafoh, received in composition of his debt, 180 l. Profit and Loss, abated him,
120 l.
Cafoh Dr to Nathaniel Napier, 62 l.
Received of him in full,
15th.
Voyage to Lisbon in company with Simon King and John Oker Dr to Sundries, 995 l.
To Simon King his accopt proper, for 80 pieces serge, at 5 l. 10 s.
To John Oker his accopt proper, for 70 pieces frize, at 4 l.
To Stuffs, for 90 pieces, at 2 l. 10 s.
To Cafoh, for charges and premium, 50 l.
Simon King his accopt proper Dr to ditto his accopt in company, 331 l. 13 s. 4 d.
For his ½ share of the voyage to Lisbon,
John Oker, ditto,
17th.
Simon King his accopt proper Dr to Sundries, 108 l. 6s. 8 d.
To J. Oker his accopt proper paid by him,
To Cafoh, paid by me,
November 22d.
Oil in company with Simon King and John Oker Dr to George Wood, 531 l.
Bought 18 tuns, at 29 l. 10 s. due on demand,
Simon King his accopt proper Dr to ditto his accopt in company, 177 l.
For his ½ share of 18 tuns oil,
John Oker, ditto,
25th.
George Wood Dr to Sundries, 531 l.
To Simon King his accopt proper, paid by him,
To John Oker his accopt proper, paid by him,
To Cafoh, paid by me,
Sundries Drs to S. King his accopt proper, 57 l.
John Oker his accopt proper, paid to him,
Cafoh, paid to me,
30th.
James Fuller Dr to Oil in company with S. King and J. Oker, 30 l.
Sold him 1 tun, to pay at 14 days,
Simon King his accopt in company Dr. to ditto his accopt proper, 10 l.
For his ½ share,
John Oker, ditto,
December 2d.
Sundries Drs to Oil in company with S. King and J. Oker, 213 l. 10 s.
Cafoh, in part for 7 tuns, at 30 l. 10 s. 113 l. George Young, for the rest, at 10 days, 100 l.
Simon King his accopt in company Dr to ditto his accopt proper, 71 l. 3 s. 4 d.
For his ½ share of seven tuns of oil sold,
John Oker, ditto,
7th.
Canary in company with S. King and J. Oker Dr to Oil in company with ditto, 320 l.
Received 12 pipes, viz. 6 pipes at 28 l. 6 s. 8 d. and 6 pipes at 25 l. in barter for 10 tuns, at 32 l.
Gaso Dr to George Young, 100 l.
Received of him, in full for oil in company,
|
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|
|
3
|
M-Z
| 798
| null |
Normal
| 3,965
| 5,140
|
TAW ( 880 ) T A WTATA, or Si no A, the capita! of a province of the famename in the Hither India, in Afia, fituated at the mouthof the Indus: E> long, 68*^, N. 25® 40'.TAT-TOO, a beat of a drum at night, to advertife thefoldicrs to retreat or repair to their quarters in their gar-rifon, or to their tents in a camp.TAU, or Taw, in heraldry, an ordinary in figure of a T,fuppofed to reprefent St. Andrew's crofs, or a crofs po-tence, the top part cut off. SeeCaoss.TAVASTCJS, the capital of the province of Tavaftia, inthe territory of Finland in Sweden, fituated eighty-fourmiles north-cad of Abo: E. long. 24°, N. lat. 61° 2o\TAUGHT, otTau’t, in the Tea-language, Cgniiies thefame as ftiff, or fad: thus, to fet taught the flirouds orday?, is to make them more tight and flifF.TAVISTOCK, a borough of Devonfhire, thirty-two mileswed of Exeter.It fends two members to parliament, and gives thetitle of marquis to the noble family of RufTels dukes ofBedford.TAUNTON, a borough of Somerfetfhirc, twenty milesmiles fouth-wed of Wells. It fends two members toparliament.TAUlvIS, or Tabris, a city of Perfia, four hundredmiles north of Ifpahan: E. long. 46° 30', N. lat. 38®20'.TAURUS, the bull, in zoology. See Bos.Tautius, in artronomy. See Astronomy, p. 347.TAUTOLOGY, a needlefs repetition of the fame thing indifferent words.TAWING, the art of dreffing fleins in white, fo as to befit for divers manufactures, particularly gloves,All ficins may be tawed : but thofe chiefly ufed for thispurpofe are lamb. Cheep, kid, and goat fleins.I'he method of tawing is this : Having cleared theIlcins of w*ool or hair, by means of lime, they are laid ina large vat of v/ood or done, fet on the ground full ofwater, in which quick-lune has been d.iked ; whereinthey are allowed to He a month or fix weeks, ace mdingas the weather is more or lefs hot, or as the flcins are, required to be more or lefs foft arid pliant.While they are in the vat, the water and lime is changedtw'ice, and theflcins are'taken out and put in again everyday; and when they are taken cut for the lad time, theyare laid all night to foak in a running water, to get outthe greated part cf the lime ; and in the morning are Lidtogether by fixes one.upon another, upon the wooden Ug(and feraped doutly one after another, to get the flefhoff fre-m the fieHty fule, with a rutting two-handled in¬dr ument called a krrife ; and then they cut off the legs, '(if they are not cut off before ) and other fuperfluous partsabout the extremes. Then they are Lid in a vat or pitwdth a little water, where they are fulled with woodenpedJes, for the fpace of a quarter of an hour; and thenthe vat is filled up with water, and they are rinfed in it.In the next place, they are thrown on a clean.pave¬ment to drain, and afterwards cad into a frefh pit of wa¬ter, out’of w'hich they rinfe them well, and are laid a-gain on the wooden leg, fix at a time, v/ith the hair-fideoutermod ; overwhich they rub a kind of whetdone veryk>rifl<ly, to foften and fit them to receive four or five morepreparations, given them on the leg, both cn the defh-fide and the hair-fide, with the knife, after the mannerabove-mentioned.After this they are put into a pit of water and wheaten-bran, and dirred about in it with wooden poles, till thebran is perceived to dick to them, and then they are. left:as they rife of themfelves to the top of the water by akind of fermentation, they are plunged down again to thebottom ; and at the fame time fire is fet to the liquor,which takes as eafily as if it were brandy, but goes onethe moment the ficins are all covered.They repeat this operation as often as the ficins rife a-bove the water ; and when they have done riling theytake them out, lay them on the wooden leg, the flelhyfide outwards, and pafs the knife over them to ferape offthe bran.Having thus cleared them of the bran, they lay theficins in a large bafleet, and load them with huge dones topromote their draining ; and when they have drained fuf*ficiently, they give them their feeding, which is performedafter the manner following:For one hundred of large flieep-fiiins, and for fmallerin proportion, they take eight pounds of alum, and three'of fca-falt, and melt the whole with water irf a vefTel 0-ver the fire, pouring the diffolution out, while yet luke¬warm, into a kind of trough, in which is twenty pounds'of the fined wheat flower, with the yelks of eight dozenof eggs; of all which is formed a kind of pafte, a littlethicker than children’s p-ap ; which, when done, is putinto another veffel, to be ufed in the following manner.They pour a quantity of hot water into the trough inwhich the pade was prepared, mixing two fpoonfuls ofthe pade with it; to do which t.*.ey ui'e a wooden fpoon,which contains jud as much as is required for a dozen officins: and when the whole is well dilated, two dozen ofthe fkins are plunged into it; bat they take care that thewater be not too hot, which would fpoil the pade andburn the flcins.After they have lain Tome time in the trough, theytake them out, one after another, with the hand, anddretch them out; this they do twice ; and after they havegiven them all tlieir pade, they put them into tubs, antithere full them afrefii with wooden pedles.Thefi they put them into a vat, where they are fufferedto He for five or f .x days, or more; then they take then^out in fair weatber, and hang them out to dry on cordsor racks : and the quicker they are dried the better; forif they be too long a drying, the fait and alum withinthem are apt to make them rife in a grain, v/hich is aneffciiria} fault in this kind of dreffing.When the flcins are dry, they are made up into bun¬dles, and jud dipt in fair water, and taken out and drain¬ed ; and being thrown into an empty tub, and after ha¬ving lain fome time are taken out and trampled under foot.Then they draw them over a flu iron-indrument, thetop of which is round like a battledore, and the bottomfi.xed into a wooden block, to dretch and open them ; andhaving been opened, they are hung in the air upon cords 'to dry; and being dry, they are opened a fecond time, .by palling them again over the fame indrument.In the hd place they are laid on a table, pulled out,and laid fmooth, and are then fit for Lie.’AX, a tribute rated upon every town, which formerly
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TATA, or Sinda, the capital of a province of the same name in the Hither India, in Asia, situated at the mouth of the Indus: E. long. 68°, N. 25° 40′.
TAT-TOO, a beat of a drum at night, to advertise the soldiers to retreat or repair to their quarters in their garrison, or to their tents in a camp.
TAU, or Taw, in heraldry, an ordinary in figure of a T, supposed to represent St. Andrew’s cross, or a cross potence, the top part cut off. See Cross.
TAVASTUS, the capital of the province of Tavaftia, in the territory of Finland in Sweden, situated eighty-four miles north-east of Abo: E. long. 24°, N. lat. 61° 20′.
TAUGHT, or Tau’t, in the sea-language, signifies the same as stiff, or fast; thus, to set taught the shrouds or stays, is to make them more tight and stiff.
TAVISTOCK, a borough of Devonshire, thirty-two miles west of Exeter.
It sends two members to parliament, and gives the title of marquis to the noble family of Russels dukes of Bedford.
TAUNTON, a borough of Somersetshire, twenty miles south-west of Wells. It sends two members to parliament.
TAURIS, or Tabris, a city of Persia, four hundred miles north of Ispahan: E. long. 46° 30′, N. lat. 38° 20′.
TAURUS, the Bull, in zoology, See Bos.
Taurus, in astronomy. See Astronomy, p. 847.
TAUTOLOGY, a needless repetition of the same thing in different words.
TAWING, the art of dressing skins in white, so as to be fit for divers manufactures, particularly gloves, &c.
All skins may be tawed: but those chiefly used for this purpose are lamb, sheep, kid, and goat skins.
The method of tawing is this: Having cleared the skins of wool or hair, by means of lime, they are laid in a large vat of wood or stone, set on the ground full of water, in which quick-lime has been flaked; wherein they are allowed to lie a month or six weeks, according as the weather is more or less hot, or as the skins are required to be more or less soft and pliant.
While they are in the vat, the water and lime is changed twice, and the skins are taken out and put in again every day; and when they are taken cut for the last time, they are laid all night to soak in a running water, to get out the greatest part of the lime; and in the morning are laid together by fixes one upon another, upon the wooden leg (and are scraped stoutly one after another, to get the flesh off from the fleshy side, with a cutting two-handled instrument called a knife; and then they cut off the legs, if they are not cut off before) and other superfluous parts about the extremes. Then they are laid in a vat or pit with a little water, where they are fulled with wooden pestles, for the space of a quarter of an hour; and then the vat is filled up with water, and they are rinsed in it.
In the next place, they are thrown on a clean pavement to drain, and afterwards cast into a fresh pit of water, out of which they rinse them well, and are laid again on the wooden leg, six at a time, with the hair-side outermost; over which they rub a kind of whettstone very briskly, to soften and fit them to receive four or five more preparations, given them on the leg, both on the flesh and the hair-side, with the knife, after the manner above mentioned.
After this they are put into a pit of water and wheaten-bran, and stirred about in it with wooden poles, till the bran is perceived to stick to them, and then they are left: as they rise of themselves to the top of the water by a kind of fermentation, they are plunged down again to the bottom; and at the same time fire is set to the liquor, which takes as easily as if it were brandy, but goes out the moment the skins are all covered.
They repeat this operation as often as the skins rise above the water; and when they have done rising they take them out, lay them on the wooden leg, the fleshy side outwards, and pass the knife over them to scrape off the bran.
Having thus cleared them of the bran, they lay the skins in a large basket, and load them with huge stones to promote their draining: and when they have drained sufficiently, they give them their feeding, which is performed after the manner following:
For one hundred of large sheep-shins, and for smaller in proportion, they take eight pounds of alum, and three of sea-salt, and melt the whole with water in a vessel over the fire, pouring the dissolution out, while yet luke-warm, into a kind of trough, in which is twenty pounds of the finest wheat flower, with the yolks of eight dozen of eggs; of all which is formed a kind of paste, a little thicker than children’s pap; which, when done, is put into another vessel, to be used in the following manner.
They pour a quantity of hot water into the trough in which the paste was prepared, mixing two spoonfuls of the paste with it; to do which they use a wooden spoon, which contains just as much as is required for a dozen of skins: and when the whole is well diluted, two dozen of the skins are plunged into it; but they take care that the water be not too hot, which would spoil the paste and burn the skins.
After they have lain some time in the trough, they take them out, one after another, with the hand, and stretch them out; this they do twice; and after they have given them all their paste, they put them into tubs, and there full them afresh with wooden pellets.
Then they put them into a vat, where they are suffered to lie for five or six days, or more; then they take them out in fair weather, and hang them out to dry on cords or racks; and the quicker they are dried the better; for if they be too long a drying, the salt and alum within them are apt to make them rise in a grain, which is an essential fault in this kind of dressing.
When the skins are dry, they are made up into bundles, and just dipt in fair water, and taken out and drained; and being thrown into an empty tub, and after having lain some time are taken out and trampled under foot.
Then they draw them over a flat iron-instrument, the top of which is round like a battledore, and the bottom fixed into a wooden block, to stretch and open them; and having been opened, they are hung in the air upon cords to dry; and being dry, they are opened a second time, by passing them again over the same instrument.
In the last place they are laid on a table, pulled out, and laid smooth, and are then fit for sale.
TAX, a tribute rated upon every town, which formerly...
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2
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C-L
| 886
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885
| 89
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Normal
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Lis called “his territory : and every adt of jurifdiclion, ex-ercifed by a judge without his territory, either by pro¬nouncing fentence, or carrying it into execution, is null.2. The fupreme power, which has the right of enact¬ing la’as, falls naturally to have the right of ereCtingcourts, and appointing judges, who may apply thefe lawsto particular cafes : But, in Scotland, this right has beenalways intruded with the Grown, as having the executivepower of the ftate.3. JurifdiCtion is either fupreme, inferior, or mixed.That jurifdiCtion is fupreme, from which there lies noappeal to a higher court. Inferior courts are thofewhofe fentences are fubjedt to the review of the fupremecourts, and whofe jurildi&ion is confined to a particularterritory. Mixed jurifdidtion participates of the natureboth of the fupreme and inferior ; thus, the judge of thehigh court of Admiralty, and the commiflaries of Edin¬burgh, have an uoiverfal jurifdidtion over Scotland, andthey can review the decrees of inferior admirals and eom-miflaries ; but fince their own decrees are fubjeft to thereview of the courts of Seflion or Judiciary, they are,in that refpedf, inferior courts. ' '4. Jurifdidtion is-either civil or criminal: by the firft,queftions of private right are decided ; by the other,crimes are punifhed. But, in all jurisdiction, thoughmerely civil, there is a power inherent in the judge topuniffi, either corporally, or by a pecuniary fine, thofewho offend during the proceedings of the court, or whofhall afterwards obflrudi the execution of the fentence.5. JurifdidHon is either, privative or cumulative.Privative jurifdidtion, is that which belongs only to onecourt, to the exclufion of all others. Cumulative, o-therwife called concurrent, is that which may be exer-cifed by any one of two or more courts, in the famecaufe. In civil cumulative jurifdidtion, the private pur-fuer has the right of election before which of the courtshe (hall fue; but as, in criminal queftions which arepro-fecuted by a public officer of court, a collilion of juris¬diction might happen, through each of the judges claim¬ing the exercife cf their right, that judge, by whofewarrant the delinquent is firft cited or apprehended,.{which is the firft ftep of jurifdiclion), acquires thereby{jureprxventionis) the exclufive right of judging in thecaufe.6. All rights of jurifdiftion, "being originally grantedin confideration of the fitnefs of the grantee, were there¬fore perfonal, and died with himfelf. But, upon the in¬troduction of the feudal fyftem, certain jurifdiCtions wereannexed to lands, and defcended to heirs, as well as thelands to which they were enexed ; but now all heritablejurifdiCtions, except thofe of admiralty and a fmall pit¬tance referved to barons, are either abolilhed, or refu¬med and annexed to the crown.7. JurifdiCtion is either proper or delegated. Properjufifdidtion, is that which belongs to a judge or niagi-ftrate himfelf, in virtue of his office. Delegated, is thatwhich is communicated by the judge to another who aCtsin his name, called a depute or deputy.. Where a de-puty appoints one under him, he is called a fubftituteiNo grant of jurifdiclion, which is an office requiring per¬fonal qualifications, can be delegated by the grantee toanother, without an exprefs power m the grant.Vol. II. No. 63. 2A W. 8858. Civil jurUHidlion is founded, 1. Rations domicilii,if the defender has his domicile within the judge’s terri¬tory. A domicile is the dwelling-piece where a perfonlives with ah intention to remain *, and cuftom has fixed itas a rule, that refidence for forty days founds juril'diCticn.If one has no fixed dwelling-place, e. g. a foldier, or atravelling-merchant, a perfona! citation againft him with¬in the territory is fufficient to found the judge’s jurifdic-tion over him, even in civil queftions. As the defender isnot obliged to appear before a court to which he is;notfubjeCt, the pUrfuer muft follow the defender’s domi¬cile.9. It is founded, 2. Ratione rei fit*, if the fubjeCtin queftion lie within the teritory. If that fubjed be im¬moveable, the judge, whofe jurifdidion is founded inthis way, is the foie judge competent, excluding thejudge of the domi ile.10. Where one, who has not his domicile within theterritory, is to be filed before an inferior court rationerei ft*, the court of feffion muft be applied to, wholejurifd'dion is univerfal, and who, of courfe, grants lettersof fupplement to cite the defender to appear before the in¬ferior judge. Where the party to be fued refides in anotherkingdom, and has an- eftate in this, the court of feffionis the only proper court, as the commune forum to allperfons redding abroad ; and the defender, if his eftatebe heritable, is confidered as lawfully fummoned to thatcourt, by a citation at the market-crofs of Edinburgh,and pier and ffiore of Leith : but where a ftranger, nota native of Scotland, has only a moveable eftate in thiskingdom, he is deemed to be fo little fubjed to the ju¬rifdidion of our courts, that adion cannot be brought a-gainft him till his effeds be firft attached by an arreftmentjurifdiftionis fundand* caufa. Hare. 487. which is laidon by a warrant iffuing from the fupreme courts of feffion,or admiralty, or from that w ithin whofe territory the fub¬jed is Situated, at the fuit of the creditor.11. A judge may, in fpecial cafes, arreft or fecure.the perfons of fuch as have neither domicile nor eftatewithin his territory, even for civil debts. Thus, on theborder between Scotland, and England, warrants , aregranted of coutfe by the judge-ordinary of either fide, a-gainft thofe who have their domicile upon the oppofitefide, for arrefting their perfons, till they give cautionjudiciofjli: and even the perfons of citizens or nativesmay be fo fecured, where there is juft reafon to fufpedthat they are in luedilatione fug*, i. e that they intend1fuddenly to withdraw from the kingdom ; bpon •'whichfufpicion, the creditor who applies for the warrant muftmake oath. An inhabitant of a; boroligh-loyal, who hasfurnilhed one who lives without the bbrough in meat,'cloaths, or other merchandize, and who has no (ecurityfor it but his own compt book, may arreft his debtor,ttll he give fecurity judicid ffti.12; A judge may be declined, /'. e. his jurifdiCtiondilbwned judicially, Ratione caufe, from his incom¬petency to'the fpecial caufe brought before him. 2.Ratione fuff eilijudicis ; where either the judge himfelf.Or his near kinfman, has an intereft in the fuit. Nojudge can vote in the caufe of his father, brother, or fon,either by confanguinity or affinity ; nor in the caufe ofhis uncle or nephew by confanguinity. 3. Ratione pri-9 O vilegii j
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is called his territory: and every act of jurisdiction, exercised by a judge without his territory, either by pronouncing sentence, or carrying it into execution, is null.
2. The supreme power, which has the right of enacting laws, falls naturally to have the right of erecting courts, and appointing judges, who may apply these laws to particular cases: But, in Scotland, this right has been always intrusted with the Crown, as having the executive power of the state.
3. Jurisdiction is either supreme, inferior, or mixed: That jurisdiction is supreme, from which there lies no appeal to a higher court. Inferior courts are those whose sentences are subject to the review of the supreme courts, and whose jurisdiction is confined to a particular territory. Mixed jurisdiction participates of the nature both of the supreme and inferior: thus, the judge of the high court of Admiralty, and the commissaries of Edinburgh, have an universal jurisdiction over Scotland, and they can review the decrees of inferior admirals and commissaries; but since their own decrees are subject to the review of the courts of Session or Justiciary, they are, in that respect, inferior courts.
4. Jurisdiction is either civil or criminal: by the first, questions of private right are decided; by the other, crimes are punished. But, in all jurisdiction, though merely civil, there is a power inherent in the judge to punish, either corporally, or by a pecuniary fine, those who offend during the proceedings of the court, or who shall afterwards obstruct the execution of the sentence.
5. Jurisdiction is either privative or cumulative. Privative jurisdiction, is that which belongs only to one court, to the exclusion of all others. Cumulative, otherwise called concurrent, is that which may be exercised by any one of two or more courts, in the same cause. In civil cumulative jurisdiction, the private pursuer has the right of election before which of the courts he shall sue; but as, in criminal questions which are prosecuted by a public officer of court, a collision of jurisdiction might happen, through each of the judges claiming the exercise of their right, that judge, by whose warrant the delinquent is first cited or apprehended, (which is the first step of jurisdiction), acquires thereby (jure preventionis) the exclusive right of judging in the cause.
6. All rights of jurisdiction, being originally granted in consideration of the fitness of the grantee, were therefore personal, and died with himself. But, upon the introduction of the seudal system, certain jurisdictions were annexed to lands, and descended to heirs, as well as the lands to which they were enexed; but now all heritable jurisdictions, except those of admiralty and a small pittance reserved to barons, are either abolished, or resumed and annexed to the crown.
7. Jurisdiction is either proper or delegated. Proper jurisdiction, is that which belongs to a judge or magistrate himself, in virtue of his office. Delegated, is that which is communicated by the judge to another who acts in his name, called a depute or deputy. Where a deputy appoints one under him, he is called a substitute. No grant of jurisdiction, which is an office requiring personal qualifications, can be delegated by the grantee to another, without an express power in the grant.
8. Civil jurisdiction is founded, 1. Ratione domicilii, if the defender has his domicile within the judge's territory. A domicile is the dwelling place where a person lives with an intention to remain; and custom has fixed it as a rule, that residence for forty days founds jurisdiction. If one has no fixed dwelling place, e.g. a soldier, or a travelling merchant, a personal citation against him within the territory is sufficient to found the judge's jurisdiction over him, even in civil questions. As the defender is not obliged to appear before a court to which he is not subject, the pursuer must follow the defender's domicile.
9. It is founded, 2. Ratione rei sita, if the subject in question lie within the territory. If that subject be immoveable, the judge, whose jurisdiction is founded in this way, is the sole judge competent, excluding the judge of the domicile.
10. Where one, who has not his domicile within the territory, is to be sued before an inferior court ratione rei sita, the court of session must be applied to, whose jurisdiction is universal, and who, of course, grants letters of supplement to cite the defender to appear before the inferior judge. Where the party to be sued resides in another kingdom, and has an estate in this, the court of session is the only proper court, as the commune forum to all persons residing abroad; and the defender, if his estate be heritable, is considered as lawfully summoned to that court, by a citation at the market-cross of Edinburgh, and pier and shore of Leith: but where a stranger, not a native of Scotland, has only a moveable estate in this kingdom, he is deemed to be so little subject to the jurisdiction of our courts, that action cannot be brought against him till his effects be first attached by an arrestment jurisdiction is fundanda causa, Harc. 487, which is laid on by a warrant issuing from the supreme courts of session, or admiralty, or from that within whose territory the subject is situated, at the suit of the creditor.
11. A judge may, in special cases, arrest or secure the persons of such as have neither domicile nor estate within his territory, even for civil debts. Thus, on the border between Scotland and England, warrants are granted of course by the judge-ordinary of either side, against those who have their domicile upon the opposite side, for arresting their persons, till they give caution judicio fisi; and even the persons of citizens or natives may be so secured, where there is just reason to suspect that they are in meditation fuga, i.e. that they intend suddenly to withdraw from the kingdom; upon which suspicion, the creditor who applies for the warrant must make oath. An inhabitant of a borough-royal, who has furnished one who lives without the borough in meat, cloaths, or other merchandize, and who has no security for it but his own compt book, may arrest his debtor, till he give security judicio fisi.
12. A judge may be declined, i.e. his jurisdiction disowned judicially, 1. Ratione causa, from his incompetency to the special cause brought before him. 2. Ratione suspecti judicis; where either the judge himself, or his near kinsman, has an interest in the suit. No judge can vote in the cause of his father, brother, or son, either by consanguinity or affinity; nor in the cause of his uncle or nephew by consanguinity. 3. Ratione privilegii;
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2
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C-L
| 47
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Normal
| 2,483
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CAP (3.fore he is raifed to that fovereign dignity. The prin¬cipal points which the emperor undertakes to obferve,are, t. To defend the church and the empire. 2. Toobferve the fundamental laws of the empire. And, 3.To maintain and preferve the rights, privileges, andimmunities of the electors, princes, and other ftatesof the empire, fpecified in the capitulation. Th-fearticles and capitulations are prefented to the emperorby the eleftors only, without the concurrence of theother ftates, who have complained from time to timeof fuch proceedings '; and in the time of the Weftpha-lian treaty, in 1648, it was propofed to deliberate intire following diet, upon a way of making a perpetualcapitulation ; but the electors have always found meansof eluding the execution of this article. In order how¬ever to give fome fatisfadtion to their adverfaries, theyhave inferted m the capitulations of the emperors, and.in that of Francis I. in particular, a promife to ufe alltheir influence to bring the affair of £ perpetual capitu¬lation tO a conclufion. Some German authors own,that this capitulation limits the. emperor’s power ; butmaintain that it does not weaken his fovereignty :Though the moft part maintain, that lie is not abfo-lu;e, becaufe be receives the empire under conditionswhich fet bounds to an abfolute authority.GAPNOIDES, in botany, the trivial name of'a fpeciesof fumaria. See Fumaria.CAPON, a cock-chicken, gelded as foon as left by thedam, or as foon as he begins to crow. They are, ofufe either to lead chickens, ducklings, pheafants, <bc.and defend them from the kites and buzzards ; or tofeed for the table, they being reckoned more delicatethan either a cock or a hen.GAPPACI.4, a town of the hither prineipate,. in thekingdom of Naples. It is a biffiop’s fee, and fituatedabout fifty-five miles fouth-eaft of the city of Naples :E. long. 1 j° 2o', and N. lat. 40° 40'.CAFPARIS. in botany, a genus of the polyandria mo*nogynia clafs. The calix confifts of four cortaceousleaves; the corolla has four petals; the ftamina arelong ; and the capfule is fleffiy within, unilocular, andfupported by a pedunculus. 'There are ten fpecies,none of which are natives of BritainCAPRA, or Goat, a genus of quadrupeds belongingto the'order .of pecora. The horns are hollow, turn¬ed upwards, eredt, and fcabrotis. There are eightfore teeth in the under jaw, and none in the upper ;and they have no dog-teeth. This genus confifts ©ftwelve fpecies, viz.1. The hircus, or common goat, with arched cari-nated horns, and a long heard.. . The goat of Angorais only a variety of this fpecies ; its hair is white, andhangs down to the feet; and the ears are plain andpendent. The common goat is a native of the eafternmountains, See Plate LXIII.The goat is an animal of more fagacity than theffieep. Inftead of having an antipathy at mankind,they voluntarily mingle with them,- and are eafilytamed. Even in uninhabited countries, they betray-no favage d fnofitiOns. In the year 1698, an EnglifhveiTel having put in to the ifland-of Bonovifta, two) CAPnegroes came aboard, and offered gratis fo the captainas many goats as he pkafed. The captain expreffedhis aftoniihment at this offer. But the negroes replied,that there were only twelve perfons in the ifland ; thatthe goats had multiplied to fuch a degree, that theywere become extremely troublefome; and that, infteadof having any difficulty in catching them, they followedthe men where-ever they went, and were fo obftinatelyofficious, that they could not get quit of them uponany account whatever.Goats are fenfible of carefles, and capable of a con-fiderable degree of friendffiip. They are ftronger,more agile, and lefs timid than ffieep. They have alively,. capricious, and wandering difpofition; are fondof high and folitarjrplacesand frequently fleep uponthe very points of rocks. They are more eafily fup¬ported than any other animal of the fame fize; forthere is hardly an herb or the bark of a tree, whichthey will not eat with pleafure. Neither are theyliable to fo many difeafes as ffieep: They can bearheat and cold with Id's inconvenience. The addons,and movement's of animals depend more upon theforce and variety of their fenfations, than the ftrudtureof their bodies : Iffie natural inconftancy or fanciful-nefs of goats is accordingly expreffed by the irregula¬rity • of their actions : They walk, (top ffiort, "run,jump, ffiew, and hide themfelves, as it were by merecaprice, and without any other caufe than what a-rifes from the natural vivacity of tueir temper.The buck will copulate when he is a year old, andthe female when ffie is feven months. But as this is ra¬ther premature, they are generally reftrained till theybe eighteen months or two years. The buck is bald,beautiful, and vigorous; one is fufficient to ferve 150females. A buck for propagation ffiould be large,handfome, and about two years of age ; his neckffiould be ffiort. and fleffiy; his head flender ; his earspendent; his thighs thick; his limbs firm ; his hairblack, thick,, and foft; and his beard ffiould be long,and buffiy. The females are generally in feafon fromSeptember to the end of November. The time ofgoing with young is five months. They generally pro¬duce one kid, fometimes two, feldom three, and nevermore than four; and continue fruitful till they be fevenyears of age: But a buck is feldom kept after he is five.Goat’s fleffi is not fo good as mutton : The rankfmell of the buck does- not proceed from the fleffi, butfrom the fkin.The fcod of this animal cofts next to nothing, as itlives moftly upon fuch plants as are rejedted by othercattle, and can fupport itfelf even upon the moft ban- .ren mountains-. But their produce is valuable. Cheefeis made of their milk, whi-S: befides is reckoned goodin confumptions, and other difeafes. Their fleffi, tah-low, hair, and hides, are all ufeful and faleable com¬modities.2. The ibex, has large knotty horns reclined uponits-back, .is of a yellowiffi colour, and its beard isblack. This fpecies is a native of Crete ; and is like-wife to be met with in the mountains of fome of thenorthern parts of Europe.3. The,.
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fore he is raised to that sovereign dignity. The principal points which the emperor undertakes to observe, are, 1. To defend the church and the empire. 2. To observe the fundamental laws of the empire. And, 3. To maintain and preserve the rights, privileges, and immunities of the electors, princes, and other states of the empire, specified in the capitulation. These articles and capitulations are presented to the emperor by the electors only, without the concurrence of the other states, who have complained from time to time of such proceedings; and in the time of the Westphalian treaty, in 1648, it was proposed to deliberate in the following diet, upon a way of making a perpetual capitulation; but the electors have always found means of eluding the execution of this article. In order however to give some satisfaction to their adversaries, they have inserted in the capitulations of the emperors, and in that of Francis I. in particular, a promise to use all their influence to bring the affair of a perpetual capitulation to a conclusion. Some German authors own, that this capitulation limits the emperor's power; but maintain that it does not weaken his sovereignty: Though the most part maintain, that he is not absolute, because he receives the empire under conditions which set bounds to an absolute authority.
CAPNOIDES, in botany, the trivial name of a species of fumaria. See FUMARIA.
CAPON, a cock-chicken, gelded as soon as left by the dam, or as soon as he begins to crow. They are of use either to lead chickens, ducklings, pheasants, etc. and defend them from the kites and buzzards; or to feed for the table, they being reckoned more delicate than either a cock or a hen.
APPACIA, a town of the hither principate, in the kingdom of Naples. It is a bishop's see, and situated about fifty-five miles south-east of the city of Naples: E. long. $15^\circ$ 20', and N. lat. $40^\circ$ 40'.
APPARIS, in botany, a genus of the polyandria monogynia class. The calix consists of four cortaceous leaves; the corolla has four petals; the stamina are long; and the capsule is fleshy within, unilocular, and supported by a pedunculus. There are ten species, none of which are natives of Britain.
CAPRA, or GOAT, a genus of quadrupeds belonging to the order of pecora. The horns are hollow, turned upwards, erect, and scabrous. There are eight fore teeth in the under jaw, and none in the upper; and they have no dog-teeth. This genus consists of twelve species, viz.
1. The hircus, or common goat, with arched carinated horns, and a long heard. The goat of Angora is only a variety of this species; its hair is white, and hangs down to the feet; and the ears are plain and pendent. The common goat is a native of the eastern mountains. See Plate LXIII.
The goat is an animal of more sagacity than the sheep. Instead of having an antipathy at mankind, they voluntarily mingle with them, and are easily tamed. Even in uninhabited countries, they betray no savage dispositions. In the year 1698, an English vessel having put in to the island of Bonovista, two negroes came aboard, and offered gratis to the captain as many goats as he pleased. The captain expressed his astonishment at this offer. But the negroes replied, that there were only twelve persons in the island; that the goats had multiplied to such a degree, that they were become extremely troublesome; and that, instead of having any difficulty in catching them, they followed the men where-ever they went, and were so obliquely officious, that they could not get quit of them upon any account whatever.
Goats are sensible of carelesses, and capable of a considerable degree of friendship. They are stronger, more agile, and less timid than sheep. They have a lively, capricious, and wandering disposition; are fond of high and solitary places; and frequently sleep upon the very points of rocks. They are more easily supported than any other animal of the same size; for there is hardly an herb or the bark of a tree, which they will not eat with pleasure. Neither are they liable to so many diseases as sheep: They can bear heat and cold with less inconvenience. The actions and movements of animals depend more upon the force and variety of their sensations, than the structure of their bodies: The natural constancy or fancifulness of goats is accordingly expressed by the irregularity of their actions: They walk, stop short, run, jump, shew, and hide themselves, as it were by mere caprice, and without any other cause than what arises from the natural vivacity of their temper.
The buck will copulate when he is a year old, and the female when she is seven months. But as this is rather premature, they are generally restrained till they be cighteen months or two years. The buck is bald, beautiful, and vigorous; one is sufficient to serve 150 females. A buck for propagation should be large, handsome, and about two years of age; his neck should be short, and fleshy; his head slender; his ears pendant; his thighs thick; his limbs firm; his hair black, thick, and soft; and his beard should be long, and bushy. The females are generally in season from September to the end of November. The time of going with young is five months. They generally produce one kid, sometimes two, seldom three, and never more than four; and continue fruitful till they be seven years of age: But a buck is seldom kept after he is five.
Goat's flesh is not so good as mutton: The rank smell of the buck does not proceed from the flesh, but from the skin.
The food of this animal costs next to nothing, as it lives mostly upon such plants as are rejected by other cattle, and can support itself even upon the most barren mountains. But their produce is valuable. Cheese is made of their milk, which besides is reckoned good in consumptions, and other diseases. Their flesh, tailow, hair, and hides, are all useful and saleable commodities.
2. The ibex, has large knotty horns reclined upon its back, is of a yellowish colour, and its beard is black. This species is a native of Crete; and is likewise to be met with in the mountains of some of the northern parts of Europe.
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||
1
|
A-B
| 585
|
486
| null |
Normal
| 2,423
| 3,387
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4S 6 ASTROfurdity to imagine that the ftars were made for no otherpurpofe than to caft a faint light upon the earth; efpe-cially fince many more require the afliftance of a good te-lefcope to find them out, than are vilible without thatinftrument. Our fun is furrounded by a fyftem of pla¬nets and comets ; all which would be invifible from theneareft fixed ftar. And from what we already know ofthe immenfe diftance of the ftars, the neareft may becomputed at 32,000,000,000,000 of miles from us,which is farther than a cannon-bullet would fly in7,000,000 of years. Hence it is eafy to prove, thatthe fun, feen from fuch a diftance, would appear nobigger than a ftar of the firft magnitude. From all thisit is highly probable, that each ftar is a fun to a fyftemof worlds moving round it, though unfeen by us ; efpe-cially as the dodtrine of a plurality of worlds is rational,and greatly manifefts the power, wifdom, and goodnefsof the great Creator.The ftars, on account of their apparently various mag¬nitudes, have-been diftributed into feveral clafles, or or¬ders. Thofe which appear largeft, are called Jiars ofthe fitji magnitude’, the next to them in luftre, f urs ofthe fecond magnitude’, and fo on the fxth, which arethe fmalleft thj.t are vifible to the bare eye. This diftri-bution having been made long before the. invention oftelefcopes, the ftars which cannot be feen without theaffiftance of thefe inftrumerits, are diftinguifhed by thename of te/efccpkfare.The ancients divided the ftarry fphere into particularconftellations; or fyftems of ftars, according as they laynear one another, fo as to occupy thofe fpaces which thefigures of different forts of animals or things would takeup, if they were there delineated. And thofe ftars■which could not be brought into any particular conftella-tion, were called unformed fan.This drvifion of the ftars into different conftellationsor afterifms, ferves to diftinguifh them from one another,fo that any particular ftar may be readily found in theheavens by means of a celeftial globe; on which theconftellations are fo delineated, as to put the moft remark¬able ftars into fiich parts of the figures as are moft eafilydiftinguifhed; The number of the ancient conftellationsis 48, and upon our prefent globes about 70. On Se-nex’s globes are inferted Bayer’s letters; the firft in theGreek alphabet being put to the biggeft ftar in each con-flellation, the fecond to the next, and fo on: By whichN O M Y.means, every ftar is as eafily found as if a name weregiven to it. Thus, if the ftar y in the conftellation ofthe ram be mentioned, every alfronomer knows as wellwhat ftar is meant as if it were pointed out to.him in theheavens.There is alfo a divifion of the heavens into three parts,I. The Zodiak (£&>§<«x:?) from zodion, an animal,becaufe moft of the conftellations in it, which are twelvein number, are the figures of animals : As Aries theram, Taurus the bull, Gemini the twins, Cancer thecrab, Leo the lion, Virgo the virgin, Libra the balance,Scorpio the fcorpion, Sagittarius the archer, Capricor-nus the goat, Aquarius the water-bearer, and Pifcesthe fifties. The zodiac goes quite round the heavens rit is about 16 degrees broad, fo that it takes in the orbitsof all the planets, and likewife the orbit of the moon.Along the middle of this zone or belt is the ecliptic, orcircle which the earth defcribes annually as feen fromthe fun ; and which the fun appears to defcribe as feenfrom the earth. 2. All that region of the heavens,which is on the north fide of th6 zodiac, containingtwenty-one conftellations. And, 3. That on the fouthfide, containing fifteen.The ancients divided the zodiac into the above twelveconftellations or figns in the following manner. Theytook a veflel with a fmall hole in the bottom, and havingfilled it with water, fuffered the fame to diftil drop bydrop into another veflel fet beneath to receive it; be¬ginning at the moment when fome ftar rofe, and conti¬nuing until it rofe the next following night. The waterfallen down into the receiver they divided into twelve e-qual parts; and having two other fmall veflels in readi-nefs, each of them fit to contain one part, they againpoured all the water into the upper veflel, and obfervingthe rifing of fome ftar in the zodiac, they at the fametime fuffered the water to drop into one of the fmallveflels; and as foon as it was full, they'fluffed it, andfet an empty one in Its place. When each veflel wasfull, they took notice what ftar of the zodiac rofe ; andthough this could not be done in one night, yet in ma¬ny they obferved the rifing of twelve ftars or points,by which they divided the zodiac into twelve parts.The names of the conftellations, and the number offtars obferved in each of them by different aftronomers,are as follow.The. ancient Conftellations.Ptolemy.Tycho.Hevelius.Flamfeed.Urfa minorThe Little Bear871224Urfa majorThe Great Bear35„ 297387DracoThe Dragon3*324080GepheusGepheus'*345*35Bootes, Arttophilax2318S 254Corona BorealisThe Northern Crown88821-Hercules', EngonafnHercules kneeling292845113LyraThe Harp1011*721Cygnusj GallinaThe Swan1918478lCafimpeaThe Lady in her Chair132 63755PerfeusPerfeus29294659AurigaThe Waggoner1494066Serpentariusf- Opkiuchus •Serpentarius29154974Serpens
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surdity to imagine that the stars were made for no other purpose than to cast a faint light upon the earth; especially since many more require the assistance of a good telescope to find them out, than are visible without that instrument. Our sun is surrounded by a system of planets and comets; all which would be invisible from the nearest fixed star. And from what we already know of the immense distance of the stars, the nearest may be computed at 32,000,000,000 of miles from us, which is farther than a cannon-bullet would fly in 7,000,000 of years. Hence it is easy to prove, that the sun, seen from such a distance, would appear no bigger than a star of the first magnitude. From all this it is highly probable, that each star is a sun to a system of worlds moving round it, though unseen by us; especially as the doctrine of a plurality of worlds is rational, and greatly manifests the power, wisdom, and goodness of the great Creator.
The stars, on account of their apparently various magnitudes, have been distributed into several classes, or orders. Those which appear largest, are called stars of the first magnitude; the next to them in lustre, stars of the second magnitude; and so on the sixth, which are the smallest that are visible to the bare eye. This distribution having been made long before the invention of telescopes, the stars which cannot be seen without the assistance of these instruments, are distinguished by the name of telescopic stars.
The ancients divided the starry sphere into particular constellations; or systems of stars, according as they lay near one another, so as to occupy those spaces which the figures of different sorts of animals or things would take up, if they were there delineated. And those stars which could not be brought into any particular constellation, were called unformed stars.
This division of the stars into different constellations or asterisms, serves to distinguish them from one another, so that any particular star may be readily found in the heavens by means of a celestial globe; on which the constellations are so delineated, as to put the most remarkable stars into such parts of the figures as are most easily distinguished. The number of the ancient constellations is 48, and upon our present globes about 70. On Senex's globes are inserted Bayer's letters; the first in the Greek alphabet being put to the biggest star in each constellation, the second to the next, and so on: By which means, every star is as easily found as if a name were given to it. Thus, if the star γ in the constellation of the ram be mentioned, every astronomer knows as well what star is meant as if it were pointed out to him in the heavens.
There is also a division of the heavens into three parts.
1. The Zodiak (ζωδίων, zodion), an animal, because most of the constellations in it, which are twelve in number, are the figures of animals: As Aries the ram, Taurus the bull, Gemini the twins, Cancer the crab, Leo the lion, Virgo the virgin, Libra the balance, Scorpio the scorpion, Sagittarius the archer, Capricornus the goat, Aquarius the water-bearer, and Pisces the fishes. The zodiac goes quite round the heavens: it is about 16 degrees broad, so that it takes in the orbits of all the planets, and likewise the orbit of the moon. Along the middle of this zone or belt is the ecliptic, or circle which the earth describes annually as seen from the sun; and which the sun appears to describe as seen from the earth.
2. All that region of the heavens, which is on the north side of the zodiac, containing twenty-one constellations. And, 3. That on the south side, containing fifteen.
The ancients divided the zodiac into the above twelve constellations or signs in the following manner. They took a vessel with a small hole in the bottom, and having filled it with water, suffered the same to distil drop by drop into another vessel set beneath to receive it; beginning at the moment when some star rose, and continuing until it rose the next following night. The water fallen down into the receiver they divided into twelve equal parts; and having two other small vessels in readiness, each of them fit to contain one part, they again poured all the water into the upper vessel, and observing the rising of some star in the zodiac, they at the same time suffered the water to drop into one of the small vessels; and as soon as it was full, they shifted it, and set an empty one in its place. When each vessel was full, they took notice what star of the zodiac rose; and though this could not be done in one night, yet in many they observed the rising of twelve stars or points, by which they divided the zodiac into twelve parts.
The names of the constellations, and the number of stars observed in each of them by different astronomers, are as follow.
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1
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A-B
| 724
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605
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Normal
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( IX )9 Cajh Dr to Canary in company with Simon Kingand John Oker, 177/. 12s. IReceived for 6 pipes, at 29/. 12 s. 1177BOOK-JOURNAL.I '•—December 18th.-K E E. d.P IJ oSimon King his accompt in company Dr toditto his accompt proper, 59/. 4/.For his-f fhare of 177/. 12/. received forCanary,John Oker, ditto,—20th.-Sundries Drs to James Fuller, 30 /.1.Cafh, received in compofition of his ?debt, - - \ 12 00Oil in company with S. King andl .John Oker, abated him, } 110 Simon King his accompt-proper Dr to ditto hisioi accompt in company, 61.For his J- fhare of 18 /. abatedd\John Oker, ditto,-24th.-Sundries Drs to Canary in company with S.King and J. Oker, 150/./.S. King his accompt in company, for}2 pipes taken to himfelf, as his> yo 00fhare of what remains, jJ. Oker his accompt in company, for7ditto, - - l 5° 00Canary, for 2 pipes retained, as my 7fhare. - - J\ 50 00Cajh Dr to Ship Phoenix in company wit/George Kent, 22 /.Received in full for freight,8 George Kent his accompt in company Dr to dittohis accompt-proper, 11 /.For his half fhare of 22 /. received as freight.59J0400 -28th_Mr Jones and company Dr to Ship Phoenix59j°4°° .£ company with George Kent, 700/.Sold ditto fhip, to pay at 3- months,_^8 George Kent his accompt in company Dr to dittohis accompt proper, 350 /.For his half fhare,—30th.Vot. I. No. 26.N G.URN—December27th.-( 12 )605Houfe-expences Dr to Cajh, iool.Expended fince the id of January laft,7 0LEDGER
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December 18th.
Cash Dr to Canary in company with Simon King and John Oker, 177 l. 12 s.
Received for 6 pipes, at 29 l. 12 s.
Simon King his account in company Dr to ditto his account proper, 59 l. 4 s.
For his $\frac{1}{3}$ share of 177 l. 12 s. received for Canary,
John Oker, ditto,
20th.
Sundries Drs to James Fuller, 30 l.
Cash, received in composition of his debt,
Oil in company with S. King and John Oker, abated him,
Simon King his account-proper Dr to ditto his account in company, 6 l.
For his $\frac{1}{3}$ share of 18 l. abated.
John Oker, ditto,
24th.
Sundries Drs to Canary in company with S. King and J. Oker, 150 l.
S. King his account in company, for 2 pipes taken to himself, as his share of what remains,
J. Oker his account in company, for ditto,
Canary, for 2 pipes retained, as my share.
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|
1
|
A-B
| 761
|
640
| null |
Normal
| 2,518
| 3,387
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B O TN6i°-Fig-57. Emfum, as if eroded or eat irregularly by fome cor-rofive fubftance.58. P almatum, refembling a hand.59. Pinna trim, divided into pieces refembling fins.60. Laciniatum, with many cuts or indentures in themargin.6t. Sinuatim, having wide finufes or hollows in themargin.62. T)ertalo-fnuatuni, having finufes and divisions re¬fembling teeth.63. Rstrorfum Jinuatum, hollowed and bent backwards.64. Partitum, when the divifions or fegments reach nearthe bafe of the leaf.65. Repandum, a waving but undivided margin.66. Den tat um, teethed, i. e. when the tops of the feg¬ments are remote from each other.6 7. Serratum, when the fegments uniformly incline tothe extremity.68. Duplicate ferratum, doubly ferrated, i. e. when theleffer fegments incline to the extremities of thelarger ones.69. Duplicato-crenatum, doubly crenated, (74)70. Cartilagineum, when the margin of the leaf has acartilaginous or griftly texture.71. Acute-crenatum, (harp fegments having no deter¬minate inclination to either extremity.72. Obtufe-crenatum, the fame with the above, only thefegments are blunt.73. P Heat urn, plaited, or confiding of regular folds.74. Crenatum, fegments having no inclination to eitherextremity.75. Crifpiim, when the margin is larger than the difc,and formed into a kind of waves.76. Obtufum, blunt at the top.77. Acutum, (harp, or pointed.78. Acuminatum, when the leaf tapers to a lharp pointat the top.79. Obtufim acumine, having a (hort Tubulated point.80. Emarginatum acute, having (harp divifions at thetop of the leaf.81. Unciforme marginatum, having wedge-fhaped divi¬fions at the top.82. Retufum, having blunt finufes.83. Pilofum, covered with long difhindl hairs.84. Tomentofum, interwoven with foft hairs, and oftenof a white colour.85. Hifpidum, having brittle rough bridles diffufely fcat-tered upon the difc of the leaf.86. CAliatum, having parallel bridles round the margin.87. Rugofum, full of rugae or wrinkles.88. Vencfum, having veins or nerves confiding of manyramifications.89. Nervofum, when the veins or nerves are extendedfrom the bafe to the top without any branches.90. Papillofum, covered with veficles, bladders, or hol¬low points.91. Linguifsrme, like a tongue, e. flelhy, linear, ob-tufe, convex below, and having frequently a car¬tilaginous margin.92. Acinacifo'rtne, refembling a kernel;—compreffed.Fig- . rflefhy, having one edge narrow and convex, andthe other thicker and more draight.93. Dolabriforme, refembling an ax;—compreffed,roundifh, gibbous on the outfide, with a (harpedge, which is a little blunter below.94. Deltoidcs, an irregular rhomboidal figure. Seethe leaf of the black poplar.95. Triquetrum, having three plain fides.96. Canaliculatum, having a deep longitudinal furrow.97. Sulcatum, having feveral deep furrows.98. Teres, cylindrical, or like a cylinder.99. Binatum, when a fimple petiolus has two leavesconnefted to its apex.100. Ternatum foliis fejjilibus, three feflile leaves (/. e,having no petioli) connefted to one commonpetiolus.101. Ternatum foliclis petiolatis, three leaves upon acommon petiolus, each having at the fame timea feparate petiolus.102. Digitatum, or refembling fingers, i. e. when afimple petiolus has two, three, four, or moreleaves connected to its apex.103. Pedatum, a bifid or forked petiolus, having fmallleaves connected to its interior fide.104. P binatum cum impari; fmall leaves connected tothe fides of a fimple petiolus, terminated by anodd leaf.105. Pinnatum abrupturn, neither terminated by an oddleaf nor a cirrhus.106. -alternatum, when the fmall leaves rifehigher and higher alternately upon the petiolus.107. --- inierrupte, when the pinnated leaves arealternately larger and fmaller.108. - cirrhofum, when the common petiolusends in a cirrhus.109. - conjugatum, when the common petiolushas only two leaves connected.no.-decurftve, when the fmall leaves runalong the petiolus. >hi.-articulate, when the common petiolusis jointed.112. Lyratum, like a harp, /. e. when the leaf is tranf-verfely divided into fegments, the fuperior ofwhich are larger than the inferior, and the in¬ferior ones are more diftant from each other.113. Biternatum, or duplicato-ternatum, when the com¬mon petiolus has three ternated (100) leavesfixed to it. The epimedium is an example ofthis.114. Bipinnatum, or duplicato-pinnatum, when the com¬mon petiolus gives off pinnated (104) petiolifrom its fides.115. Triternaturn, or triplicato-ternatum, when thecommon petiolus fends off from its fides threebiternated (113) leaves.116. Tripinnatum fine impari, when the common pe¬tiolus has three or more bipinnated (114) leavesfixed to its fides: not terminated by a Angle leaf.117. -- cum impari, the fame with the former,only terminated by a fingle leaf.Terms
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Fig.
57. Erosum, as if eroded or eat irregularly by some corrosive substance.
58. Palmatum, resembling a hand.
59. Pinnatum, divided into pieces resembling fins.
60. Laciniatum, with many cuts or indentures in the margin.
61. Sinuatum, having wide sinuses or hollows in the margin.
62. Dertato-sinuatum, having sinuses and divisions resembling teeth.
63. Retrorsum sinuatum, hollowed and bent backwards.
64. Partitum, when the divisions or segments reach near the base of the leaf.
65. Repandum, a waving but undivided margin.
66. Dentatum, teethed, i.e. when the tops of the segments are remote from each other.
67. Serratum, when the segments uniformly incline to the extremity.
68. Duplicato-serratum, doubly serrated, i.e. when the lesser segments incline to the extremities of the larger ones.
69. Duplicato-crenatum, doubly crenated, (74)
70. Cartilagineum, when the margin of the leaf has a cartilaginous or gristly texture.
71. Acute-crenatum, sharp segments having no determinate inclination to either extremity.
72. Obtuse-crenatum, the same with the above, only the segments are blunt.
73. Plicatum, plaited, or consisting of regular folds.
74. Crenatum, segments having no inclination to either extremity.
75. Crispum, when the margin is larger than the disc, and formed into a kind of waves.
76. Obtusum, blunt at the top.
77. Acutum, sharp, or pointed.
78. Acuminatum, when the leaf tapers to a sharp point at the top.
79. Obtusum acumine, having a short subulated point.
80. Emarginatum acute, having sharp divisions at the top of the leaf.
81. Unciforme marginatum, having wedge-shaped divisions at the top.
82. Retusum, having blunt sinuses.
83. Pilosum, covered with long distinct hairs.
84. Tomentosum, interwoven with soft hairs, and often of a white colour.
85. Hispidum, having brittle rough bristles diffusely scattered upon the disc of the leaf.
86. Giliatum, having parallel bristles round the margin.
87. Rugosum, full of rugæ or wrinkles.
88. Venosum, having veins or nerves consisting of many ramifications.
89. Nervosum, when the veins or nerves are extended from the base to the top without any branches.
90. Papillosum, covered with vesicles, bladders, or hollow points.
91. Linguiforme, like a tongue, i.e. fleshy, linear, obtuse, convex below, and having frequently a cartilaginous margin.
92. Acinaciforme, resembling a kernel;—compressed, fleshy, having one edge narrow and convex, and the other thicker and more straight.
93. Dolabriforme, resembling an ax;—compressed, roundish, gibbous on the outside, with a sharp edge, which is a little blunter below.
94. Deltoides, an irregular rhomboidal figure. See the leaf of the black poplar.
95. Triquetrum, having three plain sides.
96. Canaliculatum, having a deep longitudinal furrow.
97. Sulcatum, having several deep furrows.
98. Teres, cylindrical, or like a cylinder.
99. Binatum, when a simple petiolus has two leaves connected to its apex.
100. Ternatum foliis sessilibus, three sessile leaves (i.e. having no petioli) connected to one common petiolus.
101. Ternatum foliolis petiolatis, three leaves upon a common petiolus, each having at the same time a separate petiolus.
102. Digitatum, or resembling fingers, i.e. when a simple petiolus has two, three, four, or more leaves connected to its apex.
103. Pedatum, a bird or forked petiolus, having small leaves connected to its interior side.
104. Pinnatum cum impari; small leaves connected to the sides of a simple petiolus, terminated by an odd leaf.
105. Pinnatum abruptum, neither terminated by an odd leaf nor a cirrhus.
106. alternatum, when the small leaves rise higher and higher alternately upon the petiolus.
107. interrupte, when the pinnated leaves are alternately larger and smaller.
108. cirrhosum, when the common petiolus ends in a cirrhus.
109. conjugatum, when the common petiolus has only two leaves connected.
110. decursive, when the small leaves run along the petiolus.
111. articulate, when the common petiolus is jointed.
112. Lyratum, like a harp, i.e. when the leaf is transversely divided into segments, the superior of which are larger than the inferior, and the inferior ones are more distant from each other.
113. Biternatum, or duplicato-ternatum, when the common petiolus has three ternated (100) leaves fixed to it. The epimedium is an example of this.
114. Bipinnatum, or duplicato-pinnatum, when the common petiolus gives off pinnated (104) petioli from its sides.
115. Tribernatum, or triplicato-ternatum, when the common petiolus sends off from its sides three biternated (113) leaves.
116. Tripinnatum fine impari, when the common petiolus has three or more bipinnated (114) leaves fixed to its sides, not terminated by a single leaf.
117. cum impari, the same with the former, only terminated by a single leaf.
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|
3
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M-Z
| 225
|
194
| null |
Normal
| 3,905
| 5,132
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M E T A P II Y S I C S.Now one part of-'thefe dlfadvantages in moral idsasywhich has made them .be thought not capable of demon-ftration, may in a good meafure be remedied by dejini-iionsy fetting down that colledlion of fimple ideas whichevery term fhall Hand for, and then ufing the terms Ilea-dily and condantly for that precife coliefUon.As to the fourth fort of knowledge, viz. of the realaflual exijience^ of things^ we have znjntuitive know¬ledge of our o<wn exifence ; a demotif rathe knowledgeof the exijlence of God ; and a fenjilive knowledge of theobjects that prefent thejnfelves to our fenfes.From what has been faid, we may ddcover the caufesof our ignorance; which are chiefly thefe three : Firjiy^“Wmioiideas : Secondlyy Want of adifcoverable connec>tion bew.en the ideas we have: Thirdly y Watft of tracingand examining our ideas.,Firfy There are fome things we are ignorant of for*want of ideas. All the fimple ideas we have are confi¬ned to the obfervations of our fenfes, and the operationsof our own minds that we are confcious of in ourfelves.What other ideas it is poflfible other creatures may have,by the aflidance of other fenfes and faculties more orperfeiter than we have, or different from ours, it is notfor us to determine; but to fay or think there arc nofuch, becaufe we conceive nothing of them, is no better anargument, than if a.blind man fliould be pofitlve in it,that there was no fuch thing as fight and colours, becaufehe had no manner of idea of any fuch thing. What fa¬culties therefore other fpecies of creatures have to pene*trate into the nature and inmofi: conftitutions of things,we know not. This weknov/, and certainly find, that wewant other view5 of them, befides thpfe we have, to makedifcoveries of theni more perfeift. The intelleOual andfenfihle world are in this perfedly alike, that the partswhich we fee of either of them, hold no proportion withthat we fee not; and whatfoever w^e can reach with oureyes or our thoughts of either of them, is but a point ai¬med hothing in comparifon of ibe reft.Another great caufe of ignorance, is the "^ant of i-deas that nue are capable of This keeps us in igno¬rance of things we conceive capable of being known.Bulk, figure, and motion we have ideas of; yet notknowing what is the particular bulk, motion, and figureof the greateft pan of the bodies of the oniverfe, we areignorant of the feveral powers, efficacies, and ways ofoperation, whereby the efFe^fts we daily fee are produced.Thefe are hid from us in fome things, by being too remote ; in' others, by being too minute.When we cbnfider the vaft diftance of the known andvifible parts of the world, and the reafons we have tothink that what lies within our ken is but a fmall partof the immenfe univerfe, we fhall^ then difeover an hugeabyfs of ignorance. What are the particular fabrlcks ofthe .great maftes of matter, which make up the whole ftu-penduous frame of corporeal beings ; bow far they areextended; and what is their motion, and how continued ;and what influence they have upon one another; are con¬templations, that at firft glimpfe our thoughts I-ofe them-felves in. If we confine our thoughts to this little fy-ftem of our fun, and the grofTer maftes of matter that vi-fibly n»ove about it; what feveral forts of vegetables,animals, and intellectual corporeal beings, infinitely dif¬ferent from thofe of our little fpot of earth, may-probablybQ m oi\\e.r plarutsy to the knowledge of which, even oFtheir outward figures and parts, 'we can no.way attain,whilit v/e are confined to mis earth, there being no na¬tural means, either by lenfation or reflection, to conveytheir certain ideas into our minds?There are other bodies in the univerfe, no lefs con¬cealed from us by their sriimitenejs. Theie infenfiblecorpufcles being the aCtive parts of matter, and the greatinltruments of nature on which depend all their fecondaryqualities and operations, our want of precife diftinCt idearof their primary qualities keeps us in incurable igno¬rance of what we defire to know about them. Did weknow the mechanical afFeClions of rhubarb and opiuniy wemight as ealiiy account for their operations of purging or’caufiHg fleepy as ,a watchmaker can for the motions ofhis watch. The diftTolving of filver in orgold in aqua regiay and not vice verfuy 'would be then,perhaps, no more diflicult to know, than it is to ^fmitbto underftand why the turning of one key will open a lock,and not the turning of another. Butwhilft we aredefti-tute of fenfes acute enough to difeover the minute parti¬cles of bodies, and to give us ideas of their mechanical af-feCfions, we muit be content to be ignorant of their pro¬perties and operations: Nor can we be aflfiired aboutthem any farther tfian fome few trials we make are ableto reach ; but whether they will fucceed again anothertime, we cannot be certain. This hinders ohr certainknowledge of univerfal truths concerning natural bodies ;and our reafon carries us herein very little beyond parti¬cular matters of fa6t. And therefore, hov/ far foeverhu-man’inJuftry may advance ufeful and experimental phi^lofophy in phyficai things, yet feientifeal v}{\\ ftill be out ofour reach ; becaufe we want perfea and adequate ideas ofthofe very bodies which are neareft to us, andmoft underour command.This, at lirft fight, ftiews us how difproportionate ourknowledge is to the whole extent, even of material be¬ings ; to which if we add the confideration of that infinitenumber offpirits that may be, and probably are, which areyet more remote from our knowledge, whereof we haveno cognizance ; we fhall find this caufe of ignorance con¬ceal from us, in an impenetrable obfeurity, almoft thewholeworld, a^reater certainly, and a morebeautiful world than the material: For bating fome veryfew ideas of fpirit we get from our own mind by reflec¬tion, and from thence thebeft we cancolleift of the Fatherof all fpiriiSy the f^uthor of them and us and all things,we have no certain information fo much as of the exift-ence of other fpirits but by revelation ; much lefs havewe diftinfl ideas of their different natures, ftates, powers,and feveral conftitutions, wherein they agree or differ onefrom another, and from us : And therefore in what con¬cerns their different fpecies'and properties, we are undeiran abfolute ignorance.The fecond caufe of ignorance, is the fwant of difeo*verable conneflion between thofe ideas we have ; Where>we want that, we are utterly incapable of univerfal andcertain knowledge: and are, as in the former cafe, J[jftonly to ohfsrv.ition and experiment. Thus the mecha¬nical
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Now one part of these disadvantages in moral ideas, which has made them be thought not capable of demonstration, may in a good measure be remedied by definitions, setting down that collection of simple ideas which every term shall stand for, and then using the terms steadily and constantly for that precise collection.
As to the fourth sort of knowledge, viz. of the real actual existence of things, we have an intuitive knowledge of our own existence; a demonstrative knowledge of the existence of God; and a sensitive knowledge of the objects that present themselves to our senses.
From what has been said, we may discover the causes of our ignorance; which are chiefly these three: First, Want of ideas: Secondly, Want of a discoverable connection between the ideas we have: Thirdly, Want of tracing and examining our ideas.
First, There are some things we are ignorant of for want of ideas. All the simple ideas we have are confined to the observations of our senses, and the operations of our own minds that we are conscious of in ourselves. What other ideas it is possible other creatures may have, by the assistance of other senses and faculties more or perfecter than we have, or different from ours, it is not for us to determine; but to say or think there are no such, because we conceive nothing of them, is no better an argument, than if a blind man should be positive in it, that there was no such thing as sight and colours, because he had no manner of idea of any such thing. What faculties therefore other species of creatures have to penetrate into the nature and inmost constitutions of things, we know not. This we know, and certainly find, that we want other views of them, besides those we have, to make discoveries of them more perfect. The intellectual and sensible world are in this perfectly alike, that the parts which we see of either of them, hold no proportion with that we see not; and whatsoever we can reach with our eyes or our thoughts of either of them, is but a point almost nothing in comparison of the rest.
Another great cause of ignorance, is the want of ideas that we are capable of. This keeps us in ignorance of things we conceive capable of being known. Bulk, figure, and motion we have ideas of; yet not knowing what is the particular bulk, motion, and figure of the greatest part of the bodies of the universe, we are ignorant of the several powers, efficacies, and ways of operation, whereby the effects we daily see are produced. These are hid from us in some things, by being too remote; in others, by being too minute.
When we consider the vast distance of the known and visible parts of the world, and the reasons we have to think that what lies within our ken is but a small part of the immense universe, we shall then discover an huge abyss of ignorance. What are the particular fabricks of the great masses of matter, which make up the whole stupenduous frame of corporeal beings; how far they are extended; and what is their motion, and how continued; and what influence they have upon one another; are contemplations, that at first glimpse our thoughts lose themselves in. If we confine our thoughts to this little system of our sun, and the grosser masses of matter that visibly move about it; what several sorts of vegetables, animals, and intellectual corporeal beings, infinitely different from those of our little spot of earth, may probably be in other planets, to the knowledge of which, even of their outward figures and parts, we can no way attain, whilst we are confined to this earth, there being no natural means, either by sensation or reflection, to convey their certain ideas into our minds?
There are other bodies in the universe, no less concealed from us by their minuteness. These insensible corpuscles being the active parts of matter, and the great instruments of nature on which depend all their secondary qualities and operations, our want of precise distinct ideas of their primary qualities keeps us in incurable ignorance of what we desire to know about them. Did we know the mechanical affections of rhubarb and opium, we might as easily account for their operations of purging or causing sleep, as a watchmaker can for the motions of his watch. The dissolving of silver in aqua fortis, or gold in aqua regia, and not vice versa, would be then, perhaps, no more difficult to know, than it is to a Smith to understand why the turning of one key will open a lock, and not the turning of another. But whilst we are delitate of senses acute enough to discover the minute particles of bodies, and to give us ideas of their mechanical affections, we must be content to be ignorant of their properties and operations: Nor can we be assured about them any farther than some few trials we make are able to reach; but whether they will succeed again another time, we cannot be certain. This hinders our certain knowledge of universal truths concerning natural bodies; and our reason carries us herein very little beyond particular matters of fact. And therefore, how far soever human industry may advance useful and experimental philosophy in physical things, yet scientific will still be out of our reach; because we want perfect and adequate ideas of those very bodies which are nearest to us, and most under our command.
This, at first sight, shews us how disproportionate our knowledge is to the whole extent, even of material beings; to which if we add the consideration of that infinite number of spirits that may be, and probably are, which are yet more remote from our knowledge, whereof we have no cognizance; we shall find this cause of ignorance conceal from us, in an impenetrable obscurity, almost the whole intellectual world, a greater certainly, and a more beautiful world than the material: For bating some very few ideas of spirit we get from our own mind by reflection, and from thence the best we can collect of the Father of all spirits, the Author of them and us and all things, we have no certain information so much as of the existence of other spirits but by revelation; much less have we distinct ideas of their different natures, states, powers, and several constitutions, wherein they agree or differ one from another, and from us: And therefore in what concerns their different species and properties, we are under an absolute ignorance.
The second cause of ignorance, is the want of discoverable connection between those ideas we have: Where we want that, we are utterly incapable of universal and certain knowledge; and are, as in the former case, left only to observation and experiment. Thus the mechanical
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M I IGeometrical paces.Mile of Germany 4000of Denmark 50CO■ of Hungary 6000MILFORD HAVEN, the moft commodious harbour inGieai Britain, fituated in the fouth well part of Pern-?brokelhire in Wales, at the north entrance of theftoi channel.MILT ARY, in general, fomething refembling millet-feeds.Miliary fever. See Medicine, p. 73.MILITANT, or Church militant, denotes thebody of Chrlftians while here on earth.MILITARY, fomething belonging to the foldiery ormilitia.MILITIA, in general, denotes the body of foldlers, orthofe who make profeflion of arms. ~In a tnore retrained fenfe, militia denotes the trainedbands of a tov/n or country, who arm themfelves, up¬on a Ihort Avarning, for their own defence. So that,in this fenfe, militia is oppofed to regular or Hatedtroops.For the dire<SIion and command of the militia, theking conftitutes lords-Iieutenants of each county.MILIUM, in botany, a genus of the triandria digyniaclafs. The corolla confiHs of two valves including oneflower. There are five fpecies, only one of which,viz, theeffufum, or millet-grafs, is a native of Britain.MILK, a well known animal fluid, which nature pre¬pares in the breafls of women, and the udders of otheranimals, for the nourlfliment of their yonng. Milk is, a liquor prepared from the aliment chewed in themouth, digefted in the Homach, perfe<5Ied by the forceand juices of the inteflines, and elaborated by meansof the mefentery and its gland and juices, and yhc jui¬ces of the thoracic dud. It has undergone feme ac¬tions of the veins, arteries, heart, lung^, and juices,and began to be aflimiLted; yet may ftUI be had fepa-rate and difeharged out of the body. And thus bytheir own milk, prepared from the proper matter ofthe chyle, all the known ladiferouS animals are nou-rifhed, both male and female. For milk is- alwaysprepared from chyle as well in men as in women, invirgins and barren women, in mothers and nurfes.Milk approaches nearer” to an animal nature thanchyle.If milk be good, and fufFered to reft in a clean vef-fel, it fjrft appears uniformly white; then throws upa white, thick, uoduous cream to its furface, and re¬mains fomewhat bluilh bHow. The milks of all theknown animals have thefe properties alike. The hu¬man milk is very fweet and thin, the next is that ofaflee, then that of mares, then of goats, and laftly ofcov;s : whence it is preferibed in this order to con-fumptive perfons of weak vifeera. The rennet pre¬pared of the juices of fuch creatures as chew the cudbeing mixed with milk, coagulates it into an uniformmafs, which may be cut with a knife, and it thusfpontaneoufly feparates into whey and curds ; if longboiled over the fire, it lofcs its more fluid parts, andcondenfes into a butyraceous and cheefy raaL.r45 ) M I LMilk is an efficacious remedy in diforders of thebreaft. But it is to be obferved, that all milks are notof the fame kind, and of the fame efficacy for all pur-pofes ; flnee, according to the diverfity of animals andtheir refpedive' foods, they are pofTcfTed of differentand peculiar qualities which are to be confidered apart.Fjrft, then, affes milk, contains a great deal of fweetferum, but a very fmail quantity of earthy, cafeous,and pinguious fubftance ; for which reafon it is not ea-flly coagulated, and, confequently, but very unfit forbutler and cheefe. Its whey is aftringeni, laxative,moiftening, and proper for corre(5bing the acrimony ofthe humdurs.' Goats milk does not contain fo large aquantity of whey as that of afles, nor is it of fo laxa¬tive and aftringent a nature, but of a thicker confiftence;and, as goats eat the leaves of trees which containfomething of a refinous quality, their milk is very ef-ficaci^ius for the confolidation of fuppurated parts.Cow's-milk Is more pinguious, contains a large quanti¬ty of earth, but lefs whey, for which reafon it gene¬rally yields a great deal of butter and cheefe. Thisfpecies of milk is of' a temperating, nutritive and Gon,-fblidating virtue. Womens milk, for medicinal purpofes,is preferable to all others ; for it is the fwet-teft of themall, and its nutritive quality is lufficiently obfervable ininfants. The virtues of milk are alfo different, accord¬ing to the diverfity of herbs and pafturage which ani¬mals eat. Hence milk in the fpring is highly falutary.,becaufe at that time Ihe vegetables abound with tem¬perate juices; whereas milk in the winter is accountedlefs .falutary, becaufe the anima’s feed on hay andft raw.Dr. Cheyne recommends a ndik and feed diet, withwater for drink, as the fureft: prefervative. againft dil*difeafes, and cure of them.Milk fever. See Midwifery, p. 244.rMILL, a machine or engine for grinding corn, <Bc. ofwhich there, are feveral kinds, according to the variousmethods of applying the moving power,; as water¬mills, wind-mills, mills worked by horfes, SecMechanics.MILLENARIANS, or Chiliasts, a name given tothofe, who, in the primitive ages, believed that thefaints will one day reign on earth with jefus Chrift athoufand years.MILLEPES. See Oniscus.MILLERIA, a genus of the fypgencfia polygaraia ne-ceffaria dais. It has neither receptacle nor pappus;the calix confifts of three valves; and the radius of thecorolla is dimidiated. There are two fpecies, bothnatives of America.MILLET, in botany. See Milium,MILLING of cloth, SeeFuLLiNG.MILLION, in arithmetick, the number of ten hundredthoufand, or a thoufand times a thoufand. See A-rithmetick.MILLREE, a Portuguefe gold coin, value 5 / 74MILO, or Melo, one of the iflands of the Archipela¬go, fixiy miles north of Candia.MILT, orMEL-F, is a denomination by which fome callthe rows of fiflics.MILTON,
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MILL (246)
Geometrical paces.
Mile of Germany 4000
of Denmark 5000
of Hungary 6000
MILFORD HAVEN, the most commodious harbour in Great Britain, situated in the south west part of Pembrokeshire in Wales, at the north entrance of the Bristol channel.
MILIARY, in general, something resembling millet-seeds.
MILIARY FEVER. See Medicine, p. 73.
MILITANT, or Church militant, denotes the body of Christians while here on earth.
MILITARY, something belonging to the soldiery or militia.
MILITIA, in general, denotes the body of soldiers, or those who make profession of arms.
In a more restrained sense, militia denotes the trained bands of a town or country, who arm themselves, upon a short warning, for their own defence. So that, in this sense, militia is opposed to regular or stated troops.
For the direction and command of the militia, the king constitutes lords lieutenants of each county.
MILIUM, in botany, a genus of the triandria digynia class. The corolla consists of two valves including one flower. There are five species, only one of which, viz. the effusum, or millet-grass, is a native of Britain.
MILK, a well known animal fluid, which nature prepares in the breasts of women, and the udders of other animals, for the nourishment of their young. Milk is a liquor prepared from the aliment chewed in the mouth, digested in the stomach, perfected by the force and juices of the intestines, and elaborated by means of the mesentery and its gland and juices, and the juices of the thoracic duct. It has undergone some actions of the veins, arteries, heart, lungs, and juices, and began to be assimilated; yet may still be had separate and discharged out of the body. And thus by their own milk, prepared from the proper matter of the chyle, all the known lactiferous animals are nourished, both male and female. For milk is always prepared from chyle as well in men as in women, in virgins and barren women, in mothers and nurses. Milk approaches nearer to an animal nature than chyle.
If milk be good, and suffered to rest in a clean vessel, it first appears uniformly white; then throws up a white, thick, unstuco cream to its surface, and remains somewhat bluish below. The milks of all the known animals have these properties alike. The human milk is very sweet and thin, the next is that of asses, then that of mares, then of goats, and lasily of cows: whence it is prescribed in this order to consumptive persons of weak viscera. The rennet prepared of the juices of such creatures as chew the cud being mixed with milk, coagulates it into an uniform mass, which may be cut with a knife, and it thus spontaneously separates into whey and curds; if long boiled over the fire, it loses its more fluid parts, and condenses into a butyraceous and cheesy mass.
Milk is an efficacious remedy in disorders of the breast. But it is to be observed, that all milks are not of the same kind, and of the same efficacy for all purposes; since, according to the diversity of animals and their respective foods, they are possessed of different and peculiar qualities which are to be considered apart. First, then, asses milk, contains a great deal of sweet serum, but a very small quantity of earthy, caseous, and punguous substance; for which reason it is not easily coagulated, and, consequently, but very unsuit for butter and cheese. Its whey is astringent, laxative, moistening, and proper for correcting the acrimony of the humours. Goats milk does not contain so large a quantity of whey as that of asses, nor is it of so laxative and astringent a nature, but of a thicker consistence; and, as goats eat the leaves of trees which contain something of a resinous quality, their milk is very efficacious for the consolidation of suppurated parts. Cows-milk is more punguous, contains a large quantity of earth, but less whey, for which reason it generally yields a great deal of butter and cheese. This species of milk is of a temperating, nutritive and consolidating virtue. Womens milk, for medicinal purposes, is preferable to all others; for it is the sweetest of them all, and its nutritive quality is sufficiently observable in infants. The virtues of milk are also different, according to the diversity of herbs and pasturage which animals eat. Hence milk in the spring is highly salutary, because at that time the vegetables abound with temperate juices; whereas milk in the winter is accounted less salutary, because the animal's feed on hay and straw.
Dr. Cheyne recommends a milk and seed diet, with water for drink, as the surest preservative against diseases, and cure of them.
Milk fever. See Midwifery, p. 244.
MILL, a machine or engine for grinding corn, &c. of which there are several kinds, according to the various methods of applying the moving power; as watermills, wind-mills, mills worked by horses, &c. See Mechanics.
MILLENARIANS, or CHILIASTS, a name given to those, who, in the primitive ages, believed that the saints will one day reign on earth with Jesus Christ a thousand years.
MILLEPES. See Oniscus.
MILLERIA, a genus of the Syngenesis polygamia necessaria class. It has neither receptacle nor pappus; the calix consists of three valves; and the radius of the corolla is dimidiated. There are two species, both natives of America.
MILLET, in botany. See Milium.
MILLING of cloth. See Fulling.
MILLION, in arithmetick, the number of ten hundred thousand, or a thousand times a thousand. See Arithmetick.
MILLREE, a Portuguese gold coin, value 5 r 7½ d.
MILO, or Melo, one of the islands of the Archipelago, sixty miles north of Candia.
MILT, or Melt, is a denomination by which some call the rows of fishes.
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Part VI. ANAThey are lined on the infide by a very fine membrafte,which continually difcharges a mucilaginous fluid; andin the fubftance of the membrane are a great number offmall blood-veflels.The bronchia are divided in all directions into an infi¬nite- number of ramifications, which diminifh graduallyin fize; and as they become capillary, change their car¬tilaginous ftru&ure into that of a membrane.Each of thefe numerous bronchial tubes is widened atthe extremity, and thereby formed into, a fmall membra¬nous cell, commonly called a veficle. Thefe cells orfolliculi are clofely connected together in bundles; eachfmall branch producing a bundle proportionable to itsextent and the number of its ramifications.Thefe fmall veficular or cellulous bundles are termedlohulet; and as the great branches are divided into fmallrami, fo the great lobules a redivided into feveral fmallones. The cells or veficles of each lobule have a freecommunication with each other, but the feveral lobulesdo not communicate fo readily.The lobules appear diftinCtly to. be parted by anothercellulous fubftance, which furrourids each of them in pro¬portion to their extent, and fills up the interftices betweenthem. This fubance forpis likewife a kind .of irregularmcmbrKmous cells, which are thinner, loofer, and broad¬er than the bronchial vefifcles.All the bronchial cells are furrounded by a very finereticular texture of the fmall extremities of arteries j>ndveins, which communicate every way with each other.The blood-veflels of the lungs are of two kinds; oneCommon, called the pulmonary artery and veins ; the o-tfcer proper, called the bronchial arteries and veins.The pulmonary artery goes out from the right ventri¬cle of the heart; and its trunk having run almoftdiredlyupward as high as the" curvature of the aorta, is dividedinto two lateral branches, one going to the right-hand*Called the right pulmonary artery, the other to the left,termed the left pulmonary artery. The right arterypafles under the curvature of the aorta, and is confe-quently longer than the left. They both run to thelungs, and are difperfed through their whole fubftance byramifications nearly like "thofe of the bronchia, and lyingin the fame directions.The pulmonary veins having been diftributed through,the lungs in the fame manner, go odt en each fide, "bytwo great branches, which open laterally into the refer-voir or mufcular bag of the right auricle.Befides thefe capital blood-veflels, there are two o-thers called the bronchial artery and vein.Under the root of each lung, that is, under that partformed by the .fubordifiate trunk of the pulmonary arte¬ry, -by the .trunks of the pulmonary veins, and by thetrunk ofnhe bronchia, th^re is a pretty broad membra-'nous ligament, which ties the pofterior edge of each lungto the lateral parts of the "vertebras of the back, frontthat-root all the way to the diaphragm.The bronchia already deferibed are branches or rami¬fications of a large canal, partly cartilaginous, and part¬ly membranous, called trachea-, or afpera arteriai Iti^fituated anteriorly in thp lower part of the neck, fromWhence it r«ns down into the thorax betwixt the twoVol. I. Numb. is.- ' 3 -T O M T. 281pleurae, through the upper fpace left between the dupli-cature of the mediaftinum, behind the thymus.Having reached as low as the curvature of the aorta,it divides into two lateral parts, one toward the right-hand, the other toward the left, which enter the lungs,and are diftributed through them in the manner alreadyfaid. Thefe two branches are called bronchia, and thaton the right fide is ihorter than that of the left.The trachea is made up of fegments of circles or car¬tilaginous hoops, difpofed in fuch a manner, as to forma canal open on the back part, the cartilages not goingquite round; but this opening is filled by a foft glandularmembrane, which completes the circumference of the canal.Each- circle is about the twelfth part of an inch inbreadth, and about a quarter of that fpace in thicknefs.Their extremities are round; and they are fituated ho¬rizontally above each other, fmall intcrftices being leftbetween them, and the lower edge of the fuperior feg¬ments being turned toward the upper edge of thofe nextbelow them.They are-all connected by a very ftrong elaftic mem¬branous ligament fixed to their edges.The canal of the afpera arteria is lined on the infideby a particular membrane, which appears to be partlyfleihy or mufcular, and partly ligamentary, perforatedby an infinite number , of fmall holes, through which amucilaginous fluid continually pafles, to defend the innerfurface of tile trachea againft the acrimony of the air.This fluid comes from fmall glandular bodies difperfedthrough the fubftance of the membrane, but efpeciallyfrom the glands, fomething larger than the former, whichlie on the outer or pofterior furface of that ftrong mem¬brane, by which the circumference of the/canal is com¬pleted. The fame ftruCture is obfervable in the ramifi¬cations of the trachea from the greateft to the fmalleft.At the angle of the firft ramification of the trachea ar¬teria, we find on both the fore and back fides, certain'foft, roundilh, -glandular bodies, of a bluifh or blackiftvcolour, and of a texture partly like that of the thymusalready deferibed, and partly like that of the glandulathyroides. There are other glands of the fame kind, asthe Origin of each ramification of the bronchia, but theydecreafe proportionably in number and sfize. They arcfixed immediately to the bronchia, and covered by thefinterlobular fubftance; and they feem to communicateby fmall openings with the cavity of the bronchia.. Refpiration is performed by organs of two kinds, one orwhich may be looked upon as active, the other as paflive.The lungs are of the fecond kind, and the firft compre¬hends chiefly the diaphragm and intercoftal mufcles.As foon as the intercoftal mufcles begin to contrail,the arches of the ribs are raifed together with the (ter -num, and placed at a greater diftance from each other;by which,means the cavity of the, thorax is inlarged onthe ‘two lateral and anterior fides., At the fame inftant the diaphragm is flatted ,orbrought toward a plane by two motions, which are ap¬parently contrary; that is, by the contraction of thediaphragm, and the dilatation of the ribs in which it is-inferted. The external furface of the thorax b :ir.g thusin a manner increafcd, and the cavity of the bronchia
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Part VI. ANATOMY.
They are lined on the inside by a very fine membrane, which continually discharges a mucilaginous fluid; and in the substance of the membrane are a great number of small blood-vessels.
The bronchia are divided in all directions into an infinite number of ramifications, which diminish gradually in size; and as they become capillary, change their cartilaginous structure into that of a membrane.
Each of these numerous bronchial tubes is widened at the extremity, and thereby formed into a small membranous cell, commonly called a vesicle. These cells or folliculi are closely connected together in bundles; each small branch producing a bundle proportionable to its extent and the number of its ramifications.
These small vesicular or cellulous bundles are termed lobules; and as the great branches are divided into small rami, so the great lobules are divided into several small ones. The cells or vesicles of each lobule have a free communication with each other, but the several lobules do not communicate so readily.
The lobules appear distinctly to be parted by another cellulous substance, which surrounds each of them in proportion to their extent, and fills up the interstices between them. This subance forms likewise a kind of irregular membranous cells, which are thinner, looser, and broader than the bronchial vessels.
All the bronchial cells are surrounded by a very fine reticular texture of the small extremities of arteries and veins, which communicate every way with each other.
The blood-vessels of the lungs are of two kinds; one common, called the pulmonary artery and veins; the other proper, called the bronchial arteries and veins.
The pulmonary artery goes out from the right ventricle of the heart; and its trunk having run almost directly upward as high as the curvature of the aorta, is divided into two lateral branches, one going to the right-hand, called the right pulmonary artery, the other to the left, termed the left pulmonary artery. The right artery passes under the curvature of the aorta, and is consequently longer than the left. They both run to the lungs, and are dispersed through their whole substance by ramifications nearly like those of the bronchia, and lying in the same directions.
The pulmonary veins having been distributed through the lungs in the same manner, go out on each side, by two great branches, which open laterally into the reservoir or muscular bag of the right auricle.
Besides these capital blood-vessels, there are two others called the bronchial artery and vein.
Under the root of each lung, that is, under that part formed by the subordinate trunk of the pulmonary artery, by the trunks of the pulmonary veins, and by the trunk of the bronchia, there is a pretty broad membranous ligament, which ties the posterior edge of each lung to the lateral parts of the vertebrae of the back, from that root all the way to the diaphragm.
The bronchia already described are branches or ramifications of a large canal, partly cartilaginous, and partly membranous, called trachea, or aspera arteria. It is situated anteriorly in the lower part of the neck, from whence it runs down into the thorax betwixt the two pleuræ, through the upper space left between the duplication of the mediafinum, behind the thymus.
Having reached as low as the curvature of the aorta, it divides into two lateral parts, one toward the right-hand, the other toward the left, which enter the lungs, and are distributed through them in the manner already said. These two branches are called bronchia, and that on the right side is shorter than that of the left.
The trachea is made up of segments of circles or cartilaginous hoops, disposed in such a manner, as to form a canal open on the back part, the cartilages not going quite round; but this opening is filled by a soft glandular membrane, which completes the circumference of the canal.
Each circle is about the twelfth part of an inch in breadth, and about a quarter of that space in thickness. Their extremities are round; and they are situated horizontally above each other, small interstices being left between them, and the lower edge of the superior segments being turned toward the upper edge of those next below them.
They are all connected by a very strong elastic membranous ligament fixed to their edges.
The canal of the aspera arteria is lined on the inside by a particular membrane, which appears to be partly fleshy or muscular, and partly ligamentary, perforated by an infinite number of small holes, through which a mucilaginous fluid continually passes, to defend the inner surface of the trachea against the acrimony of the air.
This fluid comes from small glandular bodies dispersed through the substance of the membrane, but especially from the glands, something larger than the former, which lie on the outer or posterior surface of that strong membrane, by which the circumference of the canal is completed. The same structure is observable in the ramifications of the trachea from the greatest to the smallest.
At the angle of the first ramification of the trachea arteria, we find on both the fore and back sides, certain soft, roundish, glandular bodies, of a bluish or blackish colour, and of a texture partly like that of the thymus already described, and partly like that of the glandula thyroides. There are other glands of the same kind, as the origin of each ramification of the bronchia, but they decrease proportionably in number and size. They are fixed immediately to the bronchia, and covered by the interlobular substance; and they seem to communicate by small openings with the cavity of the bronchia.
Respiration is performed by organs of two kinds, one of which may be looked upon as active, the other as passive. The lungs are of the second kind, and the first comprehends chiefly the diaphragm and intercostal muscles.
As soon as the intercostal muscles begin to contract, the arches of the ribs are raised together with the sternum, and placed at a greater distance from each other; by which means the cavity of the thorax is enlarged on the two lateral and anterior sides.
At the same instant the diaphragm is flatted or brought toward a plane by two motions, which are apparently contrary; that is, by the contraction of the diaphragm, and the dilatation of the ribs in which it is inserted. The external surface of the thorax being thus in a manner increased, and the cavity of the bronchia being
|
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|
|
2
|
C-L
| 620
| null |
Normal
| 2,474
| 3,337
|
GARDEflock A out Four Incbes above the binding*, and in Marchfollowing, having cut off the ftubb that was left of theflock, and the cyon underneath, clofe the grafted place, .that it may fubfi'l by the Hock only.This manner of grafting agrees bell with vines, pome¬granates, oranges, and fuch like Ibrubs.When the Hock and cyon ate of the fame bignefs, the-operation of whip-grafting is performed, by Hoping theHock and cyon about an inch, fa as to make them tit* andthen tying them together, and claying the place.Kitch e n Garden.HoT-beds for radilhes and fpring carrots flioule! nowbe made, according to the direfoions given for a commonhot-bed in the preceding month'; .which,, by proper ma¬nagement, will do for all forts of leeds that are annual.To make a mufhrum bed, dig a trench five or fix inch¬es deep, and lay in it either the dung of. horfes, mules,or affes, in ridges, which dung muH be the lad coveringbefore the earth is laid'»n.The bed* when it is complete, mud be three or fourfeet high ; and after covering the dung about two orthree inches deep with foch earth as is taken from.undera turf, put fome mulhroom-eafth all over the bed on thelad covering of dung. *Should the weather be fevere, you may defend the bed-with draw or dry litter, eight or ten inches thick, orcover it with marts fattened on hoops.The bed mud be kept properly watered, twice or thricea-week, and the muflirooms will come up in two monthstime at fartheft ; fometimes in a month, when they mudbe immediately cut.By putting fome mufliroom earth on your cucumber-beds, you will greatly forward their growth.In the natural ground potatoes love a fandy foil; andthe fmaller roots, or knots of them, are commonly fevedto raife a crop from, being fet about four or five inchesdeep in the ground, and five or fix inches apart; andwhen their haulms begin to decay, which is generally a*bout Michaelmas, you may take them out of the groundwith forks as you have occafion to ufe them.The Jerufalem artichoke fucceeds bed in a diff foil,and affords a root as large as an ordinary turnip, beingin tade fomewhat like a- potatoe, but rather more wa¬tery.The feveral forts of cabbages, as the red cabbage, theDutch cabbage, the Savoy cabbage, the Ruflia cabbage,the Batterfea cabbage, and the two forts of the fugar-loaf cabbage, IhouLd be planted at proper didances, ac¬cording to their feveral datures.The Savoy cabbages are for winter ufe, and towardsthe fpring put forth fprouts preferable to the cabbages-themfelves.Almod any ground will fetve for cabbages; but if theweather be dry, it mud be well watered before planting.The harded cabbages may be taken up before thegreat foods come on; and after they have hung up by theroots about a fortnight, lay them in a cellar, where theywill keep a long time ; or plant them deep in the groundVol. II. No. 53.N I Cx. *553clofe to one another, and cover them with haulm or draw,till you have occafion to ufe them.Garrets are mod prosperous in a light ground, lawhich their roots will grow to a great bignels.Spring-carrots are fown in July or Augud ; thofe in¬tended for a winter-crop, in February or Match, in dryweather.When your carrots are come up, and have been abovegroend about a month, they mud be houghed, leaving thefpace of about five inches between the plants ; and afterthe firft houghing they Ihould be kept as clean as podibletill they are full grown, when they may be taken up forprefent ufe, and kept in fand during the winter.Parfnifs thrive bed in a rich foil, and, excepting thatthey (hould not Hand fo thick, are to be managed in thefame manner as carrots.The fkirret requires a light, moift, yet a rich foil; andis propagated either by fowing feeds, or by transplantingtheoftsets fiom the roots.As Soon as the leaves begin to put forth, they Ihouldfee taken out of the ground, and parted into as many flipsas can be conveniently taken off with the roots, fo asonly the frefti Springing fibres .remain on them ; drills a.bout four or five inches deep mud then be prepared toplant them five or fix inches apart, and they mud be keptwell watered till their roots are folly grown.The tribal time for fowing turnips is in July or Augud,but fome people fow them in this month, by way of pro¬viding them for the fummer. They thrive bed in a fandy,loam'y foil, but will grow in any ground : when theplants have two or three leaves, they Ihould be houghedat the didance preferibed for parfnips and carrots.Onions are fown in this month, and in March, in richgarden foil; and toward the latter end of April, beingcome up, they are houghed, when about three inches(hould be left between the plants till they begin to growfit for fallads, and then they may be drawn, or thinnedwhere they grow too clofe together.In fowing onions you mult not be fparing of feeds, asit often happens many of them, being bad, have no ef-fea.When the leaves begin to change their colour, they(hould be pulled up, (in dry weather;) and after being welldried without doors, they mud be fpread on fome floor, todry more thoroughly for winter ufe.Such onions as fpire in the houfe, may this month beplanted in lines fix inches apart, and two inches didancefor feeds for another year.The leek is fown in a well-wrought ground, and is tobe kept free from weeds, and houghed like the onion ; theplants are t-ranfplanted in July, in rich light foil, in linesabout five inches apart.Strawberries profper mod in ground inclining to clay •and the bed way of managing them, is to provide a quan¬tity of horfe-dung and coal-afhes well mixed together,and lay it upon the land to be dug or trenched in thismonth; then make borders three feet wide, on which theflips are to be planted from eight to eighteen inches apart,according to the forts: the chila ftrawberries being lar¬ged, (hould be fet two feet afunder.-2 7 BAfterwards
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Stock about four inches above the binding; and in March following, having cut off the stubb that was left of the stock, and the cyon underneath, close the grafted place, that it may subfist by the stock only.
This manner of grafting agrees best with vines, pomegranates, oranges, and such like shrubs.
When the stock and cyon are of the same bigness, the operation of whip-grafting is performed, by sloping the stock and cyon about an inch, so as to make them fit, and then tying them together, and claying the place.
KITCHEN GARDEN.
Hot-beds for radishes and spring carrots should now be made, according to the directions given for a common hot-bed in the preceding month; which, by proper management, will do for all sorts of seeds that are annual.
To make a mushroom bed, dig a trench five or six inches deep, and lay in it either the dung of horses, mules, or asses, in ridges, which dung must be the last covering before the earth is laid on.
The bed, when it is complete, must be three or four feet high; and after covering the dung about two or three inches deep with such earth as is taken from under a turf, put some mushroom-earth all over the bed on the last covering of dung.
Should the weather be severe, you may defend the bed with straw or dry litter, eight or ten inches thick, or cover it with matts fastened on hoops.
The bed must be kept properly watered, twice or thrice a-week, and the mushrooms will come up in two months time at farthest; sometimes in a month, when they must be immediately cut.
By putting some mushroom earth on your cucumber beds, you will greatly forward their growth.
In the natural ground potatoes love a sandy soil; and the smaller roots, or knots of them, are commonly saved to raise a crop from, being set about four or five inches deep in the ground, and five or six inches apart; and when their haulms begin to decay, which is generally about Michaelmas, you may take them out of the ground with forks as you have occasion to use them.
The Jerusalem artichoke succeeds best in a stiff soil, and affords a root as large as an ordinary turnip, being in taste somewhat like a potatoe, but rather more watery.
The several sorts of cabbages, as the red cabbage, the Dutch cabbage, the Savoy cabbage, the Russia cabbage, the Battersea cabbage, and the two sorts of the sugar-loaf cabbage, should be planted at proper distances, according to their several statures.
The Savoy cabbages are for winter use, and towards the spring put forth sprouts preferable to the cabbages themselves.
Almost any ground will serve for cabbages; but if the weather be dry, it must be well watered before planting.
The hardest cabbages may be taken up before the great frosts come on; and after they have hung up by the roots about a fortnight, lay them in a cellar, where they will keep a long time; or plant them deep in the ground close to one another, and cover them with haulm or straw, till you have occasion to use them.
Carrots are most prosperous in a light ground, in which their roots will grow to a great bigness.
Spring-carrots are sown in July or August; those intended for a winter-crop, in February or March, in dry weather.
When your carrots are come up, and have been above ground about a month, they must be houghed, leaving the space of about five inches between the plants; and after the first houghing they should be kept as clean as possible till they are full grown, when they may be taken up for present use, and kept in sand during the winter.
Parsnips thrive best in a rich soil, and, excepting that they should not stand so thick, are to be managed in the same manner as carrots.
The skirret requires a light, moist, yet a rich soil; and is propagated either by sowing seeds, or by transplanting the offsets from the roots.
As soon as the leaves begin to put forth, they should be taken out of the ground, and parted into as many flips as can be conveniently taken off with the roots, so as only the fresh springing fibres remain on them; drills about four or five inches deep must then be prepared to plant them five or six inches apart, and they must be kept well watered till their roots are fully grown.
The usual time for sowing turnips is in July or August, but some people sow them in this month, by way of providing them for the summer. They thrive best in a sandy, loamy soil, but will grow in any ground: when the plants have two or three leaves, they should be houghed at the distance prescribed for parsnips and carrots.
Onions are sown in this month, and in March, in rich garden soil; and toward the latter end of April, being come up, they are houghed, when about three inches should be left between the plants till they begin to grow fit for fallads, and then they may be drawn, or thinned where they grow too close together.
In sowing onions you must not be sparing of seeds, as it often happens many of them, being bad, have no effect.
When the leaves begin to change their colour, they should be pulled up, (in dry weather;) and after being well dried without doors, they must be spread on some floor, to dry more thoroughly for winter use.
Such onions as spire in the house, may this month be planted in lines six inches apart, and two inches distance for seeds for another year.
The leek is sown in a well-wrought ground, and is to be kept free from weeds, and houghed like the onion; the plants are transplanted in July, in rich light soil, in lines about five inches apart.
Strawberries prosper most in ground inclining to clay; and the best way of managing them, is to provide a quantity of horse-dung and coal-ashes well mixed together, and lay it upon the land to be dug or trenched in this month; then make borders three feet wide, on which the slips are to be planted from eight to eighteen inches apart, according to the sorts: the chila strawberries being largest, should be set two feet asunder.
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|
||
1
|
A-B
| 733
|
614
| null |
Normal
| 2,558
| 3,387
|
614: 8)BOOE D G E R.K - KE E P I N GLEDGER,N‘1769Jug.James TVright,31 To Sundries, as per Journal,1769Sept1769Sept,1769Off.1769Off.Bills payable, DrTo Cajh, paid Wil. Sabin Van Beek's bill.John Perkins my 7acct-currcnt, 3±JrToVoy. tollamh. at 34/. $d.To Profit and LofisFlemifih.1. s. d.4°S S1769Off.DrEdward Hopkins my ac-compt in company,4T0Cajh, paid 4 fhare of iohhds tobacco,9 To Cambrics, formyl fhareof 4ops.at 3/.To Profit and Lofis, gained.Edward Hopkins my ac- 7 -p.compt proper, 5 e9 ToCambrics,for his 4 fhareof 40ps.at 3/.Stuffs, Dr I Pieces.To Janies Ward, at 2/. 8/. for 90To Profit and Loft, gained, j-James Ward,To Balance due to him,1769Off,DrShip Phoenix in company 7' with George Kent, 3To Sundries, as per Journal,2sTo Cajh, paid repairsTo Cajh, paid premium on 600/.To C.Kent his acct in Co. for his 4 gained.To Profit and Lofis, for my half gained.George Kent his ac compt 7 ^1769 in company, 3Oli. 25 To ditto his aecompt proper for his 4 of1 month’s freight,Noi'f 29 To ditto his aceonipt-proper, for 4 ofpipes of fherry,Dec. 1 To ditto his acctprop, for ^ of4 pip.fheiryJS cv. 2 7|To ditto his acct prop, for 4 of freight,Dec. 28 To ditto his accompt-proper for 4 ofPleenixy fold,,1769 Contra,08 Jug. 30 By 11. V. Beek hisacct-ci176s]oo Sept,238176900 Sept.7084<:8 )Cr . |. for cooperage,30:By Bills receivable,tnch. 7at 34/. for - - 31769Off.1769Off.7 59oc 00 Nov.I7S92160000 Off.640 00161769Off.000 Dec.8001001769Off.1000.01 000000 Nev,Contra, Cr i3 By H. V. Beek his acc-cur. for 1 at 6 days, 7j_iContra,CrFlemifih. 1/. >. d.\Contra,CrBy Sundries, as per Journal,By Sundries, as per Journal,Contra,Cr[ By Cajh, received in full.Contra, Cr IJ By Voyage to Lisbon in corn- 7 1pany, at 2/. 10 s. for 3 1Pieces.90Contra,MBy Stuffs, to pay at 3 months,CrContra, CrZS^yCafih for 1 month’s freight,27 By Cajh, for 1 month’s freight.By Mr Jones and company, foldContra,Cr4 238By Ship Phoenix in Co. for his -4 fhare,By ditto his acct proper, for half repairs,By ditto his acct prop, for his 4 of prem,By ditto his acct proper, for his half of 9pipes fherry, ...By ditto his Meet proper, for his halfcarriage, (dc.By ditto his acct prop, for his 4 of commif.ByS/fc. Phoenix in Co. for his 4 fhare gained,By Sherry in camp, for his half gained,2 2 00*002 200 007 00; 00.003200080soo-
|
No. 51
1769 Aug.
James Wright, Dr
To Sundries, as per Journal,
1769 Sept.
Bills payable, Dr
To Cash, paid Wil. Sabin Van Beek's bill,
1769 Sept.
John Perkins my acct-current, Dr
To Voy. to Hamb. at 34s. 5d.
To Profit and Loss,
1769 Oct.
Edward Hopkins my acct-current in company, Dr
To Cash, paid $\frac{1}{2}$ share of 10 hhdts tobacco,
To Cambrics, for my $\frac{1}{2}$ share of 40 ps.at 3l.
To Profit and Loss, gained,
1769 Oct.
Edward Hopkins my acct-proper, Dr
To Cambrics, for his $\frac{1}{2}$ share of 40 ps.at 3l.
1769 Oct.
Stuffs, Dr
To James Ward, at 2l. 8s. for
To Profit and Loss, gained,
1769 Oct.
James Ward, Dr
To Balance due to him,
1769 Oct.
Ship Phoenix in company with George Kent, Dr
To Sundries, as per Journal,
To Cash, paid repairs
To Cash, paid premium on 600 l.
To G.Kent his acct in Co.for his $\frac{1}{2}$ gained,
To Profit and Loss, for my half gained,
1769 Oct.
George Kent his acct, Dr in company,
To ditto his acct proper for his $\frac{1}{2}$ of 1 month's freight,
To ditto his acct-proper, for $\frac{1}{2}$ of 5 pipes of sherry,
To ditto his acct prop. for $\frac{1}{2}$ of 4 pip.sherry
To ditto his acct prop. for $\frac{1}{2}$ of freight,
To ditto his acct-proper for $\frac{1}{2}$ of Phoenix, fold,
1769 Aug.
Contra, Cr
By H.V. Beek his acct-cur. for cooperage,
1769 Sept.
Contra, Cr
By H.V. Beek his acc-cur. for 1 at 6 days,
1769 Sept.
Contra, Cr
By Bills receivable, exch. at 34s. for
1769 Oct.
Contra, Cr
By Sundries, as per Journal,
By Sundries, as per Journal,
1759 Nov.
Contra, Cr
By Voyage to Lisbon in company, at 2l. 10s. for
1759 Oct.
Contra, Cr
By Stuffs, to pay at 3 months,
1769 Oct.
Dec.
Contra, Cr
By Cash for 1 month's freight,
By Cash, for 1 month's freight,
By Mr Jones and company, fold
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