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William McKinley
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# William McKinley
*Revision ID: 1157530731 | Timestamp: 2023-05-29T07:38:04Z*
---
* Theodore Roosevelt(Mar–Sep. 1901)
}}
| term_start = March 4, 1897
| term_end = September 14, 1901
| predecessor = [Cleveland](Grover)(Grover Cleveland)
| successor = [Roosevelt](Theodore)(Theodore Roosevelt)
| order1 = 39th [of Ohio](Governor)(Governor of Ohio)
| lieutenant1 = [L. Harris](Andrew)(Andrew L. Harris)
| term_start1 = January 11, 1892
| term_end1 = January 13, 1896
| predecessor1 = [E. Campbell](James)(James E. Campbell)
| successor1 = [S. Bushnell](Asa)(Asa S. Bushnell)
| office2 = Chair of the[Ways and Means Committee](House)(United States House Committee on Ways and Means)
| term_start2 = March 4, 1889
| term_end2 = March 3, 1891
| predecessor2 = [Q. Mills](Roger)(Roger Q. Mills)
| successor2 = [M. Springer](William)(William M. Springer)
| office3 = Member of the[House of Representatives](U.S.)(United States House of Representatives)from [Ohio](Ohio)
| term_start4 = March 4, 1877
| term_end4 = May 27, 1884
| predecessor4 = [D. Woodworth](Laurin)(Laurin D. Woodworth)
| successor4 = [H. Wallace](Jonathan)(Jonathan H. Wallace)
| constituency4 = (1877–1879)| (1879–1881)| (1881–1883)| (1883–1884)}}
| term_start3 = March 4, 1885
| term_end3 = March 3, 1891
| predecessor3 = [R. Paige](David)(David R. Paige)
| successor3 = [D. Taylor](Joseph)(Joseph D. Taylor)
| constituency3 = (1885–1887)| (1887–1891)}}
| birth_name = William McKinley Jr.
| birth_date =
| birth_place = [Ohio](Niles,)(Niles, Ohio), U.S.
| death_date =
| death_place = [New York](Buffalo,)(Buffalo, New York), U.S.
| death_cause = [Assassination](Assassination of William McKinley) (Gangrene due to infection in gunshot wound)
| resting_place = [National Memorial](McKinley)(McKinley National Memorial),[Ohio](Canton,)(Canton, Ohio)
| party = [Party](Republican)(Republican Party (United States))
| father = [McKinley Sr.](William)(William McKinley Sr.)
| mother =
| spouse =
| children = 2
| education =
| profession =
| signature = William McKinley Signature-full.svg
| signature_alt = Cursive signature in ink
| allegiance =
| branch = U.S. Army ([Army](Union)(Union Army))
| serviceyears = 1861–1865
| rank = [Brevet](Brevet (military)) [Major](Major (United States))
| unit = [Ohio Infantry](23rd)(23rd Ohio Infantry)
| battles = [Civil War](American)(American Civil War)
| caption = McKinley
| module =
}}
**William McKinley** (January 29, 1843September 14, 1901) was the 25th [of the United States](president)(president of the United States), serving from 1897 until [assassination in 1901](his)(Assassination of William McKinley). As a politician he led a realignment that made his [Party](Republican)(History of the Republican Party (United States)) largely dominant in the industrial states and nationwide until the 1930s. He presided over victory in the [War](Spanish–American)(Spanish–American War) of 1898; gained control of Hawaii, Puerto Rico, the Philippines and Cuba; restored prosperity after a deep depression; rejected the inflationary [policy](monetary)(monetary policy) of [silver](free)(free silver), keeping the nation on the [standard](gold)(gold standard); and raised [tariff](protective)(protective tariff)s to boost American industry and keep wages high.
A Republican, McKinley was the last president to have served in the [Civil War](American)(American Civil War); he was the only one to begin his service as an [man](enlisted)(enlisted soldier), and end as a [brevet](brevet (military)) major. After the war, he settled in [Ohio](Canton,)(Canton, Ohio), where he practiced law and married [Saxton](Ida)(Ida Saxton). In 1876, McKinley was elected to Congress, where he became the Republican expert on the protective tariff, which he promised would bring prosperity. His 1890 [Tariff](McKinley)(McKinley Tariff) was highly controversial and, together with a [Democratic](History of the Democratic Party (United States)) redistricting aimed at [gerrymandering](gerrymandering) him out of office, led to his defeat in the [landslide of 1890](Democratic)(1890 United States House of Representatives elections). He was elected [of Ohio](governor)(governor of Ohio) in 1891 and 1893, steering a moderate course between capital and labor interests. With the aid of his close adviser [Hanna](Mark)(Mark Hanna), he [the Republican nomination for president in 1896](secured)(William McKinley 1896 presidential campaign) amid a deep economic depression. He defeated his Democratic rival [Jennings Bryan](William)(William Jennings Bryan) after a [porch campaign](front)(front porch campaign) in which he advocated "[money](sound)(sound money)" (the gold standard unless altered by international agreement) and promised that high tariffs would restore prosperity.
Rapid economic growth marked McKinley's presidency. He promoted the 1897 [Tariff](Dingley)(Dingley Tariff) to protect manufacturers and factory workers from foreign competition and in 1900 secured the passage of the [Standard Act](Gold)(Gold Standard Act). He hoped to persuade Spain to grant independence to rebellious [Cuba](Captaincy General of Cuba) without conflict, but when negotiation failed, requested and signed Congress's declaration of war to begin the Spanish-American War of 1898. The United States victory was quick and decisive. As part of [peace settlement](the)(Treaty of Paris (1898)), Spain turned over to the United States its main overseas colonies of [Rico](Puerto)(Puerto Rico), [Guam](Guam) and the [Philippines](United States Military Government of the Philippine Islands) while [Cuba](United States Military Government in Cuba) was promised independence, but at that time remained under the control of the United States Army. The United States [annexed](Annexation of Hawaii) the independent [of Hawaii](Republic)(Republic of Hawaii) in 1898 and it became a [States territory](United)(Territory of Hawaii).
Historians regard McKinley's 1896 victory as a [election](realigning)(realigning election) in which [political stalemate](the)(Third Party System) of the post-Civil War era gave way to the Republican-dominated [Party System](Fourth)(Fourth Party System), beginning with the [Era](Progressive)(Progressive Era). McKinley defeated Bryan again in the [presidential election](1900)(1900 United States presidential election) in a campaign focused on [imperialism](American imperialism), [protectionism](protectionism), and free silver. His achievements were cut short when he was fatally shot on September 6, 1901, by [Czolgosz](Leon)(Leon Czolgosz), an [anarchist](Anarchism). McKinley died eight days later and was succeeded by Vice President [Roosevelt](Theodore)(Theodore Roosevelt). As an innovator of American [interventionism](Interventionism (politics)) and pro-business sentiment, McKinley is [ranked as an above-average president](generally)(Historical rankings of presidents of the United States), although his take-over of the Philippines is often criticized as an act of imperialism. His popularity was soon overshadowed by Roosevelt's.
## Early life and family
[[boy.png|left|thumb|upright|McKinley, aged 15](File:McKinley)]
William McKinley Jr. was born in 1843 in [Ohio](Niles,)(Niles, Ohio), the seventh of nine children of [McKinley Sr.](William)(William McKinley Sr.) and Nancy (née Allison) McKinley. The McKinleys were of [English](English Americans) and [Scots-Irish](Scotch-Irish Americans) descent and had settled in western Pennsylvania in the 18th century. Their immigrant ancestor was David McKinley, born in [Dervock](Dervock), County Antrim, in present-day [Ireland](Northern)(Northern Ireland). William McKinley Sr. was born in Pennsylvania, in [Township, Mercer County](Pine)(Pine Township, Mercer County, Pennsylvania).
The family moved to Ohio when the senior McKinley was a boy, settling in [Lisbon](New)(Lisbon, Ohio) (now Lisbon). He met Nancy Allison there and they later married. The Allison family was of mostly English descent and among Pennsylvania's earliest settlers. The family trade on both sides was iron-making. McKinley senior operated [foundries](Foundry) throughout Ohio, in New Lisbon, Niles, [Poland](Poland, Ohio), and finally [Canton](Canton, Ohio). The McKinley household was, like many from Ohio's [Reserve](Western)(Connecticut Western Reserve), steeped in [Whiggish](Whig Party (United States)) and [abolitionist](Abolitionism in the United States) sentiment, the latter based on the family's staunch [Methodist](Methodist Episcopal Church) beliefs.
The younger William also followed in the Methodist tradition, becoming active in [local Methodist church](the)(First Methodist Episcopal Church (Canton, Ohio)) at the age of sixteen. He was a lifelong pious Methodist.
In 1852, the family moved from Niles to Poland, Ohio, so that their children could attend its better schools. Graduating from [Seminary](Poland)(Poland Seminary) in 1859, McKinley enrolled the following year at [College](Allegheny)(Allegheny College) in [Pennsylvania](Meadville,)(Meadville, Pennsylvania). He was an honorary member of the [Alpha Epsilon](Sigma)(Sigma Alpha Epsilon) fraternity. He remained at Allegheny for one year, returning home in 1860 after becoming ill and depressed. He also studied at [Union College](Mount)(Mount Union College) in [Ohio](Alliance,)(Alliance, Ohio), as a board member. Although his health recovered, family finances declined and McKinley was unable to return to Allegheny. He began working as a postal clerk and later took a job teaching at a school near Poland, Ohio.
## Civil War
### Western Virginia and Antietam
[[File:General Hayes.jpg|thumb|left|upright|[B. Hayes](Rutherford)(Rutherford B. Hayes) was McKinley's mentor during and after the Civil War.]]
When the Confederate states seceded and the American Civil War began in 1861, thousands of men in Ohio volunteered for service. Among them were McKinley and his cousin William McKinley Osbourne, who enlisted as privates in the newly formed Poland Guards in June 1861. The men left for [Columbus](Columbus, Ohio) where they were consolidated with other small units to form the [Ohio Infantry](23rd)(23rd Ohio Infantry).
The men were unhappy to learn that, unlike Ohio's earlier volunteer regiments, they would not be permitted to elect their officers; these would be designated by Ohio's governor, [Dennison](William)(William Dennison Jr.). Dennison appointed Colonel [Rosecrans](William)(William Rosecrans) as the commander of the regiment, and the men began training on the outskirts of Columbus. McKinley quickly took to the soldier's life: he wrote a series of letters to his hometown newspaper extolling [army](the)(Union Army) and the [cause](Union)(Union (American Civil War)). Delays in issuance of uniforms and weapons again brought the men into conflict with their officers, but [Major](Major (United States)) [B. Hayes](Rutherford)(Rutherford B. Hayes) convinced them to accept what the government had issued them; his style in dealing with the men impressed McKinley, beginning an association and friendship that would last until Hayes's death in 1893.
After a month of training, McKinley and the 23rd Ohio, now led by Colonel [P. Scammon](Eliakim)(Eliakim P. Scammon), set out for western Virginia (today part of West Virginia) in July 1861 as a part of the [Division](Kanawha)(Kanawha Division). McKinley initially thought Scammon was a [martinet](martinet), but when the regiment entered battle, he came to appreciate the value of their relentless drilling. Their first contact with the enemy came in September when they drove back Confederate troops at [Ferry](Carnifex)(Battle of Carnifex Ferry) in present-day West Virginia. Three days after the battle, McKinley was assigned to duty in the [brigade](brigade) [quartermaster](Quartermaster Corps (United States Army)) office, where he worked both to supply his regiment, and as a clerk. In November, the regiment established winter quarters near [Fayetteville](Fayetteville, West Virginia) (today in West Virginia). McKinley spent the winter substituting for a commissary [sergeant](sergeant) who was ill, and in April 1862 he was promoted to that rank. The regiment resumed its advance that spring with Hayes in command (Scammon led the brigade) and fought several minor engagements against the rebel forces.
That September, McKinley's regiment was called east to reinforce General [Pope](John)(John Pope (military officer))'s [of Virginia](Army)(Army of Virginia) at the [Battle of Bull Run](Second)(Second Battle of Bull Run). Delayed in passing through Washington, D.C., the 23rd Ohio did not arrive in time for the battle but joined the [of the Potomac](Army)(Army of the Potomac) as it hurried north to cut off Robert E. Lee's [of Northern Virginia](Army)(Army of Northern Virginia) as it advanced into Maryland. The 23rd was the first regiment to encounter the Confederates at the [of South Mountain](Battle)(Battle of South Mountain) on September 14. After severe losses, Union forces drove back the Confederates and continued to [Sharpsburg](Sharpsburg, Maryland), Maryland, where they engaged Lee's army at the [of Antietam](Battle)(Battle of Antietam), one of the bloodiest battles of the war. The 23rd was in the thick of the fighting at Antietam, and McKinley came under heavy fire when bringing rations to the men on the line. McKinley's regiment suffered many casualties, but the Army of the Potomac was victorious and the Confederates retreated into Virginia. McKinley's regiment was detached from the Army of the Potomac and returned by train to western Virginia.
### Shenandoah Valley and promotion
[[File:McKinleyBrady 1865.png|thumb|upright|McKinley in 1865, just after the war, photograph by [Brady](Mathew)(Mathew Brady)]]
While the regiment went into winter quarters near [Virginia](Charleston,)(Charleston, West Virginia) (present-day West Virginia), McKinley was ordered back to Ohio with some other sergeants to recruit fresh troops. When they arrived in Columbus, Governor [Tod](David)(David Tod) surprised McKinley with a commission as [lieutenant](second)(second lieutenant) in recognition of his service at Antietam. McKinley and his comrades saw little action until July 1863, when the division skirmished with [Hunt Morgan](John)(John Hunt Morgan)'s cavalry at the [of Buffington Island](Battle)(Battle of Buffington Island). Early in 1864, the Army command structure in West Virginia was reorganized, and the division was assigned to [Crook](George)(George Crook)'s [of West Virginia](Army)(Army of West Virginia). They soon resumed the offensive, marching into southwestern Virginia to destroy salt and lead mines used by the enemy. On May 9, the army engaged Confederate troops at [Mountain](Cloyd's)(Battle of Cloyd's Mountain), where the men charged the enemy entrenchments and drove the rebels from the field. McKinley later said the combat there was "as desperate as any witnessed during the war". Following the rout, the Union forces destroyed Confederate supplies and skirmished with the enemy again successfully.
McKinley and his regiment moved to the [Valley](Shenandoah)(Shenandoah Valley) as the armies broke from winter quarters to [hostilities](resume)(Valley Campaigns of 1864). Crook's corps was attached to [General](Major)(Major general (United States)) [Hunter](David)(David Hunter)'s [of the Shenandoah](Army)(Union Army of the Shenandoah) and soon back in contact with Confederate forces, capturing [Virginia](Lexington,)(Lexington, Virginia), on June 11. They continued south toward [Lynchburg](Lynchburg, Virginia), tearing up railroad track as they advanced. Hunter believed the troops at Lynchburg were too powerful, however, and the brigade returned to West Virginia. Before the army could make another attempt, Confederate General [Early](Jubal)(Jubal Early)'s raid into Maryland forced their recall to the north.
Early's army surprised them at [Kernstown](Second Battle of Kernstown) on July 24, where McKinley came under heavy fire and the army was defeated. Retreating into Maryland, the army was reorganized again: Major General [Sheridan](Philip)(Philip Sheridan) replaced Hunter, and McKinley, who had been promoted to [captain](Captain (United States O-3)) after the battle, was transferred to General Crook's staff. By August, Early was retreating south in the valley, with Sheridan's army in pursuit. They fended off a Confederate assault at [Berryville](Battle of Berryville), where McKinley had a horse shot out from under him, and advanced to [Creek](Opequon)(Battle of Opequon), where they broke the enemy lines and pursued them farther south. They followed up the victory with another at [Hill](Fisher's)(Battle of Fisher's Hill) on September 22 and were engaged once more at [Creek](Cedar)(Battle of Cedar Creek) on October 19. After initially falling back from the Confederate advance, McKinley helped to rally the troops and turn the tide of the battle.
After Cedar Creek, the army stayed in the vicinity through election day, when McKinley cast his first presidential ballot, for the incumbent Republican, [Lincoln](Abraham)(Abraham Lincoln). The next day, they moved north up the valley into winter quarters near Kernstown. In February 1865, Crook was captured by Confederate raiders. Crook's capture added to the confusion as the army was reorganized for the spring campaign, and McKinley served on the staffs of four different generals over the next fifteen days—Crook, [D. Stevenson](John)(John Dunlap Stevenson), [S. Carroll](Samuel)(Samuel S. Carroll), and [S. Hancock](Winfield)(Winfield Scott Hancock). Finally assigned to Carroll's staff again, McKinley acted as the general's first and only [adjutant](adjutant).
Lee and his army [surrendered](Battle of Appomattox Court House#Surrender) to [General](Lieutenant general (United States)) [S. Grant](Ulysses)(Ulysses S. Grant) a few days later, effectively ending the war. McKinley joined a [Freemason](Freemasonry) lodge (later renamed after him) in [Virginia](Winchester,)(Winchester, Virginia), before he and Carroll were transferred to Hancock's First Veterans Corps in Washington. Just before the war's end, McKinley received his final promotion, a [brevet](Brevet (military)) commission as major. In July, the Veterans Corps was mustered out of service, and McKinley and Carroll were relieved of their duties. Carroll and Hancock encouraged McKinley to apply for a place in the peacetime army, but he declined and returned to Ohio the following month.
McKinley, along with Samuel M. Taylor and James C. Howe, co-authored and published a twelve-volume work, *Official Roster of the Soldiers of the State of Ohio in the War of the Rebellion, 1861–1866*, published in 1886.[Taylor, Howe, 1886](McKinley,)(#roster)
## Legal career and marriage
[[Saxton McKinley](File:ISMcKinley.jpg|thumb|left|upright|Ida)]
[[McKinley.jpg|thumb|left|upright|Katherine McKinley](File:Katherine)]
After the war ended in 1865, McKinley decided on a career in the law and began [studying](Reading law) in the office of an attorney in [Ohio](Poland,)(Poland, Ohio). The following year, he continued his studies by attending [Law School](Albany)(Albany Law School) in New York state. After studying there for less than a year, McKinley returned home and was admitted to the [bar](Bar (law)) in [Ohio](Warren,)(Warren, Ohio), in March 1867.
That same year, he moved to Canton, the county seat of [County](Stark)(Stark County, Ohio), and set up a small office. He soon formed a partnership with George W. Belden, an experienced lawyer and former judge. His practice was successful enough for him to buy a block of buildings on Main Street in Canton, which provided him with a small but consistent rental income for decades to come.
When his Army friend Rutherford B. Hayes was nominated for governor in 1867, McKinley made speeches on his behalf in Stark County, his first foray into politics. The county was closely divided between [Democrats](Democratic Party (United States)) and [Republicans](Republican Party (United States)), but Hayes carried it that year in his statewide victory. In 1869, McKinley ran for the office of [attorney](prosecuting)(District attorney) of Stark County, an office that had historically been held by Democrats, and was unexpectedly elected. When McKinley ran for re-election in 1871, the Democrats nominated [A. Lynch](William)(William A. Lynch), a prominent local lawyer, and McKinley was defeated by 143 votes.
As McKinley's professional career progressed, so too did his social life blossom: he wooed [Saxton](Ida)(Ida Saxton McKinley), the daughter of a prominent Canton family. They were married on January 25, 1871, in the newly built First Presbyterian Church of Canton. Ida soon joined her husband's Methodist church. Their first child, Katherine, was born on Christmas Day 1871. A second daughter, Ida, followed in 1873 but died the same year. McKinley's wife descended into a deep depression at her baby's death and her health, never robust, declined. Two years later, Katherine died of [fever](typhoid)(typhoid fever). Ida never recovered from her daughters' deaths, and the McKinleys had no more children. Ida McKinley developed [epilepsy](epilepsy) around the same time and depended strongly on her husband's presence. He remained a devoted husband and tended to his wife's medical and emotional needs for the rest of his life.
Ida insisted that her husband continue his increasingly successful career in law and politics. He attended the state Republican convention that nominated Hayes for a third term as governor in 1875, and campaigned again for his old friend in the election that fall. The next year, McKinley undertook a high-profile case defending a [of striking coal miners](group)(Coal miners' strike of 1873#Aftermath), who were arrested for rioting after a clash with [strikebreaker](strikebreaker)s. Lynch, McKinley's opponent in the 1871 election, and his partner, [R. Day](William)(William R. Day), were the opposing counsel, and the mine owners included [Hanna](Mark)(Mark Hanna), a [Cleveland](Cleveland) businessman. Taking the case *[bono](pro)(pro bono),* McKinley
was successful in getting all but one of the miners acquitted. The case raised McKinley's standing among laborers, a crucial part of the Stark County electorate, and also introduced him to Hanna, who would become his strongest backer in years to come.
McKinley's good standing with labor became useful that year as he campaigned for the Republican nomination for [17th congressional district](Ohio's)(Ohio's 17th congressional district). Delegates to the county conventions thought he could attract [blue-collar](Blue-collar worker) voters, and in August 1876, McKinley was nominated. By that time, Hayes had been nominated for president, and McKinley campaigned for him while running his own congressional campaign. Both were successful. McKinley, campaigning mostly on his support for a [tariff](protective)(Tariff), defeated the Democratic nominee, [L. Lamborn](Levi)(Levi L. Lamborn), by 3,300 votes. Hayes won [hotly disputed election](a)(1876 United States presidential election) to reach the presidency. McKinley's victory came at a personal cost: his income as a congressman would be half of what he earned as a lawyer.
## Rising politician (1877–1895)
### Spokesman for protection
McKinley took his congressional seat in October 1877, when President Hayes summoned Congress into special session. With the Republicans in the minority, McKinley was given unimportant committee assignments, which he undertook conscientiously. McKinley's friendship with Hayes did McKinley little good on [Hill](Capitol)(Capitol Hill), as the president was not well regarded by many leaders there. The young congressman broke with Hayes on the question of the currency, but it did not affect their friendship. The United States had effectively been placed on the [standard](gold)(gold standard) by the [Act of 1873](Coinage)(Coinage Act of 1873); when silver prices dropped significantly, many sought to make silver again a legal tender, equally with gold. Such a course would be inflationary, but advocates argued that the economic benefits of the increased [supply](money)(money supply) would be worth the inflation; opponents warned that "[silver](free)(free silver)" would not bring the promised benefits and would harm the United States in international trade. McKinley voted for the [Act](Bland–Allison)(Bland–Allison Act) of 1878, which mandated large government purchases of silver for striking into money, and also joined the large majorities in each house that overrode Hayes's veto of the legislation. In so doing, McKinley voted against the position of the House Republican leader, [Garfield](James)(James Garfield), a fellow Ohioan and his friend.
[[McKinley](File:Mckin.jpg|thumb|Representative)]
From his first term in Congress, McKinley was a strong advocate of protective tariffs. The primary purposes of such imposts was not to raise revenue, but to allow American manufacturing to develop by giving it a price advantage in the domestic market over foreign competitors. McKinley biographer [Leech](Margaret)(Margaret Leech) noted that Canton had become prosperous as a center for the manufacture of farm equipment because of [protection](protectionism), and that this may have helped form his political views. McKinley introduced and supported bills that raised protective tariffs, and opposed those that lowered them or imposed tariffs simply to raise revenue. Garfield's election as president in 1880 created a vacancy on the [Ways and Means Committee](House)(House Ways and Means Committee); McKinley was selected to fill it, gaining a spot on the most powerful committee after only two terms.
McKinley increasingly became a significant figure in national politics. In 1880, he served a brief term as Ohio's representative on the [National Committee](Republican)(Republican National Committee). In 1884, he was elected a delegate to [year's Republican convention](that)(1884 Republican National Convention), where he served as chair of the Committee on Resolutions and won plaudits for his handling of the convention when called upon to preside. By 1886, McKinley, Senator [Sherman](John)(John Sherman), and Governor [B. Foraker](Joseph)(Joseph B. Foraker) were considered the leaders of the Republican party in Ohio. Sherman, who had helped to found the Republican Party, ran three times for the Republican nomination for president in the 1880s, each time failing, while Foraker began a meteoric rise in Ohio politics early in the decade. Hanna, once he entered public affairs as a political manager and generous contributor, supported Sherman's ambitions, as well as those of Foraker. The latter relationship broke off at the [Republican National Convention](1888)(1888 Republican National Convention), where McKinley, Foraker, and Hanna were all delegates supporting Sherman. Convinced Sherman could not win, Foraker threw his support to [Maine](Maine) Senator [G. Blaine](James)(James G. Blaine), the unsuccessful Republican 1884 presidential nominee. When Blaine said he was not a candidate, Foraker returned to Sherman, but the nomination went to former [Indiana](Indiana) senator [Harrison](Benjamin)(Benjamin Harrison), who was elected president. In the bitterness that followed the convention, Hanna abandoned Foraker. For the rest of McKinley's life, the Ohio Republican Party was divided into two factions, one aligned with McKinley, Sherman, and Hanna, and the other with Foraker. Hanna came to admire McKinley and became a friend and close adviser to him. Although Hanna remained active in business and in promoting other Republicans, in the years after 1888, he spent an increasing amount of time boosting McKinley's political career.
In 1889, with the Republicans in the majority, McKinley sought election as [of the House](Speaker)(Speaker of the United States House of Representatives). He failed to gain the post, which went to [B. Reed](Thomas)(Thomas Brackett Reed) of [Maine](Maine); however, Speaker Reed appointed McKinley chairman of the Ways and Means Committee. The Ohioan guided the [Tariff](McKinley)(McKinley Tariff) of 1890 through Congress; although McKinley's work was altered through the influence of special interests in the Senate, it imposed a number of protective tariffs on foreign goods.
### Gerrymandering and defeat for re-election
Recognizing McKinley's potential, the Democrats, whenever they controlled the Ohio legislature, sought to [gerrymander](Gerrymandering) or redistrict him out of office. In 1878, McKinley was redistricted to the [congressional district](16th)(Ohio's 16th congressional district); he won anyway, causing Hayes to exult, "Oh, the good luck of McKinley! He was gerrymandered out and then beat the gerrymander! We enjoyed it as much as he did." After the 1882 election, McKinley was unseated on an election contest by a near party-line House vote. Out of office, he was briefly depressed by the setback, but soon vowed to run again. The Democrats again redistricted Stark County for the 1884 election; McKinley was returned to Congress anyway.
[[File:Judge cover September 1890 - On to Ohio.png|thumb|*[Judge](Judge (magazine))* magazine cover from September 1890, showing McKinley (left) having helped dispatch Speaker Reed's opponent in early-voting Maine, hurrying off with the victor to McKinley's "[jerrymandered](gerrymander)" Ohio district]]
For 1890, the Democrats gerrymandered McKinley one final time, placing Stark County in the same district as one of the strongest pro-Democrat counties, [Holmes](Holmes County, Ohio), populated by solidly Democratic [Dutch](Pennsylvania)(Pennsylvania Dutch). Based on past results, Democrats thought the new boundaries should produce a Democratic majority of 2,000 to 3,000. The Republicans could not reverse the gerrymander, as legislative elections would not be held until 1891, but they could throw all their energies into the district. The McKinley Tariff was a main theme of the Democratic campaign nationwide, and there was considerable attention paid to McKinley's race. The Republican Party sent its leading orators to Canton, including Blaine (then [of State](Secretary)(United States Secretary of State)), Speaker Reed, and President Harrison. The Democrats countered with their best spokesmen on tariff issues. McKinley tirelessly stumped his new district, reaching out to its 40,000 voters to explain that his tariff
}}
Democrats ran a strong candidate in former lieutenant governor [G. Warwick](John)(John G. Warwick). To drive their point home, they hired young partisans to pretend to be peddlers, who went door to door offering 25-cent tinware to housewives for 50 cents, explaining the rise in prices was due to the McKinley Tariff. In the end, McKinley lost by 300 votes, but the Republicans won a statewide majority and claimed a moral victory.
### Governor of Ohio (1892–1896)
Even before McKinley completed his term in Congress, he met with a delegation of Ohioans urging him to run for governor. Governor [E. Campbell](James)(James E. Campbell), a Democrat, who had defeated [Foraker](Joseph B. Foraker) in 1889, was to seek re-election in 1891. The Ohio Republican party remained divided, but McKinley quietly arranged for Foraker to nominate him at the 1891 state Republican convention, which chose McKinley by acclamation. The former congressman spent much of the second half of 1891 campaigning against Campbell, beginning in his birthplace of Niles. Hanna, however, was little seen in the campaign; he spent much of his time raising funds for the election of legislators pledged to vote for Sherman in the 1892 senatorial election. (State legislators still elected US Senators.) McKinley won the 1891 election by some 20,000 votes; the following January, Sherman, with considerable assistance from Hanna, turned back a challenge by Foraker to win the legislature's vote for another term in the US Senate.
[[File:Blaine breaks out.png|right|thumb|Even after his final run for president in 1884, [G. Blaine](James)(James G. Blaine) was still seen as a possible candidate for the Republican nomination. In this 1890 *Puck* cartoon, he is startling Reed and McKinley (right) as they make their plans for 1892.]]
Ohio's governor had relatively little power—for example, he could recommend legislation, but not veto it—but with Ohio a key [state](swing)(swing state), its governor was a major figure in national politics. Although McKinley believed that the health of the nation depended on that of business, he was evenhanded in dealing with labor. He procured legislation that set up an arbitration board to settle work disputes and obtained passage of a law that fined employers who fired workers for belonging to a union.
[Harrison](President)(Benjamin Harrison) had proven unpopular; there were divisions even within the Republican party as the year 1892 began and Harrison began his re-election drive. Although no declared Republican candidate opposed Harrison, many Republicans were ready to dump the president from the ticket if an alternative emerged. Among the possible candidates spoken of were McKinley, Reed, and the aging Blaine. Fearing that the Ohio governor would emerge as a candidate, Harrison's managers arranged for McKinley to be permanent chairman of [convention](the)(1892 Republican National Convention) in [Minneapolis](Minneapolis), requiring him to play a public, neutral role. Hanna established an unofficial McKinley headquarters near the convention hall, though no active effort was made to convert delegates to McKinley's cause. McKinley objected to delegate votes being cast for him; nevertheless he finished second, behind the renominated Harrison, but ahead of Blaine, who had sent word he did not want to be considered. Although McKinley campaigned loyally for the Republican ticket, Harrison was defeated by former President Cleveland in [November election](the)(1892 United States presidential election). In the wake of Cleveland's victory, McKinley was seen by some as the likely Republican candidate in 1896.
Soon after Cleveland's return to office, hard times struck the nation with the [of 1893](Panic)(Panic of 1893). A businessman in [Youngstown](Youngstown, Ohio), Robert Walker, had lent money to McKinley in their younger days; in gratitude, McKinley had often guaranteed Walker's borrowings for his business. The governor had never kept track of what he was signing; he believed Walker a sound businessman. In fact, Walker had deceived McKinley, telling him that new notes were actually renewals of matured ones. Walker was ruined by the recession; McKinley was called upon for repayment in February 1893. The total owed was over $100,000 (equivalent to $ million in ) and a despairing McKinley initially proposed to resign as governor and earn the money as an attorney. Instead, McKinley's wealthy supporters, including Hanna and Chicago publisher [H. Kohlsaat](H.)(H. H. Kohlsaat), became trustees of a fund from which the notes would be paid. Both William and Ida McKinley placed their property in the hands of the fund's trustees (who included Hanna and Kohlsaat), and the supporters raised and contributed a substantial sum of money. All of the couple's property was returned to them by the end of 1893, and when McKinley, who had promised eventual repayment, asked for the list of contributors, it was refused him. Many people who had suffered in the hard times sympathized with McKinley, whose popularity grew. He was easily re-elected in November 1893, receiving the largest percentage of the vote of any Ohio governor since the Civil War.
McKinley campaigned widely for Republicans in the 1894 midterm congressional elections; many party candidates in districts where he spoke were successful. His political efforts in Ohio were rewarded with the election in November 1895 of a Republican successor as governor, [Bushnell](Asa)(Asa S. Bushnell (Governor)), and a Republican legislature that elected Foraker to the Senate. McKinley supported Foraker for the Senate and Bushnell (who was of Foraker's faction) for governor; in return, the new senator-elect agreed to back McKinley's presidential ambitions. With party peace in Ohio assured, McKinley turned to the national arena.
## Election of 1896
### Obtaining the nomination
[[File:Mark Hanna by WJ Root, 1896 cropped.jpg|thumb|upright|McKinley's close friend and adviser, [Hanna](Mark)(Mark Hanna)]]
It is unclear when William McKinley began to seriously prepare a run for president. As McKinley biographer [Phillips](Kevin)(Kevin Phillips (political commentator)) notes, "No documents, no diaries, no confidential letters to Mark Hanna (or anyone else) contain his secret hopes or veiled stratagems." From the beginning, McKinley's preparations had the participation of Hanna, whose biographer William T. Horner noted, "What is certainly true is that in 1888 the two men began to develop a close working relationship that helped put McKinley in the White House." Sherman did not run for president again after 1888, and so Hanna could support McKinley's ambitions for that office wholeheartedly.
Backed by Hanna's money and organizational skills, McKinley quietly built support for a presidential bid through 1895 and early 1896. When other contenders such as Speaker Reed and [Iowa](Iowa) Senator [B. Allison](William)(William B. Allison) sent agents outside their states to organize Republicans in support of their candidacies, they found that Hanna's agents had preceded them. According to historian Stanley Jones in his study of the 1896 election,
}}
Hanna, on McKinley's behalf, met with the eastern Republican [boss](political)(political boss)es, such as Senators [Platt](Thomas)(Thomas C. Platt) of New York and [Quay](Matthew)(Matthew Quay) of Pennsylvania, who were willing to guarantee McKinley's nomination in exchange for promises regarding patronage and offices. McKinley, however, was determined to obtain the nomination without making deals, and Hanna accepted that decision. Many of their early efforts were focused on the South; Hanna obtained a vacation home in southern Georgia where McKinley visited and met with Republican politicians from the region. McKinley needed 453½ delegate votes to gain the nomination; he gained nearly half that number from the South and [states](border)(border states (American Civil War)). Platt lamented in his memoirs, "[Hanna] had the South practically solid before some of us awakened."
[[File:Coronation of McKinley.jpg|thumb|left|upright=1.35|[Dalrymple](Louis)(Louis Dalrymple) cartoon from [magazine](*Puck*)(Puck (magazine)), June 24, 1896, showing McKinley about to crown himself with the Republican nomination. The "priests" are Hanna (in green) and Representative [H. Grosvenor](Charles)(Charles H. Grosvenor) (red); [H. Kohlsaat](H.)(H. H. Kohlsaat) is the page holding the robe.]]
The bosses still hoped to deny McKinley a first-ballot majority at [convention](the)(1896 Republican National Convention) by boosting support for local [son](favorite)(favorite son) candidates such as Quay, New York Governor (and former vice president) [P. Morton](Levi)(Levi P. Morton), and Illinois Senator [Cullom](Shelby)(Shelby Cullom). Delegate-rich Illinois proved a crucial battleground, as McKinley supporters, such as Chicago businessman (and future vice president) [G. Dawes](Charles)(Charles G. Dawes), sought to elect delegates pledged to vote for McKinley at the national convention in St. Louis. Cullom proved unable to stand against McKinley despite the support of local Republican machines; at the state convention at the end of April, McKinley completed a near-sweep of Illinois' delegates. Former president Harrison had been deemed a possible contender if he entered the race; when Harrison made it known he would not seek a third nomination, the McKinley organization took control of Indiana with a speed Harrison privately found unseemly. Morton operatives who journeyed to Indiana sent word back that they had found the state alive for McKinley. Wyoming Senator [Warren](Francis)(Francis Warren) wrote, "The politicians are making a hard fight against him, but if the masses could speak, McKinley is the choice of at least 75% of the entire [of](body) Republican voters in the Union".
By the time the national convention began in [Louis](St.)(St. Louis) on June 16, 1896, McKinley had an ample majority of delegates. The former governor, who remained in Canton, followed events at the convention closely by telephone, and was able to hear part of Foraker's speech nominating him over the line. When Ohio was reached in the roll call of states, its votes gave McKinley the nomination, which he celebrated by hugging his wife and mother as his friends fled the house, anticipating the first of many crowds that gathered at the Republican candidate's home. Thousands of partisans came from Canton and surrounding towns that evening to hear McKinley speak from his front porch. The convention nominated Republican National Committee vice chairman [Hobart](Garret)(Garret Hobart) of New Jersey for vice president, a choice actually made, by most accounts, by Hanna. Hobart, a wealthy lawyer, businessman, and former state legislator, was not widely known, but as Hanna biographer [Croly](Herbert)(Herbert Croly) pointed out, "if he did little to strengthen the ticket he did nothing to weaken it".
### General election campaign
[[File:McKinley straddle.jpg|thumb|left|Before the 1896 convention, McKinley tried to avoid coming down on one side or the other of the currency question. [Allen Rogers](William)(William Allen Rogers)'s cartoon from ''[Weekly](Harper's)(Harper's Weekly)'', June 1896, showing McKinley [the rail](riding)(Riding a rail) of the currency question.|alt=A political cartoon. An imperially confident-looking man in an exaggerated military officer's uniform is [a plank of wood](riding)(Riding a rail) marked "Financial question," which is balanced between two saw-horses. The man's weight is bending the wood rather dramatically.]]
Before the Republican convention, McKinley had been a "straddle bug" on the currency question, favoring moderate positions on silver such as accomplishing [bimetallism](bimetallism) by international agreement. In the final days before the convention, McKinley decided, after hearing from politicians and businessmen, that the platform should endorse the gold standard, though it should allow for bimetallism through coordination with other nations. Adoption of the platform caused some western delegates, led by Colorado Senator [M. Teller](Henry)(Henry M. Teller), to walk out of the convention. However, compared with the Democrats, Republican divisions on the issue were small, especially as McKinley promised future concessions to silver advocates.
The bad economic times had continued, and strengthened the hand of forces for [silver](free)(free silver). The issue bitterly divided the Democratic Party; President Cleveland firmly supported the gold standard, but an increasing number of rural Democrats wanted silver, especially in the South and West. The silverites took control of the [Democratic National Convention](1896)(1896 Democratic National Convention) and chose [Jennings Bryan](William)(William Jennings Bryan) for president; he had electrified the delegates with his [of Gold speech](Cross)(Cross of Gold speech). Bryan's financial radicalism shocked bankers—they thought his inflationary program would bankrupt the railroads and ruin the economy. Hanna approached them for support for his strategy to win the election, and they gave $3.5 million for speakers and over 200 million pamphlets advocating the Republican position on the money and tariff questions.
[campaign](Bryan's)(William Jennings Bryan 1896 presidential campaign) had at most an estimated $500,000. With his eloquence and youthful energy his major assets in the race, Bryan decided on a [whistle-stop](Whistle stop train tour) political tour by train on an unprecedented scale. Hanna urged McKinley to match Bryan's tour with one of his own; the candidate declined on the grounds that the Democrat was a better [speaker](stump)(stump speech): "I might just as well set up a trapeze on my front lawn and compete with some professional athlete as go out speaking against Bryan. I have to *think* when I speak." Instead of going to the people, McKinley would remain at home in Canton and allow the people to come to him; according to historian R. Hal Williams in his book on the 1896 election, "it was, as it turned out, a brilliant strategy. McKinley's '[Porch Campaign](Front)(Front Porch Campaign)' became a legend in American political history."
[[File:Flower delegation.jpg|thumb|left|William and Ida McKinley (to her husband's left) pose with members of the "Flower Delegation" from [City, Pennsylvania](Oil)(Oil City, Pennsylvania), before the McKinley home. Although women could not vote in most states, they might influence male relatives and were encouraged to visit Canton.]]
McKinley made himself available to the public every day except Sunday, receiving delegations from the front porch of his home. The railroads subsidized the visitors with low excursion rates—the pro-silver [*Plain Dealer*](Cleveland)(Cleveland Plain Dealer) disgustedly stated that going to Canton had been made "cheaper than staying at home". Delegations marched through the streets from the railroad station to McKinley's home on North Market Street. Once there, they crowded close to the front porch—from which they surreptitiously whittled souvenirs—as their spokesman addressed McKinley. The candidate then responded, speaking on campaign issues in a speech molded to suit the interest of the delegation. The speeches were carefully scripted to avoid extemporaneous remarks; even the spokesman's remarks were approved by McKinley or a representative. This was done as the candidate feared an offhand comment by another that might rebound on him, as [happened to Blaine in 1884](had)(1884 United States presidential election#Campaign).
[[File:Man of Mark.png|thumb|right|upright|*A Man of Mark* 1896 [Davenport](Homer)(Homer Davenport) cartoon of McKinley as Hanna's creature, from [Randolph Hearst](William)(William Randolph Hearst)'s *[York Journal](New)(New York Journal)*|alt=A political cartoon. A closed fist protrudes from a jacket-sleeve covered in dollar signs; a cuff-link is marked "MARK $ HANNA". The hand tightly grasps a chain from which hangs a tiny, sorry-looking figure marked "McKinley". "A Man of Mark!" concludes the cartoon's caption.]]
Most Democratic newspapers refused to support Bryan, the major exception being the New York *Journal*, controlled by [Randolph Hearst](William)(William Randolph Hearst), whose fortune was based on silver mines. In biased reporting and through the sharp cartoons of [Davenport](Homer)(Homer Davenport), Hanna was viciously characterized as a plutocrat, trampling on labor. McKinley was drawn as a child, easily controlled by big business. Even today, these depictions still color the images of Hanna and McKinley: one as a heartless businessman, the other as a creature of Hanna and others of his ilk.
The Democrats had pamphlets too, though not as many. Jones analyzed how voters responded to the education campaigns of the two parties:
}}
McKinley always thought of himself as a tariff man and expected that the monetary issues would fade away in a month. He was mistaken—silver and gold dominated the campaign.
The battleground proved to be the Midwest—the South and most of the West were conceded to Bryan—and the Democrat spent much of his time in those crucial states. The Northeast was considered most likely safe for McKinley after the early-voting states of Maine and [Vermont](Vermont) supported him in September. By then, it was clear that public support for silver had receded, and McKinley began to emphasize the tariff issue. By the end of September, the Republicans had discontinued printing material on the silver issue, and were entirely concentrating on the tariff question. On November 3, 1896, the voters had their say. McKinley won the entire Northeast and Midwest; he won 51% of the vote and an ample majority in the [College](Electoral)(Electoral College (United States)). Bryan had concentrated entirely on the silver issue and had not appealed to urban workers. Voters in cities supported McKinley; the only city outside the South of more than 100,000 population carried by Bryan was [Denver](Denver), Colorado.
[[Electoral vote results](File:ElectoralCollege1896.svg|right|thumb|upright=1.25|1896)]
### Realignment of 1896
The 1896 presidential election was a [election](realigning)(realigning election), in which McKinley's view of a stronger central government building American industry through protective tariffs and a dollar based on gold triumphed.Kevin Phillips, *William McKinley* (2003) pp 57-85.R. Hal Williams, *Realigning America: McKinley, Bryan, and the Remarkable Election of 1896* (2010) pp 169-170. The voting patterns established then displaced the near-deadlock the major parties had seen since the Civil War in the [Party System](Third)(Third Party System). The new Republican dominance began the [Party System](Fourth)(Fourth Party System) that would end [1932](in)(1932 United States presidential election), another realigning election with the ascent of [Roosevelt](Franklin)(Franklin Roosevelt) and the [Deal coalition](New)(New Deal coalition).Walter Dean Burnham, "The system of 1896: An analysis" in Paul Kleppner et al. *The Evolution of American Electoral Systems* (Greenwood, 1981) pp. 147-202. Phillips argues that McKinley was probably the only Republican who could have defeated Bryan—he concludes that Eastern candidates would have done badly against the Illinois-born Bryan in the crucial Midwest. While Bryan was popular among rural voters, "McKinley appealed to a very different industrialized, urbanized America."
## Presidency (1897–1901)
### Inauguration and appointments
McKinley was [in as president](sworn)(First inauguration of William McKinley) on March 4, 1897, as his wife and mother looked on. The new president gave a lengthy inaugural address; he urged tariff reform, and stated that the currency issue would have to await tariff legislation. He warned against foreign interventions, "We want no wars of conquest. We must avoid the temptation of territorial aggression."
McKinley's most controversial Cabinet appointment was that of John Sherman as [of State](Secretary)(United States Secretary of State). Sherman had an outstanding reputation but old age was fast reducing his abilities. McKinley needed to have Hanna appointed to the Senate so Senator Sherman was moved up. Sherman's mental faculties were decaying even in 1896; this was widely spoken of in political circles, but McKinley did not believe the rumors. Nevertheless, McKinley sent his cousin, William McKinley Osborne, to have dinner with the 73-year-old senator; he reported back that Sherman seemed as lucid as ever. McKinley wrote once the appointment was announced, "the stories regarding Senator Sherman's 'mental decay' are without foundation ... When I saw him last I was convinced both of his perfect health, physically and mentally, and that the prospects of life were remarkably good."
Maine Representative [Dingley Jr.](Nelson)(Nelson Dingley Jr.) was McKinley's choice for Secretary of the Treasury; he declined it, preferring to remain as chairman of the Ways and Means Committee. Charles Dawes, who had been Hanna's lieutenant in Chicago during the campaign, was considered for the Treasury post but by some accounts Dawes considered himself too young. Dawes eventually became [of the Currency](Comptroller)(Comptroller of the Currency); he recorded in his published diary that he had strongly urged McKinley to appoint as secretary the successful candidate, [J. Gage](Lyman)(Lyman J. Gage), president of the [National Bank of Chicago](First)(First Chicago Bank) and a [Democrat](Gold)(Gold Democrat). The [Department](Navy)(United States Department of the Navy) was offered to former Massachusetts Congressman [Davis Long](John)(John Davis Long), an old friend from the House, on January 30, 1897. Although McKinley was initially inclined to allow Long to choose his own assistant, there was considerable pressure on the President-elect to appoint [Roosevelt](Theodore)(Theodore Roosevelt), head of the New York City Police Commission and a published naval historian. McKinley was reluctant, stating to one Roosevelt booster, "I want peace and I am told that your friend Theodore is always getting into rows with everybody." Nevertheless, he made the appointment.
In addition to Sherman, McKinley made one other ill-advised Cabinet appointment, that of [of War](Secretary)(United States Secretary of War), which fell to [A. Alger](Russell)(Russell A. Alger), former general and [Michigan](Michigan) governor. Competent enough in peacetime, Alger proved inadequate once the conflict with Spain began. With the [Department](War)(United States Department of War) plagued by scandal, Alger resigned at McKinley's request in mid-1899. Vice President Hobart, as was customary at the time, was not invited to Cabinet meetings. However, he proved a valuable adviser both for McKinley and for his Cabinet members. The wealthy Vice President leased a residence close to the White House; the two families visited each other without formality, and the Vice President's wife, [Tuttle Hobart](Jennie)(Jennie Tuttle Hobart), sometimes substituted as Executive Mansion hostess when Ida McKinley was unwell. For most of McKinley's administration, [B. Cortelyou](George)(George B. Cortelyou) served as [personal secretary](his)(Secretary to the President of the United States). Cortelyou, who served in three Cabinet positions under Theodore Roosevelt, became a combination [secretary](press)(White House Press Secretary) and [of staff](chief)(White House Chief of Staff) to McKinley.
File:William McKinley 1897 inauguration.ogg|McKinley's first inauguration in 1897
File:McKinley sworn in.jpeg|[Justice](Chief)(Chief Justice of the United States) [Fuller](Melville)(Melville Fuller) swears in William McKinley as president; outgoing President [Cleveland](Grover)(Grover Cleveland) at right
### Cuba crisis and war with Spain
[[File:Judge-2-6-1897.jpg|thumb|Editorial cartoon intervention in Cuba. [Columbia](Columbia (name)) (the American people) reaches out to help oppressed Cuba in 1897 while [Sam](Uncle)(Uncle Sam) (the U.S. government) is blind to the crisis and will not use its powerful guns to help. [magazine](*Judge*)(Judge (magazine)), February 6, 1897.]]
For decades, rebels in [Cuba](History of Cuba) had waged an intermittent campaign for freedom from Spanish colonial rule. By 1895, the conflict had expanded to a [for Cuban independence](war)(Cuban War of Independence). As war engulfed the island, Spanish reprisals against the rebels grew ever harsher. American public opinion favored the rebels, and McKinley shared in their outrage against Spanish policies. However while public opinion called for war to liberate Cuba, McKinley favored a peaceful approach, hoping that through negotiation, Spain might be convinced to grant Cuba independence, or at least to allow the Cubans some measure of autonomy. The United States and Spain began negotiations on the subject in 1897, but it became clear that Spain would never concede Cuban independence, while the rebels (and their American supporters) would never settle for anything less.Recent historiography emphasizes the humanitarian motivations for the initial war decision. Jeffrey Bloodworth, "For Love or for Money?: William McKinley and the Spanish–American War" *White House Studies* (2009) 9#2 pp. 135–57.
In January 1898, Spain promised some concessions to the rebels, but when American [consul](Consul (representative)) [Lee](Fitzhugh)(Fitzhugh Lee) reported riots in [Havana](Havana), McKinley agreed to send the battleship [*Maine*](USS)(USS Maine (ACR-1)). On February 15, the *Maine* exploded and sank with 266 men killed. Public attention focused on the crisis and the consensus was that regardless of who set the bomb, Spain had lost control over Cuba. McKinley insisted that a [of inquiry](court)(Naval Board of Inquiry) first determine whether the explosion was accidental. Negotiations with Spain continued as the court considered the evidence, but on March 20, the court ruled that the *Maine* was blown up by an [mine](underwater)(Naval mine). As pressure for war mounted in Congress, McKinley continued to negotiate for Cuban independence. Spain refused McKinley's proposals, and on April 11, McKinley turned the matter over to Congress. He did not ask for war, but Congress made the decision and declared war on April 20, with the addition of the [Amendment](Teller)(Teller Amendment), which disavowed any intention of annexing Cuba. Nick Kapur says that McKinley's actions were based on his values of arbitrationism, pacifism, humanitarianism, and manly self-restraint, and not on external pressures.Nick Kapur, "William McKinley's Values and the Origins of the Spanish‐American War: A Reinterpretation." *Presidential Studies Quarterly* 41.1 (2011): 18–38 [online](https://www.jstor.org/stable/23884754).
The expansion of the telegraph and the development of the telephone gave McKinley greater control over the day-to-day management of the war than previous presidents had enjoyed, and he used the new technologies to direct the army's and navy's movements as far as he was able. McKinley found Alger inadequate as Secretary of War, and did not get along with the Army's commanding general, [A. Miles](Nelson)(Nelson A. Miles). Bypassing them, he looked for strategic advice first from Miles's predecessor, General [Schofield](John)(John Schofield), and later from [General](Adjutant)(Adjutant general#United States) [Clarke Corbin](Henry)(Henry Clarke Corbin). The war led to a change in McKinley's cabinet, as the president accepted Sherman's resignation as Secretary of State. [R. Day](William)(William R. Day) agreed to serve as secretary until the war's end.
Within a fortnight, the navy had its first victory when [Commodore](Commodore (United States)) [Dewey](George)(George Dewey), destroyed the Spanish fleet at the [of Manila Bay](Battle)(Battle of Manila Bay) in the Philippines. Dewey's overwhelming victory expanded the scope of the war from one centered in the Caribbean to one that would determine the fate of all of Spain's Pacific colonies. The next month, McKinley increased the number of [sent to the Philippines](troops)(Eighth Army Corps (Spanish-American War)) and granted the force's commander, Major General [Merritt](Wesley)(Wesley Merritt), the power to set up legal systems and raise taxes—necessities for a long occupation. By the time the troops arrived in the Philippines at the end of June 1898, McKinley had decided that Spain would be required to surrender the archipelago to the United States. He professed to be open to all views on the subject; however, he believed that as the war progressed, the public would come to demand retention of the islands as a prize of war.
Meanwhile, in the Caribbean theater, a large force of regulars and volunteers gathered near [Florida](Tampa,)(Tampa, Florida), for an invasion of Cuba. After lengthy delays, the army, led by Major General [Rufus Shafter](William)(William Rufus Shafter), on June 22, landed near [de Cuba](Santiago)(Santiago de Cuba). Shafter's army engaged the Spanish forces on July 2 in the [of San Juan Hill](Battle)(Battle of San Juan Hill). In an intense day-long battle, the American force was victorious, although both sides suffered heavy casualties. The next day, Spain's Caribbean squadron, which had been sheltering in Santiago's harbor, broke for the open sea and was destroyed by the North Atlantic Squadron in the [naval battle of the war](largest)(Battle of Santiago de Cuba). Shafter laid siege to the city of Santiago, which surrendered on July 17, placing Cuba under effective American control. McKinley and Miles also ordered an invasion of [Rico](Puerto)(Puerto Rico), which met little resistance when it landed in July. The distance from Spain and the destruction of the Spanish navy made resupply impossible, and the Spanish government began to look for a way to end the war.
### Peace and territorial gain
[[File:Jules Cambon signs Treaty of Paris, 1899.JPG|thumb|left|Signing of the [of Paris](Treaty)(Treaty of Paris (1898))]]
McKinley's cabinet agreed with him that Spain must leave Cuba and Puerto Rico, but they disagreed on the Philippines, with some wishing to annex the entire archipelago and some wishing only to retain a naval base in the area. Although public sentiment seemed to favor annexation of the Philippines, several prominent political leaders—including Democrats Bryan, and Cleveland, and the newly formed [Anti-Imperialist League](American)(American Anti-Imperialist League)—made their opposition known.
McKinley proposed to open negotiations with Spain on the basis of Cuban liberation and Puerto Rican annexation, with the final status of the Philippines subject to further discussion. He stood firmly in that demand even as the military situation in Cuba began to deteriorate when the American army was struck with [fever](yellow)(yellow fever). Spain ultimately agreed to a ceasefire on those terms on August 12, and treaty negotiations began in Paris in September 1898. The talks continued until December 18, when the [of Paris](Treaty)(Treaty of Paris (1898)) was signed. The United States acquired Puerto Rico and the Philippines as well as the island of [Guam](Guam), and Spain relinquished its claims to Cuba; in exchange, the United States agreed to pay Spain $20 million (equivalent to $ million in ). McKinley had difficulty convincing the Senate to approve the treaty by the requisite two-thirds vote, but his lobbying, and that of Vice President Hobart, eventually saw success, as the Senate voted in favor on February 6, 1899, 57 to 27.
#### Hawaii
[[File:Annexation Here to Stay (edit).jpg|thumb|upright=0.85|[Annexation](Newlands Resolution) of the [of Hawaii](Republic)(Republic of Hawaii) in 1898]]
During the war, McKinley also pursued the annexation of the [of Hawaii](Republic)(Republic of Hawaii). The new republic, dominated by business interests, [overthrown the Queen in 1893 when she rejected a limited role for herself](had)(Overthrow of the Kingdom of Hawaii). There was strong American support for annexation, and the need for Pacific bases in wartime became clear after the Battle of Manila. McKinley came to office as a supporter of annexation, and lobbied Congress to act, warning that to do nothing would invite a royalist counter-revolution or a Japanese takeover. Foreseeing difficulty in getting two-thirds of the Senate to approve a treaty of annexation, McKinley instead supported the effort of Democratic Representative [G. Newlands](Francis)(Francis G. Newlands) of Nevada to accomplish the result by [resolution](joint)(joint resolution) of both houses of Congress. The resulting [Resolution](Newlands)(Newlands Resolution) passed both houses by wide margins, and McKinley signed it into law on July 8, 1898. McKinley biographer H. Wayne Morgan notes, "McKinley was the guiding spirit behind the annexation of Hawaii, showing ... a firmness in pursuing it"; the president told Cortelyou, "We need Hawaii just as much and a good deal more than we did California. It is [destiny](manifest)(manifest destiny)."
### Expanding influence overseas
#### Open door in China
Even before peace negotiations began with Spain, McKinley asked Congress to set up a commission to examine trade opportunities in Asia and espoused an "[Door Policy](Open)(Open Door Policy)", in which all nations would freely trade with China and none would seek to violate that nation's territorial integrity.
[[File:Siege of Peking, Boxer Rebellion.jpg|thumb|left|alt=painting of U.S. Army soldiers defending a fort in Peking while a zhengyangmen in the background burns|American soldiers scale the walls of Beijing to relieve the [of the International Legations](siege)(siege of the International Legations), August 1900]]
American missionaries were threatened with death when the [Rebellion](Boxer)(Boxer Rebellion) menaced foreigners in China. Americans and other westerners in [Peking](Peking) were besieged and, in cooperation with other western powers, McKinley ordered 5000 troops to the city in June 1900 in the [Relief Expedition](China)(China Relief Expedition). The westerners were rescued the next month, but several Congressional Democrats objected to McKinley dispatching troops without consulting the legislature. McKinley's actions set a precedent that led to most of his successors exerting similar independent control over the military. After the rebellion ended, the United States reaffirmed its commitment to the Open Door policy, which became the basis of American policy toward China.
#### Panama canal
Closer to home, McKinley and Hay engaged in negotiations with Britain over the possible construction of a canal across Central America. The [Treaty](Clayton–Bulwer)(Clayton–Bulwer Treaty), which the two nations signed in 1850, prohibited either from establishing exclusive control over a canal there. The war had exposed the difficulty of maintaining a two-ocean navy when the Navy had to sail all the way around South America to reach the Pacific. Now, with American business and military interests even more involved in Asia, a canal seemed more essential than ever, and McKinley pressed for a renegotiation of the treaty. Hay and the British ambassador, [Pauncefote](Julian)(Julian Pauncefote, 1st Baron Pauncefote), agreed that the United States could control a future canal, provided that it was open to all shipping and not fortified. McKinley was satisfied with the terms, but the Senate rejected them, demanding that the United States be allowed to fortify the canal. Hay was embarrassed by the rebuff and offered his resignation, but McKinley refused it and ordered him to continue negotiations to achieve the Senate's demands. He was successful, and [new treaty](a)(Hay–Pauncefote Treaty) was drafted and approved, but not before McKinley's assassination in 1901. The result under Roosevelt was the [Canal](Panama)(Panama Canal).
### Tariffs and bimetallism
[[Prosperity.jpg|thumb|upright|1900 reelection poster with the theme that McKinley has returned prosperity to America](File:McKinley)]
McKinley had built his reputation in Congress on high tariffs, promising protection for American business and well-paid American factory workers. With the Republicans in control of Congress, Ways and Means chairman Dingley introduced the [Act](Dingley)(Dingley Act) which would raise rates on wool, sugar, and luxury goods. McKinley supported it and it became law.
American negotiators soon concluded a reciprocity treaty with France, and the two nations approached Britain to gauge British enthusiasm for [bimetallism](bimetallism). Prime Minister [Salisbury](Lord)(Robert Gascoyne-Cecil, 3rd Marquess of Salisbury) and his government showed some interest in the idea and told American envoy [O. Wolcott](Edward)(Edward O. Wolcott) that he would be amenable to reopening the mints in [India](British Raj) to silver coinage if the [Executive Council](Viceroy's)(Viceroy's Executive Council) there agreed. News of a possible departure from the gold standard stirred up immediate opposition from its partisans, and misgivings by the Indian administration led Britain to reject the proposal. With the international effort a failure, McKinley turned away from silver coinage and embraced the gold standard. Even without the agreement, agitation for free silver eased as prosperity began to return to the United States and gold from recent strikes in the [Yukon](Klondike Gold Rush) and [Australia](Australian gold rushes) increased the monetary supply even without silver coinage. In the absence of international agreement, McKinley favored legislation to formally affirm the gold standard, but was initially deterred by the silver strength in the Senate. By 1900, with another campaign ahead and good economic conditions, McKinley urged Congress to pass such a law, and signed the [Standard Act](Gold)(Gold Standard Act) on March 14, 1900, using a gold pen to do so.
### Civil rights
[[File:McKinley at Atlanta.jpg|thumb|right|McKinley, (right of center) flanked by Georgia Governor [D. Candler](Allen)(Allen D. Candler) (front row to McKinley's right) and Gen. [Rufus Shafter](William)(William Rufus Shafter), reviewing the Atlanta Peace Jubilee parade, December 15, 1898]]
In the wake of McKinley's election in 1896, black people were hopeful of progress towards equality. McKinley had spoken out against [lynching](lynching) while governor, and most black people who could still vote supported him in 1896. McKinley's priority, however, was in ending [sectionalism](sectionalism), and they were disappointed by his policies and appointments. Although McKinley made some appointments of black people to low-level government posts, and received some praise for that, the appointments were less than they had received under previous Republican administrations.
The McKinley administration's response to racial violence was minimal, causing him to lose black support. When black postmasters at [Georgia](Hogansville,)(Hogansville, Georgia), in 1897, and at [City, South Carolina](Lake)(Lake City, South Carolina), the following year, were assaulted, McKinley issued no statement of condemnation. Although black leaders criticized McKinley for inaction, supporters responded by saying there was little that the president could do to intervene. Critics replied by saying that he could at least publicly condemn such events, as Harrison had done.
When a group of white supremacists violently overthrew the duly elected government of Wilmington, North Carolina, on November 10, 1898, in an event that came to be recognized as the [insurrection of 1898](Wilmington)(Wilmington insurrection of 1898), McKinley refused requests by black leaders to send in federal marshals or federal troops to protect black citizens, and ignored city residents' appeals for help to recover from the widespread destruction of the predominantly black neighborhood of Brooklyn.
According to historian [A. Bacote](Clarence)(Clarence A. Bacote), "Before the Spanish–American War, the Negroes, in spite of some mistakes, regarded McKinley as the best friend they ever had." Under pressure from black leaders, McKinley required the War Department to commission black officers above the rank of lieutenant. McKinley toured the South in late 1898, promoting sectional reconciliation. He visited [Institute](Tuskegee)(Tuskegee Institute) and the famous black educator [T. Washington](Booker)(Booker T. Washington). He also visited Confederate memorials. In his tour of the South, McKinley did not mention the racial tensions or violence. Although the president received a rapturous reception from Southern whites, many blacks, excluded from official welcoming committees, felt alienated by the president's words and actions. Gould concluded regarding race, "McKinley lacked the vision to transcend the biases of his day and to point toward a better future for all Americans".
### 1900 election
[[Administration's Promises Have Been Kept.jpg|thumb|McKinley ran on his record of prosperity and victory in 1900, winning easy re-election over William Jennings Bryan.](File:The)]
Republicans were generally successful in state and local elections around the country in 1899, and McKinley was optimistic about his chances at re-election in 1900. McKinley's popularity in his first term assured him of renomination for a second. The only question about the Republican ticket concerned the vice presidential nomination; McKinley needed a new running mate as Hobart had died in late 1899. McKinley initially favored [Root](Elihu)(Elihu Root), who had succeeded Alger as Secretary of War, but McKinley decided that Root was doing too good a job at the War Department to move him. He considered other prominent candidates, including Allison and [Newton Bliss](Cornelius)(Cornelius Newton Bliss), but none were as popular as the Republican party's rising star, Theodore Roosevelt. After a stint as [Secretary of the Navy](Assistant)(Assistant Secretary of the Navy), Roosevelt had resigned and raised [cavalry regiment](a)(Rough Riders); they fought bravely in Cuba, and Roosevelt returned home covered in glory. Elected governor of New York on a reform platform in 1898, Roosevelt had his eye on the presidency. Many supporters recommended him to McKinley for the second spot on the ticket, and Roosevelt believed it would be an excellent stepping stone to the presidency in 1904. McKinley remained uncommitted in public, but Hanna was firmly opposed to the New York governor. The Ohio senator considered the New Yorker overly impulsive; his stance was undermined by the efforts of [boss](political)(political boss) and New York Senator [C. Platt](Thomas)(Thomas C. Platt), who, disliking Roosevelt's reform agenda, sought to sideline the governor by making him vice president.
When the [convention](Republican)(1900 Republican National Convention) began in [Philadelphia](Philadelphia) that June, no vice presidential candidate had overwhelming support, but Roosevelt had the broadest range of support from around the country. McKinley affirmed that the choice belonged to the convention, not to him. On June 21, McKinley was unanimously renominated and, with Hanna's reluctant acquiescence, Roosevelt was nominated for vice president on the first ballot. The [convention](Democratic)(1900 Democratic National Convention) convened the next month in [City](Kansas)(Kansas City, Missouri) and nominated William Jennings Bryan, setting up a rematch of the 1896 contest.
The candidates were the same, but the issues of the campaign had shifted: free silver was still a question that animated many voters, but the Republicans focused on victory in war and prosperity at home as issues they believed favored their party. Democrats knew the war had been popular, even if the imperialism issue was less sure, so they focused on the issue of trusts and corporate power, painting McKinley as the servant of capital and big business. As in 1896, Bryan embarked on a speaking tour around the country while McKinley stayed at home, this time making only one speech, to accept his nomination. Roosevelt emerged as the campaign's primary speaker and Hanna helped the cause working to settle a [miners strike in Pennsylvania](coal)(Coal strike of 1902#The 1899 and 1900 strikes). Bryan's campaigning failed to excite the voters as it had in 1896, and McKinley never doubted that he would be re-elected. On November 6, 1900, he was proven correct, winning the largest victory for any Republican since 1872. Bryan carried only four states outside the [South](solid)(solid South), and McKinley even won Bryan's home state of Nebraska.
### Second term
[[File:President McKinley Taking the Oath.webm|thumb|McKinley's inauguration, filmed by [Edison](Thomas)(Thomas Edison)]]
Soon after [second inauguration](his)(Second inauguration of William McKinley) on March 4, 1901, William and Ida McKinley undertook a six-week tour of the nation. Traveling mostly by rail, the McKinleys were to travel through the South to the Southwest, and then up the Pacific coast and east again, to conclude with a visit on June 13, 1901, to the [Exposition](Pan-American)(Pan-American Exposition) in [New York](Buffalo,)(Buffalo, New York). However, the first lady fell ill in California, causing her husband to limit his public events and cancel a series of speeches he had planned to give urging trade reciprocity. He also postponed the visit to the fair until September, planning a month in Washington and two in Canton before the Buffalo visit.
## Assassination
[[File:McKinley last photo.jpg|thumb|McKinley entering the [of Music](Temple)(Temple of Music) on September 6, 1901, shortly before the shots were fired]]
[[conception of the shooting of McKinley](File:McKinleyAssassination.jpg|thumb|Artist's)]
Although McKinley enjoyed meeting the public, Cortelyou was concerned with his security because of recent assassinations by anarchists in Europe, such as the assassination of King [I of Italy](Umberto)(Umberto I of Italy) the previous year. Twice he tried to remove a public reception from the president's rescheduled visit to the exposition. McKinley refused, and Cortelyou arranged for additional security for the trip. On September 5, McKinley delivered his address at the fairgrounds before a crowd of 50,000. In his final speech, McKinley urged reciprocity treaties with other nations to assure American manufacturers access to foreign markets. He intended the speech as a keynote to his plans for a second term.
A man in the crowd named [Czolgosz](Leon)(Leon Czolgosz) hoped to assassinate McKinley. He had managed to get close to the presidential podium, but did not fire, uncertain of hitting his target. After hearing a speech by anarchist [Goldman](Emma)(Emma Goldman) in Cleveland, Czolgosz had decided to take action that he believed would advance the cause. After his failure to get close enough on September 5, Czolgosz waited until the next day at the [of Music](Temple)(Temple of Music) on the exposition grounds, where the president was to meet the public. Czolgosz concealed his gun in a handkerchief and, when he reached the head of the line, shot McKinley twice in the abdomen at close range.
McKinley urged his aides to break the news gently to Ida, and to call off the mob that had set upon Czolgosz, a request that may have saved his assassin's life. McKinley was taken to the exposition aid station, where the doctor was unable to locate the second bullet. Although a primitive [machine](X-ray)(X-ray machine) was being exhibited on the exposition grounds, it was not used. McKinley was taken to the home of [G. Milburn](John)(John G. Milburn), president of the Pan-American Exposition Company.
In the days after the shooting, McKinley appeared to improve and doctors issued increasingly optimistic bulletins. Members of the Cabinet, who had rushed to Buffalo on hearing the news, dispersed, and Vice President Roosevelt departed on a camping trip to the [Adirondacks](Adirondacks).
Leech wrote:
}}
On the morning of September 13, McKinley's condition deteriorated. Specialists were summoned; although at first some doctors hoped that McKinley might survive with a weakened heart, by afternoon they knew that the case was hopeless. Unknown to the doctors, [gangrene](gangrene) was growing on the walls of McKinley's stomach and slowly poisoning his blood. McKinley drifted in and out of consciousness all day, but when awake he was a model patient. By evening, McKinley too knew he was dying, "It is useless, gentlemen. I think we ought to have prayer." Relatives and friends gathered around the death bed. The first lady sobbed over him, saying, "I want to go, too. I want to go, too." Her husband replied, "We are all going, we are all going. God's will be done, not ours", and with final strength put an arm around her. He may also have sung part of his favorite hymn, "[My God, to Thee](Nearer,)(Nearer, My God, to Thee)", although other accounts have the first lady singing it softly to him.
At 2:15 a.m. on September 14, 1901, McKinley died. Theodore Roosevelt rushed back to Buffalo and took the oath of office as president. Czolgosz, put on trial for murder nine days after McKinley's death, was found guilty, sentenced to death on September 26 and executed by [chair](electric)(electric chair) on October 29, 1901.
## Funeral, memorials, and legacy
### Funeral and resting place
According to Gould, "The nation experienced a wave of genuine grief at the news of McKinley's passing." The stock market, faced with sudden uncertainty, suffered a steep decline that went nearly unnoticed in the mourning. The nation focused its attention on the casket that first lay in the [Room](East)(East Room) of the Executive Mansion and then laid [state](in)(Lying in state#United States) in the Capitol before being transported to Canton by train. Approximately 100,000 people passed by the open casket in the [Rotunda](Capitol)(Capitol Rotunda), many having waited hours in the rain. In Canton, an equal number did the same at the Stark County Courthouse on September 18. The following day, a funeral service was held at the First Methodist Church. The casket was next sealed and taken to the McKinley house, where relatives paid their final respects. It was then transported to the receiving vault at [Lawn Cemetery](West)(West Lawn Cemetery) in Canton to await the construction of the memorial to McKinley already being planned.
There was a widespread expectation that Ida McKinley would not long survive her husband; one family friend stated, as William McKinley lay dying, that they should be prepared for a double funeral. However, this did not occur, and the former first lady accompanied her husband on the funeral train. Leech noted "the circuitous journey was a cruel ordeal for the woman who huddled in a compartment of the funeral train, praying that the Lord would take her with her Dearest Love." She was thought too weak to attend the services in Washington or Canton, although she listened at the door to the service for her husband in her house on North Market Street. She remained in Canton for the remainder of her life, setting up a shrine in her house and often visiting the receiving vault, until her death at age 59 on May 26, 1907. She died only months before the completion of [large marble monument](the)(McKinley National Memorial) to her husband in Canton, which was dedicated by President Roosevelt on September 30, 1907. William and Ida McKinley are interred there with their daughters atop a hillside overlooking the city of Canton.
File:President McKinley's funeral, 1901. 4134s1.webmsd.webm|President McKinley's funeral, 1901, part 1
File:President McKinley's funeral, 1901. 4134s2.webmsd.webm|President McKinley's funeral, 1901, part 2
File:President McKinley's funeral, 1901. 4134s3.webmsd.webm|President McKinley's funeral, 1901, part 3
### Other memorials
[[File:McKinley Birthplace Memorial uncirculated dollar (common obverse).jpg|thumb|The [Birthplace Memorial gold dollar](McKinley)(McKinley Birthplace Memorial gold dollar) was minted in 1916 and 1917]]
In addition to the Canton site, many other memorials honor McKinley. The [McKinley Monument](William)(William McKinley Monument) stands in front of the [Statehouse](Ohio)(Ohio Statehouse) in [Columbus](Columbus, Ohio) and a large marble statue of McKinley is situated at [birthplace](his)(National McKinley Birthplace Memorial) in [Niles](Niles, Ohio). Twenty Ohio schools bear McKinley's name, and several more schools in the United States are named [School](McKinley)(McKinley School (disambiguation)). Nearly a million dollars was pledged by contributors or allocated from public funds for the construction of McKinley memorials in the year after his death. McKinley biographer [Phillips](Kevin)(Kevin Phillips (political commentator)) suggests that the significant number of major memorials to McKinley in Ohio reflect the expectation among Ohioans in the years after McKinley's death that he would be ranked among the great presidents.
Statues bearing McKinley's image may be found in more than a dozen states, and his name has been bestowed on streets, civic organizations and libraries. In 1896, a gold prospector gave McKinley's name to [Denali](Denali), the tallest mountain in North America at . The Alaska Board of Geographic Names reverted the name of the mountain to Denali, its local appellation, in 1975. The [of the Interior](Department)(Department of the Interior) followed suit in August 2015 as a part of a visit to Alaska by President [Obama](Barack)(Barack Obama). Similarly, [National Park](Denali)(Denali National Park) was known as Mount McKinley National Park until December 2, 1980, when it was changed by legislation signed by President [Carter](Jimmy)(Jimmy Carter).
### Legacy and historical image
[[File:Harriet Anderson Stubbs Murphy - William McKinley - Google Art Project.jpg|thumb|The official Presidential portrait of William McKinley, by [Anderson Stubbs Murphy](Harriet)(Harriet Anderson Stubbs Murphy)]]
McKinley's biographer H. Wayne Morgan remarks that McKinley died the most beloved president in history. However, the young, enthusiastic Roosevelt quickly captured public attention. The new president made little effort to secure the trade reciprocity that McKinley had intended to negotiate with other nations. Controversy and public interest surrounded Roosevelt throughout the seven and a half years of his presidency as memories of McKinley faded; by 1920, according to Gould, McKinley's administration was deemed no more than "a mediocre prelude to the vigor and energy of Theodore Roosevelt's." Beginning in the 1950s, McKinley received more favorable evaluations; nevertheless, in surveys ranking American presidents, he has generally been placed near the middle, often trailing contemporaries such as Hayes and Cleveland. Morgan suggests that this relatively low ranking is the result of a perception among historians that while many decisions during McKinley's presidency profoundly affected the nation's future, he more followed public opinion than led it, and that McKinley's standing has suffered from altered public expectations of the presidency.
There has been broad agreement among historians that McKinley's election occurred at a time of a transition between two political eras, dubbed the [Third](Third Party System) and [Party System](Fourth)(Fourth Party System)s. Kenneth F. Warren emphasizes the national commitment to a pro-business, industrial, and modernizing program represented by McKinley. Historian Daniel P. Klinghard argued that McKinley's personal control of the 1896 campaign gave him the opportunity to reshape the presidency—rather than simply follow the party platform—by representing himself as the voice of the people. Republican [Rove](Karl)(Karl Rove) exalted McKinley as the model for a sweeping political realignment behind George W. Bush in the 2000s—a realignment that did not happen. Historian Michael J. Korzi argued in 2005 that while it is tempting to see McKinley as the key figure in the transition from congressional domination of government to the modern, powerful president, this change was an incremental process through the late 19th and early 20th centuries.
Phillips writes that McKinley's low rating is undeserved, and that he should be ranked just after the great presidents such as Washington and Lincoln. He pointed to McKinley's success at building an electoral coalition that kept the Republicans mostly in power for a generation. Phillips believes that part of McKinley's legacy is the men whom he included in his administration who dominated the Republican Party for a quarter century after his death. These officials included Cortelyou, who served in three Cabinet positions under Roosevelt, and Dawes, who became vice president under [Coolidge](Calvin Coolidge). Other McKinley appointees who later became major figures include Day, whom Roosevelt elevated to the [Court](Supreme)(Supreme Court of the United States) where he remained nearly 20 years, and [Howard Taft](William)(William Howard Taft), whom McKinley had made [of the Philippines](Governor-General)(Governor-General of the Philippines) and who succeeded Roosevelt as president. After the assassination, the present [States Secret Service](United)(United States Secret Service) came into existence when the [Congress](United States Congress) deemed it necessary that presidential protection be part of its duties.
A controversial aspect of McKinley's presidency is territorial expansion and the question of imperialism; with the exception of the Philippines, granted independence in 1946, the United States retains the territories taken under McKinley. The territorial expansion of 1898 is often seen by historians as the beginning of [empire](American)(American imperialism). Morgan sees that historical discussion as a subset of the debate over the rise of America as a world power; he expects the debate over McKinley's actions to continue indefinitely without resolution, and notes that however one judges McKinley's actions in American expansion, one of his motivations was to change the lives of Filipinos and Cubans for the better.
Morgan alludes to the rise of interest in McKinley as part of the debate over the more assertive American foreign policy of recent decades:
}}
File:McKinley Grave.JPG|McKinley's tomb in [Ohio](Canton,)(Canton, Ohio)
File:McKinley Memorial Ohio Statehouse.JPG|*[McKinley Monument](William)(William McKinley Monument)* by [MacNeil](Hermon)(Hermon MacNeil) in front of the [Statehouse](Ohio)(Ohio Statehouse), Columbus
File:McKinley Monument, Buffalo, NY - IMG 3693.JPG|*[Monument](McKinley)(McKinley Monument)* by [Phimister Proctor](Alexander)(Alexander Phimister Proctor) in front of [City Hall](Buffalo)(Buffalo City Hall), Buffalo
File:500 USD note; series of 1934; obverse.jpg|McKinley on the [bill]($500)(Large denominations of United States currency)
File:McKinley1904-7.jpg|Louisiana Purchase Exposition stamp (1904) honoring McKinley, who had signed a bill authorizing a subsidy for that upcoming event
File:McKinley Monument, Toledo, O. - DPLA - a6478c0228d574a7add483ba5b86bfb8 (page 1) (cropped).jpg|McKinley Monument in front of Lucas County Courthouse, Toledo
## See also
* *[at Home, Canton, Ohio](McKinley)(McKinley at Home, Canton, Ohio)* (1896 film)
## Explanatory notes
; .
}}
.
}}
}}
## Citations
## General bibliography
### Books
*
| url-access = registration
| url = https://archive.org/details/majormckinleywil0000arms
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*
| url = https://archive.org/details/righteouscauseli00cher
}}
* Dewey, Davis R. (1907). [*National Problems: 1880–1897*](https://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=9950113)
*
| url-access = registration
| url = https://archive.org/details/presidencyofwill0000goul
}}
*
}}
*
}}
*
}}
*
| url = https://archive.org/details/winningofmidwest0000jens
}}
*
}}
*
| url = https://archive.org/details/godlyherolifeo00kazi
}}
*
}} popular history.
*
| title-link = The Path Between the Seas: The Creation of the Panama Canal 1870–1914
}}
*
}} popular history
* popular history
*
| url = https://archive.org/details/presidentassassi00mill
}}
*
}}
* Morgan, H. Wayne (1969). *From Hayes to McKinley: National Party Politics, 1877–1896*, scholarly
* Oberholtzer, Ellis Paxson (1937). *A History of the United States since the Civil War*. Volume V: *1888–1901*. Macmillan. 791 pp.
*
}} outdated but detailed
*
| url = https://archive.org/details/williammckinley00phil
}} emphasis on voters
*
}}
*
|place=New York
|publisher=[& Schuster](Simon)(Simon & Schuster)
|year=2015
|isbn=9781476752952
}} emphasis on voters
*
}}
### Primary sources
*
}}
*
### Articles
*
}}
*
| doi = 10.14713/njh.v125i1.1019
| doi-access = free
}}
* Gowing, Peter G. "The American Mood and the Philippines, 1898–1899." in *South East Asia* (Routledge, 2021) pp. 376-390.
*
*
| doi = 10.1111/j.1741-5705.2005.00274.x
}}
* Klotz, Robert. "The 1891 McKinley-Campbell Ohio Gubernatorial Debate and the Draw That Still Splits America." *Ohio History* 127.2 (2020): 32-46. [excerpt](https://muse.jhu.edu/pub/14/article/786317/summary)
*
}}
*
}}
* Murphey, Dwight D. "President McKinley: Architect of the American Century." *Journal of Social, Political, and Economic Studies* 44.1/2 (2019): 174-181.
*
}}
*
}}
*
| doi = 10.1017/S1537781400002644
| s2cid = 162552066
}}
*
}}
#### Online
*
|url-status = dead
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120225122235/http://www.lahistory.org/site20.php
|archive-date = February 25, 2012
|df = mdy-all
}}
*
}}
### PhD dissertations
Full text available online through academic libraries.
* Brady, David William. "A Congressional Response to a Stress Situation: Party Voting in the Mckinley Era" (The University of Iowa; Proquest Dissertations Publishing, 1970. 7023867).
* Damiani, Brian Paul. "Advocates of Empire: William Mckinley, The Senate and American Expansion, 1898-1899" (University of Delaware; Proquest Dissertations Publishing, 1978. 7816908).
* Labinski, Nicholas Winter. "A Transitional Moment: William McKinley's Foreign Policy Rhetoric and America's Outward Turn" (University of Kansas; ProQuest Dissertations Publishing, 2017. 10687965).
* Matlosz, Gregory. "The Political Symbiosis of Rutherford B. Hayes & William McKinley" (Drew University; ProQuest Dissertations Publishing, 2015. 3700842).
* Ofek, Hillel. "A Just Peace: Grover Cleveland, William McKinley, and the Moral Basis of American Foreign Policy" (University of Texas at Austin; ProQuest Dissertations Publishing, 2018. 28166006).
* Waksmundski, John. "Mckinley Politics and the Changing Attitudes Toward American Labor, 1870-1900" (The Ohio State University; Proquest Dissertations Publishing, 1972. 7311599).
## External links
### Official
* [William McKinley Presidential Library and Museum](http://www.mckinleymuseum.org/)
* [White House biography](https://www.whitehouse.gov/about-the-white-house/presidents/william-mckinley/)
### Speeches
* [Text of a number of McKinley speeches](http://millercenter.org/president/speeches#mckinley), [Center of Public Affairs](Miller)(Miller Center of Public Affairs)
### Media coverage
*
### Other
* [William McKinley: A Resource Guide](https://www.loc.gov/rr/program/bib/presidents/mckinley/index.html), [of Congress](Library)(Library of Congress)
* [Extensive essays on William McKinley](https://web.archive.org/web/20120426175456/http://millercenter.org/index.php/academic/americanpresident/mckinley) and shorter essays on each member of his cabinet and First Lady from the [Center of Public Affairs](Miller)(Miller Center of Public Affairs)
* [McKinley Assassination Ink](http://mckinleydeath.com/), a documentary history of William McKinley's assassination
* ["Life Portrait of William McKinley"](http://www.c-span.org/video/?151617-1/life-portrait-william-mckinley), from [C-SPAN](C-SPAN)'s *[Presidents: Life Portraits](American)(American Presidents: Life Portraits)*, August 23, 1999
*
*
*
* [William McKinley Personal Manuscripts](http://www.shapell.org/Collection/Presidents/McKinley-William)
*
}}
}}
[ ](Category:William McKinley)
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A Midsummer Night's Dream
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# A Midsummer Night's Dream
*Revision ID: 1160233741 | Timestamp: 2023-06-15T06:50:15Z*
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'''''A Midsummer Night's Dream''''' is a [comedy](Comedy (drama)) written by [Shakespeare](William)(William Shakespeare) in about 1595 or 1596. The play is set in [Athens](Athens), and consists of several subplots that revolve around the marriage of [Theseus](Theseus) and [Hippolyta](Hippolyta). One subplot involves a conflict among four Athenian lovers. Another follows a group of six amateur actors rehearsing the play which they are to perform before the wedding. Both groups find themselves in a forest inhabited by fairies who manipulate the humans and are engaged in their own domestic intrigue. The play is one of Shakespeare's most popular and is widely performed.
## Characters
* [Theseus](Theseus)—Duke of Athens
* [Hippolyta](Hippolyta)—Queen of the [Amazons](Amazons)
* [Egeus](Egeus)—father of Hermia
* [Hermia](Hermia)—daughter of Egeus, in love with Lysander
* [Lysander](Lysander (A Midsummer Night's Dream))—in love with Hermia
* [Demetrius](Demetrius (Shakespeare))—suitor to Hermia
* [Helena](Helena (A Midsummer Night's Dream))—in love with Demetrius
* [Philostrate](Philostrate)—[of the Revels](Master)(Master of the Revels)
* [Quince](Peter)(Peter Quince)—a [carpenter](carpenter)
* [Bottom](Nick)(Nick Bottom)—a [weaver](Weaving)
* [Flute](Francis)(Francis Flute)—a [bellows](bellows)-mender
* [Snout](Tom)(Tom Snout)—a [tinker](tinker)
* [Snug](Snug (A Midsummer Night's Dream))—a [joiner](joiner)
* [Starveling](Robin)(Robin Starveling)—a [tailor](tailor)
* [Oberon](Oberon)—King of the Fairies
* [Titania](Titania (A Midsummer Night's Dream))—Queen of the Fairies
* ["Puck" Goodfellow](Robin)(Puck (A Midsummer Night's Dream))—a mischievous [sprite](Sprite (folklore)) with magical powers
* Peaseblossom, Cobweb, Moth and Mustardseed—fairy servants to Titania
* Indian changeling—a [ward](Ward (law)) of Titania
## Plot
[[File:HermiaandHelena.jpg|thumb|*Hermia and Helena* by [Allston](Washington)(Washington Allston), 1818|298x298px]]
The play consists of five interconnecting plots, connected by a celebration of the wedding of Duke [Theseus](Theseus) of [Athens](Athens) and the [Amazon](Amazons) queen, [Hippolyta](Hippolyta), which are set simultaneously in the woodland and in the realm of [Fairy](Fairy)land, under the light of the moon.
### Act 1
#### Act 1 Scene 1
The play opens with [Theseus](Theseus) and [Hippolyta](Hippolyta) who are four days away from their wedding. Theseus is not happy about how long he has to wait while Hippolyta thinks it will pass by like a dream. Theseus is confronted by [Egeus](Egeus) and his daughter [Hermia](Hermia), who is in love with Lysander, resistant to her father's demand that she marry [Demetrius](Demetrius (Shakespeare)), whom he has arranged for her to marry. Enraged, Egeus invokes an ancient Athenian [law](law) before Duke Theseus, whereby a daughter needs to marry a suitor chosen by her father, or else face death. Theseus offers her another choice: lifelong [chastity](chastity) as a [nun](nun) worshipping the goddess [Diana](Diana (mythology)), but the two lovers both deny his choice and make a secret plan to escape into the forest for Lysander's aunt's house, in order to run away from Theseus. Hermia tells their plans to [Helena](Helena (A Midsummer Night's Dream)), her best friend, who pines [unrequitedly](Unrequited love) for Demetrius, who broke up with her to be with Hermia. Desperate to reclaim Demetrius's love, Helena tells Demetrius about the plan and he follows them in hopes of finding Hermia.
#### Act 1 Scene 2
The mechanicals, [Quince](Peter)(Peter Quince) and fellow players [Bottom](Nick)(Nick Bottom), [Flute](Francis)(Francis Flute), [Starveling](Robin)(Robin Starveling), [Snout](Tom)(Tom Snout) and [Snug](Snug (A Midsummer Night's Dream)) plan to put on a play for the wedding of the Duke and the Queen, "the most lamentable comedy and most cruel death of [and Thisbe](Pyramus)(Pyramus and Thisbe)". Quince reads the names of characters and bestows them on the players. Nick Bottom, who is playing the main role of Pyramus, is over-enthusiastic and wants to dominate others by suggesting himself for the characters of Thisbe, the Lion, and Pyramus at the same time. Quince insists that Bottom can only play the role of Pyramus. Bottom would also rather be a tyrant and recites some lines of [Ercles](Hercules). Bottom is told by Quince that he would do the Lion so terribly as to frighten the duchess and ladies enough for the Duke and Lords to have the players [hanged](Hanging). Snug remarks that he needs the Lion's part because he is "slow of study". Quince assures Snug that the role of the lion is "nothing but roaring." Quince then ends the meeting telling his actors "at the Duke's oak we meet".
### Act 2
#### Act 2 Scene 1
[[File:Sir Joseph Noel Paton - The Quarrel of Oberon and Titania - Google Art Project 2.jpg|thumb|*The Quarrel of Oberon and Titania* by [Noel Paton](Joseph)(Joseph Noel Paton), 1849|250x250px]]
In a parallel plot line, [Oberon](Oberon), king of the fairies, and [Titania](Titania (A Midsummer Night's Dream)), his queen, have come to the forest outside Athens. Titania tells Oberon that she plans to stay there until she has attended Theseus and Hippolyta's wedding. Oberon and Titania are estranged because Titania refuses to give her Indian [changeling](changeling) to Oberon for use as his "knight" or "henchman", since the child's mother was one of Titania's worshippers. Oberon seeks to punish Titania's disobedience. He calls upon Robin "[Puck](Puck (Shakespeare))" Goodfellow, his "shrewd and knavish sprite", to help him concoct a magical juice derived from a flower called "[love-in-idleness](love-in-idleness)", which turns from white to purple when struck by Cupid's arrow. When the concoction is applied to the eyelids of a sleeping person, that person, upon waking, falls in love with the first living thing they perceive. He instructs Puck to retrieve the flower with the hope that he might make Titania fall in love with an animal of the forest and thereby shame her into giving up the little Indian boy. He says, "And ere I take this charm from off her sight, / As I can take it with another herb, / I'll make her render up her page to me." Helena and Demetrius enter, with she continuously making advances towards Demetrius, promising to love him more than Hermia. However, he rebuffs her with cruel insults. Observing this, Oberon orders Puck to spread some of the magical juice from the flower on the eyelids of the young Athenian man.
#### Act 2 Scene 2
As Titania is lulled to sleep by her fairies, Oberon sneaks up on her and places the flower juice on her eyes, exiting the stage afterwards. Lysander and Hermia enter, lost and exhausted from the journey. Hermia rejects Lysander’s advances to sleep together, and the two lie down on different corners. Puck enters and mistakes Lysander for Demetrius, not having actually seen either before, and administers the juice to the sleeping Lysander. Helena, coming across him, wakes him while attempting to determine whether he is dead or asleep. Upon this happening, Lysander immediately falls in love with Helena. Helena, thinking Lysander is mocking her for losing Demetrius, runs away with Lysander following her. When Hermia wakes up after dreaming a snake ate her heart, she sees that Lysander is gone and goes out in the woods to find him.
### Act 3
#### Act 3 Scene 1
[[File:My Mistress with a Monster is in Love.jpg|thumb|A drawing of Puck, Titania and Bottom in ''A Midsummer Night's Dream'' from Act III, Scene II by [Buchel](Charles)(Charles Buchel), 1905|349x349px]]
Meanwhile, Quince and his band of five labourers ("rude [mechanicals](Mechanical (character))", as they are described by Puck) have arranged to perform their play about [and Thisbe](Pyramus)(Pyramus and Thisbe) for Theseus' wedding and venture into the forest, near Titania's [bower](Dwelling), for their rehearsal. Quince leads the actors in their rehearsal of the play. Bottom is spotted by Puck, who (taking his name to be another word for a [jackass](Donkey)) transforms his head into that of a [donkey](donkey). When Bottom returns for his next lines, the other workmen run screaming in terror: They claim that they are haunted, much to Bottom's confusion. Determined to await his friends, he begins to sing to himself. Titania, having received the love-potion, is awakened by Bottom's singing and immediately falls in love with him. (In the words of the play, "Titania waked, and straightway loved an ass.") She lavishes him with the attention of her and her fairies, and while she is in this state of devotion, Oberon takes the [changeling](changeling) boy.
#### Act 3 Scene 2
Oberon sees Demetrius still following Hermia. When Demetrius goes to sleep, Oberon condemns Puck's mistake and sends him to get Helena while he charms Demetrius' eyes. Upon waking up, he sees Lysander and Helena and instantly falls for her. Now, under the spell, the two men have fallen for her. However, Helena is convinced that her two suitors are mocking her, as neither loved her originally. Hermia finds Lysander and asks why he left her, but Lysander claims he never loved Hermia, instead loving Helena. This soon turns into a quarrel between the two ladies, with Helena chiding Hermia for joining in the mockery session, followed by the latter furiously charging at her for stealing her true love’s heart and blaming her for the supposed ‘mockery’. Oberon and Puck decide that they must resolve this conflict, and by the morning, none of them will have any memory of what happened, as if it were a dream. Oberon arranges everything so Helena, Hermia, Demetrius and Lysander will all believe they have been dreaming when they awaken. Puck distracts Lysander and Demetrius from fighting over Helena's love by mimicking their voices and leading them apart. Eventually, all four find themselves separately falling asleep in the glade. Once they fall asleep, Puck administers the love potion to Lysander again, returning his love to Hermia again, and cast another spell over the four Athenian lovers, claiming all will be well in the morning. Once they awaken, the lovers assume that whatever happened was a dream and not reality.
### Act 4
#### Act 4 Scene 1
Having achieved his goals, Oberon releases Titania and orders Puck to remove the donkey's head from Bottom. The fairies then disappear, and Theseus and Hippolyta arrive on the scene, during an early morning hunt. They find the lovers still sleeping in the glade. They wake up the lovers and, since Demetrius no longer loves Hermia, Theseus over-rules Egeus's demands and arranges a group wedding. The lovers at first believe they are still in a dream and cannot recall what has happened. The lovers decide that the night's events must have been a dream, as they walk back to Athens.
#### Act 4 Scene 2
After they exit, Bottom awakes, and he too decides that he must have experienced a dream "past the wit of man". At Quince's house, he and his team of actors worry that Bottom has gone missing. Quince laments that Bottom is the only man who can take on the lead role of Pyramus. Bottom returns, and the actors get ready to put on "Pyramus and Thisbe".
### Act 5
The final scene in the play, Theseus, Hippolyta and the lovers watch the six workmen perform *Pyramus and Thisbe* in Athens. The mechanicals are so terrible at playing their roles that the guests laugh as if it were meant to be a comedy, and everyone retires to bed. Afterwards, Oberon, Titania, Puck, and other fairies enter, and bless the house and its occupants with good fortune. After all the other characters leave, Puck "restores amends" and suggests that what the [audience](audience) experienced might just be a dream.
## Sources
[[File:Titania and Bottom Henry Fuseli (1741–1825) Tate.jpg|thumb|*[and Bottom](Titania)(Titania and Bottom)*, [Fuseli](Henry)(Henry Fuseli) (c.1790)]]
It is unknown exactly when ''A Midsummer Night's Dream'' was written or first performed, but on the basis of topical references and an allusion to [Spenser](Edmund)(Edmund Spenser)'s *[Epithalamion](Epithalamion (poem))*, it is usually dated 1595 or early 1596. Some have theorised that the play might have been written for an aristocratic wedding (for example that of [Carey, Lady Berkeley](Elizabeth)(Elizabeth Carey, Lady Berkeley)), while others suggest that it was written for the [Queen](Elizabeth I of England) to celebrate the [day](feast)(Midsummer Day) of [John](St.)(John the Apostle), but no evidence exists to support this theory. In any case, it would have been performed at [Theatre](The)(The Theatre) and, later, [Globe](The)(Globe Theater). Though it is not a translation or adaptation of an earlier work, various sources such as [Ovid](Ovid)'s *[Metamorphoses](Metamorphoses)* and [Chaucer](Chaucer)'s "[Knight's Tale](The)(The Knight's Tale)" served as inspiration. [Aristophanes](Aristophanes)' classical Greek comedy *[Birds](The)(The Birds (play))* (also set in the countryside near Athens) has been proposed as a source due to the fact that both Procne and Titania are awakened by male characters (Hoopoe and Bottom the Weaver) who have animal heads and who sing two-stanza songs about birds. According to John Twyning, the play's plot of four lovers undergoing a trial in the woods was intended as a "riff" on *[Busant](Der)(Der Busant)*, a [High German](Middle)(Middle High German) poem.
According to Dorothea Kehler, the writing period can be placed between 1594 and 1596, which means that Shakespeare had probably already completed *[and Juliet](Romeo)(Romeo and Juliet)* and was still in contemplation of *[Merchant of Venice](The)(The Merchant of Venice)*. The play belongs to the author's early-middle period, a time when Shakespeare devoted primary attention to the [lyricism](lyricism) of his works.
## Date and text
[[Quarto Printing of A Midsummer Night's Dream.jpg|thumb|left|The title page from the first quarto, printed in 1600](File:First)]
The play was entered into the [Register](Stationers' Register) of the [Company](Stationers')(Worshipful Company of Stationers and Newspaper Makers) on 8 October 1600 by the bookseller [Fisher](Thomas)(Thomas Fisher (printer)), who published the [quarto](first)(first quarto) edition later that year. A [quarto](second)(second quarto) was printed in 1619 by [Jaggard](William)(William Jaggard), as part of his so-called [Folio](False)(False Folio). The play next appeared in print in the [Folio](First)(First Folio) of 1623. The title page of [Q1](first quarto) states that the play was "sundry times publickely acted" prior to 1600. The first performance known with certainty occurred at [Court](Hampton)(Hampton Court) on 1 January 1604, as a prelude to *[Masque of Indian and China Knights](The)(The Masque of Indian and China Knights)*. Leeds Barroll, *Anna of Denmark, Queen of England: A Cultural Biography* (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2001), p. 83.
## Themes and motifs
### Lovers' bliss
In [Greece](Ancient)(Ancient Greece), long before the creation of the Christian celebrations of [John's Day](St.)(Midsummer), the summer solstice was marked by [Adonia](Adonia), a festival to mourn the death of [Adonis](Adonis), the devoted mortal lover of the goddess [Aphrodite](Aphrodite). According to [Ovid](Ovid)'s *[Metamorphoses](Metamorphoses)*, Aphrodite took the orphaned infant Adonis to the [underworld](underworld) to be raised by [Persephone](Persephone). He grew to be a beautiful young man, and when Aphrodite returned to retrieve him, Persephone did not want to let him go. Zeus settled the dispute by giving Adonis one-third of the year with Persephone, one-third of the year with Aphrodite, and the remaining third where he chose. Adonis chose to spend two-thirds of the year with his paramour, Aphrodite. He bled to death in his lover's arms after being gored by a boar. Mythology has various stories attributing the colour of certain flowers to staining by the blood of Adonis or Aphrodite.
The story of Venus and Adonis was well known to the Elizabethans and inspired many works, including Shakespeare's own hugely popular narrative poem, *[and Adonis](Venus)(Venus and Adonis (Shakespeare poem))*, written while London's theatres were closed because of plague. It was published in 1593.*[and Adonis](Venus)(Venus and Adonis (Shakespeare poem))*
The wedding of Theseus and Hippolyta and the mistaken and waylaid lovers, Titania and Bottom, even the erstwhile acting troupe, model various aspects (and forms) of love.
### Carnivalesque
Both David Wiles of the [of London](University)(University of London) and [Bloom](Harold)(Harold Bloom) of [University](Yale)(Yale University) have strongly endorsed the reading of this play under the themes of [Carnivalesque](Carnivalesque), [Bacchanalia](Bacchanalia), and [Saturnalia](Saturnalia). Writing in 1998, David Wiles stated that: "The starting point for my own analysis will be the proposition that although we encounter ''A Midsummer Night's Dream'' as a text, it was historically part of an aristocratic carnival. It was written for a wedding, and part of the festive structure of the wedding night. The audience who saw the play in the public theatre in the months that followed became vicarious participants in an aristocratic festival from which they were physically excluded. My purpose will be to demonstrate how closely the play is integrated with a historically specific upper-class celebration." Wiles argued in 1993 that the play was written to celebrate the Carey-Berkeley wedding. The date of the wedding was fixed to coincide with a conjunction of Venus and the new moon, highly propitious for conceiving an heir.Wiles 1993
### Love
[[File:Simmons-Hermia and Lysander. A Midsummer Night's Dream.jpg|thumb|*Hermia and Lysander* by [Simmons](John)(John Simmons (painter)) (1870)]]
[Bevington](David)(David Bevington) argues that the play represents the dark side of love. He writes that the fairies make light of love by mistaking the lovers and by applying a love potion to Queen Titania's eyes, forcing her to fall in love with an ass. In the forest, both couples are beset by problems. Hermia and Lysander are both met by Puck, who provides some comic relief in the play by confounding the four lovers in the forest. However, the play also alludes to serious themes. At the end of the play, Hippolyta and Theseus, happily married, watch the play about the unfortunate lovers, Pyramus and Thisbe, and are able to enjoy and laugh at it. Helena and Demetrius are both oblivious to the dark side of their love, totally unaware of what may have come of the events in the forest.
### Problem with time
There is a dispute over the scenario of the play as it is cited at first by Theseus that "four happy days bring in another moon".''A Midsummer Night's Dream*, I.I.2–3. The wood episode then takes place at a night of no Moon, but Lysander asserts that there will be so much light in the very night they will escape that dew on the grass will be shining like liquid pearls.*A Midsummer Night's Dream*, I.I.208–13. Also, in the next scene, Quince states that they will rehearse in moonlight,*A Midsummer Night's Dream'', I.II.90–9. which creates a real confusion. It is possible that the Moon set during the night allowing Lysander to escape in the moonlight and for the actors to rehearse, then for the wood episode to occur without moonlight. Theseus's statement can also be interpreted to mean "four days until the next month". Another possibility is that, since each month there are roughly four consecutive nights that the Moon is not seen due to its closeness to the Sun in the sky (the two nights before the moment of new moon, followed by the two following it), it may in this fashion indicate a liminal "dark of the moon" period full of magical possibilities. This is further supported by Hippolyta's opening lines exclaiming "And then the moon, like to a silver bow New-bent in heaven, shall behold the night of our solemnities."; the thin crescent-shaped moon being the hallmark of the new moon's return to the skies each month. The play also intertwines the Midsummer Eve of the title with [Day](May)(May Day), furthering the idea of a confusion of time and the seasons. This is evidenced by Theseus commenting on some slumbering youths, that they "observe The rite of May".''A Midsummer Night's Dream'', IV.I.131–5.
### Loss of individual identity
[[File:Edwin Landseer - Scene from A Midsummer Night's Dream. Titania and Bottom - Google Art Project.jpg|thumb|left|[Landseer](Edwin)(Edwin Landseer), ''[from A Midsummer Night's Dream. Titania and Bottom](Scene)(Scene from A Midsummer Night's Dream. Titania and Bottom)'' (1848)]]
Maurice Hunt, former Chair of the English Department at [University](Baylor)(Baylor University), writes of the blurring of the identities of fantasy and reality in the play that make possible "that pleasing, narcotic dreaminess associated with the fairies of the play". By emphasising this theme, even in the setting of the play, Shakespeare prepares the reader's mind to accept the fantastic reality of the fairy world and its happenings. This also seems to be the axis around which the plot conflicts in the play occur. Hunt suggests that it is the breaking down of individual identities that leads to the central conflict in the story. It is the brawl between Oberon and Titania, based on a lack of recognition for the other in the relationship, that drives the rest of the drama in the story and makes it dangerous for any of the other lovers to come together due to the disturbance of Nature caused by a fairy dispute. Similarly, this failure to identify and to distinguish is what leads Puck to mistake one set of lovers for another in the forest, placing the flower's juice on Lysander's eyes instead of Demetrius'.
Victor Kiernan, a Marxist scholar and historian, writes that it is for the greater sake of love that this loss of identity takes place and that individual characters are made to suffer accordingly: "It was the more extravagant cult of love that struck sensible people as irrational, and likely to have dubious effects on its acolytes." He believes that identities in the play are not so much lost as they are blended together to create a type of haze through which distinction becomes nearly impossible. It is driven by a desire for new and more practical ties between characters as a means of coping with the strange world within the forest, even in relationships as diverse and seemingly unrealistic as the brief love between Titania and Bottom: "It was the tidal force of this social need that lent energy to relationships."
The aesthetics scholar David Marshall draws out this theme even further by noting that the loss of identity reaches its fullness in the description of the mechanicals and their assumption of other identities. In describing the occupations of the acting troupe, he writes "Two construct or put together, two mend and repair, one weaves and one sews. All join together what is apart or mend what has been rent, broken, or sundered." In Marshall's opinion, this loss of individual identity not only blurs specificities, it creates new identities found in community, which Marshall points out may lead to some understanding of Shakespeare's opinions on love and marriage. Further, the mechanicals understand this theme as they take on their individual parts for a corporate performance of Pyramus and Thisbe. Marshall remarks that "To be an actor is to double and divide oneself, to discover oneself in two parts: both oneself and not oneself, both the part and not the part." He claims that the mechanicals understand this and that each character, particularly among the lovers, has a sense of laying down individual identity for the greater benefit of the group or pairing. It seems that a desire to lose one's individuality and find identity in the love of another is what quietly moves the events of ''A Midsummer Night's Dream''. As the primary sense of motivation, this desire is reflected even in the scenery depictions and the story's overall mood.
### Ambiguous sexuality
[[Heinrich Füssli - The Awakening of the Fairy Queen Titania, c1775-1790 - Kunstmuseum Winterthur.jpg|thumb|left|*The Awakening of the Fairy Queen Titania*](File:Johann)]
In his essay "Preposterous Pleasures: Queer Theories and ''A Midsummer Night's Dream",* Douglas E. Green explores possible interpretations of alternative sexuality that he finds within the text of the play, in juxtaposition to the proscribed social mores of the culture at the time the play was written. He writes that his essay "does not (seek to) rewrite *A Midsummer Night's Dream'' as a gay play but rather explores some of its 'homoerotic significations' ... moments of 'queer' disruption and eruption in this Shakespearean comedy."
Green does not consider Shakespeare to have been a "sexual radical", but that the play represented a "topsy-turvy world" or "temporary holiday" that mediates or negotiates the "discontents of civilisation", which while resolved neatly in the story's conclusion, do not resolve so neatly in real life. Green writes that the "sodomitical elements", "[homoeroticism](homoeroticism)", "lesbianism", and even "compulsory heterosexuality"—the first hint of which may be Oberon's obsession with Titania's changeling ward—in the story must be considered in the context of the "culture of early modern England" as a commentary on the "aesthetic rigidities of comic form and political ideologies of the prevailing order".
### Feminism
[[File:Edward Robert Hughes - Midsummer Eve (1908c).jpg|thumb|upright|*Midsummer Eve* by [Robert Hughes](Edward)(Edward Robert Hughes) c. 1908]]
Male dominance is one thematic element found in the play. In ''A Midsummer Night's Dream*, Lysander and Hermia escape into the woods for a night where they do not fall under the laws of Theseus or Egeus. Upon their arrival in Athens, the couples are married. Marriage is seen as the ultimate social achievement for women while men can go on to do many other great things and gain social recognition. In *The Imperial Votaress*, Louis Montrose draws attention to male and female gender roles and norms present in the comedy in connection with Elizabethan culture. In reference to the triple wedding, he says, "The festive conclusion in *A Midsummer Night's Dream'' depends upon the success of a process by which the feminine pride and power manifested in Amazon warriors, possessive mothers, unruly wives, and wilful daughters are brought under the control of lords and husbands." He says that the consummation of marriage is how power over a woman changes hands from father to husband. A connection is drawn between flowers and sexuality. Montrose sees the juice employed by Oberon as symbolising menstrual blood as well as the "sexual blood shed by 'virgins'". While blood as a result of menstruation is representative of a woman's power, blood as a result of a first sexual encounter represents man's power over women.
There are points in the play, however, when there is an absence of patriarchal control. In his book *Power on Display*, Leonard Tennenhouse says the problem in ''A Midsummer Night's Dream'' is the problem of "authority gone archaic". The Athenian law requiring a daughter to die if she does not do her father's will is outdated. Tennenhouse contrasts the patriarchal rule of Theseus in Athens with that of Oberon in the carnivalistic Faerie world. The disorder in the land of the fairies completely opposes the world of Athens. He states that during times of carnival and festival, male power is broken down. For example, what happens to the four lovers in the woods as well as Bottom's dream represents chaos that contrasts with Theseus' political order. However, Theseus does not punish the lovers for their disobedience. According to Tennenhouse, by forgiving the lovers, he has made a distinction between the law of the patriarch (Egeus) and that of the monarch (Theseus), creating two different voices of authority. This can be compared to the time of [I](Elizabeth)(Elizabeth I), in which monarchs were seen as having two bodies: the body natural and the body politic. Tennenhouse says that Elizabeth's succession itself represented both the voice of a patriarch and the voice of a monarch: (1) her father's will, which stated that the crown should pass to her and (2) the fact that she was the daughter of a king.
## Criticism and interpretation
### Critical history
#### 17th century
[[File:Samuel Pepys.jpg|thumb|right|[Pepys](Samuel)(Samuel Pepys), who wrote the oldest known comments on the play, found ''A Midsummer Night's Dream* to be "the most insipid ridiculous play that ever I saw in my life".]]
Dorothea Kehler has attempted to trace the criticism of the work through the centuries. The earliest such piece of criticism that she found was a 1662 entry in the diary of [Pepys](Samuel)(Samuel Pepys). He found the play to be "the most insipid ridiculous play that ever I saw in my life". He did, however, admit that it had "some good dancing and some handsome women, which was all my pleasure".
The next critic known to comment on the play was [Dryden](John)(John Dryden), writing in 1677. He was preoccupied with the question of whether [fairies](Fairy) should be depicted in theatrical plays, since they did not exist. He concluded that poets should be allowed to depict things which do not exist but derive from [belief](popular)(popular belief). And fairies are of this sort, as are [pygmies](Pygmy (Greek mythology)) and the extraordinary effects of [magic](Magic (paranormal)). Based on this reasoning, Dryden defended the merits of three fantasy plays: *A Midsummer Night's Dream*, *[Tempest](The)(The Tempest)'', and [Jonson](Ben)(Ben Jonson)'s *[Masque of Queens](The)(The Masque of Queens)*.
#### 18th century
[Gildon](Charles)(Charles Gildon) in the early 18th century recommended this play for its beautiful reflections, descriptions, similes, and topics. Gildon thought that Shakespeare drew inspiration from the works of [Ovid](Ovid) and [Virgil](Virgil), and that he could read them in the original [Latin](Latin) and not in later translations.
[Duff](William)(William Duff (writer)), writing in the 1770s, also recommended this play. He felt the depiction of the supernatural was among Shakespeare's strengths, not weaknesses. He especially praised the poetry and wit of the fairies, and the quality of the verse involved. His contemporary [Gentleman](Francis)(Francis Gentleman), an admirer of Shakespeare, was much less appreciative of this play. He felt that the poetry, the characterisation, and the originality of the play were its strengths, but that its major weaknesses were a "puerile" plot and that it consists of an odd mixture of incidents. The connection of the incidents to each other seemed rather forced to Gentleman.
[Malone](Edmond)(Edmond Malone), a Shakespearean scholar and critic of the late 18th century, found another supposed flaw in this particular play, its lack of a proper [decorum](decorum). He found that the "more exalted characters" (the aristocrats of Athens) are subservient to the interests of those beneath them. In other words, the lower-class characters play larger roles than their betters and overshadow them. He found this to be a grave error of the writer. Malone thought that this play had to be an early and immature work of Shakespeare and, by implication, that an older writer would know better. Malone's main argument seems to derive from the [classism](Class discrimination) of his era. He assumes that the [aristocrats](Aristocracy (class)) had to receive more attention in the narrative and to be more important, more distinguished, and better than the lower class.
#### 19th century
[[Image:William Hazlitt self-portrait (1802).jpg|thumb|right|[Hazlitt](William)(William Hazlitt) preferred reading ''A Midsummer Night's Dream'' over watching it acted on stage.]]
According to Kehler, significant 19th-century criticism began in 1808 with [Wilhelm Schlegel](August)(August Wilhelm Schlegel). Schlegel perceived unity in the multiple plot lines. He noted that the donkey's head is not a random transformation, but reflects Bottom's true nature. He identified the tale of Pyramus and Thisbe as a [burlesque](burlesque) of the Athenian lovers. In 1817, [Hazlitt](William)(William Hazlitt) found the play to be better as a written work than a staged production. He found the work to be "a delightful fiction" but when staged, it is reduced to a dull [pantomime](pantomime). He concluded that poetry and the stage do not fit together. Kehler finds the comment to be more of an indication of the quality of the theatrical productions available to Hazlitt, rather than a true indication of the play's supposed unsuitability to the stage. She notes that prior to the 1840s, all stage productions of this play were adaptations unfaithful to the original text.
In 1811–1812, [Taylor Coleridge](Samuel)(Samuel Taylor Coleridge) made two points of criticism about this play. The first was that the entire play should be seen as a [dream](dream). Second, that Helena is guilty of "ungrateful treachery" to Hermia. He thought that this was a reflection of the lack of [principle](principle)s in women, who are more likely to follow their own passions and inclinations than men. Women, in his view, feel less abhorrence for moral [evil](evil), though they are concerned with its outward consequences. Coleridge was probably the earliest critic to introduce [gender](gender) issues to the analysis of this play. Kehler dismisses his views on Helena as indications of Coleridge's own [misogyny](misogyny), rather than genuine reflections of Helena's morality.
[[File:Augustins - La Folie de Titania - Paul Jean Gervais 1897 2004 1 188.jpg|thumb|left|[Maginn](William)(William Maginn) thought Bottom a lucky man and was particularly amused that he treats Titania, the Queen of the Fairies, "as carelessly as if she were the wench of the next-door tapster".]]
In 1837, [Maginn](William)(William Maginn) produced essays on the play. He turned his attention to Theseus' speech about "the lunatic, the lover, and the poet" and to Hippolyta's response to it. He regarded Theseus as the voice of Shakespeare himself and the speech as a call for imaginative audiences. He also viewed Bottom as a lucky man on whom [Fortune](Fortuna) showered favours beyond measure. He was particularly amused by the way Bottom reacts to the love of the [queen](fairy)(Titania (A Midsummer Night's Dream)): completely unfazed. Maginn argued that "Theseus would have bent in reverent awe before Titania. Bottom treats her as carelessly as if she were the wench of the next-door tapster." Finally, Maginn thought that Oberon should not be blamed for Titania's humiliation, which is the result of an accident. He viewed Oberon as angry with the "caprices" of his queen, but unable to anticipate that her charmed affections would be reserved for a weaver with a donkey's head.
In 1839, the philosopher [Ulrici](Hermann)(Hermann Ulrici) wrote that the play and its depiction of human life reflected the views of [Platonism](Platonism). In his view, Shakespeare implied that human life is nothing but a dream, suggesting influence from [Plato](Plato) and his followers who thought human reality is deprived of all genuine existence. Ulrici noted the way Theseus and Hippolyta behave here, like ordinary people. He agreed with Malone that this did not fit their stations in life, but viewed this behaviour as an indication of [parody](parody) about class differences.
[Halliwell-Phillipps](James)(James Halliwell-Phillipps), writing in the 1840s, found that there were many inconsistencies in the play, but considered it the most beautiful poetical drama ever written.
In 1849, [Knight](Charles)(Charles Knight (publisher)) also wrote about the play and its apparent lack of proper [stratification](social)(social stratification). He thought that this play indicated Shakespeare's maturity as a playwright, and that its "Thesean harmony" reflects proper decorum of character. He also viewed Bottom as the best-drawn character, with his self-confidence, authority, and self-love. He argued that Bottom stands as a representative of the whole human race. Like Hazlitt he felt that the work is best appreciated when read as a text, rather than acted on stage. He found the writing to be "subtle and ethereal", and standing above [criticism](literary)(literary criticism) and its reductive reasoning.
[[File:Lysander declaring his passion to Helena (Smirke, c. 1820-1825).jpg|thumb|right|[Gottfried Gervinus](Georg)(Georg Gottfried Gervinus) thought Hermia lacking in [piety](filial)(filial piety) and devoid of conscience for running away with Lysander, himself not a shining beacon of virtue (here seen wooing Helena).]]
Also in 1849, [Gottfried Gervinus](Georg)(Georg Gottfried Gervinus) wrote extensively about the play. He denied the theory that this play should be seen as a dream. He argued that it should be seen as an ethical construct and an [allegory](allegory). He thought that it was an allegorical depiction of the errors of sensual love, which is likened to a dream. In his view, Hermia lacks in [obedience](filial)(Filial piety) and acts as if devoid of conscience when she runs away with Lysander. Lysander is also guilty for disobeying and mocking his prospective father-in-law. Pyramus and Thisbe also lack in filial obedience, since they "woo by moonlight" behind their parents' backs. The fairies, in his view, should be seen as "personified dream gods". They represent the caprices of superficial love, and they lack in intellect, feeling, and ethics.
Gervinus also wrote on where the [fairyland](fairyland) of the play is located. Not in [Attica](Attica), but in the [Indies](Indies). His views on the Indies seem to Kehler to be influenced by [Orientalism](Orientalism). He speaks of the Indies as scented with the [aroma](aroma) of flowers, and as the place where mortals live in the state of a half-dream. Gervinus denies and devalues the loyalty of Titania to her friend. He views this supposed friendship as not grounded in spiritual association. Titania merely "delight[s] in her beauty, her 'swimming gait,' and her powers of imitation". Gervinus further views Titania as an immoral character for not trying to reconcile with her husband. In her resentment, Titania seeks separation from him, for which Gervinus blames her.
Gervinus wrote with elitist disdain about the mechanicals of the play and their acting aspirations. He described them as homely creatures with "hard hands and thick heads". They are, in his view, ignorant men who compose and act in plays merely for financial reward. They are not real artists. Gervinus reserves his praise and respect only for Theseus, who he thinks represents the intellectual man. Like several of his predecessors, Gervinus thought that this work should be read as a text and not acted on stage.
[[File:Charles Cowden Clarke.jpg|thumb|left|[Cowden Clarke](Charles)(Charles Cowden Clarke) appreciated the [mechanicals](Mechanical (character)), and in particular found [Bottom](Nick)(Nick Bottom) conceited but good-natured and imaginative.]]
In 1863, [Cowden Clarke](Charles)(Charles Cowden Clarke) also wrote on this play. Kehler notes he was the husband of famous Shakespearean scholar [Cowden Clarke](Mary)(Mary Cowden Clarke). Charles was more appreciative of the lower-class mechanicals of the play. He commented favourably on their individualisation and their collective richness of character. He thought that Bottom was conceited but good natured, and shows a considerable store of imagination in his interaction with the representatives of the fairy world. He also argued that Bottom's conceit was a quality inseparable from his secondary profession, that of an actor.
In 1872, Henry N. Hudson, an American clergyman and editor of Shakespeare, also wrote comments on this play. Kehler pays little attention to his writings, as they were largely derivative of previous works. She notes, however, that Hudson too believed that the play should be viewed as a dream. He cited the lightness of the characterisation as supporting of his view. In 1881, [Dowden](Edward)(Edward Dowden) argued that Theseus and his reflections on art are central to the play. He also argued that Theseus was one of the "heroic men of action" so central to Shakespeare's theatrical works.
[[Image:Horace Howard Furness.jpg|thumb|left|[Howard Furness](Horace)(Horace Howard Furness) defended ''A Midsummer Night's Dream'' from claims of inconsistency, and felt this did not detract from the quality of the play.]]
Both [Howard Furness](Horace)(Horace Howard Furness) and Henry Austin Clapp were more concerned with the problem of the play's duration, though they held opposing views. Clapp, writing in 1885, commented on the inconsistency of the time depicted in the play, as it should take place in four days and nights and seems to last less than two, and felt that this added to the unrealistic quality of the play. Furness, defending the play in 1895, felt that the apparent inconsistency did not detract from the play's quality.
In 1887, Denton Jacques Snider argued that the play should be read as a [dialectic](dialectic), either between understanding and imagination or between prose and poetry. He also viewed the play as representing three phases or movements. The first is the Real World of the play, which represents reason. The second is the Fairy World, an ideal world which represents imagination and the supernatural. The third is their representation in art, where the action is self-reflective. Snider viewed Titania and her caprice as solely to blame for her marital strife with Oberon. She therefore deserves punishment, and Oberon is a dutiful husband who provides her with one. For failing to live in peace with Oberon and her kind, Titania is sentenced to fall in love with a human. And this human, unlike Oberon is a "horrid brute".
Towards the end of the 19th century, [Brandes](Georg)(Georg Brandes) (1895–6) and [S. Boas](Frederick)(Frederick S. Boas) (1896) were the last major additions to ''A Midsummer Night's Dream'' criticism. Brandes' approach anticipates later [readings](psychological)(Psychoanalytic literary criticism), seeing Oberon's magic as symbolic and "typifying the sorcery of the erotic imagination". Brandes felt that in the play, Shakespeare looks inward at the "domain of the unconscious". Boas eschews the play as ethical treatise or psychological study and instead takes a more historicist and literal approach. To Boas the play is, despite its fantastical and exotic trappings, "essentially English and Elizabethan". He sees Theseus as a Tudor noble; Helena a mere plot device to "concentrate the four lovers on a single spot"; and the *Pyramus and Thisbe* play-within-the-play a parody of a prominent *[topos](literary topos)* of contemporary plays. Summing up their contributions, Kehler writes: "This is recognizably modern criticism."
#### 20th century
The 20th century brought new insights into the play. In 1961, Elizabeth Sewell argued that Shakespeare aligns himself not with the aristocrats of the play, but with Bottom and the [artisan](artisan)s. It is their task to produce a wedding entertainment, precisely the purpose of the writer on working in this play. Also in 1961, [Kermode](Frank)(Frank Kermode) wrote on the themes of the play and their literary sources. He counted among them fantasy, blind love, and divine love. He traced these themes to the works of [Macrobius](Macrobius), [Apuleius](Apuleius), and [Bruno](Giordano)(Giordano Bruno). Bottom also briefly alludes to a passage from the [Epistle to the Corinthians](First)(First Epistle to the Corinthians) by [the Apostle](Paul)(Paul the Apostle), dealing with divine love.}}
In 1964, R.W. Dent argued against theories that the exemplary model of love in the play is the rational love of Theseus and Hippolyta. He argued that in this work, love is inexplicable. It is the offspring of imagination, not reason. However the exemplary love of the play is one of an imagination controlled and restrained, and avoids the excesses of "dotage". Genuine love is contrasted with the [love](unrequited)(unrequited love) (and dotage) of Demetrius for Hermia, and with the supposed love (and dotage) of Titania for an unworthy object.
Dent also denied the rationality and wisdom typically attributed to Theseus. He reminded his readers that this is the character of [Theseus](Theseus) from [mythology](Greek)(Greek mythology), a creation himself of "antique fable". Theseus' views on art are far from rational or wise. He cannot tell the difference between an actual play and its interlude. The interlude of the play's acting troop is less about the art and more of an expression of the mechanicals' distrust of their own audience. They fear the audience reactions will be either excessive or inadequate, and say so on stage. Theseus fails to get the message.
Also in 1964, [Kott](Jan)(Jan Kott) offered his own views on the play. He saw the main themes of the play as being violence and "unrepressed animalistic sexuality". Both Lysander and Demetrius are, in his view, verbally brutal lovers, whose love interests are exchangeable and [objectified](Objectification). The [changeling](changeling) that Oberon desires is his new "sexual toy". The aristocrats of the play, both mortal and immortal, are [promiscuous](promiscuous). As for the Athenian lovers following their night in the forest, they are ashamed to talk about it because that night liberated them from themselves and social norms, and allowed them to reveal their real selves. Kott's views were controversial, and contemporary critics wrote either in favour of or against his ideas, but few ignored them.
In 1967, John A. Allen theorised that Bottom is a symbol of the animalistic aspect of humanity. He also thought Bottom was redeemed through the maternal tenderness of Titania, which allowed him to understand the love and self-sacrifice of Pyramus and Thisbe. In 1968, Stephen Fender offered his own views on the play. He emphasised the "terrifying power" of the fairies and argued that they control the play's events. They are the most powerful figures featured, not Theseus as often thought. He also emphasised the ethically [ambivalent](Ambivalence) characters of the play. Finally, Fender noted a layer of complexity in the play. Theseus, Hippolyta, and Bottom have contradictory reactions to the events of the night, and each has partly valid reasons for their reactions, implying that the puzzles offered to the play's audience can have no singular answer or meaning.
In 1969, Michael Taylor argued that previous critics offered a too cheerful view of what the play depicts. He emphasised the less pleasant aspects of the otherwise appealing fairies and the nastiness of the mortal Demetrius prior to his enchantment. He argued that the overall themes are the often painful aspects of love and the pettiness of people, which here include the fairies.
In 1970, R. A. Zimbardo viewed the play as full of symbols. The Moon and its phases alluded to in the play, in his view, stand for permanence in mutability. The play uses the principle of *[concors](discordia)(Enantiosis)* in several of its key scenes. Theseus and Hippolyta represent marriage and, symbolically, the reconciliation of the natural seasons or the phases of time. Hippolyta's story arc is that she must submit to Theseus and become a matron. Titania has to give up her motherly obsession with the changeling boy and passes through a symbolic death, and Oberon has to once again woo and win his wife. Kehler notes that Zimbardo took for granted the female subordination within the obligatory marriage, social views that were already challenged in the 1960s.
In 1971, James L. Calderwood offered a new view on the role of Oberon. He viewed the king as specialising in the arts of [illusion](illusion). Oberon, in his view, is the interior dramatist of the play, orchestrating events. He is responsible for the play's happy ending, when he influences Theseus to overrule Egeus and allow the lovers to marry. Oberon and Theseus bring harmony out of discord. He also suggested that the lovers' identities, which are blurred and lost in the forest, recall the unstable identities of the actors who constantly change roles. In fact the failure of the artisans' play is based on their chief flaw as actors: they can not lose their own identities to even temporarily replace them with those of their fictional roles.
Also in 1971, Andrew D. Weiner argued that the play's actual theme is unity. The poet's imagination creates unity by giving form to diverse elements, and the writer is addressing the spectator's own imagination which also creates and perceives unity. Weiner connected this unity to the concept of uniformity, and in turn viewed this as Shakespeare's allusion to the "eternal truths" of [Platonism](Platonism) and Christianity.
Also writing in 1971, Hugh M. Richmond offered an entirely new view of the play's love story lines. He argued that what passes for love in this play is actually a [self-destructive](Self-destructive behaviour) expression of [passion](Passion (emotion)). He argued that the play's significant characters are all affected by passion and by a [sadomasochistic](Sadomasochism) type of sexuality. This passion prevents the lovers from genuinely communicating with each other. At the same time it protects them from the disenchantment with the love interest that communication inevitably brings. The exception to the rule is Bottom, who is chiefly devoted to himself. His own [egotism](egotism) protects him from feeling passion for anyone else. Richmond also noted that there are parallels between the tale of [and Thisbe](Pyramus)(Pyramus and Thisbe), featured in this play, and that of Shakespeare's *[and Juliet](Romeo)(Romeo and Juliet)*.
In 1971, Neil Taylor argued that there was a double time-scheme in the play, making it seem to last a minimum of four nights but to also be timeless.
In 1972, Ralph Berry argued that Shakespeare was chiefly concerned with [epistemology](epistemology) in this play. The lovers declare illusion to be reality, the actors declare reality to be illusion. The play ultimately reconciles the seemingly opposing views and vindicates imagination. Also in 1972, [McFarland](Thomas)(Thomas McFarland) argued that the play is dominated by a mood of happiness and that it is one of the happiest literary creations ever produced. The mood is so lovely that the audience never feels fear or worry about the fate of the characters.
In 1974, [Garber](Marjorie)(Marjorie Garber) argued that metamorphosis is both the major subject of the play and the model of its structure. She noted that in this play, the entry in the woods is a dream-like change in perception, a change which affects both the characters and the audience. Dreams here take priority over reason, and are truer than the reality they seek to interpret and transform. Also in 1974, Alexander Leggatt offered his own reading of the play. He was certain that there are grimmer elements in the play, but they are overlooked because the audience focuses on the story of the sympathetic young lovers. He viewed the characters as separated into four groups which interact in various ways. Among the four, the fairies stand as the most sophisticated and unconstrained. The contrasts between the interacting groups produce the play's comic perspective.
In 1975, Ronald F. Miller expresses his view that the play is a study in the epistemology of imagination. He focused on the role of the fairies, who have a mysterious aura of evanescence and ambiguity. Also in 1975, [Bevington](David)(David Bevington) offered his own reading of the play. He in part refuted the ideas of Jan Kott concerning the sexuality of Oberon and the fairies. He pointed that Oberon may be [bisexual](Bisexuality) and his desire for the changeling boy may be sexual in nature, as Kott suggested. But there is little textual evidence to support this, as the writer left ambiguous clues concerning the idea of love among the fairies. He concluded that therefore their love life is "unknowable and incomprehensible". According to Bevington, the main theme of the play is the conflict between sexual desire and rational restraint, an essential tension reflected throughout the play. It is the tension between the dark and benevolent sides of love, which are reconciled in the end.
In 1977, [Paolucci](Anne)(Anne Paolucci) argued that the play lasts five days.
In 1979, M. E. Lamb suggested that the play may have borrowed an aspect of the ancient myth of Theseus: the Athenian's entry into the [Labyrinth](Labyrinth) of the [Minotaur](Minotaur). The woods of the play serve as a metaphorical labyrinth, and for [Elizabethans](Elizabethan era) the woods were often an allegory of sexual sin. The lovers in the woods conquer irrational passion and find their way back. Bottom with his animal head becomes a comical version of the Minotaur. Bottom also becomes [Ariadne](Ariadne)'s thread which guides the lovers. In having the new Minotaur rescue rather than threaten the lovers, the classical myth is comically inverted. Theseus himself is the bridegroom of the play who has left the labyrinth and promiscuity behind, having conquered his passion. The artisans may stand in for the master craftsman of the myth, and builder of the Labyrinth, [Daedalus](Daedalus). Even Theseus' best known speech in the play, which connects the poet with the lunatic and the lover may be another metaphor of the lover. It is a challenge for the poet to confront the irrationality he shares with lovers and lunatics, accepting the risks of entering the labyrinth.
Also in 1979, Harold F. Brooks agreed that the main theme of the play, its very heart, is desire and its culmination in marriage. All other subjects are of lesser importance, including that of imagination and that of appearance and reality. In 1980, Florence Falk offered a view of the play based on theories of [anthropology](cultural)(cultural anthropology). She argued that the play is about traditional [of passage](rites)(Rite of passage), which trigger development within the individual and society. Theseus has detached himself from imagination and rules Athens harshly. The lovers flee from the structure of his society to the *[communitas](communitas)* of the woods. The woods serve here as the *communitas*, a temporary aggregate for persons whose asocial desires require accommodation to preserve the health of society. This is the rite of passage where the asocial can be contained. Falk identified this *communitas* with the woods, with the unconscious, with the dream space. She argued that the lovers experience release into self-knowledge and then return to the renewed Athens. This is "*societas*", the resolution of the dialectic between the dualism of *communitas* and structure.
Also in 1980, Christian critic R. Chris Hassel, Jr. offered a Christian view of the play. The experience of the lovers and that of Bottom (as expressed in his awakening speech) teach them "a new humility, a healthy sense of folly". They realise that there are things that are true despite the fact that they can not be seen or understood. They just learned a lesson of faith. Hassel also thought that Theseus' speech on the lunatic, the lover, and the poet is an applause to imagination. But it is also a laughing rejection of futile attempts to perceive, categorise, or express it.
[[File:Puck (29391431162).jpg|thumb|left|Alex Aronson considered Puck a representation of the [mind](unconscious)(unconscious mind) and a contrast to Theseus as a representation of the [mind](conscious)(Consciousness).]]
Some of the interpretations of the play have been based on [psychology](psychology) and its diverse theories. In 1972, Alex Aronson argued that Theseus represents the [mind](conscious)(Consciousness) and Puck represents the [mind](unconscious)(unconscious mind). Puck, in this view, is a guise of the unconscious as a [trickster](trickster), while remaining subservient to Oberon. Aronson thought that the play explores unauthorised desire and linked it to the concept of [fertility](fertility). He viewed the donkey and the trees as fertility symbols. The lovers' sexual desires are symbolised in their forest encounters. In 1973, Melvin Goldstein argued that the lovers can not simply return to Athens and wed. First, they have to pass through stages of madness (multiple disguises), and discover their "authentic sexual selves". In 1979, [N. Holland](Norman)(Norman N. Holland) applied [literary criticism](psychoanalytic)(psychoanalytic literary criticism) to the play. He interpreted the dream of Hermia as if it was a real dream. In his view, the dream uncovers the phases of Hermia's sexual development. Her search for options is her [mechanism](defence)(defence mechanism). She both desires Lysander and wants to retain her virginity.
In 1981, Mordecai Marcus argued for a new meaning of [Eros](Eros) (Love) and [Thanatos](Thanatos) (Death) in this play. In his view, Shakespeare suggests that love requires the risk of death. Love achieves force and direction from the interweaving of the life impulse with the deathward-release of [tension](sexual)(sexual tension). He also viewed the play as suggesting that the healing force of love is connected to the acceptance of death, and vice versa.
In 1987, Jan Lawson Hinely argued that this play has a therapeutic value. Shakespeare in many ways explores the sexual fears of the characters, releases them, and transforms them. And the happy ending is the reestablishment of social harmony. [Patriarchy](Patriarchy) itself is also challenged and transformed, as the men offer their women a loving equality, one founded on respect and trust. She even viewed Titania's loving acceptance of the donkey-headed Bottom as a metaphor for basic trust. This trust is what enables the warring and uncertain lovers to achieve their sexual maturity. In 1988, Allen Dunn argued that the play is an exploration of the characters' fears and desires, and that its structure is based on a series of sexual clashes.
In 1991, Barbara Freedman argued that the play justifies the ideological formation of [monarchy](absolute)(absolute monarchy), and makes visible for examination the maintenance process of [hegemonic](Hegemony) order.
## Performance history
[[Folio Printing of A Midsummer Night's Dream.jpg|thumb|The first page printed in the Second Folio of 1632](File:Second)]
### 17th and 18th centuries
During the years of the [Puritan](Puritan) [Interregnum](English Interregnum) when the theatres were closed (1642–1660), the comic subplot of Bottom and his compatriots was performed as a [droll](droll). Drolls were comical playlets, often adapted from the subplots of Shakespearean and other plays, that could be attached to the acts of acrobats and jugglers and other allowed performances, thus circumventing the ban against drama. When the theatres re-opened in 1660, ''A Midsummer Night's Dream* was acted in adapted form, like many other Shakespearean plays. [Pepys](Samuel)(Samuel Pepys) saw it on 29 September 1662 and thought it "*the most insipid, ridiculous play that ever I saw ...*"
After the Jacobean / Caroline era, *A Midsummer Night's Dream'' was never performed in its entirety until the 1840s. Instead, it was heavily adapted in forms like [Purcell](Henry)(Henry Purcell)'s musical masque/play *[Fairy Queen](The)(The Fairy-Queen)* (1692), which had a successful run at the [Garden Theatre](Dorset)(Dorset Garden Theatre), but was not revived. [Leveridge](Richard)(Richard Leveridge) turned the Pyramus and Thisbe scenes into an Italian opera burlesque, acted at [Inn Fields](Lincoln's)(Lincoln's Inn Fields) in 1716. [Frederick Lampe](John)(John Frederick Lampe) elaborated upon Leveridge's version in 1745. Charles Johnson had used the Pyramus and Thisbe material in the finale of *[in a Forest](Love)(Love in a Forest)*, his 1723 adaptation of *[You Like It](As)(As You Like It)*. In 1755, [Garrick](David)(David Garrick) did the opposite of what had been done a century earlier: he extracted Bottom and his companions and acted the rest, in an adaptation called *The Fairies.* Frederic Reynolds produced an operatic version in 1816.
### The Victorian stage
In 1840, [Vestris](Madame)(Lucia Elizabeth Vestris) at [Garden](Covent)(Covent Garden) returned the play to the stage with a relatively full text, adding musical sequences and balletic dances. Vestris took the role of Oberon, and for the next seventy years, Oberon and [Puck](Puck (Shakespeare)) would always be played by women.
After the success of Madame Vestris' production, [theatre](19th-century)(19th-century theatre) continued to stage the *Dream* as a spectacle, often with a cast numbering nearly one hundred. Detailed sets were created for the palace and the forest, and the fairies were portrayed as gossamer-winged ballerinas. The [overture](A Midsummer Night's Dream (Mendelssohn)) by [Mendelssohn](Felix)(Felix Mendelssohn) was always used throughout this period. [Daly](Augustin)(Augustin Daly)'s production opened in 1895 in London and ran for 21 performances. Shakespeare and the Players|website=shakespeare.emory.edu|language=en-US|access-date=2018-04-12}}
### 20th and 21st centuries
[[Cardinale as Puck from the Carmel Shakespeare Festival production of ''A Midsummer Night's Dream*, September 2000](File:MidsummerPuckFlying.jpg|thumb|upright|Vince)]
[[9.jpg|thumb|Performance by Saratov Puppet Theatre "Teremok" *A Midsummer Night's Dream'' based on the play by William Shakespeare (2007)](File:SarTerem)]
In 1905 [Asche](Oscar)(Oscar Asche) staged a production at the [Theatre](Adelphi)(Adelphi Theatre) in London with himself as Bottom and [Ferrar](Beatrice)(Beatrice Ferrar) as Puck.
[Beerbohm Tree](Herbert)(Herbert Beerbohm Tree) staged a 1911 production which featured "mechanical birds twittering in beech trees, a simulated stream, fairies wearing battery-operated lighting, and live rabbits following trails of food across the stage."
[[File:A Midsummer Night's Dream at The Doon School.jpg|thumb|A 2010 production of the play at [Doon School](The)(The Doon School), India]]
[Reinhardt](Max)(Max Reinhardt (theatre director)) staged ''A Midsummer Night's Dream'' thirteen times between 1905 and 1934, introducing a revolving set. After he fled Germany he devised a more spectacular outdoor version at the [Bowl](Hollywood)(Hollywood Bowl) in September 1934. The shell was removed and replaced by a forest planted in tons of dirt hauled in especially for the event, and a trestle was constructed from the hills to the stage. The wedding procession inserted between Acts IV and V crossed the trestle with torches down the hillside. The cast included [Cagney](James)(James Cagney), [de Havilland](Olivia)(Olivia de Havilland), [Rooney](Mickey)(Mickey Rooney), [Jory](Victor)(Victor Jory), and a corps of dancers that included [McQueen](Butterfly)(Butterfly McQueen). The play was accompanied by Mendelssohn's music.
On the strength of this production, [Brothers](Warner)(Warner Brothers) signed Reinhardt to direct [filmed version](a)(A Midsummer Night's Dream (1935 film)), Hollywood's first Shakespeare movie since [Fairbanks Sr.](Douglas)(Douglas Fairbanks) and [Pickford](Mary)(Mary Pickford)'s *[of the Shrew](Taming)(Taming of the Shrew)* in 1929. Jory (Oberon), Rooney (Puck) and De Havilland (Hermia) reprised their roles from the Hollywood Bowl cast. [Cagney](James)(James Cagney) starred, in his only Shakespearean role, as Bottom. Other actors in the film who played Shakespearean roles just this once included [E. Brown](Joe)(Joe E. Brown) and [Powell](Dick)(Dick Powell). [Wolfgang Korngold](Erich)(Erich Wolfgang Korngold) was brought from Austria to arrange Mendelssohn's music for the film. He used not only the ''[Night's Dream](Midsummer)(A Midsummer Night's Dream (Mendelssohn))* music but also several other pieces by Mendelssohn. Korngold went on to make a legendary career in Hollywood, remaining in the United States after [Germany](Nazi)(Nazi Germany) annexed Austria.
Director [Granville-Barker](Harley)(Harley Granville-Barker) introduced in 1914 a less spectacular way of staging the *Dream'': he reduced the size of the cast and used Elizabethan folk music instead of Mendelssohn. He replaced large, complex sets with a simple system of patterned curtains. He portrayed the fairies as golden robotic insectoid creatures based on Cambodian idols. His simpler, sparer staging significantly influenced subsequent productions.
In 1970, [Brook](Peter)(Peter Brook) [the play](staged)(1970 Royal Shakespeare Company production of A Midsummer Night's Dream) for the [Shakespeare Company](Royal)(Royal Shakespeare Company) in a blank white box, in which masculine fairies engaged in [circus](Circus (performing arts)) tricks such as [trapeze](trapeze) artistry. Brook also introduced the subsequently common notion of doubling Theseus/Oberon and Hippolyta/Titania, as if to suggest that the world of the fairies is a mirror version of the world of the mortals. British actors who played roles in Brook's production included [Stewart](Patrick)(Patrick Stewart), [Kingsley](Ben)(Ben Kingsley), John Kane (Puck) and [de la Tour](Frances)(Frances de la Tour) (Helena). Recordings documenting this production survive.
''A Midsummer Night's Dream'' has been produced many times in New York, including a production by the [for a New Audience](Theatre)(Theatre for a New Audience), produced by [Papp](Joseph)(Joseph Papp) at the [Theater](Public)(Public Theater), and also several stagings by the [York Shakespeare Festival](New)(New York Shakespeare Festival) at the [Theatre](Delacorte)(Delacorte Theatre) in Central Park. In 1978, the [Shakespeare Company](Riverside)(Riverside Shakespeare Company) staged an outdoor production starring Eric Hoffmann as Puck, with Karen Hurley as Titania and Eric Conger as Oberon, directed by company founder Gloria Skurski. There have been several variations since then, including some set in the 1980s.
The Maryland Shakespeare Players at [of Maryland](University)(University of Maryland) staged a queer production in 2015 in which the lovers were same-sex couples and the mechanicals were drag queens.
The [of Michigan](University)(University of Michigan)'s [Arboretum](Nichols)(Nichols Arboretum)'s programme [in the Arb](Shakespeare)(Shakespeare in the Arb) has presented a play every summer since 2001. Shakespeare in the Arb has produced ''A Midsummer Night's Dream'' three times. These performances take place in a natural setting, with lush woods, a flowing river, and steep hills. The performance takes place in several places, with actors and audience moving together to each setting. "As one critic commented, 'The actors used the vastness of its Arb[oretum] stage to full advantage, making entrances from behind trees, appearing over rises and vanishing into the woods.'"
Artistic director [Rice](Emma)(Emma Rice)'s first production at [Globe](Shakespeare's)(Shakespeare's Globe) in 2016 was a version of the play. While not "a production to please the purists", it received praise. A contemporary reworking, it included gender-switched characters and [Bollywood](Bollywood) influences.
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## Adaptations and cultural references
### Plays
*Absurda Comica, oder Herr Peter Squentz* by [Gryphius](Andreas)(Andreas Gryphius), which was probably written between 1648 and 1650 and was published in 1657, is evidently based on the comic episode of [Pyramus](Pyramus) and [Thisbe](Thisbe) in ''A Midsummer Night's Dream''.
[Ludwig](Ken)(Ken Ludwig)'s 2003 comic play, *Shakespeare in Hollywood*, is set during the production of the [film](1935)(A Midsummer Night's Dream (1935 film)). Oberon and Puck appear on the scene, and find themselves cast as themselves.
### Literary
[Stanley Moss](W.)(W. Stanley Moss) used the quotation "Ill met by moonlight" as the title of his *[Met by Moonlight](Ill)(Ill Met by Moonlight)* (1950), a non-fiction book about the [of General Kreipe](kidnap)(kidnap of General Kreipe) during WWII. The book was adapted into a [with the same name](film)(Ill Met by Moonlight (film)) in 1957.
[Strauß](Botho)(Botho Strauß)'s play *[Park](The)(The Park (play))* (1983) is based on characters and [motifs](motif (literature)) from ''A Midsummer Night's Dream''.
[Gaiman](Neil)(Neil Gaiman)'s comic series *[Sandman](The)(The Sandman (Vertigo))* uses the play in the 1990 issue "[Midsummer Night's Dream](A)(The Sandman: Dream Country#"A Midsummer Night's Dream")". In this story, Shakespeare and his company perform the play for the real Oberon and Titania and an audience of fairies. The play is heavily quoted in the comic, and Shakespeare's son [Hamnet](Hamnet Shakespeare) appears in the play as the Indian boy. This issue was the first and only comic to win the [Fantasy Award for Best Short Fiction](World)(World Fantasy Award for Best Short Fiction), in 1991.
[Pratchett](Terry)(Terry Pratchett)'s book *[and Ladies](Lords)(Lords and Ladies (novel))* (1992) is a [parody](parody) of the play.
[Cornwell](Bernard)(Bernard Cornwell)'s novel *[and Mortals](Fools)(Fools and Mortals)* (2017) is about the creation and first performance of the play, as seen by the young actor, Richard Shakespeare, brother of the playwright.
### Musical versions
*[Fairy-Queen](The)(The Fairy-Queen)* is an opera from 1692 by [Purcell](Henry)(Henry Purcell), based on the play.
In 1826, [Mendelssohn](Felix)(Felix Mendelssohn) composed a concert [overture](overture), inspired by the play, that was first performed in 1827. In 1842, partly because of the fame of the overture, and partly because his employer [Friedrich Wilhelm IV of Prussia](King)(Frederick William IV of Prussia) liked the [music](incidental)(incidental music) that Mendelssohn had written for other plays that had been staged at the palace in German translation, Mendelssohn was commissioned to write incidental music for a production of ''A Midsummer Night's Dream* that was to be staged in 1843 in [Potsdam](Potsdam). He incorporated the existing Overture into the incidental music, which was used in most stage versions through the 19th century. The best known of the pieces from the incidental music is the famous *[March](Wedding)(Wedding March (Mendelssohn))'', frequently used as a [recessional](Recessional hymn) in weddings.
Between 1917 and 1939 [Orff](Carl)(Carl Orff) also wrote incidental music for a German version of the play, *Ein Sommernachtstraum* (performed in 1939). Given that Mendelssohn's parents had been Jews (and despite the fact that they converted to Lutheranism), his music had been banned by the Nazi regime, and the Nazi cultural officials put out a call for new music for the play: Orff was one of the musicians who responded. He later reworked the music for a final version, completed in 1964.
In 1949, a three-act opera by [Delannoy](Marcel)(Marcel Delannoy) entitled *[Puck](Puck (opera))* was premiered in Strasbourg.
"Over Hill, Over Dale", from Act 2, is the third of the *[Shakespeare Songs](Three)(Three Shakespeare Songs)* set to music by the British composer [Vaughan Williams](Ralph)(Ralph Vaughan Williams). He wrote the pieces for [cappella](a)(a cappella) SATB choir in 1951 for the British Federation of Music Festivals, and they remain a popular part of British choral repertoire today.
The [was adapted into an opera](play)(A Midsummer Night's Dream (opera)), with music by [Britten](Benjamin)(Benjamin Britten) and [libretto](libretto) by Britten and [Pears](Peter)(Peter Pears). This was first performed on 11 June 1960 at [Aldeburgh](Aldeburgh).
In 1964, a musical adaptation debuted on Broadway as *[in The Wood](Babes)(Babes in the Wood (musical))*.
Progressive rock guitarist [Hackett](Steve)(Steve Hackett), best known for his work with [Genesis](Genesis (band)), made a classical adaptation of the play in 1997. [Werner Henze](Hans)(Hans Werner Henze)'s [Symphony](Eighth)(Symphony No. 8 (Henze)) is inspired by sequences from the play.
The theatre company Moonwork put on a production of *Midsummer* in 1999. It was conceived by Mason Pettit, Gregory Sherman and Gregory Wolfe (who directed it). The show featured a rock-opera version of the play within a play, Pyramus & Thisbe, with music written by [Magee](Rusty)(Rusty Magee). The music for the rest of the show was written by Andrew Sherman.
*[Donkey Show](The)(The Donkey Show (musical))* is a disco-era experience based on ''A Midsummer Night's Dream*, that first appeared [Broadway](off)(off Broadway) in 1999.
The Alexander W. Dreyfoos School of the Arts Theatre Department presented the show as a musical adapted/directed by Beverly Blanchette (produced by Marcie Gorman) using the songs of [Moody Blues](The)(The Moody Blues). The show was called *Midsummer'' and was subsequently performed at Morsani Hall/Straz Performing Arts Center in Tampa, at the Florida State International Thespian Society Festival. Text/Concept Copyright, 9 December 2011.
In 2011, [Memphis](Opera)(Opera Memphis), [on the Square](Playhouse)(Playhouse on the Square), and contemporary a cappella groups DeltaCappella and Riva, premiered [Ching](Michael)(Michael Ching)'s ''A Midsummer Night's Dream: Opera A Cappella*.
In 2015, the plot of *[More Chill](Be)(Be More Chill (musical))* included a version of the play called *A Midsummer Nightmare (About Zombies)''.
### Ballets
* [Petipa](Marius)(Marius Petipa) made a ballet adaptation for the [Ballet](Imperial)(Mariinsky Ballet) of [Petersburg](St.)(Saint Petersburg) with additional music and adaptations to Mendelssohn's score by [Minkus](Léon)(Ludwig Minkus). The revival premiered 14 July 1876.
* [Balanchine](George)(George Balanchine)'s ''[Midsummer Night's Dream](A)(A Midsummer Night's Dream (ballet))'', his first original full-length ballet, was premiered by the [York City Ballet](New)(New York City Ballet) on 17 January 1962. It was chosen to open the NYCB's first season at the New York State Theater at Lincoln Center in 1964. Balanchine interpolated further music by Mendelssohn into his *Dream*, including the overture from *[Athalie](Athalie)*. A film version of the ballet was released in 1966.
* [Ashton](Frederick)(Frederick Ashton) created *The Dream*, a short (not full-length) ballet set exclusively to the famous music by Félix Mendelssohn, arranged by [Lanchbery](John)(John Lanchbery), in 1964. It was created on England's Royal Ballet and has since entered the repertoire of other companies, notably The Joffrey Ballet and American Ballet Theatre.
* [Neumeier](John)(John Neumeier) created his full-length ballet *Ein Sommernachtstraum* for his company at the Hamburg State Opera (Hamburgische Staatsoper) in 1977. Longer than Ashton's or Balanchine's earlier versions, Neumeier's version includes other music by Mendelssohn along with the ''Midsummer Night's Dream* music, as well as music from the modern composer [Ligeti](György)(György Ligeti), and jaunty barrel organ music. Neumeier devotes the three sharply differing musical styles to the three character groups, with the aristocrats and nobles dancing to Mendelssohn, the fairies to Ligeti, and the rustics or mechanicals to the barrel organ.
* [Costello](Elvis)(Elvis Costello) composed the music for a full-length ballet *[Sogno](Il)(Il Sogno)*, based on *A Midsummer Night's Dream''. The music was subsequently released as a classical album by [Grammophon](Deutsche)(Deutsche Grammophon) in 2004.
### Film adaptations
''A Midsummer Night's Dream* has been adapted as a film many times. The following are the best known.
* A 1925 German silent film *[Love](Wood)(Wood Love)'' directed by [Neumann](Hans)(Hans Neumann).
* [1935 film version](A)(A Midsummer Night's Dream (1935 film)) was directed by [Reinhardt](Max)(Max Reinhardt (theatre director)) and [Dieterle](William)(William Dieterle). The cast included [Cagney](James)(James Cagney) as [Bottom](Nick Bottom), [Rooney](Mickey)(Mickey Rooney) as [Puck](Puck (Shakespeare)), [de Havilland](Olivia)(Olivia de Havilland) as [Hermia](Hermia (role)), [E. Brown](Joe)(Joe E. Brown (comedian)) as [Flute](Francis)(Francis Flute), [Powell](Dick)(Dick Powell) as Lysander, [Louise](Anita)(Anita Louise) as Titania and [Jory](Victor)(Victor Jory) as [Oberon](Oberon (Fairy King)).
* (1959) directed by Czech animator [Trnka](Jiří)(Jiří Trnka) is a [stop-motion](Stop motion) puppet film that follows Shakespeare's story simply with a narrator. The English-language version was narrated by [Burton](Richard)(Richard Burton).
* [1968 film version](A)(A Midsummer Night's Dream (1968 film)) was directed by [Hall](Peter)(Peter Hall (theatre director)). The cast included [Rogers](Paul)(Paul Rogers (actor)) as Bottom, [Holm](Ian)(Ian Holm) as Puck, [Rigg](Diana)(Diana Rigg) as Helena, [Mirren](Helen)(Helen Mirren) as Hermia, [Richardson](Ian)(Ian Richardson) as Oberon, [Dench](Judi)(Judi Dench) as Titania, and [Shaw](Sebastian)(Sebastian Shaw (actor)) as Quince. This film stars the [Shakespeare Company](Royal)(Royal Shakespeare Company), and is directed by [Hall](Peter)(Peter Hall (theatre director)).
* [1969 film version](A)(A Midsummer Night's Dream (1969 French film)) was directed by [Averty](Jean-Christophe)(Jean-Christophe Averty). The cast included [Drouot](Jean-Claude)(Jean-Claude Drouot) as Oberon, [Jade](Claude)(Claude Jade) as Helena, [Delaroche](Christine)(Christine Delaroche) as Hermia, [Versini](Marie)(Marie Versini) as Hippolyta, [Modo](Michel)(Michel Modo) as Flute, [Grosso](Guy)(Guy Grosso) as Quinze.
* ''[Midsummer Night's Sex Comedy](A)(A Midsummer Night's Sex Comedy)'' (1982) was written and directed by [Allen](Woody)(Woody Allen). The plot is loosely based on [Bergman](Ingmar)(Ingmar Bergman)'s *[of a Summer Night](Smiles)(Smiles of a Summer Night)*, with some elements from Shakespeare's play.
* ''Bottom's Dream'' (1983) was an animated short directed by [Canemaker](John)(John Canemaker), showing events of the play from the point of view of Bottom. The film uses selections of [Mendelssohn](Mendelssohn)'s music, lines from the play, and surreal imagery to convey Bottom's experience.
* *[Poets Society](Dead)(Dead Poets Society)* features the play as a production for which Neil Perry tries out for and wins the role of Puck, in spite of his father's disapproval of his acting aspirations.
* A 1996 adaptation directed by [Noble](Adrian)(Adrian Noble). The cast included [Barrit](Desmond)(Desmond Barrit) as Bottom, [Lynch](Finbar)(Finbar Lynch) as Puck, [Jennings](Alex)(Alex Jennings) as Oberon/Theseus, and [Duncan](Lindsay)(Lindsay Duncan) as Titania/Hippolyta. This film is based on Noble's [Shakespeare Company](Royal)(Royal Shakespeare Company) production. Its art design is eccentric, featuring a forest of floating light bulbs and a giant umbrella for Titania's bower.
* A 1996 French film, *[Apartment](The)(The Apartment (1996 film))* (), directed by [Mimouni](Gilles)(Gilles Mimouni), has many references to the play.
* [1999 film version](A)(A Midsummer Night's Dream (1999 film)) was written and directed by [Hoffman](Michael)(Michael Hoffman (director)). The cast includes [Kline](Kevin)(Kevin Kline) as [Bottom](Nick Bottom), [Everett](Rupert)(Rupert Everett) as [Oberon](Oberon (Fairy King)), [Pfeiffer](Michelle)(Michelle Pfeiffer) as [Titania](Titania (A Midsummer Night's Dream)), [Tucci](Stanley)(Stanley Tucci) as [Puck](Puck (Shakespeare)), [Marceau](Sophie)(Sophie Marceau) as [Hippolyta](Hippolyta), [Bale](Christian)(Christian Bale) as [Demetrius](Demetrius), [West](Dominic)(Dominic West) as [Lysander](Lysander), [Friel](Anna)(Anna Friel) as [Hermia](Hermia) and [Flockhart](Calista)(Calista Flockhart) as [Helena](Helena (A Midsummer Night's Dream)). This adaptation relocates the play's action from [Athens](Athens) to a fictional "Monte Athena", located in [Tuscany](Tuscany), Italy, although all textual mentions of Athens are retained.
* A 1999 version was written and directed by [Kerwin](James)(James Kerwin). The cast included [Schuldt](Travis)(Travis Schuldt) as [Demetrius](Demetrius). It set the story against a surreal backdrop of techno clubs and ancient symbols.
* ''[Children's Midsummer Night's Dream](The)(The Children's Midsummer Night's Dream)* (2002), directed by [Edzard](Christine)(Christine Edzard), was produced by [Films](Sands)(Sands Films) at their studio in [Rotherhithe](Rotherhithe), London, using 350 school children from Southwark, between the ages of eight and eleven, all theatrically untrained. The sets and costumes were designed to scale and made on site.
* *[Midsummer Night's Rave](A)(A Midsummer Night's Rave)* (2002) directed by [Cates Jr.](Gil)(Gil Cates Jr.) changes the setting to a modern rave. Puck is a drug dealer, the magic flower called love-in-idleness is replaced with magic ecstasy, and the King and Queen of Fairies are the host of the rave and the DJ.
* *[the World Mine](Were)(Were the World Mine)* (2008) features a modern interpretation of the play put on in a private high school in a small town.
* *[Midsummer Night's Dream](A)(A Midsummer Night's Dream (2018 film))*, an American independent film that relocates the story to modern-day Los Angeles.
* *[Midsummer Night's Dream](A)(A Midsummer Night's Dream (2019 film))*, a UK production shot in Austria, set in an alternative near future. Directed by [Bennett](Sacha)(Sacha Bennett), it features [Lindsay](Robert)(Robert Lindsay (actor)) as Oberon, [Aubrey](Juliet)(Juliet Aubrey) as Titania, [Boardman](Lee)(Lee Boardman) as Bottom, Harry Jarvis as Lysander, [Merchant](Tamzin)(Tamzin Merchant) as Helena, [Earl](Holly)(Holly Earl) as Hermia, [Drew-Honey](Tyger)(Tyger Drew-Honey) as Demetrius and [Kasumba](Florence)(Florence Kasumba) as Hippolyta.
### TV productions
* The "play within a play" from Act V, Scene I, *Pyramus and Thisbe*, was performed by the members of the British pop music group [Beatles](The)(The Beatles) on 28 April 1964 for a British television special, *[The Beatles](Around)(Around The Beatles)*. [McCartney](Paul)(Paul McCartney) appeared as Pyramus, [Lennon](John)(John Lennon) as Thisbe, [Harrison](George)(George Harrison) as Moonshine, and [Starr](Ringo)(Ringo Starr) as Lion. The performance, before a live audience, was done with great comic intent and included a number of intentional hecklers. This was broadcast in the UK on [ITV](ITV (TV network)) on 6 May, and in the US on [ABC](American Broadcasting Company) on 15 November.
* The 1981 [Television Shakespeare](BBC)(BBC Television Shakespeare) production was produced by [Miller](Jonathan)(Jonathan Miller) and directed by [Moshinsky](Elijah)(Elijah Moshinsky). It starred [Mirren](Helen)(Helen Mirren) as Titania, [McEnery](Peter)(Peter McEnery) as Oberon, [Daniels](Phil)(Phil Daniels) as Puck, [Lindsay](Robert)(Robert Lindsay (actor)) as Lysander, [Palmer](Geoffrey)(Geoffrey Palmer (actor)) as Quince and [Glover](Brian)(Brian Glover) as Bottom.
* An abbreviated version of *A Midsummer Night's Dream* was made into an animated short (with the same title) by [Disney Television Animation](Walt)(Disney Television Animation) in 1999 as part of the *[Mouse Works](Mickey)(Mickey Mouse Works)* series. It was featured in a 2002 episode of *[of Mouse](House)(House of Mouse)'' ("House of Scrooge", Season 3, Episode 34). The star-crossed lovers are played by [Mouse](Mickey)(Mickey Mouse) (Lysander), [Mouse](Minnie)(Minnie Mouse) ([Hermia](Hermia)), [Duck](Donald)(Donald Duck) (Demetrius), and [Duck](Daisy)(Daisy Duck) ([Helena](Helena (A Midsummer Night's Dream))). The character based on Theseus is played by [Von Drake](Ludwig)(Ludwig Von Drake), and the character based on Egeus by [McDuck](Scrooge)(Scrooge McDuck). [Goofy](Goofy) appears as an accident-prone [Puck](Puck (A Midsummer Night's Dream)). The story ends with the revelation that it was a dream experienced by Mickey Mouse while sleeping at a picnic hosted by Minnie.
* In 2005 *[ShakespeaRe-Told](ShakespeaRe-Told)*, the BBC TV series, aired an updated of the play. It was written by [Bowker](Peter)(Peter Bowker). The cast includes [Vegas](Johnny)(Johnny Vegas) as Bottom, [Lennox Kelly](Dean)(Dean Lennox Kelly) as Puck, [Paterson](Bill)(Bill Paterson (actor)) as Theo (a conflation of Theseus and Egeus), and [Staunton](Imelda)(Imelda Staunton) as his wife Polly (Hippolyta). [James](Lennie)(Lennie James) plays Oberon and [Small](Sharon)(Sharon Small) is Titania. [Tapper](Zoe)(Zoe Tapper) and [Bonnard](Michelle)(Michelle Bonnard) play Hermia and Helena.
* In 2006, *[Suite Life of Zack & Cody](The)(The Suite Life of Zack & Cody)* released an episode called "A Midsummer's Nightmare" where the children are preparing to perform Shakespeare's popular work for a school play. This episode was #22 in season two of the show.
* [One's 2016 production](BBC)(A Midsummer Night's Dream (2016 film)) was a 90-minute TV film adaptation by [T Davies](Russell)(Russell T Davies) directed by [Kerr](David)(David Kerr (director)) starring [Lucas](Matt)(Matt Lucas) as Bottom, [Peake](Maxine)(Maxine Peake) as Titania, and with a diverse cast including [Anozie](Nonso)(Nonso Anozie) as Oberon, [Bakare](Prisca)(Prisca Bakare) as Hermia and [Abeysekera](Hiran)(Hiran Abeysekera) as Puck.
### Astronomy
In 1787, British astronomer [Herschel](William)(William Herschel) discovered two new moons of [Uranus](Uranus). In 1852 his son [Herschel](John)(John Herschel) named them after characters in the play: [Oberon](Oberon (moon)), and [Titania](Titania (moon)). Another Uranian moon, discovered in 1985 by the *[2](Voyager)(Voyager 2)* spacecraft, has been named [Puck](Puck (moon)).
## Gallery
File:Reynolds-Puck.JPG|*Puck* by [Reynolds](Joshua)(Joshua Reynolds), 1789
File:Johann Heinrich Füssli - Titania liebkost den eselköpfigen Bottom.jpg|*Titania and Bottom* by [Heinrich Füssli](Johann)(Johann Heinrich Füssli) 1793–94
File:Titania and Bottom John Anster Fitzgerald.JPG|*Titania and Bottom* by [Anster Fitzgerald](John)(John Anster Fitzgerald)
File:Joseph Noel Paton - The Reconciliation of Titania and Oberon.jpg|[Noel Paton](Joseph)(Joseph Noel Paton): *The Reconciliation of Titania and Oberon*
File:Fitzgerald, John Anster - The Marriage of Oberon and Titania.jpg|*The Marriage of Oberon and Titania* by John Anster Fitzgerald
File:Henry Meynell Rheam - Titania.jpg|[Meynell Rheam](Henry)(Henry Meynell Rheam): *Titania welcoming her fairy brethren''
File:Scene from 'A Midsummer Night's Dream' by John Simmons, 1873, watercolor.jpg|''A Midsummer Night's Dream'' by [Simmons](John)(John Simmons (painter)), 1873
File:Thomas Stothard - Oberon and Titania from "A Midsummer Night's Dream," Act IV, Scene i - Google Art Project.jpg|[Stothard](Thomas)(Thomas Stothard) – Oberon and Titania from ''A Midsummer Night's Dream*, Act IV, Scene I
File:Droomvlucht5.JPG|An animatronic depicts the character Oberon, King of the Elves in the Dutch fairytale theme park [Efteling](Efteling), designed by Ton van de Ven.
## See also
* [(folklore)](Brag)(Brag (folklore))
* [Púca](Púca)
* [and Thisbe](Pyramus)(Pyramus and Thisbe)
* [solstice](Summer)(Summer solstice)
## Notes and references
All references to *A Midsummer Night's Dream*, unless otherwise specified, are taken from the [Shakespeare](Arden)(Arden Shakespeare) 2nd series edition. Under their referencing system, which uses [numerals](roman)(roman numerals), III.i.55 means act 3 (Roman numerals in upper case), scene 1 (Roman numerals lower case), line 55.
### Notes
### References
## Sources
### Editions of *A Midsummer Night's Dream''
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## Further reading
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## External links
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* [*A Midsummer Night's Dream''](http://www.bl.uk/works/a-midsummer-nights-dream) at the British Library
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* [''A Midsummer Night's Dream* Navigator](http://www.shakespeare-navigators.com/dream/): annotated, searchable text (HTML) with scene summaries.
* [Formatted text (HTML) of the play](http://www.opensourceshakespeare.org/views/plays/playmenu.php?WorkID=midsummer)
* [*No Fear Shakespeare'' parallel edition](http://nfs.sparknotes.com/msnd/) : original language alongside a modern translation
* [Clear Shakespeare's ''A Midsummer Night's Dream*](http://clearshakespeare.com/category/midsummer/): a word-by-word audio guide through the play
* [*A Midsummer Night's Dream 2016*](https://www.imdb.com/title/tt5051278/fullcredits) Internet Movie Database
* [*A Midsummer Night's Dream* – 90-Minute abridgement by Gerald P Murphy ](http://www.lazybeescripts.co.uk/Scripts/script.aspx?iSS=742)
* [*A Thirty Minute Dream''](http://www.lazybeescripts.co.uk/Scripts/Results.aspx?iSc=743): Abridgement by Bill Tordoff, Shakespeare's text reduced to the length of a school lesson.
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[ ](Category:A Midsummer Night's Dream)
[plays](Category:1590s)(Category:1590s plays)
[set in Athens](Category:Plays)(Category:Plays set in Athens)
[plays adapted into films](Category:British)(Category:British plays adapted into films)
[depictions of Theseus](Category:Cultural)(Category:Cultural depictions of Theseus)
[Renaissance plays](Category:English)(Category:English Renaissance plays)
[about fairies and sprites](Category:Plays)(Category:Plays about fairies and sprites)
[plays](Category:Metafictional)(Category:Metafictional plays)
[adapted into operas](Category:Plays)(Category:Plays adapted into operas)
[set in ancient Greece](Category:Plays)(Category:Plays set in ancient Greece)
[comedies](Category:Shakespearean)(Category:Shakespearean comedies)
[about shapeshifting](Category:Fiction)(Category:Fiction about shapeshifting)
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Robert Duvall
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robert_duvall
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# Robert Duvall
*Revision ID: 1159927972 | Timestamp: 2023-06-13T12:05:40Z*
---
| birth_place = [Diego](San)(San Diego), California, U.S.
| death_date =
| resting_place =
| alma_mater = [College](Principia)(Principia College) ([BA](Bachelor of Arts))
| occupation =
| years_active = 1949–present
| party = [Independent](Independent (United States))
| works = [list](Full)(Robert Duvall filmography)
| awards = [list](Full)(List of awards and nominations received by Robert Duvall)
| spouse = |
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}}
| module =
| branch =
| branch_label = Branch
| serviceyears = 1953–54
| rank = [18px](File:Army-USA-OR-03.svg) [first class](Private)(Private first class#United States Army)
}}
}}
**Robert Selden Duvall** (; born January 5, 1931) is an American actor and filmmaker. His career spans more than seven decades and he is considered one of the greatest American actors of all time. He is the recipient of an [Award](Academy)(Academy Awards), four [Globe Awards](Golden)(Golden Globe Awards), a [Award](BAFTA)(British Academy Film Awards), two [Emmy Awards](Primetime)(Primetime Emmy Awards) and a [Actors Guild Award](Screen)(Screen Actors Guild Awards). Duvall started his career on stage before transitioning to film and television.
Duvall made his [Broadway](Broadway (theatre)) debut in the play *[Until Dark](Wait)(Wait Until Dark)* in 1966. He returned to the stage in [Mamet](David)(David Mamet)'s play *[Buffalo](American)(American Buffalo (play))* in 1977 earning a [Desk Award for Outstanding Actor in a Play](Drama)(Drama Desk Award for Outstanding Actor in a Play) nomination.
He made his feature film acting debut portraying [Radley](Boo)(Boo Radley) in *[Kill a Mockingbird](To)(To Kill a Mockingbird (film))* (1962). Other early roles include *[Newman, M.D.](Captain)(Captain Newman, M.D.)* (1963), *[Bullitt](Bullitt)* (1968), *[Grit](True)(True Grit (1969 film))* (1969), *[M*A*S*H](M*A*S*H (film))* (1970), *[1138](THX)(THX 1138)* (1971), *[Kidd](Joe)(Joe Kidd)* (1972), and *[Tomorrow](Tomorrow (1972 film))* (1972), the latter of which was developed at [Actors Studio](The)(Actors Studio) and is his personal favorite.
Duvall won the [Award for Best Actor](Academy)(Academy Award for Best Actor) for his role in the film *[Mercies](Tender)(Tender Mercies)* (1983). His other Oscar-nominated films include *[Godfather](The)(The Godfather)* (1972), *[Now](Apocalypse)(Apocalypse Now)* (1979), *[Great Santini](The)(The Great Santini)* (1979), *[Apostle](The)(The Apostle)* (1997), *[Civil Action](A)(A Civil Action (film))* (1998), and *[Judge](The)(The Judge (2014 film))* (2014). Other notable roles include *[Outfit](The)(The Outfit (1973 film))* (1973), *[Godfather Part II](The)(The Godfather Part II)* (1974), *[Conversation](The)(The Conversation)* (1974), *[Network](Network (1976 film))* (1976), *[Confessions](True)(True Confessions (film))* (1981), *[Natural](The)(The Natural (film))* (1984), *[of Thunder](Days)(Days of Thunder)* (1990), ''[Handmaid's Tale](The)(The Handmaid's Tale (film))* (1990), *[Rose](Rambling)(Rambling Rose (film))* (1991), *[Down](Falling)(Falling Down)* (1993), *[Paper](The)(The Paper (film))* (1994), *[Scarlet Letter](The)(The Scarlet Letter (1995 film))* (1995), *[Range](Open)(Open Range (2003 film))* (2003), *[Heart](Crazy)(Crazy Heart)* (2009), *[Low](Get)(Get Low (film))* (2010), *[Reacher](Jack)(Jack Reacher (film))* (2012), and *[Widows](Widows (2018 film))* (2018).
Throughout his career he has starred in numerous television programs. He won the [Emmy Award](Primetime)(Primetime Emmy Award) for [Limited Series](Outstanding)(Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Limited or Anthology Series) and [Lead Actor in a Limited Series](Outstanding)(Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Limited or Anthology Series or Movie) for the [AMC](AMC (TV channel)) limited series *[Trail](Broken)(Broken Trail)* (2007). His other Emmy-nominated roles were in the [CBS](CBS) miniseries *[Dove](Lonesome)(Lonesome Dove (miniseries))* (1989), the [HBO](HBO) film *[Stalin](Stalin (1992 film))* (1992), and the [TNT](TNT (American TV network)) film *[Man Who Captured Eichmann](The)(The Man Who Captured Eichmann)* (1996).
## Early life
Duvall was born January 5, 1931, in [Diego](San)(San Diego), California, to Mildred Virginia Duvall (), an amateur actress, and Admiral William Howard Duvall, a [Virginia](Virginia)-born [States Navy](United)(United States Navy) rear admiral. The second of three sons, he has an elder brother, William Jr. and a younger brother, John (1934–2000), who was an entertainment lawyer. His mother was a relative of [Civil War](American)(American Civil War) General [E. Lee](Robert)(Robert E. Lee), and a member of the [Family of Virginia](Lee)(Lee family), while his father was a descendant of settler [Duvall](Mareen)(Mareen Duvall).Vickers, Hugo (2011). Behind Closed Doors: The Tragic, Untold, Story of the Duchess of Windsor. London: Hutchinson. p. 377. . Duvall was raised in the [Science](Christian)(Christian Science) religion and has stated that, while it is his belief, he does not attend church. He grew up primarily in [Maryland](Annapolis,)(Annapolis, Maryland), site of the [States Naval Academy](United)(United States Naval Academy). He recalled: "I was a [brat](Navy)(Military brat (U.S. subculture)). My father started at the Academy when he was 16, made [captain](Captain (naval)) at 39 and retired as a [admiral](rear)(rear admiral)." He attended [School](Severn)(Severn School) in [Park, Maryland](Severna)(Severna Park, Maryland), and [Principia](The)(The Principia) in [Louis, Missouri](St.)(St. Louis, Missouri). He graduated with a Bachelor of Arts degree in drama from [College](Principia)(Principia College) in [Illinois](Elsah,)(Elsah, Illinois), in 1953.
His father had expected him to attend the Naval Academy, but Duvall said "I was terrible at everything but acting—I could barely get through school". He again defied his father by serving in the [States Army](United)(United States Army) after the [War](Korean)(Korean War) (from August 19, 1953, to August 20, 1954) leaving the Army as [first class](private)(private first class)."Famous Veteran: Robert Duvall", *Military.com* – *Veteran Employment Center''. Retrieved December 13, 2015 "That's led to some confusion in the press," he explained in 1984, "Some stories have me shooting it out with the [Commies](Commies) from a [foxhole](Defensive fighting position) over in Frozen Chosin. [Chop Hill](Pork)(Battle of Pork Chop Hill) stuff. Hell, I barely qualified with the [rifle](M-1)(M-1 rifle) in [training](basic)(basic training)". While stationed at [Gordon](Camp)(Camp Gordon) (later renamed [Gordon](Fort)(Fort Gordon)) in [Georgia](Georgia (U.S. state)), Duvall acted in an amateur production of the comedy *[Service](Room)(Room Service (play))* in nearby [Georgia](Augusta,)(Augusta, Georgia).
In the winter of 1955, Duvall attended the [Playhouse School of the Theatre](Neighborhood)(Neighborhood Playhouse School of the Theatre) in New York City, under [Meisner](Sanford)(Sanford Meisner), on the [Bill](G.I.)(G.I. Bill). During his two years there, [Hoffman](Dustin)(Dustin Hoffman), [Hackman](Gene)(Gene Hackman) and [Caan](James)(James Caan) were among his classmates.Current Biography July 1977 (The H.W. Wilson Company) at robertduvall.net23.net. Retrieved January 2, 2012.Neighborhood Playhouse School of the Theatre: Photo Gallery at www.neighborhoodplayhouse.org. Retrieved December 31, 2011. While studying acting, he worked as a Manhattan post office clerk. Duvall remains friends today with fellow California-born actors Hoffman and Hackman, whom he knew during their years as struggling actors. In 1955, Duvall roomed with Hoffman in a New York City apartment while they were studying together at the Playhouse. Around this time, he also roomed with Hackman, while working odd jobs such as clerking at [Macy's](Macy's), sorting mail at the post office, and driving a truck.
## Career
### Early career: 1952–1969
#### Theater
Duvall began his professional acting career with the [Playhouse](Gateway)(Gateway Playhouse), an [Equity](Actors' Equity Association) summer theater based in [Bellport](Bellport), [Island](Long)(Long Island), New York. Arguably his stage debut was in its 1952 season when he played the Pilot in *Laughter In The Stars*, an adaptation of *[Little Prince](The)(The Little Prince)*, at what was then the Gateway Theatre.Program booklet for
After a year's absence when he was with the [Army](U.S.)(U.S. Army) (1953–1954), he returned to Gateway in its 1955 summer season, playing: Eddie Davis in [Alexander](Ronald)(Ronald Alexander (playwright))'s *Time Out For Ginger* (July 1955), Hal Carter in [Inge](William)(William Inge)'s *Picnic* (July 1955), Charles Wilder in [Willard](John)(John Willard)'s *The Cat And The Canary* (August 1955), Parris in [Miller](Arthur)(Arthur Miller)'s *The Crucible* (August 1955), and John the Witchboy in William Berney and [Richardson](Howard)(Howard Richardson (playwright))'s *Dark of the Moon* (September 1955). The playbill of *Dark of the Moon* indicated that he had portrayed the Witchboy before and that he will "repeat his famous portrayal" of this character for the 1955 season's revival of this play. For Gateway's 1956 season (his third season with the Gateway Players), he played the role of Max Halliday in [Knott](Frederick)(Frederick Knott)'s *Dial M for Murder* (July 1956), Virgil Blessing in Inge's *Bus Stop* (August 1956), and Clive Mortimer in [van Druten](John)(John van Druten)'s *I Am a Camera* (August 1956). The playbills for the 1956 season described him as "an audience favorite" in the last season and as having "appeared at the Neighborhood Playhouse in New York and studied acting with Sandy Meisner this past winter".
In its 1957 season, he appeared as Mr. Mayher in [Christie](Agatha)(Agatha Christie)'s *Witness For The Prosecution* (July 1957), as Hector in [Anouilh](Jean)(Jean Anouilh)'s ''[Carnival](Thieves')(Thieves' Carnival)l'' (July 1957), and the role which he once described as the "catalyst of his career": Eddie Carbone in [Miller](Arthur)(Arthur Miller)'s *A View from the Bridge* (from July 30 to August 3, 1957, and directed by [Grosbard](Ulu)(Ulu Grosbard), who was by then a regular director at the Gateway Theatre). Miller himself attended one of Duvall's performances as Eddie, and during that performance he met important people which allowed him, in two months, to land a "spectacular lead" in the *Naked City* television series.
While appearing at the Gateway Theatre in the second half of the 1950s, he was also appearing at the Augusta Civic Theatre, the McLean Theatre in [Virginia](Virginia) and the [Stage](Arena)(Arena Stage) in Washington, DC. The 1957 playbills also described him as "a graduate of the Neighborhood Playhouse" (indicating that he had completed his studies there by the summer of 1957), "a member of Sanford Meisner's professional workshop" and as having worked with Alvin Epstein, a [mime](mime) and a member of [Marceau](Marcel)(Marcel Marceau)'s company. By this time (also July 1957), his theatrical credits included performances as Jimmy in *The Rainmaker* and as Harvey Weems in [Foote](Horton)(Horton Foote)'s *The Midnight Caller*.Duvall biography at program booklet for 1957_Playbill_WitnessFortheProsecution.pdf at gatewayplayhouse.com/Archive/Playbill/1957. Retrieved January 3, 2012. Already receiving top-billing at the Gateway Playhouse, in the 1959 season, he appeared in lead roles as Stanley Kowalski in [Williams](Tennessee)(Tennessee Williams)' *A Streetcar Named Desire* (July–August 1959), Maxwell Archer in *Once More with Feeling*, Igor Romanoff in [Ustinov](Peter)(Peter Ustinov)'s *Romanoff and Juliet*, and Joe Mancuso in Kyle Crichton's *The Happiest Millionaire* (all in August 1959).
At the Neighborhood Playhouse, Meisner cast him in Tennessee Williams' *Camino Real* and the title role of Harvey Weems in Foote's [play](one-act)(one-act play) *The Midnight Caller*. The latter was already part of Duvall's performance credits by mid-July 1957.Horton Foote, *Genesis of an American Playwright* (Longview, Texas: Markham Press Fund of Baylor University Press, 2004): p. 103. Retrieved from Google Books, December 31, 2011.Roy M. Anker, *Catching Light: Looking for God in the Movies* (Grand Rapids, Michigan: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, 2004): p. 138. Retrieved from Google Books, December 31, 2011.William Esper, Remembrance of Sanford Meisner at The [Esper Studio](William)(William Esper Studio), esperstudio.com. Retrieved December 31, 2011.Robert Feinberg, *Interview: Robert Duvall Reflects on 50 Years of Great Screen Roles* (Friday, July 30, 2010) at scottfeinberg.com. Retrieved December 31, 2011.Robert Duvall Biography in *Journal of Religion and Film* (1998). Retrieved at robertduvall.net23.net, January 2, 2012.
Duvall made his [off-Broadway](off-Broadway) debut at the [Theater](Gate)(Gate Theatre (New York City)) as Frank Gardner in [Bernard Shaw](George)(George Bernard Shaw)'s ''[Warren's Profession](Mrs.)(Mrs. Warren's Profession)'' on June 25, 1958. This play closed three days later (June 28) after five performances. His other early off-Broadway credits include the role of Doug in the premiere of [Shurtleff](Michael)(Michael Shurtleff)'s *[Me By My Rightful Name](Call)(Call Me By My Rightful Name)* on January 31, 1961, at One Sheridan Square and the role of Bob Smith in the premiere of [Snyder](William)(William Snyder (playwright))'s *[Days and Nights of BeeBee Fenstermaker](The)(The Days and Nights of BeeBee Fenstermaker)* on September 17, 1962, until June 9, 1963, at the [Square Playhouse](Sheridan)(Sheridan Square Playhouse). His most notable off-Broadway performance, for which he won an [Award](Obie)(Obie Award) in 1965 and which he considers his "[Othello](Othello)", was as Eddie Carbone (again) in Miller's *[View From the Bridge](A)(A View From the Bridge)* at the [Square Playhouse](Sheridan)(Sheridan Square Playhouse) from January 28, 1965, to December 11, 1966. It was directed again by Ulu Grosbard with Dustin Hoffman. On February 2, 1966, he made his [Broadway](Broadway theater) debut as Harry Roat, Jr in [Knott](Frederick)(Frederick Knott)'s *[Until Dark](Wait)(Wait Until Dark)* at the [Barrymore Theatre](Ethel)(Ethel Barrymore Theatre). This played at the [Theatre](Shubert)(Shubert Theatre (Broadway)) and [Abbott Theatre](George)(George Abbott Theatre) and closed on December 31, 1966, at the [Box Theatre](Music)(Music Box Theatre). His other Broadway performance was as Walter Cole in [Mamet](David)(David Mamet)'s *American Buffalo*, which opened at the Ethel Barrymore Theatre on February 16, 1977, and closed at the [Theatre](Belasco)(Belasco Theatre) on June 11, 1977.Lortel Archives: The Internet Off-Broadway Database at www.lortel.org. Retrieved January 1, 2012."Robert Duvall" at IBDB (Internet Broadway Database), www.ibdb.com. Retrieved January 1, 2012.Robert Duvall in Broadwayworld International Database at broadwayworld.com. Retrieved January 2, 2012.
#### Television
In 1959, Duvall made his first television appearance on *[Circle Theater](Armstrong)(Armstrong Circle Theater)* in the episode "The Jailbreak". He appeared regularly on television as a guest actor during the 1960s, often in action, suspense, detective, or crime dramas. His appearances during this time include performances on *[Hitchcock Presents](Alfred)(Alfred Hitchcock Presents)*, *[City](Naked)(Naked City (TV series))*, *[Untouchables](The)(The Untouchables (1959 TV series))*, *[66](Route)(Route 66 (TV series))*, *[Twilight Zone](The)(The Twilight Zone (1959 TV series))*, *[Combat!](Combat! (TV series))*, *[Outer Limits](The)(The Outer Limits (1963 TV series))*, *[Fugitive](The)(The Fugitive (1963 TV series))*, *[Cat](T.H.E.)(T.H.E. Cat)*, *[to the Bottom of the Sea](Voyage)(Voyage to the Bottom of the Sea (TV series))*, *[Time Tunnel](The)(The Time Tunnel)*, *[F.B.I.](The)(The F.B.I. (TV series))*, and *[Mod Squad](The)(The Mod Squad)*.
#### Film
His film debut was as [Radley](Boo)(Boo Radley) in the critically acclaimed *[Kill a Mockingbird](To)(To Kill a Mockingbird (film))* (1962). He was cast in the film on the recommendation of screenwriter [Foote](Horton)(Horton Foote), who met Duvall at [Playhouse](Neighborhood)(Neighborhood Playhouse) during a 1957 production of Foote's play, *The Midnight Caller*. Foote, who collaborated with Duvall many more times over the course of their careers, said he believed Duvall had a particular love of common people and ability to infuse fascinating revelations into his roles. Foote has described Duvall as "our number one actor".
After *To Kill a Mockingbird*, Duvall appeared in a number of films during the 1960s, mostly in midsized parts, but also in a few larger supporting roles. Some of his more notable appearances include the role of Capt. Paul Cabot Winston in *[Newman, M.D.](Captain)(Captain Newman, M.D.)* (1963), Chiz in *[Countdown](Countdown (1968 film))* (1968), and Gordon in *[Rain People](The)(The Rain People)*. Duvall had a small part as a cab driver who ferries McQueen around just before the chase scene in the film *[Bullitt](Bullitt)* (1968). He was the notorious malefactor "Lucky" Ned Pepper in *[Grit](True)(True Grit (1969 film))* (1969), in which he engaged in a climactic shootout with [Wayne](John)(John Wayne)'s [Cogburn](Rooster)(Rooster Cogburn (character)) on horseback.
### Mid-career: 1970–1989
[[File:President Ronald Reagan and Nancy Reagan greet Robert Duvall.jpg|thumb|left|Duvall with President [Reagan](Ronald)(Ronald Reagan) and First Lady [Reagan](Nancy)(Nancy Reagan) in 1985]]
[[File:Robert Duvall Diane Lane 1989.jpg|thumb|upright|Duvall with [Lane](Diane)(Diane Lane) at the 41st [Awards](Emmy)(Emmy Awards) in September 1989]]
Duvall became an important presence in American films beginning in the 1970s. He drew a considerable amount of attention in 1970 for his portrayal of the malevolent Major [Burns](Frank)(Frank Burns (M*A*S*H)) in the film *[MASH](MASH (film))* and for his portrayal of the title role in *[1138](THX)(THX 1138)* in 1971 where he plays a fugitive trying to escape a society controlled by robots. His first major critical success came portraying [Hagen](Tom)(Tom Hagen) in *[Godfather](The)(The Godfather)* (1972) and *[Godfather Part II](The)(The Godfather Part II)* (1974), the 1972 film earning him an Academy Award nomination for [Supporting Actor](Best)(Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor). In 1976, Duvall played supporting roles in *[Eagle Has Landed](The)(The Eagle Has Landed (film))*, and as Dr. Watson in *[Seven-Per-Cent Solution](The)(The Seven-Per-Cent Solution (film))* with [Williamson](Nicol)(Nicol Williamson), [Arkin](Alan)(Alan Arkin), [Redgrave](Vanessa)(Vanessa Redgrave) and [Olivier](Laurence)(Laurence Olivier).
By the mid-1970s Duvall was a top [actor](character)(character actor); *[People](People (magazine))* described him as "Hollywood's No. 1 No. 2 lead". Duvall received another Oscar nomination for Best Supporting Actor and won both a BAFTA Award and Golden Globe Award for his role as Lt. Colonel Kilgore in *[Now](Apocalypse)(Apocalypse Now)* (1979). His line "I love the smell of napalm in the morning" from *Apocalypse Now* is regarded as iconic in cinema history. The full text is:
Duvall received a BAFTA Award nomination for his portrayal of detestable television executive Frank Hackett in the critically acclaimed film *[Network](Network (1976 film))* (1976) and garnered an Oscar nomination for [Actor in a Leading Role](Best)(Academy Award for Best Actor) in *[Great Santini](The)(The Great Santini)* (1979) as the hard-boiled [Marine](United States Marine Corps) Lt. Col. "Bull" Meechum. The latter role was based on a Marine [aviator](Naval aviator), Colonel [Conroy](Donald)(Donald Conroy), the father of the book's author [Conroy](Pat)(Pat Conroy). He also co-starred with Laurence Olivier and [Lee Jones](Tommy)(Tommy Lee Jones) in *[Betsy](The)(The Betsy)* (1978) and portrayed United States President [D. Eisenhower](Dwight)(Dwight D. Eisenhower) in the television miniseries *[Ike](Ike (TV miniseries))* (1979).
[Ford Coppola](Francis)(Francis Ford Coppola) praised Duvall as "one of the four or five best actors in the world". Wanting [billing](top)(billing (performing arts)) in films, in 1977 Duvall returned to Broadway to appear as Walter Cole in [Mamet](David)(David Mamet)'s *American Buffalo*, stating "I hope this will get me better film roles". He received a [Desk Award](Drama)(Drama Desk Award) nomination for [Actor in a Play](Outstanding)(Drama Desk Award for Outstanding Actor in a Play).
Duvall continued appearing in films during the 1980s, including the roles of disillusioned sportswriter Max Mercy in *[Natural](The)(The Natural (film))* (1984) and Los Angeles police officer Bob Hodges in *[Colors](Colors (film))* (1988). He won an Oscar for [Actor](Best)(Academy award for best actor) as [western](country)(Country music) singer Mac Sledge in *[Mercies](Tender)(Tender Mercies)* (1983). Duvall did his own singing, insisting it be added to his contract that he sing the songs himself; Duvall said, "What's the point if you're not going to do your own [singing]? They're just going to dub somebody else? I mean, there's no point to that."
Actress [Harper](Tess)(Tess Harper), who co-starred, said Duvall inhabited the character so fully that she only got to know Mac Sledge and not Duvall himself. Director [Beresford](Bruce)(Bruce Beresford), too, said the transformation was so believable to him that he could feel his skin crawling up the back of his neck the first day of filming with Duvall. Beresford said of the actor, "Duvall has the ability to completely inhabit the person he's acting. He totally and utterly becomes that person to a degree which is uncanny." Nevertheless, Duvall and Beresford did not get along well during the production and often clashed during filming, including one day in which Beresford walked off the set in frustration.
In 1989, Duvall appeared in the miniseries *[Dove](Lonesome)(Lonesome Dove (TV miniseries))* in the role of Captain ["Gus" McCrae](Augustus)(Augustus "Gus" McCrae), Texas Rangers (retired). He has considered this particular role to be his personal favorite. He won a Golden Globe Award and earned an Emmy Award nomination. For his role as a former Texas Ranger peace officer, Duvall was trained in the use of Walker revolvers by the Texas [marksman](marksman) [Bowman](Joe)(Joe Bowman (marksman)).
### Later career: 1990–present
[[Duvall and Gregory Dayton.png|thumb|left|upright|Duvall on the set of *The Man Who Captured Eichmann*, 1996](File:Robert)]
[[File:2005 National Medal of Arts winners.jpg|thumb|upright=1.13|President [W. Bush](George)(George W. Bush) stands with recipients of the 2005 [Medal of Arts](National)(National Medal of Arts), from left: [Garment](Leonard)(Leonard Garment), [Auchincloss](Louis)(Louis Auchincloss), [D'Rivera](Paquito)(Paquito D'Rivera), [DePreist](James)(James DePreist), [Ramirez](Tina)(Tina Ramirez), Robert Duvall, and [Johnston](Ollie)(Ollie Johnston)]]
For *[Godfather Part III](The)(The Godfather Part III)* (1990), Duvall declined the part, unless he was paid a salary comparable to [Pacino](Al)(Al Pacino)'s. In 2004, Duvall said on *[Minutes](60)(60 Minutes)*, "if they paid Pacino twice what they paid me, that's fine, but not three or four times, which is what they did." In 1992, Duvall founded the production company Butcher's Run Films. Duvall has maintained a busy film career, sometimes appearing in as many as four in one year. He received Oscar nominations for his portrayals of [evangelical](Evangelicalism) preacher Euliss "Sonny" Dewey in *[Apostle](The)(The Apostle)* (1997)—a film he also wrote and directed—and lawyer Jerome Facher in *[Civil Action](A)(A Civil Action (film))* (1998).
He directed *[Tango](Assassination)(Assassination Tango)* (2002), a thriller about one of his favorite hobbies, [tango](tango (dance)). He portrayed General [E. Lee](Robert)(Robert E. Lee) in *[and Generals](Gods)(Gods and Generals (film))* in 2003.
Other roles during this period that displayed the actor's wide range included that of a crew chief in *[of Thunder](Days)(Days of Thunder)* (1990), a retiring cop in *[Down](Falling)(Falling Down)* (1993), a Hispanic barber in *[Ernest Hemingway](Wrestling)(Wrestling Ernest Hemingway)* (1993), a New York tabloid editor in *[Paper](The)(The Paper (film))* (1994), a rural doctor in *[Phenomenon](Phenomenon (film))* (1996), a father who owns a jumper horse farm in *[to Talk About](Something)(Something to Talk About (film))* (1995), an abusive father in 1996's *[Blade](Sling)(Sling Blade)*, an astronaut in *[Impact](Deep)(Deep Impact (film))* (1998), a mechanic in *[in 60 Seconds](Gone)(Gone in 60 Seconds (2000 film))* (2000), a soccer coach in *[Shot at Glory](A)(A Shot at Glory)*, a scientist in *[6th Day](The)(The 6th Day)* (2000), a police officer in *[Q.](John)(John Q.)* (2002), a trail boss in *[Range](Open)(Open Range (2003 film))* (2003), another soccer coach in the comedy *[& Screaming](Kicking)(Kicking & Screaming (2005 film))*, an old free spirit in *[Lions](Secondhand)(Secondhand Lions)* (2003), a Las Vegas poker champion in *[You](Lucky)(Lucky You (film))*, and a [York City police](New)(New York City police) chief in *[Own the Night](We)(We Own the Night (film))* (both 2007).
He has his own star on the [Louis Walk of Fame](St.)(St. Louis Walk of Fame).
Duvall has periodically worked in television from the 1990s on. He won a Golden Globe Award and garnered an Emmy nomination for his portrayal of Soviet Premier [Stalin](Joseph)(Joseph Stalin) in the 1992 television film *[Stalin](Stalin (1992 film))*. He was nominated for an Emmy again in 1997 for portraying [Eichmann](Adolf)(Adolf Eichmann) in *[Man Who Captured Eichmann](The)(The Man Who Captured Eichmann)*. In 2006, he won an Emmy for the role of Prentice "Print" Ritter in the [Western](revisionist)(revisionist Western) miniseries *[Trail](Broken)(Broken Trail)*.
In 2005, Duvall was awarded a [Medal of Arts](National)(National Medal of Arts) by President [W. Bush](George)(George W. Bush) at the [House](White)(White House).["Home > News & Policies > November 2005."](https://georgewbush-whitehouse.archives.gov/news/releases/2005/11/images/20051110-2_d-0221-1-515h.html) George W. Bush White House Archives. November 10, 2005. In 2014, he starred in *[Judge](The)(The Judge (2014 film))* alongside [Downey Jr.](Robert)(Robert Downey Jr.) While the movie itself received mixed reviews, Duvall's performance was praised. He was nominated for a Golden Globe, [Actors Guild](Screen)(Screen Actors Guild), and Academy Award for his supporting role. In 2015, at age 84, Duvall became the oldest actor ever nominated for the [Award for Best Supporting Actor](Academy)(Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor) for his role in the film *The Judge*, a record that has since been surpassed by [Plummer](Christopher)(Christopher Plummer).
In 2018, he appeared in the [McQueen](Steve)(Steve McQueen (director))-directed heist thriller *[Widows](Widows (2018 film))* as a corrupt power broker. The film earned critical acclaim. In 2021, he was interviewed by [Colbert](Stephen)(Stephen Colbert) for *[Late Show with Stephen Colbert](The)(The Late Show with Stephen Colbert)* where he discussed his film career, living with [Hoffman](Dustin)(Dustin Hoffman), his role in *[Network](Network (1976 film))*, and his acting techniques.
## Personal life
### Relationships
[[Duvall, actor, with wife Gail Youngs, NYC apartment.jpg|right|thumb|upright|Duvall with wife Gail Youngs, NYC apartment, 1984](File:Robert)]
[[File:Robert Duvall Navy3.jpg|thumb|right|Duvall with future and current wife [Pedraza](Luciana)(Luciana Pedraza) (right) shaking hands with a member of "The Black Stallions" of Helicopter Combat Support Squadron Four at the [Film Fest](Taormina)(Taormina Film Fest) in Sicily.]]
Duvall has been married four times but does not have any children. "I guess I'm [blanks](shooting)(male infertility)," he said in 2007.Walls, Jeannette (March 18, 2007). [Duvall’s ‘shooting blanks’](https://www.today.com/popculture/queen-pop-jacko-acts-diva-wbna17521718) . *Today*. He has said, "[tried](I’ve) with a lot of different women, in and out of marriage." Duvall met his first wife, Barbara Benjamin, a former announcer and dancer on *[Jackie Gleason Show](The)(The Jackie Gleason Show)*, during the shooting of *[Kill a Mockingbird](To)(To Kill a Mockingbird (film))*. She had also appeared in *[and Dolls](Guys)(Guys and Dolls)* (1955) and ''[Courtship of Eddie's Father](The)(The Courtship of Eddie's Father)* (1963) using the name Barbara Brent.Clemens, Samuel. "Pageantry", *Lulu Press''. August 2022 She had two daughters from her previous marriage. They were married from 1964 until 1975. His second wife was Gail Youngs, to whom he was married from 1982 to 1986. His marriage to Youngs temporarily made him the brother-in-law of [Savage](John)(John Savage (actor)), [Young](Robin)(Robin Young), and [Youngs](Jim)(Jim Youngs). His third marriage was to Sharon Brophy, a dancer, from 1991 to 1995.
In 2005, Duvall married his fourth wife, [Pedraza](Luciana)(Luciana Pedraza), granddaughter of [Argentine](Argentina) aviation pioneer [Ferrari Billinghurst](Susana)(Susana Ferrari Billinghurst). He met Pedraza in [Argentina](Argentina), recalling, "The flower shop was closed, so I went to the bakery. If the flower shop had been open, I never would've met her." They were both born on January 5, but Duvall is 41 years older. They have been together since 1997. He produced, directed, and acted with her in *[Tango](Assassination)(Assassination Tango)*, with the majority of filming in Buenos Aires. Duvall is also known as a very skilled Argentine tango dancer, having a tango studio in Argentina and in the United States.
Duvall is known to train [jiu-jitsu](Brazilian)(Brazilian jiu-jitsu) and practices martial arts with his wife.
### Politics
Duvall's political views are variously described as [libertarian](Libertarianism) or [conservative](Conservatism in the United States). He was personally invited to [Republican](Republican Party (United States)) President [W. Bush](George)(George W. Bush)'s inauguration in 2001. In September 2007, he announced his support for [Giuliani](Rudy)(Rudy Giuliani)'s [campaign](Rudy Giuliani 2008 presidential campaign) in the [Republican Party presidential primaries](2008)(2008 Republican Party presidential primaries). Duvall worked the floor at the GOP's [national convention](2008)(2008 Republican National Convention). In September 2008, he appeared onstage at a [McCain](John)(John McCain)–[Palin](Sarah)(Sarah Palin) rally in [Mexico](New)(New Mexico), and he endorsed Republican presidential nominee [Romney](Mitt)(Mitt Romney) in 2012. However, in 2014, Duvall said in an interview he had become an [independent](Independent voter).
### Philanthropy and activism
In 2001, Pedraza and Duvall founded the Robert Duvall Children's Fund to assist families in Northern Argentina through renovations of homes, schools, and medical facilities. Duvall and Pedraza have been active supporters of Pro Mujer, a nonprofit charity organization dedicated to helping Latin America's poorest women (with Duvall and Pedraza concentrating on Pedraza's home in the [Northwest](Argentine)(Argentine Northwest)).
In May 2009, Duvall spoke for historic preservation against [Walmart](Wal-Mart)'s proposal to build a store across the road from the entrance to the [Battlefield](Wilderness)(Battle of the Wilderness) national park in [County, Virginia](Orange)(Orange County, Virginia). In 2011, he appeared at the [Children's Cancer Center](Texas)(Texas Children's Cancer Center) charity event, "An Evening with a Texas Legend", in [Houston](Houston), where he was interviewed by [Schieffer](Bob)(Bob Schieffer).
In February 2023, Duvall spoke at a council meeting in suburban Virginia against a proposed [Amazon](Amazon (company)) facility. The facility was nonetheless approved.
## Filmography
## Awards and nominations
## References
## Further reading
*
## External links
*
*
*
}}
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[American male actors](Category:20th-century)(Category:20th-century American male actors)
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[Miniseries or Television Movie Actor Golden Globe winners](Category:Best)(Category:Best Miniseries or Television Movie Actor Golden Globe winners)
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[R](Category:Duvall family)
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[Spirit Award winners](Category:Independent)(Category:Independent Spirit Award winners)
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[Performance by a Male Actor in a Supporting Role Screen Actors Guild Award winners](Category:Outstanding)(Category:Outstanding Performance by a Male Actor in a Supporting Role Screen Actors Guild Award winners)
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|
Chi-squared test
|
chi-squared_test
|
# Chi-squared test
*Revision ID: 1156824343 | Timestamp: 2023-05-24T20:23:54Z*
---
[[File:Chi-square distributionCDF-English.png|thumb|right|300px|[distribution](Chi-squared)(Chi-squared distribution), showing on the *x*-axis and *p*-value (right tail probability) on the *y*-axis.]]
A **chi-squared test** (also **chi-square** or ** test**) is a [hypothesis test](statistical)(Statistical hypothesis testing) used in the analysis of [tables](contingency)(contingency table) when the sample sizes are large. In simpler terms, this test is primarily used to examine whether two categorical variables (*two dimensions of the contingency table*) are independent in influencing the test statistic (*values within the table*). The test is [valid](Validity (statistics)) when the test statistic is [distributed](chi-squared)(chi-squared distribution) under the [hypothesis](null)(null hypothesis), specifically [chi-squared test](Pearson's)(Pearson's chi-squared test) and variants thereof. Pearson's chi-squared test is used to determine whether there is a [significant](statistically)(Statistical significance) difference between the expected [frequencies](frequency (statistics)) and the observed frequencies in one or more categories of a [table](contingency)(contingency table). For contingency tables with smaller sample sizes, a [exact test](Fisher's)(Fisher's exact test) is used instead.
In the standard applications of this test, the observations are classified into mutually exclusive classes. If the [hypothesis](null)(null hypothesis) that there are no differences between the classes in the population is true, the test statistic computed from the observations follows a [distribution](frequency)(frequency distribution). The purpose of the test is to evaluate how likely the observed frequencies would be assuming the null hypothesis is true.
Test statistics that follow a distribution occur when the observations are independent. There are also tests for testing the null hypothesis of independence of a pair of [variable](random)(random variable)s based on observations of the pairs.
*Chi-squared tests* often refers to tests for which the distribution of the test statistic approaches the distribution [asymptotically](asymptote), meaning that the [distribution](sampling)(sampling distribution) (if the null hypothesis is true) of the test statistic approximates a chi-squared distribution more and more closely as [sample](Sample (statistics)) sizes increase.
## History
In the 19th century, statistical analytical methods were mainly applied in biological data analysis and it was customary for researchers to assume that observations followed a [distribution](normal)(normal distribution), such as [George Airy](Sir)(Sir George Airy) and [Merriman](Mansfield)(Mansfield Merriman), whose works were criticized by [Pearson](Karl)(Karl Pearson) in his 1900 paper.
At the end of the 19th century, Pearson noticed the existence of significant [skewness](skewness) within some biological observations. In order to model the observations regardless of being normal or skewed, Pearson, in a series of articles published from 1893 to 1916,
devised the [distribution](Pearson)(Pearson distribution), a family of continuous [distribution](probability)(probability distribution)s, which includes the normal distribution and many skewed distributions, and proposed a method of statistical analysis consisting of using the Pearson distribution to model the observation and performing a test of goodness of fit to determine how well the model really fits to the observations.
### Pearson's chi-squared test
In 1900, Pearson published a paper on the test which is considered to be one of the foundations of modern statistics.
In this paper, Pearson investigated a test of goodness of fit.
Suppose that observations in a random sample from a population are classified into mutually exclusive classes with respective observed numbers (for 1,2,…,*k*}}), and a null hypothesis gives the probability that an observation falls into the th class. So we have the expected numbers *npi*}} for all , where
:\begin{align}
& \sum^k_{i=1}{p_i} = 1 \\[8pt]
& \sum^k_{i=1}{m_i} = n\sum^k_{i=1}{p_i} = n
\end{align}
Pearson proposed that, under the circumstance of the null hypothesis being correct, as the limiting distribution of the quantity given below is the distribution.
:X^2=\sum^k_{i=1}{\frac{(x_i-m_i)^2}{m_i}}=\sum^k_{i=1}{\frac{x_i^2}{m_i}-n}
Pearson dealt first with the case in which the expected numbers are large enough known numbers in all cells assuming every observation may be taken as [distributed](normally)(normal distribution), and reached the result that, in the limit as becomes large, }} follows the distribution with degrees of freedom.
However, Pearson next considered the case in which the expected numbers depended on the parameters that had to be estimated from the sample, and suggested that, with the notation of being the true expected numbers and being the estimated expected numbers, the difference
:X^2-{X'}^2=\sum^k_{i=1}{\frac{x_i^2}{m_i}}-\sum^k_{i=1}{\frac{x_i^2}{m'_i}}
will usually be positive and small enough to be omitted. In a conclusion, Pearson argued that if we regarded }} as also distributed as distribution with degrees of freedom, the error in this approximation would not affect practical decisions. This conclusion caused some controversy in practical applications and was not settled for 20 years until Fisher's 1922 and 1924 papers.
from Contingency Tables, and the Calculation of P
| journal = Journal of the Royal Statistical Society
| volume = 85
| issue = 1
| year = 1922
| pages = 87–94
| jstor = 2340521
| doi=10.2307/2340521
| url = https://zenodo.org/record/1449484
}}
Measures the Discrepancey Between Observation and Hypothesis
| journal = Journal of the Royal Statistical Society
| volume = 87
| issue = 3
| year = 1924
| pages = 442–450
| jstor = 2341149
}}
## Other examples of chi-squared tests
One [statistic](test)(test statistic) that follows a [distribution](chi-squared)(chi-squared distribution) exactly is the test that the variance of a normally distributed population has a given value based on a [variance](sample)(sample variance). Such tests are uncommon in practice because the true variance of the population is usually unknown. However, there are several statistical tests where the [distribution](chi-squared)(chi-squared distribution) is approximately valid:
### Fisher's exact test
For an exact test used in place of the 2 × 2 chi-squared test for independence, see [exact test](Fisher's)(Fisher's exact test).
### Binomial test
For an exact test used in place of the 2 × 1 chi-squared test for goodness of fit, see [test](binomial)(binomial test).
### Other chi-squared tests
* [chi-squared test](Cochran–Mantel–Haenszel)(Cochran–Mantel–Haenszel statistics).
* [test](McNemar's)(McNemar's test), used in certain tables with pairing
* [test of additivity](Tukey's)(Tukey's test of additivity)
* The [test](portmanteau)(portmanteau test) in [analysis](time-series)(time-series analysis), testing for the presence of [autocorrelation](autocorrelation)
* [test](Likelihood-ratio)(Likelihood-ratio test)s in general [model](statistical)(statistical model)ling, for testing whether there is evidence of the need to move from a simple model to a more complicated one (where the simple model is nested within the complicated one).
## Yates's correction for continuity
Using the [distribution](chi-squared)(chi-squared distribution) to interpret [chi-squared statistic](Pearson's)(Pearson's chi-squared test) requires one to assume that the [discrete](Discrete probability distribution) probability of observed [frequencies](binomial)(binomial distribution) in the table can be approximated by the continuous [distribution](chi-squared)(chi-squared distribution). This assumption is not quite correct and introduces some error.
To reduce the error in approximation, [Yates](Frank)(Frank Yates) suggested a correction for continuity that adjusts the formula for [chi-squared test](Pearson's)(Pearson's chi-squared test) by subtracting 0.5 from the absolute difference between each observed value and its expected value in a contingency table. test|journal=Supplement to the Journal of the Royal Statistical Society|volume=1|issue=2|pages=217–235|jstor=2983604|doi=10.2307/2983604}} This reduces the chi-squared value obtained and thus increases its [*p*-value](p-value).
## Chi-squared test for variance in a normal population
If a sample of size is taken from a population having a [distribution](normal)(normal distribution), then there is a result (see [of the sample variance](distribution)(Variance#Distribution of the sample variance)) which allows a test to be made of whether the variance of the population has a pre-determined value. For example, a manufacturing process might have been in stable condition for a long period, allowing a value for the variance to be determined essentially without error. Suppose that a variant of the process is being tested, giving rise to a small sample of product items whose variation is to be tested. The test statistic in this instance could be set to be the sum of squares about the sample mean, divided by the nominal value for the variance (i.e. the value to be tested as holding). Then has a chi-squared distribution with [of freedom](degrees)(Degrees of freedom (statistics)). For example, if the sample size is 21, the acceptance region for with a significance level of 5% is between 9.59 and 34.17.
## Example chi-squared test for categorical data
Suppose there is a city of 1,000,000 residents with four neighborhoods: , , , and . A random sample of 650 residents of the city is taken and their occupation is recorded as [collar", "blue collar", or "no collar"]("white)(Collar workers). The null hypothesis is that each person's neighborhood of residence is independent of the person's occupational classification. The data are tabulated as:
:
Let us take the sample living in neighborhood , 150, to estimate what proportion of the whole 1,000,000 live in neighborhood . Similarly we take to estimate what proportion of the 1,000,000 are white-collar workers. By the assumption of independence under the hypothesis we should "expect" the number of white-collar workers in neighborhood to be
: 150\times\frac{349}{650} \approx 80.54
Then in that "cell" of the table, we have
: \frac{\left(\text{observed}-\text{expected}\right)^2}{\text{expected}} = \frac{\left(90-80.54\right)^2}{80.54} \approx 1.11
The sum of these quantities over all of the cells is the test statistic; in this case, \approx 24.57 . Under the null hypothesis, this sum has approximately a chi-squared distribution whose number of degrees of freedom is
: (\text{number of rows}-1)(\text{number of columns}-1) = (3-1)(4-1) = 6
If the test statistic is improbably large according to that chi-squared distribution, then one rejects the null hypothesis of independence.
A related issue is a test of homogeneity. Suppose that instead of giving every resident of each of the four neighborhoods an equal chance of inclusion in the sample, we decide in advance how many residents of each neighborhood to include. Then each resident has the same chance of being chosen as do all residents of the same neighborhood, but residents of different neighborhoods would have different probabilities of being chosen if the four sample sizes are not proportional to the populations of the four neighborhoods. In such a case, we would be testing "homogeneity" rather than "independence". The question is whether the proportions of blue-collar, white-collar, and no-collar workers in the four neighborhoods are the same. However, the test is done in the same way.
## Applications
In [cryptanalysis](cryptanalysis), the chi-squared test is used to compare the distribution of [plaintext](plaintext) and (possibly) decrypted [ciphertext](ciphertext). The lowest value of the test means that the decryption was successful with high probability. This method can be generalized for solving modern cryptographic problems.
In [bioinformatics](bioinformatics), the chi-squared test is used to compare the distribution of certain properties of genes (e.g., genomic content, mutation rate, interaction network clustering, etc.) belonging to different categories (e.g., disease genes, essential genes, genes on a certain chromosome etc.).
## See also
* [test nomogram](Chi-squared)(Nomogram#Chi-squared test computation nomogram)
* [statistic](GEH)(GEH statistic)
* [*G*-test](G-test)
* [chi-square estimation](Minimum)(Minimum chi-square estimation)
* [statistics](Nonparametric)(Nonparametric statistics)
* [test](Wald)(Wald test)
* [score interval](Wilson)(Wilson score interval#Binomial proportion confidence interval)
## References
## Further reading
*
*
*
*
*
[tests for contingency tables](Category:Statistical)(Category:Statistical tests for contingency tables)
[statistics](Category:Nonparametric)(Category:Nonparametric statistics)
|
The Office _British TV series
|
the_office__british_tv_series
|
# The Office (British TV series)
*Revision ID: 1157414870 | Timestamp: 2023-05-28T12:44:22Z*
---
| runtime = approx 30 minutes
| creator =
| writer =
| director =
| editor = Nigel Williams
| cinematography = Andy Hollis
| producer = [Atalla](Ash)(Ash Atalla)
| executive_producer =
| starring =
| opentheme = "[and Gladrags](Handbags)(Handbags and Gladrags)" arranged by [George](Big)(Big George)
| country = United Kingdom
| language = English
| company =
| network =
| first_aired =
| last_aired =
| related =
| num_series = 2
| num_episodes = 14
| list_episodes = List of The Office (British TV series) episodes
}}
***The Office*** is a [television](British)(British television) [mockumentary](mockumentary) [sitcom](British sitcom) first broadcast in the UK on [Two](BBC)(BBC Two) on 9 July 2001. Created, written and directed by [Gervais](Ricky)(Ricky Gervais) and [Merchant](Stephen)(Stephen Merchant), the programme follows the day-to-day lives of office employees in the [Slough](Slough) branch of the fictional Wernham Hogg paper company. Gervais also starred in the series, playing the central character [Brent](David)(David Brent).
Two six-episode series were made, followed by a [Christmas special](two-part)(The Office Christmas Specials). When it was first shown on BBC Two, ratings were relatively low, but it has since become one of the most successful of all British comedy exports. As well as being shown internationally on [Worldwide](BBC)(BBC Worldwide), channels such as [Prime](BBC)(BBC Prime), [America](BBC)(BBC America), and [Canada](BBC)(BBC Canada), the series has been sold to broadcasters in over 80 countries, including [ABC1](ABC1) in Australia, [Comedy Network](The)(The Comedy Network) in Canada, [TVNZ](TVNZ) in New Zealand, and the pan-Asian [channel](satellite)(satellite television) [World](Star)(Star World), based in Hong Kong. The show was shown in the United States on BBC America from 2001 to 2016, and later on [Network](Cartoon)(Cartoon Network)'s late night programming block [Swim](Adult)(Adult Swim) from 2009 to 2011.
The show centres on themes of social clumsiness, the trivialities of human behaviour, self-importance and conceit, frustration, desperation and fame. The success of *The Office* led to a number of localised adaptations (based upon its basic story and themes) being produced for the television markets of other nations, resulting in [international *Office* franchise](an)(The Office), including the successful and Emmy-winning [remake](American)(The Office (American TV series)) on [NBC](NBC) starring [Carell](Steve)(Steve Carell) as David Brent's counterpart, [Scott](Michael)(Michael Scott (The Office)).
## Premise
The show is a mockumentary based in a branch of a large paper company called Wernham Hogg (where "life is stationery"), in the [Trading Estate](Slough)(Slough Trading Estate) in [Berkshire](Berkshire). Slough is a large town immortalised for its lack of appeal by [Betjeman](John)(John Betjeman) in his poem "[Slough](Slough (poem))" ("Come, friendly bombs and fall on Slough/It isn't fit for humans now...").
The office is headed by general manager David Brent (Gervais), aided by his team leader and Assistant to the Regional Manager [Keenan](Gareth)(Gareth Keenan), played by [Crook](Mackenzie)(Mackenzie Crook). Much of the series' comedic success stems from Brent, who frequently makes attempts to win favour with his employees and peers with embarrassing or disastrous results. Brent's character flaws are used to comic effect, including numerous verbal gaffes, inadvertent [racism](racism in the United Kingdom) and [sexism](sexism), and other social [pas](faux)(wikt:faux pas).
The other main plot line of the series concerns the unassuming [Canterbury](Tim)(Tim Canterbury) ([Freeman](Martin)(Martin Freeman)) and his relationship with bored receptionist Dawn Tinsley ([Davis](Lucy)(Lucy Davis)). Their flirtation soon builds to a mutual romantic attraction, despite her [engagement](engagement) to dour and laddish warehouse worker Lee ([Beckett](Joel)(Joel Beckett)).
## Cast and characters
### Main
* [Gervais](Ricky)(Ricky Gervais) as [Brent](David)(David Brent):The general manager of the Slough branch of Wernham Hogg paper merchants. Boorish and ignorant, he believes he is a [rogue](lovable)(lovable rogue) in the business world and a [man](Renaissance)(Renaissance man), talented in [philosophy](philosophy), [music](music) and [comedy](Stand-up comedy). Although he thinks he is humorous, friendly and respected, others perceive him as offensive, childish and inconsiderate. His socially awkward behaviour comes across as he bumbles around the office – always hovering around the camera – telling rude jokes, performing awful impressions, and generally getting into trouble by talking before thinking. Brent thinks he is a tolerant, [correct](politically)(political correctness) hero, but his preoccupation with this position, and the discrepancy between it and his often shocking jokes, get him into trouble. His lack of awareness regarding his ineptitude, lack of trust from colleagues, constant need of approval, and his failing way of trying to stay out of trouble are the driving plot points of the series.
* [Freeman](Martin)(Martin Freeman) as [Canterbury](Tim)(Tim Canterbury):A sales representative at Wernham Hogg. Unlike David, Tim is funny and patient. His humour and good nature make him one of the most likeable employees in the office, but at 30 he still lives with his parents and works at a job he hates. He maintains his sanity by pursuing an unlikely romance with receptionist Dawn Tinsley and playing practical jokes on Gareth. Although he wishes to leave Wernham Hogg to study [psychology](psychology), his [anxiety](anxiety) prevents him from taking any significant action. During Series One and Two, he also fails to further pursue a relationship with Dawn. Chosen as David's successor at the end of Series 2, he declines and lets Gareth take the position, which, however, does not keep him from playing pranks on Gareth.
* [Crook](Mackenzie)(Mackenzie Crook) as [Keenan](Gareth)(Gareth Keenan):Tim's vindictive deskmate and enemy. Gareth is a cold-hearted [jobsworth](jobsworth) with no good personality traits. He is obsessed with his military service in the [Army](Territorial)(Territorial Army (United Kingdom)) and angers Tim with his outlandish comments. He takes pride in being "[Leader](Team)(Team Leader)", not realising his title is meaningless, and he imposes the little authority he has on his co-workers. He is selfish and intolerant. Tim and Dawn repeatedly insinuate [homosexuality](homosexuality) through questioning him about his military experience using [entendre](double)(double entendre)s. Apparently proud of his close connections with David and ignoring David's poor treatment of him, he later – during the Christmas special – gets back at David by humiliating him in front of the cameras.
* [Davis](Lucy)(Lucy Davis) as Dawn Tinsley:The company receptionist and Brent's [dogsbody](dogsbody). She frequently has to put up with his attempts at humour and social interaction. Like her friend and co-worker Tim, she is aware of the miserable state of her life – she has been in an unhappy engagement with her fiancé Lee, a boorish warehouse worker, and gave up illustrating children's books to pursue her current pointless career. During the Christmas special, Dawn and Lee return from their illegally prolonged US vacation. She finally leaves Lee for the long-suffering Tim, after he encourages her to hold on to her dream of being a children's book illustrator, an ambition which Lee sought to put down at every opportunity.
* [Gallacher](Stirling)(Stirling Gallacher) as Jennifer Taylor-Clarke:Previously Brent's immediate superior in Series one. Nicknamed [Parker Bowles](Camilla)(Camilla Parker Bowles) by him, she is a strait-laced professional, and Brent's behaviour and lacklustre style of management are shown to be puerile and ineffectual by contrast, with Jennifer repeatedly reprimanding David for inappropriate behaviour. At the end of Series One she is made a partner in the firm, with Neil Godwin becoming David's immediate superior in Series 2.
* [Chris](Oliver)(Oliver Chris) as Ricky Howard:Introduced as Brent's new [temp](Temporary work) in the pilot, and a recent graduate. He was prominently featured in episode three, where he and Tim form a team for trivia night. The two end up winning, successfully answering a tie-breaker question on [Shakespeare](William Shakespeare) against Finch. His past experiences at game shows, including winning *[Blockbusters](Blockbusters (British game show))*, causes Finch to wind him up after beating him and Tim at "Throwing" claiming "Screw Blockbusters, Screw [Holness](Bob)(Bob Holness) and screw your Gold Run!".
* [Ineson](Ralph)(Ralph Ineson) as Chris "Finchy" Finch:A "bloody good" outside sales representative. He is the only character in the series who is genuinely and unashamedly mean-spirited. He is imposingly intimidating, rasping-voiced with a natural flair for bullying others with arrogant, cruel personal attacks, Brent being his usual target. He likes to dominate conversations and is successful with women, but shows a poor attitude when he loses the staff quiz in Series One. David describes him as his "best friend" but actually acts more like a lackey, laughing at his jokes and attempting to impress him to feel popular only to be repaid with insults. Finch is such a bad loser at the quiz, he exclaims he and Brent can beat the team who beat them at many other things, so decides he can beat them at "Throwing", and if he throws anything they choose over the building, they will win the quiz and the champagne instead (which they eventually do, with Tim's shoe being the nominated object). In the [Special](Christmas)(The Office Christmas specials#Part 2), David finally stands up to Chris.
* [Baladi](Patrick)(Patrick Baladi) as Neil Godwin:Brent's counterpart at the [Swindon](Swindon) branch and eventually his immediate superior. He is young, suave, handsome and hard-working, a more successful manager than Brent, and has huge respect from staff. Brent is annoyed by and envious of him, and makes occasional, often immature attempts to either undermine or one-up him. He grows increasingly exasperated with Brent's immaturity, mistakes and inability to do his job properly and is therefore instrumental in David's redundancy.
* [Roca](Stacey)(Stacey Roca) as Rachel:A jovial and flirtatious co-worker who starts a relationship with Tim. After a deluded Gareth reveals his plans to seduce her, Tim is shocked when she begins to pressure him to make a greater commitment. He realises that his ongoing love for Dawn is far greater than his feelings for Rachel and breaks off the relationship.
* [Berrington](Elizabeth)(Elizabeth Berrington) as Anne:Only appearing in the Christmas special, she is Tim's pregnant desk mate. She annoys him as she speaks continuously about herself and other topics no one else is interested in. She coldly tells David that no one is interested in his invitation to go out for a drink, causing discomfort amongst her co-workers. However, an encounter with Glynn at the office party causes her to run out of the office in tears.
### Recurring
#### Introduced in Series 1
* [MacIntosh](Ewen)(Ewen MacIntosh) as Keith Bishop: Keith works in the accounts department. Heavy set, slow-talking and apparently emotionless, he is a man of few words. When he does speak, his comments can be eloquent and sometimes disturbing.
* [Beckett](Joel)(Joel Beckett) as Lee: Dawn's fiancé who works in the company's warehouse. She met him in school and they have been together ever since. Lee is humourless, dull, and controlling. He often undermines and embarrasses Dawn, and is dismissive of her ideas of being an illustrator. His idea of a romantic proposal was a four-word notice in the newspaper — "Lee love Dawn. Marriage?". It is clear from an early stage that she stays with him out of a fear of loneliness rather than real love. Lee has a somewhat violent temper, which is shown when he holds Tim against a wall, simply for starting to dance with Dawn.
* [Schaal](David)(David Schaal (actor)) as Glynn aka Taffy: The [misogynistic](misogynistic), sexist warehouse manager at the company and Lee's supervisor, who is seen as being very slack and has little respect for anyone who works outside the warehouse, particularly management.
* Robin Hooper as Malcolm: An older staff member, he is naturally most worried about the prospect of redundancies and therefore often challenges Brent's handling of the situation, criticising his relaxed attitude, lack of management ability and his unnecessary hiring of a personal secretary. Giving him the nickname [Kojak](Kojak), Brent openly dislikes Malcolm, sneering at his criticisms and openly lying about "faking" the high blood pressure that cost him a promotion and saved the Slough office from closure. He does not appear in Series Two, having presumably been made redundant (in an earlier scene where David Brent is falsely assuring employees one by one that their jobs are safe, he makes a point of briefly glancing at Malcolm and not saying anything to him, implying that David doesn't want Malcolm around and uniquely doesn't care what happens to him).
* [Bretton](Sally)(Sally Bretton) as Donna: Introduced in Series 1, episode 2 as the daughter of Brent's friends Ron and Elaine, who has come to work at the office. She makes a quick impact in the office, starting a relationship with Ricky, but fails to reciprocate Keenan's romantic feelings towards her.
* Nicola Cotter as Karen Roper: Brent's personal secretary, hired because he insists that he needs an assistant. Several of the staff are apprehensive about Brent hiring new and unnecessary personnel while the branch is facing downsizing and redundancies. She is not seen in Series Two due to David proclaiming she was 'Last in, first out'.
#### Introduced in Series 2
* Rachel Isaac as Trudy: Trudy is first introduced in Series Two as one of several of the new intake from the Swindon branch. She takes an immediate dislike to David and is particularly vocal about her disapproval of his offensive humour and laid-back style of management. She shows a lighter side during a booze-fuelled birthday celebration in her honour at the office, during which her casual, sexually charged nature does not go unnoticed by the male members of staff, with David trying to take advantage of this only to be ignored. She is later shown engaging in sexual intercourse with Chris Finch in the car park.
* Howard Saddler as Oliver: Oliver is good-natured and tolerant, which is lucky for him as he is the only black person working in the office. Because of this he becomes the target for most of David's well-meaning but hideously misguided attempts to show what a politically correct and racially tolerant man he is.
* [Fernandez](Julie)(Julie Fernandez) as Brenda: Brenda is a wheelchair user who is often the focus of David's attempts to portray himself as a tolerant and progressive person, instead only patronising her and demonstrating his ignorance. She naturally brings out the worst in Brent and is not impressed by his patronising behaviour. Brenda serves to highlight the gap between Brent's vision of himself as a modern enlightened man and the reality of his ignorance and thoughtlessness, in instances such as during a fire drill, when she is stranded in her wheelchair on a stairwell when David and Gareth decide they cannot be bothered to carry her all the way down.
### Guest
#### Introduced in Series 1
* Jamie Deeks as Jamie
* Ben Bradshaw as Ben: an older staff member, who is told to 'get out' by David after a lewd comment directed at Donna during her introduction (despite other similar comments by younger staff being received in good humour). He wears his shirt and tie on backward and has his trousers pulled down in the comic relief episode.
* Jane Lucas as Sheila: a shy member of staff that nonetheless dresses as [Woman](Wonder)(Wonder Woman) for comic relief. Sharing a desk with Oliver, she causes a shock when she says she 'likes blacks' when asked what men she would go for and can be seen crying at the Christmas party when Oliver is seen kissing another staff member.
* Emma Manton as Emma
* Ron Merchant as Gordon (caretaker) - Co-writer Stephen Merchant's father
* Alexander Perkins as Ralph
* Phillip Pickard as Phillip
* Angela Clerkin as Jackie
* Yvonne D'Alpra as Joan (cleaner)
* [Franklin](Vincent)(Vincent Franklin) as Rowan: a training facilitator who is progressively frustrated by Brent's attempts to undermine and take control of a team training session, often forcing it to veer off track.
#### Introduced in Series 2
* [Goodman-Hill](Tom)(Tom Goodman-Hill) as Ray
* [Hennessy](Jennifer)(Jennifer Hennessy) as Jude
* [Holness](Matthew)(Matthew Holness) as Simon: Working in [IT](information technology), he visits the office to install [firewall](firewall (computing)) software on the computers while discussing his theories with Keenan about [Lee](Bruce)(Bruce Lee) faking his own death so that he could go undercover and fight the [Triads](Triad (underground society)). An arrogant show-off and boaster, he claims to be the record holder of the fastest lap down at 'SuperKarts', something which he claims experts have said would make him the best [1](Formula)(Formula 1) racer in the country.
* [Merchant](Stephen)(Stephen Merchant) as Oggy aka 'The Ogg Monster': One of Gareth's best friends. His real name is Nathan.
* [Mackinnon](Bruce)(Bruce Mackinnon) as Jimmy the Perv
* Tony MacMurray as Tony
* [Colman](Olivia)(Olivia Colman) as Helena: A reporter for the internal paper merchant newspaper "Inside Paper" who finds interviewing Brent quite difficult because he attempts to dictate what she should write in her article.
* Sandy Hendrickse as Carol: Brent's [date](blind)(blind date) with whom he hits it off and who seems to like him.
## Episodes
## Production
In June 1998 Merchant and Gervais made a 20 minute film starring Gervais entitled *Seedy Boss* as part of Merchant's TV producer training for the BBC. The pair had met when Merchant was hired as Gervais' assistant at radio station [Xfm](Xfm); neither had any previous television experience. Gervais' character in the film was based on one he would perform to amuse staff at the radio station.
[Atalla](Ash)(Ash Atalla) showed the tape to BBC Two head [Root](Jane)(Jane Root) who commissioned a series based on it. Filming took place in an office at [Studios](Teddington)(Teddington Studios).
Unlike most British sitcoms *The Office* used a [setup](single-camera)(single-camera setup) (where multiple-camera setups were traditional) and no [track](laughter)(Laugh track).RadioTimes https://www.radiotimes.com/tv/comedy/the-office-20-anniversary-sitcoms-rt-rewind/ This production style influenced subsequent comedies such as [Show](Peep)(Peep Show (British TV series)), [Twelve](Twenty)(Twenty Twelve), [Fleabag](Fleabag) and [Motherland](Motherland (TV series)).
### Music
The theme song for the show is "[and Gladrags](Handbags)(Handbags and Gladrags)", arranged by [George](Big)(Big George) and originally written in the 1960s by [D'Abo](Mike)(Mike D'Abo), former vocalist for the rock group [Mann](Manfred)(Manfred Mann). The song "Sitting" by [Stevens](Cat)(Cat Stevens) was also considered by Gervais and Merchant to be the theme song for the show but was later rejected.
In Series 1, episode 4, a version performed by Gervais (in character as Brent) was featured over the end credits.
The first series also features Gervais performing "[Love Freeway](Free)(Free Love Freeway)" and the Christmas Special includes him performing "If You Don't Know Me By Now".
## Reception
### Critical response
The show has received critical acclaim, and has been regarded as one of the greatest British sitcoms of all time. Series one currently holds a [Metacritic](Metacritic) score of 98 out of 100, based on 12 reviews, indicating "universal acclaim". Series two received similar acclaim, holding a [Metacritic](Metacritic) score of 93 out of 100, based on 16 reviews, indicating "universal acclaim". [Office* Christmas specials](*The)(The Office Christmas specials) were also well received, and hold a [Metacritic](Metacritic) score of 98 out of 100, based on 19 reviews, indicating "universal acclaim". *The Office* was named by *The Telegraph* as one of the 10 best TV sitcoms of all time. In 2019, the series was ranked 6th on *[Guardian](The)(The Guardian)*'s list of the 100 best TV shows of the 21st century.
### Accolades
At the [Comedy Awards](British)(British Comedy Awards) in 2001, *The Office* won the Best New TV Comedy award. In 2002, the series won the Best TV Comedy award, and Gervais the Best TV Comedy Actor award.
In 2004, *The Office* won the [Globe Award](Golden)(Golden Globe Award) for Best Television series: Musical or Comedy. It was the first British comedy in 25 years to be nominated for a Golden Globe, and the first ever to win one. Gervais was also awarded the Golden Globe For Best Actor in a Television series: Comedy or Musical. The same year, the series won a [Award](Peabody)(Peabody Award).
## Legacy
The success of *The Office* led to a number of localised adaptations (based upon its basic story and themes) being produced for the television markets of other nations, resulting in [international *Office* franchise](an)(The Office), including the successful and Emmy-winning [remake](American)(The Office (American TV series)) starring [Carell](Steve)(Steve Carell) as David Brent's counterpart, [Scott](Michael)(Michael Scott (The Office)).
## Home video releases
## Follow-ups
### Television short
A Comic Relief charity short was made in 2013 entitled *The Return of Brent* (also known as *The Office Revisited*).
### YouTube shorts
In 2013, Gervais developed a series of videos, and released them on his YouTube channel entitled "Learn Guitar with David Brent". Within three months, the series had collected over 2 million views.
### Film
The Brent character also featured in the 2016 film *[Brent: Life on the Road](David)(David Brent: Life on the Road)*, this time with the contributions of Gervais but not Merchant.
## Other media
In 2004, [UK](Microsoft)(Microsoft) commissioned two 20-minute corporate videos, entitled "The Office Values" and "Realising Potential", featuring David Brent being interviewed by Jeff (played by Stephen Merchant), a Microsoft employee who becomes increasingly exasperated by Brent's antics. Brent is obviously resentful of the company's success. He believes he has what it takes to become the next managing director of Microsoft and continually drops hints to that effect. While not on general release, the videos emerged on the Internet in 2006. The clips also appeared on certain [peer-to-peer](peer-to-peer) networks. Microsoft was unhappy with the leak, stating that the videos "were never intended to be viewed by the public". During the first video, Brent plays the guitar, the lyrics advocating his ideas in opposition to Microsoft and technology.
## References
## Further reading
* De Jongste, Henri (2020) [*Playing with Mental Models: Humour in the BBC Comedy Series The Office*](https://books.google.com/books?id=3WTjDwAAQBAJ). John Benjamins Publishing Company
* Griffin, Jeffrey, “The Americanization of The Office: a comparison of the offbeat NBC sitcom and its British predecessor.” *Journal of Popular Film and Television* 35 (2008): 154–16
* Schwind, Kai Hanno. "‘Chilled-out entertainers’–multi-layered sitcom performances in the British and American version of The Office." *Comedy Studies* 5.1 (2014): 20–32.
*
*
## External links
*
*
*
*
}}
[ ](Category:The Office (British TV series))
[British satirical television series](Category:2000s)(Category:2000s British satirical television series)
[British sitcoms](Category:2000s)(Category:2000s British sitcoms)
[British workplace comedy television series](Category:2000s)(Category:2000s British workplace comedy television series)
[British television series debuts](Category:2001)(Category:2001 British television series debuts)
[British television series endings](Category:2003)(Category:2003 British television series endings)
[satirical television shows](Category:BBC)(Category:BBC satirical television shows)
[television sitcoms](Category:BBC)(Category:BBC television sitcoms)
[Musical or Comedy Series Golden Globe winners](Category:Best)(Category:Best Musical or Comedy Series Golden Globe winners)
[mockumentary television series](Category:British)(Category:British mockumentary television series)
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[television shows](Category:English-language)(Category:English-language television shows)
[Award-winning television programs](Category:Peabody)(Category:Peabody Award-winning television programs)
[series created by Ricky Gervais](Category:Television)(Category:Television series created by Ricky Gervais)
[series created by Stephen Merchant](Category:Television)(Category:Television series created by Stephen Merchant)
[shows set in Berkshire](Category:Television)(Category:Television shows set in Berkshire)
[shows shot at Teddington Studios](Category:Television)(Category:Television shows shot at Teddington Studios)
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Poseidon
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poseidon
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# Poseidon
*Revision ID: 1159853086 | Timestamp: 2023-06-12T23:17:26Z*
---
| member_of = the [Olympians](Twelve)(Twelve Olympians)
| abode = [Olympus](Mount)(Mount Olympus), or the sea
| symbol = [Trident](Trident of Poseidon), fish, dolphin, horse, bull
| consort = [Amphitrite](Amphitrite), [Aphrodite](Aphrodite), [Demeter](Demeter), [others](various)(#Female lovers and offspring)
| parents = [Cronus](Cronus) and [Rhea](Rhea (mythology))
| siblings = [Hades](Hades), [Demeter](Demeter), [Hestia](Hestia), [Hera](Hera), [Zeus](Zeus); [Chiron](Chiron) ([half](half-sibling))
| children = [Theseus](Theseus), [Triton](Triton (mythology)), [Polyphemus](Polyphemus), [Orion](Orion (mythology)), [Belus](Belus (Egyptian)), [Agenor](Agenor), [Neleus](Neleus), [Atlas](Atlas (mythology)#King of Atlantis), [Pegasus](Pegasus), [Chrysaor](Chrysaor), [Cymopolea](Kymopoleia)
| mount =
| Roman_equivalent = [Neptune](Neptune (mythology))
| Indo-european_equivalent =
| Norse_equivalent =
}}
[[Poseidon Cdm Paris DeRidder222.jpg|thumb|Poseidon (right) depicted on a figure vase painting (C6th B.C.)](File:Athena)]
**Poseidon** (;}} ) is one of the [Olympians](Twelve)(Twelve Olympians) in [Greek religion](ancient)(Religion in ancient Greece) and [mythology](Greek mythology), presiding over the sea, storms, earthquakes and horses.Burkert 1985, [pp. 136–139](https://archive.org/details/greekreligion0000burk/page/136/mode/2up?view=theater). He was the protector of seafarers and the guardian of many Hellenic cities and colonies. In pre-Olympian [Age Greece](Bronze)(Bronze Age Greece), Poseidon was venerated as a chief deity at [Pylos](Pylos) and [Thebes](Thebes, Greece), with the cult title "earth shaker"; in the myths of isolated [Arcadia](Arcadia (ancient region)), he is related to [Demeter](Demeter) and [Persephone](Persephone) and was venerated as a horse, and as a god of the waters.Seneca quaest. Nat. VI 6 :Nilsson Vol I p.450 Poseidon maintained both associations among most Greeks: He was regarded as the tamer or father of horses, who, with a strike of his trident, created springs (in the Greek language, the terms for both are related).Nilsson Vol I p.450 His [equivalent](Roman)(Interpretatio graeca) is [Neptune](Neptune (mythology)).
[Homer](Homer) and [Hesiod](Hesiod) suggest that Poseidon became lord of the sea when, following the overthrow of his father [Cronus](Cronus), the world was divided [lot](by)(Casting lots (disambiguation)) among Cronus' three sons; Zeus was given the sky, Hades the underworld, and Poseidon the sea, with the Earth and Mount Olympus belonging to all three.Hesiod, *Theogony* [456](https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0130%3Acard%3D453). In [Homer](Homer)'s *[Iliad](Iliad)*, Poseidon supports the Greeks against the Trojans during the [War](Trojan)(Trojan War); in the *[Odyssey](Odyssey)*, during the sea-voyage from Troy back home to [Ithaca](Homer's Ithaca), the Greek hero [Odysseus](Odysseus) provokes Poseidon's fury by blinding his son, the [Cyclops](Cyclopes) [Polyphemus](Polyphemus), resulting in Poseidon punishing him with storms, causing the complete loss of his ship and companions, and delaying his return by ten years. Poseidon is also the subject of a [hymn](Homeric)(Homeric hymn). In [Plato](Plato)'s *Timaeus* and *Critias*, the legendary island of [Atlantis](Atlantis) was Poseidon's domain.*Timaeus* 24e–25a, [G. Bury](R.)(Robert Gregg Bury) translation (Loeb Classical Library).Also it has been interpreted that Plato or someone before him in the chain of the oral or written tradition of the report accidentally changed the very similar Greek words for "bigger than" ("meson") and "between" ("mezon") –
According to legend, Athena became the patron goddess of the city of [Athens](Athens) after a competition with Poseidon, though he remained on the [Acropolis](Acropolis) in the form of his surrogate, [Erechtheus](Erechtheus). After the fight, Poseidon sent a monstrous flood to the [plain](Attic)(Attica (region)) to punish the Athenians for not choosing him.Burkert 1983, pp. 149, 157.
## Etymology
The earliest attested occurrence of the name, written in [B](Linear)(Linear B), is }} *Po-se-da-o* or }} *Po-se-da-wo-ne*, which correspond to (*Poseidaōn*) and (*Poseidawonos*) in [Greek](Mycenean)(Mycenean Greek); in [Greek](Homeric)(Homeric Greek) it appears as (*Poseidaōn*); in [Aeolic](Aeolic Greek) as (*Poteidaōn*); and in [Doric](Doric Greek) as (*Poteidan*), (*Poteidaōn*), and (*Poteidas*).Martin Nilsson (1967). *Die Geschichte der Griechische Religion.* Erster Band. Verlag C. H. Beck. p. 444. The form (*Poteidawon*) appears in Corinth.Liddell & Scott, *[Greek-English Lexicon](A)(A Greek-English Lexicon)*, [](https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3D*poseidw%3Dn) . A cult title of Poseidon in [B](Linear)(Linear B) is *E-ne-si-da-o-ne*, "earth-shaker".
The origins of the name "Poseidon" are unclear. One theory breaks it down into an element meaning "husband" or "lord" (Greek (*posis*), from [PIE](PIE) **pótis*) and another element meaning "earth" *(* (*da*), Doric for (*gē*)), producing something like lord or spouse of *Da*, i.e. of the earth; this would link him with [Demeter](Demeter), "Earth-mother".Pierre Chantraine *Dictionnaire etymologique de la langue grecque* Paris 1974–1980 4th s.v.; Lorenzo Rocci *Vocabolario Greco-Italiano* Milano, Roma, Napoli 1943 (1970) s.v. [Burkert](Walter)(Walter Burkert) finds that "the second element *δᾶ-* remains hopelessly ambiguous" and finds a "husband of Earth" reading "quite impossible to prove". According to [S. P. Beekes](Robert)(Robert S. P. Beekes) in *Etymological Dictionary of Greek*, "there is no indication that *δᾶ* means 'earth'",[S. P. Beekes](R.)(R. S. P. Beekes). *Etymological Dictionary of Greek*, Brill, 2009, p. 324 (*s.v.* "Δημήτηρ") although the root *da* appears in the [B](Linear)(Linear B) inscription *E-ne-si-da-o-ne*, "earth-shaker"..[Adams, John Paul, *Mycenean divinities*](http://www.csun.edu/~hcfll004/mycen.html) – List of handouts for California State University Classics 315. Retrieved 7 March 2011.
Another, more plausible, theory interprets the second element as related to the (presumed) Doric word *δᾶϝον *dâwon*, "water", Proto-Indo-European **dah₂-* "water" or **dʰenh₂-* "to run, flow", Sanskrit दन् *dā́-nu-* "fluid, drop, dew" and names of rivers such as [Danube](Danube) (Martin Nilsson, p. 417, p. 445. Michael Janda, pp. 256–258. It seems that Poseidon was originally a god of the waters."The Greeks believed that the cause of the earthquakes was the erosion of the rocks by the waters" : Seneca quaest. Nat. VI 6 :Nilsson Vol I p.450 There is also the possibility that the word has [Pre-Greek](Pre-Greek) origin.Beekes, *Etymological Dictionary of Greek*, p. 324. [Plato](Plato) in his dialogue [Cratylus](Cratylus (dialogue)) gives two traditional etymologies: either the sea restrained Poseidon when walking as a "foot-bond" (ποσίδεσμον), or he "knew many things" (πολλά εἰδότος or πολλά εἰδῶν).Plato, *[Cratylus](Cratylus (dialogue))*, 402d–402e
At least a few sources deem Poseidon as a "prehellenic" (i.e. [Pelasgian](Pelasgian)) word, considering an Indo-European etymology "quite pointless".van der Toorn, Karel; Becking, Bob; van der Horst, Pieter Willem (1999), Dictionary of Deities and Demons in the Bible (second ed.), Grand Rapids, Michigan: William B. Eerdman's Publishing Company,
## Bronze Age Greece
[[File:Tallinn asv2022-04 img54 Kadriorg Park.jpg|thumb|Poseidon in [Palace](Kadriorg)(Kadriorg Palace), [Tallinn](Tallinn)]]
### Linear B (Mycenean Greek) inscriptions
If surviving Linear B [tablet](clay)(clay tablet)s can be trusted, the name *po-se-da-wo-ne* ("Poseidon") occurs with greater frequency than does *di-u-ja* ("Zeus"). A feminine variant, *po-se-de-ia*, is also found, indicating a lost consort goddess, in effect the precursor of [Amphitrite](Amphitrite). Poseidon carries frequently the title *wa-na-ka* (wanax), meaning "king" in Linear B inscriptions. The chthonic nature of Poseidon-Wanax is also indicated by his title *E-ne-si-da-o-ne* in Mycenean [Knossos](Knossos) and [Pylos](Pylos), a powerful attribute (earthquakes had accompanied the collapse of the [palace-culture](Minoan)(Minoan civilization)). In the cave of [Amnisos](Amnisos) (Crete) *Enesidaon* is related with the cult of Eileithyia, the goddess of childbirth.Dietrich, pp. [220](https://books.google.com/books?id=rgWHB3QMB3sC&pg=PA220) –[221](https://books.google.com/books?id=rgWHB3QMB3sC&pg=PA221) . She was related with the annual birth of the divine child.Dietrich, [p. 109](https://books.google.com/books?id=rgWHB3QMB3sC&pg=PA109) . During the Bronze Age, a goddess of nature, dominated both in Minoan and Mycenean cult, and *Wanax* (*wa-na-ka*) was her male companion (paredros) in Mycenean cult.Dietrich, [p. 181](https://books.google.com/books?id=rgWHB3QMB3sC&pg=181) . It is possible that Demeter appears as *Da-ma-te* in a Linear B inscription (PN EN 609), however the interpretation is still under dispute.Ventris/Chadwick,*Documents in Mycenean Greek* p. 242; Dietrich, [p. 172, n. 218](https://books.google.com/books?id=rgWHB3QMB3sC&pg=172) .
In Linear B inscriptions found at Pylos, *E-ne-si-da-o-ne* is related with Poseidon, and *Si-to [Po-tini-ja](Potnia)* is probably related with Demeter.George Mylonas (1966), *Mycenae and the Mycenean world*. p.159. Princeton University Press Tablets from Pylos record sacrificial goods destined for "the Two Queens and Poseidon" ("to the Two Queens and the King": *wa-na-soi*, *wa-na-ka-te*). The "Two Queens" may be related with [Demeter](Demeter) and [Persephone](Persephone), or their precursors, goddesses who were not associated with Poseidon in later periods."Wa-na-ssoi, wa-na-ka-te, (to the two queens and the king). Wanax (Greek : Αναξ) is best suited to Poseidon, the special divinity of Pylos. The identity of the two divinities addressed as wanassoi, is uncertain ": George Mylonas (1966) *Mycenae and the Mycenean age* p. 159 .Princeton University Press
### Arcadian myths
The illuminating exception is the archaic and localised myth of [stallion Poseidon and mare Demeter](the)(Demeter#Demeter and Poseidon) at [Phigalia](Phigalia) in isolated and conservative Arcadia, noted by Pausanias (2nd century AD) as having fallen into desuetude; the stallion Poseidon pursues the mare-[Demeter](Demeter), and from the union she bears the horse [Arion](Arion (mythology)), and a daughter ([Despoina](Despoina)), who obviously had the shape of a mare too. The violated Demeter was *Demeter Erinys* (furious).[Pausanias](Pausanias (geographer)), [8.25.5](http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Paus.+8.25.5&fromdoc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0160:book=:chapter=&highlight=Poseidon); Raymond Bloch "Quelques remarques sur Poseidon, Neptunus et Nethuns" in ''Comptes-rendus des séances de l' Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-Letres'' **2** 1981 p. 345. In [Arcadia](Arcadia (ancient region)), Demeter's mare-form was worshiped into historical times. Her *[xoanon](xoanon)* of Phigaleia shows how the local cult interpreted her, as goddess of nature. A Medusa type with a horse's head with snaky hair, holding a dove and a dolphin, probably representing her power over air and water.L. H. Jeffery (1976). *Archaic Greece: The Greek city states c.800-500 B.C* (Ernest Benn Limited) p 23
## Origins
It seems that the Arcadian myth is related to the first Greek-speaking people who entered the region during the Bronze Age. (Linear B represents an archaic Greek dialect). Their religious beliefs were mixed with the beliefs of the indigenous population. It is possible that the Greeks did not bring with them other gods except [Zeus](Zeus), [Eos](Eos), and the [Dioskouroi](Dioskouroi). The horse ([numina](numina)) was related with the liquid element, and with the underworld. Poseidon appears as a beast (horse), which is the river spirit of the underworld, as it usually happens in northern-European folklore, and not unusually in Greece.F.Schachermeyer: Poseidon und die Entstehung des Griechischen Gotter glaubens :Nilsson p 444The river god Acheloos is represented as a bull Poseidon "Wanax", is the male companion (paredros) of the goddess of nature. In the relative [Minoan](Minoan civilization) myth, [Pasiphaë](Pasiphaë) is mating with the white bull, and she bears the hybrid creature [Minotaur](Minotaur).Pseudo-Apollodorus, *[Bibliotheke](Bibliotheca (Pseudo-Apollodorus))* [3.1.4](http://www.theoi.com/Text/Apollodorus3.html#1) The Bull was the old pre-Olympian Poseidon.Ruck and Staples 1994:213. The goddess of nature and her paredros survived in the [cult](Eleusinian)(Eleusinian mysteries), where the following words were uttered: "Mighty Potnia bore a strong son".Dietrich, [p. 167](https://books.google.com/books?id=rgWHB3QMB3sC&pg=167)
In the heavily sea-dependent Mycenaean culture, there is not sufficient evidence that Poseidon was connected with the sea; it is unclear whether "Posedeia" was a sea-goddess. [Homer](Homer) and [Hesiod](Hesiod) suggest that Poseidon became lord of the sea following the defeat of his father [Cronus](Cronus), when the world was divided by lot among his three sons; Zeus was given the sky, Hades the underworld, and Poseidon the sea, with the Earth and Mount Olympus belonging to all three. Walter Burkert suggests that the Hellene cult worship of Poseidon as a horse god may be connected to the introduction of the horse and war-chariot from Anatolia to Greece around 1600 BC.
There is evidence that Poseidon was once worshipped as a horse, and this is evident by his cult in [Peloponnesos](Peloponnesos). However, some ancient writers held he was originally a god of the waters, and therefore he became the "earth-shaker", because the Greeks believed that the cause of the earthquakes was the erosion of the rocks by the waters, by the rivers who they saw to disappear into the earth and then to burst out again. This is what the natural philosophers [Thales](Thales), [Anaximenes](Anaximenes of Miletus) and [Aristotle](Aristotle) believed, which may have been similar to the folklore belief.
In any case, the early importance of Poseidon can still be glimpsed in [Homer](Homer)'s *[Odyssey](Odyssey)*, where Poseidon rather than Zeus is the major mover of events. In Homer, Poseidon is the master of the sea.
[[File:Kunsthistorisches Museum Poseidon cameo 23062013.jpg|thumb|Cameo showing Poseidon as gymnasiarch of the [Games](Isthmian)(Isthmian Games) ([Museum](Kunsthistorisches)(Kunsthistorisches Museum))]]
## Worship of Poseidon
Poseidon was a major civic god of several cities: in [Athens](History of Athens), he was second only to [Athena](Athena) in importance, while in [Corinth](Ancient Corinth) and many cities of [Graecia](Magna)(Magna Graecia) he was the chief god of the [polis](polis).
In his benign aspect, Poseidon was seen as creating new [island](island)s and offering calm seas. When offended or ignored, he supposedly struck the ground with his [trident](trident) and caused [chaotic](wikt:chaos) springs, [earthquake](earthquake)s, drownings and [ship](ship)wrecks. Sailors prayed to Poseidon for a safe voyage, sometimes drowning horses as a sacrifice; in this way, according to a fragmentary [papyrus](papyrus), [the Great](Alexander)(Alexander the Great) paused at the Syrian seashore before the climactic [of Issus](battle)(battle of Issus), and resorted to prayers, "invoking Poseidon the sea-god, for whom he ordered a [chariot](four-horse)(Quadriga) to be cast into the waves".[Wilhelm Ludwig Müller](Karl)(Karl Wilhelm Ludwig Müller)'s ed. Papyrus Oxyrrhincus *Fragmenta Historicorum Graecorum* 148, 44, col. 2; quoted by Robin Lane Fox, *Alexander the Great* (1973) 1986:168 and note. Alexander also invoked other sea deities: [Thetis](Thetis), mother of his hero [Achilles](Achilles), [Nereus](Nereus) and the [Nereid](Nereid)s
According to [Pausanias](Pausanias (geographer)), Poseidon was one of the caretakers of the [at Delphi](oracle)(Delphic oracle) before Olympian [Apollo](Apollo) took it over. Apollo and Poseidon worked closely in many realms: in colonization, for example, Delphic Apollo provided the authorization to go out and settle, while Poseidon watched over the colonists on their way, and provided the [water](lustral)(holy water) for the foundation-sacrifice. [Xenophon](Xenophon)'s [*Anabasis*](Anabasis (Xenophon)) describes a group of [Sparta](Sparta)n soldiers in 400–399 BC singing to Poseidon a [paean](paean)—a kind of hymn normally sung for Apollo. Like [Dionysus](Dionysus), who inflamed the [maenad](maenad)s, Poseidon also caused certain forms of mental disturbance. A [Hippocratic](Hippocrates) text of ca 400 BC, *On the Sacred Disease* says that he was blamed for certain types of epilepsy.
Poseidon is still worshipped today in modern [Hellenic](Hellenism (religion)) religion, among other Greek gods. The worship of Greek gods has been recognized by the Greek government since 2017.
### Epithets and attributes
[[File:DSC00363_-_Mosaico_delle_stagioni_(epoca_romana)_-_Foto_G._Dall'Orto.jpg|alt=See caption|thumb|Mosaic of Neptune ([Archeological Museum Antonio Salinas](Regional)(Regional Archeological Museum Antonio Salinas), [Palermo](Palermo))]]
[[Terme di Nettuno Ostia Antica 2006-09-08.jpg|thumb|Poseidon in a chariot, surrounded with dolphins, tritons, and Nereids on sea-monsters, Baths of Neptune, Ostia Antica, Latium, Italy.](File:Poseidon)]
Poseidon had a variety of roles, duties and attributes. He is a separate deity from the oldest Greek god of the sea [Pontus](Pontus (mythology)). In [Athens](Athens) his name is superimposed οn the name of the non-Greek god [Erechtheus](Erechtheus) (*Poseidon Erechtheus*).Walter Burkert (Peter Bing, tr.) *Homo Necans* 1983, p. 149 gives references for this observation
In the [Iliad](Iliad), he is the lord of the sea and his golden palace is built in Aegai, in the depth of the sea.[Iliad 13.21](https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Hom.+Il.+13.21&fromdoc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0134) Nilsson Vol I p.446 His significance is indicated by his titles *Eurykreion* () "wide-ruling", an epithet also applied to [Agamemnon](Agamemnon) and *Helikonios anax* (), "lord of [Helicon](Helicon (mountain)) or [Helike](Helike)" [Iliad 20.404](https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:abo:tlg,0012,001:20:404&lang=original). In Helike of Achaia he was specially honoured. *Anax* is identified in Mycenaean Greek ([B](Linear)(Linear B)) as *wa-na-ka*,a title of Poseidon as king of the underworld. [Aeschylus](Aeschylus) uses also the epithet *anax* and [Pindar](Pindar) the epithet *Eurymedon* () "widely ruling".
Some of the epithets (or adjectives) applied to him like *Enosigaios* (), *Enosichthon* () ([Homer](Homer)) and *Ennosidas* () ([Pindar](Pindar)), mean "earth shaker".Diedrich [p. 185 n. 305](https://books.google.com/books?id=rgWHB3QMB3sC&pg=185) These epithets indicate his [chthonic](chthonic) nature, and have an older evidence of use, as it is identified in Linear B, as , *E-ne-si-da-o-ne*. Other epithets that relate him with the earthquakes are *Gaieochos* () and *Seisichthon* ()
The god who causes the earthquakes is also the protector against them, and he had the epithets *Themeliouchos* () "upholding the foundations", *Asphaleios* () "securer, protector" with a temple at [Tainaron](Tainaron). Pausanias describes a sanctuary of Poseidon near Sparta beside the shrine of Alcon, where he had the surname *Domatites* (), "of the house"Pausanias, [3.14.7](http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Paus.+3.14.7&fromdoc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0160:book=:chapter=&highlight=Poseidon3.14.7)
[Homer](Homer) uses for Poseidon the title *Kyanochaites* (), "dark-haired, dark blue of the sea". Epithets like *Pelagios* () "of the open sea",Nilsson Vol I p.449 *Aegeus* (), "of the high sea" in the town of [Aegae](Aegae (Euboea)) in [Euboea](Euboea), where he had a magnificent temple upon a hill,[Strabo](Strabo), ix. p. 405[Virgil](Virgil), *[Aeneid](Aeneid)* iii. 74, where [Servius](Maurus Servius Honoratus) erroneously derives the name from the [Sea](Aegean)(Aegean Sea) *Pontomedon* ()," lord of the sea" ([Pindar](Pindar), [Aeschylus](Aeschylus)) and *Kymothales* (), "abounding with waves", indicate that Poseidon was regarded as holding sway over the sea. Other epithets that relate him with the sea are, *Porthmios* (), "of strait, narrow sea" at [Karpathos](Karpathos), *[Epactaeus](Epactaeus)* () "god worshipped on the coast", in [Samos](Samos)., *Alidoupos*, () "sea resounding". His symbol is the trident and he has the epithet *Eutriaina* (), "with goodly trident" ([Pindar](Pindar)). The god of the sea is also the god of fishing, and [tuna](tuna) was his attribute. At [Lampsacus](Lampsacus) they offered fishes to Poseidon and he had the epithet *phytalmios* () Nilsson Vol I p.451,452 His epithet *Phykios* (), "god of seaweeds" at [Mykonos](Mykonos), seems to be related with fishing. He had a fest where women were not allowed, with special offers also to *Poseidon Temenites* () "related to an official domain ". At the same day they made offers to *Demeter Chloe* therefore Poseidon was the promotor of vegetation. He had the epithet *phytalmios* () at [Myconos](Myconos), [Troizen](Troizen), [Megara](Megara) and [Rhodes](Rhodes), comparable with *Ptorthios* () at [Chalcis](Chalcis).
Poseidon had a close association with horses. He is known under the epithet * Hippios* (), "of a horse or horses" usually in [Arcadia](Arcadia (region)). He had temples at [Lycosura](Lycosura), [Mantineia](Mantineia), [Methydrium](Methydrium), [Pheneos](Pheneos), Pallandion.Nilsson Vol I p.448
At Lycosura he is related with the cult of Despoina.Pausanias [8.37.9–10](https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?lookup=Paus.+8.37.1) The modern sanctuary near [Mantineia](Mantineia) was built by Emperor [Hadrian](Hadrian). In Athens on the hill of horses there was the altar of * Poseidon Hippios* and *Athena Hippia*. The temple of Poseidon was destroyed by Antigonus when he attacked Attica. He is usually the tamer of horses (*Damaios*, at Corinth), and the tender of horses *Hippokourios* ) at [Sparta](Sparta), where he had a sanctuary near the sanctuary of *Artemis Aiginea*. In some myths he is the father of horses, either by spilling his seed upon a rock or by mating with a creature who then gave birth to the first horse. In [Thessaly](Thessaly) he had the title *Petraios* , "of the rocks". He hit a rock and the first horse "Skyphios" appeared.Nilsson Vol I p. 447 He was closely related with the springs, and with the strike of his trident, he created springs. He had the epithets *Krenouchos* (), "ruling over springs", and *nymphagetes* () "leader of the nymphs" " Oceanus is the primeval water, the origin of all springs and rivers" : Nilsson Vol I p.450 On the Acropolis of [Athens](Athens) he created the saltspring *Sea of Erechtheus* (). Many springs like [Hippocrene](Hippocrene) and Aganippe in Helikon are related with the word horse (hippos). (also Glukippe, Hyperippe). He is the father of [Pegasus](Pegasus), whose name is derived from , (*pēgē*) "spring".Nilsson Vol I p.450-451
Epithets like *Genesios* at [Lerna](Lerna) *Genethlios* () "of the race or family" *Phratrios* () "of the brotherhood", and *Patrigenios* () Nilsson Vol I p.452 indicate his relation with the genealogy trees and the brotherhood. Other epithets of Poseidon in local cults are *Epoptes* (), "overseer, watcher" at Megalopolis, *Empylios* (), "at the gate " at [Thebes](Thebes, Greece)., *Kronios* () ([Pindar](Pindar)) and *semnos* (), "august, holy" ([Sophocles](Sophocles)).
The cult of Poseidon is often related with festivals. At [Corinth](Corinth) the [games](Isthmian)(Isthmian games) was an athletic and music festival to honour the god who had the epithet *Isthmios* (). The Amphictiony of [Kalaureia](Kalaureia) belonged to him. At [Tainaron](Tainaron) he had a famous temple and festival. Other games which belonged to him are the *Pohoidaia* () in [Helos](Helos) and [Thuria](Thuria (Messenia)) and the race *in Gaiaochō* () [Pausanias 3.21.8](https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0160%3Abook%3D3%3Achapter%3D21%3Asection%3D8).Nilsson Vol I p.447- 448 Poseidon *Gaieochos* () had a temple near [Sparta](Sparta) beside a [Hippodrome](Hippodrome).contest at Sparta : [Γαάοχοι](https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Dgaih%2Foxos) Τhe epithet probably means " the one who moves under the earth" 'Hesych. "ὁ ὐπό τῆς γῆς ὁχούμενος " Nilsson Vol I p. 448 and therefore shakes the earth. This seem to relate Poseidon with the rivers at [Peloponnesus](Peloponnesus) that seem to disappear and then flow under the earth. At [Ephesus](Ephesus) there was a fest "Tavria" and he had the epithet *Tavreios* (), "related with the bull".Nilsson Vol I p. 449
## Mythology
### Birth
[[Image:Andrea Doria as Neptun by Angelo Bronzino.jpg|thumb|upright|*[Doria as Neptune](Andrea)(Andrea Doria as Neptune)*, by [Bronzino](Angelo)(Angelo Bronzino).]]
In the standard version, Poseidon was born to the [Titan](Titans)s [Cronus](Cronus) and [Rhea](Rhea (mythology)), the fifth child out of six, born after [Hestia](Hestia), [Demeter](Demeter), [Hera](Hera) and [Hades](Hades) in that order.[Hesiod](Hesiod), *[Theogony](Theogony)* [453-455](http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0130%3Acard%3D453); Hard, [p. 67](https://books.google.com/books?id=r1Y3xZWVlnIC&pg=PA67). Because Poseidon's father was afraid that one of his children would overthrow him like he had done to his own father, Cronus devoured each infant as soon as they were born. Poseidon was the last one to suffer this fate before Rhea decided to deceive Cronus and whisk the sixth child, [Zeus](Zeus), away to safety, after offering Cronus a rock wrapped in a blanket to eat. Once Zeus was grown, he gave his father a powerful emetic that made him gorge up the children he had eaten. The five children emerged from their father's belly in reverse order, making Poseidon both the second youngest child and the second oldest at the same time. Armed with a trident forged for him by the [Cyclopes](Cyclopes), Poseidon with his siblings and other divine allies defeated the Titans and became rulers in their place. According to [Homer](Homer) and Apollodorus, Zeus, Poseidon and the third brother [Hades](Hades) then divided the world between them by drawing lots; Zeus got the sky, Poseidon the sea, and Hades the Underworld.Homer, *Iliad* [15.184-93](https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0134%3Abook%3D15%3Acard%3D184) )
In a rarer - and later- version, Poseidon avoided being devoured by his father as his mother Rhea saved him in the same manner she did Zeus, by offering Cronus a foal instead, claiming she had given birth to a horse instead of a god, while she had actually laid the child in a flock.In the 2nd century AD, a well with the name of *Arne*, the "lamb's well", in the neighbourhood of [Mantineia](Mantineia) in [Arcadia](Arcadia (ancient region)), where old traditions lingered, was shown to [Pausanias](Pausanias (geographer)). (Pausanias, [8.8.2](https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text.jsp?doc=Paus.+.8.8.2&fromdoc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0160)) Rhea intrusted her infant to a spring nymph. When Cronus demanded the child, the nymph Arne[Tzetzes](John Tzetzes) ad [Lycophron](Lycophron) 644 denied having him, and her spring thereafter was called [Arne](Arne (daughter of Aeolus)) (which bears resemblance to the Greek word for 'deny'). In another tale, Rhea gave Poseidon to the [Telchines](Telchines), ancient inhabitants of the island of [Rhodes](Rhodes);[Siculus](Diodorus)(Diodorus Siculus), [5.55](https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Diodorus_Siculus/5D*.html) [Capheira](Capheira), an [Oceanid](Oceanid) nymph, became the young god's nurse. As Poseidon grew, he fell in love with [Halia](Halia of Rhodes), the beautiful sister of the Telchines, and fathered six sons and one daughter, [Rhodos](Rhodos), on her. By that time [Aphrodite](Aphrodite), the goddess of love, had been born and risen from the sea, and attempted to make a stop at Rhodes on her way to [Cyprus](Cyprus). Poseidon and Halia's sons denied her hospitality, so Aphrodite cursed them to fall in love and rape Halia. After they had done so, Poseidon made them sink below the sea.
In Homer's *[Odyssey](Odyssey)*, Poseidon has a home in *[Aegae](Aegae (Achaea))*.Homer, *[Odyssey](Odyssey)* [5.380](https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0136%3Abook%3D5%3Acard%3D365)
### City patronage
#### Foundation of Athens
[[File:René-Antoine Houasse - The Dispute of Minerva and Neptune, 1689.jpg|thumb|*The Dispute of [Minerva](Minerva) and Neptune* by [Houasse](René-Antoine)(René-Antoine Houasse) (circa 1689 or 1706)]]
[[File:Erchtheum from western-north.jpg|thumb|South-west view of the [Erechtheion](Erechtheion) with olive tree]]
Athena became the patron goddess of the city of [Athens](Athens) after a competition with Poseidon. Yet Poseidon remained a [numinous](numinous) presence on the [Acropolis](Acropolis) in the form of his surrogate, [Erechtheus](Erechtheus). At the dissolution festival at the end of the year in the Athenian calendar, the [Skira](Skira), the priests of Athena and the priest of Poseidon would process [canopies](under)(Baldachin) to [Eleusis](Eleusis).Burkert 1983, pp. 143–149. They agreed that each would give the Athenians one gift and the Athenians would choose whichever gift they preferred. Poseidon struck the ground with his trident and a spring sprang up; the water was salty and not very useful, whereas Athena offered them an [tree](olive)(Olive).
The Athenians or their king, [Cecrops](Cecrops I), accepted the olive tree and along with it Athena as their patron, for the olive tree brought [wood](wood), [oil](olive oil) and food. After the fight, infuriated at his loss, Poseidon sent a monstrous flood to the Attic Plain, to punish the Athenians for not choosing him. The depression made by Poseidon's trident and filled with salt water was surrounded by the northern hall of the [Erechtheum](Erechtheum), remaining open to the air. "In [cult](Cult (religion)), Poseidon was identified with Erechtheus", [Burkert](Walter)(Walter Burkert) noted; "the myth turns this into a temporal-causal sequence: in his anger at losing, Poseidon led his son [Eumolpus](Eumolpus) against Athens and killed Erectheus."
It was also said that Poseidon in his anger over his defeat sent one of his sons, [Halirrhothius](Halirrhothius), to cut down Athena's tree gift. But as Halirrhothius swung his axe, he missed his aim and it fell in himself, killing him instantly. Poseidon in fury accused Ares of murder, and the matter was eventually settled on the [Areopagus](Areopagus) ("hill of Ares") in favour of Ares, which was thereafter named after the event.[Servius](Maurus Servius Honoratus) ''On Virgil's Georgics'' [1.18](https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A2007.01.0092%3Abook%3D1%3Acommline%3D18); [scholia](scholia) on [Aristophanes](Aristophanes)'s *[Clouds](The Clouds)* 1005 In other versions, Halirrhothius raped [Alcippe](Alcippe (mythology)), Ares's daughter, so Ares slew him. Poseidon was enraged over the murder of his son, and Ares was thus held in hold, which eventually acquitted him.[Apollodorus](Bibliotheca (Pseudo-Apollodorus)), [3.14.2](https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Apollod.+3.14.2&fromdoc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0022:book=3:chapter=14&highlight=Euryte)
The contest of Athena and Poseidon was the subject of the reliefs on the [pediment](western)(Pediments of the Parthenon#Western Pediment) of the [Parthenon](Parthenon), the first sight that greeted the arriving visitor.
This myth is construed by [Graves](Robert)(Robert Graves) and others as reflecting a clash between the inhabitants during Mycenaean times and newer immigrants. Athens at its height was a significant sea power, at one point defeating the [Persian](Iran) fleet at [Island](Salamis)(Salamis Island) in a sea battle.
#### Others
The Corinthians had a similar story to the foundations of Athens, about their own city [Corinth](Ancient Corinth). According to the myth, [Helios](Helios) and Poseidon clashed, both desiring to make the city their own. Their dispute was brought to one of the [Hecatoncheires](Hecatoncheires), Briareos, an elder god, who was thus tasked to settle the fight between the two gods. Briareus decided to award the [Acrocorinth](Acrocorinth) to Helios, while to Poseidon he gave the [isthmus](Isthmus of Corinth) of Corinth.Fowler 1988, p. 98 n. 5; Pausanias, [2.1.6](http://data.perseus.org/citations/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0525.tlg001.perseus-eng1:2.1.6) & [2.4.6](http://data.perseus.org/citations/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0525.tlg001.perseus-eng1:2.4.6) In this tale, Helios and Poseidon are supposed to represent [fire](fire) versus [water](water).[Chrysostom](Dio)(Dio Chrysostom), *Discourses* [37.11–12](https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Dio_Chrysostom/Discourses/37*.html#p13) Helios, as the sun god, received the area that is closest to the sky, while Poseidon, who is the sea god, got the isthmus by the sea.Grummond and Ridgway, p. [69](https://books.google.com/books?id=sKT6M2rdN9gC&pg=PA69), "Helios' higher position would correspond to the sun's location in the sky versus Poseidon's lower venue in the sea, opposite [Demeter](Demeter) on land."
[[File:Villa Carmiano Triclinio 1 (cropped).jpg|thumb|Poseidon ([Neptune](Neptune (mythology))) and Amymone, fresco in [Stabiae](Stabiae), Italy, 1st century]]
At another time, Poseidon came to an agreement with another goddess, [Leto](Leto), that he would give her the island of Delos in exchange for the island of [Calauria](Kalaureia); he also exchanged [Delphi](Delphi) for [Taenarum](Taenarum) with Apollo. A temple of Poseidon stood at Calauria during ancient times.[Strabo](Strabo), *[Geographica](Geographica)* [8.6.14](https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0239%3Abook%3D8%3Achapter%3D6%3Asection%3D14)
Poseidon also came to dispute with his sister Hera over the city of [Argos](Argos, Peloponnese). A local king was chosen to settle the matter, [Phoroneus](Phoroneus), and he decided to award the city to Hera, who then became its patroness. Poseidon was enraged, and sent a drought to plague the city. One day, as an Argive woman named [Amymone](Amymone) went out in search of water, came upon a [satyr](satyr) who tried to rape her. Amymone prayed to Poseidon for help, and he scared the satyr away with his trident. After Poseidon rescued Amymone from the lecherous satyr he fathered a child on her, [Nauplius](Nauplius (mythology)).[Hyginus](Gaius Julius Hyginus), *[Fabulae](Fabulae)* [169](https://topostext.org/work/206#169).
### Walls of Troy
Poseidon and Apollo, having offended Zeus by their rebellion in Hera's scheme, were temporarily stripped of their divine authority and sent to serve King [Laomedon](Laomedon) of Troy. He had them build huge walls around the city and promised to reward them with his immortal horses, a promise he then refused to fulfill. In vengeance, before the [War](Trojan)(Trojan War), Poseidon sent a sea monster to attack Troy. The monster was later killed by [Heracles](Heracles).
### Theseus
Poseidon laid with a [Troezen](Troezen)ian princess named [Aethra](Aethra (mother of Theseus)), and had on her [Theseus](Theseus). Theseus was also said to be the son of [Aegeus](Aegeus), the king of Athens, who slept with Aethra on the very same night. Thus Theseus's origins included both the human and the divine element.
Meanwhile in [Crete](Crete), Zeus's son [Minos](Minos) asked for Poseidon's help in order to certify his claim on the throne of Crete. Poseidon offered Minos a splendid white bull, with the understanding that he was to sacrifice the bull to Poseidon later. The Cretans were so impressed with the bull and the divine sign itself that Minos was declared king of Crete. But wishing to keep the beautiful animal for himself, Minos instead sacrificed an ordinary bull to the sea-god instead of the agreed upon one. Poseidon, enraged, caused Minos's wife, [Pasiphae](Pasiphae), to fall in love with the bull; their coupling produced the [Minotaur](Minotaur), a half-bull half-human creature who fed on human flesh. Minos would conceal him within the labyrinth built by [Daedalus](Daedalus), and feed to it Athenian men and women he forced Aegeus to sent him over.
[[File:Theseus Minotaur Ramey Tuileries.jpg|thumb|right|*[Theseus](Theseus) Fighting the Minotaur*, 1826, by [Ramey](Jean-Etienne)(Jean-Etienne Ramey), marble, [Gardens](Tuileries)(Tuileries Gardens), Paris.]]
Once Theseus was grown up and recognized by his father Aegeus in Athens, he decided to end the bloody tax Athens had to pay to Crete once and for all, and volunteered to set sail to Crete along with the other Athenian youths who had been chosen to be devoured by the Minotaur. Once he arrived in Crete, Minos insulted Theseus and insisted he was no son of Poseidon; to demonstrate so, he threw his own ring in to the sea, and commanded Theseus to retrieve it, expecting he would not be able to do so. Theseus immediately dove in after it. Dolphins then came as guides and escorted him to the halls of Poseidon and Amphitrite's palace, where he was warmly welcomed. He received the ring, and in addition a purple wedding cloak and a crown from Amphitrite, to prove his words. Theseus then emerged from the sea and gave the ring to Minos.
Theseus killed the Minotaur, and in time he would succeed his father Aegeus as king of Athens. By an Amazon he had a son, [Hippolytus](Hippolytus of Athens), while his wife [Phaedra](Phaedra (mythology)) (Minos' daughter) gave him two sons. At some point, Poseidon promised three favours to Theseus, and he called upon Poseidon to fulfill one of those when Phaedra falsely accused Hippolytus of forcing himself on her. Theseus, not knowing the truth, asked his father to destroy Hippolytus; Poseidon granted his son's wish, and as Hippolytus was driving by the sea, Poseidon sent a terrifying sea monster to spook the man's horses, which then dragged him to his death.
### Consort, lovers, victims and children
Poseidon was said to have had many lovers of both sexes (see expandable list below). His consort was [Amphitrite](Amphitrite), a [nymph](nymph) and ancient sea-goddess, daughter of [Nereus](Nereus) and [Doris](Doris (mythology)). In one account, attributed to [Eratosthenes](Eratosthenes), Poseidon wished to wed Amphitrite, but she fled from him and hid with [Atlas](Atlas (mythology)). Poseidon sent out many to find her, and it was a dolphin who tracked her down. The dolphin persuaded Amphitrite to accept Poseidon as her husband, and eventually took charge of their wedding. Poseidon then put him [the stars](among)(Delphinus) as a reward for his good services.[Hyginus](Hyginus), *Astronomica* [2.17.1](https://topostext.org/work/207#2.17.1) [Oppian](Oppian) says that the dolphin betrayed Amphitrite's whereabouts to Poseidon, and he carried off Amphitrite against her will to marry her.[Oppian](Oppian), *Halieutica* [1.38](https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.233333/page/n323/mode/2up?view=theater) Together they had a son named [Triton](Triton (mythology)), a [merman](merman).[Hesiod](Hesiod), *[Theogony](Theogony)* [930–933](https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0130%3Acard%3D901)
Poseidon was the father of many heroes. He is thought to have fathered the famed [Theseus](Theseus). Poseidon also had an affair with [Alope](Alope), his granddaughter through [Cercyon](Cercyon), his son and King of [Eleusis](Eleusina), begetting the [Attic](Attica) hero [Hippothoon](Hippothoon). Cercyon had his daughter buried alive but Poseidon turned her into the spring, Alope, near Eleusis.Hard, [p. 344](https://books.google.com/books?id=r1Y3xZWVlnIC&pg=PA344)
[[File:Sea thiasos Amphitrite Poseidon Glyptothek Munich 239 front n3.jpg|thumb|Sea [thiasos](thiasos) depicting the wedding of Poseidon and [Amphitrite](Amphitrite), from the [of Domitius Ahenobarbus](Altar)(Altar of Domitius Ahenobarbus) in the [of Mars](Field)(Campus Martius), [bas-relief](bas-relief), [Republic](Roman)(Roman Republic), 2nd century BC]]
A mortal woman named [Cleito](Cleito) once lived on an isolated island; Poseidon fell in love with the [human](human) mortal and created a dwelling [sanctuary](sanctuary) at the top of a hill near the middle of the [island](island) and surrounded the dwelling with rings of water and land to protect her. She gave birth to five sets of twin boys; the firstborn, [Atlas](Atlas (mythology)#King of Atlantis), became the first ruler of [Atlantis](Atlantis).
Not all of Poseidon's children were human. His other children include [Polyphemus](Polyphemus) (the [Cyclops](Cyclopes)) and, finally, [Alebion](Alebion) and [Bergion](Bergion) and [and Ephialtae](Otos)(Aloadae) (the [giants](giant (mythology))).
The philosopher [Plato](Plato) was held by his fellow ancient Greeks to have traced his descent to the sea-God Poseidon through his father [Ariston](Ariston of Athens) and his mythic predecessors the demigod kings [Codrus](Codrus) and [Melanthus](Melanthus).Great Books of the Western World, Plato's Dialogues. Biographical NoteDiogenes Laertius Plato 1
Poseidon also took the young [Nerites](Nerites (mythology)), the son of [Nereus](Nereus) and [Doris](Doris (mythology)) (and thus brother to Amphitrite) as a lover. Nerites was also Poseidon's charioteer, and impressed all marine creatures with his speed. But one day the sun god, Helios, turned Nerites into a shellfish. [Aelian](Claudius Aelianus), who recorded this tale as told by mariners, says it is not clear why Helios did this, but theorizes he might have been offended somehow, or that he and Poseidon were rivals in love, and Helios wanted Nerites to travel among the constellations instead of the sea-monsters. From the love between Poseidon and Nerites was born [Anteros](Anteros), mutual love.
Other male lovers included [Pelops](Pelops) and [Patroclus](Patroclus).[Hephaestion](Ptolemy)(Ptolemy Hephaestion), *New History*, 1 in [Photius](Photius), 190
#### Rape and assault victims
A mortal woman named [Tyro](Tyro) was married to [Cretheus](Cretheus) (with whom she had one son, [Aeson](Aeson)), but loved [Enipeus](Enipeus (mythology)), a [god](river)(Water deity). She pursued Enipeus, who refused her advances. One day, Poseidon, filled with lust for Tyro, disguised himself as Enipeus, and from their union were born the heroes [Pelias](Pelias) and [Neleus](Neleus), twin boys.Smith, [s.v. Tyro](https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0104%3Aalphabetic+letter%3DT%3Aentry+group%3D26%3Aentry%3Dtyro-bio-1)
In an archaic myth, Poseidon once pursued [Demeter](Demeter). She spurned his advances, turning herself into a [mare](Mare (horse)) so that she could hide in a herd of horses; he saw through the deception and became a [stallion](Horse), captured and [rape](rape)d her.[Pausanias](Pausanias (geographer)), [8.25.5](http://data.perseus.org/citations/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0525.tlg001.perseus-eng1:8.25.5) Their child was a [horse](horse), Arion, which was capable of human speech.[Pausanias](Pausanias (geographer)), [8.25.7](http://data.perseus.org/citations/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0525.tlg001.perseus-eng1:8.25.7) According to [Hesiod](Hesiod)'s *[Theogony](Theogony)*, Poseidon "lay down in a soft meadow among spring flowers" with the [Gorgon](Gorgon) [Medusa](Medusa) and two offspring, the winged horse [Pegasus](Pegasus) and the warrior [Chrysaor](Chrysaor), were born when the hero [Perseus](Perseus) cut off Medusa's head.*Theogony* 270–281 (Most, [pp. 24, 25](https://www-loebclassics-com.wikipedialibrary.idm.oclc.org/view/hesiod-theogony/2018/pb_LCL057.25.xml)), where Poseidon is referred to as the "dark-haired one". [Ovid](Ovid) however says that Medusa was originally a very beautiful maiden whom Poseidon raped inside the temple of Athena. Athena, furious over the sacrilege, changed the beautiful girl into a monster.[Ovid](Ovid), *[Metamorphoses](Metamorphoses)* [4.794–803](https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.02.0028%3Abook%3D4%3Acard%3D706) Elsewhere in the *[Metamorphoses](Metamorphoses)*, Ovid says that Poseidon seduced Medusa in the form of a bird.[Ovid](Ovid), *[Metamorphoses](Metamorphoses)* [6.134](https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.02.0028%3Abook%3D6%3Acard%3D87)
One day, Poseidon spotted [Caenis](Caeneus) walking by the seashore, caught her and raped her. Having enjoyed her greatly, he offered her a wish, any wish. Traumatized, Caenis wished to be transformed into a man, so that she would never experience assault again. Poseidon fulfilled her request and [her into a male warrior](changed)(transsexualism), who then took the name Caeneus.[Ovid](Ovid), *[Metamorphoses](Metamorphoses)* [12.195-199](https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.02.0028%3Abook%3D12%3Acard%3D146); [Apollodorus](Bibliotheca (Pseudo-Apollodorus)), [Epitome.1.22](https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0022%3Atext%3DEpitome%3Abook%3DE%3Achapter%3D1%3Asection%3D22) Another time Poseidon once fell in love with a Phocian woman, [Corone](Corone (crow)), the daughter of [Coronaeus](Coronaeus) as she was walking along the shore. He attempted to court her, but she rejected him, and ran away. Poseidon then chased her down with the aim to rape her. Athena, witnessing all that, took pity in the girl and changed her into a crow.[Ovid](Ovid), *[Metamorphoses](Metamorphoses)* 2.569-88
When Zeus fell in love and pursued the goddess [Asteria](Asteria (Titaness)), she transformed into a quail and flung herself into the sea to escape being raped by him. Poseidon then, equally rapacious, picked up the chase where Zeus had left it and chased Asteria with the aim to force himself on her, so Asteria had to transform for a second time to save herself, this time into a small rocky island named [Delos](Delos).
## Genealogy
, Hephaestus was produced by Hera alone, with no father, see Gantz, p. 74.}}
, of Zeus' children by his seven wives, Athena was the first to be conceived, but the last to be born; Zeus impregnated Metis then swallowed her, later Zeus himself gave birth to Athena "from his head", see Gantz, pp. 51–52, 83–84.}}
, Aphrodite was born from Uranus' severed genitals, see Gantz, pp. 99–100.|BBB= bAccording to [Homer](Homer), Aphrodite was the daughter of Zeus (*[Iliad](Iliad)* [3.374](http://data.perseus.org/citations/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0012.tlg001.perseus-eng1:3.374), [20.105](http://data.perseus.org/citations/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0012.tlg001.perseus-eng1:20.105) ; *[Odyssey](Odyssey)* [8.308](http://data.perseus.org/citations/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0012.tlg002.perseus-eng1:8.308) , [320](http://data.perseus.org/citations/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0012.tlg002.perseus-eng1:8.320)) and Dione (*[Iliad](Iliad)* [5.370–71](http://data.perseus.org/citations/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0012.tlg001.perseus-eng1:5.370)), see Gantz, pp. 99–100.}}
## In literature and art
[[Image:JacobdeGheynII-NeptuneandAmphitrite.jpg|thumb|*Neptune and Amphitrite* by [de Gheyn II](Jacob)(Jacob de Gheyn II) (late 1500s)]]
In [art](Greek)(Greek art), Poseidon rides a [chariot](chariot) that was pulled by a [hippocampus](Hippocampus (mythology)) or by horses that could ride on the sea. He was associated with [dolphin](dolphin)s and three-pronged [fish](fish) [spear](spear)s ([trident](trident)s). He lived in a palace on the [ocean](ocean) floor, made of [coral](coral) and [gem](Gemstone)s.
In the *[Iliad](Iliad),* Poseidon favors the Greeks, and on several occasion takes an active part in the battle against the Trojan forces. However, in Book XX he rescues [Aeneas](Aeneas) after the Trojan prince is laid low by [Achilles](Achilles).
In the *[Odyssey](Odyssey)*, Poseidon is notable for his hatred of [Odysseus](Odysseus) who blinded the god's son, the [Cyclops](Cyclopes) [Polyphemus](Polyphemus). The enmity of Poseidon prevents Odysseus's return home to [Ithaca](Homer's Ithaca) for many years. Odysseus is even told, notwithstanding his ultimate safe return, that to placate the wrath of Poseidon will require one more voyage on his part.
In the *[Aeneid](Aeneid)*, Neptune is still resentful of the wandering Trojans, but is not as vindictive as [Juno](Juno (mythology)), and in Book I he rescues the Trojan fleet from the goddess's attempts to wreck it, although his primary motivation for doing this is his annoyance at Juno's having intruded into his domain.
A hymn to Poseidon included among the [Hymn](Homeric)(Homeric Hymn)s is a brief invocation, a seven-line introduction that addresses the god as both "mover of the earth and barren sea, god of the deep who is also lord of [Helicon](Mount)(Mount Helicon) and wide [Aegae](Aegospotami),The ancient palace-city that was replaced by [Vergina](Vergina) and specifies his twofold nature as an Olympian: "a tamer of horses and a saviour of ships".
## In modern culture
[[and the Argonauts (1963) Poseidon.png|thumb|Poseidon as portrayed in the 1963 film *Jason and the Argonauts*](File:Jason)]
Due to his status as a Greek god, Poseidon has made multiple appearances in [modern](Modernity) and [culture](popular)(popular culture).
### Books
Poseidon has appeared in modern literature, most notably in the *[Jackson & the Olympians](Percy)(Percy Jackson & the Olympians)* series, in which he plays a role as [titular character](the)(Percy Jackson)'s father. Poseidon appears in Gareth Hinds' 2010 version of [Odyssey*](*The)(Odyssey).
### Webcomics
Poseidon appeared in Rachel Smythe's 2018 comic *[Olympus](Lore)(Lore Olympus)*.
### Films and television
Poseidon has been very popular especially in god-related films. [Putch](John)(John Putch) directed the 2005 film *[Poseidon Adventure](The)(The Poseidon Adventure (2005 film))*. [Petersen](Wolfgang)(Wolfgang Petersen) also [adapted](film)(film adaption) [Gallico](Paul)(Paul Gallico)'s novel and directed the 2006 film *[Poseidon](Poseidon (film))*.Beyond the Poseidon Adventure, Paul Gallico Poseidon appeared in the 1963 film [and the Argonauts*](*Jason)(Jason and the Argonauts (1963 film)).
Poseidon appears in *[Jackson & the Olympians: The Lightning Thief](Percy)(Percy Jackson & the Olympians: The Lightning Thief)* and *[Jackson: Sea of Monsters](Percy)(Percy Jackson: Sea of Monsters)*, the two film adaptations of the book series. He also appears in the [ABC](American Broadcasting Company) television series *[Upon a Time](Once)(Once Upon a Time (TV series))* as a supporting character in the second half of [four](season)(Once Upon a Time (season 4)), played by [Hudson](Ernie)(Ernie Hudson). In this version, Poseidon is portrayed as the father of the [Witch Ursula](Sea)(Ursula (The Little Mermaid)).
### Video games
Poseidon has made multiple appearances in video games, such as in *[of War 3](God)(God of War III)* by [Sony](Sony Interactive Entertainment). In the game, Poseidon appears as a [boss](Boss (video games)) for the player to defeat. He also appears in *[Smite](Smite (video game))* as a playable character. In the video game [*Hades*](Hades (video game)), he is a character who will grant "boons".
## Narrations
[[Image:Neptúnova fontána.jpg|thumb|right|upright|Neptune's fountain in [Prešov](Prešov), [Slovakia](Slovakia).]]
List of all [pre-modern](Post-classical history) retellings of myths relating to Poseidon:
*[Homer](Homer), *Odyssey,* 11.567 (7th century BC)
*[Pindar](Pindar), *Olympian Odes,* 1 (476 BC)
*[Euripides](Euripides), *Orestes,* 12–16 (408 BC)
**[Bibliotheca](Bibliotheca (Pseudo-Apollodorus))* *Epitome* 2: 1–9 (140 BC)
*[Ovid](Ovid), *Metamorphoses,* VI: 213, 458 (AD 8);
*[Hyginus](Gaius Julius Hyginus), *Fables,* 82: Tantalus; 83: Pelops (1st century AD)
*[Pausanias](Pausanias (geographer)), *Description of Greece,* 2.22.3 (AD 160 – 176)
*[Pindar](Pindar), *Olympian Ode,* I (476 BC)
*[Sophocles](Sophocles), (1) *Electra,* 504 (430 – 415 BC) & (2) *Oenomaus,* Fr. 433 (408 BC)
*[Euripides](Euripides), *Orestes,* 1024–1062 (408 BC)
**[Bibliotheca](Bibliotheca (Pseudo-Apollodorus))* *Epitome* 2, 1–9 (140 BC)
*[Siculus](Diodorus)(Diodorus Siculus), *Histories,* 4.73 (1st century BC)
*[Hyginus](Gaius Julius Hyginus), *Fables,* 84: Oinomaus; *Poetic Astronomy,* ii (1st century AD)
*[Pausanias](Pausanias (geographer)), *Description of Greece,* 5.1.3 – 7; 5.13.1; 6.21.9; 8.14.10 – 11 (c. AD 160 – 176)
*[the Elder](Philostratus)(Philostratus the Elder) *Imagines,* I.30: Pelops (AD 170 – 245)
* [the Younger](Philostratus)(Philostratus the Younger), *Imagines,* 9: Pelops (c. 200 – 245)
*[Vatican Mythographer](First)(First Vatican Mythographer), 22: Myrtilus; Atreus et Thyestes
*[Vatican Mythographer](Second)(Second Vatican Mythographer), 146: Oenomaus
## Gallery
### Paintings
File:Poseidon Penteskouphia Louvre CA452.jpg|Poseidon holding a [trident](trident). Corinthian plaque, 550-525 BC. From Penteskouphia.
File:Poseidon enthroned De Ridder 418 CdM Paris n2.jpg|Poseidon on an Attic [krater](kalyx)(Krater) (detail), first half of the 5th century BC.
File:Affreschi romani - nettuno anfitrine - pompei.JPG|Poseidon and Amphitrite. Ancient Roman fresco (50-79 AD), [Pompeii](Pompeii), [Italy](Italy).
File:Cirta mosaic.jpg|*Triumph of Poseidon and [Amphitrite](Amphitrite)* showing the couple [procession](in)(Thiasos#Other thiasoi), detail of a vast [mosaic](Roman mosaic) from [Cirta](Cirta), [Africa](Roman)(Africa (Roman province)) (ca. 315–325 AD, now at the [Louvre](Louvre))
File:Poseidon and Athena battle for control of Athens - Benvenuto Tisi da Garofalo (1512).jpg|*Poseidon and [Athena](Athena) battle for control of Athens* by [Tisi](Benvenuto)(Benvenuto Tisi)(1512)
### Statues
File:MillesPoseidon.jpg|Poseidon statue in [Gothenburg](Gothenburg), [Sweden](Sweden).
File:Neptun v prešovskej fontane.jpg|Poseidon statue in [Prešov](Prešov), [Slovakia](Slovakia)
File:Poseidon.statue.arp.500pix.jpg|Poseidon statue in [Bristol](Bristol), [England](England).
File:Neptun brunnen1.jpg|The *[Neptunbrunnen](Neptunbrunnen)* fountain in [Berlin](Berlin)
File:Poseidon sculpture Copenhagen 2005.jpg|Poseidon sculpture in [Copenhagen](Copenhagen), [Denmark](Denmark)
## See also
*[tree of the Greek gods](Family)(Family tree of the Greek gods)
*[League](Ionian)(Ionian League)
*[Panionium](Panionium) – Ionian festival to Poseidon
*[of Poseidon](Trident)(Trident of Poseidon)
## Notes
}}
## References
* [Apollodorus](Bibliotheca (Pseudo-Apollodorus)), *Apollodorus, The Library, with an English Translation by Sir James George Frazer, F.B.A., F.R.S. in 2 Volumes.* Cambridge, Massachusetts, [University Press](Harvard)(Harvard University Press); London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1921. . [Online version at the Perseus Digital Library](http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0548.tlg001.perseus-eng1).
* [of Rhodes](Apollonius)(Apollonius of Rhodes), *Apollonius Rhodius: the Argonautica*, translated by Robert Cooper Seaton, W. Heinemann, 1912. [Internet Archive](http://www.archive.org/stream/argonautica00apoluoft#page/n5/mode/2up).
* [Walter](Burkert,)(Walter Burkert) (1983), *Homo Necans*, University of California Press, Berkeley and Los Angeles. 1983. .
* [Walter](Burkert,)(Walter Burkert) (1985), *Greek Religion*, Wiley-Blackwell 1985. . [Internet Archive](https://archive.org/details/greekreligion0000burk/page/n3/mode/2up?view=theater).
* Dietrich, B. C., *The Origins of Greek Religion*, Bristol Phoenix Press, 2004. .
* [Siculus](Diodorus)(Diodorus Siculus), *Library of History, Volume III: Books 4.59-8*, translated by [H. Oldfather](C.)(Charles Henry Oldfather), [Classical Library](Loeb)(Loeb Classical Library) No. 340. Cambridge, Massachusetts, [University Press](Harvard)(Harvard University Press), 1939. . [Online version at Harvard University Press](https://www-loebclassics-com.wikipedialibrary.idm.oclc.org/view/LCL340/1939/volume.xml). [Online version by Bill Thayer](http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Diodorus_Siculus/home.html).
* [of Halicarnassus](Dionysius)(Dionysius of Halicarnassus). *Roman Antiquities, Volume I: Books 1–2*, translated by Earnest Cary. [Classical Library](Loeb)(Loeb Classical Library) No. 319. Cambridge, Massachusetts, [University Press](Harvard)(Harvard University Press), 1937. [Online version by Bill Thayer](https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Dionysius_of_Halicarnassus/home.html). [Online version at Harvard University Press](https://www-loebclassics-com.wikipedialibrary.idm.oclc.org/view/LCL319/1937/volume.xml).
* Gantz, Timothy, *Early Greek Myth: A Guide to Literary and Artistic Sources*, Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996, Two volumes: (Vol. 1), (Vol. 2).
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* *Halieutica* in *[Oppian](Oppian), [Colluthus](Colluthus), [Tryphiodorus](Tryphiodorus). Oppian, Colluthus, and Tryphiodorus. Translated by A. W. Mair, edited by [H. D. Rouse](W.)(W. H. D. Rouse)*. [Classical Library](Loeb)(Loeb Classical Library) 219. Cambridge, MA: [University Press](Harvard)(Harvard University Press), 1928.
*
* [Hesiod](Hesiod), *[Theogony](Theogony)*, in *The Homeric Hymns and Homerica with an English Translation by Hugh G. Evelyn-White*, Cambridge, Massachusetts., Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1914. [Online version at the Perseus Digital Library](https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0130%3Acard%3D1).
* [Homer](Homer), *The Iliad with an English Translation by A.T. Murray, PhD in two volumes*. Cambridge, Massachusetts., Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann, Ltd. 1924. [Online version at the Perseus Digital Library](https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0134%3Abook%3D1%3Acard%3D1).
* [Homer](Homer); *The Odyssey with an English Translation by A.T. Murray, PH.D. in two volumes*. Cambridge, Massachusetts., Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann, Ltd. 1919. [Online version at the Perseus Digital Library](https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0136%3Abook%3D1%3Acard%3D1).
* [Gaius Julius](Hyginus,)(Gaius Julius Hyginus), *[Astronomica](De)(De Astronomica)*, in *The Myths of Hyginus*, edited and translated by Mary A. Grant, Lawrence: University of Kansas Press, 1960. [Online version at ToposText](https://topostext.org/work/207).
* [Gaius Julius](Hyginus,)(Gaius Julius Hyginus), *[Fabulae](Fabulae)*, in *The Myths of Hyginus*, edited and translated by Mary A. Grant, Lawrence: University of Kansas Press, 1960. [Online version at ToposText](https://topostext.org/work/206).
* Janda, Michael, *Eleusis. Das indogermanische Erbe der Mysterien*, Innsbruck 2000, pp. 256–258 (Innsbrucker Beiträge zur Sprachwissenschaft, vol. 96)
*
*
* [G.W.](Most,)(Glenn W. Most), *Hesiod, Theogony, Works and Days, Testimonia,* Edited and translated by Glenn W. Most, [Classical Library](Loeb)(Loeb Classical Library) No. 57, Cambridge, Massachusetts, [University Press](Harvard)(Harvard University Press), 2018. . [Online version at Harvard University Press](https://www-loebclassics-com.wikipedialibrary.idm.oclc.org/view/LCL057/2018/volume.xml).
*
*
* [Ovid](Ovid), *[Heroides](Heroides)* in *Heroides. Amores.* Translated by Grant Showerman. Revised by G. P. Goold. [Classical Library](Loeb)(Loeb Classical Library) No. 41. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1977. . [Online version at Harvard University Press](https://www-loebclassics-com.wikipedialibrary.idm.oclc.org/view/LCL041/1914/volume.xml).
* [Ovid](Ovid), *[Metamorphoses](Metamorphoses)*, Brookes More, Boston, Cornhill Publishing Co. 1922. [Online version at the Perseus Digital Library](https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.02.0028%3Abook%3D1%3Acard%3D1).
* [Pausanias](Pausanias (geographer)), *Pausanias Description of Greece with an English Translation by W.H.S. Jones, Litt.D., and H.A. Ormerod, M.A., in 4 Volumes.* Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1918. [Online version at the Perseus Digital Library](https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Paus.+1.1.1).
* [Plato](Plato), *[ Cratylus](Cratylus (dialogue))* in *Plato in Twelve Volumes*, Vol. 12 translated by Harold N. Fowler, Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1925. [Online version at the Perseus Digital Library](http://data.perseus.org/citations/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0059.tlg005.perseus-eng1:383a).
* [Plato](Plato), *[Critias](Critias (dialogue))* in *Plato in Twelve Volumes*, Vol. 9 translated by W.R.M. Lamb, Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1925. [Online version at the Perseus Digital Library](https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0180%3Atext%3DCriti.%3Asection%3D106a).
*
*
* [William](Smith,)(William Smith (lexicographer)), *[of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology](Dictionary)(Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology)*, London (1873). [Online version at the Perseus Digital Library](https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3atext%3a1999.04.0104).
* [Strabo](Strabo), [*Geography*](Geographica), Editors, H.C. Hamilton, Esq., W. Falconer, M.A., London. George Bell & Sons. 1903. [Online version at the Perseus Digital Library](https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0239%3Abook%3Dnotice).
* [John](Tzetzes,)(John Tzetzes), *Scolia eis Lycophroon*, edited by Christian Gottfried Müller, Sumtibus F.C.G. Vogelii, 1811. [Internet Archive](https://archive.org/stream/isaakioukaiiann00mlgoog#page/n5/mode/2up).
* [Virgil](Virgil), *[Aeneid](Aeneid)*, Theodore C. Williams. trans. Boston. Houghton Mifflin Co. 1910. [Online version at the Perseus Digital Library](https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.02.0054%3Abook%3D1%3Acard%3D1).
*
*
*
## External links
*
*[Theoi.com: Poseidon](http://www.theoi.com/Olympios/Poseidon.html)
*[GML Poseidon](http://www.maicar.com/GML/Poseidon.html)
*[Gods found in Mycenaean Greece](http://www.csun.edu/~hcfll004/mycen.html); a table drawn up from Michael Ventris and John Chadwick, *Documents in Mycenaean Greek* second edition (Cambridge 1973)
* [The Warburg Institute Iconographic Database (images of Poseidon)](https://iconographic.warburg.sas.ac.uk/category/vpc-taxonomy-000153)
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Shinto
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shinto
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# Shinto
*Revision ID: 1160180942 | Timestamp: 2023-06-14T21:55:08Z*
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[[File:Itsukushima Gate.jpg|The [torii](torii) gateway to the [Shrine](Itsukushima)(Itsukushima Shrine) in Hiroshima Prefecture, Japan, one of the most famous examples of torii in the country. Torii mark the entrance to Shinto shrines and are recognizable symbols of the religion.|right|thumb]]
**Shinto** () is a [religion](religion) from [Japan](Japan). Classified as an [Asian religion](East)(East Asian religions) by [of religion](scholars)(Religious studies), its practitioners often regard it as Japan's [religion](indigenous)(indigenous religion) and as a [religion](nature)(nature religion). Scholars sometimes call its practitioners *Shintoists*, although adherents rarely use that term themselves. There is no central authority in control of Shinto, with much diversity of belief and practice evident among practitioners.
A [polytheistic](polytheism) and [animistic](animism) religion, Shinto revolves around supernatural entities called the (神). The are believed to inhabit all things, including forces of nature and prominent landscape locations. The are worshipped at household shrines, family shrines, and [public shrines](*jinja*)(Shinto shrine). Hachiman Shrines are dedicated to Hachiman, the kami of war, which used to be particularly popular among the leading military clans of the past. Of Japan's thousands of Hachiman Shrines, the most famous is probably Kamakura's Tsurugaoka Hachimangu, while their head shrine is Usa Shrine on Kyushu.
The latter are staffed by priests, known as , who oversee offerings of food and drink to the specific enshrined at that location. This is done to cultivate harmony between humans and and to solicit the latter's blessing. Other common rituals include the dances, [of passage](rites)(rites of passage), and seasonal festivals. Public shrines facilitate forms of [divination](divination) and supply religious objects, such as [amulet](amulet)s, to the religion's adherents. Shinto places a major conceptual focus on ensuring purity, largely by cleaning practices such as ritual washing and bathing, especially before worship. Little emphasis is placed on specific moral codes or particular afterlife beliefs, although the dead are deemed capable of becoming . The religion has no single creator or specific doctrine, and instead exists in a diverse range of local and regional forms.
Although historians debate at what point it is suitable to refer to Shinto as a distinct religion, veneration has been traced back to Japan's [period](Yayoi)(Yayoi period) (300 BCE to 300 CE). [Buddhism](Chinese Buddhism) entered Japan at the end of the [period](Kofun)(Kofun period) (300 to 538 CE) and spread rapidly. [syncretization](Religious)(Syncretism) made worship and Buddhism functionally inseparable, a process called *[shinbutsu-shūgō](shinbutsu-shūgō)*. The came to be viewed as part of [cosmology](Buddhist)(Buddhist cosmology) and were increasingly depicted [anthropomorphically](Anthropomorphism). The earliest written tradition regarding worship was recorded in the 8th-century *[Kojiki](Kojiki)* and *[Shoki](Nihon)(Nihon Shoki)*. In ensuing centuries, was adopted by Japan's Imperial household. During the [era](Meiji)(Meiji era) (1868 to 1912), Japan's [nationalist](Japanese nationalism) leadership expelled Buddhist influence from worship and formed [Shinto](State)(State Shinto), which some historians regard as the origin of Shinto as a distinct religion. Shrines came under growing government influence, and citizens were encouraged to worship the [emperor](Emperor of Japan) as a . With the formation of the [Empire](Japanese)(Japanese Empire) in the early 20th century, Shinto was exported to other areas of East Asia. Following Japan's defeat in [War II](World)(World War II), Shinto was formally [from the state](separated)(Secular state).
Shinto is primarily found in Japan, where there are around 100,000 public shrines, although practitioners are also found abroad. Numerically, it is Japan's largest religion, the second being Buddhism. Most of the country's population takes part in both Shinto and Buddhist activities, especially festivals, reflecting a common view in [culture](Japanese)(Culture of Japan) that the beliefs and practices of different religions need not be exclusive. Aspects of Shinto have been incorporated into various [new religious movements](Japanese)(Japanese new religions).
## Definition
[[torii gateway to the Yobito Shrine () in Abashiri City, Hokkaido](File:YobitoTorii.jpg|thumb|A)]
There is no universally agreed definition of Shinto. However, the authors Joseph Cali and John Dougill stated that if there was "one single, broad definition of Shinto" that could be put forward, it would be that "Shinto is a belief in ", the supernatural entities at the centre of the religion. The Japanologist [Hardacre](Helen)(Helen Hardacre) stated that "Shinto encompasses doctrines, institutions, ritual, and communal life based on worship", while the scholar of religion [Nobutaka](Inoue)(Inoue Nobutaka) observed the term "Shinto" was "often used" in "reference to worship and related theologies, rituals and practices". Various scholars have referred to practitioners of Shinto as *Shintoists*, although this term has no direct translation in the [language](Japanese)(Japanese language).
Scholars have debated at what point in history it is legitimate to start talking about Shinto as a specific phenomenon. The scholar of religion [Smart](Ninian)(Ninian Smart) suggested that one could "speak of the religion of Japan, which lived symbiotically with organized Buddhism, and only later was institutionalized as Shinto." While several institutions and practices now associated with Shinto existed in Japan by the 8th century, various scholars have argued that Shinto as a distinct religion was essentially "invented" during the 19th century, in Japan's [era](Meiji)(Meiji era). The scholar of religion Brian Bocking stressed that, especially when dealing with periods before the Meiji era, the term *Shinto* should "be approached with caution". Inoue Nobutaka stated that "Shinto cannot be considered as a single religious system that existed from the ancient to the modern period", while the historian [Toshio](Kuroda)(Kuroda Toshio) noted that "before modern times Shinto did not exist as an independent religion".
### Categorisation
Many scholars describe Shinto as a [religion](religion), a term first translated into Japanese as *shūkyō* around the time of the [Restoration](Meiji)(Meiji Restoration). Some practitioners instead view Shinto as a "way", thus characterising it more as custom or [tradition](tradition), partly as an attempt to circumvent the modern [of religion and state](separation)(separation of religion and state) and restore Shinto's historical links with the Japanese state. Moreover, many of the categories of religion and religiosity defined in [culture](Western)(Western world) "do not readily apply" to Shinto. Unlike religions familiar in Western countries, such as [Christianity](Christianity) and [Islam](Islam), Shinto has no single founder, nor any single canonical text. Western religions tend to stress exclusivity, but in Japan, it has long been considered acceptable to practice different religious traditions simultaneously. Japanese religion is therefore highly [pluralistic](Religious pluralism). Shinto is often cited alongside [Buddhism](Buddhism) as one of Japan's two main religions, and the two often differ in focus, with Buddhism emphasising the idea of transcending the cosmos, which it regards as being replete with suffering, while Shinto focuses on adapting to life's pragmatic requirements. Shinto has integrated elements from religions imported from mainland Asia, such as Buddhism, [Confucianism](Confucianism), [Taoism](Taoism), and [divination](Chinese)(Chinese fortune telling) practices, and shares features like its polytheism with other [Asian religions](East)(East Asian religions).
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Scholars of religion have debated how to classify Shinto. Inoue considered it part of "the family of East-Asian religions". The philosopher [D. B. Picken](Stuart)(Stuart D. B. Picken) suggested that Shinto be classed as a [religion](world)(world religion), while the historian [Byron Earhart](H.)(H. Byron Earhart) called it a "major religion". Shinto is also often described as an [religion](indigenous)(indigenous religion), although this generates debates over the different definitions of "indigenous" in the Japanese context. The notion of Shinto as Japan's "indigenous religion" stemmed from the growth of modern nationalism between the [Edo](Edo period) and Meiji periods; this view promoted the idea that Shinto's origins were prehistoric and that it represented something like the "underlying will of Japanese culture". The prominent Shinto theologian Sokyo Ono, for instance, said worship was "an expression" of the Japanese "native racial faith which arose in the mystic days of remote antiquity" and that it was "as indigenous as the people that brought the Japanese nation into existence". Many scholars regard this classification as inaccurate. Earhart noted that Shinto, in having absorbed much Chinese and Buddhist influence, was "too complex to be labelled simply [an](as) indigenous religion". In the early 21st century it became increasingly common for practitioners to call Shinto a [religion](nature)(nature religion), which critics saw as a strategy to disassociate the tradition from controversial issues surrounding militarism and imperialism.
Shinto displays substantial local variation; the anthropologist John K. Nelson noted it was "not a unified, monolithic entity that has a single center and system all its own". [types of Shinto](Different)(Shinto sects and schools) have been identified. "Shrine Shinto" refers to the practices centred around shrines, and "Domestic Shinto" to the ways in which are venerated in the home. Some scholars have used the term "Folk Shinto" to designate localised Shinto practices, or practices outside of an institutionalised setting. In various eras of the past, there was also a "[Shinto](State)(State Shinto)", in which Shinto beliefs and practices were closely interlinked with the Japanese state. In representing "a portmanteau term" for many varied traditions across Japan, the term "Shinto" is similar to the term "[Hinduism](Hinduism)", used to describe varied traditions across South Asia.
### Etymology
[[File:Takachiho-gawara Kirishima City Kagoshima Pref02n4050.jpg|thumb|A torii gate at the [Takachiho-gawara](Takachiho-gawara) shrine near [Kirishima](Kirishima, Kagoshima), [Prefecture](Kagoshima)(Kagoshima Prefecture), which is associated with the mythological tale of [Ninigi-no-Mikoto](Ninigi-no-Mikoto)'s [to earth](descent)(tenson kōrin).]]
The term *Shinto* is often translated into English as "the way of the ", although its meaning has varied throughout Japanese history. Other terms are sometimes used synonymously with "Shinto"; these include ** (, "the way of the "), ** (, also written or , "the way of the from time immemorial"), ** (, "the ancient way"), ** (, "the great way"), and ** (, "the imperial way").
The term *Shinto* derives from the combination of two Chinese characters: *[shen](Shen (Chinese religion))* (), which means "spirit," and *[dao](dao)* (), which means "way", "road" or "path". "Shendao" () was a term already used in the *[Yijing](Yijing)* referring to the divine order of nature.*Commentary on Judgment* about *Yijing* 20, *Guan* ("Viewing"): "Viewing the Way of the Gods (*Shendao*), one finds that the four seasons never deviate, and so the sage establishes his teachings on the basis of this Way, and all under Heaven submit to him". Around the time of the spread of [Buddhism](Buddhism) in the [dynasty](Han)(Han dynasty) (206 BCE – 220 CE), it was used to distinguish [Chinese religions](indigenous)(Chinese folk religion) from the imported religion. [Hong](Ge)(Ge Hong) used it in his *[Baopuzi](Baopuzi)* as a synonym for [Taoism](Taoism).Herman Ooms. *Imperial Politics and Symbolics in Ancient Japan: The Tenmu Dynasty, 650–800*. University of Hawaii Press, 2009. . p. 166
The [Chinese](Chinese language) term *Shendao* was originally adopted into Japanese as *Jindō*; this was possibly first used as a Buddhist term to refer to non-Buddhist deities. Among the earliest known appearances of the term *Shinto* in Japan is in the 8th-century text, *[Shoki](Nihon)(Nihon Shoki)*. Here, it may be a generic term for popular belief, or alternatively reference Taoism, as many Taoist practices had recently been imported from mainland Asia. In these early Japanese uses, the word *Shinto* did not apply to a distinct religious tradition nor to anything uniquely Japanese; the 11th century *[monogatarishui](Konjaku)(Konjaku Monogatarishū)* for instance refers to a woman in China practicing *Shinto*, and also to people in India worshipping , indicating these terms were being used to describe religions outside Japan itself.
In medieval Japan, -worship was generally seen as being part of [Buddhism](Japanese)(Japanese Buddhism), with the themselves often interpreted as [Buddhas](Buddhas). At this point, the term *Shinto* increasingly referred to "the authority, power, or activity of a , being a , or, in short, the state or attributes of a ." It appears in this form in texts such as ** and *[Shintōshū](Shintōshū)* tales. In the *[Portuguese Dictionary](Japanese)(Nippo Jisho)* of 1603, *Shinto* is defined as referring to " or matters pertaining to ." The term *Shinto* became common in the 15th century. During the late Edo period, the scholars began using the term *Shinto* to describe what they believed was an ancient, enduring and indigenous Japanese tradition that predated Buddhism; they argued that *Shinto* should be used to distinguish worship from traditions like Buddhism, Taoism, and Confucianism. This use of the term *Shinto* became increasingly popular from the 18th century. The term *Shinto* has been commonly used only since the early 20th century, when it superseded the term ('great religion') as the name for the Japanese state religion.
## Beliefs
###
[[File:A man confronted with an apparition of the Fox goddess.jpg|thumb|An artistic depiction by [Kuniyoshi](Utagawa)(Utagawa Kuniyoshi) of the Inari appearing to a man]]
Shinto is [polytheistic](polytheism), involving the veneration of many deities known as , or sometimes as . In Japanese, no distinction is made here between singular and plural, and hence the term refers both to individual and the collective group of . Although lacking a direct English translation, the term has sometimes been rendered as "god" or "spirit". The historian of religion [Kitagawa](Joseph)(Joseph Kitagawa) deemed these English translations "quite unsatisfactory and misleading", and various scholars urge against translating into English. In Japanese, it is often said that there are [million](eight)(Indefinite and fictitious numbers#Specific values used as indefinite) , a term which connotes an infinite number, and Shinto practitioners believe that they are present everywhere. They are not regarded as [omnipotent](omnipotence), [omniscient](omniscience), or necessarily [immortal](immortality).
The term is "conceptually fluid", being "vague and imprecise". In Japanese it is often applied to the power of phenomena that inspire a sense of wonder and awe in the beholder. Kitagawa referred to this as "the nature", stating that he thought it "somewhat analogous" to the Western ideas of the [numinous](numinous) and the [sacred](sacred). are seen to inhabit both the living and the dead, organic and inorganic matter, and natural disasters like earthquakes, droughts, and plagues; their presence is seen in natural forces such as the wind, rain, fire, and sunshine. Accordingly, Nelson commented that Shinto regards "the *actual phenomena* of the world itself" as being "divine". This perspective has been characterised as being [animistic](animism).
In Japan, have been venerated since prehistory. During the [period](Yayoi)(Yayoi period) they were regarded as being formless and invisible, later coming to be depicted anthropomorphically under Buddhist influence. Now, statues of the are known as . are usually associated with a specific place, often a prominent landscape feature such as a waterfall, mountain, large rock, or distinctive tree. Physical objects or places in which the are believed to have a presence are termed ; objects inhabited by the that are placed in the shrine are known as . Objects commonly chosen for this purpose include mirrors, swords, stones, beads, and inscribed tablets. These are concealed from the view of visitors, and may be hidden inside boxes so that even the priests do not know what they look like.
are deemed capable of both benevolent and destructive deeds; if warnings about good conduct are ignored, the can mete out punishment, often illness or sudden death, called . Some , referred to as the or , are regarded as malevolent and destructive. Offerings and prayers are given to the to gain their blessings and to dissuade them from destructive actions. Shinto seeks to cultivate and ensure a harmonious relationship between humans and the and thus with the natural world. More localised may be subject to feelings of intimacy and familiarity from members of the local community that are not directed towards more widespread like Amaterasu. The of a particular community is referred to it as their , while that of a particular house is the .
[[File:Takeo Shrine Sacred tree.jpg|thumb|left|A 3000 year old sacred tree ([shintai](shintai)) of Takeo Shrine]]
are not deemed [metaphysically](metaphysics) different from humanity, with it being possible for humans to become . Dead humans are sometimes venerated as , being regarded as protector or ancestral figures. One of the most prominent examples is that of the [Ōjin](Emperor)(Emperor Ōjin), who on his death was enshrined as the [Hachiman](Hachiman), believed to be a protector of Japan and a of war. In Japanese culture, ancestors can be viewed as a form of . In Western Japan, the term is used to describe the enshrined of a village founder. In some cases, living human beings were also viewed as ; these were called or . In the State Shinto system of the Meiji era, the emperor of Japan was declared to be a , while several Shinto sects have also viewed their leaders as living .
Although some are venerated only in a single location, others have shrines across many areas. Hachiman for instance has around 25,000 shrines dedicated to him, while Inari has 40,000. The act of establishing a new shrine to a who already has one is called ("dividing the spirit"). As part of this, the is invited to enter a new place, with the instalment ceremony known as a . The new, subsidiary shrine is known as a . Individual are not believed to have their power diminished by their residence in multiple locations, and there is no limit on the number of places a can be enshrined. In some periods, fees were charged for the right to enshrine a particular in a new place. Shrines are not necessarily always designed as permanent structures.
Many have messengers, known as or , that generally take animal forms. Inari's messenger, for example, is a fox (*[kitsune](kitsune)*), while Hachiman's is a dove.
Shinto cosmology also includes spirits who cause malevolent acts, , a category including , , , , and . Japanese folklore also incorporates belief in the or , unquiet or vengeful spirits, particularly of those who died violently and without appropriate funerary rites. These are believed to inflict suffering on the living, meaning that they must be pacified, usually through Buddhist rites but sometimes through enshrining them as a . Other Japanese supernatural figures include the , animal-like creatures who can take human form.
### Cosmogony
[[File:Kobayashi Izanami and Izanagi.jpg|thumb|upright|[Izanami](Izanami)-no-Mikoto and [Izanagi](Izanagi)-no-Mikoto, by Kobayashi Eitaku, late 19th century]]
Although the narratives differ in detail, the origin of the and of Japan itself are recounted in two 8th-century texts, *[Kojiki](Kojiki)* and *Nihon Shoki*. Drawing heavily on Chinese influence, these texts were commissioned by ruling elites to legitimize and consolidate their rule. Although never of great importance to Japanese religious life, in the early 20th century the government proclaimed that their accounts were factual.
The *Kojiki* recounts that the universe started with , the separation of light and pure elements (, "heaven") from heavy elements (, "earth"). Three then appeared: [Amenominakanushi](Amenominakanushi), [no Mikoto](Takamimusuhi)(Takamimusubi), and [no Mikoto](Kamimusuhi)(Kamimusubi). Other followed, including a brother and sister, [Izanagi](Izanagi) and [Izanami](Izanami). The instructed Izanagi and Izanami to create land on earth. To this end, the siblings stirred the briny sea with a jewelled spear, from which [Island](Onogoro)(Onogoro Island) was formed. Izanagi and Izanami then descended to Earth, where the latter gave birth to further . One of these was a fire , whose birth killed Izanami. Izanagi descended to to retrieve his sister, but there he saw her body putrefying. Embarrassed to be seen in this state, she chased him out of , and he closed its entrance with a boulder.
Izanagi bathed in the sea to rid himself from the pollution brought about by witnessing Izanami's putrefaction. Through this act, further emerged from his body: [Amaterasu](Amaterasu) (the sun ) was born from his left eye, [Tsukuyomi](Tsukuyomi) (the moon ) from his right eye, and [Susanoo](Susanoo) (the storm ) from his nose. Susanoo behaved in a destructive manner, to escape him Amaterasu hid herself within a cave, plunging the earth into darkness. The other eventually succeeded in coaxing her out. Susanoo was then banished to earth, where he married and had children. According to the *Kojiki*, Amaterasu then sent her grandson, [Ninigi](Ninigi), to rule Japan, giving him curved beads, a mirror, and a sword: the symbols of Japanese imperial authority. Amaterasu remains probably Japan's most venerated .
### Cosmology and afterlife
In Shinto, the creative principle permeating all life is known as , and is associated with its own . Within traditional Japanese thought, there is no concept of an overarching duality between good and evil. The concept of encompasses misfortune, unhappiness, and disaster, although it does not correspond precisely with the Western concept of evil. There is no [eschatology](eschatology) in Shinto. Texts such as the *Kojiki* and *Nihon Shoki* portray multiple realms in Shinto cosmology. These present a universe divided into three parts: the Plane of High Heaven (), where the live; the Phenomenal or Manifested World (), where humans dwell; and the Nether World (), where unclean spirits reside. The mythological texts nevertheless do not draw firm demarcations between these realms.
Modern Shinto places greater emphasis on this life than on any afterlife, although does espouse belief in a human spirit or soul, the or , which contains four aspects. While indigenous ideas about an afterlife were probably well-developed prior to Buddhism's arrival, contemporary Japanese people often adopt Buddhist afterlife beliefs.
Mythological stories like the *Kojiki* describe or as a realm of the dead, although this plays no role in modern Shinto. Modern Shinto ideas about the afterlife largely revolve around the idea that the spirit survives bodily death and continues to assist the living. After 33 years, it then becomes part of the family . These ancestral spirits are sometimes thought to reside in the mountains, from where they descend to take part in agricultural events. Shinto's afterlife beliefs also include the , restless spirits who died in bad circumstances and often seek revenge.
### Purity and impurity
A key theme in Shinto is the avoidance of *[kegare](kegare)* ("pollution" or "impurity"), while ensuring *[harae](harae)* ("purity"). In Japanese thought, humans are seen as fundamentally pure. *Kegare* is therefore seen as being a temporary condition that can be corrected through achieving *harae*. Rites of purification are conducted so as to restore an individual to "spiritual" health and render them useful to society.
[[File:Karasuzumo purification ritual.jpg|thumb|left|Shinto purification rite after a ceremonial children's [sumo](sumo) tournament at the [Jinja](Kamigamo)(Kamigamo Jinja) in [Kyoto](Kyoto)]]
This notion of purity is present in many facets of Japanese culture, such as the focus it places on bathing. Purification is for instance regarded as important in preparation for the planting season, while performers of [noh](noh) theatre undergo a purification rite before they carry out their performances. Among the things regarded as particular pollutants in Shinto are death, disease, witchcraft, the flaying alive of an animal, incest, bestiality, excrement, and blood associated with either menstruation or childbirth. To avoid *kegare*, priests and other practitioners may engage in abstinence and avoid various activities prior to a festival or ritual.
Various words, termed *imi-kotoba*, are also regarded as taboo, and people avoid speaking them when at a shrine; these include *shi* (death), *byō* (illness), and *shishi* (meat).
A purification ceremony known as *misogi* involves the use of fresh water, salt water, or salt to remove *kegare*. Full immersion in the sea is often regarded as the most ancient and efficacious form of purification. This act links with the mythological tale in which Izanagi immersed himself in the sea to purify himself after discovering his deceased wife; it was from this act that other kami sprang from his body. An alternative is immersion beneath a waterfall. Salt is often regarded as a purifying substance; some Shinto practitioners will for instance sprinkle salt on themselves after a funeral, while those running restaurants may put a small pile of salt outside before business commences each day. Fire, also, is perceived as a source of purification. The *yaku-barai* is a form of harae designed to prevent misfortune, while the *oharae*, or "ceremony of great purification", is often used for end-of-year purification rites, and is conducted twice a year at many shrines. Before the Meiji period, rites of purification were generally performed by [onmyōji](onmyōji), a type of diviner whose practices derived from the Chinese [and yang](yin)(yin and yang) philosophy.
### *Kannagara*, morality, and ethics
[[Shrine 2012.JPG|thumb|The actions of priests at the Yasukuni Shrine in Tokyo have generated controversy across East Asia](File:Yasukuni)]
Shinto incorporates morality tales and myths but no codified ethical doctrine, and thus no "unified, systematized code of behaviour". An ethical system nevertheless arises from its practice, with emphasis placed on sincerity (*makoto*), honesty (*tadashii*), hard work (*tsui-shin*), and thanksgiving (*kansha*) directed towards the *kami*. *Shojiki* is regarded as a virtue, encompassing honesty, uprightness, veracity, and frankness. Shinto sometimes includes reference to four virtues known as the *akaki kiyoki kokoro* or *sei-mei-shin*, meaning "purity and cheerfulness of heart", which are linked to the state of *harae*. Attitudes to sex and fertility tend to be forthright in Shinto. Shinto's flexibility regarding morality and ethics has been a source of frequent criticism, especially from those arguing that the religion can readily become a pawn for those wishing to use it to legitimise their authority and power.
In Shinto, *kannagara* ("way of the kami") is the law of the [order](natural)(cosmos), with *wa* ("benign harmony") being inherent in all things. Disrupting *wa* is deemed bad, contributing to it is thought good; as such, subordination of the individual to the larger social unit has long been a characteristic of the religion. Throughout Japanese history, the notion of *saisei-itchi*, or the union of religious authority and political authority, has long been prominent. In the modern world, Shinto has tended toward conservatism, as well as nationalism, an association that results in various Japanese [liberties](civil)(civil liberties) groups and neighboring countries regarding Shinto suspiciously. Particularly controversial has been the [Shrine](Yasukuni)(Yasukuni Shrine) in Tokyo, devoted to Japan's war dead. In 1979 it enshrined 14 men who had been declared Class-A defendants at the 1946 [War Crimes Trials](Tokyo)(Tokyo War Crimes Trials), generating domestic and international condemnation, particularly from China and Korea.
Shinto priests face ethical conundrums. In the 1980s, for instance, priests at the [Shrine](Suwa)(Suwa Shrine (Nagasaki)) in [Nagasaki](Nagasaki) debated whether to invite the crew of a U.S. Navy vessel docked at the port city to their festival celebrations given the sensitivities surrounding the [U.S. use of the atomic bomb on the city](1945)(Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki#Nagasaki). In other cases, priests have opposed construction projects on shrine-owned land; at [Kaminoseki](Kaminoseki) in the early 2000s, a priest was pressured to resign after opposing the sale of shrine lands to build a [power plant](nuclear)(nuclear power plant).
In the 21st century, Shinto has increasingly been portrayed as a nature-centred spirituality with [environmentalist](environmentalism) credentials; several shrines have collaborated with local environmentalist campaigns, while an international interfaith conference on environmental sustainability was held at the Ise shrine in 2014. Critical commentators have characterised the presentation of Shinto as an environmentalist movement as a rhetorical ploy rather than a concerted effort by Shinto institutions to become environmentally sustainable.
## Practice
Shinto [on ritual behavior rather than doctrine](focuses)(Orthopraxy). The philosophers James W. Boyd and Ron G. Williams stated that Shinto is "first and foremost a ritual tradition", while Picken observed that "Shinto is interested not in *credenda* but in *agenda*, not in things that should be believed but in things that should be done." The scholar of religion Clark B. Offner stated that Shinto's focus was on "maintaining communal, ceremonial traditions for the purpose of human (communal) well-being".
It is often difficult to distinguish Shinto practices from Japanese customs more broadly, with Picken observing that the "worldview of Shinto" provided the "principal source of self-understanding within the Japanese way of life". Nelson stated that "Shinto-based orientations and values[…] lie at the core of Japanese culture, society, and character".
### Shrines
[[File:Fushimi Inari - Main gate.jpg|thumb|The main gate to [Inari-taisha](Fushimi)(Fushimi Inari-taisha) in Kyoto, one of the oldest shrines in Japan]]
Public spaces in which the kami are worshipped are often known under the generic term *[jinja](Shinto shrine)* ("kami-place"); this term applies to the location rather than to a specific building. *Jinja* is usually translated as "shrine" in English, although in earlier literature was sometimes translated as "temple", a term now more commonly reserved for Japan's Buddhist structures. There are around 100,000 public shrines in Japan; about 80,000 are affiliated with the Association of Shinto Shrines, with another 20,000 being unaffiliated. They are found all over the country, from isolated rural areas to dense metropolitan ones. More specific terms are sometimes used for certain shrines depending on their function; some of the grand shrines with imperial associations are termed *jingū*, those devoted to the war dead are termed *shokonsha*, and those linked to mountains deemed to be inhabited by kami are *yama-miya*.
Jinja typically consist of complexes of multiple buildings, with the architectural styles of shrines having largely developed by the [period](Heian)(Heian period). The inner sanctuary in which the kami lives is the *[honden](honden)*. Inside the honden may be stored material belonging to the kami; known as *shinpo*, this can include artworks, clothing, weapons, musical instruments, bells, and mirrors. Typically, worshippers carry out their acts outside of the honden. Near the honden can sometimes be found a subsidiary shrine, the *bekkū*, to another kami; the kami inhabiting this shrine is not necessarily perceived as being inferior to that in the honden. At some places, halls of worship have been erected, termed *[haiden](Haiden (Shinto))*. On a lower level can be found the hall of offerings, known as a *[heiden](Heiden (Shinto))*. Together, the building housing the honden, haiden, and heiden is called a *hongū*. In some shrines, there is a separate building in which to conduct additional ceremonies, such as weddings, known as a *gishikiden*, or a specific building in which the *kagura* dance is performed, known as the *kagura-den*. Collectively, the central buildings of a shrine are known as the *shaden*, while its precincts are known as the *keidaichi* or ''shin'en*. This precinct is surrounded by the *tamagaki* fence, with entry via a *shinmon* gate, which can be closed at night.
[[otsuka3.jpg|thumb|left|Depictions of torii at the Fushimi Inari-taisha shrine in Kyoto](File:Hushimi-inari-taisha)]
Shrine entrances are marked by a two-post gateway with either one or two crossbeams atop it, known as *[torii](torii)*. The exact details of these torii varies and there are at least twenty different styles. These are regarded as demarcating the area where the kami resides; passing under them is often viewed as a form of purification. More broadly, torii are internationally recognised symbols of Japan. Their architectural form is distinctly Japanese, although the decision to paint most of them in [vermillion](vermillion) reflects a Chinese influence dating from the [period](Nara)(Nara period). Also set at the entrances to many shrines are *[komainu](komainu)*, statues of lion or dog like animals perceived to scare off malevolent spirits; typically these will come as a pair, one with its mouth open, the other with its mouth closed.
Shrines are often set within gardens or wooded groves called *chinju no mori* ("forest of the tutelary kami"), which vary in size from just a few trees to sizeable areas of woodland. Large lanterns, known as *[tōrō](tōrō)*, are often found within these precincts. Shrines often have an office, known as a *shamusho*, a *saikan'' where priests undergo forms of abstinence and purification prior to conducting rituals, and other buildings such as a priests' quarters and a storehouse. Various kiosks often sell amulets to visitors. Since the late 1940s, shrines have had to be financially self-sufficient, relying on the donations of worshippers and visitors. These funds are used to pay the wages of the priests, to finance the upkeep of the buildings, to cover the shrine's membership fees of various regional and national Shinto groups, and to contribute to disaster relief funds.
In Shinto, it is seen as important that the places in which kami are venerated be kept clean and not neglected. Through to the Edo period, it was common for kami shrines to be demolished and rebuilt at a nearby location in order to remove any pollutants and ensure purity. This has continued into recent times at certain sites, such as the Ise Grand Shrine, which is moved to an adjacent site every two decades. Separate shrines can also be merged in a process known as *jinja gappei*, while the act of transferring the kami from one building to another is called *sengu*. Shrines may have legends about their foundation, which are known as *en-gi*. These sometimes also record miracles associated with the shrine. From the Heian period on, the *en-gi* were often retold on picture scrolls known as *[emakimono](emakimono)*.
#### Priesthood and *miko*
[[File:Miwa-shrine Yutateshinji A.JPG|thumb|left| ceremony performed by Shinto priests at the [Shrine](Miwa)(Ōmiwa jinja) in [Nara](Sakurai,)(Sakurai, Nara)]]
Shrines may be cared for by priests, by local communities, or by families on whose property the shrine is found. Shinto priests are known in Japanese as , meaning "proprietor of ", or alternatively as or . Many kannushi take on the role in a line of hereditary succession traced down specific families. In contemporary Japan, there are two main training universities for those wishing to become , at [University](Kokugakuin)(Kokugakuin University) in Tokyo and at [University](Kogakkan)(Kogakkan University) in [Prefecture](Mie)(Mie Prefecture). Priests can rise through the ranks over the course of their careers. The number of priests at a particular shrine can vary; some shrines can have dozens, and others have none, instead being administered by local lay volunteers. Some priests administer to multiple small shrines, sometimes over ten.
Priestly costume is largely based on the clothes worn at the imperial court during the Heian period. It includes a tall, rounded hat known as an , and black lacquered wooden clogs known as . The outer garment worn by a priest, usually colored black, red, or light blue, is the , or the . A white silk version of the , used for formal occasions, is known as the . Another priestly robe is the , which is modelled on Heian-style hunting garments. Also part of standard priestly attire is a fan, while during rituals, priests carry a flat piece of wood known as a . This costume is generally more ornate than the sombre garments worn by Japanese Buddhist monks.
[[File:Kamogawa ceremony 02.jpg|thumb|Miko performing a Shinto ceremony near the [River](Kamo)(Kamo River)]]
The chief priest at a shrine is the . Larger shrines may also have an assistant head priest, the . As with teachers, instructors, and Buddhist clergy, Shinto priests are often referred to as by lay practitioners. Historically, there were female priests although they were largely pushed out of their positions in 1868. During the Second World War, women were again allowed to become priests to fill the void caused by large numbers of men being enlisted in the military. By the late 1990s, around 90% of priests were male, 10% female, contributing to accusations that Shinto discriminates against women. Priests are free to marry and have children. At smaller shrines, priests often have other full-time jobs, and serve only as priests during special occasions.
Before certain major festivals, priests may undergo a period of abstinence from sexual relations. Some of those involved in festivals also abstain from a range of other things, such as consuming tea, coffee, or alcohol, immediately prior to the events.
The priests are assisted by , sometimes referred to as "shrine-maidens" in English. These are typically unmarried, although not necessarily virgins. In many cases they are the daughters of a priest or a practitioner. They are subordinate to the priests in the shrine hierarchy. Their most important role is in the dance, known as . receive only a small salary but gain respect from members of the local community and learn skills such as cooking, calligraphy, painting, and etiquette which can benefit them when later searching for employment or a marriage partner. They generally do not live at the shrines. Sometimes they fill other roles, such as being secretaries in the shrine offices or clerks at the information desks, or as waitresses at the feasts. They also assist in ceremonial rites.
#### Visits to shrines
Visits to the shrine are termed , or . Some individuals visit the shrines daily, often on their morning route to work; they typically take only a few minutes. Usually, a worshipper will approach the honden, placing a monetary offering in a box and then ringing a bell to call the 's attention. Then, they bow, clap, and stand while silently offering a prayer. The clapping is known as or ; the prayers or supplications as . This individual worship is known as . More broadly, ritual prayers to the are called , while the coins offered are . At the shrine, individuals offering prayers are not necessarily praying to a specific . A worshipper may not know the name of a residing at the shrine nor how many are believed to dwell there. Unlike in certain other religions, Shinto shrines do not have weekly services that practitioners are expected to attend.
[[File:Shinto Priest Blessing a Car at the Hokkaido Shrine.jpg|thumb|left|A [Estima](Toyota)(Toyota Previa) being blessed at the [Shrine](Hokkaidō)(Hokkaidō Shrine) in a *kotsu anzen harai* rite]]
Some Shinto practitioners do not offer their prayers to the directly, but rather request that a priest offer them on their behalf; these prayers are known as *kitō*. Many individuals approach the asking for pragmatic requests. Requests for rain, known as ("rain-soliciting") have been found across Japan, with Inari a popular choice for such requests.
Other prayers reflect more contemporary concerns. For instance, people may ask that the priest approaches the so as to purify their car in the hope that this will prevent it from being involved in an accident; the *kotsu anzen harai* ("purification for road safety"). Similarly, transport companies often request purification rites for new buses or airplanes which are about to go into service. Before a building is constructed, it is common for either private individuals or the construction company to employ a Shinto priest to come to the land being developed and perform the , or earth sanctification ritual. This purifies the site and asks the to bless it.
People often ask the to help offset inauspicious events that may affect them. For instance, in Japanese culture, the age 33 is seen as being unlucky for women and the age 42 for men, and thus people can ask the to offset any ill-fortune associated with being this age. Certain directions can also be seen as being inauspicious for certain people at certain times and thus people can approach the asking them to offset this problem if they have to travel in one of these unlucky directions.
[Pilgrimage](Pilgrimage) has long been important in Japanese religion, with pilgrimages to Shinto shrines called . A round of pilgrimages, whereby individuals visit a series of shrines and other sacred sites that are part of an established circuit, is known as a . An individual leading these pilgrims, is sometimes termed a . For many centuries, people have also visited the shrines for primarily cultural and recreational reasons, as opposed to spiritual ones. Many of the shrines are recognised as sites of historical importance and some are classified as [UNESCO](UNESCO) [Heritage Sites](World)(World Heritage Sites). Shrines such as [Jinja](Shimogamo)(Shimogamo Jinja) and [Inari Taisha](Fushimi)(Fushimi Inari Taisha) in Kyoto, [Jingū](Meiji)(Meiji Jingū) in Tokyo, and [Jingū](Atsuta)(Atsuta Jingū) in Nagoya are among Japan's most popular tourist sites. Many shrines have a unique rubber-stamp seal which visitors can get printed into their stamp book, demonstrating the different shrines they have visited.
### *Harae* and *hōbei*
[[rituals begin with a process of purification, often involving the washing of the hands and mouth at the basin; this example is at Itsukushima Jinja.](File:ItsukushimaBasin7406.jpg|thumb|Shinto)]
Shinto rituals begin with a process of purification, or . Using fresh water or salt water, this is known as . At shrines, this entails sprinkling this water onto the face and hands, a procedure known as , using a font known as a . Another form of purification at the start of a Shinto rite entails waving a white paper streamer or wand known as the . When not in use, the is usually kept in a stand. The priest waves the horizontally over a person or object being purified in a movement known as ("left-right-left"). Sometimes, instead of a , the purification is carried out with an , a branch of evergreen to which strips of paper have been attached. The waving of the is often followed by an additional act of purification, the , in which the priest sprinkles water, salt, or brine over those assembled from a wooden box called the or .
The acts of purification accomplished, petitions known as are spoken to the . This is followed by an appearance by the , who commence in a slow circular motion before the main altar. Offerings are then presented to the by being placed on a table. This act is known as ; the offerings themselves as or . Historically, the offerings given the included food, cloth, swords, and horses. In the contemporary period, lay worshippers usually give gifts of money to the while priests generally offer them food, drink, and sprigs of the sacred tree. [sacrifice](Animal)(Animal sacrifice)s are not considered appropriate offerings, as the shedding of blood is seen as a polluting act that necessitates purification. The offerings presented are sometimes simple and sometimes more elaborate; at the Grand Shrine of Ise, for instance, 100 styles of food are laid out as offerings. The choice of offerings will often be tailored to the specific and occasion.
Offerings of food and drink are specifically termed .
[Sake](Sake), or rice wine, is a very common offering to the . After the offerings have been given, people often sip rice wine known as . Drinking the wine is seen as a form of communion with the . On important occasions, a feast is then held, known as , inside a banquet hall attached to the shrine complex.
The are believed to enjoy music. One style of music performed at shrines is . Instruments used include three reeds (, , and ), the , and the "three drums" (, , and ). Other musical styles performed at shrines can have a more limited focus. At shrines such as [Shrine](Ōharano)(Ōharano Shrine) in Kyoto, ("eastern entertainment") music is performed on April 8. Also in Kyoto, various festivals make use of the style of music and dance, which originated from rice-planting songs. During rituals, people visiting the shrine are expected to sit in the style, with their legs tucked beneath their bottom. To avoid cramps, individuals who hold this position for a lengthy period of time may periodically move their legs and flex their heels.
### Home shrines
Having seen their popularity increase in the Meiji era, many Shinto practitioners also have a family shrine, or ("kami shelf"), in their home. These usually consist of shelves placed at an elevated position in the living room. can also be found in workplaces, restaurants, shops, and ocean-going ships. Some public shrines sell entire .
Along with the , many Japanese households also have , Buddhist altars enshrining the ancestors of the family; ancestral reverence remains an important aspect of Japanese religious tradition. In the rare instances where Japanese individuals are given a Shinto funeral rather than a Buddhist one, a , , or shrine may be erected in the home in place of a . This will be typically placed below the and include symbols of the resident ancestral spirit, for instance a mirror or a scroll.
often enshrine the kami of a nearby public shrine as well as a tutelary kami associated with the house's occupants or their profession. They can be decorated with miniature torii and and include amulets obtained from public shrines. They often contain a stand on which to place offerings; daily offerings of rice, salt, and water are placed there, with sake and other items also offered on special days. These domestic rituals often take place early in the morning, and prior to conducting them, practitioners often bathe, rinse their mouth, or wash their hands as a form of purification.
Household Shinto can focus attention on the , who are perceived to be ancestral to the or extended kinship group. A small shrine for the ancestors of a household are known as . Small village shrines containing the tutelary kami of an extended family are known as . In addition to the temple shrines and the household shrines, Shinto also features small wayside shrines known as . Other open spaces used for the worship of kami are , an area surrounded by sacred rocks.
### Ema, divination, and amulets
[[of Izumo taissha.jpg|thumb|A selection of wooden hanging up at a Shinto shrine](File:Ema)]
A common feature of Shinto shrines is the provision of , small wooden plaques onto which practitioners will write a wish or desire that they would like to see fulfilled. The practitioner's message is written on one side of the plaque, while on the other is usually a printed picture or pattern related to the shrine itself. are provided both at Shinto shrines and Buddhist temples in Japan; unlike most amulets, which are taken away from the shrine, the are typically left there as a message for the resident . Those administering the shrine will then often burn all of the collected at new year.
Divination is the focus of many Shinto rituals, with various forms of divination used by its practitioners, some introduced from China. Among the ancient forms of divination found in Japan are and . Several forms of divination entailing [archery](archery) are also practiced in Shintō, known as , , and . Kitagawa stated that there could be "no doubt" that various types of "shamanic diviners" played a role in early Japanese religion. A form of divination previously common in Japan was or , which often used tortoise shells; it is still used in some places.
A form of divination that is popular at Shinto shrines are the . These are small slips of paper which are obtained from the shrine (for a donation) and which are then read to reveal a prediction for the future. Those who receive a bad prediction often then tie the to a nearby tree or frame set up for the purpose. This act is seen as rejecting the prediction, a process called , and thus avoiding the misfortune it predicted.
[[by CR 38.jpg|thumb|left|A frame at a shrine where omikuji are tied](File:Hiromine-jinja)]
The use of [amulet](amulet)s are widely sanctioned and popular in Japan. These may be made of paper, wood, cloth, metal, or plastic.
act as amulets to keep off misfortune and also serve as talismans to bring benefits and good luck. They typically comprise a tapering piece of wood onto which the name of the shrine and its enshrined are written or printed. The is then wrapped inside white paper and tied up with a colored thread. are provided both at Shinto shrines and Buddhist temples. Another type of amulet provided at shrines and temples are the , which are traditionally small, brightly colored drawstring bags with the name of the shrine written on it. and are sometimes placed within a charm bag known as a , typically worn by small children.
At new year, many shrines sell (an "evil-destroying arrows"), which people can purchase and keep in their home over the coming year to bring good luck.
A is a round, paper doll of the Indian monk, [Bodhidharma](Bodhidharma). The recipient makes a wish and paints one eye; when the goal is accomplished, the recipient paints the other eye. While this is a Buddhist practice, darumas can be found at shrines, as well. These dolls are very common.
Other protective items include , which are earthenware bells that are used to pray for good fortune. These bells are usually in the shapes of the zodiacal animals. are paper dogs that are used to induce and to bless good births. Collectively, these talismans through which home to manipulate events and influence spirits, as well as related mantras and rites for the same purpose, are known as .
### *Kagura*
[[shrine Daidai Kagura A.JPG|thumb|A traditional dance performed at the Yamanashi-oka shrine](File:Ymananashi-oka)]
describes the music and dance performed for the ; the term may have originally derived from ("seat of the "). Throughout Japanese history, dance has played an important culture role and in Shinto it is regarded as having the capacity to pacify . There is a [mythological](mythology) tale of how dance came into existence. According to the *Kojiki* and the *Nihon Shoki*, [Ame-no-Uzume](Ame-no-Uzume) performed a dance to entice Amaterasu out of the cave in which she had hidden herself.
There are two broad types of kagura. One is Imperial kagura, also known as . This style was developed in the imperial court and is still performed on [grounds](imperial)(Three Palace Sanctuaries) every December. It is also performed at the Imperial harvest festival and at major shrines such as Ise, [Kamo](Kamo Shrines), and [Hachiman-gū](Iwashimizu)(Iwashimizu Shrine). It is performed by singers and musicians using wooden clappers, a , a flute, and a six-stringed zither. The other main type is , descended from and performed at shrines across Japan. Depending on the style, it is performed by or by actors wearing masks to portray various mythological figures. These actors are accompanied by a band using flutes and drums. There are also other, regional types of kagura.
### Festivals
[[Matsuri.jpg|thumb|Participants in a procession for Aoi Matsuri in Kyoto](File:Aoi)]
Public festivals are commonly termed , although this term has varied meanings—"festival," "worship," "celebration," "rite," or "prayer"—and no direct translation into English. Picken suggested that the festival was "the central act of Shinto worship" because Shinto was a "community- and family-based" religion. Most mark the seasons of the agricultural year and involve offerings being directed to the in thanks. According to a traditional [calendar](lunar)(lunar calendar), Shinto shrines should hold their festival celebrations on or "clear" days", the days of the new, full, and half moons. Other days, known as , were generally avoided for festivities. However, since the late 20th century, many shrines have held their festival celebrations on the Saturday or Sunday closest to the date so that fewer individuals will be working and will be able to attend. Each town or village often has its own festival, centred on a local shrine. For instance, the [Matsuri](Aoi)(Aoi Matsuri) festival, held on 15 May to pray for an abundant grain harvest, takes place at shrines in [Kyoto](Kyoto), while the [Yo-Matsuri](Chichibu)(Chichibu Yo-Matsuri) takes place on 2–3 December in [Chichibu](Chichibu, Saitama).
Spring festivals are called and often incorporate prayers for a good harvest. They sometimes involve ceremonies, in which rice is ritually planted. Summer festivals are termed and are usually focused on protecting the crops against pests and other threats. Autumn festivals are known as and primarily focus on thanking the for the rice or other harvest. The , or festival of new rice, is held across many Shinto shrines on 23 November. The emperor also conducts a ceremony to mark this festival, at which he presents the first fruits of the harvest to the at midnight. Winter festivals, called often feature on welcoming in the spring, expelling evil, and calling in good influences for the future. There is little difference between winter festivals and specific new year festivals.
[[File:Tomioka hachimangu10.jpg|thumb|left|Procession of the as part of the [Matsuri](Fukagawa)(Fukagawa Matsuri) festival in Tokyo]]
The [of the new year](season)(Japanese New Year) is called . On the last day of the year (31 December), , practitioners usually clean their household shrines in preparation for New Year's Day (1 January), . Many people visit public shrines to celebrate new year; this "first visit" of the year is known as or . There, they buy amulets and talismans to bring them good fortune over the coming year. To celebrate this festival, many Japanese put up rope known as on their homes and places of business. Some also put up ("gateway pine"), an arrangement of pine branches, plum tree, and bamboo sticks. Also displayed are , which are smaller and more colourful; their purpose is to keep away misfortune and attract good fortune. In many places, new year celebrations incorporate ("naked festivals") in which men dressed only in a loincloth engage in a particular activity, such as fighting over a specific object or immersing themselves in a river.
A common feature of festivals are processions or parades known as . These can be raucous, with many participants being drunk; Breen and Teeuwen characterised them as having a "carnivalesque atmosphere". They are often understood as having a regenerative effect on both the participants and the community. During these processions, the travel in portable shrines known as . In various cases the undergo ("going down to the beach"), a process by which they are carried to the sea shore and sometimes into the sea, either by bearers or a boat. For instance, in the Okunchi festival held in the southwestern city of [Nagasaki](Nagasaki), the of the [Shrine](Suwa)(Suwa Shrine (Nagasaki)) are paraded down to Ohato, where they are placed in a shrine there for several days before being paraded back to Suwa. These sort of celebrations are often organized largely by members of the local community rather than by the priests themselves.
### Rites of passage
The formal recognition of events is given great importance in Japanese culture. A common ritual, the , entails a child's first visit to a Shinto shrine. A tradition holds that, if a boy he should be brought to the shrine on the thirty-second day after birth, and if a girl she should be brought on the thirty-third day. Historically, the child was commonly brought to the shrine not by the mother, who was considered impure after birth, but by another female relative; since the late 20th century it has been more common for the mother to do so. Another rite of passage, the or , is a coming of age ritual marking the transition to adulthood and occurs when an individual is around twenty. Wedding ceremonies are often carried out at Shinto shrines; these are called ("a wedding before the "). Prior to the Meiji period, weddings were commonly performed in the home, although shrines now regard them as an important source of income.
In Japan, funerals tend to take place at Buddhist temples and involve cremation, with Shinto funerals being rare. Bocking noted that most Japanese people are "still 'born Shinto' yet 'die Buddhist'." In Shinto thought, contact with death is seen as imparting impurity (); the period following this contact is known as and is associated with various taboos. In cases when dead humans are enshrined as , the physical remains of the dead are not stored at the shrine. Although not common, there have been examples of funerals conducted through Shinto rites. The earliest examples are known from the mid-17th century; these occurred in certain areas of Japan and had the support of the local authorities.
Following the Meiji Restoration, in 1868 the government recognised specifically Shinto funerals for Shinto priests. Five years later, this was extended to cover the entire Japanese population. Despite this Meiji promotion of Shinto funerals, the majority of the population continued to have Buddhist funeral rites. In recent decades, Shinto funerals have usually been reserved for Shinto priests and for members of certain Shinto sects. After [cremation](cremation), the normal funerary process in Japan, the ashes of a priest may be interred near to the shrine, but not inside its precincts.
Some Japanese political parties criticized the usage of religious Shinto rituals for the funeral of [Shōwa](Emperor)(Hirohito) and the enthronement of [Akihito](Akihito).
Ancestral reverence remains an important part of Japanese religious custom. The invocation of the dead, and especially the war dead, is known as . Various rites reference this. For instance, at the largely Buddhist festival of [Bon](Bon Festival), the souls of the ancestors are believed to visit the living, and are then sent away in a ritual called , by which lanterns are inserted into small boats, often made of paper, and placed in a river to float downstream.
### Spirit mediumship and healing
[[File:Inako 2006-10-09.jpg|thumb|An at the autumn Inako Taisai festival at [Osore](Mount)(Mount Osore), Aomori Prefecture, Japan]]
Shinto practitioners believe that the *kami* can possess a human being and then speak through them, a process known as . Several new religious movements drawing upon Shinto, such as [Tenrikyo](Tenrikyo) and [Oomoto](Oomoto), were founded by individuals claiming to be guided by a possessing kami. The is an [oracle](oracle) that is passed from the via the medium.
The and are blind women who train to become [mediums](spiritual)(mediumship), traditionally in Japan's northern [Tohoku](Tohoku) region. train under other from childhood, memorialising sacred texts and prayers, fasting, and undertaking acts of severe asceticism, through which they are believed to cultivate supernatural powers. In an initiation ceremony, a kami is believed to possess the young woman, and the two are then ritually "married". After this, the kami becomes her tutelary spirit and she will henceforth be able to call upon it, and a range of other spirits, in the future. Through contacting these spirits, she is able to convey their messages to the living. usually carry out their rituals independent of the shrine system. Japanese culture also includes spiritual healers known as whose work involves invoking both kami and Buddhas.
## History
### Early development
[[Yayoi period *dotaku* bell; these probably played a key role in kami rites at the time.](File:DotakuBronzeBellLateYayoi3rdCenturyCE.jpg|thumb|left|A)]
Earhart commented that Shinto ultimately "emerged from the beliefs and practices of prehistoric Japan", although Kitagawa noted that it was questionable whether prehistoric Japanese religions could be accurately termed "early Shinto". It was the [period](Yayoi)(Yayoi period) of Japanese prehistory which first left traces of material and iconography prefiguring that later included in Shinto. were worshipped at various landscape features during this period; at this point, their worship consisted largely of beseeching and placating them, with little evidence that they were viewed as compassionate entities. [Archaeological](Archaeology) evidence suggests that bronze bells, bronze weapons, and metal mirrors played an important role in -based ritual during the [period](Yayoi)(Yayoi period).
In this early period, Japan was not a unified state; by the [period](Kofun)(Kofun period) it was divided among (clans), each with their own tutelary , the . Korean migration during the Kofun period brought Confucianism and Buddhism to Japan. Buddhism had a particular impact on the cults. Migrant groups and Japanese who increasingly aligned with these foreign influences built Buddhist temples in various parts of the Japanese islands. Several rival clans who were more hostile to these foreign influences began adapting the shrines of their to more closely resemble the new Buddhist structures. In the late 5th century, the [clan](Yamato)(Yamato dynasty) leader [Yūryaku](Emperor Yūryaku) declared himself *[daiō](wikt:だいおう)* ("great king") and established hegemony over much of Japan. From the early 6th century CE, the style of ritual favored by the [Yamato](Yamato dynasty) began spreading to other shrines around Japan as the Yamato extended their territorial influence. Buddhism was also growing. According to the *Nihon Shoki*, in 587 [Yōmei](Emperor)(Emperor Yōmei) converted to Buddhism and under his sponsorship Buddhism spread.
In the mid-7th century, a legal code called was adopted to establish a Chinese-style centralised government. As part of this, the [Jingikan](Jingikan) ("Council of ") was created to conduct rites of state and coordinate provincial ritual with that in the capital. This was done according to a code of law called the *Jingiryō*, itself modelled on the Chinese *[of Rites](Book)(Book of Rites)*. The Jingikan was located in the palace precincts and maintained a register of shrines and priests. An annual calendar of state rites were introduced to help unify Japan through worship. These legally mandated rites were outlined in the [Code](Yōrō)(Yōrō Code) of 718, and expanded in the *Jogan Gishiki* of circa 872 and the *[Shiki](Engi)(Engi Shiki)* of 927. Under the Jingikan, some shrines were designated as ("official shrines") and given specific privileges and responsibilities. Hardacre saw the Jingikan as "the institutional origin of Shinto".
[[Kojiki (真福寺本古事記).png|thumb|upright|A page from the 14th-century Shinpukuji manuscript of the *Kojiki*, itself written in the 8th century](File:Shinpukuji-bon)]
In the early 8th century, the Emperor [Tenmu](Tenmu) commissioned a compilation of the legends and genealogies of Japan's clans, resulting in the completion of the *Kojiki* in 712. Designed to legitimate the ruling dynasty, this text created a fixed version of various stories previously circulating in oral tradition. The *Kojiki* omits any reference to Buddhism, in part because it sought to ignore foreign influences and emphasise a narrative stressing indigenous elements of Japanese culture. Several years later, the *Nihon shoki* was written. Unlike the *Kojiki*, this made various references to Buddhism, and was aimed at a foreign audience. Both of these texts sought to establish the imperial clan's descent from the sun Amaterasu, although there were many differences in the cosmogonic narrative they provided. Quickly, the *Nihon shoki* eclipsed the *Kojiki* in terms of its influence. Other texts written at this time also drew on oral traditions regarding the . The *[kuji hongi](Sendari)(Kujiki)* for example was probably composed by the [Mononobe](Mononobe) clan while the *[Kogoshui](Kogoshui)* was probably put together for the [clan](Imbe)(Imbe clan), and in both cases they were designed to highlight the divine origins of these respective lineages. A government order in 713 called on each region to produce *[fudoki](fudoki)*, records of local geography, products, and stories, with the latter revealing more traditions about the which were present at this time.
From the 8th century, worship and Buddhism were thoroughly intertwined in Japanese society. While the emperor and court performed Buddhist rites, they also performed others to honor the . Tenmu for example appointed a virginal imperial princess to serve as the , a form of priestess, at the Ise Shrine on his behalf, a tradition continued by subsequent emperors. From the 8th century onward up until the [era](Meiji)(Meiji (era)), the were incorporated into a Buddhist cosmology in various ways. One view is that the realised that like all other life-forms, they too were trapped in the cycle of [samsara](samsara) (rebirth) and that to escape this they had to follow Buddhist teachings. Alternative approaches viewed the as benevolent entities who protected Buddhism, or that the were themselves [Buddhas](Buddhas), or beings who had achieved enlightenment. In this, they could be either , the pure spirits of the Buddhas, or , transformations of the Buddhas in their attempt to help all sentient beings.
### Nara period
This period hosted many changes to the country, government, and religion. The capital is moved again to [Heijō-kyō](Heijō-kyō) (modern-day [Nara](Nara, Nara)), in AD 710 by [Genmei](Empress)(Empress Genmei) due to the death of the emperor. This practice was necessary due to the Shinto belief in the impurity of death and the need to avoid this pollution. However, this practice of moving the capital due to "death impurity" is then abolished by the [Code](Taihō)(Taihō Code) and rise in Buddhist influence. The establishment of the imperial city in partnership with Taihō Code is important to Shinto as the office of the Shinto rites becomes more powerful in assimilating local clan shrines into the imperial fold. New shrines are built and assimilated each time the city is moved. All of the grand shrines are regulated under [Taihō](Taihō Code) and are required to account for incomes, priests, and practices due to their national contributions.
### Meiji era and the Empire of Japan
[[File:Chosen Jingu.JPG|thumb|The [Jingū](Chōsen)(Chōsen Jingū) in [Seoul](Seoul), Korea, established during the Japanese occupation of the peninsula]]
Breen and Teeuwen characterise the period between 1868 and 1915, during the Meiji era, as being the "formative years" of modern Shinto. It is in this period that various scholars have argued that Shinto was essentially "invented".
Fridell argues that scholars call the period from 1868 to 1945 the "State Shinto period" because, "during these decades, Shinto elements came under a great deal of overt state influence and control as the Japanese government systematically utilized shrine worship as a major force for mobilizing imperial loyalties on behalf of modern nation-building."Wilbur M. Fridell, "A Fresh Look at State Shintō", *Journal of the American Academy of Religion* 44.3 (1976), 547–561 [in JSTOR](https://www.jstor.org/stable/1462824); quote p. 548 However, the government had already been treating shrines as an extension of government before Meiji; see for example the [Reforms](Tenpō)(Tenpō Reforms). Moreover, according to the scholar [Ānanda Josephson](Jason)(Jason Josephson Storm), It is inaccurate to describe shrines as constituting a "state religion" or a "theocracy" during this period since they had neither organization, nor doctrine, and were uninterested in conversion.Josephson, Jason Ānanda (2012). *The Invention of Religion in Japan*. University of Chicago Press. p. 133. .
The [Restoration](Meiji)(Meiji Restoration) of 1868 was fuelled by a renewal of Confucian ethics and imperial patriotism among Japan's ruling class. Among these reformers, Buddhism was seen as a corrupting influence that had undermined what they envisioned as Japan's original purity and greatness. They wanted to place a renewed emphasis on worship as an indigenous form of ritual, an attitude that was also fuelled by anxieties about Western expansionism and fear that Christianity would take hold in Japan.
In 1868, all shrine priests were placed under the authority of the new [Jingikan](Jingikan), or Council of Kami Affairs. A project of forcibly separating worship from Buddhism was implemented, with Buddhist monks, deities, buildings, and rituals banned from shrines. Much Buddhist material was destroyed. In 1871, a new hierarchy of shrines was introduced, with imperial and national shrines at the top. Hereditary priesthoods were abolished and a new state-sanctioned system for appointing priests was introduced.
In 1872, the Jingikan was replaced with the [Kyobusho](Kyobusho), or Ministry of Edification. This coordinated [campaign](a)(Great Promulgation Campaign) whereby ("national evangelists") were sent through the country to promote Japan's "Great Teaching," which included respect for the and obedience to the emperor. This campaign was discontinued in 1884. In 1906, thousands of village shrines were merged so that most small communities had only a single shrine, where rites in honor of the emperor could be held. Shinto effectively became the state cult, one promoted with growing zeal in the build-up to the Second World War.
In 1882, the Meiji government designated 13 religious movements that were neither Buddhist nor Christian to be forms of "[Shinto](Sect)(Sect Shinto)". The number and name of the sects given this formal designation varied; often they merged ideas with Shinto from Buddhism, Christian, Confucian, Daoist, and [esoteric](Western)(Western esotericism) traditions. In the Meiji period, many local traditions died out and were replaced by nationally standardised practices encouraged from Tokyo.
### Post-war
[[File:Association of Shinto Shrines 2010.jpg|thumb|The headquarters of the [of Shinto Shrines](Association)(Association of Shinto Shrines) in [Shibuya](Shibuya), [Tokyo](Tokyo).]]
During the U.S. occupation, a [Japanese constitution](new)(Constitution of Japan) was drawn up. This enshrined [of religion](freedom)(freedom of religion) and separated religion from the state, a measure designed to eradicate State Shinto. The emperor declared that he was not a ; Shinto rituals performed by the imperial family became their own private affair. This disestablishment ended government subsidies to shrines and gave them renewed freedom to organise their own affairs. In 1946 many shrines formed a voluntary organisation, the [of Shinto Shrines](Association)(Association of Shinto Shrines) (). In 1956 the association issued a creedal statement, the ("general characteristics of a life lived in reverence of the "), to summarise what they regarded as Shinto's principles. By the late 1990s around 80% of Japan's Shinto shrines were part of this association.
In the post-war decades, many Japanese blamed Shinto for encouraging the militarism which had led to defeat and occupation. Others remained nostalgic for State Shinto, and concerns were repeatedly expressed that sectors of Japanese society were conspiring to restore it. Various legal debates revolved around the involvement of public officials in Shinto. In 1965, for instance, the city of [Tsu](Tsu, Mie), Mie Prefecture paid four Shinto priests to purify the site where the municipal athletic hall was to be built. Critics brought the case to court, claiming it contravened the constitutional separation of religion and state; in 1971 the high court ruled that the city administration's act had been unconstitutional, although this was overturned by the [Court](Supreme)(Supreme Court of Japan) in 1977.
During the post-war period, Shinto themes often blended into Japanese [religious movement](new)(new religious movement)s. Of the Sect Shinto groups, [Tenrikyo](Tenrikyo) was probably the most successful, although in 1970 it repudiated its Shinto identity. Shinto perspectives also influenced popular culture. The film director [Miyazaki](Hayao)(Hayao Miyazaki) of [Ghibli](Studio)(Studio Ghibli) for instance acknowledged Shinto influences on his films such as *[Away](Spirited)(Spirited Away)*. Shinto also spread abroad through both emigration and conversion by non-Japanese. The [Grand Shrine](Tsubaki)(Tsubaki Grand Shrine) in [Suzuka](Suzuka, Mie), Mie Prefecture, was the first to establish a branch abroad: the [Grand Shrine of America](Tsubaki)(Tsubaki Grand Shrine of America), initially located in California and then moved to [Falls, Washington](Granite)(Granite Falls, Washington).
During the 20th century, most academic research on Shinto was conducted by Shinto theologians, often priests, bringing accusations that it often blurred theology with historical analysis. From the 1980s onward, there was a renewed academic interest in Shinto both in Japan and abroad.
## Demographics
[[File:Guji Francesco Brigante.jpg|thumb|A Shinto rite carried out at a jinja in [Marino](San)(San Marino), Southern Europe]]
Most Japanese participate in several religious traditions, with Breen and Teeuwen noting that, "with few exceptions", it is not possible to differentiate between Shintoists and Buddhists in Japan. The main exceptions are members of minority religious groups, including Christianity, which promote exclusivist worldviews. Determining the proportions of the country's population who engage in Shinto activity is hindered by the fact that, if asked, Japanese people will often say "I have no religion". Many Japanese avoid the term "religion", in part because they dislike the connotations of the word which most closely matches it in the Japanese language, . The latter term derives from ("sect") and ("doctrine").
Official statistics show Shinto to be Japan's largest religion, with over 80 percent of its population engaging in Shinto activities. Conversely, in questionnaires only a small minority of Japanese describe themselves as "Shintoists." This indicates that a far larger number of people engage in Shinto activities than cite Shinto as their religious identity. There are no formal rituals to become a practitioner of "folk Shinto". Thus, "Shinto membership" is often estimated counting only those who do join organised Shinto sects. Shinto has about 81,000 shrines and about 85,000 priests in the country. According to surveys carried out in 2006Dentsu Communication Institute, Japan Research Center: ''[Sixty Countries' Values Databook](http://www2.ttcn.ne.jp/honkawa/9460.html)'' (世界60カ国価値観データブック). and 2008, less than 40% of the population of Japan identifies with an organised religion: around 35% are [Buddhists](Buddhism), 30% to 40% are members of [sects and derived religions](Shinto)(Shinto sects and schools#Shintō inspired religions). In 2008, 26% of the participants reported often visiting Shinto shrines, while only 16.2% expressed belief in the existence of in general.
Shinto is primarily found in Japan, although has spread abroad through imperial conquest and emigration. outside Japan are termed ("overseas shrines"), a term coined by . When the Japanese Empire collapsed in the 1940s, there were over 600 within its conquered territories, many of which were later disbanded. Japanese migrants have also established in countries like Brazil, while Shinto's lack of doctrinal focus has attracted interest from non-Japanese; in the United States, for example, [Americans](European)(European Americans) have played a significant role in introducing Shinto.
## See also
* [yumi](Azusa)(Azusa yumi)- sacred bow
* [Dōsojin](Dōsojin)
* [yumi](Hama)(Hama yumi)- sacred bow
* [Hari-Kuyo](Hari-Kuyo)
* [(Shinto)](Iwakura)(Iwakura (Shinto)) – rock formation where a [kami](kami) is invited to descend
* [(spirit)](Kodama)(Kodama (spirit))
* [of Japanese deities](List)(List of Japanese deities)
* [Raijin](Raijin)
* [religion](Ryukyuan)(Ryukyuan religion) (Ryukyu Shinto)
* [(Shinto)](Shide)(Shide (Shinto))
* [in popular culture](Shinto)(Shinto in popular culture)
* [architecture](Shinto)(Shinto architecture)
* [in Taiwan](Shinto)(Shinto in Taiwan)
* [music](Shinto)(Shinto music)
* [Shrines](Twenty-Two)(Twenty-Two Shrines)
* [Kinsei](Nyonin)(Nyonin Kinsei) Women in Shinto
* [Yōsei](Yōsei)
## References
### Citations
### Sources
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## Further reading
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* Victoria Bestor, [C. Bestor](Theodore)(Theodore C. Bestor), Akiko Yamagata. *Routledge Handbook of Japanese Culture and Society*. Routledge, 2011. ,
## External links
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* [Jinja Honcho – English](http://www.jinjahoncho.or.jp/en/) – The Official Japanese Organization of 80,000 Shinto Shrines
* [Kokugakuin University Encyclopedia of Shinto](http://eos.kokugakuin.ac.jp/modules/xwords/) and its Japanese [Shinto Jinja Database](http://21coe.kokugakuin.ac.jp/db/jinja/)
* [Tsubaki Grand Shrine of America](http://www.tsubakishrine.org/) – Tsubaki Grand Shrine of America: Jinja Shinto in North America, branch of Tsubaki Grand Shrine in Mie Japan
* [Heian Jingu Shrine](https://web.archive.org/web/20090212140632/http://heianjingu.or.jp/index_e.html) – Heian Shrine in Kyoto City was built in 1895 in commemoration of the 1100th anniversary of the move of Japanese Capital from Nara to Kyoto in 794
* [Meiji Jingu](http://www.meijijingu.or.jp/english/index.html) – Meiji Jingu Shrine in Yoyogi, Tokyo, commemorates Emperor Taisho and his wife Empress Shoken
* [Yasukuni Jinja](http://www.yasukuni.or.jp/english/index.html) – A shrine for the honoring of Japanese War Dead (English)
* [Shoin-Jinja](https://web.archive.org/web/20051103203043/http://www.shoinjinja.org/english/) – Shoin Shrine in Tokyo enshrines Yoshida Shoin, a spiritual leader of Meiji Restoration
* [Yushima Tenjin](http://www.yushimatenjin.or.jp/pc/eng-page/english.htm) – A Tokyo Shrine with and English site—Shrine for Ameno-tajikaraono-mikoto and Sugawara Michizane
[ ](Category:Shinto)
[Category:Animism](Category:Animism)
[Asian religions](Category:East)(Category:East Asian religions)
[of religion in Japan](Category:History)(Category:History of religion in Japan)
[Category:Panentheism](Category:Panentheism)
[Category:Pantheism](Category:Pantheism)
[Category:Polytheism](Category:Polytheism)
[in Japan](Category:Religion)(Category:Religion in Japan)
[Category:Spirituality](Category:Spirituality)
[folk religion](Category:Japanese)(Category:Japanese folk religion)
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SZA
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sza
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# SZA
*Revision ID: 1160052149 | Timestamp: 2023-06-14T04:07:43Z*
---
| birth_place = [Louis](St.)(St. Louis), Missouri, U.S.
| nationality =
| occupation =
| years_active = 2011–present
| works = [Discography](SZA discography)
| awards = [list](Full)(List of awards and nominations received by SZA)
| module =
| instrument = Vocals
| origin = [New Jersey](Maplewood,)(Maplewood, New Jersey), U.S.
| label =
| associated_acts =
}}
| website = |}}
}}
**Solána Imani Rowe** (born November 8, 1989), known professionally as **SZA** ( ), is an American singer-songwriter. Born in [Louis](St.)(St. Louis) and raised in [New Jersey](Maplewood,)(Maplewood, New Jersey), SZA began making music in the early 2010s, releasing two [play](extended)(extended play)s, *[See.SZA.Run](See.SZA.Run)* (2012) and *[S](S (EP))* (2013), before signing with the [hop](hip)(hip hop music) record label [Dawg Entertainment](Top)(Top Dawg Entertainment), through which she released *[Z](Z (EP))* (2014), her third EP and first retail release. That same year, she co-wrote "[Myself](Feeling)(Feeling Myself (Nicki Minaj song))" with [Minaj](Nicki)(Nicki Minaj) and [Beyoncé](Beyoncé). In 2016, she was featured on [Rihanna](Rihanna)'s song "[Consideration](Consideration (song))".
SZA's first full-length album, *[Ctrl](Ctrl (SZA album))* (2017), was released to universal acclaim from music critics. It became the second longest-charting R&B album by a woman in the history of the US [200](*Billboard*)(Billboard 200), and was certified triple [platinum](Platinum certification) by the [Industry Association of America](Recording)(Recording Industry Association of America) (RIAA). At the [Annual Grammy Awards](60th)(60th Annual Grammy Awards), the album earned her four nominations, including [New Artist](Best)(Best New Artist). It was later placed on *[Stone](Rolling)(Rolling Stone)*s [Greatest Albums of All Time](500)(Rolling Stone's 500 Greatest Albums of All Time) list (2020). In August 2017, she was featured on [5](Maroon)(Maroon 5)'s top-ten hit single "[Lovers Do](What)(What Lovers Do)". The next year, she was nominated for the [Globe Award](Golden)(Golden Globe Award for Best Original Song) and [Award for Best Original Song](Academy)(Academy Award for Best Original Song) for her collaboration with [Lamar](Kendrick)(Kendrick Lamar) on the top ten single "[the Stars](All)(All the Stars)" for the *[Panther](Black)(Black Panther (soundtrack))* soundtrack.
In 2020, she released the single "[Days](Good)(Good Days)"; the following year saw the release of "[Hate U](I)(I Hate U (SZA song))" and [Cat](Doja)(Doja Cat)'s "[Me More](Kiss)(Kiss Me More)", which she was featured on; all three singles reached the top ten on the [Hot 100](*Billboard*)(Billboard Hot 100) in 2021, with the latter breaking the record for the longest-running all-female collaboration within the top ten, and earning her the [Award for Best Pop Duo/Group Performance](Grammy)(Grammy Award for Best Pop Duo/Group Performance). SZA's second album, [*SOS*](SOS (SZA album)) (2022), reached number-one on *Billboard* 200 chart, breaking the record for the biggest streaming week ever for an R&B album, and remained atop the chart for ten non-consecutive weeks. The album's single "[Bill](Kill)(Kill Bill (SZA song))" became SZA's first number-one hit on the *Billboard* Hot 100 and the [Global 200](*Billboard*)(Billboard Global 200), while "[Gets Me](Nobody)(Nobody Gets Me)" peaked within the top ten.
SZA has received multiple [accolades](List of awards and nominations received by SZA) throughout her career, including an [Music Award](American)(American Music Awards), a [Award](Grammy)(Grammy Awards), a [of Music Supervisors Award](Guild)(Guild of Music Supervisors Awards), and two awards from [Women in Music](Billboard)(Billboard Women in Music) (including [of the Year](Woman)(Billboard Women in Music#Woman of the Year Award)), in addition to nominations for an [Award](Academy)(Academy Awards), a [Globe Award](Golden)(Golden Globe Awards), and a [Award](Brit)(Brit Awards).
## Early and personal life
Solána Imani Rowe was born on November 8, 1989, in [Louis, Missouri](St.)(St. Louis, Missouri) and was raised in [New Jersey](Maplewood,)(Maplewood, New Jersey). Her father was an executive producer at [CNN](CNN), while her mother was an executive at [AT&T](AT&T). Rowe has an older half-sister, Panya Jamila, and an older brother, Daniel, aka Manhattan, a rapper. Her mother is [Christian](Christians) and her father is [Muslim](Muslim). She was raised as a Muslim and continues to follow Islam.
It's like the belief in one God, all the pillars of Islam et cetera, and I think those are ideas that will never leave me, those make sense in my spirit. It's the way that I connect with God; it has always made sense to me. I think I would love to wear my [hijab](hijab) but I feel like I don't wanna wear my hijab and talk crazy on stage and be in videos with [Scott](Travis)(Travis Scott). Like I don't wanna be disrespectful because I have too much love and respect for the religion, for my father, and for myself.
She attended a [Muslim](Muslim) prep school every day after her regular schooling. Due to the [11 attacks](September)(September 11 attacks), Rowe was subjected to bullying in 7th grade, leading her to stop wearing her [hijab](hijab). Rowe attended [High School](Columbia)(Columbia High School (New Jersey)), where she was active in sports, including [gymnastics](gymnastics) and [cheerleading](cheerleading).
After graduating from high school in 2008, Rowe later went to three separate colleges, finally settling at [State University](Delaware)(Delaware State University) to study marine biology. She eventually dropped out in her last semester, immediately taking on random jobs in order to make money. Rowe formed her stage name from the [Alphabet](Supreme)(Supreme Alphabet), taking influence from rapper [RZA](RZA) of the [Clan](Wu-Tang)(Wu-Tang Clan). The last two letters in her name stand for Zig-Zag and [Allah](Allah), while the first letter S can mean either savior or sovereign.
## Career
### 2011–2014: Career beginnings and EPs
[[August 2013.jpg|thumb|left|upright=0.85|SZA performing in 2013](File:SZA,)]
SZA first met members of [Dawg Entertainment](Top)(Top Dawg Entertainment) during the CMJ New Music Report in 2011, when her boyfriend's clothing company sponsored a show in which [Lamar](Kendrick)(Kendrick Lamar) was performing. Her early music was given to TDE president ["Punch" Henderson](Terrence)(Punch (rapper)), who was surprised with the quality of the material. The two stayed in touch, and after SZA began generating buzz with the release of her two EPs, TDE stepped in to sign her in 2013, making her the label's first female artist. SZA's early music was recorded with her friends and neighbors in which they "stole a bunch of beats off the Internet". On October 29, 2012, SZA [self-released](self-released) her debut [EP](extended play) *[See.SZA.Run](See.SZA.Run)*.
On April 10, 2013, SZA released her second EP, *[S](S (EP))*, which was met with positive reviews from music critics. SZA promoted the extended play with the release of a music video for the song "Ice Moon", directed by Lemar & Dauley. On July 14, 2013, Top Dawg signed SZA. In October 2013, SZA went on a four show tour with Swedish band [Dragon](Little)(Little Dragon); starting on October 17 at the [Rey Theater](El)(El Rey Theatre) in [Angeles](Los)(Los Angeles) and ending on October 24 at the [Hall of Williamsburg](Music)(Music Hall of Williamsburg), [NY](Brooklyn,)(Brooklyn).
In December 2013, SZA released the song "Teen Spirit" which was followed by the release of a remix featuring American rapper [Cent](50)(50 Cent), along with a music video directed by APlusFilmz. In 2014, SZA featured on a variety of songs from her label-mates albums including two songs for [Rashad](Isaiah)(Isaiah Rashad)'s debut EP *[Demo](Cilvia)(Cilvia Demo)* as well as featuring on [Q](Schoolboy)(Schoolboy Q)'s first album *[Oxymoron](Oxymoron (Schoolboy Q album))*.
On March 26, 2014, she released the single "Child's Play" featuring [the Rapper](Chance)(Chance the Rapper) and produced by Dae One & [XXYYXX](XXYYXX). A studio EP, *Z*, was released on April 8, 2014; the lead single, "Babylon" was accompanied with a music video directed by APlusFilmz. To promote *Z*, SZA performed at several performance showcases at the [Music Festival](SXSW)(South by Southwest) in [Texas](Austin,)(Austin, Texas). SZA made her chart debut in the UK, where *Z* charted at number thirty-two on the [Charts](R&B)(UK Albums Chart), during the week ending April 19, 2014. *Z* debuted on the US [200](*Billboard*)(Billboard 200) at number thirty nine, selling 6,980 copies in its opening week; the album also peaked at number nine on the *Billboard* Hip hop/R&B chart.
SZA subsequently began recording her fourth EP, *A*. In July 2014, SZA featured on Kitty Cash's single "Moodring". Later that month, SZA released a collaboration with [Scott](Jill)(Jill Scott (singer)) called "Divinity". On July 11, 2014, SZA released a video for her song "Julia" from *Z*. In December SZA and [Internet](The)(The Internet (band)) supported Aiko's "Enter The Void" tour. On November 18, 2014, SZA released a song called "Sobriety".
### 2015–2018: *Ctrl* and breakthrough
Whilst working on *A*, (now repackaged as her debut album and later retitled *Ctrl*), SZA began writing songs for other female artists including [Beyoncé](Beyoncé) and [Rihanna](Rihanna). Along with Rihanna and [Donaldson](Tyran)(Tyran Donaldson), SZA co-wrote "[Consideration](Consideration (song))" for Rihanna's album *[Anti](Anti (album))* (2016); besides writing, SZA also appeared on the track and later performed "Consideration" with Rihanna live at the [Brit Awards](2016)(2016 Brit Awards) on February 24, 2016.
In January 2017, SZA released "Drew Barrymore", the lead single from her upcoming album *[Ctrl](Ctrl (SZA album))*. On April 28, 2017, SZA signed her first [major-label](Major record label) [contract](recording)(recording contract) with [Records](RCA)(RCA Records). On June 9, 2017, SZA released her debut album, *Ctrl*, to universal acclaim from music critics, scoring an 86 out of 100 rating on [Metacritic](Metacritic). *Ctrl* debuted at number three on the US [200](*Billboard*)(Billboard 200), with 125,000 [unit](album-equivalent)(album-equivalent unit)s, of which 80,000 were pure album sales; the album was supported by several singles, including "[Galore](Love)(Love Galore)", which peaked in the Top 40 of the [Hot 100](*Billboard*)(Billboard Hot 100) chart and was later certified [platinum](Music recording sales certification). *Ctrl* was ranked as the best album of 2017 by *[Time](Time (magazine))*.
From August 20 to December 22, 2017, SZA promoted the album on a [American concert tour](North)(Ctrl the Tour). SZA opened for the European portion of [Tiller](Bryson)(Bryson Tiller)'s "Set It Off Tour" in support of his album *[to Self](True)(True to Self)* from October 17, 2017, to November 30, 2017, separate from SZA's tour.
In August 2017, SZA collaborated with American pop rock band [5](Maroon)(Maroon 5) on their single "[Lovers Do](What)(What Lovers Do)" from their sixth studio album *[Pill Blues](Red)(Red Pill Blues)*. The single reached number 9 on the *Billboard* Hot 100. This marked SZA's first top-ten hit as a featured artist on the Hot 100. The following month SZA released "Quicksand", which appeared on the soundtrack for [HBO](HBO)'s *[Insecure](Insecure (TV series))*, and, alongside [Khalid](Khalid (singer)) and [Malone](Post)(Post Malone), was featured on the remix version of [Lorde](Lorde)'s single "[Dynamite](Homemade)(Homemade Dynamite)", from her second studio album *[Melodrama](Melodrama (Lorde album))*. Also in 2017, SZA worked on a joint album with [Ronson](Mark)(Mark Ronson) and [Impala](Tame)(Tame Impala).
On November 28, 2017, SZA received five [Grammy](Grammy Award) nominations including one for [New Artist](Best)(Grammy Award for Best New Artist). She received the most nominations of any female artist for the 2018 Awards and was the fourth most nominated artist in total. Despite this, she did not end up winning any of the awards she was nominated for.
In January 2018, SZA featured with Kendrick Lamar on the track "[the Stars](All)(All the Stars)", which was released as the [single](lead)(lead single) to the [album](soundtrack)(Black Panther: The Album) of the film *[Panther](Black)(Black Panther (film))*. The single peaked at number 7 on the *Billboard* Hot 100, and this made SZA's second top-ten hit on the chart, after Maroon 5, "What Lovers Do" which peaked at number 9 on the chart. SZA collaborated with Cardi B on the track "[Do](I)(I Do (Cardi B song))" for the album *Invasion of Privacy.*
### 2019–present: Collaborations and *SOS*
[[File:SZA CTRL Tour Toronto 2017 8 (cropped).jpg|thumb|SZA performing in Toronto on the [the Tour](Ctrl)(Ctrl (SZA album)#Release and promotion) in August 2017]]
In May 2019, SZA featured on [Khaled](DJ)(DJ Khaled)'s eleventh studio album, *[of Asahd](Father)(Father of Asahd)*, on the track "[Us](Just)(Just Us (song))". A music video was later released for the song. On February 26, 2020, SZA and [Timberlake](Justin)(Justin Timberlake) released "[Other Side](The)(The Other Side (SZA and Justin Timberlake song))", a song part of the *[World Tour](Trolls)(Trolls World Tour)* soundtrack, alongside its music video. In March 2020, SZA signed with [WME](Endeavor (company)) for representation in all areas. SZA performed, together with artists such as [Springsteen](Bruce)(Bruce Springsteen), [Jovi](Bon)(Bon Jovi) and [Halsey](Halsey (singer)), a benefit concert for the state of New Jersey, in support of the state's work fighting the [pandemic](COVID-19)(COVID-19 pandemic). It took place on April 22, 2020, through at-home performances and the revenue will go to the New Jersey Pandemic Relief Fund. On May 25, 2020, SZA showed interest on Twitter in releasing "a music dump" of previously unreleased material, potentially containing 20 songs.
In August 2020, SZA [tweeted](tweeted) and deleted, "At this point y'all gotta ask punch," referring to Terrence "Punch" Henderson, who is president of Top Dawg Entertainment. In another tweet, SZA indicated that "all [Punch] says to her" about releasing new music is "soon." This revealed that her relationship with her label owner Punch ([Dawg Entertainment](Top)(Top Dawg Entertainment)) has been hostile since the delays of her second album which was last announced back in an interview in 2019. SZA came back with her first release as a lead artist since 2017 on September 4, 2020, with "[Different](Hit)(Hit Different)", featuring [Dolla Sign](Ty)(Ty Dolla Sign), and production from [Neptunes](The)(The Neptunes). On December 25, 2020, SZA released "[Days](Good)(Good Days)" on streaming platforms as a single after it originally debuted as a snippet in the outro of the "Hit Different" music video. English singer [Collier](Jacob)(Jacob Collier) provided background vocals for the single. The song hit its peak of number 9 on the *Billboard* Hot 100, making it SZA's first top-ten single as a solo artist, despite SZA herself revealing that it was not initially planned to be a single. Both tracks were expected to appear on her then upcoming second studio album.
On April 9, 2021, SZA was featured on the [Cat](Doja)(Doja Cat) single "[Me More](Kiss)(Kiss Me More)". It became a number-one hit in New Zealand and reached the Top 40 in over a dozen countries, further having earned top-ten placements in the United States, Canada, the United Kingdom, Australia, Ireland and Lithuania. The song also has a music video which premiered the same day as the single and was directed by [Fu](Warren)(Warren Fu).
In late 2021, SZA's cover of "[Anonymous Ones](The)(The Anonymous Ones)" was released. It is a song written for the soundtrack of the [film adaptation](2021)(Dear Evan Hansen (film)) of *[Evan Hansen](Dear)(Dear Evan Hansen)*. Her version of the song also plays during the closing credits of the film itself.
A long-awaited collaboration from SZA with [Walker](Summer)(Summer Walker), "[Love](No)(No Love (Summer Walker and SZA song))" was finally released on [5, 2021](November)(Still Over It), after previously being teased back in late June via Walker's [Instagram](Instagram). After its success on the R&B charts, it later became an official single when the extended version was released in March the following year, along with a music video.
On December 3, 2021, SZA released the song "[Hate U](I)(I Hate U (SZA song))", after it went viral on [TikTok](TikTok); it was originally released exclusively on [SoundCloud](SoundCloud) in August 2021. SZA confirmed after the [Annual Grammy Awards](64th)(64th Annual Grammy Awards) that she had finished her second album and is planning on releasing it "soon".
On June 9, 2022, SZA released a deluxe version of her debut studio album [*Ctrl*](Ctrl (SZA album)) to commemorate its 5-year anniversary. It featured 7 previously unreleased songs, such as "[2AM](2AM (SZA song))", "Jodie", "Percolator", and an alternative version of "[Galore](Love)(Love Galore)" without [Scott](Travis)(Travis Scott).
On October 28, 2022, a new single called "[Shirt](Shirt (song))" has been released, alongside its music video starring actor [Stanfield](LaKeith)(LaKeith Stanfield). The song was originally teased by SZA in late-2020 and after it gained popularity on TikTok because of a viral challenge, a snippet appeared as an outro at the end of the official music video of "Good Days". SZA teased another snippet of a song at the end of her new song's music video which she revealed to be called "[Blind](Blind (SZA song))".
On her 33rd birthday on November 8, 2022, SZA released a teaser titled "[PSA](PSA (song))" on her Instagram. The video ends with a morse code for "S.O.S.", sparking speculations about an upcoming project. On November 16, 2022, *[Billboard](Billboard (magazine))* officially confirmed that her second studio album is titled *[SOS](SOS (SZA album))* and was set for a December release date. On November 30, 2022, SZA posted the cover of her upcoming album *SOS* to her Instagram account. After performing "Shirt" and "Blind" on [NBC](NBC)'s *[Night Live](Saturday)(Saturday Night Live)*, SZA announced that the album would be released on December 9, 2022. The album has spent its first seven weeks atop the Billboard 200 Albums Chart in the United States, becoming the longest-running number-one female album of the decade and the first R&B album to spend its first seven weeks atop the chart since [Houston](Whitney)(Whitney Houston)'s *[Whitney](Whitney (album))* (1987).
To promote the album, SZA embarked on an arena tour in 2023—the [Tour](SOS)(SOS Tour).
The tour consists of 54 shows across North American and Europe, and [Apollo](Omar)(Omar Apollo) and [Raye](Raye (singer)) served as the opening acts for the first two legs.
## Influences
### Music
SZA's vocal style has been described as taking on the "lilt" of a [jazz](jazz) singer. SZA is known as TDE's first female signee and first singer, which also drew attention during the early stages of her career. According to Marissa G. Muller of *[Stone](Rolling)(Rolling Stone)* magazine, SZA's vocals alternate between a "vapory husk and a sky-high falsetto". Jordan Sargent of *[Pitchfork](Pitchfork (website))* magazine labeled SZA's vocals as being "chillwave" and "ethereal". SZA disputes her music being labelled as hip hop, R&B and pop, stating she often listens to a variety of music including [Nicks](Stevie)(Stevie Nicks), classical jazz, folk, and rap. Further, she said: "when you try to label it [music](her), you remove the option for it to be limitless. It diminishes the music." SZA began writing songs due to being "passionate" about writing, and enjoyed poetry; when writing lyrics, SZA "freestyles" them in order to express whatever comes to her "mind", noting that it does not always make sense to herself. Thematically, SZA's work contains "unravelling lyrics", that touch upon themes of [sexuality](Human sexuality), [nostalgia](nostalgia), and [abandonment](Abandonment (emotional)).
SZA's musical style has been described as "alt R&B". SZA's songs are built over "layers of sliced, delayed, and reversed vocals" and contains "twists and mutates". Reggie Ugwu from [*Billboard*](Billboard (magazine)) magazine found her musical style to feature an "agnostic utopia dripping with mood", that straddles the "line between minimalist R&B, '80s synth pop and soul". SZA's music is primarily [PBR&B](PBR&B) and [neo-soul](neo-soul), but has been noted for taking influences from a broad variety of genres including [soul](soul music), [hop](hip)(hip hop music), minimalist R&B, [rock](indie)(indie rock), [rap](cloud)(cloud rap), ethereal R&B, [house](witch)(witch house (music genre)) and [chillwave](chillwave) elements. Michael Madden described SZA's musical style as being characterized by "genre agnosticism", noting that her work is not just one style of music and is versatile, noting the musical style is not just "R&B, pop, soul, or one thing at all".
SZA listens to [Fitzgerald](Ella)(Ella Fitzgerald) for vocal influence, and has said that [Hill](Lauryn)(Lauryn Hill) is one of her personal influences. SZA has expressed admiration for singer [Ashanti](Ashanti (singer)), citing her as a major inspiration and someone she has loved since childhood.
SZA also cites a wide range of musical artists as influences, including [Meelah](Kameelah Williams), the [Hot Chili Peppers](Red)(Red Hot Chili Peppers), [LFO](LFO (American band)), [Gray](Macy)(Macy Gray), [Common](Common (rapper)), [Björk](Björk), [Jamiroquai](Jamiroquai), and "a lot of [Wu](Wu-Tang Clan), [Nas](Nas), [Def](Mos)(Mos Def), [Hov](Jay Z)". Speaking on her influences, SZA said: "[My] personal influences came from dancing with [Ballet Theatre](American)(American Ballet Theatre) and doing pieces to Björk [music]. That's the only time I had really any outside influence to music. So, the people that I fell in love with on a musical level were always much older. [Jamiroquai](Jamiroquai) is just, like, the shit for me." In an interview for [Nation Entertainment](Live)(Live Nation Entertainment), SZA described the meeting she had with [Beyoncé](Beyoncé) for the writing of the song "[Myself](Feeling)(Feeling Myself (Nicki Minaj song))", affirming "Beyoncé might be the most perfect, beautiful being I've ever met in my whole life. She's the most inspirational woman on earth, next to my mother". SZA also spoke about [Rihanna](Rihanna), admiring her strong and confident attitude, of someone who does only the music she wants to do, and that if there's anybody that she could imagine singing her words, it would be Rihanna.
### Fashion
During an interview, SZA said she is less inspired by strictly music, and more inspired by creating art in general; she has looked up to people who were not "typical artists" including her "favorite gymnast, ice-skater, saxophonist, painter, or movie director," continuing to say she was particularly inspired by film director [Lee](Spike)(Spike Lee). During an interview with *[W](W (magazine))*, SZA spoke on her style influences, saying a large amount of her style inspiration comes from movies, including [Anderson](Wes)(Wes Anderson) films, praising his use of "pantone color palette" and that she "would love to dress like a character from *[Kingdom](Moonrise)(Moonrise Kingdom)*. Or perhaps [Murray](Bill)(Bill Murray) in *[Life Aquatic](The)(The Life Aquatic)*." Along with her music, SZA's image has been compared to neo-soul artists Lauryn Hill and [Badu](Erykah)(Erykah Badu). SZA's hair became a point of interest during the early stages of her career and she discussed it in interviews with [*Vogue*](Vogue (magazine)) and ''[Bazaar](Harper's)(Harper's Bazaar)''. During her performances, SZA tends to wear "free-flowing" clothes that are easy to move around in and wears pajamas or baggy clothing onstage.
## Discography
**[Ctrl](Ctrl (SZA album))* (2017)
**[SOS](SOS (SZA album))* (2022)
## Tours
**Headlining**
*[the Tour](Ctrl)(Ctrl the Tour) (2017–2018)
* [Tour](SOS)(SOS Tour) (2023)
**Co-headlining**
*[Championship Tour](The)(The Championship Tour) (2018)
**Supporting**
* [Aiko](Jhené)(Jhené Aiko) – Enter the Void Tour (2014)
* [J](Jessie)(Jessie J) – Sweet Talker Tour (2015)
* [Tiller](Bryson)(Bryson Tiller) – Set It Off Tour (2017)
## Awards and nominations
Throughout her career, SZA has gained one [Award](Grammy)(Grammy) from fourteen nominations, a [Globe](Golden)(Golden Globe) nomination, and an [Award](Academy)(Academy Award) nomination. She has earned one [Music Award](American)(American Music Award), one [Music Award](Billboard)(Billboard Music Award), two [Video Music Award](MTV)(MTV Video Music Award)s, two [Awards](BET)(BET Awards), including [New Artist](Best)(BET Award for Best New Artist) in 2018, and received the "Rulebreaker Award" at the [Women in Music](Billboard)(Billboard Women in Music) event in 2018. SZA also won the [Train Music Award for Best New Artist](Soul)(Soul Train Music Award for Best New Artist) in 2017.
In September 2022, SZA was applauded as one of the rising stars on the TIME100 Next List. At the [Grammy Awards](2022)(2022 Grammy Awards), SZA won with [Cat](Doja)(Doja Cat) for [Pop Duo/Group Performance](Best)(Best Pop Duo/Group Performance) for their hit collaboration "Kiss Me More". 2022 GRAMMYs |url=https://www.grammy.com/news/doja-cat-sza-kiss-me-more-wins-best-pop-duo-group-performance-2022-grammys |access-date=November 5, 2022 |website=www.grammy.com |archive-date=November 5, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221105192056/https://www.grammy.com/news/doja-cat-sza-kiss-me-more-wins-best-pop-duo-group-performance-2022-grammys |url-status=live }} In 2023, *[Stone](Rolling)(Rolling Stone)* ranked SZA at number 180 on its list of the 200 Greatest Singers of All Time.
## See also
*[Dawg Entertainment](Top)(Top Dawg Entertainment) discography
## Notes
## References
## External links
}}
[ ](Category:SZA)
[births](Category:1989)(Category:1989 births)
[people](Category:Living)(Category:Living people)
[African-American women singers](Category:21st-century)(Category:21st-century African-American women singers)
[Muslims](Category:African-American)(Category:African-American Muslims)
[women singer-songwriters](Category:African-American)(Category:African-American women singer-songwriters)
[R&B musicians](Category:Alternative)(Category:Alternative R&B musicians)
[contemporary R&B singers](Category:American)(Category:American contemporary R&B singers)
[High School (New Jersey) alumni](Category:Columbia)(Category:Columbia High School (New Jersey) alumni)
[Award winners](Category:Grammy)(Category:Grammy Award winners)
[Video Music Award winners](Category:MTV)(Category:MTV Video Music Award winners)
[from Maplewood, New Jersey](Category:People)(Category:People from Maplewood, New Jersey)
[from St. Louis](Category:People)(Category:People from St. Louis)
[Records artists](Category:RCA)(Category:RCA Records artists)
[from Missouri](Category:Singer-songwriters)(Category:Singer-songwriters from Missouri)
[from New Jersey](Category:Singer-songwriters)(Category:Singer-songwriters from New Jersey)
[Dawg Entertainment artists](Category:Top)(Category:Top Dawg Entertainment artists)
[women musicians](Category:Muslim)(Category:Muslim women musicians)
|
XNXX
|
xnxx
|
# XNXX
*Revision ID: 1158045712 | Timestamp: 2023-06-01T16:46:47Z*
---
| owner = WGCZ Holding
| url =
| advertising = Yes
| commercial = Yes
| registration = Optional
| current_status = Active
}}
**XNXX** is a French website for sharing and viewing [videos](pornographic)(Pornographic film). As of November 2022, it was classified as the 14th most visited website in the world by [Similarweb](Similarweb). |access-date=}} It launched in 2000 and is currently hosted in Paris, with servers and offices in [Montreal](Montreal), [Tokyo](Tokyo) and [Newark](Newark, New Jersey).
XNXX is owned by WGCZ Holding, the same company that runs [XVideos](XVideos), another popular pornographic website.
A *[Insider](Business)(Business Insider)* ranking from 2018 placed it in the three most popular porn sites worldwide.
## History
XNXX was founded in 1997. According to the website, the domain name was first copyrighted in 2000. It is unclear when WGCZ Holding acquired XNXX, as the website's ownership was unknown until WGCZ brought a [Domain-Name Dispute-Resolution Policy](Uniform)(Uniform Domain-Name Dispute-Resolution Policy) case against a similar domain in 2014.
In 2018, the Government of India blocked XNXX, among other porn websites, after a [High Court](Uttarakhand)(Uttarakhand High Court) court order demanding the same in a rape case where the perpetrators stated they were motivated to do so after watching online pornography.
## Statistics and data
As of 2018, XNXX was classified as the most visited porn site in [Singapore](Singapore) and the fifth most visited porn site in India. As of April 2022, XNXX is the 24th most visited website in Switzerland and the 18th most visited website in Austria, though the majority of its users come from the [States](United)(United States), [Egypt](Egypt), and [France](France). The [rate](bounce)(bounce rate) is around 20% and the average user spends around 12 minutes on the site.
## See also
* [of most visited websites](List)(List of most visited websites)
* [Pornhub](Pornhub)
* [MindGeek](MindGeek)
## References
## Further reading
*
*
*
[and pornography websites](Category:Erotica)(Category:Erotica and pornography websites)
[hosting](Category:Video)(Category:Video hosting)
[censorship in India](Category:Internet)(Category:Internet censorship in India)
|
Alanis Morissette
|
alanis_morissette
|
# Alanis Morissette
*Revision ID: 1159941256 | Timestamp: 2023-06-13T14:09:38Z*
---
| birth_place = [Ottawa](Ottawa), Ontario, Canada
| citizenship =
| occupation =
| years_active = 1986–present
| spouse =
| children = 3
| relatives =
| awards = [list](Full)(List of awards and nominations received by Alanis Morissette)
| module =
| instrument =
| label =
| website =
}}
}}
**Alanis Nadine Morissette** ( ; born June 1, 1974) is a Canadian-American singer and songwriter. Known for her emotive [mezzo-soprano](mezzo-soprano) voice and confessional songwriting, Morissette began her career in Canada in the early 1990s with two [dance-pop](dance-pop) albums. In 1995, she released *[Little Pill](Jagged)(Jagged Little Pill)*, an [rock](alternative)(alternative rock)-oriented album with elements of [post-grunge](post-grunge), which sold more than 33 million copies globally and made her a [phenomenon](cultural)(cultural phenomenon). It earned her the [Award for Album of the Year](Grammy)(Grammy Award for Album of the Year) in 1996 and has been made into a [musical of the same name](rock)(Jagged Little Pill (musical)) in 2017, which earned fifteen Tony Award nominations, including [Musical](Best)(Tony Award for Best Musical). The album was also listed in the 2003 and 2020 editions of [Stone's 500 Greatest Albums of All Time](Rolling)(Rolling Stone's 500 Greatest Albums of All Time) Guide. The lead single, "You Oughta Know", was also included at #103 in their [Greatest Songs of All Time](500)(Rolling Stone's 500 Greatest Songs of All Time). A highly anticipated, more experimental follow-up, electronic-infused album, *[Former Infatuation Junkie](Supposed)(Supposed Former Infatuation Junkie)*, was released in 1998.
Morissette assumed creative control and production duties for her subsequent studio albums, including *[Rug Swept](Under)(Under Rug Swept)* (2002), *[Chaos](So-Called)(So-Called Chaos)* (2004), *[of Entanglement](Flavors)(Flavors of Entanglement)* (2008), *[and Bright Lights](Havoc)(Havoc and Bright Lights)* (2012), and *[Pretty Forks in the Road](Such)(Such Pretty Forks in the Road)* (2020). Her latest album, *[Storm Before the Calm](The)(The Storm Before the Calm)*, which features [music](ambient)(ambient music), was released in 2022. Morissette's singles "[Oughta Know](You)(You Oughta Know)", "[in My Pocket](Hand)(Hand in My Pocket)", "[Ironic](Ironic (song))", "[Learn](You)(You Learn)", "[Over Feet](Head)(Head Over Feet)", "[Uninvited](Uninvited (song))", "[U](Thank)(Thank U)", and "[Clean](Hands)(Hands Clean)" reached top 40 in the major charts around the world. She has ten top-40 songs in the UK, three top-10 in the US and Australia, and twelve top-10 tracks in her native Canada. Morissette also holds the record for the most No. 1s on the weekly [Alternative Songs chart](Billboard)(Billboard Alternative Songs chart) for any female soloist, group leader, or duo member. She is listed on [VH1](VH1)'s 1999 "100 Greatest Women of Rock and Roll" at number 53.
Morissette has won seven [Awards](Grammy)(Grammy Awards), fourteen [Awards](Juno)(Juno Awards), one [Award](Brit)(Brit Award), two [Globe](Golden)(Golden Globe) nominations and has sold more than 75 million records worldwide. She has been dubbed the "Queen of [Alt-Rock](Alternative rock) Angst" by *[Stone](Rolling)(Rolling Stone)*.
## Early life
Morissette was born on June 1, 1974, at [Hospital](Riverside)(The Ottawa Hospital) in [Ontario](Ottawa,)(Ottawa), to teacher Georgia Mary Ann ( Feuerstein) and high-school principal and French teacher Alan Richard Morissette. She has two brothers: her older brother Chad is a business entrepreneur, and her twin brother (12 minutes older) [Morissette](Wade)(Wade Morissette) is a musician. Her father is of French and Irish descent, whereas her mother has Hungarian and [Jewish](Jewish) ancestry. Time stamp=00:13:07 Her parents were teachers in a military school and due to their work often had to move. Between the ages of three and six she lived with her parents in [Lahr](Lahr) ([Forest](Black)(Black Forest)), West Germany.
When she was six years old, she returned to Ottawa and started to play the piano. In 1981, at the age of seven, she began taking dance lessons. Morissette had a Catholic upbringing. She attended [Family Catholic School](Holy)(Ottawa Catholic School Board) for elementary school and [High School](Immaculata)(Immaculata High School (Ottawa)) for Grades 7 and 8 before graduating from high school at [Collegiate Institute](Glebe)(Glebe Collegiate Institute). She appeared on the children's television [comedy](sketch)(sketch comedy) ''[Can't Do That on Television](You)(You Can't Do That on Television)* for five episodes when she was in junior high school. Alanis composed her first song at the age of 10.
## Music career
### 1987–1992: *Alanis* and *Now Is the Time''
Morissette recorded her first demo called "Fate Stay with Me", produced by Lindsay Thomas Morgan at Marigold Studios in Toronto, and engineered by [Dodson](Rich)(Rich Dodson) of Canadian classic rock band [Stampeders](The)(The Stampeders). A second demo tape was recorded on cassette in August 1989 and sent to [Records](Geffen)(Geffen Records), but the tape has never been heard as it was stolen, among other records, in a burglary of the label's headquarters in October 1989.
In 1991, [Records Canada](MCA)(MCA Records) released Morissette's debut album, *[Alanis](Alanis (album))*, in Canada only. Morissette co-wrote every track on the album with its producer, [Howe](Leslie)(Leslie Howe). The [dance-pop](dance-pop) album went [platinum](platinum album),["Search Certification Database"](http://www.cria.ca/cert_db_search.php) . [Recording Industry Association](Canadian)(Canadian Recording Industry Association). and its first single, "[Hot](Too)(Too Hot (Alanis Morissette song))", reached the top 20 on the *[RPM](RPM (magazine))* singles chart. Subsequent singles "[Away](Walk)(Walk Away (Alanis Morissette song))" and "[Your Love](Feel)(Feel Your Love)" reached the top 40. Morissette's popularity, style of music and appearance, particularly that of her hair, led her to become known as the [Gibson](Debbie)(Debbie Gibson) of Canada;["Transcript: Profiles of Alanis Morissette, Margaret Cho"](http://transcripts.cnn.com/TRANSCRIPTS/0301/04/pitn.00.html) . CNN *[in the News](People)(People in the News)*. January 4, 2003. comparisons to [Tiffany](Tiffany Darwish) were also common. During the same period, she was a concert opening act for rapper [Ice](Vanilla)(Vanilla Ice).Farley, Christopher John. ["You Oughta Know Her"](https://web.archive.org/web/20070902231958/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,984182,00.html). *Time*. February 26, 1996. Morissette was nominated for three 1992 [Award](Juno)(Juno Award)s: [Promising Female Vocalist of the Year](Most)(Juno Award for Most Promising Female Vocalist of the Year) (which she won), [of the Year](Single)(Juno Award for Single of the Year) and [Dance Recording](Best)(Juno Award for Best Dance Recording) (both for "Too Hot").["1992 22nd Juno Awards"](http://theenvelope.latimes.com/extras/lostmind/year/1992/1992junos.htm) . *Los Angeles Times*.
In 1992, she released her second album, *[Is the Time](Now)(Now Is the Time)*, a [ballad](Sentimental ballad)-driven record that featured less glitzy production than *Alanis* and contained more thoughtful lyrics. Morissette wrote the songs with the album's producer, Leslie Howe, and Serge Côté. She said of the album, "People could go, 'Boo, hiss, hiss, this girl's like another Tiffany or whatever.' But the way I look at it... people will like your next album if it's a kick-ass one." As with *Alanis*, *Now Is the Time* was released only in Canada and produced three top 40 singles—"[Emotion Away](An)(An Emotion Away)", the minor [contemporary](adult)(adult contemporary) hit "[Apologies](No)(No Apologies (Alanis Morissette song))" as well as "(Change Is) Never a Waste of Time". The industry considered it a commercial failure, however, since it sold only a little more than half the copies of her first album.Wild, David. ["Adventures Of Miss Thing"](https://web.archive.org/web/20070927084331/http://www.4alanis.com/newssearch/index.php?selected=3&idn=782). *Rolling Stone*. November 2, 1995. With her two-album deal with MCA Records Canada complete, Morissette was left without a major label contract.
### 1993–1997: *Jagged Little Pill*
In 1993, Morissette's publisher Leeds Levy at MCA Music Publishing introduced her to manager Scott Welch. Welch told [HitQuarters](HitQuarters) he was impressed by her "spectacular voice", her character and her lyrics. At the time she was still living at home with her parents. Together they decided it would be best for her career to move to Toronto and start writing with other people. After graduating from high school, Morissette moved from Ottawa to [Toronto](Toronto). Her publisher funded part of her development and when she met producer and songwriter [Ballard](Glen)(Glen Ballard), he believed in her talent enough to let her use his studio. The two wrote and recorded Morissette's first internationally released album, *Jagged Little Pill*, and by the spring of 1995, she had signed a deal with Maverick Records. In the same year she learned how to play guitar. According to manager Welch, every label they approached, apart from Maverick, declined to sign Morissette.
Maverick Records released *[Little Pill](Jagged)(Jagged Little Pill)* internationally in June 1995. The album was expected only to sell enough for Morissette to make a follow-up, but the situation improved quickly when [KROQ-FM](KROQ-FM), an influential Los Angeles [rock](modern)(modern rock) radio station, began playing "[Oughta Know](You)(You Oughta Know)", the album's first single, featuring [Flea](Flea (musician)) and [Navarro](Dave)(Dave Navarro) from the [Hot Chili Peppers](Red)(Red Hot Chili Peppers). The song instantly garnered attention for its scathing, explicit lyrics, and a subsequent music video went into heavy rotation on MTV and [MuchMusic](MuchMusic).
After the success of "[Oughta Know](You)(You Oughta Know)", the album's other hits helped send *Jagged Little Pill* to the top of the charts. "[I Really Want](All)(All I Really Want (Alanis Morissette song))" and "[in My Pocket](Hand)(Hand in My Pocket)" followed, and the fourth U.S. single, "[Ironic](Ironic (song))", became Morissette's biggest hit. "[Learn](You)(You Learn)" and "[over Feet](Head)(Head over Feet)", the fifth and sixth singles, kept *Jagged Little Pill* (1995) in the top 20 on the [200](*Billboard*)(Billboard 200) albums chart for more than a year. *Jagged Little Pill* sold more than 16 million copies in the U.S.; it sold 33 million worldwide, making it the second biggest-selling album by a female artist (behind [Twain](Shania)(Shania Twain)'s *[On Over](Come)(Come On Over (Shania Twain album))*).Newman, Melinda. ["10 Years On, Alanis Unplugs 'Little Pill'"](https://www.billboard.com/music/music-news/10-years-on-alanis-unplugs-little-pill-63867/) *Billboard*. March 4, 2005. Retrieved April 19, 2022.Walker, Steven. ["The Sound Of A Decade"](http://blogs.theage.com.au/noisepollution/archives/2007/08/post_3.html) . *[Age](The)(The Age)* Blog. August 24, 2007.
Morissette's popularity grew significantly in Canada, where the album was certified twelve times platinum and produced four *RPM* chart-toppers: "Hand in My Pocket", "Ironic", "You Learn", and "Head over Feet". The album was also a bestseller in Australia and the United Kingdom.Dale, David. ["The top-selling albums and musicians in Australia"](https://www.smh.com.au/entertainment/the-top-selling-albums-and-musicians-in-australia-20050712-gdin86.html) . *[Sydney Morning Herald](The)(The Sydney Morning Herald).* July 12, 2005. Retrieved April 19, 2022Harris, Bill. ["Queen rules – in album sales"](http://jam.canoe.ca/Music/Artists/Q/Queen/2006/11/17/2391437.html) . Jam!. November 17, 2006.
Morissette's success with *Jagged Little Pill* (1995) was credited with opening doors for female singers such as [Brooks](Meredith)(Meredith Brooks), [Bonham](Tracy)(Tracy Bonham) and [Rothberg](Patti)(Patti Rothberg), and later [Lavigne](Avril)(Avril Lavigne) and [Pink](Pink (singer)).Mayer, Andre. ["What a Pill"](https://web.archive.org/web/20050615022717/http://www.cbc.ca/arts/music/alanis.html). [Arts](CBC)(CBC Arts). June 13, 2005. She was criticized for collaborating with producer and supposed image-maker Ballard, and her previous disco pop albums also proved a hindrance for her respectability.Hannaham, James. ["Alanis In Wonderland"](https://web.archive.org/web/20070927084249/http://www.4alanis.com/newssearch/index.php?selected=3&idn=781). *[Spin](Spin (magazine))*. November 2, 1995. Morissette and the album won six Juno Awards in 1996: [of the Year](Album)(Juno Award for Album of the Year), [of the Year](Single)(Juno Award for Single of the Year) ("[Oughta Know](You)(You Oughta Know)"), Female Vocalist of the Year, [of the Year](Songwriter)(Juno Award for Songwriter of the Year) and [Rock Album](Best)(Juno Award for Best Rock Album).["1996 26th Juno Awards"](http://theenvelope.latimes.com/extras/lostmind/year/1996/1996junos.htm) . *Los Angeles Times*. At the [Brit Awards](16th)(16th Brit Awards) she won [Award for International Breakthrough Act](Brit)(Brit Award for International Breakthrough Act). At the [Annual Grammy Awards](38th)(38th Annual Grammy Awards) in 1996, she won [Female Rock Vocal Performance](Best)(Best Female Rock Vocal Performance), [Rock Song](Best)(Best Rock Song) (both for "[Oughta Know](You)(You Oughta Know)"), [Rock Album](Best)(Best Rock Album) and [of the Year](Album)(Grammy Award for Album of the Year).["1995 38th Grammy Awards"](http://theenvelope.latimes.com/extras/lostmind/year/1995/1995grammy.htm) . *Los Angeles Times*.
At the [MTV Video Music Awards](1996)(1996 MTV Video Music Awards), she also won [New Artist in a Video](Best)(MTV Video Music Award for Best New Artist) and [Female Video](Best)(Best Female Video), and was nominated for [Choice](Viewer's)(MTV Video Music Award – Viewer's Choice), [Direction in a Video](Best)(MTV Video Music Award for Best Direction) and [of the Year](Video)(MTV Video Music Award for Video of the Year). All nominations were for the video of *Ironic*. She performed instead "Your House".
Following the album release in 1995, Morissette embarked on an 18-month world tour in support of *Jagged Little Pill*, beginning in small clubs and ending in large venues. [Hawkins](Taylor)(Taylor Hawkins), who later joined the [Fighters](Foo)(Foo Fighters), was the tour's drummer and [Radiohead](Radiohead) joined as the opening act in the summer of 1996. "Ironic" was nominated for two [Grammy Awards](1997)(1997 Grammy Awards)—[of the Year](Record)(Record of the Year) and [Music Video, Short Form](Best)(Best Music Video, Short Form)["1996 39th Grammy Awards"](http://theenvelope.latimes.com/extras/lostmind/year/1996/1996grammy.htm) . *Los Angeles Times.*—and won Single of the Year at the [Juno Awards](1997)(1997 Juno Awards), where Morissette also won Songwriter of the Year and the International Achievement Award.["1997 27th Juno Awards"](http://theenvelope.latimes.com/extras/lostmind/year/1997/1997junos.htm) . *Los Angeles Times.* The video *[Little Pill, Live](Jagged)(Jagged Little Pill, Live)*, which was co-directed by Morissette and is about the bulk of her tour won a [Grammy Award](1998)(Grammy Awards of 1998) for [Music Video, Long Form](Best)(Best Music Video, Long Form).["1997 40th Grammy Awards"](http://theenvelope.latimes.com/extras/lostmind/year/1997/1997grammy.htm) . *Los Angeles Times.*
Following the tour, Morissette began practicing [Yoga](Iyengar)(Iyengar Yoga) for balance. After the last December 1996 show, she went to India for six weeks, accompanied by her mother, two aunts and two friends. The trip left her with an indelible impression and set the cornerstone for the concept of her next album.
### 1998–2000: *Supposed Former Infatuation Junkie* and *Alanis Unplugged*
Morissette was featured as a guest vocalist on [Starr](Ringo)(Ringo Starr)'s cover of "[Away](Drift)(Drift Away)" on his 1998 album, *[Man](Vertical)(Vertical Man)*, and on the songs "[Drink the Water](Don't)(Don't Drink the Water (Dave Matthews Band song))" and "[Spoon](Spoon (Dave Matthews Band song))" on the [Matthews Band](Dave)(Dave Matthews Band) album *[These Crowded Streets](Before)(Before These Crowded Streets)*. She recorded the song "[Uninvited](Uninvited (song))" for the soundtrack to the 1998 film *[of Angels](City)(City of Angels (film))*. Although the track was never commercially released as a single, it received widespread radio airplay in the U.S. At the [Grammy Awards](1999)(1999 Grammy Awards), it won in the categories of Best Rock Song and Best Female Rock Vocal Performance, and was nominated for [Song Written for a Motion Picture, Television or Other Visual Media](Best)(Best Song Written for a Motion Picture, Television or Other Visual Media).["1998 41st Grammy Awards"](http://theenvelope.latimes.com/extras/lostmind/year/1998/1998grammy.htm) . *Los Angeles Times*. Later in 1998, Morissette released her fourth album, *[Former Infatuation Junkie](Supposed)(Supposed Former Infatuation Junkie)*, which she wrote and produced with Glen Ballard.
The label hoped to sell 1 million copies of the album on initial release; instead, it debuted at number one on the *Billboard* 200 chart with first-week sales of 469,000 copies—a record, at the time, for the highest first-week sales of an album by a female artist.["'Oops!' Britney breaks record"](https://web.archive.org/web/20071203065648/http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qn4155/is_20000525/ai_n13864275). *[Sun-Times](Chicago)(Chicago Sun-Times)*. May 25, 2000. The wordy, personal lyrics on *Supposed Former Infatuation Junkie* alienated many fans, and after the album sold considerably less than *Jagged Little Pill* (1995), many labelled it an example of the [jinx](sophomore)(sophomore jinx).Lynskey, Dorian. ["Are you suffering from DSAS?"](https://www.theguardian.com/music/2003/sep/19/3) . *[Guardian](The)(The Guardian)*. September 19, 2003. Retrieved April 20, 2022 However, it received positive reviews, including a four-star review from *Rolling Stone*.Sheffield, Rob. ["Album Reviews – Alanis Morissette – Supposed Former Infatuation Junkie "](https://web.archive.org/web/20070527131402/http://www.rollingstone.com/artists/alanismorissette/albums/album/111363/review/5941546/supposed_former_infatuation_junkie). *Rolling Stone*. December 10, 1998. In Canada, it won the Juno Award for [Album](Best)(Juno Award for Album of the Year) and was certified four times platinum.["2000 30th Juno Awards"](http://theenvelope.latimes.com/extras/lostmind/year/2000/2000juno.htm) . *Los Angeles Times*. "[U](Thank)(Thank U)", the album's only major international hit single, was nominated for the [Grammy Award](2000)(2000 Grammy Award) for [Female Pop Vocal Performance](Best)(Best Female Pop Vocal Performance); the music video, which featured Morissette nude, generated mild controversy.Willman, Chris. ["The Second Coming of Alanis"](https://web.archive.org/web/20070902203135/http://www.ew.com/ew/inside/issue/0%2C%2CewTax%3A457%2C00.html). *[Weekly](Entertainment)(Entertainment Weekly)*. November 6, 1998, iss. 457.["1999 42nd Grammy Awards"](http://theenvelope.latimes.com/extras/lostmind/year/1999/1999grammy.htm) . *Los Angeles Times*. Morissette herself directed the videos for "Unsent" and "[Pure](So)(So Pure)", which won, respectively, the [Video Award](MuchMusic)(MuchMusic Video Award) for [Director](Best)(Best Director (MMVA Award)) and the [Award for Video of the Year](Juno)(Juno Award for Video of the Year).
Morissette contributed vocals to "Mercy", where she paid homage to her roots by singing in Hungarian, "Hope", "Innocence" and "Faith", four tracks on [Elias](Jonathan)(Jonathan Elias)'s project *[Prayer Cycle](The)(The Prayer Cycle)*, which was released in 1999. The same year, she released the live acoustic album *[Unplugged](Alanis)(Alanis Unplugged)*, which was recorded during her appearance on the television show *[Unplugged](MTV)(MTV Unplugged)*. It featured tracks from her previous two albums alongside four new songs, including "[of Pain](King)(King of Pain)" (a cover of [Police](The)(The Police) song) and "No Pressure over Cappuccino", which Morissette wrote with her main guitar player, Nick Lashley. The recording of the *Supposed Former Infatuation Junkie* track "[I Would Be Good](That)(That I Would Be Good)", released as a single, became a minor hit on [adult contemporary](hot)(hot adult contemporary) radio in America. Also in 1999, Morissette released a live version of her song "Are You Still Mad" on the charity album *[in the X Lounge II](Live)(Live in the X Lounge#Live in the X Lounge II (1999))*. For her live rendition of "So Pure" at ['99](Woodstock)(Woodstock '99), she was nominated for Best Female Rock Vocal Performance at the [Grammy Awards](2001)(2001 Grammy Awards).["2000 43rd Grammy Awards"](http://theenvelope.latimes.com/extras/lostmind/year/2000/2000grammy.htm) . *Los Angeles Times*. During the summer of 1999, Morissette toured with singer-songwriter [Amos](Tori)(Tori Amos) on the *5 and a Half Weeks Tour* in support of Amos' album *[Venus and Back](To)(To Venus and Back)* (1999).
### 2001–2005: *Under Rug Swept* and *So-Called Chaos*
In 2001, Morissette was featured with [McKay](Stephanie)(Stephanie McKay) on the [Tricky](Tricky (musician)) song "Excess", which is on his album *[Blowback](Blowback (album))*. Morissette released her fifth studio album, *[Rug Swept](Under)(Under Rug Swept)*, in February 2002. For the first time in her career, she took on the role of sole writer and producer of an album. Her band, comprising [Shearer](Joel)(Pedestrian (band)), Nick Lashley, Chris Chaney, and Gary Novak, played the majority of the instruments; additional contributions came from [Avery](Eric)(Eric Avery), [DeLeo](Dean)(Dean DeLeo), [Flea](Flea (musician)), and [Ndegeocello](Meshell)(Meshell Ndegeocello).
*Under Rug Swept* debuted at number one on the *Billboard* 200 chart, eventually going platinum in Canada and selling one million copies in the U.S. It produced the hit single "[Clean](Hands)(Hands Clean)", which topped the [Singles Chart](Canadian)(Canadian Singles Chart) and received substantial radio play; for her work on "Hands Clean" and "[Unsexy](So)(So Unsexy)", Morissette won a [Award for Producer of the Year](Juno)(Juno Award for Producer of the Year).["2002 33rd Juno Awards"](http://theenvelope.latimes.com/extras/lostmind/year/2002/2002junob.htm) . *Los Angeles Times.* A second single, "[Illusions](Precious)(Precious Illusions)", was released, but it did not garner significant success outside Canada or U.S. hot AC radio.
Later in 2002, Morissette released the combination package *[on Scraps](Feast)(Feast on Scraps)*, which includes a DVD of live concert and backstage documentary footage directed by her and a CD containing eight previously unreleased songs from the *Under Rug Swept* recording sessions. Preceded by the single "Simple Together", it sold roughly 70,000 copies in the U.S. and was nominated for a [Award for Music DVD of the Year](Juno)(Juno Award for Music DVD of the Year).["2003 34th Juno Awards"](http://theenvelope.latimes.com/extras/lostmind/year/2003/2003juno.htm) . *Los Angeles Times*.
[[Morissette at Espacio Movistar 2 (cropped).jpg|thumb|253x253px|Morissette performing in 2008](File:Alanis)]
Morissette hosted the [Awards of 2004](Juno)(Juno Awards of 2004) dressed in a bathrobe, which she took off to reveal a flesh-colored bodysuit, a response to the era of [censorship](censorship) in the U.S. caused by [Jackson](Janet)(Janet Jackson)'s breast-flash incident during the [Bowl XXXVIII halftime show](Super)(Super Bowl XXXVIII halftime show). Morissette released her sixth studio album, *[Chaos](So-Called)(So-Called Chaos)*, in May 2004. She wrote the songs on her own again, and co-produced the album with [Thorney](Tim)(Tim Thorney) and pop music producer [Shanks](John)(John Shanks). The album debuted at number five on the *Billboard* 200 chart to generally mixed critical reviews, and it became Morissette's lowest seller in the U.S. The lead single, "[Everything](Everything (Alanis Morissette song))", achieved major success on [Top 40](Adult)(Adult Top 40) radio in America and was moderately popular elsewhere, particularly in Canada, although it failed to reach the top 40 on the U.S. [100](Hot)(Billboard Hot 100). Because the first line of the song includes the word "asshole", American radio stations refused to play it, and the single version was changed to include the word "nightmare" instead.["Morissette laughs off her display of 'nudity'"](https://web.archive.org/web/20050312125231/http://www.ctv.ca/servlet/ArticleNews/mini/CTVNews/1081193845483_76603045?s_name=junos2004&no_ads=y.). [Press](Canadian)(Canadian Press) via [Television Network](CTV)(CTV Television Network). April 7, 2004. Unhappy that U.S. radio networks had required her to change a word in the song, Canadian radio played the unaltered version, with Morissette stating at the 2004 Juno Awards in Canada: "Well, I am overjoyed to be back in my homeland, the true North, strong and censor-free." Two other singles, "[Is Through](Out)(Out Is Through)" and "[Easy Steps](Eight)(Eight Easy Steps)", fared considerably worse, although a dance [mix](remix) of "Eight Easy Steps" was a U.S. club hit. Morissette embarked on a U.S. summer tour with long-time friends and fellow Canadians [Ladies](Barenaked)(Barenaked Ladies), working with the non-profit environmental organization [Reverb](Reverb (non-profit)).
To commemorate the 10th anniversary of *Jagged Little Pill* (1995), Morissette released a studio [acoustic](Steel-string guitar) version, *[Little Pill Acoustic](Jagged)(Jagged Little Pill Acoustic)*, in June 2005. The album was released exclusively through [Starbucks](Starbucks)' [Music](Hear)(Hear Music) retail concept through their coffee shops for a six-week run. The limited availability led to a dispute between Maverick Records and [HMV](HMV) North America, who retaliated by removing Morissette's other albums from sale for the duration of Starbucks's exclusive six-week sale.["Morissette in Starbucks album row"](http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/entertainment/music/4095358.stm) . BBC News. June 15, 2005.["HMV pulls Alanis product to protest Starbucks deal"](http://www.cbc.ca/arts/story/2005/06/14/hmvalanis050614.html) . [Arts](CBC)(CBC Arts). June 14, 2005. , *Jagged Little Pill Acoustic* had sold 372,000 copies in the U.S., and a video for "[in My Pocket](Hand)(Hand in My Pocket)" received rotation on [VH1](VH1) in America. The accompanying tour ran for two months in mid-2005, with Morissette playing small theatre venues. During the same period, Morissette was inducted into Canada's Walk of Fame.["Alanis Morissette – 2005 Inductee"](https://web.archive.org/web/20060826111150/http://www.canadaswalkoffame.com/inductees/2005/05_alanis_morissette.xml.htm). [Walk of Fame](Canada's)(Canada's Walk of Fame). The singer opened for [Rolling Stones](The)(The Rolling Stones) for a few dates of their [Bigger Bang Tour](A)(A Bigger Bang Tour) in the autumn of 2005.
Morissette released the [hits album](greatest)(greatest hits album) *[Morissette: The Collection](Alanis)(Alanis Morissette: The Collection)* in late 2005. The lead single and only new track, a cover of [Seal](Seal (musician))'s "[Crazy](Crazy (Seal song))", was an Adult Top 40 and dance hit in the U.S., but achieved only minimal chart success elsewhere. A limited edition of *The Collection* features a DVD including a documentary with videos of two unreleased songs from Morissette's 1996 Can't Not Tour: "King of Intimidation" and "Can't Not". (A reworked version of "Can't Not" had also appeared on *Supposed Former Infatuation Junkie*.) The DVD also includes a ninety-second clip of the unreleased video for the single "[You](Joining)(Joining You)". , *The Collection* had sold 373,000 copies in the U.S., according to [SoundScan](Nielsen)(Nielsen SoundScan). That same year, Morissette contributed the song "[Wunderkind](Wunderkind (song))" to the soundtrack of the film *[Chronicles of Narnia: The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe](The)(The Chronicles of Narnia: The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe)*, and she was nominated for a [Globe Award](Golden)(Golden Globe Award) for [Original Song](Best)(Golden Globe Award for Best Original Song).Baltin, Steve. ["Alanis Writing Memoir, Album"](https://www.rollingstone.com/music/music-news/alanis-morissette-writing-memoir-album-112702/). *Rolling Stone*. January 13, 2006.
### 2006–2010: *Flavors of Entanglement*
2006 marked the first year in Morissette's musical career without a single concert appearance showcasing her own songs, with the exception of an appearance on *[Tonight Show with Jay Leno](The)(The Tonight Show with Jay Leno)* in January when she performed "Wunderkind".
On April 1, 2007, Morissette released a tongue-in-cheek cover of [Black Eyed Peas](The)(The Black Eyed Peas)'s selection "[Humps](My)(My Humps)", which she recorded in a slow, mournful voice, accompanied only by a piano. The accompanying YouTube-hosted video, in which she dances provocatively with a group of men and hits the ones who act as if attempting to touch her breasts, had received 16,465,653 views as of February 15, 2009.The Celebrity Truth. ["PLW Live – Alanis Morissette Finally Explains My Humps"](http://www.undercover.com.au/News-Story.aspx?id=5143) . Undercover.com.au . June 7, 2008. Morissette did not take any interviews for a time to explain the song, and it was theorized that she did it as an [Fools' Day](April)(April Fools' Day) joke.Saxberg, Lynn. ["Bloggers, 'Tubers all atwitter over Morissette's video parody of the Peas"](https://web.archive.org/web/20071011143540/http://canada.com/ottawacitizen/news/city/story.html?id=aba2463a-0e73-4f9f-9540-1d46ec6458b1&k=53726). *[Ottawa Citizen](The)(The Ottawa Citizen)*. April 5, 2007. Black Eyed Peas vocalist ["Fergie" Ferguson](Stacy)(Fergie (singer)) responded by sending Morissette a buttocks-shaped cake with an approving note.Herndon, Jessica. ["Fergie Sends Alanis 'Derrière' Cake for 'Humps' Video"](https://people.com/celebrity/fergie-sends-alanis-derriere-cake-for-humps-video/) . *[People](People (American magazine))*. April 11, 2007. Retrieved April 20, 2022 On the verge of the release of her following album, she finally elaborated on how the video came to be, citing that she became very much emotionally loaded while recording her new songs one after the other and one day she wished she could do a simple song like "My Humps" and the joke just took a life of its own.
Morissette performed at a gig for [Nightwatchman](The)(The Nightwatchman), a.k.a. [Morello](Tom)(Tom Morello) of [Against the Machine](Rage)(Rage Against the Machine) and [Audioslave](Audioslave), at the Hotel Café in Los Angeles in April 2007. The following June, she performed "[Star-Spangled Banner](The)(The Star-Spangled Banner)" and "[Canada](O)(O Canada)", the American and Canadian [anthem](national)(national anthem)s, in Game 4 of the [Cup Finals](Stanley)(2007 Stanley Cup Finals) between the [Senators](Ottawa)(Ottawa Senators) and the [Ducks](Anaheim)(Anaheim Ducks) in [Ottawa](Ottawa), [Ontario](Ontario).["Alanis Morissette to sing national anthems at Game 4 of Stanley Cup final"](https://web.archive.org/web/20071007150927/http://www.macleans.ca/article.jsp?content=e060137A). [Press](Canadian)(Canadian Press) via ''[Maclean's](Maclean's)''. June 1, 2007. (The NHL requires arenas to perform both the American and Canadian national anthems at games involving teams from both countries.) In early 2008, Morissette participated in a tour with [Twenty](Matchbox)(Matchbox Twenty) and [Mutemath](Mutemath) as a special guest.
Morissette's seventh studio album, *[of Entanglement](Flavors)(Flavors of Entanglement)*, which was produced by [Sigsworth](Guy)(Guy Sigsworth), was released in mid-2008. She has stated that in late 2008, she would embark on a North American headlining tour, but in the meantime she would be promoting the album internationally by performing at shows and festivals and making television and radio appearances. The album's first single was "[Underneath](Underneath (Alanis Morissette song))", a video for which was submitted to the 2007 Elevate Film Festival, the purpose of which festival was to create documentaries, music videos, narratives and shorts regarding subjects to raise the level of human consciousness on the earth. On October 3, 2008, Morissette released the video for her latest single, "[as We](Not)(Not as We)".
Morissette contributed to *[Giant Leap](1)(1 Giant Leap)*, performing "Arrival" with [Mama](Zap)(Zap Mama) and she has released an acoustic version of her song "Still" as part of a compilation from Music for Relief in support of the [Haiti earthquake](2010)(2010 Haiti earthquake) crisis. In 2008 she contributed a recording of "Versions of Violence" for the album [for Tibet: The Art of Peace](Songs)(Songs for Tibet: The Art of Peace) to promote [peace](peace). Morissette has also recorded a cover of the 1984 [Nelson](Willie)(Willie Nelson) and [Iglesias](Julio)(Julio Iglesias) hit, "[All the Girls I've Loved Before](To)(To All the Girls I've Loved Before)", re-written as "To All the Boys I've Loved Before". Nelson played rhythm guitar on the recording. In April 2010, Morissette released the song "I Remain", which she wrote for the *[of Persia: The Sands of Time](Prince)(Prince of Persia: The Sands of Time (film))* soundtrack. On May 26, 2010, the season finale of *[Idol](American)(American Idol)*, Morissette performed a duet of her song "You Oughta Know" with Runner Up [Bowersox](Crystal)(Crystal Bowersox). Morissette left Maverick Records after all promotion for *Flavors* was completed.
### 2011–2016: *Havoc and Bright Lights* and *Jagged Little Pill* 20th anniversary
[[signing autographs for fans, 2011](File:Alaniss.jpg|thumb|225x225px|Morissette)]
On November 20, 2011, Morissette appeared at the [Music Awards](American)(American Music Awards). When asked about the new album during a short interview, she said she had recorded 31 songs, and that the album would "likely be out next year, probably [in] summertime". On December 21, 2011, Morissette performed a duet of "Uninvited" with finalist Josh Krajcik during the performance finale of the X-Factor.
Morissette embarked on a [tour](European)(Havoc and Bright Lights Tour) for the summer of 2012, according to Alanis.com. In early May 2012, a new song called "Magical Child" appeared on a [Starbucks](Starbucks) compilation called [Mother Counts](Every)(Every Mother Counts 2012 (album)).
On May 2, 2012, Morissette revealed through her Facebook account that her eighth studio album, entitled *[and Bright Lights](Havoc)(Havoc and Bright Lights)*, would be released in August 2012, on new label Collective Sounds, distributed by Sony's RED Distribution. On the same day, *Billboard* specified the date as August 28 and revealed the album would contain twelve tracks. The album's lead single, "Guardian", was released on iTunes on May 15, 2012, and hit the radio airwaves four days prior to this. The single had minor success in North America, charting the *Billboard* [Under Hot 100 Singles](Bubbling)(Bubbling Under Hot 100 Singles) in the US and almost reaching the top 40 in Canada. However, the song did become a hit in several countries in Europe. "Receive", the second single off the album, was released early December the same year.[[Morissette durante apresentação em 2013.jpg|thumb|Morissette performing at Espacio Movistar 8 in Barcelona, 2013.|263x263px|left](File:Alanis)]
On August 21, 2012, Morissette was inducted into the [Center](Guitar)(Guitar Center) RockWalk in Hollywood. Morissette received the [Spring Sing](UCLA)(UCLA Spring Sing)'s [and Ira Gershwin Award](George)(UCLA Spring Sing The George and Ira Gershwin Award) on May 16, 2014, at [Pavilion](Pauley)(Pauley Pavilion). On her website starting in the summer of 2014, in celebration of her fortieth birthday, the [record](LP)(LP record) for her song "Big Sur" was offered for sale, which was previously available on the [Target](Target Corporation) edition of her 2012 album, *[and Bright Lights](Havoc)(Havoc and Bright Lights)*. July 25, 2014, was the start of the ten-show [and Acoustic](Intimate)(Intimate and Acoustic) tour. In 2015, she was named to the [Music Hall of Fame](Canadian)(Canadian Music Hall of Fame).
In celebration of the twentieth anniversary of the release of *Jagged Little Pill*, a new four-disc collector's edition was released on October 30, 2015. The four-disc edition includes remastered audio of the original album as well as an entire disc of 10 unreleased demos from the era, handpicked by Morissette from her archives, offering a deeper and more personal look at the classic album. Also included is a previously unreleased concert from 1995 as well as 2005's *Jagged Little Pill Acoustic*.
### 2017–present: *Such Pretty Forks in the Road* and meditation album
While on tour in August 2017, Morissette teased a song which would become known as "I Miss The Band". On October 27, 2017, she premiered a new song entitled "Rest", which was released officially in May 2021, and performed "[of Glass](Castle)(Castle of Glass)" with members of the band [Doubt](No)(No Doubt) and [Shinoda](Mike)(Mike Shinoda) at the [Park and Friends – Celebrate Life in Honor of Chester Bennington](Linkin)(Linkin Park and Friends – Celebrate Life in Honor of Chester Bennington) memorial concert. In November 2017, she tweeted that she was writing 22 songs with [Farrell](Michael)(Michael Farrell (musician)).
On March 16, 2018, Morissette performed a new song called "Ablaze" during her 2018 tour. In October 2018, she revealed on social media that she had written 23 new songs,[Non-loginwalled link at bibliogram.pussthecat.org](https://bibliogram.pussthecat.org/p/Bop2F5eBuAN): and hinted at a new album with hashtag "#alanismorissettenewrecord2019", after a six-year hiatus. Song titles from the writing session include "Reckoning", "Diagnosis", "Her" and "Legacy". On May 5, 2018, *[Little Pill](Jagged)(Jagged Little Pill (musical))*, a [musical](jukebox)(jukebox musical) featuring Morissette's songs, premiered in Cambridge, Massachusetts, at the [Repertory Theater](American)(American Repertory Theater). Morissette contributed two new songs to the musical, "[Smiling](Smiling (Alanis Morissette song))" and "Predator". The musical transferred to [Broadway](Broadway theatre) in fall of 2019, starting previews on November 3 and opening on December 5 at the [Theatre](Broadhurst)(Broadhurst Theatre). The production received fifteen [Award](Tony)(Tony Award) nominations, the most of any production [season](that)(74th Tony Awards).
In June 2019, Morissette went into the studio in Los Angeles. According to an interview, she had written all the songs, and "Smiling" would be included on the new album, likely to be released early 2020. On August 8, 2019, she revealed that the new album was produced by [Hope](Alex)(Alex Hope (songwriter)) and [Marks](Catherine)(Catherine Marks). On December 1, 2019, Morissette announced her first studio album in eight years, *[Pretty Forks in the Road](Such)(Such Pretty Forks in the Road)*, set for release on May 1, 2020. The first single off the record, "[I Drink](Reasons)(Reasons I Drink)", was released on December 2, 2019.
Morissette was featured on [Halsey](Halsey (singer))'s song "Alanis' Interlude", released on January 17, 2020. On February 5, 2020, she revealed that her upcoming album was mixed by [Dugan](Chris)(Chris Dugan). The second single from the album, "Smiling", was released on February 20, 2020. On April 15, 2020, Morissette announced that the album's release would be postponed due to concerns over the [pandemic](COVID-19)(COVID-19 pandemic). Alanis Morissette|last=Morissette|first=Alanis|date=April 15, 2020|publisher=Facebook|access-date=August 18, 2020}} It was released on July 31, 2020.
Morissette was originally scheduled to embark on a world tour for 25th anniversary of *Jagged Little Pill* in June 2020 with [Garbage](Garbage (band)) and [Phair](Liz)(Liz Phair), both of whom already opened for Morissette in 1999 during [Tour](Junkie)(Junkie Tour). The latter cancelled her shows in North America and was replaced by [Power](Cat)(Cat Power) instead. Due to [COVID-19](COVID-19) pandemic, the tour was postponed to summer 2021. [Orton](Beth)(Beth Orton) announced that she will join to UK and Europe leg of the summer tour 2022. [Mann](Aimee)(Aimee Mann) was confirmed co-headlining some dates in June 2023 in the United States.
On May 18, 2022, Morissette premiered the new track *Safety-Empath in Paradise*. The new album of meditation music titled *[Storm Before the Calm](The)(The Storm Before the Calm)* was released on June 17, 2022.
On April 14, 2023, Morissette released new song *No Return*, which is cover version of the theme song of [(TV series)](Yellowjackets)(Yellowjackets (TV series)).
## Acting career
In 1986, Morissette had her first stint as an actress in five episodes of the children's television show ''[Can't Do That on Television](You)(You Can't Do That on Television)*. She appeared on stage with the [Musical Theatre Society](Orpheus)(Orpheus Musical Theatre Society) in 1985 and 1988.["Where Are They Now?"](http://www.orpheus-theatre.on.ca/members-only/alumni.html) . [Musical Theatre Society](Orpheus)(Orpheus Musical Theatre Society).
In 1999, Morissette delved into acting again, for the first time since 1993, appearing as God in the [Smith](Kevin)(Kevin Smith) comedy *[Dogma](Dogma (film))'' and contributing the song "Still" to its soundtrack. Morissette reprised her role as God for a [scene](post-credits)(post-credits scene) in Smith's next film, *[and Silent Bob Strike Back](Jay)(Jay and Silent Bob Strike Back)*, to literally close the book on the [Askewniverse](View)(View Askewniverse). She also appeared in the hit [HBO](Home Box Office) comedies *[and the City](Sex)(Sex and the City)* and *[Your Enthusiasm](Curb)(Curb Your Enthusiasm)*, appeared in the play *[Vagina Monologues](The)(The Vagina Monologues)*, and had brief cameos playing herself in the [Brazil](Brazil)ian hit soap operas *[Celebridade](Celebridade (telenovela))* and *[Malhação](Malhação)*.
In late 2003, Morissette appeared in the [Off-Broadway](Off-Broadway) play *[Exonerated](The)(The Exonerated (play))* as Sunny Jacobs, a [row](death)(death row) inmate freed after proof surfaced that she was innocent. In April 2006, [News](MTV)(MTV News) reported that Morissette would reprise her role in *The Exonerated* in London from May 23 until May 28.Staff. ["For The Record: Quick News On Nick Lachey, Mariah Carey, LL Cool J, Paris Hilton, Velvet Revolver & More"](http://www.mtv.com/news/articles/1529002/20060419/lachey_nick.jhtml) . [News](MTV)(MTV News). April 19, 2006.
She expanded her acting credentials with the July 2004 release of the [Porter](Cole)(Cole Porter) [film](biographical)(biographical film) *[De-Lovely](De-Lovely)*, in which she performed the song "[Do It (Let's Fall in Love)](Let's)(Let's Do It (Let's Fall in Love))" and had a brief role as an anonymous stage performer. In February 2005, she made a guest appearance on the Canadian television show *[The Next Generation](Degrassi:)(Degrassi: The Next Generation)* with *Dogma* co-star [Mewes](Jason)(Jason Mewes) and director Kevin Smith. Also in 2005, Morissette, then engaged to Ryan Reynolds, made a [appearance](cameo)(cameo appearance) as "herself" as a former client of Reynolds' character in the film *[Friends](Just)(Just Friends)*. This scene was deleted from the theatrical release, and is only available on the DVD.
In 2006, she guest-starred in an episode of [Lifetime](Lifetime Television)'s *[International](Lovespring)(Lovespring International)* as a homeless woman named Lucinda, three episodes of [FX](FX Networks)'s *[Nip/Tuck](Nip/Tuck)*, playing a lesbian named Poppy, and the [mockumentary](mockumentary)-documentary *[Pittsburgh](Pittsburgh (2006 film))* as herself.
Morissette appeared in eight episodes of *[Weeds](Weeds (TV series))*, playing Dr. Audra Kitson, a "no-nonsense obstetrician" who treats pregnant main character [Botwin](Nancy)(Nancy Botwin). Her first episode aired in July 2009.
In early 2010, Morissette returned to the stage, performing a one-night engagement in *[Oak Tree](An)(An Oak Tree)*, an experimental play in Los Angeles. The performance was a sell-out. In April 2010, Morissette was confirmed to be in the cast of season six of *[Weeds](Weeds (TV series))* season six again portraying Dr. Audra Kitson.
Morissette also starred in a film adaptation of [K. Dick](Philip)(Philip K. Dick)'s novel *[Free Albemuth](Radio)(Radio Free Albemuth (film))*. Morissette plays Sylvia, an ordinary woman in unexpected remission from [lymphoma](lymphoma). Morissette stated that she is "...a big fan of Philip K. Dick's poetic and expansively imaginative books" and that she "feel[s] blessed to portray Sylvia, and to be part of this story being told in film".
She appeared as Amanda, a former bandmate of main character Ava Alexander (played by [Rudolph](Maya)(Maya Rudolph)), in one episode of NBC's *[All Night](Up)(Up All Night (TV series))* on February 16, 2012. Rudolph officiated as minister for Morissette's wedding with both performing the explicit version of their hit hip hop song "Back It Up (Beep Beep)".
In 2014, Morissette played the role of Marisa Damia, the lover of architect and designer [Gray](Eileen)(Eileen Gray), in the film *The Price of Desire*, directed by [McGuckian](Mary)(Mary McGuckian).
In 2021, Morissette was featured as a recurring character on adult-animation show *[Great North](The)(The Great North)*.
## Other work
In October 2015, *Conversation with Alanis Morissette* features conversations with different individuals from different schools and walks of life discussing everything from psychology to art to spirituality to design to health and well-being, to relationships (whether they be romantic or colleagueship or parent with children relationships). The monthly podcast is currently available to download on [iTunes](iTunes) and free to listen to on [YouTube](YouTube).
In January 2016, she began a short-lived [column](advice)(advice column) in *[Guardian](The)(The Guardian)* newspaper.
In May 2018, the American Repertory Theater (Cambridge, Massachusetts) premiered *[Little Pill](Jagged)(Jagged Little Pill (musical)),* a musical with music by Morissette and Glen Ballard, lyrics by Morissette, book by [Cody](Diablo)(Diablo Cody), and directed by [Paulus](Diane)(Diane Paulus).
*[Jagged](Jagged (film))*, a documentary film about Morissette and *Jagged Little Pill* by filmmaker [Klayman](Alison)(Alison Klayman), premiered at the [Toronto International Film Festival](2021)(2021 Toronto International Film Festival) before airing on [HBO](HBO) as part of the *Music Box* series of documentary films about music history.Wade Sheridan, ["HBO explores careers of Alanis Morissette, DMX in new 'Music Box' teaser"](https://www.upi.com/Entertainment_News/TV/2021/07/27/HBO-Music-Box-Alanis-Morissette/2591627387852/) . [Press International](United)(United Press International), July 27, 2021.
## Personal life
Morissette was raised in a devout [Catholic](Roman)(Catholic Church) family in Canada. She became a [citizen](US)(United States nationality law) in 2005, while retaining her Canadian citizenship. Morissette has been a practising [Buddhist](Buddhism in the United States) for many years.
Throughout her teen years and 20s, Morissette had depression and various [disorder](eating)(eating disorder)s. She recovered from them and started to eat a healthier diet. In 2009, she ran a marathon promoting awareness for the [Eating Disorders Association](National)(National Eating Disorders Association).
In the 2021 documentary *Jagged*, Morissette said men committed [rape](statutory)(statutory rape) offenses against her when she was 15 years old.
Over seven years, Morissette's business manager Jonathan Schwartz stole over $5 million from her. He confessed to doing so in April 2017 and was sentenced to six years in prison.
On October 22, 2019, Morissette shared her nearly decade-long experience with [depression](postpartum)(postpartum depression) on *[This Morning](CBS)(CBS This Morning)*.
In 1996, Morissette bought a home in [Los Angeles](Brentwood,)(Brentwood, Los Angeles). She also had an apartment in Ottawa and a home in [Malibu](Malibu, California), the latter of which was partially destroyed in the [Fire](Woolsey)(Woolsey Fire). In 2019, she and her family moved to [California](Northern)(Northern California); she said in an interview with *[New York Times](The)(The New York Times)* that she was "finally done with living in Los Angeles".
### Relationships
Morissette dated actor and comedian [Coulier](Dave)(Dave Coulier) for a short time in the early 1990s. In a 2008 interview, Coulier said he was the ex-boyfriend who inspired Morissette's song "[Oughta Know](You)(You Oughta Know)"; in the 2021 documentary *[Jagged](Jagged (film))*, Morissette denied the song is about Coulier.
Morissette met Canadian actor [Reynolds](Ryan)(Ryan Reynolds) at [Barrymore](Drew)(Drew Barrymore)'s birthday party in 2002, and the couple began dating soon afterwards. They announced their engagement in June 2004. In February 2007, representatives for Morissette and Reynolds announced they had decided to end their engagement. Morissette has said that her album *[of Entanglement](Flavors)(Flavors of Entanglement)* was created out of her grief after the breakup, saying "it was cathartic."
On May 22, 2010, Morissette married rapper ["Souleye" Treadway](Mario)(Souleye (hip hop artist)) in a private ceremony at their Los Angeles home. The couple have three children: son Ever born in 2010; daughter Onyx born in 2016;
and another son, Winter, born in 2019.
## Discography
* *[Alanis](Alanis (album))* (1991)
* *[Is the Time](Now)(Now Is the Time)* (1992)
* *[Little Pill](Jagged)(Jagged Little Pill)* (1995)
* *[Former Infatuation Junkie](Supposed)(Supposed Former Infatuation Junkie)* (1998)
* *[Rug Swept](Under)(Under Rug Swept)* (2002)
* *[Chaos](So-Called)(So-Called Chaos)* (2004)
* *[of Entanglement](Flavors)(Flavors of Entanglement)* (2008)
* *[and Bright Lights](Havoc)(Havoc and Bright Lights)* (2012)
* *[Pretty Forks in the Road](Such)(Such Pretty Forks in the Road)* (2020)
* *[Storm Before the Calm](The)(The Storm Before the Calm)* (2022)
## Awards and nominations
## Filmography
### Film
### Television
### Stage
## Tours
**Opening act**
* To the Extreme Tour (1991) (opening act for [Ice](Vanilla)(Vanilla Ice))
* 1999 Summer Tour (1999) (opening act for [Matthews Band](Dave)(Dave Matthews Band)–Denver)
* [Bigger Bang Tour](A)(A Bigger Bang Tour) (2005) (opening act for [Rolling Stones](The)(The Rolling Stones))
**Headlining**
* Jagged Little Tour (1995)
* Intellectual Intercourse Tour (1995–96)
* Can't Not Tour (1996) featuring [Radiohead](Radiohead)
* Dhanyavad Tour (1998)
* [Tour](Junkie)(Junkie Tour) (1999) featuring [Garbage](Garbage (band)) and [Phair](Liz)(Liz Phair)
* One Tour (2000)
* Under Rug Swept Tour (2001)
* Toward Our Union Mended Tour (2002)
* All I Really Want Tour (2003)
* So-Called Chaos Tour (2004)
* Diamond Wink Tour (2005) featuring [Mraz](Jason)(Jason Mraz)
* Jagged Little Pill Acoustic Tour (2005)
* [of Entanglement Tour](Flavors)(Flavors of Entanglement Tour) (2008–09)
* [Angel Tour](Guardian)(Guardian Angel Tour) (2012)
* [and Acoustic](Intimate)(Intimate and Acoustic) (2014)
* World Tour (2018)
* 2021 World Tour: Celebrating 25 Years of Jagged Little Pill featuring [Garbage](Garbage (band)), [Power](Cat)(Cat Power) and [Orton](Beth)(Beth Orton) (2021–22)
**Co-headlining**
* [½ Weeks Tour](5)(5 ½ Weeks Tour) (1999) (with [Amos](Tori)(Tori Amos))
* [Naturale Tour](Au)(Au Naturale Tour) (2004) (with the [Ladies](Barenaked)(Barenaked Ladies))
* Exile in America Tour (2008) (with [Twenty](Matchbox)(Matchbox Twenty))
## See also
* [rock](Canadian)(Canadian rock)
* [of Canada](Music)(Music of Canada)
* [of diamond-certified albums in Canada](List)(List of diamond-certified albums in Canada)
* [of best-selling albums](List)(List of best-selling albums)
## References
## Further reading
* [Rock on the Net](http://www.rockonthenet.com/artists-m/alanismorissette_main.htm)
* [morissette|chart=all}} "Alanis Morissette – Artist Chart History"](). Allmusic. Retrieved August 23, 2006.
* *Rock Chicks:The Hottest Female Rockers from the 1960s to Now* by Stieven-Taylor, Alison (2007). Sydney. Rockpool Publishing.
## External links
*
*
*
}}
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|
Eazy-E
|
eazy-e
|
# Eazy-E
*Revision ID: 1158944090 | Timestamp: 2023-06-07T06:42:00Z*
---
| birth_place = [California](Compton,)(Compton, California), U.S.
| death_date =
| death_place = [Angeles](Los)(Los Angeles), [California](California), U.S.
| burial_place = [Hills Memorial Park](Rose)(Rose Hills Memorial Park)
| occupation =
| spouse =
| children = 11, including [Eazy-E](Lil)(Lil Eazy-E)
| module =
| years_active = 1987–1995
| label =
| associated_acts =
| past_member_of = [N.W.A](N.W.A)
}}
}}
**Eric Lynn Wright** (September 7, 1964 – March 26, 1995), known professionally as **Eazy-E**, was an American rapper who propelled [Coast rap](West)(West Coast rap) and [rap](gangsta)(gangsta rap) by leading the group [N.W.A](N.W.A) and its label, [Records](Ruthless)(Ruthless Records). He is often referred to as the "Godfather of Gangsta Rap".
Born and raised in [California](Compton,)(Compton, California), Wright had several legal troubles before founding Ruthless in 1987.Vladislav Lyubovny, interview with Lonzo Williams, ["Dre & Eazy were supposed to co-own Ruthless Records"](https://m.youtube.com/watch?v=_uDnU3QYKfs&t=21s), [*DJVlad*](DJ Vlad) @ YouTube, August 26, 2015. After a short solo career with frequent collaboration with [Cube](Ice)(Ice Cube) and [Dre](Dr.)(Dr. Dre), they joined, forming N.W.A, later that year. N.W.A's debut studio album, *[Outta Compton](Straight)(Straight Outta Compton)*, was released in 1988. Controversial upon release, it is now ranked among [greatest](the)(Rolling Stone's 500 Greatest Albums of All Time) and most influential albums ever. The group released its second and final studio album, *[Niggaz4Life](Niggaz4Life)*, in 1991, and soon after disbanded.
During N.W.A's splintering, largely by disputes over money, Eazy-E became embroiled in bitter rivalries with Ice Cube and Dr. Dre, who had departed for solo careers in 1989 and 1991, respectively. Resuming his solo career Eazy-E released two EPs,|website=Allmusic|year=2003|access-date= August 24, 2007}} yet he remained more significant behind the scenes, signing and nationally debuting the rap group [Thugs-N-Harmony](Bone)(Bone Thugs-N-Harmony) from 1993 to 1994.
## Early life and Ruthless Records investment
Eric Wright was born to Richard and Kathie Wright on September 7, 1964, in [California](Compton,)(Compton, California), a Los Angeles suburb once noted for high crime rates and gang culture.Hochman, Steve (March 28, 1995). ["Rap Star, Record Company Founder Eazy-E Dies of AIDS"](http://articles.latimes.com/1995-03-28/local/me-47828_1_islam-rap-star-nwa). *[Angeles Times](Los)(Los Angeles Times)*.["Hip-Hop News: Remembering Eric 'Eazy-E' Wright"](http://www.rapnews.net/0-202-261116-00.html) . Rap News Network. March 26, 2006 His father was a postal worker and his mother was a grade-school administrator. Wright dropped out of high school in the tenth grade, but later received a [equivalency diploma](general)(General Educational Development) (GED).Pareles, Jon (March 28, 1995). ["Eazy-E, 31, Performer Who Put Gangster Rap on the Charts"](https://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F60617FA345A0C7B8EDDAA0894DD494D81). *[New York Times](The)(The New York Times)*.
Wright supported himself mainly by selling drugs, and introduced his cousin to the illicit occupation. Wright's music manager [Heller](Jerry)(Jerry Heller) recalls seeing Wright selling [marijuana](marijuana), but not [cocaine](cocaine). Heller would claim that Wright's "dope dealer" label was part of his "self-forged armor". Wright was also labeled as a "thug". Heller explains: "The hood where he grew up was a dangerous place. He was a small guy. 'Thug' was a role that was widely understood on the street; it gave you a certain level of protection in the sense that people hesitated to fuck with you. Likewise, 'dope dealer' was a role that accorded you certain privileges and respect."
In 1986, at age 22, Wright had allegedly earned as much as US$250,000 from dealing drugs. However, after his cousin was shot and killed, he decided that he could make a better living in the Los Angeles hip hop scene, which was growing rapidly in popularity. He started recording songs during the mid-1980s in his parents' garage, thus starting Ruthless Records.
The original idea for Ruthless Records came when Wright asked Heller to go into business with him. Wright suggested a half-ownership company, but it was later decided that Wright would get eighty percent of the company's income and Heller would only get twenty percent. According to Heller, he told Wright, "Every dollar comes into Ruthless, I take twenty cents. That's industry standard for a manager of my caliber. I take twenty, you take eighty percent. I am responsible for my expenses and you're responsible for yours. You own the company. I work for you." Along with Heller, Wright invested much of his money into [Records](Ruthless)(Ruthless Records).Hunt, Dennis (October 22, 1989). ["Dr. Dre Joins an Illustrious Pack In the last year, producer has hit with albums for N.W.A, Eazy-E, J. J. Fad and the D.O.C."](https://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/latimes/access/66580588.html?dids=66580588:66580588&FMT=ABS&FMTS=ABS:FT&type=current&date=Oct+22%2C+1989&author=DENNIS+HUNT&pub=Los+Angeles+Times+(pre-1997+Fulltext)&desc=Dr.+Dre+Joins+an+Illustrious+Pack+In+the+last+year%2C+producer+has+hit+with+albums+for+N.W.A%2C+Eazy-E%2C+J.+J.+Fad+and+the+D.O.C.&pqatl=google) . *[Angeles Times](Los)(Los Angeles Times)*. Heller claims that he invested the first $250,000 and would eventually put up to $1,000,000 into the company.
## Musical career
### N.W.A and *Eazy-Duz-It* (1986–1991)
[N.W.A](N.W.A)'s (also named as "the world's most dangerous group") original lineup consisted of [Prince](Arabian)(Arabian Prince), Dr. Dre, Eazy-E, and Ice Cube. [Yella](DJ)(DJ Yella) and [Ren](MC)(MC Ren) joined later.|website=Allmusic|year=2000}} The [album](compilation)(compilation album) *[and the Posse](N.W.A.)(N.W.A. and the Posse)* was released on November 6, 1987, and would go on to be certified Gold in the United States.Koroma, Salima (September 29, 2008) ["Vh1 Airs Documentary On N.W.A."](http://www.hiphopdx.com/index/news/id.7795/title.vh1-airs-documentary-on-n-w-a) . Hiphopdx.com. The album featured material previously released as singles on the Macola Records label, which was responsible for distributing the releases by N.W.A and other artists like the [Fresh Crew](Fila)(Fila Fresh Crew), a [Coast rap](West)(West Coast hip hop) group originally based in [Dallas](Dallas), Texas.
Eazy-E's debut album, *[Eazy-Duz-It](Eazy-Duz-It)*, was released in 1988, and featured twelve tracks. It was labeled as West Coast hip hop, [rap](gangsta)(gangsta rap) and, later, as [age hip hop](golden)(golden age hip hop). It has sold over 2.5 million copies in the United States and reached number forty-one on the [200](*Billboard*)(Billboard 200). |title=Eazy-Duz-It – Eazy-E |magazine=Billboard |access-date=November 27, 2010}} The album was produced by Dr. Dre and DJ Yella and largely written by MC Ren, Ice Cube, and [D.O.C.](The)(The D.O.C.) Both Glen Boyd from the *[Post-Intelligencer](Seattle)(Seattle Post-Intelligencer)* and [MTV](MTV)'s Jon Wiederhorn claimed that *Eazy-Duz-It* "paved the way" for N.W.A's most controversial album, *[Outta Compton](Straight)(Straight Outta Compton)*.Boyd, Glen (March 20, 2010). ["Music Review: Eazy E - Eazy Duz It (Uncut Snoop Dogg Approved Edition/Remastered)"](http://www.seattlepi.com/pop/417146_129893-blogcritics.org.html). *[Post-Intelligencer](Seattle)(Seattle Post-Intelligencer)*Wiederhorn, Jon. (July 31, 2002). ["N.W.A Classics To Be Reissued With Bonus Tracks"](http://www.mtv.com/news/articles/1456383/nwa-classics-be-reissued.jhtml?headlines=true). [MTV](MTV). Wright's only solo in the album was a remix of the song "8 Ball", which originally appeared on *N.W.A. and the Posse*. The album featured Wright's writing and performing; he performed on seven songs and helped write four songs.
Ice Cube left N.W.A in 1989 because of internal disputes and the group continued as a four-piece ensemble. N.W.A released ''[Miles and Runnin'](100)(100 Miles and Runnin')* in 1990 and *[Niggaz4Life](Niggaz4Life)'' in 1991. A diss war started between N.W.A and Ice Cube when "100 Miles and Runnin'" and "Real Niggaz" were released. Ice Cube responded with "[Vaseline](No)(No Vaseline)" on *[Certificate](Death)(Death Certificate (album))*. Wright performed on seven of the eighteen songs on *Niggaz4Life*. In March 1991, Wright accepted an invitation to a lunch benefiting the Republican Senatorial Inner Circle, hosted by then-U.S. President [H. W. Bush](George)(George H. W. Bush). A spokesman for the rapper said that Eazy-E supported Bush because of his performance in the [War](Gulf)(Gulf War).
### End of N.W.A and feud with Dr. Dre (1991–1994)
N.W.A began to split up after Jerry Heller became the band's manager. Dr. Dre recalls, "The split came when Jerry Heller got involved. He played the divide and conquer game. Instead of taking care of everybody, he picked one nigga to take care of and that was Eazy. And Eazy was like, 'I'm taken care of, so fuck it'." Dr. Dre and The D.O.C. sent [Knight](Suge)(Suge Knight) to look into Eazy-E's financial situation as they began to grow suspicious of Eazy-E and Jerry Heller. Dr. Dre and The D.O.C. asked Eazy-E to release them from Ruthless, but Eazy-E refused. The impasse led to what reportedly transpired between Suge Knight and Eazy-E at the recording studio where *Niggaz4life* was recorded. After he refused to release Dr. Dre and The D.O.C., Suge Knight told Eazy-E that he had kidnapped Jerry Heller and was holding him prisoner in a van. This did not convince Eazy-E to release Dr. Dre and The D.O.C. from Ruthless, and Suge Knight threatened Eazy-E's family: Suge Knight gave Eazy-E a piece of paper that contained Eazy's mother's address, telling him, "I know where your mama stays." Eazy-E finally signed Dr. Dre and The D.O.C.'s releases, officially ending N.W.A.
In 1993, Eazy E regularly attended court in the prosecution of the officers involved in the [of Rodney King](beating)(beating of Rodney King), often standing alongside Theodore J. Briseno, who he had met through sharing the same lawyer. Eazy E said, "The difference is that most people look at the video and say four white officers were responsible for the beating of this helpless, innocent black man. I say, 'Wrong.' Three white officers were responsible for beating Rodney King. The other officer (Theodore J. Briseno) happens to be Mexican-American, and he tried to stop them." This caused controversy in the hip-hop community, with [D](Willie)(Willie D) calling Eazy E a "sellout".
The feud with Dr. Dre continued after a track on Dre's debut album *[Chronic](The)(The Chronic)*, "[wit Dre Day (And Everybody's Celebratin')](Fuck)(Fuck wit Dre Day (And Everybody's Celebratin'))", contained lyrics that insulted Eazy-E. Eazy responded with the [EP](Extended play), ''[On (Dr. Dre) 187um Killa](It's)(It's On (Dr. Dre) 187um Killa)'', featuring the tracks "[Muthaphuckkin G's](Real)(Real Muthaphuckkin G's)" and "It's On". The album, which was released on October 25, 1993, contains pictures of Dre wearing "lacy outfits and makeup" when he was a member of the Electro-hop [Class Wreckin' Cru](World)(World Class Wreckin' Cru).
## Personal life
Wright had a son, Eric Darnell Wright (known as [Eazy-E](Lil)(Lil Eazy-E)), in 1984. He also had a daughter named Erin,["Eazy-E's daughter pays photo tribute, says father due more respect"](http://latimesblogs.latimes.com/music_blog/2012/03/eazy-e-daughter-eb-photos-legacy.html) Retrieved August 29, 2015. who changed her name to Ebie.["A lot of people remember "Erin" from TV but my family has called me "E.B." (my initials) since birth."](https://www.instagram.com/p/_fVHUfLbHs/) Retrieved February 9, 2016. In October 2016, Ebie launched a crowd-funding campaign to produce a film called *Ruthless Scandal: No More Lies* to investigate her father's death. It ended unsuccessfully in December 2016.
Wright met Tomica Woods at a Los Angeles nightclub in 1991 and they married in 1995, twelve days before his death.["Woods-Wright, Tomica"](http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1G2-3494000085.html) Retrieved August 27, 2015. They had a son named Dominick and a daughter named Daijah (born six months after Wright's death).["6 Months After Aids Kills Rapper, His Baby Is Born"](https://www.deseret.com/1995/9/28/19195368/6-months-after-aids-kills-rapper-his-baby-is-born) Retrieved August 29, 2015. After Wright's death, Ruthless was taken over by his wife. According to Jerry Heller, Wright had eleven children with eight women.
### Illness and death
}}
On February 24, 1995, Wright was admitted to the [Medical Center](Cedars-Sinai)(Cedars-Sinai Medical Center) in Los Angeles with a violent cough. He was diagnosed with [HIV/AIDS](HIV/AIDS). He announced his illness in a public statement on March 16, 1995. It is believed Wright contracted the infection from a sexual partner.
During the week of March 20, having already made amends with [Cube](Ice)(Ice Cube), he drafted a final message to his fans. On March 26, 1995, Eazy-E died from AIDS-induced [pneumonia](pneumonia), one month after his diagnosis. He was 30 years old (most reports at the time said he was 31 due to the falsification of his date of birth by one year). He was buried on April 7, 1995, at [Hills Memorial Park](Rose)(Rose Hills Memorial Park) in [California](Whittier,)(Whittier, California). Over 3,000 people attended his funeral, including Heller and DJ Yella. He was buried in a gold casket, and was dressed in a flannel shirt, jeans, and his Compton hat. His final album, *[off tha Streetz of Muthaphukkin Compton](Str8)(Str8 off tha Streetz of Muthaphukkin Compton),* was released ten months after his death on January 30, 1996.
## Musical influences and style
[[logo.svg|thumb|Logo used by Eazy-E](File:Eazy-E)]
Allmusic cites Eazy-E's influences as [Ice-T](Ice-T), [Foxx](Redd)(Redd Foxx), [Tee](King)(King Tee), [Collins](Bootsy)(Bootsy Collins), [Run–D.M.C.](Run–D.M.C.), [Pryor](Richard)(Richard Pryor), [Lover](Egyptian)(Egyptian Lover), [D](Schoolly)(Schoolly D), [$hort](Too)(Too $hort), [Prince](Prince (musician)), [Sugarhill Gang](the)(the Sugarhill Gang), and [Clinton](George)(George Clinton (funk musician)). In the documentary *The Life and Timez of Eric Wright*, Eazy-E mentions collaborating with many of his influences.
When reviewing *Str8 off tha Streetz of Muthaphukkin Compton*, [Thomas Erlewine](Stephen)(Stephen Thomas Erlewine) noted "... Eazy-E sounds revitalized, but the music simply isn't imaginative. Instead of pushing forward and creating a distinctive style, it treads over familiar gangsta territory, complete with bottomless bass, whining synthesizers, and meaningless boasts." |title=Str8 Off tha Streetz of Muthaphu**in Compton – Eazy-E |website=Allmusic |access-date=November 27, 2010}} When reviewing *Eazy-Duz-It*, Jason Birchmeier of Allmusic said, "In terms of production, Dr. Dre and Yella meld together P-Funk, Def Jam-style hip-hop and the leftover electro sounds of mid-'80s Los Angeles, creating a dense, funky, and thoroughly unique style of their own." Birchmeier described Eazy-E's style as "dense, unique and funky", and said that it sounded "absolutely revolutionary in 1988". |title=Eazy-E |website=Allmusic |access-date=November 27, 2010}}
Several members of N.W.A wrote lyrics for *Eazy-Duz-It*: Ice Cube, The D.O.C. and MC Ren. The EP *[Home 4 tha Sick](5150:)(5150: Home 4 tha Sick)* features a song written by [by Nature](Naughty)(Naughty by Nature). The track "Merry Muthaphuckkin' Xmas" features [Menajahtwa](Menajahtwa), Buckwheat, and [Klann](Atban)(Atban Klann) as guest vocalists, and "Neighborhood Sniper" features [Kokane](Kokane) as a guest vocalist. ''It's On (Dr. Dre) 187um Killa'' features several guest vocalists, including [Dresta](Gangsta)(Dresta), [Knocc Out](B.G.)(B.G. Knocc Out). Kokane, [187um](Cold)(Cold 187um), Rhythum D, and [Red](Dirty)(Dirty Red). *Str8 off tha Streetz of Muthaphukkin Compton* featured several guest vocalists, including B.G. Knocc Out, Gangsta Dresta, [Fyne](Sylk-E.)(Sylk-E. Fyne), Dirty Red, Menajahtwa, Roger Troutman, and ex-N.W.A members MC Ren and DJ Yella.
### Legacy
[[File:Memorial Eazy-E made by streetartist LJvanT @ Leeuwarden the Netherlands.jpg|thumb|280px|Graffiti of Eazy-E in [Leeuwarden](Leeuwarden), Netherlands]]
Eazy-E has been called the "godfather of gangsta rap".Shaheem, Reid (March 26, 2010). ["Lil Eazy-E Remembers His Dad, 15 Years Later"](http://www.mtv.com/news/articles/1634863/20100326/nwa.jhtml). MTV. MTV's Reid Shaheem said that Eazy was a "rap-pioneer", and he is sometimes cited by critics as a legend.Davis, Todd. ["Lil Eazy-E: Son of a Legend"](http://www.hiphopdx.com/index/interviews/id.503/title.lil-eazy-e-son-of-a-legend) . Hiphopdx.com. December 9, 2005.["About the Official Hip Hop Hall Of Fame and Producer JT Thompson"](http://www.live-pr.com/en/hip-hop-hall-of-fame-awards-r1048616226.htm). Live-PR.com. November 16, 2010. Steve Huey of [AllMusic](AllMusic) said that he was "one of the most controversial figures in gangsta rap". Since his 1995 death, many book and video biographies have been produced, including 2002's *The Day Eazy-E Died* and *Dead and Gone*.
When Eazy was diagnosed with AIDS, many magazines like *[Jet](Jet (magazine))*, *[Vibe](Vibe (magazine))*, *Billboard*, *[Crisis](The)(The Crisis (newspaper))*, and *[Newsweek](Newsweek)* covered the story and released information on the topic. All of his studio albums and EPs charted on the *Billboard* 200, |title=Eazy-E |website=Allmusic |access-date=November 28, 2010}} |title=Eazy-E |website=Allmusic |access-date=November 28, 2010}} |title=Eazy-E |website=Allmusic |access-date=November 28, 2010}} and many of his singles—"[Eazy-Duz-It](Eazy-Duz-It (song))", "[Want Eazy](We)(We Want Eazy)", "Real Muthaphuckkin G's", and "[tah Let U Know](Just)(Just tah Let U Know)"—also charted in the U.S. |title=Eazy-E |website=Allmusic |access-date=November 28, 2010}}
In 2012 an Eazy-E documentary was released by Ruthless Propaganda, called *Ruthless Memories*. The documentary featured interviews with Heller, MC Ren, and B.G. Knocc Out.
In the 2015 film *[Outta Compton](Straight)(Straight Outta Compton (film))*, Eazy-E is played by [Mitchell](Jason)(Jason Mitchell) and the film is dedicated in his memory.
Eazy-E was then portrayed by Omari Wallace in the 2016 film ''[Compton: Dre, Suge & Michel'le](Surviving)(Surviving Compton: Dre, Suge & Michel'le)''. The film portrays Eazy-E sympathetically as having been a friend to [Michel'le](Michel'le), in one scene warning her to get out of the house because he fears that a drunken [Dre](Dr.)(Dr. Dre) is returning home to beat her.
## Discography
### Studio albums
* *[Eazy-Duz-It](Eazy-Duz-It)* (1988)
* *[off tha Streetz of Muthaphukkin Compton](Str8)(Str8 off tha Streetz of Muthaphukkin Compton)* (1996)
### Extended plays
* *[Home 4 tha Sick](5150:)(5150: Home 4 tha Sick)* (1992)
* ''[On (Dr. Dre) 187um Killa](It's)(It's On (Dr. Dre) 187um Killa)* (1993)
* *[of a Legend](Impact)(Impact of a Legend)* (2002)
### with N.W.A
* *[and the Posse](N.W.A.)(N.W.A. and the Posse)* (1987)
* *[Outta Compton](Straight)(Straight Outta Compton)* (1988)
* *[Miles and Runnin'](100)(100 Miles and Runnin')* (1990)
* *[Niggaz4Life](Niggaz4Life)'' (1991)
## References
## Literature
*
## External links
*
* [FBI file on Eazy-E](http://vault.fbi.gov/eric-wright-easy-e-ez-e/eric-wright-easy-e-ez-e)
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Song Hye-kyo
|
song_hye-kyo
|
# Song Hye-kyo
*Revision ID: 1158312501 | Timestamp: 2023-06-03T08:20:00Z*
---
| image = Song Hye-kyo 송혜교 2022.jpg
| caption = Song in 2022
| birth_name =
| birth_date =
| birth_place = [Daegu](Daegu), South Korea
| education = [University](Sejong)(Sejong University) ([BFA](Bachelor of Fine Arts))
| occupation = Actress
| years_active = 1996–present
| agent = }}
| spouse =
| partner =
| website =
| module =
| hanja = }}
| rr = Song Hye-gyo
| mr = Song Hyekyo
}}
}}
**Song Hye-kyo** (; born November 22, 1981) is a South Korean actress. She gained international popularity through her leading roles in the [drama](television)(Korean drama)s *[in My Heart](Autumn)(Autumn in My Heart)* (2000), *[In](All)(All In (TV series))* (2003), *[House](Full)(Full House (2004 TV series))* (2004), *[Winter, the Wind Blows](That)(That Winter, the Wind Blows)* (2013), *[of the Sun](Descendants)(Descendants of the Sun)* (2016), *[Encounter](Encounter (South Korean TV series))* (2018) and *[Glory](The)(The Glory (TV series))* (2022). Her film work includes *[Jin Yi](Hwang)(Hwang Jin Yi (film))* (2007), *[Grandmaster](The)(The Grandmaster (film))* (2013), *[Brilliant Life](My)(My Brilliant Life)* (2014), and *[Queens](The)(The Queens (film))* (2015).
In 2017, Song Hye-kyo ranked 7th in *[Forbes](Forbes)* magazine's [Power Celebrity](Korea)(Forbes Korea Power Celebrity) list, and 6th in 2018. She is referred to as one of "The Troika," along with [Tae-hee](Kim)(Kim Tae-hee) and [Ji-hyun](Jun)(Jun Ji-hyun), collectively known by the [word](blend)(acronym) "Tae-Hye-Ji".
The success of Song's television dramas internationally established her as a top [Hallyu](Hallyu) star.
## Early life and education
When Song was born, she was so ill that her parents and doctors thought that she would not survive. Upon her recovery, Song's parents registered her birth on February 26, 1982 (instead of her actual birthdate, November 22, 1981).
Song's parents divorced when she was a young girl, after which she was raised by her mother. They moved from her birthplace in [Daegu](Daegu) to the [District](Gangnam)(Gangnam District) in [Seoul](Seoul), where she trained as a [skater](figure)(figure skater) in elementary school but quit when she was in the eighth grade. Song considered herself shy and introverted, but when she attended [Girls' High School](Ewha)(Ewha Girls' High School) she was described by her high school teacher as having a "cheerful character, she mixed well with her friends and was always in a bright mood."I [History Attests to Korean Stars' All-Natural Looks](http://english.chosun.com/site/data/html_dir/2006/06/06/2006060661005.html). *[Chosun Ilbo](The)(The Chosun Ilbo)*. June 6, 2006. Song Hye-kyo attended [University](Sejong)(Sejong University), where she majored in Film Arts.
## Career
### 1996–2004: Debut, breakthrough, and international fame
In 1996, the fourteen-year-old Song, then a third-year junior high school student, won first place in the [SunKyung](SK Group) Smart Model Contest, and made her entertainment debut as a model for the [uniform](school)(school uniform) company. This led to her being cast in a small role in her first [drama](television)(Korean drama), *[Love](First)(First Love (1996 TV series))*. She would continue to appear in a string of dramas and sitcoms, most notably *Soonpoong Clinic*. But it was not until the [KBS](Korean Broadcasting System) drama *[in My Heart](Autumn)(Autumn in My Heart)* in 2000 with [Seung-heon](Song)(Song Seung-heon) and [Bin](Won)(Won Bin) that she rose to fame in Korea and throughout Asia. The romantic melodrama series was a ratings success, pioneering a trend in Korean melodramatic series and launching a trend that is commonly referred to as the "Korean Wave" and leading to Song becoming a [Hallyu](Hallyu) star.
In 2003, her popularity continued to climb as she played a leading role alongside [Byung-hun](Lee)(Lee Byung-hun) in the gambling drama *[In](All)(All In (TV series))*, which drew solid viewership ratings nationwide throughout its run with a peak viewer rating of 47.7 percent. The following year, she co-starred with singer [Rain](Rain (entertainer)) in the hit romantic comedy series *[House](Full)(Full House (2004 TV series))*. The drama achieved pan-Asian success and established Song as one of the best-known Korean actresses in Asia.
### 2005–2012: Film debut and overseas ventures
Early 2005, Song went to San Francisco to study English, and later traveled to [Seattle](Seattle). She took time off to recharge herself after the successful Asia drama *[House](Full)(Full House (South Korean TV series))*. "I have had a good rest. It was a good opportunity to reflect on myself," said Song. Song returned to Korea on March 5, 2005.[Song Hye-gyo to Resume Acting Soon](http://english.kbs.co.kr/hallyu/entertainment_news_view.html?No=401) . *KBS Global*. March 7, 2005. The same year, Song made her big-screen debut in *[Girl and I](My)(My Girl and I)* (a Korean [remake](remake) of *[Out Love in the Center of the World](Crying)(Crying Out Love in the Center of the World)*), which was panned by audiences and critics alike. Vocal about her dissatisfaction with [typecasting](typecasting (acting)) in the roles she was being offered,[A Giant Leap for Song Hye-kyo?](http://english.chosun.com/site/data/html_dir/2005/12/22/2005122261017.html). *[Chosun Ilbo](The)(The Chosun Ilbo)*. December 22, 2005. Song proved in the following year that she could play different roles.
[[Hye-kyo in Oct 2008 (2).jpg|thumb|upright|In October 2008](File:Song)]
She returned to the big screen in 2007 as the titular [gisaeng](gisaeng) in the [adaptation](film)(film adaptation) of *[Jin Yi](Hwang)(Hwang Jin Yi (film))*.[Song Hye-kyo Sheds Cute Image for Gisaeng Role](http://english.chosun.com/site/data/html_dir/2007/03/27/2007032761009.html). *[Chosun Ilbo](The)(The Chosun Ilbo)*. March 27, 2007.[Song Hye-kyo, "Hwangjini only held one man in her heart"](http://www.hancinema.net/korean-movie-news_9714.php). *Broasia via [Hancinema](Hancinema)*. June 1, 2007. Because they found Song's image "too cute," [Ji-hyun](Jun)(Jun Ji-hyun) and [Ae](Soo)(Soo Ae) were the producers' original choices for the role, but Song went on a rigorous diet and surprised them with her will and desire to be [Jini](Hwang)(Hwang Jini).[New Song picked for *Hwang Jin Yi*](http://koreajoongangdaily.joins.com/news/article/article.aspx?aid=2874532). *[JoongAng Daily](Korea)(Korea JoongAng Daily)*. April 17, 2007. A year later, she made her American debut in the Hollywood [indie](independent film) *Make Yourself at Home* (formerly titled *Fetish*), a psychological thriller about a girl who was born to a [shaman](Korean shamanism) mother and tries to flee her fate by becoming an immigrant bride in the US.[Song Hye-kyo Poised for U.S. Debut](http://english.chosun.com/site/data/html_dir/2007/11/22/2007112261013.html). *[Chosun Ilbo](The)(The Chosun Ilbo)*. November 22, 2007.[Song Hye-kyo Reveals a Dark Side in New Movie](http://english.chosun.com/site/data/html_dir/2010/11/23/2010112300402.html). *[Chosun Ilbo](The)(The Chosun Ilbo)*. November 23, 2010. Despite Song's attempts to challenge herself, both films underwhelmed the box office.[Jeon Ji-hyun Takes a Big-Screen Gamble](http://english.chosun.com/site/data/html_dir/2008/01/25/2008012561012.html). *[Chosun Ilbo](The)(The Chosun Ilbo)*. January 25, 2008.
She made her TV comeback in late 2008 with *[World That They Live In](The)(The World That They Live In)* (also known as *Worlds Within*), a series set at a broadcast station in which Song and [Bin](Hyun)(Hyun Bin) played drama [PD](television director)s who work together and fall in love.[Song Hye-go, Hyun Bin Star in New KBS Drama Series](http://english.kbs.co.kr/hallyu/entertainment_news_view.html?No=94) . *KBS Global*. October 28, 2008.[Song Hye-kyo Goes Behind the Scenes in New Drama](http://english.chosun.com/site/data/html_dir/2008/10/25/2008102561001.html). *[Chosun Ilbo](The)(The Chosun Ilbo)*. October 25, 2008.
In 2010, she starred in *Camellia*, an [film](omnibus)(anthology film) made up of three short films directed by three Asian directors. Each episode is set in the past, present, and future of the city of [Busan](Busan). In the film's final segment, *Love for Sale*, Song and [Dong-won](Kang)(Kang Dong-won) played former lovers who forget their memories about each other, which later leads them to a fatal destiny.[Gang Dong-won, Song Hye-kyo start filming *Love*](http://www.asiae.co.kr/news/view.htm?sec=ent5&idxno=2010012011581483119). *10Asia*. January 20, 2010.
Considered one of Korea's most beautiful women,[Fans of Snubbed Beauties up in Arms](http://english.chosun.com/site/data/html_dir/2005/04/06/2005040661023.html). *[Chosun Ilbo](The)(The Chosun Ilbo)*. April 6, 2005. in early 2011 Song released the photo-book ''Song Hye-kyo's Moment,'' which was shot by top photographers in [Atlanta](Atlanta), New York City, [Aires](Buenos)(Buenos Aires), [Patagonia](Patagonia), Paris, the [Netherlands](Netherlands) and [Brazil](Brazil). Proceeds from the sales of the photo book was donated to a children's foundation.[Song Hye-kyo Returns to Spotlight with Photobook](http://english.chosun.com/site/data/html_dir/2011/01/28/2011012800326.html). *[Chosun Ilbo](The)(The Chosun Ilbo)*. January 28, 2011.[Glam picture book](http://joongangdaily.joins.com/article/view.asp?aid=2931657). *[JoongAng Daily](Korea)(Korea JoongAng Daily)*. January 31, 2011.[Actress’ limited-edition photo essay selling fast](http://joongangdaily.joins.com/article/view.asp?aid=2931982). *[JoongAng Daily](Korea)(Korea JoongAng Daily)*. February 10, 2011.
Song next played a documentary filmmaker who finds the strength to forgive the seventeen-year-old boy who killed her fiancé but instead of redemption finds only greater tragedy in *[Reason to Live](A)(A Reason to Live (2011 film))* (Korean title: *Today*), which after several delays was released in October 2011.[Song Hye-kyo's new film to open in theaters next month](http://www.asiae.co.kr/news/view.htm?idxno=2011090609375587977). *10Asia*. September 6, 2011. Song was a huge fan of director Lee Jeong-hyang and had actively sought her out,[In new film, director puts spotlight back on women](http://koreajoongangdaily.joins.com/news/article/Article.aspx?aid=2942454). *[JoongAng Daily](Korea)(Korea JoongAng Daily)*. October 7, 2011. and though she had difficulty getting into character,[Song Hye-kyo says was difficult getting into character for new movie](http://www.asiae.co.kr/news/view.htm?idxno=2011092614071877704). *10Asia*. September 26, 2011. Song said she fell in love with the script[Song Hye Kyo: 'It Is My Honor To Be Compared to Actress Shim Eun Ha'](http://english.kbs.co.kr/hallyu/entertainment_news_view.html?No=7926) . *KBS Global*. September 27, 2011.[Song stars as grieving documentary maker](http://www.koreaherald.com/national/Detail.jsp?newsMLId=20110926000689). *[Korea Herald](The)(The Korea Herald)*. September 27, 2011. and felt her acting had matured.[Song Hye-kyo Returns with New Movie](http://english.chosun.com/site/data/html_dir/2011/10/22/2011102200333.html). *[Chosun Ilbo](The)(The Chosun Ilbo)*. October 22, 2011. She considers the film "a turning point" in her life.[Song Hye-kyo finishes shooting upcoming drama flick](http://www.asiae.co.kr/news/view.htm?sec=ent5&idxno=2011032310305483651). *10Asia*. March 23, 2011.[Song Hye-kyo: I will not think lightly about forgiveness anymore](http://www.asiae.co.kr/news/view.htm?idxno=2011100820351727540). *10Asia*. October 8, 2011.[Interview: Actress Song Hye-kyo – Part 1](http://www.asiae.co.kr/news/view.htm?idxno=2011110314032286095). *10Asia*. November 3, 2011.[Interview: Actress Song Hye-kyo – Part 2](http://www.asiae.co.kr/news/view.htm?idxno=2011110316453991982). *10Asia*. November 3, 2011.
In 2011, she became the first Asian actress to sign a contract with French global agency Effigies, paving the way for her possible entry into the European market. She released a [photo-essay](photo-essay) book in 2012 titled ''It's Time for Hye-kyo*.
Song next played a supporting role in *[Grandmaster](The)(The Grandmaster (film))'', Chinese director [Kar-wai](Wong)(Wong Kar-wai)'s biographical film about [Lee](Bruce)(Bruce Lee)'s kung fu master [Man](Ip)(Ip Man), for which she learned [Cantonese](Cantonese) and martial arts.[Song Hye-kyo to appear in Wong Kar-wai biopic](http://www.asiae.co.kr/news/view.htm?idxno=2009122114114810044). *10Asia*. December 21, 2009.[Song Hye-kyo to Star in Wong Kar Wai Film](http://english.chosun.com/site/data/html_dir/2009/12/24/2009122400271.html). *[Chosun Ilbo](The)(The Chosun Ilbo)*. December 24, 2009. She later admitted there had been "a bit of friction and misunderstanding" with Wong while filming, but that the difficulties helped her mature.
### 2013–present: Career resurgence
Song reunited with the [writer](Noh Hee-kyung) and director of *Worlds Within* in *[Winter, the Wind Blows](That)(That Winter, the Wind Blows)*, a 2013 remake of 2002 [drama](Japanese)(Japanese television drama) *Ai Nante Irane Yo, Natsu* ("I Don't Need Love, Summer"). She played a blind heiress in the melodrama, opposite a con man pretending to be her long-lost brother (played by [In-sung](Jo)(Jo In-sung)). *That Winter, the Wind Blows* placed number one in its time slot during most of its run, and Song and Jo were praised for their performances. Song won the Daesang (or "Grand Prize"), the highest award for television, at the 2nd [Star Awards](APAN)(APAN Star Awards).
In 2014, Song reunited with Kang Dong-won in *[Brilliant Life](My)(My Brilliant Life)*, [J-yong](E)(E J-yong)'s film adaptation of [Aeran](Kim)(Kim Aeran)'s bestselling novel *My Palpitating Life* about a couple who watched their son suffering from [progeria](progeria) grow prematurely old.
The romantic epic *[Crossing](The)(The Crossing (2014 film))* was Song's second Chinese film to be released. It was directed by [Woo](John)(John Woo) (Woo's longtime friend and producer [Chang](Terence)(Terence Chang) has been managing Song's overseas activities since 2008). Previously titled *1949* and *Love and Let Love*, the long-gestating project had originally been announced at the [Film Festival](Cannes)(Cannes Film Festival) in 2008,[Song Hye-kyo "I got to do a movie like a first love"](http://www.hancinema.net/interview-song-hye-kyo-i-got-to-do-a-movie-like-a-first-love-13869.html). [Hancinema](Hancinema). May 22, 2008.[Song Hye-kyo to Star in New John Woo Movie](http://www.koreatimes.co.kr/www/news/special/2008/05/178_24519.html). *[Korea Times](The)(The Korea Times)*. May 21, 2008.[Song Hye-kyo Stars in John Woo Film](http://english.kbs.co.kr/hallyu/entertainment_news_view.html?No=1150). *KBS Global*. May 23, 2008. then cancelled in 2009,[New John Woo film canceled](http://joongangdaily.joins.com/article/view.asp?aid=2903055). *[JoongAng Daily](Korea)(Korea JoongAng Daily)*. April 3, 2009. and revived again in 2011.[Song Hye-kyo to star in Woo's film](http://view.koreaherald.com/kh/view.php?ud=20111220000746). *[Korea Herald](The)(The Korea Herald)*. December 20, 2011.[Song Hye Kyo Cast as Protagonist in Director John Woo's New Movie](http://english.kbs.co.kr/hallyu/entertainment_news_view.html?No=8020). *KBS Global*. December 21, 2011. Woo's recovery from tonsil tumor removal in 2012 led to another delay due to scheduling conflicts among the cast,[John Woo denies throat cancer](http://www.china.org.cn/arts/2012-05/27/content_25488642.htm). *China.org.cn*. May 27, 2012. and Song finally began filming in June 2013. *The Crossing* is based on the true story of the [steamer collision](*Taiping*)(Taiping (steamer)). It follows six characters' intertwining love stories in Taiwan and Shanghai during the 1930s. Song played the daughter of a wealthy banker.
Another Chinese film followed in 2015, *[Queens](The)(The Queens (film))*, a contemporary romantic comedy about three cosmopolitan women – an actress, a PR specialist, and a gallery manager – who manipulate friends and put down their enemies as they play the game of love. Also starring [Chen](Joe)(Joe Chen) and [Wu](Vivian)(Vivian Wu), it was actress [Yi](Annie)(Annie Yi)'s directorial debut.
In 2016, Song starred in the mega-hit romantic comedy series *[of the Sun](Descendants)(Descendants of the Sun)*, an intense drama about an army captain (played by [Joong-ki](Song)(Song Joong-ki)) and a surgeon who fall in love while working in disaster-torn areas. The drama was incredibly popular in Korea with a peak viewership rating of 41.6% and in Asia, where it was viewed 2.5 billion times on [iQiyi](iQiyi). The popularity of the drama reestablished Song as a leader of the [Hallyu](Hallyu). She topped popularity polls in Asia and was noted for her immense brand recognition in South Korea. Song won Daesang (Grand Prize), the highest award at the 2016 [Drama Awards](KBS)(KBS Drama Awards) along with her co-star, Song Joong-ki.
After a two-year hiatus, she returned in the small screen with romantic-melodrama *[Encounter](Encounter (South Korean TV series))* alongside [Bo-gum](Park)(Park Bo-gum). In 2021, Song starred in [SBS](Seoul Broadcasting System) romantic drama *[We Are Breaking Up](Now,)(Now, We Are Breaking Up)*, playing a team leader of design department of a fashion company.
In 2022, Song reunited with *[of the Sun](Descendants)(Descendants of the Sun)* writer [Eun-sook](Kim)(Kim Eun-sook) in the [Netflix](Netflix) series *[Glory](The)(The Glory (TV series))*. The series was well received by the audience and Song's portrayal of Moon Dong-eun, a victim of brutal high school bullying who dedicates her adulthood to plot revenge against perpetrators, was met with praise by the critics. For her performance in the series, Song won [Actress – Television](Best)(Baeksang Arts Award for Best Actress – Television) at the [Baeksang Arts Awards](59th)(59th Baeksang Arts Awards).
## Personal life
### Marriage
[[드라맥스 ID영상 - 송중기&송혜교.jpg|thumb|Song Joong-ki and Song Hye-kyo](File:"태양의후예")]
On July 5, 2017, Song and *[of the Sun](Descendants)(Descendants of the Sun)* co-star [Joong-ki](Song)(Song Joong-ki) announced through their respective agencies that they were engaged. They married in a private ceremony on October 31, 2017, at Youngbingwan, [Shilla](Hotel)(Hotel Shilla) in [Seoul](Seoul), amid intense media interest across [Asia](Asia). The ceremony was attended by the couple's closest family and friends, including actors [Kwang-soo](Lee)(Lee Kwang-soo), [Ah-in](Yoo)(Yoo Ah-in), and [Bo-gum](Park)(Park Bo-gum), who also played the [piano](piano) at the reception.
On June 27, 2019, Song Joong-ki revealed that he had filed for divorce with Song Hye-kyo the previous day. The divorce was finalised in July 2019.
On July 25, 2019, Song Hye-kyo filed a complaint against fifteen online netizens for "spread of false information, defamation of character and insult."
### Legal Issues
In August 2014, following inadvertent exposure by a politician overseeing the administration of the [Tax Service of South Korea](National)(National Tax Service of South Korea), Song made a public apology for committing [evasion](tax)(tax evasion) when she claimed undocumented expenses. In response to allegations that she had underpaid income tax from 2009 to 2011 totaling , she argued that her accountant had mishandled her paperwork without her knowledge. After receiving notification from the NTS in October 2012, Song paid the tax balance due plus understatement of income tax penalties in the aggregate of (). Song was again billed another in April 2014 against her 2008 tax filing, a result of the legally required five-year audit neglected since the 2012 notification.
## Philanthropy
Song actively participates in voluntary work, especially with animals. She participates in activities related by [KARA](Korea Animal Rights Advocates) regularly.
Song is also known for her frequent large charitable donations.
### Collaboration with Professor Seo Kyung-duk
A representative from Song's agency said, "Because Song has travelled extensively for work, she has become aware of how important it is for tourists to be able to read information in their own language." Song, in collaboration with professor [Kyung-duk](Seo)(Seo Kyoung-Duk) of [Women's University](Sungshin)(Sungshin Women's University), donated brochures of information in Korean to various historic Korean sites, art galleries, and museums in the world. Professor Seo praised Song for supporting her country quietly.
* In January 2012, Song and Seo funded publication of a new [MoMA](Museum of Modern Art) Korean guidebook in [York City](New)(New York City). "Song covered the cost of publishing a new Korean guidebook for [MoMA](Museum of Modern Art)," said Seo.
* In April 2012, Song covered the cost for the production of the new Korean brochure for [Bong-gil](Yun)(Yun Bong-gil) Memorial Hall in [Shanghai](Shanghai), [China](China).
* In October 2012, Song funded the creation of an application for smartphone users to provide information on museums associated with Korea overseas. It was launched to mark Hangeul (Korean alphabet) Day.
* In November 2012, Song and Seo installed a promotional video box about Korea at the [of Fine Arts](Museum)(Museum of Fine Arts, Boston) in [Boston](Boston).
* Song is acutely aware of the challenges faced by the visually impaired when she played a blind person in *[Winter, the Wind Blows](That)(That Winter, the Wind Blows)*. In March 2013, she sponsored the publication of guidebooks for the blind at the Independence Hall of Korea in [Cheonan](Cheonan).
* In August 2013, Song and Korea PR expert Seo Kyung-duk donated a relief work of three independence fighters to the [Jun](Yi)(Yi Tjoune) Peace Museum in [Hague](The)(The Hague), [Netherlands](Netherlands).
* In October 2013, Song and Korea PR specialist Seo Kyung-duk donated guidebooks in Korean at [Jung-geun](An)(An Jung-geun) Memorial Hall in [Harbin](Harbin), [China](China).
* In November 2013, Korea PR specialist Seo Kyung-duk and the fan club of Song Hye-kyo announced that they had donated Korean guidebooks to National History Museum in [Uzbekistan](Uzbekistan).
* In April 2014, Song and Seo donated 10,000 Korean information pamphlets for the building of the now-defunct Provisional Government of Korea in [Hangzhou](Hangzhou), [China](China).
* In April 2015, Song donated money to print brochures at a church in [York City](New)(New York City), which has been deemed as a historic Korean site.
* In April 2016, Song and Seo donated 10,000 Korean language brochures to the historic site of the Korean Provisional Government in [Changsha](Changsha). She has donated Korean language brochures to the [of Liberty](Statue)(Statue of Liberty) in [York City](New)(New York City) too.
* In August 2016, to commemorate the National Liberation Day of Korea on August 15, Song and professor Seo donated a total of 10,000 brochures to the Utoro Village in [Japan](Japan).
* In December 2016, Song and Professor Seo donated 10,000 copies of a Korean guidebook to [Bong-gil](Yun)(Yun Bong-gil) Memorial Hall in [Shanghai](Shanghai) for commemoration of his passing day (December 19, 1932).
* In March 2017, Song celebrated the [Movement Day](Independence)(March 1st Movement) by donating 10,000 copies of a Korean guidebook to historic Korean sites in Tokyo.
* In May 2017, Song and Seo supplied Korean guidebooks to the [Ontario Museum](Royal)(Royal Ontario Museum) in [Toronto](Toronto).
* In August 2017, Song and Seo donated guidebooks about the Korean historical sites located in [Kyoto](Kyoto).
* In August 2019, Song and Seo donated information guide leaflets to the Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea in Chongqing, China, on Thursday to celebrate Korea's National Liberation Day.
* In October 2020, Song and Seo donated 10,000 copies of the guide on 'Our History Met Overseas - Paris Edition' to the Korean Cultural Center in France.
* On March 1, 2022, Song and Seo donated 10,000 copies of the 'Story of Our History Overseas-San Francisco Edition' to the Korean Education Center in San Francisco.
*On August 15, 2022, Song donated Kim Gyu-sik's relief work to the Temporary Government Center in Chongqing, China on the occasion of the 77th anniversary of Independence Day.
* In October 2022, Song and Sungshin Women's University professor Seo Kyung-deok donated 10,000 copies of Korean guidebooks to the *Utoro Peace Memorial* located in [Japan](Uji,)(Uji) on [Day](Hangeul)(Hangul Day).
* On December 23, 2022, Song and Seo donated 10,000 Korean handbooks to the Korean Embassy in Washington, D.C., USA.
### Other donations
In October 2013, Song donated 1,000 tickets to the [International Film Festival](Busan)(Busan International Film Festival) for the underprivileged young people in the [Busan](Busan) area. In July 2014, Song purchased 800 tickets for The Seoul International Women's Film Festival and donated them to the Korean Psychological Association and the Magdalena Community.
In December 2016, Song made a donation to the Beautiful Foundation, to be used for educational support projects for low-income students who dream of becoming design experts. In July 2017, Song donated 100 million won to [National University Children's Hospital](Seoul)(Seoul National University Hospital).
In March 2022, Song donated to [Red Cross](Korean)(Korean Red Cross) to help the victims of the massive wildfire that started in [Uljin](Uljin County), [Gyeongbuk](Gyeongbuk) and has spread to [Samcheok](Samcheok), [Gangwon](Gangwon Province, South Korea).
## Filmography
### Film
### Television series
### Web series
### Television shows
### Music video appearances
## Discography
### Singles
## Books
## Awards and nominations
### State honors
### Listicles
## Notes
## References
## External links
*
*
[births](Category:1981)(Category:1981 births)
[people](Category:Living)(Category:Living people)
[from Daegu](Category:People)(Category:People from Daegu)
[University alumni](Category:Sejong)(Category:Sejong University alumni)
[Korean child actresses](Category:South)(Category:South Korean child actresses)
[Korean female models](Category:South)(Category:South Korean female models)
[Korean film actresses](Category:South)(Category:South Korean film actresses)
[Korean television actresses](Category:South)(Category:South Korean television actresses)
[Korean web series actresses](Category:South)(Category:South Korean web series actresses)
[Song clan](Category:Yeosan)(Category:Yeosan Song clan)
[South Korean actresses](Category:21st-century)(Category:21st-century South Korean actresses)
[Actress Paeksang Arts Award (television) winners](Category:Best)(Category:Best Actress Paeksang Arts Award (television) winners)
|
Anguilla
|
anguilla
|
# Anguilla
*Revision ID: 1159070040 | Timestamp: 2023-06-08T01:43:15Z*
---
| mapsize = 290px
| image_map2 = Anguilla - Location Map (2013) - AIA - UNOCHA.svg
| mapsize2 = 290px
| map_caption2 =
| subdivision_type = [state](Sovereign)(Sovereign state)
| subdivision_name =
| established_title = [control](English)(Treaty of Breda (1667))
| established_date = 1667
| established_title2 = [with Saint Kitts and Nevis](Federation)(Saint Christopher-Nevis-Anguilla)
| established_date2 = 1871
| established_title3 = [and independence](Secession)(Republic of Anguilla)
| established_date3 = 12 July 1967
| established_title4 = British control restored
| established_date4 = 18 March 1969
| official_languages = English
| demonym = Anguillan
| capital = [Valley](The)(The Valley, Anguilla)
| coordinates =
| largest_city = capital
| ethnic_groups =
| ethnic_groups_year = 2011
| ethnic_groups_ref =
| government_type = [Parliamentary](Parliamentary system) [dependency](Dependent territory) under a [monarchy](constitutional)(constitutional monarchy)
| leader_title1 = [Monarch](Monarchy of the United Kingdom)
| leader_name1 = [III](Charles)(Charles III)
| leader_title2 = [Governor](Governor of Anguilla)
| leader_name2 = [Daniel-Selvaratnam](Dileeni)(Dileeni Daniel-Selvaratnam)
| leader_title3 = Deputy Governor
| leader_name3 = Perin A. Bradley
| leader_title4 = [Premier](Premier of Anguilla)
| leader_name4= [Webster](Ellis)(Ellis Webster)
| legislature = [of Assembly](House)(Anguilla House of Assembly)
| national_representation = [of the United Kingdom](Government)(Government of the United Kingdom)
| national_representation_type1 = [Minister](Minister of State for Overseas Territories, Commonwealth, Energy, Climate and Environment)
| national_representation1 = [Goldsmith](Zac)(Zac Goldsmith)
| area_km2 = 91
| area_sq_mi =
| area_rank =
| percent_water = negligible
| elevation_max_m = 73
| population_estimate =
| population_census = 13,452
| population_estimate_year =
| population_estimate_rank = not ranked
| population_census_year = 2011
| population_density_km2 = 132
| population_density_rank = not ranked
| population_density_sq_mi = 342
| GDP_PPP = $311 million
| GDP_PPP_year = 2014
| GDP_PPP_rank =
| GDP_PPP_per_capita = $29,493
| GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank =
| GDP_nominal = US$307,000,000
| GDP_nominal_year = 2020
| GDP_nominal_rank =
| GDP_nominal_per_capita =
| GDP_nominal_per_capita_rank =
| Gini =
| Gini_year =
| Gini_change =
| Gini_ref =
| HDI =
| HDI_year =
| HDI_change =
| HDI_ref =
| HDI_rank =
| currency = [Caribbean dollar](Eastern)(Eastern Caribbean dollar)
| currency_code = XCD
| timezone = [AST](Atlantic Time Zone)
| utc_offset = –4
| date_format = dd/mm/yyyy
| drives_on = left
| calling_code = [+1](North American Numbering Plan)-[264](Area code 264)
| postal_code_type = [postcode](UK)(Postcodes in the United Kingdom#British Overseas Territories)
| postal_code = AI-2640
| iso_code = [AI](ISO 3166-2:AI)
| cctld = [.ai](.ai)
|website=gov.ai}}
**Anguilla** ( ) is a [Overseas Territory](British)(British Overseas Territories) in the [Caribbean](Caribbean). It is one of the most northerly of the [Islands](Leeward)(Leeward Islands) in the [Antilles](Lesser)(Lesser Antilles), lying east of [Rico](Puerto)(Puerto Rico) and the [Islands](Virgin)(Virgin Islands) and directly north of [Martin](Saint)(Saint Martin (island)). The territory consists of the main island of Anguilla, approximately long by wide at its widest point, together with a number of much smaller islands and [cay](cay)s with no permanent population. The territory's capital is [Valley](The)(The Valley, Anguilla). The total land area of the territory is , with a population of approximately ().
## Etymology
The native [Arawak](Arawak) name for the island was *Malliouhana*.
In reference to the island's shape, the Italian **, meaning "eel" (in turn, from the Latin diminutive of *anguis*, "snake") was used as its name.
## History
[[File:Wallblake House, The Valley.jpg|thumb|left|[House](Wallblake)(Wallblake House), a plantation house thought to be the oldest building in Anguilla]]
Anguilla was first settled by Indigenous Amerindian peoples who migrated from South America. The earliest Native American artefacts found on Anguilla have been dated to around 1300 BC; remains of settlements date from AD 600.*Caribbean Islands*, Sarah Cameron (Footprint Travel Guides), p. 466 ([Google Books](https://books.google.com/books?id=G74-rZzX64cC))
There are two known [petroglyph](petroglyph) sites in Anguilla: Big Spring and Fountain Cavern. The rock ledges of Big Spring contain over 100 petroglyphs (dating back to AD 600–1200), the majority consisting of three indentations that form faces.Source: [The Anguilla National Trust - Preservation for Generations](https://axanationaltrust.com/protected-areas/).
Precisely when Anguilla was first seen by Europeans is uncertain: some sources claim that [Columbus](Christopher Columbus) sighted the island during his second voyage in 1493, while others state that the first European explorer was the [French](Kingdom of France) Huguenot nobleman and merchant [Goulaine de Laudonnière](René)(René Goulaine de Laudonnière) in 1564. The [West India Company](Dutch)(Dutch West India Company) established a fort on the island in 1631. However, the Company later withdrew after its fort was destroyed by the Spanish in 1633.Source: [Atlas of Mutual Heritage](http://www.atlasofmutualheritage.nl/nl/Anguilla.1009p) .
Traditional accounts state that Anguilla was first colonised by [English](Kingdom of England) settlers from [Kitts](Saint)(Saint Kitts) beginning in 1650. The settlers focused on planting tobacco, and to a lesser extent cotton. The French temporarily took over the island in 1666 but returned it to English control under the terms of the [of Breda](Treaty)(Treaty of Breda (1667)) the next year. Major John Scott who visited in September 1667, wrote of leaving the island "in good condition" and noted that in July 1668, "200 or 300 people fled thither in time of war".British Colonial and State Papers 1661–1668, 16 November 1667 and 9 July 1668. The French attacked again in 1688, [1745](Battle of Anguilla) and 1798, causing much destruction but failing to capture the island.
It is likely that the early European settlers brought enslaved Africans with them. Historians confirm that [slaves](African)(Atlantic slave trade) lived in the region in the early 17th century, such as slaves from [Senegal](Senegal) living on St Kitts in the mid-1600s. By 1672 a slave depot existed on the island of [Nevis](Nevis), serving the [Islands](Leeward)(Leeward Islands). While the time of African arrival in Anguilla is difficult to place precisely, archival evidence indicates a substantial African presence of at least 100 enslaved people by 1683; these seem to have come from Central Africa as well as West Africa.Walicek, Don E. (2009). "The Founder Principle and Anguilla's Homestead Society," *Gradual Creolization: Studies Celebrating Jacques Arends*, ed. by M. van den Berg, H. Cardoso, and R. Selbach. (Creole Language Library Series 34), Amsterdam: John Benjamins, pp. 349–372. The slaves were forced to work on the sugar plantations which had begun to replace tobacco as Anguilla's main crop. Over time the African slaves and their descendants came to vastly outnumber the white settlers. The African slave trade was eventually terminated within the British Empire in 1807, and slavery outlawed completely in 1834. Many planters subsequently sold up or left the island.
During the early colonial period, Anguilla was administered by the British through Antigua; in 1825, it was placed under the administrative control of nearby Saint Kitts. Anguilla was federated with St Kitts and Nevis in 1882, against the wishes of many Anguillans. Economic stagnation, and the severe effects of several droughts in the 1890s and later the [Depression](Great)(Great Depression) of the 1930s led many Anguillans to emigrate for better prospects elsewhere.
[[of Anguilla (1967–1969).svg|thumb|left|Flag of the short-lived Republic of Anguilla](File:Flag)]
Full adult suffrage was introduced to Anguilla in 1952. After a brief period as part of the [Indies Federation](West)(West Indies Federation) (1958–1962), the island of Anguilla became part of the [state](associated)(associated state) of [Kitts-Nevis-Anguilla](Saint)(Saint Kitts-Nevis-Anguilla) with full internal autonomy in 1967. However many Anguillans had no wish to be a part of this union, and resented the dominance of St Kitts within it. On 30 May 1967 Anguillans forcibly ejected the St Kitts police force from the island and declared their separation from St Kitts following a [referendum](1967 Anguillan separation referendum).[Anguilla, 11 July 1967: Separation from St Kitts and Nevis; Peace Committee as Government](http://www.sudd.ch/event.php?lang=en&id=ai011967) Direct Democracy [David X. Noack: *Die abtrünnige Republik Anguilla*](https://amerika21.de/analyse/160106/anguilla-kolonie-separatisten) , amerika21.de 27 September 2016. Retrieved 23 April 2017. The events, led by [Harrigan](Atlin)(Atlin Harrigan) and [Webster](Ronald)(Ronald Webster) among others, became known as the Anguillan Revolution; its goal was not independence per se, but rather independence from Saint Kitts and Nevis and a return to being a British colony.
With negotiations failing to break the deadlock, a [referendum](second)(1969 Anguillan constitutional referendum) confirming Anguillans' desire for separation from St Kitts was held and the [of Anguilla](Republic)(Republic of Anguilla) was declared unilaterally, with Ronald Webster as president. Efforts by British envoy [Whitlock](William)(William Whitlock (politician)) failed to break the impasse and [British troops were subsequently sent in March 1969](300)(Operation Sheepskin). British authority was restored, and confirmed by the Anguilla Act of July 1971. In 1980, Anguilla was finally allowed to formally secede from Saint Kitts and Nevis and become a separate British [colony](Crown)(Crown colony) (now a [overseas territory](British)(British overseas territory)). Since then, Anguilla has been politically stable, and has seen a large growth in its tourism and offshore financing sectors.
## Geography and geology
[[view western portion.jpg|thumb|right|An aerial view of the western portion of the island of Anguilla. The Blowing Point ferry terminal is visible in the lower right, as are (right to left) Shaddick Point, Rendezvous Bay, Cove Bay and Maundays Bay.](File:Anguilla-aerial)]
Anguilla is a flat, low-lying island of [coral](coral) and [limestone](limestone) in the [Sea](Caribbean)(Caribbean Sea), measuring some 16 miles (26 km) long and 3.5 miles (6 km) in width. It lies to the east of [Rico](Puerto)(Puerto Rico) and the [Islands](Virgin)(Virgin Islands) and directly north of [Martin](Saint)(Saint Martin (island)), separated from that island by the [Channel](Anguilla)(Anguilla Channel). The soil is generally thin and poor, supporting scrub, tropical and forest vegetation. The terrain is generally low-lying, with the highest terrain located in the vicinity of The Valley; [Hill](Crocus)(Crocus Hill), Anguilla's highest peak at , lies in the western regions of the town.
Anguilla is noted for its ecologically important [reef](coral)(coral reef)s and beaches. Apart from the main island of Anguilla itself, the territory includes a number of other smaller islands and [cays](cays), mostly tiny and uninhabited:
* [Anguillita](Anguillita)
* [Rock](Blowing)(Blowing Rock, Anguilla)
* [Island](Dog)(Dog Island, Anguilla)
* [Scrub Island](Little)(Little Scrub Island)
* [Pear Cays](Prickly)(Prickly Pear Cays)
* [Island](Scrub)(Scrub Island, Anguilla)
* [Island](Seal)(Seal Island, Anguilla)
* [Sombrero](Sombrero, Anguilla), also known as Hat Island
* [Island](Sandy)(Sandy Island, Anguilla)
* [Cay](Scilly)(Scilly Cay)
### Geology
Anguilla (and the wider Anguilla Bank) is of volcanic origin, lying on the Lesser Antilles volcanic island arc, and [tuff](tuff)s and volcaniclastic [breccia](breccia)s of [Eocene](Eocene) age are exposed locally on the island. The island was largely submerged during the [Miocene](Miocene), leading to the formation of the reefal limestone Anguilla Formation, which was subsequently tectonically uplifted and cover most of the island today. Since the late Pleistocene, however, Anguilla has undergone tectonic subsidence at a rate of around 1-2mm/yr.
### Climate
#### Temperature
Northeastern trade winds keep this tropical island relatively cool and dry. Average annual temperature is . July–October is its hottest period, December–February, its coolest.
#### Rainfall
Rainfall averages annually, although the figures vary from season to season and year to year. The island is subject to both sudden tropical storms and hurricanes, which occur in the period from July to November. The island suffered damage in 1995 from [Luis](Hurricane)(Hurricane Luis) and severe flooding from [Lenny](Hurricane)(Hurricane Lenny) in 1999.
## Governance
### Political system
Anguilla is an internally self-governing [territory](overseas)(British overseas territory) of the United Kingdom. Its politics take place in a framework of a [parliamentary](parliamentary system) [democratic](representative)(representative democracy) [dependency](Dependent territory), whereby the [Premier](Premier of Anguilla) is the [of government](head)(head of government), and of a [pluriform](wikt:pluriform) multi-party system. A governor is appointed by the British government to represent the king. It was announced on 10 May 2023 that Ms Julia Crouch has been appointed Governor of Anguilla in succession to Ms Dileeni Daniel-Selvaratnam.
The [Nations Committee on Decolonization](United)(United Nations Committee on Decolonization) includes Anguilla on the [Nations list of non-self-governing territories](United)(United Nations list of non-self-governing territories). The territory's constitution is the Anguilla Constitutional Order 1 April 1982 (amended 1990). [power](Executive)(Executive power) is exercised by the government, with [power](legislative)(legislative power) being vested in both the government and the [of Assembly](House)(Anguilla House of Assembly). The [judiciary](judiciary) is independent of the executive and the legislature.
### Defence
As a British overseas territory, the UK is responsible for Anguilla's military defence, although there are no active [garrisons](garrisons) or armed forces present in the territory. Since 2020, the [Navy](Royal)(Royal Navy) has forward-deployed the offshore patrol vessel [*Medway*](HMS)(HMS Medway (P223)) long-term to the Caribbean for patrol and sovereignty protection duties.
Anguilla had a small [police](marine)(marine police) force, comprising around 32 personnel, which operated one [Halmatic](VT)(VT Group) M160-class 52-foot fast [boat](patrol)(patrol boat). Policing on the island is the responsibility of the [Anguilla Police Force](Royal)(Royal Anguilla Police Force).
## Population
### Demographics
The majority of residents (90.08%) are black, most of whom are the descendants of enslaved people transported from Africa. Minorities include whites at 3.74% and people of mixed race at 4.65% (figures from 2001 census).
72% of the population is Anguillan while 28% is non-Anguillan (2001 census). Of the non-Anguillan population, many are citizens of the United States, United Kingdom, [Kitts & Nevis](St)(St Kitts & Nevis), the [Republic](Dominican)(Dominican Republic), [Jamaica](Jamaica) and [Nigeria](Nigeria).
2006 and 2007 saw an influx of large numbers of Chinese, Indian and [Mexican](Mexican people) workers, brought in as labour for major tourist developments due to the local population not being large enough to support the labour requirements.
### Religion
Christian churches did not have a consistent or strong presence during the initial period of English colonisation; spiritual and religious practices of Europeans and Africans tended to reflect their regional origins. As early as 1813, Christian ministers formally ministered to enslaved Africans and promoted literacy among converts.Walicek, Don E. 2011. "Christianity, Literacy, and Creolization in Nineteenth-Century Anguilla." In Anansi's Defiant Webs, Contact, Continuity, Convergence, and Complexity in the Language, Literatures and Cultures of the Greater Caribbean, ed. by N. Faraclas, R. Severing, et al. Willemstad: University of Curaçao and Fundashon pa Planifikashon di Idioma, pp. 181–189. The [Wesleyan](Wesleyan) (Methodist) [Society of England](Missionary)(Missionary Society of England) built churches and schools from 1817.Hodge, S. Wilfred (2003). "Bethel- the road – and due west" In Wilbert Forker (Ed.), *Born in Slavery: A story of Methodism in Anguilla and its influence in the Caribbean* (pp. 20–29). Edinburgh: Dunedin Academic Press.
According to the 2001 census, Christianity is Anguilla's predominant religion, with 29% of the population practising [Anglicanism](Anglicanism); another 23.9% are [Methodist](Methodist). Other churches on the island include [Adventist](Seventh-day)(Seventh-day Adventist), [Baptist](Baptist), [Catholic](Roman)(Roman Catholic) (served by the [of Saint John's–Basseterre](Diocese)(Roman Catholic Diocese of Saint John's–Basseterre), with the See at Saint John on [and Barbuda](Antigua)(Antigua and Barbuda)) and a small community of [Witnesses](Jehovah's)(Jehovah's Witnesses) (0.7%). Between 1992 and 2001, the number of followers of the [of God](Church)(Church of God (Cleveland, Tennessee)) and [Pentecostals](Pentecostals) increased considerably. There are at least 15 churches on the island. Although a minority on the island, Anguilla is an important location to followers of [Rastafarian](Rastafari movement) religion as the birthplace of [Athlyi Rogers](Robert)(Robert Athlyi Rogers), author of the *[Piby](Holy)(Holy Piby)* which had a strong influence on Rastafarian and other Africa-centre belief systems. More recently, a Muslim cultural centre has opened on the island.
### Languages
[[of Anguilla.svg|thumb|Anguillan Flag](File:Flag)]
Today most people in Anguilla speak a British-influenced variety of standard English. Other languages are also spoken on the island, including varieties of Spanish, Chinese and the languages of other immigrant communities. However, the most common language other than Standard English is the island's own English-[lexifier](lexifier) Creole language (not to be confused with [Creole](Antillean)(Antillean Creole) ('French Creole'), spoken in French islands such as [Martinique](Martinique) and [Guadeloupe](Guadeloupe)). It is referred to locally by terms such as "dialect" (pronounced "dialek"), Anguilla Talk or "Anguillian". It has its main roots in early varieties of English and West African languages, and is similar to the dialects spoken in English-speaking islands throughout the Eastern Caribbean in terms of its structural features.
Linguists who are interested in the origins of Anguillan and other Caribbean Creoles point out that some of its grammatical features can be traced to African languages while others can be traced to European languages. Three areas have been identified as significant for the identification of the linguistic origins of those forced migrants who arrived before 1710: the [Coast](Gold)(Gold Coast (region)), the [Coast](Slave)(Slave Coast of West Africa) and the [Coast](Windward)(Windward Coast).Singler, John. 1993. African influence upon Afro-American language varieties: A consideration of sociohistorical factors. In Africanisms in Afro-American language varieties, S. Mufwene and n. Condon (eds.), 235–253. Athens, GA: University of Georgia Press.
Sociohistorical information from Anguilla's archives suggest that Africans and Europeans formed two distinct, but perhaps overlapping speech communities in the early phases of the island's colonisation. "Anguillian" is believed to have emerged as the language of the masses as time passed, slavery was abolished and locals began to see themselves as "belonging" to Anguillan society.
## Education
There are six government primary schools, one government secondary school ([Lake Hodge Comprehensive School](Albena)(Albena Lake Hodge Comprehensive School)), and two private schools."[Schools](http://www.gov.ai/schools.php) ." Government of Anguilla. Retrieved 7 December 2017. There is a single library, the Edison L. Hughes Education & Library Complex of the Anguilla Public Library."[The Edison L. Hughes Education & Library Complex](http://www.gov.ai/library.php) ." Government of Anguilla. Retrieved 7 December 2017. A branch of the [James School of Medicine](Saint)(Saint James School of Medicine) was established in 2011 in Anguilla. It is a [private](private university), [for-profit](For-profit school) medical school headquartered in [Ridge](Park)(Park Ridge, Illinois), Illinois.
There is a [of the West Indies](University)(University of the West Indies) Open campus site in the island.
## Culture
[[Juluca - Anguilla.jpg|thumb|right|The beach at the Cap Juluca resort on Maundays Bay](File:Cap)]
[[Ground Anguilla.jpg|thumb|Sandy Ground beach that contains many multi-cultural restaurants](File:Sandy)]
The island's cultural history begins with the native [Taino](Taíno people), [Arawak](Arawak) and [Carib](Kalina people). Their artifacts have been found around the island, telling of life before European settlers arrived.
Anguillan culture has also been built through immigration. Many European families have moved to the island and have impacted the formalities of the Anguillan people. Restaurants such as Dolce Vita and Roy's Bayside Grill, located in Meads Bay, represent the European culture assimilating within the island.
Similar to nearby islands, Anguillans geography and location require a cultural reliance on the ocean. The island's abundance of sea life has led to the incorporation of many fish and crustacean into daily life. They have become a part of the local cuisine, opened up opportunities for ecotourism, and introduced celebrations such as Lobster Fest and boat races.
As throughout the [Caribbean](Caribbean), holidays are a cultural fixture. Anguilla's most important holidays are of historic as much as cultural importance – particularly the anniversary of the emancipation (previously August Monday in the Park), celebrated as the Summer Festival, or Carnival, the sailboat races, and Lobster Fest. British festivities, such as the [Birthday](King's)(King's Official Birthday), are also celebrated.
Music in Anguilla presents itself as an important part of its culture as well. All different genres of music are played at the celebrations mentioned above. This music represents the deep history of talent that Anguillans have displayed for decades.
The Anguilla National Trust (ANT) was established in 1989 and opened its current office in 1991 charged with the responsibility of preserving the heritage of the island, including its cultural heritage.
### Cuisine
[[Shack Anguilla.jpg|thumb|Sunshine Shack Beachbar N Grill located in Rendezvous Bay](File:Sunshine)]
Anguillan cuisine is influenced by native Caribbean, African, Spanish, French, and English cuisines.Robinson, Peg. ["Foods That Are Important in Anguilla."](http://traveltips.usatoday.com/foods-important-anguilla-20339.html) [*USA Today Travel*](http://traveltips.usatoday.com) . Retrieved July 2011. Seafood is abundant, including prawns, shrimp, crab, [lobster](spiny)(spiny lobster), [conch](conch), [mahi-mahi](mahi-mahi), [snapper](red)(Lutjanus campechanus), [marlin](marlin), and [grouper](grouper). [cod](Salt)(Salt cod) is a staple food eaten on its own and used in stews, casseroles and soups. Livestock is limited due to the small size of the island and people there use poultry, pork, goat, and mutton, along with imported beef. Goat is the most commonly eaten meat, used in a variety of dishes. The official national food of Anguilla is [pea](pigeon)(pigeon pea)s and rice.
A significant amount of the island's produce is imported due to limited land suitable for agriculture production; much of the soil is sandy and infertile. The agriculture produce of Anguilla includes tomatoes, [peppers](Bell pepper), limes and other [fruit](citrus)(citrus fruit)s, onion, garlic, squash, pigeon peas, and [callaloo](callaloo). Starch staple foods include imported rice and other foods that are imported or locally grown, including [yams](Yam (vegetable)),Higgins, Michelle (28 January 2007). ["For Foodies: Anguilla."](http://travel.nytimes.com/2007/01/28/travel/28anguilla.html) [*The New York Times – Travel*](http://travel.nytimes.com) . Retrieved July 2011. sweet potatoes and [breadfruit](breadfruit).
### Literature
The Anguilla National Trust has programmes encouraging Anguillan writers and the preservation of the island's history. In 2015, *Where I See The Sun – Contemporary Poetry in Anguilla* A New Anthology by [M. Sekou](Lasana)(Lasana M. Sekou) was published by House of Nehesi Publishers. Among the forty three poets in the collection are Rita Celestine-Carty, [Banx](Bankie)(Bankie Banx), John T. Harrigan, [J. Adams](Patricia)(Patricia J. Adams), Fabian Fahie, Dr. Oluwakemi Linda Banks, and Reuel Ben Lewi.
### Music
[[File:BankieBanx.jpg|thumb|right|[Banx](Bankie)(Bankie Banx), noted reggae artist and poet from Anguilla who has built up an international following]]
Various Caribbean musical genres are popular on the island, such as [soca](soca music) and [calypso](calypso music), but reggae most deeply roots itself in Anguillan society. Anguilla has produced many artists and groups in this genre.
Reggae has shown itself to be the most popular genre in Anguilla. The most successful of reggae artists originating in Anguilla come from the Banks family. Bankie "Banx" and his son Omari Banks have had many chart-topping songs listened to around the world. The two musicians continue to provide live performances across the island quite often.
British Dependency has also gained popularity throughout the 21st century. The band, who began in Anguilla, boasts the island's first female bass player. Performing alongside The Wailers on tour, British Dependency have earned attention from an American audience.
One of many musical events that take place in Anguilla is Moonsplash. Moonsplash is an annual reggae music festival that has occurred in Anguilla for 33 consecutive years and proves to be the oldest independent musical event in the Caribbean. Along with its longstanding history, it is the largest festival annually alongside carnival.
While not many soca and calypso artists have gained extreme popularity, the genres are still widely listened to across the island.
### Sports
Boat racing has deep roots in Anguillan culture and is the national sport. There are regular sailing [regattas](regattas) on national holidays, such as Carnival, which are contested by locally built and designed boats. These boats have names and have sponsors that print their logo on their sails.
As in many other former [colonies](British)(British Colony), cricket is also a popular sport. Anguilla is the home of [Banks](Omari)(Omari Banks), who played for the [Indies Cricket Team](West)(West Indies Cricket Team), while [Connor](Cardigan)(Cardigan Connor) played first-class cricket for English county side [Hampshire](Hampshire County Cricket Club) and was 'chef de mission' (team manager) for Anguilla's [Games](Commonwealth)(Commonwealth Games) team in 2002. Other noted players include [Hughes](Chesney)(Chesney Hughes), who played for [County Cricket Club](Derbyshire)(Derbyshire County Cricket Club) in England.
[union](Rugby)(Rugby union) is represented in Anguilla by the Anguilla Eels RFC, who were formed in April 2006.[Rugby in Anguilla!](http://www.news.ai/gl//article.php?story=20060425160749670) , Anguilla News The Eels have been finalists in the St. Martin tournament in November 2006 and semi-finalists in 2007, 2008, 2009 and Champions in 2010. The Eels were formed in 2006 by Scottish club national second row Martin Welsh, Club Sponsor and President of the AERFC Ms. Jacquie Ruan, and Canadian standout Scrumhalf Mark Harris (Toronto Scottish RFC).
Anguilla is the birthplace of sprinter [Hughes](Zharnel)(Zharnel Hughes) who has represented Great Britain since 2015, and England at the [Commonwealth Games](2018)(2018 Commonwealth Games). He won the 100 metres at the [European Athletics Championships](2018)(2018 European Athletics Championships), the 4 x 100 metres at the same championships, and the 4 x 100 metres for [at the 2018 Commonwealth Games](England)(England at the 2018 Commonwealth Games). He also won a relay team gold at the 2022 Birmingham Commonwealth Games and a silver on the relay for [Britain](Great)(Great Britain) at the [Olympic Games](2020)(2020 Olympic Games).
[Proctor](Shara)(Shara Proctor), British Long Jump Silver Medalist in World Championships in Beijing first represented Anguilla in the event until 2010 when she began to represent Great Britain and England. Under the Anguillan Flag she achieved several medals in the [NACAC](North American, Central American and Caribbean Athletic Association) games.
[Connor](Keith)(Keith Connor), triple jumper, is also an Anguillan. He represented Great Britain and England and achieved several international titles including Commonwealth and European Games gold medals and an Olympic bronze medal. Keith later became Head Coach of Australia Athletics.
## Natural history
### Wildlife
[[Tree Frog (Osteopilus septentrionalis).jpg|thumb|The Cuban tree frog can be found on the island.](File:Cuban)]
Anguilla has habitat for the [tree frog](Cuban)(Cuban tree frog)s (*Osteopilus septentrionalis*). The [tortoise](red-footed)(red-footed tortoise) (*Chelonoidis carbonaria*) is a species of tortoise found here, which originally came from South America. Hurricanes in the mid-90s led to over-water dispersal of the [iguana](green)(green iguana)s (*Iguana iguana*) to Anguilla. All three animals are introductions.
Five species of bats are known in the literature from Anguilla – the threatened [single leaf bat](insular)(insular single leaf bat) (*Monophyllus plethodon*), the [fruit-eating bat](Antillean)(Antillean fruit-eating bat) (*Brachyphylla cavernarum*), the [fruit bat](Jamaican)(Jamaican fruit bat) (*Artibeus jamaicensis*), the [funnel-eared bat](Mexican)(Mexican funnel-eared bat) (*Natalus stramineus*), and the [free-tailed bat](velvety)(velvety free-tailed bat) (*Molossus molossus*).
## Notable people
*Kelvin Liddie (born 1981), Anguillan football player
*[Newton](Carlos)(Carlos Newton), former [Welterweight Champion](UFC)(UFC Welterweight Champion)
*[Proctor](Shara)(Shara Proctor), longjump athlete
*[Hughes](Zharnel)(Zharnel Hughes) , sprinter
## Economy
[[Product Exports (2019).svg|thumb|upright=1.3|2019 export percentages](File:Anguilla)]
Anguilla's thin arid soil being largely unsuitable for agriculture, the island has few land-based [resources](natural)(natural resources). Its main industries are tourism, [incorporation and management](offshore)(offshore companies), [bank](offshore)(offshore bank)ing, [insurance](captive)(captive insurance) and fishing.
Anguilla's currency is the [Caribbean dollar](East)(East Caribbean dollar), though the US dollar is also widely accepted. The exchange rate is fixed to the US dollar at US$1 = EC$2.70.
The economy, and especially the tourism sector, suffered a setback in late 1995 due to the effects of [Luis](Hurricane)(Hurricane Luis) in September. Hotels were hit particularly hard but a recovery occurred the following year. Another economic setback occurred during the aftermath of [Lenny](Hurricane)(Hurricane Lenny) in 2000. Before the 2008 worldwide crisis, the economy of Anguilla was growing strongly, especially the tourism sector, which was driving major new developments in partnerships with multi-national companies. Anguilla's tourism industry received a major boost when it was selected to host the World Travel Awards in December 2014. Known as "the Oscars of the travel industry", the awards ceremony was held at the [Resort and Spa](CuisinArt)(CuisinArt Resort and Spa) and was hosted by [A. Fox](Vivica)(Vivica A. Fox). Anguilla was voted the World's Leading Luxury Island Destination from a short list of top-tier candidates such as St. Barts, the Maldives, and Mauritius.
Anguilla's financial system comprises seven banks, two money services businesses, more than 40 company managers, more than 50 insurers, 12 brokers, more than 250 captive intermediaries, more than 50 mutual funds, and eight trust companies.
Anguilla has become a popular [haven](tax)(tax haven), having no capital gains, estate, profit, sales, or corporate taxes. In April 2011, faced with a mounting deficit, it introduced a 3% "Interim Stabilisation Levy", Anguilla's first form of [tax](income)(income tax). Anguilla also has a 0.75% property tax.
Anguilla aims to obtain 15% of its energy from [power](solar)(solar power) to become less reliant on expensive imported diesel. The [& Development Knowledge Network](Climate)(Climate & Development Knowledge Network) is helping the government gather the information it needs to change the territory's legislation, so that it can integrate renewables into its grid. [Barbados](Barbados) has also made good progress in switching to renewables, but many other [Island Developing States](Small)(Small Island Developing States) are still at the early stages of planning how to integrate renewable energy into their grids. "For a small island we're very far ahead," said Beth Barry, Coordinator of the Anguilla Renewable Energy Office. "We've got an Energy Policy and a draft Climate Change policy and have been focusing efforts on the question of [energy](sustainable)(sustainable energy) supply for several years now. As a result, we have a lot of information we can share with other islands."Fry, Carolyn. 28 June 2012. [Anguilla moves towards cleaner energy](http://cdkn.org/2012/06/interview-with-beth-barry-on-anguilla-renewable-energy/)
## Transportation
### Air
Anguilla is served by [J. Lloyd International Airport](Clayton)(Clayton J. Lloyd International Airport) (prior to 4 July 2010 known as Wallblake Airport). The primary runway at the airport is in length and can accommodate moderate-sized aircraft. Regional scheduled passenger services connect to various other Caribbean islands via local airlines.
In December 2021 Anguilla inaugurated its first ever international regular commercial jet service flight to and from the mainland U.S. [Eagle](American)(American Eagle (airline brand)) operating on behalf of [Airlines](American)(American Airlines) began nonstop [175](Embraer)(Embraer 175) regional jet service to Anguilla from Miami in an aviation watershed moment for Anguilla with the airport also currently attempting to attract other international air carriers.
Other airlines currently serving the airport include [Aviation](Tradewind)(Tradewind Aviation) and [Air](Cape)(Cape Air) which provide scheduled air service to [Juan](San)(Luis Muñoz Marín International Airport), [Rico](Puerto)(Puerto Rico). Several other small airlines serve the airport as well.
The airport can handle large [narrow-body](narrow-body) jets such as the [737](Boeing)(Boeing 737) and [A320](Airbus)(Airbus A320) and has growing private jet service flights with a new private jet terminal being built.
### Road
Aside from taxis, there is no public transport on the island. Cars drive on the left.
### Boat
There are regular ferries from [Martin](Saint)(Collectivity of Saint Martin) to Anguilla. It is a 20-minute crossing from [Marigot](Marigot, Saint Martin), St. Martin to Blowing Point, Anguilla. Ferries commence service from 7:00 am. There is also a charter service, from [Point](Blowing)(Blowing Point), Anguilla to [Juliana Airport](Princess)(Princess Juliana Airport) to make travel easier. This way of travel is the most common method of transport between Anguilla and St. Martin.
## See also
* [of Anguilla](Bibliography)(Bibliography of Anguilla)
* [of Anguilla](Outline)(Outline of Anguilla)
* [of Anguilla-related articles](Index)(Index of Anguilla-related articles)
## References
## Further reading
* |page=46–47 }}
* |page=42–43}}
* .
*
* .
*
* Harris, David R. - *Plants, Animals and Man in the Outer Leeward Islands, West Indies. An Ecological Study of Antigua, Barbuda, and Anguilla.*
*
*
* Not to Reason Why: Study of the Anguillan Operations as Presented to Parliament|publisher=Conservative Political Centre|year=1969|isbn=0-85070-437-5|location=London|author-link=Neil Marten}}
*
## External links
### Government
* [Government of Anguilla](http://www.gov.ai/)—Official government website
### General information
* [Anguilla](https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/anguilla/). *[World Factbook](The)(The World Factbook)*. [Intelligence Agency](Central)(Central Intelligence Agency).
* [Anguilla](https://web.archive.org/web/20090204121925/http://ucblibraries.colorado.edu/govpubs/for/anguilla.htm) from *UCB Libraries GovPubs*
*
* [battle for freedom -- youtube video compilation](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=X74BamQvGHM%7CAnguilla's) archived at [Ghostarchive.org](http://ghostarchive.org/varchive/X74BamQvGHM) on 18 May 2022
Geographic locale
|list =
**[and Long.](Lat.)(Geographic coordinate system) **
}}
}}
}}
[ ](Category:Anguilla)
[territories in the Caribbean](Category:Dependent)(Category:Dependent territories in the Caribbean)
[.Anguilla](Category:British Overseas Territories)
[Islands (Caribbean)](Category:Leeward)(Category:Leeward Islands (Caribbean))
[countries and territories](Category:English-speaking)(Category:English-speaking countries and territories)
[countries](Category:Island)(Category:Island countries)
[English colonies](Category:Former)(Category:Former English colonies)
[Leeward Islands](Category:British)(Category:British Leeward Islands)
[West Indies](Category:British)(Category:British West Indies)
[states of the Organisation of Eastern Caribbean States](Category:Member)(Category:Member states of the Organisation of Eastern Caribbean States)
[and territories established in 1980](Category:States)(Category:States and territories established in 1980)
[Island Developing States](Category:Small)(Category:Small Island Developing States)
[establishments in the British Empire](Category:1650)(Category:1650 establishments in the British Empire)
[establishments in North America](Category:1650)(Category:1650 establishments in North America)
[establishments in the Caribbean](Category:1650s)(Category:1650s establishments in the Caribbean)
[and territories established in 1650](Category:States)(Category:States and territories established in 1650)
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Panther KF51
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panther_kf51
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# Panther KF51
*Revision ID: 1157929040 | Timestamp: 2023-05-31T21:29:53Z*
---
| width =
| type = [battle tank](Main)(Main battle tank)
| length =
| used_by =
| caption = Rheinmetall Panther KF51
| image_size = 300px
| image = Rheinmetall_kf51_dynamisch_hohe_aufloesung_R6MJ1833.jpg
| name = Panther KF51
| origin = Germany
| service =
| engine = [MTU](MTU Friedrichshafen) MB 873 Ka-501 V-12 water-cooled diesel
| engine_power = 1103 kW at 2600 rpm
| transmission = Renk HSWL 354
| pw_ratio = 25 hp/t
| fuel_capacity =
| designer = [Rheinmetall](Rheinmetall) ([Wegmann](Krauss-Maffei)(Krauss-Maffei Wegmann))
| design_date = Commenced 2016
| unit_cost =
}}
The **Panther KF51** is a German [battle tank](main)(main battle tank) (MBT) that is under development by [Rheinmetall](Rheinmetall) Landsysteme (part of Rheinmetall's Vehicle Systems division). It was unveiled publicly at the [Eurosatory](Eurosatory) defence exhibition on 13 June 2022. KF is short for "Kettenfahrzeug", the German word for "tracked vehicle".
The KF51 is based on the hull of the [2A4](Leopard)(Leopard 2). A new turret is to be mounted on the Leopard 2; the main gun is an [autoloaded](Autoloader) 130 mm [calibre](Caliber). On 5 December 2022 Rheinmetall announced that it plans to mainly target existing Leopard 2 operators with the KF51.
## Development
Rheinmetall began the development of major subsystems related to the Panther in 2016, with system-level design commencing in 2018. The Panther has been developed as a private venture by Rheinmetall to demonstrate by 2026 the potential for increasing the lethality, mobility, survivability, and networking capabilities of MBTs without incurring a significant increase in weight. To reduce the weight of the Leopard 2A4 platform on which the development vehicle is based, Rheinmetall prioritised active over passive protection.
Further developments under consideration for the vehicle including measures to make it more environmentally friendly during peacetime operations, the installation of a more powerful and more efficient powerpack, the integration of AI into the fire control system to enable automated target detection and identification, mounting an unmanned turret on the vehicle, and the creation of an unmanned version of the Panther. Efforts to make the vehicle more environmentally friendly could result in an alternative hull being developed for the Panther.
### Ukraine
In February 2023, Rheinmetall revealed they are in talks with [Ukraine](Ukraine) to export the KF51. Company CEO Armin Papperger said the first delivery could be in 15 to 18 months and suggests a factory in the country could be possible. Rheinmetall believes a plant in Ukraine can be built for around €200 million which could produce up to 400 Panther tanks annually; it would also need to be protected against air attack from the ongoing [Russian invasion of Ukraine](2022)(2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine).[Rheinmetall will Panzerfabrik in der Ukraine aufbauen](https://www.spiegel.de/wirtschaft/unternehmen/fuer-panther-produktion-rheinmetall-will-panzer-fabrik-in-der-ukraine-aufbauen-a-8c1a27cf-9be8-42ad-ba51-d0b526c05719). *[Spiegel](Der)(Der Spiegel)* (in German). 4 March 2023. Experts have questioned this plan for unrealistically high production rates and insufficient investment for what is essentially still a concept weapon.[How realistic is it for Rheinmetall to build a tank plant in Ukraine?](https://www.defensenews.com/global/europe/2023/03/21/how-realistic-is-it-for-rheinmetall-to-build-a-tank-plant-in-ukraine/). *[News](Defense)(Defense News)*. 21 March 2023.
## Design and mobility
[[Rheinmetall Panther KF51](File:Rheinmetall_kf51_dynamisch_hohe_aufloesung_1XII0825.jpg|thumb|The)]
The KF51 is based on the hull of the Leopard 2A4; thus, It has a conventional layout for an MBT with the driver at the front, the fighting compartment/turret in the middle, and the powerpack at the rear. The driver is seated in the front right of the hull and is provided with a single-piece hatch above their position in the roof of the glacis plate. A separate crew station can be provided in the left front of the hull for either a dedicated systems operator or a unit commander. Colour cameras for the driver are installed in the centre of the front and rear of the hull. Should the KF51 enter production a new hull would be designed by Rheinmetall.
Where the design of the KF51 departs from that of the preceding generation of Western MBTs is by the introduction of a new two-person turret fitted with an autoloaded main gun. The rear of the turret houses the magazines for the main gun's automatic loader and pods for [munitions](loitering)(loitering munitions) if these have been equipped. There are housings for cameras on all four corners of the turret and in the middle of each side of the turret.
The Panther has a combat weight of 59 tonnes making it lighter than most Western MBTs developed prior to 2022. The powerpack, tracks and most of the running gear of the vehicle are also believed to have been derived from those of the Leopard 2A4. This Leopard 2A4 powerpack consists of an [MTU](MTU Friedrichshafen) MB 873 Ka-501 water-cooled V12 diesel engine producing 1,479 hp at 2,600 rpm, this coupled to a [Renk](Renk) HSWL 354 four-speed automatic transmission. The Panther's maximum speed has not been disclosed but it has a maximum range of 500 km.
The Leopard 2A4's running gear consists of seven dual-tyred rubber roadwheels and four rubber-tyred offset track return rollers on each side, with the idler at the front and the drive sprocket at the rear. The roadwheels are supported by torsion bar suspension with advanced friction dampers. The first, second, third, sixth, and seventh roadwheels feature advanced friction dampers and hydraulic bump stops to dampen oscillations, with the fourth and fifth fitted with solid bump stops. The KF51 is fitted with an 82-link Defence Service Tracks 570F track of 635 mm width with rubber-bushed end connectors on each side.
## Protection
The KF51 Panther is stated to have three layers of protection: passive, reactive and active. The innermost layer consists of all-welded steel armour covered by passive armour modules. The second layer comprises sensor-based reactive armour, while the final layer consists of Rheinmetall's Active Defence System (ADS) [Protection System (APS)](Active)(Active protection system) that Rheinmetall claims is capable of protecting against [energy (KE) projectiles](kinetic)(Kinetic energy penetrator) and [Guided Missiles (ATGMs)](Anti-Tank)(Anti-tank guided missile). It is possible to mount the ADS on both the hull and the turret.
The Panther is fitted with eight Rheinmetall Rapid Obscuring System (ROSY) [grenade](smoke)(smoke grenade) launchers mounted in staggered rows of two behind the central camera housing on each side of the turret. It is possible to integrate sensors into the Panther that can detect the launch signature of ATGMs and unguided anti-tank rockets before cueing the vehicle's crew towards the threat or launching appropriate countermeasures. The Panther can be fitted with Rheinmetall's Top Attack Protection System (TAPS). This comprises a hard-kill element in which the coverage of the ADS is extended to the roof of the platform to protect against both ATGMs and unguided anti-tank rockets launched at high elevations, as well as a soft-kill element that aims to protect against threats such as loitering munitions.
## Armament
[[APFSDS 130mm and 120mm shell.jpg|thumb|The new 130mm APFSDS beside the NATO standard 120mm APFSDS ammunition](File:German)]
The primary armament of the KF51 is a stabilised [Rh-130 L/51](Rheinmetall)(Rheinmetall Rh-130 L/51) 130 mm smoothbore gun that can be elevated from −9˚ to +20˚. Rheinmetall claims that this is capable of delivering between (20MJ=4.8kgTNT) of energy onto a target and that it has a 50% longer effective range than Rheinmetall 120 mm tank guns. The Rh-130 can fire [fin-stabilised discarding sabot](armour-piercing)(Armour-piercing fin-stabilized discarding sabot) (APFSDS) ammunition, programmable [burst](air)(air burst) high explosive (HE) and [projectiles](practice)(dummy round).
The gun is fed by an autoloader that consists of two revolving drum magazines with a capacity of ten rounds each. During a test firing in April 2022, the Rh-130 mounted on a test rig was able to fire three rounds in 16 seconds, though this included the time to perform safety checks. Two hatches are located in the turret sides to allow the autoloader's magazines to be replenished within five minutes. An option is available to carry an additional 10 rounds on the back of the vehicle outside of the hull and turret.
The secondary armament consists of a [mounted](coaxially)(coaxial mount) 12.7 mm machine gun. A [operated weapon station](remote)(Remote controlled weapon station) (RWS) can be mounted on the rear of the turret roof to provide close-in defence and a [aircraft system](counter-unmanned)(counter unmanned air system) capability. An option for this is the Rheinmetall 'Natter', which can be armed with a 7.62 mm gun that can be elevated from −15˚ to +85˚. When thus armed, it can carry 2,500 ready rounds. The KF51 can be equipped with the [120 loitering munition system](HERO)(UVision Air).
## References
## External links
*
* [Brochure - Meet the radically new Panther KF51](https://www.rheinmetall-defence.com/media/editor_media/rm_defence/publicrelations/messen_symposien/eurosatory_bilder/2022/downloads/fahrzeuge/tracked_vehicles/B325e05.22_Panther_KF51.pdf)
[Category:Rheinmetall](Category:Rheinmetall)
[battle tanks of Germany](Category:Main)(Category:Main battle tanks of Germany)
[main battle tanks](Category:Fourth-generation)(Category:Fourth-generation main battle tanks)
|
Hyundai Motor Company
|
hyundai_motor_company
|
# Hyundai Motor Company
*Revision ID: 1160203915 | Timestamp: 2023-06-15T01:29:40Z*
---
Hyundai}}
| genre =
| foundation =
| founder = [Ju-yung](Chung)(Chung Ju-yung)
| location_city = [Seoul](Seoul)
| location_country = South Korea
| locations =
| key_people = (chairman)|Eon Tae Ha (president and CEO)|Jae Hoon Chang (president and CEO)}}
| area_served = Worldwide
| industry = [Automotive](Automotive industry)
| products = Automobiles[cars](Luxury)(Luxury vehicle)[vehicle](Commercial)(Commercial vehicle)s [Engines](internal combustion engine)
| production = 4,858,000 units (2016)
| revenue = (2021)
| operating_income = (2021)
| net_income = (2021)
| assets = (2021)
| equity = (2021)
| owners = [Mobis](Hyundai)(Hyundai Mobis) (21.43%)[Pension Service](National)(National Pension Service) (8.79%)[Mong-koo](Chung)(Chung Mong-koo) (5.33%)[Eui-sun](Chung)(Chung Eui-sun) (2.62%)
| num_employees = 104,731 (2013)
| parent = [Motor Group](Hyundai)(Hyundai Motor Group)(2000–present)
| divisions =
| subsid =
| homepage =
| footnotes =
| module =
}}
**Hyundai Motor Company**, often abbreviated to **Hyundai Motors** ( )
and commonly known as **Hyundai** (, ;
*
*
*
The closest English pronunciation to the original Korean would be , but the final vowel is [checked](checked and free vowels) and cannot occur word-final in English.}} ), is a South Korean [multinational](multinational corporation) [automotive](Automotive industry) manufacturer headquartered in [Seoul](Seoul), South Korea, and founded in 1967. Currently, the company owns 33.88 percent of [Corporation](Kia)(Kia Corporation), and also fully owns two marques including its luxury cars subsidiary, [Motor](Genesis)(Genesis Motor), and an [vehicle](electric)(electric vehicle) sub-brand, [Ioniq](Ioniq). Those three brands altogether comprise the [Motor Group](Hyundai)(Hyundai Motor Group).
Hyundai operates the world's largest integrated automobile manufacturing facility in [Ulsan](Ulsan), South Korea which has an annual production capacity of 1.6 million units. The company employs about 75,000 people worldwide. Hyundai vehicles are sold in 193 countries through 5,000 [dealership](car dealership)s and [showroom](showroom)s.
## History
[[File:1982 Hyundai Pony GLS (11868204214).jpg|left|thumb|1982 [Pony](Hyundai)(Hyundai Pony)]]
[Ju-Yung](Chung)(Chung Ju-Yung) (1915–2001) founded the [Engineering and Construction Company](Hyundai)(Hyundai Group) in 1947. Hyundai Motor Company was later established in 1967, and the company's first model, the [Cortina](Ford Cortina), was released in cooperation with [Motor Company](Ford)(Ford Motor Company) in 1968. When Hyundai wanted to develop their own car, they hired [Turnbull](George)(George Turnbull (autoindustry executive)) in February 1974, the former managing director of Austin Morris at [Leyland](British)(British Leyland). He in turn hired five other top British car engineers. They were body designer Kenneth Barnett, engineers John Simpson and Edward Chapman, [Crosthwaite](John)(John Crosthwaite), formerly of [BRM](BRM), as chassis engineer and Peter Slater as chief development engineer.*The Times* (1974-07-09)*The Sunday Times* 'Business News' (1974-07-14)*Motor Report International* (1974-07-18)*The Engineer* (1975-01-30) In 1975, the [Pony](Hyundai Pony), the first South Korean car, was released, with styling by Giorgio Giugiaro of [ItalDesign](ItalDesign) and powertrain technology provided by Japan's [Motors](Mitsubishi)(Mitsubishi Motors). Exports began in the following year to Ecuador and soon thereafter to the [countries](Benelux)(Benelux countries). Hyundai entered the British market in 1982, selling 2993 cars in their first year there.
In 1984, Hyundai began exporting the [Pony](Hyundai Pony) to Canada, but not to the United States, as the Pony would not pass emissions standards there. Canadian sales greatly exceeded expectations, and it was at one point the top-selling car on the Canadian market. In 1985, the one millionth Hyundai car was built. Until the 1986 introduction of the larger [Grandeur](Hyundai)(Hyundai Grandeur), Hyundai offered a locally assembled [Granada](Ford)(Ford Granada (Europe)#MkII) for the South Korean executive market. The import of these knocked down kits was permitted as long as Hyundai exported five cars for every single Granada brought in (the same demands were placed on [Kia](Kia Motors)).
In 1986, Hyundai began to sell cars in the United States, and the [Excel](Hyundai Excel) was nominated as "Best Product #10" by *[magazine](Fortune)(Fortune magazine)*, largely because of its affordability. The company began to produce models with its own technology in 1988, beginning with the midsize [Sonata](Hyundai Sonata). In the spring of 1990, aggregate production of Hyundai automobiles reached the four million mark. In 1991, the company succeeded in developing its first proprietary gasoline engine, the four-cylinder [Alpha](Hyundai Alpha engine), and also its own transmission, thus paving the way for technological independence.
In 1996, [Motor India Limited](Hyundai)(Hyundai Motor India Limited) was established with a production plant in [Irungattukottai](Irungattukottai) near [Chennai](Chennai), India.
In 1998, Hyundai began to overhaul its image in an attempt to establish itself as a world-class brand. Chung Ju Yung transferred leadership of Hyundai Motor to his son, [Mong Koo](Chung)(Chung Mong Koo), in 1999. Hyundai's parent company, [Motor Group](Hyundai)(Hyundai Motor Group), invested heavily in the quality, design, manufacturing, and long-term research of its vehicles. It added a 10-year or warranty to cars sold in the United States and launched an aggressive marketing campaign.
In 2004, Hyundai was ranked second in "initial quality" in a survey/study by [Power and Associates](J.D.)(J.D. Power and Associates) in North America. 현대자동차|website=Hyundai Motors|language=ko|access-date=2018-04-22|archive-date=23 April 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180423033306/https://www.hyundai.com/kr/ko/company-intro/info/awards/2010-2001/awards-2004|url-status=live}} Hyundai is now one of the top 100 most valuable brands worldwide according to Interbrand. Since 2002, Hyundai has also been one of the worldwide official sponsors of the [World Cup](FIFA)(FIFA World Cup).
In 2006, the South Korean government initiated an investigation of [Mong Koo](Chung)(Chung Mong Koo)'s practices as head of Hyundai, suspecting him of [corruption](Corporate crime). On 28 April 2006, Chung was arrested, and charged for [embezzlement](embezzlement) of 100 billion [Korean won](South)(South Korean won) (US$106 million). As a result, Hyundai vice chairman and CEO, Kim Dong-jin, replaced him as head of the company.
On 30 September 2011, Yang Seung Suk announced his retirement as CEO of Hyundai Motor Co. In the interim replacement period, Chung Mong-koo and Kim Eok-jo will divide the duties of the CEO position.
In 2014, Hyundai started an initiative to focus on improving [dynamics](vehicle)(vehicle dynamics) in its vehicles and hired Albert Biermann, former Vice President of Engineering at [M](BMW)(BMW M), to direct chassis development for Hyundai vehicles, stating: "The company intends to become a technical leader in ride and handling, producing vehicles that lead their respective segments for driver engagement."
On 14 October 2020, Euisun Chung was inaugurated as the new chairman of the Hyundai Motor Group. His father, Chung Mong-Koo, has been made Honourary Chairman.
In April 2021, the company said that its profits rose by 187%, the highest rise in four years. The company recorded a profit of $1.16 billion from the beginning of 2021 until March.
### Research and development
Hyundai has six research and development centers, located in South Korea (three offices), Germany, Japan and India. Additionally, a center in [California](California) develops designs for the United States.
Hyundai established the Hyundai Design Center in [Valley, California](Fountain)(Fountain Valley, California) in 1990. The center moved to a new $30 million facility in [California](Irvine,)(Irvine, California), in 2003, and was renamed the Hyundai Kia Motors Design and Technical Center. The facility also housed Hyundai America Technical Center, Inc, a subsidiary responsible for all engineering activities in the U.S. for Hyundai. Hyundai America Technical Center moved to its new , $117 million headquarters in [Township, Michigan](Superior)(Superior Township, Washtenaw County, Michigan) (near [Arbor](Ann)(Ann Arbor, Michigan)) in 2005.
In 2004, Hyundai America Technical Center completed construction of its Hyundai/Kia proving ground in [City, California](California)(California City, California). The facility is located in the [Desert](Mojave)(Mojave Desert) and features a oval track, a Vehicle Dynamics Area, a vehicle-handling course inside the oval track, a paved hill road, and several special surface roads. A complex featuring offices and indoor testing areas is located on the premises as well. The facility was built at a cost of $50 million.
In the 2021 review of [WIPO](World Intellectual Property Organization)'s annual [Intellectual Property Indicators](World)(World Intellectual Property Indicators) Hyundai ranked as 4th in the world for its 141 industrial design registrations being published under the [System](Hague)(Hague Agreement Concerning the International Deposit of Industrial Designs) during 2020. This position is up on their previous 7th-place ranking for 57 industrial design registrations being published in 2019.
### Business
[[File:Hyundai car assembly line.jpg|thumb|left|The world's largest automobile manufacturing plant in [Ulsan](Ulsan), South Korea, produces over 1.6 million vehicles annually.]]In 1998, after a shake-up in the South Korean auto industry caused by overambitious expansion and the [financial crisis](Asian)(Asian financial crisis), Hyundai acquired the majority of rival Kia Motors.
In 2000, the company established a strategic alliance with [DaimlerChrysler](DaimlerChrysler) and severed its partnership with the [Group](Hyundai)(Hyundai Group). In 2001, the [Truck Corporation](Daimler-Hyundai)(Daimler-Hyundai Truck Corporation) was formed. In 2004, however, DaimlerChrysler divested its interest in the company by selling its 10.5% stake for $900 million.
[[File:Hyundai Motor America Headquarters Fountain Valley California 2022.jpg|thumb|Hyundai Motor America headquarters in [Valley, California](Fountain)(Fountain Valley, California)]]
Hyundai has invested in manufacturing plants in North America, India, the Czech Republic, Russia, China and Turkey as well as [and development](research)(research and development) centers in Europe, Asia, North America and the [Rim](Pacific)(Pacific Rim). In 2004, Hyundai Motor Company had $57.2 billion in sales in South Korea making it the country's second largest corporation, or [chaebol](chaebol), after [Samsung](Samsung). Worldwide sales in 2005 reached 2,533,695 units, an 11 percent increase over the previous year. In 2011, Hyundai sold 4.05 million cars worldwide and the Hyundai Motor Group was the world's fourth largest automaker behind [GM](General Motors), [Volkswagen](Volkswagen) and [Toyota](Toyota). Hyundai vehicles are sold in 193 countries through some 5,000 dealerships.
In February 2021, [CNBC](CNBC) reported that [Apple](Apple Inc.) and Hyundai-Kia are close to finalizing a deal to build an autonomous Apple car. The vehicle was said to be completely designed by Apple and would be built in Hyundai or Kia plants, and could potentially go into production in 2024. However, Hyundai Motor announced shortly after that it is no longer in talks with Apple.
In June 2021, Hyundai Motor Group completed its acquisition of a controlling interest in the robotics firm, [Dynamics](Boston)(Boston Dynamics). Hyundai Motor Group now takes an 80% share of the company.
## Board of directors
[[File:Korea President Park Business Leaders 20130508 01.jpg|thumb|Hyundai Motor Group chairman [Mong Koo](Chung)(Chung Mong Koo) (right) sitting next to South Korean president [Geun-hye](Park)(Park Geun-hye) in 2013]]
As of 16 May 2020:
* [Eui-sun](Chung)(Chung Eui-sun), chairman of Hyundai Motors
* Won Hee Lee, president and CEO of Hyundai Motors
* Albert Biermann, president of R&D
* Eon Tae Ha, president of domestic production
* Sang-Hyun Kim, CFO of Hyundai Motors
* Eun Soo Choi, former president of the [High Court](Daejon)(Law of South Korea#High Courts)
* Dong Kyu Lee, former secretary-general of the [Trade Commission (South Korea)](Fair)(Fair Trade Commission (South Korea))
* Byung Kook Lee, former Commissioner of the Seoul Regional Tax Office
* Chi-Won Yoon, CEO of [UBS](UBS) Asia-Pacific
* Eugene Ohr, former partner at [Group Companies](Capital)(Capital Group Companies) International
* Sang-Seung Yi, Professor of Economics, [National University](Seoul)(Seoul National University)
## Design emphasis
[[Le Fil Rouge, Paris Motor Show 2018, IMG 0564.jpg|thumb|Hyundai Le Fil Rouge concept car](File:Hyundai)]
In 2006, Hyundai hired Thomas Bürkle as head of the company's design center in [Rüsselsheim](Rüsselsheim), Germany. Bürkle had previously worked for [BMW](BMW), having designed the [3 Series (E46)](BMW)(BMW 3 Series (E46)), and the [6 Series (E63)](BMW)(BMW 6 Series (E63)). Hyundai's current design philosophy is known as *Fluidic Sculpture*, which is heavily inspired by nature.
In 2018, the company announced the *Sensuous Sportiness* next-generation design direction. The design philosophy was unveiled at the 2018 [Motor Show](Geneva)(Geneva Motor Show) demonstrated by the Le Fil Rouge concept car, and has been rolled out into their recent models, ranging from sedans to SUVs. The *Sensuous Sportiness* design identity and strategy has won Design Management Institute's (DMI) Design Value Award 2020.
## Regional operations
### North America
[[Motor Manufacturing Alabama](File:Hyundai_Motor_Manufacturing_Alabama_Highsmith_01.jpg|thumb|Hyundai)]
#### United States
Hyundai Motor America began selling cars in the United States on 20 February 1986, with a single model, the [Excel](Hyundai)(Hyundai Excel). That year, Hyundai set a record of selling the most automobiles in its first year of business in the United States compared to any other car brand; total sales in 1986 were 168,882.
Initially well received, the Excel's faults soon became apparent; cost-cutting measures caused reliability to suffer. With an increasingly poor reputation for quality, Hyundai sales plummeted, and many dealerships either earned their profits on repairs or abandoned the product. At one point, Hyundai became the butt of many jokes (i.e. Hyundai stands for "Hope you understand nothing's driveable and inexpensive").
In response, Hyundai began investing heavily in the quality, design, manufacturing, and long-term research of its vehicles. The company added free maintenance for the first 2 years or 24,000 miles for all its new cars sold, starting with the 1992 model year. It also added a 10-year or powertrain warranty (known as the Hyundai Advantage) to its vehicles sold in the United States, it is now known as the America Best Warranty. America's Best Hyundai USA |url=https://www.hyundaiusa.com/us/en/assurance/america-best-warranty |website=www.hyundaiusa.com}}
Hyundai incorporated a new manufacturing facility, [Motor Manufacturing Alabama](Hyundai)(Hyundai Motor Manufacturing Alabama), in April 2002. The new plant in [Alabama](Montgomery,)(Montgomery, Alabama), was completed during 2004, at a cost of $1.7 billion. Production started in May 2005. It employed more than 3,000 workers in 2012.
By 2004, sales had dramatically increased, and the reputation of Hyundai cars improved. In 2004, Hyundai tied with Honda for initial brand quality in a survey/study from [Power and Associates](J.D.)(J.D. Power and Associates), for having 102 problems per 1000 vehicles. This made Hyundai second in the industry, only behind [Toyota](Toyota), for initial vehicle quality. The company continued this tradition by placing third overall in [Power](J.D.)(J.D. Power)'s 2006 Initial Quality Survey, behind only [Porsche](Porsche) and [Lexus](Lexus).
In 2009, the [Genesis](Hyundai)(Hyundai Genesis) luxury sedan was named 2009 [American Car of the Year](North)(North American Car of the Year), the first for Hyundai. The model has received a number of well-recognized automobile awards worldwide. It also won the 2009 [Car of the Year](Canadian)(Canadian Car of the Year) after winning its category of Best New Luxury Car under $50,000. The Hyundai's V8 Tau engine in the Genesis received 2009 [10 Best Engines](Ward's)(Ward's 10 Best Engines) award.
In January 2012, the [Elantra](Hyundai)(Hyundai Elantra) was named the North American Car of the Year at the [American International Auto Show](North)(North American International Auto Show), selling more than 200,000 cars since the model's redesigned debut.
An [air mobility](urban)(urban air mobility) (UAM) subsidiary called *Supernal* was established in 2020. The name means 'Best Quality' and 'Heavenly'.
#### Canada
[[Auto Canada office in Markham](File:HyundaiAutoCanada2.JPG|thumb|Hyundai)]
The second-generation Hyundai Pony was available for sale in Canada starting with the 1984 model year. The Canadian Pony differed from its European counterparts by having 8 km/h bumpers, sealed-beam headlights, side marker lamps, and slightly different instrumentation and interior trim. Sales projections for 1984 called for 5,000 Ponys, but actual sales were closer to 25,000, making the Pony one of Canada's best-selling cars that year. A lesser-known model, also sold in Canada, was the Hyundai Stellar. Both models were available until 1987, when they were replaced by the Excel.
In 1989, **Hyundai Auto Canada Inc.** opened a stamping and assembly plant in [Quebec](Bromont,)(Bromont, Quebec), employing 800. The plant cost $387.7 million, with Quebec and Canadian federal government subsidies of $131 million. The plant was designed to manufacture approximately 2000 [Sonata](Hyundai)(Hyundai Sonata)s per week. Subsequently, [Chrysler](Chrysler) and Hyundai considered a joint venture that would have Chrysler rebranding the Sonata manufactured at Bromont – only to later announce the deal had failed. The Bromont plant was operational for four years before it closed – with Hyundai's sales unable to support the plant. With boost in sales in 2009, Hyundai Auto Canada Inc. is currently planning to build a new plant in Canada and resume production in Canada. Hyundai subsequently sold the plant, which was eventually purchased by Olymbec inc, a Quebec real estate developer. Hyundai is the No. 1 import car brand in Canada without a local plant. Sales over 100,000 cars-per-year mark in 2012.
#### Mexico
Hyundai Motor México entered the Mexican market in 2014 with the imported vehicles such as [i10](Grand)(Hyundai Grand i10), the [Elantra](Hyundai Elantra), and the [ix35](Hyundai ix35). Soon afterwards, the [Sonata](Hyundai)(Hyundai Sonata) joined the lineup. Prior to the introduction of the Hyundai brand for non-commercial vehicles, Hyundai passenger vehicles, light-duty cargo vans, and passenger vans were distributed by Chrysler de México, branded as [Dodge](Dodge).
### South America
#### Brazil
[[File:Hyundai HB20 06 2016 BSB 2593.jpg|thumb|[HB20](Hyundai)(Hyundai HB20), the first model exclusively introduced for the Brazilian model. 'HB' in HB20 stands for Hyundai Brasil.]]
In October 2012, Hyundai launched a new small bi-fuel car, the [HB20](Hyundai HB20), designed specifically for the Brazilian mass-market. The car was developed under the "Projeto HB" (Hyundai Brazil) project, and is built at a new Hyundai factory in Brazil, located in [Piracicaba](Piracicaba), [Paulo](São)(São Paulo (state)). The plant is the first wholly owned Hyundai plant in Latin America. With an investment of around R$1.2 billion, the plant has the capacity to produce 180,000 cars per year under three shifts.
Hyundai vehicles have also been produced in Brazil by local partner, [Group](Caoa)(:pt:Grupo Caoa) at a plant located in [Anápolis](Anápolis), [Goiás](Goiás). Production here started with the [HR](Hyundai Porter) model in 2007, and continued with the [Tucson](Hyundai Tucson) in 2010, the HD78 truck in 2011, and the [ix35](Hyundai ix35) in 2013.
### Asia
#### China
[[File:Hyundai Motor Sales in China.svg|300px|thumb|right|Unit sales and year-on-year rate in China. From March 2017, unit sales plummeted in retaliation for the installation of [THAAD](Terminal High Altitude Area Defense).]]
Hyundai cars, including those made by Hyundai's affiliate, Kia Motors, sold well in China until 2016, when sales fell by half, marking the start of a slump that continued into 2019, when the company announced plans to cut jobs in the region.
Hyundai is currently working with its Chinese partner Beijing Automobile Industry Holding Co. to develop an electric car for sale only in China. In September 2011, it was announced that Korean actor [Min-ho](Lee)(Lee Min-ho), who has enjoyed popularity in China, would promote Hyundai's new 'Veloster' in China.
Hyundai and its sister company, Kia, were reported to have lost market share from 2017 because of their over-reliance on sedans, poor brand images and local Chinese automakers compete with price-competitive SUVs.
##### Beijing Hyundai
Hyundai formed a 50-50 joint venture with [Automotive Group](Beijing)(Beijing Automotive Group) since 2002 to produce cars in China. The joint venture is called Beijing Hyundai, which also manufactures several models which are exclusive to the Chinese market. It began operations in China by producing Sonata in December 2002.
The joint venture sold 700,000 passenger cars in 2010, 855,995 car sales in 2012, and 2014 saw the company sell 1,120,000 vehicles.[Hyundai sells 1M cars in China](http://joongangdaily.joins.com/article/view.asp?aid=2930430) joongangdaily.com, (2011-01-03) Currently, the company operates five plants, three which is located in Beijing, one in Hubei, and another in Chongqing.
##### Hawtai partnership
Between 2002 and 2010,[A New Bentley? No, It Is a Hawtai B11](http://chinaautoweb.com/2010/08/a-new-bentley-no-it-is-a-hawtai-b11/) chinaautoweb.com, (2010-08-17)[Hawtai to launch B35 SUV at years end](http://www.chinacartimes.com/2010/11/15/hawtai-to-launch-b35-suv-at-years-end/) *China Car Times* (2010-11-15) [Motor](Hawtai)(Hawtai Motor) had produced Chinese-market versions of the [Matrix](Hyundai)(Hyundai Matrix),[Huatai Automobile to manufacture Hyundai matrix](http://autonews.gasgoo.com/china-news/huatai-automobile-to-manufacture-hyundai-matrix-080806.shtml) gasgoo.com, 06, 2008 the [Santa Fe](Hyundai)(Hyundai Santa Fe) and the [Terracan](Hyundai)(Hyundai Terracan). The Santa Fe was the fifth most-purchased SUV in China in 2010,[Top 10 Best-Selling Sedans and SUVs in 2010](http://chinaautoweb.com/2011/01/top-10-best-selling-sedans-and-suvs-in-2010/) chinaautoweb.com, 2011-01-14 and some of Hawtai's versions may greatly differ from those sold in other markets.|work=China Car Times|url=http://www.chinacartimes.com/2007/10/11/huatai-hyundai-and-roewe-hook-up-to-stick-18t-in-santefe/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120401031845/http://www.chinacartimes.com/2007/10/11/huatai-hyundai-and-roewe-hook-up-to-stick-18t-in-santefe/|archive-date=1 April 2012}} Hyundai ended its partnership with Hawtai in 2010.[Hawtai to launch B35 SUV at years end](http://www.chinacartimes.com/2010/11/15/hawtai-to-launch-b35-suv-at-years-end/) chinacartimes.com, 15 November 2010 at 4:22 pm
##### Commercial vehicles
In October 2010, Hyundai signed an agreement with Sichuan Nanjun Automobile on setting up a commercial vehicle joint venture—Sichuan Hyundai Motor Co. Ltd.
#### India
[[manufacturing plant at Irungattukottai near Chennai, India](File:HyundaiChennai.JPG|thumb|Hyundai's)]
Hyundai Motor India Limited (HMIL) was formed on 6 May 1996. During the entry of Hyundai in 1996, fellow South Korean [Daewoo](Daewoo Motors) had entered the Indian automobile market just three years before, while [Ford](Ford India Private Limited), [Opel](Opel) and [Honda](Honda Siel Cars India) had entered less than a year back. Hyundai's first car in the country, the [Santro](Hyundai)(Hyundai Santro) was launched on 23 September 1998 and was considered a success. It became the second best-selling car in the country from 2000.
[Motor India Limited](Hyundai)(Hyundai Motor India Limited) is currently the second largest auto exporter from India. It is making India the global manufacturing base for small cars.
Hyundai has two manufacturing plants in India located at Sriperumbudur in the Indian state of [Nadu](Tamil)(Tamil Nadu). Both plants have a combined annual capacity of 600,000 units. In the year 2007, Hyundai opened its R&D facility in [Hyderabad](Hyderabad, India), employing now nearly 450 engineers from different parts of the country. Hyundai Motor India Engineering (HMIE) gives technical & engineering support in vehicle development to Hyundai's main R&D centre in Namyang, Korea.
[[India 2018 stamp.jpg|250px|right|thumb|A stamp released to commemorate the 20th anniversary of Hyundai in India](File:Hyundai)]
In 2007, Hyundai started its support engineering centre with CAD/CAE teams in Hyderabad, India. Hyundai expanded its engineering activities in India with Vehicle Engineering team in 2010. In 2011, Hyundai started its design activities at Hyderabad R&D Centre with Styling, Digital Design & Skin CAD Teams and Packaging team. Indian engineers are heavily involved in the making of Indian-oriented Hyundai vehicles including the i10, i20, along with other global cars.
In June 2017, The [Commission of India](Competition)(Competition Commission of India) imposed ₹87 crore ($13.6 million) penalty for unfair business practices with respect to providing discounts for cars.
#### Japan
Hyundai Motors restarted passenger vehicle sales in Japan in 2022, after leaving the market in 2009. Since the relaunch, only electric cars are available, and the sales are online-only.
Despite having growing sales worldwide, Hyundai struggled in Japan, having sold only 15,095 passenger cars from 2001 to 2009. Following an announcement in November 2009, Hyundai pulled their passenger car division out of the Japanese market and focused on their commercial vehicle division instead. The company said that it is possible for them to come back to Japan fully if market conditions continue to improve.
According to the newspaper *The Chosun Ilbo*, the reason for Hyundai's failure in the car market was due to the company's inability to recognize the value of small cars due to parking spaces. For instance, actor [Yong-joon](Bae)(Bae Yong-joon) was hired to endorse the mid-sized [Sonata](Hyundai Sonata) in Japan to appeal to housewives who watched the drama *[Sonata](Winter)(Winter Sonata)*. The marketing campaign backfired, as large sedans are driven primarily by middle-aged men, while housewives prefer compact cars. In addition, the Sonata was priced too similarly to its Japanese rivals, which resulted in poor sales.
On February 9, 2022, Hyundai announced a comeback to Japan by marketing eco-friendly vehicles like the Ioniq 5 and Nexo with pre-orders from May 2022 for delivery beginning in July 2022 under the company name *Hyundai Mobility Japan*. As of 2022, Hyundai Mobility Japan operates an office and R&D center in Yokohoma.
#### Philippines
Hyundai first entered the Philippine market with the [Excel](Hyundai)(Hyundai Excel) compact car and the [Grace](Hyundai)(Hyundai Grace) van in the early 1990s, later introducing the [Starex](Hyundai)(Hyundai Starex) and the second generation [Elantra](Hyundai)(Hyundai Elantra) towards the end of the decade. Their assembly plant in Santa Rosa, Laguna produced the Hyundai Accent, Hyundai H100, and the Hyundai H350. , there are 39 dealerships around the country but it will be expected to increase to 44 by the end of the year. HARI currently focuses on Jeepneys, Trucks and Buses, while HMPH focuses on Cars, SUVs and Passenger Vans.
**Hyundai Asia Resources, Inc. (HARI)** was the distributor of Hyundai passenger cars and currently the official distributor of Hyundai commercial vehicles in the country. They were appointed by Hyundai Motor Company of South Korea in August 2001 as the official distributor of Hyundai vehicles in the Philippines. It had earned its spot as the third top player in the Philippine automotive industry. But due to the outrage of [pandemic](COVID-19)(COVID-19 pandemic), they decided to abandon the passenger car market which resulted to their sales decline and the numerous of controversies surrounds them even before the pandemic. HARI has expected sales to be further boosted by its Hyundai Modern Jeepneys with the implementation of the Public Utility Vehicle Modernization Program. HARI targets to sell more modern jeepneys as the government pushes for the Public Utility Vehicle Modernization Program to replace the country's aging [jeepneys](jeepneys).
In early 2022, **Hyundai Motor Philippines, Inc. (HMPH)** became the official distributor of Hyundai passenger cars in the country after the company was able to take over its passenger car operations from HARI, Audrey Byun is the CEO, while Lee Dong-wook is the President and Victor Jose Vela is the Deputy General Manager of the company. They started their operations on 1 June 2022, and also, they have unveiled 4 new models, which are the following: the Creta subcompact crossover, the Tucson compact crossover, the Santa Fe mid-size crossover and the Staria passenger van through a dealer conference on 20 June 2022. Meanwhile, the sales of these cars in dealerships will begin in July 2022.
#### Indonesia
In November 2019, Hyundai announced that it is building the first wholly owned [Asia](Southeast)(Southeast Asia)n car plant located in [Indonesia](Indonesia). Known as [Motor Manufacturing Indonesia](Hyundai)(Hyundai Motor Manufacturing Indonesia) (HMMI), it is built in Cikarang, Bekasi and will fully operate in the second half of 2021 with the annual capacity of 150,000 vehicles. Half of the output would be exported to the neighbouring countries in [Asia](Southeast)(Southeast Asia). A total of US$1.55 billion (Rp 21.7 trillion) would be invested to the plant along with the future product developments until 2030. HMMI would produce a region-specific [MPV](compact)(compact MPV) among other models.
#### Turkey
In September 1997, Hyundai opened a manufacturing plant in Turkey, located in [İzmit](İzmit), Kocaeli Province. The facility, named Hyundai Assan Otomotiv, was built as a 50-50% joint venture between the Hyundai Motor Company and the Kibar Holding of Turkey, the first stage investment raising to US$180 million. It currently has an annual production capacity of 125,000 units and it manufactured the [Accent](Hyundai Accent), the [H-100](Hyundai Porter), the [Starex](Hyundai Starex), the [Matrix](Hyundai Lavita) and since 2010, the [i20](Hyundai i20). In May 2013, Hyundai Turkey Izmit plant capacity was increased to up to 200,000 units with 470 million Euro investment. The i10 and i20 were started to be produced in the plant.
### Europe
#### Germany
Hyundai has been operating an R&D centre in [Frankfurt](Frankfurt), Germany since 1994, that has been responsible for monitoring technology developments in Europe and designing and engineering new cars for the European market. In September 2003, the company opened its new European headquarters in [Rüsselsheim](Rüsselsheim), after an investment worth 50 million euro. The site became the new location for the R&D centre and for the world rally team of the company.
#### Czech Republic
In November 2008, Hyundai opened its European plant in [Nošovice](Nošovice), Czech Republic, following an investment of over 1 billion euros and over two years of construction. The plant, which mainly manufactures the [i30](Hyundai i30), [ix20](Hyundai ix20), [ix35](Hyundai ix35) for the European market, has an annual capacity of 300,000 cars. The new Hyundai plant is 90 kilometres north of Kia Motors' [Plant](Žilina)(Kia Design and Manufacturing Facilities#Žilina Plant) in Slovakia.Cite web|url=http://www.kia.sk/en/date of access=2022-07-30
#### Russia
In Russia, the production of the [Accent](Hyundai)(Hyundai Accent), [Sonata](Hyundai Sonata), [Elantra](Hyundai Elantra) and [Fe](Santa)(Hyundai Santa Fe) models has been taking place at the [TagAZ](TagAZ) plant, located in [Taganrog](Taganrog), since 2001, in the form of [knock-down kits](complete)(Knock-down kit) assembly. Since 2006, the factory has also been assembling the [Porter](Hyundai)(Hyundai Porter), [County](Hyundai County), [Town](Aero)(Hyundai Aero Town) and the HD 500 commercial vehicles.
In June 2008, Hyundai started the construction of a new manufacturing plant in [Petersburg](Saint)(Saint Petersburg) with a planned yearly capacity of 100,000 cars, that will eventually be increased to 200,000 units. It started mass production in January 2011, with two models: the [Solaris](Hyundai)(Hyundai Solaris) and the [Rio](Kia)(Kia Rio).
In September 2021, Hyundai Wia division opened a car engine manufacturing plant in [Petersburg](Saint)(Saint Petersburg), the biggest in Russia and the fifth in the world. The new plant is designed to produce about 330.000 engines for Hyundai Solaris and Creta as well as for Kia Rio by the end of the year 2021. The construction of the plant began in December 2019.
### Africa
#### Southern Africa
In [Botswana](Botswana), the assembly of Hyundai Accent, Sonata, and Elantra models was undertaken by the [Company of Botswana](Motor)(Motor Company of Botswana) at their Gaborone plant, since February 1993, in the form of complete knock-down kits. Almost all of the finished vehicles were exported across Botswana's border to [Africa](South)(South Africa), where the vast majority of dealerships are situated.
#### Egypt
Hyundai cars are also manufactured in [Egypt](Egypt), the local manufacturer is the [Group](Ghabbour)(Ghabbour Group), which is located in [Cairo](Cairo). They have a big model range and offers sports models of some car models which are only offered on the Egypt market. Formerly, the company had assembled vehicles such as the [Verna](Hyundai Verna).
## Product line
Hyundai produces sedans, hatchbacks, crossover SUVs, vans, pickups, heavy trucks and buses in numerous plants worldwide.
### Cars
Its top-selling sedan, according to the company's sales data in 2021 was the [Elantra](Hyundai Elantra) (Avante in South Korea), which recorded 380,907 units. This model was produced in several plants, including in South Korea, United States, China, among others. Another popular sedan model is the [Accent/Verna](Hyundai Accent), which is popular in emerging markets including China, India, Middle East, as well as developed markets like North America. This model ceased to be produced in South Korea in 2019, as its production base were moved to Mexico and India.
Other sedan models are the mid-size [Sonata](Hyundai Sonata), executive [Grandeur](Hyundai Grandeur), and several China-oriented models which consist of [Reina](Hyundai Reina), [Celesta](Hyundai Celesta), [Lafesta](Hyundai Lafesta), and [Mistra](Hyundai Mistra).
Some hatchback models developed by Hyundai have been divided into models developed to cater to the Indian market and the European market. Both the [i10](Hyundai i10) and [i20](Hyundai i20) are models built in India and Europe, with several changes between the Indian and European versions to ensure the model could fit according to each market. Other hatchback models include the entry-level [Santro](Hyundai Santro) first introduced in 1998 for the Indian market, [i30](Hyundai i30) [C-segment](C-segment) car for developed markets, the [HB20](Hyundai HB20) for the Brazilian market, and the hatchback version of Accent for markets outside India and Europe.
### Crossovers/SUVs
[[File:Hyundai Tucson (NX4) IMG 3676.jpg|left|thumb|The [Tucson](Hyundai Tucson) is currently the best-selling Hyundai vehicle.]]
Hyundai entered the [SUV](crossover)(crossover SUV) market early with the [Fe](Santa)(Hyundai Santa Fe) in 2000, followed by the smaller [Tucson](Hyundai Tucson) in 2004. The Santa Fe was a huge hit with American and European markets, despite receiving criticism in the past for Hyundai's obscure looks. It quickly became Hyundai's best seller and was one of the reasons Hyundai survived despite having their sales declined. OSV Learning Centre|url=https://www.osv.ltd.uk/brief-history-hyundai/|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210117092018/https://www.osv.ltd.uk/brief-history-hyundai/|archive-date=17 January 2021|access-date=2021-02-15|website=OSV|language=en-GB}} As of 2020, Hyundai has sold more than 5,260,000 units of Santa Fe globally. Automotive World|url=https://www.automotiveworld.com/news-releases/two-decades-of-the-hyundai-santa-fe-evolution-of-an-automotive-icon/|access-date=2021-02-16|website=www.automotiveworld.com|date=19 May 2020|archive-date=1 June 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200601154654/https://www.automotiveworld.com/news-releases/two-decades-of-the-hyundai-santa-fe-evolution-of-an-automotive-icon/|url-status=live}}
The first-generation Tucson shared its Elantra-based platform with the [Sportage](Kia)(Kia Sportage). In most countries apart from South Korea and the United States, the Tucson was retired for the Hyundai ix35 from 2009 to 2015. However, the Tucson name was restored for the third generation, where it was to be used across all markets. It was unveiled at the Geneva Motor Show in 2015. The Tucson is the fourth best-selling SUV in the world in 2020, with a total sales of 451,703 units, below the Toyota RAV4, Honda CR-V, and Volkswagen Tiguan. World Best Selling SUV - The Top in 2020|url=https://www.focus2move.com/world-best-selling-suv/|access-date=2021-02-23|website=Focus2Move|language=en-US|archive-date=28 April 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190428141123/https://focus2move.com/world-best-selling-suv/|url-status=live}}
By mid-2010s, Hyundai moved into developing smaller crossover SUV models, starting from the [Creta](Hyundai Creta) (ix25 in China) from 2014, and the [Kona](Hyundai Kona) in 2017. The Kona is also consisted of a hybrid electric and a pure battery electric variant. By 2019, both model became the third and fourth-best selling vehicle of the brand, while the Creta has been the best-selling SUV in Russia since 2016, and India in 2020. In 2021, Hyundai released its first crossover SUV model in the South Korean light car segment, the [Casper](Hyundai Casper). It is the first venture of the brand in the segment in 15 years, and also the smallest automobile the brand produces of any kind.
Currently, Hyundai produces 12 crossover SUV models for different markets.
### Hybrid and electric vehicles
Hyundai Motor Company began developing [vehicle](flexible-fuel)(flexible-fuel vehicle)s (FFVs) in 1988. The test vehicle was 1991 MY [Scoupe](Hyundai Scoupe) FFV. Since March 1992, in Seoul, Korea, through at least November 1993, field trials of several FFVs had been performed over more than 30,000 miles.
[[File:2011 Hyundai Sonata Hybrid -- 07-20-2011.jpg|thumb|The [Sonata Hybrid](Hyundai)(Hyundai Sonata Hybrid) uses a lightweight [polymer battery](lithium)(lithium polymer battery).]]
The new [hybrid-electric](hybrid electric vehicle) FGV-1 was unveiled at the [Motor Show](Seoul)(Seoul Motor Show) in 1995 which featured full-time electric drive technology. The 1995 FGV-1 was the result of Hyundai's first experiments with hybrid propulsion systems in 1994. The FGV-2 was the second vehicle to be produced. The company is using the "[parallel](Hybrid vehicle drivetrain)" type design, which utilizes either the [combustion engine](internal)(internal combustion engine) or the electric motor. Others are the [HEV](Elantra)(Hyundai Elantra) and the [Accent HEV](Hyundai)(Hyundai Accent), which were unveiled in 1999 and 2000, respectively.
The first [electric car](pure)(electric car) developed by Hyundai was the Sonata Electric Vehicle in 1991. The car started as a [Sonata](Hyundai Sonata) sedan-based model. Hyundai planned to have six electric vehicles available for testing by the end of 1992.
Hyundai began mass-producing hybrid electric vehicles in 2008. The company is using Hybrid Blue Drive, which includes lithium polymer batteries, as opposed to [lithium-ion](lithium-ion). The new hybrid Sonata made its debut at the [Angeles International Auto Show](Los)(Los Angeles International Auto Show) in November 2008. The 2011 Sonata Hybrid sales in the U.S. began in February 2011.
In 2009, Hyundai released the [LPI Hybrid](Avante)(Hyundai Elantra#LPI Hybrid) in the South Korean domestic market in July. Hyundai showcased also the [BlueOn](Hyundai)(Hyundai BlueOn), an electric prototype of [i10](Hyundai i10), was first unveiled at the [Motor Show](Frankfurt)(Frankfurt Motor Show) in 2009. At the 2010 [Motor Show](Geneva)(Geneva Motor Show), Hyundai unveiled the i-flow, a concept car using a variant of the BLUE-WILL hybrid system.
, cumulative global sales of hybrid models totaled 200,000 units, including both Hyundai Motors and Kia Motors hybrid models.
In 2016, Hyundai revealed the Ioniq five-door liftback to rival the Toyota Prius. The nameplate *Ioniq* is a [portmanteau](portmanteau) of *[ion](ion)* and *unique*. It is the first automobile to be offered in [hybrid](Hybrid electric vehicle), [hybrid](plug-in)(plug-in hybrid), and [all-electric](Electric car) variants with no "standard" [combustion engine](internal)(internal combustion engine) only version.[2017 Hyundai Ioniq first drive review: hybrid, EV, plug-in, no gas-only engines](https://www.extremetech.com/extreme/244708-2017-hyundai-ioniq-platform-hybrid-ev-plug-no-gas-engines) , accessed 9 January 2019 The hybrid variant launched in its home market in February 2016, followed by the electric model in July 2016. The plug-in hybrid version followed in February 2017.
[[File:Hyundai Ioniq 5 Uniq-Paket – f 27062021.jpg|thumb|The [Ioniq 5](Hyundai)(Hyundai Ioniq 5) is the first Hyundai model developed on the [platform](E-GMP)(Hyundai Electric Global Modular Platform).]]
In August 2020, the company announced the launch of [Ioniq](Ioniq) as its own new electric brand and confirmed three new electric cars that will be sold under the sub-brand. Ioniq is Hyundai's second stand-alone brand after the Genesis. The new brand is going to utilise Hyundai's [Global Modular Platform (E-GMP)](Electric)(Hyundai E-GMP), which they claims will enable "fast charging capability and plentiful driving range." The automaker said the first of the three new global models will be the Ioniq 5, a midsize crossover, arriving in early 2021. It will be followed by the Ioniq 6 sedan in late 2022, and then by the Ioniq 7, a large SUV, in early 2024. New models will be named numerically, with even numbers for sedans, and odd numbers for SUVs.
In December 2020, Hyundai Motor Group announced details about its [E-GMP](Hyundai E-GMP) platform that will be the underpinning of new Hyundai and Kia electric vehicles starting in 2021. Apart from Hyundai, Ioniq, and Kia brands, it will also be used for future Genesis electric cars. The platform's main components is a battery pack under the cabin and an all-in-one motor, transmission, and inverter designed and developed by Hyundai. By bundling the components, Hyundai said, it raised the maximum speed of the motor by up to 70 percent compared to existing motors, despite its small size. The company claimed that it is capable to handle power output up to from the system.
In February 2020, Hyundai launched its first vehicle built above the E-GMP platform, the [5](Ioniq)(Hyundai Ioniq 5). It is the first product to be marketed under the [Ioniq](Ioniq) sub-brand. At its introduction, it is the most advanced electric vehicle produced by Hyundai. Its battery can be charged from 10 to 80 percent in 18 minutes with its 800 V charging capabilities by using a 350-kW charger. A five minutes charge will add to its range by [WLTP](WLTP (driving cycle)) standards. Its claimed maximum range is for the rear-wheel-drive 72.6 kWh variant.
In July 2022, Hyundai announced its new automotive factory in South Korea, solely dedicated for electric vehicles and with production set to begin in 2025. It will be the first Hyundai plant to open in South Korea since 1996.
Hyundai is currently expanding its full-electric lineup by adding the Ioniq 6 to its lineup, which debuted in Europe in the second half of 2022, and in the United States in spring of 2023. Hyundai is also expanding its full-electric lineup with the Ioniq 7, which is projected to hit the market in 2024.
### Hydrogen vehicles
[[File:Hyundai Nexo – f 16032019.jpg|thumb|[Nexo](Hyundai)(Hyundai Nexo)]]
In March 2018, Hyundai launched a [hydrogen](Hydrogen fuel) powered [SUV](crossover)(Crossover (automobile)) the [Nexo](Hyundai Nexo). In October 2020, South Korean domestic sales of the Nexo exceeded 10,000 vehicles. As of July 2020, Hyundai had exported only 769 vehicles to the United States and Europe with supply limited due to domestic demand.
In 2020, Hyundai launched a hydrogen powered version of its [Xcient](Hyundai Xcient) [truck](truck) the Xcient Fuel Cell delivering seven vehicles to customers in Switzerland. The Xcient Fuel Cell is the world's first production hydrogen fuel cell truck. In 2019, Hyundai formed Hyundai Hydrogen Mobility (HHM) together with Swiss company H2 Energy to lease trucks to Swiss customers with plans to deliver 50 trucks by 2020. Hyundai chose to launch in Switzerland as its road tax does not apply to zero-emission trucks and for its ability to produce hydrogen using [hydropower](Energy in Switzerland#Hydro). HHM formed a partnership with Hydrospider, a joint venture of H2Energy, [Alpiq](Alpiq) and [Linde](Linde plc) to produce hydrogen and to build hydrogen refuelling infrastructure in Switzerland. The 34-ton Xcient Fuel Cell has a 190 [kW](Kilowatt-hour) [cell](fuel)(fuel cell) supported by a 73 kW battery pack that stores energy from the fuel cell and from [braking](Regenerative brake), seven hydrogen tanks, a maximum speed of , a driving range of about and a refueling time of between 8 and 20 minutes.
In 2020, Hyundai launched a hydrogen powered version of its [City](Elec)(Hyundai Elec City) bus the Elec City FCEV that has a capacity of 44 passengers with 24 seats and 20 standing seats. The bus has a 180 [kW](Kilowatt-hour) [cell](fuel)(fuel cell) supported by a 156 kW battery pack, five hydrogen tanks, a driving range of and a refuelling time of 15 minutes. In 2020, Hyundai exported two buses to [Arabia](Saudi)(Saudi Arabia)n oil company [Aramco](Saudi)(Saudi Aramco) for demonstration.
In December 2021, Hyundai suspended development of its Genesis, and possibly its other, hydrogen cars.Dow, Jameson. ["Hyundai pauses Genesis hydrogen fuel cell project just days after ending ICE engines"](https://electrek.co/2021/12/29/hyundai-pauses-genesis-hydrogen-fuel-cell-project-just-days-after-ending-ice-engines), Electrek, December 29, 2021
### Light commercial vehicles
Hyundai Motor started production of the [H350](Hyundai H350) van (also called Solati) in Turkey from 2015.
### Trucks and buses
[[File:Hyundai Xcient 6x2 tractor front side.jpg|thumb|The [Xcient](Hyundai)(Hyundai Xcient) 6x2 truck]]
Under the Truck & Bus division, Hyundai produces several [trucks](heavy)(Truck) and buses. The company started selling trucks in 1969 with the D-750/800, followed by the R-182 as their first bus in 1970. Hyundai Truck & Bus |url=http://trucknbus.hyundai.com/global/brand/commercial-vehicle-history |access-date=2021-02-15 |website=trucknbus.hyundai.com|language=en|archive-date=8 August 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200808044711/http://trucknbus.hyundai.com/global/brand/commercial-vehicle-history |url-status=live}}
A joint venture called the Daimler-Hyundai Truck Corporation was established between Hyundai and [AG](Daimler)(Daimler AG) in 2000 to produce high-tech middle-range trucks and buses in the Korean market beginning in 2004. However, after numerous delays and disputes, the planned venture was cancelled in 2004, with DaimlerChrysler selling its 10.65 percent stake in Hyundai Motor.
## Military equipment
*[Rotem](Hyundai)(Hyundai Rotem)* is a subsidiary, for manufacturing rolling stock, military equipment, and plant engineering.
## Environmental record
On 23 April 2008, Hyundai Motor announced the beginning of a five-year project to turn 50 km2 of infertile land into grassland by 2012. Hyundai is doing so with the help of the Korean Federation for Environmental Movement (KFEM). The project, named Hyundai Green Zone, is located 660 km north of Beijing. The goal of the project is to end the recurring dust storms in Beijing, block [desertification](desertification) and protect the local ecosystem. Local weeds will be planted in the region that have the ability to endure sterile alkaline soil. This is the first environmental project of the company's social contribution programme.
## Motorsport
[[File:Am2 hyundai.jpg|thumb|[McRae](Alister)(Alister McRae) driving an [WRC](Accent)(Hyundai Accent WRC) at the 2001 [Finland](Rally)(Rally Finland)]]
Hyundai entered motorsport by competing in the F2 class of the [Rally Championship](World)(World Rally Championship) in 1998 and 1999. In September 1999, Hyundai unveiled the [WRC](Accent)(Hyundai Accent WRC), a [Rally Car](World)(World Rally Car) based on the [Accent](Hyundai)(Hyundai Accent). The [World Rally Team](Hyundai)(Hyundai World Rally Team) debuted the car at the 2000 [Rally](Swedish)(Swedish Rally) and achieved their first top-ten result at that year's [Argentina](Rally)(Rally Argentina), when [McRae](Alister)(Alister McRae) and [Eriksson](Kenneth)(Kenneth Eriksson) finished seventh and eighth, respectively. Eriksson later drove the car to fifth place in [Zealand](New)(Rally New Zealand) and fourth in [Australia](Rally Australia). In [2001](2001 World Rally Championship season), Hyundai debuted a new evolution of the Accent WRC, which was intended to improve reliability, but the performance of the car was still not good enough to challenge the four big teams ([Ford](Ford World Rally Team), [Mitsubishi](Ralliart), [Peugeot](Peugeot Sport) and [Subaru](Subaru World Rally Team)). However, at the season-ending [GB](Rally)(Rally GB), the team achieved their best result with McRae finishing fourth and Eriksson sixth.
For the [season](2002)(2002 World Rally Championship season), Hyundai hired the four-time [champion](world)(List of World Rally Championship Drivers' Champions) [Kankkunen](Juha)(Juha Kankkunen), along with [Loix](Freddy)(Freddy Loix) and [Schwarz](Armin)(Armin Schwarz). Kankkunen's fifth place in New Zealand was the team's best result, but they managed to edge out [Škoda](Škoda Motorsport) and Mitsubishi by one point in the battle for fourth place in the [world championship](manufacturers')(List of World Rally Championship Constructors' Champions). In September 2003, after a season hampered by budget constraints, Hyundai announced withdrawal from the WRC and planned to return in 2006, which did not happen.
In 2006, following the announcement that Korea was scheduled to earn a [One](Formula)(Formula One) Grand Prix, Hyundai planned to enter the sport. The [Grand Prix](Korean)(Korean Grand Prix) was first held in 2010, but Hyundai have not entered the championship. Hyundai announced they would be revealing their future rally plans at the 2011 Chicago Auto Show, on 9 February. The current plans for rallying are focused around the newest Hyundai release, the [Veloster](Hyundai Veloster). In September 2012 Hyundai announced that they were due to start the WRC with a rally model of its i20 to rival the likes of the [Fiesta](Ford)(Ford Fiesta), the [DS3](Citroen)(Citroen DS3) and the [Countryman](Mini)(Mini Countryman).
** Hyundai i20 WRC **
[[i20 WRC (front quarter).JPG|thumb|Hyundai i20 WRC](File:Hyundai)]
The [i20 WRC](Hyundai)(Hyundai i20 WRC) is a [Rally Car](World)(World Rally Car) built by [Hyundai](Hyundai Motor Group) for use in the 2014 [Rally Championship](World)(World Rally Championship). It is based on the [i20](Hyundai)(Hyundai i20) [subcompact](subcompact) car, and was unveiled at the [Paris Motor Show](2012)(2012 Paris Motor Show). The launch of the i20 marks Hyundai's return to the [Rally Championship](World)(World Rally Championship) after a ten-year absence. The car is scheduled to make its first competitive appearance at the 2014 [Monte Carlo](Rallye)(Monte Carlo Rally), but may compete during the [season](2013)(2013 World Rally Championship season) to aid development.
The car will be operated by Hyundai's performance division, Hyundai Motorsport from a base in [Frankfurt](Frankfurt), Germany.
## Marketing
### Corporate social responsibility
In 2008, Hyundai Motors established a committee to oversee its [Social Responsibility](Corporate)(Corporate Social Responsibility) programme.Kim Yoo-chul
(4 June 2008). ["Hyundai-Kia Will Upgrade Corporate Transparency"](https://www.koreatimes.co.kr/www/news/biz/2011/02/123_22015.html) . *[Times](Korea)(Korea Times)* Among the programme's initiatives have been the "Happy Move Global Youth Volunteers Program".[News and Current Affairs](ABS-CBN)(ABS-CBN News and Current Affairs) (13 January 2011). ["Hyundai brings youth volunteers to PH"](http://www.abs-cbnnews.com/lifestyle/01/13/11/hyundai-brings-youth-volunteers-ph) .
The Hyundai Motors' India Foundation (HMIF) has invested more than 20 million [rupee](rupee)s in various [social responsibility](corporate)(corporate social responsibility) programmes in India. In 2011, it started the "Go Green" village adoption project in [Nadu](Tamil)(Tamil Nadu). Its aim was to promote environmentally friendly products, increase the forest cover in Tamil Nadu, and improve living and hygiene conditions in the region's villages. A number of schools have been adopted for improvement with the HMIF donating around 450 benches to government schools and drilling 10 [well](bore)(Water well#Drilled wells)s.One India (21 July 2011). ["Hyundai Foundation's New Initiatives In TN"](https://archive.today/20120711101826/http://auto.oneindia.in/four-wheelers/2011/hyundai-initiatives-in-tn-210711-aid0152.html)
In 2020, Hyundai Motors signed a contract with UN Development Programme and launched a campaign ‘for Tomorrow’ in 2021 to create and realize a solution for problems that global society faces. In 2022, the documentary film 'for Tomorrow' was released which contains the main story of the 'for Tomorrow' project.
### Sports sponsorship
[[File:Euro 2012 (8396952183).jpg|right|150px|thumb|[Euro 2012](UEFA)(UEFA Euro 2012)]]
* [BCCI](Board of Control for Cricket in India)
* [Hyundai Motors FC](Jeonbuk)(Jeonbuk Hyundai Motors FC)
* [FIFA](FIFA)
* [Cricket Council](International)(International Cricket Council)
* [UEFA](UEFA)
* [World Cup](FIFA)(FIFA World Cup) (since 2002)
* [World Cup](Cricket)(Cricket World Cup)
* [European Championship](UEFA)(UEFA European Championship) (since 2000)
* [Football Association](Korea)(Korea Football Association)
* [A-League](A-League)
* [the NBA](Inside)(Inside the NBA)
* [Football League](National)(National Football League)
* [Bowl](Sun)(Sun Bowl)
* [Tournament of Champions](Hyundai)(Hyundai Tournament of Champions)
* [Lyonnais](Olympique)(Olympique Lyonnais) (from 2013 to 2020)
* [CSKA Moscow](PFC)(PFC CSKA Moscow)
* [Fútbol Club](Millonarios)(Millonarios Fútbol Club)
* [Universitario de Deportes](Club)(Club Universitario de Deportes)
* [Rovers FC](Tampines)(Tampines Rovers FC)
* [SC](Al-Fateh)(Al-Fateh SC)
* [Swallows F.C.](Moroka)(Moroka Swallows F.C.)
* [City FC](Mandurah)(Mandurah City FC)
* [United FC](Park)(Park United FC)
* [Football Club](Carlton)(Carlton Football Club)
* [Lions](Brisbane)(Brisbane Lions)
* [Broncos](Brisbane)(Brisbane Broncos)
* [Cannes Volley-Ball](AS)(AS Cannes Volley-Ball)
* Hyundai Hockey Helpers
* [Millen](Rhys)(Rhys Millen)
*[Madrid](Atlético)(Atlético Madrid)
*[BSC](Hertha)(Hertha BSC)
*[FC](Chelsea)(Chelsea FC)
*[Roma](AS)(AS Roma)
### Other sponsorships
* [Award](Academy)(Academy Award)s
* [Worldwide](CNN)(CNN)
* Hyundai Auto Club Philippines
## Controversies
### Inflated fuel economy numbers
After an investigation in 2012, the [EPA](Environmental Protection Agency) found that 35% of all 2011–2013 Hyundai and [Kia](Kia Motors) vehicles had inflated fuel economy numbers; by as much as six miles per gallon. Currently, Hyundai and Kia have started a reimbursement programme for the owners of the 2011–2013 affected vehicles.
In 2014 the company was issued $350 million in penalties by the US government, agreed to pay $395 million in 2013 to resolve claims from vehicles owners, and agreed to pay $41.2 million to cover the "investigative costs" of 33 US state attorneys general.
### Wrongly advertised engine and horsepower
Several consumers complained that the engine delivered with the Hyundai Veloster in Brazil was inferior to the one advertised. Independent tests confirmed that it was not the same engine, and it delivered only 121 CV (119 HP) instead of the advertised 140 CV (138 HP), with the car earning derogatory nicknames like Slowster in the Brazilian market.
### Marketing controversy
In April 2013, Hyundai Motors UK released a commercial depicting a man attempting to [suicide via carbon monoxide poisoning](commit)(Suicide by carbon monoxide poisoning) in an ix35, only to fail to do so because of the vehicle's non-toxic emissions. The advert, produced by Hyundai's in-house agency Innocean Worldwide, received widespread criticism for promoting suicide. Hyundai has since taken down the video and issued a formal apology.
## See also
* [Truck Corporation](Bering)(Bering Truck Corporation)
* [Group](Hyundai)(Hyundai Group)
* [Mobis](Hyundai)(Hyundai Mobis)
* [Motor Group](Hyundai)(Hyundai Motor Group)
* [Motors](Kia)(Kia Motors)
* [of Hyundai engines](List)(List of Hyundai engines)
* [of Korean car makers](List)(Automotive industry in South Korea)
* [of Hyundai Motor Company transmissions](List)(List of Hyundai Motor Company transmissions)
* [of Hyundai distributors world wide](List)(List of Hyundai distributors world wide)
## Notes
## References
## External links
*
[ ](Category:Hyundai Motor Company)
[manufacturers of South Korea](Category:Bus)(Category:Bus manufacturers of South Korea)
[brands](Category:Car)(Category:Car brands)
[manufacturers of South Korea](Category:Car)(Category:Car manufacturers of South Korea)
[listed on the Korea Exchange](Category:Companies)(Category:Companies listed on the Korea Exchange)
[listed on the London Stock Exchange](Category:Companies)(Category:Companies listed on the London Stock Exchange)
[motor vehicle manufacturers](Category:Luxury)(Category:Luxury motor vehicle manufacturers)
[companies headquartered in South Korea](Category:Multinational)(Category:Multinational companies headquartered in South Korea)
[Korean brands](Category:South)(Category:South Korean brands)
[Korean companies established in 1967](Category:South)(Category:South Korean companies established in 1967)
[manufacturers of South Korea](Category:Truck)(Category:Truck manufacturers of South Korea)
[manufacturing companies established in 1967](Category:Vehicle)(Category:Vehicle manufacturing companies established in 1967)
[vehicle engine manufacturers](Category:Motor)(Category:Motor vehicle engine manufacturers)
[manufacturers of South Korea](Category:Engine)(Category:Engine manufacturers of South Korea)
|
List of leaders of the Soviet Union
|
list_of_leaders_of_the_soviet_union
|
# List of leaders of the Soviet Union
*Revision ID: 1156952274 | Timestamp: 2023-05-25T12:07:37Z*
---
During [69-year history](its)(History of the Soviet Union), the [Union](Soviet)(Soviet Union) usually had a *[facto](de)(de facto)* leader who would not necessarily be [of state](head)(head of state) but would lead while holding an office such as [premier](Premier of the Soviet Union) or [secretary](general)(General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union). Under the [Constitution](1977)(1977 Constitution of the Soviet Union), the [of the Council of Ministers](chairman)(Chairman of the Council of Ministers of the Soviet Union), or premier, was the [of government](head)(head of government) and the [chairman](List of heads of state of the Soviet Union) of the [of the Supreme Soviet](Presidium)(Presidium of the Supreme Soviet) was the [of state](head)(head of state). The office of the chairman of the Council of Ministers was comparable to a [minister](prime)(prime minister) in the [World](First)(First World) whereas the office of the chairman of the Presidium was comparable to a [president](President (government title)). In the [of Vladimir Lenin](ideology)(Leninism), the head of the Soviet state was a collegiate body of the [party](vanguard)(Vanguardism) (as described in *[Is To Be Done?](What)(What Is to Be Done?)*).
Following [Stalin](Joseph)(Joseph Stalin)'s [of power](consolidation)(Rise of Joseph Stalin) in the 1920s, the post of the general secretary of the [Committee of the Communist Party](Central)(Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union) became synonymous with leader of the Soviet Union, because the post controlled both the Communist Party and the [government](Soviet)(Government of the Soviet Union) both indirectly via party membership and via the tradition of a single person holding two highest posts in the party and in the government. The post of the general secretary was abolished in 1952 under Stalin and later re-established by [Khrushchev](Nikita)(Nikita Khrushchev) under the name of the first secretary. In 1966, [Brezhnev](Leonid)(Leonid Brezhnev) reverted the office title to its former name. Being the head of the [Party of the Soviet Union](Communist)(Communist Party of the Soviet Union), the office of the general secretary was the highest in the Soviet Union until 1990. The post of general secretary lacked clear guidelines of succession, so after the death or removal of a Soviet leader the successor usually needed the support of the [Bureau](Political)(Politburo of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union) (Politburo), the Central Committee, or another government or party apparatus to both take and stay in power. The [of the Soviet Union](President)(President of the Soviet Union), an office created in March 1990, replaced the general secretary as the highest Soviet political office.
Contemporaneously to the establishment of the office of the president, representatives of the [of People's Deputies](Congress)(Congress of People's Deputies of the Soviet Union) voted to remove [6](Article)(Article 6 of the Soviet Constitution) from the [constitution](Soviet)(Constitution of the Soviet Union) which stated that the Soviet Union was a [state](one-party)(one-party state) controlled by the Communist Party which in turn played the leading role in society. This vote weakened the party and its hegemony over the Soviet Union and [people](its)(Soviet people). Upon death, resignation, or removal from office of an incumbent president, the [President of the Soviet Union](Vice)(List of heads of state of the Soviet Union) would assume the office, though the [Union dissolved](Soviet)(Dissolution of the Soviet Union) before this was actually tested. After the [coup in August 1991](failed)(1991 Soviet coup d'état attempt), the vice president was replaced by an elected member of the [Council of the Soviet Union](State)(State Council of the Soviet Union).
## Summary
[Lenin](Vladimir)(Vladimir Lenin) was voted the [chairman](Premier of the Soviet Union) of the [of People's Commissars of the Soviet Union](Council)(Council of People's Commissars) (Sovnarkom) on 30 December 1922 by the [of Soviets](Congress)(Congress of Soviets of the Soviet Union). At the age of 53, his health declined from the effects of two bullet wounds, later aggravated by three [stroke](stroke)s which culminated with his death in 1924. Irrespective of his health status in his final days, Lenin was already losing much of his power to [Stalin](Joseph)(Joseph Stalin). [Rykov](Alexei)(Alexei Rykov) succeeded Lenin as chairman of the Sovnarkom, and although he was *[jure](de)(de jure)* the most powerful person in the country, in fact, all power was concentrated in the hands of the "troika" – the union of three influential party figures: Grigory Zinoviev, Joseph Stalin, and Lev Kamenev. Stalin continued to increase his influence in the party, and by the end of the 1920s, he became the sole dictator of the USSR, defeating all his political opponents. The post of general secretary of the party, which was held by Stalin, became the most important post in the Soviet hierarchy.
Stalin's early policies pushed for rapid [industrialisation](industrialisation), [nationalisation](Nationalization) of private industry and the [collectivisation](Collective farming) of private plots created under Lenin's [Economic Policy](New)(New Economic Policy). As leader of the Politburo, Stalin consolidated near-absolute power by 1938 after the [Purge](Great)(Great Purge), a series of campaigns of political murder, repression and persecution. [Germany](Nazi)(Nazi Germany) [the Soviet Union](invaded)(Operation Barbarossa) in June 1941, but by December the [Army](Soviet)(Red Army) managed to stop the attack just shy of Moscow. On Stalin's orders, the Soviet Union launched a counter-attack on Nazi Germany, which finally succeeded in 1945. Stalin died in March 1953 and his death triggered a power struggle in which [Khrushchev](Nikita)(Nikita Khrushchev) after several years emerged victorious against [Malenkov](Georgy)(Georgy Malenkov).
Khrushchev denounced Stalin on two occasions, [in 1956](first)(On the Cult of Personality and Its Consequences) and then in 1962. His policy of [de-Stalinisation](De-Stalinization) earned him many enemies within the party, especially from old [Stalinist](Stalinism) appointees. Many saw this approach as destructive and destabilizing. A group known as [Group](Anti-Party)(Anti-Party Group) tried to oust Khrushchev from office in 1957, but it failed. As Khrushchev grew older, his erratic behaviour became worse, usually making decisions without discussing or confirming them with the Politburo. [Brezhnev](Leonid)(Leonid Brezhnev), a close companion of Khrushchev, was elected the first secretary the same day of Khrushchev's removal from power. [Kosygin](Alexei)(Alexei Kosygin) became the new premier, and [Mikoyan](Anastas)(Anastas Mikoyan) kept his office as chairman of the [of the Supreme Soviet](Presidium)(Presidium of the Supreme Soviet). On the orders of the Politburo, Mikoyan was forced to retire in 1965, and [Podgorny](Nikolai)(Nikolai Podgorny) took over the office of chairman of the Presidium. The Soviet Union in the post-Khrushchev 1960s was governed by a [leadership](collective)(collective leadership). [Kissinger](Henry)(Henry Kissinger), the American [Security Advisor](National)(National Security Advisor (United States)), mistakenly believed that Kosygin was the leader of the Soviet Union and that he was at the helm of Soviet foreign policy because he represented the Soviet Union at the 1967 [Summit Conference](Glassboro)(Glassboro Summit Conference). The "[of Stagnation](Era)(Era of Stagnation)", a derogatory term coined by [Gorbachev](Mikhail)(Mikhail Gorbachev), was a period marked by low socio-economic efficiency in the country and a [gerontocracy](gerontocracy) ruling the country. [Andropov](Yuri)(Yuri Andropov) (aged 68 at the time) succeeded Brezhnev in his post as general secretary in 1982. In 1983, Andropov was hospitalized and rarely met up at work to chair the politburo meetings due to his declining health. [Tikhonov](Nikolai)(Nikolai Tikhonov) usually chaired the meetings in his place. Following Andropov's death fifteen months after his appointment, an even older leader, 72-year-old [Chernenko](Konstantin)(Konstantin Chernenko), was elected to the general secretariat. His rule lasted for little more than a year until his death thirteen months later on 10 March 1985.
At the age of 54, Mikhail Gorbachev was elected to the general secretariat by Politburo on 11 March 1985. In May 1985, Gorbachev publicly admitted the slowing down of the economic development and inadequate living standards, being the first Soviet leader to do so while also beginning a series of fundamental reforms. From 1986 to around 1988, he dismantled [planning](central)(Planned economy), allowed state enterprises to set their own outputs, enabled private investment in businesses not previously permitted to be privately owned, and allowed foreign investment, among other measures. He also opened up the management of and decision-making within the Soviet Union and allowed greater public discussion and criticism, along with the warming of relationships with the West. These twin policies were known as *[perestroika](perestroika)* (literally meaning "reconstruction", though it varies) and *[glasnost](glasnost)* ("openness" and "transparency"), respectively. The dismantling of the principal defining features of [communism](Soviet)(Ideology of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union) in 1988 and 1989 in the Soviet Union led to the unintended consequence of the [Union breaking up](Soviet)(Dissolution of the Soviet Union) after the failed [1991 coup](August)(1991 Soviet coup d'état attempt) led by [Yanayev](Gennady)(Gennady Yanayev).
## List of leaders
The following list includes persons who held the top leadership position of the Soviet Union from its [founding](Treaty on the Creation of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics) in 1922 until its [dissolution](1991)(Dissolution of the Soviet Union).
**Note**: that † denotes leaders who died in office.
## List of troikas
On four occasionsthe 2–3-year period between [Lenin](Vladimir)(Vladimir Lenin)'s incapacitation and [Stalin](Joseph)(Joseph Stalin)'s leadership; the three months following Stalin's death; the interval between [Khrushchev](Nikita)(Nikita Khrushchev)'s fall and [Brezhnev](Leonid)(Leonid Brezhnev)'s consolidation of power; and the ailing [Chernenko](Konstantin)(Konstantin Chernenko)'s tenure as [Secretary](General)(General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union)the Soviet Union was governed by a council known as a [troika](wikt:troika) (i.e."[triumvirate](triumvirate)"), whereby policymaking depended on the consensus of three chief figures within the [Politburo](Politburo of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union).
## See also
*[of Soviet Union-related articles](Index)(Index of Soviet Union–related articles)
*[of heads of state of the Soviet Union](List)(List of heads of state of the Soviet Union)
*[of presidents of the Russian Federation](List)(List of presidents of Russia)
*[of the Soviet Union](Premier)(Premier of the Soviet Union)
*[Vozhd](Vozhd)
*[of Russia](President)(President of Russia)
## Notes
## References
### Citations
### Sources
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
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## External links
* [Succession of Power in the USSR](https://web.archive.org/web/20131107050501/http://repository.library.georgetown.edu/handle/10822/552670) from the [Dean Peter Krogh Foreign Affairs Digital Archives](http://www.library.georgetown.edu/digital/krogh)
* [Heads of State and Government of the Soviet Union (1922–1991)](http://www.archontology.org/nations/ussr)
[Of The Soviet Union](Leaders)(Category:Lists of political office-holders in Russia)
[Of The Soviet Union](Leaders)(Category:Lists of political office-holders in the Soviet Union)
[ ](Category:Leaders of the Soviet Union)
|
Gran Turismo _film
|
gran_turismo__film
|
# Gran Turismo (film)
*Revision ID: 1159048526 | Timestamp: 2023-06-07T22:09:48Z*
---
| story =
| based_on = }}
| producer =
| starring =
| cinematography = Jacques Jouffret
| editing = Eddie Hamilton
| music = [Balfe](Lorne)(Lorne Balfe)
| production_companies =
| distributor = [Pictures Releasing](Sony)(Sony Pictures Releasing)
| released =
| runtime =
| country = United States
| language = English
| budget =
| gross =
}}
***Gran Turismo*** is an upcoming American [biographical](biographical film) [coming-of-age](coming-of-age film) [drama film](sports)(sports drama film) directed by [Blomkamp](Neill)(Neill Blomkamp) from a screenplay by [Hall](Jason)(Jason Hall (screenwriter)) and [Baylin](Zach)(Zach Baylin). Produced by [Pictures](Columbia)(Columbia Pictures), [Productions](PlayStation)(PlayStation Productions), [Street Productions](Trigger)(Trigger Street Productions), and [Entertainment](2.0)(2.0 Entertainment), the film is based on the [simulation video game series](racing)(Gran Turismo (series)) published by [Studios](PlayStation)(PlayStation Studios), while inspired by the true story of [Mardenborough](Jann)(Jann Mardenborough), a teenage *Gran Turismo* player aspiring to be a race car driver. It stars [Harbour](David)(David Harbour), [Bloom](Orlando)(Orlando Bloom), [Madekwe](Archie)(Archie Madekwe), [Barnet](Darren)(Darren Barnet), [Halliwell Horner](Geri)(Geri Halliwell), and [Hounsou](Djimon)(Djimon Hounsou).
Development of a film based on *Gran Turismo* began in 2013, with [De Luca](Michael)(Michael De Luca) and [Brunetti](Dana)(Dana Brunetti) producing it and a script by [Tse](Alex)(Alex Tse). In 2015, [Kosinski](Joseph)(Joseph Kosinski) was set to direct the film, and Jon and Erich Hoeber would write a new screenplay. By 2018, the Kosinski version was no longer moving forward. In May 2022, a new iteration of the *Gran Turismo* film started development, with Blomkamp eyed to direct. The main cast were confirmed in September, while other cast additions were signed in November. Filming began in [Hungary](Hungary) in the same month, and wrapped in December 2022.
*Gran Turismo* is set to be released on August 11, 2023, by [Pictures Releasing](Sony)(Sony Pictures Releasing).
## Premise
The film is about [Mardenborough](Jann)(Jann Mardenborough), a *Gran Turismo* player whose gaming skills won a series of [Nissan](Nissan)-sponsored [game competition](video)(video game competition)s to become an actual professional race car driver.
## Cast
* [Madekwe](Archie)(Archie Madekwe) as [Mardenborough](Jann)(Jann Mardenborough), an aspiring teenage driver
* [Harbour](David)(David Harbour) as Jack Salter, Jann's trainer
* [Bloom](Orlando)(Orlando Bloom) as Danny Moore, a motorsport marketing executive (based on [Academy](GT)(GT Academy) founder [Cox](Darren)(Darren Cox))
* [Barnet](Darren)(Darren Barnet) as Matty Davis, a top [Academy](GT)(GT Academy) driver threatened by Jann's success
* [Hounsou](Djimon)(Djimon Hounsou) as [Mardenborough](Steve)(Steve Mardenborough), Jann's father
* [Halliwell](Geri)(Geri Halliwell) as Lesley Mardenborough, Jann's mother
* Daniel Puig as Cai Mardenborough, Jann's brother
* Josha Stradowski as Nicholas Capa, a rival driver
* [Kretschmann](Thomas)(Thomas Kretschmann)
* Maeve Courtier-Lilley
* [Cambridge](Richard)(Richard Cambridge (actor)) as Felix
* [Hartford](Emelia)(Emelia Hartford)
* Pepe Barroso
* [Heon Lee](Sang)(Sang Heon Lee)
* Max Mundt
* Mariano González
* Harki Bhambra
* Lindsay Pattison
* Théo Christine
* Nikhil Parmar
## Production
### Development
In 2013, [Pictures](Sony)(Sony Pictures) announced it was developing a *Gran Turismo* film with [De Luca](Michael)(Michael De Luca) and [Brunetti](Dana)(Dana Brunetti) producing it, with a script by [Tse](Alex)(Alex Tse). In 2015, [Kosinski](Joseph)(Joseph Kosinski) was set to direct the film, with a new screenplay by Jon and Erich Hoeber. By 2018, the Kosinski version was no longer moving forward.
In May 2022, it was announced that a film adaptation of [Digital](Polyphony)(Polyphony Digital)'s *[Turismo](Gran)(Gran Turismo (series))* video games was in early development at [Pictures](Sony)(Sony Pictures) and [Productions](PlayStation)(PlayStation Productions). Shortly afterward, [Blomkamp](Neill)(Neill Blomkamp) was hired to direct a screenplay written by [Hall](Jason)(Jason Hall (screenwriter)), and Sony set a release date of August 11, 2023. The lead roles were cast in September 2022 with [Harbour](David)(David Harbour) as a veteran race car driver who mentors [Madekwe](Archie)(Archie Madekwe) as the teenage trainee. [Bloom](Orlando)(Orlando Bloom) was cast as a motorsport marketing executive and [Barnet](Darren)(Darren Barnet) as a threatened [Academy](GT)(GT Academy) racer. Additional cast additions were announced while filming in November included [Hounsou](Djimon)(Djimon Hounsou), [Halliwell-Horner](Geri)(Geri Halliwell), Daniel Puig, Josha Stradowski, [Kretschmann](Thomas)(Thomas Kretschmann), Maeve Courtier-Lilley, [Hartford](Emelia)(Emelia Hartford), Pepe Barroso, and Sang Heon Lee. Max Mundt, Mariano González, Harki Bhambra, Lindsay Pattison, Théo Christine, and Nikhil Parmar were added to the cast in December 2022.
### Filming
Filming began in [Hungary](Hungary) in November, and wrapped in December 2022, with Jacques Jouffret serving as cinematographer. Jouffret took advantage of the Rialto extention/detachment system of [Venice 2 cameras](Sony)(CineAlta) in order to place sensors in tight locations of cars, away from the main camera body.
### Music
In September 2022, it was reported that [Barton](Stephen)(Stephen Barton) would compose the score for the film. But on April 24, 2023, [Balfe](Lorne)(Lorne Balfe) was announced to take over by scoring the film instead.
## Notes
## References
}}
## External links
*
*
[films](Category:2023)(Category:2023 films)
[biographical drama films](Category:2023)(Category:2023 biographical drama films)
[drama films](Category:2023)(Category:2023 drama films)
[American films](Category:2020s)(Category:2020s American films)
[coming-of-age drama films](Category:2020s)(Category:2020s coming-of-age drama films)
[English-language films](Category:2020s)(Category:2020s English-language films)
[sports drama films](Category:2020s)(Category:2020s sports drama films)
[auto racing films](Category:American)(Category:American auto racing films)
[biographical drama films](Category:American)(Category:American biographical drama films)
[coming-of-age drama films](Category:American)(Category:American coming-of-age drama films)
[sports drama films](Category:American)(Category:American sports drama films)
[films about sportspeople](Category:Biographical)(Category:Biographical films about sportspeople)
[Pictures films](Category:Columbia)(Category:Columbia Pictures films)
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Sega
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sega
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# Sega
*Revision ID: 1159791769 | Timestamp: 2023-06-12T15:17:52Z*
---
| type = [Subsidiary](Subsidiary)
| industry = [games](Video)(Video game industry)
| predecessor = [Games of Japan](Service)(History of Sega)
| founded =
| founders =
| hq_location =
| hq_location_city = [Shinagawa](Shinagawa), Tokyo
| hq_location_country = Japan
| area_served = Worldwide
| key_people = of America)|Gary Dale(President, Sega Europe)}}
| products =
| revenue = 247.7 billion
| revenue_year = 2020
| operating_income = 14.8 billion
| num_employees = 3459 (March 2023)
| divisions = **[of development studios](List)(Sega development studios)**
| subsid = |Play Heart|[Entertainment](Relic)(Relic Entertainment)|[Entertainment](Rovio)(Rovio Entertainment) (pending)|[Toys](Sega)(Sega Toys)|[Interactive](Sports)(Sports Interactive)|[Point Studios](Two)(Two Point Studios)|[Entertainment](TMS)(TMS Entertainment)}}
| website =
| parent = [Sammy Holdings](Sega)(Sega Sammy Holdings)
| income_year = 2020
| footnotes =
}}
is a Japanese [multinational](multinational corporation) [game](video)(video game) and entertainment company headquartered in [Shinagawa](Shinagawa), Tokyo. Its international branches, **Sega of America** and **Sega Europe**, are headquartered in [California](Irvine,)(Irvine, California) and [London](London), respectively. Its division for the development of both [games](arcade)(arcade games) and home video games, **Sega Games**, has existed in its current state since 2020; from 2015 to that point, the two had made up separate entities known as Sega Games and **Sega Interactive Co., Ltd.** Sega is a subsidiary of [Sammy Holdings](Sega)(Sega Sammy Holdings). From 1983 until 2001, Sega also developed [game consoles](video)(List of Sega video game consoles).
Sega was founded by American businessmen Martin Bromley and Richard Stewart as on June 3, 1960. Shortly after, the company acquired the assets of its predecessor, [Games of Japan](Service)(History of Sega). In 1965, it became known as Sega Enterprises, Ltd., after acquiring Rosen Enterprises, an importer of [games](coin-operated)(Arcade game). Sega developed its first coin-operated game, *[Periscope](Periscope (arcade game))*, in 1966. Sega was sold to [and Western Industries](Gulf)(Gulf and Western Industries) in 1969. Following a downturn in the arcade business in the early 1980s, Sega began to develop video game consoles, starting with the [SG-1000](SG-1000) and [System](Master)(Master System), but struggled against competitors such as the [Entertainment System](Nintendo)(Nintendo Entertainment System). In 1984, Sega executives [Rosen](David)(David Rosen (businessman)) and [Nakayama](Hayao)(Hayao Nakayama) led a [buyout](management)(management buyout), with backing from [Corporation](CSK)(SCSK).
In 1988, Sega released the [Genesis](Sega)(Sega Genesis) (known as the Mega Drive outside North America). The Genesis struggled against the competition in Japan, but found success overseas after the release of *[the Hedgehog](Sonic)(Sonic the Hedgehog (1991 video game))* in 1991 and briefly outsold its main competitor, the [Nintendo Entertainment System](Super)(Super Nintendo Entertainment System), in the US. Later in the decade, Sega suffered several [failures](commercial)(List of commercial failures in video gaming) such as the [32X](32X), [Saturn](Sega Saturn) and [Dreamcast](Dreamcast) consoles. In 2001, Sega stopped manufacturing consoles to become a [developer](third-party)(third-party developer) and publisher, and was acquired by [Corporation](Sammy)(Sammy Corporation) in 2004. In the years since, Sega has been more profitable. Sega Holdings Co. Ltd. was established in 2015; Sega Corporation was renamed Sega Games Co., Ltd., and its arcade, entertainment and toy divisions separated into other companies. In 2020, Sega Games and Sega Interactive merged and were renamed Sega Corporation.
Sega has produced several [game franchises](multi-million-selling)(List of best-selling video game franchises), including *[the Hedgehog](Sonic)(Sonic the Hedgehog)*, *[War](Total)(Total War (video game series))*, and *[Yakuza](Yakuza (franchise))*. [Sonic](Sonic the Hedgehog (character)), Sega's mascot, is internationally recognized. Sega is one of the world's most prolific arcade game producers, with long-running series such as *[Fighter](Virtua)(Virtua Fighter)* and *[D Arcade Stage](Initial)(Initial D Arcade Stage)*. Its name and branding are used for affiliated companies that operate [arcade](amusement)(amusement arcade)s and produce other entertainment products, including [Toys](Sega)(Sega Toys); however, these are largely separate ventures. Sega is recognized for its video game consoles, creativity and innovations. In more recent years, it has been criticized for its business decisions and the quality of its creative output.
## History
### 1940–1982: Origins and arcade success
[[machines at Wookey Hole Caves.JPG|thumb|The Diamond 3 Star was a coin-operated slot machine produced by Sega in the 1950s.|left|alt=Diamond 3 Star slot machines](File:Slot)]
In May 1940, American businessmen Martin Bromley, Irving Bromberg and James Humpert formed Standard Games in [Honolulu](Honolulu), Hawaii. Their aim was to provide [amusement machines](coin-operated)(Arcade game), including [machine](slot)(slot machine)s, to military bases as the increase in personnel with the onset of [War II](World)(World War II) would create demand for entertainment. After the war, the founders sold Standard Games in 1945, and in 1946 established Service Games, named for the military focus. After the US government outlawed slot machines in [territories](its)(Territories of the United States) in 1952, Bromley sent employees Richard Stewart and Ray LeMaire to Tokyo to establish Service Games of Japan to provide coin-operated slot machines to US bases in Japan. A year later, all five men established Service Games Panama to control the entities of Service Games worldwide. The company expanded over the next seven years to include distribution in South Korea, the Philippines, and South Vietnam. The name Sega, an abbreviation of Service Games, was first used in 1954 on a slot machine, the Diamond Star.
Due to notoriety arising from investigations by the US government into criminal business practices, Service Games of Japan was dissolved on May 31, 1960. On June 3, Bromley established two companies to take over its business activities, Nihon Goraku Bussan and The two new companies purchased all of Service Games of Japan's assets. Kikai Seizō, doing business as Sega, Inc., focused on manufacturing slot machines. Goraku Bussan, doing business under Stewart as Utamatic, Inc., served as a distributor and operator of coin-operated machines, particularly [jukebox](jukebox)es. The companies merged in 1964, retaining the Nihon Goraku Bussan name.
Around the same time, [Rosen](David)(David Rosen (business)), an American officer in the [States Air Force](United)(United States Air Force) stationed in Japan, launched a [booth](photo)(photo booth) business in Tokyo in 1954. This company became Rosen Enterprises, and in 1957 began importing coin-operated games into Japan. In 1965, Nihon Goraku Bussan acquired Rosen Enterprises to form Rosen was installed as the CEO and managing director, while Stewart was named president and LeMaire was the director of planning. Shortly afterward, Sega stopped leasing to military bases and moved its focus from slot machines to coin-operated amusement machines.[2018](Horowitz)(#refHorowitz2018), p. 7 Its imports included [Rock-Ola](Rock-Ola) jukeboxes, [pinball](pinball) games by [Williams](WMS Industries), and [games](gun)(Light gun shooter) by [Manufacturing](Midway)(Midway Games).
[[1960s logo.png|alt=The word "Sega" in a red-colored text|left|thumb|Former logo](File:Sega)]
Because Sega imported second-hand machines, which required frequent maintenance, it began constructing replacement guns and flippers for its imported games. According to former Sega director Akira Nagai, this led to the company developing its own games. The first arcade [game](electro-mechanical)(electro-mechanical game) (EM game) Sega manufactured was the submarine simulator *[Periscope](Periscope (arcade game))*, released worldwide in the late 1960s. It featured light and sound effects considered innovative and was successful in Japan. It was then exported to malls and department stores in Europe and the United States and helped standardize the 25-cent-per-play cost for arcade games in the US. Sega was surprised by the success, and for the next two years, the company produced and exported between eight and ten games per year.[2018](Horowitz)(#refHorowitz2018), pp. 10–11 The worldwide success of *Periscope* led to a "technological renaissance" in the arcade industry, which was reinvigorated by a wave of "audio-visual" EM novelty games that followed in the wake of *Periscope* during the late 1960s to early 1970s. However, rampant piracy led Sega to cease exporting its games around 1970.
In 1969, Sega was sold to the American conglomerate [and Western Industries](Gulf)(Gulf and Western Industries), although Rosen remained CEO. In 1974, Gulf and Western made Sega Enterprises, Ltd., a subsidiary of an American company renamed Sega Enterprises, Inc. Sega released *Pong-Tron*, its first video-based game, in 1973.[2018](Horowitz)(#refHorowitz2018), pp. 14–16 Despite late competition from [Taito](Taito)'s hit arcade game *[Invaders](Space)(Space Invaders)* in 1978, Sega prospered from the [video game boom](arcade)(Golden age of arcade video games) of the late 1970s, with revenues climbing to over million by 1979. During this period, Sega acquired [Industries](Gremlin)(Gremlin Industries), which manufactured [microprocessor](microprocessor)-based arcade games,[2018](Horowitz)(#refHorowitz2018), pp. 21–23 and Esco Boueki, a coin-op distributor founded and owned by [Nakayama](Hayao)(Hayao Nakayama). Nakayama was placed in a management role of Sega's Japanese operations. In the early 1980s, Sega was one of the top five arcade game manufacturers active in the United States, as company revenues rose to $214 million. 1979 saw the release of [On*](*Head)(Head On (video game)), which introduced the "eat-the-dots" gameplay [Namco](Namco) later used in *[Pac-Man](Pac-Man)*.[2018](Horowitz)(#refHorowitz2018), pp. 24–26 In 1981, Sega licensed *[Frogger](Frogger)*, its most successful game until then.[2018](Horowitz)(#refHorowitz2018), p. 36 In 1982, Sega introduced the first game with [graphics](isometric)(Isometric graphics in video games and pixel art), *[Zaxxon](Zaxxon)*.[2018](Horowitz)(#refHorowitz2018), p. 48
### 1982–1989: Entry into the game console market and arcade resurgence
[[File:Sega-SG-1000-Console-Set.jpg|thumb|right|Sega's first video game console, the [SG-1000](SG-1000)|alt=A Sega SG-1000 console]]
Following a downturn in the arcade business starting in 1982, Gulf and Western sold its North American arcade game manufacturing organization and the licensing rights for its arcade games to [Manufacturing](Bally)(Bally Manufacturing) in September 1983.[2018](Horowitz)(#refHorowitz2018), p. 64 Gulf and Western retained Sega's North American [R&D](Research and development) operation and its Japanese subsidiary, Sega Enterprises, Ltd. With its arcade business in decline, Sega Enterprises, Ltd. president Nakayama advocated for the company to use its hardware expertise to move into the home consumer market in Japan. This led to Sega's development of a computer, the SC-3000. Learning that [Nintendo](Nintendo) was developing a [console](games-only)(Video game console), the [Famicom](Nintendo Entertainment System), Sega developed its first home video game system, the [SG-1000](SG-1000), alongside the SC-3000. Rebranded versions of the SG-1000 were released in several other markets worldwide. The SG-1000 sold 160,000 units in 1983, which far exceeded Sega's projection of 50,000 in the first year but was outpaced by the Famicom. This was in part because Nintendo expanded its game library by courting [developer](third-party)(third-party developer)s, whereas Sega was hesitant to collaborate with companies with which it was competing in the arcades.
In November 1983, Rosen announced his intention to step down as president of Sega Enterprises, Inc. on January 1, 1984. Jeffrey Rochlis was announced as the new president and COO of Sega. Shortly after the launch of the SG-1000, and the death of company founder [Bluhdorn](Charles)(Charles Bluhdorn), Gulf and Western began to sell off its secondary businesses. Nakayama and Rosen arranged a [buyout](management)(management buyout) of the Japanese subsidiary in 1984 with financial backing from [Corporation](CSK)(SCSK), a prominent Japanese software company. Sega's Japanese assets were purchased for $38 million by a group of investors led by Rosen and Nakayama. [Okawa](Isao)(Isao Okawa), head of CSK, became chairman, while Nakayama was installed as CEO of Sega Enterprises, Ltd.
[[File:Sega-Master-System-Set.jpg|thumb|left|The [System](Master)(Master System), released in North America in 1986 and Europe in 1987|alt=A Master System console]]
In 1985, Sega began working on the Mark III, a redesigned SG-1000. For North America, Sega rebranded the Mark III as the [System](Master)(Master System), with a futuristic design intended to appeal to Western tastes. The Mark III was released in Japan in October 1985. Despite featuring more powerful hardware than the Famicom in some ways, it was unsuccessful at launch. As Nintendo required third-party developers not to publish their Famicom games on other consoles, Sega developed its own games and obtained the rights to [port](Porting) games from other developers. To help market the console in North America, Sega planned to sell the Master System as a toy, similar to how Nintendo had done with the Nintendo Entertainment System. Sega partnered with [Tonka](Tonka), an American toy company, to make use of Tonka's expertise in the toy industry. Ineffective marketing by Tonka handicapped sales of the Master System. By early 1992, production had ceased in North America. The Master System sold between 1.5 million and 2 million units in the region. This was less market share in North America than both Nintendo and [Atari](Atari), which controlled 80 percent and 12 percent of the market respectively. The Master System was eventually a success in Europe, where its sales were comparable to the NES. As late as 1993, the Master System's active [user base](installed)(Installed base) in Europe was 6.25 million units. The Master System has had continued success in Brazil. New versions continue to be released by Sega's partner in the region, [Tectoy](Tectoy). By 2016, the Master System had sold 8 million units in Brazil.
During 1984, Sega opened its European division of arcade distribution, Sega Europe.[2018](Horowitz)(#refHorowitz2018), pp. 76–77 It re-entered the North American arcade market in 1985 with the establishment of Sega Enterprises USA at the end of a deal with Bally. The release of *[Hang-On](Hang-On)* in 1985 would prove successful in the region, becoming so popular that Sega struggled to keep up with demand for the game.[2018](Horowitz)(#refHorowitz2018), pp. 85–89 UFO Catcher was introduced in 1985 and as of 2005 was Japan's most commonly installed [crane](claw)(claw crane) game. In 1986, Sega of America was established to manage the company's consumer products in North America, beginning with marketing the Master System.[2018](Horowitz)(#refHorowitz2018), p. 151 During Sega's partnership with Tonka, Sega of America relinquished marketing and distribution of the console and focused on customer support and some localization of games. *[Run](Out)(Out Run)*, released in 1986, became Sega's best selling arcade cabinet of the 1980s. Former Sega director Akira Nagai said *Hang-On* and *Out Run* helped to pull the arcade game market out of the 1982 downturn and created new genres of video games.
### 1989–1994: Genesis, Sonic the Hedgehog, and mainstream success
[[File:Sega-Genesis-Mod2-Set.jpg|thumb|right|The [Genesis](Sega)(Sega Genesis) (second North American version pictured), Sega's successor to the [System](Master)(Master System), took control of the 16-bit console market in much of the world during the fourth generation of video game consoles.|alt=A Sega Genesis Model 2]]
With the arcade game market once again growing, Sega was one of the most recognized game brands at the end of the 1980s. In the arcades, the company focused on releasing games to appeal to diverse tastes, including [games](racing)(Racing video game) and [side-scrollers](Side-scrolling video game).[2018](Horowitz)(#refHorowitz2018), p. 141 Sega released the Master System's successor, the [Drive](Mega)(Sega Genesis), in Japan on October 29, 1988. The launch was overshadowed by Nintendo's release of *[Mario Bros. 3](Super)(Super Mario Bros. 3)* a week earlier. Positive coverage from magazines *[Famitsu](Famitsu)* and *Beep!* helped establish a following, with the latter launching a new publication dedicated to the console, but Sega shipped only 400,000 units in the first year.
The Mega Drive struggled to compete against the [Famicom](Nintendo Entertainment System) and lagged behind Nintendo's [Famicom](Super)(Super Nintendo Entertainment System) and [NEC](NEC)'s [Engine](PC)(TurboGrafx-16) in Japanese sales throughout the [era](16-bit)(Fourth generation of video game consoles).[2001](Kent)(#CITEREFKent2001), p. 447 For the North American launch, where the console was renamed Genesis, Sega had no sales and marketing organization. After Atari declined an offer to market the console in the region, Sega launched it through its own Sega of America subsidiary. The Genesis was launched in New York City and Los Angeles on August 14, 1989, and in the rest of North America later that year.[2001](Kent)(#CITEREFKent2001), p. 405 The European version of the Mega Drive was released in September 1990.
Former Atari executive and new Sega of America president Michael Katz developed a two-part strategy to build sales in North America. The first part involved a marketing campaign to challenge Nintendo and emphasize the more arcade-like experience available on the Genesis, with slogans including "Genesis does what Nintendon't". Since Nintendo owned the console rights to most arcade games of the time, the second part involved creating a library of games which used the names and likenesses of celebrities, such as ''[Jackson's Moonwalker](Michael)(Michael Jackson's Moonwalker)* and *[Montana Football](Joe)(Joe Montana Football)''.[2001](Kent)(#CITEREFKent2001), pp. 406–408 Nonetheless, Sega had difficulty overcoming Nintendo's ubiquity in homes.[2001](Kent)(#CITEREFKent2001), pp. 424–431 Despite being tasked by Nakayama to sell a million units in the first year, Katz and Sega of America sold only 500,000.
[[File:Sonic_1991.png|thumb|left|Characterized by the matching blue color of its long-standing logo, [the Hedgehog](Sonic)(Sonic the Hedgehog (character)) has been Sega's mascot since 1991.|alt=A blue anthropomorphic hedgehog wearing red shoes|246x246px]]
After the launch of the Genesis, Sega sought a new flagship line of releases to compete with Nintendo's [*Mario*](Mario (franchise)) series. Its new character, [the Hedgehog](Sonic)(Sonic the Hedgehog (character)), went on to feature in one of the [video game franchises](best-selling)(best-selling video game franchises) in history. *[the Hedgehog](Sonic)(Sonic the Hedgehog (1991 video game))* began with a [demo](tech)(tech demo) created by [Naka](Yuji)(Yuji Naka) involving a fast-moving character rolling in a ball through a winding tube; this was fleshed out with [Ohshima](Naoto)(Naoto Ohshima)'s character design and levels conceived by designer [Yasuhara](Hirokazu)(Hirokazu Yasuhara). Sonic's color was chosen to match Sega's [blue](cobalt)(cobalt blue) logo; his shoes were inspired by [Jackson](Michael)(Michael Jackson)'s boots, and his personality by [Clinton](Bill)(Bill Clinton)'s "can-do" attitude.
Nakayama hired [Kalinske](Tom)(Tom Kalinske) as CEO of Sega of America in mid-1990, and Katz departed soon after. Kalinske knew little about the video game market, but surrounded himself with industry-savvy advisors. A believer in the [business model](razor-and-blades)(razor and blades business model), he developed a four-point plan: cut the price of the Genesis, create a US team to develop games targeted at the American market, expand the aggressive advertising campaigns, and replace the bundled game *[Beast](Altered)(Altered Beast)* with *Sonic the Hedgehog*. The Japanese board of directors disapproved, but it was approved by Nakayama, who told Kalinske, "I hired you to make the decisions for Europe and the Americas, so go ahead and do it."
In large part due to the popularity of *Sonic the Hedgehog*, the Genesis outsold its main competitor, the [Nintendo Entertainment System](Super)(Super Nintendo Entertainment System) (SNES), in the United States nearly two to one during the 1991 holiday season. By January 1992, Sega controlled 65 percent of the [16-bit](History of video game consoles (fourth generation)) console market. Sega outsold Nintendo for four consecutive Christmas seasons[2001](Kent)(#CITEREFKent2001), pp. 496–497 due to the Genesis' head start, lower price, and a larger library compared to the SNES at release.[2001](Kent)(#CITEREFKent2001), pp. 434–449 Nintendo's dollar share of the US 16-bit market dropped from 60% at the end of 1992 to 37% at the end of 1993, Sega claimed 55% of all 16-bit hardware sales during 1994, and the SNES outsold the Genesis from 1995 through 1997.
In 1990, Sega launched the [Gear](Game)(Sega Game Gear), a [console](handheld)(Handheld game console), to compete against Nintendo's [Boy](Game)(Game Boy). The Game Gear was designed as a portable version of the Master System and featured a full-color screen, in contrast to the [monochrome](monochromatic) Game Boy screen. Due to its short battery life, lack of original games, and weak support from Sega, the Game Gear did not surpass the Game Boy, having sold approximately 11 million units. Sega launched the [Mega-CD](Sega CD) in Japan on December 1, 1991, initially retailing at [JP¥](Japanese yen)49,800. The add-on uses [CD-ROM](CD-ROM) technology. Further features include a second, faster processor, vastly expanded system memory, a graphics chip that performed [scaling](Scaling (geometry)) and [rotation](rotation) similar to Sega's arcade games, and another sound chip. In North America, it was renamed the Sega CD and launched on October 15, 1992, with a retail price of US$299.[2001](Kent)(#CITEREFKent2001), pp. 449–461 It was released in Europe as the Mega-CD in 1993. The Mega-CD sold only 100,000 units during its first year in Japan, falling well below expectations.
[[File:Virtua formula.jpg|alt=A line of arcade cabinets with racing car seats|thumb|Larger *[Formula](Virtua)(Virtua Formula)* installation of *Virtua Racing* at the Sega VirtuaLand arcade in [Las Vegas](Luxor)(Luxor Las Vegas), circa late 1993]]
Throughout the early 1990s, Sega largely continued its success in arcades around the world. In 1992 and 1993, the new [Model 1](Sega)(Sega Model 1#Sega Model 1) arcade system board showcased in-house development studio [AM2](Sega)(Sega AM2)'s *[Racing](Virtua)(Virtua Racing)* and *[Fighter](Virtua)(Virtua Fighter (video game))* (the first [3D](3D computer graphics) [game](fighting)(fighting game)), which, though expensive, played a crucial role in popularizing 3D polygonal graphics. In addition, complex simulator equipment like the rotational [R360](R360) kept Sega competing with machines by rival arcade companies, including [Taito](Taito). New official region-specific distributors and manufacturers, including the UK's Deith Leisure, allowed Sega to sell its machines outside of Japan with ease. Sega's domestic operations division also opened hundreds of family-oriented suburban [World](Sega)(Sega World) amusement arcades in Japan during this period, as well as large over-18s "GiGO" facilities in the high-profile urban areas of [Roppongi](Roppongi) and [Ikebukuro](Ikebukuro). In 1993, this success was mirrored in overseas territories with the openings of several large branded entertainment centers, such as Sega VirtuaLand in [Las Vegas](Luxor)(Luxor Las Vegas). In 1994, Sega generated a revenue of or ,000,000|long=no|1994|round=-6}}.
In 1993, the American media began to focus on the mature content of certain video games, such as *[Trap](Night)(Night Trap)* for the Sega CD and the Genesis version of Midway's [Kombat*](*Mortal)(Mortal Kombat (1992 video game)).[2001](Kent)(History of Sega#refKent2001), p. 461–480 This came at a time when Sega was capitalizing on its image as an "edgy" company with "attitude", and this reinforced that image. To handle this, Sega instituted the United States' first video game ratings system, the [Rating Council](Videogame)(Videogame Rating Council) (VRC), for all its systems. Ratings ranged from the family-friendly GA rating to the more mature rating of MA-13, and the adults-only rating of MA-17. Executive vice president of Nintendo of America [Lincoln](Howard)(Howard Lincoln) was quick to point out in the [States congressional hearings in 1993](United)(1993 congressional hearings on video games) that *Night Trap* was not rated at all. Senator [Lieberman](Joe)(Joe Lieberman) called for another hearing in February 1994 to check progress toward a rating system for video game violence. After the hearings, Sega proposed the universal adoption of the VRC; after objections by Nintendo and others, Sega took a role in forming the [Software Rating Board](Entertainment)(Entertainment Software Rating Board).
### 1994–1998: 32X, Saturn, falling console sales, and continued arcade success
Sega began work on the Genesis' successor, the [Saturn](Sega)(Sega Saturn), more than two years before showcasing it at the Tokyo Toy Show in June 1994. According to former Sega of America producer Scot Bayless, Nakayama became concerned about the 1994 release of the [Jaguar](Atari)(Atari Jaguar), and that the Saturn would not be available until the next year. As a result, Nakayama decided to have a second console release to market by the end of 1994. Sega began to develop the [32X](32X), a Genesis add-on which would serve as a less expensive entry into the [era](32-bit)(History of video game consoles (fifth generation)). The 32X would not be compatible with the Saturn, but would play Genesis games. Sega released the 32X on November 21, 1994, in North America, December 3, 1994, in Japan, and January 1995 in PAL territories, and was sold at less than half of the Saturn's launch price. After the holiday season, interest in the 32X rapidly declined.
[[File:Sega-Saturn-Console-Set-Mk1.jpg|thumb|right|The [Saturn](Sega)(Sega Saturn) failed to repeat the western success of the Genesis.|alt=A Sega Saturn console]]
Sega released the Saturn in Japan on November 22, 1994. *Virtua Fighter*, a port of the popular arcade game, sold at a nearly one-to-one ratio with the Saturn at launch and was crucial to the system's early success in Japan. Sega's initial shipment of 200,000 Saturn units sold out on the first day, and it was more popular than the new competitor [Sony](Sony)'s [PlayStation](PlayStation (console)) in Japan. In March 1995, Sega of America CEO Tom Kalinske announced that the Saturn would be released in the US on "Saturnday" (Saturday) September 2, 1995. Sega of Japan mandated an early launch to give the Saturn an advantage over the PlayStation. At the first [Entertainment Expo](Electronic)(Electronic Entertainment Expo) (E3) in Los Angeles on May 11, 1995, Kalinske revealed the release price and that Sega had shipped 30,000 Saturns to ["R" Us](Toys)(Toys "R" Us), [Babbage's](Babbage's), [Boutique](Electronics)(Electronics Boutique), and [Etc.](Software)(Software Etc.) for immediate release. A by-product of the surprise launch was the provocation of retailers not included in Sega's rollout; [Toys](KB)(KB Toys) in particular decided to no longer stock its products in response.
The Saturn's release in Europe also came before the previously announced North American date, on July 8, 1995. Within two days of the PlayStation's American launch on September 9, 1995, the PlayStation sold more units than the Saturn. Within its first year, the PlayStation secured over twenty percent of the US video game market. The console's high price point, surprise launch, and difficulty handling polygonal graphics were factors in its lack of success. Sega also underestimated the continued popularity of the Genesis; 16-bit sales accounted for 64 percent of the market in 1995. Despite capturing 43 percent of the US market dollar share and selling more than 2 million Genesis units in 1995, Kalinske estimated that, if prepared for demand, another 300,000 could have been sold.
Sega announced that [Irimajiri](Shoichiro)(Shoichiro Irimajiri) had been appointed chairman and CEO of Sega of America in July 1996, while Kalinske left Sega after September 30 of that year. A former [Honda](Honda) executive, Irimajiri had been involved with Sega of America since joining Sega in 1993. The company also announced that Rosen and Nakayama had resigned from their positions at Sega of America, though both remained with Sega. [Stolar](Bernie)(Bernie Stolar), a former executive at Sony Computer Entertainment of America, became Sega of America's executive vice president in charge of product development and third-party relations. Stolar was not supportive of the Saturn, believing its hardware was poorly designed.
While Stolar had said "the Saturn is not our future" at E3 1997, he continued to emphasize the quality of its games, and later reflected that "we tried to wind it down as cleanly as we could for the consumer." At Sony, Stolar had opposed the [localization](Video game localization) of certain Japanese PlayStation games that he felt would not represent the system well in North America. He advocated a similar policy for the Saturn, generally blocking 2D arcade games and role-playing games from release, although he later sought to distance himself from this stance. Other changes included a softer image in Sega's advertising, including removing the "Sega!" scream, and holding press events for the education industry.
[[Joypolis entrance.jpg|thumb|left|Tokyo Joypolis, the flagship Sega indoor theme park, in 1999](File:Tokyo)]
Sega partnered with [GE](General Electric) to develop the [Model 2](Sega)(Sega Model 2) arcade system board, building on 3D technology in the arcade industry at the time. This led to several successful arcade games, including [USA*](*Daytona)(Daytona USA (video game)), launched in a limited capacity in late 1993 and worldwide in 1994. Other popular games included *[Cop](Virtua)(Virtua Cop)*, *[Rally Championship](Sega)(Sega Rally Championship)*, and *[Fighter 2](Virtua)(Virtua Fighter 2)*.[2018](Horowitz)(#refHorowitz2018), pp. 198–210 *Virtua Fighter* and *Virtua Fighter 2* became Sega's best-selling arcade games of all time, surpassing their previous record holder *Out Run*. ([Translation](http://shmuplations.com/akiranagai/) by Shmuplations. ). There was also a technological [race](arms)(arms race) between Sega and [Namco](Namco) during this period, driving the growth of 3D gaming.
Beginning in 1994, Sega launched a series of indoor theme parks in Japan under a concept dubbed "Amusement Theme Park", including [Joypolis](Joypolis) parks sited in urban Tokyo locations such as [Yokohama](Yokohama) and [Odaiba](Odaiba). A rapid overseas rollout was planned, with at least 100 locations across the world proposed to be opened by 2000, however only two, [London](SegaWorld)(SegaWorld London) and [World Sydney](Sega)(Sega World Sydney), would ultimately materialise in September 1996 and Match 1997, respectively. Following on from difficulties faced in setting up theme parks in the United States, Sega established the [GameWorks](GameWorks) chain of urban entertainment centers in a joint venture with [SKG](DreamWorks)(DreamWorks SKG) and [Studios](Universal)(Universal Studios) during March 1997.
In 1995, Sega partnered with [Atlus](Atlus) to launch *[Club](Print)(Print Club)* ([purikura](purikura)), an arcade photo sticker machine that produces [selfie](selfie) photos. Atlus and Sega introduced *Purikura* in February 1995, initially at game arcades, before expanding to other popular culture locations such as fast food shops, train stations, [karaoke](karaoke) establishments and bowling alleys. *Purikura* became a popular form of entertainment among youths across [Asia](East)(East Asia), laying the foundations for modern selfie culture. By 1997, about 47,000 *Purikura* machines had been sold, earning Sega an estimated () or ,000,000|long=no|1997|round=-6}} from *Purikura* sales that year. Various other similar *purikira* machines appeared from other manufacturers, with Sega controlling about half of the market in 1997.
Sega also made forays in the [PC](Personal computer) market with the 1995 establishment of [SegaSoft](SegaSoft), which was tasked with creating original Saturn and PC games. From 1994 to 1999, Sega also participated in the arcade [pinball](pinball) market when it took over [East](Data)(Data East)'s pinball division, renaming it Sega Pinball.
In January 1997, Sega announced its intentions to merge with the Japanese toymaker [Bandai](Bandai). The merger, planned as a $1 billion [swap](stock)(stock swap) whereby Sega would wholly acquire Bandai, was set to form a company known as Sega Bandai, Ltd. Though it was to be finalized in October of that year, it was called off in May after growing opposition from Bandai's midlevel executives. Bandai instead agreed to a business alliance with Sega. As a result of Sega's deteriorating financial situation, Nakayama resigned as Sega president in January 1998 in favor of Irimajiri. Nakayama's resignation may have in part been due to the failure of the merger, as well as Sega's 1997 performance. Stolar became CEO and president of Sega of America.
After the launch of the [64](Nintendo)(Nintendo 64) in the US during 1996, sales of the Saturn and its games fell sharply in much of the west. The PlayStation outsold the Saturn three-to-one in the US in 1997, and the latter failed to gain a foothold in Europe and Australia, where the Nintendo 64 would not release until March 1997. After several years of declining profits, Sega had a slight increase in the fiscal year ended March 1997, partly driven by increasing arcade revenue, while outperforming Nintendo during the mid-term period. However, in the fiscal year ending March 1998, Sega suffered its first financial loss since its 1988 listing on the [Stock Exchange](Tokyo)(Tokyo Stock Exchange) as both a [company](parent)(parent company) and a corporation as a whole. Shortly before the announcement of the losses, Sega discontinued the Saturn in North America to prepare for the launch of its successor, the [Dreamcast](Dreamcast), releasing remaining games in low quantities.
The decision to discontinue the Saturn effectively left the North American home console market without Sega games for over a year, with most of its activity in the country coming from arcade divisions. The Saturn lasted longer in some Europe territories and particularly Japan, with it notably outperforming the Nintendo 64 in the latter. Nonetheless, Irimajiri confirmed in an interview with Japanese newspaper *Daily Yomiuri* that Saturn development would stop at the end of 1998 and games would continue to be produced until mid-1999. With lifetime sales of 9.26 million units, the Saturn is retrospectively considered a [failure](commercial)(List of commercial failures in video gaming) in much of the world. While Sega had success with the [3](Model)(Sega Model 3) arcade board and titles like *[Fighter 3](Virtua)(Virtua Fighter 3)*, Sega's arcade divisions struggled in the West during the late 1990s.[2018](Horowitz)(#refHorowitz2018), pp. 211–212 On the other hand, Sega's arcade divisions were more successful in Asia, with Sega's overall arcade revenues increasing year-on-year throughout the late 1990s, but it was not enough to offset the significant declining revenues of Sega's home consumer divisions.
### 1998–2001: Dreamcast and continuing struggles
[[File:Dreamcast-Console-Set.png|thumb|left|The [Dreamcast](Dreamcast), discontinued in 2001, was Sega's last video game console.|alt=A Dreamcast console]]
Despite a 75 percent drop in half-year profits just before the Japanese launch of the Dreamcast, Sega felt confident about its new system. The Dreamcast attracted significant interest and drew many pre-orders. Sega announced that *[Adventure](Sonic)(Sonic Adventure)*, the next game starring company mascot Sonic the Hedgehog, would be a Dreamcast [game](launch)(launch game). It was promoted with a large-scale public demonstration at the [Kokusai Forum Hall](Tokyo)(Tokyo International Forum). Due to a high failure rate in the manufacturing process, Sega could not ship enough consoles for the Dreamcast's Japanese launch. As more than half of its limited stock had been pre-ordered, Sega stopped pre-orders in Japan. Before the launch, Sega announced the release of its [Arcade Operation Machine Idea](New)(Sega NAOMI) (NAOMI) [system board](arcade)(arcade system board), which served as a cheaper alternative to the [Model 3](Sega)(Sega Model 3). NAOMI shared technology with the Dreamcast, allowing nearly identical ports of arcade games.
The Dreamcast launched in Japan on November 27, 1998. The entire stock of 150,000 consoles sold out by the end of the day. Irimajiri estimated that another 200,000 to 300,000 Dreamcast units could have been sold with sufficient supply. He hoped to sell more than a million Dreamcast units in Japan by February 1999, but less than 900,000 were sold. The low sales undermined Sega's attempts to build up a sufficient [base](installed)(installed base) to ensure the Dreamcast's survival after the arrival of competition from other manufacturers. Sega suffered a further ¥42.881 billion consolidated net loss in the fiscal year ending March 1999, and announced plans to eliminate 1,000 jobs, nearly a quarter of its workforce. Before the Western launch, Sega reduced the price of the Dreamcast in Japan by JP¥9,100, effectively making it unprofitable but increasing sales.
On August 11, 1999, Sega of America confirmed that Stolar had been fired. [Moore](Peter)(Peter Moore (businessman)), whom Stolar had hired as a Sega of America executive only six months before, was placed in charge of the North American launch. The Dreamcast launched in North America on September 9, 1999, with 18 games. Sega set a record by selling more than 225,132 Dreamcast units in 24 hours, earning $98.4 million in what Moore called "the biggest 24 hours in entertainment retail history". Within two weeks, US Dreamcast sales exceeded 500,000. By Christmas, Sega held 31 percent of the US video game market by revenue. On November 4, Sega announced it had sold more than a million Dreamcast units. Nevertheless, the launch was marred by a glitch at one of Sega's manufacturing plants, which produced defective [GD-ROM](GD-ROM)s where [data](data) was not properly [recorded](Optical disc authoring) onto the disc. Sega released the Dreamcast in Europe on October 14, 1999. While Sega sold 500,000 units in Europe by Christmas 1999, sales there slowed, and by October 2000 Sega had sold only about a million units.
Though the Dreamcast's launch was successful, Sony's PlayStation still held 60 percent of the overall market share in North America at the end of 1999. On March 2, 1999, in what one report called a "highly publicized, [vaporware](vaporware)-like announcement", Sony revealed the first details of the [2](PlayStation)(PlayStation 2). The same year, Nintendo announced that its next console would meet or exceed anything on the market, and [Microsoft](Microsoft) began development of its own console, the [Xbox](Xbox (console)). Sega's initial momentum proved fleeting as US Dreamcast sales—which exceeded 1.5 million by the end of 1999—began to decline as early as January 2000. Poor Japanese sales contributed to Sega's ¥42.88 billion ($404 million) consolidated net loss in the fiscal year ending March 2000. This followed a similar loss of ¥42.881 billion the previous year and marked Sega's third consecutive annual loss. Sega's overall sales for the term increased 27.4 percent, and Dreamcast sales in North America and Europe greatly exceeded its expectations. However, this coincided with a decrease in profitability due to the investments required to launch the Dreamcast in Western markets and poor software sales in Japan. At the same time, worsening conditions reduced the profitability of Sega's Japanese arcade business, prompting the closure of 246 locations.
Moore became the president and chief operating officer of Sega of America on 8 May, 2000. He said the Dreamcast would need to sell 5 million units in the US by the end of 2000 to remain viable, but Sega fell short of this goal with some 3 million units sold. Moreover, Sega's attempts to spur Dreamcast sales through lower prices and cash rebates caused escalating financial losses. In March 2001, Sega posted a consolidated net loss of ¥51.7 billion ($417.5 million). While the PlayStation 2's October 26 US launch was marred by shortages, this did not benefit the Dreamcast as much as expected, as many disappointed consumers continued to wait or purchased a [PSone](PSOne). Eventually, Sony and Nintendo held 50 and 35 percent of the US video game market respectively, while Sega held only 15 percent.
### 2001–2003: Shift to third-party software development
[[Annual Income(Loss) 1993-2004.svg|thumb||alt=A graph of Sega's Annual Income and Loss|upright=1.8](File:Sega)]
CSK chairman Isao Okawa replaced Irimajiri as president of Sega on May 22, 2000. Okawa had long advocated that Sega abandon the console business. Others shared this view; Sega co-founder David Rosen had "always felt it was a bit of a folly for them to be limiting their potential to Sega hardware", and Stolar had suggested Sega should have sold the company to Microsoft. In a September 2000 meeting with Sega's Japanese executives and heads of its first-party game studios, Moore and Sega of America executive Charles Bellfield recommended that Sega abandon its console business. In response, the studio heads walked out. Sega announced an official company name change from Sega Enterprises, Ltd. to Sega Corporation effective November 1, 2000. Sega stated in a release that this was to display its commitment to its "network entertainment business".
On January 23, 2001, Japanese newspaper *[Keizai Shinbun](Nihon)(Nihon Keizai Shinbun)* reported that Sega would cease production of the Dreamcast and develop software for other platforms. After an initial denial, Sega released a press release confirming it was considering producing software for the PlayStation2 and [Boy Advance](Game)(Game Boy Advance) as part of its "new management policy". On January 31, 2001, Sega announced the discontinuation of the Dreamcast after March 31 and the restructuring of the company as a "platform-agnostic" third-party developer. Sega also announced a Dreamcast price reduction to eliminate its unsold inventory, estimated at 930,000 units as of April 2001. This was followed by further reductions to clear the remaining inventory. The final manufactured Dreamcast was autographed by the heads of all nine of Sega's first-party game studios, plus the heads of sports game developer [Concepts](Visual)(Visual Concepts) and audio studio Wave Master, and given away with 55 first-party Dreamcast games through a competition organized by *[GamePro](GamePro)*.
Okawa, who had loaned Sega $500 million in 1999, died on March 16, 2001. Shortly before his death, he forgave Sega's debts to him and returned his $695 million worth of Sega and CSK stock, helping the company survive the third-party transition. He held failed talks with Microsoft about a sale or [merger](Mergers and acquisitions) with their Xbox division. According to former Microsoft executive [Kempin](Joachim)(Joachim Kempin), Microsoft founder, [Gates](Bill)(Bill Gates), decided against acquiring Sega because "he didn't think that Sega had enough muscle to eventually stop Sony". A business alliance with Microsoft was announced whereby Sega would develop 11 games for the Xbox. As part of the restructuring, nearly one third of Sega's Tokyo workforce was laid off in 2001. 2002 was Sega's fifth consecutive fiscal year of net losses.
After Okawa's death, Hideki Sato, a 30-year Sega veteran who had worked on Sega's consoles, became the company president. Following poor sales in 2002, Sega cut its profit forecast for 2003 by 90 percent, and explored opportunities for mergers. In 2003, Sega began talks with [Corporation](Sammy)(Sammy Corporation)–a [pachinko](pachinko) and [pachislot](pachislot) manufacturing company–and Namco. The president of Sammy, [Satomi](Hajime)(Hajime Satomi), had been mentored by Okawa and was previously asked to be CEO of Sega. On February 13, Sega announced that it would merge with Sammy; however, as late as April 17, Sega was still in talks with Namco, which was attempting to overturn the merger. Sega's consideration of Namco's offer upset Sammy executives. The day after Sega announced it no longer planned to merge with Sammy, Namco withdrew its offer.[2018](Horowitz)(#refHorowitz2018), pp. 253–257
In 2003, Sato and [COO](Chief operating officer) Tetsu Kamaya stepped down. Sato was replaced by Hisao Oguchi, the head of the Sega studio [Hitmaker](Sega AM3). Moore left Sega in January 2003 following a meeting in which he was frustrated by Japanese executives refusing to adapt to industry changes, such as the demand for mature games such as *[Theft Auto III](Grand)(Grand Theft Auto III)*. Hideaki Irie, who had worked at [Agetec](Agetec) and [ASCII](ASCII Media Works), became the new president and COO of Sega of America in October 2003.
### 2003–2015: Sammy takeover and business expansion
[[File:Sega Sammy Holdings logo.svg|thumb|left|[Sammy Holdings](Sega)(Sega Sammy Holdings) (current logo pictured) was founded in 2004 with pachinko and pachislot manufacturer [Corporation](Sammy)(Sammy Corporation)'s purchase of Sega.|alt=Sega Sammy Holdings logo]]
In August 2003, Sammy bought 22.4 percent of Sega's shares from CSK, making Sammy into Sega's largest shareholder. In the same year, Hajime Satomi said Sega's activity would focus on its profitable arcade business as opposed to loss-incurring home software development. In 2004, [Sammy Holdings](Sega)(Sega Sammy Holdings), an entertainment conglomerate, was created; Sega and Sammy became subsidiaries of the new holding company, both companies operating independently while the executive departments merged. According to the first Sega Sammy *Annual Report*, the merger went ahead as both companies were facing difficulties. Satomi said Sega had been operating at a loss for nearly ten years, while Sammy feared stagnation and overreliance of its highly profitable pachislot and pachinko machine business and wanted to diversify. Sammy acquired the remaining percentages of Sega, completing a [takeover](takeover). The stock swap deal valued Sega between $1.45 billion and $1.8 billion. Sega Sammy Holdings was structured into four parts: Consumer Business (video games), Amusement Machine Business (arcade games), Amusement Center Business (Sega's theme parks and arcades) and Pachislot and Pachinko Business (Sammy's pachinko and pachislot business).
In response to the decline of the global arcade industry in the late 1990s, Sega created several novel concepts tailored to the Japanese market. *[Owners Club](Derby)(Derby Owners Club)* was an arcade machine with memory cards for data storage, designed to take over half an hour to complete and costing JP¥500 to play. Testing of *Derby Owners Club* in a Chicago arcade showed that it had become the most popular machine at the location, with a 92% replay rate. While the eight-player Japanese version of the game was released in 1999, the game was reduced to a smaller four-player version due to size issues and released in North America in 2003.[2018](Horowitz)(#refHorowitz2018), pp. 251–252
According to an industry survey, as of 2005, sales of arcade machines were up for the previous four years in Japan, while down for nine straight years overseas. While the Japanese market retained core players, western arcades had become more focused on casual players, and Sega Amusements Europe, the entity created to officially distribute and manufacture Sega's machines on the continent after the consolidation of its regional divisions, subsequently decided to develop more games locally that were better suited to western tastes. In 2005, the [GameWorks](GameWorks) chain of arcades came under the sole ownership of Sega, which previously was shared with [Universal](Vivendi)(Vivendi Universal), and remained under their ownership until 2011. In 2009, [Republic](Sega)(Sega Republic), an indoor theme park, opened in [Dubai](Dubai).7|url=https://www.emirates247.com/eb247/companies-markets/retail/sega-republic-to-open-as-major-new-attraction-2009-08-21-1.30495|access-date=2020-07-04|website=www.emirates247.com|language=en}} Sega gradually reduced its arcade centers from 450 in 2005 to around 200 in 2015. Arcade machine sales incurred higher profits than the company's console, mobile and PC games on a year-to-year basis until the fiscal year of 2014.
In order to drive growth in western markets, Sega announced new leadership for Sega of America and Sega Europe in 2005. [Jeffery](Simon)(Simon Jeffery) became president and COO of Sega of America, and [Hayes](Mike)(Mike Hayes (businessman)) president and COO for Sega Europe. In 2009, Hayes became president of the combined outfit of both Sega of America and Sega Europe, due to Jeffery leaving. Gaming Industry MCV|url=http://www.mcvuk.com/news/34736/Hayes-set-for-global-Sega-rolern|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090620152141/http://www.mcvuk.com/news/34736/Hayes-set-for-global-Sega-rolern|url-status=dead|archive-date=2009-06-20|access-date=2020-07-27}} In the console and handheld business, Sega found success in the Japanese market with the *[Yakuza](Yakuza (series)), [Star Portable](Phantasy)(Phantasy Star Portable)* and *[Miku: Project DIVA](Hatsune)(Hatsune Miku: Project DIVA)* series. Sega began providing the 3D imaging for *Hatsune Miku* [concerts](holographic)(Holography) in 2010. Sega also distributes games from smaller Japanese game developers and sells localizations of Western games in Japan. In 2013, [Corporation](Index)(Index Corporation) was purchased by Sega Sammy after going bankrupt. The year before, Sega signed a deal to distribute Atlus titles in Japan. After the buyout, Sega implemented a [spin-off](corporate)(corporate spin-off) with Index. The latter's game assets were rebranded as [Atlus](Atlus), a wholly owned subsidiary of Sega.
In the mobile market, Sega released its first app on the [Store](iTunes)(iTunes Store) with a version of *[Monkey Ball](Super)(Super Monkey Ball)* in 2008.|date=2008-07-11|title=Review: Super Monkey Ball for iPhone|url=https://www.macworld.com/article/1134452/supermonkeyball.html|access-date=2020-07-04|website=Macworld|language=en}} Due in part to the decline of packaged game sales worldwide in the 2010s, Sega began layoffs and closed five offices based in Europe and Australia on July 1, 2012. This was to focus on the digital game market, such as PC and mobile devices. In 2012, Sega also began acquiring studios for mobile development, studios such as [Hardlight](Hardlight), [Rings Design](Three)(Three Rings Design), and [Studios](Demiurge)(Demiurge Studios) becoming fully owned subsidiaries. 19 older mobile games were pulled due to quality concerns in May 2015.
To streamline operations, Sega established operational firms for each of its businesses in the 2010s. In 2012, Sega established Sega Networks as a subsidiary company for its mobile games. The same year, Sega Entertainment was established for Sega's amusement facility business. In January 2015, Sega of America announced its relocation from San Francisco to [USA](Atlus)(Atlus USA)'s headquarters in [California](Irvine,)(Irvine, California), which was completed later that year. From 2005 to 2015, Sega's [income](operating)(Earnings before interest and taxes) generally saw improvements compared to Sega's past financial problems, but was not profitable every year.
### 2015–2020: Sega Games and Sega Interactive
In April 2015, Sega Corporation was reorganized into Sega Group, one of three groups of Sega Sammy Holdings. Sega Holdings Co., Ltd. was established, with four business sectors under its control. Haruki Satomi, son of Hajime Satomi, took office as president and CEO of the company in April 2015. Sega Games Co., Ltd. became the legal name of Sega Corporation and continued to manage home video games, while Sega Interactive Co., Ltd. was founded to take control of the arcade division. Sega Networks merged with Sega Games Co., Ltd. in 2015. At the [Game Show](Tokyo)(Tokyo Game Show) in September 2016, Sega announced that it had acquired the intellectual property and development rights to all games developed and published by [Technosoft](Technosoft). Effective from January 2017, 85.1% of the shares in Sega's theme park business became owned by China Animations Character Co., renaming the former Sega Live Creation to [Sega Joypolis](CA)(CA Sega Joypolis).
[[HQ 2018 2.jpg|alt=A large skyscraper with glass windows|thumb|Sega's headquarters in Shinagawa-ku, Tokyo, Japan](File:Sega)]
Sega Sammy Holdings announced in April 2017 that it would relocate its head office functions and domestic subsidiaries located in the [metropolitan area](Tokyo)(Tokyo metropolitan area) to [Shinagawa-ku](Shinagawa-ku) by January 2018. This was to consolidate scattered head office functions including Sega Sammy Holdings, Sammy Corporation, Sega Holdings, Sega Games, Atlus, Sammy Network, and Dartslive. Sega's previous headquarters in [Ōta](Ōta, Tokyo) was sold in 2019.
In June 2017, Chris Bergstresser replaced Jurgen Post as president and COO of Sega Europe. In June 2018, Gary Dale, formerly of [Games](Rockstar)(Rockstar Games) and [Interactive](Take-Two)(Take-Two Interactive), replaced Chris Bergstresser as president and COO of Sega Europe. A few months later, Ian Curran, a former executive at [THQ](THQ) and [Entertainment](Acclaim)(Acclaim Entertainment), replaced John Cheng as president and COO of Sega of America in August 2018. In October 2018, Sega reported favorable western sales results from games such as *[6](Yakuza)(Yakuza 6: The Song of Life)* and *[5](Persona)(Persona 5)*, due to the localization work of Atlus USA.
Despite a 35-percent increase in the sale of console games and success in its PC game business, profits fell 70 percent for the 2018 [year](fiscal)(fiscal year) in comparison to the previous year, mainly due to the digital games market which includes mobile games as well as *[Star Online 2](Phantasy)(Phantasy Star Online 2)*. In response, Sega announced that for its digital games it would focus on releases for its existing [property](intellectual)(intellectual property) and also focus on growth areas such as packaged games in the overseas market. Sega blamed the loss on market miscalculations and having too many games under development. Projects in development at Sega included a new game in the *Yakuza* series, the [the Hedgehog*](*Sonic)(Sonic the Hedgehog (film)) film, and the [Genesis Mini](Sega)(Sega Genesis Mini), which was released in September 2019. In May 2019, Sega acquired [Point Studios](Two)(Two Point Studios), known for *[Point Hospital](Two)(Two Point Hospital)*.
On April 1, 2020, Sega Interactive merged with Sega Games Co., Ltd. The company was again renamed Sega Corporation, while Sega Holdings Co., Ltd. was renamed Sega Group Corporation. According to a company statement, the move was made to allow greater [and development](research)(research and development) flexibility. Also in April 2020, Sega sold Demiurge Studios to Demiurge co-founder Albert Reed. Demiurge said it would continue to support the mobile games it developed under Sega.
### 2020–present: Recent history
As part of the company's 60th anniversary, Sega announced the [Gear Micro](Game)(Game Gear Micro) [microconsole](microconsole) for release on October 6, 2020 in Japan. Sega also announced its Fog Gaming platform, which utilizes the unused processing power of arcade machines in Japanese arcades overnight to help power [gaming](cloud)(cloud gaming) applications.
Sega made a number of restructuring moves in the early 2020s. During the latter half of 2020, many of the financial gains Sega made in the earlier part of the year dissolved due to the impact of the [pandemic](COVID-19)(COVID-19 pandemic) on its Sega Entertainment division, which ran its arcades. In November of that year, Sega Sammy sold 85.1% of its shares in the division to Genda Inc., though the Sega branding and coin-operated machines produced by the company continue to be found in the arcades. Arcade game development was unaffected by the move. By January 2022, Sega sold the remaining portion of this division to Genda. Sega Group Corporation was formally dissolved by its parent company in 2021.
Contrasting its losses brought forth by amusement operations in 2020, sales and critical reception of Sega's home console games improved; [Metacritic](Metacritic) named Sega the best publisher of the year [2020](in)(2020 in video games). Of its 28 releases that year, 95% had "good" Metacritic scores (above 75%), including two with "great" scores (above 90% for *[5 Royal](Persona)(Persona 5 Royal)* and *[0](Yakuza)(Yakuza 0)*), with an average Metacritic score of 81.6% for all 2020 Sega releases. In 2023, Sega announced plans to acquire Finnish video game developer [Entertainment](Rovio)(Rovio Entertainment) for $776 million USD by the end of September.
## Corporate structure
Since 2004, Sega has been a subsidiary of Sega Sammy Holdings. Sega's global headquarters are in [Tokyo](Shinagawa,)(Shinagawa, Tokyo), Japan. Sega also has offices in Irvine, California (as Sega of America), in London (as Sega Europe), in Seoul, South Korea (as Sega Publishing Korea), and in Singapore, Hong Kong, Shanghai, and Taipei. In other regions, Sega has contracted distributors for its games and consoles, such as Tectoy in Brazil. Sega has had offices in France, Germany, Spain, and Australia; those markets have since contracted distributors.
Relations between the regional offices have not always been smooth. Some conflict in the 1990s may have been caused by Sega president Nakayama and his admiration for Sega of America; according to Kalinske, "There were some guys in the executive suites who really didn't like that Nakayama in particular appeared to favor the US executives. A lot of the Japanese executives were maybe a little jealous, and I think some of that played into the decisions that were made." By contrast, author [L. Kent](Steven)(Steven L. Kent) said Nakayama bullied American executives and that Nakayama believed the Japanese executives made the best decisions. Kent also said Sega of America CEOs Kalinske, Stolar, and Moore dreaded meeting with Sega of Japan executives.
### Subsidiaries of Sega Corporation
[[File:CLUB SEGA Akihabara Annex 20111122.jpg|thumb|Club Sega game center in [Akihabara](Akihabara), Tokyo|alt=A Club Sega building]]
After the formation of Sega Group in 2015 and the founding of Sega Holdings, the former Sega Corporation was renamed Sega Games Co., Ltd. Under this structure, Sega Games was responsible for the home video game market and consumer development, while Sega Interactive Co., Ltd., comprised Sega's arcade game business. The two were consolidated in 2020, renamed as Sega Corporation, and Sega Group Corporation was formally absorbed into Sega Corporation in 2021. The company includes Sega Networks, which handles game development for [smartphone](smartphone)s. Sega Corporation develops and publishes games for major video game consoles and arcade cabinets, and has not expressed interest in developing consoles again. According to former Sega Europe CEO Mike Brogan, "There is no future in selling hardware. In any market, through competition, the hardware eventually becomes a commodity... If a company has to sell hardware then it should only be to leverage software, even if that means taking a hit on the hardware."
[Toys Co., Ltd.](Sega)(Sega Toys), originally known as Yonezawa Toys and acquired by Sega in 1991, has created toys for children's franchises such as *[Majo: Love and Berry](Oshare)(Oshare Majo: Love and Berry)*, *[King of the Beetles](Mushiking:)(Mushiking: King of the Beetles)*, *[Lilpri](Lilpri)*, [*Bakugan*](Bakugan Battle Brawlers), *[Jewelpet](Jewelpet)*, *[Rilu Fairilu](Rilu)(Rilu Rilu Fairilu)*, *[King](Dinosaur)(Dinosaur King)*, and *[Bank](Hero)(Hero Bank)*. Products released in the West include the home planetarium [Homestar](Megastar (projector)) and the robot dog [iDog](iDog). The Homestar was released in 2005 and has been improved several times. Its newest model, *Flux*, was released in 2019. The series is developed by the Japanese inventor and entrepreneur [Ohira](Takayuki)(Takayuki Ohira). As a recognized specialist for professional planetariums, he has received numerous innovation prizes and supplies large planetariums internationally with his company Megastar. Sega Toys also inherited the [Pico](Sega)(Sega Pico) handheld system and produced Pico software.
Since the late 1960s, Sega has been affiliated with operations of [alley](bowling)(bowling alley)s and arcades through its former Sega Entertainment Co., Ltd. subsidiary in Japan, as well as a number of other smaller regional subsidiaries in other countries. Initiatives to expand operations in other territories, such as the US, UK, France, Spain, and Taiwan, have been more shortlived, and following the 85.1% majority acquisition of Sega Entertainment's shares in November 2020 to mitigate losses caused by the [pandemic](COVID-19)(COVID-19 pandemic), Sega's arcades in Japan since have been run under Genda Incorporated's Genda GiGO Entertainment division. Its DartsLive subsidiary creates electronic [darts](darts) games, while Sega Logistics Service distributes and repairs arcade games.
In 2015, Sega and Japanese advertising agency [Hakuhodo](Hakuhodo) formed a joint venture, Stories LLC, to create entertainment for film and TV. Stories LLC has exclusive licensing rights to adapt Sega properties into film and television, and has partnered with producers to develop series based on properties including *Shinobi*, *Golden Axe*, *Virtua Fighter*, *The House of the Dead*, and *Crazy Taxi*.
### Research and development
Sega produces games through its [and development](research)(research and development) teams. The *[the Hedgehog](Sonic)(Sonic the Hedgehog)* franchise, maintained through Sega's [Team](Sonic)(Sonic Team) division, is one of the best-selling franchises in video games. Sega has also acquired third-party studios including Atlus, Play Heart, [Studios](Amplitude)(Amplitude Studios), [Assembly](Creative)(Creative Assembly), Hardlight, Relic Entertainment, Sports Interactive, and Two Point Studios.
Sega's software research and development teams began with one development division operating under Sega's longtime head of R&D, Hisashi Suzuki. As the market increased for home video game consoles, Sega expanded with three Consumer Development (CS) divisions. After October 1983, arcade development expanded to three teams: Sega DD No. 1, 2, and 3. Some time after the release of *[Drift](Power)(Power Drift)*, Sega restructured its teams again as the Sega Amusement Machine Research and Development Teams, or AM teams. Each arcade division was segregated, and a rivalry existed between the arcade and consumer development divisions.[2018](Horowitz)(#refHorowitz2018), p. 153
In what has been called "a brief moment of remarkable creativity", in 2000, Sega restructured its arcade and console development teams into nine semi-autonomous studios headed by the company's top designers. The studios were [Game Artists](United)(United Game Artists), [Smilebit](Sega Sports R&D), Hitmaker, Sega Rosso, [Wow](Sega)(Sega AM1), Overworks, [Vision](Amusement)(Amusement Vision), Sega AM2, and Sonic Team. Sega's design houses were encouraged to experiment and benefited from a relatively lax approval process. After taking over as company president in 2003, Hisao Oguchi announced his intention to consolidate Sega's studios. Prior to the acquisition by Sammy, Sega began the process of re-integrating its subsidiaries into the main company. Toshihiro Nagoshi, formerly the head of Amusement Vision, recalls this period as "in many ways a labour of love" from Sega, teaching the creatives the experience of managing a business.
Sega still operates first-party studios as departments of its research and development division. Sonic Team exists as Sega's CS2 research and development department, while Sega's CS3 or Online department has developed games such as *[Star Online 2](Phantasy)(Phantasy Star Online 2)*, gamebiz |url=https://gamebiz.jp/news/207021 |access-date=2022-10-02 |website=gamebiz【ゲームビズ】 |language=ja}} and Sega Interactive's AM2 department has more recently worked on projects such as smartphone game *Soul Reverse Zero*. Toshihiro Nagoshi remained involved with research and development as Sega's chief creative officer or creative director while working on the *Yakuza* series until 2021.
## Legacy
[[File:Sega Dreamcast arcade machine.jpg|thumb|A demo [Dreamcast](Dreamcast) kiosk at the [Museum of Games](Finnish)(Finnish Museum of Games) in [Tampere](Tampere), [Finland](Finland), in 2017]]
Sega is one of the world's most prolific arcade game producers, having developed more than 500 games, 70 franchises, and 20 arcade system boards since 1981. It has been recognized by [World Records](Guinness)(Guinness World Records) for this achievement. Of Sega's arcade division, *[Eurogamer](Eurogamer)*'s Martin Robinson said, "It's boisterous, broad and with a neat sense of showmanship running through its range. On top of that, it has something that's often evaded its console-dwelling cousin: success."
The Sega Genesis is often ranked among the best consoles in history. In 2014, *USgamer*'s Jeremy Parish credited it for galvanizing the market by breaking Nintendo's near-monopoly, helping create modern [game](sports)(sports game) franchises, and popularizing television games in the UK. Kalinske felt Sega had innovated by developing games for an older demographic and pioneering the "[date](street)(street date)" concept with the simultaneous North American and European release of *[the Hedgehog 2](Sonic)(Sonic the Hedgehog 2)*. Sega of America's marketing campaign for the Genesis influenced marketing for later consoles.
Despite its commercial failure, the Saturn is well regarded for its library, though it has been criticized for a lack of high-profile franchise releases. *[Edge](Edge (magazine))* wrote that "hardened loyalists continue to reminisce about the console that brought forth games like *[Rangers](Burning)(Burning Rangers)*, *[Heroes](Guardian)(Guardian Heroes)*, *[Force](Dragon)(Dragon Force)*, and *[Dragoon Saga](Panzer)(Panzer Dragoon Saga)*." Sega's management was criticized for its handling of the Saturn. According to Greg Sewart of *[1Up.com](1Up.com)*, "the Saturn will go down in history as one of the most troubled, and greatest, systems of all time".
The Dreamcast is remembered for being ahead of its time, with several concepts that became standard in consoles, such as motion controls and online functionality. Its demise has been connected with transitions in the video game industry. In *[Video Games You Must Play Before You Die](1001)(1001 Video Games You Must Play Before You Die)*, Duncan Harris wrote that the Dreamcast's end "signaled the demise of arcade gaming culture ... Sega's console gave hope that things were not about to change for the worse and that the tenets of fast fun and bright, attractive graphics were not about to sink into a brown and green bog of realistic war games." Parish contrasted the Dreamcast's diverse library with the "suffocating sense of conservatism" that pervaded the industry in the following decade.
In *Eurogamer*, Damien McFerran wrote that Sega's decisions in the late 1990s were "a tragic spectacle of overconfidence and woefully misguided business practice". Travis Fahs of *[IGN](IGN)* noted that since the Sammy takeover Sega had developed fewer games and outsourced to more western studios, and that its arcade operations had been significantly reduced. Nonetheless, he wrote: "Sega was one of the most active, creative, and productive developers the industry has ever known, and nothing that can happen to their name since will change that." In 2015, Sega president Haruki Satomi told *Famitsu* that, in the previous ten years, Sega had "betrayed" the trust of older fans and that he hoped to re-establish the Sega brand. During the promotion of the Sega Genesis Mini, Sega executive manager Hiroyuki Miyazaki reflected on Sega's history, saying, "I feel like Sega has never been the champion, at the top of all the video game companies, but I feel like a lot of people love Sega because of the underdog image." Former Sega management cited the absence of *[Quest](Dragon)(Dragon Quest)* and *[Fantasy](Final)(Final Fantasy)* games on their home consoles as a reason for the console division's struggles, especially in Japan. In his 2018 book *The Sega Arcade Revolution*, Horowitz connected Sega's decline in the arcades after 1995 with broader industry changes. He argued that its most serious problems came from the loss of its creative talent, particularly Yuji Naka and [Suzuki](Yu)(Yu Suzuki), after the Sammy takeover, but concluded that "as of this writing, Sega is in its best financial shape of the past two decades. The company has endured."[2018](Horowitz)(#refHorowitz2018), p. 282
## See also
* [of Sega video game franchises](List)(List of Sega video game franchises)
* [of Sega games](Lists)(Lists of Sega games)
* [S.A. SONIC](Sega,)(Sega, S.A. SONIC)
* [Technical Institute](Sega)(Sega Technical Institute)
## Notes
## References
}}
## External links
*
}}
[ ](Category:Sega)
[establishments in Japan](Category:1960)(Category:1960 establishments in Japan)
[companies of Japan](Category:Entertainment)(Category:Entertainment companies of Japan)
[Joystick Award winners](Category:Golden)(Category:Golden Joystick Award winners)
[and Western Industries](Category:Gulf)(Category:Gulf and Western Industries)
[brands](Category:Japanese)(Category:Japanese brands)
[companies based in Tokyo](Category:Manufacturing)(Category:Manufacturing companies based in Tokyo)
[companies headquartered in Japan](Category:Multinational)(Category:Multinational companies headquartered in Japan)
[companies established in 1960](Category:Publishing)(Category:Publishing companies established in 1960)
[companies based in Tokyo](Category:Software)(Category:Software companies based in Tokyo)
[game companies established in 1960](Category:Video)(Category:Video game companies established in 1960)
[game companies of Japan](Category:Video)(Category:Video game companies of Japan)
[game companies of the United States](Category:Video)(Category:Video game companies of the United States)
[game development companies](Category:Video)(Category:Video game development companies)
[game publishers](Category:Video)(Category:Video game publishers)
|
Logan Paul
|
logan_paul
|
# Logan Paul
*Revision ID: 1160166379 | Timestamp: 2023-06-14T20:01:48Z*
---
| birth_place = [Ohio](Westlake,)(Westlake, Ohio), U.S.
| occupation =
| relatives = [Paul](Jake)(Jake Paul) (brother)
| module =
|
| channels=
| subscribers =
| views =
| silver_button = yes
| silver_year = 2016
| gold_button = yes
| gold_year = 2016
| diamond_button = yes
| diamond_year = 2017
| stats_update = March 22, 2023
}}
}}
**Logan Alexander Paul** (born April 1, 1995) is an American social media personality, actor, and [wrestler](professional)(professional wrestler). He is currently signed to [WWE](WWE), where he performs on a part-time basis. He has over 23 million subscribers on his [YouTube](YouTube) channel, and has ranked on the [Forbes](Forbes) list for the highest paid YouTube creators in 2017, 2018, and 2021. Paul has also run the *Impaulsive* [podcast](podcast) since November 2018, which has over 4 million YouTube subscribers.
Paul gained a following in 2013, posting sketches on the now defunct video-sharing application [Vine](Vine (service)). He registered his YouTube channel, TheOfficialLoganPaul, on October 18, 2013, where he started posting regularly following the closure of the Vine app. He later created the Logan Paul Vlogs channel on August 29, 2015, which has since become his most-subscribed YouTube channel. As of January 2022, the channel has received 23.2 million subscribers and over 5.8 billion views, ranking as the 74th most-subscribed channel in the United States, and placing him among the most-subscribed channels on the platform.
As an actor, Paul's television and film work includes guest appearances on *[& Order: Special Victims Unit](Law)(Law & Order: Special Victims Unit)* and *[Bizaardvark](Bizaardvark)*, and roles in films *[Thinning](The)(The Thinning)* (2016) and *[Thinning: New World Order](The)(The Thinning: New World Order)* (2018). He has also explored other avenues; he released his debut single "2016" in 2016, and fought English media personality [KSI](KSI (entertainer)) in an [amateur](Amateur boxing) [boxing](white-collar)(white-collar boxing) match in 2018. [fight](The)(KSI vs. Logan Paul) ended in a [draw](majority)(majority draw). In the 2019 [rematch](KSI vs. Logan Paul II), which was a [bout](professional)(Professional boxing), KSI won by [decision](split)(split decision). After a couple of brief appearances in WWE in 2021, he made his professional wrestling debut as [Miz](The)(The Miz)'s tag team partner in a [team match](tag)(tag team match) at [38](WrestleMania)(WrestleMania 38) in April 2022, which they won and Paul received praise for his performance. He then signed a multi-event contract with WWE in June that year and has since performed at events such as [SummerSlam](SummerSlam (2022)), in which he defeated The Miz in his debut [match](singles)(Singles match (professional wrestling)), and [Jewel](Crown)(Crown Jewel (2022)), in which he lost to [WWE Universal Champion](Undisputed)(WWE Universal Championship) [Reigns](Roman)(Roman Reigns) in the main event. His most recent match was against ["Freakin" Rollins](Seth)(Seth "Freakin" Rollins) at [39](WrestleMania)(WrestleMania 39), which he lost.
Paul has been involved in several controversies, most notably in relation to a trip to [Japan](Japan) in December 2017, during which he visited the [forest](Aokigahara)(Aokigahara), otherwise known as "suicide forest", filmed the corpse of a suicide victim, and uploaded the footage to his YouTube channel.
## Early life
Logan Alexander Paul was born in [Ohio](Westlake,)(Westlake, Ohio), on April 1, 1995, the son of Pamela Stepnick and Gregory Paul. He has English, Irish, Scottish, Welsh, Jewish, French and German ancestry. He grew up in Westlake with younger brother [Jake](Jake Paul) (born 1997), who is also a media personality. Paul began creating videos for a YouTube channel called Zoosh when he was 10 years old. He attended [High School](Westlake)(Westlake High School (Ohio)), achieving the ranks of ''[Plain Dealer](The)(The Plain Dealer)'s'' All-Star linebacker on the football team in 2012, and qualifying for the state-level [High School Athletic Association](Ohio)(Ohio High School Athletic Association) 2013 [I](Division)(NCAA Division I) Wrestling Individual Championships.
## YouTube career
### 2015–2017: YouTube beginnings
By the time Paul attended college, his YouTube channel had attained a modest following via the platform [Vine](Vine (service)).Patsko, Scott (April 22, 2014). ["How national Vine video star Logan Paul went from Westlake standout athlete to master of 6-second comedy"](http://highschoolsports.cleveland.com/news/article/4380936043898974188/how-vine-star-logan-paul-went-from-westlake-standout-athlete-to-a-master-of-six-second-comedy/). *[Plain-Dealer](Plain-Dealer)*. He majored in Industrial Engineering at [University](Ohio)(Ohio University) before dropping out in 2014 to pursue a career as a full-time social media entertainer in [Angeles](Los)(Los Angeles), moving into an apartment complex in Los Angeles with other Vine stars.
Paul rose to fame as a member on the Internet video sharing service Vine. In February 2014, he had over 3.1 million followers on various social media platforms. By April 2014 he had attained 105,000 [Twitter](Twitter) followers, 361,000 [Instagram](Instagram) followers, 31,000 likes on his [Facebook](Facebook) page and about 150,000 subscribers to his YouTube channel. A YouTube compilation video of his Vine work garnered more than four million views the first week it was posted. In 2015 he was ranked as the 10th most influential figure on Vine, with his six-second videos earning him hundreds of thousands of dollars in advertising revenue. By that October, his Facebook videos alone had more than 300 million views.
Logan refers to his following as "Logang", which is a [portmanteau](portmanteau) between his first name and "[gang](gang)".
[[(cropped).jpg|220x124px|thumb|right|Paul in 2016](File:10.8.16LoganPaulByLuigiNovi1)]
In early 2015, Paul appeared on *[& Order: Special Victims Unit](Law)(Law & Order: Special Victims Unit)*.Ibrahim, Banu (July 27, 2016). ["Logan Paul dishes about his awkward celebrity encounter on set of 'Law and Order'"](https://www.aol.com/article/entertainment/2016/07/27/logan-paul-dishes-about-his-awkward-celebrity-encounter-on-set/21439159/). [AOL](AOL). He also appeared on the [Fox](Fox Broadcasting Company) TV series *[Loners](Weird)(Weird Loners)*, where he appeared in the role of the Paul Twins. He starred in two episodes of the [Freeform](Freeform (TV channel)) series *[Stitchers](Stitchers)*. In 2016, he starred in the [Red](YouTube)(YouTube Premium) movie *[Thinning](The)(The Thinning)* opposite [List](Peyton)(Peyton List (actress, born 1998)). In early 2016, Paul trained with drama coaches and the comedy troupes [Groundlings](The)(The Groundlings) and [Citizens Brigade](Upright)(Upright Citizens Brigade). Paul wrote the screenplay for an adult comedy, *[Mode](Airplane)(Airplane Mode (2019 film))*, which has been described as "[Pie](American)(American Pie (film)) for [Z](Gen)(Gen Z)", and by Paul himself as "*[Expendables](The Expendables (film series))* with Internet stars".Gutelle, Sam (January 25, 2016). ["Logan Paul Plans 'An Expendables With Internet Stars' Called 'Airplane Mode'"](http://www.tubefilter.com/2016/01/25/logan-paul-adweek-airplane-mode/). [Tubefilter](Tubefilter). The film was originally planned to be released in 2017, but was eventually released on August 2, 2019, after being delayed. He was also involved in a number of advertising campaigns, including for [Hanes](Hanes), [PepsiCo](PepsiCo), and [HBO](HBO). In 2016, [Comcast](Comcast) purchased a short form digital TV series from Paul called *Logan Paul VS*.
In February 2017, [Johnson](Dwayne)(Dwayne Johnson) released on his own YouTube channel, "Logan Paul has been cut from, like, all of The Rock's movies", a video starring himself and Paul, in which Johnson informs Paul that he has been cut from all of Johnson's films, and consoles Paul by making him the "ambassador" to his upcoming *[Baywatch](Baywatch (film))* feature film.Cohen, Ian (February 2017). ["Why You Shouldn't Punch The Rock"](http://www.muscleandfitness.com/athletes-celebrities/news/why-you-shouldnt-punch-rock). *[& Fitness](Muscle)(Muscle & Fitness)*. On November 23, 2017, Paul released his new single, "No Handlebars", a track that draws heavily on an interpolated sample of the song "[Handlebars](Handlebars (song))" by the American alternative hip hop group [Flobots](Flobots). The song was heavily criticized for its perceived sexual objectification of women, including a scene in its music video where Paul rides several women like a bicycle. Flobots frontman [Laurie](Jamie)(Jamie Laurie) lambasted Paul for both the "sexist" lyrical content of the song and for unauthorized use of the sample, calling him the face of "douchebag entitlement". Laurie would later go on to release a track with lyrics deriding Paul, titled "Handle Your Bars". Paul did not respond to Laurie's comments nor the backlash towards "No Handlebars". After Flobots sued Paul for copyright infringement in 2019, he deleted the song from YouTube.
### 2017–2018: Suicide forest controversy
On December 31, 2017, Paul uploaded a [vlog](vlog) to his [YouTube](YouTube) channel depicting the recently deceased corpse of a man who had died by [himself](hanging)(suicide by hanging) in [Aokigahara](Aokigahara) at the base of [Fuji](Mount)(Mount Fuji) in Japan, known as the "suicide forest" due to its infamy as a [site](suicide)(suicide site). Initially intended to be part three of his "Tokyo Adventures" series, Paul and his group had planned to camp in the woods, but in response to finding the corpse, decided to notify the authorities and cancel their plans. The video gained 6.3 million views within 24 hours of being uploaded. Paul's video depicting the corpse, which was [censored](Fogging (censorship)) in the video, and his group's reactions to it were criticized by celebrities and politicians. In addition, he was accused by other members of the [community](YouTube)(List of YouTube celebrities) of being insensitive to suicide victims. He was also criticized for other misbehavior he was captured taking part in during the trip, including climbing onto a moving forklift at the [fish market](Tsukiji)(Tsukiji fish market), removing his clothing on a crowded street, then proceeding to fight with one of the people he was traveling with, and throwing a giant [Ball](Poké)(Poké Ball) at passing citizens, including an officer of the [Metropolitan Police Department](Tokyo)(Tokyo Metropolitan Police Department). Several petitions were made to [Change.org](Change.org) urging YouTube to delete Paul's channel, the largest of which received more than 720,000 signatures as of February 9, 2018.
As a result of the backlash, Paul removed the video from his YouTube channel, following up with a written apology on Twitter on January 1, 2018. The following day, on January 2, a subsequent video apology was released to YouTube in which Paul admits he made a "severe and continuous lapse in [his] judgement" and describes his behavior as a "[mechanism](coping)(coping (psychology))", asking his fans to stop defending his actions in the process. On January 9, YouTube issued a statement via their Twitter account condemning Paul's video. In the series of tweets, they said, "It's taken us a long time to respond, but we've been listening to everything you've been saying. We know that the actions of one creator can affect the entire community, so we'll have more to share soon on steps we're taking to ensure a video like this is never circulated again." On January 10, YouTube announced it was removing Paul's channels from [Preferred](Google)(Google Preferred), its preferred ad program, and [World Order*](*New)(The Thinning: New World Order), the sequel to his YouTube film *The Thinning*, was placed on hold, with the airing of *Logan Paul VS.* being halted as well. He was also cut from season 4 of the YouTube Red series *[Foursome](Foursome (2016 TV series))* and the role of Alec Fixler was terminated. [Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer](Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer) also pulled from the schedule the release of the musical film *[Girl](Valley)(Valley Girl (2020 film))* in which Paul plays Mickey Bowen, following the controversies. On January 15, Paul was seen at [LAX](Los Angeles International Airport) by reporters from [TMZ](TMZ). He said that he has learned a lot from his mistakes and believes he has been treated "fairly". When asked whether or not he deserves a second chance, Paul replied, "Everyone deserves second chances, bro." In response, he donated $1 million to [prevention](suicide)(suicide prevention) agencies, a quarter of which is going to the [Suicide Prevention Lifeline](National)(988 Suicide & Crisis Lifeline). In response to the controversy, Paul hired Mike Majlak, a former Marketing Manager at furniture company [LoveSac](LoveSac), to "make sure that no bad things happen" and work with Logan to help improve his reputation. On February 4, Paul officially returned to his daily vlogs on YouTube after taking a 3-week-long hiatus. YouTube CEO [Wojcicki](Susan)(Susan Wojcicki) said on February 12 that Paul did not violate YouTube's three-strike policy and did not meet the criteria for being banned from the platform. In the wake of the controversy regarding the suicide video, Maverick Apparel, a brand for juniors and children, threatened Paul with legal action for giving his clothing line a similar name ("Maverick by Logan Paul"), believing shoppers are confusing their line with Paul's, resulting in a deep decline in sales.
### 2018–present: Boxing, podcast, and further controversies
[[in 2018](File:Logan_Paul.png|220x124px|thumb|right|Paul)]
On February 9, 2018, YouTube [suspended](YouTube suspensions) all [advertising](advertising) on Paul's channels due to his "pattern of behavior", referring to a joke he tweeted about the [Pod challenge](Tide)(Consumption of Tide Pods#The "Tide Pod Challenge"), removing a fish from his pond to "jokingly give it [CPR](Cardiopulmonary resuscitation)", and [taser](taser)ing two dead rats. His revenue was temporarily halted as a result, and as a result of the suspension, he broadcast live on [Twitch](Twitch (service)) for the first time. Two weeks later, on February 26, YouTube restored ads on Paul's channel; however, his channel was still on a 90-day "probation period" during which time content from his channel was not eligible to be on YouTube's trending tab.
On November 20, 2018, the first episode of *Impaulsive* was aired. In January 2019, Paul remarked on his *Impaulsive* podcast, "What is it, male-only March? We're gonna attempt to go [gay](gay) for just one month." He received widespread criticism for implying that being gay is a choice, with [LGBTQ+](LGBTQ+) organization [GLAAD](GLAAD) responding to Paul's statement on Twitter, writing, "That's not how it works, Logan Paul." In March 2019, Paul released what has been described as a [mockumentary](mockumentary) exploring the [Earth Theory](Flat)(Flat Earth#Conspiracy theory). In the video, he interviewed many self-proclaimed "[Earthers](Flat)(Modern flat Earth societies)", and spoke at the 2018 Flat Earth International Conference, which took place in [Colorado](Denver,)(Denver). Logan Paul was sued by Planeless Pictures in December 2020 for the aforementioned 2017 incident in Aokigahara, when he posted a video including a recently deceased suicide victim. Planeless Pictures accused him of posting the video in order to escape a movie deal he had with them where he would star in, write, and produce their film [Mode*](*Airplane)(Airplane Mode (2019 film)). They also claimed that the video led to [Google](Google) suspending their contract with them, leaving them $3 million in debt. In 2021, Paul competed on [fifth season](the)(The Masked Singer (American season 5)) of *[Masked Singer](The)(The Masked Singer (American TV series))* as "Grandpa Monster". He was unmasked after his second appearance where one of his clues was a foreshadowing of his boxing match against [Mayweather Jr.](Floyd)(Floyd Mayweather Jr.)
In September 2021, Paul released a [NFT](Non-fungible token)-based game called *Cryptozoo*, which he claimed that he had been working on for six months. The game was mocked for featuring [images](stock)(Stock photography), and it was not well-received. In December 2022, [Coffeezilla](Coffeezilla), a YouTuber who exposes [cryptocurrency](cryptocurrency) scams, ran a three-part docuseries on his YouTube channel about how the game was not functional despite the fact that millions of dollars of funding had been raised from investors. Criticism included marketing the game towards children, launching the game several months before the announcement and allowing the team to purchase large amounts of cryptocurrency which inflated its value. Paul later released a video disputing the allegations and threatened legal action against Coffeezilla but refused to elaborate on the legal and development issues of CryptoZoo. The response video was later deleted by Paul. He later apologized.
Paul was further criticised in January, 2023, when his former pet pig, named "Pearl", was found abandoned by *The Gentle Barn Sanctuary* in California, USA. Rescuers said she was "lucky to be alive" after being diagnosed with a potentially life-threatening uterus infection, which they said has since healed. Despite facing online criticism, Paul denied any wrongdoing, stating that he responsibly rehomed the pig in 2021 when he moved to [Rico](Puerto)(Puerto Rico), and that the pig was subsequently rehomed again unbeknown to him at a later date.
## Boxing career
### Amateur career
#### KSI vs Paul
[[File:Logan Paul August 2018.png|220x124px|thumb|right|Paul during his official [weigh-in](weigh-in) for the [vs. Logan Paul](KSI)(KSI vs. Logan Paul) fight in 2018]]
On February 3, 2018, following his [collar amateur boxing match](white)(white collar boxing) with Joe Weller, British YouTuber [KSI](KSI) challenged Paul to a boxing match. On February 24, 2018, it was announced that Paul and his brother would be fighting KSI and his younger brother, Deji, in two white-collar boxing matches. The fight ended as a majority draw, with two judges scoring the fight even at 57–57 and a third judge scoring 58–57 in favor of KSI.
### Professional career
#### KSI vs. Paul II
On September 4, 2019, it was announced that Paul would be making his professional boxing debut in a rematch against KSI, which would be broadcast exclusively on [DAZN](DAZN) in the United States. The fight was scheduled to take place on November 9 at the [Center](Staples)(Staples Center). At the UK press conference for the rematch, Paul again stirred controversy as he accused KSI of having five abortions, before remarking, "Five babies dead. I might return the favor and kill you." He received criticism from [rights activists](abortion)(United States abortion-rights movement), who described his comment as "horrific", while [activists](anti-abortion)(Anti-abortion movements) came to his defense. Paul responded by stating, "I said something distasteful and insensitive."
The rematch, which consisted of six three minute rounds, resulted in a win for KSI via [decision](split)(split decision), with two judges scoring the fight 57–54 and 56–55 for KSI, and one judge scoring it 56–55 in favor of Paul.
### Exhibition bout
#### Mayweather vs. Paul
On December 6, 2020, it was announced that Paul would face former [world champion](five-division)(List of boxing quintuple champions) [Mayweather Jr.](Floyd)(Floyd Mayweather Jr.) in an exhibition bout on February 20, 2021. The fight was postponed, and took place on June 6, 2021, at [Rock Stadium](Hard)(Hard Rock Stadium) in [Gardens, Florida](Miami)(Miami Gardens, Florida). On May 6, 2021, Mayweather and Paul met for the first time at a press conference at Hard Rock Stadium, where the latter's brother, [Paul](Jake)(Jake Paul), became involved in an angry brawl with Mayweather when he removed Mayweather's hat from his head. A visibly irate Mayweather was captured on video saying, "I'll kill you motherfucker! Are you crazy? I'll fuck you up, motherfucker. I don't play motherfucking games. I'll fuck you up."
The bout consisted of constant [clinching](Clinch fighting) initiated by Paul and went the full distance to the sound of boos from the crowd, with no winner being announced. Mayweather's superior boxing was reflected by the [CompuBox](CompuBox) punch stats, with Mayweather having landed 43 punches of 107 thrown (40.2%), compared to Paul's 28 landed of 217 thrown (12.9%).
In his post-fight interview, Mayweather praised his opponent, saying: "He's better than I thought he was ... he's a tough, rough competitor." Paul appeared to harbor some doubt about how seriously Mayweather had taken the fight, saying: "I'm going to go home thinking, 'Did Floyd let me survive?
## Boxing record
### Professional
### Exhibition
### Amateur
## Professional wrestling career
|weight = 205 lb
|billed = Westlake, Ohio, U.S.
|trainer = [Gulak](Drew)(Drew Gulak)[Helms](Shane)(Shane Helms)[Michaels](Shawn)(Shawn Michaels)
|debut = April 2, 2022
}}
On the April 2, 2021, episode of *[SmackDown](WWE)(WWE SmackDown)*, Paul made his [WWE](WWE) debut, as a guest of [Zayn](Sami)(Sami Zayn) for his red carpet premiere of his documentary, with Zayn later inviting Paul to be at ringside for his match at [37](WrestleMania)(WrestleMania 37) against [Owens](Kevin)(Kevin Owens). At the event, after Owens defeated Zayn, Paul celebrated with Owens, before being hit with the Stunner by Owens. On the September 3 episode of *SmackDown*, Paul returned to WWE as [Corbin](Happy)(Baron Corbin)'s special guest on *The KO Show*, where Paul helped Corbin attack Kevin Owens.
On the February 21, 2022, episode of *[Raw](WWE)(WWE Raw)*, it was revealed that Paul was [Miz](The)(The Miz)'s tag team partner to take on [Mysterio](Rey)(Rey Mysterio) and [Mysterio](Dominik)(Dominik Mysterio) at [38](WrestleMania)(WrestleMania 38). At the event, Paul and Miz defeated the Mysterios; however, after the match, Miz attacked Paul.
On June 30, 2022, Paul signed a multi-event contract with WWE. At [SummerSlam](SummerSlam (2022)), Paul defeated The Miz. Paul then challenged [Reigns](Roman)(Roman Reigns) on the September 16 episode of *SmackDown*, and the two faced each other at [Jewel](Crown)(Crown Jewel (2022)) on November 5 for Reigns' Undisputed WWE Universal Championship (the umbrella term for both the [Championship](WWE)(WWE Championship) and [Universal Championship](WWE)(WWE Universal Championship) being held and defended together). Paul was unsuccessful in defeating Reigns, despite interference from his *Impaulsive* entourage and his brother Jake, marking his first loss in WWE in what was only his third match. The match against Reigns received universal acclaim, with critics highly praising Paul's impressive wrestling skills. It was initially reported that Paul had suffered a torn meniscus, MCL, and ACL during the match, however, it was later revealed that Paul had only sprained his meniscus and MCL. On January 28, 2023, Paul made his return from injury at the [Rumble](Royal)(Royal Rumble (2023)) in the [Rumble match](Royal)(Royal Rumble match) at #29. During the match, Paul had an encounter with Ricochet that led to both men leaping off the top rope from both sides of the ring, and colliding with each other mid-air. The spot garnered a massive crowd and social media reaction, with many deeming it one of the best moments of the match. He would go on to eliminate ["Freakin" Rollins](Seth)(Seth "Freakin" Rollins) before being eliminated by the eventual winner [Rhodes](Cody)(Cody Rhodes). At [Chamber](Elimination)(Elimination Chamber (2023)) on February 18, Paul snuck into the [Chamber match](Elimination)(Elimination Chamber match) and cost Rollins the [States Championship](United)(WWE United States Championship). On the March 6 episode of *Raw*, a match between Paul and Rollins was scheduled for [39](WrestleMania)(WrestleMania 39). On Night 1 of the event, Paul lost to Rollins; the match also saw an appearance from Paul's Prime co-owner KSI, who was dressed as a Prime bottle. Like his match against Roman Reigns the year prior, the match received high praise from critics, and initially, it was the final match of Paul's initial contract. However, a week later, Paul signed a new multi-year contract with WWE. The new contract will see more involvement and appearances from Paul with Paul himself stating he wants to win a WWE championship.
## Personal life
In October 2015, Paul lived in the same apartment complex on [and Vine](Hollywood)(Hollywood and Vine) in [California](Hollywood,)(Hollywood, California) as other social media celebrities including [Cerny](Amanda)(Amanda Cerny), [Zurita](Juanpa)(Juanpa Zurita), and [Bachelor](Andrew)(King Bach), with his roommates Mark Dohner and [Eckenrode](Evan)(Evan Eckenrode). This proximity facilitated various collaborations on their respective videos. In October 2017, Paul and Eckenrode relocated to an estate in [California](Encino,)(Encino, California). In episode 198 of *Impaulsive* with guest [Lentz](Carl)(Carl Lentz), who was pastor of [Church](Hillsong)(Hillsong Church) [NYC](New York City) at the time, Paul discussed religion, and described himself as [overly religious"]("not)(Spiritual but not religious). Paul also said that he was a Christian. He specified that he believes in a ["creator"](Creator deity), but he does not know what this creator's role would be in human's lives. The episode garnered mockery toward Paul, who initially claimed that Jews believe in [Jesus](Jesus) as their god, before being corrected. In February 2021, Paul announced that he would be moving to [Puerto Rico](Dorado,)(Dorado, Puerto Rico) from Los Angeles. He stated that the high taxes in California were the main motivator for the move. As of June 2021, he was living there in a $13 million mansion.
### Health
Paul revealed in an episode of *Impaulsive* that he tore the cartilage in his knee from a football injury that required him to stay out of school for 3 months. In February 2019, Paul said that he has long-term [damage](brain)(brain damage), which he sustained from playing high school football. He stated that [Amen](Daniel)(Daniel Amen), the doctor who diagnosed him, says it affects his ability to have [empathy](empathy) and a human connection with others. When filming a video for his Vine channel in 2014, Paul attempted a stunt during which he landed on a chair and damaged his right testicle.
## Pay-per-view bouts
## Filmography
### Film
### Television
### Web
### Podcast
### Video games
## Discography
### Singles
### Promotional singles
### Guest appearances
## Awards and nominations
## References
## External links
*
*
*
[ Logan Paul](Category:Logan Paul)
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|
Bupropion
|
bupropion
|
# Bupropion
*Revision ID: 1157507238 | Timestamp: 2023-05-29T02:50:41Z*
---
| tradename = Wellbutrin, Zyban, others
| Drugs.com =
| MedlinePlus = a695033
| licence_EU = yes
| DailyMedID = Bupropion
| licence_US =
| pregnancy_AU = B2
| pregnancy_AU_comment =
| pregnancy_category=
| routes_of_administration = [mouth](By)(Oral administration)
| class = [Antidepressant](Antidepressant)s
| ATC_prefix = N06
| ATC_suffix = AX12
| legal_AU = S4
| legal_AU_comment =
| legal_BR =
| legal_BR_comment =
| legal_CA = Rx-only
| legal_CA_comment =
| legal_DE =
| legal_DE_comment =
| legal_NZ =
| legal_NZ_comment =
| legal_UK = POM
| legal_UK_comment =
| legal_US = Rx-only
| legal_US_comment =
| legal_EU = Rx-only
| legal_EU_comment =
| legal_UN =
| legal_UN_comment =
| legal_status = Rx-only
| bioavailability = Unknown
| protein_bound = Bupropion: 84%Hydroxybupropion: 77%Threohydrobupropion: 42%
| metabolism = [Liver](Liver), [intestine](intestine)s
| metabolites = •[Hydroxybupropion](Hydroxybupropion)•[Threohydrobupropion](Threohydrobupropion)•[Erythrohydrobupropion](Erythrohydrobupropion)•Others
| onset =
| elimination_half-life = Bupropion:11–21hHydroxybupropion:20hThreohydrobupropion:37hErythrohydrobupropion:33h
| duration_of_action =
| excretion = [Urine](Urine):87%(0.5%unchanged)[Feces](Feces): 10%
| index2_label = as HCl
| CAS_number_Ref =
| CAS_number = 34911-55-2
| PubChem = 444
| IUPHAR_ligand = 7135
| DrugBank_Ref =
| DrugBank = DB01156
| ChemSpiderID_Ref =
| ChemSpiderID = 431
| UNII_Ref =
| UNII = 01ZG3TPX31
| KEGG_Ref =
| KEGG = D07591
| KEGG2_Ref =
| KEGG2 = D00817
| ChEBI_Ref =
| ChEBI = 3219
| ChEMBL_Ref =
| ChEMBL = 894
| NIAID_ChemDB =
| PDB_ligand =
| synonyms = Amfebutamone; 3-Chloro-*N*-*tert*-butyl-β-keto-α-methylphenethylamine;3-Chloro-N-tert-butyl-β-ketoamphetamine;Bupropion hydrochloride
| IUPAC_name = (*RS*)-2-(*tert*-Butylamino)-1-(3-chlorophenyl)propan-1-one
| C=13 | H=18 | Cl=1 | N=1 | O=1
| SMILES = O=C(C(C)NC(C)(C)C)C1=CC=CC(Cl)=C1
| StdInChI_Ref =
| StdInChI = 1S/C13H18ClNO/c1-9(15-13(2,3)4)12(16)10-6-5-7-11(14)8-10/h5-9,15H,1-4H3
| StdInChIKey_Ref =
| StdInChIKey = SNPPWIUOZRMYNY-UHFFFAOYSA-N
}}
**Bupropion**, sold under the brand name **Wellbutrin** among others, is an [antidepressant](atypical)(atypical antidepressant) primarily used to treat [depressive disorder](major)(major depressive disorder) and to support [cessation](smoking)(smoking cessation). It is also popular as an [add-on](adjunct therapy) medication in the cases of "incomplete response" to the first-line [serotonin reuptake inhibitor](selective)(selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor) (SSRI) antidepressant. Bupropion has several features that distinguish it from other antidepressants: it does not usually cause sexual dysfunction; it is not associated with weight gain and [sleepiness](somnolence), and it is more effective than SSRIs at improving symptoms of [hypersomnia](hypersomnia) and fatigue. Bupropion, particularly the immediate release formulation, carries a higher risk of seizure than many other antidepressants, hence caution is recommended in patients with a history of seizure disorder.
Common adverse effects of bupropion with the greatest difference from [placebo](placebo) are dry mouth, nausea, constipation, insomnia, anxiety, tremor, and excessive sweating. Raised blood pressure is notable. Rare but serious side effects include [seizure](seizure), [toxicity](liver)(Hepatotoxicity), [psychosis](psychosis), and risk of overdose. Bupropion use during [pregnancy](pregnancy) may be associated with increased odds of [heart defect](congenital)(congenital heart defect)s.
Bupropion acts as a [reuptake inhibitor](norepinephrine–dopamine)(norepinephrine–dopamine reuptake inhibitor) and a [receptor antagonist](nicotinic)(nicotinic receptor antagonist). However, its effects on [dopamine](dopamine) are weak. Chemically, bupropion is an [aminoketone](Aminoaldehydes and aminoketones) that belongs to the [class](chemical classification) of [cathinone](substituted)(substituted cathinone)s and more generally that of [amphetamine](substituted)(substituted amphetamine)s and [phenethylamine](substituted)(substituted phenethylamine)s.
Bupropion was invented by [Mehta](Nariman)(Nariman Mehta), who worked at [Wellcome](Burroughs)(Burroughs Wellcome), in 1969. It was first approved for medical use in the United States in 1985. Bupropion was originally called by the generic name amfebutamone, before being renamed in 2000. In 2020, it was the eighteenth most commonly prescribed medication in the United States, with more than 28million prescriptions. It is on the [Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines](World)(WHO Model List of Essential Medicines).
## Medical uses
[[XL](File:Wellbutrin.jpg|thumb|250px|Wellbutrin)]
### Depression
The evidence overall supports the [efficacy](efficacy) of bupropion over [placebo](placebo) for the treatment of depression. However, the [of evidence](quality)(quality of evidence) is low. Most meta-analyses report that bupropion has an at-most small [size](effect)(effect size) for depression. Only one meta-analysis reported a large effect size. However, there were methodological limitations with this meta-analysis, including using a subset of only five trials for the effect size calculation, substantial [variability](heterogeneity) in effect sizes between the selected trials—which led the authors to state that their findings in this area should be interpreted with "extreme caution"—and general lack of inclusion of [unpublished](publication bias) trials in the meta-analysis. Unpublished trials are more likely to be negative in findings, and other meta-analyses have included unpublished trials. Evidence suggests that the efficacy of bupropion for depression is similar to that of other antidepressants.
Over the fall and winter months, bupropion prevents development of depression in those who have recurring [affective disorder](seasonal)(seasonal affective disorder): 15% of participants on bupropion experienced a major depressive episode vs. 27% of those on placebo. Bupropion also improves depression in [disorder](bipolar)(bipolar disorder), with the efficacy and risk of affective switch being similar to other antidepressants.
Bupropion has several features that distinguish it from other antidepressants: for instance, unlike the majority of antidepressants, it does not usually cause sexual dysfunction, and the occurrence of sexual side effects is not different from placebo. Bupropion treatment is not associated with weight gain; on the contrary, the majority of studies observed significant weight loss in bupropion-treated participants. Bupropion treatment also is not associated with the [sleepiness](somnolence) that may be produced by other antidepressants. Bupropion is more effective than [serotonin reuptake inhibitor](selective)(selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor)s (SSRIs) at improving symptoms of [hypersomnia](hypersomnia) and fatigue in depressed patients. There appears to be a modest advantage for the SSRIs compared to bupropion in the treatment of depression with high anxiety; they are equivalent for depression with moderate or low anxiety.
The addition of bupropion to a prescribed SSRI is a common strategy when people do not respond to the SSRI, and it is supported by clinical trials; however, it appears to be inferior to the addition of atypical antipsychotic [aripiprazole](aripiprazole).
### Smoking cessation
Prescribed as an aid for smoking cessation bupropion reduces the severity of [craving](Craving (withdrawal)) for nicotine and [withdrawal](Drug withdrawal) symptoms such as depressed
mood, irritability, difficulty concentrating, and increased appetite. Initially, bupropion slows the weight gain that often occurs in the first weeks after quitting smoking. With time, however, this effect becomes negligible.
The bupropion treatment course lasts for seven to twelve weeks, with the patient halting the use of tobacco about ten days into the course. After the course, the effectiveness of bupropion for maintaining abstinence from smoking declines over time, from 37% of tobacco abstinence at 3 months to 20% at one year. It is unclear whether extending bupropion treatment helps to prevent relapse of smoking.
Overall, six months after the therapy, bupropion increases the likelihood of quitting smoking by approximately 1.6 fold as compared to placebo. In this respect, bupropion is as effective as [replacement therapy](nicotine)(nicotine replacement therapy) but inferior to [varenicline](varenicline). Combining bupropion and nicotine replacement therapy does not improve the quitting rate.
In children and adolescents, the use of bupropion for smoking cessation does not appear to offer any significant benefits. The evidence for its use to aid smoking cessation in pregnant women is insufficient.
### Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder
The treatment of [deficit hyperactivity disorder](attention)(attention deficit hyperactivity disorder) (ADHD) is not an approved indication of bupropion, and it is not mentioned in the current (2019) guideline on the ADHD treatment from the [Academy of Pediatrics](American)(American Academy of Pediatrics). Systematic reviews of bupropion for the treatment of ADHD in both adults and children note that bupropion may be effective for ADHD but warn that this conclusion has to be interpreted with caution, because clinical trials were of low quality due to small sizes and risk of bias. Similarly to [atomoxetine](atomoxetine), bupropion has a delayed [of action](onset)(onset of action) for ADHD, and several weeks of treatment are required for therapeutic effects. This is in contrast to [stimulant](stimulant)s, such as [amphetamine](amphetamine) and [methylphenidate](methylphenidate), which have an immediate onset of effect in the condition.
### Sexual dysfunction
Bupropion is less likely than other antidepressants to cause [dysfunction](sexual)(sexual dysfunction). A range of studies indicate that bupropion not only produces fewer sexual side effects than other antidepressants but can actually help to alleviate sexual dysfunction including sexual dysfunction induced by [SSRI](SSRI) antidepressants. There have also been small studies suggesting that bupropion or a bupropion/[trazodone](trazodone) combination may improve some measures of sexual function in women who have [sexual desire disorder](hypoactive)(hypoactive sexual desire disorder) (HSDD) and are not depressed. According to an expert consensus recommendation from the International Society for the Study of Women's Sexual Health, bupropion can be considered as an off-label treatment for HSDD despite limited safety and efficacy data. Likewise, a 2022 [review](systematic)(systematic review) and [meta-analysis](meta-analysis) of bupropion for sexual desire disorder in women reported that although data were limited, bupropion appeared to be dose-dependently effective for the condition.
### Obesity
Bupropion, when used for treating [obesity](obesity) over a period of 6 to 12 months, results in an average weight loss of 2.7 kg (5.9 lbs) over placebo. This is not much different from the weight loss produced by several other weight-loss medications such as [sibutramine](sibutramine) or [orlistat](orlistat). The combination drug [naltrexone/bupropion](naltrexone/bupropion) has been approved by the U.S. [and Drug Administration](Food)(Food and Drug Administration) (FDA) for the treatment of obesity.
### Other uses
Bupropion is not effective in the treatment of cocaine dependence, but it is showing promise in reducing drug use in light methamphetamine users. Based on studies indicating that bupropion lowers the level of the inflammatory mediator [TNF-alpha](Tumor necrosis factor-alpha), there have been suggestions that it might be useful in treating [bowel disease](inflammatory)(inflammatory bowel disease), [psoriasis](psoriasis), and other autoimmune conditions, but very little clinical evidence is available. Bupropion is not effective in treating chronic low back pain.
### Available forms
Bupropion is available as an [oral](oral administration) [tablet](tablet (pharmacy)) in a number of different formulations. It is formulated mostly as the [hydrochloride](hydrochloride) [salt](salt (chemistry)) but also to a lesser extent as the [hydrobromide](hydrobromide) salt. The available forms of bupropion hydrochloride include IR (instant-release) tablets (50, 75, 100mg), SR (sustained-release) tablets (50, 100, 150, 200mg), and XL (extended-release) tablets (150, 300, 450mg). The only marketed form of bupropion hydrobromide is Aplenzin, an extended-release oral tablet (174, 348, 522mg). In addition to single-drug formulations, bupropion is formulated in [combination](combination drug)s including [naltrexone/bupropion](naltrexone/bupropion) (Contrave; 8mg/90mg extended-release tablets) and [dextromethorphan/bupropion](dextromethorphan/bupropion) (Auvelity; 45mg/105mg tablets).
## Contraindications
The drug label advises that bupropion should not be prescribed to individuals with [epilepsy](epilepsy) or other conditions that lower the [threshold](seizure)(seizure threshold), such as [nervosa](anorexia)(anorexia nervosa), [nervosa](bulimia)(bulimia nervosa), [benzodiazepine](benzodiazepine) or [alcohol](alcohol withdrawal) withdrawal. It should be avoided in individuals who are taking [oxidase inhibitor](monoamine)(monoamine oxidase inhibitor)s (MAOIs). The label recommends that caution should be exercised when treating people with liver damage, severe [disease](kidney)(nephropathy), and severe [hypertension](hypertension), and in children, adolescents and young adults due to the increased risk of [ideation](suicidal)(suicidal ideation).
## Side effects
The common adverse effects of bupropion with the greatest difference from placebo are dry mouth, nausea, constipation, insomnia, anxiety, tremor, and excessive sweating. Bupropion has the highest incidence of insomnia of all second-generation antidepressants, apart from [desvenlafaxine](desvenlafaxine). It is also associated with about 20% increased risk of headache.
Bupropion raises blood pressure in some people. One study showed an average rise of 6 mm Hg in systolic blood pressure in 10% of patients. The prescribing information notes that [hypertension](hypertension), sometimes severe, is observed in some people taking bupropion, both with and without pre-existing hypertension. Safety of bupropion in people with cardiovascular conditions and its general cardiovascular safety profile remain unclear due to the lack of data.
[Seizure](Seizure) is a rare but serious adverse effect of bupropion. It is strongly dose-dependent: for the immediate release preparation, the seizure incidence is 0.4% at the dose 300–450 mg per day; the incidence climbs almost ten-fold for the higher than recommended dose of 600 mg. For comparison, the incidence of unprovoked seizure in the general population is 0.07 to 0.09%, and the risk of seizure for a variety of other antidepressants is generally between 0 and 0.5% at the recommended doses.
Cases of [toxicity](liver)(Hepatotoxicity) leading to death or [transplantation](liver)(liver transplantation) have been reported for bupropion. It is considered to be one of several antidepressants with greater risk of hepatotoxicity.
The prescribing information warns about bupropion triggering an angle-closure [glaucoma](glaucoma) attack. On the other hand, bupropion may decrease the risk of development of [angle glaucoma](open)(open angle glaucoma).
Bupropion use by mothers in the first trimester of pregnancy is associated with 23% increase of the odds in [heart defect](congenital)(congenital heart defect)s in their children.
Bupropion has rarely been associated with instances of [syndrome](Stevens–Johnson)(Stevens–Johnson syndrome).
### Psychiatric
The FDA requires all antidepressants, including bupropion, to carry a [warning](boxed)(boxed warning) stating that antidepressants may increase the risk of suicide in people younger than 25. This warning is based on a statistical analysis conducted by the FDA which found a 2-fold increase in [thought](suicidal)(suicidal ideation) and behavior in children and adolescents, and 1.5-fold increase in the 18–24 age group. For this analysis the FDA combined the results of 295 trials of 11 antidepressants in order to obtain statistically significant results. Considered in isolation, bupropion was not statistically different from placebo.
Bupropion prescribed for smoking cessation results in 25% increase of the risk of psychiatric side effects, in particular, [anxiety](anxiety) (about 40% increase) and [insomnia](insomnia) (about 80% increase). The evidence is insufficient to determine whether bupropion is associated with suicides or suicidal behavior.
In rare cases, bupropion-induced [psychosis](psychosis) may develop. It is associated with higher doses of bupropion; many cases described are at higher than recommended doses. Concurrent antipsychotic medication appears to be protective. In most cases the psychotic symptoms are eliminated by reducing the dose, ceasing treatment or adding antipsychotic medication.
Although studies are lacking, a handful of case reports suggest that abrupt discontinuation of bupropion may cause [discontinuation syndrome](antidepressant)(antidepressant discontinuation syndrome).
## Overdose
Bupropion is considered moderately dangerous in overdose. According to an analysis of [National Poison Data System](US)(American Association of Poison Control Centers#National Poison Data System (NPDS)), adjusted for the number of prescriptions, bupropion and [venlafaxine](venlafaxine) are the two new generation antidepressants (that is excluding [antidepressants](tricyclic)(tricyclic antidepressants)) that result in the highest [mortality](mortality rate) and [morbidity](morbidity). For significant overdoses, seizures have been reported in about a third of all cases; other serious effects include hallucinations, loss of consciousness, and [heart rhythms](abnormal)(Heart arrhythmia). When bupropion was one of several kinds of pills taken in an overdose, fever, muscle rigidity, muscle damage, hypertension or hypotension, stupor, coma, and respiratory failure have been reported. While most people recover, some people have died, having had multiple uncontrolled seizures and myocardial infarction.
## Interactions
Since bupropion is metabolized to [hydroxybupropion](hydroxybupropion) by the enzyme [CYP2B6](CYP2B6), drug interactions with CYP2B6 inhibitors are possible: this includes such medications as [paroxetine](paroxetine), [sertraline](sertraline), [norfluoxetine](norfluoxetine) (active metabolite of [fluoxetine](fluoxetine)), [diazepam](diazepam), [clopidogrel](clopidogrel), and [orphenadrine](orphenadrine). The expected result is the increase of bupropion and decrease of hydroxybupropion blood concentration. The reverse effect (decrease of bupropion and increase of hydroxybupropion) can be expected with CYP2B6 [inducers](enzyme induction and inhibition) such as [carbamazepine](carbamazepine), [clotrimazole](clotrimazole), [rifampicin](rifampicin), [ritonavir](ritonavir), [John's wort](St)(Hypericum perforatum), and [phenobarbital](phenobarbital). Indeed, carbamazepine decreases exposure to bupropion by 90% and increases exposure to hydroxybupropion by 94%. Ritonavir, [lopinavir/ritonavir](lopinavir/ritonavir), and [efavirenz](efavirenz) have been shown to decrease levels of bupropion and/or its metabolites. [Ticlopidine](Ticlopidine) and clopidogrel, both potent CYP2B6 inhibitors, have been found to considerably increase bupropion levels as well as decrease levels of its metabolite hydroxybupropion.
Bupropion and its metabolites are inhibitors of [CYP2D6](CYP2D6), with hydroxybupropion responsible for most of the inhibition. Additionally, bupropion and its metabolites may decrease expression of CYP2D6 in the liver. The end effect is a significant slowing of the clearance of other drugs metabolized by this enzyme. For instance, bupropion has been found to increase [area-under-the-curve](area-under-the-curve (pharmacokinetics)) of [desipramine](desipramine), a CYP2D6 substrate, by 5-fold. Bupropion has also been found to increase levels of [atomoxetine](atomoxetine) by 5.1-fold, while decreasing the exposure to its main metabolite by 1.5-fold. As another example, the ratio of [dextromethorphan](dextromethorphan) (a drug that is mainly metabolized by CYP2D6) to its major [metabolite](metabolite) [dextrorphan](dextrorphan) increased approximately 35-fold when it was administered to people being treated with 300 mg/day bupropion. When people on bupropion are given [MDMA](MDMA), about 30% increase of exposure to both drugs is observed, with enhanced mood but decreased [rate](heart)(heart rate) effects of MDMA. Interactions with other CYP2D6 substrates, such as [metoprolol](metoprolol), [imipramine](imipramine), [nortriptyline](nortriptyline), [venlafaxine](venlafaxine), and [nebivolol](nebivolol) have also been reported. However, in a notable exception, bupropion does not seem to affect the concentrations of CYP2D6 substrates fluoxetine and paroxetine.
Bupropion lowers the [seizure](seizure) threshold, and therefore can potentially interact with other medications that also lower it, such as [antipsychotic](antipsychotic)s, [antidepressant](tricyclic)(tricyclic antidepressant)s, [theophylline](theophylline), and systemic [corticosteroid](corticosteroid)s. The prescribing information recommends minimizing the use of [alcohol](drinking alcohol), since in rare cases bupropion reduces alcohol tolerance.
Caution should be observed when combining bupropion with a [oxidase inhibitor](monoamine)(monoamine oxidase inhibitor) (MAOI), as it may result in [crisis](hypertensive)(hypertensive crisis).
## Pharmacology
### Pharmacodynamics
The [of action](mechanism)(mechanism of action) of bupropion in the treatment of depression and for other indications is unclear. However, it is thought to be related to the fact that bupropion is a [reuptake inhibitor](norepinephrine–dopamine)(norepinephrine–dopamine reuptake inhibitor) (NDRI) and [antagonist](receptor antagonist) of several [acetylcholine receptor](nicotinic)(nicotinic acetylcholine receptor)s. It is uncertain whether bupropion is a [releasing agent](norepinephrine–dopamine)(norepinephrine–dopamine releasing agent). Pharmacological actions of bupropion, to a substantial degree, are due to its active metabolites [hydroxybupropion](hydroxybupropion), [*threo*-hydrobupropion](threohydrobupropion), and [*erythro*-hydrobupropion](erythrohydrobupropion) that are present in the blood plasma at comparable or much higher levels. In fact, bupropion could accurately be conceptualized as a [prodrug](prodrug) of these metabolites. Overall action of these metabolites, and particularly one enantiomer [*S,S*-hydroxybupropion](radafaxine), is also characterized by inhibition of norepinephrine and dopamine reuptake and nicotinic antagonism (see the chart on the right). Bupropion has no meaningful direct activity at a variety of [receptor](receptor (biochemistry))s, including [α-](alpha-adrenergic receptor) and [β-adrenergic](beta-adrenergic receptor), [dopamine](dopamine receptor), [serotonin](serotonin receptor), [histamine](histamine receptor), and [acetylcholine receptor](muscarinic)(muscarinic acetylcholine receptor)s.
The occupancy of [transporter](dopamine)(dopamine transporter) (DAT) by bupropion (300mg/day) and its metabolites in the human brain as measured by several [emission tomography](positron)(positron emission tomography) (PET) studies is approximately 20%, with a mean occupancy range of about 14 to 26%. For comparison, the NDRI [methylphenidate](methylphenidate) at therapeutic doses is thought to occupy greater than 50% of DAT sites. In accordance with its low DAT occupancy, no measurable dopamine release in the human brain was detected with bupropion (one 150mg dose) in a PET study. Bupropion has also been shown to increase striatal [VMAT2](Vesicular monoamine transporter 2), though it is unknown if this effect is more pronounced than other DRIs. These findings raise questions about the role of [reuptake inhibition](dopamine)(dopamine reuptake inhibition) in the pharmacology of bupropion, and suggest that other actions may be responsible for its therapeutic effects. More research is needed in this area. No data are available on occupancy of the [transporter](norepinephrine)(norepinephrine transporter) (NET) by bupropion and its metabolites. However, due to the increased exposure of hydroxybupropion over bupropion itself, which has higher [affinity](affinity (pharmacology)) for the NET than the DAT, bupropion's overall pharmacological profile in humans may end up making it effectively more of a [reuptake inhibitor](norepinephrine)(norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor) than a dopamine reuptake inhibitor. Accordingly, the clinical effects of bupropion are more consistent with noradrenergic activity than with dopaminergic actions.
### Pharmacokinetics
[[of bupropion.png|thumb|250px|upright=1.7|Principal pathways of bupropion metabolism.](File:Metabolism)]
After oral administration, bupropion is rapidly and completely absorbed reaching the peak blood plasma concentration after 1.5 hours ([tmax](Cmax (pharmacology))). Sustained release (SR) and extended release (XL) formulations have been designed to slow down absorption resulting in tmax of 3 hours and 5 hours, respectively. Absolute [bioavailability](bioavailability) of bupropion is unknown but is presumed to be low, at 5–20%, due to the [metabolism](first-pass)(First pass effect). As for the relative bioavailability of the formulations, XL formulation has lower bioavailability (68%) compared to SR formulation and immediate release bupropion.
Bupropion is metabolized in the body by a variety of pathways. The [oxidative](oxidation) pathways are by [P450](cytochrome)(cytochrome P450) isoenzymes [CYP2B6](CYP2B6) leading to *R,R*- and [*S,S*-hydroxybupropion](radafaxine) and, to a lesser degree, [CYP2C19](CYP2C19) leading to 4'-hydroxybupropion. The [reductive](reduction (chemistry)) pathways are by [dehydrogenase type 1](11β-hydroxysteroid)(11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 1) in the liver and [AKR7A2](AKR7A2)/[AKR7A3](AKR7A3) in the intestine leading to [*threo*-hydrobupropion](threohydrobupropion) and by yet unknown enzyme leading to [*erythro*-hydrobupropion](erythrohydrobupropion).
The metabolism of bupropion is highly variable: the effective doses of bupropion received by persons who ingest the same amount of the drug may differ by as much as 5.5 times (with a [half-life](Biological half-life) of 12–30 hours), while the effective doses of [hydroxybupropion](hydroxybupropion) may differ by as much as 7.5 times (with a half-life of 15–25 hours). Based on this, some researchers have advocated monitoring of the blood level of bupropion and hydroxybupropion.
## Chemistry
Bupropion is an [aminoketone](aminoketone) that belongs to the [class](chemical classification) of [cathinone](substituted)(substituted cathinone)s and the more general class of [phenethylamine](substituted)(substituted phenethylamine)s. The clinically used bupropion is [racemic](racemic), that is a mixture of two [enantiomer](enantiomer)s: *S*-bupropion and *R*-bupropion. Although the optical isomers on bupropion can be separated, they rapidly [racemize](racemization) under physiological conditions.
There have been reported cases of false-positive urine amphetamine tests in persons taking bupropion.
### Synthesis
It is synthesized in two chemical steps starting from 3'-chloro-[propiophenone](propiophenone). The alpha position adjacent to the ketone is first [brominated](ketone halogenation) followed by [displacement](nucleophilic)(nucleophilic displacement) of the resulting alpha-bromoketone with [*t*-butylamine](Tert-Butylamine) and treated with [acid](hydrochloric)(hydrochloric acid) to give bupropion as the hydrochloride salt in 75–85% overall yield.
Note: the origin (X=0,Y=0 coordinate) is the top left of the image. -->
}}
## History
[[File:Comparison of bupropion levels with bupropion IR, bupropion SR, and bupropion XL.png|thumb|right|250px|Comparison of [steady-state](steady state (pharmacokinetics)) plasma bupropion levels with bupropion IR 100 mg t.i.d. (3x/day), bupropion SR 150 mg b.i.d. (2x/day), and bupropion XL 300 mg q.d. (1x/day).]]
Bupropion was invented by [Mehta](Nariman)(Nariman Mehta) of Burroughs Wellcome (now [GlaxoSmithKline](GlaxoSmithKline)) in 1969, and the US patent for it was granted in 1974. It was approved by the U.S. [and Drug Administration](Food)(Food and Drug Administration) (FDA) as an antidepressant on 30 December 1985, and marketed under the name Wellbutrin. However, a significant incidence of [seizure](seizure)s at the originally recommended dosage (400–600 mg/day) caused the withdrawal of the drug in 1986. Subsequently, the risk of seizures was found to be highly dose-dependent, and bupropion was re-introduced to the market in 1989 with a lower maximum recommended daily dose of 450 mg/day.
In 1996, the FDA approved a [sustained-release](time release technology) formulation of alcohol-resistant bupropion called Wellbutrin SR, intended to be taken twice a day (as compared with three times a day for immediate-release Wellbutrin). In 2003, the FDA approved another sustained-release formulation called Wellbutrin XL, intended for once-daily dosing. Wellbutrin SR and XL are available in [generic](generic drug) form in the United States and Canada. In 1997, bupropion was approved by the FDA for use as a smoking cessation aid under the name Zyban. In 2006, Wellbutrin XL was similarly approved as a treatment for seasonal affective disorder.
In October 2007, two providers of consumer information on nutritional products and supplements, ConsumerLab.com and The People's Pharmacy, released the results of comparative tests of different brands of bupropion. The People's Pharmacy received multiple reports of increased side effects and decreased efficacy of generic bupropion, which prompted it to ask ConsumerLab.com to test the products in question. The tests showed that "one of a few generic versions of Wellbutrin XL 300 mg, sold as Budeprion XL 300 mg, didn't perform the same as the brand-name pill in the lab." The FDA investigated these complaints and concluded that Budeprion XL is equivalent to Wellbutrin XL in regard to bioavailability of bupropion and its main active metabolite hydroxybupropion. The FDA also said that coincidental natural mood variation is the most likely explanation for the apparent worsening of depression after the switch from Wellbutrin XL to Budeprion XL. On 3 October 2012, however, the FDA reversed this opinion, announcing that "Budeprion XL 300 mg fails to demonstrate therapeutic equivalence to Wellbutrin XL 300 mg." The FDA did not test the bioequivalence of any of the other generic versions of Wellbutrin XL 300 mg, but requested that the four manufacturers submit data on this question to the FDA by March 2013. the FDA has made determinations on the formulations from some manufacturers not being bioequivalent.
In April 2008, the FDA approved a formulation of bupropion as a hydrobromide salt instead of a hydrochloride salt, to be sold under the name Aplenzin by [Sanofi-Aventis](Sanofi).
In 2009, the FDA issued a health advisory warning that the prescription of bupropion for smoking cessation has been associated with reports about unusual behavior changes, agitation and hostility. Some people, according to the advisory, have become depressed or have had their depression worsen, have had thoughts about suicide or dying, or have attempted suicide. This advisory was based on a review of anti-smoking products that identified 75 reports of "suicidal adverse events" for bupropion over ten years. Based on the results of follow-up trials this warning was removed in 2016.
In 2012, the U.S. Justice Department announced that GlaxoSmithKline had agreed to plead guilty and pay a $3 billion fine, in part for promoting the unapproved use of Wellbutrin for weight loss and sexual dysfunction.
In 2017, the [Medicines Agency](European)(European Medicines Agency) recommended suspending a number of nationally approved medicines due to misrepresentation of bioequivalence study data by Micro Therapeutic Research Labs in India. The products recommended for suspension included several 300 mg modified-release bupropion tablets.
## Society and culture
### Recreational use
While bupropion demonstrates some potential for misuse, this potential is less than of other commonly used stimulants, being limited by features of its pharmacology. Case reports describe misuse of bupropion as producing a "high" similar to cocaine or amphetamine usage but with less intensity. Bupropion misuse is uncommon. There have been a number of anecdotal and case-study reports of bupropion abuse, but the bulk of evidence indicates that the subjective effects of bupropion when taken orally are markedly different from those of addictive stimulants such as cocaine or amphetamine. However, bupropion, by non-conventional routes of administration like injection or insufflation, has been reported to be misused in the United States and Canada, notably in prisons.[Antidepressant Wellbutrin becomes 'poor man's cocaine' on Toronto streets](http://globalnews.ca/news/846576/antidepressant-wellbutrin-becomes-poor-mans-cocaine-on-toronto-streets/) Global News 18 September 2013.
### Legal status
In Russia bupropion is banned as a [drug](narcotic)(narcotic drug), yet not per se but rather as a derivative of [methcathinone](methcathinone).
In Australia, France, and the UK, smoking cessation is the only licensed use of bupropion, and no generics are marketed.
## Brand names
Brand names include Wellbutrin, Aplenzin, Budeprion, Buproban, Forfivo, Zyban, Bupron, Bupisure, Bupep, Smoquite, Elontril, Buxon.
## References
## External links
*
*
*
[antagonists](Category:5-HT3)(Category:5-HT3 antagonists)
[Category:Anorectics](Category:Anorectics)
[Category:Antidepressants](Category:Antidepressants)
[drugs](Category:Antiobesity)(Category:Antiobesity drugs)
[Category:Aphrodisiacs](Category:Aphrodisiacs)
[deficit hyperactivity disorder management](Category:Attention)(Category:Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder management)
[Category:Cathinones](Category:Cathinones)
[Category:Chlorobenzenes](Category:Chlorobenzenes)
[inhibitors](Category:CYP2D6)(Category:CYP2D6 inhibitors)
[Category:Dermatoxins](Category:Dermatoxins)
[aids](Category:Ergogenic)(Category:Ergogenic aids)
[sexual dysfunction drugs](Category:Female)(Category:Female sexual dysfunction drugs)
[plc brands](Category:GSK)(Category:GSK plc brands)
[antagonists](Category:Nicotinic)(Category:Nicotinic antagonists)
[reuptake inhibitors](Category:Norepinephrine–dopamine)(Category:Norepinephrine–dopamine reuptake inhibitors)
[Category:Phenethylamines](Category:Phenethylamines)
[Category:Prodrugs](Category:Prodrugs)
[cessation](Category:Smoking)(Category:Smoking cessation)
[Category:Stimulants](Category:Stimulants)
[amphetamines](Category:Substituted)(Category:Substituted amphetamines)
[compounds](Category:Tert-butyl)(Category:Tert-butyl compounds)
[medicine articles ready to translate](Category:Wikipedia)(Category:Wikipedia medicine articles ready to translate)
[Health Organization essential medicines](Category:World)(Category:World Health Organization essential medicines)
|
Jessie James Decker
|
jessie_james_decker
|
# Jessie James Decker
*Revision ID: 1157638104 | Timestamp: 2023-05-30T00:17:04Z*
---
Jessica James}}
| birth_place = [Vicenza](Vicenza), [Veneto](Veneto), Italy
| genre = )" [Allmusic](Allmusic). [Corporation](Rovi)(Rovi Corporation). Retrieved June 24, 2010.}}
| occupation = Singer
| years_active = 2003–present
| label =
| website =
}}
**Jessica Rose James Decker** (born April 12, 1988) is an American [pop](country)(country pop) singer. At age 15, after auditioning for and being rejected by most of the country labels in [Tennessee](Nashville,)(Nashville, Tennessee), Decker began working with Carla Wallace of Big Yellow Dog Music. One of her songs attracted the attention of [Records](Mercury)(Mercury Records), which offered her a recording contract. She released her debut album, *[James](Jessie)(Jessie James (album))*, in 2009. A few years later in 2013, she starred with her husband [Decker](Eric)(Eric Decker), a [receiver](wide)(wide receiver) in the [Football League](National)(National Football League), in the [E!](E!) reality show *[& Jessie: Game On](Eric)(Eric & Jessie: Game On)*.
On April 18, 2014, Decker released an EP through [iTunes](iTunes) entitled ''[Home](Comin')(Comin' Home (EP))*. On [Epic](Epic Records) in 2017, she released a five-track EP, *[Gold](Gold (Jessie James Decker EP))'', followed by a collaboration on [John Winkler](Austin)(Austin John Winkler)'s 2016 song titled "Howlin'" from his debut EP [Sick Radio](Love)(Love Sick Radio) and released a surprise live EP on June 9, 2017, titled *[Sessions](Blackbird)(Blackbird Sessions)*. On October 13, 2017, she released her second full-length album and first for Epic Records, *[Girl City Lights](Southern)(Southern Girl City Lights)*. *[This Holiday](On)(On This Holiday)*, her first full-length Christmas album, was released on October 26, 2018.
On October 22, 2021, she released the EP [Woman I've Become*](*The)(The Woman I've Become (EP)). The project spawned a headlining tour, which wrapped in August 2022 after hitting major cities across the nation. On September 30, 2022 “Grow Young With You” was the first official track from the Big Yellow Dog/Atlantic Records/Warner Music Nashville recording artist since the release of her *The Woman I’ve Become* EP the previous year.
## Early life
Decker was born Jessica Rose James on April 12, 1988, in [Vicenza](Vicenza), in the Italian [region](Regions of Italy) of [Veneto](Veneto) on an American military base to her mother, Karen Johnson and father Robert James. Her stepfather, Steve Parker, who Karen married in the early 2000s, served in the [Air Force](U.S.)(United States Air Force). As a result, she lived in [Iowa](Iowa), [Kentucky](Kentucky), [Texas](Texas), [Louisiana](Louisiana), and [Georgia](Georgia (U.S. state)). She graduated from Warner Robins High School in Warner Robins, GA in 2007. Decker has two younger siblings, Sydney Rae Bass (born 1991) and John James (born 1994), two step siblings, Ashley and Alex Parker (from Steve's first marriage) and two siblings-in-law, [Bass](Anthony)(Anthony Bass) and Alison James (formerly Green).
Decker began singing when she was two. She won her first talent contest in [Louisiana](Baker,)(Baker, Louisiana), at age nine, singing "[Want to Be a Cowboy's Sweetheart](I)(I Want to Be a Cowboy's Sweetheart)". By then, she had already been writing songs on a plastic guitar and had performed at [SeaWorld](SeaWorld) and in [Robins, Georgia](Warner)(Warner Robins, Georgia) in 2000. At age fifteen, she made weekly trips to Nashville to hone her songwriting skills.
## Career
### Music
At seventeen, Decker was introduced to Carla Wallace of independent label Big Yellow Dog Music, who helped her with her songwriting and singing. One of her songs, "Gypsy Girl", was written with two writers from Yellow Dog and made it into the hands of record executive [Massey](David)(David Massey (music executive)), who brought her to the attention of [Reid](L.A.)(L.A. Reid). She auditioned for Reid by singing her song "My Cowboy", produced by [Rich](John)(John Rich (musician)). Decker soon signed a contract with [Records](Mercury)(Mercury Records).
Even though she originally thought that she would be producing a country record, Decker was later told to record a pop album by record executives. She also claimed to have been asked to sound like pop singer [Spears](Britney)(Britney Spears). She described the recording process as "intense" due to the genre crossing. She described herself in an interview as "a country girl at heart," having grown up listening to this music.
Her debut album, *Jessie James*, was released in August 2009, debuting at number 23 on the [200](*Billboard*)(Billboard 200). It was a fusion between country and pop music, with more emphasis placed on the latter as dictated by her label. The album also featured writing credits from Decker and seasoned pop songwriter [DioGuardi](Kara)(Kara DioGuardi) and [Allan](Mitch)(Mitch Allan), among others. The album received mixed receptions from critics. [Allmusic](Allmusic) received the album positively, but found that despite being marketed as such and featuring some country-influenced production, the music on the album was a far cry from country music. *[Slant](Slant (magazine))* thought that the album only superficially pulled together influences from pop, country and hip-hop while failing to pander to any of those audiences. The album's first single, "[Wanted](Wanted (Jessie James song))", produced by Allan, had been released in April and peaked at number 40 on the [Hot 100](*Billboard*)(Billboard Hot 100).
Decker later performed in the Middle East with singer [Rock](Kid)(Kid Rock) and comedian [Mencia](Carlos)(Carlos Mencia) for US troops stationed overseas.
Decker began working on her second album, *Sweet American Dreams*, in 2010, which was initially planned to be released in late summer. The album was to have the same country-pop sound as her debut, with Decker being given more leeway by Mercury in incorporating country sounds. The first single, "Boys in the Summer", released in June, was a minor country success but failed to chart on the *Billboard* Hot 100. Having struggled with accepting her career path as a pop singer, Decker told her label in the midst of preparations for her album that she did not want to be a pop artist and wanted to record country music. After negotiations, Massey asked Mark Wright from [Dog-Universal Music](Show)(Show Dog-Universal Music), which had facilitated the country release of "Boys in the Summer" in November, to help Mercury/IDJ launch Decker in the country genre. Decker began recording in April 2011.https://www.twitter.com/iamjessiejames/status/54724151990165504 "When You Say My Name" was produced by Wright and released on January 31, 2012. "Military Man" was released on May 22, 2012. She was removed from the Show Dog Universal roster in 2013. Decker released an extended play, ''Comin' Home*, on April 18, 2014, which hit number one on iTunes top albums chart and debuted in the top 5 on *Billboard''s top country albums chart.
Decker was featured on former [Hinder](Hinder) lead singer [John](Austin)(Austin John)'s debut solo EP *[Sick Radio](Love)(Love Sick Radio)*, on the track "Howlin'". The EP was released April 22, 2016.
She finished the *Lights Down Low* tour. On her new label Epic she released a five-track EP, *Gold*, on February 17, 2017, and released a surprise live EP on June 9, 2017, titled *Blackbird Sessions*. On October 13, 2017, she released her second full-length album and first for Epic Records, *Southern Girl City Lights*.
On November 27, 2017, Decker appeared in 12 Days of Cracker Barrel campaign, ending on December 8. Each day got a new YouTube video in the style of the original [Twelve Days of Christmas" song]("The)(The Twelve Days of Christmas (song)).
On April 3, 2022, Decker performed "[the Beautiful](America)(America the Beautiful)", in front of a nearly 80,000 crowd at WWE's WrestleMania 38, at AT&T Stadium, in Dallas, Texas.
### Reality television
In 2013, Decker starred with her husband [Decker](Eric)(Eric Decker), a [receiver](wide)(wide receiver) in the [Football League](National)(National Football League), in the [E!](E!) reality show *[& Jessie: Game On](Eric)(Eric & Jessie: Game On).* It ended its run in April 2014, but returned in September 2017. It ran for 20 episodes in three seasons.
On September 8, 2022, Decker was announced as a contestant on [31](season)(Dancing with the Stars (American season 31)) of [with the Stars*](*Dancing)(Dancing with the Stars (American TV series)). She is partnered with [Bersten](Alan)(Alan Bersten). She finished in 10th place.
### Kittenish
Decker launched a clothing line called Kittenish online. Markets Insider|last=GmbH|first=finanzen net|website=markets.businessinsider.com|access-date=March 3, 2019}} Kittenish opened its first physical location in [Nashville](Nashville, Tennessee), Tennessee. A second branch is located near Destin, Florida.
## Musical style and influences
Decker co-wrote the majority of the songs on her debut album. The album is of a country-pop fusion genre, revealing her taste for not only country music, but pop and soul music as well.
The beat for "Blue Jeans" was a recording of Decker [stepping](Stepping (African-American)); this talent stems from her time on the step team at her school. Initially, she faced opposition for her soul music-inspired vocal runs when trying to get signed in Nashville.
She has listed [Aguilera](Christina)(Christina Aguilera), [Simpson](Jessica)(Jessica Simpson), [Gentry](Bobbie)(Bobbie Gentry), [Joplin](Janis)(Janis Joplin), [Lynne](Shelby)(Shelby Lynne), and [Twain](Shania)(Shania Twain) as her musical influences. She has said that she initially wanted a career similar to those of Gentry and Twain, who were signed to pop labels but found crossover success in both country and pop music.
## Personal life
On June 22, 2013, Jessie married [Decker](Eric)(Eric Decker), an NFL wide receiver who at the time played for the [Broncos](Denver)(Denver Broncos).
In September 2013, it was announced that the couple was expecting their first child together. She gave birth to their daughter, Vivianne Rose, in March 2014 in Colorado. Decker gave birth to their second child, Eric Thomas II, in September 2015.
Decker announced on October 9, 2017, that they were expecting a third child, another boy. She gave birth to their third child, Forrest Bradley, in March 2018.
## Discography
### Studio albums
### Extended plays
### Singles
Notes:
#### Holiday singles
### Music videos
### Other appearances
## References
## External links
*
*
[births](Category:1988)(Category:1988 births)
[expatriates in Italy](Category:American)(Category:American expatriates in Italy)
[women country singers](Category:American)(Category:American women country singers)
[country singer-songwriters](Category:American)(Category:American country singer-songwriters)
[women pop singers](Category:American)(Category:American women pop singers)
[pop musicians](Category:Country)(Category:Country pop musicians)
[people](Category:Living)(Category:Living people)
[Records artists](Category:Mercury)(Category:Mercury Records artists)
[from Warner Robins, Georgia](Category:People)(Category:People from Warner Robins, Georgia)
[Dog-Universal Music artists](Category:Show)(Category:Show Dog-Universal Music artists)
[American women singers](Category:21st-century)(Category:21st-century American women singers)
[musicians from Georgia (U.S. state)](Category:Country)(Category:Country musicians from Georgia (U.S. state))
[American singers](Category:21st-century)(Category:21st-century American singers)
[from Georgia (U.S. state)](Category:Singer-songwriters)(Category:Singer-songwriters from Georgia (U.S. state))
[contraltos](Category:American)(Category:American contraltos)
|
Richard Winters
|
richard_winters
|
# Richard Winters
*Revision ID: 1157919130 | Timestamp: 2023-05-31T20:07:17Z*
---
| death_date =
| birth_place = [Holland, Pennsylvania](New)(New Holland, Pennsylvania), U.S.
| death_place = [Pennsylvania](Palmyra,)(Palmyra, Pennsylvania), U.S.
| placeofburial = Bergstrasse Cemetery[Pennsylvania](Ephrata,)(Ephrata, Pennsylvania), U.S.
| placeofburial_label = Place of burial
| nickname = Richard "Dick" Winters
| allegiance = United States
| branch = [States Army](United)(United States Army)
| serviceyears =
| rank = [Major](Major (United States)#Army)
| servicenumber = 0-1286582
| unit =
| commands = 2nd Battalion, [Parachute Infantry Regiment](506th)(506th Infantry Regiment (United States)), [Airborne Division](101st)(101st Airborne Division)
| battles = [War II](World)(World War II)
* [Normandy](Operation Overlord)
* [Rhineland](Operation Market Garden)
* [Ardennes-Alsace](Battle of the Bulge)
* [Europe](Central)(Western Allied invasion of Germany)
| awards = [Service Cross](Distinguished)(Distinguished Service Cross (United States))[Star Medal](Bronze)(Bronze Star Medal) (2)[Heart](Purple)(Purple Heart)[de Guerre](Croix)(Croix de Guerre 1939-1945 (France)) (France)[de Guerre](Croix)(Croix de guerre (Belgium)) (Belgium)
| spouse =
| children = 2
| relations = Richard (father)Edith (mother)
| laterwork = Businessman, guest lecturer
}}
**Richard Davis Winters** (January 21, 1918January 2, 2011) was an American businessman and decorated war [veteran](veteran) who served as an [officer](Officer (armed forces)) in the [States Army](United)(United States Army) during [War II](World)(World War II). He is best known for having commanded [Company](Easy)(E Company, 506th Infantry Regiment (United States)) of the 2nd Battalion, [Parachute Infantry Regiment](506th)(506th Infantry Regiment (United States)), part of the [Airborne Division](101st)(101st Airborne Division). He was eventually promoted to [major](Major (United States)) and put in command of the 2nd Battalion.
As a [lieutenant](first)(First lieutenant#U.S. Army, U.S. Marine Corps and U.S. Air Force), Winters [into Normandy](parachuted)(American airborne landings in Normandy) in the early hours of [June 6, 1944](D-Day,)(Normandy landings), and later [across France, the Netherlands, Belgium, and eventually Germany](fought)(Western Front (World War II)#1944–45: The Second Front). After the German surrender in May 1945, he left the 506th and was stationed in France, where senior officers were needed to oversee the return home. In 1951, during the [War](Korean)(Korean War), Winters was recalled to the army from the inactive list and briefly served as a regimental planning and training officer on staff at [Dix](Fort)(Fort Dix), New Jersey. After volunteering and completing training to become a [Ranger](United States Army Rangers), Winters was issued orders for deployment and was preparing to depart for Korea, but instead left the army under a provision that allowed officers who had served in World War II but had been inactive since to resign their commission.
Winters has been featured within numerous books and was portrayed by English actor [Lewis](Damian)(Damian Lewis) in the 2001 [HBO](HBO) mini-series *[of Brothers](Band)(Band of Brothers (TV miniseries))*.
## Early life and education
Winters was born in [Holland, Pennsylvania](New)(New Holland, Pennsylvania), to Richard and Edith Winters on January 21, 1918. The family soon moved to nearby [Ephrata](Ephrata, Pennsylvania), and then to [Lancaster](Lancaster, Pennsylvania) when he was eight years old. He graduated from Lancaster Boys High School in 1937 and attended [and Marshall College](Franklin)(Franklin and Marshall College).
At Franklin and Marshall, Winters was a member of the Upsilon chapter of [Sigma Phi](Delta)(Delta Sigma Phi) fraternity and participated in intramural football and basketball. He had to give up wrestling, his favorite sport, and most of his social activities for his studies and the part-time jobs that paid his way through college. He graduated in 1941 with a B.S. in Economics. He obtained the highest academic standing in the business college.
## Military service
### World War II
#### Training
[[File:Richard Winters.jpeg|thumb|Winters at [Toccoa](Camp)(Camp Toccoa), 1942]]
On August 25, 1941, Winters enlisted in the Army. He would write in his memoirs that he "had no desire to get into the war" but joined to fulfill a one-year requirement of service and to avoid being drafted later.
In September, he underwent [training](basic)(basic training) at [Croft](Camp)(Croft State Park), South Carolina. He remained at Camp Croft to help train draftees and other volunteers, while the rest of his battalion was deployed to Panama. In April 1942, four months after the United States entered [War II](World)(World War II), he was selected to attend [Candidate School](Officer)(Officer Candidate School (United States Army)) (OCS) at [Benning](Fort)(Fort Benning), [Georgia](Georgia (U.S. state)). There he became friends with [Nixon](Lewis)(Lewis Nixon III), with whom he would serve throughout the war. He was [commissioned](Officer (armed forces)) as a [lieutenant](second)(Second lieutenant#United States) in the [infantry](Infantry Branch (United States)) after graduating from OCS on July 2, 1942.
During his officer training, Winters decided to join the [infantry](parachute)(paratrooper), part of the U.S. Army's new [forces](airborne)(airborne forces). Upon completing training, he returned to Camp Croft to train another class of draftees as there were no positions available in the paratroopers at that time. After five weeks, he received orders to join the [Parachute Infantry Regiment](506th)(506th Infantry Regiment (United States)) (506th PIR) at [Toccoa](Camp)(Camp Toccoa) (formerly Camp Toombs) in Georgia. The 506th was commanded by [Colonel](Colonel (United States)) [Sink](Robert)(Robert Sink).
Winters arrived at Toccoa in mid-August 1942 and was assigned to Company E, 2nd Battalion, 506th PIR, which later became better known as "[Company](Easy)(E Company, 506th Infantry Regiment (United States))" in accordance with the contemporaneous [Army/Navy Phonetic Alphabet](Joint)(Joint Army/Navy Phonetic Alphabet). Serving under [Lieutenant](First)(First lieutenant#United States) [Sobel](Herbert)(Herbert Sobel), Winters was made [leader](platoon)(Platoon) of 2nd Platoon, earning a promotion to first lieutenant in October 1942 and made acting company [officer](executive)(executive officer), although this was not made official until May 1943. The 506th PIR was an experimental unit, the first regiment to undertake airborne training as a formed unit. The training at Toccoa was very tough. Of the 500 officers who had volunteered, only 148 completed the course; of 5,000 enlisted volunteers, only 1,800 were ultimately selected for duty as paratroopers.
On June 10, 1943, after more tactical training at [Mackall](Camp)(Camp Mackall), North Carolina, the 506th PIR was attached to [General](Major)(Major general (United States)) [Lee](William)(William C. Lee)'s ["Screaming Eagles" Airborne Division](101st)(101st Airborne Division). Later in the year, they embarked on the *Samaria*, and arrived in [Liverpool](Liverpool) on 15 September 1943. They proceeded to [Aldbourne](Aldbourne), [Wiltshire](Wiltshire), where they began intense training for the [Allied](Allies of World War II) [of Europe](invasion)(Invasion of Normandy) planned for spring 1944.
In November and December 1943, while Easy Company was at Aldbourne, the tension that had been brewing between Winters and Sobel came to a head. For some time, Winters had privately held concerns over Sobel's ability to lead the company in combat. Many of the enlisted men in the company had come to respect Winters for his competence and had also developed their own concerns about Sobel's leadership. Winters later said that he never wanted to compete with Sobel for command of Easy Company; still, Sobel attempted to bring Winters up on trumped-up charges for "failure to carry out a lawful order". Feeling that his punishment was unjust, Winters requested that the charge be reviewed by [court-martial](court-martial). After Winters' punishment was set aside by the battalion commander, [Major](Major (United States)) Robert L. Strayer, Sobel brought Winters up on another charge the following day. During the investigation, Winters was transferred to the Headquarters Company and appointed as the battalion mess officer.
In the wake of this incident, several of the company's [officer](non-commissioned)(non-commissioned officer)s (NCOs) delivered an ultimatum to the regimental commander, Colonel Sink, threatening to surrender their stripes unless Sobel was replaced. Winters tried unsuccessfully to talk them out of taking this step. Sink was not impressed by the threat, and several of the NCOs were subsequently demoted and/or transferred out of the company. Nevertheless, he realized that something had to be done and decided to transfer Sobel out of Easy Company, giving him command of a new parachute training school at [Foliat](Chilton)(Chilton Foliat). Winters' court-martial was set aside and he returned to Easy Company as leader of 1st Platoon. Winters later said he felt that despite his differences with Sobel, at least part of Easy Company's success had been due to Sobel's strenuous training and high expectations. In February 1944, First Lieutenant Thomas Meehan was given command of Easy Company.
#### Summer 1944
Meehan remained in command of the company until the invasion of Normandy, when at about 1:15 a.m. on June 6, 1944, [D-Day](Normandy landings), the [Skytrain](C-47)(Douglas C-47 Skytrain) transporting the company Headquarters Section was shot down by [German](Wehrmacht) [anti-aircraft](anti-aircraft) fire, killing everyone on board. Winters [that night](jumped)(American airborne landings in Normandy) and landed safely near [Sainte-Mère-Église](Sainte-Mère-Église). Losing his weapon during the drop, he nevertheless oriented himself, assembled several paratroopers, including members of the [Airborne Division](82nd)(82nd Airborne Division), and proceeded toward the unit's assigned objective near [Sainte-Marie-du-Mont](Sainte-Marie-du-Mont, Manche). With Meehan's fate unknown, Winters became the *[facto](de)(de facto)* [officer](commanding)(commanding officer) (CO) of Easy Company, which he remained for the duration of the [campaign](Normandy)(Operation Overlord).
Later that day, Winters led an attack that destroyed a [battery](Artillery battery) of German 105mm [howitzer](howitzer)s, which were firing onto the causeways that served as the principal exits from [Beach](Utah)(Utah Beach). The Americans estimated that the guns were defended by about a [platoon](platoon) of 50 German troops, while Winters had 13 men. This action south of the village of Le Grand-Chemin, called the [Manor Assault](Brécourt)(Brécourt Manor Assault), has been taught at the military academy at [Point](West)(United States Military Academy) as an example of a textbook assault on a fixed position by a numerically inferior force. In addition to destroying the battery, Winters also obtained a map that showed German gun emplacements near Utah Beach.
On July 1, 1944, Winters was told that he had been promoted to [captain](Captain (United States)). The next day, he was presented with the [Service Cross](Distinguished)(Distinguished Service Cross (United States)) (DSC) by [General](Lieutenant)(Lieutenant general (United States)) [Bradley](Omar)(Omar Bradley), then the commander of the [First Army](U.S.)(First United States Army). Shortly after, the 506th Parachute Infantry was withdrawn from France and returned to Aldbourne, England, for reorganization. The citation for his DSC reads as follows:
#### Autumn 1944
In September 1944, the 506th PIR parachuted into the Netherlands, near the village of [Son](Son, North Brabant), north of [Eindhoven](Eindhoven), as part of [Market Garden](Operation)(Operation Market Garden), a combined airborne and [armored](Armoured warfare) operation. On 5 October 1944, a German force attacked the 2nd Battalion's flank and threatened to break through the American lines. At the same time, four men in an Easy Company patrol were wounded. Returning to headquarters, they reported that they had encountered a large group of Germans at a crossroads about to the east of the company command post. Realizing the seriousness of the situation, Winters took one [squad](squad) from 1st Platoon, and moved off toward the crossroads, where they observed a German machine gun firing to the south, toward the battalion headquarters, from a long distance. After surveying the position, Winters led the squad in an assault on the gun crew. Soon after taking the position, the squad took fire from a German position opposite them. Estimating that this position was held by at least a platoon, Winters called for reinforcements from the rest of the 1st Platoon and led them in a successful assault. Later it was discovered there had been at least 300 Germans.
On October 9, Winters became the battalion [officer](executive)(executive officer) (XO), following the death of the battalion's former XO, Major Oliver Horton. Although this position was normally held by a major, Winters filled it as a captain. The 101st Airborne Division was withdrawn to France soon afterward.
#### Winter 1944-45 and spring 1945
On December 16, 1944, German forces launched a [counter-offensive](counter-offensive) against the Western [Allies](Allies of World War II) in Belgium, commencing the [of the Bulge](Battle)(Battle of the Bulge). The 101st Airborne Division was trucked to the [Bastogne](Bastogne) area two days later. Still serving as XO of the 2nd Battalion, Winters helped defend the line northeast of Bastogne near the town of [Foy](Foy, Belgium). The entire 101st Airborne and elements of the [Armored Division](10th)(10th Armored Division (United States)) battled about 15 German divisions, supported by heavy artillery and armor, for nearly a week before General [Patton](George)(George S. Patton)'s [Third Army](U.S.)(United States Army Central) broke through the German lines surrounding Bastogne, reopening ground supply lines.
After being relieved by Patton, the 2nd Battalion attacked Foy on January 9, 1945. On March 8, 1945, the 2nd Battalion was moved to [Haguenau](Haguenau) in [Alsace](Alsace), after which Winters was promoted to major. Shortly afterwards, Robert Strayer, now a [colonel](lieutenant)(Lieutenant colonel (United States)), was elevated to the regimental staff and Winters took over as [commander](acting)(Acting (rank)) of the 2nd Battalion.
In April, the battalion carried out defensive duties along the Rhine before deploying to [Bavaria](Bavaria) later in the month. In early May, the 101st Airborne Division received orders to capture [Berchtesgaden](Berchtesgaden). The 2nd Battalion set out from the town of [Thale](Thale) through streams of surrendering German soldiers and reached the alpine retreat at noon on 5 May 1945. Three days later, the war in Europe ended.
#### Post-war assignments
After the end of hostilities, Winters remained in Europe as the process of occupation and demobilization began. Even though he had [points](enough)(Adjusted Service Rating Score) to return to the United States, he was told that he was needed in Germany. Later, he was offered a regular (non-reserve) commission, but declined it. He finally embarked from [Marseille](Marseille) aboard the *Wooster Victory* on 4 November 1945. He was separated from the Army on November 29, 1945, although he was not officially discharged until January 22, 1946, and he remained on terminal leave until then.
Winters was recommended for the [of Honor](Medal)(Medal of Honor) for his leadership at [Manor](Brécourt)(Brécourt Manor), but instead received the U.S. Army's second-highest award for combat valor, the Distinguished Service Cross. After the release of the *[of Brothers](Band)(Band of Brothers (TV miniseries))* television miniseries, Representative [Holden](Tim)(Tim Holden) (D-PA) introduced a bill asking the President to grant the Medal, but the bill died in the House Armed Services Committee [on Military Personnel](Subcommittee)(United States House Armed Services Subcommittee on Military Personnel) in 2007.
### Korean War
[[Winters army.mil-2007-03-30-190253 (cropped).jpg|200px|right|thumb|Winters in 2004](File:Dick)]
After leaving the Army, Winters worked for his close wartime friend Captain [Nixon](Lewis)(Lewis Nixon III) at Nixon's family business, [Nitration Works](Nixon)(Nixon Nitration Works) of Edison, New Jersey, rising to become general manager in 1950. On May 16, 1948, Winters married Ethel Estoppey and continued to pursue his education through the [Bill](GI)(GI Bill), attending a number of business and personnel management courses at [University](Rutgers)(Rutgers University).
In June 1951, Winters was recalled to active duty in the Army during the [War](Korean)(Korean War). He was ordered to join the [Airborne Division](11th)(11th Airborne Division) at [Campbell](Fort)(Fort Campbell), Kentucky, but he was given six months to report and in this time he traveled to Washington, D.C., to speak to [General](General officer) [McAuliffe](Anthony)(Anthony McAuliffe), in the hope that he could convince the Army not to send him to Korea. He explained to McAuliffe that he had seen enough of war and apparently McAuliffe understood his position, but explained that he was needed because of his command experience. Winters then reported to [Dix](Fort)(Fort Dix), New Jersey, where he was assigned as a regimental planning and training officer.
While at Fort Dix, Winters became disillusioned with his job, finding that he had little enthusiasm for training officers who lacked discipline and did not attend their scheduled classes. As a result, he volunteered to attend [School](Ranger)(Ranger School), where he passed and became a Ranger. He then received orders to deploy to Korea and traveled to Seattle, where, during pre-deployment administration, he was offered the option of resigning his commission, which he accepted.
## Later life
Winters was discharged from the Army and became a production supervisor at a plastics adhesive business, Nixon Nitration Works in [Brunswick, New Jersey](New)(New Brunswick, New Jersey). In 1951, he and his wife bought a small farm where later they built a home and raised two children. In 1972, Winters went into business for himself, starting his own company and selling animal feed products to farmers throughout [Pennsylvania](Pennsylvania). Soon afterward, he moved his family to [Pennsylvania](Hershey,)(Hershey, Pennsylvania). He retired in 1997.
During the 1990s, Winters was featured in a number of books and television series about his experiences and those of the men in Easy Company. In 1992, [Ambrose](Stephen)(Stephen Ambrose) wrote the book ''[of Brothers: Easy Company, 506th Regiment, 101st Airborne from Normandy to Hitler's Eagle's Nest](Band)(Band of Brothers (book))*, which was subsequently turned into an [HBO](HBO) [mini-series](mini-series) *[of Brothers](Band)(Band of Brothers (TV miniseries))*, with [Lewis](Damian)(Damian Lewis) portraying Winters. When the miniseries won Primetime Emmy awards, Winters attended the ceremony to accept on behalf of Easy Company while other surviving members of the company watched from the [Regis Hotel](St.)(St. Regis Hotels & Resorts) in [Angeles](Los)(Los Angeles).[The 1998 Primetime Emmy Awards – *Band of Brothers* wins Best Miniseries](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jcdXrrjR90A)
Winters was also the subject of the 2005 book *Biggest Brother: The Life of Major Dick Winters, The Man Who Led the Band of Brothers*, written by [Alexander](Larry)(Larry Alexander (journalist)). His own memoir, *Beyond Band of Brothers: The War Memoirs of Major Dick Winters*, co-written by military historian and retired U.S. Army Colonel [C. Kingseed](Cole)(Cole C. Kingseed), was published in early 2006. He also gave a number of lectures on leadership to cadets at the [States Military Academy at West Point](United)(United States Military Academy).
On May 16, 2009, Franklin and Marshall College conferred an honorary doctorate in humane letters upon Winters.
Despite the many accolades he had received, Winters remained humble about his service. During the interview segment of the miniseries *Band of Brothers'', Winters quoted a passage from a letter he received from Sergeant Myron "Mike" Ranney: "I cherish the memories of a question my grandson asked me the other day when he said, 'Grandpa, were you a hero in the war?' Grandpa said 'No...but I served in a company of heroes'."
## Death
[[Richard Winters a Utah Beach 001.JPG|thumb|The statue of Richard Winters at Utah Beach, Normandy, France](File:Mémorial)]
Winters died on January 2, 2011, at an assisted living facility in [Pennsylvania](Campbelltown,)(Campbelltown, Pennsylvania), 19 days before his 93rd birthday. He had suffered from [disease](Parkinson's)(Parkinson's disease) for several years. Winters was buried in a private funeral service, which was held on 8 January 2011. He was buried in the Bergstrasse Evangelical Lutheran Church cemetery in [Pennsylvania](Ephrata,)(Ephrata, Pennsylvania), next to his parents in the Winters' family plot. His grave is marked "Richard D. Winters, World War II 101st Airborne". His wife Ethel died in 2012, at age 89.
### Memorials
On June 6, 2012, the 68th anniversary of the D-Day landings, a 12-foot bronze statue of Winters by sculptor Stephen C. Spears was unveiled near the village of [Sainte-Marie-du-Mont](Sainte-Marie-du-Mont, Manche), France . Winters agreed for the statue to bear his resemblance on the condition that the monument would be dedicated to all junior officers who served and died during the Normandy landings.
A cast of the sculpture was placed in Ephrata, Pennsylvania, in a plaza on the Ephrata-to-Warwick linear trail park near Railroad Avenue and East Fulton Street, where Winters lived with his family from ages two to eight. That statue was dedicated on May 25, 2015.
Some of Winters' World War II uniforms and memorabilia are on display at two museums:
* [December 44 Museum](http://www.december44.com/en/history_battle_of_the_bulgela_gleize.htm) – Battle of the Bulge – La Gleize, Belgium
* [Gettysburg Museum of History](https://www.gettysburgmuseumofhistory.com/) - Gettysburg Pennsylvania
## Medals and decorations
[27px](File:ASU overseas service bar.jpg) Five [Service Bar](Overseas)(Overseas Service Bar)s for serving 2½ years overseas in Europe.
In 2001, Winters, as a representative on behalf of the [Army](U.S.)(U.S. Army), was one of five World War II veterans to be awarded the [Medal & Freedom from Fear Medal](Freedom)(Four Freedoms Award#Freedom Medal) from the [Institute](Roosevelt)(Roosevelt Institute).
## References
## External links
*
*
* [Beyond Band of Brothers : The war memoirs of Major Dick Winters](https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0425208133)
* [Winters' military records, courtesy of the national Archives](https://aad.archives.gov/aad/record-detail.jsp?dt=893&mtch=5&cat=all&tf=F&q=Winters%2C+Richard+D&bc=sl,sd&rpp=10&pg=1&rid=3598743&rlst=1665468,3598743,1129024,4211009,7204658/Richard)
*[Presentation by authors Erik Dorr and Jared Frederick on *Hang Tough: The WWII Letters and Artifacts of Major Dick Winters*, July 2, 2021](https://www.c-span.org/video/?513156-4/world-war-ii-soldier-major-dick-winters), [C-SPAN](C-SPAN)
[births](Category:1918)(Category:1918 births)
[deaths](Category:2011)(Category:2011 deaths)
[States Army personnel of World War II](Category:United)(Category:United States Army personnel of World War II)
[Lutherans](Category:American)(Category:American Lutherans)
[of Brothers characters](Category:Band)(Category:Band of Brothers characters)
[& Marshall College alumni](Category:Franklin)(Category:Franklin & Marshall College alumni)
[from New Holland, Pennsylvania](Category:People)(Category:People from New Holland, Pennsylvania)
[from Lancaster, Pennsylvania](Category:People)(Category:People from Lancaster, Pennsylvania)
[from Hershey, Pennsylvania](Category:People)(Category:People from Hershey, Pennsylvania)
[of the Distinguished Service Cross (United States)](Category:Recipients)(Category:Recipients of the Distinguished Service Cross (United States))
[States Army officers](Category:United)(Category:United States Army officers)
[of the Croix de Guerre (France)](Category:Recipients)(Category:Recipients of the Croix de Guerre (France))
[Lutherans](Category:20th-century)(Category:20th-century Lutherans)
[personnel from Pennsylvania](Category:Military)(Category:Military personnel from Pennsylvania)
[in Pennsylvania](Category:Burials)(Category:Burials in Pennsylvania)
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Jewel _singer
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jewel__singer
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# Jewel (singer)
*Revision ID: 1159479028 | Timestamp: 2023-06-10T15:50:52Z*
---
| birth_place = [Utah](Payson,)(Payson, Utah), U.S.
| occupation =
| years_active = 1994–present
| television =
| height =
| spouse =
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| children = 1
| relatives = [Kilcher](Atz)(Atz Kilcher) (father)[F. Kilcher](Yule)(Yule F. Kilcher) (grandfather)[Kilcher](Q'orianka)(Q'orianka Kilcher) (first cousin once removed)
| module =
| background = solo_singer
| instrument =
| label =
| associated_acts =
| website = }}
}}
**Jewel Kilcher** (born May 23, 1974) is an American singer-songwriter and actress. She has received four [Award](Grammy)(Grammy Award) nominations and, as of 2021, has sold over 30 million albums worldwide.
Jewel was raised near [Alaska](Homer,)(Homer, Alaska), where she grew up singing and [yodeling](yodeling) as a duo with her father, [Kilcher](Atz)(Atz Kilcher), a local musician. At age fifteen, she received a partial scholarship at the [Arts Academy](Interlochen)(Interlochen Arts Academy) in Michigan, where she studied operatic voice. After graduating, she began writing and performing at clubs and coffeehouses in [Diego](San)(San Diego), California. Based on local media attention, she was offered a recording contract with [Records](Atlantic)(Atlantic Records), which released her debut album, *[of You](Pieces)(Pieces of You)*, in 1995; it went on to become one of the best-selling debut albums of all time, going 12-times platinum. The debut single from the album, "[Will Save Your Soul](Who)(Who Will Save Your Soul)", peaked at number 11 on the [Hot 100](*Billboard*)(Billboard Hot 100); two others, "[Were Meant for Me](You)(You Were Meant for Me (Jewel song))" and "[Games](Foolish)(Foolish Games)", reached number two on the Hot 100, and were listed on [*Billboard*](Billboard (magazine))'s [year-end singles chart](1997)(Billboard Year-End Hot 100 singles of 1997), as well as *Billboard*s [year-end singles chart](1998)(Billboard Year-End Hot 100 singles of 1998).
Her subsequent album, *[Spirit](Spirit (Jewel album))*, was released in 1998, followed by *[Way](This)(This Way (Jewel album))* (2001). In 2003, she released *[0304](0304)*, which marked a departure from her previous folk-oriented records, featuring electronic arrangements and elements of [dance-pop](dance-pop). In 2008, she released *[Clear](Perfectly)(Perfectly Clear)*, her first [country](country music) album; it debuted atop *Billboard*s Top Country Albums [chart](Billboard charts) and featured three singles, "[Woman](Stronger)(Stronger Woman)", "[Do](I)(I Do (Jewel song))", and "[It Feels Like Cheating]('Til)(Perfectly Clear)". Jewel released her first independent album, *[Lullaby](Lullaby (Jewel album))*, in 2009.
Jewel has also had endeavors in writing and acting; in 1998 she released a collection of [poetry](poetry), and the following year appeared in a supporting role in [Lee](Ang)(Ang Lee)'s [Western](Western (genre)) film *[with the Devil](Ride)(Ride with the Devil (film))* (1999) which earned her critical acclaim. On December 15, 2021, Jewel won the [season](sixth)(The Masked Singer (American season 6)) of *[Masked Singer](The)(The Masked Singer (American TV series))* as the Queen of Hearts.
## Early life
Jewel Kilcher was born May 23, 1974, in [Utah](Payson,)(Payson, Utah), the second child of Atz Kilcher and Nedra Kilcher ( Carroll). At the time of her birth, her parents had been living in Utah with her elder brother, Shane; her father was attending [Young University](Brigham)(Brigham Young University). She is a cousin of actress [Kilcher](Q'orianka)(Q'orianka Kilcher). Her father, originally from Alaska, was a [Mormon](Mormon), though the family stopped attending [Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints](the)(the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints) after her parents' divorce when she was eight years old. Her paternal grandfather, [Kilcher](Yule)(Yule F. Kilcher), was a delegate to the Alaska [convention](constitutional)(Constitutional convention (political meeting)) and a state senator who settled in Alaska after emigrating from [Switzerland](Switzerland). He was also the first recorded person to cross the [Icefield](Harding)(Harding Icefield).
Shortly after her birth, the family relocated to [Alaska](Anchorage,)(Anchorage, Alaska), settling on the Kilcher family's homestead. There, her younger brother Atz Jr. was born. She also has a half-brother, Nikos, who was primarily raised in [Oregon](Oregon) by his mother, with whom her father had a brief relationship; Jewel would later become close to him in adulthood. After her parents' divorce in 1981, Kilcher lived with her father near [Alaska](Homer,)(Homer, Alaska). The house she grew up in lacked indoor plumbing and had only a simple [outhouse](outhouse). The Kilcher family is featured on the [Channel](Discovery)(Discovery Channel) show *[The Last Frontier](Alaska:)(Alaska: The Last Frontier)*, which chronicles their day-to-day struggles living in the Alaskan wilderness. Recalling her upbringing, she said: just to get to the saddle barn I was raised in... No running water, no heat—we had a coal stove and an outhouse and we mainly lived off of what we could kill or can. We picked berries and made jam. We caught fish to freeze and had gardens and cattle to live on. I rode horses every day in the summer beneath the Alaskan midnight sun. I loved it there."}}
[[File:The Hilton Anchorage. Anchorage, Alaska.jpg|thumb|right|The [Hilton](Hilton Hotels & Resorts) Anchorage, where Jewel sometimes performed with her father as a child]]
According to Kilcher, the first song she learned to sing was "[Louis Blues](Saint)(Saint Louis Blues (song))". In her youth, Kilcher and her father sometimes earned a living by performing music in roadhouses and taverns as a father-daughter duo; they also often sang at hotels in Anchorage, including the Hotel Captain Cook and the [Hilton](Hilton Hotels & Resorts) Anchorage. It was during this time that Kilcher learned to [yodel](yodel) from her father. She would later credit the time she spent in bars as integral to her formative years: "I saw women who would compromise themselves for compliments, for flattery; or men who would run away from themselves by drinking until they ultimately killed themselves."
At age fifteen, while working at a dance studio in Anchorage, she was referred by the studio instructor to [Arts Academy](Interlochen)(Interlochen Arts Academy) in [Michigan](Interlochen,)(Interlochen, Michigan), where she applied and received a partial scholarship to study operatic voice. Local businesses in her hometown of Homer donated items for auction to help allocate additional funds, and raised a total of $11,000 to pay the remainder of her first year's tuition. She subsequently relocated to Michigan to attend Interlochen, where she received classical training, and also learned to play guitar. She began writing songs on guitar at age sixteen. While in school, she would often perform live in [coffeehouse](coffeehouse)s. After graduating, she relocated to [Diego](San)(San Diego), California, where she worked in a coffee shop and as a phone operator at a computer warehouse.
## Career
### 1993–1997: Beginnings and *Pieces of You*
[[File:Jewel at Clinton's inauguration party.jpg|thumb|upright|Jewel at [Clinton's second inauguration](Bill)(second inauguration of Bill Clinton) gala, 1997]]
For a time, Jewel lived in her car while traveling around the country doing street performances and small gigs, mainly in Southern California. She gained recognition by singing at The Inner Change Cafe and Java Joe's in San Diego; she would later make her debut record at Java Joe's when it was in [Poway](Poway), where she had worked as a barista. Her friend [Poltz](Steve)(Steve Poltz)'s band, [Rugburns](The)(The Rugburns), played the same venues. She later collaborated with Poltz on some of her songs, including "[Were Meant for Me](You)(You Were Meant for Me (Jewel song))". (He also appeared in the song's second, better-known video.) The Rugburns opened for Jewel on her Tiny Lights tour in 1997. Poltz appeared in Jewel's band on the Spirit World Tour 1999 playing guitar.
Jewel was discovered by Inga Vainshtein in August 1993 when John Hogan, lead singer from the local San Diego band Rust, whom Vainshtein was managing, called to tell her about a girl surfer who sang at a local coffee shop on Thursdays. Vainshtein drove to The Inner Change with a representative of [Records](Atlantic)(Atlantic Records), and after the show called Danny Goldberg, the head of Atlantic Record's West Coast operations, and asked him to pay for her demo, since at the time she was living in a van and lacked the means to record any of her own music. Vainshtein, who at the time was working as a Vice President of Productions at Paramount, went on to become her manager and was instrumental in creating a major bidding war that led to her deal with Atlantic Records. She continued to manage Jewel until the end of the first album cycle and shaped the path of the first five years of Jewel's career. Jewel's debut album *[of You](Pieces)(Pieces of You)* was released under the eponym of Jewel, in 1995 when she was 21 years old. Recorded in a studio on singer [Young](Neil)(Neil Young)'s ranch, it included Young's backing band, The Stray Gators, who played on his *[Harvest](Harvest (Neil Young album))* and *[Moon](Harvest)(Harvest Moon (album))* albums. Part of the album was recorded live at The Inner Change Cafe in San Diego, where she had risen to local fame. The album stayed on the Billboard 200 for two years, reaching number four at its peak. The album spawned the Top 10 hits "You Were Meant for Me", "[Will Save Your Soul](Who)(Who Will Save Your Soul)", and "[Games](Foolish)(Foolish Games)". To promote the album, she toured as the opening act for [Bauhaus](Bauhaus (band)) frontman [Murphy](Peter)(Peter Murphy (musician)) on his 1995 North American tour in support of his album *[Cascade](Cascade (Peter Murphy album))*. *Pieces of You* eventually sold over 12 million copies in the United States alone.
In the late 1990s, Mike Connell created an electronic mailing list for fans, known as "Everyday Angels". Although Jewel herself does not subscribe to this mailing list, she maintained communication with her EDA fans. On July 18 and 19, 1996, she gave a two-day concert known as "JewelStock" at the Bearsville Theatre. Jewel allowed the concert to be taped, and fans circulated the concert without profit.
### 1998–2002: *Spirit* and other ventures
[[File:Jewel Kilcher 2000.jpg|thumb|right|Jewel performing for U.S. troops at the [Air Base](Ramstein)(Ramstein Air Base), Germany, 2000|241x241px]]
Jewel was chosen to sing the [national anthem](American)(The Star-Spangled Banner) at the opening of [Bowl XXXII](Super)(Super Bowl XXXII) in January 1998 in San Diego. She was introduced as "San Diego's own Jewel!" but criticized for [sync](lip)(lip sync)ing the anthem to a digitally-recorded track of her own voice. This was especially noticeable due to her missing her cue and not mouthing the first words. Super Bowl producers have since admitted that they attempt to have all performers pre-record their vocals. She performed "[Star-Spangled Banner](The)(The Star-Spangled Banner)" again in the [NBA Finals](2003)(2003 NBA Finals) in one of the [Jersey Nets](New)(New Jersey Nets)' home games.
On May 19, 1998, she published a book of poetry titled *A Night Without Armor.* Although it sold over 1 million copies and was a [York Times* best-seller](*New)(The New York Times Best Seller list), it received mixed reviews. During an [MTV](MTV) interview in 1998, [Loder](Kurt)(Kurt Loder) pointed out the incorrect usage, in her book of poetry, of the word "[casualty](wikt:casualty)" (instead of the intended "casualness") to which Jewel responded, "You're a smartass for pointing that out. Next topic."[JEWEL, KURT LODER SQUARE OFF ON POETIC LICENSE](http://www.mtv.com/news/1430602/jewel-kurt-loder-square-off-on-poetic-license/) MTV Staff (September 25, 1998). *[MTV](MTV).* In the fall of 1998, the poet [Sia](Beau)(Beau Sia) composed a book-length response to *A Night Without Armor* that he titled *A Night Without Armor II: The Revenge.* The reviewer [Gundersen](Edna)(Edna Gundersen), writing in *[Today](USA)(USA Today),* noted, "Hers is flowery and sensitive. His is wry and absurd."Gundersen, Edna, "A rare Jewel of a poetic parody," *[Today](USA)(USA Today),* September 16, 1998.
Jewel's second studio album, which she titled *[Spirit](Spirit (Jewel album)),* was released on November 17, 1998. The album debuted at number 3 on the Billboard 200 with 368,000 copies sold in its first week. It eventually sold 3.7 million units in the United States. Its lead single, "[Hands](Hands (Jewel song))", peaked at number six on the Billboard Hot 100 chart. Other singles followed, including a new version of "Jupiter (Swallow the Moon)", "What's Simple Is True", which she meant to be the theme song to her upcoming movie, and the charity single "Life Uncommon". Shortly after the release of *Spirit,* Jewel made her acting debut playing the character Sue Lee Shelley in [Lee](Ang)(Ang Lee)'s Western film *[with the Devil](Ride)(Ride with the Devil (film))* (1999), opposite [Maguire](Tobey)(Tobey Maguire). The film received mixed-positive reviews, though critic [Ebert](Roger)(Roger Ebert) praised her performance, writing: "Jewel deserves praise for, quite simply, performing her character in a convincing and unmannered way. She is an actress here, not a pop star trying out a new hobby."
In November 1999, Jewel released *[A Holiday Collection](Joy:)(Joy: A Holiday Collection).* The album sold over a million copies and peaked at No. 32 on the *Billboard* 200. She released a cover of "[to the World](Joy)(Joy to the World)" from the album as a single. In 2000, she completed an autobiography titled *Chasing Down the Dawn,* a collection of diary entries and musings detailing her life growing up in Alaska, her struggle to learn her craft, and life on the road. In November 2001, her fourth studio album, *[Way](This)(This Way (Jewel album)),* was released. The album peaked at No. 9 on the *Billboard* 200 and sold over 1.5 million copies in the U.S. A song from the album "[Still](Standing)(Standing Still (Jewel song))" hit the Top 30. Other singles released were "Break Me", "This Way", and "Serve the Ego"; this last gave Jewel her first number one club hit.
### 2003–2006: *0304* and *Goodbye Alice in Wonderland*
In June 2003, Jewel released her fifth studio album, titled *[0304](0304)*. The album was promoted by its lead single, "[Intuition](Intuition (Jewel song))", which reached No. 5 on the *Billboard* Adult Pop Songs chart and No. 20 on the Billboard Hot 100. Within two months of its release, the album had sold over 350,000 in the United States. The shift in musical style on *0304* was noted by several critics, with *[People](People (magazine))* deeming it "an extreme musical makeover." In response, Jewel commented that she had been inspired to make a more upbeat-sounding record in light of the [War](Iraq)(Iraq War): "I knew we were headed to war [the time](at)... The music that has always done well during wartime has always been music that makes you want to escape." In his review of the album, [Petridis](Alexis)(Alexis Petridis) of *The Guardian* awarded it two out of five stars, writing: "It's difficult to decide whether Kilcher's new image is a 180-degree career shift or simply a particularly elaborate attempt to get into *[Eye](Private)(Private Eye)*s Warballs column. Either way, it's the most dramatic image overhaul you're ever likely to see, unless [Valance](Holly)(Holly Valance) decides to start taking the stage in a donkey jacket and [Martens](Doc)(Doc Martens) and covering [Pop Group](The)(The Pop Group)'s "For How Much Longer Will We Tolerate Mass Murder?""
[[File:Jewel 2008 June 05.jpg|thumb|272x272px|Jewel performing at [Theatre](The)(The Theatre (Hard Rock Casino Vancouver)) in [Coquitlam](Coquitlam) in 2008]]
On May 2, 2006, Jewel released her sixth studio album, *[Alice in Wonderland](Goodbye)(Goodbye Alice in Wonderland)*. The album received mixed reviews, but still managed to debut at No. 8 on the Billboard Albums Chart and sold 82,000 copies in its first week.| title =Jewel – Chart history| access-date = December 9, 2017 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070929121030/ |archive-date = September 29, 2007}} The lead single "Again and Again" had success on Adult Top 40 Radio, peaking at No. 16. The second single "Good Day" was released to radio in late June and peaked at No. 30 on the Adult Pop Songs charts. In the album's liner notes, Jewel addressed her audience in a personal letter, writing: "*Goodbye Alice in Wonderland* is the story of my life and is the most autobiographical album I have made since *Pieces of You*... By the end of the 13th song, if you have listened closely, you will have heard the story of the sirens song that seduced me, of a path I both followed and led, of bizarre twists and turns that opened my eyes, forcing me to find solutions so that discovering the truth would not lead to a loss of hope."
CMT music critic Timothy Duggan praised the *Goodbye Alice in Wonderland*, writing: "This album showcases Jewel's unique talent as a lyricist, alongside a definite growth in her musicianship. It is what *[of You](Pieces)(Pieces of You)* might have been had Jewel had the musical knowledge then that she has now. A very satisfying work, all in all." *[Stone](Rolling)(Rolling Stone)*, however, called the album "overdone and undercooked" with a rating of 2 stars out of 5. To promote the album, a music video for "Stephenville, TX", Jewel's next single, was shown on *Yahoo! Launch*. After a photo shoot at her Texas ranch, Jewel spontaneously decided to have photographer [Markus](Kurt)(Kurt Markus) shoot the music video for the song "Goodbye Alice in Wonderland". According to an Atlantic Records press release, "The homegrown clip beautifully reflects both the song's organic, intimate sound and its powerfully autobiographical story."
### 2007–2008: Label shift and *Perfectly Clear*
[[File:1 Jewel in Providence 2008.jpg|thumb|right|Jewel performing live in [Rhode Island](Providence,)(Providence, Rhode Island), 2008]]
Jewel released a video for "Quest for Love", the lead single from the movie *[and the Invisibles](Arthur)(Arthur and the Invisibles)*, recorded in 2006; the song is only available on the soundtrack for the film, which was released in January 2007. In early February 2007 Jewel recorded a duet with [Michael Carroll](Jason)(Jason Michael Carroll), "No Good in Goodbye", that was featured on Carroll's debut CD, ''[in the Country](Waitin')(Waitin' in the Country)*. She also made a promotional appearance on [T](the)(Massachusetts Bay Transportation Authority) in [Boston](Boston) for the [Yellow Pages](Verizon)(Verizon Communications), playing songs on a moving subway car and then doing an hour-long acoustic concert in [Station](South)(South Station).
In a 2007 interview with *[Boston Globe](The)(The Boston Globe)*, Jewel stated that she was no longer affiliated with a record label, confirming rumors that [Records](Atlantic)(Atlantic Records) had failed to renew her contract after the lackluster sales of her then-latest album. She also hinted that she would like to do a country album next. She worked with [Rich](John)(John Rich) of [& Rich](Big)(Big & Rich) fame, who said that she was "probably one of the greatest American singer-songwriters we have had." He also said that "every label in Nashville" was talking to her at the time.
In November 2007, Jewel was signed to Valory Records, a newly formed division of the independent [Machine Records](Big)(Big Machine Records) label. Her first country album, *[Clear](Perfectly)(Perfectly Clear)*, was released on June 3, 2008, selling 48,000 units in its first week. It debuted at No. 1 on the Billboard Country Album Chart and No. 8 on the Billboard 200 Album Chart. In its second week on the charts, the album dropped to No. 25 on the Billboard 200 and No. 5 on the Country Albums chart, with estimated second week sales of 75,000 units. Jewel made her second film appearance in a cameo, appearing as herself in the comedy film *[Hard](Walk)(Walk Hard: The Dewey Cox Story)*, released in December 2007.
Approximately a month later, "[Woman](Stronger)(Stronger Woman)", the lead single from *Perfectly Clear*, was released to country radio on January 17, 2008, and entered the Top 20 on the *Billboard'' [Country Songs](Hot)(Hot Country Songs) charts. On April 26, 2008, it peaked at No. 13. The next single, "I Do", was released to radio on June 23, 2008. The video for the single featured her cowboy then-husband, [Murray](Ty)(Ty Murray). This song peaked at No. 28. Following it was "'Til It Feels Like Cheating", which peaked at No. 57. *Perfectly Clear* was released in Australia in late May 2009. It was then released across Europe by Humphead Records in June 2009.
### 2009–2013: *Lullaby* and other releases
[[File:Jewel at Yahoo Yodel 1.jpg|thumb|left|upright=1.2|Jewel at the *[Yahoo!](Yahoo!) Yodel* event in New York City, 2009]]
In early 2009 it was announced that Jewel would release a new studio album titled *[Lullaby](Lullaby (Jewel album))*, a collection of lullabies which she described as "not just for children, but also adults". Its lead single, "[Over the Rainbow](Somewhere)(Over the Rainbow)", was released on iTunes on March 17, 2009. The album was released on May 5, 2009. "Somewhere Over The Rainbow" was No.1 on The Top Children's Songs the week of release. Like 2011's ''The Merry Goes 'Round*, it is sold under the Fisher Price brand which Jewel described as "a great partnership".
She also recorded the "Make It Last" with [R&B](Rhythm and blues) singer [Tyrese](Tyrese Gibson) in conjunction with the release of his comic book *[Mayhem!](Mayhem! (comics))*. It was intended to be used for the soundtrack to *[Revenge of the Fallen](Transformers:)(Transformers: Revenge of the Fallen)* but did not appear on the final track listing.
In January 2010 Jewel released "[Here Forever](Stay)(Stay Here Forever)" from the soundtrack to the film *[Day](Valentine's)(Valentine's Day (2010 film))''. It also served as the lead-off single to Jewel's ninth studio album *[and Wild](Sweet)(Sweet and Wild)* released on June 8, 2010. The single debuted at No. 48 on the Hot Country Songs chart and reached No. 34 in May 2010. "[Satisfied](Satisfied (Jewel song))" was released as the album's second single on May 17, 2010, reaching its highest peak of No. 57. On October 10, 2010, Jewel released the third single from *Sweet and Wild*, "[Ten](Ten (song))". It made its debut on the Hot Country Songs Chart at No. 55 on the week of October 15, 2010, and peaked at No. 51 two weeks later.
Jewel's second children's album, ''[Merry Goes 'Round](The)(The Merry Goes 'Round)'', was released in August 2011. Like 2009's *Lullaby*, it is sold under the Fisher-Price brand. In June 2012, Jewel was cast in the lead role as [Carter Cash](June)(June Carter Cash) in the [Lifetime](Lifetime (TV network)) original movie *[of Fire](Ring)(Ring of Fire (2013 film))*, opposite [Ross](Matt)(Matt Ross (actor)). Brian Lowry of *[Variety](Variety (magazine))* commended Jewel's live singing in the film, and noted: "Jewel and Ross are convincing as the central couple, playing them over an extended span." On October 16, 2012, Jewel announced via Twitter a "Greatest Hits" album would be released in 2013. The album features new duets from [Clarkson](Kelly)(Kelly Clarkson) and the [Annies](Pistol)(Pistol Annies). Jewel and Clarkson recorded a fresh rendition of Jewel's song "[Games](Foolish)(Foolish Games)" while Jewel and the Pistol Annies recut "[Were Meant for Me](You)(You Were Meant for Me (Jewel song))". The *[Hits](Greatest)(Greatest Hits (Jewel album))* album was released February 5, 2013.
On August 6, 2013, Jewel announced the release of her second Christmas album, titled *[It Snow: A Holiday Collection](Let)(Let It Snow: A Holiday Collection)*, scheduled for release on November 12, 2013. In an interview with *[Wall Street Journal](The)(The Wall Street Journal)*, Jewel was quoted as saying "I wanted this record to have a resemblance to the first album. It's a continuation of mood and spirit of that record, with the mood and feel of the album artwork with an image and tone that evokes that spirit."
### 2014–2018: *Picking Up the Pieces*
In February 2014, Jewel began work on her next album and confirmed that it will not be released by a major record label, and that she was producing it herself. In April 2015, she appeared as a guest musician on [Traveler](Blues)(Blues Traveler)'s album *[Up the Moon](Blow)(Blow Up the Moon)*, co-writing the song "Hearts Still Awake". On June 28, she revealed in a Q&A on Facebook that her [album](upcoming)(Freewheelin' Woman) would be released in the second week of September of that year, and would feature a folk sound recorded with a live band. On July 21, Jewel confirmed the title as *[Up the Pieces](Picking)(Picking Up the Pieces (Jewel album))*. *Picking Up the Pieces* was released on September 11, 2015. Four days later, on September 15, she released her third book, a new memoir entitled *Never Broken: Songs Are Only Half the Story*.
In 2016, Jewel was featured in the *[Central Roast](Comedy)(Comedy Central Roast) of [Lowe](Rob)(Rob Lowe)*, having previously met the actor when she was supposed to co-star with him in ''[Lyon's Den](The)(The Lyon's Den)*. During the *Roast*, Jewel performed a parody of "You Were Meant for Me" claiming she was the 16-year-old caught having sex with Lowe in a 1988 videotape. Also in 2016, Jewel founded Jewel Inc., which is a platform for her work in music, TV, and film as well as her entrepreneurial endeavors, in particular regarding [mindfulness](mindfulness).[CES: Jewel Launches Platform to Bring Mindfulness to the Workplace](https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/news/ces-jewel-launches-platform-bring-mindfulness-workplace-1073163), *The Hollywood Reporter'' Among its ventures was co-creating in partnership with Trevor Drinkwater the Wellness Your Way, Music and Wellness Festival, held originally in 2018 in Cincinnati, Ohio. In 2017, she returned to acting, starring in the [Upper Mysteries](Fixer)(Fixer Upper Mysteries) on the [Channel](Hallmark)(Hallmark Channel).
### 2019–present: *The Masked Singer* and ''Freewheelin' Woman*
Towards the end of 2019, Jewel released a new song "No More Tears", which was written and recorded for *Lost in America*, a documentary about youth homelessness in America by [Rainwater](Rotimi)(Rotimi Rainwater). In an interview with *[Songwriter](American)(American Songwriter)*, Jewel explained that, in addition to being an executive producer on the documentary, she was inspired to write the track because she was moved by the stories of the individuals featured in the film and related those to her own experiences of being homeless when she was eighteen. In the same interview, it was confirmed that "No More Tears" would also be the first track released from her upcoming album which she hopes to release sometime in 2020.
In 2021, Jewel competed in [six](season)(The Masked Singer (American season 6)) of *[Masked Singer](The)(The Masked Singer (American TV series))'' as Queen of Hearts. Jewel made her way to the finals, where she was declared the winner of season six on December 16, 2021. She was rewarded the golden mask trophy after her [encore](encore) performance. After her performance of "River", judge [McCarthy](Jenny)(Jenny McCarthy) called her the greatest artist that they've ever had on the show. Jewel and her son performed a duet of her song "Hands" on *The Masked Singer* *Christmas Singalong*, aired on [Fox](Fox Broadcasting Company) on December 22, 2021. Jewel subsequently released a cover EP titled *Queen of Hearts* containing covers of the songs she performed on *The Masked Singer*.
In March 2022, it was announced that Jewel would represent Alaska in the inaugural [Song Contest](American)(American Song Contest), set to begin later in the month. She performed "The Story" in the third episode and scored well in the public vote, but her overall score was brought down by a lower jury ranking which narrowly cost Jewel a place in the semi-finals.
Jewel's thirteenth studio album, ''Freewheelin' Woman'', was released on April 15, 2022, via her own label, Words Matter Media. The album was co-produced by Jewel and [Walker](Butch)(Butch Walker) and was developed with the intention for Jewel to create music that she felt connected to and excited about rather than creating in order to meet expectations.
On February 19, 2023, Jewel performed [Star-Spangled Banner](The)(The Star-Spangled Banner) at the [All-Star Game](NBA)(NBA All-Star Game) in Salt Lake City, Utah.
On May 28, 2023, Jewel performed [Star-Spangled Banner](The)(The Star-Spangled Banner) at the [500](Indy)(Indianapolis 500) in [Indiana](Speedway,)(Speedway, Indiana).
## Artistry
[[April 2010.jpg|thumb|230x230px|Jewel on the red carpet in 2010](File:Jewell)]
Jewel is a [soprano](soprano). Caitlin Gibson of *[Washington Post](The)(The Washington Post)* described Jewel's vocal versatility, stating that "she can summon many voices—deep and powerful, girlish and sweet, piercing and agile." Gibson also commented about Jewel's debut; "In an era still gripped by grunge, [she] climbed to the top of the pop charts with sweet, simple [folk](contemporary folk music) tunes". Her fifth studio album *0304* (2003) was a departure from her previous folk rock-oriented albums and incorporates a more general pop sound. [Thomas Erlewine](Stephen)(Stephen Thomas Erlewine) of [AllMusic](AllMusic) wrote about *0304*, describing it as "A record that (is) lyric-driven, like [Porter](Cole)(Cole Porter) stuff, that also has a lot of swing... that combined dance, [urban](urban contemporary), and folk music. [...] [is](it) an original-sounding album, something with more imagination than the average [dance-pop](dance-pop) record. Better still, it sounds more authentic (and boasts a better set of songs) than her previous records, which were either too ramshackle or too self-serious and doggedly somber to really reveal much character." *Perfectly Clear* (2008) was influenced by her appreciation for [music](country)(country music), while *Picking Up The Pieces* (2015) saw Jewel "going back to [her] folk/American roots that [she] began with."
Owning a wide variety of [Guitars](Taylor)(Taylor Guitars), Jewel uses a [912-C](Taylor)(Taylor Guitars) most often. *[Guitar](Acoustic)(Acoustic Guitar (magazine))* writer Jeffery Pepper Rodgers called the guitar her "steady companion". All of her guitars are strung with [D'Addario](D'Addario (manufacturer)) products. To [strum](strum), she employs a unique self-created [fingerpick](fingerpick)ing technique or a [pick](hard)(Guitar pick).
## Philanthropy
Jewel formed a nonprofit organization called Higher Ground for Humanity with her mother, Lenedra J. Carroll, and her older brother, Shane Kilcher. The organization's focus is education, sustainable improvements, and building alliances with like-minded organizations. Jewel donates a portion of her income to the organization and often holds events to benefit the organization. The organization tends to parallel Jewel's career since she provides the majority of the organization's funding. , the activities of the organization were concluded. One early grantee was the [Youth Action Network](Global)(Global Youth Action Network), which has become one of the largest youth movements around the United Nations.
In September 2006, as part of [Lifetime](Lifetime (TV network))'s "Stop Breast Cancer for Life" campaign, Jewel delivered more than 12 million petition signatures to [Hill](Capitol)(Capitol Hill), urging Congress to pass the bipartisan Breast Cancer Patient Protection Act of 2005 (S 910/HR1849). The bill would ban the practice of "drive-through" [mastectomies](Mastectomy), when women are discharged from the hospital just hours after their surgeries. Jewel served as the honorary chairperson of the 2006 *Help the Homeless Walk* in Washington, D.C.
In November 2008, Jewel began work on a project with several dozen singer-songwriters to write and auction their lyrics with donations benefiting her "Project Clean Water" charity. Many singers and songwriters besides herself have donated their written lyrics including Patrick Davis, [Alabama](Alabama (American band))'s [Owen](Randy)(Randy Owen), [Mellencamp](John)(John Mellencamp), [Mraz](Jason)(Jason Mraz), [Wilson](Gretchen)(Gretchen Wilson), and [Green](Marv)(Marv Green). The majority of the lyrics were written on paper and signed by the songwriter, with the exception of [Perry](Katy)(Katy Perry)'s "[Kissed a Girl](I)(I Kissed a Girl)". Many of the artists in addition to writing and signing lyrics, drew pictures to illustrate their lyrics. The auction ran from December 1, 2008, to December 18, 2008, promoted by [CMT](Country Music Television) and [Music](Virgin)(Virgin Records). Some of the lyrics that were up for auction included hits such as "[Small](So)(So Small)", "[Games](Foolish)(Foolish Games)", "[Yours](I'm)(I'm Yours (Jason Mraz song))", "I Kissed a Girl", "[Elmo's Fire (Man in Motion)](St.)(St. Elmo's Fire (Man in Motion))", "[Like You Were Dying](Live)(Live Like You Were Dying)", "[Don't Need a Man](I)(I Don't Need a Man)", "[(It's Not Easy)](Superman)(Superman (It's Not Easy))" and "[Woman](Redneck)(Redneck Woman)". The highest bought lyrics being Jewel's [song](signature)(signature song) "[Were Meant For Me](You)(You Were Meant for Me (Jewel song))" sold for US$1,505, and "[Will Save Your Soul](Who)(Who Will Save Your Soul)" and "[Hands](Hands (Jewel song))", raising more than $1,005 each. Jewel promised that all items sold by December 18 would be delivered by Christmas. After the majority of the auctions ended on December 18 two new lyrics by Craig Wiseman and Ernie Ashworth were put up for auction ending in January 2009.
In May 2013, Jewel served as ambassador for the ReThink: Why Housing Matters initiative. She was included in the initiative's public service announcement (PSA) which asked Americans to rethink their views on public housing and consider how it benefits people in their own communities.
## Personal life
Jewel was in a relationship with actor [Penn](Sean)(Sean Penn) in 1995 after he spotted her performing on ''[Night with Conan O'Brien](Late)(Late Night with Conan O'Brien)*. He invited her to compose a song for his film *[Crossing Guard](The)(The Crossing Guard)'' and followed her on tour.
She married pro rodeo cowboy [Murray](Ty)(Ty Murray) on August 7, 2008, in [Bahamas](the)(the Bahamas) after a 10-year relationship. She gave birth to their son, Kase Townes Murray, on July 11, 2011. In 2014, after nearly 6 years of marriage, the couple divorced.
Jewel is the daughter of [Kilcher](Atz)(Atz Kilcher), who stars in the [Channel](Discovery)(Discovery Channel) show *[The Last Frontier](Alaska:)(Alaska: The Last Frontier)*. All three of her brothers live in Alaska.
Her first cousin once removed is actress [Kilcher](Q'orianka)(Q'orianka Kilcher) who is best known for her role as Pocahontas opposite [Farrell](Colin)(Colin Farrell) and [Bale](Christian)(Christian Bale) in director [Malick](Terrence)(Terrence Malick)'s [Award](Academy)(78th Academy Awards#Awards)-nominated motion picture *[New World](The)(The New World (2005 film))* (2005).
Jewel has been estranged from her mother (who also served as her business manager) since 2003; the singer has accused her mother of stealing millions of dollars from her.
Jewel has said: "I don't think I started off young as a feminist. I read a lot of books in Alaska, I was pretty isolated where I grew up, and I think that I never thought I was any different than a man; I was raised in a place where pioneer women were very strong still. They'd shoe horses and build their own homes and were very self-sufficient. It wasn't really until I've gotten older that I really became a fan of women. And a fan of what women are capable of balancing and achieving, by just being them."
In a 2022 interview with [Mental](https://clubmental.com/jewel-shares-coping-tips-for-anxiety/), Jewel talks about how she started having panic attacks at age 16. Unbeknownst to her then, she employed the principles of cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT), particularly visualization, to manage them.
## Accolades
## Discography
### Studio albums
**[of You](Pieces)(Pieces of You)* (1995)
**[Spirit](Spirit (Jewel album))* (1998)
**[A Holiday Collection](Joy:)(Joy: A Holiday Collection)* (1999)
**[Way](This)(This Way (Jewel album))* (2001)
**[0304](0304)* (2003)
**[Alice in Wonderland](Goodbye)(Goodbye Alice in Wonderland)* (2006)
**[Clear](Perfectly)(Perfectly Clear)* (2008)
**[Lullaby](Lullaby (Jewel album))* (2009)
**[and Wild](Sweet)(Sweet and Wild)* (2010)
*''[Merry Goes 'Round](The)(The Merry Goes 'Round)* (2011)
**[It Snow: A Holiday Collection](Let)(Let It Snow: A Holiday Collection)* (2013)
**[Up the Pieces](Picking)(Picking Up the Pieces (Jewel album))* (2015)
**[Woman](Freewheelin')(Freewheelin' Woman)* (2022)
### Videos
**Jewel: A Life Uncommon* (1999) – An intimate documentary on [VHS](VHS) and [DVD](DVD-Video) featuring live performances and candid interviews.
**Live at Humphrey's By The Bay* (2004) – Filmed during two sold-out performances in 2002 at the San Diego venue. Bonus features include interviews, live footage from her This Way Tour, and a photo gallery. Available only on DVD.
**Jewel: The Essential Live Songbook* (2008) – This DVD/[Blu-ray](Blu-ray) home video combines two concerts that were broadcast in 2007 for the television program [Soundstage](Soundstage (TV series)) (at the [Theatre](Rialto)(Rialto Square Theatre) including some numbers with orchestra, and the [Symphony Center](Meyerson)(Meyerson Symphony Center)); and four songs from [Rocks](Red)(Red Rocks). Bonus features are an interview and music video. The concerts are also available separately for streaming.
## Filmography
## Tours
*1997: Tiny Lights Tour
*1997: Papillion Tour
*1999: Spirit World Tour
*2002: This Way World Tour
*2002: New Wild West Acoustic Tour
*2003-04: 0304 Acoustic Tour
*2005: Tour For No Reason
*2008: Goodbye Alice In Wonderland Tour
*2009: Perfectly Clear Acoustic Tour
*2009: Lullaby Acoustic Tour
*2010: Star Light Café Tour
*2013: Greatest Hits Tour
*2016: Picking Up the Pieces Tour
*2017, 2018: Handmade Holiday Tour
**Co-headlining**
*1997: [Fair](Lilith)(Lilith Fair)
**Opening act**
*1995 Opening act for [Murphy](Peter)(Peter Murphy (musician))
*2006: [to Be Tour](Something)(Something to Be Tour)
*2008: Paisley Party Tour
*2022: AM Gold Tour (for [Train](Train (band)))
**Cancelled**
*2003: 0304 World Tour
## Publications
* *A Night Without Armor* (1998)
* *Chasing Down the Dawn* (2000)
* ''That's What I'd Do'' (2012)
* *Sweet Dreams* (2013)
* *Never Broken: Songs Are Only Half the Story* (2015)
## References
## Works cited
*
*
*
*
## Further reading
*
*
## External links
*
*
* [Jewel's Atlantic Records page](https://web.archive.org/web/20060623104803/http://www.atlanticrecords.com/jewel/)
*
*
* as Jewel Kilcher
*
[births](Category:1974)(Category:1974 births)
[American actresses](Category:20th-century)(Category:20th-century American actresses)
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Valerian and the City of a Thousand Planets
|
valerian_and_the_city_of_a_thousand_planets
|
# Valerian and the City of a Thousand Planets
*Revision ID: 1157128633 | Timestamp: 2023-05-26T14:18:09Z*
---
| director = [Besson](Luc)(Luc Besson)
| screenplay = Luc Besson
| based_on =
| producer = [Besson-Silla](Virginie)(Virginie Besson-Silla)
| starring =
| cinematography = [Arbogast](Thierry)(Thierry Arbogast)
| editing = Julien Rey
| music = [Desplat](Alexandre)(Alexandre Desplat)
| studio =
| distributor =
| released =
| runtime = 137 minutes
| country =
* United States
* China
* Germany
* Belgium
* United Arab Emirates
}}
| language = English
| budget = (~$209 million)
* $177–205 million
}}
| gross = $226 million
}}
***Valerian and the City of a Thousand Planets*** () is a 2017 [opera](space)(space opera) film written and directed by [Besson](Luc)(Luc Besson), and produced by his wife, [Besson-Silla](Virginie)(Virginie Besson-Silla). It is based on the French [fiction comics](science)(science fiction comics) series *[and Laureline](Valérian)(Valérian and Laureline)*, written by [Christin](Pierre)(Pierre Christin), illustrated by [Mézières](Jean-Claude)(Jean-Claude Mézières), and published by [Dargaud](Dargaud). It stars [DeHaan](Dane)(Dane DeHaan) as Valerian and [Delevingne](Cara)(Cara Delevingne) as Laureline, with [Owen](Clive)(Clive Owen), [Rihanna](Rihanna), [Hawke](Ethan)(Ethan Hawke), [Hancock](Herbie)(Herbie Hancock), [Wu](Kris)(Kris Wu) and [Hauer](Rutger)(Rutger Hauer) in supporting roles. Besson independently financed and personally funded the film. With a production budget of around [$](USD)223 million, it is both the most expensive European and the most expensive [film](independent)(independent film) ever made.
*Valerian and the City of a Thousand Planets* was released on 20 July 2017 in Germany by [Vista International](Buena)(Buena Vista International) and [Film](Universum)(Leonine Holding), in the United States on 21 July by [STXfilms](STXfilms), in France on 26 July by [Distribution](EuropaCorp)(EuropaCorp Distribution), in China on 25 August by [Film Group](China)(China Film Group), in Belgium on 26 August by Belga Films, and 27 November in United Arab Emirates by [Film](Gulf)(Gulf Film). It received mixed reviews from critics, who criticized the plot and some of the casting, but praised the visuals. It grossed $225 million worldwide but, due to its high production and advertising costs, was considered a [bomb](box-office)(box-office bomb) following its release in the United States.
## Plot
In the 28th century, due to cooperation between the Earth and extraterrestrial peoples, the former [Space Station](International)(International Space Station) has been expanded until its mass threatens to cause gravitational disruption to Earth itself. Relocated to deep space, it becomes Alpha, a space-traveling city inhabited by millions of species from thousands of planets. A police division is created by the United Human Federation to preserve peace throughout the galaxy. Among its staff are the arrogant [Major](Major) [Valerian](Valérian) and his partner, no-nonsense [Sergeant](Sergeant) [Laureline](Laureline).
En route to a mission, Valerian dreams of a planet, Mül, where a low-tech [humanoid](humanoid) race lives peacefully. They fish for pearls containing enormous amounts of energy and use animals to replicate them. Wreckage begins plummeting from the sky, followed by a huge spacecraft that causes an [explosion](Extinction event#Impact events) annihilating every being on the planet. Some of the inhabitants enter a discarded vessel, accidentally trapping themselves inside, but the planet's princess Lihö-Minaa is stranded outside. Just before her death, she conveys a [telepathic](telepathic) message.
Shaken, Valerian awakes. Analysis reveals he might have received a signal from across time and space. He learns that his mission is to retrieve a "Mül converter". It is the last of its kind, and currently in the hands of [market](black)(black market) dealer Igon Siruss. Valerian asks Laureline to marry him, but she brushes him off.
In a marketplace on planet Kirian in an alternate dimension, Valerian disrupts a meeting between Igon and two hooded figures who resemble the humanoids from his vision. They seek the converter, the small animal in his vision. Valerian and Laureline recover the converter and steal one of the energy pearls. Aboard their ship, Valerian learns that Mül was destroyed 30 years earlier, and all information about it is classified.
They return to Alpha where commander Arün Filitt informs them the center of the station has been irradiated by an unknown force, rendering it highly toxic. Troops sent into the area have not returned, and the radiation is increasing. Laureline and Valerian are assigned to protect the commander during an interstation summit to discuss the crisis; against the commander's wishes, Laureline maintains possession of the converter.
During the summit, unidentified humanoids suddenly attack, incapacitating everyone and kidnapping Filitt. Valerian chases the kidnappers to the irradiated area but crashes his [spaceplane](spaceplane) during the pursuit. Laureline enlists alien information brokers known as Dogan Daguis to track Valerian and finds him unconscious at the edge of the irradiated zone. She rouses him, but is kidnapped by a primitive tribe, the Boulan Bathors of the planet Goara, and presented at their emperor's dinner as the choice course. Valerian infiltrates the tribe's territory with the help of the shape-shifting Bubble. They rescue Laureline and escape, but Bubble is fatally wounded.
Valerian and Laureline venture further into the irradiated area, discover it is not dangerous, and that it contains the remains of some antique spacecraft. They reach a large, shielded hall where they find the humanoids, known as the Pearls, with an unconscious Filitt. The Pearls' leader, Emperor Haban Limaï, explains that his people lived peacefully on Mül until a battle occurred between the Federation and another faction. Filitt, the human commander, ordered the use of [missiles](fusion)(Thermonuclear weapon) that disabled the enemy mothership and sent it crashing into the planet, annihilating Mül. Upon her passing, Princess Lihö-Minaa transferred her soul into Valerian's body.
When the surviving Pearls were trapped in a downed space vehicle from the battle, they managed to repair it and learned the humans' technology and history. They eventually came to Alpha, where they assimilated more knowledge and built a ship of their own. They needed the converter and pearl in order to launch their ship and find a planet to recreate their homeworld. Filitt admits his role in the genocide, but argues it was necessary to end the war—as was the coverup, to prevent humans from losing their credibility and influence in Alpha. Valerian and Laureline disagree, arguing that the commander is trying to avoid the consequences of his actions. When Filitt becomes belligerent, Valerian knocks him out.
Valerian hands over the pearl he took from Igon, and Laureline persuades him to return the converter. While the Pearls prepare their spacecraft for takeoff, Filitt's K-Tron robot soldiers attack the Pearls and the government soldiers sent to assist Valerian but are ultimately defeated. The spacecraft departs and Filitt is arrested. Valerian and Laureline are left adrift aboard an [Command/Service Module](Apollo)(Apollo Command/Service Module), and Laureline answers Valerian's marriage proposal with a "maybe" as they wait for rescue.
## Cast
[[File:Cara Delevingne, Dane DeHaan and Luc Besson.jpg|thumb|[Delevingne](Cara Delevingne), [DeHaan](Dane DeHaan), and [Besson](Luc Besson) were at the San Diego Comic-Con 2016 presentation of *Valerian and the City of a Thousand Planets* at Camp Conival.]]
* [DeHaan](Dane)(Dane DeHaan) as Valerian, a United Human Federation soldier and Laureline's partner/love interest
* [Delevingne](Cara)(Cara Delevingne) as Laureline, a United Human Federation soldier and Valerian's partner/love interest
* [Owen](Clive)(Clive Owen) as Arün Filitt, Valerian and Laureline's commander
* [Rihanna](Rihanna) as the human form of Bubble, a shapeshifting Glamopod entertainer.
* [Hawke](Ethan)(Ethan Hawke) as Jolly the Pimp, Bubble's "protector".
* [Hancock](Herbie)(Herbie Hancock) as Defence Minister
* [Wu](Kris)(Kris Wu) as Sergeant Neza
* [Hauer](Rutger)(Rutger Hauer) as The President of the World State Federation
* [Goodman](John)(John Goodman) as Igon Siruss , a Kodar'Khan pirate captain and the galaxy's most-wanted criminal
* [Debicki](Elizabeth)(Elizabeth Debicki) as Emperor Haban Limaï
* [Luss](Sasha)(Sasha Luss) as Princess Lihö-Minaa
* [Spruell](Sam)(Sam Spruell) as General Okto Bar
* [Rapace](Ola)(Ola Rapace) as Major Gibson
* [Chabat](Alain)(Alain Chabat) as Bob the Pirate
* Thom Findlay as The Pirates
* [Kassovitz](Mathieu)(Mathieu Kassovitz) as Camelot on Big Market
* [Bloquet](Jonas)(Jonas Bloquet) as K-Tron Warrior/Control Room Soldier
* [Van Roy](Sand)(Sand Van Roy) as Jessica Rabbit Creature
* [Leterrier](Louis)(Louis Leterrier) as Captain Welcoming Mercurys
* [Megaton](Olivier)(Olivier Megaton) as Captain Welcoming KCO2
* Gavin Drea as Sergeant Cooper
* Eric Lampaert as Guide Thaziit, a human guiding tourists in the Big Market
* Claire Tran as Control room Sergeant
## Production
### Development
Although Luc Besson loved the *Valerian* comics while growing up, he did not seriously consider adapting them into a movie until he was working on *[Fifth Element](The)(The Fifth Element).* During development, Besson had hired *Valerian* illustrator [Mézières](Jean-Claude)(Jean-Claude Mézières) to work on the film, who asked Besson, "Why are you doing this shitty film? Why you don’t do *Valerian*?" At the time, Besson felt that making the film was "impossible" given the vast alien-to-human ratio. The release of *[Avatar](Avatar (2009 film))* served as both a blessing and a curse for Besson; he has said, "technically, I could see that we can do everything now. The film proved that imagination is the only limit." However, he also felt that "[Cameron](James)(James Cameron) pushed all the levels so high", which made him believe that his script was not good enough, so he rewrote it. Ultimately, the [storyboarding](storyboarding) for the film took seven months.
The project was first publicly reported in 2012. The two principal stars, [DeHaan](Dane)(Dane DeHaan) and [Delevingne](Cara)(Cara Delevingne), were announced in May 2015. On 19 August 2015, [Owen](Clive)(Clive Owen) signed on to play Commander Arün Filitt in the film. The budget, €197 million, is by far the largest ever assembled for a French film. Previously, *[at the Olympic Games](Asterix)(Asterix at the Olympic Games (film))* was the most expensive, at €78 million, just ahead of Besson's *The Fifth Element* (€75 million). By the end of August 2015, Besson said in an RTL radio interview that shooting the film in France was too expensive. Because it was filmed in a foreign language (English), Besson was unable to benefit from [credit](tax)(tax credit)s, despite preferring to produce the film in France and create jobs for 1,200 crew members. The criteria to obtain these tax credits were then adapted accordingly. In May 2015, it was announced [Films](Fundamental)(Fundamental Films) would invest in the film.
### Filming
[photography](Principal)(Principal photography) on the film began on 5 January 2016 in seven [stage](sound)(sound stage)s dedicated to the film at the [du Cinéma](Cité)(Cité du Cinéma), in Saint-Denis, north of Paris. In total, there are 2,734 visual effect shots. The humanoid race the Pearl were completely synthetic creations by [Digital](Weta)(Weta Digital), which generated the characters from performances by actors with motion-capture equipment for their face and bodies.
### Marketing
The [trailer](trailer (promotion)) featured [Beatles](the)(the Beatles) song "[Because](Because (Beatles song))", which is the first time a Beatles master recording had been featured outside a Beatles film advertisement.
### Visual effects
[Light and Magic](Industrial)(Industrial Light and Magic), [Digital](Weta)(Weta Digital) and [FX](Rodeo)(Rodeo FX) provided the effects for the film with [Stokdyk](Scott)(Scott Stokdyk) as the main supervisor.
## Release
The first teaser for *Valerian* was released on 10 November 2016. The teaser depicts Marmakas, an Entertainer (Bubble, identified as "Glamopod" in the film), Bagoulins, and Shingouz (known as "Doghan Daguis" in the film), who all appear in the [album](comic album) *[of the Shadows](Ambassador)(Ambassador of the Shadows)*; much of the film's setting and story is also derived from that instalment. A special exclusive preview of *Valerian* was shown prior to the [Events](Fathom)(Fathom Events) 4K restoration showing of *[Fifth Element](The)(The Fifth Element)* on 14 May and 17 May.
*Valerian* was released in Israel on 20 July 2017, on 21 July in the United States, on 26 July in France. and on 2 August in the UK [Lionsgate](Lionsgate) handles the film's release in the United Kingdom and Ireland, and [Entertainment](STX)(STX Entertainment) distributes the film in the United States. The film was released on 25 August 2017 in China.
### Home media
*Valerian and the City of a Thousand Planets* was released online on 7 November 2017, and on Ultra HD [Blu-ray](Blu-ray), Blu-ray and DVD on 21 November 2017.
### Theme park attraction
In 2018, [Europa-Park](Europa-Park) added VR to its roller coaster, [- CanCan Coaster](Eurosat)(Eurosat - CanCan Coaster) themed around *Valerian* as part of the roller coaster's refurbishment.
## Soundtrack
The official soundtrack for *Valerian* was released on 21 July 2017 on [vinyl](Phonograph record), [CD](CD), and [download](Music download). The total duration of this soundtrack album is exactly the same number of minutes as the duration of the film itself — 137 minutes.
}}
### Track listing
## Reception
### Box office
*Valerian and the City of a Thousand Planets* grossed $40.5 million in the United States and Canada and $184.7 million internationally (including $36.8 million in France), for a worldwide total of $225.2 million. With a production budget around $180 million, the film would have needed to gross $400 million worldwide in order to [even](break)(break even) and justify a sequel.
In North America, *Valerian* opened alongside *[Dunkirk](Dunkirk (2017 film))* and *[Trip](Girls)(Girls Trip)*, and was initially projected to gross $20–25 million from 3,553 theaters, although some insiders believed it would open in the teens. It made $6.5 million on its first day, including $1.7 million from Thursday night previews at 2,600 theaters, lowering weekend projections to $16.5 million. The film ended up debuting to $17 million, finishing 5th at the box office, leading [Hollywood](Deadline)(Deadline Hollywood) to already label the film a domestic [office bomb](box)(Box-office bomb), and causing an 8.31% fall of the EuropaCorp stock on the following Monday. In its second weekend, the film dropped 62% to $6.4 million, finishing 8th at the box office. In its third and fourth weekends the film made $2.4 million and $901,323, finishing 12th and 17th and dropping another 62% both times.
Outside North America, the film opened in 16 markets alongside the US and made $6.5 million over its opening weekend, including $2.5 million in Germany. In France, the film made $3.72 million (€3.19 million) on its first day, the second-best opening day of 2017 there behind *[Me 3](Despicable)(Despicable Me 3)*. In China, the film made $9.9 million on its first day from 78,000 screens, becoming the first film to displace *[Warriors 2](Wolf)(Wolf Warriors 2)* at the country's box office. It went on to open to $29 million, [the box office](topping)(List of 2017 box office number-one films in China). The largest territory for the film was China, with .
### Critical response
*Valerian and the City of a Thousand Planets* received mixed reviews from critics, who praised its visuals while criticizing the plot and some of the casting. On review aggregation website [Tomatoes](Rotten)(Rotten Tomatoes), the film has an approval rating of 48% based on 300 reviews, with an average rating of 5.50/10. The site's critical consensus reads, "*Valerian and the City of a Thousand Planets* uses sheer kinetic energy and visual thrills to overcome narrative obstacles and offer a viewing experience whose surreal pleasures often outweigh its flaws." On [Metacritic](Metacritic), which assigns a [average](weighted)(weighted average) rating to reviews, the film has a score of 51 out of 100, based on reviews from 45 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews". On French entertainment information website [AlloCiné](AlloCiné), the film has an average grade of 3.0/5, based on 31 critics. Audiences polled by [CinemaScore](CinemaScore) gave the film an average grade of "B−" on an A+ to F scale.
David Ehrlich of [IndieWire](IndieWire) gave the film a grade of B−, praising how "unapologetically [idiosyncratic](idiosyncratic)" the film is, while also saying "the vividness of this place only underscores the lifelessness of the people leading us through it .... There are 394 million stories on the City of a Thousand Planets, and Valerian’s might be the only one we’ve seen before. Still, any excuse to visit this place is one worth taking." Peter Sciretta of [/Film](/Film) touted the first half of *Valerian* as "unpredictable and bonkers insane", while calling the second half more formulaic and "far less exciting", though he still encouraged seeing the film in 3D "on the biggest screen possible". [Vishnevetsky](Ignatiy)(Ignatiy Vishnevetsky) of *[A.V. Club](The)(The A.V. Club)* wrote that it was "rare […] to see a film this extravagant that also feels, for better or worse, like the work of a single personality. The longer action scenes may not always rank with Besson’s early ’90s highlights [...] or the mania of the more recent *[Lucy](Lucy (2014 film))*, but there isn’t a moment in this ludicrous, lushly self-indulgent movie that doesn’t feel like its creator is having the time of his life."
[McCarthy](Todd)(Todd McCarthy) of *[Hollywood Reporter](The)(The Hollywood Reporter)* gave a negative review, saying: "[Razzies](The)(Golden Raspberry Awards) don't need to wait until the end of the year to anoint a winner for 2017 ... Hollywood studio chiefs can breathe easy that, this time, at least, they'll escape blame for making a giant summer franchise picture that nobody wants to see, since this one's a French import." [O. Scott](A.)(A. O. Scott) of *[New York Times](The)(The New York Times)* was also less than happy with the film, writing the effort "feels as if it were made up on the spot, by someone so delighted by the gaudy genre packaging at his disposal that he lost track of what was supposed to be inside." [Public Radio](National)(NPR) film critic, Mark Jenkins, additionally wrote in a negative review that the film's "perspective often seems more 19th- than 26th-century, notably in a sequence where Laureline is captured by members of a hostile species and forced to don a white dress to be presented to their emperor. The blobby computer-generated creatures resemble natives from the most racist of *Tarzan* movies."
### Accolades
At the [Saturn Awards](44th)(44th Saturn Awards), *Valerian and the City of a Thousand Planets* was nominated for the [Awards](Saturn)(Saturn Awards) for [Science Fiction Film](Best)(Saturn Award for Best Science Fiction Film), [Production Design](Best)(Saturn Award for Best Production Design) (Hugues Tissandier), and [Costume Design](Best)(Saturn Award for Best Costume Design) ([Bériot](Olivier)(Olivier Bériot)); all respectively lost to *[Runner 2049](Blade)(Blade Runner 2049)* (2017), *[Panther](Black)(Black Panther (film))* (2018, [Beachler](Hannah)(Hannah Beachler)), and *[and the Beast](Beauty)(Beauty and the Beast (2017 film))* (2017, [Durran](Jacqueline)(Jacqueline Durran)).
## Potential sequel
Though the film is a box office bomb, director Luc Besson claimed in September 2017 that a sequel was still possible due to positive fan reaction.
## See also
* [of films featuring space stations](List)(List of films featuring space stations)
## References
## External links
*
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Dog Day Afternoon
|
dog_day_afternoon
|
# Dog Day Afternoon
*Revision ID: 1157561675 | Timestamp: 2023-05-29T12:47:12Z*
---
| screenplay = [Pierson](Frank)(Frank Pierson)
| based_on =
| story = Thomas Moore
| starring =
| cinematography = [J. Kemper](Victor)(Victor J. Kemper)
| editing = [Allen](Dede)(Dede Allen)
| studio = Artists Entertainment Complex
| distributor = [Bros.](Warner)(Warner Bros.)
| released =
| runtime = 125 minutes
| country = United States
| language = English
| budget = $3.5–$3.8 million
| gross = $50–56 million
}}
***Dog Day Afternoon*** is a 1975 American [biographical](Biographical film) [drama](crime)(crime drama) film directed by [Lumet](Sidney)(Sidney Lumet) and produced by [Bregman](Martin)(Martin Bregman) and [Elfand](Martin)(Martin Elfand). The film stars [Pacino](Al)(Al Pacino), [Cazale](John)(John Cazale), [Broderick](James)(James Broderick), and [Durning](Charles)(Charles Durning). The screenplay is written by [Pierson](Frank)(Frank Pierson) and is based on the *[Life](Life (magazine))* magazine article "The Boys in the Bank" by [F. Kluge](P.)(P. F. Kluge) and Thomas Moore. The feature chronicled the 1972 robbery and [situation](hostage)(hostage situation) led by [Wojtowicz](John)(John Wojtowicz) and [Naturile](Salvatore)(Salvatore Naturile) at a [Manhattan](Chase)(Chase Manhattan Bank) branch in [Brooklyn](Brooklyn).
Elfand brought Bregman's attention to the article, who proceeded to negotiate a deal with [Bros.](Warner)(Warner Bros.) and clear the rights to use the story. Pierson conducted his research and wrote a script that centered the story of the robbery around Wojtowicz. The cast was selected by Lumet and Pacino, with the latter selecting past co-stars from his [Off-Broadway](Off-Broadway) plays. Filming took place between September and November 1974, and the production was finished three weeks ahead of schedule.
Upon theatrical release on September 21, 1975, *Dog Day Afternoon* was a critical and box office success. The film was nominated for six [Awards](Academy)(Academy Awards) and seven [Globe Awards](Golden)(Golden Globe Awards) and won the [Award for Best Original Screenplay](Academy)(Academy Award for Best Original Screenplay). In 2009, *Dog Day Afternoon* was deemed "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant" by the [of Congress](Library)(Library of Congress), and was selected for preservation in the [Film Registry](National)(National Film Registry).
## Plot
On August 22, 1972, first-time crook [Wortzik](Sonny)(John Wojtowicz), and his friends ["Sal" Naturile](Salvatore)(Salvatore Naturile) and Stevie attempt to rob the First Brooklyn Savings Bank. The plan immediately goes awry when Stevie loses his nerve and flees. Sonny discovers they arrived after the daily cash pickup, and find only $1,100 in cash.
Sonny takes the bank's [check](traveler's)(traveler's check)s and burns the register in a trash can, but the smoke raises suspicion outside, and the building is surrounded by police. The two panicked robbers take the bank employees hostage.
Police Detective Sergeant Eugene Moretti calls the bank and Sonny bluffs that he is prepared to kill the hostages. Sal assures Sonny that he is ready to kill if necessary. A security guard has an [asthma](asthma) attack and Sonny releases him as a display of good faith. Moretti convinces Sonny to step outside. Using the head teller as a shield, Sonny begins a dialogue with Moretti that culminates in his shouting "Attica! Attica!" to invoke the recent [Prison riot](Attica)(Attica Prison riot). The crowd begins cheering for Sonny.
Sonny demands a vehicle to drive himself and Sal to the airport so they can board a jet. He also demands pizzas to be brought for the hostages, and for his wife to be brought to the bank. Sonny's partner, Leon Shermer, arrives and reveals that the robbery was intended to pay for Leon's [reassignment surgery](sex)(sex reassignment surgery), and divulges that Sonny has children with his estranged wife, Angie.
As night sets in, the bank's lights are shut off as [FBI](FBI) Agent Sheldon takes command of the scene. He refuses to give Sonny any more favors, but when the bank manager Mulvaney goes into diabetic shock, Sheldon lets a doctor inside. Sheldon then convinces Leon to talk to Sonny on the phone. Leon had been hospitalized at [Hospital](Bellevue)(Bellevue Hospital Center) after a suicide attempt. Leon turns down Sonny's offer to join him and Sal in their escape, and Sonny tells the police that Leon had nothing to do with the robbery.
Sonny agrees to let Mulvaney leave, but the manager refuses to leave his employees. The FBI calls Sonny out of the bank to talk to his mother, who fails to persuade him to give himself up. Back inside, Sonny dictates his will to one of the hostages, acting as a secretary, leaving money from his life insurance for Angie, and for Leon to have the surgery.
When the requested limousine arrives, Sonny checks for hidden weapons or booby traps, and selects Agent Murphy to drive him, Sal, and the remaining hostages to [Airport](Kennedy)(John F. Kennedy International Airport). Sonny sits in the front beside Murphy with Sal behind. Murphy repeatedly asks Sal to point his gun at the roof so Sal will not accidentally shoot him.
As they wait on the airport tarmac for the plane to taxi into position, Sal releases another hostage, who gives him her rosary beads for his first plane trip. Murphy again reminds Sal to aim his gun away. Sal does, and Sheldon seizes Sonny's weapon, allowing Murphy to pull a revolver hidden in his armrest and shoot Sal in the head. Sonny is immediately arrested, and the hostages are freed.
The film ends as Sonny watches Sal's body being taken from the car on a stretcher. On-screen text reveals that Sonny was sentenced to twenty years in prison, that Leon was a woman living in New York City, and that Angie and her children subsisted on welfare.
## Cast
* [Pacino](Al)(Al Pacino) as Sonny Wortzik ([Wojtowicz](John)(John Wojtowicz))
* [Cazale](John)(John Cazale) as Sal Naturile ([Naturile](Salvatore)(Salvatore Naturile))
* [Durning](Charles)(Charles Durning) as Sergeant Eugene Moretti
* [Sarandon](Chris)(Chris Sarandon) as Leon Shermer ([Eden](Elizabeth)(Elizabeth Eden))
* [Allen](Penelope)(Penelope Allen) as Sylvia 'Mouth' (Shirley "Mouth" Ball)
* [Boyar](Sully)(Sully Boyar) as Mulvaney (Robert Barrett)
* [Peretz](Susan)(Susan Peretz) as Angie (Carmen Wojtowicz)
* [Broderick](James)(James Broderick) as FBI Agent Sheldon
* [Henriksen](Lance)(Lance Henriksen) as FBI Agent Murphy
* [Kane](Carol)(Carol Kane) as Jenny 'The Squirrel'
* [Garrick](Beulah)(Beulah Garrick) as Margaret
* Sandra Kazan as Deborah
* Estelle Omens as Edna
* [Jean Kurtz](Marcia)(Marcia Jean Kurtz) as Miriam
* Amy Levitt as Maria
* Gary Springer as Stevie
* [Marriott](John)(John Marriott (actor)) as Calvin Jones
* [Charles MacKenzie](Philip)(Philip Charles MacKenzie) as the doctor
* [Anthony Williams](Dick)(Dick Anthony Williams) as the Limo Driver / Undercover FBI Agent
* [Malina](Judith)(Judith Malina) as Sonny's Mother
* [Chianese](Dominic)(Dominic Chianese) as Sonny's father
* ["Chu Chu" Malave](Edwin)(Edwin Malave) as Maria's boyfriend
* Lionel Pina as the Pizza Boy
## Background
On August 22, 1972, [Wojtowicz](John)(John Wojtowicz), [Naturile](Salvatore)(Salvatore Naturile), and Robert Westenberg attempted to rob a branch of the [Manhattan Bank](Chase)(Chase Manhattan Bank) at 450 Avenue P in [Brooklyn](Gravesend,)(Gravesend, Brooklyn). The robbers aimed to take the US$150,000–$200,000 (equivalent to $ million in ) that they expected to be delivered at 3:30 p.m. that afternoon by an armored truck. According to Wojtowicz, a Chase Manhattan executive that he met at a gay bar in [Village](Greenwich)(Greenwich Village) tipped him off. They entered the bank at 3:00 p.m. to discover that the armored truck had instead taken money away at 11:00 a.m. The robbers took the $29,000 () that was available at the branch and tried to escape. Westenberg was successful, but Wojtowicz and Naturile were left behind as the police arrived on the scene. The robbery then turned into a [situation](hostage)(hostage situation).
[[of the Chase branch involved in the robbery | The Chase branch in 1975](File:LFChaseP1975.jpg|thumb|200px|alt=Photograph)]
Two hours into the negotiations Wojtowicz and Naturile extended a list of demands to the police: release Elizabeth Eden (Ernest Aron) from [County Hospital Center](Kings)(Kings County Hospital Center) in exchange for a hostage, bring hamburgers and Coca-Cola, and provide transportation to John F. Kennedy International Airport for them and the hostages. In the words of Wojtowicz: "I want them to deliver my wife here from King's County hospital. His name is Ernest Aron. It's a guy. I'm gay." They also requested a plane to fly to a safe location, where the unharmed hostages were to be released. After more than fourteen hours of holding the hostages, Naturile was killed, and Wojtowicz was arrested at Kennedy Airport.
Wojtowicz told Judge [J. Travia](Anthony)(Anthony J. Travia) that the motive for the robbery was to pay for a sexual reassignment surgery for Eden. Shortly after a suicide attempt in 1971, Eden expressed to Father Gennaro Aurichio the desire to marry Wojtowicz. Aurichio recalled Eden told him, "I'm all mixed up. I want to be a girl. I have to marry the boy I introduced you to. If I don't, I'll be more successful next time." Aurichio, who counseled Eden, agreed to perform a ceremony. He told Eden that he would "perform a blessing" but that he was unable and unwilling to "perform a homosexual marriage". Aurichio was subsequently [defrocked](Defrocking). [Bell](Arthur)(Arthur Bell (journalist)), an [journalist](investigative)(Investigative Journalism), expressed his belief that the surgery was a peripheral motive for the robbery. Bell met Wojtowicz before the hold up through the [Activists Alliance](Gay)(Gay Activists Alliance), under the alias of "Littlejohn Basso". In his article published by *[Village Voice](The)(The Village Voice)*, he laid out Wojtowicz's connection to pornographer Mike Umbers and proposed that the heist was organized by the [crime family](Gambino)(Gambino crime family) instead.
## Production
### Development
*[LIFE](Life (magazine))* published in its September 22, 1972 issue a chronicle of the robbery. The feature, written by [F. Kluge](P.)(P. F. Kluge) and Thomas Moore, was titled "The Boys in the Bank". It detailed the holdup and the hostages' eventual [with their captors](fraternization)(Stockholm syndrome). The authors compared Wojtowicz's appearance to that of [Hoffman](Dustin)(Dustin Hoffman) or [Pacino](Al)(Al Pacino). The feature caught the attention of producer [Elfand](Martin)(Martin Elfand). Elfand took it to [Bregman](Martin)(Martin Bregman), who piqued the interest of [Bros.](Warner)(Warner Bros.)' executive [Shepherd](Richard)(Richard Shepherd (producer)). Elfand hired Kluge and Moore to interview the people involved in the story. Before the script was written, Elfand wanted to ensure he had signed releases by all the interviewees for the story rights. After the negotiation, each hostage received $600 (); one hostage asked for more money and was not included in the script. Initially, Westenberg was offered $2,000, but he turned it down following the advice of his lawyer, as he was still serving a two-year sentence. After his release, he settled for $750. Wojtowicz received $7,500 () for the rights to the story. From the money, he earmarked $2,500 to Eden's reassignment surgery. News outlets reported Wojtowicz was granted one percent of the film's net profit; Bregman later denied that his company, Artists Entertainment Complex, granted Wojtowicz a percentage of the gross. Bregman added he would give him $25,000 if the film performed as well as *[Serpico](Serpico)* (1973) at the box office. Wojtowicz's lawyer, Mark Landsman, retained $3,500 of the payment he received. Meanwhile, Warner Bros paid for Naturile's funeral. The working title of the film was *The Boys in the Bank*. The budget was set at an estimate of $3.5 million (equivalent to $ million in ), or $3.8 million (equivalent to $ million in ).
[Pierson](Frank)(Frank Pierson) was hired to write the screenplay. Aside from Kluge and Moore's research, Pierson conducted his own. He contacted journalist [Wicker](Randy)(Randy Wicker), who covered the story of the heist for gay publications, and provided technical assistance regarding Manhattan's gay nightclub scene. Pierson decided he wanted to center the story around Wojtowicz, who refused to receive Pierson in prison while he was in a financial dispute with Warner Bros. Pierson analyzed the tapes of the interviews and news articles about the robbery and approached those involved for additional information. Pierson could not define Wojtowicz's character because a different impression was left on each of the interviewees. The project overwhelmed him, but he could not quit, as he had spent his cash advance. Pierson reviewed his material and found the unfulfilled promises Wojtowicz made as the common trait. Pierson viewed them as "the story of the bank" and the failure of the robbery. Pierson finished the screenplay by Christmas 1973. Author [Waller](Leslie)(Leslie Waller) later worked on a [novelization](novelization) of the Pierson script, to be published after the release of the film by [Publishing](Dell)(Dell Publishing).
### Casting
With the finished script, Bregman met with director [Lumet](Sidney)(Sidney Lumet) and Pacino in London. Pacino, who was at the time represented by Bregman, agreed to play the role. He then backed out, and Dustin Hoffman expressed interest. Bregman did not meet with Hoffman; he felt Pacino could bring the "sensitivity" and "vulnerability" needed for the role. After more discussion, Pacino accepted the part but then rejected it again. Bregman attributed it to Pacino's use of [acting](method)(method acting) and said it "might have been a world [Pacino] did not want to explore". Bregman added that "no major star had ever played a gay". He wanted to make the film with Pacino. The actor backed out of the project a third time and told Bregman he wanted to return to the theater. He said he would "never make the adjustment necessary for the movies". Pacino again returned to the project and attributed his behavior to stress and drinking, and that he needed "a life outside work". Lumet mentioned the characterization of Sonny Wortzik's (Wojtowicz) "insane framework of life" as the stress factor for Pacino. In a meeting before the rehearsals, Pacino asked Pierson and Lumet to tone down Sonny Wortzik's behavior; his request was rejected. Eden described Wojtowicz as "a very domineering person", and added: "he is good-natured ... but sometimes went overboard ... and he terrified me". Wicker later said that the screenplay of *Dog Day Afternoon* portrayed Wojtowicz to be "more rational than he really was".
Much of the cast consisted of actors Pacino performed with in [Off-Broadway](Off-Broadway) plays. Pacino asked Lumet to cast [Cazale](John)(John Cazale) as Sal Naturile, whose was the only name that did not change for the film. Pacino had worked with Cazale on [Horovitz](Israel)(Israel Horovitz)'s play *[Indian Wants the Bronx](The)(The Indian Wants the Bronx)*, and then in the 1972 film *[Godfather](The)(The Godfather)*. Lumet was not initially convinced he should cast Cazale. He was thirty-nine years old, while Naturile was eighteen years old at the time of his death, but the director agreed after meeting him. [Allen](Penelope)(Penelope Allen) starred as Sylvia "Mouth" (based on Shirley "Mouth" Ball), and had worked with Pacino before on *[Scarecrow](Scarecrow (1973 film))*. For the role of Wortzik's mother, Pacino asked Lumet to cast [Malina](Judith)(Judith Malina), co-founder of [Living Theatre](The)(The Living Theatre). Lumet wanted to portray the difference between a street police officer and one with an office job. [Durning](Charles)(Charles Durning) and [Broderick](James)(James Broderick) were cast as Moretti and Sheldon respectively, though Lumet initially decided on Durning being the bank manager and Broderick playing Moretti until Pacino intervened. Because Durning was also working on [Wise](Robert)(Robert Wise)'s *[People](Two)(Two People (1973 film))*, Lumet and Wise had to coordinate his schedule, as he flew between California and New York. Lumet did not worry about Broderick's recasting because of his reputation for [acting](method)(method acting). [Boyar](Sully)(Sully Boyar) was cast as bank manager Mulvaney (based on Robert Barrett). [Sarandon](Chris)(Chris Sarandon) convinced Lumet and Pacino during his reading and was cast as Leon Shermer. Lumet asked him to shift the focus of his characterization to "a little less [DuBois](Blanche)(Blanche DuBois), a little more Queens housewife".
There were three weeks of rehearsals, and the name of the project was changed to *Dog Day Afternoon*. Pierson flew from Los Angeles to New York at Lumet's request. Pacino refused to kiss Sarandon in a scene as he thought it was "exploitative"; he felt that the script kept "pushing the gay issue" on the audience. He expressed the view that viewers already knew the characters were homosexual and wanted to convey the failure of the relationship instead. Pierson agreed; he realized the couple did not actually kiss and that they had actually carried on a phone conversation. Pierson modified the scene to include the call. The [Gay Task Force](National)(National LGBTQ Task Force) approved of the script. Ronald Gold, then director of the organization, welcomed it as "sensitive and tasteful".
### Filming
#### Opening scene
Filming took place between September and November 1974. The opening montage shows New York's traffic, bridges, beaches, and neighborhoods before moving to a view of the Manhattan skyline from a cemetery. Lumet wanted to convey "a hot boring day, a [day](dog)(Dog days) afternoon". The director shot the footage from a station wagon, and ended in front of the bank, showing the robbers. The footage was silent, as Lumet decided that he did not want a score for the film. The director felt that "he could not reconcile trying to convince an audience that this really happened ... with putting a music score into it". Editor [Allen](Dede)(Dede Allen) played [John](Elton)(Elton John)'s composition "[Amoreena](Amoreena)" in the editing room. Lumet added the song to the film, which comes out of the getaway car's radio.
#### The bank
Most of the film took place inside of the bank. Lumet discarded the idea of building a studio set; instead, the director found a street with a warehouse on the lower floor of a building that used to be an automotive workshop. The crew built a bank set with movable walls, which allowed Lumet to place the cameras as he desired, and to use [lenses](long)(Long-focus lens) to shoot from a distance. The warehouse's location also allowed Lumet to transition freely between the bank and the street, and he avoided changing film locations, and allowed the street to be visible from the inside of the bank. The scenes were shot on Prospect Park West, between 17th and 18th streets. The bus line that ran through the street was re-routed for filming, and the second story of the building housed the production offices and catering.
[[Pacino Penelope Allen in Dog Day Afternoon.jpg|thumb|Pacino and Allen, re-entering the bank on a scene|left|250px](File:Al)]
To capture Pacino's movements in a natural fashion, and to allow the actor greater mobility, Lumet integrated the use of roller skates and wheelchairs for the cameramen in the panoramic shots. Lumet would order the camera operators to be pulled as Pacino acted to make the scene look "naturalistic", and "like it was shot by television cameramen, fighting their way through the crowd". He wanted the production to have the appearance of a newsreel. The film featured [close-up](close-up)s centered on Sonny and the situation in the bank.
Two different cameras were used to cover the negotiations from Durning and Pacino's side. Lumet and cinematographer [J. Kemper](Victor)(Victor J. Kemper) relied on [shots](long)(Wide shot) to depict the point of view of the police, and the robbers' "entrapment". Lumet wanted to use the light available on the set to avoid additional luminescence. He fitted the bank with extra [lamp](fluorescent)(fluorescent lamp)s to achieve desired exposure, and he used other fluorescent lamps of lower power as [light](fill)(fill light) in close-ups. The film required seven nights of filming. Lumet needed the neighbors' cooperation for the use of their [escape](fire)(fire escape)s to hold additional lights. The production was challenged by the weather, as temperatures dropped. On the day of the heist in August 1972, the temperature reached when the robbers entered the bank. The film was shot during the fall; to avoid having their breath be visible, the cast placed ice in their mouths to even out the temperature. Lighting was provided for the scenes by [vehicles](emergency)(emergency vehicle lighting), that were specially fitted with four 7,500 watt lamps. The white brick [façade](façade) of the building provided light reflection. An existing lamp post was utilized, and its lighting reinforced to keep the crowd visible. [light](Emergency)(Emergency light)s were used on set in scenes where the power was shut off by the police.
Pacino shot the first scene wearing sunglasses, but he asked the director to re-shoot it after watching the [dailies](dailies), as he felt that Sonny "wanted to get caught". He also shaved off a moustache he grew for the role after the replay. Lumet allowed the cast to [ad-lib](Ad libitum) lines with the condition that they did not deviate greatly from the script by Pierson. The production team had recorded improvisations during the rehearsals that were added to the script. Lumet wanted the dialog to "feel natural", and he encouraged the actors to wear their own clothes and to not use makeup.
A crowd of three to four hundred extras was hired. Meanwhile, Lumet asked the neighbors to appear in the film by watching from their windows. The director offered to relocate to a hotel for those who did not want to be disturbed by the shooting. The crowd grew as filming progressed, and pedestrians joined the actors. Lumet directed the crowd and "whipp[ed] them up to a frenzy". By the second week, he felt that the crowd could improvise on its own. To amplify the effect in the film, he utilized hand-held cameras. In regards to the project while it was filming, Lumet said "It's out of my hands. It's got a life of its own". In a scene on the street, before Pacino left the bank, assistant director Burtt Harris whispered to him to ask the crowd about Attica. Pacino then improvised the complete dialog with the crowd.
#### Phone conversations
Lumet decided to shoot the phone conversations Sonny had with his wife and Leon back-to-back. As Pacino acted the scene, he increased the intensity of the portrayal. While both conversations lasted a total of fourteen minutes, Lumet's camera could only shoot ten at a time, and he had to bring a second camera. For the scene, Lumet separated Pacino from the rest of the bank with a black velvet mask to isolate him. He left a hole for both cameras, and for himself to look in. Lumet wanted a second take. An exhausted Pacino accepted, and he kept the same intensity. At the end of the scene, Lumet and Pacino cried. The director later remembered it as "an amazing moment, as good a moment of directing as I've ever had in my life".
The call between Pacino and Sarandon was improvised. Lumet felt that Sarandon "had great taste", and that the actor would not resort to "homosexual clichés". He deemed the humor of his improvisation as "genuinely funny", and that it was not "laughing at a gay character". Sarandon felt that the conversation was welcomed by the audiences because it "wasn't about a drag queen and his boyfriend", and that it reflected two people that were "trying to come to grips with what is wrong in their relationship." The film was characterized by its "light comic touch", and according to critic [Thomson](David)(David Thomson (film critic)), for its "ear and instinct for comedy". In Pierson's script, Wortzik's question regarding which country Sal wanted to escape to did not have a scripted response, but Cazale improvised by answering "Wyoming". Lumet had to cover his mouth, as he nearly interrupted the scene by laughing.
#### Final scene
The start of the final scene at the bank was shot on a night with wind. Pacino was sprinkled with water to simulate sweat; Lumet mixed the artificial sweat himself, as he felt that the makeup crews often used it in excess, or that it was insufficient. The director used a mixture of glycerin and water that he learned to make during the shooting of *[Angry Men](12)(12 Angry Men (1957 film))*. The mixture lasted longer and allowed him better continuity throughout the scenes.
Harris directed the scene of the caravan that headed to Kennedy Airport from a helicopter. A plane and squad cars on the tarmac were used. Senator [Javits](Jacob)(Jacob Javits), an acquaintance of Lumet, facilitated the negotiations with the [Authority of New York and New Jersey](Port)(Port Authority of New York and New Jersey). The production team was given one day to shoot in an area of the airport that was not a terminal. The international flights that headed to the main runway had to go around the shooting location. Lumet directed the scene at the airport from the ground. He chose to cut from the close-up after Sal was shot and a gun was held to Sonny's head, to a long shot; the view presented a panorama of the scene at the airport. Lumet centered on Pacino and ordered the crew to roll Cazale on a stretcher to be visible by the actor. Pacino used the image to improvise his reaction.
The shooting was completed three weeks ahead of schedule. After editing the film, Lumet and Allen felt that the slow-paced scene of Sonny 'dictating' his will/testament conflicted with the rest of the fast-moving sequences, so they decided to restore six to seven minutes of discarded footage to balance the tempo of the film. Lumet stated the scene of the last will was the reason for his decision to work on the film; he considered it "moving", but worried about the audience laughing at it. His worries were based on what he considered "the defensive attitude on sexual subjects": to avoid it, he focused on portraying emotional performances by the actors throughout the film.
Lumet had access to the footage of Wojtowicz and Eden's ceremony, originally broadcast by [5](Channel)(WNYW) at the time of the robbery, which featured Wojtowicz in his army uniform presenting a wedding ring with a [cube](flash)(Flash (photography)#Flashcubes, Magicubes and Flipflash) to Eden, who wore a wedding dress. Wojtowicz's mother and eight male bridesmaids were present. Lumet planned to use it in the film; the scene would have featured the footage broadcast on a television in the bank, but he decided not to include it, as he felt it would be "unrecoverable" and that the audiences would not "take the rest of the movie seriously".
## Release and reception
*Dog Day Afternoon* opened on September 20, 1975, at the [Sebastián International Film Festival](San)(San Sebastián International Film Festival). The film premiered in New York City on September 21, 1975, and released nationwide in October. It grossed between $50 million (equivalent to $ million in ) million and $56 million (equivalent to $ million in ).
*Dog Day Afternoon* holds a "Certified Fresh" 96% rating on [Tomatoes](Rotten)(Rotten Tomatoes) based on fifty-one reviews. The site's consensus states: "Framed by great work from director Sidney Lumet and fueled by a gripping performance from Al Pacino, Dog Day Afternoon offers a finely detailed snapshot of people in crisis with tension-soaked drama shaded in black humor."
*[New York Times](The)(The New York Times)* delivered a favorable review. It called the film a "gaudy street-carnival", and Lumet's "most accurate, most flamboyant" depiction of New York. The reviewer remarked the "brilliant characterizations" of the cast: Pacino's display of a "bravura style", Sarandon's performance of "fear, dignity and silliness" and the acting "that one remembers" from the supporting cast. *[York Daily News](New)(New York Daily News)* gave *Dog Day Afternoon* four stars: it described the film as a "gut-level human comedy" and called Pacino "stunning", "brilliantly erratic and terribly touching". The publication felt that Pacino portrayed "a rich, volatile character". It favored Durning and Sarandon, and called the female cast "marvelous". *[Record](The)(The Record (North Jersey))* welcomed the performances as "very natural". It determined that "all the slickness" was on Pierson's script, and it attributed it to its closeness to the real events portrayed on the film. For *[Village Voice](The)(The Village Voice)*, critic [Sarris](Andrew)(Andrew Sarris) opined that Pacino acted "assiduously with the whites of his eyes". Sarris also noted that "pain [came] pouring out of Pacino's eyes" as he deemed Sonny a "Freudian tragic hero", and that the combination with Cazale's character's "deadpan death wish" produced "much emotional debris". The piece declared the "high point" of the film to be the phone conversation between Pacino and Sarandon. Sarris pointed that the dialogue featured "two wounded creatures capable of an extraordinary emotional audacity", and concluded that the film was to be "seen, but not swallowed whole" and "making heroes out of felons" was "a short step to utter chaos". Film critic [Ebert](Roger)(Roger Ebert) rated it with three-and-a-half stars out of four, welcoming its "irreverent, quirky sense of humor". Gary Arnold of *[Washington Post](The)(The Washington Post)* called it "a triumphant new classic of American movie naturalism". [Gilliatt](Penelope)(Penelope Gilliatt) of *[New Yorker](The)(The New Yorker)* wrote, "Though the farcical tone of the movie is blusterous, falling into the common show-biz habit of supplying energy in place of intent, the movie succeeds, on the whole, because it has the crucial farcical value of not faltering."
[Siskel](Gene)(Gene Siskel) gave *Dog Day Afternoon* four stars on his review for the *[Tribune](Chicago)(Chicago Tribune)*, and rated the film as "superb", noting the "scenes mixing the fear of violence with insane laughter". He felt that Pacino, Cazale, and Durning kept the film from "degenerating into silliness". Siskel talked about Pacino's display of "so much energy" that made him "believe the unbelievable" and Cazale's "haunting, sallow-cheeked silence". Lumet and Allen were praised for the "terrific, roller-coaster" pace of the film. [Press International](United)(United Press International) defined it as an "exceptionally fine film—outrageously funny and deeply moving", and welcomed Pacino's acting as a "dazzing display". The supporting roles by Cazale, Durning, Allen and Broderick were deemed "excellent", while Peretz and Sarandon's performances were singled out. For [Baltake](Joe)(Joe Baltake), Pacino's appearance was a "raw, high voltage, uproariously funny performance". His review on the *[Daily News](Philadelphia)(Philadelphia Daily News)* continued by calling the film "super-charged", and "multi-leveled" by "a slapstick comedy, tense drama, caper tale, biographical material and character study". Baltake compared Cazale's appearance on the film to that of a *[Coonskin](Coonskin (film))* character by [Bakshi](Ralph)(Ralph Bakshi). In regards to the rest of the cast, he determined "everyone [was] good". He praised Kemper's cinematography as "you-are-there" and Allen's "razor-sharp editing".
*[Boston Globe](The)(The Boston Globe)* praised Lumet's "wonderful" direction of "in-depth, psychological probing". Critic Kevin Kelly hailed the editing by Allen as "brilliant", and defined Pacino's performance as "virtuose" and Cazele's as "shyly and sorrowfully eloquent". The review also favored the "fine performances" by the supporting cast. *[Evening Sun](The)(The Baltimore Sun)* applauded the humor in the movie. Critic Lou Cedrone felt that it was "natural and true"; he stressed that Pierson's script, combined with the work of Pacino and Lumet, made the drama "never uncomfortable". The *[Free Press](Detroit)(Detroit Free Press)* expressed that the picture relied on Pacino's "tender, forthright, generous and affecting in extreme" performance.
The *[Herald](Miami)(Miami Herald)* praised *Dog Day Afternoon* as "a movie of fascinating realism". Critic John Huddy expressed that the street scenes were "magnificently staged", and that Lumet "finds order in chaos, sense in insanity". *[Atlanta Constitution](The)(The Atlanta Constitution)* applauded Durning as "absolutely real", and the reviewer opined that the cast was "consistently fine". It concluded by mentioning "the excellent script and editing", and defined the film as "funny and poignant".
The *[Gazette](Montreal)(Montreal Gazette)* mentioned the variety of characters presented in the film. The reviewer concluded that it was "a monument to the thought and care" by the production team. Pacino's "remarkable performance", and Pierson's "all-inclusive" script were noted. *[Guardian](The)(The Guardian)* opined that *Dog Day Afternoon* presented Lumet's "best film for some considerable time", and deemed Pacino's acting as "brilliant" and Cazale's as "well-observed". *[Sydney Morning Herald](The)(The Sydney Morning Herald)* considered it "beautifully directed" by Lumet, and "another mature American picture which faces and mirrors reality".
### Lawsuits
Wojtowicz's wife, Carmen, received $50 () from Artists Entertainment Complex for her contribution to the story. She signed the documents to Wicker, who recorded in exchange a tape with her account on behalf of the company. The depiction of her character, Angie, in the film affected her, as she felt she was deemed "repulsive". The novelization of *Dog Day Afternoon* described her as "a fat cunt", "no-good pusbag" and a "guinea broad", among other pejorative terms. In the film, Angie laments her weight gain as the reason for Sonny's distance. Wojtowicz was also angered by her depiction in the film, and defined his then-wife as "a sweet kid". Pierson declared that the character was presented "farthest from the truth", and that he could not "stand how [Lumet] casted the role", or how Peretz portrayed her. He further stressed his disappointment at the publicity campaign that presented the film as a "true story", and remarked its differences with the *Life* article. Pierson presented a complaint to the [Guild of America](Writers)(Writers Guild of America West). Kluge, a coauthor of the *Life* feature, believed the film-makers "stayed with the surface of a lively journalistic story" and that the film had a "strong, fast-paced story" without "reflection" or "a contemplative view of life".
Carmen took legal action against Warner Bros. On behalf of her, and her daughters Carmen and Dawn, Wojtowicz filed an [of Privacy](Invasion)(Right to privacy) lawsuit for $12,000,000. The [division of the New York Supreme Court](appellate)(New York Supreme Court, Appellate Division) ruled in favor of Warner Bros, as the court determined that the true names or pictures of the family and robbers were not used in the film or the book. Wojtowicz then sued the studio for 1% of the earnings he claimed were included in the deal for the use of his story; he received $40,000 () after lawyer's fees were deducted. The [York Supreme Court](New)(New York Supreme Court) ordered that $100 () were to be given weekly to Carmen Wojtowicz, plus $50 weekly for both children. The rest of the money was placed in escrow of the New York State Crime Victims Compensation Board to pay for the claims of the victims of the 1972 robbery.
## Legacy
Analysis in the 21st century of *Dog Day Afternoon* has interpreted it as an "[anti-authoritarian](Anti-authoritarianism) film" that "defied the establishment," particularly with the emphasis on the Attica Prison riot and the character's resentment toward the police. Commentators also mentioned its contemporaneity with the aftermath of the [War](Vietnam)(Vietnam War) and the [scandal](Watergate)(Watergate scandal). It became one of the first motion pictures to portray a bisexual male character as the protagonist. In 2009, *Dog Day Afternoon* was deemed "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant" by the [of Congress](Library)(Library of Congress), and it was selected for preservation in the [Film Registry](National)(National Film Registry).
On November 11, 1979, a censored and shortened version was broadcast on [Sunday Night Big Event](NBC's)(NBC Sunday Night Movie), which marked the film's television premiere. It was released on [VHS](VHS) in 1985. In 2006, [Home Video](Warner)(Warner Home Video) released *Dog Day Afternoon* on a double-disc [DVD](DVD). For the film's fortieth anniversary, a two-disc [blu-ray](blu-ray) was released in 2015. On the [aggregator](review)(review aggregator) website [Metacritic](Metacritic), the film scored 86 based on fifteen professional reviews. Meanwhile, [Tomatoes](Rotten)(Rotten Tomatoes) gave the film a score of 96% based on reviews from 48 critics, with an average rating of 8.60/10. The consensus reads: "*Dog Day Afternoon* offers a finely detailed snapshot of people in crisis with tension-soaked drama shaded in black humor."
[AllMovie](AllMovie) gave the movie five stars out of five. The review defined it as "a quintessential 1970s story", and focused on the film's "contemporary tensions over law, media, and sexuality". [Null](Christopher)(Christopher Null) wrote in 2006 that the film "captures perfectly the [zeitgeist](zeitgeist) of the early 1970s, a time when optimism was scraping rock bottom and John Wojtowicz was as good a hero as we could come up with". During the 2011 [Francisco International Film Festival](San)(San Francisco International Film Festival), the film was included as a tribute to Pierson for his recent death. The *[Francisco Chronicle](San)(San Francisco Chronicle)* reflected on the time of its release, and the reviewer felt that "it seemed as if the great movies would never stop, when the extraordinary creative burst we'd been seeing in the 1970s looked as though it might go on forever". *[A.V. Club](The)(The A.V. Club)* called it a "frank social melodrama that's also a celebration of quotidian bravery", while it praised the cinematography by Kemper that "captures the joy as well as the decay of a crowded city". *[IGN](IGN)* delivered a good review, and considered Pacino's performance to be "spectacular, and achieves a kind of nuance and complexity that few actors from his or any other generation have before or since achieved". Meanwhile, the reviewer considered that the movie displayed the reason Cazale was "one of the great character actors of all time".
### In popular culture
The 1977 Italian film *Operazione Kappa: sparate a vista* was loosely based on *Dog Day Afternoon*. The 1987 [Kong action film](Hong)(Hong Kong action cinema) *Yan man ying hung* (''People's Hero*) was a remake of the film. For his audition on *[Simpsons](The)(The Simpsons)'', actor [Azaria](Hank)(Hank Azaria) used an imitation voice based on Pacino's *Dog Day Afternoon* character. It was the base for the final voice of [Szyslak](Moe)(Moe Szyslak). A bank robbery featuring Sonny and Sal was featured on *The Simpsons*' episode "[Don't Wanna Know Why the Caged Bird Sings](I)(I Don't Wanna Know Why the Caged Bird Sings)". In 2006, [Jean Kurtz](Marcia)(Marcia Jean Kurtz) and Lionel Pina reprised their *Dog Day Afternoon* roles as Miriam Douglas and a pizza delivery man in the [heist](Heist film) [film](thriller)(thriller film) *[Man](Inside)(Inside Man)*.
The names of several television series episodes referenced the film, including *[in the Family](All)(All in the Family)*, *[Back, Kotter](Welcome)(Welcome Back, Kotter)*, *[Alice](Alice (American TV series))*, *[Elsewhere](St.)(St. Elsewhere)*, *[Hammer!](Sledge)(Sledge Hammer!)*, *[Street Blues](Hill)(Hill Street Blues)*, *[Strangers](Perfect)(Perfect Strangers (TV series))*, *[New Adventures of Winnie the Pooh](The)(The New Adventures of Winnie the Pooh)*, *[New Lassie](The)(The New Lassie)*, *[& Kel](Kenan)(Kenan & Kel)*, *[of the Hill](King)(King of the Hill)*, ''[Burgers](Bob's)(Bob's Burgers)*, *[Supernatural](Supernatural (American TV series))*, and *[Broke Girls](2)(2 Broke Girls)*. The shout "Attica! Attica!" was also reproduced in multiple films and television series.
## Accolades
*Dog Day Afternoon'' was nominated for six [Awards](Academy)(Academy Awards). Pierson received the [Award for Best Original Screenplay](Academy)(Academy Award for Best Original Screenplay). The film was nominated for seven [Globes](Golden)(Golden Globes) but won none. It received six [Academy Film Awards](British)(British Academy Film Awards) nominations: Pacino was nominated for [Actor in a Leading Role](Best)(BAFTA Award for Best Actor in a Leading Role) and Allen won the [Editing](Best)(BAFTA Award for Best Editing). Pierson also received the [Guild of America Award for Best Written Drama](Writers)(Writers Guild of America Award for Best Written Drama), and Durning the [Board of Review Award for Best Supporting Actor](National)(National Board of Review Award for Best Supporting Actor). At the San Sebastián International Film Festival Pacino won Best Actor, while the movie was nominated for Best Film.
The film ranked at number seventy on [AFI](American Film Institute)'s ''[Years... 100 Thrills](100)(AFI's 100 Years... 100 Thrills)* list. Meanwhile, the line "Attica! Attica!" placed at number eighty-six on *[Years...100 Movie Quotes](100)(AFI's 100 Years…100 Movie Quotes)*. It was nominated for *[Years...100 Movies](100)(AFI's 100 Years...100 Movies)* in 1998 and 2007. In 2006, *[Premiere](Premiere (magazine))'' issued its "100 Greatest Performances of All Time". The magazine placed Pacino's performance as Sonny as the fourth-greatest ever. In 2012, the [Picture Editors Guild](Motion)(Motion Picture Editors Guild) listed *Dog Day Afternoon* as the twentieth best edited film of all time based on a survey of its membership.
## See also
* [of American films of 1975](List)(List of American films of 1975)
* *[Dog](The)(The Dog (2013 film))*, a 2013 documentary on the film
* [film](Heist)(Heist film)
## References
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* ["The Boys in the Bank", by P.F. Kluge and Thomas Moore](https://books.google.com/books?id=5VYEAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA66) at Google Books
* [*Dog Day Afternoon*](https://books.google.com/books?id=4GNRD_icEmkC) essay by Daniel Eagan In America's Film Legacy, 2009-2010: A Viewer's Guide To The 50 Landmark Movies Added To The National Film Registry In 2009–10, Bloomsbury Publishing USA, 2011, pages 143-146
[films](Category:1975)(Category:1975 films)
[drama films](Category:1975)(Category:1975 drama films)
[heist films](Category:1970s)(Category:1970s heist films)
[LGBT-related films](Category:1975)(Category:1975 LGBT-related films)
[films based on actual events](Category:American)(Category:American films based on actual events)
[films](Category:Bisexuality-related)(Category:Bisexuality-related films)
[bisexuality in film](Category:Male)(Category:Male bisexuality in film)
[heist films](Category:American)(Category:American heist films)
[LGBT-related films](Category:American)(Category:American LGBT-related films)
[neo-noir films](Category:American)(Category:American neo-noir films)
[winners (films)](Category:BAFTA)(Category:BAFTA winners (films))
[films based on actual events](Category:Crime)(Category:Crime films based on actual events)
[docudrama films](Category:American)(Category:American docudrama films)
[films based on actual events](Category:Drama)(Category:Drama films based on actual events)
[English-language films](Category:1970s)(Category:1970s English-language films)
[about bank robbery](Category:Films)(Category:Films about bank robbery)
[about hostage takings](Category:Films)(Category:Films about hostage takings)
[based on newspaper and magazine articles](Category:Films)(Category:Films based on newspaper and magazine articles)
[à clef](Category:Films)(Category:Films à clef)
[directed by Sidney Lumet](Category:Films)(Category:Films directed by Sidney Lumet)
[produced by Martin Bregman](Category:Films)(Category:Films produced by Martin Bregman)
[set in Brooklyn](Category:Films)(Category:Films set in Brooklyn)
[set in New York City](Category:Films)(Category:Films set in New York City)
[set in 1972](Category:Films)(Category:Films set in 1972)
[shot in New York City](Category:Films)(Category:Films shot in New York City)
[whose writer won the Best Original Screenplay Academy Award](Category:Films)(Category:Films whose writer won the Best Original Screenplay Academy Award)
[films based on actual events](Category:LGBT-related)(Category:LGBT-related films based on actual events)
[about trans women](Category:Films)(Category:Films about trans women)
[States National Film Registry films](Category:United)(Category:United States National Film Registry films)
[Bros. films](Category:Warner)(Category:Warner Bros. films)
[American films](Category:1970s)(Category:1970s American films)
[crime drama films](Category:1975)(Category:1975 crime drama films)
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List of Game of Thrones characters
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list_of_game_of_thrones_characters
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# List of Game of Thrones characters
*Revision ID: 1160004422 | Timestamp: 2023-06-13T21:23:07Z*
---
[[of Thrones 2011 logo.svg |right|220px](File:Game)]
The characters from the [fantasy](medieval)(medieval fantasy) [series](television)(Television show) *[of Thrones](Game)(Game of Thrones)* are based on their respective counterparts from author [R. R. Martin](George)(George R. R. Martin)'s *[Song of Ice and Fire](A)(A Song of Ice and Fire)* series of novels. Set in a fictional universe that has been referred to so far as "The Known World", the series follows a civil war for the [Throne](Iron)(Iron Throne (A Song of Ice and Fire)) of the continent of [Westeros](Westeros), fought between the rival royal and noble families and their respective supporters.
## Cast
### Main cast
: = [cast](Main)(Ensemble cast) (credited)
: = [cast](Recurring)(Recurring character) (3+)
: = [cast](Guest)(Guest appearance) (1-2)
;Notes
### Recurring cast
: = [cast](Recurring)(Recurring character) (3+)
: = [cast](Guest)(Guest appearance) (1-2)
;Notes
### Guest cast
;Introduced in season 1
* Dennis McKeever as a [Watch](Night's)(Night's Watch) officer (season 1)
* [Bradley](David)(David Bradley (English actor)) as [Frey](Walder)(Walder Frey) (seasons 1, 3, 6–7)
* [Wilde](Andrew)(Andrew Wilde (actor)) as Tobho Mott (seasons 1–2)
* [Allam](Roger)(Roger Allam) as [Mopatis](Illyrio)(Illyrio Mopatis) (season 1)
* [Hall](Jefferson)(Jefferson Hall (actor)) as Hugh of the Vale (season 1)
* [John](Margaret)(Margaret John) as Old Nan (season 1)
* [Lewis Jones](Mark)(Mark Lewis Jones) as Shagga (season 1)
* [Webb](Bronson)(Bronson Webb) as Will (season 1)
* [Ostlere](Rob)(Rob Ostlere) as [Royce](Waymar)(Waymar Royce) (season 1)
* Dermot Keaney as Gared (season 1)
* [Standing](John)(John Standing) as [Arryn](Jon)(Jon Arryn) (season 1)
* Rhodri Hosking as Mycah (season 1)
* Antonia Christophers as Mhaegen (seasons 1–2)
* Sahara Knite as Armeca (seasons 1–2)
;Introduced in season 2
* Josephine Gillan as Marei (seasons 2–6, 8)
* Sara Dylan as Bernadette (seasons 2–4, 6–7)
* [Malahide](Patrick)(Patrick Malahide) as [Greyjoy](Balon)(Balon Greyjoy) (seasons 2–3, 6)
* Edward Dogliani (seasons 2–3) and [O'Hennessy](Ross)(Ross O'Hennessy) (season 5) as the [of Bones](Lord)(Lord of Bones)
* [Msamati](Lucian)(Lucian Msamati) as Salladhor Saan (seasons 2–4)
* [Kellegher](Andy)(Andy Kellegher) as Polliver (seasons 2, 4)
* [Dotrice](Roy)(Roy Dotrice) as Hallyne (season 2)
* [Ford Davies](Oliver)(Oliver Ford Davies) as Maester Cressen (season 2)
* David Coakley as Drennan (season 2)
* Peter Ballance as Farlen (season 2)
* Paul Caddell as Jacks (season 2)
* Aidan Crowe as Quent (season 2)
* Tyrone McElhennon as Torrhen Karstark (season 2)
* Anthony Morris as the Tickler (season 2)
* Laura Pradelska as Quaithe (season 2)
* David Fynn as Rennick (season 2)
;Introduced in season 3
* [Gorman](Burn)(Burn Gorman) as Karl Tanner (seasons 3–4)
* [Chapman](Dean-Charles)(Dean-Charles Chapman) as [Lannister](Martyn)(List of A Song of Ice and Fire characters#House Lannister) (season 3)
* Timothy Gibbons as [Lannister](Willem)(List of A Song of Ice and Fire characters#House Lannister) (season 3)
* [Dowling](Alexandra)(Alexandra Dowling) as [Tully](Roslin)(Roslin Tully) (season 3)
* [Killeen](Mark)(Mark Killeen) as Mero (season 3)
* [Tikaram](Ramon)(Ramon Tikaram) as Prendahl na Ghezn (season 3)
* Will O'Connell as Todder (seasons 3, 5)
* Pixie Le Knot as Kayla (seasons 3–4)
* Clifford Barry as Greizhen mo Ullhor (season 3)
* George Georgiou as Razdal mo Eraz (seasons 3, 6)
;Introduced in season 4
* [Gatiss](Mark)(Mark Gatiss) as [Nestoris](Tycho)(Tycho Nestoris) (seasons 4–5, 7)
* [Noi](Reece)(Reece Noi) as Mossador (seasons 4–5)
* [Oliver](Gary)(Gary Oliver (actor)) as Ternesio Terys (seasons 4–5)
* [Corfield](Lu)(Lu Corfield) as the Mole's Town madam (season 4)
* [Winstone](Lois)(Lois Winstone) as a Mole's Town prostitute (season 4)
* [Simpson](Alisdair)(Alisdair Simpson) as Donnel Waynwood (season 4)
* [Dionisotti](Paola)(Paola Dionisotti) as [Waynwood](Anya)(Anya Waynwood) (season 4)
* Deirdre Monaghan as Morag (season 4)
* Jane McGrath as Sissy (season 4)
* Sarine Sofair as Lhara (seasons 4–5)
;Introduced in season 5
* [Cilenti](Enzo)(Enzo Cilenti) as [zo Qaggaz](Yezzan)(Yezzan zo Qaggaz) (seasons 5–6)
* [McArthur](Murray)(Murray McArthur) as Dim Dalba (seasons 5–6)
* [Akinnuoye-Agbaje](Adewale)(Adewale Akinnuoye-Agbaje) as Malko (season 5)
* [Hjort Sørensen](Birgitte)(Birgitte Hjort Sørensen) as Karsi (season 5)
* [Baharov](Zahary)(Zahary Baharov) as Loboda (season 5)
* [J. Murphy](J.)(J. J. Murphy (actor)) as Denys Mallister (season 5)
* Ali Lyons as Johnna (season 5)
* Oengus MacNamara as Thin man (season 5)
* Hattie Gotobed as Ghita (season 5)
* Meena Rayann as Vala (seasons 5–6)
;Introduced in season 6
* Lucy Hayes as Kitty Frey (seasons 6–7)
* Dean S. Jagger as Smalljon Umber (season 6)
* [Feast](Michael)(Michael Feast) as [Greyjoy](Aeron)(Aeron Greyjoy) (season 6)
* [Eldon](Kevin)(Kevin Eldon) as Camello (season 6)
* [Powell](Eline)(Eline Powell) as Bianca (season 6)
* [Lepkowski](Gerald)(Gerald Lepkowski) as Zanrush (season 6)
* [Faress](Souad)(Souad Faress) as High Priestess of the Dosh Khaleen (season 6)
* [Haukur Jóhannesson](Jóhannes)(Jóhannes Haukur Jóhannesson) as Lem Lemoncloak (season 6)
* [Blowers](Sean)(Sean Blowers) as [Manderly](Wyman)(Wyman Manderly) (season 6)
* [Varey](Tom)(Tom Varey) as Cley Cerwyn (season 6)
* [Spiro](Samantha)(Samantha Spiro) as [Tarly](Melessa)(Melessa Tarly) (season 6)
* [Benson](Rebecca)(Rebecca Benson) as [Tarly](Talla)(Talla Tarly) (season 6)
* [Bukstein](Ania)(Ania Bukstein) as Kinvara (season 6)
* [McShane](Ian)(Ian McShane) as Brother Ray (season 6)
* [Champ](Ricky)(Ricky Champ) as Gatins (season 6)
* Ian Davies as Morgan (season 6)
* Nathanael Saleh as Arthur (season 6)
* Annette Hannah as Frances (season 6)
* Eddie Jackson as Belicho Paenymion (season 6)
* Andrei Claude as Khal Rhalko (season 6)
* [Hassan](Tamer)(Tamer Hassan) as Khal Forzho (season 6)
* [Modu](Chuku)(Chuku Modu) as Aggo (season 6)
* Deon Lee-Williams as Iggo (season 6)
* [John-Kamen](Hannah)(Hannah John-Kamen) as Ornela (season 6)
;Introduced in season 7
* Harry Grasby as Ned Umber (season 7–8)
;Introduced in season 8
* [Rissmann](Marc)(Marc Rissmann) as Harry Strickland (season 8)
* Bea Glancy as Teela (season 8)
;Non-human characters cast
* [Whyte](Ian)(Ian Whyte (actor)) as various [Walkers](White)(White Walkers) (seasons 1–2), the giant Dongo the Doomed (seasons 3–4) and a giant wight (season 7–8)
* [Wilding](Spencer)(Spencer Wilding) as a White Walker (season 1)
* [Mullan](Ross)(Ross Mullan) as various White Walkers (seasons 2–4)
* [Fingleton](Neil)(Neil Fingleton) as the giant Mag Mar Tun Doh Weg (season 4) and a giant wight (season 7)
* [Loane](Tim)(Tim Loane) as a White Walker (season 5)
;Flashbacks cast
* [May](Jodhi)(Jodhi May) as Maggy the Frog (season 5)
* [Williams](Nell)(Nell Williams) as young Cersei Lannister (season 5)
* Isabella Steinbarth as Melara Hetherspoon (season 5)
* [Croft](Sebastian)(Sebastian Croft) as child Eddard Stark (season 6)
* Matteo Elezi as child Benjen Stark (season 6)
* Cordelia Hill as child [Stark](Lyanna)(Lyanna Stark) (season 6)
* Sam Coleman as young Wylis / Hodor (season 6)
* Annette Tierney as young Old Nan (season 6)
* Fergus Leathem as young Rodrik Cassel (season 6)
* [Aramayo](Robert)(Robert Aramayo) as young Eddard Stark (seasons 6–7)
* [Roberts](Luke)(Luke Roberts (actor)) as [Dayne](Arthur)(Arthur Dayne) (season 6)
* [Eyre](Eddie)(Eddie Eyre) as [Hightower](Gerold)(Gerold Hightower) (season 6)
* Leo Woodruff as young [Reed](Howland)(Howland Reed) (season 6)
* Wayne Foskett as [Stark](Rickard)(Rickard Stark) (season 6)
* [Rintoul](David)(David Rintoul) as ['The Mad King' Targaryen](Aerys)(Aerys Targaryen) (season 6)
* [Franciosi](Aisling)(Aisling Franciosi) as Lyanna Stark (seasons 6–7)
* Wilf Scolding as Rhaegar Targaryen (season 7)
* [Chadbon](Tom)(Tom Chadbon) as High Septon Maynard (season 7)
## Main characters
### Eddard "Ned" Stark
[[Bean TIFF 2015.jpg|thumb|upright=0.5|Sean Bean](File:Sean)]
**Ned Stark** (portrayed by [Bean](Sean)(Sean Bean) as an adult, [Croft](Sebastian)(Sebastian Croft) as a child, and [Aramayo](Robert)(Robert Aramayo) as a young adult) is the Hand of the King after Lord Jon Arryn's death. He is known for his sense of honor and justice. He took part in Robert's Rebellion after his sister Lyanna was kidnapped by Crown Prince Rhaegar Targaryen. When Ned's father and brother went south to reclaim her, the "Mad King" Aerys Targaryen burned both of them alive. Ned and Robert Baratheon led the rebellion to unseat him from the throne. As the show opens, Ned has been content to remain in the north, but after the death of Lord Jon Arryn, he is convinced that it is his duty to accept the position of Hand of the King. Ned is not interested in politics, and prefers to rule with honor and follow the law. While investigating the reason for the death of Jon Arryn, he discovers that all three of Robert's children with Queen Cersei were fathered by Cersei's twin brother Jaime. When Ned confronts Cersei about the truth, she has him imprisoned for treason after he publicly denounces Joffrey. Ned is convinced by Varys that if he goes to his death honorably, as he is prepared to do, his daughters will [not] suffer for it. To protect them, he sacrifices his honor and publicly declares that he was plotting to steal the throne and that Joffrey is the true king. Despite Cersei's promise that Ned would be allowed to join the Night's Watch in exile, Joffrey orders Ned's execution for his own amusement and later torments Sansa by forcing her to look at her father's head. His bones are later returned to Catelyn in the Stormlands by Petyr Baelish, who laments Ned's downfall and that he was too honorable to seize power through force, rather insisting the throne pass to Lord Stannis Baratheon, Robert's younger brother. Baelish's preferred course of action, revealed only to Ned, had been to seize Cersei and her children first and rule in Joffrey's name as Regent and Lord Protector. Ned's sacrifice is not in vain, since his notifying Stannis of the truth of Joffrey's parentage sets in motion Stannis' claim to the throne, and ensuring the illegitimacy being made known to all of Westeros. Renly, however, separately lays a claim with the support of mighty House Tyrell. Ned's actions thus set into motion the War of Five Kings against House Lannister and the Iron Throne.
### Robert Baratheon
[[Addy.JPG|thumb|upright=0.5|Mark Addy](File:Mark)]
**Robert Baratheon** (portrayed by [Addy](Mark)(Mark Addy)) became the King of the Seven Kingdoms after leading a rebellion against Aerys II Targaryen. He was betrothed to Ned Stark's sister Lyanna and loved her deeply, but she was kidnapped by Rhaegar Targaryen. Her father and another brother were killed when they went to King's Landing to reclaim her, which resulted in Robert and Ned Stark's revolt known as Robert's Rebellion, whereupon the Targaryens were all slaughtered or routed from the Kingdoms. Since Robert's family had closer ties to the former Royal family, he was put on the Iron Throne. Now, Robert has grown fat and miserable; he has no more wars to fight, is surrounded by plotters and sycophants, hates and is bored by the constant work needed to manage the Kingdoms properly, and is trapped in a political marriage to the scheming Cersei Lannister, whom he has never loved. He is unaware that none of his three children with Cersei are his, but instead Jaime Lannister's. Under his reign, the realm has been bankrupted and Robert is deeply in debt to his wife's family. Mortally wounded while hunting, he unknowingly leaves no rightful heir behind. His bastards are ordered dead by Joffrey, many of whom are killed, and Gendry is subsequently forced to flee the capital.
### Jaime Lannister
[[Coster-Waldau by Gage Skidmore.jpg|thumb|upright=0.5|Nikolaj Coster-Waldau](File:Nikolaj)]
**Jaime Lannister** (portrayed by [Coster-Waldau](Nikolaj)(Nikolaj Coster-Waldau)) is a member of the Kingsguard and an exceptionally skilled [swordsman](Swordsmanship). He is Cersei Lannister's twin brother and has carried on an incestuous love affair with her all his life, fathering all three of her living children. He is nicknamed "Kingslayer" for killing the previous King, Aerys II, whom he was sworn to protect. Jaime is captured by Robb Stark's army and held prisoner until he is released by Catelyn Stark and escorted back to King's Landing by Brienne of Tarth. On the road, his sword hand is severed and he reveals that he killed Aerys II to save the population of King's Landing, whom Aerys II was attempting to massacre with wildfire. Upon his return to King's Landing, he retakes his place in the Kingsguard and restarts his affair with Cersei. He travels to Dorne to rescue their daughter Myrcella, but cannot prevent her from being poisoned. After the Faith Militant gain control of the capital, Jaime is relieved of his Kingsguard duties and told to reclaim Riverrun with the Lannister army. Jaime is present at Cersei's crowning following their last child Tommen's suicide, but is later ambushed by Daenerys Targaryen, who has come to Westeros to stake a claim to the Iron Throne. After reuniting with Brienne and joining the effort to defeat the White Walkers, he returns to King's Landing to rescue Cersei from Daenerys' forces. The Lannister siblings die together when Daenerys' dragon, Drogon, destroys the Red Keep.
### Catelyn Stark
[[Fairley by Gage Skidmore 2.jpg|thumb|upright=0.5|Michelle Fairley](File:Michelle)]
**Catelyn Stark** (portrayed by [Fairley](Michelle)(Michelle Fairley)) is the wife of Lord Eddard Stark. She is also the elder sister of Lysa Arryn, Lady of the Vale and Mistress of the Eyrie, and Lord Edmure Tully, Lord of Riverrun. Catelyn is the first to suspect that the Lannisters made an attempt on her son Brandon's life and arrests Tyrion Lannister to bring him to the Eyrie for trial. After Tyrion is released and after Eddard is executed, Catelyn joins her son Robb's campaign to rescue Sansa and Arya and defeat the Lannisters. She releases Robb's prisoner, Jaime Lannister, on the condition that he return Sansa and Arya home to Winterfell upon his return to King's Landing. She warns Robb against marrying Talisa Maegyr, which would break a marriage pact he formed with Walder Frey, but is powerless to stop him. Catelyn is killed, along with Robb and Talisa and many Stark loyalists, at the Red Wedding, when Walder Frey - supported by the Boltons and the Lannisters - turns on the Starks for breaking the marriage pact.
### Cersei Lannister
**Cersei Lannister** (portrayed by [Headey](Lena)(Lena Headey) as an adult and [Williams](Nell)(Nell Williams) as a child) is the wife of King Robert Baratheon, and queen consort of Westeros. Cersei has a twin brother, Jaime, with whom she has been involved in an incestuous affair from early childhood. All three of Cersei's children are Jaime's. Cersei has a strong desire for power. When she learns that King Robert may be about to discover her affair with Jaime, she arranges for him to be killed and is present when Eddard "Ned" Stark is executed. With her son Joffrey on the throne, she becomes one of his closest advisers and battles with his eventual wife Margaery Tyrell for his affections. When Joffrey is poisoned and her brother Tyrion is framed for the murder, she becomes determined to see Tyrion executed. Tyrion, however, murders their father Tywin and flees King's Landing. With her youngest son Tommen now on the throne and married to Margaery, she seeks the help of the Faith Militant and their leader the High Sparrow to regain control. However, her plans backfires, and she is imprisoned herself by the Sparrows when they learn of her incestuous affairs with Jaime Lannister and Lancel Lannister. After being forced to walk naked through the streets as punishment, she annihilates the Sept of Baelor with wildfire, wiping out the High Sparrow and the Tyrells, and is crowned queen following Tommen's suicide. When Daenerys Targaryen comes to Westeros and challenges her claim, Cersei uses the Great War against the White Walkers as an opportunity to strengthen her forces against Daenerys's depleted armies. She is defeated by Daenerys and her dragon and killed during the destruction of King's Landing.
### Daenerys Targaryen
[[Clarke.jpg|thumb|upright=0.5|Emilia Clarke](File:Emilia)]
**Daenerys Targaryen** (portrayed by [Clarke](Emilia)(Emilia Clarke)) is the exiled [princess](princess) of the [dynasty](Targaryen)(House Targaryen). She and her brother Viserys were smuggled to Essos towards the end of Robert's Rebellion. For seventeen years, she has traveled throughout Essos alongside her abusive brother, until they were under the custody of Illyrio Mopatis in Pentos. In exchange for an army, Viserys marries her to the powerful Dothraki warlord Khal Drogo, where she was gifted three petrified dragon eggs during her wedding. When Drogo dies from an infected wound in a fight, Daenerys walks into his burning funeral pyre, birthing three dragons. She later liberates the slaves along Slaver's Bay, ruling over the city of Meereen with her Unsullied army, and eventually defeating the slave masters with her dragons. She then leaves Slaver's Bay for Westeros, in a bid to reclaim her birthright: the Iron Throne. Upon her arrival in Westeros, she meets with Jon Snow, the King in the North, who convinces her to defeat the White Walkers before pressing her claim to the throne. The pair soon fall in love. In Westeros, she loses numerous friends, allies, and two of her dragons in battle, Viserion killed by the Night King and Rhaegal by Cersei Lannister's forces. Overwhelmed by the grave losses she underwent and left with no option but to rule through fear, she uses her last dragon, Drogon, to burn an already surrendered King's Landing and take the Iron Throne by force. She then declares in her speech to her Dothraki and Unsullied that they are not going to end the war, but continue to conquer and liberate the rest of the known world, in the same way she liberated King's Landing. Out of duty, a heartbroken Jon is then forced to kill Daenerys, to prevent the world from meeting the same fate as the city she had reduced to ashes. A grieving Drogon then proceeds to melt the Iron Throne with dragonfire, before taking Daenerys into his claws and flying away from the Red Keep, to the [east](Essos).
### Jorah Mormont
[[Glen.jpg|thumb|upright=0.5|Iain Glen](File:Iain)]
**Jorah Mormont** (portrayed by [Glen](Iain)(Iain Glen)) is an exiled [knight](knight) in the service of Daenerys Targaryen and the son of Jeor Mormont of the Night's Watch. Initially, Jorah is actually spying on the Targaryens for Lord Varys in exchange for a pardon on his crimes. But after learning more about Daenerys, Jorah falls in love with her and decides to protect her and help her regain the Iron Throne. After she is widowed following Khal Drogo's death, he remains with her and becomes the first knight of her Queensguard. Eventually, Jorah's spying is exposed and Daenerys banishes him from her service. He contracts greyscale, a fatal disease, while travelling with Tyrion Lannister. He eventually reunites with his queen, who orders him to cure himself of the greyscale. He journeys to the Citadel where he finds Samwell Tarly, who served under his father Jeor as a brother of the Night's Watch. Samwell is able to cure Jorah, who returns to Daenerys' service and is part of the group who journey beyond the Wall to prove the existence of White Walkers. He dies defending Daenerys at Winterfell during the eventual victory over the Army of the Dead.
### Viserys Targaryen
[[Lloyd 2010.jpg|thumb|upright=0.5|Harry Lloyd](File:Harry)]
**Viserys Targaryen** (portrayed by [Lloyd](Harry)(Harry Lloyd)) is the exiled [prince](prince) and heir of the Targaryen dynasty. Known as "the Beggar King" for his search for an army to recapture his throne. A narcissist, he is arrogant and self-centered, caring only about himself and looking down on others, especially his sister Daenerys. In exchange for an army to help regain the Iron Throne, Viserys marries off his sister to the powerful Dothraki warlord Khal Drogo and follows his horde's journey to the Dothraki capital to ensure Drogo will keep his end of the bargain. But as they journey, it becomes evident that Viserys does not have leadership skills to reclaim the throne and his arrogance and disrespect for the Dothraki does not win him any hearts. Furthermore, Daenerys, who he has always threatened throughout his life, starts to stand up to him. Realizing that Daenerys is loved by the Dothraki and her and Drogo's unborn son is prophesied to unite the world, Viserys realizes that it is not he, but Daenerys who will reclaim the Iron Throne. In a fit of drunken rage, he threatens Drogo to give him his army now or he will kill his unborn son. Having enough of his behavior, Drogo kills Viserys by giving him a "Golden Crown"; molten gold poured over his head. Daenerys later names one of her dragons Viserion, as a tribute to Viserys.
### Jon Snow
[[Harington June 2014.jpg|thumb|upright=0.5|Kit Harington](File:Kit)] **Jon Snow** (portrayed by [Harington](Kit)(Kit Harington)) is the bastard son of Eddard Stark. Feeling isolated from his family due to his bastard status, he leaves their home of Winterfell to join the Night's Watch at Castle Black. Once there, he befriends Samwell Tarly and serves as steward to Lord Commander Jeor Mormont. During a ranging beyond the Wall, Jon is captured by wildlings and eventually joins their camp, falling in love with a wildling woman, Ygritte. After climbing back over the Wall with Ygritte, Jon flees to Castle Black. He leads the defence of the castle against a wildling attack (during which Ygritte is killed), hosts Stannis Baratheon and Lady Melisandre, and is elected as the new Lord Commander following his bravery in battle. He rescues a portion of wildlings from an attack by the White Walkers at the port of Hardhome. Upon his return to Castle Black, a group of Night's Watch brothers, angry with the new pact with the wildlings, mutiny and kill him. However, Jon is resurrected by Lady Melisandre and he reunites with his sister Sansa. Jon is released from his Night's Watch vows and the pair defeat House Bolton in battle, reclaiming Winterfell as their home.
Jon is named King in the North by the Northern lords. When the Dragon Queen Daenerys Targaryen arrives in Westeros, Jon convinces her to join the fight against the White Walkers and bends the knee to her. They travel beyond the Wall together to collect evidence of the White Walkers in a bid to convince Queen Cersei Lannister to join the defence. Daenerys' dragon Viserion is fatally injured during the mission, but the two fall in love. Jon is then revealed to be Aegon Targaryen, the legitimate son of Daenerys' brother Rhaegar and Ned Stark's sister Lyanna, making him the heir to the Iron Throne and Daenerys' nephew. Despite victory over the Army of the Dead, and despite Jon insisting he will not press his claim to the throne, the news weakens their relationship. Daenerys, having lost many close friends and two of her dragons during the war against the White Walkers, discovers that the population support Jon's claim to the throne over hers. After she destroys King's Landing, which sees thousands of people die in the firestorms, Jon assassinates her and is exiled back to the Night's Watch as punishment.
### Robb Stark
[[Madden by Gage Skidmore.jpg|thumb|upright=0.5|Richard Madden](File:Richard)]
**Robb Stark** (portrayed by [Madden](Richard)(Richard Madden)) is the eldest son of Eddard and Catelyn Stark and the heir to Winterfell. His [wolf](dire)(dire wolf) is called Grey Wind. Robb becomes involved in the war against the Lannisters after his father, Ned Stark, is arrested for treason. Robb summons his bannermen for war against House Lannister and marches to the Riverlands. Eventually, crossing the river at the Twins becomes strategically necessary. To win permission to cross, Robb agrees to marry a daughter of Walder Frey, Lord of the Twins. Robb leads the war effort against the Lannisters and successfully captures Jaime. After Ned is executed, the North and the Riverlands declare their independence from the Seven Kingdoms and proclaim Robb as their new King, "the King in the North". He wins a succession of battles in season 2, earning him the nickname the Young Wolf. However, he feels that he botched the political aspects of war. He sends Theon to the Iron Islands hoping that he can broker an alliance with Balon Greyjoy, Theon's father. In exchange for Greyjoy support, Robb as King in the North will recognize the Iron Islands' independence. He also sends his mother Catelyn to deal with Stannis Baratheon and Renly Baratheon, both of whom are fighting to be the rightful king.
Theon and Catelyn fail in their missions, and Balon launches an invasion of the North. Robb falls in love with Talisa Maegyr, a healer from Volantis due to her kindness and spirit. Despite his mother's protest, Robb breaks his engagement with the Freys and marries Talisa in the 2nd-season finale. On news of his grandfather, Lord Hoster Tully's, death, Robb and his party travel north to Riverrun for the funeral, where the young king is reunited with his great-uncle, Ser Brynden "Blackfish" Tully, and his uncle, Edmure Tully, the new lord of Riverrun. While at Riverrun, Robb makes the decision to execute Lord Rickard Karstark for the murders of two teenage squires related to the Lannisters, a decision that loses the support of the Karstarks and leads Robb to make the ultimately fatal decision to ask the Freys for their alliance. He is killed in the Red Wedding Massacre, after witnessing the murder of his pregnant wife and their child. Lord Bolton personally executes Robb, stabbing him through the heart while taunting that "the Lannisters send their regards", in fact a promise made to Jaime (who had no knowledge of Bolton's impending treason) when leaving for the Twins. His corpse is later decapitated and Grey Wind's head is sewn on and paraded around as the Stark forces are slaughtered by the Boltons and Freys.
### Sansa Stark
[[Turner by Gage Skidmore 3.jpg|thumb|upright=0.5|Sophie Turner](File:Sophie)]
**Sansa Stark** (portrayed by [Turner](Sophie)(Sophie Turner)) is the first daughter and second child of Eddard and Catelyn Stark. Initially betrothed to King Joffrey, she is later released from her vow by Joffrey's betrothal to Margaery Tyrell. When Joffrey is poisoned at his wedding to Margaery, Sansa is smuggled out of King's Landing by Littlefinger and taken first to the Eyrie and then to her home of Winterfell, now under the control of House Bolton. She is forced to marry the abusive and sadistic Ramsay Bolton, but later escapes with the help of Theon Greyjoy. She reunites with her brother Jon Snow at Castle Black and, with Littlefinger's army, helps him reclaim Winterfell. She rules the fortress while Jon leaves to fight for Daenerys Targaryen, which Littlefinger uses as an opportunity to drive her away from her siblings until Brandon Stark (now the Three-Eyed Raven) reveals his treacherous past. Sansa gives the order to have Littlefinger executed by Arya. Sansa survives the attack of the White Walkers and is eventually crowned as queen of an independent North.
### Arya Stark
[[Williams by Gage Skidmore 2.jpg|thumb|upright=0.5|Maisie Williams](File:Maisie)]
**Arya Stark** (portrayed by [Williams](Maisie)(Maisie Williams)) is the younger daughter of Lord Eddard and Catelyn Stark of Winterfell. A [tomboy](tomboy) at heart, Arya is active and bright. She names her dire wolf Nymeria, after a legendary warrior queen. After travelling to King's Landing with her father Ned Stark, new Hand of the King to Robert Baratheon, she is taught by Syrio Forel in the art of "water dancing", a form of sword fighting. When Ned is executed, she escapes the capital with Yoren and his Night's Watch recruits. On the road, she is captured by Lannister soldiers and, along with her friends Gendry and Hot Pie, imprisoned at Harrenhal, where she meets mysterious assassin Jaqen H'ghar and serves as Tywin Lannister's cupbearer. After escaping Harrenhal, the trio encounter the Brotherhood without Banners, a group of religious outlaws who protect the countryside. When the Brotherhood sell Gendry to Lady Melisandre, Arya escapes and is captured by Sandor Clegane, The Hound. She is taken to The Twins to be reunited with her mother Catelyn and brother Robb, but only arrives in time to see them massacred at the Red Wedding. After travelling northwards, Sandor is gravely wounded in a fight, and Arya leaves him for dead before sailing to Braavos. She trains with Jaqen H'ghar to become a Faceless Man but, after realising she cannot give up her identity, returns to Westeros and avenges the Red Wedding by slaughtering Walder Frey. She returns to Winterfell and eventually helps her sister Sansa and brother Brandon (now the Three-Eyed Raven) to uncover the meddling of Petyr Baelish, whom they execute on charges of murder and treason. Before the attack on Winterfell by White Walkers, she reunites with Gendry and Sandor (who survived his injuries). During the battle, she kills the Night King and saves Westeros from The Long Night. When Daenerys Targaryen plans to attack King's Landing, she travels south to get revenge on Cersei for her role in Ned's death. However, Arya is caught in the firestorms caused by Daenerys' dragon, Drogon, and is forced to flee the city instead. After Daenerys' assassination, Arya leaves Westeros for lands unknown.
### Theon Greyjoy
[[Allen by Gage Skidmore 2.jpg|thumb|upright=0.5|Alfie Allen](File:Alfie)]
**Theon Greyjoy** (portrayed by [Allen](Alfie)(Alfie Allen)) is the youngest son of Lord Balon Greyjoy of the Iron Islands. He is the hostage and ward of Lord Eddard Stark, stemming from the failed Greyjoy Rebellion years earlier. Despite his position, he remains loyal to the Starks and is good friends with his sons Robb and Jon. After Ned's execution in King's Landing by the Lannisters, he joins Robb's Northern war effort as one of his advisers. He is ordered by Robb to return to the Iron Islands to convince his father Balon to ally with the Northern soldiers against the crown, but instead betrays Robb and decides to seize Winterfell for himself, taking the castle from Brandon Stark. While he rules Winterfell, he pretends to have burned Bran and Rickon Stark alive. When the Boltons capture Winterfell from the Ironborn soldiers, Theon is held as prisoner by Ramsay Bolton. He is then mutilated and tortured beyond recognition, and eventually believes himself to be called "Reek". He becomes a servant at Winterfell and soon reunites with Sansa Stark, who has been forced into a marriage with Ramsay. When Stannis Baratheon attacks the castle, the pair escape their captor, and Theon returns home to the Iron Islands. He discovers that his father is dead and that his uncle, Euron, has seized the Salt Throne. Theon escapes with Yara and sails across the Narrow Sea to ally with Daenerys Targaryen. While on a mission to Dorne to gather soldiers for Daenerys' army, Theon and Yara are attacked by Euron at sea, with Theon jumping overboard and Yara being taken prisoner. Theon rescues Yara and sends her home to the Iron Islands, while he returns to Winterfell to face the Army of the Dead, reuniting with Sansa once more. He defends Brandon Stark against the oncoming undead forces, but is eventually killed by the Night King. His death is not in vain, however, as the Night King's forces are defeated.
### Brandon "Bran" Stark
[[Hempstead Wright by Gage Skidmore 3.jpg|thumb|upright=0.5|Isaac Hempstead Wright](File:Isaac)]
**Bran Stark** (portrayed by [Hempstead Wright](Isaac)(Isaac Hempstead Wright)) is the fourth child of Eddard and Catelyn Stark. He was named after his deceased uncle, Brandon. His [wolf](dire)(dire wolf) is called Summer. During King Robert's visit to Winterfell, he accidentally encounters Cersei and Jaime Lannister engaging in their incestuous affair, following which Bran is shoved from the window by Jaime, leaving him paralysed below the waist. When Robb marches south to avenge Eddard's death, Brandon rules Winterfell alongside Maester Luwin. When Theon Greyjoy's Ironborn soldiers seize Winterfell, they pretend to have burned Bran alive, when in reality Bran has escaped the castle to find a Three-Eyed Raven who appears in his dreams. He travels beyond the Wall to find the raven with his brother Rickon, servant Hodor, the wildling Osha, direwolves Summer and Shaggydog, and eventually Jojen and Meera Reed. Osha, Rickon and Shaggydog leave for Last Hearth.
Once beyond the Wall, they are briefly captured by Night's Watch mutineers at Craster's Keep, but free themselves and eventually reach the cave of the Three-Eyed Raven. Jojen is killed by undead wights before they can reach safety. Once there, Bran undergoes training to become the next Three-Eyed Raven and experiences several visions of the future and past. When the Night King enters one of these visions and breaks the spell protecting the cave, Bran and Meera are forced to flee while Hodor and Summer are both killed by the undead. Now the Three-Eyed Raven, Bran experiences all of time at once, and begins to lose sense of himself. Upon returning to Winterfell from beyond the Wall, he bids a cold farewell to Meera and his family no longer recognise him. It is revealed that the Night King intends to kill Bran in an attempt to wipe out the order of Three-Eyed Ravens and erase the world's memory. Bran is used as bait to lure the Night King to a place where he can be killed, which Bran's sister Arya Stark successfully manages. After Daenerys Targaryen destroys King's Landing with her dragon and kills Queen Cersei Lannister, Bran is selected to be the new ruler of Westeros.
### Joffrey Baratheon
[[Gleeson (August 2012) (headshot).jpg|thumb|upright=0.5|Jack Gleeson](File:Jack)]
**Joffrey Baratheon** (portrayed by [Gleeson](Jack)(Jack Gleeson)) is the [Prince](Crown)(Crown prince) of the Seven Kingdoms. He is the eldest of Cersei Lannister's children and heir to the Iron Throne. Vicious and cruel, he has a short temper and believes he can do anything he wants. He is also a coward when confronted by those who aren't afraid of him. Joffrey is unaware that King Robert is not his real father – who, in reality, is Jaime Lannister. After Robert's death, the Lannisters make Joffrey the King against his father's will, and Joffrey becomes a cruel ruler and a Puppet King used by his mother. After being initially betrothed to Sansa Stark, the arrival of the Tyrells in King's Landing results in Joffrey casting Sansa aside for Margaery Tyrell. During their wedding day, however, Joffrey is assassinated in front of a large crowd by poison.
### Sandor Clegane
[[McCann by Gage Skidmore.jpg|thumb|upright=0.5|Rory McCann](File:Rory)]
**Sandor Clegane** (portrayed by [McCann](Rory)(Rory McCann)) is the younger brother of Ser Gregor Clegane. He is also Joffrey Baratheon's personal bodyguard. The right side of his face was grievously burned when he was only a boy after his brother pushed his face into a brazier, leaving him with a fear of fire. He is taciturn and brutal, but not without compassion. He is protective towards Sansa after she is captured by the Lannisters. After Joffrey becomes King, Sandor is made a member of the Kingsguard. Although he is faithful to Joffrey, he frequently defends Sansa from Joffrey's attempts to physically abuse her. During the Battle of Blackwater, Sandor's fear of fire overwhelms him. He resigns from the Kingsguard and leaves King's Landing. While on the road, he is captured by Beric Dondarrion and Thoros of Myr, leaders of the Brotherhood without Banners. He is released after winning a trial-by-combat.
He kidnaps Arya Stark with the intention of selling her to her mother and brother, Catelyn and Robb Stark, only to see them slaughtered at the Red Wedding. He then plans to take Arya to her aunt, Lysa, in the Vale, only to find out that she too has recently died. The pair encounter Brienne and Podrick on the road, with Sandor losing a fight to Brienne. Arya leaves him for dead. Roughly a year later, it is revealed that Sandor survived his injuries and has been living a peaceful life, building a small sept in the Riverlands. When the villagers he works with are massacred, he reunites with Beric and Thoros on their mission beyond the Wall to gather evidence of the White Walkers, along with Jon Snow, Ser Jorah Mormont, Tormund Giantsbane, and Gendry Baratheon. Thoros dies on the mission. During a parley with Queen Cersei Lannister, Sandor encounters his brother and promises revenge. He reunites with Arya Stark, survives the attack on Winterfell from the Night King, and journeys south with her as his companion. Once in the capital, he finds his brother and fights with him to the death as the pair perish in the firestorms caused by Daenerys Targaryen.
### Tyrion Lannister
[[Dinklage by Gage Skidmore.jpg|thumb|upright=0.5|Peter Dinklage](File:Peter)]
**Tyrion Lannister** (portrayed by [Dinklage](Peter)(Peter Dinklage)) is the younger brother of Cersei and Jaime Lannister. He is a [dwarf](Dwarfism) and his mother died during his birth, for which his father, [Lannister](Tywin)(Tywin Lannister), blames him. While not physically powerful, Tyrion has a cunning mind. After being falsely accused of the attempted murder of Brandon Stark, he survives a battle with Robb Stark's forces and returns to King's Landing, where he takes the position as King Joffrey's Hand of the King. After Tywin wins the Battle of Blackwater for the Lannisters, Tyrion is demoted from his position and renamed Master of Coin. He engages in a secret love affair with the prostitute Shae, until he is forcibly married to Sansa Stark (something Shae resents him for) and Cersei learns of Shae's relationship to Tyrion. After King Joffrey is poisoned at his wedding to Margaery Tyrell, Tyrion is framed for the crime. Shae testifies against Tyrion and Tywin sentences him to death.
Tyrion escapes the capital with the help of his brother Jaime and Lord Varys, but not before taking revenge on Shae and Tywin by killing them both. He travels across the Narrow Sea and soon reaches Meereen, where he joins the advisory team of Daenerys Targaryen. He rules the city during her absence after an attack by the Sons of the Harpy and is named Hand of the Queen upon her return. Tyrion accompanies Daenerys back across the Narrow Sea, supporting her claim against his sister Cersei. His plans to ensure the invasion is bloodless, however, see Daenerys lose valuable allies, and she begins to doubt his ability as a strategist. After the White Walkers are defeated at Winterfell, Tyrion accompanies Daenerys during her mission to finally conquer King's Landing. Not wanting his family to die in battle, however, he secretly arranges for Jaime and Cersei to escape the city. After Daenerys destroys the city and massacres the city's population, including Cersei and Jaime, Tyrion resigns as Hand of the Queen and is imprisoned. When Daenerys is assassinated by Jon Snow, Tyrion is freed and named as Bran the Broken's Hand of the King.
### Petyr "Littlefinger" Baelish
[[Gillen Official.jpg|thumb|upright=0.5|Aidan Gillen](File:Aidan)]
**Petyr Baelish** (portrayed by [Gillen](Aidan)(Aidan Gillen)) is the Master of Coin in King Robert Baratheon's Small Council. Petyr is a master manipulator who knows the ongoing affairs within the Seven Kingdoms, thanks to his spies. While Petyr at first is assumed to be an ally of Ned Stark, he secretly resents him for marrying Catelyn Tully and betrays him, leading to Ned's execution. Petyr owns a King's Landing brothel, where he employs (and mistreats) several workers. He also has an ongoing feud with Lord Varys, another of Westeros' spymasters. After the Battle of Blackwater, Sansa Stark (Catelyn's daughter) is cast aside by King Joffrey for Margaery Tyrell. Petyr attempts to persuade Sansa to leave the capital with him, but she refuses. When Joffrey is poisoned at his own wedding, Sansa is secretly smuggled out of the capital by Petyr, who planned Joffrey's assassination with Lady Olenna Tyrell. He then takes her to the Eyrie where he is to marry her aunt and Catelyn's sister, Lysa Arryn.
While at the Eyrie, it is revealed that Petyr has fallen in love with Sansa due to her resemblance to her mother. Lysa discovers this information and tries to have Sansa killed, only for Petyr to push her through the castle's moon door to her death instead. Sansa lies for Petyr, and says Lysa jumped to her death of her own accord. Petyr and Sansa then journey to Winterfell, where Petyr arranges for Sansa to marry Ramsay Bolton. Petyr then travels to King's Landing and reveals to Cersei that Sansa, a suspect in Joffrey's murder, has resurfaced in the North. Petyr returns to the Vale and commands the Knights of the Vale to join his cause to reclaim Winterfell from the Boltons. The Knights of the Vale then assist Jon Snow's wildling army against the Boltons, and Winterfell is returned to Stark hands. With Jon Snow, new King in the North, in the south with Daenerys Targaryen, Petyr attempts to divide Sansa, Arya, and Bran, the recently reunited Stark siblings. Bran (now the Three-Eyed Raven), however, uncovers his treachery, reveals the litany of crimes he committed against the Starks, and sentences Petyr to death.
### Davos Seaworth
[[Cunningham by Gage Skidmore 3.jpg|thumb|upright=0.5|Liam Cunningham](File:Liam)]
**Davos Seaworth** (portrayed by [Cunningham](Liam)(Liam Cunningham)) is a former [smuggler](Smuggling) and [knight](knight) in the service of Stannis Baratheon. A natural sceptic of religion and magic, he distrusts another of Stannis' advisers, the Lady Melisandre, and her belief in the Lord of Light. Before the events of the series, he earned his knighthood by smuggling food to the besieged Stannis Baratheon and his army. Before knighting him, however, Stannis removed the last joints from four fingers on his right hand as punishment for his years of smuggling. Davos leads Stannis' fleet into King's Landing during a siege on the capital but is shipwrecked during Tyrion Lannister's defence of the city. He awakens on an island and returns to Dragonstone, Stannis' headquarters, where he is imprisoned for attempting to murder Lady Melisandre. In the cells, he befriends Shireen, Stannis' daughter, who visits him and teaches him how to read. He also forms a bond with Gendry, Stannis' illegitimate nephew, whom he frees from the dungeons and returns to King's Landing. Davos is welcomed back into Stannis' service despite setting Gendry free, and is present when Stannis travels first to Braavos and then to Castle Black. When Stannis marches south from Castle Black with Melisandre to claim Winterfell, Davos is told to return to the Wall and befriends Jon Snow.
Davos soon learns that Stannis, his family, and his entire army were killed during the attempt to take Winterfell, but he is unaware that Shireen was burned alive as a sacrifice by Melisandre, who returns to the Wall in disgrace, her king having been defeated. When Jon Snow is assassinated in a mutiny for making a pact with the wildlings, Davos is the first person to find his body. He convinces Melisandre to resurrect Jon, using her religious magic, and finds Jon alive the next morning. He joins Jon's wildling army in the Battle of the Bastards, helping to reclaim the castle for the Starks. Before the battle, he discovers that Shireen had been burned alive, and confronts Melisandre when the battle is over, leading to her banishment from the North. Davos then becomes a loyal member of Jon's council. He accompanies Jon to Dragonstone to meet with Daenerys Targaryen, then to Eastwatch on the mission to gather evidence of White Walkers, and then to King's Landing to display the evidence to Queen Cersei Lannister. He also reunites with Gendry. When the Night King breaks through the Wall and attacks Winterfell, Davos, along with the returning Melisandre, forms part of the army that defeats him. Davos is present when Daenerys destroys King's Landing with her last remaining dragon, Drogon, and eventually becomes a member of Bran the Broken's small council.
### Samwell Tarly
[[Bradley by Gage Skidmore 3.jpg|thumb|upright=0.5|John Bradley](File:John)]
**Samwell Tarly** (portrayed by [Bradley](John)(John Bradley-West)) is the eldest son and former heir of Lord Randyll Tarly, and a new recruit to the Night's Watch. He was sent to the Wall by his father, who disowned him for his cowardice. He becomes Jon Snow's best friend. While not a warrior, he is very smart and insightful. He is inducted into the stewards and assigned to Maester Aemon. He joins the Night's Watch's Great Ranging beyond the Wall and survives that battle with White Walkers at the Fist of the First Men. Travelling back to Castle Black via Craster's Keep, Sam escapes the mutiny with Gilly and her newborn son, whom she eventually names Sam. When the trio are attacked by a White Walker while trekking through the wilderness, Sam uses dragonglass daggers (found at the Fist) to kill it. They return to Castle Black, reuniting with Jon Snow, and survive the attack by Mance Rayder's wildling army. Fearing for Gilly's safety at Castle Black due to her wildling status, Sam temporarily leaves the Night's Watch with Jon's permission to become a maester of the Citadel. Initially planning to leave Gilly and little Sam at Horn Hill, his family home, he instead decides to bring them to the Citadel.
After curing Jorah Mormont of greyscale, they discover that a cave of dragonglass sits under Dragonstone, and Sam alerts Jon to this, eventually leading to Jon and Daenerys' meeting and union. Later, they uncover the truth that Rhaegar Targaryen and Lyanna Stark were wed before Robert's Rebellion and the birth of their son, Jon Snow. When the order of maesters turn out to be disbelieving of the White Walker threat, he abandons his lessons and returns to the North to face the Army of the Dead. He meets Brandon Stark, now the Three-Eyed Raven, and by corroborating their stories they find out the truth that Jon is actually Aegon Targaryen, legitimate heir to the Iron Throne. Sam tells Jon of this truth when the latter returns to Winterfell, having left the Night's Watch after his assassination and resurrection, and after allying with Daenerys. Sam survives the attack by White Walkers on Winterfell, and stays at the castle with a newly pregnant Gilly. After Daenerys Targaryen destroys King's Landing, forcing Jon to assassinate her, Sam travels to the capital (presumably with Gilly and little Sam) and is present when Bran (dubbed Bran the Broken) is selected as Westeros' new ruler. He becomes a grandmaester in Bran's small council.
### Stannis Baratheon
[[Dillane at Dinard 2012.jpg|thumb|upright=0.5|Stephen Dillane](File:Stephen)]
**Stannis Baratheon** (portrayed by [Dillane](Stephen)(Stephen Dillane)) is the elder of Robert Baratheon's younger brothers. He is a brooding, humorless man known for his hard sense of justice. When Robert dies, Ned Stark sends Stannis a letter appointing him as the legitimate heir. Stannis becomes a challenger for the Iron Throne after his nephew Joffrey Baratheon becomes king, becoming one of five in the War of Five Kings. Advised by the Red Priestess Lady Melisandre (follower of the Lord of Light) and Davos Seaworth, Stannis is based at Dragonstone, an offshore island in the Narrow Sea, where he lives with his daughter Shireen and wife Selyse. Melisandre convinces Stannis to kill his brother Renly Baratheon with a shadow demon and claim half of Renly's army for his own. After Renly is killed by a demon bearing Stannis' face, Lady Brienne, head of Renly's kingsguard, promises to one day take revenge on Stannis. Stannis' army attacks King's Landing in an attempt to seize the throne but is repelled at the city's walls after a long battle. After his defeat, Stannis stays at Dragonstone while Melisandre heads to the Westeros mainland in search of Gendry Baratheon, Robert's illegitimate son. Melisandre returns to Dragonstone with Gendry and uses blood magic to cast a fatal curse over King Joffrey, King in the North Robb Stark, and Lord of the Iron Islands Balon Greyjoy.
Robb Stark is slaughtered at the Red Wedding soon after, while Joffrey is poisoned at his own wedding to Margaery Tyrell. With the War of Five Kings effectively concluded by their deaths, Stannis sails to Braavos in an attempt to secure funding from the Iron Bank. He then travels further north to Castle Black, and inadvertently ends the conflict between Mance Rayder's wildling army and the Night's Watch. He takes up residence at the fortress and tutors the young Lord Commander Jon Snow, in whom Melisandre takes a keen interest. With winter approaching, Stannis hurriedly marches south in an attempt to take Winterfell from the Boltons. With the weather closing in around them, and with his supplies dwindling, Melisandre suggests to Stannis that his daughter Shireen be sacrificed, in the hopes that her own king's blood will please the Lord of Light. Shireen is burned alive, causing half of Stannis' army to abandon his cause. Stannis attempts to take Winterfell regardless but is quickly defeated in the field. After the battle, he is discovered in a nearby forest by Lady Brienne, who avenges her long-deceased king by executing Stannis. Stannis does not live long enough to hear of Balon Greyjoy's death at the hands of his younger brother Euron, completing the list of those Melisandre cursed with blood magic.
### Melisandre
[[van Houten by Gage Skidmore.jpg|thumb|upright=0.5|Carice van Houten](File:Carice)]
**Melisandre** (portrayed by [van Houten](Carice)(Carice van Houten)) is a priestess of the Lord of Light in service to Stannis Baratheon. Melisandre has prophetic powers that give her partial knowledge of future events. Unlike many other people in Westeros with access to prophecy, Melisandre has absolute faith in her own interpretation, even though she is sometimes wrong. Melisandre believes Stannis is the chosen one who will convert the people of Westeros into followers of the Lord of Light. Melisandre convinces Stannis to conceive a shadow demon with her, which she will use to murder Renly Baratheon, Stannis' brother and challenger to the throne. The shadow demon, bearing Stannis Baratheon's face, kills Renly. Melisandre is left behind at Dragonstone when Stannis is defeated in his attempts to seize King's Landing. After Stannis' return, Melisandre heads to the mainland in Westeros and meets with the Brotherhood without Banners and fellow Red Priest, Thoros of Myr. Gendry Baratheon, King Robert's bastard son, is sold to her, and she brings him back to Dragonstone. She uses his king's blood to curse Stannis' challengers to the Iron Throne. When Stannis sails to the Wall and resides at Castle Black, Melisandre accompanies him but takes a keen interest in the young Lord Commander, Jon Snow. She wears light clothing even in freezing temperatures, claiming that the Lord of Light's fire lives within her.
She then travels southward with Stannis when he tries to seize Winterfell from the Boltons. With winter approaching and snow storms halting their progress, Melisandre sacrifices Stannis' daughter, Shireen, to the Lord of Light, in an attempt to ease the weather and grant them safe passage. Instead, Stannis' soldiers lose faith in his cause, and her king is killed after a battle. Melisandre returns to Castle Black in disgrace and finds that Jon Snow has been murdered in a mutiny. Doubting her faith, she hides from Davos and begins wearing winter clothing. Her faith is restored, however, when she manages to resurrect Jon from the dead. Jon marches south to take Winterfell from the Boltons with a wildling army and successfully reclaims the castle. Davos, who had become a guardian to Shireen, discovers that his late friend was burned alive by Melisandre, leading Jon Snow to banish the Red Woman from the North. She arrives at Dragonstone shortly after Daenerys Targaryen and instructs her to summon Jon Snow. She then travels to Volantis, claiming that she will one day return to Westeros to die. Months later, Melisandre returns to Winterfell one last time and uses her magic in the fight against the White Walkers. During the battle, she displays powerful magic, the like of which many of the human combatants have never seen before. Physically exhausted after using the last of her strength to defeat the Army of the Dead, she removes her enchanted necklace, reveals her true withered form to Davos Seaworth, and disappears on the wind.
### Jeor Mormont
[[Cosmo 2014 (cropped).jpg|thumb|upright=0.5|James Cosmo](File:James)]
**Jeor Mormont** (portrayed by [Cosmo](James)(James Cosmo)) is the 997th [Lord](Lord) Commander of the Night's Watch, and the estranged father of Ser Jorah. He gave up his lands to serve the Night's Watch. His son's shaming of their house weighs heavily on him. He personally requests that Jon Snow be made his personal steward, and gives him the Hand-and-a-Half sword (also known as a bastard sword) of their house, Longclaw. He has the pommel reshaped into a wolf's head. To investigate the return of wights, the disappearance of several Rangers, and rumors of a wildling army, Jeor leads an expeditionary force beyond the Wall in season 2. In season 3, after returning to Craster's Keep, he is slain by Rast in the ensuing mutiny. His death ignites Maester Aemon's call for the lords of Westeros to aid the Night's Watch, which convinces Stannis Baratheon the time is ripe to fight the onslaught of the White Walkers. His corpse is apparently desecrated afterwards, as in season 4, Karl Tanner is shown drinking wine from a skull he claims is Jeor's.
### Bronn
[[Flynn 2013 (cropped).jpg|thumb|upright=0.5|Jerome Flynn](File:Jerome)]
**Bronn** (portrayed by [Flynn](Jerome)(Jerome Flynn)) is a sellsword with a sardonic sense of humor. He is first seen aiding Catelyn Stark when she wrongly arrests Tyrion Lannister for an attempt on her son Brandon's life. During Tyrion's trial at the Eyrie, Bronn volunteers to fight when Tyrion demands a trial by combat. Bronn wins the fight and becomes Tyrion's companion and protector, accompanying him back to King's Landing. When Tyrion is named Hand of the King, Bronn becomes head of the City Watch in the capital. Bronn also becomes an advisor to Tyrion and is named Ser Bronn of the Blackwater after his heroics during the defence of the city from Stannis Baratheon's army. After the battle, Bronn remains in Tyrion's employ as both a colleague and friend. Bronn is later tasked with training up Jaime Lannister's weaker hand with a sword—Jaime having lost his stronger swordhand while a prisoner of the Boltons. When King Joffrey is poisoned and Tyrion is once again falsely accused of a crime, Bronn is bribed by Cersei to marry Lollys Stokeworth and leave the capital instead of fighting for Tyrion in another trial-by-combat. Tyrion flees the capital after Prince Oberyn Martell fights for him and is killed by The Mountain.
Before Bronn can marry Lollys, however, he reunites with Jaime, who has been tasked with travelling to Dorne to retrieve Myrcella Baratheon from the Martells, who threaten revenge for their prince's death. In their attempts to rescue Myrcella, Bronn and Jaime provoke the Sand Snakes (daughters of the late Oberyn Martell) and Bronn is imprisoned. He is released when Jaime bargains for his freedom. Myrcella is poisoned by Ellaria Sand, despite their efforts to bring her home to King's Landing. Bronn later accompanies Jaime to Riverrun, where the Lannister army retake the castle from the Tullys, and he also forms part of the force that seizes Highgarden from the Tyrells. Bronn, Jaime, and the rest of the Lannister forces are ambushed by Daenerys Targaryen on the back of her dragon, Drogon. Bronn wounds Drogon during the massacre, but is forced to rescue Jaime from an attack by Daenerys. The pair escape by floating downstream on the Blackwater Rush. After Jaime leaves Cersei Lannister and rides north to face the White Walkers, Bronn stays in King's Landing but is tasked by Cersei with killing Jaime for his apparent betrayal. Instead of carrying out Cersei's orders, however, Bronn uses the threat of death as leverage over Jaime and Tyrion, securing himself a seat on Bran the Broken's small council as Lord of the Reach.
### Varys
[[Hill by Gage Skidmore 3.jpg|thumb|upright=0.5|Conleth Hill](File:Conleth)]
**Varys** (portrayed by [Hill](Conleth)(Conleth Hill)) is a member of the Small Council, serving under King Robert Baratheon, King Joffrey Baratheon and King Tommen Baratheon. He is also a Master of Whisperers, with many spies in his employ across two continents, and clashes frequently with Petyr "Littlefinger" Baelish. After serving under three kings, Varys flees to Essos with Tyrion Lannister following the latter's murder of his father Tywin. Once there, Varys arranges for Tyrion to become one of Daenerys Targaryen's advisers. The pair then rule Meereen in her absence following an attack by rebel group the Sons of the Harpy. When Daenerys returns to defeat the slave masters and the Sons of the Harpy, Varys and Tyrion accompany her to Westeros and support her claim to the Iron Throne. Varys survives the Great War between the living and the dead, and discovers that Jon Snow is actually Daenerys' nephew Aegon Targaryen, rightful heir to the Iron Throne, but is executed when his plot to crown Jon king is exposed.
### Shae
[[Kekilli January 2015.jpg|thumb|upright=0.5|Sibel Kekilli](File:Sibel)]
**Shae** (portrayed by [Kekilli](Sibel)(Sibel Kekilli)) is a young [follower](camp)(sex worker) in whom Tyrion Lannister takes particular interest. She is from Lorath, one of the Free Cities across the Narrow Sea. Tyrion falls in love with her and to hide her from his father, Tyrion appoints Shae to be Sansa's handmaiden. As her handmaiden, Shae is the only person Sansa trusts and confides to her about her problems and what she really thinks about the Lannisters. In turn, Shae becomes protective of Sansa and attempts to help her in any way she can. In season 3, she becomes jealous of Tyrion after his marriage to Sansa and is confronted by Varys, who urges her to leave the Seven Kingdoms, which she refuses to do, thinking that Tyrion has something to do with Varys talking to her. In season 4, Tyrion is forced to send Shae away from King's Landing on a ship after her presence is discovered by Cersei and his father is told, insulting her in the process. Shae, however, does not leave King's Landing and resurfaces at Tyrion's trial for murdering Joffrey, where she falsely claims that both Tyrion and Sansa were responsible for Joffrey's death. It is revealed, however, that Shae was having an affair with Tywin. After Tyrion is freed by Jaime, he finds Shae sleeping in Tywin's bed, making him realise the horrible truth. Shae attempts to kill Tyrion with a knife, but he strangles her to death both in self-defense and out of anger for her betrayal.
### Margaery Tyrell
[[Dormer 2014.jpg|thumb|upright=0.5|Natalie Dormer](File:Natalie)]
**Margaery Tyrell** (portrayed by [Dormer](Natalie)(Natalie Dormer)) is the only daughter of Lord Mace Tyrell and granddaughter to Lady Olenna Tyrell, as well as wife to Renly Baratheon when introduced to the series. She is cunning but kind-hearted, and dreams of being the queen. When Renly Baratheon is killed by a shadow demon, Petyr Baelish arranges for the Tyrells to ally with the Lannisters. The Tyrells move to King's Landing and Margaery is immediately betrothed to the sadistic King Joffrey Baratheon. Margaery and Olenna spend time in the city's gardens, scheming together and organising their political tactics. When Lady Olenna poisons Joffrey at his wedding to Margaery, the timid and innocent King Tommen Baratheon is crowned as his successor. Margaery marries Tommen and the two become happy together, and Tommen falls deeply in love with Margaery. Their relationship is brief, however. Cersei Lannister gives power to King's Landing faith militant group, the Sparrows, to challenge the Tyrells' influence in the capital following the death of Tywin Lannister.
Margaery and her brother Loras Tyrell are imprisoned by the Sparrows—Loras for his alleged homosexuality, and Margaery for hiding Loras' secrets. Cersei herself is then arrested by the Sparrows for her incestuous affairs with Lancel Lannister and Jaime Lannister. While a prisoner of the Sparrows, Margaery manipulates their leader, the High Sparrow, into believing that she has converted to the Faith of the Seven. Despite a failed attempt by her family to forcefully remove her from under the High Sparrow's captivity, he comes to enjoy Margaery's company and believes her lies about her faithfulness. In an attempt to soon free herself, Margaery convinces Tommen to join the Crown and the Faith. Her plans are foiled, however, on the day of Cersei Lannister's trial at the Sept of Baelor. Instead of appearing for her trial, Cersei rigs the Sept with wildfire and destroys it, massacring the hundreds of attendees inside—including Margaery, Loras, Mace, Lancel Lannister, the High Sparrow, and several of the King's Landing population. Witnessing the event from his quarters in the Red Keep, Tommen, having seen his wife perish at the hands of his mother, commits suicide by throwing himself from a high window.
### Tywin Lannister
[[Dance 2012 (cropped).jpg|thumb|upright=0.5|Charles Dance](File:Charles)]
**Tywin Lannister** (portrayed by [Dance](Charles)(Charles Dance)) is the calculating, ruthless, and controlling former Hand of King Aerys II. He is the father of Cersei, Jaime, and Tyrion Lannister. After Eddard Stark's arrest, Joffrey names him Hand of the King once more, but after Jaime is taken captive by the Starks, Eddard is unexpectedly executed by Joffrey, and Renly and Stannis Baratheon challenge Joffrey's claim to the throne. Tywin elects to remain in the field, commanding his forces until he wins his war, and in the meantime gives the position of acting Hand of the King to Tyrion. During the War of Five Kings, Tywin briefly stays at Harrenhal, a castle and prison controlled by the Lannisters. There, he names a captive Arya Stark as his cupbearer, though it is left uncertain as to whether he knows her true identity. After Renly's death Tywin brokes an alliance with Mace Tyrell and the pair arrive in King's Landing to quash Stannis Baratheon's army, who are on the cusp of taking the city. In the aftermath of the battle, he is named Hand of the King once more, while Tyrion is demoted to Master of Coin. Tywin arranges several marriages of his children, ends the war by securing lords Frey and Bolton's betrayal of Robb Stark, who is slain, but quarrels with Tyrion, now demoted to Master of Coin, and faces problems from an increasingly self-assured King Joffrey. After Joffrey's murder Tyrion is falsely accused, and after a failed gambit through [by combat](trial)(trial by combat) Tywin sentences his son to death. Once Tywin confirms to Jaime he intends to have his son executed, the latter - with Lord Varys's help - frees Tyrion and helps him escape from King's Landing, which he does, but not before confronting and murdering his father with a crossbow mid-flight.
### Talisa Maegyr
[[Chaplin 2016.jpg|thumb|upright=0.5|Oona Chaplin](File:Oona)]
**Talisa Stark** (portrayed by [Chaplin](Oona)(Oona Chaplin)) is a healer working on the battlefields of the War of the Five Kings. She claims to be from the Free City of Volantis. No character named Talisa appears in the books. Oona Chaplin was originally announced to play a character called Jeyne, which many thought to mean she would play [Westerling](Jeyne)(List of A Song of Ice and Fire characters#Jeyne Westerling), a character from the books. Talisa follows Robb Stark's army camp as it moves. One day as they talk they are interrupted by news that Catelyn has released Robb's key prisoner Jaime Lannister. Talisa later goes to comfort Robb. After she reveals more of her past to him, they admit their shared feelings for one another and sleep together. Talisa and Robb marry in secret before a septon and she becomes a Stark. In season 3, Talisa reveals that she is pregnant, although she and her unborn child are stabbed to death by Lothar Frey in the [Wedding Massacre](Red)(The Rains of Castamere), the first in the hall to be attacked.
### Ygritte
[[Leslie 2014 Comic Con 2 (cropped).jpg|thumb|upright=0.5|Rose Leslie](File:Rose)]
**Ygritte** (portrayed by [Leslie](Rose)(Rose Leslie)) is a Wildling girl with red hair ("kissed by fire", a sign of luck among the Wildlings) and a follower of Mance Rayder. In season 2, she is captured in the Skirling Pass by Jon Snow and Qhorin Halfhand. She manages to escape, but is recaptured by Jon, separating him from his brothers in the process. Later she leads him into Rattleshirt's ambush. After this they lead Jon to Mance Rayder's wildling camp, where he pretends to defect to the Wildlings to discover their plans. She then travels with him to the wall, and during this journey she seduces him. However, when confronted with killing an innocent horse farmer for the watch who scaled the wall, Jon escapes the wildling's clutches on horseback. But while resting, Ygritte manages to catch up with Jon at which point she confesses her love for him and then, blinded by tears, shoots him multiple times while he escapes towards the wall. In season 4, Ygritte starts raiding villages south of the wall with her group, clearly thirsting for vengeance against Jon, although Tormund suspects she let him go. When the wildlings attack Mole's Town, Ygritte slaughters all the women present, but notices Gilly hiding with her baby son, and spares her life. When the wildlings finally reach Castle Black and attack, Ygritte kills many Night's Watch brothers with her archery skills, among them Pyp. When confronted by Jon, however, she cannot bring herself to shoot him, and is shot in the back by Olly, a boy whose father Ygritte previously killed. Ygritte subsequently dies in Jon's arms, and her body is later burned by Jon himself, separately from the other soldiers, in her homeland, north of the Wall.
### Gendry
[[Dempsie 2007.jpg|thumb|upright=0.5|Joe Dempsie](File:Joseph)]
**Gendry** (portrayed by [Dempsie](Joe)(Joe Dempsie)) is an apprentice [blacksmith](blacksmith) in King's Landing and King Robert Baratheon's bastard son. After King Robert's death and Eddard Stark's execution, arrangements are made for Gendry to travel to Castle Black with Arya (disguised as "Arry") and other Night's Watch recruits. During their journey, Gendry discovers Arya's true identity and the two form a close friendship. After Lannister soldiers ambush them and hold them captive at Harrenhal, Gendry and Arya escape with the help of Jaqen H'ghar. They soon encounter the Brotherhood without Banners, who later sell Gendry to Lady Melisandre, separating him from Arya. Melisandre takes Gendry to Dragonstone and uses his king's blood to turn the War of Five Kings in the favour of Gendry's uncle, Stannis Baratheon. Gendry is then freed by Ser Davos Seaworth, Stannis' Hand, and returns to King's Landing by rowboat. Years later, Davos, now in Jon Snow's service, returns to the capital and finds Gendry working as a smith once more. Davos recruits Gendry to go beyond the Wall with Jon and the remaining members of the Brotherhood to capture a wight and prove the existence of White Walkers. Gendry survives the mission and returns to Winterfell, where he reunites with Arya and helps defeat the Army of the Dead. After the battle, Gendry is legitimised by Daenerys Targaryen and named Lord of Storm's End. He is present at the coronation of King Bran the Broken.
### Tormund Giantsbane
[[Hivju (Cropped, 2015).jpg|thumb|upright=0.5|Kristofer Hivju](File:Kristofer)]
**Tormund Giantsbane** (portrayed by [Hivju](Kristofer)(Kristofer Hivju)) is a wildling raider known for his many titles, "Giantsbane" being foremost. Loud and gregarious, he is one of Mance's top generals, fierce and terrible in combat. Tormund takes a liking to Jon Snow after he joins them and even gives him advice over his relationship with Ygritte. After Mance Rayder's army attacks Castle Black, Tormund is taken as a prisoner, where he forms a stronger bond with Jon and agrees to help the Lord Commander form a truce between the wildlings and the Night's Watch. The pair travel to Hardhome and survive an attack by the White Walkers while rescuing wildlings. After Jon is assassinated in a mutiny, Tormund is present when the Lady Melisandre resurrects him, and forms part of the army Jon uses to reclaim Winterfell from House Bolton. Tormund is then stationed at Eastwatch-by-the-Sea, and goes beyond the Wall with Jon to capture a wight and prove the existence of White Walkers to Queen Cersei Lannister. Tormund survives an attack on Eastwatch by the Night King, and makes it to Winterfell in time to join the effort to defeat the Army of the Dead. After the battle, Tormund returns to Castle Black. At the end of the series, he eventually reunites with Jon Snow, following Jon's extradition after assassinating Daenerys Targaryen.
### Brienne of Tarth
[[Christie by Gage Skidmore.jpg|thumb|upright=0.5|Gwendoline Christie](File:Gwendoline)]
**Brienne of Tarth** (portrayed by [Christie](Gwendoline)(Gwendoline Christie)) is a former member of Renly Baratheon's Kingsguard. She is a highly trained and skilled warrior made even more dangerous by the fact that men underestimate her. She is considered unfashionable because of her physique. She is present when Renly Baratheon is murdered by a shadow demon, and is falsely accused of carrying out the deed. She flees with Catelyn Stark, who was also present when Renly was killed, and is sworn into her service. Brienne swears to take revenge on Stannis Baratheon, who created the shadow demon that killed her king. Brienne is tasked by Catelyn with escorting Jaime Lannister back to King's Landing in exchange for the release of Catelyn's daughters, Sansa and Arya. On the road, however, Brienne and Jaime are captured by soldiers working for House Bolton, and Jaime's sword hand is severed. Brienne is kept at the prison fortress of Harrenhal to entertain the Bolton soldiers by fighting a bear—Jaime rescues her from the bear pit and the pair soon return to King's Landing. After King Joffrey's murder by poison, Brienne is sent away from King's Landing to find Sansa and Arya, both of whom escaped the capital without her knowledge.
Travelling to the Eyrie to find the Stark girls, Brienne encounters Sandor Clegane and his travelling companion, Arya Stark. Unable to persuade Arya to join her, and after defeating Sandor in single combat, Brienne travels with Podrick to Winterfell, where Sansa Stark has surfaced after escaping King's Landing. Brienne briefly abandons her mission to locate Sansa to execute Stannis Baratheon, who fails to capture Winterfell, but unites with the Stark girl soon after. Sansa, Brienne and Podrick ride to Castle Black, where Sansa reunites with her brother, Jon Snow. Brienne is sent to Riverrun to request that Brynden Tully's army assist Sansa and Jon in reclaiming Winterfell. Upon arrival, she briefly reunites with Jaime but is unable to convince Brynden to ride north and help Sansa. She returns to Winterfell after Sansa and Jon reclaim the castle anyway, and is present when Sansa and Arya reunite at the fortress, technically fulfilling her oath to Catelyn Stark. She journeys to King's Landing to represent Sansa in the Dragonpit summit and then returns to Winterfell to face the Army of the Dead, reuniting with Jaime Lannister. After Jaime is killed when Daenerys Targaryen destroys King's Landing, Brienne journeys south and is named head of Bran the Broken's kingsguard.
### Ramsay Bolton
[[Rheon by Gage Skidmore.jpg|thumb|upright=0.5|Iwan Rheon](File:Iwan)]
**Ramsay Bolton** (portrayed by [Rheon](Iwan)(Iwan Rheon)) is the cruel, sadistic, and cunning illegitimate son of Roose Bolton. He is first introduced to the series when Theon Greyjoy captures Winterfell, and Roose Bolton commands him to retake the fortress, ostensibly to hand it back to the Starks. However, Ramsay's army ransacks the castle and leaves it as a ruin. Ramsay captures Theon, imprisons him at the Dreadfort, and tortures him so severely that Theon forgets his own name, eventually believing himself to be called "Reek". Ramsay even goes so far as to [castrate](castrate) Reek. After capturing Moat Cailin, the Boltons move from the Dreadfort to Winterfell. Roose is named Warden of the North and legitimizes Ramsay, making him Ramsay Bolton. Sansa Stark is then married to Ramsay, thanks to an arrangement made by Petyr Baelish in his own attempt to control the North. Ramsay abuses and violates Sansa, raping her on their wedding night.
After Sansa and Theon escape Ramsay's capture during Stannis Baratheon's failed attack on Winterfell, Roose chastises Ramsay for his complacency and implies that legitimizing him was a mistake. After Roose's wife Walda gives birth to a legitimate heir, Ramsay quickly arranges for his [assassination](father's)(Patricide). With the Karstarks willing to hide the information, Ramsay stabs Roose through the heart, feeds Roose's wife and son to his hounds, and assumes the title of Lord Bolton. Shortly after, House Umber arrive at Winterfell with two prisoners: Rickon Stark and Osha. Osha is killed when trying to assassinate Ramsay herself. When Jon Snow's wildling army descends on Winterfell to take the castle, Rickon is killed after being used as bait to disrupt Jon's tactics. After a battle, Ramsay is defeated in the field by a combination of the wildling army and the Knights of the Vale, who arrive on the orders of Petyr Baelish and Sansa Stark. He is arrested and chained up in the Winterfell kennels, where Sansa watches him get eaten alive by his own hounds.
### Gilly
[[Murray - IFFR 2015-1.jpg|thumb|upright=0.5|Hannah Murray](File:Hannah)]
**Gilly** (portrayed by [Murray](Hannah)(Hannah Murray)) is a young wildling girl who lives north of the Wall, and one of many daughters of Craster, a wildling who takes all his daughters as wives once they grow up into women. During the Night's Watch's Great Ranging beyond the Wall, Gilly encounters Samwell Tarly, a Night's Watch brother. She is pregnant, and soon gives birth to Craster's son. Fearing for her son's life, knowing that Craster's sons are handed to the White Walkers, she flees with Samwell during a violent mutiny at Craster's Keep, during which Craster and the Night's Watch's Lord Commander, Jeor Mormont, are both killed. Gilly and Samwell, along with the baby (known as "Little Sam"), hike back to the Wall. Along the way, a White Walker comes to claim Little Sam, only for Samwell to stab the Walker with a dragonglass dagger. After returning to Castle Black, Samwell begins to fear for Gilly's safety and instead finds her work in Mole's Town, a nearby settlement. When Mole's Town is attacked by wildlings, Gilly returns to Castle Black and survives the attack by Mance Rayder's wildling army. After Maester Aemon falls ill and dies, Samwell and Gilly travel south to the Citadel, where Samwell trains to become the new maester of the Night's Watch. After a brief stopover with his family at Horn Hill, Samwell takes Gilly to the Citadel. When Samwell grows frustrated with the maesters, Gilly travels back northwards with him, and the trio settle at Winterfell. Gilly then survives the attack by White Walkers and declares that she is pregnant with Samwell's baby in the aftermath. When Samwell is named the maester on Bran the Broken's small council, it is presumed that Gilly and Little Sam travel with him and take up permanent residence in King's Landing.
### Daario Naharis
[[(cropped).jpg|thumb|upright=0.5|Michiel Huisman](File:Michielhuisman2015)]
**Daario Naharis** (portrayed by [Skrein](Ed)(Ed Skrein) in season 3, and by [Huisman](Michiel)(Michiel Huisman) from season 4 onwards) is a confident and seductive warrior who is a lieutenant in the Second Sons, a group of 2000 [mercenaries](Mercenary). Daario is introduced when Daenerys Tagraryen attempts to seize the slave city of Yunkai - she hires the Second Sons to assist her in conquering the city. Daario murders his fellow commanders after they consider turning against Daenerys, and declares his loyalty to her, helping her to take the city. When Daenerys takes Meereen, Daario defeats the city's champion and grants her entry to the city. Daario then joins Daenerys' advisory team and soon becomes her romantic partner. During their relationship, he investigates the origins of the Sons of the Harpy, a militant group who object to Daenreys' rule in Meereen. When Daenerys is forced to flee the city and is captured by the Dothraki, Daario journeys with Ser Jorah Mormont to retrieve her from Vaes Dothrak. When Daenerys returns to Meereen, she begins making plans to leave for Westeros. Daario assists her in defeating the Sons of the Harpy and the region's slave masters. Having created a fragile peace in Slaver's Bay, she assigns Daario and the Second Sons the responsibility of maintaining order. Daario is upset by this news, as staying in Meereen means the end of his relationship with Daenerys, but it is presumed that he rules the city in her stead.
### Missandei
[[Emmanuel by Gage Skidmore 2.jpg|thumb|upright=0.5|Nathalie Emmanuel](File:Nathalie)]
**Missandei** (portrayed by [Emmanuel](Nathalie)(Nathalie Emmanuel)) is a personal servant to Daenerys Targaryen, who was freed from being a slave working as translator for Kraznys mo Nakloz when Daenerys insisted during negotiations with Kraznys mo Nakloz that Missandei be given to her as a gift. She effectively serves as the replacement of Doreah after she betrayed Daenerys in Qarth. She later begins to teach Grey Worm how to speak the common tongue, and they develop romantic feelings for each other, despite Grey Worm being an Unsullied who was castrated at youth. She is visibly saddened when another Unsullied, White Rat, is killed in a brothel by the Sons of the Harpy. After Grey Worm is almost killed in an attack, Missandei kisses him after he reveals that for the first time, he felt fear, since he thought he would never see her again. On the opening day of the fighting games, the Sons of the Harpy launch another attack. Missandei is narrowly saved by Tyrion Lannister, and watches as Daenerys flies away on Drogon. She later remains in Meereen with Tyrion and Grey Worm to help keep the city together. Despite an attack by the slaver masters' fleet, Meereen is saved when Daenerys returns with the Dothraki and unleashes her dragons on the fleet, which Missandei witnesses. She later accompanies Daenerys on her voyage back to Westeros. She makes love with Grey Worm and worries for him when he is sent to attack Casterly Rock. In season 8, she is beheaded by the Mountain under Cersei's orders.
### Ellaria Sand
[[Varma.jpg|thumb|upright=0.5|Indira Varma](File:Indira)]
**Ellaria Sand** (portrayed by [Varma](Indira)(Indira Varma)) is the sexually promiscuous [paramour](Intimate relationship) of [Martell](Oberyn)(Oberyn Martell), and a bastard from [Dorne](Dorne). She is also the mother to several daughters, known collectively as the Sand Snakes. She is present at Tyrion's trial by combat, where Oberyn fights [Clegane](Gregor)(Gregor Clegane) in Tyrion's name, and is horrified when Oberyn is killed. Upon Oberyn's death, she returns to Dorne. There, she implores Prince Doran to declare war on the Lannisters as revenge for Oberyn's death at the hands of the Lannisters. Soon after, when Jaime Lannister arrives in Dorne on a secret mission to free Princess Myrcella from Sunspear, Ellaria and the Sand Snakes duel with Jaime and Bronn, resulting in the imprisonment of Bronn and the Sand Snakes. A truce is agreed, and Ellaria abandons her plan to take revenge on the Lannisters when Prince Doran allows Jaime, Myrcella, and Bronn to return to King's Landing. However, it is revealed that Ellaria poisoned Myrcella upon her departure, sent two of the Sand Snakes to kill Prince Trystane (Myrcella's betrothed), and had been secretly plotting to assassinate Prince Doran - three secret missions she successfully organises. She later allies with [Targaryen](Daenerys)(Daenerys Targaryen) and the Tyrells against the Lannisters, but is captured and imprisoned by Euron Greyjoy and [Lannister](Cersei)(Cersei Lannister) while two of her daughters are killed. Her death is never shown on-screen, but it is presumed that she starves in the dungeons of King's Landing along with her last remaining daughter, Tyene.
### Tommen Baratheon
[[Chapman.jpg|thumb|upright=0.5|Dean-Charles Chapman](File:Dean-Charles)]
**Tommen Baratheon** (portrayed by Callum Wharry in seasons 1 and 2, and by [Chapman](Dean-Charles)(Dean-Charles Chapman) from season 4 onwards) is the prince presented as the youngest son of King Robert Baratheon and Queen Cersei Lannister. Like his older siblings Joffrey and Myrcella his actual father is his uncle Ser Jaime Lannister. Like his sister he is good-natured and passive in contrast to his brother Joffrey and is fond of his uncle Tyrion. When King Joffrey is poisoned at his own wedding, Tommen assumes the throne and marries Margaery Tyrell. His mother Cersei battles Margaery for influence over Tommen, and their subsequent war of words eventually results in Margaery and Cersei's arrest by the High Sparrow. After Cersei's temporary release ahead of her trial in front of the Faith Militant, she destroys the Sept of Baelor with wildfire, killing several people inside, including Margaery. Witnessing the event, Tommen, deeply in love with Margaery and heartbroken by her death, leaps from the tallest window in the Red Keep to his death.
### Jaqen H'ghar
[[Wlaschiha June 2013 (headshot).jpg|thumb|upright=0.5|Tom Wlaschiha](File:Tom)]
'''"Jaqen H'ghar"''' (portrayed by [Wlaschiha](Tom)(Tom Wlaschiha)) is a sly and enigmatic criminal and part of Yoren's group of recruits taken from King's Landing to join the Night's Watch. A foreigner from Braavos, though he originally claims Lorath, he speaks in third person, referring to himself as "a man". When Arya Stark is taken as one of the Lannisters' prisoners at Harrenhal, Jaqen teaches her the ways of the Faceless Men and helps her to escape. He leaves Arya with an iron coin and tells her that, should she ever meet a man from Braavos, she should present the coin to him and repeat the words "Valar Morghulis". A year later, Arya reunites with Jaqen in Braavos. He inducts her into the order of Faceless Men and once again takes her under his wing, with the Faceless Men being revealed as assassins who use the faces of the dead to change their appearance. Jaqen gives Arya various tasks to complete, and either punishes her for her disobedience or rewards her for her skills. Jaqen later informs Arya that she has become "no one" and is ready to join the Faceless Men, but his offer is rejected as Arya travels back to Westeros.
### Roose Bolton
**Roose Bolton** (portrayed by [McElhatton](Michael)(Michael McElhatton)) is a Bannerman of the North and [Lord](Lord) of the Dreadfort. The Bolton family have a nasty history of keeping to very old, and barbaric ways, including flaying their enemies alive, and Roose is no exception, being suspected of not feeling any emotion. His cunning makes him a valuable ally, but his unpredictable nature makes him a dangerous one.
### The High Sparrow
[[cropped.jpg|thumb|upright=0.5|Jonathan Pryce](File:JonathanPryce2007)]
**The High Sparrow** (portrayed by [Pryce](Jonathan)(Jonathan Pryce)) is a devout and pious man who came to King's Landing after Tywin Lannister's death to serve the poor, downtrodden and infirm. He quickly amasses a large following, including Cersei's cousin and former lover Lancel, who swarm over the city, ministering to the needy and denouncing corruption. He is first noticed by Cersei Lannister when his followers assault and humiliate the High Septon at a brothel.
### Grey Worm
[[Anderson by Gage Skidmore.jpg|thumb|upright=0.5|Jacob Anderson](File:Jacob)]
**Grey Worm** (portrayed by [Anderson](Jacob)(Jacob Anderson)) is a captain of the Unsullied, a group of eunuch slave soldiers. His name is pronounced in Valyrian and was chosen by his Astapor slave masters, who choose new names for the Unsullied which are designed to humiliate them and make them think they are not human. Despite this, Grey Worm chose to keep his current name because it was his name on the day Daenerys freed the Unsullied, so he considers it to be a lucky name. He is loyal to Daenerys and doesn't like those who insult her. He develops feelings for Missandei, which appear to be reciprocated, and has a friendly rivalry with Daario Naharis. He is gravely injured in Meereen in an attack by the Sons of the Harpy, but ultimately survives. After Daenerys's disappearance, Grey Worm partially recovers from his injuries and remains in Meereen to help Tyrion Lannister govern the city and maintain peace with the slave masters. When the slave masters go back on the deal and attack Meereen with ships, only to be countered by Daenerys's dragons, Grey Worm kills Razdal mo Eraz and Belicho Paenymion, and later accompanies Daenerys and her retinue on their voyage to Westeros. From her stronghold on Dragonstone, Daenerys sends Grey Worm and his army to take Casterly Rock. The night before Grey Worm admits to Missandei that now he has her to love, he has begun to know what fear is. They make love. Grey Worm expects Casterly Rock to be hard to win and is surprised to find it barely defended: the capture is effected with ease. He then takes his army east and is outside King's Landing when Daenerys and Cersei meet in the Dragonpit.
## Recurring / Guest characters
### House Arryn
* **[Arryn](Robin)(Robin Arryn)** (portrayed by [Facioli](Lino)(Lino Facioli)) [[Facioli.jpg|thumb|upright=0.5|Lino Facioli](File:Lino)] The only child of Jon and Lysa Arryn and a sickly boy doted on by his mother. He is still breastfed despite being well into pre-adolescence, and is mentally and socially maladjusted. He enjoys seeing people executed by [defenestration](defenestration), whether they are guilty or not. In season 1, he is present at Tyrion Lannister's trial, but shows little to no interest in the details and continuously begs his mother to make the "little Lannister baby-man" fly, which would mean Tyrion being executed, although Tyrion is acquitted. In season 4, he greets Petyr "Littlefinger" Baelish as "Uncle Petyr" and meets his cousin, Sansa Stark, for the first time. Lysa later mentions in conversation that Robin and Sansa are to be betrothed. However, tensions arise between them when Robin ruins Sansa's snow castle of Winterfell and Sansa slaps Robin in retaliation. After Lysa is killed, Petyr proposes that Robin be taken on several tours of the Vale so as to prepare him for ruling it one day as its new Lord, though Petyr implies that his intention is for Robin to be killed in the process. In season 5, Robin is being trained in the art of fighting, but lacks the skill and determination due to his upbringing. Petyr leaves him in the care of Yohn Royce. In season 6, Robin is informed of Sansa's escape from House Bolton, and through Petyr's manipulations, Robin gives the order for the Knights of the Vale to aid her and Jon Snow against Ramsay Bolton.
* **[Royce](Yohn)(Yohn Royce)** (portrayed by [Vansittart](Rupert)(Rupert Vansittart))[[Vansittart by Gage Skidmore.jpg|thumb|upright=0.5|Rupert Vansittart](File:Rupert)] The head of House Royce of Runestone, a powerful [vassal](vassal) house of House Arryn. Like Lady Waynwood, he suspects Petyr Baelish of having murdered Lysa Arryn, but her death is eventually ruled a suicide. In season 5, he takes Robin Arryn in as his ward. In the sixth season, he is summoned by Baelish to lead the Knights of the Vale to aid Sansa Stark and Jon Snow against the Boltons. In the aftermath, after voicing his disapproval of the wildlings, Yohn joins the Northern Lords in proclaiming Jon the new King in the North. When Baelish is accused by Sansa of Lysa's murder, Yohn supports Sansa's decision to try Baelish.
* **[Waynwood](Anya)(Anya Waynwood)** (portrayed by [Dionisotti](Paola)(Paola Dionisotti)) is the head of House Waynwood, a powerful [vassal](vassal) house of House Arryn. She suspects Petyr Baelish of murdering Lysa Arryn, but the death is ruled a suicide.
* **[Arryn](Lysa)(Lysa Arryn)** (portrayed by [Dickie](Kate)(Kate Dickie)) [[Dickie by Gage Skidmore.jpg|thumb|upright=0.5|Kate Dickie](File:Kate)] The widow of Lord Jon Arryn. Born to the Lord and Lady of the Riverlands, she is the younger sister of Catelyn Stark, Lady of Winterfell, and the older sister of Lord Edmure Tully, Lord of Riverrun. She has grown mentally unstable since the death of her husband, and is convinced that as long as she stays boarded up in the Eyrie she will be safe. Justice for her husband rarely crosses her mind, unless exacting it doesn't mean bestirring herself or her guards from her castle. She is also overly protective of her son, Robin Arryn, which has made him a weak and spoiled child. In season 1, Lysa sends Catelyn a letter suggesting that the Lannisters were responsible for the death of Jon Arryn, which prompts Catelyn to investigate. Tyrion Lannister is later taken before Lysa to face justice for attempting to murder Bran Stark. Though Tyrion is innocent, Lysa appears uninterested in the details and even accuses him of murdering Jon. Lysa loses when Tyrion demands a trial by combat and Tyrion's champion, Bronn, wins. She later receives word that Robb Stark is marching on King's Landing to rescue Ned Stark, who has been wrongfully imprisoned, but fails to tell Catelyn. Catelyn confronts her and pleads for help, but Lysa refuses to provide Catelyn with more men, since her only concern is Robin's safety. By season 3, the Vale has remained untouched by the war, and she is betrothed to Littlefinger, who travels to the Vale to marry her. In season 4, it is revealed that Lysa and Littlefinger have been having an affair for quite some time, and are the ones responsible for poisoning Jon Arryn and (though indirectly) Joffrey Baratheon. When Littlefinger returns from King's Landing with Sansa Stark, Lysa greets her niece warmly and insists on marrying Littlefinger that same day. Later, however, Lysa accuses Sansa of seducing Littlefinger, but when Sansa insists that she did not, Lysa immediately calms down and tells Sansa that she is to marry Robin. However, Lysa catches Petyr kissing Sansa and angrily confronts Sansa about it, threatening to push her through the moon door, but Petyr intervenes and pacifies Lysa, before telling her that the one woman he only truly ever loved was Catelyn, and pushing her through the moon door to her death. Her death is ruled a suicide thanks to lies by Petyr and Sansa.
### House Baratheon
* **[Baratheon](Myrcella)(Myrcella Baratheon)** (portrayed by [Richardson](Aimee)(Aimee Richardson) on season 1 and 2, and by [Tiger Free](Nell)(Nell Tiger Free) in seasons 5 and 6) [[Richardson by Gage Skidmore.jpg|thumb|upright=0.5|Aimee Richardson](File:Aimee)] The younger sister of Prince Joffrey and only daughter of Cersei Lannister. She, like her brothers, is also the child of her mother's brother, Jaime, though she remains unaware of this. Unlike her older brother Joffrey, Myrcella is a kind and good person and enjoys being with her uncle Tyrion who in turn dotes on his niece. As part of an alliance between House Lannister and Martell, Myrcella is betrothed to Trystane Martell, son of Prince Doran Martell of Dorne, and sent to Dorne as a ward of House Martell. For over two years, she has been a guest and ward of Prince Doran, betrothed to his son, but her position has become tenuous with the death of Oberyn Martell, the Prince's brother. In season 5, Myrcella is shown at the Water Gardens with her betrothed, with whom she seems to have a good relationship. Unbeknownst to her, she has become a part of Ellaria Sand's plans for revenge although Prince Doran refuses that the young princess be hurt as part of their revenge against the Lannisters. Myrcella is nearly taken by the Sand Snakes but is rescued by the Prince's Guard. She later tells her uncle that she now considers Dorne her home and wants to marry Trystane. A while later, Prince Doran allows her to return to the capital with Jaime on the condition that Trystane accompany them, where he will become a member of the Small Council. On the jetty, about to board the ship, she forgives Ellaria Sand, who unexpectedly gives her a kiss on the mouth. On board the ship, Jaime awkwardly attempts to explain the true nature of his relationship with her mother, to which Myrcella responds that she already knows, having "felt" it for a long time. Jaime embraces his daughter, only to discover in horror that she is bleeding from a poison imbued orally by Ellaria. She collapses and dies in his arms. In season 6, her body is returned to King's Landing and laid to rest in the Great Sept of Baelor. Her funeral is attended only by Jaime and Tommen.
* **[Florent](Selyse)(Selyse Florent)** (portrayed by [Fitzgerald](Tara)(Tara Fitzgerald))[[Fitzgerald (cropped).jpg|thumb|upright=0.5|Tara Fitzgerald](File:Tara)] The wife of Stannis Baratheon who is kept locked in a tower on Dragonstone. She married Stannis sometime before the events of Robert's Rebellion. Selyse is a fervent worshiper of R'hllor and a supporter of Melisandre. She keeps the preserved corpses of her stillborn sons in jars in her chambers, seemingly even to Stannis's disgust, but expresses resentment over their daughter, Shireen, who suffers from greyscale and who Selyse sees as a demon, though she is only stopped from abusing her by Stannis. She later accompanies her husband to the Wall, and is present at the funeral of the Night's Watch brothers who died in the Battle of Castle Black. She witnesses Mance Rayder's execution and accompanies her husband on the march to Winterfell. After their army becomes trapped in a blizzard, she accepts Melisandre's advice to have Shireen sacrificed as a gift to the Lord of Light, only to recant in the last moments, refusing to stand by as her daughter burns to death. Restrained by Baratheon soldiers, she collapses in screams of agony. The next morning, Selyse hangs herself out of grief.
* **[Baratheon](Shireen)(Shireen Baratheon)** (portrayed by [Ingram](Kerry)(Kerry Ingram))[[Ingram by Gage Skidmore.jpg|thumb|upright=0.5|Kerry Ingram](File:Kerry)] The young daughter of Stannis Baratheon and Selyse Florent. Her face is disfigured by the disease Greyscale, but she is not yet crippled by it. She is a friend of Davos Seaworth and visits him during his captivity at Dragonstone with books, convincing him to teach himself to read, which he does. Though she does not get on well with Melisandre and has a bleak relationship with her mother, she shares a strong bond with her father, who loves her dearly. She later accompanies her father to the Wall, where she witnesses the funeral of the Night's Watch brothers who died in the Battle of Castle Black, as well as the execution of Mance Rayder, and also becomes friends with Gilly and Samwell Tarly. She is sacrificed to the Red God, when Stannis' army is stuck in a snow storm on the way to Winterfell, crying out for her parents who witness her death in tears. This leads to the departure of half of Stannis's army and Stannis losing the battle against the Boltons.
* **[Baratheon](Renly)(Renly Baratheon)** (portrayed by [Anthony](Gethin)(Gethin Anthony)) is the youngest brother of King Robert and Master of Laws in the Small Council. He is popular with the people because he is handsome, jovial, and throws extravagant balls and masquerades. He is not fond of fighting or bloodshed, and would rather make friends than kill enemies. He is secretly the lover of Ser Loras Tyrell, the Knight of the Flowers, who convinces him that those qualities make him better ruling material than either of his older brothers. While Robert lies dying, Renly attempts to convince Ned of this, and that the two of them should kidnap Joffrey and rule the realm themselves. However, Ned refuses, so Renly, Loras, and their followers flee south. Once Joffrey becomes King and has Ned executed, Renly challenges his alleged nephew's claim to the throne. Renly declares himself King of the Seven Kingdoms during Season 2 and wins the support of the Baratheon bannermen and the support of other houses, despite Stannis' better claim. He also seals an alliance with the powerful House Tyrell and its bannermen by marrying Margaery Tyrell. He leads his massive army slowly through southern Westeros, biding his time. Catelyn Stark tries to convince Renly and Stannis to put aside their differences and unite against the Lannisters but it fails as both brothers refuses to give up their claim for the throne. On the night before a battle between his and Stannis' forces, Renly agrees to Catelyn to allow the North and Riverlands be an independent kingdom if they allied with him, but on the condition that Robb Stark swear fealty to him. However, Renly is assassinated by Melisandre, who gives birth to a shadow demon and sends it to kill Renly to remove him from Stannis' path. Stannis is initially unaware of the nature of Melisandre's crime, and is later visibly shocked and saddened of the role he played in his brother's death, which he visibly regrets.
* **Salladhor Saan** (portrayed by [Msamati](Lucian)(Lucian Msamati)) [[Msamati (2010) headshot.jpg|thumb|upright=0.5|Lucian Msamati](File:Lucian)] A notorious [pirate](Piracy), [trader](Trader (finance)), and [smuggler](Smuggling) from Lys. An old friend of Davos, he now sails for Stannis Baratheon on his ship, the *Valyrian* and his fleet of thirty ships. He has little patience for those that worship R'hollor – Melisandre's God – since he has traveled the world and seen many gods and has come to the conclusion the only true god is between a woman's legs. He agrees to work with Stannis after Davos promises him and his pirates they will be paid in gold and plunder from King's Landing. Salladhor even goes as far as to request the chance to bed Cersei Lannister after the battle, but Davos refuses, unsure if Cersei will be alive at the time. After the Battle of the Blackwater, he finds Davos stranded on a rock and rescues him, but considers his allegiance broken and departs from Stannis' cause after dropping Davos off at Dragonstone, warning him that the Red Woman will pose a threat to him. In season 4, Davos tracks him in Braavos, and offers him gold in exchange for his help in gathering a new army to help them aid the Night's Watch.
* **Matthos Seaworth** (portrayed by Kerr Logan) is Davos' son and second-in-command on his ship, *Black Betha*. Matthos is a devout follower of the Lord of Light and continually tries to convince his father to convert. During the Battle of Blackwater, the *Black Betha* is caught in a wildfire explosion, killing Matthos.
* **Maester Cressen** (portrayed by [Ford-Davies](Oliver)(Oliver Ford-Davies)) [[Ford Davies.jpg|thumb|upright=0.5|Oliver Ford Davies](File:Oliver)] The aged Maester of Dragonstone, and skeptical of Melisandre's predictions and the ambitions she has instilled in Lord Stannis to proclaim himself king, claiming "since that boar killed his brother, every lord wants a coronation". He is disgusted when Melisandre sets idols of the Seven gods on fire in the name of her god – R'hollor. He dies in a suicidal attempt to kill Melisandre by offering to share a poisoned cup of wine with her, which doesn't affect her but kills the aged Cressen almost instantly.
### House Bolton
* **[Bolton](Walda)(Walda Bolton)** (portrayed by [Webster](Elizabeth)(Elizabeth Webster)) is a granddaughter of Lord Walder Frey. She is the new wife of Roose Bolton, the Lord of the Dreadfort. During the wedding feast of Edmure Tully and Roslin Frey, Lord Bolton recounts to Catelyn Stark and Ser Brynden "Blackfish" Tully how Lord Walder Frey proposed him to marry one of his granddaughters and offered her weight in silver as dowry. Lord Bolton then adds he chose the fattest bride available and she has made him very rich. In season 4, she arrives at the Dreadfort with her new husband and his men (having been smuggled back into the North to avoid the Ironborn) and is greeted warmly by Ramsay Snow as "mother". She accompanies the Boltons to Winterfell, and receives Sansa Stark and Petyr Baelish along with her husband and stepson. In season 5 it is revealed that she is pregnant, which makes Ramsay feel threatened for his position as Roose's heir. In season 6, after she gives birth to a boy, she and her baby are mauled to death by Ramsay's hounds, shortly after Ramsay kills his father.
* **Harald Karstark** (portrayed by Paul Rattray) is the lord of Karhold and the son of Rickard Karstark, who was executed by Robb Stark. He declares for House Bolton to counter any Stark force that Sansa may muster after escaping Winterfell, and witnesses Ramsay kill Roose. In the subsequent battle between the Bolton forces and Jon Snow's army, Harald leads the Karstark men into battle, but he disappears in the ensuing conflict. Although his death is not shown, Jon Snow confirms it in the season 7 premiere.
* **Jon Umber** (portrayed by Dean Jagger) is the son of Greatjon Umber, one of House Stark's most powerful banner men. "Smalljon" became Lord of Last Hearth, the northernmost of the castles in the North, after his father's death. Smalljon, however, chooses to side with the Boltons by handing his father's wards, Rickon Stark and Osha, to Ramsay Snow as an alliance gift, to gain Ramsay's help in countering Jon Snow and his wildling army. In the subsequent battle between Ramsay's forces and Jon Snow's army, he leads the Umber forces into battle and fights Tormund Giantsbane. Though it seems as if he will win, Smalljon is momentarily distracted by the arrival of the Knights of the Vale, long enough for Tormund to bite his throat out and stab him to death.
* **Myranda** (portrayed by [Hope](Charlotte)(Charlotte Hope)) is a servant of House Bolton and a [cannibal](cannibal) who has uncontrollable urges to eat living creatures in the hope of obtaining their life-force for herself. She is one of Ramsay Snow's bedwarmers and assists in his sadistic schemes. She later accompanies the Boltons to Winterfell, and is present when Sansa Stark arrives with Petyr Baelish, eyeing Sansa with jealousy and anger. Myranda initially comes across as friendly towards Sansa, with her actual intentions hidden. She embraces Sansa upon her first arrival. Myranda the sees a beetle crawling on Sansa's arm and grabs it. Whilst still talking to Sansa, she then suddenly puts the beetle in her mouth and eats it. Myranda is then seen casually eating insects throughout the season.
Myranda also accompanies Ramsay to the aftermath of the surrender of Moat Caitlin. After, the entire garrison has been flayed alive and impaled on spikes, she is seen eating the flesh off the dead body of Adrack Humble, who has also been flayed and is covered in flies.
During Sansa's stay at Winterfell, Myranda encounters her again with Theon and torments her with stories of Ramsay's sadism and how she ate Theon's severed penis to a horrified Sansa. Myranda then threatens to eat her once Ramsay has finished with her. After this, Myranda notices a rat in the corner of the cell and violently eats it in front of Theon and a horrified Sansa.
When Sansa is trying to escape Winterfell, she is caught by Myranda accompanies by Theon. Myranda taunts her further with threats of Ramsay plans to mutilate her once he has a child. Myranda also tells Sansa that she is going to eat her after she has been killed by Ramsay. After Sansa refuses to be bullied, Myranda points an arrow to her, preparing to injure her while leaving her usable for Ramsay to father a child. However, this tips Theon into finally rebelling against the Boltons and he saves Sansa by disarming Myranda and pushing her off the castle wall to her death. Her body is found shortly afterwards by Ramsay, who pays his respects to her before ironically having her fed to the hounds.
* **Locke** (portrayed by [Taylor](Noah)(Noah Taylor)) [[Taylor (29694898461).jpg|thumb|upright=0.5|Noah Taylor](File:Noah)] A [man-at-arms](man-at-arms) sworn to House Bolton, and acts as Roose Bolton's personal bounty hunter. He captures Brienne of Tarth and Jaime Lannister, who were on their way to King's Landing. Locke later cuts off Jaime's sword hand en route to Harrenhal and tries to feed Brienne to a bear rather than hold her ransom, further demonstrating his contempt for wealth and nobility. He holds Harrenhal in Roose Bolton's name until former Master of Coin Lord Petyr Baelish is proclaimed Lord of Harrenhal and the Riverlands. In season 4, Locke has followed Lord Bolton in pledging loyalty to the Lannisters, and arrives at the Dreadfort with Roose and his men. Locke warmly greets Roose's bastard Ramsay – the two are friends and share mutual interests in flaying and mutilation of their enemies. When Roose learns Bran and Rickon Stark are alive, and may pose a threat to his new title as Warden of the North, he commands Locke to go on a hunt to find the boys, in exchange for a thousand acres of land and a holdfast of his own. Locke eventually arrives at the Wall and becomes acquainted with Jon Snow, Bran and Rickon's half-brother, who he apparently plans to kill as per Ramsay's suggestion. Locke is one of the few who join Jon on his mission to kill the Night's Watch mutineers at Craster's Keep, and in the ensuing battle, he escapes the fray and locates Bran Stark held captive with Jojen Reed, Meera Reed and Hodor. Locke attempts to kidnap Bran and kill him unseen, but Bran uses his warg abilities to enter Hodor's mind, and kills Locke by snapping his neck. His body is brought back to Craster's Keep by Eddison Tollett, and burned along with the rest of the slain.
### House Frey
* **[Frey](Walder)(Walder Frey)** (portrayed by [Bradley](David)(David Bradley (English actor))) [[Bradley by Gage Skidmore.jpg|thumb|upright=0.5|David Bradley](File:David)] The head of House Frey, Lord of the Crossing and bannerman to House Tully. He is known for outliving his many wives (now on his 8th) and siring over 100 children (both bastard and trueborn). Because the use of the Twins became a strategic necessity for Robb's host, Walder was able to negotiate marriage contracts for his children to Robb and Arya Stark. But during Season 2 Robb broke his word and married Lady Talisa. For this slight, and willing to take advantage of the war's changing fortunes, he conspires with Tywin Lannister and Roose Bolton to betray Robb Stark at the wedding of his liege Edmure Tully, which he insists in return for support of his men. Frey hosts the infamous "Red Wedding" at which Robb Stark, his wife and mother are all murdered, refusing to spare Robb even as Catelyn holds Lady Frey hostage and threatens to slit her throat, which she does. He is subsequently granted Riverrun and its lands and expresses delight to take another young wife, but his house is irredeemably tarnished by the betrayal and House Tully's vassals refuse to submit to his rule. In season 6, he is outraged when he hears of the Blackfish recapture' of Riverrun and blames his sons Lothar and Black Walder for allowing him to escape. He then orders them to retake the castle using Edmure Tully as a hostage. Though they successfully retake Riverrun with the help of a Lannister host led by Jaime Lannister, Walder is ambushed shortly afterwards by Arya Stark, who slits his throat in revenge for the Red Wedding. In season 7, Arya uses Walder's face to deceive and poison the rest of his family.
* **[Frey](Lothar)(Lothar Frey)** (portrayed by [Brooke](Tom)(Tom Brooke) in season 3, and by Daniel Tuite in season 6) is one of Lord Walder Frey's many sons, nicknamed “Lame Lothar” because of his twisted leg. He and his half-brother Black Walder are sent by their father to Riverrun to propose a marriage between Lord Edmure Tully and Roslin Frey as terms for House Frey rejoining Robb Stark's campaign against the Lannisters. He is one of the first to commence the "Red Wedding", stabbing Talisa Stark in the womb several times and killing her and her unborn child. In the sixth season, he is ordered by Walder to retake Riverrun, which he manages to do with Lannister help. Eventually, he is killed by Arya Stark, who bakes him into a pie.
* **[Walder Rivers](Black)(Black Walder Rivers)** (portrayed by [Plester](Tim)(Tim Plester)) is one of Lord Walder Frey's many bastard sons, nicknamed “Black Walder” for his dark demeanor. He and his half-brother Lame Lothar are sent by their father to Riverrun to propose a marriage between Lord Edmure Tully and Roslin Frey as terms for House Frey rejoining Robb Stark's campaign against the Lannisters. He kills Catelyn Stark at the Red Wedding, after she slits Lady Frey's throat in retaliation for her son's death. In the sixth season, he takes part in the siege of Riverrun, which they reclaim with the help of a Lannister host. Eventually, Black Walder is killed along with Lothar by Arya Stark, who bakes them both into a pie.
### House Greyjoy
* **** (portrayed by [Whelan](Gemma)(Gemma Whelan)) [[Whelan (cropped).jpg|thumb|upright=0.5|Gemma Whelan](File:Gemma)] The daughter of Balon Greyjoy and his wife Alannys Harlaw, and elder sister of Theon. She is fierce and proud, and defies traditional ironborn gender roles by commanding her own ship, the *Black Wind*. She has earned her father's respect by commanding men, and killing men. When her brother Theon takes Winterfell, Yara tries to convince him to go back with her to the Iron Islands, but Theon refuses. Theon is betrayed by his own men and given to Ramsay Snow, Lord Bolton's sadistic bastard son, who brutally tortures and eventually castrates him. Ramsay sends Theon's penis in a box to Balon, with Ramsay threatening to mutilate Theon more unless the Ironmen leave the North, whom Ramsay also threatens to flay alive. Balon refuses this, but Yara intends to save her brother of her own accord, taking one ship and fifty of the best killers on the Iron islands with her. In season 4, Yara and her men attack the Dreadfort, but find that Ramsay has broken Theon so badly that he refuses to leave with her and even insists that his name is Reek. Ramsay and his men confront Yara in the dungeon and a battle ensues in which Ramsay frees the hounds and sets them on Yara, who is forced to flee the Dreadfort without Theon, telling her men that Theon is dead. In season 6, Yara contests the Kingsmoot to decide Balon's successor and appears to sway the Ironborn by declaring that she will build the world's largest fleet, but is defeated by Euron, who plans to forge an alliance with Daenerys Targaryen to conquer Westeros. Correctly suspecting that Euron will have them killed, Yara and Theon flee the Iron Islands with their loyalists and the bulk of the Iron Fleet, and head to Meereen to forge an alliance with Daenerys first. After explaining the situation, Yara pledges her forces to Daenerys in return for the Iron Islands' independence. Yara is ordered to sail to attack King's Landing. While below decks enjoying the company of Ellaria Sand, her fleet is set upon by ships under Euron's command and they are captured. Shortly before the Battle of Winterfell, Theon leads a raiding party and frees his sister. Yara sails to the Iron Isles, to retake them in the name of Daenerys, in case the Queen and her people need a fallback position after the battle.
* **[Greyjoy](Euron)(Euron Greyjoy)** (portrayed by [Asbæk](Pilou)(Pilou Asbæk)) [[In The Shell World Premiere Red Carpet- Pilou Asbæk (36734941733).jpg|thumb|upright=0.5|Pilou Asbæk](File:Ghost)] A brother of King Balon Greyjoy, and the uncle of Theon and Yara Greyjoy. Euron is an infamous pirate who has terrorized seas all around the world. He is cunning, ruthless, with a touch of madness. He kills Balon Greyjoy by throwing him off a rope bridge, declaring that Balon's time is past and that it is time for a new king. At the Kingsmoot he confesses to killing Balon, but convinces the Ironborn that Balon was a poor military commander and declares that he will seduce Daenerys Targaryen and give her the Iron Fleet to conquer Westeros. The Ironborn declare Euron as their king, but before Euron can put Theon and Yara to death he discovers they have fled with the best ships of the Iron Fleet. Undeterred, he orders the Ironborn to begin constructing a new fleet. He uses this fleet to attack Yara's fleet with fire. He kills two Sand Snakes and captures Yara, Ellaria Sand and Tyene Sand. He gives the Sands to Cersei and keeps Yara prisoner. When he meets Theon he taunts him over his captive sister. Euron later becomes a close partner of Cersei Lannister during the final weeks of her reign and organizes the defense of King's Landing in anticipation of an attack by Daenerys Targaryen. Euron's navy is later destroyed by Daenerys and her dragon, Drogon. While King's Landing falls, he fights and wounds Jaime Lannister but is defeated and ultimately killed.
* **[Greyjoy](Aeron)(Aeron Greyjoy)** (seasons 2 & 6) portrayed by [Feast](Michael)(Michael Feast). [[Feast.jpg|thumb|upright=0.5|Michael Feast](File:Michael)] A brother of King Balon Greyjoy, and an uncle of Theon and Yara Greyjoy. Aeron is a Drowned Priest in service to the Drowned God. When Theon returned to the Iron Islands, Aeron reinitiated him into the faith of the Drowned God. After Balon's death, Aeron held a Kingsmoot to determine Balon's successor. Euron Greyjoy wins the election and is baptized by Aeron.
* **[Greyjoy](Balon)(Balon Greyjoy)** (portrayed by [Malahide](Patrick)(Patrick Malahide)) is the Lord of the Iron Islands and father of Theon and Yara. Balon wished to continue the conquering ways of his people, which led him to rebel against the Iron Throne 9 years prior to the start of the series. He lost, with two of his three sons killed in the war; his youngest, Theon, was taken as a ward at Winterfell as a way to keep him from attempting another rebellion. After Theon returns to the Iron Islands with an offer from King Robb Stark for an alliance against the Lannisters, Balon refuses and instead launches beach raids against the North, proclaiming himself King of the Iron islands and the North. Theon, however, is captured and brutally tortured by the sadistic Ramsay Snow, lord Bolton's bastard, who eventually castrates him. Ramsay sends Theon's penis in a box to Balon, with Ramsay threatening to mutilate Theon further unless the Ironmen retreat from the North, whom Ramsay also threatens to flay living. Balon refuses, stating that as Theon defied him by attacking Winterfell, claiming him a "fool" and "not a man anymore", to which Yara responds she intends to save her little brother of her own accord. In season 6, he is confronted by his younger brother, Euron, who declares that Balon has ruled for too long and throws him from a rope bridge to his death.
* **Dagmer Cleftjaw** (portrayed by [Ineson](Ralph)(Ralph Ineson))[[Ineson.jpg|thumb|upright=0.5|Ralph Ineson](File:Ralph)] An Ironborn Raider and Theon Greyjoy's first mate on the *Sea Bitch*. He suggests that Theon prove himself by taking Winterfell, and persuades him to commit further atrocities to shore up his rule, such as executing Ser Rodrik Cassel for defying Theon and killing two children to pass off as Bran and Rickon Stark. However, when Robb Stark sends Ramsay Snow with an offer to spare the Ironborn if they surrender Winterfell and Theon, he knocks Theon out to hand him over and fatally wounds Maester Luwin. It is revealed in the season three finale that Dagmer and the other ironborn were instead flayed alive by Ramsay Snow and his men.
* **Black Lorren** (portrayed by [KB](Forbes)(Forbes KB)) is an infamous Ironborn raider better known as "Black Lorren". He is considered among the fiercest Ironborn warriors. He is under Theon's command while taking Winterfell. He is ultimately flayed alive by Ramsay Snow, along with the other Ironborn at Winterfell.
### House Lannister
* **[Clegane](Gregor)(Gregor Clegane)** (portrayed by [Stevens](Conan)(Conan Stevens) in season 1, by [Whyte](Ian)(Ian Whyte (actor)) in season 2, and by [Júlíus Björnsson](Hafþór)(Hafþór Júlíus Björnsson) from season 4 onwards)[[Júlíus Björnsson Scottish Stone Put.jpg|thumb|upright=0.5|Hafþór Júlíus Björnsson, the third and latest actor to portray Ser Gregor Clegane](File:Hafthór)] A huge [knight](knight) and the elder brother of Sandor Clegane. Called "the Mountain That Rides", he is known for his incredibly cruel nature and uncontrollable temper. His size and strength make him a fearsome warrior, and he has earned a reputation for cruelty and brutality. He is able to wield a two-handed sword one handed. When they were children, Gregor shoved Sandor's face into a brazier, gruesomely scarring him. In season 1, Tywin Lannister sends him to raid the Riverlands. Beric Dondarrion is sent to arrest Gregor. When war breaks out, Gregor is given command of Tywin's vanguard and left flank and leads his men through intimidation. In season 2 he is left to command Harrenhal in Tywin's absence and to find and destroy "the Brotherhood Without Banners", invoking the escape of Arya, Gendry and Hot Pie from Harrenhal. He later abandons the castle after slaughtering the prisoners and is defeated by Edmure Tully at the Stone Mill, but manages to escape back to the Westerlands. Robb chides his uncle, having planned to draw the Mountain into a trap of his own making to be captured or killed. In season 4, Gregor is chosen as Cersei's champion for Tyrion's trial by combat, and fights Oberyn Martell, Tyrion's champion who wants to kill Clegane as revenge for the needless murder of his sister, Elia Martell Targaryen. Oberyn inflicts several serious injuries on Clegane with a weapon that is laced with poison, but Clegane kills Oberyn by crushing his skull, while admitting that he did rape Elia, killed her children and enjoyed it, before collapsing from his own injuries. It is later revealed that Clegane has been poisoned with manticore venom, a poison that Oberyn had laced his weapon with, and that he is slowly dying. Cersei enlists ex-maester Qyburn to save him, though Qyburn claims that the procedure will "change" Clegane. The procedure is a seemingly a success, as Gregor has become active again and joins the Kingsguard as a personal knight for Cersei, though the procedure has changed his physical appearance and his behavior. In the sixth season, he continues to act as Cersei's bodyguard to intimidate all those who may bother or mock her. After Cersei destroys the Great Sept of Baelor and retakes power, she has Gregor torture Septa Unella in revenge for Unella torturing her during her time in prison. Fighting his brother, Sandor, the pair perish in the firestorms caused by Daenerys Targaryen.
* **[Lannister](Kevan)(Kevan Lannister)** (portrayed by [Gelder](Ian)(Ian Gelder)) is Lord Tywin's younger brother, a skilled warrior who is loyal to but overshadowed by him. Unlike his older brother, Kevan is very amiable and cares more about the safety of his family members even if it will humiliate the family's honour. In season 1, he is present when Tyrion returns from the Vale and informs him on Jaime's military victories against Tully bannermen. After Jaime's capture, he suggests to his brother that they "should sue for peace" which is immediately refuted by Tyrion who reminds that Ned Stark's beheading prevents it. In season 2, he sits on a war council in Harrenhal, surmising (correctly) that Robb Stark would not march on Casterly Rock until "at full force" and also suggesting that Cersei and her children leave King's Landing before Stannis Baratheon sacks the city, but the proposition is countered by Tywin, refusing to surrender the Iron Throne. In season 5, he returns to King's Landing to attend Tywin's funeral alongside his only surviving son, Lancel, who has joined the Sparrows movement, which Kevan disapproves of. He later refuses to serve on Cersei's Small Council, in spite her offering him the position of "Master of War", questioning her authority, and returning to Casterly Rock until the King himself calls for him. When his niece is arrested by the Faith Militant for sleeping with his son among other sins, Grand Maester Pycelle summons him back to offer him the position of Hand of the King. He later is present at Cersei's return to the Red Keep, immediately after her enduring Walk of Atonement. In the sixth season, Kevan continues to serve as Tommen's Hand while attempting to deal with the High Sparrow without bloodshed and spurning Cersei's attempts to regain influence in the royal court. On the day of Cersei's trial, Kevan is killed when Cersei has the Great Sept of Baelor destroyed with wildfire.
* **[Lannister](Lancel)(Lancel Lannister)** (portrayed by [Simon](Eugene)(Eugene Simon)) [[Simon.jpg|thumb|upright=0.5|Eugene Simon](File:Eugene)] The eldest son of Kevan Lannister and cousin of Cersei, Jaime, and Tyrion Lannister. He served as King Robert's [squire](squire); in which he is clumsy and incompetent in his duties leading Robert to dislike him intensely. In season 2, Cersei knights him for his part in Robert's death. When Jaime goes to war, Cersei takes Lancel as a lover because he resembles her brother. Tyrion eventually discovers the affair and blackmails Lancel into spying for him. During an attack on King's Landing, Lancel guards Cersei's son King Joffrey Baratheon and takes a serious wound in the fighting, causing him to retreat. When Joffrey later abandons the battle out of cowardice, Lancel pleads with Cersei to let him take Joffrey back to the battle to inspire the troops, but Cersei, clearly more concerned for Joffrey than the city, refuses to listen. In season 5, he and his father return to King's Landing to attend Tywin's funeral. Lancel joins the sparrows, a devout religious movement, and apologises to Cersei for the sins they committed together, such as their affair and conspiracy to murder Robert Baratheon. With the reestablishment of the Faith Militant, Lancel abandons his family name and leads the sparrows on a rampage throughout King's Landing, arresting Ser Loras Tyrell in the process. Later, on Littlefinger and Olenna Tyrell's urging, he confesses his own sins to the High Sparrow, which leads to Cersei's arrest. In the sixth season, Lancel continues to serve in the Faith Militant. On the day of Cersei and Loras's trial, he is lured by one of Qyburn's little birds to the catacombs underneath the Great Sept of Baelor, where he is stabbed in the spine, rendering him unable to use his legs. He spots a cache of wildfire rigged to explode and crawls towards it, but is too late to stop the detonation and is the first to die.
* **[Polliver](Polliver)** (portrayed by [Kellegher](Andy)(Andy Kellegher)) is a Lannister [man-at-arms](man-at-arms) who comes into possession of Arya Stark's sword; Needle. He captures Arya – believing her to be a recruit of the Night's Watch called "Arry" and takes her sword which he then uses to kill a crippled Lommy after he asks Polliver to carry him. In season 4, he inadvertently crosses paths with Arya and Sandor Clegane in an inn in the north. After a brief exchange of insults, a fight breaks out and Polliver's comrades are slain by Clegane. Arya wounds Polliver from behind, retrieves Needle and kills him in exactly the same manner that he killed Lommy.
* **Alton Lannister** (portrayed by [Davies](Karl)(Karl Davies)) is a cousin of Cersei, Jaime and Tyrion Lannister, and a captive of Robb Stark. In the books there is no character by this name. Here the character Cleos Frey, also a cousin to the Lannisters, has the role of being a captive of House Stark and delivering terms to House Lannister. While held prisoner in the same cell he talks with his cousin Jaime at Stark's camp, he talks about the time he was allowed to prove himself by squiring for Jaime in a tourney, however during this encounter he is killed by Jaime in an attempt to escape.
* **[Lorch](Amory)(Characters in A Song of Ice and Fire)** (portrayed by [McKeown](Fintan)(Fintan McKeown)) is a [knight](knight) and loyal but brutal bannerman of House Lannister. He catches Arya in stealing a parchment containing war orders concerning her brother Robb Stark. She manages to escape him, then finds and hurries the assassin Jaqen H'ghar, to kill Ser Amory to repay the second of the three "lives" he owes her. Before Ser Amory can denounce Arya, he drops dead on the doorstep of Tywin's chambers with a poisoned dart lodged in his neck, as Tywin (who comes to believe the attempt was on his life) raises the alarm. The Mountain subsequently kills a number of Lannister soldiers in his hunt for the culprit, but Jaqen leaves Harrenhal without being captured.
* **Lord Leo Lefford** (portrayed by Vinnie McCabe) is a powerful Bannerman to Lord Tywin, who fought for him against House Stark. He is Head of House Lefford and Lord of The Golden Tooth.
### House Martell
* **[Sand](Tyene)(Tyene Sand)** (portrayed by [Laurenti Sellers](Rosabell)(Rosabell Laurenti Sellers)) [[Laurenti Sellers.jpg|thumb|upright=0.5|Rosabell Laurenti Sellers](File:Rosabell)] The daughter of Prince [Martell](Oberyn)(Oberyn Martell) by [Sand](Ellaria)(Ellaria Sand). Tyene is fiercer than she looks, especially with her twin daggers. She assists her mother in her plot to assassinate [Baratheon](Myrcella)(Myrcella Baratheon) as revenge against Cersei, whose actions led to Oberyn's death. In the ensuing fight with [Lannister](Jaime)(Jaime Lannister) and [Bronn](Bronn (character)), she poisons Bronn by striking him with a poison-coated dagger before they are all arrested. In the cells, she strips in front of Bronn to hasten his heartbeat as well as the poison's effects, though she shows him mercy and gives him the cure. She later synthesises a similar poison for Ellaria, who uses it to poison Myrcella. She gives Ellaria the antidote before she too is killed. When Doran finds out, Tyene kills Areo Hotah while Ellaria stabs Doran in the chest. Tyene subsequently watches her own uncle die without remorse. She is later present when Ellaria meets with [Tyrell](Olenna)(Olenna Tyrell) to discuss an alliance with [Targaryen](Daenerys)(Daenerys Targaryen), where she is silenced by Olenna before she can speak. While journeying to Sunspear with her sisters and Ellaria aboard Yara Greyjoy's ship, Tyene is captured by [Greyjoy](Euron)(Euron Greyjoy) while defending her mother and taken as a captive aboard his flagship, *Silence*. Given as a gift to Cersei, Tyene is chained with her mother in a dungeon. Cersei uses a version of the poison on Tyene and leaves her chained in front of her mother so that Ellaria can watch her daughter not just die but decompose.
* **[Sand](Nymeria)(Nymeria Sand)** (portrayed by [Henwick](Jessica)(Jessica Henwick)) [[Henwick by Gage Skidmore.jpg|thumb|upright=0.5|Jessica Henwick](File:Jessica)] The second eldest of Prince Oberyn's bastard daughters. Her mother was an Eastern noblewoman who brought Nym up to be cultured, graceful and deadly with a whip. She assists [Sand](Ellaria)(Ellaria Sand) in her plot to assassinate [Baratheon](Myrcella)(Myrcella Baratheon) as revenge against [Lannister](Cersei)(Cersei Lannister), whose actions led to Oberyn's death. Though she is briefly imprisoned by her uncle Doran for her treachery, Ellaria murders Myrcella, and Nym joins her in her coup by ambushing and murdering Trystane Martell. She is later present when Ellaria meets with [Tyrell](Olenna)(Olenna Tyrell) to discuss an alliance with [Targaryen](Daenerys)(Daenerys Targaryen), where she is silenced by Olenna. In season 7, Nymeria accompanies Ellaria, Yara and [Greyjoy](Theon)(Theon Greyjoy), and her sisters on the journey to Sunspear from Dragonstone. After they are ambushed by [Greyjoy](Euron)(Euron Greyjoy) and his fleet, both Nymeria and Obara confront Euron while Tyene protects Ellaria. After the Lord Reaper of the Iron Islands kills Obara, an enraged Nymeria attacks him with her whip, only to be choked to death and then hung from the prow of the ship with her weapon, next to her sister.
* **[Sand](Obara)(Obara Sand)** (portrayed by [Castle-Hughes](Keisha)(Keisha Castle-Hughes))[[Castle-Hughes at TIFF 2009 (headshot).jpg|thumb|upright=0.5|Keisha Castle-Hughes](File:Keisha)] A fearsome warrior and the eldest bastard daughter of Prince Oberyn Martell. Her mother was a Dornish peasant girl who caught the eye of the Prince. She assists [Sand](Ellaria)(Ellaria Sand) in her plot to kill [Baratheon](Myrcella)(Myrcella Baratheon) as revenge against [Lannister](Cersei)(Cersei Lannister), whose actions led to Oberyn's death. Though she is briefly imprisoned by her uncle Doran for her treachery, Ellaria kills Myrcella, and Obara joins her in her coup by personally murdering [Martell](Trystane)(Trystane Martell), her own cousin. She is later present when Ellaria meets with [Tyrell](Olenna)(Olenna Tyrell) to discuss an alliance with Daenerys Targaryen, where she is silenced by Olenna. In season 7, Obaara accompanies Ellaria, Yara and Theon Greyjoy, and her sisters on the journey to Sunspear from Dragonstone. After they are ambushed by [Greyjoy](Euron)(Euron Greyjoy) and his fleet, both Nymeria and Obara confront Euron while Tyene protects Ellaria. Ultimately, Euron proves to be a more skillful fighter and ultimately stabs her in the stomach with her own spear. She is impaled at the front of the ship with her spear, next to her hanging sister, Nymeria.
* **[Martell](Trystane)(Trystane Martell)** (portrayed by [Sebastian](Toby)(Toby Sebastian)) [[Sebastian.jpg|right|thumb|upright=0.5|Toby Sebastian](File:Toby)] Prince Doran's son and heir to Dorne. His father betrothed him to [Baratheon](Myrcella)(Myrcella Baratheon) as part of the alliance offered by [Lannister](Tyrion)(Tyrion Lannister), then acting as Hand of the King. He and Myrcella later grow to love each other and Trystane offers to ask his father if they can marry immediately. He is struck by Bronn when he and [Lannister](Jaime)(Jaime Lannister) arrive to take Myrcella back, but Trystane later shows Bronn mercy and decides not to have him mutilated, satisfied with having Areo Hotah strike him in a similar manner instead. Doran allows Trystane to accompany Myrcella back to King's Landing to take his uncle Oberyn's place on the Small Council, but Trystane's life is put in danger when Ellaria Sand secretly poisons Myrcella just as their boat leaves Dorne. Though Jaime prepares to send him back to Dorne unharmed, Trystane refuses to leave, insisting on being present for Myrcella's funeral, so Jaime instructs him to stay on the boat for his own safety. However, as he is painting funeral stones for Myrcella, he is ambushed and killed by Obara and Nymeria Sand, his own cousins, sent by [Sand](Ellaria)(Ellaria Sand) to kill him as part of her coup, though most believe his death was Cersei's doing.
* **[Martell](Doran)(Doran Martell)** (portrayed by [Siddig](Alexander)(Alexander Siddig)) [[Siddig](File:AlexanderSiddig09TIFF.jpg|thumb|upright=0.5|Alexander)] The ruling lord of Dorne and older brother to the late Prince [Martell](Oberyn)(Oberyn Martell). Unlike his brother, Doran is even-tempered and deliberate. In season 4, he is invited to [Baratheon](Joffrey)(Joffrey Baratheon) and [Tyrell](Margaery)(Margaery Tyrell)'s wedding, but due to suffering from [gout](gout), he is unable to attend and sends Oberyn in his stead. After Oberyn is slain by [Clegane](Gregor)(Gregor Clegane), Doran grieves but takes no action, claiming that Oberyn suffered a self-imposed death in a trial by combat, a legal act, and coldly rebutts Ellaria's proposal to harm [Baratheon](Myrcella)(Myrcella Baratheon) to exact revenge on the Lannisters. However, after a skirmish in which [Lannister](Jaime)(Jaime Lannister) and Bronn fight with the Sand Snakes over possession of Myrcella, Doran orders all locked up, including Ellaria. He later grants Jaime an audience and agrees to allow Myrcella to return to King's Landing along with his son, Trystane Martell, Myrcella's betrothed, while threatening Ellaria and the Sand Snakes with severe consequences should they defy him again. However, Ellaria later secretly poisons Myrcella despite Doran's warning. In the sixth season, Doran finds out about Myrcella's assassination, but he is immediately killed by Ellaria, while his men stand and watch as he dies.
* **[Hotah](Areo)(Areo Hotah)** (portrayed by [Oparei](DeObia)(DeObia Oparei)) is the long-serving captain of [Martell](Doran)(Doran Martell)'s palace guard, renowned for his loyalty and his longaxe. He arrests [Lannister](Jaime)(Jaime Lannister), [Bronn](Bronn (character)), [Sand](Ellaria)(Ellaria Sand) and the Sand Snakes following their battle over [Baratheon](Myrcella)(Myrcella Baratheon), but releases them all on Doran's request. As retribution for striking [Martell](Trystane)(Trystane Martell), Areo strikes Bronn across the face. In the sixth season, after Doran finds out about Myrcella's death at Ellaria's hands, he is stabbed and poisoned by [Sand](Tyene)(Tyene Sand), and dies immediately.
* **[Martell](Oberyn)(Oberyn Martell)** (portrayed by [Pascal](Pedro)(Pedro Pascal))[[Pascal by Gage Skidmore.jpg|thumb|upright=0.5|Pedro Pascal](File:Pedro)] The [Prince](Prince) of Dorne and younger brother of [Martell](Doran)(Doran Martell), known as the **Red Viper**. A renowned warrior and traveler, Oberyn has eight bastard daughters, called the Sand Snakes. His sister, Elia Targaryen, was raped and killed during the Sack of King's Landing by Ser [Clegane](Gregor)(Gregor Clegane). In season 4, Oberyn arrives in King's Landing with his paramour, [Sand](Ellaria)(Ellaria Sand), to attend Joffrey's wedding in his brother's stead, and his meeting with Tyrion makes it clear that he has actually come to take revenge against the Lannisters for their role in the deaths of his sister, nephew and niece. At the wedding, Joffrey dies after being poisoned, and Tywin initially suspects Oberyn of having a hand in the murder since Oberyn has a past with poison chemistry, while Oberyn denies involvement and accuses Tywin of ordering Gregor Clegane to rape and murder Elia. The two reach a settlement when Tywin promises Oberyn a meeting with Clegane in exchange for Oberyn serving as one of the three judges at Tyrion's trial. At the trial, Oberyn implies that he is not convinced of Tyrion's guilt, and openly questions Cersei's testimony and asks Shae why Tyrion would tell her about all of his plans to murder Joffrey if he was the perpetrator. When Tyrion demands a trial by combat and Gregor Clegane is chosen as Cersei's champion, Oberyn volunteers to fight for Tyrion, proclaiming that he will exact his vengeance, starting with Ser Gregor. Martell valiantly fights Clegane, his superior speed making up for Clegane's size, and manages to wound him in the shoulder and the leg, flooring him. Refusing to kill him immediately, Oberyn furiously demands that Clegane admit to raping and killing Elia and her children, and that the order came from Tywin himself. Distracted for a moment, Oberyn is floored by Clegane, who – in a manner self-admittedly paraphrasing the murder of Elia – knocks out his teeth, straddles him and slowly gouges out his eyes, admitting to the rape and murder of Elia before crushing his skull. Tyrion is subsequently sentenced to death, but Oberyn's objective of vengeance was not in vain, since his spear is revealed to have been laced with the deadly venom of the manticore, which is slowly killing Clegane. Oberyn's death, however, throws House Martell into chaos, since Ellaria is driven insane to the point that she kills [Baratheon](Myrcella)(Myrcella Baratheon), [Martell](Doran)(Doran Martell) and [Martell](Trystane)(Trystane Martell) (Oberyn's own brother and nephew, respectively) to get revenge against the Lannisters.
### House Stark
* **[Glover](Robett)(Robett Glover)** (portrayed by [McInnerny](Tim)(Tim McInnerny))[[McInnerny.jpg|thumb|upright=0.5|Tim McInnerny](File:Tim)] The brother of Galbart Glover, the Master of Deepwood Motte. He succeeded him after Galbart's death in the War of the Five Kings. House Glover were bannermen of House Stark but this changed after the Boltons helped him take Deepwood Motte back from the Ironborn who had captured it. He refuses Jon and Sansa's request for aid against the Boltons, citing his brother's death fighting for Robb, the fact that Robb marching to war in the south provided an opportunity for the Ironborn to capture his castle, in the process killing his subjects and imprisoning his family, and finally the fact that Jon's army is composed primarily of Wildings, who the Northern houses have been fighting for generations. However, after Jon Snow and Sansa Stark successfully recapture Winterfell from the Boltons, with help from Littlefinger and the Knights of the Vale, House Glover becomes sworn to House Stark once more, with Lord Glover apologizing for his previous refusal of aid and crowning Jon the King in the North. Despite this, when Jon Snow swears fealty to Daenerys Targaryen, Lord Glover and his men return to Deepwood Motte and do not aid House Stark during the Battle of Winterfell.
* **[Reed](Meera)(Meera Reed)** (portrayed by [Kendrick](Ellie)(Ellie Kendrick))[[Kendrick.jpg|thumb|upright=0.5|Ellie Kendrick](File:Ellie)] Jojen's elder sister and daughter of Lord Howland Reed, Eddard Stark's old friend from Robert's Rebellion. In season 3 Meera and her brother join Bran in his journey to the Wall and beyond to help him to find the Three-Eyed Raven. In season 4, they stumble across Craster's Keep and are captured by the Night's Watch mutineers led by Karl. Meera is almost raped by Karl, but is saved when Bran reveals his identity to protect her. Karl later tries again to rape her, but an attack by Night's Watch rangers saves her, and they manage to escape during the fray. They eventually reach the Three-Eyed Raven in a cave, but are attacked by reanimated skeletons outside it. Jojen is fatally stabbed, and Meera performs a mercy killing on him. In season 6, she continues to mourn for Jojen. After the cave is attacked by White Walkers, she pulls Bran to safety until the wights catch up. They are rescued by Bran's uncle, Benjen Stark, who ultimately takes them back to the Wall. When she leaves Bran to go back south to her home, she is devastated that he gives no acknowledgement of her sacrifices or her brother's.
* **** (portrayed by [Ramsey](Bella)(Bella Ramsey))[[Ramsey, 2020 (cropped).png|thumb|upright=0.5|Bella Ramsey](File:Bella)] The fierce and outspoken, 10-year-old head of House Mormont of Bear Island. She is the niece of Lord Commander [Mormont](Jeor)(Jeor Mormont) of the Night's Watch and cousin of Ser [Mormont](Jorah)(Jorah Mormont). In the fifth season, she refuses Stannis Baratheon's request to aid him in his campaign to overthrow the Boltons and rally the North to help him retake the Iron Throne, asserting her loyalty to House Stark. In the sixth season, she is approached by Jon Snow, Sansa Stark and Davos Seaworth for help in retaking Winterfell from Ramsay Bolton. Though Lyanna is ready to refuse, citing Jon as a bastard and Sansa as a Lannister/Bolton wife, she is persuaded to offer help when Davos informs her of the coming battle against the Night King. She accompanies the Mormont forces and witnesses the subsequent battle between Jon and Ramsay's armies. After the castle is retaken, Lyanna admonishes Wyman Manderly and Robett Glover for refusing Jon's calls for help, and is the first to proclaim Jon the new King in the North. As Jon and the Northern Lords plan for the coming war she insists that girls as well as boys should be taught military skills. She dies heroically in the Battle of Winterfell, sacrificing herself to singlehandedly slay an undead ice giant.
* **** (portrayed by [Rycroft](Richard)(Richard Rycroft)) [[Rycroft 2.jpg|thumb|upright=0.5|Richard Rycroft](File:Richard)] A member of the Order of Masters who is in service to House Bolton at Winterfell. He witnesses Ramsay kill Roose and reluctantly summons Walda and the baby for Ramsay to murder as well. After the Boltons' defeat, he serves the Starks. He unwillingly helps Petyr Baelish cause friction between Sansa and Arya Stark. He builds a wheelchair for Bran.
* **[Stark](Lyanna)(Lyanna Stark)** (portrayed by Cordelia Hill as a child, and by [Franciosi](Aisling)(Aisling Franciosi) as an adult)[[Franciosi (cropped).jpg|thumb|upright=0.5|Aisling Franciosi](File:Aisling)] The sister of Ned Stark, who was promised to wed Robert Baratheon, but supposedly kidnapped and raped by Rhaegar Targaryen. During the tourney at Harrenhal, Rhaegar rode past his wife, Elia Martell, and placed a crown of winter roses in Lyanna's lap. Lyanna in fact loved Rhaegar, and was married to him in secret. At the Tower of Joy, Lyanna is being protected by several members of the Kingsguard when Ned arrives to try to find her. Defeating Ser Arthur Dayne of the Kingsguard, Ned enters the Tower of Joy where he finds Lyanna in a bed of blood, but still alive. Lyanna asks Ned to promise to protect her son, who is revealed to be Jon Snow, and prevent Robert from killing him by hiding his Targaryen lineage.
* **[Stark](Rickon)(Rickon Stark)** (portrayed by [Parkinson](Art)(Art Parkinson)) is Lord Eddard and Lady Catelyn's youngest child, naturally aggressive and strong-willed. His black [wolf](dire)(dire wolf) Shaggydog shares these qualities also. When Theon Greyjoy captures Winterfell in season 2, Rickon hides in the crypts. After Winterfell is sacked and burned, he, Bran, Hodor, the Wildling woman Osha and the direwolves travel through the North. In season 3 before they reach the Wall, Rickon, his direwolf and Osha split up from the rest of the group heading to Last Hearth, the seathouse of the Umbers. In season 6, Rickon and Osha are betrayed by the Umbers to the Boltons following Greatjon Umber's death, and become hostages of Ramsay Bolton. At the beginning of a grand showdown between the Boltons and the Northern rebels led by Jon Snow, Rickon is released by Ramsay and told to run towards Jon, unaware that it is merely a trap to lure Jon into the open. Just before he can reach Jon, Rickon is shot and killed by Ramsay. Following Ramsay's defeat, Jon orders Rickon's body buried in the Winterfell crypt.
* **[Hodor](Hodor)** (portrayed by [Nairn](Kristian)(Kristian Nairn))[[Nairn (cropped).jpg|thumb|upright=0.5|Kristian Nairn](File:Kristian)] A huge, physically strong and intellectually disabled [stablehand](Groom (profession)) at Winterfell who can only say the word "Hodor". He hides in the crypts along with Osha, Bran and Rickon, faking their escape out of the castle. They eventually leave the crypts only to find the castle destroyed. After speaking to the dying Maester Luwin, it is decided that they must go to the Wall. In season 3 Bran decides to go beyond the Wall to find the Three-Eyed Raven and Hodor helps him along with Meera and Jojen Reed after the departure of Rickon and Osha. In season 4, they stumble across Craster's Keep, where they are captured by the Night's Watch mutineers led by Karl. Hodor is chained to a post and abused by some mutineers, who poke him with spears and eventually stab him in the leg to stop him intervening on Bran's behalf. Hodor is later chained in a hut with the other prisoners, and when Bran is abducted by Locke, Bran wargs into Hodor and uses him to kill Locke by snapping his neck. Hodor frees the others and they escape, eventually reaching the Three-Eyed Raven in his cave. During Season 6, Bran learns through visions of the past that, as a boy, Hodor was named Wyllis and possessed normal abilities of speech. When the cave is overrun by White Walkers and wights while Bran is viewing the past, Bran simultaneously wargs into Hodor to induce him to carry Bran to safety. Once they exit through a passageway, Meera orders Hodor to "hold the door" against the wights; in the past, Wyllis collapses and repeats this phrase until it slurs into "Hodor". In the present, Hodor is killed as the wights eventually tear through the door, but Meera escapes with Bran. Hodor only ever says one word: "Hodor". However, according to Kristian Nairn's interview to Vulture, he has developed 70 ways to say it. Nerdist|url = http://nerdist.com/there-are-70-ways-to-say-hodor-on-game-of-thrones-and-here-they-are/|website = Nerdist|access-date = October 7, 2015|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20190130025146/https://nerdist.com/there-are-70-ways-to-say-hodor-on-game-of-thrones-and-here-they-are/|archive-date = January 30, 2019|url-status = dead}}
* **[Osha](Osha (character))** (portrayed by [Tena](Natalia)(Natalia Tena)) [[Tena 2012 cropped.jpg|thumb|upright=0.5|Natalia Tena](File:Natalia)] A Wildling woman captured by Robb and held captive at Winterfell. Osha works in the kitchens, often giving Bran advice when she bathes in the godswood. After Winterfell is taken by the turncloak Theon Greyjoy, Osha bends the knee to Theon. After the Sack of Winterfell, Osha helps Bran and Rickon escape, along with their direwolves and Hodor. She gives a mercy kill to wounded Maester Luwin. Later, she and her companions travel to the Wall to seek help. In season 3 before they reach the Wall, Osha, Rickon and his direwolf split up from the rest of the group heading to Last Hearth, the seathouse of the Umbers. In season 6, they are betrayed by the Umbers to the Boltons after Greatjon Umber dies, and become hostages of Ramsay Bolton. Osha later attempts to kill Ramsay, but is instead killed herself.
* **[Reed](Jojen)(Jojen Reed)** (portrayed by [Brodie-Sangster](Thomas)(Thomas Brodie-Sangster)) [[Brodie-Sangster by Gage Skidmore 2.jpg|thumb|upright=0.5|Thomas Sangster](File:Thomas)] A boy with special insights and son of Lord Howland Reed, Eddard Stark's old friend from Robert's Rebellion. In season 3 Jojen and his sister join Bran in his journey to the Wall and beyond to help him to find the Three-Eyed Raven. In season 4, they stumble across Craster's Keep and are captured by the Night's Watch mutineers led by Karl, during which time Jojen suffers from a seizure. Jojen and the others are freed when Bran wargs into Hodor and has him kill Locke and cut them all loose, but Jojen stops Bran from reuniting with his brother, Jon Snow, since he knows Jon would try and stop their journey. Once they reach their destination, however, they are attacked by reanimated skeletons, and Jojen is stabbed in the ensuing fight. Meera finishes him out of mercy.
* **[Karstark](Rickard)(Rickard Karstark)** (portrayed by Steven Blount in season 1, and by [Stahl](John)(John Stahl) from season 2 onwards) is a Bannerman of the North, Lord of Karhold and he is a chief member of Robb Stark's war council. The Karstarks are distant cousins of the Starks of Winterfell. Karstark's sons Harrion and Torrhen was killed by Jaime Lannister and Karstark vows retribution. He is enraged when Catelyn Stark decides to free Jaime in an attempt to secure the safety of her daughters. When Karstark discovers that Edmure Tully has defeated the Lannisters in battle near Riverrun and taken two of his young relatives hostage, Karstark orders his men to kill them. Karstark is subsequently sentenced to death by Robb, and he cryptically warns Robb that his actions will eventually lead to his own demise, just before he is executed.
* ** [Luwin](Maester)(Maester Luwin)** (portrayed by [Sumpter](Donald)(Donald Sumpter))[[Sumpter.jpg|thumb|upright=0.5|Donald Sumpter](File:Donald)] The Maester of Winterfell, and chief advisor to Lord Stark. He is one of the few Maesters to have studied magic and the occult. With Robb Stark's departure, the day-to-day rule of the North falls to Ser Rodrik Cassel and Maester Luwin, acting with Bran's voice. After Winterfell is taken by Theon, Luwin must advise him because of his valour to serve to the ruler of Winterfell. When Ramsay Snow launches an attack on Winterfell to drive the Ironborn away, Luwin advises Theon to flee to the Wall and join the Night's Watch, where his crimes will be pardoned, but Theon instead rallies his few remaining men to face Ramsay, and betrayed by his own men. Luwin, in an attempt to save Theon, is stabbed by Dagmer. Bran Stark and his party emerge from hiding to find Winterfell sacked by Ramsay and his men and Luwin dying in the Godswood, where he declares his loyalty and love for the Starks before having Osha perform a mercy killing on him, out of sight of Bran and Rickon.
* **[Cassel](Rodrik)(Rodrik Cassel)** (portrayed by [Donachie](Ron)(Ron Donachie))[[Donachie.jpg|thumb|upright=0.5|Ron Donachie](File:Ron)] The [Master-at-Arms](Master-at-arms) at Winterfell. After the discovery of the origin of the knife from the attempted assassination of Bran Stark, he accompanies Lady Catelyn Tully to King's Landing. Later Lady Catelyn decides to join Robb at Moat Cailin, and names Ser Rodrik castellan of Winterfell. When the Ironmen attack Torrhen's Square, Ser Rodrik gathers a force to expel them, including most of the Winterfell garrison. The Ironborn under Theon Greyjoy then attack and take Winterfell, and Ser Rodrik is captured while defending himself. Ser Rodrik refuses to swear allegiance to Theon, and spits in his face. Theon orders him thrown into the dungeons, but Dagmer insists that Theon execute him to gain respect. Theon executes Ser Rodrik himself, but it takes several blows of the sword to behead him and only gains more contempt and hatred from the Northerners.
* **Jory Cassel** (portrayed by [Sives](Jamie)(Jamie Sives)) was [of the Guard](Captain)(Captain of the Guard) at Winterfell and the nephew of Ser Rodrik. Killed by Jaime Lannister during a fight between Jaime's men and Eddard Stark over Tyrion Lannister's abduction by Eddard's wife.
* **Septa Mordane** (portrayed by [Brown](Susan)(Susan Brown (English actress))) was a [priest](priest)ess of the Faith of the Seven Gods and governess to the young ladies of Winterfell. She was killed by the Lannisters after Eddard Stark's failed attempt to arrest King Joffrey and Queen Regent Cersei.
* **Old Nan** (portrayed by [John](Margaret)(Margaret John)) was an old [woman](serving)(Domestic worker) at Winterfell who tells the Stark children stories from beyond the Wall. She is the great-grandmother of Hodor. Margaret John died before the filming of Season 2, so her character was killed offscreen in between seasons rather than being recast.
* **Jon Umber** (portrayed by [Mantle](Clive)(Clive Mantle)) [[Mantle (cropped).jpg|thumb|upright=0.5|Clive Mantle](File:Clive)] The [Lord](Lord) of Last Hearth and a Bannerman of the North. In season 1 he joins Robb Stark in the war and is the first one calling him The King in the North. In season 3, the North loses the war after the death of King Robb, but his youngest brother Rickon heads to the seat of House Umber to seek refuge. In between the third and sixth seasons, Rickon and Osha arrive at Last Hearth, but at some point, Greatjon dies under unknown circumstances and his lands pass to his son, Smalljon Umber, who betrays Rickon and Osha to Ramsay Snow.
### House Targaryen
* **[Selmy](Barristan)(Barristan Selmy)** (portrayed by [McElhinney](Ian)(Ian McElhinney))[[McElhinney (cropped).jpg|thumb|upright=0.5|Ian McElhinney](File:Ian)] The Lord Commander of the Kingsguard and member of the Small Council. Known as "Barristan the Bold", he is considered one of the most famous [knight](knight)s of the Seven Kingdoms. Ned has a tremendous respect for Barristan as he remained loyal to protect the Mad King, Aerys II. He sustained injuries at the Trident which prevented Selmy from taking place in the final battles of the war which ultimately led to his survival and pardon. When Ned attempts to arrest Cersei and Joffrey, he informs Ser Barristan of Robert's will and tells his men not to harm him. After Joffrey becomes King and has Ned arrested, Cersei and Joffrey force Ser Barristan into retirement despite the Kingsguard being meant to serve for life, and much to his anger, his position of Commander is to be given to Jaime. His honor insulted, Ser Barristan refuses their offer of a castle and servants in recognition of his service and leaves King's Landing. Ser Barristan returns in season 3 where he offers his service to Daenerys as a member of her Queensguard to redeem himself for failing her family. He and Ser Jorah Mormont tend to conflict over what actions Daenerys should use with the former preferring honorable choices while the latter preferring pragmatic choices. Barristan later discovers that Jorah's original purpose was to spy on Daenerys for Robert and Lord Varys, and informs Daenerys, fearing for her safety and leading her to exile Jorah from Meereen on threat of execution. When a resistance movement, the Sons of the Harpy, openly hostile to Daenerys's conquest and politics, arise, Barristan advises the Queen to remain just with her enemies and tells of her own father's crimes and cruel attitude which led to his downfall. He eventually sustains mortal injuries in a fight with a group of Sons of the Harpy alongside Grey Worm even though he managed to slay most of them with prowess. He is mourned by Daenerys as she considered him a loyal friend and his death causes her to retaliate on the Great Masters.
* **[zo Loraq](Hizdahr)(Hizdahr zo Loraq)** (portrayed by [Fry](Joel)(Joel Fry (actor)))[[Fry.jpg|thumb|upright=0.5|Joel Fry](File:Joel)] A slave-trader from the city of Meereen, on the coast of Slaver's Bay, and a scion of the House of Loraq, an ancient and proud line of slavers. He claims to Daenerys Targaryen that his father, who Daenerys ordered crucified, was actually against the crucifixion of children, and requests permission to give his father a proper funeral, which she accepts. Daenerys later has Hizdahr sent to Yunkai along with Daario Naharis as her ambassador to persuade the wise masters there to submit to her rule. In season 5, he returns with Daario claiming to have succeeded, although the masters want Daenerys to reopen the fighting pits in return, which she refuses, though she grants him a position on her Small Council. After Barristan Selmy is killed and Grey Worm seriously injured in an attack by the Sons of the Harpy, Daenerys agrees to reopen the pits and marry Hizdahr to bring about peace, though Daario insinuates that Hizdahr is working with the Sons of the Harpy. On the opening day of the Great Games, however, the Sons of the Harpy attack again and Hizdahr is killed, revealing that he was loyal to Daenerys the entire time.
* **Mossador** (portrayed by [Noi](Reece)(Reece Noi)) is a former slave who joined the rebellion against the masters of Meereen. In season 5, after the Sons of the Harpy rise and kill and Unsullied, Mossador advocates hunting them down and killing them without mercy, arguing that Meereen is not like Westeros and the only language the Meereenese understand is blood and violence. He is executed by Daario Naharis after murdering a captive Son without Daenerys's consent.
* **Kovarro** (portrayed by [Cole](Steven)(Steven Cole)) is a Dothraki Bloodrider sworn to Daenerys Targaryen. He finds Qarth and leads Daenerys there, following the betrayal of Pyat Pree he goes into hiding alongside Jorah Mormont and Daenerys until Daenerys reclaims her dragons. The only thing that interests him in Qarth is stealing all the gold and jewels from Xaro Xoan Daxos.
* **Doreah** (portrayed by [McKee](Roxanne)(Roxanne McKee)) [[McKee.jpg|thumb|upright=0.5|Roxanne McKee](File:Roxane)] A slave bought to school Daenerys in the art of love. She was sold to a brothel when she was nine, by her mother. She is bought by Viserys Targaryen and is shown to pleasure him as he tells her stories about the dragons of Westeros. In season 2 after arriving in Qarth, Doreah is convinced by Xaro Xoan Daxos that Daenerys wouldn't leave the city and she steals Daenerys dragons and becomes Xaro's lover. After revealing the plans of Xaro, Daenerys locks him and Doreah alive in a vault.
* **Irri** (portrayed by [Acharya](Amrita)(Amrita Acharya)) is a slave bought to school Daenerys in Dothraki riding. She is in love with Rakharo and is deeply distressed by his death and the desecration of his corpse. She and Doreah are shown to be at odds, due to Irri valuing tradition and mythical beliefs of the Dothraki over Doreah's foreign ideals. In season 2 she is killed in Qarth during the stealing of the dragons. In a deleted scene it is shown she is strangled to death by Doreah.
* **Rakharo** (portrayed by [Gabel](Elyes)(Elyes Gabel) [[Gabel 2014 (cropped).jpg|thumb|upright=0.5|Elyes Gabel](File:Elyes)] A young Bloodrider, favored by, and sworn to Khal Drogo and later Daenerys Targaryen. Deep into the Red Waste while facing starvation Daenerys sends Rakharo, Aggo, and Kovarro to scout in three different directions, using the last remaining horses. Later Rakharo's horse comes back with his head. It is assumed that Rakharo is killed by some other Khal. Irri fears that without his head, Rakharo's soul will become lost and will not find its way to the Night Lands.
* **Rhaegar Targaryen** (portrayed by Wilf Scolding) was the eldest son and heir of King Aerys II Targaryen, and was the Prince of Dragonstone. He was the elder brother of Viserys and Daenerys Targaryen, and the husband of Elia Martell, a distant cousin with whom he had two children, Rhaenys and Aegon Targaryen. However, he annulled his marriage to Elia, and he secretly married Lyanna Stark with whom he has a child, Jon Snow. The parentage of Jon is kept a secret, and he is raised by Lyanna's brother, Eddard Stark as his bastard to protect him from the enemies of House Targaryen. Rhaegar was the assumed instigator of Robert's Rebellion after allegedly kidnapping Lyanna, Lord Robert Baratheon's betrothed.
### House Tully
* **[Tully](Edmure)(Edmure Tully)** (portrayed by [Menzies](Tobias)(Tobias Menzies)) [[premiere episode screening at 92nd Street Y in New York 17 (crop).jpg|thumb|upright=0.5|Tobias Menzies](File:Outlander)] Catelyn and Lysa's younger brother and the [Lord](Lord) of Riverrun after the death of their father Hoster. A brash but good-hearted man, Edmure is not a good tactician but a skilled [politician](politician). To restore the alliance with Walder Frey, and to make amends with Robb Stark for unwittingly curtailing his plan to draw Tywin Lannister into battle, Edmure is promised to one of Frey's daughters, Roslin. Edmure and Roslin are wed and carried off for a "bedding ceremony", after which the Freys slaughter the Stark family in the "Red Wedding". He becomes a prisoner of the Freys after the death of his sister Catelyn and nephew Robb. When his uncle Brynden retakes Riverrun from the Freys, Edmure is used as a hostage to coerce Brynden into surrendering, but he refuses, while the Freys also refuse to kill Edmure. Jaime Lannister later meets with Edmure and falsely threatens his wife and baby child with death if he does not persuade Brynden to stand down. He is subsequently released and allowed into Riverrun, where he gives the order to surrender. The Lannisters and Freys retake the castle and Edmure is taken captive once more to ensure the Tullys' loyalty. He reappears in the series finale alongside the other lords and ladies of Westeros as they decide on their new king.
* **[Tully](Brynden)(Brynden Tully)** (portrayed by [Russell](Clive)(Clive Russell)) [[Russell.jpg|thumb|upright=0.5|Clive Russell](File:Clive)] Commonly known as "the Blackfish", Ser Brynden is the uncle of Catelyn, Lysa, and Edmure, and a seasoned war veteran. He returns to Riverrun during season 3 before his older brother's death to make amends. He serves as both an adviser and confidant for both his niece Catelyn and grandnephew King Robb Stark. At Edmure's wedding to Roslin Frey at the Twins, Brynden excuses himself from the feast to "find a tree to piss on", and by so doing narrowly escapes the ensuing Red Wedding massacre when the Freys and Boltons betray the Starks. Lord Frey is visibly untouched by the man's absence, while Roose Bolton appears disturbed, aware that Brynden is capable of holding Riverrun (which has been granted to Lord Frey as payment) against the Iron Throne even with its technical lord, Edmure, in captivity. Brynden indeed retakes Riverrun from the Freys and holds it in Robb's name, refusing to surrender even when Edmure's life is threatened. The castle eventually falls when Edmure is allowed inside and gives the order to stand down. Brynden, however, refuses to surrender and chooses to fight to the death. He is later reported dead.
* **[Frey](Roslin)(Roslin Frey)** (portrayed by [Dowling](Alexandra)(Alexandra Dowling)) is Lord Walder Frey's daughter and considered the most beautiful one. She was previously the intended bride for Robb Stark, who was unaware of her beauty and went on to marry Talisa Maegyr instead. She is married to Lord Edmure Tully as compensation at what becomes known as the Red Wedding. In the sixth season, it is mentioned that Roslin has given birth to Edmure's child.
### House Tyrell
* **[Tyrell](Olenna)(Olenna Tyrell)** (portrayed by [Rigg](Diana)(Diana Rigg))[[Rigg 1973.jpg|thumb|upright=0.5|Diana Rigg](File:Diana)] Lady Olenna, better known as "the Queen of Thorns", is the sharp-witted grandmother of Loras and Margaery. Considered Tywin Lannister's female counterpart, Olenna is a matriarch and the real power behind House Tyrell. She has very progressive views where she feels women should be more involved in politics and is accepting of Loras' homosexuality where the people of Reach have no problems with it. After asking Sansa directly what Joffrey is like, and believing Sansa that Joffrey is an abusive "monster", Olenna decides to protect both Margaery and Sansa. To prevent the other nobles from using her as heir of the North, Olenna secretly plots to have Sansa marry Loras. But her plan is foiled by Loras himself, who accidentally reveals it to Littlefinger's male spy in the brothel, who reports to Tywin Lannister. Tywin forces Sansa marry his son Tyrion and, to secure the Reach, orders Cersei to marry Loras. Lady Olenna is at first against Loras marrying Cersei because she says Cersei is too old, and because of the scandal of Cersei's incestuous affair with her twin brother, Jaime. Tywin threatens to make Loras join the celibate Kingsguard, which would make Joffrey and Margaery's children the heirs of the Reach. Olenna admits defeat and praises Tywin for outwitting her. In season 4, Olenna conspires with Petyr Baelish to have Joffrey poisoned, to protect Margaery from Joffrey's beastly nature, and advises Margaery to become acquainted with her new match, Tommen Baratheon, Joffrey's malleable, much younger brother and heir. She returns to Highgarden shortly afterwards. When Loras is arrested by the recently reinstated Faith Militant for his homosexuality, Margaery writes to her grandmother who returns to the capital to protect her grandchildren from Cersei's schemes. But, mistakenly believing Loras's arrest was simply meant to humiliate House Tyrell, she helplessly assists Olyvar's testimony which incriminates her grandson, as well as to Margaery's incarceration for perjuring herself in front of the gods. Olenna later confronts the High Sparrow without results and has a secret meeting with Littlefinger who, blackmailed by Olenna for his part in Joffrey's death, and to placate his role in her grandchildren's imprisonment in providing Olyvar to Cersei, gives valuable information about Lancel and Cersei's adulterous relationship. This results in the arrest of Cersei by the Faith Militant. In the sixth season, Olenna takes steps to free Margaery from the High Sparrow and retake power from the Faith Militant, but the plan is thwarted when Tommen forges an alliance with the Faith and becomes the High Sparrow's new puppet. Margaery feigns loyalty to the Faith and manages to instruct Olenna to leave the city when the High Sparrow threatens her life. After hearing of the Great Sept of Baelor's destruction, which killed Mace, Loras and Margaery, Olenna vows revenge. She accepts an invitation to Dorne by Ellaria Sand, who reveals that she has followed Yara Greyjoy in declaring for Daenerys Targaryen. Seeking vengeance against Cersei for her slain family, Olenna pledges the Tyrell forces to Daenerys as well. When the Lannisters, supported by the turncoat Tarly forces formerly loyal to the Tyrells, attack Highgarden, they win with ease. Jaime Lannister finds Olenna in her tower, ready to be taken captive or killed. Jaime tells Olenna that Cersei had dreamed up horrible deaths for her but that he had persuaded his sister to let him offer Olenna poison instead. After drinking the poison Olenna confesses proudly to Joffrey's murder.
* **[Tyrell](Mace)(Mace Tyrell)** (portrayed by [Ashton-Griffiths](Roger)(Roger Ashton-Griffiths)) [[Ashton-Griffiths by Gage Skidmore.jpg|thumb|upright=0.5|Roger Ashton-Griffiths](File:Roger)] The [Lord](Lord) of Highgarden, Defender of the Marches, High Marshal of the Reach, and Warden of the South, he is the buffoonish father of Loras and Margaery, and Lady Olenna's son. Lady Olenna has a low opinion of Mace, whom she calls "Lord Oaf". Originally Hand of the King to Renly Baratheon before the latter's death during the War of the Five Kings, Mace agrees to a Lannister-Tyrell alliance as proposed by Petyr Baelish. He is named Master of Ships on Joffrey's Small Council, and attends Joffrey and Margaery's wedding. After Joffrey's death, Mace serves as one of the judges at the trial of his accused murderer, Tyrion Lannister. He is later present at Tywin Lannister's funeral and at Tommen and Margaery's wedding, and, in spite of offering himself as Hand of the King to Tommen, he is instead named Master of Coin by Cersei who, in the aim of keeping him away from the capital while she schemes against his daughter, sends him to renegotiate the royal debt with the Iron Bank of Braavos. He later arrives in Braavos, and is unsuccessful in his attempt to win over Tycho Nestoris, who is unimpressed with his buffoonish ways. In the sixth season, he returns to King's Landing with the Tyrell army to free Margaery from the Faith Militant alongside Jaime Lannister but is foiled when Tommen forges an alliance with the High Sparrow. He is later killed in the destruction of the Great Sept of Baelor after being horrified, but unable to protect his son as he was mutilated by the Faith Militant.
* **[Tyrell](Loras)(Loras Tyrell)** (portrayed by [Jones](Finn)(Finn Jones)) [[Jones 2016.jpg|thumb|upright=0.5|Finn Jones](File:Finn)] A highly skilled [knight](knight) and jouster. Known across Westeros for his beauty, he is Renly Baratheon's former [squire](squire) and secretly his lover. He is widely known throughout Westeros for defeating Jaime Lannister in a jousting match. In season 1, he charms Sansa Stark before his jousting match with Ser Gregor Clegane, but even though he wins, Clegane attacks him in a blind rage and he is only saved by Clegane's brother, Sandor, who Loras names as the champion in gratitude. In private, while shaving Renly, Loras makes it clear that he disapproves of both Joffrey and Stannis as Robert's closest heirs, and tells Renly that he would make a great king. In season 2 when Renly makes his claim for the Iron Throne, Loras and the rest of House Tyrell back his claim and cement their support by marrying Loras's sister Margaery to Renly. Loras and Renly remain inseparable even after Renly's wedding. After Renly's assassination, Loras goes berserk and vows vengeance against Stannis, but secretly blames himself for having pushed Renly to make his claim even though he was lawfully behind Stannis. When the Tyrells join the Lannister cause against Stannis, Loras fights wearing Renly's armor in honour of the fallen king at the Battle of the Blackwater. During season 3, his family plots to have him marry Sansa for Sansa and his family's benefit. However, he accidentally reveals this plot to his new lover and squire, Olyvar, who is actually a spy for Lord Baelish. Tywin stops the Tyrell plot by having Sansa marry his son Tyrion and engages Loras to his daughter Cersei. In season 4, at Joffrey and Margaery's wedding, Loras exchanges banter with Jaime, who warns Loras that if he marries Cersei, she will likely kill him in his sleep, and that he will never marry her. Loras counters that Jaime will not marry Cersei either, implying that he knows of his incestuous relationship with Cersei. He is later present at Tyrion's trial for murdering Joffrey, though he is apparently unaware that his grandmother, Olenna Tyrell, is the true killer. In season 5, he attends Tywin's funeral and offers his condolences to Cersei. He continues his sexual relationship with Olyvar, flirtatiously suggesting that they should move to Dorne, where homosexuality is more tolerated, and expresses doubt that to Margaery that he is still obliged to marry Cersei with Tywin gone. He is later present at Tommen and Margaery's wedding and, during a training session, is suddenly arrested for his homosexuality by the recently reinstated Faith Militant. He denies all of the Faith's allegations against him, including his affair with Renly, during an inquest presided by the High Sparrow, but eventually loses his temper when Olyvar testifies against him, citing his birthmark "in the shape of Dorne" he has on his thigh as proof. This prompts the Faith to incarcerate both him and his sister, the latter for perjuring herself in front of the gods in an effort to protect him, and to open formal trials for them. In the sixth season, after being tortured for almost a year, Loras admits to his "crimes" on the day of his trial and joins the Faith Militant to survive and a seven-pointed star is carved on his forehead. Though he is accepted into their ranks, he is killed when the Great Sept of Baelor is destroyed by wildfire on Cersei's orders.
* **[Tarly](Randyll)(Randyll Tarly)** (portrayed by [Faulkner](James)(James Faulkner (actor))) is the Lord of Horn Hill and the head of House Tarly, a vassal family of House Tyrell of Highgarden. Randyll is the father of [Tarly](Samwell)(Samwell Tarly), and one of the greatest soldiers in Westeros. He has a humorless martinet, is severe and intimidating. He demands martial discipline in the field and in his home. He forces Sam to join the Night's Watch on threat of death. In the sixth season, he is not pleased when Sam returns to Horn Hill with Gilly and his supposed son with her, and enraged when he realizes Gilly is a wildling. Despite his hatred for the wildlings, Randyll agrees to let Gilly work in the kitchens and raise the baby as a bastard of House Tarly, on the condition that Sam never again set foot in Horn Hill when he leaves for Oldtown. Sam ultimately takes Gilly and the baby with him, and takes House Tarly's ancestral Valyrian steel sword, Heartsbane. In the seventh season Jaime Lannister persuades Lord Randyll to side with the Lannisters against the Tyrells. This goes well initially as the Tarlys help capture Highgarden, but when Daenerys ambushes the Tarly and Lannister forces they are soundly defeated. Daenerys demands that the Tarlys and their few surviving soldiers, now captives, bend the knee. Randyll refuses and is executed by dragonfire.
* **[Tarly](Melessa)(Melessa Tarly)** (portrayed by [Spiro](Samantha)(Samantha Spiro)) is the wife of Lord Randyll Tarly of Horn Hill and mother of Samwell Tarly of the Night's Watch. She is a sweet, plump, and adoring mother, and has a soft spot for Samwell. When Sam returns to Horn Hill with Gilly and her baby on the way to Oldtown, she greets him warmly, and becomes infuriated when Randyll insults Sam and Gilly during dinner.
* **[Tarly](Talla)(Talla Tarly)** (portrayed by [Benson](Rebecca)(Rebecca Benson)) is a kind, friendly and unpretentious woman, and the sister of [Tarly](Samwell)(Samwell Tarly). She greets Sam warmly when he returns to Horn Hill with Gilly and her baby on his way to Oldtown.
* **[Tarly](Dickon)(Dickon Tarly)** (portrayed by [Stroma](Freddie)(Freddie Stroma) in season 6, and by [Hopper](Tom)(Tom Hopper) in season 7) [[Hopper 2013.jpg|thumb|upright=0.5|Tom Hopper](File:Tom)] Dickon is athletic, a good hunter, an excellent swordsman, manly, not particularly bright but the favorite child of his father, Lord Randyll. He is the younger brother of [Tarly](Samwell)(Samwell Tarly), but was pronounced heir when Samwell was sent to the Night's Watch. He greets Sam warmly when he returns to Horn Hill with Gilly and her baby on their way to Oldtown, but his dismissal of Sam's claims that he killed a White Walker is what leads Randyll to realize Gilly is a wildling. Dickon acquits himself well enough in his first real battle, but his second - against Daenerys, her Dothraki and her dragon - ends in defeat. Captured, he is urged by his father to bend the knee to Daenerys and save himself, but instead he stands with his father in refusing. He is executed by dragonfire.
### People of Essos
* **[Drogo](Khal)(Khal Drogo)** (portrayed by [Momoa](Jason)(Jason Momoa)) [[Momoa by Gage Skidmore.jpg|thumb|upright=0.5|Jason Momoa](File:Jason)] A [warlord](warlord) of the [Dothraki](Dothraki Sea) people. He is to marry Daenerys Targaryen, as arranged by her brother Viserys. He is undefeated in battle. Viserys Targaryen conspired with Magister Illyrio to marry Daenerys to Drogo to get his support in an invasion of Westeros. Though Daenerys was initially unhappy with the arrangement, Drogo proves to be a sensitive husband and lover despite his fearsome behavior with his men. After a failed poisoning attempt on Daenerys' life, he promises to invade Westeros to reclaim the Seven Kingdoms for the Targaryens, but Viserys's impertinence ultimately causes Drogo to kill him. Drogo maintains his promise for the benefit of his wife, but is wounded by an enemy khal before he could begin the invasion. The wound festers and Drogo becomes so sick that he is unable to ride his horse, a sign of weakness to the Dothraki. Most of his khalasar abandons him, but Daenerys unknowingly sacrifices their unborn child for a spell to revive him. The spell works, but leaves him a brain-dead husk of his former self. Daenerys smothers him out of pity, and the flames of his funeral pyre ultimately hatch her dragon eggs.
* **[Nestoris](Tycho)(Tycho Nestoris)** (portrayed by [Gatiss](Mark)(Mark Gatiss)) [[Gatiss by Gage Skidmore.jpg|thumb|upright=0.5|Mark Gatiss](File:Mark)] A representative of the Iron Bank of Braavos. He initially refuses to loan Stannis Baratheon money to help him hire mercenaries, but Davos Seaworth changes his mind. In season 5, Tycho greets Mace Tyrell, who has been sent to renegotiate the royal debt. In season 7 he arrives in King's Landing to collect the debt, expecting to be met with a default. He is impressed when Cersei, newly enriched by the captured Tyrell treasury, pays the debt in full and he agrees to Cersei's request for further funding.
* **[Izembaro](Izembaro)** (portrayed by [E. Grant](Richard)(Richard E. Grant)) [[2007 (387046786).jpg|thumb|upright=0.5|Richard E. Grant](File:BAFTA)] The manager of a Braavosi troupe of actors, in which he also acts. He portrays King Robert Baratheon and Lord Tywin Lannister in the production of *The Bloody Hand*. He is outwardly dismissive to his actors, and witnesses Arya Stark foil an assassination attempt on one of his actresses, Lady Crane. He subsequently kicks Bianca, the actress who ordered Crane's death, out of the troupe.
* **Lady Crane** (portrayed by [Davis](Essie)(Essie Davis)) is the leading actress in Izembaro's Braavosi theater troupe. She portrays Queen Cersei Lannister in the production of *The Bloody Hand*. She becomes a target of the Faceless Men on the request of her jealous co-star, Bianca. She is almost killed by Arya Stark, who poisons her rum but briefly speaks with her, realizing she is an innocent women who is a mere victim of someone else's selfishness, and thwarts the assassination, warning her about Bianca. Crane subsequently mutilates Bianca's face and has her expelled from the troupe. Shortly after, she finds Arya severely wounded as retribution for the assassination and cares for her, but is herself killed by the Waif, who was sent to kill Arya.
* **[Waif](The)(The Waif)** (portrayed by [Marsay](Faye)(Faye Marsay)) is a sadistic young woman who lives in the House of Black and White, a temple to the Many-faced God, in Braavos. She participates in Arya's training but repeatedly deems her unfit to become a Faceless Man (assassin). After Arya is struck blind for her unsanctioned killing of Ser Meryn Trant, the Waif repeatedly beats and abuses Arya, though Arya learns how to fight without her eyesight and her vision is soon returned to her. When Arya refuses to kill an innocent target, Lady Crane, the Waif is sent to kill her. Though she stabs Arya multiple times, Arya survives. The Waif then kills Lady Crane and pursues the wounded Arya all over Braavos before cornering her in her hideout. Arya, however, extinguishes the room's only candle and manages to kill the Waif in the ensuing fight. Arya rips her face off and adds it to the Hall of Faces.
* **[zo Qaggaz](Yezzan)(Yezzan zo Qaggaz)** (portrayed by [Cilenti](Enzo)(Enzo Cilenti))[[Cilenti (29152188673).jpg|thumb|upright=0.5|Enzo Cilenti](File:Enzo)] A slave-trader from the city of Meereen, on the coast of Slaver's Bay, and one of the Great Masters, the former ruling elite of the city. He buys Jorah Mormont and Tyrion Lannister after they are captured by Malko and takes them to a fighting pit to train as [gladiator](gladiator)s, though he loses both Tyrion and Jorah when they are accepted into Daenerys Targaryen's inner circle. He, along with Razdal mo Eraz and Belicho Paenymion, negotiates with Tyrion in Daenerys's absence and they reach an accord to end slavery throughout seven years in exchange for ordering the Sons of the Harpy to stand down, but they go back on their word and order a naval assault on Meereen. When Daenerys's dragons defeat the slaver fleet, Yezzan is betrayed by Razdal and Belicho and handed over to be killed by Grey Worm, who kills the other two instead. Tyrion instructs Yezzan to warn his friends about angering Daenerys further.
* **Razdal mo Eraz** (portrayed by George Georgiou) is a slave-trader from the city of Yunkai, on the coast of Slaver's Bay, and one of the Wise Masters, the ruling elite of the city. He attempts to parley with Daenerys for her to leave Yunkai, but she refuses and takes the city. Later, he helps fund the Sons of the Harpy to resist Daenerys's rule over Slaver's Bay and breaks a peace treaty with Tyrion Lannister. He is killed by Grey Worm when the slavers' attack on Meereen is thwarted.
* **Belicho Paenymion** (portrayed by Eddie Jackson) is a prominent noble of the Free City of Volantis, and a member of the "Old Blood", descendants of the original Valyrian settlers of the city. Like most of the Volantene nobility, Belicho is involved in the slave trade and funds the Sons of the Harpy to resist Daenerys. After breaking a peace pact with Tyrion Lannister, his throat is slit by Grey Worm when their attack on Meereen fails.
* **Kinvara** (portrayed by [Bukstein](Ania)(Ania Bukstein)) is the High Priestess of the Red Temple of Volantis, one of the high-ranking leaders in the religion of R'hllor, the Lord of Light. Tyrion Lannister and Varys enlist her help in acquiring the common peoples' support for Daenerys, whom she believes to be the Prince that Was Promised, destined to defeat the Night King.
* **Vala** (portrayed by Meena Rayann) is a prostitute in Meereen who is secretly in league with the Sons of the Harpy, a resistance movement against Daenerys Targaryen. Her actions cause the death of several Unsullied and Ser Barristan Selmy. She is later captured by Varys and forced to reveal who are funding the Sons of the Harpy on pain of death and her son becoming an orphan. She cooperates and is sent to Pentos with her son to live peacefully.
* **Camello** (portrayed by [Eldon](Kevin)(Kevin Eldon)) [[Eldon 2013.jpg|thumb|upright=0.5|Kevin Eldon](File:Kevin)] A member of Izembaro's comedic theatre troupe in Braavos. He portrays Eddard Stark in the production of "the Bloody Hand".
* **Bobono** (season 6) portrayed by [Gill](Leigh)(Leigh Gill), is a member of Izembaro's comedic theatre troupe in Braavos. He portrays Tyrion Lannister in the production of *The Bloody Hand*.
* **Bianca** (season 6) portrayed by Eline Powell, is a member of Izembaro's comedic theatre troupe in Braavos. She portrays Sansa Stark in the production of *The Bloody Hand*. Though she is far less skilled than the lead actress, Lady Crane, she is consumed by jealousy and desires to replace her. She contracts the Faceless Men to have her assassinated, but the assassin, Arya Stark, instead warns Lady Crane about Bianca's intentions. Lady Crane subsequently mutilates Bianca's face and Izembaro kicks her out of the troupe.
* **Clarenzo** (portrayed by Rob Callender) is a member of Izembaro's comedic theatre troupe in Braavos. He portrays Joffrey Baratheon in the production of *The Bloody Hand*.
* **Khal Moro** (portrayed by [Naufahu](Joe)(Joe Naufahu)) is a Dothraki Khal whose khalasar finds Daenerys after she flees Meereen. Out of respect for Khal Drogo, Moro takes Daenerys to the Temple of the Dosh Khaleen to live the rest of her life with the widows of former Khals. When Daenerys refuses to submit, Moro and the other Khals threaten her with being raped and killed. Daenerys responds by burning the temple down with the Khals inside and taking over the entire khalasar.
* **High Priestess of the Dosh Khaleen** (portrayed by [Faress](Souad)(Souad Faress)) is the leader of the dosh khaleen, the widows of former Khals.
* **Ornella** (portrayed by [John-Kamen](Hannah)(Hannah John-Kamen)) is a young member of the Dosh khaleen who befriends Daenerys Targaryen.
* **Kraznys mo Nakloz** (portrayed by [Hildebrand](Dan)(Dan Hildebrand)) is a wealthy slaver from the Ghiscari city of Astapor. Sexist and rude, he repeatedly insults to Daenerys in Valyrian, not realizing she speaks the language. He agrees to sell Daenerys 8,000 slave-soldiers called the Unsullied in exchange for one of her dragons, throwing in his translator, Missandei, as a bonus. Daenerys reveals she speaks Valyrian and orders her new army to kill the Astapori slavers. Kraznys is killed by Drogon.
* **Quaithe** (portrayed by Laura Pradelska) is an enigmatic [priest](priest)ess of Asshai whom Daenerys meets in Qarth, where she warns Daenerys about the local warlocks.
* **Xaro Xhoan Daxos** (portrayed by [Anozie](Nonso)(Nonso Anozie))[[Anozie at the Pan Premiere (cropped).jpg|thumb|upright=0.5|Nonso Anozie](File:Nonso)] A rich [merchant](merchant) "prince" of Qarth who vouches for Daenerys when she and her then-starving entourage wish to enter the city. He claims extremely humble background, having worked his way to wealth from nothing. He repeatedly asks Daenerys to marry him, but she refuses. Xaro eventually betrays Daenerys, allowing the warlocks to kidnap her dragons and kill several of her people, and crowns himself "King of Qarth" as part of a plan to render the city less [isolationist](isolationism). After Daenerys rescues her dragons and returns, she locks him alive in his own vault, finding it to have been empty the whole time.
* **Pyat Pree** (portrayed by [Hanmore](Ian)(Ian Hanmore)) [[Hanmore.jpg|thumb|upright=0.5|Ian Hanmore](File:Ian)] A [warlock](Magician (fantasy)) from the city of Qarth. He tries to lure Daenerys to the House of the Undying, the warlocks' lair, by stealing her dragons but Daenerys defeats him, rescues her dragons and escapes.
* **The Spice King** (portrayed by [Blane](Nicholas)(Nicholas Blane)) is the leader of the Ancient Guild of Spicers, one of the [merchant](merchant) groups vying in Qarth. He is one of many powerful Qarthites whom Daenerys asks for ships and funding to mount a campaign in Westeros, but he is rude to Daenerys in a polite way by pointing out that without an army, she cannot regain the Iron Throne. He is killed by the warlock Pyat Pree as part of his coup with Xaro Xoan Daxos.
* **[Mopatis](Illyrio)(Illyrio Mopatis)** (portrayed by [Allam](Roger)(Roger Allam)) [[Allam La Cage 120909 DSCF1622.JPG|thumb|upright=0.5|Roger Allam](File:Roger)] A wealthy magister of the free city of Pentos. Illiyrio hosts the Targaryens after their escape from Westeros. He arranges Daenerys' marriage to Khal Drogo and conspires with Lord Varys for the returning of the Targaryens to power. In season 5, Varys and Tyrion Lannister take shelter in his mansion when they flee Westeros after the murder of Tywin Lannister.
* **Mirri Maz Duur** (portrayed by [Soteriou](Mia)(Mia Soteriou)) was a "Maegi", or [witch](Witchcraft)-woman, held captive by Khal Drogo's horde. Before her capture, she had been a godswife (priestess) in the Temple of the Great Shepherd. When Drogo and his men attack her town and take her prisoner, Daenerys gives Mirri and the other victims protection from further attacks. When Khal Drogo is wounded in a fight, Daenerys asks for Mirri's help to cure it, but Mirri betrays her in revenge for the attack on her village, leaving Drogo in a permanent vegetative state and causing the then-pregnant Daenerys to miscarry her son Rhaego. In revenge, Daenerys has Mirri burned to death on Drogo's funeral pyre.
* **Qotho** (season 1) portrayed by [Salim](Dar)(Dar Salim). Qotho is a fierce and hot-tempered bloodrider under Khal Drogo. After Drogo's incapacitation, some of the bloodriders try to stop Daenerys from taking him to the witch Mirri Maz Duur. Qotho kills Quaro in the ensuing fight and is in turn killed by Ser Jorah Mormont.
### People of Westeros
* **[Payne](Podrick)(Podrick Payne)** (portrayed by [Portman](Daniel)(Daniel Portman)) [[Portman GCCDORTMUND 2016.JPG|thumb|upright=0.5|Daniel Portman](File:Daniel)] A young [squire](squire) assigned to Tyrion Lannister. In season 2, he fights alongside Tyrion at the Battle of the Blackwater and saves him from an assassination by Ser Mandon Moore. In season 4, Podrick is anonymously offered a knighthood in exchange for testifying against Tyrion at his trial for the murder of King Joffrey, but he does not accept or reject the offer – Tyrion orders Podrick to leave King's Landing before he is killed. Tyrion makes his brother, Jaime, assure Podrick's safety, who assigns him to serve Brienne of Tarth. Podrick initially appears to be incompetent but slowly wins Brienne's trust. Podrick and Brienne eventually find Arya Stark and Sandor Clegane near the Vale. A brawl ensues between Brienne and Sandor, and Podrick loses sight of Arya, much to Brienne's annoyance. Podrick and Brienne then search for Sansa, finding her with Petyr Baelish and some Vale knights in an inn. A fight ensues, and Podrick is only barely rescued by Brienne. They decide to follow Sansa and Baelish north. During their journey, Brienne slowly opens up to Podrick, and offers to teach him how to use a sword and defend himself. Brienne and Podrick reach the North and take shelter in a nearby inn, sending Sansa a message to signal for help should she need it. Podrick later alerts Brienne when Stannis arrives with his army to retake Winterfell. Podrick and Brienne later save Sansa and Theon Greyjoy from pursuing Bolton soldiers and Podrick manages to slay one with his newfound skills. He and Brienne escort Sansa to find Jon Snow at Castle Black. Sansa sends Brienne and Podrick to the Riverlands to seek the aid of Brynden Tully, where Podrick briefly reunites with Bronn. When Riverrun falls to the Freys, Brynden apparently sacrifices himself to allow Brienne and Podrick to escape in a boat. Though they are seen by Jaime Lannister, he lets them go. At the parley in the Dragonpit, Pod meets Bronn and at Bronn's suggestion they go for a drink.
* **[Dondarrion](Beric)(Beric Dondarrion)** (portrayed by David Scott in season 1 and by [Dormer](Richard)(Richard Dormer) from season 3 onwards) [[Dormer (2009) (headshot).jpg|thumb|upright=0.5|Richard Dormer](File:Richard)] Beric Dondarrion is also known as the [Lord](Lord) of Blackhaven and "the Lightning Lord". In season one, Eddard Stark sends him to arrest Gregor Clegane for terrorizing the Riverlands. After Ned's arrest, he becomes the leader of an outlaw group known as the "Brotherhood without Banners". In season three, it is revealed that Beric has been killed many times but has been resurrected by his friend Thoros of Myr, a red priest. Because of this miracle, Beric and the rest of the Brotherhood convert to the worship of Thoros's god, whom they call the Lord of Light. Beric and the Brotherhood harry the Lannister army, focusing on protecting commoners. They find Arya, Gendry, and Hot Pie and offer them shelter, and at the same time capture Sandor Clegane, who had deserted from the Lannister army during the Battle of the Blackwater. Clegane is sentenced to trial by combat, and Beric is his opponent. Despite setting his sword ablaze, Beric is slain by Clegane, but is resurrected by Thoros, and allows Clegane to go free. Beric later confides to Arya that it is the sixth time he has been revived from death, though he has slowly been losing his memories each time. He later meets Melisandre when she comes to fetch Gendry. Beric gives him away in return for gold, which prompts Arya to run away. Years later, the Brotherhood encounters Clegane again, after hanging three of their rogue members, and convince him to join their cause, since they are heading North to aid Jon Snow against the coming White Walker army. Trying to go around the end of the Wall at Eastwatch, the three are captured by a suspicious Tormund Giantsbane and imprisoned. They later join Jon Snow's raiding party on their mission to capture a wight.
* **[of Myr](Thoros)(Thoros of Myr)** (portrayed by [Kaye](Paul)(Paul Kaye))[[Kaye in 2018.jpg|right|thumb|upright=0.5|Paul Kaye](File:Paul)] A red [priest](priest) who follows the same religion as Melisandre. He later joins the "Brotherhood Without Banners". Thoros was a famous warrior who fought during the Greyjoy rebellion where he wielded a flaming sword in battle. Thoros was initially sent to Westeros as a [missionary](missionary), to convince King Robert Baratheon to convert to the worship of the Lord of Light, but he became absorbed in the hedonism of Robert's court, which led him to lose his faith and become a drunkard. Thoros' faith was renewed during the War of Five Kings when he was able to resurrect his friend Beric using what he believed to be a mundane funeral rite. Since then, Thoros has stayed beside Beric, resurrecting him several more times, though at the cost of some of his memories each time. In the sixth season, he and Beric persuade Sandor Clegane to join their cause, since they are heading North to aid Jon Snow against the White Walkers. In the seventh season, trying to go around the end of the Wall at Eastwatch, the three are captured by a suspicious Tormund Giantsbane and imprisoned. They later join Jon Snow's raiding party on their mission to capture a wight, in which Thoros is killed by an undead polar bear.
* **Hot Pie** (portrayed by [Hawkey](Ben)(Ben Hawkey)) is a [baker](baker)'s boy from King's Landing recruited by Yoren to join the Watch. He is shown to be a friend of Lommy and together they try to bully Arya, but, instead she beats him. Hot Pie and Arya survive the attack on Yoren's band by Ser Amory Lorch, along with Gendry and Lommy Greenhands. They are later captured by soldiers of Ser Gregor Clegane, who kill Lommy. Like Arya, Hot Pie is made a servant at Harrenhal, in the kitchens. He escapes Harrenhal with Arya and Gendry and head to Riverrun. On the way, they are captured by the Brotherhood Without Banners, Hot Pie decides to stay at a local Inn to become a cook. In season 4, Hot Pie meets Brienne of Tarth and Podrick Payne on their journey to find Sansa Stark and tells them that Arya is likely still alive. Then when Arya passes through in season 7 he is able to give her the news that Jon Snow has retaken Winterfell.
* **Septa Unella** (portrayed by [Waddingham](Hannah)(Hannah Waddingham)) [[Waddingham 2010.jpg|right|thumb|upright=0.5|Hannah Waddingham](File:Hannah)] A Septa of the Faith of the Seven and devoted follower of the High Sparrow. She throws Cersei into a cell beneath the Sept of Baelor and repeatedly commands her to confess her sins. When Cersei finally does, Unella and some septas wash Cersei and cut off most of her hair. During Cersei's walk of atonement, Unella walks behind her, repeatedly ringing a bell and calling out "Shame!" to the crowd. She continues to abuse Margaery until an alliance is made between the Crown and the Faith and follows Margaery around wherever she goes. On the day of Cersei and Loras's trial, however, Unella is captured by Cersei's forces before the Great Sept of Baelor is destroyed, taking the High Sparrow with it, and kept prisoner to be tortured by Gregor Clegane on Cersei's orders as revenge for the needless abuse Unella once inflicted on her.
* **Lem Lemoncloak** (portrayed by [Haukur Jóhannesson](Jóhannes)(Jóhannes Haukur Jóhannesson)) is a member of the Brotherhood without Banners. He leads an attack on Septon Ray's small community, without Beric Dondarrion's consent. He is subsequently sentenced to death and hanged by Sandor Clegane, the only survivor of the attack.
* **Brother Ray** (portrayed by [McShane](Ian)(Ian McShane)) [[McShane](File:IanMcShane06.jpg|right|thumb|upright=0.5|Ian)] A former mercenary who now serves the Faith of the Seven. He tries to build a new community in the Riverlands and saves Sandor Clegane from death following his brutal fight with Brienne of Tarth. He and the rest of the community, however, are killed by rogue members of the Brotherhood Without Banners, and Ray is hanged from the unfinished sept, which drives Sandor to seek revenge, as Ray was his friend.
* **Olyvar** (portrayed by [Tudor](Will)(Will Tudor)) [[Tudor.jpg|right|thumb|upright=0.5|Will Tudor](File:Will)] A [spy](Espionage), [worker](sex)(sex worker), and brothel manager in the employ of Petyr Baelish. In season 3, he poses as Loras Tyrell's squire and has a one-night stand with him at Baelish's request to learn the Tyrells' true motivations for coming to King's Landing. In season 4, he becomes a lover of Oberyn Martell. In season 5, he continues his affair with Loras. His life is put in danger when the Faith Militant are re-established and they target the city's homosexuals. He escapes due to being fully clothed during the attack and goes into hiding, but he is approached by Cersei and offered immunity from prosecution if he testifies against Loras at his Holy Inquest. Olyvar does so, implicating both Loras and Margaery in the process.
* **Anguy** (portrayed by [McGinley](Philip)(Philip McGinley)) is a [commoner](commoner) from the Dornish Marches, a member of the Brotherhood Without Banners. He is called "the Archer".
* **Rorge** (portrayed by [Beckwith](Andy)(Andy Beckwith)), a violent criminal from King's Landing, is taken from the Black Cells by Yoren to join the Night's Watch, which is customary for criminals. He, with the other criminals Jaqen H'Ghar and Biter, is kept caged in a cart for their journey north to keep from harming the other recruits. When Yoren's band is attacked by Ser Amory Lorch, Arya saves the three men by giving them an axe so that they can break out of their cage, which has been set on fire. The three join the Lannister soldiers for a time. In season 4, Rorge and Biter attack Arya and Sandor to collect the bounty on Sandor Clegane's head, but Biter is killed by Sandor and Rorge by Arya.
* **Biter** (portrayed by [Jordan](Gerard)(Gerard Jordan)), a violent criminal from King's Landing, is a frightening man who hisses instead of speaking, and his teeth have been filed to points. Like Jaqen H'Ghar and Rorge, Biter was collected by Yoren for the Night's Watch. When Yoren's band is attacked by Ser Amory Lorch, Biter and his companions find themselves trapped in the wagon in the middle of a fire, but Arya Stark, throws an axe into the wagon so that they can break free and save themselves. They manage to escape and are later taken into Ser Amory's service, eventually arriving at Harrenhal. In season 4, Rorge and Biter attack Arya and Sandor to collect the bounty on Sandor Clegane's head, but Biter is killed by Sandor and Rorge by Arya.
* **Ros** (portrayed by [Bianco](Esmé)(Esmé Bianco)), is a red-haired [worker](sex)(sex worker). The Ros of the television adaptation is an amalgam of more than one character from the books, including the unnamed redheaded northern prostitute and Alayaya. She initially lives in a brothel outside the gates of Winterfell, where she is a favorite of Theon Greyjoy, though she has attracted the attention of several others such as Tyrion Lannister and Jon Snow. Later in the season, Ros moves to King's Landing and is given employment in a brothel owned by Littlefinger. At the start of season 2, Ros has been promoted, managing the brothel and interviewing new employees. She is later abused by King Joffrey and savagely beaten by Cersei's men who mistake her for Tyrion's lover. She later enters an alliance with Varys. Her primary function in season 1 appeared to be one of [sexposition](sexposition), as the backstories and motives of Theon, Littlefinger and Pycelle are all revealed during sexual encounters involving her. In season 2, she is used mostly as a familiar face for the audience in several key events. Midway through season 3 she is shot dead by King Joffrey after Littlefinger discovers that she has been spying for Varys.
* **Lommy Greenhands** (portrayed by [Vlahos](Eros)(Eros Vlahos)) [[Vlahos 2.jpg|right|thumb|upright=0.5|Eros Vlahos](File:Eros)] A dyer's apprentice who was caught stealing and sent with Yoren to join the watch. When Yoren's band is attacked by Ser Amory Lorch, Lommy is one of the survivors, though he is injured in the leg, slowing down Arya and the other escapees. They are later captured by soldiers under the command of Ser Gregor Clegane. Polliver kills Lommy when he learns that he cannot walk. When the soldiers ask where Gendry is, Arya tells them that Lommy was Gendry, saving the real Gendry's life.
* **[Forel](Syrio)(Syrio Forel)** (season 1) portrayed by [Yerolemou](Miltos)(Miltos Yerolemou), [[Yerolemou.jpg|right|thumb|upright=0.5|Miltos Yerolemou](File:Miltos)] The former First Sword of the Sealord of Braavos, hired by Lord Eddard to train Arya Stark at "Water Dancing", the Braavosi style of sword fighting. Syrio trained Arya using wooden swords filled with lead. He also mentored her on how to move and think like a warrior: to be perceptive, move with grace, and command her fear. After Eddard Stark's arrest, Cersei Lannister sends men to capture Arya. Syrio orders Arya to run while he holds them off with only a wooden practice sword. He defeats five guardsmen but cannot bring down the armored Meryn Trant, who cuts his practice sword in half. Arya escapes. The fate of Syrio after that is unknown.
### Royal court and officials
* **[Qyburn](Qyburn)** (portrayed by [Lesser](Anton)(Anton Lesser)) [[Lesser (2011).jpg|right|thumb|upright=0.5|Anton Lesser](File:Anton)] An ex-maester who was found by Robb Stark at Harrenhal. He becomes a servant of Roose Bolton. Qyburn lost his title as a maester when he was caught performing human experiments on live patients. Qyburn justifies his actions for the sake of medical knowledge. He tends to Jaime after the latter loses his right hand and travels with him to King's Landing in the hope of having his title restored. In season 4, Qyburn cures Jaime of infection, allowing the skin to heal fully and has a solid gold hand forged for him, earning him Cersei's respect and gratitude. Cersei later enlists his help in curing Gregor Clegane of a deadly poison inflicted on him by Oberyn Martell in the trial by combat. Qyburn warns that his help may "change" Clegane, but when Cersei asks if it will make him weaker, he enthusiastically implies the opposite. After Tywin's death and Varys's treason and escape, Cersei appoints him the new Master of Whispers, much to Grand Maester Pycelle's disapproval. When the Queen mother is imprisoned by the Faith Militant, he is the only one to visit her and informs her of her uncle Kevan's appointment as the new Hand of the King. When Cersei returns to the Red Keep after her Walk of Atonement, Qyburn warmly greets her and presents her the newest member of the Kingsguard, an undead version of Ser Gregor, the results of his experiments. He sways most of Varys's little birds to his service and learns of the caches of wildfire that the Mad King had stored underneath King's Landing. After Cersei removes all of her enemies by destroying the Great Sept of Baelor with everyone inside and later crowning herself Queen, she names Qyburn as her Hand. At the parley in the Dragonpit, while everyone else is terrified by the wight and horrified when it continues to fight after being cut in half, Qyburn is instead fascinated, picking up the dismembered wight's hand and inspecting it as it twitches.
* **[Maester Pycelle](Grand)(Pycelle)** (portrayed by [Glover](Julian)(Julian Glover)) [[Glover 2014 (cropped).jpg|right|thumb|upright=0.5|Julian Glover](File:Julian)] A Grand Maester of the Seven Kingdoms, is an advisor and member of the Small Council. He had served the previous three kings as Grand Maester before Robert's reign. Pycelle is later revealed to be a spy for the Lannisters, Cersei specifically, and he who informed her of Jon Arryn's investigation of her affair with Jaime. To prevent himself from being undermined, Tyrion has Pycelle arrested and sent to the dungeons, but Cersei frees and Tywin Lannister reinstates him. A deleted scene from season 3 shows that Tywin is not fooled by Pycelle's frail old man guise. In season 4, Pycelle makes false accusations at Tyrion's trial, claiming that Tyrion had stolen poisons from his office to murder Joffrey. Later on, when he proves unable to save the poisoned Gregor Clegane and openly doubts Qyburn's abilities, Cersei orders him to leave, giving his position to Qyburn. He later attends Tywin's funeral and proposes himself as the next Hand of the King, Cersei ignores him and appoints Qyburn as the new Master of Whispers. When Cersei is incarcerated by the Faith Militant, Pycelle summons uncle Kevan from Casterly Rock and gives him the position of Hand of the King. He is present at Cersei's return to the Red Keep after her Walk of Atonement. He continues to be dismissive towards both Cersei and Jaime, acknowledging that Cersei no longer holds any power. On the day of Cersei and Loras's trial, however, he is lured to Qyburn's laboratory by the little birds and stabbed to death, orchestrated by Cersei and Qyburn.
* **[Trant](Meryn)(Meryn Trant)** (portrayed by [Beattie](Ian)(Ian Beattie)) [[Beattie.jpg|right|thumb|upright=0.5|Ian Beattie](File:Ian)] An obedient member of the Kingsguard. He seems perfectly willing to do whatever Joffrey commands, no matter how vile the order. In season 1, as Eddard Stark is being arrested, he is ordered by Cersei to bring her Arya Stark. Arya's fencing instructor, Syrio Forel, defends Arya from Ser Meryn and is presumably killed. Meryn is present at Tyrion's trial for Joffrey's murder, where he recounts some veiled threats Tyrion had made against Joffrey in season 2, while conveniently omitting that he and Joffrey had been beating Sansa Stark at the time. In season 5, he attends Tywin Lannister's funeral, accompanying Cersei. He is later appointed by the latter to travel as a bodyguard to Mace Tyrell to his meeting with the managers of the Iron Bank of Braavos. In Braavos, he attends a brothel and asks for underage girls. He is ambushed there and killed by Arya.
* **The High Septon** (portrayed by [Bentley](Paul)(Paul Bentley)) is the head the Faith of the Seven, the dominant organized religion of southern Westeros. This septon becomes High Septon in season three after the death of his predecessor by the hands of the [mob in King's Landing](rioting)(The Old Gods and the New). He was the officiant at the wedding ceremony of Tyrion Lannister and Sansa Stark and later at the wedding ceremony of King Joffrey Baratheon and Margaery Tyrell. The High Septon also prepares the body of King Joffrey for his funeral and leads the coronation ceremony of King Tommen Baratheon. He is later present at Tywin's funeral. He is attacked and humiliated by the Sparrows after being found in a brothel. When he tries to make the Small Council help him get revenge against them, Cersei decides to remove him from his position and has him arrested, giving the position to the High Sparrow.
* **Dontos Hollard** (portrayed by [Way](Tony)(Tony Way)) is a [knight](knight) serving at the court of King's Landing. He shows up drunk at a tourney for Joffrey's birthday, so the young king threatens to execute him. Sansa saves his life by suggesting he be made a [jester](jester) instead. In season 4, Dontos gives Sansa what he says is his mother's necklace as a gift and helps smuggle her out of King's Landing after Joffrey is killed, apparently by Tyrion. Dontos takes her to one of Stannis Baratheon's ships in Blackwater Bay, to Petyr Baelish. Rather than pay Dontos the promised gold, however, Baelish has his men kill Dontos for fear that he will be bribed into talking, and reveals that the whole time, Dontos was working for him, and leaves the necklace, which contained the poison used to kill Joffrey, with his corpse to implicate Tyrion.
* **Hallyne** (portrayed by [Dotrice](Roy)(Roy Dotrice)) [[Dotrice.jpg|right|thumb|upright=0.5|Roy Dotrice](File:Roy)] is the chief "Wisdom" of the Order of Pyromancers in King's Landing. Pyromancers, whose magical skill is questioned by Bronn and Tyrion, are primarily used to produce wildfire, a very dangerous, highly combustible chemical weapon. Tyrion uses his help for the Battle of Blackwater.
* **[Payne](Ilyn)(Ilyn Payne)** (portrayed by [Johnson](Wilko)(Wilko Johnson)) [[Johnson 01.jpg|right|thumb|upright=0.5|Wilko Johnson](File:Wilko)] The royal [executioner](executioner), who lost his tongue for speaking ill of Aerys II during the Mad King's reign. He carries out Joffrey's order to execute Eddard Stark and is temporarily given the Stark family sword, Ice.
### Night's Watch
* [Tollett](Eddison)(Eddison Tollett) (portrayed by [Crompton](Ben)(Ben Crompton)) is a [steward](Steward (office)) of the Night's Watch, known to all as "Dolorous Edd" for his dour face and outlook. Despite this, he is well-liked by the other Brothers in Black, and has few if any enemies. He is part of the expeditionary force beyond the Wall. In season 3 he is one of the few remaining survivors from the battle at the Fist of the First men and they manage to retreat to Craster's Keep. He fights against the mutineers after the death of Lord Commander Mormont. In season 4, he and Grenn manage to return to Castle Black, but they join Jon Snow on his mission to kill the mutineers. He survives the ensuing battle and is seen dragging Locke's corpse back to Craster's Keep with the other slain Night's Watch brothers. In the wildling attack on Castle Black, Eddison remains atop the Wall on Jon's orders to stop the wildlings from breaching the gate. He sends down flaming oil barrels and ultimately delivers the blow that sends the wildlings retreating by swinging a huge scythe across the Wall, causing the ice to break and sending many falling to their deaths. He lives through the battle and personally burns Grenn's body at the funeral. In season 5, he witnesses Mance Rayder's execution, supports Jon in becoming the new Lord Commander, and drags Janos Slynt into the courtyard when Jon sentences him to die. He begrudgingly agrees to Jon's proposal to rescue the wildlings from Hardhome before the White Walkers can reach them. He accompanies Jon and the Night's Watch to Hardhome and is one of the few who escape the massacre alive. Following Jon's death in a mutiny, he is one of Jon's loyalists who find his body and barricade themselves inside his quarters, refusing to acknowledge Thorne's leadership. Davos Seaworth sends him to fetch Tormund and the wildlings for help, and he succeeds just in time, ordering the mutineers locked up. He witnesses Jon's resurrection by Melisandre, and the mutineers' execution. Jon relinquishes his command to Edd, naming him the new acting Lord Commander. When Jon leaves Castle Black to retake Winterfell from Ramsay Bolton, Edd shares a good-natured farewell with him. In season 8, he is killed during the Battle of Winterfell.
* **[Stark](Benjen)(Benjen Stark)** (portrayed by [Mawle](Joseph)(Joseph Mawle)) is First Ranger of the Night's Watch. He is the younger brother of Lord Eddard Stark of Winterfell. Early in the series, he leads a group of Rangers beyond the wall to investigate increased wildling activity, but does not return and his fate is unknown. In the close of season 5, Alliser appears to Jon to deliver word of Benjen's whereabouts, though this seems to be a mere trick, used to lure Jon to an assassination. Benjen returns in the sixth season to save Bran Stark and Meera Reed from a pack of wights, and reveals that he was stabbed by a White Walker, but then stabbed by a Child of the Forest to stop him turning into a White Walker, a process which left him undead and unable to pass through the Wall. He later takes Bran and Meera back to the Wall and bids them farewell. When Jon Snow is stranded north of the Wall, half-frozen and under attack by wights, Benjen rides in and puts Jon on his horse. Before he is killed he holds off the wights for long enough that Jon can escape.
* **[Thorne](Alliser)(Alliser Thorne)** (portrayed by [Teale](Owen)(Owen Teale)) [[Teale (cropped).jpg|right|thumb|upright=0.5|Owen Teale](File:Owen)] A [instructor](drill)(drill instructor) at Castle Black. He fought for Aerys II during Robert's Rebellion and was sent to the Wall as punishment. He is a bitter, cruel, fanatical and hardened man but knows firsthand what it is like to serve in the Night's Watch during the winter. The previous winter, he was caught north of the Wall on a ranging mission and he and the other members of his party were forced to eat the rangers who died to survive. Thorne returns in season 4, now the acting Lord Commander of the Night's Watch following the death of Jeor Mormont, and becomes friends with Janos Slynt. He advocates Jon's execution for his actions in season 3, but Jon is exonerated by Maester Aemon. Thorne later notices that the people like Jon better than him, and will most likely elect Jon as the new Lord Commander, which would make him Thorne's superior. To avoid this, Thorne, on Slynt's suggestion, allows Jon to lead a mission to kill the Night's Watch mutineers in the hopes that Jon will be killed in battle, though Jon survives. Out of spite, Thorne refuses Jon's proposal to seal off Castle Black to stop the wildlings from breaching. When the wildling army arrives, Alliser grudgingly admits to Jon that he should have listened to him, but valiantly leads his men into battle. Alliser personally duels Tormund Giantsbane, but is wounded. He is last seen being taken inside Castle Black for treatment while yelling for his men to continue fighting. In season 5, he has been healed but walks with a limp. He appears to be the leading contender for being voted the new official Lord Commander of the Night's Watch. Though he ultimately loses to Jon Snow by one vote in a three-way race, he is named First Ranger by Jon, which he appears to appreciate. When Jon sentences Slynt to execution for insubordination, Thorne briefly blocks Eddison Tollett's way, but quickly abandons Slynt to his fate. After Jon's return from Hardhome, he eventually opens the gate for the incoming wildling refugees, showing deep resentment for the new Lord Commander's ambition to forge an alliance with the wildling tribes. After Davos' return to the Wall, Alliser dispatches Olly with word of Benjen Stark's current state; the ploy is soon uncovered as a mutiny, wherein a disarmed Jon is trapped and stabbed to death. Alliser delivers the first blow, under the call "For the Watch!" and leaves the Lord Commander dying in the snow. Thorne assumes command once again, but only until Edd brings back the wildlings to save Jon's loyalists from death. Thorne is arrested for his treachery, and after Jon is resurrected, he is hanged for treason.
* **Olly** (portrayed by [O'Connor](Brenock)(Brenock O'Connor)) [[O'Connor 2013.jpg|right|thumb|upright=0.5|Brenock O'Connor](File:Brenock)] A young boy who lived with his mother and father in a village in the Gift, the land given to the Night's Watch to support themselves. Their village is attacked by a group of wildlings. His father is killed by Ygritte and his mother by Styr. Styr tells Olly that he is going to eat his dead parents and orders him to tell the men of the Night's Watch at Castle Black in an attempt to draw them out into the open. He then releases Olly, who reaches Castle Black and informs the men of the approaching wildlings, in the process befriending Jon Snow. In the wildling attack on Castle Black, Olly shoots and kills Ygritte from behind in revenge for his father. In season 5, Jon takes Olly as an apprentice, mirroring his own father-son relationship with Jeor Mormont. When Jon is named the new Lord Commander of the Night's Watch, Olly is named Jon's personal steward. He is unhappy with Jon's efforts to help the wildlings and participates in Jon's assassination, stabbing Jon through the heart. When Jon's loyalists and the wildlings rebel, Olly is arrested along with the mutineers, and after Jon's resurrection, he is executed by hanging.
* **[Yarwyck](Othell)(Othell Yarwyck)** (portrayed by [Fortune](Brian)(Brian Fortune)) is First Builder of the Night's Watch. He is based at Castle Black and is tasked with organizing the builders in maintaining the Wall and the castles belonging to the Watch. He is one of the five black brothers who sit in judgment of Jon Snow for his actions during his time with the wildlings. Later, when Jon proposes that they barricade the gates to Castle Black to stop the wildlings from entering, Alliser Thorne coerces Yarwyck into disagreeing. Yarwyck survives the battle against the wildlings. In season 5, Jon sends him to rebuild a castle called Greyguard, but the order is annulled when Janos Slynt is executed. He staunchly opposes Jon's proposal to allow the wildlings to pass through the Wall before the White Walkers reach them and later participates in the mutiny against Jon, being the second to stab him. After Jon is resurrected, Yarwyck and the mutineers are hanged for their treason.
* **[Marsh](Bowen)(Bowen Marsh)** (portrayed by [Condron](Michael)(Michael Condron)) is First Steward of the Night's Watch, one of the few authority figures left at Castle Black. He opposes Jon's proposal to allow the wildlings to pass through the Wall to escape the White Walkers, and later takes part in the mutiny against Jon, being the third to stab him. When Jon is revived by Melisandre, he is executed by hanging.
* **[Aemon](Maester)(Maester Aemon)** (portrayed by [Vaughan](Peter)(Peter Vaughan)) is the blind old Maester of the Night's Watch. He is the great-uncle of Viserys and Daenerys Targaryen. By the time of Robert's Rebellion, he was too old to travel alone and already blind, because of that and of his oaths, he remained at the Wall while his family was killed by Lannister bannermen. He carries the anger of that incident with him into the events of *Game of Thrones*. In season 1, he names Samwell Tarly his personal steward because of his intellect and love for reading and tries to convince Jon Snow not to desert the Night's Watch after he hears of his father's arrest and his brother's campaign to save him. At the end of Season 3, when Sam and Gilly return after the mutiny at Craster's Keep, he sends all the ravens of the Night's Watch with messages to all the kings and lords of Westeros asking for help defending the Wall. In season 4, he is present at Jon Snow's trial. Aemon immediately ascertains that Jon is telling the truth and has him exonerated, claiming that he learned how to detect liars merely by growing up in King's Landing. Moments before the attack on Castle Black, Aemon speaks with Samwell Tarly about his feelings for Gilly. After the battle, he delivers a eulogy for the fallen before they are burned. In season 5, Aemon oversees the selection of a new Lord Commander. When Jon Snow and Alliser Thorne tie, Aemon breaks the tie by voting for Jon. He later falls ill, and Jon entrusts his care to Sam, who informs him on his great-niece's exploits in Slaver's Bay. Aemon later dies of natural causes after Jon's departure to Hardhome, spending his last moments with Gilly and Sam, the latter delivering a eulogy at his funeral pyre.
* **[Slynt](Janos)(Janos Slynt)** (portrayed by [Carter](Dominic)(Dominic Carter (actor))) was the Commander of the King's Landing city watch. He was bribed by Littlefinger to conspire against Eddard Stark. He later follows Joffrey's orders to murder all of Robert's illegitimate children. Due to his untrustworthiness and brutality, Tyrion has Janos exiled to the Night's Watch. In season 4, he is shown to be at odds with Jon Snow and suggests that Alliser Thorne get rid of him before he can be elected as the new Lord Commander. During the wildling attack on Castle Black, Janos hides in the food storage closet. In season 5, Slynt appears to support Thorne as the new Lord Commander of the Night's Watch. When Jon is ultimately elected as the new Lord Commander, Janos refuses to obey Jon's orders and insults him. Jon responds by sentencing Janos to death. Janos ultimately breaks down, realising that Jon is not bluffing, and begs for mercy. Jon at first seems to relent, but ultimately delivers the blow, beheading Slynt.
* **Grenn** (portrayed by [Stanley](Mark)(Mark Stanley)) is a brave but not very bright brother of the Night's Watch who joins at the same time as Jon. He was abandoned by his father when he was a child and had to steal to survive. In season 1, he is initially at odds with Jon Snow, especially after Jon breaks his nose during a training session. Grenn, Pypar and Rast ambush Jon in a shed and threaten to harm him until Tyrion appears and tells them to back off, while advising Jon to sympathise with the other brothers. Jon makes amends by helping to train the others and becomes friends with Grenn. In season 2, Grenn is part of Lord Commander Joer Mormont's ranging mission. Once they reach the Fist of the First Men, he is ordered to find firewood with Eddison Tollet and Samwell Tarly. In the process, they find a hidden stash of dragonglass (obsidian) daggers. When the White Walkers and wights approach, Grenn and Edd make a run for it, accidentally leaving Sam behind. In season 3, he is one of the few remaining survivors of the battle at the Fist of the First men. On the way back to the Wall, Grenn makes amends with Sam by helping him walk along with Edd and Rast, and they manage to retreat to Craster's Keep. He fights against the mutineers after the death of Lord Commander Mormont, tackling Karl Tanner in the process, but he is subdued and chained up. In season 4, he and Edd manage to escape from the keep and make it back to Castle Black, but they later join Jon Snow on his mission to kill the mutineers. He survives the ensuing battle and expresses shock at the sight of Locke's badly snapped neck, wondering aloud what killed him. In the wildling attack on Castle Black, Grenn is ordered by Jon to take five men and hold the castle gates. A giant breaks his way in, and Grenn and the others manage to kill it at the cost of their own lives. His body is later burned by Edd at the funeral.
* **Pypar** (portrayed by [Altin](Josef)(Josef Altin)) [[Altin.jpg|right|thumb|upright=0.5|Josef Altin](File:Josef)] A brother of the Night's Watch, informally called "Pyp". He joins at the same time as Jon. Initially, he said that his crime was stealing a wheel of cheese to feed his starving sister. Later, he admits to Jon and Sam that he were merely accused of stealing after refusing the sexual advances of his former lord. In the first season, he is at odds with Jon Snow, who does not hide his superior skills from the other brothers, but he becomes friends with him when Jon, on Tyrion Lannister's advice, helps to train the other brothers. He is later assigned to the stewards. In season 4, Pyp participates in the battle against the wildlings at Castle Black with both a sword and a crossbow. He manages to kill one wildling with a crossbow but is himself shot through the neck and killed seconds later by Ygritte and dies in Sam's arms. His body is later burned at the funeral.
* **Karl Tanner** (portrayed by [Gorman](Burn)(Burn Gorman)) [[Gorman 3.jpg|right|thumb|upright=0.5|Burn Gorman](File:Burn)] A [steward](Steward (office)) of the Night's Watch. In season 3, Karl survives the Battle at the Fist of the First Men and accompanies the survivors back to the Wall, stopping by Craster's Keep along the way, where he eyes Craster's daughters. As tensions between Craster and the brothers of the Watch run higher, particularly after they accuse Craster of starving a fellow ranger to death, Karl challenges Craster and later provokes him into attacking, but he stabs Craster through the mouth and inadvertently triggers a mutiny against Lord Commander Mormont. He is tackled by Grenn, but he subdues him and orders him chained up. In season 4, Karl is still at Craster's Keep, lording over it and raping Craster's daughter-wives. His men eventually catch Bran Stark, Jojen and Meera Reed and Hodor on their quest to find the Three-Eyed Raven and hold them hostage when he learns Bran's identity. Karl later tries to rape Meera, but he is stopped when Jon Snow leads a band of Night's Watch brothers to kill the mutineers. Karl fights Jon alone inside Craster's hut and almost kills him by fighting dirty, but he is stabbed in the back by one of Craster's wives. Karl moves in to kill her, but Jon stabs him through the mouth from behind.
* **Rast** (portrayed by Luke McEwan) was a trainee to the Night's Watch with a particularly mean spirit. He was arrested for rape and chose the Wall as his punishment. In season 1, he is at odds with Jon Snow, who does not hide his superior skills while training, and later threatens him in the armoury with Grenn and Pyp, but he backs off when Tyrion Lannister threatens him. Though Jon later trains him and the other recruits, he does not come to respect Jon and expresses jealousy when Jon is given the sword Longclaw by Lord Commander Jeor Mormont. He takes every opportunity he can to bully Samwell Tarly and only stops when Jon, Grenn and Pyp threaten him. In season 2, he is part of Mormont's expedition North of the Wall to find Benjen Stark, and fights in the Battle at the Fist of the First Men. In season 3, he is one of the few remaining survivors of that battle and is shown to be visibly upset and angry at the loss of his comrades, taking it out on Sam until Mormont intervenes. They manage to retreat to Craster's Keep, but Rast grows increasingly angry and resentful of Craster for mistreating them and the others, particularly when a fellow ranger dies of starvation, which Rast attributes to Craster's stinginess. Rast and Karl Tanner stand up to Craster, resulting in a mutiny in which Karl kills Craster and Rast stabs Mormont in the back for threatening Karl with execution. He and the rest of the mutineers remain at the Keep with Craster's daughter-wives, although Sam manages to escape, to Rast's fury. In season 4, he is visibly uncomfortable with the abuse the mutineers are putting Craster's daughters through, and is himself being abused by Karl, who spitefully orders Rast to feed Jon's direwolf, Ghost, who they have caged outside the Keep. When the mutineers capture Bran Stark and his party, Rast recognises Bran as Jon's brother and taunts Hodor by stabbing him in the leg. Rast later flees from the Keep when Jon leads a band of brothers to kill the mutineers, but he is mauled to death by Ghost, whom Bran had freed.
* **[Yoren](Yoren)** (portrayed by [Magee](Francis)(Francis Magee)) is a recruiter for the Night's Watch. He travels to King's Landing, where he witnesses Eddard Stark's execution. Discovering Arya Stark in the crowd, Yoren prevents her from seeing her father's beheading and disguises her as a boy to hide her among his Night's Watch recruits and transport her to Winterfell. In the caravan bound for the Wall, Lannister bannerman Ser Amory Lorch demands Yoren hand over a recruit named Gendry. When Yoren refuses, a battle ensues, and Yoren and his men are killed.
* **Qhorin Halfhand** (portrayed by [Armstrong](Simon)(Simon Armstrong)) is an experienced ranger of the Night's Watch and second-in-command at the Shadow Tower. He is called Halfhand because he lost all the fingers on his right hand except his thumb and forefinger to a wildling axe. Because of this, he trained himself to fight left-handed. When Qhorin met up with Lord Commander Mormont at the Fist of the First Men, he advised sending three scouting parties into the mountains to determine what Mance had been looking for there, leading one party, including Jon Snow, personally. After becoming separated from Jon, Qhorin searches for him and is captured and his men are killed. While tied up, he discreetly orders Jon to infiltrate the wildlings as a [agent](double)(double agent). Later, he sacrifices himself by provoking Jon into a fight, so Jon can gain the wildlings' trust by killing him.
### Beyond the Wall
[[Brake Comic Con Brussels 2018 (cropped).jpg|right|thumb|upright=0.5|Richard Brake](File:Richard)]
* **Night King** (portrayed by [Brake](Richard)(Richard Brake) in seasons 4 and 5, and Vladimir "Furdo" Furdik from season 6 to 8) is the leader and first of the White Walkers. He converts Craster's baby sons into White Walkers for his army, and later leads an all-out assault on Hardhome, a wildling settlement. In the ensuing massacre, he witnesses Jon Snow slay one of his lieutenants. In the aftermath, the Night King revives all of the fallen as wights for his army. In season 6, it is revealed through a vision by Bran Stark that the Night King was once of the First Men, the first humans to migrate to Westeros. However, during their wars with the Children of the Forest, the man was kidnapped and forcibly and painfully converted into the first White Walker. The Children intended to use them as weapons against the First Men; however, under the Night King's leadership, the White Walkers have since gone rogue. The Night King later leads an assault at the cave of the Three-Eyed Raven after breaking its magical seal, where he personally kills the Three-Eyed Raven. In season 7, the Night King throws a spear of ice which kills Daenerys' dragon Viserion. He touches the dragon and turns it into a wight. When his army reaches the Wall, he rides on Viserion's back as the dragon's blue fire destroys the Wall. He is killed by Arya with a Valyrian blade (the same blade originally owned by Littlefinger and previously used on the failed assassination attempt of Bran Stark's life) at the Battle of Winterfell.
* **[Raven](Three-Eyed)(Three-Eyed Raven)** (portrayed by [Rodger](Struan)(Struan Rodger) in season 4, and [von Sydow](Max)(Max von Sydow) in season 6) [[von Sydow Cannes 2016.jpg|right|thumb|upright=0.5|Max von Sydow](File:Max)]A figure who appears in Bran Stark's dreams, following his fall and injury. In Bran's dreams, the raven appears to be trying to lead him into the Stark family crypt, predicting his father's death. In season 3 he keeps appearing in Bran's dreams and wants him to follow him. In season 4, Bran finally finds him, in the form of a wise old man, who promises to help Bran learn to fly. In season 6, he trains Bran in greensight and shows him visions of the past. When the Night King marks Bran during a vision gone wrong, he sacrifices himself to allow Bran and Meera to escape.
* **[Leaf](Leaf (character))** (portrayed by Octavia Alexandru in season 4, and [Alexander](Kae)(Kae Alexander) in season 6) appears to rescue Bran, Meera and Hodor from the reanimated skeletons outside the Three-Eyed Raven's cave and takes them to the Three-Eyed Raven herself. When the Night King attacks with his army, she is killed in the ensuing battle.
* **Wun Weg Wun Dar Wun** (portrayed by [Whyte](Ian)(Ian Whyte (actor))) [[Whyte 2013.jpg|right|thumb|upright=0.5|Ian Whyte](File:Ian)] A giant from Hardhome. He agrees to Jon's offer to allow the wildlings pass through the Wall to escape the coming White Walkers, and escapes the ensuing massacre. Upon being alerted of Jon's death, Wun Wun joins the wildlings in returning to Castle Black to overthrow Alliser Thorne. After Jon is revived from the dead, he pleads with the wildlings to help him retake Winterfell from Ramsay Bolton, and Wun Wun is the first to agree. During the Battle of the Bastards, Wun Wun brings down a number of men and manages to breach the gates to Winterfell, but is shot with enough arrows and spears to bring him to his knees, and ultimately shot dead by Ramsay with an arrow to the eye.
* **Dim Dalba** (portrayed by [McArthur](Murray)(Murray McArthur)) is an elderly warrior and raider and one of the prominent leaders in the Free Folk army gathered by Mance Rayder. Following the defeat of the wildling army in the Battle of Castle Black, he leads his followers to the relative safety of Hardhome. In season 6, he pledges his army to fight for Jon Snow at the battle against the Boltons.
* **[Rayder](Mance)(Mance Rayder)** (portrayed by [Hinds](Ciarán)(Ciarán Hinds)) [[hinds.jpg|right|thumb|upright=0.5|Ciarán Hinds](File:Ciaran)] A former ranger of the Night's Watch who became the "King-Beyond-the-Wall" and the new leader of the Wildlings. He was a wildling child who was raised by the Night's Watch, becoming one of their best rangers but eventually joining the wildlings. Using the training and tactics he learned from the watch, Mance became the seventh King Beyond the Wall, uniting disparate clans by reminding them that the white walkers and other monsters would kill them all. Mance's goal is to get his people to the safety of the other side of the wall before the White Walkers could reach it. He plans a two-pronged attack on Castle Black, sending Tormund and Jon across the wall with a small party and preparing an army on the other side. After the advance attack on Castle Black fails, Jon leaves Castle Black to hunt Mance down on pretence of parleying with him. Mance realises Jon's true intentions and is about to kill him when he and his men are ambushed and defeated by Stannis Baratheon and his army. Mance and Stannis briefly exchange insults when Mance refuses to acknowledge him as the King. Mance is taken prisoner by Stannis. In season 5, Stannis offers to show Mance mercy if he will bend the knee and pledge allegiance to him, but Mance still refuses, fearing that he will lose his people's respect in the process. On Stannis's orders, Mance is burned at the stake by Melisandre, although Jon shoots Mance to cut short his suffering.
* The **[of Bones](Lord)(Lord of Bones)** (portrayed by Edward Dogliani in seasons 2 and 3 and [O'Hennessy](Ross)(Ross O'Hennessy) in season 5) [[O'Hennessy.jpg|right|thumb|upright=0.5|Ross O'Hennessy](File:Ross)] A ruthless wildling leader who uses a giant's skull as a helmet and the bones of his victims for armour. In season 2, he captures Jon Snow and in season 3 delivers him to Mance. In season 5 he is beaten to death by Tormud Giantsbane at Hardhome, when he refuses to hear Tormund's proposal for an alliance with the Night's Watch.
* **Styr** (portrayed by [Kolokolnikov](Yuri)(Yuri Kolokolnikov)) [[Юрий Андреевич.jpg|right|thumb|upright=0.5|Yuri Kolokolnikov](File:Колокольников)] One of Mance Rayder's lieutenants and the leader of the Thenn people, a clan of cannibalistic wildlings. In the battle for Castle Black, he is killed by Jon Snow, who smashes his head in with a hammer.
* **Craster** (portrayed by [Pugh](Robert)(Robert Pugh)) is a wildling who has an uneasy friendship with the Night's Watch. He is a short-tempered, incestuous polygamist who takes all his daughters as wives. Jon Snow wonders aloud why he has no sons, and it is later revealed that he sacrifices them to the White Walkers soon after birth. As their only ally beyond the Wall, Commander Mormont and the Night's Watch are forced to endure his insults and outrageous demands. Several members of the Night's Watch finally lose their patience with Craster after returning defeated from a battle with the White Walkers when he insults their dead and refuses to share more of his supplies with the hungry rangers. He is killed by Karl, who, with his men, proceeds to raid Craster's supplies and attack his wives and daughters.
* **Orell** (portrayed by [Crook](Mackenzie)(Mackenzie Crook)) [[Crook.JPG|right|thumb|upright=0.5|Mackenzie Crook](File:Mackenzie)] is a wildling raider and warg, a human capable of entering the minds of animals. Orell doesn't trust Jon, as he suspects that Jon is still loyal to the Night's Watch; he is also jealous of Jon's relationship with Ygritte. Orell's suspicions are confirmed when, during a raid at the North, Jon refuses to kill an innocent horse breeder. Orell claims that Jon always was a "crow" and a battle ensues. After a few moments of sword fighting, Jon shoves his sword into Orell's chest and whispers "You were right the whole time", before pulling it out and leaving Orell to die. Orell wargs into the mind of his eagle with his dying breath and attacks Jon, but Jon is able to fight him off.
### Animals
#### Direwolves
**Direwolves** are a canine species closely related to [wolves](wolves) but are much larger and stronger. In the book series, fully grown direwolves are described as being as large as horses, and are highly intelligent.
Thought to have gone extinct south of the Wall, six orphaned direwolf pups are found by Robb Stark and Jon Snow at the start of *[Game of Thrones](A)(A Game of Thrones)*, the first book of the novel series, and are distributed among the six Stark children as pet companions. Four of them are still alive at the end of the fifth book *[Dance with Dragons](A)(A Dance with Dragons)*. In the [television adaptation](HBO)(Game of Thrones), only two are alive at the end of the series.
* **Ghost** is [Snow](Jon)(Jon Snow (character))'s male direwolf, named due to it being [albino](albinism#Other animals) and always quiet. Ghost is born the [of the litter](runt)(runt of the litter) but later grows into the largest of the six Stark direwolves. He accompanies Jon to Castle Black. Following the Night's Watch mutiny, he is imprisoned by Karl and Rast. He is later freed by Bran Stark and mauls Rast to death before rejoining Jon and the loyal Night's Watch brothers. Though he is taken back to Castle Black, Alliser Thorne spitefully orders Jon to lock up Ghost. When the wildlings reach Castle Black, Jon orders Sam to free Ghost, and the direwolf subsequently helps the Night's Watch by mauling several wildlings to death. He survives the battle. After Jon departs for Hardhome, Ghost remains at Castle Black and scares off two Night's Watch bullies after they beat Sam and attempt to rape Gilly. After Jon is murdered by mutineers led by Alliser Thorne, Davos and the loyalists bring Ghost to help protect Jon's body. Once the mutineers are defeated and arrested, Ghost rests by Jon's body, and is later the first to witness Jon's resurrection back to life. Once Jon executes the mutineers and reunites with his sister Sansa, Ghost leaves Castle Black with Jon, but does not participate in the battle against the Boltons. After the Starks win, Ghost returns to Winterfell with Jon, and survives the battle against the Night King. Jon entrusts Ghost to Tormund when the latter departs back north beyond the Wall.
* **Grey Wind** was [Stark](Robb)(Robb Stark)'s male direwolf, named for its swift speed. He accompanies Robb on his campaign against the Lannisters and often fights alongside him in the War of the Five Kings. When Robb is betrayed by Walder Frey and Roose Bolton, Grey Wind is locked up in a [pen](pen (enclosure)) and killed with crossbows.
* **Lady** was [Stark](Sansa)(Sansa Stark)'s female direwolf, named due to it being the smallest and prettiest of the pups. After an incident on [Kingsroad](the)(the Kingsroad) when Nymeria bites Joffrey, Cersei first demands that Nymeria be killed, and when Nymeria cannot be found, demands that *a* direwolf be killed. Despite his objections, Ned Stark obeys the king's order but kills Lady personally, though he sends her body north instead of allowing Cersei to have her skin.
* **Nymeria** is [Stark](Arya)(Arya Stark)'s female direwolf, named after a legendary Rhoynish warrior queen whom Arya admires. [the way to King's Landing](On)(The Kingsroad), Crown Prince [Baratheon](Joffrey)(Joffrey Baratheon) attacks Arya with a sword after she attempts to defend her friend, the butcher's son Mycah, from his abuse. Nymeria comes to protect Arya and bites Joffrey in the arm. Knowing that Joffrey will lie to the court about what actually transpired, Arya forces Nymeria to flee to prevent it from being killed. A very long time afterward, Arya reunites with Nymeria in the Riverlands on her way back home to Winterfell and finds out that Nymeria has joined a pack of wild wolves. Arya attempts to urge Nymeria to return with her, but Nymeria refuses and remains with her new pack, likely due to how long she has been away from home.
* **Summer** was [Stark](Bran)(Bran Stark)'s male direwolf. When an assassin attempts to murder the comatose Bran, Summer tears out the assassin's throat, saving both Bran and Bran's mother Catelyn. Summer and Shaggydog survive the sacking of Winterfell by [Snow](Ramsay)(Ramsay Snow) and join Bran, Rickon, and their group on their journey to the Wall to find Jon Snow. When they stumble across Craster's Keep, Bran mentally takes over Summer's body to scout the area, but Summer falls into a trap and is imprisoned. He is later freed and continues the journey north with Bran. During the battle with the skeletons outside the Three-Eyed Raven's cave, Summer mauls several and escapes with Bran into the caves. After the White Walkers and the Wights attack the tree, the group is forced to escape. Only Meera and Bran make it out alive as Hodor, Summer, the Children of the Forest, and the Three-Eyed Raven are all slain by the undead while giving Bran time to escape.
* **Shaggydog** was [Stark](Rickon)(Rickon Stark)'s male direwolf, and is the only black one and the most temperamental of all the direwolf pups, whom [Reed](Jojen)(Jojen Reed) describes as "full of fear and rage". Following the sacking of Winterfell, Shaggydog and Summer join Rickon, Bran, Osha and the Reed siblings on their journey to the Wall to find [Snow](Jon)(Jon Snow (character)). When the journey beyond the Wall is deemed too dangerous for Rickon, the group splits up, and Shaggydog accompanies Rickon and Osha to go to House Umber at Last Hearth. However, after Greatjon dies, his son Smalljon decides to ally with the Boltons and goes to [Bolton](Ramsay)(Ramsay Bolton), to whom he gives Osha and Rickon as hostages, while presenting Shaggydog's severed head as proof of Rickon's identity.
#### Dragons
* **** is the black one of Daenerys' three dragons. Visibly the biggest and Daenerys' favourite dragon, Drogon is named after Khal Drogo, her late husband. Throughout seasons 2 and 3, Drogon is loyal to Daenerys, but in season 4, he roars in her face when she tries to stop him from harming the other dragons over food, which makes her realise that she may be losing control over her dragons. While in Meereen, Daenerys receives two complaints from the citizens of Slaver's Bay about Drogon's behaviour, one of them a shepherd whose flock of sheep Drogon torched, and the second a farmer whose three-year-old daughter Drogon killed. Though Drogon disappears before he can be captured, he saves Daenerys from an ambush in Daznak's Pit and flies off with her on his back, though he is wounded by the Sons of the Harpy in the process. He later lands in the Great Grass Sea, where Daenerys will be captured by Dothrakis. Drogon will finally join together with her and his brothers and they finally sail towards Westeros. When Drogon discovers Daenerys' lifeless body, he is overwhelmed with anger and grief, realizing how his mother's obsession for the Iron Throne brought her to her own death. Drogon then proceeds to burn the Iron Throne until it is nothing but a puddle of molten slag. He then grasps Daenerys' body in his talons and flies with it across the Narrow Sea.
* **** was the green one of Daenerys' three dragons. He is named after Daenerys' deceased brother, Rhaegar Targaryen. When Daenerys begins to lose control over them, she locks Rhaegal and Viserion in the catacombs beneath Meereen. She later goes to visit them, but they attempt to attack her, forcing her to flee. After being freed by Tyrion, Rhaegal flies to Westeros and is ridden by Jon Snow later on during the Battle of Winterfell. Rhaegal is eventually killed by Euron Greyjoy's fleet when Daenerys approaches King's Landing to strike a final attack on Cersei's troops.
* **** was the yellow one of Daenerys' three dragons. He is named after Daenerys' deceased brother, Viserys Targaryen. When Daenerys lost control over them, she locked Rhaegal and Viserion in the catacombs beneath Meereen. She later goes to visit them, but they attempt to attack her, forcing her to flee. Viserion was killed with an ice spear during a battle with the White Walkers beyond the Wall, only to be resurrected by the Night King. With the Night King riding on his back, Viserion breathes blue fire at the Wall, which then disintegrated. After the Battle of Winterfell, Viserion's body collapsed into its skeletal form after Arya killed the Night King.
## See also
* [in *A Song of Ice and Fire*](Characters)(List of A Song of Ice and Fire characters)
* [of *Game of Thrones* episodes](List)(List of Game of Thrones episodes)
## Notes
## References
}}
## External links
* [Official website](http://www.hbo.com/#/game-of-thrones)
[*](Category:A Song of Ice and Fire characters)
[of Thrones](Category:Game)(Category:Game of Thrones)
[of Thrones](Game)(Category:Lists of American drama television series characters)
[of Thrones](Game)(Category:Lists of fantasy television characters)
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At sign
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at_sign
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# At sign
*Revision ID: 1158819611 | Timestamp: 2023-06-06T12:43:29Z*
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The **at sign**, ****, is an [accounting](accounting) and [invoice](invoice) abbreviation meaning "at a rate of" (e.g. 7 [widgets](Widget (economics)) @ [£](Pound sign)2 per widget = £14),See, for example, Browns Index to Photocomposition Typography (p. 37), Greenwood Publishing, 1983, now seen more widely in [email](email) addresses and [media](social)(social media) platform [handles](User (computing)). It is normally read aloud as "at" and is also commonly called the **at symbol**, **commercial at**, or **address sign**.
The absence of a single English word for the symbol has prompted some writers to use the French *arobase*["Short Cuts"](http://www.lrb.co.uk/v31/n10/daniel-soar/short-cuts) , Daniel Soar, Vol. 31 No. 10 · 28 May 2009 page 18, London Review of Books or Spanish and Portuguese *arroba*, or to coin new words such as *ampersat* and *asperand*, or the (visual) onomatopoeia *[strudel](strudel)*, but none of these have achieved wide use.
Although not included on the keyboard of the earliest commercially successful typewriters, it was on at least one 1889 model["The @-symbol, part 2 of 2"](http://www.shadycharacters.co.uk/2011/08/the-symbol-part-2-of-2/) , *[Shady Characters ⌂ The secret life of punctuation](http://www.shadycharacters.co.uk/) * and the very successful [Underwood](Underwood Typewriter Company) models from the "Underwood No. 5" in 1900 onward. It started to be used in email addresses in the 1970s, and is now routinely included on most types of [keyboard](computer)(computer keyboard)s.
## History
[[File:Ariza1448-2.jpg|180px|thumb|The [Aragonese](Aragonese people) @ symbol used in the 1448 *"taula de Ariza"* registry to denote a wheat shipment from [Castile](Crown of Castile) to the [of Aragon](Kingdom)(Kingdom of Aragon).]]
[[File:1674 liten.jpg|180px|thumb|@ used to signify French "" ("at") from a 1674 protocol from a [Swedish](Sweden) court ()]]
The earliest yet discovered symbol in this shape is found in a [Bulgarian](Bulgarian language) translation of a [Greek](Greek language) chronicle written by [Manasses](Constantinos)(Constantine Manasses) in 1345. Held today in the Vatican Apostolic Library, it features the @ symbol in place of the capital letter [alpha](alpha) "Α" as an [initial](initial) in the word Amen; however, the reason behind it being used in this context is still unknown. The evolution of the symbol as used today is not recorded.
It has long been used in [Catalan](Catalan language), [Spanish](Spanish language) and [Portuguese](Portuguese language) as an abbreviation of *[arroba](arroba)*, a unit of weight equivalent to 25 pounds, and derived from the [Arabic](Arabic language) expression of "the quarter" ( pronounced *ar-rubʿ*). A symbol resembling an @ is found in the Spanish "Taula de Ariza", a registry to denote a wheat shipment from Castile to Aragon, in 1448. An Italian academic, Giorgio Stabile, claims to have traced the @ symbol to the 16th century, in a mercantile document sent by [Florentine](Florence) Francesco Lapi from [Seville](Seville) to [Rome](Rome) on May 4, 1536. The document is about commerce with [Pizarro](Francisco Pizarro), in particular the price of an @ of wine in [Peru](Peru). Currently, the word *arroba* means both the at-symbol and a unit of weight. In [Venetian](Venetian language), the symbol was interpreted to mean [amphora](amphora) (), a unit of weight and volume based upon the capacity of the standard amphora jar since the 6th century.
## Modern use
### Commercial usage
In contemporary English usage, @ is a commercial symbol, meaning *at* and *at the rate of* or *at the price of*. It has rarely been used in financial ledgers, and is not used in standard [typography](typography).[Robert](Bringhurst,)(Robert Bringhurst) (2002). *[Elements of Typographic Style](The)(The Elements of Typographic Style)* (version 2.5), p.272. Vancouver: Hartley & Marks. .
### Trademark
In 2012, "@" was registered as a [trademark](trademark) with the German Patent and Trade Mark Office.German Patent and Trademark Office, registration number [302012038338](https://register.dpma.de/DPMAregister/marke/register/3020120383386/DE?lang=en) . A cancellation request was filed in 2013, and the cancellation was ultimately confirmed by the German Federal Patent Court in 2017.Bundespatentgericht, decision of 22 February 2017, no. 26 W (pat) 44/14 ([online](http://juris.bundespatentgericht.de/cgi-bin/rechtsprechung/document.py?Gericht=bpatg&Art=en&Datum=Aktuell&Sort=12288&nr=29334&pos=1&anz=162&Blank=1.pdf) ).
### Email addresses
A common contemporary use of @ is in [address](email)(email address)es (using the [SMTP](Simple Mail Transfer Protocol) system), as in jdoe@example.com (the user jdoe located *at* the domain example.com). [Tomlinson](Ray)(Ray Tomlinson) of [Technologies](BBN)(BBN Technologies) is credited for having introduced this usage in 1971. This idea of the symbol representing *located at* in the form user@host is also seen in other tools and protocols; for example, the [shell](Unix)(Unix shell) command ssh jdoe@example.net tries to establish an [ssh](secure Shell) connection to the computer with the [hostname](hostname) example.net using the username jdoe.
On web pages, organizations often obscure the email addresses of their members or employees by omitting the @. This practice, known as [munging](address)(address munging), makes the email addresses less vulnerable to spam programs that scan the internet for them.
### Social media
On some social media platforms and forums, usernames may be prefixed with an @ (in the form @johndoe); this type of username is frequently referred to as a "[handle](User (computing))".
On online forums without [discussion](threaded)(threaded discussion)s, @ is commonly used to denote a reply; for instance: @Jane to respond to a comment Jane made earlier. Similarly, in some cases, @ is used for "attention" in email messages originally sent to someone else. For example, if an email was sent from Catherine to Steve, but in the body of the email, Catherine wants to make Keirsten aware of something, Catherine will start the line to indicate to Keirsten that the following sentence concerns her. This also helps with mobile email users who might not see bold or color in email.
In [microblogging](microblogging) (such as on [Twitter](Twitter) and [social](GNU)(GNU social)-based microblogs), an @ before the user name is used to send publicly readable replies (e.g. @otheruser: Message text here). The blog and client software can automatically interpret these as links to the user in question. When included as part of a person's or company's contact details, an @ symbol followed by a name is normally understood to refer to a Twitter handle. A similar use of the @ symbol was also made available to Facebook users on September 15, 2009. In [Relay Chat](Internet)(Internet Relay Chat) (IRC), it is shown before users' nicknames to denote they have operator status on a channel.
### Sports usage
In [English](American)(American English) the @ can be used to add information about a sporting event. Where opposing sports teams have their names separated by a "v" (for [versus](wikt:versus)), the [team](away)(Road (sports)) can be written first – and the normal "v" replaced with @ to convey at which team's home field the game will be played.For an example, see: http://www.nfl.com/schedules This usage is not followed in [English](British)(British English), since conventionally the home team is written first.
### Computer languages
@ is used in various [language](programming)(programming language)s and other [language](computer)(computer language)s, although there is not a consistent theme to its usage. For example:
* In [68](ALGOL)(ALGOL 68), the @ symbol is *brief form* of the **at** [keyword](keyword (computer programming)); it is used to change the lower bound of an array. For example: refers to an array starting at index 88.
* In [ActionScript](ActionScript), @ is used in XML parsing and traversal as a string prefix to identify attributes in contrast to child elements.
* In the [MVC](ASP.NET)(ASP.NET MVC) [Razor](Microsoft ASP.NET Razor view engine) template markup syntax, the @ character denotes the start of code statement blocks or the start of text content.
* In Dyalog [APL](APL (programming language)), @ is used as a functional way to modify or replace data **at** specific locations in an array.
* In [CSS](CSS), @ is used in special statements outside of a CSS block.
* In [C#](C Sharp (programming language)), it denotes "verbatim strings", where no characters are escaped and two double-quote characters represent a single double-quote.[2.4.4.5 String literals](http://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/aa691090%28v=vs.71%29.aspx) , As a prefix it also allows keywords to be used as [identifiers](identifier (computer programming)), a form of [stropping](Stropping (syntax)).
* In [D](D (programming language)), it denotes function attributes: like: @safe, @nogc, user defined @('from_user') which can be evaluated at compile time (with __traits) or @property to declare properties, which are functions that can be syntactically treated as if they were fields or variables.
* In [Command Language](DIGITAL)(DIGITAL Command Language), the @ character was the command used to execute a command procedure. To run the command procedure VMSINSTAL.COM, one would type @VMSINSTAL at the command prompt.
* In [Forth](Forth (programming language)), it is used to fetch values from the address on the top of the stack. The operator is pronounced as "fetch".
* In [Haskell](Haskell (programming language)), it is used in so-called *as-patterns*. This notation can be used to give aliases to [patterns](pattern matching), making them more readable.
* in [HTML](HTML), it can be encoded as @
* In [J](J (programming language)), denotes [composition](function)(function composition).
* In [Java](Java (programming language)), it has been used to denote [annotations](Java annotation), a kind of metadata, since version 5.0.
* In [LiveCode](LiveCode), it is prefixed to a parameter to indicate that the parameter is [by reference](passed)(Pass by reference).
* In an [LXDE](LXDE) autostart file (as used, for example, on the [Pi](Raspberry)(Raspberry Pi) computer), @ is prefixed to a command to indicate that the command should be automatically re-executed if it crashes.
* In [ML](ML (programming language)), it denotes list concatenation.
* In [logic](modal)(modal logic), specifically when representing [world](possible)(possible world)s, @ is sometimes used as a logical symbol to denote the actual world (the world we are "at").
* In [Objective-C](Objective-C), @ is prefixed to language-specific keywords such as @implementation and to form string literals.
* In [Pascal](Pascal (programming language)), @ is the "address of" operator (it tells the location at which a variable is found).
* In [Perl](Perl), @ prefixes [variables](Variable (programming)) which contain [arrays](Array data structure) , including array [slices](Array slicing#1987: Perl) *@array[2..5,7,9]* and [hash](Hash table#Associative arrays) slices {{code|@hash{'foo', 'bar', 'baz'}|perl}} or {{code|@hash{qw(foo bar baz)}|perl}}. This use is known as a *[sigil](Sigil (computer programming)).*
* In [PHP](PHP), it is used just before an [expression](Expression (programming)) to make the [interpreter](Interpreter (computing)) suppress errors that would be generated from that expression.
* In [Python](Python (programming language)) 2.4 and up, it is used to [a function](decorate)(Python syntax and semantics#Decorators) (wrap the function in another one at creation time). In Python 3.5 and up, it is also used as an overloadable matrix multiplication operator.
*In [Razor](ASP.NET Razor), it is used for [C#](C Sharp (programming language)) code blocks.
* In [Ruby](Ruby (programming language)), it functions as a sigil: @ prefixes [variable](instance)(instance variable)s, and @@ prefixes [variable](class)(class variable)s.
* In [Scala](Scala (programming language)), it is used to denote annotations (as in Java), and also to bind names to subpatterns in pattern-matching expressions.
* In [Swift](Swift (programming language)), @ prefixes "annotations" that can be applied to classes or members. Annotations tell the compiler to apply special semantics to the declaration like keywords, without adding keywords to the language.
* In [T-SQL](Transact-SQL), @ prefixes variables and @@ prefixes "niladic" system functions.
* In several [xBase](xBase)-type programming languages, like [DBASE](DBASE), [FoxPro](FoxPro 2)/[FoxPro](Visual)(Visual FoxPro) and [Clipper](Clipper (programming language)), it is used to denote position on the screen. For example: to show the word "HELLO" in line 1, column 1.
** In FoxPro/Visual FoxPro, it is also used to indicate explicit [by reference](pass)(Pass by reference#Call by reference) of variables when calling [or functions](procedures)(Subroutine) (but it is not an [address](Memory address) [operator](Operator (programming))).
* In a Windows [file](Batch)(Batch file), an @ at the start of a line suppresses the [echoing](Echo (command)) of that command. In other words, is the same as ECHO OFF applied to the current line only. Normally a Windows command is executed and takes effect from the next line onward, but @ is a rare example of a command that takes effect immediately. It is most commonly used in the form which not only switches off echoing but prevents the command line itself from being echoed.
* In [PowerShell](Windows)(Windows PowerShell), @ is used as array operator for array and hash table literals and for enclosing here-string literals.
* In the [Name System](Domain)(Domain Name System) (DNS), @ is used to represent the , typically the "root" of the domain without a prefixed sub-domain. (Ex: wikipedia.org vs. www.wikipedia.org)
* In [language](assembly)(assembly language), @ is sometimes used as a [operator](dereference)(dereference operator).
### Gender neutrality in Spanish
[[- Acampada Sol - 110521 192211.jpg|right|upright|thumb|Protester with banner showing "La revolución está en nosotr@s"](File:Madrid)]
In [Spanish](Spanish language), where many words end in "-o" when in the masculine [gender](Grammatical gender) and end "-a" in the feminine, @ is sometimes used as a [gender-neutral](gender-neutral pronoun) substitute for the default "o" ending. For example, the word *amigos* traditionally represents not only male friends, but also a mixed group, or where the genders are not known. The proponents of gender-inclusive language would replace it with *amig@s* in these latter two cases, and use *amigos* only when the group referred to is all-male and *amigas* only when the group is all female. The [Academia Española](Real)(Real Academia Española) disapproves of this usage.
### Other uses and meanings
[[File:Atletter.svg|right|thumb|150px|[Bicameral](Bicameral script) @ letter as used in the [language](Koalib)(Koalib language).]]
[[File:OCR-A char Commercial At.svg|right|thumb|75px|[X-SAMPA](X-SAMPA) uses an @ as a substitute for [ə](ə), which it resembles in some fonts.]]
* In (especially English) scientific and technical literature, @ is used to describe the conditions under which data are valid or a measurement has been made. E.g. the density of saltwater may read *d* = 1.050 g/cm3 @ 15 °C (read "at" for @), density of a gas *d* = 0.150 g/L @ 20 °C, 1 bar, or noise of a car 81 dB @ 80 km/h (speed).
*In [logic](philosophical)(philosophical logic), '@' is used to denote the actual world (in contrast to non-actual possible worlds). Analogously, a 'designated' world in a [model](Kripke)(Kripke semantics) may be labelled '@'.
* In chemical formulae, @ is used to denote [atoms](trapped)(Chemical formula#Trapped atoms) or molecules. For instance, La@C60 means [lanthanum](lanthanum) inside a [fullerene](fullerene) cage. See article [fullerene](Endohedral)(Endohedral fullerene) for details.
* In [Malagasy](Malagasy language), @ is an informal abbreviation for the prepositional form ''amin'ny*.
* In [Malay](Malay language), @ is an informal abbreviation for the word "atau", meaning "or" in English.
* In [genetics](genetics), @ is the abbreviation for [locus](locus (genetics)), as in [IGL@](IGL@) for *immunoglobulin lambda locus*.
* In the [language](Koalib)(Koalib language) of [Sudan](Sudan), @ is used as a letter in [Arabic](Arabic language) [loanwords](loanwords). The [Consortium](Unicode)(Unicode Consortium) rejected a proposal to encode it separately as a letter in [Unicode](Unicode). [International](SIL)(SIL International) uses [Use Area](Private)(Private Use Area) code points U+F247 and U+F248 for lowercase and capital versions, although they have marked this PUA representation as [deprecated](deprecation) since September 2014.Constable, Peter, and Lorna A. Priest (January 17, 2019) [*SIL Corporate PUA Assignments 5.2a*](http://scripts.sil.org/cms/scripts/page.php?site_id=nrsi&item_id=SILPUAassignments) . [SIL International](http://www.sil.org/) . pp. 59-60. Retrieved on July 20, 2020.
* A [schwa](schwa), as the actual schwa character "ə" may be difficult to produce on many computers. It is used in this capacity in some [IPA schemes](ASCII)(Comparison of ASCII encodings of the International Phonetic Alphabet), including [SAMPA](SAMPA) and [X-SAMPA](X-SAMPA).
* In [leet](leet) it may substitute for the letter "A".
* It is frequently used in typing and [messaging](text)(text messaging) as an abbreviation for "at".
* In Portugal it may be used in typing and text messaging with the meaning "[kiss](french)(french kiss)" (*linguado'').
* In online discourse, @ is used by some [anarchists](Anarchism) as a substitute for the traditional [circle-A](Anarchist symbolism#Circle-A).
* Algebraic notation for the [Crazyhouse](Crazyhouse) chess variant: An @ between a piece and a square denotes a piece dropped onto that square from the player's reserve.
## Names in other languages
In many languages other than English, although most [typewriter](typewriter)s included the symbol, the use of @ was less common before email became widespread in the mid-1990s. Consequently, it is often perceived in those languages as denoting "the Internet", computerization, or modernization in general. Naming the symbol after animals is also common.
* In [Afrikaans](Afrikaans), it is called , meaning 'monkey tail', similarly to the [Dutch](Dutch language) use of the word ( is the word for 'monkey' or 'ape' in [Dutch](Dutch language), comes from the Dutch ).
* In [Arabic](Arabic), it is ().
* In [Armenian](Armenian language), it is (), which means 'puppy'.
* In [Azerbaijani](Azerbaijani language), it is () which means 'meat', though most likely it is a phonetic transliteration of *at*.
* In [Basque](Basque language), it is ('wrapped A').
* In [Belarusian](Belarusian language), it is called (, meaning 'helix' or 'snail').
* In [Bosnian](Bosnian language), it is ('crazy A').
* In [Bulgarian](Bulgarian language), it is called ( – 'a badly written letter'), ( – 'monkey A'), ( – 'little monkey'), or ( - a pastry roll often made in a shape similar to the character)
* In [Catalan](Catalan language), it is called (a unit of measure) or (a [Mallorca](Mallorca)n pastry, because of the similar shape of this food).
* In [Chinese](Chinese language):
** In [China](mainland)(mainland China), it used to be called (pronounced ), meaning 'circled A' / '[A](enclosed)(enclosed A)', or (pronounced ), meaning 'lacy A', and sometimes as (pronounced ), meaning 'little [mouse](mouse)'. Nowadays, for most of China's youth, it is called (pronounced ), which is a phonetic transcription of *at*.
** In [Taiwan](Taiwan), it is (pronounced ), meaning 'little [mouse](mouse)'.
** In [Kong](Hong)(Hong Kong) and [Macau](Macau), it is *at*.
* In [Croatian](Croatian language), it is most often referred to by the English word *at* (pronounced *et*), and less commonly and more formally, with the preposition (with the addressee in the [case](nominative)(nominative case), not [locative](locative case) as per usual [rection](rection) of ), meaning 'at', '' or 'by'. Informally, it is called a , coming from the local pronunciation of the English word *monkey*. Note that the Croatian words for monkey, , , , are not used to denote the symbol, except seldom the latter words regionally.
* In [Czech](Czech language) it is called , which means '[rollmops](rollmops)'; the same word is used in [Slovak](Slovak language).
* In [Danish](Danish language), it is ('[elephant](elephant)'s trunk A'). It is not used for prices, where in Danish means 'at (per piece)'.
* In [Dutch](Dutch language), it is called ('monkey's tail'). The *a* is the first character of the Dutch word which means 'monkey' or 'ape'; is the plural of . However, the use of the English *at* has become increasingly popular in Dutch.
* In [Esperanto](Esperanto), it is called ('at' – for the email use, with an address like "zamenhof@esperanto.org" pronounced ), ('each' – refers only to the mathematical use), or (meaning 'snail').
* In [Estonian](Estonian language), it is called , from the English word *at*.
* In [Faroese](Faroese language), it is , ('at'), , or ('[elephant's] trunk A').
* In [Finnish](Finnish language), it was originally called ("fee sign") or ("unit price sign"), but these names are long obsolete and now rarely understood. Nowadays, it is officially , according to the national standardization institute [SFS](Finnish Standards Association); frequently also spelled . Other names include ('cat's tail') and ('miaow-meow') or short; “miu-mau”.
* In [French](French language), it is now officially the ["At last, France has a name for the @ sign"](http://www.iol.co.za/scitech/technology/at-last-france-has-a-name-for-the-sign-1.98600) , December 9, 2002, iol.co.za (also spelled or ), or (though this is most commonly used in French-speaking Canada, and should normally only be used when quoting prices; it should always be called or, better yet, when in an email address). Its origin is the same as that of the [Spanish](Spanish language) word, which could be derived from the [Arabic](Arabic language) (). In France, it is also common (especially for younger generations) to say the English word *at* when spelling out an email address. In everyday [French](Québec)(Québec French), one often hears when sounding out an e-mail address, while TV and radio hosts are more likely to use .
* In [Georgian](Georgian language), it is , spelled (, ).
* In [German](German language), it has sometimes been referred to as (meaning '[monkey](spider)(spider monkey)') or (meaning '[monkey](monkey)s [tail](tail)'). or refer to the similarity of @ to the tail of a monkey grabbing a branch. More recently, it is commonly referred to as , as in English.
* In [Greek](Greek language), it is called meaning 'duckling'.
* In [Greenlandic](Greenlandic language), an Inuit language, it is called meaning 'A-like' or 'something that looks like A'.
* In [Hebrew](Hebrew language), it is colloquially known as (), due to the visual resemblance to a cross-section cut of a [strudel](strudel) cake. The normative term, invented by the [of the Hebrew Language](Academy)(Academy of the Hebrew Language), is (), which is another Hebrew word for 'strudel', but is rarely used.
* In [Hindi](Hindi), it is , from the English word.
* In [Hungarian](Hungarian language), it is called (a playful synonym for 'worm' or 'maggot').
* In [Icelandic](Icelandic language), it is referred to as ("the at sign") or , which is a direct translation of the English word *at*.
* In [English](Indian)(Indian English), speakers often say *at the rate of* (with e-mail addresses quoted as "example *at the rate of* example.com").
* In [Indonesian](Indonesian language), it is usually . Variations exist – especially if verbal communication is very noisy – such as and (both meaning '[circle](circle)d A'), ('[snail](snail) A'), and (most rarely) ('[monkey](monkey) A').
* In [Irish](Irish language), it is (meaning 'at') or (meaning 'at sign').
* In [Italian](Italian language), it is ('[snail](snail)') or , sometimes (pronounced more often and rarely ) or .
* In [Japanese](Japanese language), it is called (, from the English words *at mark*). The word is , a loan word from the English language.
* In [Kazakh](Kazakh language), it is officially called (, 'moon's ear').
* In [Korean](Korean language), it is called (, meaning 'whelk'), a dialectal form of [whelk](whelk).
* In [Kurdish](Kurdish languages), it is *at* or *et* (Latin [script](Hawar)(Kurdish alphabets)), (Perso-Arabic [script](Sorani)(Sorani alphabet)) coming from the English word *at*.
* In [Latvian](Latvian language), it is pronounced the same as in English, but, since in Latvian is written as "e" (not "a" as in English), it is sometimes written as .
* In [Lithuanian](Lithuanian language), it is pronounced (equivalent to the English *at*).
* In [Luxembourgish](Luxembourgish) it used to be called ('monkey tail'), but due to widespread use, it is now called , as in English.
* In [Macedonian](Macedonian language), it is called (, , 'little monkey').
* In [Malaysia](Malaysia), it is called when it is used in names and when it is used in email addresses, being the [Malay](Malaysian language) word for 'at'. It is also commonly used to abbreviate which means 'or', 'either'.
* In [code](Morse)(Morse code#Letters, numbers, punctuation, prosigns for Morse code and non-Latin variants), it is known as a "[commat](prosigns for Morse code)", consisting of the Morse code for the "A" and "C" which run together as one character: . The symbol was added in 2004 for use with email addresses, the only official change to Morse code since [War I](World)(World War I).
* In [Nepali](Nepali language), the symbol is called "at the rate." Commonly, people will give their email addresses by including the phrase "at the rate".
* In [Norwegian](Norwegian language), it is officially called ('curly [alpha](alpha (letter))' or 'alpha twirl'), and commonly as . Sometimes , the Swedish/Danish name (which means 'trunk A', as in 'elephant's trunk'), is used. Commonly, people will call the symbol (as in English), particularly when giving their email addresses. The computer manufacturer [Data](Norsk)(Norsk Data) used it as the command prompt, and it was often called "grisehale" (pig's tail).
* In [Persian](Persian language), it is , from the English word.
* In [Polish](Polish language), it is commonly called ('monkey'). Rarely, the English word *at* is used.
* In [Portuguese](Portuguese language), it is called (from the Arabic , ). The word is also used for a weight measure in Portuguese. One arroba is equivalent to 32 old Portuguese pounds, approximately , and both the weight and the symbol are called . In Brazil, [cattle](cattle) are still priced by the – now rounded to . This naming is because the at sign was used to represent this measure.
* In [Romanian](Romanian language), it is most commonly called , but also colloquially called ("monkey tail") or . The latter is commonly used, and it comes from the word *round* (from its shape), but that is nothing like the mathematical symbol (rounded A). Others call it , or (Romanian word for 'at').
[[File:Basic interpreter on the DVK computer.JPG|thumb|right|@ on a [DVK](DVK) Soviet computer ()]]
* In [Russian](Russian language), it is commonly called ( – '[little] dog').
* In [Serbian](Serbian language), it is called ( – 'crazy A'), ( – 'little monkey'), or ( – 'monkey').
* In [Slovak](Slovak language), it is called ('rollmop', a pickled fish roll, as in Czech).
* In [Slovenian](Slovene language), it is called (an informal word for 'monkey').
* In [Spanish-speaking](Spanish language) countries, it is called (from the Arabic , which denotes a pre-metric unit of weight. While there are regional variations in [Spain](Spain), [Mexico](Mexico), [Colombia](Colombia), [Ecuador](Ecuador), and [Peru](Peru) it is typically considered to represent approximately .
* In [Sámi](Sámi languages) ([Sámi](North)(Northern Sami language)), it is called meaning 'cat's tail'.
* In [Swedish](Swedish language), it is called ('[elephant](elephant)'s trunk A') or simply , as in the English language. Less formally it is also known as ('[roll](cinnamon)(cinnamon roll)') or ('[alpha](alpha) curl').
* In [German](Swiss)(Swiss German), it is commonly called ('monkey-tail'). However, the use of the English word has become increasingly popular in Swiss German, as with Standard German.
* In [Tagalog](Tagalog language), the word means 'and', so the symbol is used like an ampersand in colloquial writing such as text messages (e.g. , 'cook and eat').
* In [Thai](Thai language), it is commonly called , as in English.
* In [Turkish](Turkish language), it is commonly called , a variant pronunciation of English *at*.
* In [Ukrainian](Ukrainian language), it is commonly called ( – 'at') or Равлик (ravlyk), which means 'snail'.
* In [Urdu](Urdu), it is ().
* In [Vietnamese](Vietnamese language), it is called ('bent A') in [north](the)(northern Vietnam) and ('hooked A') in [south](the)(southern Vietnam).
* In [Welsh](Welsh language), it is sometimes known as a or (both meaning "snail").
## Unicode
In Unicode, the at sign is encoded as . The named entity @ was introduced in HTML5.HTML5 is the only version of HTML that has a named entity for the at sign, see https://www.w3.org/TR/html4/sgml/entities.html ("The following sections present the complete lists of character entity references.") and https://www.w3.org/TR/2014/CR-html5-20140731/syntax.html#named-character-references ("commat;").
### Variants
|map2char1=7C
|map3=[EBCDIC](EBCDIC) (1026)|map3char1=AE
|map4=[JIS](Shift)(Shift JIS)|map4char1=40|map4char2=81 97
|map5=[EUC-JP](EUC-JP)|map5char1=40|map5char2=A1 F7
|map6=[EUC-KR](EUC-KR) / [UHC](Unified Hangul Code)|map6char1=40|map6char2=A3 C0
|map7=[18030](GB)(GB 18030)|map7char1=40|map7char2=A3 C0|map7char3=A9 88
|map8=[Big5](Big5)|map8char1=40|map8char2=A2 49|map8char3=A2 4E
|map9=[EUC-TW](EUC-TW)|map9char1=40|map9char2=A2 E9|map9char3=A2 EE
| namedref1 = [LaTeX](LaTeX) | ref1char1 = \MVAt
}}
## See also
* [ASCII](ASCII)
* [Circle-A](Anarchist symbolism#Circle-A)
* [A](Enclosed)(Enclosed A) ([Ⓐ](Ⓐ), [ⓐ](ⓐ))
* [Unicode](Unicode)
## References
## External links
*
* ["The Accidental History of the @ Symbol "](https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/the-accidental-history-of-the-symbol-18054936/), *[magazine](Smithsonian)(Smithsonian magazine)*, September 2012, Retrieved October 2021.
* The @-symbol, [part 1](http://www.shadycharacters.co.uk/2011/07/the-symbol-part-1-of-2/), [intermission](http://www.shadycharacters.co.uk/2011/07/the-symbol-intermission/), [part 2](https://web.archive.org/web/20141225121941/http://www.shadycharacters.co.uk/2011/08/the-symbol-part-2-of-2/), [addenda](http://www.shadycharacters.co.uk/2011/08/the-symbol-addenda/), *[Shady Characters ⌂ The secret life of punctuation](https://web.archive.org/web/20141221071159/http://www.shadycharacters.co.uk/)* August 2011, Retrieved June 2013.
* ["Daniel Soar on @"](http://www.lrb.co.uk/v31/n10/soar01_.html), *[Review of Books](London)(London Review of Books)*, Vol. 31 No. 10, 28 May 2009, Retrieved June 2013.
* [ascii64 – the @ book – free download (creative commons) – by patrik sneyd – foreword by luigi colani)](https://web.archive.org/web/20070120072115/http://www.ascii64.org/) November 2006, Retrieved June 2013.
* [A Natural History of the @ Sign](http://www.herodios.com/atsign.htm) The many names of the at sign in various languages, 1997, Retrieved June 2013.
* [Sum: the @ Symbol](http://www.linguistlist.org/issues/7/7-968.html), *LINGUIST List 7.968* July 1996, Retrieved June 2013.
* [Where it's At: names for a common symbol](http://www.worldwidewords.org/articles/whereat.htm) *[World Wide Words](http://www.worldwidewords.org/)* August 1996, Retrieved June 2013.
[ligatures](Category:Latin-script)(Category:Latin-script ligatures)
[symbols](Category:Typographical)(Category:Typographical symbols)
[Category:Graphemes](Category:Graphemes)
[Category:Punctuation](Category:Punctuation)
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Alicia Vikander
|
alicia_vikander
|
# Alicia Vikander
*Revision ID: 1158038162 | Timestamp: 2023-06-01T15:47:42Z*
---
| birth_place = [Gothenburg](Gothenburg), Sweden
| alma_mater =
| occupation = Actress
| spouse =
| children = 1
| years_active = 2002–present
| awards = [list](Full)(List of awards and nominations received by Alicia Vikander)
}}
**Alicia Amanda Vikander** (, ; born 3 October 1988) is a Swedish actress. She is the recipient of [accolades](various)(List of awards and nominations received by Alicia Vikander), including an [Award](Academy)(Academy Award) and a [Actors Guild Award](Screen)(Screen Actors Guild Award), and nominations for two [Globe Awards](Golden)(Golden Globe Awards) and three [Academy Film Awards](British)(British Academy Film Awards).
Born and raised in [Gothenburg](Gothenburg), Vikander began acting as a child in minor stage productions at the [opera house](Gothenburg)(Gothenburg opera house) and trained as a ballet dancer at the [Swedish Ballet](Royal)(Royal Swedish Ballet) in [Stockholm](Stockholm). She began her acting career in Swedish short films and television series and first gained recognition for her role in the drama series *[Avenyn](Andra)(Andra Avenyn)* (2008–2010). She made her feature film debut in *[Pure](Pure (2010 film))* (2010), for which she won the [Award for Best Actress](Guldbagge)(Guldbagge Award for Best Actress in a Leading Role). She gained wider recognition in 2012 for playing Kitty in [Wright](Joe)(Joe Wright)'s adaptation of *[Karenina](Anna)(Anna Karenina (2012 film))* and [Caroline Mathilde](Queen)(Caroline Matilda of Great Britain) in the Danish film *[Royal Affair](A)(A Royal Affair)*.
Vikander achieved global recognition for her roles as [Brittain](Vera)(Vera Brittain) in *[of Youth](Testament)(Testament of Youth (film))* (2014), a [robot](humanoid)(humanoid robot) in *[Machina](Ex)(Ex Machina (film))* (2014), for which she was nominated for the [Award for Best Actress in a Supporting Role](BAFTA)(BAFTA Award for Best Actress in a Supporting Role), and [Wegener](Gerda)(Gerda Wegener) in *[Danish Girl](The)(The Danish Girl (film))* (2015), for which she won the [Award for Best Supporting Actress](Academy)(Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress). In 2016, Vikander was listed by *[Forbes](Forbes)* in its [Under 30](30)(Forbes 30 Under 30) list. She has since starred in the action film *[Bourne](Jason)(Jason Bourne (film))* (2016), the fantasy film *[Green Knight](The)(The Green Knight (film))* (2021), and the miniseries *[Vep](Irma)(Irma Vep (miniseries))* (2022).
## Early life
Alicia Amanda Vikander was born on 3 October 1988 in [Gothenburg](Gothenburg) to Maria Fahl (1951-2022), a stage actress, and Svante Vikander, a psychiatrist. Her parents are from small villages in the north and south of Sweden, respectively.Stated on *[Conan](Conan (talk show))*, 5 May 2015, can be viewed here, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gCD7aEBOQwE , starting at 26:42 They separated when Vikander was two months old, and she was mostly raised by her mother. She has five half-siblings on her father's side. Vikander has said she had the best of both worlds growing up, being an only child to her mother and being surrounded by a large family when she went to her father's house every second week. She is one-quarter Finnish; her maternal great-aunt moved from Finland to Sweden to escape [War II](World)(Military history of Finland during World War II).
Vikander started her acting career at age seven, starring in a production of *[från Duvemåla](Kristina)(Kristina från Duvemåla)* at [Göteborg Opera](The)(The Göteborg Opera), which was written by [Ulvaeus](Björn)(Björn Ulvaeus) and [Andersson](Benny)(Benny Andersson) from [ABBA](ABBA), performing in the play for three and a half years. She appeared in several musicals at the Opera, such as *[Sound of Music](The)(The Sound of Music)* and *[Misérables](Les)(Les Misérables (musical)).* In 1997 she participated in the [TV4](TV4 (Sweden)) children's singing show *[Småstjärnorna](Småstjärnorna);* she performed the [Sjöholm](Helen)(Helen Sjöholm)s song, "Du måste finnas". She won her episode with praise from the judges for her stage presence.
Vikander trained in [ballet](ballet) from age nine with the *Svenska Balettskolan i Göteborg* (1998–2004). At 15, Vikander moved from Gothenburg to train at the ballet's upper school in [Stockholm](Stockholm), living on her own. She trained one summer at the American Academy of Ballet in New York.
At age 16, she almost left school to commit fully to the television series she worked on with director [Alfredson](Tomas)(Tomas Alfredson), realising her passion for acting. Her dance career was sidelined in her late teens due to injuries. She auditioned for [school](drama)(drama school) but was turned down twice. At one point, Vikander was admitted to [school](law)(law school) but she never attended, following her dreams to become an actress instead.
## Career
### Early career
Vikander began her career by appearing in a number of short films and television roles in her native Sweden. She later appeared in Swedish TV drama *[Avenyn](Andra)(Andra Avenyn)* from 2008 to 2010.
### 2010–2014
[[File:Lisa Langseth & Alicia Vikander Cannes 2012.JPG|thumb|Vikander (right) and director [Langseth](Lisa)(Lisa Langseth) at the [Cannes Film Festival](2012)(2012 Cannes Film Festival)|238x238px|left]]
Vikander received critical acclaim for her feature film debut, playing the leading role of Katarina in the Swedish film *[Pure](Pure (2010 film))* (2010). The film tells the story of the troubled secretary Katarina, who desperately tries to escape her life. With this role, Vikander won the Rising Star Award in 2010 at the [International Film Festival](Stockholm)(Stockholm International Film Festival), the Shooting Star Award at the [International Film Festival](Berlin)(Berlin International Film Festival) and the prestigious [Award for Best Actress in a Leading Role](Guldbagge)(Guldbagge Award for Best Actress in a Leading Role). She became represented by Tavistock Wood management in the UK, and shortly afterwards she also signed with [Talent Agency](United)(United Talent Agency) in the US. In 2011, she had the leading role of Fragancia Fernandez, who is arrested for attempted murder, in *[Crown Jewels](The)(Kronjuvelerna)*. In 2012, Vikander gained international attention for playing the key role of Kitty in the English-language film adaptation of *[Karenina](Anna)(Anna Karenina (2012 film)),* starring [Knightley](Keira)(Keira Knightley). The film premiered at the [Toronto International Film Festival](2012)(2012 Toronto International Film Festival) and received positive reviews.
That year, she added Danish to her repertoire while co-starring as Queen [Mathilde](Caroline)(Caroline Matilda of Great Britain) in the [Arcel](Nikolaj)(Nikolaj Arcel) feature film *[Royal Affair](A)(A Royal Affair).* It had its world premiere at the [Berlin International Film Festival](62nd)(62nd Berlin International Film Festival) and was received with critical acclaim. The film was subsequently nominated for the [Award for Best Foreign Language Film](Academy)(Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film) at the [Academy Awards](85th)(85th Academy Awards). Vikander was named as one of the 10 Actors to Watch: Breakthrough Performances of 2012 at the 20th [International Film Festival](Hamptons)(Hamptons International Film Festival), was nominated for [Rising Star Award](BAFTA)(BAFTA Rising Star Award) in 2013, and received the Editor's Choice Award at the 2013 [Style Awards](Elle)(Elle Style Awards).
In 2013, she starred as German [Party](Pirate)(Pirate Party) member [Domscheit-Berg](Anke)(Anke Domscheit-Berg) in *[Fifth Estate](The)(The Fifth Estate (film)).* The film opened the [International Film Festival](Toronto)(2013 Toronto International Film Festival) on 5 September 2013. It garnered mixed critical reactions. Vikander also had the leading role of Erika in the Swedish film *[Hotell](Hotell),* for which she got the [International Film Festival](Marrakech)(Marrakech International Film Festival) Award for Best Actress. In 2014, she appeared in the Australian [thriller](crime)(crime thriller) *[of a Gun](Son)(Son of a Gun (film))*. The film was released in Australia on 16 October 2014 and received mixed reviews; Vikander, however, was praised for her performance.
### 2015–2019
[[File:Alicia Vikander 2015 Comic-Con 03.jpg|thumb|Vikander at the 2015 [Diego Comic-Con](San)(San Diego Comic-Con)]]
In 2015, Vikander had substantial roles in eight films.["Why Alicia Vikander is the actress to watch in 2015"](http://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/film/11308034/Why-Alicia-Vikander-could-be-the-actress-to-watch-in-2015.html) , *[Daily Telegraph](The)(The Daily Telegraph)*, London, 2 December 2015 She garnered widespread critical acclaim for her portrayal of painter [Wegener](Gerda)(Gerda Wegener) in [Hooper](Tom)(Tom Hooper)'s *[Danish Girl](The)(The Danish Girl (film)),* for which she won the [Award for Best Supporting Actress](Academy)(Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress), becoming the second Swedish actress to win this award; the [Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Female Actor in a Supporting Role](Screen)(Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Female Actor in a Supporting Role), and the [Choice Movie Award for Best Supporting Actress](Critics')(Critics' Choice Movie Award for Best Supporting Actress); and received a nomination for the [Globe Award for Best Actress – Motion Picture Drama](Golden)(Golden Globe Award for Best Actress – Motion Picture Drama) and the [Award for Best Actress in a Leading Role](BAFTA)(BAFTA Award for Best Actress in a Leading Role) but lost both awards to [Larson](Brie)(Brie Larson) for *[Room](Room (2015 film))*. Screen Actors Guild Awards|website=www.sagawards.org|language=en|access-date=24 July 2018|archive-date=25 April 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200425180249/https://www.sagawards.org/awards/nominees-and-recipients/22nd-annual-screen-actors-guild-awards|url-status=live}}
She garnered critical acclaim and wide recognition for her starring role as [intelligence](Artificial)(Artificial intelligence) Ava in [Garland](Alex)(Alex Garland)'s directorial debut *[Machina](Ex)(Ex Machina (film)),* for which she received a nomination for the [Globe Award for Best Supporting Actress – Motion Picture](Golden)(Golden Globe Award for Best Supporting Actress – Motion Picture) and the [Award for Best Actress in a Supporting Role](BAFTA)(BAFTA Award for Best Actress in a Supporting Role). In 2016, *[Forbes](Forbes)* included Vikander in its [Under 30](30)(Forbes 30 Under 30) list.
She had the leading role of pacifist [Brittain](Vera)(Vera Brittain) in *[of Youth](Testament)(Testament of Youth (film))* alongside [Harington](Kit)(Kit Harington) and [Watson](Emily)(Emily Watson). *Testament of Youth* was well received upon its release, with critics particularly praising Vikander's performance. For her role as Brittain, Vikander was nominated for [Award for Best Performance by an Actress in a British Independent Film](BIFA)(BIFA Award for Best Performance by an Actress in a British Independent Film). She also played the role of half-human/half-witch Alice Deane in the fantasy film *[Son](Seventh)(Seventh Son (film))* (2015), narrated the Swedish documentary *[Bergman: In Her Own Words](Ingrid)(Ingrid Bergman: In Her Own Words)* (2015), had the female leading role in the [Ritchie](Guy)(Guy Ritchie)-directed action film *[Man from U.N.C.L.E.](The)(The Man from U.N.C.L.E. (film))*, based on the 1964 [MGM](Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer) [series of the same name](television)(The Man from U.N.C.L.E.); and appeared in the film *[Burnt](Burnt (film))* (2015).
On 6 May 2016, it was announced that Vikander set up a production company called Vikarious along with her agent Charles Collier. The company's first film, *Euphoria*, a production with Sweden's B-Reel Films, began shooting in the German Alps in August 2016. The film is the English-language directorial debut of Swedish writer/director [Langseth](Lisa)(Lisa Langseth), and was Langseth and Vikander's third collaboration. Vikander starred opposite [Green](Eva)(Eva Green) and [Rampling](Charlotte)(Charlotte Rampling) as sisters in conflict travelling through Europe toward a mystery destination. *Euphoria* received its premiere at the Toronto International Film Festival (TIFF) in September 2017.
In 2016, Vikander starred opposite [Damon](Matt)(Matt Damon) in *[Bourne](Jason)(Jason Bourne (film))*, directed by [Greengrass](Paul)(Paul Greengrass). It was released on 29 July 2016 by [Pictures](Universal)(Universal Studios). Vikander then appeared in the [adaptation](The Light Between Oceans (film)) of the novel *[Light Between Oceans](The)(The Light Between Oceans (film))* (2016), directed by [Cianfrance](Derek)(Derek Cianfrance), with [Fassbender](Michael)(Michael Fassbender) and [Weisz](Rachel)(Rachel Weisz). The film was released in the United States by [Pictures](Touchstone)(Touchstone Pictures) on 2 September 2016. Vikander portrayed [Croft](Lara)(Lara Croft) in the action reboot film [Raider*](*Tomb)(Tomb Raider (film)), which was released on 16 March 2018. In 2019, Vikander starred in the short film *[Am Easy to Find](I)(I Am Easy to Find (film))* directed by [Mills](Mike)(Mike Mills), which was part of the eighth [of the same name](album)(I Am Easy to Find (album)) by [National](The)(The National (band)). That same year, Vikander starred in the psychological thriller *[Bird](Earthquake)(Earthquake Bird)* opposite [Keough](Riley)(Riley Keough) directed by [Westmoreland](Wash)(Wash Westmoreland) for [Netflix](Netflix).
### 2020–present
In 2020, Vikander portrayed a young [Steinem](Gloria)(Gloria Steinem) in the biographic drama *[Glorias](The)(The Glorias)* directed by [Taymor](Julie)(Julie Taymor), which had its world premiere at the [Film Festival](Sundance)(Sundance Film Festival) in January 2020. Vikander next starred opposite [Patel](Dev)(Dev Patel) in the medieval fantasy *[Green Knight](The)(The Green Knight (film))* directed by [Lowery](David)(David Lowery (director)) which was released by [A24](A24). She also starred in the thriller *[Beckett](Beckett (film))*, opposite [David Washington](John)(John David Washington) directed by [Cito Filomarino](Ferdinando)(Ferdinando Cito Filomarino) and produced by [Guadagnino](Luca)(Luca Guadagnino), *[Bayou](Blue)(Blue Bayou (film))* directed by [Chon](Justin)(Justin Chon), and she will star in *[Firebrand](Firebrand (upcoming film))* as Queen [Parr](Catherine)(Catherine Parr), replacing [Williams](Michelle)(Michelle Williams (actress)).
## Personal life
Vikander has resided in [London](North)(North London).
In late 2014, she began a relationship with actor [Fassbender](Michael)(Michael Fassbender); whom she met while filming *The Light Between Oceans*. They made their first public appearance as a couple at the [Golden Globe Awards](2016)(73rd Golden Globe Awards), where Vikander was nominated for her performances in *Ex Machina* and *The Danish Girl*, and Fassbender was nominated for *[Jobs](Steve)(Steve Jobs (film))*. They married on 14 October 2017 in a private ceremony in [Ibiza](Ibiza), Spain. , the couple reside in [Lisbon](Lisbon), Portugal. They have a son, born in 2021.
### Advocacy
Vikander identifies as a [feminist](Feminism) and has advocated for [equality](gender)(gender equality) in film, commenting:}}
On 10 November 2017, Vikander was one of 584 women who called for the Swedish film and theatre industries to address what they claimed was a culture of [misconduct](sexual)(sexual misconduct). She added her signature to an open letter published in the Swedish newspaper *Svenska Dagbladet*. The letter contained numerous accounts of [harassment](sexual)(sexual harassment), [assault](sexual assault) and [rape](rape) suffered by women in the Swedish industry, all recounted anonymously. According to a translation of the letter published by English-language Swedish publication *The Local*, the signatories vowed that they would "no longer be silent". Following the letter's publication, Swedish press reported that culture minister [Bah Kuhnke](Alice)(Alice Bah Kuhnke) called a meeting of the heads of Sweden's National Theatre Company, the Royal Dramatic Theatre, and the Royal Swedish Opera.
## Filmography
### Film
### Television
## Other credited works
In 2020, Vikander recorded a narration of the audiobook chapter "Pippi Longstocking Moves Into Villa Villekulla", supporting the global charitable initiative "Pippi of Today", a collaboration between The Astrid Lindgren Company and [the Children](Save)(Save the Children), to create awareness and raise money for girls on the move.
In 2021, Vikander recorded the song "Blue Bayou", which is featured on the *[Bayou](Blue)(Blue Bayou (film)) (Original Motion Picture Soundtrack)*.
## See also
* [of actors with Academy Award nominations](List)(List of actors with Academy Award nominations)
* [of oldest and youngest Academy Award winners and nominees](List)(List of oldest and youngest Academy Award winners and nominees)
* [of Swedish actors](List)(List of Swedish actors)
## References
## External links
*
* [Alicia Vikander at SFdb](https://www.svenskfilmdatabas.se/en/item/?type=person&itemid=348873) ([Film Database](Swedish)(Swedish Film Database))
}}
[births](Category:1988)(Category:1988 births)
[people](Category:Living)(Category:Living people)
[from Gothenburg](Category:People)(Category:People from Gothenburg)
[people of Finnish descent](Category:Swedish)(Category:Swedish people of Finnish descent)
[Swedish actresses](Category:21st-century)(Category:21st-century Swedish actresses)
[child actresses](Category:Swedish)(Category:Swedish child actresses)
[film actresses](Category:Swedish)(Category:Swedish film actresses)
[Actress Guldbagge Award winners](Category:Best)(Category:Best Actress Guldbagge Award winners)
[Supporting Actress Academy Award winners](Category:Best)(Category:Best Supporting Actress Academy Award winners)
[Performance by a Female Actor in a Supporting Role Screen Actors Guild Award winners](Category:Outstanding)(Category:Outstanding Performance by a Female Actor in a Supporting Role Screen Actors Guild Award winners)
[Swedish Ballet dancers](Category:Royal)(Category:Royal Swedish Ballet dancers)
[feminists](Category:Swedish)(Category:Swedish feminists)
[musical theatre actresses](Category:Swedish)(Category:Swedish musical theatre actresses)
[expatriates in the United Kingdom](Category:Swedish)(Category:Swedish expatriates in the United Kingdom)
[television actresses](Category:Swedish)(Category:Swedish television actresses)
[soap opera actresses](Category:Swedish)(Category:Swedish soap opera actresses)
[women film producers](Category:Swedish)(Category:Swedish women film producers)
[expatriates in Portugal](Category:Swedish)(Category:Swedish expatriates in Portugal)
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Nancy Pelosi
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nancy_pelosi
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# Nancy Pelosi
*Revision ID: 1159965967 | Timestamp: 2023-06-13T17:27:58Z*
---
(19871993)| (19932013)| (20132023)| (2023present)}}
| office8 = Chair of the [Democratic Party](California)(California Democratic Party)
| term_start8 = February 27, 1981
| term_end8 = April 3, 1983
| predecessor8 = Richard J. O'Neill
| successor8 = Peter Kelly
| birth_name = Nancy Patricia D'Alesandro
| birth_date =
| birth_place = [Baltimore](Baltimore), [Maryland](Maryland), U.S.
| death_date =
| death_place =
| residence = [Francisco](San)(San Francisco), California, U.S.
| party = [Democratic](Democratic Party (United States))
| spouse =
| children = 5, including [Christine](Christine Pelosi) and [Alexandra](Alexandra Pelosi)
| father = [D'Alesandro Jr.](Thomas)(Thomas D'Alesandro Jr.)
| relatives = [D'Alesandro III](Thomas)(Thomas D'Alesandro III) (brother)
| education = [College](Trinity)(Trinity Washington University) ([BA](Bachelor of Arts))
| signature = Nancy Pelosi Signature.svg
| signature_alt = Cursive signature in ink
| website =
| module =
}}
**Nancy Patricia Pelosi** (; ; born March 26, 1940) is an American politician who served as the [52nd](List of Speakers of the United States House of Representatives) [of the United States House of Representatives](speaker)(speaker of the United States House of Representatives) from 2007 to 2011 and again from 2019 to 2023. A member of the [Party](Democratic)(Democratic Party (United States)), she was the first woman elected Speaker and the first woman to lead a major political party in either chamber of [Congress](United States Congress), leading the [Democrats](House)(House Democratic Caucus) from 2003 to 2023. She has represented in the [States House of Representatives](United)(United States House of Representatives) since 1987. The district, numbered as the 5th district from 1987 to 1993, the 8th from 1993 to 2013, and the 12th from 2013 to 2023, includes most of the city of [Francisco](San)(San Francisco).
Pelosi was born and raised in [Baltimore](Baltimore), the daughter of mayor and congressman [D'Alesandro](Thomas)(Thomas D'Alesandro Jr.). She graduated from [College, Washington](Trinity)(Trinity Washington University), in 1962 and married businessman [Pelosi](Paul)(Paul Pelosi) the next year; the two had met while both were students. They moved to New York City before settling down in San Francisco with their children. Focused on raising her family, Pelosi stepped into politics as a volunteer for the Democratic Party. She was first elected to Congress in a [special election](1987)(1987 California's 5th congressional district special election) and is now in her 19th term; she is the dean of [congressional delegation](California's)(United States congressional delegations from California). Pelosi steadily rose through the ranks of the House Democratic Caucus to be elected [minority whip](House)(Party leaders of the United States House of Representatives) in 2002 and elevated to [minority leader](House)(Party leaders of the United States House of Representatives) a year later, becoming the first woman to hold each of those positions in either chamber of Congress.
In the [midterm elections](2006)(2006 midterm elections), Pelosi led the Democrats to a majority in the House for the first time in 12 years and was subsequently elected Speaker, becoming the first woman to hold the office. During her first speakership, Pelosi was a major opponent of the [War](Iraq)(Iraq War) as well as the [administration's](Bush)(Presidency of George W. Bush) [to partially privatize](attempts)(Social Security debate in the United States) [Security](Social)(Social Security (United States)). She participated in the passage of the [administration's landmark bills](Obama)(Presidency of Barack Obama#Major acts and legislation), including the [Care Act](Affordable)(Affordable Care Act), the [Wall Street Reform and Consumer Protection Act](Dodd–Frank)(Dodd–Frank Wall Street Reform and Consumer Protection Act), the [Ask, Don't Tell Repeal Act](Don't)(Don't Ask, Don't Tell Repeal Act), the [Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009](American)(American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009), and the [Tax Relief Act](2010)(2010 Tax Relief Act). Pelosi lost the speakership after the [Party](Republican)(Republican Party (United States)) retook the majority in the [midterm elections](2010)(2010 midterm elections), but she retained her role as leader of the House Democrats and became House minority leader for a second time.
In the [midterm elections](2018)(2018 midterm elections), Democrats regained majority control of the House, and Pelosi [again elected Speaker](was)(2019 Speaker of the United States House of Representatives election), becoming the first former speaker to reclaim the gavel since [Rayburn](Sam)(Sam Rayburn) in 1955. During her second speakership, the House twice [impeached](Federal impeachment in the United States) President [Trump](Donald)(Donald Trump), [in December 2019](first)(First impeachment of Donald Trump) and [in January 2021](again)(Second impeachment of Donald Trump); the [Senate](United States Senate) acquitted Trump both times. She participated in the passage of the [administration](Biden)(Biden administration)'s landmark bills, including the [Rescue Plan Act of 2021](American)(American Rescue Plan Act of 2021), the [Investment and Jobs Act](Infrastructure)(Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act), the [and Science Act](CHIPS)(CHIPS and Science Act), the [Reduction Act of 2022](Inflation)(Inflation Reduction Act of 2022), and the [for Marriage Act](Respect)(Respect for Marriage Act). In the [midterm elections](2022)(2022 midterm elections), Republicans narrowly regained control of the House for the new Congress, ending her tenure as speaker. On November 29, 2022, the [and Policy Committee](Steering)(Steering and Policy Committees of the United States House of Representatives) of the House Democratic Caucus named Pelosi "Speaker Emerita".
## Early life and education
Nancy Pelosi was born in [Baltimore](Baltimore), [Maryland](Maryland), to an [Italian-American](Italian-American) family. She was the only daughter and the youngest of six children of Annunciata M. "Nancy" D'Alesandro (née Lombardi) and [D'Alesandro Jr.](Thomas)(Thomas D'Alesandro Jr.) Her mother was born in [Fornelli](Fornelli), [Isernia](Isernia), [Molise](Molise), in [Italy](Southern)(Southern Italy), and immigrated to the U.S. in 1912;Stated on *[Your Roots](Finding)(Finding Your Roots)*, January 12, 2021 her father traced his Italian ancestry to [Genoa](Genoa), [Venice](Venice) and [Abruzzo](Abruzzo). When Pelosi was born, her father was a Democratic congressman from Maryland. He became [mayor](Baltimore)(List of mayors of Baltimore) seven years later. Pelosi's mother was also active in politics, organizing Democratic women and teaching her daughter political skills. Pelosi's brother, [D'Alesandro III](Thomas)(Thomas D'Alesandro III), also a Democrat, was elected Baltimore City Council president and later served as mayor from 1967 to 1971.
Pelosi helped her father at his campaign events, and she attended President [F. Kennedy](John)(John F. Kennedy)'s [address](inaugural)(Inaugural address of John F. Kennedy) in January 1961.
In 1958, Pelosi graduated from the [of Notre Dame](Institute)(Institute of Notre Dame), an all-girls Catholic high school in Baltimore. In 1962, she graduated from Trinity College (now [Washington University](Trinity)(Trinity Washington University)) in Washington, D.C., with a [of Arts](Bachelor)(Bachelor of Arts) in [science](political)(political science). Pelosi interned for Senator [Brewster](Daniel)(Daniel Brewster) (D-Maryland) in the 1960s alongside future House Majority Leader [Hoyer](Steny)(Steny Hoyer).
## Early career
[[File:President John F. Kennedy Attends Swearing-In of Thomas D'Alesandro.jpg|thumb|right|Pelosi, her mother, and President [F. Kennedy](John)(John F. Kennedy) watch as her father is sworn in as a member of the Renegotiation Board, 1961.]]
After moving to [Francisco](San)(San Francisco), Pelosi became friends with 5th district congressman [Burton](Phillip)(Phillip Burton) and began working her way up in Democratic politics. In 1976, she was elected as a [National Committee](Democratic)(Democratic National Committee) member from California, a position she would hold until 1996. She was elected as party chair for Northern California in 1977, and four years later was selected to head the [Democratic Party](California)(California Democratic Party), which she led until 1983. Subsequently, Pelosi served as the San Francisco [National Convention](Democratic)(1984 Democratic National Convention) Host Committee chairwoman in 1984, and then as [Senatorial Campaign Committee](Democratic)(Democratic Senatorial Campaign Committee) finance chair from 1985 to 1986.
## U.S. House of Representatives
### Elections
[[Pelosi 1993 congressional photo.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|right|Pelosi as a member of the U.S. House of Representatives, 1993](File:Nancy)]
Phillip Burton died in 1983 and his wife, [Burton](Sala)(Sala Burton), won a [election](special)(by election) to fill the remainder of her husband's congressional term. She was subsequently reelected to two more terms in her own right. Burton became ill with cancer in late 1986 and decided not to run for reelection in 1988. She picked Pelosi as her designated successor, guaranteeing her the support of the Burtons' contacts. Burton died on February 1, 1987, just a month after being sworn in for a second full term. Pelosi won the [election](special)(1987 California's 5th congressional district special election) to succeed her, defeating Democratic San Francisco supervisor [Britt](Harry)(Harry Britt) on April 7, 1987, and defeating Republican Harriet Ross in a June 2 runoff. Pelosi took office a week later. At the time, there were only 23 women in the House, out of a total of 435 representatives.
Democrats have held Pelosi's seat since 1949 and Republicans, who make up only 13% of registered voters in the district, have not made a serious bid for the seat since the early 1960s. Pelosi was reelected in 1988 and has been reelected another 16 times with no substantive opposition, winning with an average of 80% of the vote. She has not participated in candidates' debates since her 1987 race against Harriet Ross.
For the 2000 and 2002 election cycles, compared to other members of Congress, she contributed the most money to other congressional campaigns.
### Committee assignments
In the House, she served on the [Appropriations](United States House Committee on Appropriations) and [Intelligence](United States House Permanent Select Committee on Intelligence) Committees and was the [member](ranking)(ranking member) on the on the latter [committee](United States congressional committee) until her election as House minority leader.
Pelosi is a member of the [Baltic Caucus](House)(House Baltic Caucus).
### Pre-speakership career
In March 1988, Pelosi voted in favor of the [Rights Restoration Act of 1987](Civil)(Civil Rights Restoration Act of 1987) (as well as to override President [Reagan](Ronald)(Ronald Reagan)'s veto).
In 2001, Pelosi was elected the House minority whip, second-in-command to Minority Leader [Gephardt](Dick)(Dick Gephardt) of Missouri. She was the first woman in U.S. history to hold that post.
In 2002, after Gephardt resigned as House minority leader to seek the Democratic nomination in the [presidential election](2004)(2004 United States presidential election), Pelosi was elected to replace him, becoming the first woman to lead a major party in either chamber of Congress.
### First speakership (2007–2011)
#### Nomination
[[Image:Bush, Pelosi, and Hoyer meeting at White House, Nov 9, 2006.jpg|thumb|right|President [W. Bush](George)(George W. Bush) meets with [Speaker](Speaker (politics))-designate Pelosi and House Minority Whip [Hoyer](Steny)(Steny Hoyer) on November 9, 2006.]]
In the [elections](2006)(2006 United States House of Representatives elections), the Democrats took control of the House, picking up 30 seats. The change in control meant as House Minority Leader, Pelosi was widely expected to become Speaker of the House in the next Congress. On November 16, 2006, the Democratic caucus unanimously chose Pelosi as the Democratic candidate for Speaker.
Pelosi supported her longtime friend, [Murtha](John)(John Murtha) of Pennsylvania, for the position of House majority leader, the second-ranking post in the House Democratic caucus. His competitor was House Minority Whip [Hoyer](Steny)(Steny Hoyer) of Maryland, who had been Pelosi's second-in-command since 2003. Hoyer was elected as House majority leader over Murtha by a margin of 149–86 within the caucus.
On January 4, 2007, Pelosi defeated Republican [Boehner](John)(John Boehner) of Ohio, 233 votes to 202, in the election for Speaker of the House. NowThis |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bZmY9MSWKfE |website=YouTube |language=en-US |access-date=June 24, 2022}}
[Emanuel](Rahm)(Rahm Emanuel) of Illinois, the incoming chairman of the House Democratic Caucus, nominated Pelosi, and her longtime friend [Dingell](John)(John Dingell) of Michigan swore her in, as the [of the House of Representatives](dean)(dean of the House of Representatives) traditionally does. US House of Representatives: History, Art & Archives|website=history.house.gov |access-date=January 22, 2019|archive-date=November 9, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191109100854/https://history.house.gov/Institution/Origins-Development/Oath-of-Office/|url-status=live}}
[[File:2007 State of the Union Address – George W. Bush Library.webm|thumb|upright=1.35|start=00:16|thumbtime=00:35|Pelosi (right) with Vice President [Cheney](Dick)(Dick Cheney) behind President [W. Bush](George)(George W. Bush) at the [State of the Union Address](2007)(2007 State of the Union Address). Pelosi became the first woman to sit behind the podium at such an address. Bush acknowledged this by beginning his speech with the words, "Tonight, I have the high privilege and distinct honor of my own as the first president to begin the State of the Union message with these words: *Madam Speaker*."]]
With her election, Pelosi became the first woman, the first Californian, and the first Italian-American to hold the speakership. She was also the second Speaker from a state west of the [Mountains](Rocky)(Rocky Mountains). The first was [Washington](Washington (state))'s [Foley](Tom)(Tom Foley), the last Democrat to hold the post before Pelosi.
During her speech, she discussed the historical importance of being the first female to hold the position of Speaker:
}}
She also said Iraq was the major issue facing the [Congress](110th)(110th United States Congress) while incorporating some Democratic Party beliefs:
#### Tenure
As Speaker, Pelosi was still the leader of the House Democrats; the Speaker is considered to be the leader of the majority House caucus. However, by tradition, she did not normally participate in debate and almost never voted on the floor, though she had the right to do so as a member of the House. She was also not a member of any House committees, also keeping with Speaker tradition.
Pelosi was reelected as Speaker in 2009. During and after her first tenure as Speaker, she was perceived and/or characterized as a contentious political figure. Republican candidates frequently associated their Democratic opponents with her. At times, centrists, [progressive](Left liberal) candidates and incumbent Democrats all expressed opposition to her continued tenure.
##### Social Security
Shortly after being reelected in 2004, President [W. Bush](George)(George W. Bush) claimed a [mandate](Mandate (politics)) for an ambitious second-term agenda and proposed reforming [Security](Social)(Social Security (United States)) by allowing workers to redirect a portion of their Social Security withholding into stock and bond investments. Pelosi strongly opposed the plan, saying there was no crisis, and as minority leader she imposed intense party discipline on her caucus, leading them to near-unanimous opposition to the proposal, which was defeated.
##### Blocking of impeachment proceedings against President Bush
In the wake of Bush's 2004 reelection, several leading House Democrats believed they should pursue [proceedings against him](impeachment)(Movement to impeach George W. Bush), asserting that he had misled Congress about [of mass destruction](weapons)(weapon of mass destruction) in [Iraq](Iraq and weapons of mass destruction) and violated Americans' civil liberties by [warrantless wiretaps](authorizing)(NSA warrantless surveillance controversy).
In May 2006, with an eye on the upcoming midterm elections—which offered the possibility of Democrats taking back control of the House for the first time since 1994—Pelosi told colleagues that, while the Democrats would conduct vigorous oversight of Bush administration policy, an impeachment investigation was "off the table". A week earlier, she had told *[Washington Post](The)(The Washington Post)* that, although Democrats would not set out to impeach Bush, "you never know where" investigations might lead.
After becoming Speaker in January 2007, Pelosi held firm against impeachment, notwithstanding strong support for it among her constituents. In the November 2008 election, she withstood a challenge for her seat by antiwar activist [Sheehan](Cindy)(Cindy Sheehan), who ran as an independent primarily because of Pelosi's refusal to pursue impeachment."Sheehan considers challenge to Pelosi", by Angela K. Brown, [Press](Associated)(Associated Press), July 8, 2007.
##### The "Hundred Hours"
Before the midterm elections, Pelosi announced that if Democrats gained a House majority, they would push through most of their agenda during the first 100 hours of the 110th Congress.As in the first 100 hours the House meets after Democrats—in her fondest wish—win control in the November7 midterm elections and Pelosi takes the gavel as the first Madam Speaker in history.|archive-date=January 14, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210114194821/https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/10/06/AR2006100600056.html|url-status=live}}
The "first hundred hours" was a play on President [D. Roosevelt](Franklin)(Franklin D. Roosevelt)'s promise for quick action to combat the [Depression](Great)(Great Depression) during his [hundred days"]("first)(Hundred Days Congress) in office. [Gingrich](Newt)(Newt Gingrich), who became Speaker of the House in 1995, had a similar 100-day agenda to implement his [with America](Contract)(Contract with America).
##### Opposition to Iraq War troop surge of 2007
On January 5, 2007, reacting to suggestions from Bush's confidants that he would increase troop levels in Iraq (which he announced in a speech a few days later), Pelosi and Senate Majority Leader [Reid](Harry)(Harry Reid) condemned the plan. They sent Bush a letter reading:
... Rather than deploy additional forces to Iraq, we believe the way forward is to begin the phased redeployment of our forces in the next four to six months while shifting the principal mission of our forces there from combat to training, logistics, force protection, and counter-terror.
}}
##### 2008 Democratic National Convention
[[File:Barack Obama and Nancy Pelosi at DNC (1).jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|Pelosi and [Obama](Barack)(Barack Obama) shaking hands at the [Democratic National Convention](2008)(2008 Democratic National Convention)]]
Pelosi was named Permanent Chair of the [Democratic National Convention](2008)(2008 Democratic National Convention) in [Denver](Denver), Colorado.
##### Healthcare reform
Pelosi has been credited for spearheading Obama's health care law, the [Care Act](Affordable)(Affordable Care Act), when it seemed doomed to defeat. After Republican [Brown](Scott)(Scott Brown (politician)) won Democrat [Kennedy](Ted)(Ted Kennedy)'s former Senate seat in the [2010 Massachusetts special election](January)(United States Senate special election in Massachusetts, 2010), costing Democrats their [filibuster](Senate filibuster)-proof majority, Obama agreed with his then chief of staff [Emanuel](Rahm)(Rahm Emanuel)'s idea to do smaller initiatives that could pass easily. But Pelosi dismissed Obama's compunction, mocking his scaled-back ideas as "kiddie care." After convincing him that this would be their only shot at health care reform because of the large Democratic majorities in Congress, she rallied her caucus as she began an "unbelievable marathon" of a two-month session to craft the bill, which passed the House 219–212. In Obama's remarks before signing the bill into law, he credited Pelosi as "one of the best Speakers the House of Representatives has ever had."
### House minority leader (2011–2019)
[[File:Obama meets with Congressional Leadership July 2011.jpg|thumb|President [Obama](Barack)(Barack Obama) meets with Congressional Leadership, July 2011.]]
#### 112th and 113th Congress
Though Pelosi was reelected by a comfortable margin in the [elections](2010)(2010 United States House of Representatives elections), the Democrats lost 63 seats and control of the House of Representatives to the Republicans. After this setback, Pelosi sought to continue leading the House Democratic Caucus as minority leader, the office she held before becoming Speaker. Disparate intraparty opposition failed to pass a motion to delay the leadership vote, although she faced a challenge from conservative Democratic representative [Shuler](Heath)(Heath Shuler) from [Carolina](North)(North Carolina). Shuler lost to Pelosi 150–43 in the caucus vote on November 17, 2010. On the opening day of the [Congress](112th)(112th United States Congress), Pelosi was elected minority leader.
In November 2011, *[Minutes](60)(60 Minutes)* alleged that Pelosi and several other members of Congress had used information they gleaned from closed sessions to make money on the stock market. The program cited her purchases of [Inc.](Visa)(Visa Inc.) stock while a bill that would limit credit card fees was in the House. Pelosi denied the allegations and called the report "a right-wing smear". When the Stop Trading on Congressional Knowledge Act (or [Act](STOCK)(STOCK Act)) was introduced the next year, she voted for it and lauded its passing. Of representatives [Slaughter](Louise)(Louise Slaughter) and [Walz](Tim)(Tim Walz), who drafted the bill, Pelosi said they "shined a light on a gaping hole in our ethics laws and helped close it once and for all".
On November 14, 2012, she announced she would remain Democratic leader.
#### 114th and 115th Congress
In August 2016, Pelosi said that her personal contact information had been posted online following a cyberattack against top Democratic campaign committees and she had received "obscene and sick calls, voice mails and text messages". She warned members of Congress to avoid letting children or family members answer phone calls or read text messages.
[[File:Nancy Pelosi (16526886414).jpg|thumb|Pelosi speaking at the [States Department of Labor](United)(United States Department of Labor) on [Pay Day](Equal)(Equal Pay Day)]]
[[File:Pelosi greets DREAMers fasting outside the Capitol.jpg|thumb|Pelosi greets [DREAMers](DREAMers) fasting outside the Capitol, September 2017.]]
Prompted by colleagues after the [presidential election](2016)(2016 United States presidential election), [Ryan](Tim)(Tim Ryan (Ohio politician)) of Ohio initiated a bid to replace Pelosi as House minority leader on November 17, 2016. After Pelosi agreed to give more leadership opportunities to junior members, she defeated Ryan by a vote of 134–63 on November 30.
In 2017, after Democrats lost four consecutive special elections in the House of Representatives, Pelosi's leadership was again called into question. In June 2017, Representative [Rice](Kathleen)(Kathleen Rice) of New York and a small group of other House Democrats, including [Black Caucus](Congressional)(Congressional Black Caucus) chairman [Richmond](Cedric)(Cedric Richmond), held a closed-door meeting to discuss potential new Democratic leadership. Other House Democrats, including Ryan, [Moulton](Seth)(Seth Moulton), and [Vela](Filemon)(Filemon Vela Jr.), publicly called for new House leadership. In an interview, Rice said, "If you were talking about a company that was posting losing numbers, if you were talking about any sports team that was losing time and time again, changes would be made, right? The CEO out. The coach would be out and there would be a new strategy put in place." In a press conference, Pelosi defended her leadership, saying, "I respect any opinion that my members have but my decision about how long I stay is not up to them." When asked specifically why she should stay on as House minority leader after numerous Democratic seats were lost, she responded, "Well, I'm a master legislator. I am a strategic, politically astute leader. My leadership is recognized by many around the country, and that is why I'm able to attract the support that I do."
In November 2017, after Pelosi called for [Conyers](John)(John Conyers)'s resignation over allegations of harassment, she convened the first in a series of planned meetings on strategies to address reforming workplace policies in the wake of national attention to sexual harassment. She said Congress had "a moral duty to the brave women and men coming forward to seize this moment and demonstrate real, effective leadership to foster a climate of respect and dignity in the workplace".
In February 2018, Pelosi sent a letter to Speaker [Ryan](Paul)(Paul Ryan) about the proposed public release of a memo prepared by Republican staff at the direction of House Intelligence Committee Chairman [Nunes](Devin)(Devin Nunes). The memo attacked the [Bureau of Investigation](Federal)(Federal Bureau of Investigation) for its investigation of [interference in the 2016 United States elections](Russian)(Russian interference in the 2016 United States elections). Pelosi said the FBI and the Department of Justice had warned Nunes and Ryan that the memo was inaccurate and that its release could threaten national security by disclosing federal surveillance methods. She added that Republicans were engaged in a "cover-up campaign" to protect Trump: "House Republicans' pattern of obstruction and cover-up to hide the truth about the Trump-Russia scandal represents a threat to our intelligence and our national security. The GOP has led a partisan effort to distort intelligence and discredit the U.S. law enforcement and intelligence communities." She charged Nunes with "deliberately dishonest actions" and called for his immediate removal from his position.
In February 2018, Pelosi broke the record for longest House speech using the "[minute](magic)(magic minute)" custom when she spent more than eight hours recounting stories from [DREAMers](DREAMers)—people brought to the United States as minors by undocumented immigrants—to object to a budget deal that would raise spending caps without addressing the future of [recipients](DACA)(Deferred Action for Childhood Arrivals), who were at risk of deportation by the Trump administration.
In May 2018, after the White House invited two Republicans and no Democrats to a Department of Justice briefing on an FBI informant who had made contact with the Trump campaign, Pelosi and Schumer sent a letter to Deputy Attorney General [Rosenstein](Rod)(Rod Rosenstein) and FBI director Wray calling for "a bipartisan Gang of Eight briefing that involves congressional leadership from both chambers".
In August 2018, Pelosi called for [D. Hunter](Duncan)(Duncan D. Hunter)'s resignation after his indictment on charges of misusing at least $250,000 in campaign funds, saying the charges were "evidence of the rampant culture of corruption among Republicans in Washington today".
### Second speakership (2019–2023)
[[Pelosi Official Painting.jpg|thumb|328x328px|Official painting, 2022](File:Nancy)]
In the [elections](2018)(2018 United States House of Representatives elections), the Democrats regained a majority in the House. On November 28, House Democrats nominated Pelosi to once again serve as Speaker. She was [to the speakership](reelected)(2019 Speaker of the United States House of Representatives election) at the start of the [Congress](116th)(116th United States Congress) on January 3, 2019. Pelosi "clinched the speakership after weeks of whittling down opposition from some fellow Democrats seeking a new generation of leadership. The deal to win over holdouts put an expiration date on her tenure: she promised not to stay more than four years in the job". 220 House Democrats voted for Pelosi as Speaker and 15 for someone else or no one.
On February 4, 2020, at the conclusion of Trump's [of the Union](State)(State of the Union) address, Pelosi tore up her official copy of it. Her stated reason for doing so was "because it was a courteous thing to do considering the alternatives. It was a such a dirty speech." Trump and other Republicans criticized her for this.
In December 2021, Pelosi announced her candidacy for reelection to the House in [2022](2022 United States House of Representatives elections). In 2018, and again in 2020, she had agreed not to stay on as Speaker beyond January 2023, but otherwise avoided questions about her future. In 2022, Pelosi was reelected, but the Democratic Party lost the House majority. Ten days later, she announced that she would not seek a Democratic leadership post in the next Congress.
On November 29, 2022, the [and Policy Committee](Steering)(Steering and Policy Committees of the United States House of Representatives) of the House Democratic Caucus named Pelosi "Speaker Emerita". Her second speakership, and her participation in the House Democratic Party leadership, concluded on January 3, 2023, at the end of the [Congress](117th)(117th United States Congress).
#### 2018–2019 government shutdown
[[File:President Trump Meets with the Senate Minority Leader and the House Speaker-Designate.webm|thumb|start=15:32|President [Trump](Donald)(Donald Trump) meets with Pelosi and Senate Minority Leader [Schumer](Chuck)(Chuck Schumer) on December 11, 2018, saying "I will be the one to shut it down."]]
At the start of the 116th Congress, Pelosi opposed Trump's attempts to use the [federal government shutdown](2018–2019)(2018–2019 United States federal government shutdown) (which she called a "hostage-taking" of civil servants) as leverage to build a substantial wall on the American border. She declined to allow Trump to give the [of the Union Address](State)(2019 State of the Union Address) in the House of Representatives chamber while the shutdown was ongoing. After several polls showed Trump's popularity sharply falling due to the shutdown, on January 25, 2019, Trump signed a stopgap bill to reopen the government without any concessions regarding a border wall for three weeks to allow negotiations on an appropriations bill. But he reiterated his demand for the border wall funding and said he would shut the government down again or declare a national emergency and use military funding to build the wall if Congress did not appropriate the funds by February 15.
On February 15, Trump declared a national emergency in order to bypass Congress, after being unsatisfied with a bipartisan bill that had passed the House and Senate the day before.
[[1 011520 (44 of 69) (49396285057).jpg|thumb|Congressional leaders in January 2020](File:MedalCeremony)]
#### Impeachments of President Trump
On September 29, 2019, Pelosi announced the launch of [impeachment inquiry](an)(First impeachment inquiry against Donald Trump) against Trump. On December 5, 2019, after the inquiry had taken place, Pelosi authorized the Judiciary Committee to begin drafting articles of impeachment. After hearings were held, two articles of impeachment were announced on December 10. The House of Representatives approved both articles on December 18, thereby formally impeaching Trump. On the eve of Trump's trial before the U.S. Senate, *The Washington Post* political writer Paul Kane called Pelosi the most powerful House Speaker in at least 25 years, noting that some historians were comparing her influence to that of former Speaker [Rayburn](Sam)(Sam Rayburn).
[[Pelosi signs the article of the second impeachment of Donald Trump 24.png|thumb|Pelosi signs the article of impeachment for the second impeachment of Donald Trump on January 13, 2021.](File:Nancy)]
The day after the [6 United States Capitol attack](January)(January 6 United States Capitol attack), Pelosi demanded that Trump either resign or be removed from office through the clauses of section four the [Amendment to the United States Constitution](Twenty-Fifth)(Twenty-Fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution), threatening impeachment if this did not happen. On January 10, she issued a 24-hour ultimatum to Vice President [Pence](Mike)(Mike Pence), that if he did not invoke the 25th amendment, she would proceed with legislation to impeach Trump. On January 13, the House of Representatives voted to impeach Trump a second time.
#### COVID-19 pandemic and response
[[File:P20210312AS-2551 (51102888325).jpg|thumb|right|Pelosi delivers remarks on the [Rescue Plan](American)(American Rescue Plan Act of 2021) in March 2021.]]
Pelosi aided with the passage of the [Act](CARES)(Coronavirus Aid, Relief, and Economic Security Act). She attracted controversy when footage emerged in early September 2020 of her visiting a hair salon in San Francisco. This was contrary to regulations enforced at that time preventing service indoors. Criticized for hypocrisy by Trump and the owners of the salon, Pelosi described the situation as "clearly a setup". Her stylist and other Democrats defended her.
#### Biden administration
## Political positions
[[File:Ellison-20070104.jpg|thumb|right|Pelosi and Rep. [Ellison](Keith)(Keith Ellison) at his swearing-in ceremony with [Jefferson](Thomas)(Thomas Jefferson)'s [Quran](Quran) in 2007]]
Pelosi was a founding member of the [Progressive Caucus](Congressional)(Congressional Progressive Caucus), but left in 2003 after being elected House minority leader.
### Civil liberties and human rights
[[File:Congresswoman Pelosi honors Daw Aung San Suu Kyi (8281367405).jpg|thumb|Pelosi with [San Suu Kyi](Aung)(Aung San Suu Kyi), Myanmar's pro-democracy leader, at a [Gold Medal](Congressional)(Congressional Gold Medal) ceremony in 2012]]
In 2001, she voted in favor of the [Patriot Act](USA)(USA Patriot Act), but voted against reauthorization of certain provisions in 2005. She voted against a [amendment banning flag-burning](Constitutional)(Flag Desecration Amendment).
#### Immigration
[[File:Rep. Nancy Pelosi, Supreme Court news conference to call for the reversal of President Trump%E2%80%99s travel ban on refugees and immigrants from several Middle East countries (32497355571).jpg|thumb|Pelosi speaking against President Trump's [ban](immigration)(Executive Order 13769)]]
Pelosi voted against the [Fence Act of 2006](Secure)(Secure Fence Act of 2006).
In June 2018, Pelosi visited a federal facility used to detain migrant children separated from their parents and subsequently called for the resignation of Department of Homeland Security Secretary [Nielsen](Kirstjen)(Kirstjen Nielsen). In July, Pelosi characterized the compromise immigration bill by the Republicans as a "deal with the devil" and said she had not had conversations with House Speaker Ryan about a legislative solution to the separation of families at the southern border.
In April 2021, after southern border crossings peaked, House Republicans criticized Pelosi for saying that immigration under the Biden administration was "on a good path". U.S. Customs and Border Protection reported that nearly 19,000 unaccompanied minors arrived in March.
#### LGBT rights
[[File:Nancy Pelosi (9179648593).jpg|thumb|Pelosi at the 2013 [Francisco Pride](San)(San Francisco Pride) Festival]]
Pelosi has long supported [LGBT](LGBT) rights. In 1996, she voted against the [of Marriage Act](Defense)(Defense of Marriage Act), and in 2004 and 2006, she voted against the proposed [Marriage Amendment](Federal)(Federal Marriage Amendment), which would amend the [States Constitution](United)(United States Constitution) to define marriage federally as being between one man and one woman, thereby overriding states' individual rights to legalize [marriage](same-sex)(same-sex marriage). When the [Court of California](Supreme)(Supreme Court of California) overturned the [ban on marriage between same-sex couples](state's)(2000 California Proposition 22) in 2008, Pelosi released a statement welcoming the "historic decision". She also indirectly voiced her opposition to [Proposition 8](California)(2008 California Proposition 8), a successful 2008 [ballot initiative](state)(California ballot proposition) which defined marriage in California as a union between one man and one woman.
In 2012, Pelosi said her position on LGBT rights such as same-sex marriage grows from and reflects her [Catholic](Catholic Church in the United States) faith; it also places her at odds with [doctrine](Catholic)(Catholic theology), which defines marriage as a union between one man and one woman. She said: "My religion compels me—and I love it for it—to be against discrimination of any kind in our country, and I consider [ban on gay marriage](the) a form of discrimination. I think it's unconstitutional on top of that."
Pelosi supports the [Act](Equality)(Equality Act (United States)), a bill that would expand the federal [Rights Act of 1964](Civil)(Civil Rights Act of 1964) to ban [discrimination](discrimination) based on [orientation](sexual)(sexual orientation) and [identity](gender)(gender identity). In 2019, she spoke in Congress in favor of the bill and called for ending discrimination against LGBT people. Pelosi also opposes Trump's [military ban](transgender)(Directive-type Memorandum-19-004).
#### Marijuana
Pelosi supports [in marijuana laws](reform)(Legality of cannabis in the United States), although [NORML](NORML)'s deputy director Paul Armentano said she and other members of Congress had not done anything to change the laws. She also supports use of [marijuana](medical)(medical marijuana).
#### PRISM
Pelosi supports the Bush/Obama NSA surveillance program [PRISM](PRISM (surveillance program)).
#### Removal of Confederate monuments
[[File:Removal of Howell Cobb portrait.jpg|thumb|Capitol workers remove the portrait of former House Speaker [Cobb](Howell)(Howell Cobb) of Georgia from a wall in the Speaker's Lobby of the U.S. Capitol.]]
As Speaker of the House, Pelosi quietly moved the [of Robert E. Lee](statue)(Robert E. Lee (Valentine)) from the [Statuary Hall](National)(National Statuary Hall) of the U.S. Capitol to the [crypt](Capitol)(United States Capitol crypt). In Lee's place, she had a [of Rosa Parks](statue)(Rosa Parks (National Statuary Hall)) erected. In August 2017, Pelosi said she supported the [of Confederate monuments and memorials](removal)(removal of Confederate monuments and memorials) from the [Building](Capitol)(United States Capitol).
#### Waterboarding
In 2002, while Pelosi was the [member](ranking)(ranking member) of the [Intelligence Committee](House)(House Intelligence Committee), she was briefed on the ongoing use of "[interrogation techniques](enhanced)(enhanced interrogation techniques)", including [waterboarding](waterboarding), authorized for a captured terrorist, Abu Zubaydah. After the briefing, Pelosi said she "was assured by lawyers with the CIA and the Department of Justice that the methods were legal". Two unnamed former [administration](Bush)(Presidency of George W. Bush) officials say the briefing was detailed and graphic, and at the time she did not raise substantial objections. One unnamed U.S. official present during the early briefings said, "In fairness, the environment was different then because we were closer to [11](September)(September 11 attacks) and people were still in a panic. But there was no objecting, no hand-wringing. The attitude was, 'We don't care what you do to those guys as long as you get the information you need to protect the American people.'"
These techniques later became controversial, and in 2007 Pelosi's office said she had protested their use at the time, and she concurred with objections raised by Democratic colleague [Harman](Jane)(Jane Harman) in a letter to the [CIA](Central Intelligence Agency) in early 2003. Subsequently, several leading Democratic lawmakers in the House signed a letter on June 26, 2009, alleging [Director](CIA)(Director of the Central Intelligence Agency) [Panetta](Leon)(Leon Panetta) had asserted that the CIA misled Congress for a "number of years" spanning back to 2001, casting clouds on the controversy. The letter, lawmakers and the CIA all providing no details, and the circumstances surrounding the allegations, make it hard to assess the claims and counterclaims of both sides.
Officials in Congress say her ability to challenge the practices may have been hampered by strict rules of secrecy that prohibited her from taking notes or consulting legal experts or members of her own staffs. In an April 2009 press conference, Pelosi said: "In that or any other briefing... we were not, and I repeat, were not told that waterboarding or any of these other enhanced interrogation techniques were used. What they did tell us is that they had some legislative counsel—the [of Legislative Counsel](Office)(Office of Legal Council) opinions that they could be used, but not that they would. And they further [...] the point was that if and when they would be used, they would brief Congress at that time."
### Economy
#### Fiscal policy
[[File:Tax March SF (34074753495).jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|Pelosi at the [March](Tax)(Tax March) in San Francisco, April 2017]]
Pelosi voted against the [Balanced Budget Proposed Constitutional Amendment](1995)(Balanced Budget Amendment), which passed the House by a 300–132 vote, but fell two votes short of the 2/3 supermajority required in the Senate (with 65 senators voting in favor).
As Speaker of the House, she spearheaded the [Minimum Wage Act of 2007](Fair)(Fair Minimum Wage Act of 2007) as part of the [Plan](100-Hour)(100-Hour Plan). The act raises the [wage](minimum)(minimum wage) in the United States and the territories of the [Marianas Islands](Northern)(Northern Marianas Islands) and [Samoa](American)(American Samoa). American Samoa was initially absent from the act, but it was included as part of [2206](HR)(HR 2206). One Republican congressman who voted against the initial bill accused Pelosi of unethically benefiting [Monte Foods](Del)(Del Monte Foods) (headquartered in her district) by excluding the territory, where Del Monte's [Tuna](StarKist)(StarKist Tuna) brand is a major employer. Pelosi co-sponsored legislation that omitted American Samoa from a raise in the minimum wage as early as 1999, before Del Monte's acquisition of StarKist Tuna in 2002.
Pelosi opposed the [reform](welfare)(welfare reform) President Bush proposed as well as reforms proposed and passed under President Clinton. She also opposed the [reform](tax)(Tax Cuts and Jobs Act of 2017) signed by Trump in December 2017, calling it "probably one of the worst bills in the history of the United States of America... It robs from the future [and] it rewards the rich... and corporations at the expense of tens of millions of working middle-class families in our country." She said "this is Armageddon" and argued that the tax bill increased the debt in a way that would adversely impact social insurance spending. In January 2018, shortly after the tax bill passed, a reporter asked Pelosi to respond to statements by companies crediting the tax cuts with allowing them to raise wages and give bonuses. She said that, given the benefits corporations received from the tax bill, the benefits workers got were "crumbs". Most companies that awarded bonuses gave out payments of hundreds of dollars, while some gave bonuses significantly over $1,000.
#### Infrastructure
In November 2018, Pelosi said she had spoken with Trump about infrastructure development. Though he "really didn't come through with it in his first two years in office" while it was a topic during his campaign, the subject had not been a partisan matter in Congress. She mentioned potential bipartisan legislative initiatives that would "create good paying jobs and will also generate other economic growth in their regions". On May 1, 2019, Pelosi and Schumer met with Trump about infrastructure funding. In late May, a meeting to discuss an impending $2trillion infrastructure plan was cut short when Trump abruptly left after only a few minutes.
#### Disaster relief
In August 2018, after Trump signed an emergency declaration for federal aid in combating the [Fire](Carr)(Carr Fire) in [California](Northern)(Northern California), Pelosi called the move "an important first step" but requested that Trump accede to California Governor [Brown](Jerry)(Jerry Brown)'s request for further aid to other hard-hit areas in California. She called on the Trump administration to take "real, urgent action to combat the threat of the [crisis](climate)(climate crisis), which is making the wildfire season longer, more expensive and more destructive".
### Education
In 1999, Pelosi voted against displaying the [Commandments](Ten)(Ten Commandments) in public buildings, including schools. She voted for the [Child Left Behind Act](No)(No Child Left Behind Act), which instituted testing to track students' progress and authorized an increase in overall education spending. Testing Our Schools |work=Frontline |publisher=PBS |access-date=May 13, 2019|archive-date=October 4, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191004025841/https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/schools/nochild/nclb.html|url-status=live}}
### Environment
[[File:Nancy Pelosi speaks at COP25.jpg|thumb|Nancy Pelosi at [United Nations Climate Change Conference](2019)(2019 United Nations Climate Change Conference) (COP25)]]
In 2019, Pelosi said climate change was "the existential threat of our time" and called for action to curb it. She has supported the development of new technologies to reduce U.S. dependence on foreign oil and remediate the adverse environmental effects of burning fossil fuels. Pelosi has widely supported conservation programs and energy research appropriations. She has also voted to remove an amendment that would allow for oil and gas exploration in the [National Wildlife Refuge](Arctic)(Arctic National Wildlife Refuge).
Pelosi has blocked efforts to revive offshore oil drilling in protected areas, reasoning that [drilling](offshore)(offshore drilling) could lead to an increase in dependence on fossil fuels.
### Health care
#### Affordable Care Act
Pelosi was instrumental in passing the [Protection and Affordable Care Act](Patient)(Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act) of 2010. She was a key figure in convincing Obama to continue pushing for health-care reform after the election of [Massachusetts](Massachusetts) [Senator](United States Senate) [Brown](Scott)(Scott Brown (politician)) in a January [election](special)(special election)—a defeat seen as potentially fatal to Democratic reform efforts. After delivering 219 votes in the House for Obama's health-care package, Pelosi was both praised and heckled as she made her way to Capitol Hill.
Pelosi has voted to increase [Medicare](Medicare (United States)) and [Medicaid](Medicaid) benefits. She does not endorse Senator [Sanders](Bernie)(Bernie Sanders)'s bill for [healthcare](single-payer)(single-payer healthcare).
On March 10, 2017, Pelosi said Democrats would continue battling Republican efforts to repeal the Affordable Care Act, but would also be willing to form a compromise measure if Republicans reached out for support. She indicated her support for the Republican plan to expand Health Savings Accounts and said the question of Republicans' accepting an expansion of Medicaid was important. In September, Pelosi sent a letter to Democrats praising Senator [McCain](John)(John McCain) for announcing his opposition to the latest Republican effort to repeal and replace the Affordable Care Act and called on lawmakers and advocacy groups alike to pressure Republicans in the health-care discussion. She said Democrats would be unified in putting "a stake in the heart of this monstrous bill".
In July 2018, during a speech at Independence First, Pelosi said Democrats' goal "has always been to expand coverage and to do so in a way that improves benefits... and we have to address the affordability issue that is so undermined by the Republicans." In November 2018, after Democrats gained a majority in the House in the midterm elections, she said, "I'm staying as Speaker to protect the Affordable Care Act. That's my main issue, because I think that's, again, about the health and financial health of the America's families, and if Hillary had won, I could go home." She added that Republicans had misrepresented their earlier position of opposition to covering people with preexisting conditions during the election cycle and called on them to join Democrats in "removing all doubt that the preexisting medical condition is the law—the benefit—is the law of the land".
#### Abortion
Pelosi voted against the [Abortion Ban Act](Partial-Birth)(Partial-Birth Abortion Ban Act) of 2003 and earlier attempts at similar bans, and voted against the criminalization of certain situations where a minor is transported across state lines for an abortion (HR 748, passed).
She has voted in favor of lifting the ban on privately funded abortions at overseas U.S. military facilities (HA 209, rejected); in favor of an amendment that would repeal a provision forbidding servicewomen and dependents from getting an abortion in overseas military hospitals (HA 722, rejected); and in favor of stripping the prohibition of funding for organizations working overseas that use their own funds to provide abortion services, or engage in advocacy related to abortion services (HA 997, rejected). She also voted in favor of the 1998 Abortion Funding Amendment, which would have allowed the use of district funds to promote abortion-related activities, but would have prohibited the use of federal funds.
In 2008, she was rebuked by Archbishop [Wuerl](Donald)(Donald Wuerl) of [D.C.](Washington,)(Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Washington), for being "incorrect" in comments she made to [Brokaw](Tom)(Tom Brokaw) on *[the Press](Meet)(Meet the Press)* concerning [teaching](Church)(Catholic theology) on the subjects of abortion of when a human life begins. The archbishop's statement quoted Pelosi as saying the church has not been able to define when life begins. During the interview she said, "over the history of the church, this [constitutes the moment of conception](what) is an issue of controversy." In February 2009, Pelosi met with her [bishop](Bishop (Catholic Church)), Archbishop [Hugh Niederauer](George)(George Hugh Niederauer) of [Francisco](San)(Roman Catholic Archdiocese of San Francisco), and with [Benedict XVI](Pope)(Pope Benedict XVI) regarding the controversy.
Pelosi opposed the 2022 [of *Roe v. Wade*](overturning)(Dobbs v. Jackson Women's Health Organization), calling it "cruel", "outrageous" and "heart-wrenching".
#### Contraception
In a January 25, 2009, interview with [Stephanopoulos](George)(George Stephanopoulos) for [News](ABC)(ABC News), Pelosi said that one of the reasons she supported [planning](family)(family planning) services was that they would "reduce costs to states and to the federal government."
### Security
#### Gun laws
[[File:Nancy Pelosi at 2019 End Gun Violence.jpg|thumb|Nancy Pelosi embracing [Common](Common (rapper)) at 2019 End Gun Violence, September 27, 2019]]
Pelosi stands in favor of increased background checks for potential gun owners, as well as the [banning](Assault weapons legislation in the United States) of [weapon](assault)(assault weapon)s. In February 2013, she called for the "Boldest possible move" on gun control, similar to a stance made just weeks earlier by former Representative, mass shooting victim, and fellow gun control advocate [Giffords](Gabby)(Gabby Giffords). In 2012, she was given a 0% rating by [Owners of America](Gun)(Gun Owners of America) and a 7% rating from the [Rifle Association](National)(National Rifle Association) for her stances on gun control.
In February 2018, following the [Douglas High School shooting](Stoneman)(Stoneman Douglas High School shooting), Pelosi said Republicans' "cowering" to the gun lobby was "an assault on our whole country" and that the victims were "paying the price for our inaction". She requested House Speaker Ryan and Republicans take action via consideration of legislation expanding background checks or authorizing researchers to use federal dollars to examine public health as it relates to gun violence. Pelosi also advocated for the creation of a special committee on gun violence and said Republicans had previously created committees to investigate [Parenthood](Planned)(Planned Parenthood) and the [Benghazi attack](2012)(2012 Benghazi attack).
In November 2018, after the [Oaks shooting](Thousand)(Thousand Oaks shooting), Pelosi released a statement saying Americans "deserve real action to end the daily epidemic of gun violence that is stealing the lives of our children on campuses, in places of worship and on our streets" and pledged that gun control would be a priority for House Democrats in the 116th United States Congress.
#### Military draft
[[File:Bush and Pelosi at Tuskegee Airmen ceremony.jpg|thumb|right|President [W. Bush](George)(George W. Bush) and Pelosi honoring 300 [Airmen](Tuskegee)(Tuskegee Airmen) at the Capitol, March 2007]]
With regard to Representative [Rangel](Charles)(Charles Rangel)'s (D-NY) plan to introduce legislation that would reinstate the draft, Pelosi said she did not support it.
#### Use of government aircraft
In March 2009, the *[York Post](New)(New York Post)* wrote that the conservative watchdog group [Watch](Judicial)(Judicial Watch) had obtained emails sent by Pelosi's staff requesting the [States Air Force](United)(United States Air Force) (USAF) to provide specific aircraft—a [757](Boeing)(Boeing 757)—for Pelosi to use for taxpayer-funded travel. Pelosi responded that the policy was initiated by President Bush due to post-[9/11](September 11 attacks) security concerns (Pelosi was third in line for [succession](presidential)(United States presidential line of succession)), and was initially provided for the previous Speaker [Hastert](Dennis)(Dennis Hastert). The [at Arms](Sergeant)(Sergeant at Arms) requested—for security reasons—that the plane provided be capable of non-stop flight, requiring a larger aircraft. The Pentagon said "no one has rendered judgment" that Pelosi's use of aircraft "is excessive".
### Trump presidency
[[File:President-elect Donald J. Trump and House Minority Leader Nancy Pelosi, January 20, 2017.jpg|thumb|President-elect [Trump](Donald)(Donald Trump) with Pelosi in January 2017]]
During [administration](Trump)(Presidency of Donald Trump), Pelosi voted in line with the president's stated position 17.6% of the time.
During a news conference on June 9, 2017, after a reporter asked her about [by President Donald Trump](tweets)(Donald Trump on social media) lambasting former FBI director [Comey](James)(James Comey) following Comey's testimony to the Senate Intelligence Committee, Pelosi said no one at the White House seemed courageous enough to tell Trump his tweets were beneath the dignity of the presidency and that she was worried about his fitness for office. In November, when asked about Democrats beginning the impeachment process against Trump in the event they won a majority of seats in the 2018 elections, Pelosi said it would not be one of their legislative priorities but that the option could be considered if credible evidence appeared during the ongoing investigations into Russian interference in the 2016 election.
In January 2018, Pelosi referred to Trump's [State of the Union Address](2018)(2018 State of the Union Address) as a performance without serious policy ideas the parties could collaborate on. She questioned Trump's refusal to implement Russian sanctions [more than 500 members of Congress voted to approve them](after)(Countering America's Adversaries Through Sanctions Act). In February, after Trump blocked the release of a Democratic memo by the Intelligence Committee, Pelosi said the act was "a stunningly brazen attempt to cover up the truth about the Trump-Russia scandal from the American people" and "part of a dangerous and desperate pattern of cover-up on the part of the president who has shown he had something to hide." In March, Pelosi said she was "more concerned about the president's policies which undermine the financial security of America's working families" than the [Daniels–Donald Trump scandal](Stormy)(Stormy Daniels–Donald Trump scandal). Pelosi did note the scandal as having highlighted a double standard of Republicans on issues of family values and expectations of presidential behavior, saying the party would be very involved if the event was happening to a Democrat. In April, following [Libby](Scooter)(Scooter Libby) being pardoned by Trump, Pelosi released a statement saying the pardon "sends a troubling signal to the president's allies that obstructing justice will be rewarded and that the idea of those who lie under oath being granted a pardon "poses a threat to the integrity of the special counsel investigation, and to our democracy". On August 15, after Trump revoked the security clearance of former CIA director [Brennan](John)(John O. Brennan), Pelosi said the move was "a stunning abuse of power [and] a pathetic attempt to silence critics", and an attempt by Trump to distract attention from other issues of his administration. Pelosi and [E. Schumer](Charles)(Charles E. Schumer) met with Trump and Pence in December 2018 to discuss changes to be made when the new Democratic representatives takes office in 2019. In January 2019 she supported President Trump in his decision to back the leader of the opposition [Guaidó](Juan)(Juan Guaidó) during [protests and constitutional crisis](Venezuelan)(Venezuelan protests (2014–present)).
[[File:Pelosi and US Reps at a Venezuela meeting.jpg|thumb|Pelosi and Rep. [Wasserman Schultz](Debbie)(Debbie Wasserman Schultz) have supported Venezuelan opposition leader [Guaidó](Juan)(Juan Guaidó).]]
#### Trump–Ukraine scandal and impeachment
The Democrats gained control of the House of Representatives in the November 2018 elections, and Pelosi took office as Speaker. Multiple House committees launched investigations into various actions by Trump and some of his cabinet members and requested or subpoenaed documents and information from the White House and the administration. In April 2019, Trump vowed to defy "all" subpoenas from the House and to refuse to allow current or former administration officials to testify before House committees.
Pelosi initially resisted efforts by some fellow House Democrats to pursue Trump's impeachment, but in September 2019, following revelations of the [scandal](Trump–Ukraine)(Trump–Ukraine scandal), announced the beginning of a formal [impeachment inquiry](House)(Impeachment inquiry against Donald Trump), saying "The actions taken to date by the president have seriously violated the Constitution" and that Trump "must be held accountable—no one is above the law." Privately, Pelosi expressed concern that focusing on impeachment would imperil the Democrats' House majority; she preferred to focus on other legislation.
In May 2019, the [House](White)(White House) intervened to halt former [House Counsel](White)(White House Counsel) [McGahn](Don)(Don McGahn) from complying with a [subpoena](subpoena) issued by the [Judiciary Committee](House)(House Judiciary Committee), instructing the committee to redirect its records requests to the White House. Pelosi, who had previously urged "Democrats to focus on fact-finding rather than the prospect of any impeachment", described Trump's interference regarding McGahn's records as an [of justice](obstruction)(obstruction of justice), saying that "Trump is goading us to impeach him." Later that month, as the Trump administration continued to ignore subpoenas, refuse to release documents, and encourage or order current and former officials not to testify in Congress, Pelosi declared: "we believe that the president of the United States is engaged in a cover-up." Later that day, after learning of Pelosi's comments, Trump walked away from a scheduled White House meeting with Pelosi and Schumer, in which a $2trillion infrastructure plan was supposed to be discussed. Trump told Pelosi and Schumer he could not work with them until they stopped investigating him. Later in the day, Pelosi accused Trump of "obstructing justice" and again said he "is engaged in a cover-up". On June 5, 2019, during a meeting with senior Democrats about whether the House should launch impeachment proceeding against Trump, Pelosi said, "I don't want to see him impeached, I want to see him in prison." According to multiple sources, rather than impeachment, she wanted to see Trump lose to a Democrat in the 2020 election, following which he could be prosecuted. Eventually, under pressure from an alliance of left-wing Representatives led by Chair of the [Judiciary Committee](House)(House Judiciary Committee) [Nadler](Jerry)(Jerry Nadler), Pelosi backed an impeachement inquiry.
The House impeachment inquiry focused on efforts by Trump and Trump administration officials to pressure the government of Ukraine to smear former Vice President [Biden](Joe)(Joe Biden), a political rival of Trump's, while withholding $400million in U.S. military aid, and a White House visit, from Ukraine; the inquiry also examined Trump's request in a July 2019 phone call to Ukrainian president [Zelensky](Volodymyr)(Volodymyr Zelensky) to "do us a favor" and investigate Biden. On December 18, 2019, the House voted nearly along party lines to impeach Trump for [of power](abuse)(abuse of power) (230–197) and obstruction of Congress (229–198), making him the third president in U.S. history to be impeached. Pelosi said, when opening debate on the [of impeachment](articles)(articles of impeachment), "If we do not act now, we would be derelict in our duty. It is tragic that the president's reckless actions make impeachment necessary. He gave us no choice." Pelosi initially did not transmit the articles of impeachment to the Republican-controlled Senate for [trial](First impeachment trial of Donald Trump), seeking to negotiate an agreement with Senate Majority [McConnell](Mitch)(Mitch McConnell) for the Senate to hear witness testimony and other additional evidence as part of a bid for a "full and fair" trial. McConnell rejected these efforts, and the House transmitted the articles to the Senate on January 15, 2020, with Pelosi naming seven Democratic Representatives, led by Representative [Schiff](Adam)(Adam Schiff), as the House managers to argue the impeachment case against Trump in the Senate. As expected, the Senate ultimately acquitted Trump in a nearly-party line vote in which every Democrat voted for conviction and all but one Republican, Senator [Romney](Mitt)(Mitt Romney), voting for acquittal. Ahead of the Senate vote Pelosi said that, irrespective of the outcome, the president "has been impeached forever", that the impeachment process had successfully "pulled back a veil of behavior totally unacceptable to [founders](our)(Founders of the United States), and that the public will see this with a clearer eye, an unblurred eye." Following the Senate vote, Pelosi criticized Trump and Senate Republicans, saying their actions had "normalized lawlessness and rejected the system of [and balances](checks)(checks and balances)".
Following the Senate vote, Trump claimed vindication and criticized Democrats, the FBI, and Pelosi. In a speech at the [Prayer Breakfast](National)(National Prayer Breakfast), Trump referred to Pelosi as "a horrible person", and questioned her religious faith; Pelosi said these remarks were "particularly without class". Before Trump's February 4, [State of the Union Address](2020)(2020 State of the Union Address), the day before the Senate impeachment vote, Trump and Pelosi exchanged mutual snubs. Trump refused to shake Pelosi's outstretched hand, and Pelosi tore up her copy of Trump's speech. Her stated reason for doing so was "because it was a courteous thing to do considering the alternatives. It was a such a dirty speech." Pelosi also said Trump's speech "had no contact with reality whatsoever" and suggested the president appeared "a little sedated" during the address. Pelosi's action was criticized by Trump and others.
Days after the Senate impeachment vote, Trump fired two officials who had testified against him during the impeachment inquiry: [Ambassador to the European Union](U.S.)(United States Ambassador to the European Union) [Sondland](Gordon)(Gordon Sondland) and [Colonel](Lieutenant)(Lieutenant colonel (United States)) [Vindman](Alexander)(Alexander Vindman), a [Security Council](National)(National Security Council (United States)) official. Pelosi called the firing of Vindman a "shameful" and "clear and brazen act of retaliation that showcases the President's fear of the truth", saying that "History will remember Lieutenant Colonel Vindman as an American hero."
#### Commission to consider use of 25th Amendment
On October 8, 2020, Pelosi announced that legislation was being introduced in the House of Representatives to advance the creation of a commission to allow the use of the [Amendment](25th)(25th Amendment) to the Constitution to intervene and remove Trump from executive duties.Mascaro, Lisa, ''[In 25th Amendment bid, Pelosi mulls Trump's fitness to serve](https://apnews.com/article/virus-outbreak-donald-trump-constitutions-legislation-archive-a8efe4c5bee7bc4d369a2cf3d9a5542b) '', [Press](Associated)(Associated Press), October 9, 2020
### Biden presidency
As of October 2022, Pelosi had voted in line with [Biden](Joe)(Joe Biden)'s stated position 100% of the time.
### Foreign affairs
#### China/Hong Kong/Taiwan
[[File:Nancy Pelosi and Wen Jiabao.jpg|thumb|Pelosi with Chinese premier [Jiabao](Wen)(Wen Jiabao) during a trip to China in 2009]]
[[File:HK activists with Pelosi and US REP at the US Capitol.jpg|thumb|Pelosi with Hong Kong activists who have become prominent figures in the [Hong Kong protests](2019–2020)(2019–2020 Hong Kong protests)]]
Since the [Tiananmen Square protests](1989)(1989 Tiananmen Square protests and massacre), Pelosi has opposed expanding trade relationships with China until it improves its human rights record. As part of a Congressional delegation she unfurled a banner in the square in 1991, provoking a confrontation with Chinese police. Pelosi advocated for Chinese political prisoners and dissidents to be able to come to the United States.[Pelosi has landed in Taiwan. Here's why that's a big deal](https://www.npr.org/2022/08/02/1114852740/pelosi-is-about-to-land-in-taiwan-heres-why-thats-a-big-deal) In 1999, ahead of Chinese Premier [Rongji](Zhu)(Zhu Rongji)'s visit to the US for talks over [Trade Organization](World)(World Trade Organization) admission for China, Pelosi called on President Clinton and Vice President Gore to ask Zhu to recognize the 1989 protests as a pro-democracy effort.
In 2008, after a meeting with the [Lama](Dalai)(14th Dalai Lama) and officials in the [government-in-exile](Tibetan)(Central Tibetan Administration), Pelosi criticized the People's Republic of China for its handling of the [in Tibet](unrest)(2008 unrest in Tibet); addressing a crowd of thousands of Tibetans in [Dharamsala](Dharamsala), India, Pelosi called on "freedom-loving people" worldwide to denounce China for its [rights abuses in Tibet](human)(Human rights in Tibet). The same year, Pelosi commended the [Parliament](European)(European Parliament) for its "bold decision" to award the [Prize for Freedom of Thought](Sakharov)(Sakharov Prize for Freedom of Thought) to [dissident](Chinese)(List of Chinese dissidents) and human rights activist [Jia](Hu)(Hu Jia (activist)), and called upon the Chinese government "to immediately and unconditionally release Hu Jia from prison and to respect the fundamental freedoms of all the people in China."
In 2010, Pelosi backed a bill naming China a currency manipulator, which would appease exporters.
Pelosi criticized the [of Hong Kong democracy activists](imprisonment)(2017 imprisonment of Hong Kong democracy activists) in August 2017 for their roles in a protest at the [Square](Civic)(Civic Square (Hong Kong)) in front of the [Government Complex](Central)(Central Government Complex (Hong Kong)) in [Kong](Hong)(Hong Kong). She called the ruling an injustice that should "shock the conscience of the world".
Before the Trump administration took concrete [against China](measures)(2018 China–United States trade war) in late March 2018, Pelosi and other Democratic leaders pressed Trump to focus more on China and impose real punishments, such as fulfilling his own campaign commitments to name China a currency manipulator and stop China from pressuring U.S. tech companies into giving up [property rights](intellectual)(Intellectual property in China). Pelosi urged Trump to take a strong stand against unfair market barriers in China.
In September 2019, Pelosi met with [Kong pro-democracy activist](Hong)(Pro-democracy camp (Hong Kong)) [Wong](Joshua)(Joshua Wong) on Capitol Hill; Chinese media responded by accusing Pelosi of "backing and encouraging radical activists".
On the eve of the [Winter Olympics](2022)(2022 Winter Olympics) in [Beijing](Beijing), Pelosi advised [athletes competing](American)(United States at the 2022 Winter Olympics): "I would say to our athletes, 'You're there to compete. Do not risk incurring the anger of the Chinese government, because they are ruthless'".
[[Pelosi at Taipei Songshan Airport.jpg|Nancy Pelosi at Taipei|thumb](File:Nancy)]
On August 2, 2022, Pelosi became the highest-ranking U.S. government official to [Taiwan](visit)(Nancy Pelosi Taiwan visit) in 25 years. President [Biden](Joe)(Joe Biden) discouraged but did not prevent Pelosi from traveling to Taiwan, and the White House later affirmed her right to visit the nation. Senate Minority Leader [McConnell](Mitch)(Mitch McConnell) and 25 Senate Republicans backed Pelosi's decision to visit, issuing a joint statement that also supported the trip. Her trip triggered a new round of hostilities in the already tense relationship between the U.S. and China. During and after her visit, China [a series of retaliatory measures against Taiwan and the United States.](undertook)(2022 United States congressional delegation visit to Taiwan#People's Republic of China) Pelosi said her visit was a sign of the U.S. Congress's commitment to Taiwan. She called Taiwan one of the "freest societies in the world" during her visit.
#### Colombia
Pelosi publicly scolded Colombian president [Uribe](Álvaro)(Álvaro Uribe) during Uribe's May 2007 state visit to America. Pelosi met with Uribe and later released a statement that she and other members of Congress had "expressed growing concerns about the serious allegations" of links between paramilitary groups and Colombian government officials. Pelosi also came out against the [free-trade agreement](Colombian)(United States–Colombia Free Trade Agreement).
#### Cuba
[[File:Secretary Kerry Speaks With U.S. House Minority Leader Pelosi at Estadio Latinoamericano in Havana, Cuba (25999385805).jpg|thumb|Pelosi and Secretary of State [Kerry](John)(John Kerry) at [Latinoamericano](Estadio)(Estadio Latinoamericano) in [Havana](Havana), Cuba, March 2016]]
In 2008, Pelosi said: "For years, I have opposed the [on Cuba](embargo)(United States embargo against Cuba). I don't think it's been successful, and I think we have to remove the travel bans and have more exchanges—people to people exchanges with Cuba." In 2015, Pelosi supported President Obama's [Thaw](Cuban)(Cuban Thaw), a rapprochement between the U.S. and [regime](Castro's)(Human rights in Cuba) in Cuba, and visited [Havana](Havana) for meetings with high-level officials.
#### First Gulf War
Pelosi opposed U.S. intervention in the [Gulf War](1991)(1991 Gulf War).
#### Iran
[[File:Secretary Kerry, Senators McCain and Warner, House Minority Leader Pelosi, and Representative Engel Chat Before Greeting King Salman of Saudi Arabia.jpg|thumb|Pelosi before greeting the new King [of Saudi Arabia](Salman)(Salman of Saudi Arabia), Riyadh, January 2015]]
In an interview on February 15, 2007, Pelosi said that Bush consistently said he supports a diplomatic resolution to differences with [Iran](Iran) "and I take him at his word". At the same time, she said, "I do believe that Congress should assert itself, though, and make it very clear that there is no previous authority for the president, any president, to go into Iran". On January 12, 2007, Congressman [B. Jones](Walter)(Walter B. Jones) of [Carolina](North)(North Carolina) introduced a resolution requiring that—absent a national emergency created by an attack, or a demonstrably imminent attack, by Iran upon the United States or its armed forces—the president must consult with Congress and receive specific authorization prior to initiating any use of military force against Iran. This resolution was removed from a military spending bill for the war in Iraq by Pelosi on March 13, 2007.
In July 2015, Pelosi said she was convinced Obama would have enough votes to secure the [nuclear deal](Iran)(Iran nuclear deal), crediting the president with having made a "very strong and forceful presentation of his case supporting the nuclear agreement with Iran" and called the deal "a diplomatic masterpiece".
In 2016, Pelosi argued against two bills that if enacted would block Iran's access to the dollar and impose sanctions for its ballistic missile program: "Regardless of whether you supported the Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action (JCPOA), we all agree that Iran must not possess a nuclear weapon. At this time, the JCPOA is the best way to achieve this critical goal."
In May 2018, after Trump announced his intention to withdraw from the Iran nuclear deal, Pelosi said the decision was an abdication of American leadership and "particularly senseless, disturbing & dangerous".
#### Iraq War
[[File:Al Udeid Air Base, Qatar (4595426589).jpg|thumb|Pelosi with service members stationed at the [Udeid Air Base](Al)(Al Udeid Air Base) in [Qatar](Qatar), 2010]]
In 2002, Pelosi opposed the [Resolution](Iraq)(Iraq Resolution) authorizing President [W. Bush](George)(George W. Bush) to use [force against Iraq](military)(2003 invasion of Iraq), which passed the House on a 296–133 vote. Pelosi said that "unilateral use of force without first exhausting every diplomatic remedy and other remedies and making a case to the American people will be harmful to our war on terrorism." In explaining her opposition to the resolution, Pelosi said [Director](CIA)(Director of Central Intelligence) [Tenet](George)(George Tenet) had told Congress the likelihood of [Hussein](Saddam)(Saddam Hussein)'s launching an attack on the U.S. using weapons of mass destruction was low, saying: "This is about the Constitution It is about this Congress asserting its right to declare war when we are fully aware what the challenges are to us. It is about respecting the United Nations and a multilateral approach, which is safer for our troops."
Although Pelosi voted against the [War](Iraq)(Iraq War), anti-war activists in San Francisco protested against her voting to continue funding the war. UC Berkeley political scientist Bruce Cain said Pelosi had to balance the demands of her anti-war constituency against the moderate views of Democrats in tight races around the country in her role as minority leader. Pelosi has never faced a serious challenger to her left in her district.
#### Israel
[[File:PC290116 (1507386841).jpg|thumb|Pelosi at [AIPAC](AIPAC)'s annual Policy Conference in Washington, D.C.]]
Pelosi has reaffirmed that "America and [Israel](Israel) share an unbreakable bond: in peace and war; and in prosperity and in hardship". She has emphasized that "a strong relationship between the [States and Israel](United)(Israel–United States relations) has long been supported by both Democrats and Republicans. America's commitment to the safety and security of the State of Israel is unwavering... [h]owever, the [in Iraq](war)(war in Iraq) has made both America and Israel less safe." Pelosi's voting record shows consistent support for Israel. Pelosi voted in favor of the [Embassy Act](Jerusalem)(Jerusalem Embassy Act) of 1995, which urged the federal government to [the American embassy in Israel](relocate)(United States recognition of Jerusalem as capital of Israel) to [Jerusalem](Jerusalem). Before the 2006 elections in the Palestinian Authority, she voted for a Congressional initiative that disapproved of participation in the elections by [Hamas](Hamas) and other organizations the legislation defined as terrorist. She agrees with the current U.S. stance in support of land-for-peace. She has applauded Israeli "hopeful signs" of offering land while criticizing Palestinian "threats" of not demonstrating peace in turn. Pelosi has said, "If the Palestinians agree to coordinate with Israel on the evacuation, establish the rule of law, and demonstrate a capacity to govern, the world may be convinced that finally there is a real partner for peace".
During the [Lebanon War](2006)(2006 Lebanon War), Pelosi voted in favor of Resolution 921: "...seizure of Israeli soldiers by [Hezbollah](Hezbollah) terrorists was an unprovoked attack and Israel has the right, and indeed the obligation, to respond." She argues that organizations and political bodies in the Mideast like [Hamas](Hamas) and [Hezbollah](Hezbollah) "have a greater interest in maintaining a state of hostility with Israel than in improving the lives of the people they claim to represent". Pelosi asserts that civilians on both sides of the border "have been put at risk by the aggression of Hamas and Hezbollah" in part for their use of "civilians as shields by concealing weapons in civilian areas".
In September 2008, Pelosi hosted a reception in Washington with Israeli [of the Knesset](Speaker)(List of Knesset speakers) [Itzik](Dalia)(Dalia Itzik), along with 20 members of Congress, where they toasted the "strong friendship" between Israel and the United States. During the ceremony, Pelosi held up replica dog tags of the three Israeli soldiers captured by Hezbollah and Hamas in 2006 and said she keeps them as a "symbol of the sacrifices made, sacrifices far too great by the people of the state of Israel".
[[File:Pelosi and Netanyahu in Jerusalem, Israel.jpg|thumb|Pelosi and Israeli prime minister [Netanyahu](Benjamin)(Benjamin Netanyahu) in [Jerusalem](Jerusalem), January 2020]]
Pelosi supported Israel in the [Israel–Gaza conflict](2014)(2014 Israel–Gaza conflict). In March 2018 Pelosi said, "There is no greater political accomplishment in the 20th Century than the establishment of the State of Israel." Pelosi condemned Rep. [Omar](Ilhan)(Ilhan Omar) of Minnesota for posting controversial tweets related to Jews and Israel. In March 2019, she said, "Israel and America are connected now and forever. We will never allow anyone to make Israel a wedge issue."
In January 2017, Pelosi voted against a House resolution that would condemn the [Security Council Resolution 2334](UN)(United Nations Security Council Resolution 2334). This UN Security Council Resolution called [settlement building](Israeli)(Israeli settlement) in the occupied [territories](Palestinian)(Israeli-occupied territories) in the [Bank](West)(West Bank) a "flagrant violation" of international law and a major obstacle to peace. She condemned the [Divestment, and Sanctions](Boycott,)(Boycott, Divestment, and Sanctions) (BDS) movement targeting Israel.
Pelosi has voiced heavy criticism over Israel's plan to [parts of the West Bank](annex)(proposed Israeli annexation of the West Bank) and the [Valley](Jordan)(Jordan Valley). She said Israeli annexation would undermine U.S. national security interests. Pelosi said that Democrats are taking "a great pride" in [Obama](Barack)(Barack Obama)’s Memorandum of Understanding (MOU) that Israel signed with the Obama administration in 2016, for a guarantee of $38billion in defense assistance over a decade.
#### North Korea
Nancy Pelosi is one of the few members of Congress to have traveled to [Korea](North)(North Korea). She has expressed concern about the danger of nuclear proliferation from the [Korean regime](North)(Kim dynasty (North Korea)), and the ongoing problems of hunger and oppression imposed by that country's leadership.
In August 2017, following Trump's warning that North Korea "will be met with fire and fury like the world has never seen" in the event of further threats to the United States, Pelosi said the comments were "recklessly belligerent and demonstrate a grave lack of appreciation for the severity of the North Korean nuclear situation. His saber-rattling and provocative, impulsive rhetoric erode our credibility."
In November 2017, after the Pentagon sent a letter to lawmakers stating a ground invasion was the only way to destroy all [Korea's nuclear weapons](North)(North Korea and weapons of mass destruction) without concern for having missed any, Pelosi said she was concerned about Pyongyang's selling nuclear technology to third parties and called for the United States to "exhaust every other remedy".
In June 2018, after Trump praised North Korean leader [Jong-un](Kim)(Kim Jong-un), Pelosi said in a statement, "In his haste to reach an agreement, President Trump elevated North Korea to the level of the United States while preserving the regime's status quo."
#### Russia
[[File:Dmitry Medvedev in the United States 25 June 2010-2.jpeg|thumb|Pelosi meeting with Russian president [Medvedev](Dmitry)(Dmitry Medvedev), foreign minister [Lavrov](Sergey)(Sergey Lavrov), and ambassador [Kislyak](Sergey)(Sergey Kislyak), June 2010]]
In December 2017, Pelosi wrote a letter to Speaker Paul Ryan advocating for the continued House investigation into Russian interference in the 2016 election on the grounds that Americans deserved "a comprehensive and fair investigation into Russia's attack" and "America's democracy and national security" being at stake. Pelosi cited the need for Congress to "fully investigate Russia's assault on our election systems to prevent future foreign attacks".
In February 2018, after the release of a Republican report alleging surveillance abuses by the Justice Department, Pelosi accused Trump of siding with Russian president [Putin](Vladimir)(Vladimir Putin) at the expense of preserving intelligence sources and methods. In July, Pelosi asserted that Trump was afraid to mention the 12 indictments against people connected to the intelligence community in Russia during his meeting with Putin and questioned what intelligence the Russians had on Trump to cause his behavior. She said Putin would not be welcomed by Congress even if he visited Washington as a result of his actions: "Putin's ongoing attacks on our elections and on Western democracies and his illegal actions in Crimea and the rest of Ukraine deserve the fierce, unanimous condemnation of the international community, not a VIP ticket to our nation's capital." She called for House Speaker Ryan to "make clear that there is not — and never will be — an invitation for a thug like Putin to address the United States Congress."
On multiple occasions, Pelosi said of Trump, "With him, all roads lead to Putin," including with regard to the [scandal](Trump-Ukraine)(Trump–Ukraine scandal), a lack of action against the alleged [bounty program](Russian)(Russian bounty program), and Trump's incitement of the [6 United States Capitol attack](January)(January 6 United States Capitol attack).
#### Syria, Libya, and Afghanistan
Pelosi supports the [Accountability Act](Syria)(Syria Accountability Act) and [Freedom and Support Act](Iran)(Iran Freedom and Support Act). In a speech at the [AIPAC](American Israel Public Affairs Committee) 2005 annual conference, Pelosi said that "for too long, leaders from both parties haven't done enough" to put pressure on [Russia](Russia) and China who are providing [Iran](Iran) with technological information on nuclear issues and missiles. "If evidence of participation by other nations in Iran's nuclear program is discovered, I will insist that the Administration use, rather than ignore, the evidence in determining how the U.S. deals with that nation or nations on other issues." In April 2007, Pelosi visited Syria, where she met Foreign Minister [Muallem](Walid)(Walid Muallem), Vice President [al-Sharaa](Farouk)(Farouk al-Sharaa) and President [Al-Assad](Bashar)(Bashar Al-Assad), despite President Bush efforts to isolate Syria, because of militants crossing from Syria into Iraq, and supporting Hezbollah and Hamas. During her visit, she conveyed Israeli Prime Minister [Olmert](Ehud)(Ehud Olmert) message for peace, and toured in [Souq](Al-Hamidiyah)(Al-Hamidiyah Souq), and the [Mosque](Umayyad)(Umayyad Mosque).
Pelosi supported the NATO-led [intervention in Libya](military)(2011 military intervention in Libya) in 2011. She also favored arming [rebel fighters](Syria's)(Timber Sycamore).
In January 2019, Pelosi criticized President Trump's planned withdrawal of [troops from Syria](U.S.)(American-led intervention in the Syrian Civil War) and [Afghanistan](War in Afghanistan (2001–present)). She called Trump's announcement a "Christmas gift to Vladimir Putin". In an October 2019 letter to Democratic caucus members, Pelosi wrote that both parties were condemning President Trump's deserting the US's "Kurdish allies in a foolish attempt to appease an authoritarian strongman" [Tayyip Erdoğan](Recep)(Recep Tayyip Erdoğan) of [Turkey](Turkey) and opined that the decision "poses a dire threat to regional security and stability, and sends a dangerous message to Iran and Russia, as well as our allies, that the United States is no longer a trusted partner". Later that month, she visited [Jordan](Jordan) to discuss the Syrian situation with King [II](Abdullah)(Abdullah II). Afterwards, she went to Afghanistan, where she met President [Ghani](Ashraf)(Ashraf Ghani) and chief executive officer [Abdullah](Abdullah)(Abdullah Abdullah), and she was also briefed by U.S. diplomats on reconciliation efforts with the [Taliban](Taliban).
#### Turkey
In mid-October 2007, after the House Foreign Affairs Committee passed a resolution to label [1915 killing of Armenians by Ottoman Turks](the)(Armenian genocide) as genocide, Pelosi pledged to bring the measure to a vote. The draft resolution prompted warnings from President Bush and fierce criticism from Turkey, with Turkey's Prime Minister saying that approval of the resolution would endanger U.S.–Turkey relations. After House support eroded, the measure's sponsors dropped their call for a vote, and in late October Pelosi agreed to set the matter aside.
The resolution was passed during Pelosi's second term as Speaker. The House voted 405 to 11 in October 2019 to confirm the resolution.
#### Ukraine
On April 30, 2022, Pelosi met with President [Zelenskyy](Volodymyr)(Volodymyr Zelenskyy) in [Kyiv](Kyiv), to pledge U.S. support for Ukraine during the [invasion](Russian)(2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine).
## Electoral history
[[File:Nancy pelosi drive.JPG|thumb|The city of [Francisco](San)(San Francisco) named a street in [Gate Park](Golden)(Golden Gate Park) in honor of Pelosi after her many years representing the city in [Congress](United States Congress).]]
Pelosi's only close race so far has been in the special election to succeed U.S. Representative [Burton](Sala)(Sala Burton) after her death in February 1987. Pelosi defeated San Francisco Supervisor [Britt](Harry)(Harry Britt) in the Democratic primary with 36 percent of the vote to his 32 percent, Accessed via LexisNexis. then Republican Harriet Ross by more than 2-to-1. Accessed via LexisNexis. Since then, Pelosi has enjoyed overwhelming support in her political career, collecting 76 and 77 percent of the vote in 1988 and 1990. In 1992, after the redistricting from the [Census](1990)(United States Census, 1990), Pelosi ran in , which now covered the San Francisco area. She has continued to post landslide victories since, dropping beneath 80 percent of the vote only three times in general elections. After redistricting from the [census](2010)(United States Census, 2010), Pelosi ran in , which she represented for the next decade. Due to the [United States redistricting cycle](2020)(2020 United States redistricting cycle) from the [census](2020)(United States Census, 2020), Pelosi now represents , which covers San Francisco.
## Personal life
[[File:Speaker-Nancy-Pelosi-LBJ-Library.jpg|thumb|Pelosi at the [Presidential Library](LBJ)(Lyndon Baines Johnson Library and Museum) in 2022]]
Nancy D'Alesandro met [Francis Pelosi](Paul)(Paul Pelosi) while she was attending college. They married in Baltimore at the [of Mary Our Queen](Cathedral)(Cathedral of Mary Our Queen, Baltimore) on September 7, 1963. They moved to New York after they wed, then moved to San Francisco in 1969, where Paul's brother [Pelosi](Ronald)(Ron Pelosi) was a member of the [and County of San Francisco](City)(City and County of San Francisco)'s [of Supervisors](Board)(Board of Supervisors).
Nancy and Paul Pelosi have five children, including [Christine](Christine Pelosi) and [Alexandra](Alexandra Pelosi), and nine grandchildren. Alexandra, a journalist, covered the Republican presidential campaigns in 2000 and made a film about the experience, *[with George](Journeys)(Journeys with George)*. In 2007, Christine published a book, *Campaign Boot Camp: Basic Training for Future Leaders*.
Pelosi resides in the [Heights](Pacific)(Pacific Heights, San Francisco, California) neighborhood of San Francisco. Her 2016 financial disclosure report lists among her assets a combined home and vineyard in [Helena, California](St.)(St. Helena, California), two commercial buildings in San Francisco, and a townhouse in [California](Loomis,)(Loomis, California). In January 2021, her San Francisco home was vandalized with graffiti, messages of "[c]ancel rent" were left on her garage, along with fake blood and a severed pig's head.
### Financial status
The nonpartisan [OpenSecrets](OpenSecrets) estimated in 2009 that Pelosi's average net worth was approximately $58 million, ranking her 13th among 25 wealthiest members of Congress. In 2014, [OpenSecrets](OpenSecrets) reported Pelosi's average net worth almost doubled to approximately $101 million, ranking her 8th out of the 25 wealthiest members of Congress. *Business Insider* reported that Pelosi's worth was $26.4million in 2012 and made her the 13th richest member of Congress. In 2014, *Roll Call* estimated that Pelosi's net worth was $29.35million, ranking her the 15th wealthiest member of Congress.
*Roll Call* said Pelosi's earnings are connected to her husband's heavy investments in stocks that include [Apple](Apple (Company)), [Disney](Disney), [Comcast](Comcast) and [Facebook](Facebook). *Roll Call* reported that the couple have $13.46million in liabilities including mortgages on seven properties. According to *Roll Call*, Pelosi and her husband hold properties "worth at least $14.65million, including a St. Helena vineyard in [Valley](Napa)(Napa Valley) worth at least $5million and commercial real estate in San Francisco".
As of 2021, Pelosi's net worth was valued at $120 million, making her the 6th richest person in Congress. According to journalist [Greenwald](Glenn)(Glenn Greenwald), the Pelosis have traded $33 million worth of tech stocks over the past two years, including Apple, [Amazon](Amazon (company)), [Microsoft](Microsoft), Facebook, and [Google](Google) stocks. In May and June 2021, Pelosi's husband purchased stocks in tech companies such as [Alphabet](Alphabet Inc.), Amazon, and Apple, netting a gain of $5.3 million. This occurred even while Speaker Pelosi was working on anti-trust legislation to better regulate the tech industry. The CEO of Apple, [Cook](Tim)(Tim Cook), had called Pelosi to lobby her in opposition to the new regulations. Pelosi opposes increasing regulations on stock trades by members of congress, stating that "we're a free market economy" and congresspeople "should be able to participate in that". This comment drew strong criticism, including from Democrats who favor banning stock trades by members of Congress.
### Involvement in Italian-American community
Pelosi is a board member of the [Organization of Italian American Women](National)(National Organization of Italian American Women). She served for 13 years as a board member of the National Italian American Foundation (NIAF). In 2007, she received the NIAF Special Achievement Award for Public Advocacy and remains involved in the foundation.
### Catholic church
Pelosi considers herself a devout Catholic, but she has had numerous disagreements with members of the church hierarchy over gay rights, abortion, contraception, and in vitro fertilization. She has said that her biggest disappointment was the church's lobbying against the Affordable Care Act because of contraception coverage.
Pelosi and Catholic bishops have also disagreed about [abortion](abortion) rights. Although she thought it was "lovely" that she had five children in a little over six years, she argued that "It's a woman's right to make her own choices with her family, her God, her doctor."
On May 20, 2022, [Cordileone](Salvatore)(Salvatore Cordileone), [of San Francisco](archbishop)(Roman Catholic Archdiocese of San Francisco), announced that Pelosi would be barred from receiving [Communion](Holy)(Holy Communion) because of her support of [pro-choice](Abortion-rights movements) abortion policies. Cordileone had communicated his concerns on April 7, 2022, writing, "should you not publicly repudiate your advocacy for abortion 'rights' or else refrain from referring to your Catholic faith in public and receiving Holy Communion, I would have no choice but to make a declaration, in keeping with [915](Canon)(Canon 915), that you are not to be admitted to Holy Communion."
On June 29, 2022, Pelosi received Communion at a Papal Mass presided over by [Francis](Pope)(Pope Francis) in Rome at [Peter's Basilica](St.)(St. Peter's Basilica).
### 2022 home invasion
In October 2022, while Pelosi was in Washington, D.C., an intruder entered her San Francisco home demanding to know her whereabouts, and attacked her husband, Paul Pelosi, with a hammer. Police arrested a suspect, 42-year-old David DePape, at the scene, who has been charged federally with attempting to kidnap Nancy Pelosi and assaulting a relative of a federal official, as well as six state charges.
## Honors and decorations
## See also
* [history of Nancy Pelosi](Electoral)(Electoral history of Nancy Pelosi)
* *[Your Power](Know)(Know Your Power)*
* [of female speakers of legislatures in the United States](List)(List of female speakers of legislatures in the United States)
* [in the United States House of Representatives](Women)(Women in the United States House of Representatives)
## References
## Further reading
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## External links
* [Congresswoman Nancy Pelosi](https://pelosi.house.gov) official U.S. House website
* [Nancy Pelosi for Congress](http://www.pelosiforcongress.org/) campaign website
*
*
* [Nancy Pelosi](http://www.makers.com/nancy-pelosi) Video produced by *[Women Who Make America](Makers:)(Makers: Women Who Make America)*
### Articles
* ["Trinity Graduates Win Re-election: House Democratic Leader Nancy Pelosi '62 Poised to Become Speaker, Kansas Governor Kathleen Sebelius '70 Wins Second Term"](https://web.archive.org/web/20070419111759/http://www.trinitydc.edu/news_events/2006/1007_pelosi.php), [Washington University](Trinity)(Trinity Washington University), November 8, 2006
* ["Rolling With Pelosi"](https://web.archive.org/web/20061018044313/http://msnbc.msn.com/id/15268408/site/newsweek/), *[Newsweek](Newsweek)*, October 23, 2006
* ["Pelosi mines 'California gold' for Dems nationwide: Personal skills, wide network of wealthy donors help party's House leader gather millions"](http://sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?file=/c/a/2006/04/03/MNGN8I2DKT1.DTL), *[Francisco Chronicle](San)(San Francisco Chronicle)*, April 3, 2006
* ["Pelosi rides high"](http://economist.com/world/na/displaystory.cfm?story_id=8742850), *[Economist](The)(The Economist)*, February 22, 2007
* ["This Is What a Speaker Looks Like"](https://web.archive.org/web/20070304052600/http://www.msmagazine.com/winter2007/speakerlookslike.asp), Winter 2007 cover story, *[Ms.](Ms. magazine)*
* ["Opinion | How Nancy Pelosi's unlikely rise turned her into the most powerful woman in U.S. history: A troublemaker with a gavel"](https://www.washingtonpost.com/opinions/2020/03/25/how-nancy-pelosis-unlikely-rise-turned-her-into-most-powerful-woman-us-history/), by [Tumulty](Karen)(Karen Tumulty), *[Washington Post](The)(The Washington Post)*, March 25, 2020
}
[ ](Category:Nancy Pelosi)
[births](Category:1940)(Category:1940 births)
[people](Category:Living)(Category:Living people)
[American politicians](Category:20th-century)(Category:20th-century American politicians)
[American women politicians](Category:20th-century)(Category:20th-century American women politicians)
[Roman Catholics](Category:20th-century)(Category:20th-century Roman Catholics)
[American politicians](Category:21st-century)(Category:21st-century American politicians)
[American women politicians](Category:21st-century)(Category:21st-century American women politicians)
[Roman Catholics](Category:21st-century)(Category:21st-century Roman Catholics)
[people of Italian descent](Category:American)(Category:American people of Italian descent)
[containing video clips](Category:Articles)(Category:Articles containing video clips)
[Democratic Party chairs](Category:California)(Category:California Democratic Party chairs)
[from California](Category:Catholics)(Category:Catholics from California)
[from Maryland](Category:Catholics)(Category:Catholics from Maryland)
[Grand Cross of the Order of Isabella the Catholic](Category:Dames)(Category:Dames Grand Cross of the Order of Isabella the Catholic)
[Party members of the United States House of Representatives from California](Category:Democratic)(Category:Democratic Party members of the United States House of Representatives from California)
[members of the United States House of Representatives](Category:Female)(Category:Female members of the United States House of Representatives)
[Cordons of the Order of the Rising Sun](Category:Grand)(Category:Grand Cordons of the Order of the Rising Sun)
[Crosses of the Order of the Golden Heart](Category:Grand)(Category:Grand Crosses of the Order of the Golden Heart)
[culture in Baltimore](Category:Italian-American)(Category:Italian-American culture in Baltimore)
[culture in California](Category:Italian-American)(Category:Italian-American culture in California)
[Grand Cross of the Order of Merit of the Italian Republic](Category:Knights)(Category:Knights Grand Cross of the Order of Merit of the Italian Republic)
[LGBT rights activists](Category:American)(Category:American LGBT rights activists)
[leaders of the United States House of Representatives](Category:Minority)(Category:Minority leaders of the United States House of Representatives)
[Nancy](Category:Pelosi family)
[from Baltimore](Category:Politicians)(Category:Politicians from Baltimore)
[from San Francisco](Category:Politicians)(Category:Politicians from San Francisco)
[of the Order of Princess Olga, 3rd class](Category:Recipients)(Category:Recipients of the Order of Princess Olga, 3rd class)
[of the Order of Propitious Clouds](Category:Recipients)(Category:Recipients of the Order of Propitious Clouds)
[of the United States House of Representatives](Category:Speakers)(Category:Speakers of the United States House of Representatives)
[Washington University alumni](Category:Trinity)(Category:Trinity Washington University alumni)
[in California politics](Category:Women)(Category:Women in California politics)
[legislative speakers](Category:Women)(Category:Women legislative speakers)
[opposition leaders](Category:Women)(Category:Women opposition leaders)
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Murder of Rikki Neave
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murder_of_rikki_neave
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# Murder of Rikki Neave
*Revision ID: 1158558228 | Timestamp: 2023-06-04T20:51:48Z*
---
| birth_name =
| alias =
| birth_place = [Peterborough](Peterborough), England
| death_date =
| death_place = Peterborough, England
| death_cause = Strangulation
| body_discovered =
| education =
| occupation =
| spouse =
| partner =
| known_for = Victim of murder
}}
**Rikki Neave** was a six-year-old boy who was murdered on 28 November 1994 by a 13-year-old boy, James Watson, in [Peterborough](Peterborough), England. In 1996, his abusive mother, Ruth Neave, was tried and [acquit](acquit)ted of his murder. Watson was convicted of the murder in 2022 after new [evidence](DNA)(DNA evidence) was found.
## Murder
Rikki Neave was born on 4 March 1988 and lived on the [Estate](Welland)(Welland Estate) in [Peterborough](Peterborough), Cambridgeshire, England. On 28 November 1994, he was strangled by a 13-year-old boy, James Watson. His naked corpse was found in woods next to the [road](A15)(A15 road (England)) the following day.
## Investigation
### Ruth Neave
At the time of the murder, Rikki's mother Ruth was the only adult living in the family house. She was hated by her neighbours due to her [addiction](drug)(drug addiction) and poor parenting, including physical abuse, which attracted visits by the police and [services](social)(social services) during the early 1990s. Many neighbours believed she had killed her son, and the police treated her as the [suspect](prime)(prime suspect). In 1996, she was tried and acquitted of the murder. Before the trial, she had pleaded guilty to [cruelty offences](child)(child abuse), for which she was sentenced to seven years' imprisonment.
### James Watson
Watson was arrested for the murder in April 2016. Watson was born on 1 April 1981 and was also from the Welland Estate. At the time of the murder he was 13 and lived in Woodgate [home](children's)(children's home). Watson had convictions for various offences, and when he was 11 he [assault](sexually)(sexually assault)ed a five-year-old boy. Watson was briefly spoken to by police in late 1994. Despite being aware of his homosexuality, when Watson was 15, he had a relationship with a girl who lived at Woodgate and they had a son.
After his arrest, Watson fled to Portugal and was [extradite](extradite)d back to the UK. He was tried for murder at [London](London)'s [Bailey](Old)(Old Bailey) from 18 January to 21 April 2022. Amongst other evidence against him was new [findings](DNA)(DNA profiling) which revealed his DNA was on Rikki's clothing. Watson was convicted of the murder and on 24 June he was sentenced to life by judge Mrs [McGowan](Justice)(Maura McGowan), with a minimum of 15 years.
## See also
*[Prison Durham](HM)(HM Prison Durham) – where Ruth Neave was held alongside [Hindley](Myra)(Myra Hindley) and [West](Rose)(Rose West) during her sentence for child abuse
*[of Brian McDermott](Murder)(Brian McDermott (murder victim)) – similar UK child murder case in which an individual who was only 16 at the time is the prime suspect
*[Weir case](Michael)(Michael Weir (murderer)) – a prior notable case presided over by Justice McGowan
Other UK cold cases in which the DNA of the perpetrator is now known:
*[of Deborah Linsley](Murder)(Murder of Deborah Linsley)
*[of Eve Stratford and Lynne Weedon](Murders)(Murders of Eve Stratford and Lynne Weedon)
*[of Jacqueline Ansell-Lamb and Barbara Mayo](Murders)(Murders of Jacqueline Ansell-Lamb and Barbara Mayo)
*[of Lindsay Rimer](Murder)(Murder of Lindsay Rimer)
*[of Lyn Bryant](Murder)(Murders of Kate Bushell and Lyn Bryant)
*[of Janet Brown](Murder)(Murder of Janet Brown)
*[of Linda Cook](Murder)(Murder of Linda Cook)
*[of Melanie Hall](Murder)(Murder of Melanie Hall)
*[rapist](Batman)(Batman rapist), subject to Britain's longest-running serial rape investigation
## References
[missing person cases](Category:1990s)(Category:1990s missing person cases)
[trials](Category:1990s)(Category:1990s trials)
[murders in the United Kingdom](Category:1994)(Category:1994 murders in the United Kingdom)
[trials](Category:2020s)(Category:2020s trials)
[century in Cambridgeshire](Category:20th)(Category:20th century in Cambridgeshire)
[of Peterborough](Category:History)(Category:History of Peterborough)
[person cases in England](Category:Missing)(Category:Missing person cases in England)
[trials](Category:Murder)(Category:Murder trials)
[1994 crimes](Category:November)(Category:November 1994 crimes)
[1994 events in the United Kingdom](Category:November)(Category:November 1994 events in the United Kingdom)
[Bailey](Category:Old)(Category:Old Bailey)
[in London](Category:Trials)(Category:Trials in London)
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Teresa Palmer
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teresa_palmer
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# Teresa Palmer
*Revision ID: 1159856406 | Timestamp: 2023-06-12T23:51:40Z*
---
| birth_place = [Adelaide](Adelaide), South Australia, Australia
| occupation = Actress
| years_active = 2003–present
| spouse =
| children = 4
}}
**Teresa Mary Palmer** (born 26 February 1986) is an Australian actress. She began her career with roles in *[Stories](Bedtime)(Bedtime Stories (film))* (2008), ''[Sorcerer's Apprentice](The)(The Sorcerer's Apprentice (2010 film))* (2010), *[Me Home Tonight](Take)(Take Me Home Tonight (film))* (2011), and *[Am Number Four](I)(I Am Number Four (film))* (2011). She received further recognition for starring in the films *[Bodies](Warm)(Warm Bodies (film))* (2013), *[Out](Lights)(Lights Out (2016 film))* (2016), *[Ridge](Hacksaw)(Hacksaw Ridge (film))* (2016), and *[Syndrome](Berlin)(Berlin Syndrome (film))* (2017). She also starred in, co-wrote, and co-produced the drama film *[Ever After](The)(The Ever After)* (2014), with her husband [Webber](Mark)(Mark Webber (actor)). From 2018 to 2022, Palmer starred as Diana Bishop in the supernatural drama series *[Discovery of Witches](A)(A Discovery of Witches (TV series))*.
## Early life
Palmer was born and raised in [Adelaide](Adelaide), [Australia](South)(South Australia), the only child of Kevin Palmer, an investor, and Paula Sanders, a former nurse and [missionary](missionary).
Her parents separated when she was three, and divorced in 1992 when she was six. She has a stepmother, Kaaren Palmer, as well as two half-sisters and two stepbrothers, who lived with her father. Palmer stated to *[Interview](Interview (magazine))'' that she "came from rather humble beginnings"; she lived in [housing](public)(public housing) with her mother, while regularly visiting her father at his farm near [Mylor](Mylor, South Australia) in the [Hills](Adelaide)(Adelaide Hills) (which she later purchased as an adult). Palmer was named after [Teresa](Mother)(Mother Teresa) by her mother, and has stated that she had a "tough upbringing" due to her mother's [depression](manic)(Bipolar disorder).
Palmer was a student at [College](Mercedes)(Mercedes College (Adelaide)), a [private](private school) Catholic day school, and won a local-casting audition, "Search for a Movie Star", in 2003. Her first acting job was dressing up as a [Shortcake](Strawberry)(Strawberry Shortcake) doll and as an [assistant](elf)(Christmas elf) to mall [Claus](Santa)(Santa Claus)es on weekends for promotions in shopping centres near Adelaide. Palmer went to acting classes for a couple of years and appeared in several [commercial](television)(Television advertisement)s. She was a fast-food attendant at [Jack's](Hungry)(Hungry Jack's) in [Mall](Rundle)(Rundle Mall) in 2005, before working at clothing retailers [Supré](Supré), [Australia](Mambo)(Mambo Australia) and [On](Cotton)(Cotton On).
After graduating from high school, Palmer thought that she would work in an animal rescue service, and eventually open her own animal welfare agency. She was accepted into a university to study teaching and was taking a course on journalism, but had always dreamt of acting. She got a call from an agent about appearing in a student film, *[2:37](2:37)*. The director had seen her [shot](head)(head shot) on the acting agency's website and wanted her to be in the movie. Palmer dropped out of the university to work on the film.
## Career
### 2005: Beginnings in Australia
Palmer had been an [extra](Extra (actor)) on *[Dogz](Deck)(Deck Dogz)* (2005), and other films shot in [Adelaide](Adelaide). At the age of 18, she was cast by filmmaker [K. Thalluri](Murali)(Murali K. Thalluri) in the independent Australian film *[2:37](2:37)*, about a tragic highschool suicide. She was nominated for the 2006 [Film Institute Award](Australian)(Australian Film Institute Awards) for Best Lead Actress for her performance. She then signed with a talent agent in Sydney. A role in *[Creek](Wolf)(Wolf Creek (film))* (2005) followed, in a pool party scene.
Palmer starred in the psychological thriller *[Restraint](Restraint (2008 film))*, with English actor [Moyer](Stephen)(Stephen Moyer) and [Klein](Calvin)(Calvin Klein) model [Fimmel](Travis)(Travis Fimmel). Shot on location around [South Wales](New)(New South Wales) in mid-2005, the film was written by [Warner](Dave)(Dave Warner (musician)) and directed by David Denneen. Palmer was named an Australian "star of tomorrow" by *[International](Screen)(Screen International)* that year. She then starred in *[Boys](December)(December Boys)*, a [coming-of-age](coming-of-age) film set in the 1960s, based on a novel by [Noonan](Michael)(Michael Noonan (Australian writer)). She played Lucy, who has a romance with [Radcliffe](Daniel)(Daniel Radcliffe)'s character in a remote beach town. Palmer studied [Swain](Dominique)(Dominique Swain)'s performance in *[Lolita](Lolita (1997 film))* (1997) to capture her character's overt sexuality. The film began shooting in November 2005 on the south coast of Australia. It was released on 14 September 2007 in the UK and US and 20 September 2007 in Australia and received mixed reviews, and failed at the box office.
*[2:37](2:37)* premiered at the [Cannes Film Festival](2006)(2006 Cannes Film Festival) in [Certain Regard](Un)(Un Certain Regard) selection. The film received a standing ovation, a turning point for Palmer, giving her confidence in acting as a career. The trip to Cannes led her to meet her manager, [Seltzer](David)(David Seltzer), and American talent agents. She signed with the [Morris Agency](William)(William Morris Endeavor).
### 2006–2012: Move to Hollywood
Palmer was cast to star with [Sturridge](Tom)(Tom Sturridge) in her first American feature, *[Jumper](Jumper (2008 film))*, a science fiction film directed by [Liman](Doug)(Doug Liman). Her part was later recast when the lead characters were rewritten for older actors; her role went to [Bilson](Rachel)(Rachel Bilson). Palmer was devastated from losing the role and returned to [Adelaide](Adelaide, South Australia) for a few months. She made her Hollywood feature film debut in *[Grudge 2](The)(The Grudge 2)* in 2006, a horror sequel starring [Tamblyn](Amber)(Amber Tamblyn) and [Michelle Gellar](Sarah)(Sarah Michelle Gellar). Palmer described her character, Vanessa, as "the bitchy schoolgirl". *The Grudge 2* was released in North America on 13 October 2006 (Friday the 13th) to negative reviews and grossed $70 million worldwide against its $20 million budget.
[[File:Teresa Palmer - Flickr - Eva Rinaldi Celebrity and Live Music Photographer.jpg|thumb|Palmer at *[Hunger Games](The)(The Hunger Games (film))* Sydney premiere and review]]
In early 2007, Palmer was cast as Tori Frederking in the comedy *[Me Home Tonight](Take)(Take Me Home Tonight (film))*, starring [Faris](Anna)(Anna Faris), [Fogler](Dan)(Dan Fogler) and [Grace](Topher)(Topher Grace). Set in the 1980s, the film was directed by [Dowse](Michael)(Michael Dowse) and released in March 2011. *Take Me Home Tonight* was a [office](box)(box office) flop, failing to recoup its $19 million budget.
Palmer starred in the [clip](film)(Music video) for the 2007 single "[Up](Breaking)(Breaking Up (song))", by the band [Joe](Eskimo)(Eskimo Joe), shot in [Newcastle](Newcastle, New South Wales). Palmer jumps into the sea with the band's singer, [Temperley](Kavyen)(Kavyen Temperley).
Palmer relocated from [Beach](Semaphore)(Semaphore, South Australia) in Adelaide to Los Angeles in May 2007 to further her career, and began auditioning for films. She stated that Los Angeles was "a big adjustment" and "very different" from her home in Australia. She went through a period of loneliness and depression, and considered going back home until she made friends there.
In November 2007, Palmer was cast as the villain, [al Ghul](Talia)(Talia al Ghul), in the [Comics](DC)(DC Comics) superhero film, *[League: Mortal](Justice)(Justice League: Mortal)*, alongside [Cotrona](D.J.)(D.J. Cotrona), [Brody](Adam)(Adam Brody), [Yelchin](Anton)(Anton Yelchin), [Common](Common (rapper)) and [Gale](Megan)(Megan Gale). [Miller](George)(George Miller (filmmaker)) was set to direct the film, but it was cancelled by [Bros.](Warner)(Warner Bros.) due to script rewrite issues and the [Writers Guild of America strike](2007–2008)(2007–2008 Writers Guild of America strike).
Palmer was the face of Sydney jeweller Jan Logan's "modern darling" collection in 2008. She was picked that year by [Sandler](Adam)(Adam Sandler) from an audition tape to play his love interest in the [Disney Pictures](Walt)(Walt Disney Pictures) children's film, *[Stories](Bedtime)(Bedtime Stories (film))*. She played an heiress, Violet Nottingham, starring alongside [Pearce](Guy)(Guy Pearce) and [Cox](Courteney)(Courteney Cox). Sandler also put Palmer's mother and best friend in scenes in the film. It was released on 25 December 2008 and received to negative reviews[Bedtime Stories Movie Reviews, Pictures](https://www.rottentomatoes.com/m/bedtime_stories). *[Tomatoes](Rotten)(Rotten Tomatoes)*. Retrieved 15 November 2011. but grossed $212 million worldwide on its $80 million budget.
Palmer won the romantic lead in [Disney's](Walt Disney Pictures) ''[Sorcerer's Apprentice](The)(The Sorcerer's Apprentice (2010 film))*, produced by [Bruckheimer](Jerry)(Jerry Bruckheimer) and directed by [Turteltaub](Jon)(Jon Turteltaub). The film was based on the relevant section of the animated film *[Fantasia](Fantasia (1940 film))* (1940), which was set to a short [poem](symphonic)(symphonic poem) for [orchestra](orchestra) by [Dukas](Paul)(Paul Dukas), *L'apprenti sorcier* (*[Sorcerer's Apprentice](The)(The Sorcerer's Apprentice (Dukas))'', published in 1897, and by far, the best known of Dukas' compositions), all of which were inspired by the eponymous poem by [Wolfgang von Goethe](Johann)(Johann Wolfgang von Goethe). Palmer stayed in [Manhattan](Manhattan)'s [Village](West)(West Village) while filming for six months. She played Becky Barnes, a college student who is pursued by Dave Stutler ([Baruchel](Jay)(Jay Baruchel)), a physics student and apprentice to the wizard Balthazar ([Cage](Nicolas)(Nicolas Cage)). It was released on 14 July 2010 to mixed reviews, and grossed $215 million worldwide on its big $150 million budget. In July 2010, *[Magazine](Parade)(Parade Magazine)* named the film No. 1 on its list of "Biggest Box Office Flops of 2010 (So Far)".
In 2009, Palmer formed the film production company Avakea Productions, with Australian actresses [Tozzi](Tahyna)(Tahyna Tozzi) and [Kelley](Nathalie)(Nathalie Kelley). She was a guest judge on [Australia](MTV)(MTV Australia), for the Sydney filmmaking talent contest, [one80project](Optus)(MTV Australia#Optus ONE80PROJECT). She also filmed an ad campaign that year for the Australian jean store, [Jeans](Just)(Just Jeans), and became the face and spokesperson for the Jurlique cosmetics company.
In 2011, Palmer starred in the sci-fi adventure film, *[Am Number Four](I)(I Am Number Four (film))*, alongside [Pettyfer](Alex)(Alex Pettyfer) and [Agron](Dianna)(Dianna Agron). She played Number Six, one of nine aliens hiding out on Earth because her home planet was destroyed. Her character was skilled in martial arts, rode a [Ducati](Ducati) motorcycle, and could "phase" her way through solid objects. She went through stunt training for the role, learning to perform flips, sword fight, and do [wirework](Wire fu). The film was adapted from a novel that was the first of a six-part series. Palmer signed on to do three movies, if the film became a [franchise](Media franchise). The film was released in theaters on 18 February 2011, and was also released in the [IMAX](IMAX) format. It received generally negative reviews from critics and grossed $149 million worldwide.
Palmer was going to star in *[Road](Fury)(Fury Road)*, a sequel to the [Max*](*Mad)(Mad Max (franchise)) series by Australian filmmaker George Miller, but didn't join the cast due to scheduling conflicts. The film was later postponed. Palmer starred in the short film *[Bear](Bear (2011 film))*, directed by [Edgerton](Nash)(Nash Edgerton), which competed at the [Cannes Film Festival](2011)(2011 Cannes Film Festival).
She appeared opposite [Edgerton](Joel)(Joel Edgerton) in the independent Australian drama-thriller, *Wish You Were Here*, directed by [Darcy-Smith](Kieran)(Kieran Darcy-Smith). The film began shooting in Sydney in November 2010, and premiered at the [Sundance Film Festival](2012)(2012 Sundance Film Festival). The film received positive reviews from critics.
She also starred in a comedic short, *Quirky Girl*, for the website [or Die](Funny)(Funny or Die), opposite [Paul](Aaron)(Aaron Paul).
### 2013–present: Further recognition
Palmer starred in the 2013 [zombie](zombie) film, *[Bodies](Warm)(Warm Bodies (film))*, produced by [Entertainment](Summit)(Summit Entertainment), and based on [young adult novel](a)(Warm Bodies) by Isaac Marion. She played Julie, a human who falls in love with a zombie ([Hoult](Nicholas)(Nicholas Hoult)). It was released on 1 February 2013 in the United States and on 8 February 2013 in the United Kingdom. It opened to positive reviews and grossed $116 million worldwide.
In February 2013, Palmer was announced as the "global face" of [Artistry](Artistry (cosmetics)) cosmetics. Palmer then starred in *[and Honor](Love)(Love and Honor (2013 film))* with [Hemsworth](Liam)(Liam Hemsworth), an independent romance filmed in mid-2011 in [Arbor, Michigan](Ann)(Ann Arbor, Michigan). The film is set in the 1960s during the [War](Vietnam)(Vietnam War), and was released in March 2013. It had a limited release on 22 March 2013, receiving negative reviews and only grossed $19 thousand.
In 2014, she co-starred alongside [Hartnett](Josh)(Josh Hartnett), [Dawson](Rosario)(Rosario Dawson) and [Badgley](Penn)(Penn Badgley) in the romantic drama *[per Billion](Parts)(Parts per Billion)*. It was released on [on demand](video)(video on demand) on 20 May 2014, and on home video on 6 June 2014. It received negative reviews from critics. Palmer had two films that premiered at the [Toronto International Film Festival](2014)(2014 Toronto International Film Festival), *[Bank](Cut)(Cut Bank (film))* (2014) and *[Me Three Times](Kill)(Kill Me Three Times)* (2015), both of which rceeived negative reviews from critics. She played the love interest to [Hemsworth](Liam)(Liam Hemsworth) and [Bob Thornton](Billy)(Billy Bob Thornton)'s daughter in *Cut Bank* and an assassin in *Kill Me Three Times* opposite [Pegg](Simon)(Simon Pegg), [Braga](Alice)(Alice Braga) and [Hemsworth](Luke)(Luke Hemsworth). The latter film was released on 10 April 2015. She starred with [Leo](Melissa)(Melissa Leo) and [Tonkin](Phoebe)(Phoebe Tonkin) in *[Ever After](The)(The Ever After)*, directed by her husband [Webber](Mark)(Mark Webber (actor)). Written by Palmer and Webber, it is a love story that explores the depths of marriage.
In 2015, she appeared in the [Malick](Terrence)(Terrence Malick)-directed film *[of Cups](Knight)(Knight of Cups (film))*, starring [Bale](Christian)(Christian Bale). The film premiered in the main competition section at the [Berlin International Film Festival](65th)(65th Berlin International Film Festival) in February 2015. *Knight of Cups* has received mixed reviews from critics. The film was released on 4 March 2016 in the United States by [Green Pictures](Broad)(Broad Green Pictures). Palmer had a supporting role in the 2015 remake of *[Break](Point)(Point Break (2015 film))*. The film was released in the U.S. on 25 December 2015 and was panned by critics.
In October 2015, it was learned that Palmer would participate in a short film called *Too Legit* with [Kravitz](Zoe)(Zoe Kravitz), [Gregg](Clark)(Clark Gregg), [Corddry](Nate)(Nate Corddry) and [Weedman](Lauren)(Lauren Weedman). This project was confirmed by the director of the film, [Shaw](Frankie)(Frankie Shaw) via Twitter and Instagram and had its premiere on 23 January 2016 at the [Film Festival](Sundance)(Sundance Film Festival).
In 2016, she played the female lead role in the adaptation of the [Sparks](Nicholas)(Nicholas Sparks) novel *[Choice](The)(The Choice (2016 film))*, alongside [Walker](Benjamin)(Benjamin Walker (actor)), [Welling](Tom)(Tom Welling), [Daddario](Alexandra)(Alexandra Daddario), and [Wilkinson](Tom)(Tom Wilkinson). The film premiered on 5 February 2016 and was panned by critics. She appeared alongside [Affleck](Casey)(Casey Affleck) in the crime–drama [film](heist)(heist film), *[9](Triple)(Triple 9)* (2016), directed by [Hillcoat](John)(John Hillcoat). It was released nationwide on 26 February 2016. It was met with mixed reviews and failed to impress at the box office. Also that year, she portrayed [Rebecca](Rebecca (Lights Out)) in the [film](horror)(horror film) *[Out](Lights)(Lights Out (2016 film))*, and co-starred in the war drama *[Ridge](Hacksaw)(Hacksaw Ridge)*, playing the love interest of [Garfield](Andrew)(Andrew Garfield)'s character; both films received positive reviews, with Palmer's performances being praised. She co-starred in the film *[from the King](Message)(Message from the King (film))*, alongside [Boseman](Chadwick)(Chadwick Boseman), [Evans](Luke)(Luke Evans (actor)) and [Molina](Alfred)(Alfred Molina).
In 2017, Palmer starred in the [thriller](psychological)(psychological thriller) *[Syndrome](Berlin)(Berlin Syndrome (film))*, alongside [Riemelt](Max)(Max Riemelt). She also starred alongside [Huisman](Michiel)(Michiel Huisman) and [Reid](Sam)(Sam Reid (actor)) in the science fiction thriller *[2:22](2:22 (2016 film))*.
In 2018, Palmer began a starring role as Diana Bishop in the British supernatural drama series *[Discovery of Witches](A)(A Discovery of Witches (TV series))*. The series received positive reviews.
In 2019, Palmer starred in the biographical sports film *[Like a Girl](Ride)(Ride Like a Girl)*, portraying [Payne](Michelle)(Michelle Payne). The film was directed by Palmer's *Hacksaw Ridge* co-star [Griffiths](Rachel)(Rachel Griffiths), in her feature film directorial debut.
## Personal life
Palmer, along with Australian television presenter [Koch](David)(David Koch (television presenter)), was one of the two [ticket holder](number-one)(number-one ticket holder)s of the [Adelaide Football Club](Port)(Port Adelaide Football Club) starting from 2009, having attended Port Adelaide games since childhood.
Palmer began dating actor and director [Webber](Mark)(Mark Webber (actor)) in late 2012 after contacting him via [Twitter](Twitter). They became engaged in August 2013, and married on 21 December 2013 in Mexico. She and Webber have two sons and two daughters together. Palmer is also a stepmother to Webber's son from his previous relationship with actress [Shaw](Frankie)(Frankie Shaw). The family resides in the [Canyon](Beachwood)(Beachwood Canyon, Los Angeles) community of Los Angeles.
In November 2012, Palmer and friend [Tonkin](Phoebe)(Phoebe Tonkin) launched the health and wellness website Your Zen Life. She co-founded a sister site to Your Zen Life called Your Zen Mama, with her friend, actress [Wright](Sarah)(Sarah Wright).
## Filmography
### Film
### Television
### Music videos
## Awards and nominations
## References
## External links
*
* Teresa Palmer's blog: [Your Zen Life](http://www.yourzenlife.com/)
* [Lovewell](https://lovewell.earth/) – Palmer's nutritional supplements website
[births](Category:1986)(Category:1986 births)
[people](Category:Living)(Category:Living people)
[Australian actresses](Category:21st-century)(Category:21st-century Australian actresses)
[from Adelaide](Category:Actresses)(Category:Actresses from Adelaide)
[expatriate actresses in the United States](Category:Australian)(Category:Australian expatriate actresses in the United States)
[film actresses](Category:Australian)(Category:Australian film actresses)
[television actresses](Category:Australian)(Category:Australian television actresses)
|
Andy Gibb
|
andy_gibb
|
# Andy Gibb
*Revision ID: 1160294345 | Timestamp: 2023-06-15T15:04:58Z*
---
| birth_place = [Stretford](Stretford), England
| death_date =
| death_place = [Oxford](Oxford), England
| resting_place = [Lawn Memorial Park](Forest)(Forest Lawn Memorial Park (Hollywood Hills)), [Angeles](Los)(Los Angeles), California, US
| spouse =
| children = 1
| father = [Gibb](Hugh)(Hugh Gibb)
| relatives =
| occupation =
| years_active = 1967–1988
| module =
| genre =
| label =
| associated_acts = [Gees](Bee)(Bee Gees)
}}
}}
**Andrew Roy Gibb** (5 March 1958 – 10 March 1988) was an English-Australian singer and songwriter. He was the younger brother of [Barry](Barry Gibb), [Robin](Robin Gibb), and [Maurice](Maurice Gibb), who went on to form the [Gees](Bee)(Bee Gees).
Gibb came to prominence in the late 1970s through the early 1980s with eight singles reaching the Top 20 of the US Hot 100, three of which went to number-one: "[Just Want to Be Your Everything](I)(I Just Want to Be Your Everything)" (1977), "[Is) Thicker Than Water]((Love)((Love Is) Thicker Than Water)" (1977), and "[Dancing](Shadow)(Shadow Dancing (song))" (1978). In the early 1980s, he co-hosted the American music television series *[Gold](Solid)(Solid Gold (TV series))*. He also performed in a production of *[Pirates of Penzance](The)(The Pirates of Penzance)* and *[and the Amazing Technicolor Dreamcoat](Joseph)(Joseph and the Amazing Technicolor Dreamcoat)*. Gibb would later have issues with drug addiction and depression. He died on 10 March 1988, five days after his 30th birthday.
## Life and career
### 1958–1975: Early life and first recordings
Andrew Roy Gibb was born on 5 March 1958 at [Memorial Hospital](Stretford)(Stretford Memorial Hospital) in Stretford, Lancashire. He was the youngest of five children born to Barbara and [Gibb](Hugh)(Hugh Gibb). His mother was of Irish and English descent, and his father was of Scottish and English descent. He had four siblings: his sister, Lesley Evans; and three brothers—[Barry](Barry Gibb) and fraternal twins [Robin](Robin Gibb) and [Maurice](Maurice Gibb).
At the age of six months, Andy Gibb emigrated with his family to [Queensland](Queensland), Australia, settling on [Island](Cribb)(Cribb Island, Queensland) just north of [Brisbane](Brisbane). After moving several times between [Brisbane](Brisbane) and [Sydney](Sydney), Andy returned to the United Kingdom in January 1967 as his three older brothers began to gain international fame as the [Gees](Bee)(Bee Gees).
In his childhood, his mother, Barbara, described Andy as "A little devil, a little monster. I'd send him off to school, but he'd sneak off to the stable and sleep with his two horses all day. He'd wander back home around lunchtime smelling of horse manure, yet he'd swear he had been at school. Oh, he was a little monkey!"
Producer and film director [Kennedy](Tom)(Tom Kennedy (producer)) described Andy's personality in his childhood:
He quit school at the age of 13, and with an [guitar](acoustic)(acoustic guitar) given to him by his older brother Barry, he began playing at tourist clubs around [Ibiza](Ibiza), Spain (when his parents moved there), and later on the [of Man](Isle)(Isle of Man), his brothers' birthplace, where his parents were living at the time.
In June 1974, Gibb formed his first group, Melody Fayre (named after a [Gees song](Bee)(Melody Fair)), which included Isle of Man musicians John Alderson on guitar, Stan Hughes on bass, and John Stringer on drums. The group was managed by Andy's mother, Barbara, and had regular bookings on the small island's hotel circuit. Gibb's first recording, in August 1973, was a Maurice Gibb composition, "My Father Was a Rebel", which Maurice also produced and played on. It was not released. Another track on the session performed by him was "Windows of My World," co-written by him and Maurice.
At the urging of his brother Barry, Gibb returned to Australia in 1974. Barry believed that, because Australia had been a good training ground for the Bee Gees, it would also help his youngest brother. Lesley Gibb had remained in Australia, where she raised a family with her husband. Both Alderson and Stringer followed Andy to Australia with the hope of forming a band there. With [Joye](Col)(Col Joye) producing, Andy, Alderson, and Stringer recorded a number of Andy's compositions. The first song was a demo called "To a Girl" (with his brother Maurice playing organ), which he later performed on his television debut in Australia on *[Ernie Sigley Show](The)(The Ernie Sigley Show)*. Sigley later informed the audience that it was from Gibb's forthcoming album, but it was never released. In November of the same year, he recorded six demos—again produced by Joye—including "Words and Music", "Westfield Mansions", and "Flowing Rivers" (which was later released). What may have detracted from the "training ground" aspect of Australia for Andy compared with his brothers was that Andy was relatively independent financially, mainly because of his brothers' support and their largesse; hence, the group's sporadic work rate. Andy would disappear for periods of time, leaving Alderson and Stringer out of work with no income. Despondent, Alderson and Stringer returned to the UK.
Gibb later joined the band Zenta, consisting of Gibb on vocals, Rick Alford on guitar, Paddy Lelliot on bass, Glen Greenhalgh on vocals, and Trevor Norton on drums. Zenta supported international artists [Sweet](The Sweet) and the [City Rollers](Bay)(Bay City Rollers) on the Sydney leg of their Australian tours. "Can't Stop Dancing" (which was a [Stevens](Ray)(Ray Stevens) song and was later a US hit for duo [and Tennille](Captain)(Captain & Tennille) in May 1977) was mooted for release, but didn't happen, although Gibb did perform it on television at least once on the revitalised *[Bandstand](Bandstand (Australia))* show hosted by [Somers](Daryl)(Daryl Somers). Zenta would appear later as a backing band for Gibb, but did not participate on Gibb's recording sessions around 1975, which featured Australian [fusion](jazz)(jazz fusion) group [Crossfire](Crossfire (band)).
"[and Music](Words)(Words and Music (song))" was released on the ATA label, only in Australia and New Zealand, owned by Joye. It was his first single, the song, backed by another Andy Gibb composition "Westfield Mansions". The single would eventually reach the Top Twenty on the Sydney music charts in 1976; the ballad was one of his well-known hits.
### 1976–1980: International success
Andy at that time lived in Seven Hills, an outer Sydney suburb where he married his girlfriend Kim Reeder at the Wayside Chapel on July 11th, 1976. "Kim breeds Staffordshire bull terriers and my sister does too", he once said. "We met at a dog show when my sister Lesley introduced us".
In 1977 they moved to West Hollywood. Reeder recalled, "He became ensconced in the drug scene. Cocaine became his first love. He became depressed and paranoid." After they split up, Reeder moved back to Australia, where she gave birth to their daughter, Peta, who was born on 25 January 1978, and they divorced later that year.
[Stigwood](Robert)(Robert Stigwood), who at the time was the Bee Gees' manager, signed Andy to his label, [Records](RSO)(RSO Records) in early 1976, after he heard some of Andy's [tapes](demo)(demo tapes). Andy soon moved to [Beach, Florida](Miami)(Miami Beach, Florida), to begin working on songs with his brother Barry and co-producers [Galuten](Albhy)(Albhy Galuten) and Karl Richardson. In late 1976 in [Miami](Miami), Andy, with older brother Barry producing and recording in the famed [Studios](Criteria)(Criteria Studios), set about making his first album *[Rivers](Flowing)(Flowing Rivers)*. Eagles guitarist [Walsh](Joe)(Joe Walsh) played on two songs on the album. The first release from the album, and Gibb's first single released outside Australia, was "[Just Want to Be Your Everything](I)(I Just Want to Be Your Everything)" which was written by Barry, who also provided backup vocals. It reached number-one in the United States and Australia and was the most played record of the year. In Britain it was a lesser hit, just scraping into the Top 30. Eight of the ten tracks on the album were Andy Gibb compositions, mostly songs written during his time in Australia. These included a re-recording of his previous single, "Words and Music". In September 1977 *Flowing Rivers*, with another number-one single "[Is) Thicker Than Water]((Love)((Love Is) Thicker Than Water)" (also co-written by Gibb and his brother Barry) to support it, quickly became a million-selling album. That single broke in early 1978 during the time that the Bee Gees' contributions to the *[Night Fever](Saturday)(Saturday Night Fever (soundtrack))* soundtrack were dominating the world charts. In the United States it replaced "[Alive](Stayin')(Stayin' Alive)" at the top of the Hot 100 on the day before Andy's 20th birthday, only to be surpassed by "[Fever](Night)(Night Fever)" at number-one there two weeks later.
Andy then began work with the Gibb-Galuten-Richardson production team on his second album, *[Dancing](Shadow)(Shadow Dancing (album))*, which was released in April 1978 and was his highest-charting album in America and Canada. The [track](title)(Shadow Dancing (song)), written by all four Gibb brothers, was released as a single in the United States in April 1978. In mid-June it began a seven-week run at number-one, achieving platinum status and the honour of being *Billboard*'s number-one song of 1978. In the United States, Gibb became the first male solo artist to have three consecutive number-one singles on the [Hot 100](*Billboard*)(Billboard Hot 100), with all of the weeks at the top of the chart happening in less than year, from 30 July 1977 through 29 July 1978. Two further Top Ten singles, "[Everlasting Love](An)(An Everlasting Love)" (which reached number 5) and "[Love) Don't Throw It All Away]((Our)((Our Love) Don't Throw It All Away)" (which reached number 9), were released from the album, which became another million seller.
In 1979, Gibb performed along with the [Gees](Bee)(Bee Gees), [ABBA](ABBA) and [Newton-John](Olivia)(Olivia Newton-John) (duet with "[Your Love on Me](Rest)(Rest Your Love on Me)") at the [for UNICEF Concert](Music)(Music for UNICEF Concert) at the [Nations General Assembly](United)(United Nations General Assembly), which was broadcast worldwide. He returned to the studio to begin recording sessions for his final full studio album *[Dark](After)(After Dark (Andy Gibb album))*. In March 1980, the last of Gibb's Top Ten singles charted just ahead of the album's release. "[Desire](Desire (Andy Gibb song))" was recorded for the Bee Gees' 1979 album *[Having Flown](Spirits)(Spirits Having Flown)* and featured their original track, complete with Andy's original "guest vocal" track. A second single, "[Can't Help It](I)(I Can't Help It (Andy Gibb and Olivia Newton-John song))", a duet with family friend and fellow British and Australian expat Olivia Newton-John, reached the top 20.
Later in the year, ''[Gibb's Greatest Hits](Andy)(Andy Gibb's Greatest Hits)'' was released as a finale to his contract with RSO Records, with two new songs: "[Is Time](Time)(Time Is Time)" (number 15 in January 1981) and "Me (Without You)" (Gibb's last top-40 chart entry) shipped as singles, before RSO founder [Stigwood](Robert)(Robert Stigwood) let him go due to his cocaine addiction and behavioural problems. "After Dark" and "[You Still Love Me Tomorrow](Will)(Will You Still Love Me Tomorrow)" were non-single songs added to the album, the latter of which was a duet with [P. Arnold](P.)(P. P. Arnold), who had previously worked with [Gibb](Barry)(Barry Gibb), including singing uncredited backups on "Bury Me Down by the River" from *[Castle](Cucumber)(Cucumber Castle)*.
Around the same time, Gibb was invited to sing the first verse on [Queen](Queen (band))'s "[the Game](Play)(Play the Game (song))", and lead singer [Mercury](Freddie)(Freddie Mercury) apparently was amazed with Gibb's abilities. According to some sources, the tape was found in 1990 in a search of Queen archives for bonus tracks for a CD but was not used. Since it has not been heard by any Queen collectors, its existence is somewhat doubtful, although record producer [Mack](Reinhold Mack) has also confirmed that the version did exist.
### 1981–1986: Decline and live performances
[[File:Andy Gibb 1981.jpg|thumb|upright|Gibb performing at [Theatre](Ford's)(Ford's Theatre) Gala, 1981]]
While taping *The John Davidson Show* in January 1981, Gibb met actress [Principal](Victoria)(Victoria Principal). During their high-profile relationship, Gibb began working on several projects outside the recording studio. He co-hosted the television music show *[Gold](Solid)(Solid Gold (TV series))* from 1981 to 1982 with Marilyn McCoo. He also performed in [& Sullivan](Gilbert)(Gilbert & Sullivan)'s *[Pirates of Penzance](The)(The Pirates of Penzance)* in [Angeles](Los)(Los Angeles) and [Lloyd Webber](Andrew)(Andrew Lloyd Webber)'s *[and the Amazing Technicolor Dreamcoat](Joseph)(Joseph and the Amazing Technicolor Dreamcoat)* on [Broadway](Broadway theatre). Gibb was ultimately fired from both *Joseph* and *Solid Gold* because of absenteeism caused by [cocaine](cocaine) binges.
Said [Buffman](Zev)(Zev Buffman), a Broadway producer and financier for *Joseph*, "When Andy was at the theater, he was a joy. But he wasn't there enough", adding that of the five people to play Joseph up to that point, Gibb was the best actor. He also said after Gibb's death, "We'd lose him over long weekends. He'd come back on Tuesday, and he'd look beat. He was like a little puppy—so ashamed when he did something wrong. He was all heart, but he didn't have enough muscle to carry through." An unnamed co-star in *Joseph* was quoted as saying, "I hear he spent most of his time in his hotel room in front of the TV. I guess he was frightened and insecure. That's what happens when you're the baby brother of the Bee Gees." Commenting after Gibb's death, *Solid Gold* producer Brad Lachman stated, "...[Andy] was a very charming, vulnerable and charismatic performer. He clearly meant well. He wasn't being difficult. He was going through problems he couldn't deal with. He wanted everyone to love him. He had so much going for him, and he just couldn't believe it."
In August 1981, Gibb and Principal released a duet of [Everly Brothers](the)(the Everly Brothers)' "[I Have to Do Is Dream](All)(All I Have to Do Is Dream)". He reportedly heard her singing in the shower and convinced her to go into the studio with him.''[Weekly](Women's)(The Australian Women's Weekly)'', Australia, 28 October 1981 This would be Gibb's last official single, and his last US chart entry, peaking at number 51.
Principal recalled after that, “Well, it became very apparent to me that his behavior was becoming erratic and that he was very, very thin. And Andy was a very kind person and a very gentle person, and some of his behavior seemed the antithesis of who I knew him to be. And over a period of … deduction, I finally realized that it had to be drugs.”
Their romance ended shortly thereafter when she gave him an ultimatum to choose between her or drugs. After this, Gibb began dating [Michaelsen](Kari)(Kari Michaelsen) of the [NBC](NBC) television sitcom *[a Break!](Gimme)(Gimme a Break!)* on which he guest starred.
In 1984 and 1985, Gibb did finish two successful contracts at the [Riviera](Riviera (hotel and casino)) hotel in [Vegas](Las)(Las Vegas).
His family convinced him to seek treatment for his drug addiction, which included a stay at the [Ford Center](Betty)(Betty Ford Center) in 1985. It was during this time that Gibb began touring small venues with a stage show featuring his hits as well as covers. He also appeared in guest-starring roles on television [sitcom](sitcom) *[Brewster](Punky)(Punky Brewster)* and *[a Break!](Gimme)(Gimme a Break!)* Following an extensive tour of [Asia](East)(East Asia), he regularly performed shows in Las Vegas and [Tahoe](Lake)(Lake Tahoe). In 1984, he was the headline performer at the [del Mar Festival](Viña)(Viña del Mar Festival) in [Chile](Chile), performing two nights in a row. He also held a two-week engagement at [Francisco](San)(San Francisco)'s historic [Hotel](Fairmont)(Fairmont San Francisco) in March 1986.
### 1987–1988: Attempted comeback and final days
In the spring of 1987, Gibb went through another drug rehabilitation program and thought he had finally beaten his habits.
Gibb now aimed to get a recording contract for release of a new album in 1988. He returned to the studio in June 1987 recording four songs; one of them, "Man on Fire", was released posthumously in 1991 on a [Records](Polydor)(Polydor Records) anthology. Another track, "[Through the Heart](Arrow)(Arrow Through the Heart)", was the final song Andy would ever record and was featured on an episode of [VH1](VH1)'s series, *[the Music](Behind)(Behind the Music)*, and released on the Bee Gees' *[Mythology](Mythology (Bee Gees album))* 4-disc box set in November 2010. The songs are co-written by Gibb with his brothers Barry and Maurice. Their demo recordings with engineer Scott Glasel were heard by Clive Banks from the UK branch of [Records](Island)(Island Records). Gibb never formally signed a contract but the record label planned to release a single in Europe that spring, followed by another single that summer with the album to follow.*[Stone](Rolling)(Rolling Stone)* magazine, May 1988. "Andy Gibb: 1958–1988".
In early March 1988, Barry arranged for Island in England to sign Andy, but when he arrived in England in January 1988, he panicked. Andy missed meetings with the record company and blamed himself for his trouble writing songs. The deal was never signed.
## Death
By late January to early February in 1988, Gibb had seemingly beaten his drug addiction, regained his health, and was ready to begin recording a new album; however, he still battled depression over his breakup with [Principal](Victoria)(Victoria Principal).[Idea](New)(New Idea), 25 November 1989. Robin Gibb: "Andy was scared of us", page 22. According to Robin Gibb, his brother "just went downhill so fast... he was in a terrible state of depression". During this period, Gibb slipped back into his alcoholic habits, even going as far as receiving phone calls from brothers Maurice and Barry (the latter call Barry would regret making), with last ditch efforts to get Andy to stop.”Behind The Music: Andy Gibb”, VH1, Viacom International, 1997. 5 March 1988, Gibb celebrated his 30th birthday in London while working on the new album. Two days after celebrating his birthday, he entered [Radcliffe Hospital](John)(John Radcliffe Hospital) in [Oxford](Oxford) complaining of chest pains.
[[Andy.JPG|thumb|Andy Gibb's headstone](File:Grab)]
At around 8:30 am on 10 March 1988, Gibb's doctor informed him more tests were needed to determine the cause of his chest pains. Shortly afterward, Gibb slumped into unconsciousness and died as a result of [myocarditis](myocarditis), an inflammation of the heart muscle most likely caused by a virus. Years of cocaine abuse also weakened his heart, this diagnosis was supported by [Shell](William)(William Shell), a [cardiologist](cardiologist) who previously treated Gibb.
With the announcement of Gibb's death, his ex-wife, Kim Reeder, was not surprised. "I always knew that one day I'd get a call with news like this. It was only a matter of time." Gibb's family said the cause of death was not an [overdose](overdose), as some media reports suggested, but natural causes after years of substance abuse.
Gibb's body was returned to the United States, where he was interred at [Lawn Memorial Park](Forest)(Forest Lawn Memorial Park (Hollywood Hills)) in Hollywood Hills, Los Angeles. The headstone reads "Andy Gibb / March 5, 1958 – March 10, 1988 / An Everlasting Love", after one of his hit singles.
## Legacy
The Andy Gibb Memorial Foundation contributes to charities that Gibb supported, such as the [Heart Association](American)(American Heart Association), the [Cancer Society](American)(American Cancer Society), and the Diabetes Research Institute.
## Awards and nominations
Gibb was nominated for two [Award](Grammy)(Grammy Award)s at the [Annual Grammy Awards](20th)(20th Annual Grammy Awards). He was also nominated for two [Music Awards](American)(American Music Awards).
### Grammy Awards
|-
| 1978
| Andy Gibb
| [New Artist](Best)(Grammy Award for Best New Artist)
|
|-
| 1978
| "[Just Want to Be Your Everything](I)(I Just Want to Be Your Everything)"
| [Pop Vocal Performance, Male](Best)(Grammy Award for Best Male Pop Vocal Performance)
|
### American Music Awards
|-
| 1978
|"I Just Want To Be Your Everything"
| [Pop/Rock Song](Favorite)(American Music Award for Favorite Pop/Rock Song)
|
|-
| 1979
| Andy Gibb
| [Pop/Rock Male Artist](Favorite)(American Music Award for Favorite Pop/Rock Male Artist)
|
## Discography
### Studio albums
### Compilations
### Singles
## Filmography
### Television
## References
## External links
*
*
*
[births](Category:1958)(Category:1958 births)
[deaths](Category:1988)(Category:1988 deaths)
[English male actors](Category:20th-century)(Category:20th-century English male actors)
[English singers](Category:20th-century)(Category:20th-century English singers)
[British male singers](Category:20th-century)(Category:20th-century British male singers)
[at Forest Lawn Memorial Park (Hollywood Hills)](Category:Burials)(Category:Burials at Forest Lawn Memorial Park (Hollywood Hills))
[from myocarditis](Category:Deaths)(Category:Deaths from myocarditis)
[expatriates in Australia](Category:English)(Category:English expatriates in Australia)
[expatriates in Spain](Category:English)(Category:English expatriates in Spain)
[expatriates in the United States](Category:English)(Category:English expatriates in the United States)
[male singers](Category:English)(Category:English male singers)
[male television actors](Category:English)(Category:English male television actors)
[people of Irish descent](Category:English)(Category:English people of Irish descent)
[people of Scottish descent](Category:English)(Category:English people of Scottish descent)
[pop singers](Category:English)(Category:English pop singers)
[male songwriters](Category:English)(Category:English male songwriters)
[Andy](Category:Gibb musical family)
[from Manchester](Category:Musicians)(Category:Musicians from Manchester)
[Records artists](Category:RSO)(Category:RSO Records artists)
[from Manchester](Category:Singers)(Category:Singers from Manchester)
[male musical theatre actors](Category:English)(Category:English male musical theatre actors)
[male songwriters](Category:British)(Category:British male songwriters)
|
South Sudan
|
south_sudan
|
# South Sudan
*Revision ID: 1159811384 | Timestamp: 2023-06-12T17:51:25Z*
---
| map_caption = South Sudan in dark green, disputed regions in light green
| capital = [Juba](Juba)
| coordinates =
| largest_city = capital
| official_languages = [English](English language) Part One, 6(2). "English shall be the official working language in the Republic of South Sudan".
| national_languages = and around 60 other languages|group=note}}
| languages_type = [language](Spoken)(Spoken language)s[Ethnologue](Ethnologue): [*Ethnologue Languages of the World – South Sudan*](https://www.ethnologue.com/country/SS/languages) , Retrieved 9 September 2018.
| languages = (PDF; 672 kB), Pages 1–3, Retrieved 9 September 2018Manfredi Stefano; Tosco Mauro (2016), [*A new state, an old language policy, and a pidgin-creolo: Juba Arabic in South Sudan, Forthcoming: Sociolinguistic Studies 2016*](https://halshs.archives-ouvertes.fr/halshs-01357537/document) (PDF; 1141 kB), Pages 1–18, Retrieved 9 September 2018Manfredi Stefano; Tosco Mauro (2013), [*Language uses vs. language policy: South Sudan and Juba Arabic in the post-independence era''](https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01102624/document) (PDF; 301 kB), Pages 798–802, III Congresso Coordinamento Universitario per la Cooperazione allo Sviluppo, Sep 2013, Turin, Italy. JUNCO, Journal of Universities and International Development Cooperation, 2014, Imagining Cultures of Cooperation – Proceedings of the III CUCS Congress, Turin 19–21 September 2013, Retrieved 9 September 2018|[Nuer](Nuer language)|[Zande](Zande language)|[(Luo)](Jur)(Jur language)|[Murle](Murle language)|[Shilluk](Shilluk language)|[Kanuri](Kanuri language)|[others](various)(Languages of South Sudan)}}
| demonym = [Sudanese](South)(Demographics of South Sudan)
| government_type = [Federal](Federal system) [authoritarian](authoritarian) [transitional](provisional government) [republic](presidential)(presidential republic)
| leader_title1 = [President](President of Republic of South Sudan)
| leader_name1 = [Kiir Mayardit](Salva)(Salva Kiir Mayardit)
| leader_title2 = [Vice President](First)(Vice President of South Sudan)
| leader_name2 = [Machar](Riek)(Riek Machar)
| leader_title3 = [Speaker](National Legislative Assembly (South Sudan))
| leader_name3 = [Nunu Kumba](Jemma)(Jemma Nunu Kumba)
| leader_title4 = [Justice](Chief)(Judiciary of South Sudan)
| leader_name4 = [Reec Madut](Chan)(Chan Reec Madut)
| leader_title5 =
| leader_name5 =
| leader_title6 =
| leader_name6 =
| legislature = [National Legislature](Transitional)(National Legislature (South Sudan))
| upper_house = [of States](Council)(Council of States (South Sudan))
| lower_house = [National Legislative Assembly](Transitional)(National Legislative Assembly (South Sudan))
| sovereignty_type = [Independence](History of South Sudan)
| sovereignty_note = from [Sudan](Sudan)
| established_event1 = [Autonomy](Government of Southern Sudan (2005–2011))
| established_date1 = 9 July 2005
| established_event2 = [and recognized](Declared)(2011 South Sudanese independence referendum#Results)
| established_date2 = 9 July 2011
| area_km2 = 644329
| area_rank = 41st
| area_sq_mi = 400453.1
| percent_water =
| population_estimate = 12,118,379
| population_estimate_year = 2023
| population_estimate_rank = 82nd
| population_density_km2 = 13.33
| population_density_sq_mi = 34.52
| population_density_rank = 214th
| GDP_PPP = $13.6 billion
| GDP_PPP_rank = 157th
| GDP_PPP_year = 2022
| GDP_PPP_per_capita = $934
| GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 191st
| GDP_nominal = $4.7 billion
| GDP_nominal_rank = 164th
| GDP_nominal_year = 2022
| GDP_nominal_per_capita = $326
| GDP_nominal_per_capita_rank = 194th
| Gini = 44.1
| Gini_year = 2016
| Gini_change = decrease
| Gini_ref =
| Gini_rank =
| HDI = 0.385
| HDI_year = 2021
| HDI_change = decrease
| HDI_ref =
| HDI_rank = 191st
| currency = [Sudanese pound](South)(South Sudanese pound)
| currency_code = SSP
| time_zone = [Africa Time](Central)(Central Africa Time)
| utc_offset = +2
| date_format = dd/mm/yyyy
| drives_on = right
| calling_code = [+211](Telephone numbers in South Sudan)
| iso3166code = SS
| cctld = [.ss](.ss)a
| footnote_a = Registered and operational since 2019
| religion =
| religion_year = 2020
| religion_ref =
| today =
| org_type =
}}
**South Sudan** (), officially the **Republic of South Sudan**, is a [country](landlocked)(landlocked country) in [Africa](East)(East Africa). It is bordered by [Ethiopia](Ethiopia), [Sudan](Sudan), the [African Republic](Central)(Central African Republic), the [Republic of the Congo](Democratic)(Democratic Republic of the Congo), [Uganda](Uganda), and [Kenya](Kenya). Its population was estimated at 10,913,164 in 2022. [Juba](Juba) is the [capital](Capital city) and largest city.
South Sudan gained independence from Sudan on 9 July 2011, making it the [recent](most)(List of sovereign states by date of formation) sovereign state or country with widespread recognition as of 2023. It includes the vast swamp region of the [Sudd](Sudd), formed by the [Nile](White)(White Nile) and known locally as the *[al Jabal](Bahr)(Bahr al Jabal (river))*, meaning "Mountain River".eg. example reference in Sudan was occupied by [Egypt](History of Egypt under the Muhammad Ali dynasty) under the [Ali dynasty](Muhammad)(Muhammad Ali dynasty) and was governed as an [condominium](Anglo-Egyptian)(Anglo-Egyptian Sudan) until Sudanese independence in 1956. Following the [Sudanese Civil War](First)(First Sudanese Civil War), the [Sudan Autonomous Region](Southern)(Southern Sudan Autonomous Region (1972–83)) was formed in 1972 and lasted until 1983. A [Sudanese civil war](second)(Second Sudanese Civil War) soon broke out in 1983 and ended in 2005 with the [Peace Agreement](Comprehensive)(Comprehensive Peace Agreement). Later that year, southern autonomy was restored when an [Government of Southern Sudan](Autonomous)(Autonomous Government of Southern Sudan) was formed. South Sudan became an [state](independent)(independent state) on 9 July 2011, following 98.83% support for independence in [January 2011 referendum](a)(South Sudanese independence referendum, 2011). It has suffered [violence](ethnic)(Ethnic violence in South Sudan) and endured [civil war](a)(South Sudanese Civil War) characterized by rampant [rights abuses](human)(Human rights in South Sudan), including various ethnic massacres and [of journalists](killings)(List of journalists killed in South Sudan) by various parties to the conflict from December 2013 until February 2020, when competing combat leaders [Kiir Mayardit](Salva)(Salva Kiir Mayardit) and [Machar](Riek)(Riek Machar) struck a unity deal and formed a coalition government, paving the way for refugees to return home.
South Sudan is one of the [developed countries](least)(least developed countries) in the world, and as of 2022 also one of the poorest countries by [per capita](GDP)(List of countries by GDP (nominal) per capita). The South Sudanese population is composed mostly of [peoples](Nilotic)(Nilotic peoples), and it is demographically among the youngest nations in the world, with roughly half under 18 years old. The majority of inhabitants adhere to [Christianity](Christianity) or various [faiths](Indigenous)(Traditional African religions). The country is a [of the United Nations](member)(Member states of the United Nations), the [Union](African)(African Union), the [African Community](East)(East African Community),"South Sudan admitted into EAC", Daily Nation, 2 March 2016, reprinted at nation.co.ke, accessed 4 March 2016 and the [Authority on Development](Intergovernmental)(Intergovernmental Authority on Development).
## Etymology
The name *Sudan* is a name given to a [region](geographical)(Sudan (region)) to the south of the [Sahara](Sahara), stretching from Western Africa to eastern Central Africa. The name derives from the Arabic ** (), or the "Land of the [Blacks](Black people)" The term was used by Arab traders and travelers in the region to refer to the various indigenous black African cultures and societies that they encountered.
## History
The [Nilotic](Nilotic) people of South Sudan—the [Dinka](Dinka people), [Anyuak](Anyuak), [Bari](Bari people), [Acholi](Acholi people), [Nuer](Nuer people), [Shilluk](Shilluk people), [Kaligi](Kaligi people) (Arabic Feroghe), and others—first entered South Sudan sometime before the tenth century, coinciding with the fall of [Nubia](medieval)(medieval Nubia). From the 15th to the 19th century, tribal migrations, largely from the area of [el Ghazal](Bahr)(Bahr el Ghazal (region of South Sudan)), brought the Anyuak, Dinka, Nuer, and Shilluk to their modern locations in Bahr El Ghazal and the Upper Nile Region, while the Acholi and [Bari](Bari people) settled in Equatoria. The [Zande](Zande people), [Mundu](Mundu), [Avukaya](Avukaya) and [Baka](Baka people (Congo and South Sudan)), who entered South Sudan in the 16th century, established the region's largest state of Equatoria Region.
The Dinka is the largest, the Nuer the second-largest, the Zande the third-largest, and the Bari the fourth-largest of South Sudan's ethnic groups. They are found in the [Maridi](Maridi), [Yambio](Yambio), and Tombura districts in the [rainforest](tropical)(tropical rainforest) belt of [Equatoria](Western)(Western Equatoria), the Adio of Azande client in [Yei](Yei), [Equatoria](Central)(Central Equatoria), and [Bahr el Ghazal](Western)(Western Bahr el Ghazal). In the 18th century, the Avungara [sib](Sib (anthropology)) rose to power over the rest of Azande society, a domination that continued into the 20th century. British policies favouring Christian missionaries, such as the Closed District Ordinance of 1922 (see [of Anglo-Egyptian Sudan](History)(History of Anglo-Egyptian Sudan)), and geographical barriers such as the swamplands along the [Nile](White)(White Nile) curtailed the spread of Islam to the south, thus allowing the southern tribes to retain much of their social and cultural heritage, as well as their political and religious institutions.
British colonial policy in Sudan had a long history of emphasizing the development of the Arab north and largely ignoring the Black African south, which lacked schools, hospitals, roads, bridges, and other basic infrastructure. After Sudan's first independent elections in 1958, the continued neglect of the southern region by the [Khartoum](Khartoum) government led to uprisings, revolts, and the longest civil war on the continent.Matthew LeRiche, Matthew Arnold. South Sudan: from revolution to independence. 2012. Columbia University Press. New York. [Cockett](Richard)(Richard Cockett) Sudan: Darfur and the failure of an African state. 2010. Hobbs the Printers Ltd., Totten, Hampshire. People affected by the violence included the [Dinka](Dinka), [Nuer](Nuer people), [Shilluk](Shilluk people), [Anyuak](Anyuak), [Murle](Murle people), [Bari](Bari), [Mundari](Mundari people), [Baka](Baka people (Congo and South Sudan)), [Bviri](Balanda)(Balanda Bviri), [Boya](Boya people), [Didinga](Didinga), [Jiye](Jiye people), [Kakwa](Kakwa people), [Kaligi](Kaligi people), [Kuku](Kuku people), [Lotuka](Lotuka), [Nilotic](Nilotic), [Toposa](Toposa people), and [Zande](Zande people).Matthew LeRiche, Matthew Arnold. South Sudan: from revolution to independence. 2012. Ethnic Groups and Flashpoints. p. xv. Columbia University Press. New York.
The Azande have had good relations with their neighbours, namely the [Moru](Moru people), [Mundu](Mundu people), [Pöjulu](Pojulu people), [Avukaya](Avukaya people), Baka, and the small groups in Bahr el Ghazal, due to the expansionist policy of their king [Gbudwe](Gbudwe), in the 18th century. In the 19th century, the Azande fought the French, the [Belgians](Belgium) and the [Mahdists](Muhammad Ahmed) to maintain their independence. [Egypt](Ottoman)(Ottoman Egypt), under the rule of [Khedive](Khedive) [Pasha](Ismail)(Isma'il Pasha), first attempted to control the region in the 1870s, establishing the province of [Equatoria](Equatoria) in the southern portion. Egypt's first appointed governor was [Baker](Samuel)(Samuel Baker), commissioned in 1869, followed by [George Gordon](Charles)(Charles George Gordon) in 1874, and by [Pasha](Emin)(Emin Pasha) in 1878.
The [Revolt](Mahdist)(Muhammad Ahmed) of the 1880s destabilized the nascent province, and Equatoria ceased to exist as an Egyptian outpost in 1889. Important settlements in Equatoria included [Lado](Lado District), [Gondokoro](Gondokoro), [Dufile](Dufile), and [Wadelai](Wadelai). European colonial manoeuvrings in the region came to a head in 1898, when the [Incident](Fashoda)(Fashoda Incident) occurred at present-day [Kodok](Kodok); Britain and France almost went to war over the region. In 1947, British hopes of joining South Sudan with [Uganda](Uganda) while leaving Western Equatoria as part of the [Congo](Belgian)(Belgian Congo) were dashed by the Rajaf Conference to unify North and South Sudan.
South Sudan has an estimated population of 12 million, but, given the lack of a census in several decades, this estimate may be severely distorted. The economy is predominantly rural and relies chiefly on [farming](subsistence)(subsistence farming). Around 2005, the economy began a transition from this rural dominance, and urban areas within South Sudan have seen extensive development.
The region has been negatively affected by two civil wars since Sudanese independence: from 1955 to 1972, the Sudanese government fought the [Anyanya](Anyanya) rebel army (Anya-Nya is a term in the [Madi](Madi language (Sudan and Uganda)) language which means "snake venom")Matthew LeRiche, Matthew Arnold. South Sudan: from revolution to independence. 2012. Columbia University Press. New York. p. 16 during the [Sudanese Civil War](First)(First Sudanese Civil War), followed by the [People's Liberation Army/Movement](Sudan)(Sudan People's Liberation Army/Movement) (SPLA/M) in the [Sudanese Civil War](Second)(Second Sudanese Civil War) for over twenty years, from 1983 to 2005. As a result, the country suffered serious neglect, a lack of infrastructure development, and major destruction and displacement. More than 2.5 million people have been killed, and millions more have become [refugee](refugee)s both within and outside the country.
### Independence (2011)
[[South Sudanese girl at independence festivities (5926735716).jpg|thumb|upright|A South Sudanese girl at independence festivities](File:A)]
Between 9 and 15 January 2011, as a consequence of the [Peace Agreement](Comprehensive)(Comprehensive Peace Agreement), [referendum](a)(Southern Sudanese independence referendum, 2011) was held to determine whether South Sudan should become an independent country and separate from Sudan, and 98.83% of those who took part voted for independence. On 23 January 2011, members of a steering committee on post-independence governing told reporters that upon independence the land would be named the Republic of South Sudan "out of familiarity and convenience". Other names that had been considered were [Azania](Azania), Nile Republic, [Kush](Kingdom of Kush) Republic and even Juwama, a [portmanteau](portmanteau) for [Juba](Juba (Southern Sudan)), [Wau](Wau, Sudan) and [Malakal](Malakal), three major cities. South Sudan formally became independent from Sudan on 9 July, although certain disputes still remained, including the division of oil revenues, as 75% of all the former Sudan's oil reserves are in South Sudan. The region of [Abyei](Abyei) still remains disputed and a separate referendum will be held in Abyei on whether they want to join Sudan or South Sudan. The [Kordofan conflict](South)(South Kordofan conflict) broke out in June 2011 between the [of Sudan](Army)(Sudan People's Armed Forces) and the SPLA over the [Mountains](Nuba)(Nuba Mountains).
On 9 July 2011, South Sudan became the 54th independent country in Africa[South Sudan becomes an independent nation](https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-14089843) , BBC News. (9 July is now celebrated as [Day](Independence)(List of national independence days), a national holiday) and since 14 July 2011, South Sudan is the 193rd member of the [Nations](United)(United Nations). On 27 July 2011, South Sudan became the 54th country to join the [Union](African)(African Union). In September 2011, [Maps](Google)(Google Maps) recognized South Sudan as an independent country, after a massive crowdsourcing mapping initiative was launched.
In 2011 it was reported that South Sudan was at war with at least seven armed groups in 9 of its 10 states, with tens of thousands displaced. The fighters accuse the government of plotting to stay in power indefinitely, not fairly representing and supporting all tribal groups while neglecting development in rural areas. [Kony](Joseph)(Joseph Kony)'s [Resistance Army](Lord's)(Lord's Resistance Army) (LRA) also operates in a wide area that includes South Sudan.
Inter-ethnic warfare in some cases predates the war of independence and is widespread. In December 2011, [clashes](tribal)(Ethnic violence in South Sudan#Murle-Nuer fighting) intensified between the [White Army](Nuer)(Nuer White Army) of the [Lou](Luo peoples) [Nuer](Nuer people) and the [Murle](Murle people). The White Army warned it would wipe out the Murle and would also fight South Sudanese and [forces](UN)(United Nations Mission in South Sudan) sent to the area around [Pibor](Pibor).
In March 2012, South Sudanese forces seized the [Heglig](Heglig) oil fields in lands claimed by both Sudan and South Sudan in the province of [Kordofan](South)(South Kordofan) after [with Sudanese forces](conflict)(2012 South Sudan–Sudan border conflict) in the South Sudanese state of [Unity](Unity (state)). South Sudan withdrew on 20 March, and the Sudanese Army entered Heglig two days later.
### Joining East Africa
South Sudan and [Republic of Congo](Democratic)(Democratic Republic of the Congo) are the newest members of the [African Community](East)(East African Community). South Sudan acceded to the Treaty of the East Africa Community on 15 April 2016 and became a full Member on 15 August 2016.
### Civil War (2013–2020)
On the 5th of September 2013, an article written by analyst Duop Chak Wuol was published by the US-based South Sudan News Agency (SSNA). The writer raised critical questions surrounding what he described as the rise of autocracy within the top leadership of the Sudan People's Liberation Movement (SPLM) and warned of monumental repercussions unless the ruling elites restored the founding principles of the party. Duop also berated the ruling party, arguing that the party has replaced its founding principles with "forgotten promises and deceptions." In December 2013, a political power struggle broke out between President Kiir and his former deputy [Machar](Riek)(Riek Machar), as the president accused Machar and ten others of attempting a [d'état](coup)(2013 South Sudanese coup d'état attempt). Fighting broke out, igniting the [Sudanese Civil War](South)(South Sudanese Civil War). Ugandan troops were deployed to fight alongside South Sudanese government forces against the rebels. The United Nations has peacekeepers in the country as part of the [Nations Mission in South Sudan](United)(United Nations Mission in South Sudan) (UNMISS). Numerous ceasefires were mediated by the Intergovernmental Authority on Development ([IGAD](IGAD)) between the Sudan People's Liberation Movement (SPLM) and [– in opposition](SPLM)(SPLM-IO) and were subsequently broken. A peace agreement was signed in Ethiopia under threat of United Nations sanctions for both sides in August 2015. Machar returned to Juba in 2016 and was appointed vice president. Following a second breakout of violence in Juba, Machar was replaced as vice-president and he fled the country as the conflict erupted again. Rebel in-fighting has become a major part of the conflict. Rivalry among Dinka factions led by the President and Malong Awan has also led to fighting. In August 2018, another power-sharing agreement came into effect.
About 400,000 people are estimated to have been killed in the war, including notable atrocities such as the [Bentiu massacre](2014)(2014 Bentiu massacre). Although both men have supporters from across South Sudan's ethnic divides, subsequent fighting has been communal, with rebels targeting members of Kiir's Dinka ethnic group and government soldiers attacking Nuers. More than 4 million people have been displaced, with about 1.8 million of those internally displaced, and about 2.5 million having fled to neighboring countries, especially Uganda and Sudan.
On 20 February 2020, [Kiir Mayardit](Salva)(Salva Kiir Mayardit) and [Machar](Riek)(Riek Machar) agreed to a peace deal, and on 22 February 2020 formed a [unity government](national)(Cabinet of South Sudan) as Machar was sworn in as the deputy leader of the country.
Despite the official cessation of the civil war, violence between armed militia groups at the community level has continued in the country; according to [Sooka](Yasmin)(Yasmin Sooka), Chair of the Commission of Human Rights in Sudan, the level of violence "far exceeds the violence between 2013 and 2019". UN News|url=https://news.un.org/en/story/2021/02/1085202|access-date=2023-02-03|website=news.un.org|language=en}}
The [democratic elections in South Sudan since the start of the civil war](first)(2024 South Sudanese general election) were scheduled for 2023 by the peace agreement that ended the war officially, but the transitional government and opposition agreed in 2022 to move them to late 2024 instead.
## Government and politics
### Government
[[File:President Barack Obama and First Lady Michelle Obama greet His Excellency Salva Kiir Mayardit, President of the Republic of South Sudan (cropped).jpg|thumb|upright|[Kiir Mayardit](Salva)(Salva Kiir Mayardit), the first President of South Sudan. His trademark [hat](Stetson)(Stetson) was a gift from United States President [W. Bush](George)(George W. Bush).]]
[[Sudan Independence.jpg|thumb|South Sudan's presidential guard on Independence Day, 2011](File:South)]
The now-defunct [Sudan Legislative Assembly](Southern)(Southern Sudan Legislative Assembly) ratified a [constitution](transitional)(Constitution of South Sudan) shortly before independence on 9 July 2011. The constitution was signed by the [of South Sudan](President)(President of South Sudan) on Independence Day and thereby came into force. It is now the supreme law of the land, superseding the Interim Constitution of 2005.
The constitution establishes a [system](presidential)(presidential system) of government headed by a president who is [of state](head)(head of state), [of government](head)(head of government), and commander-in-chief of the armed forces. It also establishes the [Legislature](National)(National Legislature of South Sudan) comprising two houses: a directly elected assembly, the [Legislative Assembly](National)(National Legislative Assembly of South Sudan), and a second chamber of representatives of the states, the [of States](Council)(Council of States of South Sudan).
[Garang](John)(John Garang), one of the founders of the SPLA/M, was the president of the autonomous government until his death on 30 July 2005. [Kiir Mayardit](Salva)(Salva Kiir Mayardit), his deputy, was sworn in as [Vice President of Sudan](First)(List of Vice Presidents of Sudan) and [of the Government of Southern Sudan](President)(List of presidents of South Sudan) on 11 August 2005. [Machar](Riek)(Riek Machar) replaced him as [of the Government](Vice-President)(List of Vice-Presidents of the Government of South Sudan). Legislative power is vested in the government and the bicameral National Legislature. The constitution also provides for an independent judiciary, the highest organ being the [Court](Supreme)(Supreme court).
On 8 May 2021, South Sudan President [Kiir](Salva)(Salva Kiir) announced a dissolution of Parliament as part of a 2018 peace deal to set up a new legislative body that will number 550 lawmakers.
#### National capital project
[[Sudan 003.jpg|thumb|A young South Sudanese girl smiling in traditional attire](File:South)]
The capital of South Sudan is located at [Juba](Juba), which is also the state capital of [Equatoria](Central)(Central Equatoria) and the county seat of the eponymous [County](Juba)(Juba County), and is the country's largest city. However, due to Juba's poor infrastructure and massive urban growth, as well as its lack of centrality within South Sudan, the South Sudanese Government adopted a resolution in February 2011 to study the creation of a new [city](planned)(planned city) to serve as the seat of government. It is planned that the capital city will be changed to the more centrally located [Ramciel](Ramciel). This proposal is functionally similar to construction projects in [Abuja](Abuja), Nigeria; [Brasília](Brasília), Brazil; and [Canberra](Canberra), Australia; among other modern-era planned national capitals. It is unclear how the government will fund the project.
In September 2011, a spokesman for the government said the country's political leaders had accepted a proposal to build a new capital at Ramciel, a place in [Lakes](Lakes (state)) state near the borders with Central Equatoria and [Jonglei](Jonglei). Ramciel is considered to be the geographical center of the country, and the late pro-independence leader [Garang](John)(John Garang) allegedly had plans to relocate the capital there before his death in 2005. The proposal was supported by the Lakes state government and at least one Ramciel tribal chief. The design, planning, and construction of the city will likely take as many as five years, government ministers said, and the move of national institutions to the new capital will be implemented in stages.
### States
#### 2011–2015
Prior to 2015, South Sudan was divided into 10 states, which also correspond to three historical regions: [el Ghazal](Bahr)(Bahr el Ghazal (region of South Sudan)), [Equatoria](Equatoria), and [Upper Nile](Greater)(Greater Upper Nile):
;[el Ghazal](Bahr)(Bahr el Ghazal (region of South Sudan))
*[Bahr el Ghazal](Northern)(Northern Bahr el Ghazal)
*[Bahr el Ghazal](Western)(Western Bahr el Ghazal)
*[Lakes](Lakes (state))
*[Warrap](Warrap (state))
;[Equatoria](Equatoria)
*[Equatoria](Western)(Western Equatoria)
*[Equatoria](Central)(Central Equatoria) (containing the national capital city of [Juba](Juba))
*[Equatoria](Eastern)(Eastern Equatoria)
;[Upper Nile](Greater)(Greater Upper Nile)
*[Jonglei](Jonglei)
*[Unity](Unity (state))
*[Nile](Upper)(Upper Nile (state))
The [Abyei](Abyei) Area, a small region of Sudan bordering on the South Sudanese states of Northern Bahr el Ghazal, Warrap, and Unity, was given special administrative status as a result of the [Peace Agreement](Comprehensive)(Comprehensive Peace Agreement) signed in 2005. Following the independence of South Sudan in 2011, Abyei is considered to be simultaneously part of both the [of Sudan](Republic)(Republic of Sudan) and the Republic of South Sudan, effectively a [condominium](condominium (international law)). It was due to hold a [referendum](Abyei status referendum, 2011) in 2011 on whether to join South Sudan or remain part of the Republic of Sudan, but in May 2011, the Sudanese military seized Abyei, and it is not clear if the referendum will be held.
#### 2015–2020
[[Sudan-32 States.png|thumb|upright=1.9|The 32 states of South Sudan, after the addition of 4 more states in 2017](File:South)]
In October 2015, South Sudan's President Salva Kiir issued a decree establishing 28 states in place of the 10 constitutionally established states. The decree established the new states largely along ethnic lines. A number of opposition parties and civil society challenged the constitutionality of this decree and Kiir later resolved to take it to parliament for approval as a constitutional amendment. In November the South Sudanese parliament empowered President Kiir to create new states.
;Bar el Ghazal
#[Aweil](Aweil State)
#[East](Aweil)(Aweil East)
#[Lakes](Eastern)(Eastern Lakes State)
#[Gogrial](Gogrial State)
#[Gok](Gok State)
#[Lol](Lol State)
#[Tonj](Tonj State)
#[Twic](Twic)
#[Wau](Wau State)
#[Lakes](Western)(Western Lakes State)
;Equatoria
#[Amadi](Amadi State)
#[Gbudwe](Gbudwe State)
#[Torit](Torit)
#[Jubek](Jubek State) (containing the national capital city of [Juba](Juba))
#[Maridi](Maridi State)
#[Kapoeta](Kapoeta State)
#[Tambura](Tambura State)
#[Terekeka](Terekeka State)
#[River](Yei)(Yei River State)
;Greater Upper Nile
#[Boma](Boma State)
#[Upper Nile](Central)(Central Upper Nile State)
#[Akobo](Akobo State)
#[Upper Nile](Northern)(Northern Upper Nile State)
#[State](Jonglei)(Jonglei)
#[Latjoor](Latjoor)
#[Maiwut](Maiwut State)
#[Liech](Northern)(Northern Liech)
#[Ruweng](Ruweng State)
#[Liech](Southern)(Southern Liech)
#[Bieh](Bieh State)
#[State](Fashoda)(Fashoda State)
#[State](Fangak)(Fangak State)
On 14 January 2017 another four states were created; Central Upper Nile, Northern Upper Nile, Tumbura and Maiwut.
#### 2020–present
Under the terms of a peace agreement signed on 22 February 2020, South Sudan is divided into 10 states, two administrative areas and one area with special administrative status.
The [Kingi](Kafia)(Kafia Kingi) area is disputed between South Sudan and Sudan and the [Triangle](Ilemi)(Ilemi Triangle) is disputed between South Sudan and Kenya.
The states and administrative areas are once again grouped into the three former historical provinces of the Sudan; [el Ghazal](Bahr)(Bahr el Ghazal (region of South Sudan)), [Equatoria](Equatoria) and [Upper Nile](Greater)(Greater Upper Nile):
;[el Ghazal](Bahr)(Bahr el Ghazal (region of South Sudan))
*[Bahr el Ghazal](Northern)(Northern Bahr el Ghazal)
*[Bahr el Ghazal](Western)(Western Bahr el Ghazal)
*[Lakes](Lakes (state))
*[Warrap](Warrap (state))
;[Equatoria](Equatoria)
*[Equatoria](Western)(Western Equatoria)
*[Equatoria](Central)(Central Equatoria) (containing the national capital city of [Juba](Juba))
*[Equatoria](Eastern)(Eastern Equatoria)
;[Upper Nile](Greater)(Greater Upper Nile)
*[Jonglei](Jonglei)
*[Unity](Unity (state))
*[Nile](Upper)(Upper Nile (state))
;Administrative Areas
*[Pibor Administrative Area](Greater)(Greater Pibor Administrative Area)
*[Administrative Area](Ruweng)(Ruweng Administrative Area)
;Special Administrative Status Areas
*[Special Administrative Area](Abyei)(Abyei)
### Military
A Defense paper was initiated in 2007 by then Minister for SPLA Affairs [Dim Deng](Dominic)(Dominic Dim Deng), and a draft was produced in 2008. It declared that Southern Sudan would eventually maintain land, air, and riverine forces.
, South Sudan has the third highest military spending as a percentage of GDP in the world, behind only Oman and Saudi Arabia.
### Media
While former Information Minister [Marial Benjamin](Barnaba)(Barnaba Marial Benjamin) vowed that South Sudan will respect [of the press](freedom)(freedom of the press) and allow journalists unrestricted access in the country, the chief editor of [Juba](Juba) newspaper *[Citizen](The)(The Citizen (South Sudan))* claimed that in the absence of a formal media law in the fledgling republic, he and his staff have faced abuse at the hands of security forces. This alleged fettering of media freedom was attributed in an [Jazeera](Al)(Al Jazeera) report to the difficulty [SPLM](SPLM) has faced in reforming itself as a legitimate government after years of leading a rebellion against the Sudanese government. *The Citizen* is South Sudan's largest newspaper, but poor infrastructure and poverty have kept its staff relatively small and limited the efficiency of both its reporting and its circulation outside of Juba, with no dedicated news bureaus in outlying states and newspapers often taking several days to reach states like [Bahr el Ghazal](Northern)(Northern Bahr el Ghazal). In May 2020, *South Sudan Friendship Press* was established as the country's first dedicated online news website.
#### Censorship
On 1 November 2011, South Sudan's National Security Services (NSS) arrested the editor of a private Juba-based daily, *Destiny*, and suspended its activities indefinitely. This was in response to an opinion article by columnist Dengdit Ayok, entitled "Let Me Say So", which criticized the president for allowing his daughter to marry an Ethiopian national, and accused him of "staining his patriotism". An official letter accused the newspaper of breaking "the media code of conduct and professional ethics", and of publishing "illicit news" that was defamatory, inciting, and invading the privacy of personalities. The [to Protect Journalists](Committee)(Committee to Protect Journalists) had voiced concerns over media freedoms in South Sudan in September. The NSS released the journalists without charge after having held them for 18 days.
In 2015, Salva Kiir threatened to kill journalists who reported "against the country". Work conditions have become terrible for journalists, and many have left the country, such as documentarian Ochan Hannington. In August 2015, after journalist Peter Moi was killed in a targeted attack, being the seventh journalist killed during the year, South Sudanese journalists held a 24-hour news blackout.
In August 2017, a 26-year-old American journalist, Christopher Allen, was killed in [Kaya](Kaya, South Sudan), [River State](Yei)(Yei River State), during fighting between government and opposition forces. Christopher Allen was a freelance journalist who had worked for several U.S. news outlets. He had been reportedly embedded with the opposition forces in South Sudan for a week before he was killed. The same month, President Salva Kiir said the millions of civilians fleeing South Sudan were being driven by the propaganda from social media users conspiring against his government. Just a month prior in July 2017, access to major news websites and popular blogs including [Tribune](Sudan)(Sudan Tribune) and [Radio Tamazuj](https://radiotamazuj.org/en) had been blocked by the government without formal notice. In June 2020, access to [Post](Sudans)(Sudans Post), a local news website, was blocked by the government following the publication of an article deemed defamatory by the NSS. Two months later, Qurium Media Foundation, a Swedish non-profit organization, announced that it has deployed a mirror for the website to circumvent the government blocking.
### Foreign relations
[[File:Secretary Kerry Meets With South Sudan President Kiir (3).jpg|thumb|U.S. Secretary of State [Kerry](John)(John Kerry) meets with President Salva Kiir, 26 May 2013.]]
Since independence, relations with Sudan have been changing. Sudan's President [al-Bashir](Omar)(Omar al-Bashir) first announced, in January 2011, that dual citizenship in the North and the South would be allowed, but upon the independence of South Sudan he retracted the offer. He has also suggested an EU-style confederation. [Sharaf](Essam)(Essam Sharaf), Prime Minister of Egypt after the [Egyptian Revolution](2011)(Egyptian revolution of 2011), made his first foreign visit to [Khartoum](Khartoum) and [Juba](Juba) in the lead-up to South Sudan's secession. Israel quickly recognized South Sudan as an independent country, and is host to thousands of [from South Sudan](refugees)(Sudanese refugees in Israel), who now face deportation to their native country. According to American sources, President Obama officially recognised the new state after [Sudan](Sudan), Egypt, Germany and Kenya were among the first to recognise the country's independence on 8 July 2011.D. H. Johnson, ''The Root Causes of Sudan's Civil Wars'' Several states that participated in the international negotiations concluded with a self-determination referendum were also quick to acknowledge the overwhelming result. The Rationalist process included Kenya, Uganda, Egypt, Ethiopia, Libya, Eritrea, the United Kingdom and Norway.
South Sudan is a member state of the United Nations, the [Union](African)(African Union), and the [Market for Eastern and Southern Africa](Common)(Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa).{{cite news|url=http://www.menafn.com/qn_news_story.asp?storyid={62d78860-a792-475c-bff9-0722d5d61d3e}|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120403034148/http://www.menafn.com/qn_news_story.asp?storyid=%7B62d78860-a792-475c-bff9-0722d5d61d3e%7D|archive-date=3 April 2012|agency=MENAFN.com|title=COMESA Welcomes New Member|date=31 October 2011|access-date=13 November 2011|url-status=dead}} South Sudan plans to join the [of Nations](Commonwealth)(Commonwealth of Nations), the [African Community](East)(East African Community), the [Monetary Fund](International)(International Monetary Fund), [OPEC+](OPEC Plus), and the [Bank](World)(World Bank). Some international trade organizations categorize South Sudan as part of the [Horn of Africa](Greater)(Greater Horn of Africa).Maxwell, Daniel, and Ben Watkins. "Humanitarian information systems and emergencies in the Greater Horn of Africa: logical components and logical linkages." Disasters 27.1 (2003): 72–90.
Full membership in the [League](Arab)(Arab League) has been assured, should the country's government choose to seek it, though it could also opt for observer status. It was admitted to UNESCO on 3 November 2011. On 25 November 2011, it officially joined the [Authority on Development](Intergovernmental)(Intergovernmental Authority on Development), a regional grouping of [Africa](East)(East Africa)n states.
The United States supported the 2011 referendum on South Sudan's independence. The *New York Times* reported that "South Sudan is in many ways an American creation, carved out of war-torn Sudan in a referendum largely orchestrated by the United States, its fragile institutions nurtured with billions of dollars in American aid." The U.S. government's long-standing sanctions against Sudan were officially removed from applicability to newly independent South Sudan in December 2011, and senior RSS officials participated in a high-level international engagement conference in Washington, D.C., to help connect foreign investors with the RSS and South Sudanese private sector representatives. Given the interdependence between some sectors of the economy of the Republic of South Sudan and the Republic of Sudan, certain activities still require OFAC authorization. Absent a license, current Sudanese sanction regulations will continue to prohibit U.S. persons from dealing in property and interests that benefit Sudan or the Government of Sudan. A 2011 Congressional Research Service report, "The Republic of South Sudan: Opportunities and Challenges for Africa's Newest Country", identifies outstanding political and humanitarian issues as the country forges its future.
In July 2019, UN ambassadors of 37 countries, including South Sudan, have signed a joint letter to the [UNHRC](UNHRC) defending China's treatment of [Uyghurs](Uyghurs) in the [Xinjiang](Xinjiang) region.
### Human rights
Campaigns of atrocities against civilians have been attributed to the SPLA. In the SPLA/M's attempt to disarm rebellions among the [Shilluk](Shilluk people) and [Murle](Murle people), they burned scores of villages, [rape](rape)d hundreds of women and girls and killed an untold number of civilians. Civilians alleging [torture](torture) claim fingernails being torn out, burning plastic bags dripped on children to make their parents hand over weapons, and villagers burned alive in their huts if it was suspected that rebels had spent the night there. In May 2011, the SPLA allegedly set fire to over 7,000 homes in [State](Unity)(Unity State).
The UN reports many of these violations and the frustrated director of one Juba-based international aid agency calls them "human rights abuses off the [scale](Richter)(Richter scale)". In 2010, the [CIA](CIA) issued a warning that "over the next five years,...a new mass killing or [genocide](genocide) is most likely to occur in southern Sudan." The [White Army](Nuer)(Nuer White Army) has stated it wished to "[out](wipe)(genocide) the entire [Murle](Murle people) tribe on the face of the earth as the only solution to guarantee long-term security of Nuer's cattle" and activists, including [Rights Group International](Minority)(Minority Rights Group International), warned of genocide in [Jonglei](Jonglei). At the beginning of 2017, genocide was imminent again.
Peter Abdul Rahaman Sule, the leader of the key opposition group [Democratic Forum](United)(United Democratic Front (Sudan)), has been under arrest since 3 November 2011 over allegations linking him to the formation of a new rebel group fighting against the government.
The [marriage](child)(child marriage) rate in South Sudan is 52%. [acts](Homosexual)(LGBT rights in South Sudan) are illegal.
Recruitment of [soldier](child)(child soldier)s has also been cited as a serious problem in the country. In April 2014, [Pillay](Navi)(Navi Pillay), then the [High Commissioner for Human Rights](UN)(UN High Commissioner for Human Rights), stated that more than 9,000 [soldiers](child)(child soldiers) had been fighting in South Sudan's [war](civil)(civil war).
The United Nations rights office has described the situation in the country as "one of the most horrendous [rights](human)(human rights) situations in the world". It accused the army and allied militias of allowing fighters to rape women as form of payment for fighting, as well as raid cattle in an agreement of "do what you can, take what you can." [International](Amnesty)(Amnesty International) claimed the army suffocated more than 60 people accused of supporting the opposition to death in a shipping container.
On 22 December 2017, at the conclusion of a 12-day visit to the region, the Commission on Human Rights in South Sudan said, "Four years following the start of the current conflict in South Sudan, gross human rights violations continue to be committed in a widespread way by all parties to the conflict, in which civilians are bearing the brunt." The Commission on Human Rights in South Sudan was established by the Human Rights Council in March 2016.
## Geography
[[Sudan protected areas.svg|thumb|upright=1.3|Protected areas in South Sudan](File:South)]
South Sudan lies between latitudes [3°](3rd parallel north) and [13°N](13th parallel north), and longitudes [24°](24th meridian east) and [36°E](36th meridian east). It is covered in tropical forest, swamps, and grassland. The [Nile](White)(White Nile) passes through the country, passing by Juba.
South Sudan's protected area of [National Park](Bandingilo)(Bandingilo National Park) hosts the second-largest [wildlife](wildlife) migration in the world. Surveys have revealed that [National Park](Boma)(Boma National Park), west of the Ethiopian border, as well as the [Sudd](Sudd) wetland and [National Park](Southern)(Southern National Park) near the border with Congo, provided habitat for large populations of [hartebeest](hartebeest), [kob](kob), [topi](topi), [buffalo](African buffalo), elephants, giraffes, and lions.
South Sudan's forest reserves also provided habitat for [bongo](Bongo (antelope)), [forest hog](giant)(giant forest hog)s, [river hog](red)(red river hog)s, forest elephants, [chimpanzees](Common chimpanzee), and forest [monkeys](monkeys). Surveys begun in 2005 by [WCS](Wildlife Conservation Society) in partnership with the semi-autonomous government of Southern Sudan revealed that significant, though diminished wildlife populations still exist, and that, astonishingly, the huge migration of 1.3 million antelopes in the southeast is substantially intact.
Habitats in the country include grasslands, high-altitude plateaus and escarpments, wooded and grassy savannas, floodplains, and wetlands. Associated wildlife species include the endemic white-eared kob and [Lechwe](Nile)(Nile Lechwe), as well as elephants, giraffes, [eland](common)(common eland), [eland](giant)(giant eland), [oryx](oryx), lions, [wild dogs](African)(Lycaon pictus), cape buffalo, and topi (locally called tiang). Little is known about the white-eared kob and tiang, both types of [antelope](antelope), whose magnificent migrations were legendary before the civil war. The Boma-Jonglei Landscape region encompasses Boma National Park, broad pasturelands and floodplains, Bandingilo National Park, and the Sudd, a vast area of swamp and seasonally flooded grasslands that includes the Zeraf Wildlife Reserve.
Little is known of the fungi of South Sudan. A list of fungi in Sudan was prepared by S. A. J. Tarr and published by the then [Mycological Institute](Commonwealth)(Commonwealth Mycological Institute) (Kew, Surrey, UK) in 1955. The list, of 383 species in 175 genera, included all fungi observed within the then boundaries of the country. Many of those records relate to what is now South Sudan. Most of the species recorded were associated with diseases of crops. The true number of species of fungi in South Sudan is probably much higher.
In 2006, President Kiir announced that his government would do everything possible to protect and propagate South Sudanese fauna and flora, and seek to reduce the effects of wildfires, waste dumping, and water pollution. The environment is threatened by the development of the economy and infrastructure. The country had a 2019 [Landscape Integrity Index](Forest)(Forest Landscape Integrity Index) mean score of 9.45/10, ranking it fourth globally out of 172 countries.
Several [ecoregion](ecoregion)s extend across South Sudan: the [Sudanian savanna](East)(East Sudanian savanna), [Congolian forest–savanna mosaic](Northern)(Northern Congolian forest–savanna mosaic), [flooded grasslands](Saharan)(Saharan flooded grasslands) (Sudd), [Acacia savanna](Sahelian)(Sahelian Acacia savanna), [African montane forests](East)(East African montane forests), and the [Acacia–Commiphora bushlands and thickets](Northern)(Northern Acacia–Commiphora bushlands and thickets).
### Climate
[[Map SSD present.svg|thumb|upright=1.35|South Sudan map of Köppen climate classification](File:Koppen-Geiger)]
South Sudan has a tropical climate, characterized by a rainy season of high humidity and large amounts of rainfall followed by a drier season. The temperature on average is always high with July being the coolest month with average temperatures falling between and March being the warmest month with average temperatures ranging from .
The most rainfall is seen between May and October, but the rainy season can commence in April and extend until November. On average May is the wettest month. The season is "influenced by the annual shift of the Inter-Tropical Zone" and the shift to southerly and southwesterly winds leading to slightly lower temperatures, higher humidity, and more cloud coverage.
## Demographics
[[Garang Mausoleum Square in Juba.JPG|thumb|John Garang Square in Juba](File:John)]
South Sudan has a population of approximately |R}}/1e6 round 0}} million and a predominantly rural, subsistence economy. This region has been negatively affected by war for all but 10 of the years since 1956, resulting in serious neglect, lack of [infrastructure](infrastructure) development, and major destruction and displacement. More than 2 million people have died, and more than 4 million are [displaced person](internally)(internally displaced person)s or became [refugee](refugee)s as a result of the civil war and its impact.
[[in Yambio, Western Equatoria, South Sudan (28 05 2009).jpg|thumb|Children in Yambio, Western Equatoria, South Sudan](File:Children)]
[[File:USAID-funded Southern Sudan Interactive Radio Instruction project.jpg|thumb|Rural school children participating in the [USAID](USAID)-funded Southern Sudan Interactive Radio Instruction project, July 2010]]
### Ethnic groups
The major [group](ethnic)(ethnic group)s present in South Sudan are the [Dinka](Dinka people) at approximately 40 percent of the population, the [Nuer](Nuer people) at approximately 20 percent, and the [Azande](Azande) at approximately 10 percent, as well as the [Shilluk](Shilluk people) and [Bari](Bari people). Currently, around 800,000 expatriates from the [of Africa](Horn)(Horn of Africa) are living in South Sudan.
### Education
Unlike the previous educational system of the regional Southern Sudan—which was modeled after the system used in the Republic of Sudan since 1990—the current educational system of the Republic of South Sudan follows the system (similar to Kenya). Primary education consists of eight years, followed by four years of [education](secondary)(secondary education), and then four years of university instruction.
The primary language at all levels is English, as compared to the Republic of Sudan, where the [of instruction](language)(language of instruction) is [Arabic](Modern Standard Arabic). In 2007, South Sudan adopted English as the [language](official)(official language) of communication. There is a severe shortage of English teachers and English-speaking teachers in the scientific and technical fields.
On 1 October 2019, The South Sudan Library Foundation opened South Sudan's first public library, the Juba Public Peace Library in Gudele 2. The library currently employs a staff of over 40 volunteers and maintains a collection of over 13,000 books. The South Sudan Library Foundation was co-founded by Yawusa Kintha and Kevin Lenahan.
### Languages
The official language of South Sudan is English. All indigenous languages spoken in South Sudan are national languages of which [Dinka](Dinka language), [Nuer](Nuer language), [Murle](Murle language), [Luo](Luo languages), [Ma'di](Ma'di language), [Otuho](Otuho language), and [Zande](Zande language) are the most widely spoken.
It has been proposed that [Swahili](Swahili language) be made a second official language, and it has been added to the curriculum to be taught at schools in South Sudan since they are part of the [African Community](East)(East African Community).
There are over 60 [language](indigenous)(indigenous language)s, most classified under the [Language family](Nilo-Saharan)(Nilo-Saharan languages); collectively, they represent two of the first-order divisions of [Sudanic](Nile)(Nilotic languages) and [Sudanic](Central)(Central Sudanic languages).
#### Constitution updates
The interim constitution of 2005 declared in Part 1, Chapter 1, No. 6 (1) that "[a]ll indigenous languages of Southern Sudan are [language](national)(national language)s and shall be respected, developed and promoted." In Part 1, Chapter 1, No. 6 (2), it was stated that "English and [Arabic](Arabic) shall be the official working languages at the level of the governments of Southern Sudan and the States as well as languages of instruction for higher education."[*The Interim Constitution of Southern Sudan*, 2005](http://www.chr.up.ac.za/undp/domestic/docs/c_SouthernSudan.pdf) (PDF; 484 kB), Part One, Page. 3–4, No. 6 (1), (2), retrieved 6 May 2017
The government of the new independent state later removed Arabic as an official language and chose English as the sole official language.
The new transitional constitution of the Republic of South Sudan of 2011 declares in Part 1, Chapter 1, No. 6 (1) that "[a]ll indigenous languages of South Sudan are national languages and shall be respected, developed and promoted." In Part 1, Chapter 1, No. 6 (2), it is defined that "English shall be the official working language in the Republic of South Sudan, as well as the language of instruction at all levels of education." Part One, Page 3, No. 6 (1), (2), retrieved 6 May 2017
On 6 July 2017, South Sudan stated that it might adopt Swahili as an additional official language due to its seeking [Tanzania](Tanzania)'s help to send Swahili teachers to the country as it introduces the language in school curriculum ahead of its possible adoption as an official language.
#### Some areas
In the border region between [Bahr el Ghazal](Western)(Western Bahr el Ghazal) [state](States of South Sudan) and Sudan are an indeterminate number of people from [Africa](West)(West Africa)n countries who settled here on their way back from [Mecca](Mecca) – who have assumed a traditionally [nomadic](nomadic) life – that resides either seasonally or permanently. They primarily speak [languages](Chadian)(Chadic languages) and their traditional territories are in the southern portions of the Sudanese regions of Northern [Kurdufan](Kurdufan) and [Darfur](Darfur).
In the capital, Juba, there are several thousand people who use non-classical Arabic, usually a pidgin called [Arabic](Juba)(Juba Arabic), but South Sudan's ambassador to [Kenya](Kenya) said on 2 August 2011 that [Swahili](Swahili language) will be introduced in South Sudan with the goal of supplanting Arabic as a *[franca](lingua)(lingua franca)*, in keeping with the country's intention of orientation toward the [African Community](East)(East African Community) rather than Sudan and the [League](Arab)(Arab League). Nevertheless, South Sudan submitted an application to join the Arab League as a [state](member)(Member states of the Arab League) on 25 March 2014, which is still pending.[East Monitor](Middle)(Middle East Monitor): [*South Sudan and Chad apply to join the Arab League*](https://www.middleeastmonitor.com/20140412-south-sudan-and-chad-apply-to-join-the-arab-league) , 12 April 2014, retrieved 3 May 2017 In an interview with the newspaper [Al-Awsat](Asharq)(Asharq Al-Awsat), the Foreign Minister of South Sudan [Alor Kuol](Deng)(Deng Alor Kuol) said: South Sudan is the closest African country to the [world](Arab)(Arab world), and we speak a special kind of Arabic known as Juba Arabic.[Al-Awsat](Asharq)(Asharq Al-Awsat): [*Foreign Minister of South Sudan: We Are Considering Joining the Arab League*](http://english.aawsat.com/ahmedyounis/interviews/foreign-minister-south-sudan-considering-joining-arab-league) , 7 June 2016, retrieved 3 May 2017 Sudan supports South Sudan's request to join the Arab League.[Tribune](Sudan)(Sudan Tribune): [*Khartoum supports South Sudan demand to join Arab League*](http://www.sudantribune.com/spip.php?article59689) , 21 July 2016, retrieved 3 May 2017 Juba Arabic is a [franca](lingua)(lingua franca) in South Sudan.[''The impact of language policy and practice on children's learning: Evidence from Eastern and Southern Africa 2016''](https://www.unicef.org/esaro/UNICEF(2016)LanguageandLearning-SouthSudan-CaseStudy.pdf) (PDF; 672 kB), Page. 1, retrieved 20 May 2017
### Population
#### 2008 census
[[Sudan 034.jpg|thumb|upright|Woman in South Sudan](File:South)]
[[in South Sudan.jpg|thumb|A village in South Sudan](File:Village)]
The "Fifth Population and Housing Census of Sudan", for Sudan as a whole, was conducted in April 2008. The census counted the Southern Sudan population at 8.26 million; However, Southern Sudanese officials rejected the census results of Southern Sudan because "the central bureau of statistics in [Khartoum](Khartoum) refused to share the national Sudan raw census data with the southern Sudan centre for census, statistics and evaluation."
In addition, President Kiir "suspected figures were being deflated in some regions and inflated in others, and that made the final tally 'unacceptable'." He claimed that the Southern Sudanese population actually constituted one-third of that of Sudan, though the census showed it to be only 22%.
Many southern Sudanese were also said to have been uncounted "due to bad weather, poor communication and transport networks, and some areas were unreachable, while many southern Sudanese remained in exile in neighbouring countries, leading to 'unacceptable results', according [to] southern Sudanese authorities." The chief American technical adviser for the census in the south said that the census-takers probably reached only 89% of the population.
#### 2009 census
In 2009, Sudan initiated a Southern Sudanese census ahead of the [independence referendum](2011)(2011 South Sudanese independence referendum), which would also include the [Sudanese diaspora](South)(South Sudanese diaspora); however, this initiative was criticised for leaving out countries with a high share of the South Sudanese diaspora, rather counting countries where the diaspora share was low.
### Largest cities
### Religion
[[File:Yirol Church.jpg|thumb|[Cross Cathedral](Holy)(Catholic Church in South Sudan) in [State](Lakes)(Lakes State).]]
Religions followed by the [Sudanese](South)(South Sudanese) include traditional [religion](indigenous)(indigenous religion)s, [Christianity](Christianity) and [Islam](Islam). The last [census](census) to mention the religion of southerners dates back to 1956 where a majority were classified as following traditional beliefs or were [Christian](Christians) while 18% were [Muslim](Muslim). Scholarly and some [Department of State](U.S.)(United States Department of State) sources state that a majority of southern Sudanese maintain traditional indigenous (sometimes referred to as [animist](Animism)) beliefs with those following Christianity in a minority. However, according to the U.S. State Department's [Religious Freedom Report](International)(International Religious Freedom Report) of 2012 the majority of the population adhere to Christianity, while reliable statistics on animist and Muslim belief are not available.
The [Research Division](Federal)(Federal Research Division) of the US [of Congress](Library)(Library of Congress) states that "in the early 1990s possibly no more than 10% of southern Sudan's population was Christian". In the early 1990s, official records of Sudan claimed that the population of what was then included as South Sudan, 25% of people followed traditional religions and 5% were Christians. However, some news reports claim a Christian majority.
According to the *[Christian Encyclopedia](World)(World Christian Encyclopedia)*, the [Church](Catholic)(Catholic Church) is the largest single Christian body in Sudan since 1995, with 2.7 million Catholics mainly concentrated in South Sudan. The [Episcopal Church](US)(Episcopal Church (United States)) claims the existence of large numbers of [adherents](Anglican)(Anglican Communion) from the [Church of the Sudan](Episcopal)(Episcopal Church of the Sudan) with 2 million members in 2005. The [Church in Sudan](Presbyterian)(Presbyterian Church in Sudan) is the third largest denomination in South Sudan. It has about one million members in 500 congregations in 2012.
A 18 December 2012 report on religion and public life by the [Research Center](Pew)(Pew Research Center) states that in 2010, 60.5% of South Sudan's population was Christian, 32.9% were followers of traditional African religion and 6.2% were Muslim. Some publishers described the conflicts prior to partition as a Muslim-Christian war, but others reject this notion, claiming Muslim and Christian sides sometimes overlapped.
Speaking at [Theresa Cathedral](St)(St. Theresa Cathedral, Juba) in [Juba](Juba), [Sudanese](South)(South Sudanese) [President](President of South Sudan) [Kiir](Salva Kiir Mayardit), a Roman Catholic, said that South Sudan would be a nation that respects [of religion](freedom)(freedom of religion). Amongst Christians, most are [Catholic](Catholic) or [Anglican](Anglican Church), though other denominations are also active, and [animist](Animism) beliefs are often [blended](Religious syncretism) with [Christian](Christian) beliefs.
In 2022 the new Catholic bishop of [Rumbek](Rumbek), [Carlassare](Christian)(Christian Carlassare), stated that "More than half the population of South Sudan is Christian, only 8% are Muslim. Other groups live on the margins, and have not drawn close to the Gospel. However, we live in a country where Christianity is often no more than skin deep, it hasn't grown roots in the life of the population".
### Diaspora
The South Sudanese diaspora consists of citizens of South Sudan residing abroad. The number of South Sudanese outside South Sudan has sharply increased since the beginning of the struggle for independence from the [Sudan](Sudan). Almost one and a half million South Sudanese have left the country as refugees, either permanently or as temporary workforce, leading to the establishment of the South Sudanese diaspora population.
The largest communities of the South Sudanese diaspora are located in North America, Western Europe, and Oceania are in the United States, Canada, United Kingdom, Australia, and small communities exist in France, Italy, Germany, Sweden, and New Zealand.
Activist [Jok Mach](Achol)(Achol Jok Mach) has spoken out about growing up and growing up in a diaspora community and the effect on her identity, saying: "I was only ever told, "You are South Sudanese"... It was only much later that I learned I was [Dinka](Dinka people)."
## Culture
[[File:South Sudan 012.jpg|thumb|[Scarified](Scarification) tribeswoman, South Sudan, 2011]]
Due to the many years of civil war, South Sudan's culture is heavily influenced by its neighbours. Many South Sudanese fled to Ethiopia, Kenya and Uganda where they interacted with the nationals and learned their languages and culture. Most of those who remained in Sudan until or after independence partially assimilated to Sudanese culture and speak [Arabic](Juba)(Juba Arabic) or [Arabic](Sudanese)(Sudanese Arabic).
Most South Sudanese value knowing one's tribal origin, its traditional culture and [dialect](dialect) even while in exile and [diaspora](diaspora). Although the common languages spoken are Juba Arabic and English, [Swahili](Swahili language) might be introduced to the population to improve the country's relations with its [Africa](East)(East Africa)n neighbours.
### Music
Many music artists from South Sudan use English, Swahili, Juba Arabic, their African language or a mix of all. Popular artists like Barbz, [Angelosi](Yaba)(Yaba Angelosi), De Peace Child sing [Afro-beat](Afro-beat), [R&B](R&B), and [Zouk](Zouk (musical movement)); [Dynamq](Dynamq) is popular for his [reggae](reggae) releases; and Emmanuel Kembe who sings [folk](Folk music), reggae and Afro-beat. Also hip hop artists like [Jal](Emmanuel)(Emmanuel Jal), FTG Metro, Flizzame and Dugga Mulla (of FMG). Emmanuel being one of the South Sudaneses music artist's who have broken through on an international level with his unique form of [hop](hip)(Hip hop music) and a positive message in his lyrics. Jal, a former [soldier](child)(child soldier) turned musician, received good airplay and album reviews in the UK and has also been sought out for the lecture circuit with major talks at popular talkfests like [TED](TED (conference)).
### Games and sports
[[File:Luol Deng Wizards.jpg|right|thumb|South Sudanese-born basketball player [Deng](Luol)(Luol Deng)]]
Many traditional and modern games and sports are popular in South Sudan, particularly wrestling and mock battles. The traditional sports were mainly played after the harvest seasons to celebrate the harvests and finish the farming seasons. During the matches, they smeared themselves with [ochre](ochre) – perhaps to enhance the grip or heighten their perception. The matches attracted large numbers of spectators who sang, played drums and danced in support of their favourite wrestlers. Though these were perceived as competition, they were primarily for entertainment.
[football](Association)(Association football) is also becoming popular in South Sudan, and there are many initiatives by the Government of South Sudan and other partners to promote the sport and improve the level of play. One of these initiatives is South Sudan Youth Sports Association (SSYSA). SSYSA is already holding football clinics in Konyokonyo and Muniki areas of Juba in which young boys are coached. In recognition of these efforts with youth football, the country recently hosted the [CECAFA](Council for East and Central Africa Football Associations) youth football competitions. Barely a month earlier, it had also hosted the larger East African Schools Sports tournaments.
The [Sudan national association football team](South)(South Sudan national football team) joined the [of African Football](Confederation)(Confederation of African Football) in February 2012 and became a full [FIFA](FIFA) member in May 2012. The team played its first match against [FC](Tusker)(Tusker FC) of the [Premier League](Kenyan)(Kenyan Premier League) on 10 July 2011 in Juba as part of independence celebrations, scoring early but losing 1–3 to the more experienced team. Famous South Sudanese footballers are [Chol](Machop)(Machop Chol), [Moga](James)(James Moga), [Justin](Richard)(Richard Justin), [Thomas](Athir)(Athir Thomas), [Genaro Awad](Goma)(Goma Genaro Awad), [Leyano](Khamis)(Khamis Leyano), [Martin](Khamis)(Khamis Martin), William Afani Clicks and [Gulwak](Roy)(Roy Gulwak).
The South Sudanese can boast links to top basketball players. [Deng](Luol)(Luol Deng) was a [Basketball Association](National)(National Basketball Association) star in the United States; at the international level, he represented [Britain](Great)(Great Britain national basketball team). Other leading international basketball players from South Sudan include [Bol](Manute)(Manute Bol), [Duany](Kueth)(Kueth Duany), [Gai](Deng)(Deng Gai), [Majok](Ater)(Ater Majok), [Gabriel](Wenyen)(Wenyen Gabriel), and [Maker](Thon)(Thon Maker). The [Sudan national basketball team](South)(South Sudan national basketball team) played its first match against the [national basketball team](Uganda)(Uganda national basketball team) on 10 July 2011 in Juba.
One athlete from South Sudan, [Marial](Guor)(Guor Marial), competed in the [Summer Olympics](2012)(2012 Summer Olympics). Due to South Sudan not as yet possessing an official Olympics organization, and Marial not yet possessing American citizenship, he, along with three athletes from the former [Antilles](Netherlands)(Netherlands Antilles), competed under the banner of [Olympic Athletes](Independent)(Independent Olympic Athletes at the 2012 Summer Olympics).
On 2 August at the 128th IOC Session, South Sudan was granted full recognition of its [Olympic Committee](National)(South Sudan National Olympic Committee). [Sudan competed at the 2016 Summer Olympics](South)(South Sudan at the 2016 Summer Olympics) with three athletes in track and field. No medals were won during this Olympics.
[Esports](Esports) is a new sport that has caught attention of the youth in the country, Makuer Matur Makuer is one of south Sudan's best esports player who has become a champion in both [Kenya](Kenya) and in South Sudan. The citizens of South Sudan hope that this new sport will be able to give the new generation of children a direction and a hope of a good future ahead.
## Economy
[[Sudan Product Exports (2019).svg|thumb|right|A proportional representation of South Sudan exports, 2019](File:South)]
[[File:Loka west teak.jpg|thumb|right|Loka Teaks is the largest [teak](teak) [plantation](plantation) in Africa.]]
The economy of South Sudan is one of the world's most underdeveloped with South Sudan having little existing infrastructure and the highest maternal mortality and female illiteracy rates in the world . South Sudan exports timber to the international market. The region also contains many natural resources such as [petroleum](petroleum), [ore](iron)(iron ore), [copper](copper), [chromium](chromium) ore, [zinc](zinc), [tungsten](tungsten), [mica](mica), [silver](silver), [gold](gold), [diamonds](diamonds), [hardwoods](hardwoods), [limestone](limestone) and [hydropower](hydropower). The country's economy, as in many other developing countries, is heavily dependent on agriculture.
Other than natural resources-based companies, other such organisations include [Sudan Beverages Limited](Southern)(Southern Sudan Beverages Limited), a subsidiary of [SABMiller](SABMiller).
### Oil
The oilfields in the south have been significant to the economy since the latter part of the 20th century. South Sudan has the third-largest [reserves](oil)(oil reserves) in [Africa](Sub-Saharan)(Sub-Saharan Africa). However, after South Sudan became an independent nation in July 2011, southern and northern negotiators were not immediately able to reach an agreement on how to split the revenue from these southern oilfields.
[[Map Oelgas.png|thumb|upright=1.15|Oil and gas concessions in Sudan – 2004](File:Sudan)]
It is estimated that South Sudan has around 4 times the oil deposits of Sudan. The oil revenues, according to the [Peace Agreement](Comprehensive)(Comprehensive Peace Agreement) (CPA), were split equally for the duration of the agreement period. Since South Sudan relies on pipelines, [refineries](oil refinery), and [Sudan](Port)(Port Sudan)'s facilities in [Sea](Red)(Red Sea (state)) state in Sudan, the agreement stated that the [government](government of Sudan) of Sudan in [Khartoum](Khartoum) would receive a 50% share of all oil revenues. This arrangement was maintained during the [period of autonomy](second)(Autonomous Government of Southern Sudan) from 2005 to 2011.
In the run up to independence, northern negotiators reportedly pressed for a deal maintaining the 50–50 split of oil revenues, while the South Sudanese were holding out for more favorable terms. Oil revenues constitute more than 98% of the government of South Sudan's budget according to the southern government's Ministry of Finance and Economic Planning and this has amounted to more than $8 billion in revenue since the signing of the peace agreement.
After independence, South Sudan objected to Sudan charging US$34 per [barrel](Barrel (unit)) to transport oil through the pipeline to the oil terminal at Port Sudan. With production of around 30,000 barrels per day, this was costing over a million dollars per day. In January 2012, South Sudan suspended oil production, causing a dramatic reduction in revenue and food costs to rise by 120%. In 2017, [Drilling & Services](Nile)(Nile Drilling & Services) became South Sudan's first locally owned and run petroleum drilling company.
[National Petroleum Corporation](China)(China National Petroleum Corporation) (CNPC) is a major investor in South Sudan's oil sector."[China to evacuate South Sudan oil workers to capital](https://www.reuters.com/article/us-southsudan-unrest-china-idUSBRE9BJ0FV20131220) ". Reuters. 20 December 2013. South Sudan's economy is under pressure to diversify away from oil as oil reserves will likely halve by 2020 if no new finds are made, according to the [Monetary Fund](International)(International Monetary Fund) (IMF).
### Debt
In terms of South Sudan's external debt, Sudan and South Sudan maintain a shared debt of approximately US$38 billion, all of which has accumulated throughout the past five decades. Though a small portion of this debt is owed to such international institutions as the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund (approximately US$5.3 billion according to a 2009 report provided by the Bank of Sudan), the bulk of its debt load is actually owed to numerous foreign actors that have provided the nation with financial loans, including the [Club](Paris)(Paris Club) (over US$11 billion) and also non-Paris Club bilateral creditors (over US$13 billion).
The Paris Club refers to an informal group of financial officials from 19 of the world's most influential economies, including such member nations as the United States, the United Kingdom, Germany, France and Canada, while non-Paris Club bilateral creditors refers to any entity that does not enjoy permanent/associated status as a Paris Club member. Private bilateral creditors (i.e. private commercial banks and private credit suppliers) account for the majority of the remainder (approximately US$6 billion of the total debt).
### East African Community membership
The presidents of Kenya and Rwanda invited the [Government of Southern Sudan](Autonomous)(Autonomous Government of Southern Sudan) to apply for membership to the [African Community](East)(East African Community) upon the independence of South Sudan in 2011, and South Sudan was reportedly an applicant country as of mid-July 2011. Analysts suggested that South Sudan's early efforts to integrate infrastructure, including [links](rail)(rail transport in South Sudan) and oil pipelines, with systems in Kenya and Uganda indicated intention on the part of [Juba](Juba, South Sudan) to pivot away from dependence on [Sudan](Sudan) and toward the EAC.
On 17 September 2011, the *[Nation](Daily)(Daily Nation)* quoted a South Sudanese MP as saying that while his government was eager to join the EAC, it would likely delay its membership over concerns that its economy was not sufficiently developed to compete with EAC member states and could become a "dumping ground" for Kenyan, Tanzanian, and Ugandan exports. This was contradicted by President [Kiir](Salva)(Salva Kiir), who announced South Sudan had officially embarked on the application process one month later. The application was initially deferred by the EAC in December 2012, and incidents with Ugandan [boda-boda](boda-boda) operators in South Sudan created political tension.
In December 2012, Tanzania officially agreed to South Sudan's bid to join the EAC, clearing the way for the world's newest state to become the regional bloc's sixth member. In May 2013, the EAC set aside $82,000 for the admission process. Starting after the EAC Council of Ministers meeting in August 2013, was projected to take at least four years. At the 14th Ordinary Summit held in Nairobi in 2012, EAC heads of state approved the verification report that was presented by the Council of Ministers, then directed it to start the negotiation process with South Sudan.
A team was formed to assess South Sudan's bid; however, in April 2014, the nation requested a delay in the admissions process, presumably due to [Sudanese Civil War](South)(South Sudanese Civil War).
South Sudan's Minister of Foreign Affairs, Barnaba Marial Benjamin, claimed publicly in October 2015 that, following unpublished evaluations and meetings of a special technical committee in May, June, August, September and October, the committee has recommended that South Sudan be allowed to join the East African Community.
South Sudan was eventually approved for membership in [African Community](East)(East African Community) in March 2016, and formally acceded with the signature of the treaty in April 2016.
### South Sudan and the Commonwealth of Nations
South Sudan has applied to join the [of Nations](Commonwealth)(Commonwealth of Nations), considering that South Sudan was part of the [Sudan](Anglo-Egyptian)(Anglo-Egyptian Sudan), and has 2 [in the Commonwealth of Nations](republics)(republics in the Commonwealth of Nations), [Kenya](Kenya) and [Uganda](Uganda) as neighbouring countries.
## Transport
[[File:Train Sudan towards Wau.jpg|thumb|Passengers atop a train travelling towards [Wau](Wau, South Sudan)]]
[[File:SPAF Mi17 helicopters at Juba Airport January 2011.jpg|thumb|Two [Mi-17](Mil)(Mil Mi-17) helicopters at [Airport](Juba)(Juba Airport)]]
### Railway
South Sudan has of single-track gauge railway line from the Sudanese border to [Wau](Wau, South Sudan) terminus. There are proposed extensions from Wau to [Juba](Juba). There are also plans to link Juba with the [Kenyan](Rail transport in Kenya) and [Ugandan](Rail transport in Uganda) railway networks.
### Air
The busiest and most developed airport in South Sudan is [Airport](Juba)(Juba Airport), which has regular international connections to [Asmara](Asmara International Airport), [Entebbe](Entebbe International Airport), [Nairobi](Jomo Kenyatta International Airport), [Cairo](Cairo International Airport), [Ababa](Addis)(Bole International Airport), and [Khartoum](Khartoum International Airport). Juba Airport was also the home base of [Airlines Company](Feeder)(Feeder Airlines Company) and [Star Airlines](Southern)(Southern Star Airlines).
Other international airports include [Malakal](Malakal Airport), with international flights to Addis Ababa and Khartoum; [Wau](Wau Airport), with weekly service to Khartoum; and [Rumbek](Rumbek Airport), also with weekly flights to Khartoum. Southern Sudan Airlines also serves [Nimule](Nimule Airport) and [Akobo](Akobo Airport), which have unpaved runways. Several smaller airports exist throughout South Sudan, the majority consisting of little more than dirt runways.
On 4 April 2012, plans were unveiled to launch a South Sudanese national airline, primarily for domestic service at first but eventually expanding to international service.
## Humanitarian situation
According to the United Nations, there are 8.3 million people in need of humanitarian aid in South Sudan as of January 2021. South Sudan is acknowledged to have some of the worst health indicators in the world. The under-five [mortality](infant)(infant mortality) rate is 135.3 per 1,000, whilst [mortality](maternal)(maternal mortality) is the highest in the world at 2,053.9 per 100,000 live births. In 2004, there were only three surgeons serving in southern Sudan, with three proper hospitals, and in some areas there was just one doctor for every 500,000 people.
The epidemiology of [HIV/AIDS](HIV/AIDS) in the South Sudan is poorly documented but the prevalence is believed around 3.1%. According to a 2013 study, South Sudan "probably has the highest [malaria](malaria) burden in sub-Saharan Africa". South Sudan is one of the few countries where [dracunculiasis](dracunculiasis) still occurs.
At the time of the [Peace Agreement](Comprehensive)(Comprehensive Peace Agreement) of 2005, humanitarian needs in Southern Sudan were massive. However, humanitarian organizations under the leadership of the UN [for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs](Office)(Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs) (OCHA) managed to ensure sufficient funding to bring relief to the local populations. Along with recovery and development aid, humanitarian projects were included in the 2007 Work Plan of the United Nations and partners. More than 90% of the population of South Sudan live on less than $1 a day, despite the GDP per capita of the entirety of Sudan being $1200 ($3.29/day).
In 2007, the United Nations OCHA (under the leadership of [Duthoit](Éliane)(Éliane Duthoit)) decreased its involvement in Southern Sudan, as humanitarian needs gradually diminished, slowly but markedly turning over control to the recovery and development activities of NGOs and community-based organisations.
[Famine](Famine) reportedly led to deaths in [Bahr el Ghazal](Northern)(Northern Bahr el Ghazal) and [Warrap](Warrap (state)) states in mid-2011, though the state governments of both denied hunger there was severe enough to cause fatalities.
In Pibor County located in the Jonglei State, in December 2011 and January 2012, [raids](cattle)(Cattle raiding) led to border clashes that eventually resulted in widespread [violence](ethnic)(Sudanese nomadic conflicts), with thousands of deaths and tens of thousands of South Sudanese being displaced, and hundreds of [Sans Frontières](Médecins)(Médecins Sans Frontières) staff went missing. The government declared the area a disaster zone and took control from local authorities. South Sudan has a very high rate of [marriage](child)(child marriage).According to the WHO: "The 10 countries with the highest rates of child marriage are: Niger, 75%; Chad and Central African Republic, 68%; Bangladesh, 66%; Guinea, 63%; Mozambique, 56%; Mali, 55%; Burkina Faso and South Sudan, 52%; and Malawi, 50%. "[https://www.who.int/mediacentre/news/releases/2013/child_marriage_20130307/en/] [against women](Violence)(Violence against women) is common in the country, and South Sudan's laws and policies have been criticized as inadequate in offering protection.Inter-Agency Standing Committee (2014). [Humanitarian Crisis in South Sudan Gender Alert 2: May 2014.](https://web.archive.org/web/20150114234102/http://www.unwomen.org/en/digital-library/publications/2014/5/humanitarian-crisis-in-south-sudan) United Nations Entity for Gender Equality and the Empowerment of Women (UN Women)
### Water crisis
The [supply in South Sudan](water)(water supply in South Sudan) is faced with numerous challenges. Although the [Nile](White)(White Nile) runs through the country, water is scarce during the dry season in areas that are not located on the river.
About half the population does not have access to an [water source](improved)(improved water source), defined as a protected well, standpipe or a handpump within one kilometre. The few existing piped water supply systems are often not well maintained and the water they provide is often not safe to drink. Displaced people returning home put a huge strain on infrastructure, and the government institutions in charge of the sector are weak. Substantial external funding from numerous government agencies and non-governmental organizations is available to improve water supply.
Numerous non-governmental organizations support water supply in Southern Sudan, such as [is Basic](Water)(Water is Basic), [for South Sudan](Water)(Water for South Sudan), the Obakki Foundation and Bridgton-Lake Region Rotary Club from North America.
### Refugees
[[scale of the problem Jamam refugee camp from the air (6972523516).jpg|thumb|Jamam refugee camp](File:The)]
As of February 2014, South Sudan was host to over 230,000 [refugee](refugee)s, with the vast majority, over 209,000, having arrived recently from Sudan, because of the [in Darfur](War)(War in Darfur). Other African countries that contribute the most refugees to South Sudan are the Central African Republic, Ethiopia, and the Democratic Republic of the Congo. As a result of the war that erupted in December 2013, more than 2.3 million people – one in every five people in South Sudan – have been forced to flee their homes, including 1.66 million internally displaced people (with 53.4 per cent estimated to be children) and nearly 644,900 refugees in neighbouring countries. Some 185,000 internally displaced people (IDPs) have sought refuge in UN Protection of Civilians (PoC) sites, while around 90 percent of IDPs are on the run or sheltering outside PoC sites. Consequently, UNHCR is stepping up its response through an inter-agency collaborative approach under the leadership of the Humanitarian Coordinator, and working with the International Organization for Migration (IOM). In early February 2013, UNHCR started distributing relief items outside the UN base in Malakal, South Sudan, which was expected to reach 10,000 people.
### 2017 famine
On 20 February 2017 South Sudan and the United Nations declared a famine in parts of former [State](Unity)(Unity State), with the warning that it could spread rapidly without further action. Over 100,000 people were affected. The [World Food Programme](UN)(UN World Food Programme) said that 40% of the population of South Sudan, 4.9 million people, need food urgently. U.N. officials said that President [Kiir Mayardit](Salva)(Salva Kiir Mayardit) was blocking food deliveries to some areas. Furthermore, UNICEF warned that more than 1 million children in South Sudan were subjected to malnutrition.
An outbreak of [armyworm](fall)(fall armyworm) further threatened [sorghum](sorghum) and maize production by July 2017.
## See also
*[of South Sudan](Outline)(Outline of South Sudan)
## Notes
## References
}}
## Further reading
* – [Sudan](http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/sdtoc.html)
*Walter C. Soderlund, E. Donald Briggs, *The Independence of South Sudan: The Role of Mass Media in the Responsibility to Prevent*, Waterloo: Wilfrid Laurier University Press, 2014. pp. $38.99 (paper),
* Mohamed Omer Beshir: *The Southern Sudan. Background to Conflict*. C. Hurst & Co., London 1968.
*
*
*
*
*
## External links
* [Government of South Sudan](https://twitter.com/southsudangov?lang=en)
* [Government of South Sudan;– USA and UN Mission](https://www.southsudanembassyusa.org/)
* [Government of South Sudan- UK Mission](https://embrss.org.uk/)
* [South Sudan](https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/south-sudan/). *[World Factbook](The)(The World Factbook)*. [Intelligence Agency](Central)(Central Intelligence Agency).
*
* [South Sudan profile](https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-14069082) from the [News](BBC)(BBC News).
*
* [Photographer's Account of South Sudan – "The Cost of Silence: A Traveling Exhibition"](http://sudanproject.ryanspencerreed.com/gallery/)
* ["Sudan's Shaky Peace"](http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/2010/11/southern-sudan/teague-text), *[Geographic](National)(National Geographic Society)*, November 2010.
* [Photo gallery](http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/2010/11/southern-sudan/steinmetz-photography) by [Steinmetz](George)(George Steinmetz).
* [UN Outrage at South Sudan Attack](https://web.archive.org/web/20140419170725/http://www.hnkcnews.com/2014/04/19/un-outrage-at-south-sudan-attack/)
[establishments in South Sudan](Category:2011)(Category:2011 establishments in South Sudan)
[countries and territories](Category:Arabic-speaking)(Category:Arabic-speaking countries and territories)
[African countries](Category:Central)(Category:Central African countries)
[in Africa](Category:Countries)(Category:Countries in Africa)
[African Community](Category:East)(Category:East African Community)
[African countries](Category:East)(Category:East African countries)
[and territories where English is an official language](Category:Countries)(Category:Countries and territories where English is an official language)
[republics](Category:Federal)(Category:Federal republics)
[countries](Category:Landlocked)(Category:Landlocked countries)
[developed countries](Category:Least)(Category:Least developed countries)
[states of the African Union](Category:Member)(Category:Member states of the African Union)
[states of the United Nations](Category:Member)(Category:Member states of the United Nations)
[ ](Category:South Sudan)
[and territories established in 2011](Category:States)(Category:States and territories established in 2011)
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Poor Things _film
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poor_things__film
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# Poor Things (film)
*Revision ID: 1159634993 | Timestamp: 2023-06-11T15:26:09Z*
---
| producer =
| starring =
| cinematography = [Ryan](Robbie)(Robbie Ryan (cinematographer))
| editing = [Mavropsaridis](Yorgos)(Yorgos Mavropsaridis)
| music = Jerskin Fendrix
| studio =
| distributor = Searchlight Pictures
| released =
| runtime =
| country =
| language = English
| budget =
| gross =
}}
***Poor Things*** is an upcoming [surrealist](Surrealist cinema) [fiction film](science)(science fiction film) directed by [Lanthimos](Yorgos)(Yorgos Lanthimos) from a screenplay by [McNamara](Tony)(Tony McNamara (writer)), based on the [novel of the same name](1992)(Poor Things) by [Gray](Alasdair)(Alasdair Gray). It follows a young woman who, after being [resurrected](Resurrection) by an unorthodox scientist, lives a life free of the prejudices of her time. [Stone](Emma)(Emma Stone) leads an [cast](ensemble)(ensemble cast) that includes [Ruffalo](Mark)(Mark Ruffalo), [Dafoe](Willem)(Willem Dafoe), [Youssef](Ramy)(Ramy Youssef), [Carmichael](Jerrod)(Jerrod Carmichael), [Abbott](Christopher)(Christopher Abbott), [Qualley](Margaret)(Margaret Qualley), and [Hunter](Kathryn)(Kathryn Hunter).
*Poor Things* is scheduled to be theatrically released on September 8, 2023, by [Pictures](Searchlight)(Searchlight Pictures).
## Premise
A young woman, Bella Baxter (Stone), is brought back to life by scientist Dr. Godwin Baxter (Dafoe). Under Baxter's protection, Bella is eager to learn. Wanting to see more of the world, Bella runs off with Duncan Wedderburn (Ruffalo), a slick and debauched lawyer, and travels across continents. Free from the prejudices of her times, Bella demands equality and liberation.
## Cast
*[Stone](Emma)(Emma Stone) as Bella Baxter
*[Ruffalo](Mark)(Mark Ruffalo) as Duncan Wedderburn
*[Dafoe](Willem)(Willem Dafoe) as Dr. Godwin Baxter
*[Youssef](Ramy)(Ramy Youssef) as Max McCandless
*[Carmichael](Jerrod)(Jerrod Carmichael) as Harry Astley
*[Abbott](Christopher)(Christopher Abbott) as Sir Aubrey de la Pole Blessington
*[Qualley](Margaret)(Margaret Qualley) as Felicity
*[Hunter](Kathryn)(Kathryn Hunter) as Swiney
*Suzy Bemba as Toinette
*Wayne Brett as Priest
## Production
It was first reported in February 2021 that [Lanthimos](Yorgos)(Yorgos Lanthimos) and [Stone](Emma)(Emma Stone) would reunite on the project, with a filming reported to start in autumn 2021. [Dafoe](Willem)(Willem Dafoe) entered negotiations to join the cast the next month. By April, [Youssef](Ramy)(Ramy Youssef) was in talks to join. Dafoe and Youssef would be confirmed to join in May, with [Ruffalo](Mark)(Mark Ruffalo) and [Carmichael](Jerrod)(Jerrod Carmichael) also added to the cast in May. In September, [Abbott](Christopher)(Christopher Abbott) was cast. In November, [Qualley](Margaret)(Margaret Qualley) and Suzy Bemba were cast, with [Hunter](Kathryn)(Kathryn Hunter) revealing she had a role in the film as well.
Filming began in August 2021 in [Hungary](Hungary), at Origo Studios.
## Release
*Poor Things* is set to be released in theaters on September 8, 2023. The film is expected to receive a world premiere at the 80th [Film Festival](Venice)(Venice Film Festival) in August 2023.
## References
## External links
*
[films](Category:Upcoming)(Category:Upcoming films)
[films](Category:2023)(Category:2023 films)
[science fiction films](Category:British)(Category:British science fiction films)
[based on British novels](Category:Films)(Category:Films based on British novels)
[shot in Hungary](Category:Films)(Category:Films shot in Hungary)
[directed by Yorgos Lanthimos](Category:Films)(Category:Films directed by Yorgos Lanthimos)
[Irish films](Category:English-language)(Category:English-language Irish films)
[science fiction films](Category:American)(Category:American science fiction films)
[Productions films](Category:Film4)(Category:Film4 Productions films)
[Pictures films](Category:Searchlight)(Category:Searchlight Pictures films)
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Qing dynasty
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qing_dynasty
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# Qing dynasty
*Revision ID: 1159144797 | Timestamp: 2023-06-08T14:56:25Z*
---
|italics=no}}
| conventional_long_name = Great Qing
| common_name = Qing dynasty or Manchu dynasty
| life_span = 1636–1912
| era = [modern](Late)(History of Asia#Late modern)
| demonym = [Chinese](Chinese people)
| ethnic_groups = [Han](Han Chinese), [Manchus](Manchu people), [Mongols](Mongols), [Tibetans](Tibetan people), [Uyghurs](Uyghurs), and [others](Ethnic groups in Chinese history)
| event_pre = [Foundation](History of the Qing dynasty#Hong Taiji)
| date_pre = 1636
| event_start = [of China](Conquest)(Transition from Ming to Qing)
| year_start = 1644–1662
| event1 =
| date_event1 = 1687–1757
| event2 = [Great Campaigns](Ten)(Ten Great Campaigns)
| date_event2 = 1755–1792
| event3 = [Opium War](1st)(First Opium War)
| date_event3 = 1839–1842
| event4 = [Rebellion](Taiping)(Taiping Rebellion)
| date_event4 = 1850–1864
| event5 = [Opium War](2nd)(Second Opium War)
| date_event5 = 1856–1860
| event6 =
| date_event6 = 1861–1895
| event7 = [Sino-Japanese War](1st)(First Sino-Japanese War)
| date_event7 = 1894–1895
| event8 = [Days Reform](100)(Hundred Days' Reform)
| date_event8 = 1898
| event9 = [Rebellion](Boxer)(Boxer Rebellion)
| date_event9 = 1900–1901
| event10 = [Qing reforms](Late)(Late Qing reforms)
| date_event10 = 1901–1911
| event_end = [Revolution](Xinhai)(Xinhai Revolution)
| year_end = 1911–1912
| event_post = [of monarchy](End)(Imperial Edict of the Abdication of the Qing Emperor)
| date_post =
| p1 = Later Jin (1616–1636)**1636:**Later Jīn
| p2 = Shun dynasty**1646:**Shun dynasty
| p3 = Southern Ming**1662:**Southern Ming
| p4 = Dzungar Khanate**1755:**Dzungar Khanate
| p5 = Kingdom of Tungning**1683:**Kingdom of Tungning
| p6 =
| s1 = Republic of China (1912–1949)**1912:**Republic of China
| flag_s1 = Flag of China (1912–1928).svg
| s2 = Zheltuga Republic**1883:**Zheltuga Republic
| flag_s2 = Flag of Zheltuga Republic.svg
| s3 = Republic of Formosa**1895:**Republic of Formosa
| flag_s3 = Flag of Formosa 1895.svg
| flag_s4 = Flag of Bogd Khaanate Mongolia.svg
| s4 = Bogd Khanate of Mongolia**1911:**Bogd Khanate
| s5 = Uryankhay Republic
| flag_s6 = Flag of Tibet.svg
| s6 = Tibet (1912–1951)**1912:**Tibet
| image_flag = Flag of the Qing Dynasty (1889-1912).svg
| flag_type = [Flag](Flag of the Qing dynasty)(1889–1912)
| flag_border = no
| image_coat = Seal of Qing dynasty.svg
| symbol =
| symbol_type = [seal](Imperial)(Seal (East Asia)#Government authorities)(1909–1912)
| other_symbol =
| image_map = Qing dynasty in 1760.svg
| image_map_caption = The Qing dynasty at its greatest extent in 1760 superimposed on a modern world map. Territory under its control shown in dark green; territory claimed but not under its control shown in light green.
| anthem = "[of Solid Gold](Cup)(Cup of Solid Gold)"(1911–1912)
| capital = [Mukden](Shenyang) (Shenyang)(1636–1644); |v=Mukden|a=Mukden}}; capital after 1625 for Later Jin, secondary capital after 1644.}}[Peking](Beijing) (Beijing)(1644–1912); |v=Beging|a=Beging}}; primary capital afterwards}}
| largest_city = Peking (Beijing)
| official_languages = [Manchu](Manchu language), [Chinese](Mandarin)(Mandarin (late imperial lingua franca))
| government_type =
| title_leader = [Emperor](List of emperors of the Qing dynasty)
| leader1 = [Emperor](Chongde)(Hong Taiji)
| year_leader1 = 1636–1643 (founder)
| leader2 = [Emperor](Shunzhi)(Shunzhi Emperor)
| year_leader2 = 1643–1661 (first in Beijing)
| leader3 = [Emperor](Xuantong)(Puyi)
| year_leader3 = 1908–1912 (last)
| title_representative = [Regent](Regent)
| representative1 = [Dorgon](Dorgon), Prince Rui
| representative2 =
| year_representative1 = 1643–1650
| year_representative2 = 1908–1911
| deputy1 =
| deputy2 = [Shikai](Yuan)(Yuan Shikai)
| year_deputy1 = 1911
| year_deputy2 = 1911–1912
| title_deputy = [Minister](Prime)(Prime Minister of the Imperial Cabinet)
| legislature =
| religion = **Majority:** [religion](Chinesefolk)(Chinese folk religion), [ChineseBuddhism](Chinese Buddhism), and [Taoism](Taoism)**Minority:** [TibetanBuddhism](Tibetan Buddhism), [Heavenworship](Heaven worship), [Islam](Islam),[Shamanism](Shamanism),[Christianity](Christianity),[others](and)(Religion in China#Qing dynasty)}}
| stat_year1 = 1700
| stat_area1 = 8800000
| ref_area1 =
| stat_year2 = 1790
| stat_area2 = 14700000
| ref_area2 =
| stat_year3 = 1860
| stat_area3 = 13400000
| ref_area3 =
| currency = [Cash](Qing dynasty coinage) (wén)[Tael](Tael) (liǎng)[money](Paper)(Paper money of the Qing dynasty)
}}
| mi =
| suz = Tshin záu
| y =
| ci =
| j = Cing1 ciu4
| poj = Chheng tiâu
| tl = Tshing tiâu
| altname = Dynastic name
| t2 =
| s2 =
| poj2 = Tāi-chheng
| tl2 = Tāi-tshing
| l2 =
| p2 = Dà Qīng
| w2 = Ta4 Ch'ing1
| y2 = Daai6 Ching1
| ci2 =
| j2 = daai6 cing1
| mnc = ᡩᠠᡳ᠌ᠴᡳᠩᡤᡠᡵᡠᠨ
| mnc_rom =
| mnc_a = Daiqing gurun
| mnc_v = Daicing gurun
| mong = ᠳᠠᠢᠢᠴᠢᠩᠤᠯᠤᠰ
| mon = Дайчин Улс
| monr = Daiqing ulus
| c2 =
| t =
| s =
}}
The **Qing dynasty** ( ), officially the **Great Qing**,; | |v=Daicing gurun|a=Daiqing gurun}}, }}}} was a [Manchu](Manchu people)-led [dynasty of China](imperial)(Dynasties in Chinese history) (1636–1912) and the last imperial dynasty in Chinese history. It emerged from the [Jin dynasty](Later)(Later Jin (1616–1636)) founded by the [Jurchens](Jianzhou)(Jianzhou Jurchens), a [ethnic group](Tungusic-speaking)(Tungusic peoples) who [other Jurchen tribes](unified)(Jurchen unification) to form a new "Manchu" ethnic identity. The dynasty was officially proclaimed in 1636 in [Manchuria](Manchuria) (modern-day [China](Northeast)(Northeast China) and [Manchuria](Outer)(Outer Manchuria)). It seized control of [Beijing](Beijing) in 1644, then later expanded its rule over the whole of [proper](China)(China proper) and [Taiwan](Taiwan under Qing rule), and finally [expanded](Qing dynasty in Inner Asia) into [Asia](Inner)(Inner Asia). The dynasty lasted until 1912 when it was overthrown in the [Revolution](Xinhai)(1911 Revolution). In [historiography](Chinese)(Chinese historiography), the Qing dynasty was preceded by the [dynasty](Ming)(Ming dynasty) and succeeded by the [of China](Republic)(Republic of China (1912–1949)). The multiethnic Qing dynasty lasted for almost three centuries and assembled the territorial base for modern China. It was the largest imperial dynasty in the history of China and in 1790 [fourth-largest empire](the)(List of largest empires#Empires at their greatest extent) in world history in terms of territorial size. With [citizens in 1907](419,264,000)(Population history of China), it was the most populous country in the world at the time.
In the late sixteenth century, [Nurhaci](Nurhaci), leader of the [of Aisin-Gioro](House)(House of Aisin-Gioro), began organizing "[Banners](Eight Banners)", which were military-social units that included Manchu, [Han](Han Chinese), and [Mongol](Mongols) elements. Nurhaci united clans to create a Manchu ethnic identity and officially founded the [Jin dynasty](Later)(Later Jin (1616–1636)) in 1616. His son [Taiji](Hong)(Hong Taiji) renamed the dynasty "Great Qing" and elevated the realm to an empire in 1636. As Ming control disintegrated, [rebels](peasant)(Li Zicheng) conquered Beijing in 1644, but the Ming general [Sangui](Wu)(Wu Sangui) opened the [Pass](Shanhai)(Shanhai Pass) to the armies of the regent Prince [Dorgon](Dorgon), who [the rebels](defeated)(Battle of Shanhai Pass), seized the capital, and took over the government. Resistance from [loyalists in the south](Ming)(Southern Ming) and the [of the Three Feudatories](Revolt)(Revolt of the Three Feudatories) delayed the [conquest](complete)(Transition from Ming to Qing) until 1683. The [Emperor](Kangxi)(Kangxi Emperor) (1661–1722) consolidated control, maintained the Manchu identity, patronized [Buddhism](Tibetan)(Tibetan Buddhism), and relished the role of a Confucian ruler. Han officials worked under or in parallel with Manchu officials. The dynasty also adapted the ideals of the [system](tributary)(Tributary system of China) in asserting superiority over peripheral countries such as [Korea](Joseon) and [Vietnam](Lê dynasty), while extending control over [Tibet](Tibet under Qing rule), [Mongolia](Mongolia under Qing rule), and [Xinjiang](Xinjiang under Qing rule).
The [of Qing glory and power](height)(High Qing era) was reached in the reign of the [Emperor](Qianlong)(Qianlong Emperor) (1735–1796). He led [Great Campaigns](Ten)(Ten Great Campaigns) that extended Qing control into Inner Asia and personally supervised [cultural projects](Confucian)(Qianlong Emperor#Cultural achievements). After his death, the dynasty faced changes in the world system, [intrusion](foreign)(Western imperialism in Asia), internal revolts, population growth, economic disruption, official corruption, and the reluctance of Confucian elites to change their mindsets. With peace and prosperity, the population rose to some 400 million, but taxes and government revenues were fixed at a low rate, soon leading to fiscal crisis. Following China's defeat in the [Wars](Opium)(Opium Wars), Western colonial powers forced the Qing government to sign "[treaties](unequal)(Unequal treaty)", granting them trading privileges, [extraterritoriality](extraterritoriality) and [ports](treaty)(treaty ports) under their control. The [Rebellion](Taiping)(Taiping Rebellion) (1850–1864) and the [Revolt](Dungan)(Dungan Revolt (1862–1877)) (1862–1877) in Central Asia led to the deaths of over 20 million people, from famine, disease, and war. The [Restoration](Tongzhi)(Tongzhi Restoration) in the 1860s brought vigorous reforms and the introduction of foreign military technology in the [Movement](Self-Strengthening)(Self-Strengthening Movement). Defeat in the [Sino-Japanese War](First)(First Sino-Japanese War) in 1895 led to loss of [suzerainty](Suzerainty#Imperial China) over Korea and [of Taiwan](cession)(Treaty of Shimonoseki) to [Japan](Empire of Japan). The ambitious [Days' Reform](Hundred)(Hundred Days' Reform) of 1898 proposed fundamental change, but the [Dowager Cixi](Empress)(Empress Dowager Cixi) (1835–1908), who had been the dominant voice in the national government for more than three decades, turned it back in [coup](a)(Wuxu Coup).
In 1900 anti-foreign "[Boxers](Boxers (group))" killed many Chinese Christians and foreign missionaries; in retaliation, the [powers](foreign)(Eight-Nation Alliance) invaded [China](China) and imposed a punitive [Indemnity](Boxer)(Boxer Indemnity). In response, the government initiated unprecedented [and administrative reforms](fiscal)(Late Qing reforms), including elections, a new legal code, and the abolition of the examination system. [Yat-sen](Sun)(Sun Yat-sen) and revolutionaries debated reform officials and constitutional monarchists such as [Youwei](Kang)(Kang Youwei) and [Qichao](Liang)(Liang Qichao) over how to transform the Manchu-ruled empire into a modernised Han state. After the deaths of the [Emperor](Guangxu)(Guangxu Emperor) and Cixi in 1908, Manchu conservatives at court blocked reforms and alienated reformers and local elites alike. The [Uprising](Wuchang)(Wuchang Uprising) on 10 October 1911 led to the [Revolution](Xinhai)(1911 Revolution). The abdication of the [Emperor](Xuantong)(Puyi), the last emperor, on 12 February 1912, brought the dynasty to an end. In 1917, it was briefly restored in an episode known as the [Restoration](Manchu)(Manchu Restoration), but this was neither recognized by the [government](Beiyang)(Beiyang government) of the [of China](Republic)(Republic of China (1912–1949)) nor the international community.
## Names
[Taiji](Hong)(Hong Taiji) named the *Great Qing* dynasty in 1636. There are competing explanations on the meaning of *Qīng* (lit. "clear" or "pure"). The name may have been selected in reaction to the name of the Ming dynasty (), which consists of the [character](Chinese)(Chinese characters) radicals for "sun" () and "moon" (), both associated with the fire element of the [zodiacal system](Chinese)(Wuxing (Chinese philosophy)). The character *Qīng* () is composed of "water" () and "azure" (), both associated with the water element. This association would justify the Qing conquest as defeat of fire by water. The water imagery of the new name may also have had Buddhist overtones of perspicacity and enlightenment and connections with the Bodhisattva [Manjusri](Manjusri). The Manchu name *daicing*, which sounds like a phonetic rendering of *Dà Qīng* or *Dai Ching*, may in fact have been derived from a [Mongolian](Mongolian language) word ", дайчин" that means "warrior". *Daicing gurun* may therefore have meant "warrior state", a pun that was intelligible only to Manchu and Mongol peoples. In the later part of the dynasty, however, even the Manchus themselves had forgotten this possible meaning.
Early European writers used the term "Tartar" indiscriminately for all the peoples of Northern Eurasia but in the 17th century Catholic missionary writings established "Tartar" to refer only to the Manchus and "[Tartary](Tartary)" for the lands they ruled.
After conquering "[proper](China)(China proper)", the Manchus identified their state as "China" (中國, *Zhōngguó*; "Middle Kingdom"), and referred to it as *Dulimbai Gurun* in Manchu (*Dulimbai* means "central" or "middle," *gurun* means "nation" or "state"). The emperors equated the lands of the Qing state (including present-day Northeast China, Xinjiang, Mongolia, Tibet and other areas) as "China" in both the Chinese and Manchu languages, defining China as a multi-ethnic state, and rejecting the idea that "China" only meant Han areas. They used both "China" and "Qing" to refer to their state in official documents. In the Chinese-language versions of its treaties and its maps of the world, the Qing government used "Qing" and "China" interchangeably.Bilik, Naran. "Names Have Memories: History, Semantic Identity and Conflict in Mongolian and Chinese Language Use." *Inner Asia* 9.1 (2007): 23–39. p. 34
In English, the Qing dynasty is sometimes known as the "Manchu dynasty". It is rendered as "Ch'ing dynasty" using the [Wade–Giles](Wade–Giles) romanization system.
## History
### Formation
The Qing dynasty was founded not by the [people](Han)(Han Chinese), who constitute the majority of the Chinese population, but by the [Manchus](Manchu people), descendants of a sedentary farming people known as the [Jurchens](Jurchen people), a [people](Tungusic)(Tungusic peoples) who lived around the region now comprising the Chinese provinces of [Jilin](Jilin) and [Heilongjiang](Heilongjiang). The Manchus are sometimes mistaken for a [nomad](nomad)ic people, which they were not.
#### Nurhaci
What was to become the Manchu state was founded by [Nurhaci](Nurhaci), the chieftain of a minor Jurchen tribethe Aisin-Gioroin [Jianzhou](Jianzhou Jurchens) in the early 17th century. Nurhaci may have spent time in a Han household in his youth, and became fluent in Chinese and Mongolian languages, and read the Chinese novels [of the Three Kingdoms](Romance)(Romance of the Three Kingdoms) and [Margin](Water)(Water Margin). Originally a vassal of the Ming emperors, Nurhaci embarked on an intertribal feud in 1582 that escalated into a campaign to unify the nearby tribes. By 1616, he had sufficiently consolidated Jianzhou so as to be able to proclaim himself [Khan](Khan (title)) of the [Jin](Great)(Later Jin (1616–1636)) in reference to the [Jurchen-ruled dynasty](previous)(Jin dynasty (1115–1234)).
[[File:CEM-36-Regno-di-Nivche-2429.jpg|thumb|left|Italian 1682 map showing the "Kingdom of the [Nüzhen](Jurchen people)" or the "[Jin](Jin dynasty (1115–1234)) Tartars"]]
Two years later, Nurhaci announced the "[Grievances](Seven)(Seven Grievances)" and openly renounced the sovereignty of Ming overlordship in order to complete the unification of those Jurchen tribes still allied with the Ming emperor. After a series of successful battles, he relocated his capital from [Ala](Hetu)(Hetu Ala) to successively bigger captured Ming cities in Liaodong: first [Liaoyang](Liaoyang) in 1621, then [Shenyang](Shenyang) (Manchu: Mukden) in 1625.
Furthermore, the Khorchin proved a useful ally in the war, lending the Jurchens their expertise as cavalry archers. To guarantee this new alliance, Nurhaci initiated a policy of inter-marriages between the Jurchen and Khorchin nobilities, while those who resisted were met with military action. This is a typical example of Nurhaci's initiatives that eventually became official Qing government policy. During most of the Qing period, the Mongols gave military assistance to the Manchus.Bernard Hung-Kay Luk, Amir Harrak-Contacts between cultures, Volume 4, p.25
[[File:Minggunbattle.jpg|thumb|left|Manchu cavalry charging Ming infantry [of Sarhu](battle)(battle of Sarhu) in 1619]]
#### Hong Taiji
Nurhaci died in 1626, and was succeeded by his eighth son, [Taiji](Hong)(Hong Taiji). Although Hong Taiji was an experienced leader and the commander of two Banners, the Jurchens suffered defeat in 1627, in part due to the Ming's newly acquired Portuguese cannons. To redress the technological and numerical disparity, Hong Taiji in 1634 created his own artillery corps from his existing Han troops, who cast their own cannons in the European design with the help of defector Chinese metallurgists. One of the defining events of Hong Taiji's reign was the official adoption of the name "Manchu" for the united Jurchen people in November 1635. In 1635, the Manchus' Mongol allies were fully incorporated into a separate Banner hierarchy under direct Manchu command. In April 1636, [nobility](Mongol)(Mongolian nobility) of Inner Mongolia, Manchu nobility and the [mandarin](Han)(Mandarin (bureaucrat)) recommended that Hong as the khan of Later Jin should be the emperor of the Great Qing.Tumen jalafun jecen akū: Manchu studies in honour of Giovanni Stary By Giovanni Stary, Alessandra Pozzi, Juha Antero Janhunen, Michael Weiers When he was presented with the [seal](imperial)(Imperial Seal of China) of the Yuan dynasty after the defeat of the last [Khagan](Khagan) of the Mongols, Hong Taiji renamed his state from "Great Jin" to "Great Qing" and elevated his position from Khan to [Emperor](Emperor of China), suggesting imperial ambitions beyond unifying the Manchu territories. Hong Taiji then proceeded to [Korea](invade)(Second Manchu invasion of Korea) again in 1636.
[[File:Sura han ni chiha. Currency of the farther East. No.850.jpg|thumb|upright=1.5|*Sura han ni chiha* (Coins of [Khan](Tiancong)(Hong Taiji)) in [alphabet](Manchu)(Manchu alphabet)]]
Meanwhile, Hong Taiji set up a rudimentary bureaucratic system based on the Ming model. He established six boards or executive level ministries in 1631 to oversee finance, personnel, rites, military, punishments, and public works. However, these administrative organs had very little role initially, and it was not until the eve of completing the conquest ten years later that they fulfilled their government roles.
Hong Taiji staffed his bureaucracy with many Han Chinese, including newly surrendered Ming officials, but ensured Manchu dominance by an ethnic quota for top appointments. Hong Taiji's reign also saw a fundamental change of policy towards his Han Chinese subjects. Nurhaci had treated Han in Liaodong according to how much grain they had: those with less than 5 to 7 sin were treated badly, while those with more were rewarded with property. Due to a Han revolt in 1623, Nurhaci turned against them and ordered that they no longer be trusted and enacted discriminatory policies and killings against them. He ordered that Han who assimilated to the Jurchen (in Jilin) before 1619 be treated equally with Jurchens, not like the conquered Han in Liaodong. Hong Taiji recognized the need to attract Han Chinese, explaining to reluctant Manchus why he needed to treat the Ming defector General [Chengchou](Hong)(Hong Chengchou) leniently. Hong Taiji incorporated Han into the Jurchen "nation" as full (if not first-class) citizens, obligated to provide military service. By 1648, less than one-sixth of the bannermen were of Manchu ancestry.
### Claiming the Mandate of Heaven
[[File:Dorgon, the Prince Rui (17th century).jpg|thumb|upright|[Dorgon](Dorgon) (1612–1650)]]
Hong Taiji died suddenly in September 1643. As the Jurchens had traditionally "elected" their leader through a council of nobles, the Qing state did not have a clear succession system. The leading contenders for power were Hong Taiji's oldest son [Hooge](Hooge (prince)) and Hong Taiji's half brother [Dorgon](Dorgon). A compromise installed Hong Taiji's five-year-old son, Fulin, as the [Emperor](Shunzhi)(Shunzhi Emperor), with Dorgon as regent and de facto leader of the Manchu nation.
Meanwhile, Ming government officials fought against each other, against fiscal collapse, and against a series of [rebellions](peasant)(Ming dynasty#Rebellion, invasion, collapse). They were unable to capitalise on the Manchu succession dispute and the presence of a minor as emperor. In April 1644, the capital, [Beijing](Beijing), was sacked by a coalition of rebel forces led by [Zicheng](Li)(Li Zicheng), a former minor Ming official, who established a short-lived [dynasty](Shun)(Shun dynasty). The last Ming ruler, the [Emperor](Chongzhen)(Chongzhen Emperor), committed suicide when the city fell to the rebels, marking the official end of the dynasty.
Li Zicheng then led rebel forces numbering some 200,000The exact figure of Li Zicheng's forces at the battle of [Pass](Shanhai)(Shanhai Pass) is disputed. Some primary sources, such as the official Qing and Ming court histories (), cite 200,000. to confront [Sangui](Wu)(Wu Sangui), at [Pass](Shanhai)(Shanhai Pass), a key pass of the [Wall](Great)(Great Wall of China), which defended the capital. Wu Sangui, caught between a Chinese rebel army twice his size and a foreign enemy he had fought for years, cast his lot with the familiar Manchus. Wu Sangui may have been influenced by Li Zicheng's mistreatment of wealthy and cultured officials, including Li's own family; it was said that Li took Wu's concubine [Yuanyuan](Chen)(Chen Yuanyuan) for himself. Wu and Dorgon allied in the name of avenging the death of the [Emperor](Chongzhen)(Chongzhen Emperor). Together, the two former enemies met and defeated Li Zicheng's rebel forces in [on May 27, 1644](battle)(Battle of Shanhai Pass).
The newly allied armies captured Beijing on 6 June. The [Emperor](Shunzhi)(Shunzhi Emperor) was invested as the "[of Heaven](Son)(Son of Heaven)" on 30 October. The Manchus, who had positioned themselves as political heirs to the Ming emperor by defeating Li Zicheng, completed the symbolic transition by holding a formal funeral for the Chongzhen Emperor. However, conquering the rest of China Proper took another seventeen years of battling Ming loyalists, [pretender](pretender)s and rebels. The last Ming pretender, [Gui](Prince)(Zhu Youlang, Prince of Gui), sought refuge with the King of [Burma](Burma), [Min](Pindale)(Pindale Min), but was turned over to a Qing expeditionary army commanded by Wu Sangui, who had him brought back to [Yunnan](Yunnan) province and executed in early 1662.
The Qing had taken shrewd advantage of Ming civilian government discrimination against the military and encouraged the Ming military to defect by spreading the message that the Manchus valued their skills. Banners made up of Han Chinese who defected before 1644 were classed among the Eight Banners, giving them social and legal privileges. Han defectors swelled the ranks of the Eight Banners so greatly that ethnic Manchus became a minority—only 16% in 1648, with Han Bannermen dominating at 75% and Mongol Bannermen making up the rest. Gunpowder weapons like muskets and artillery were wielded by the Chinese Banners. Normally, Han Chinese defector troops were deployed as the vanguard, while Manchu Bannermen acted as reserve forces or in the rear and were used predominantly for quick strikes with maximum impact, so as to minimize ethnic Manchu losses.
This multi-ethnic force conquered China for the Qing, The three Liaodong Han Bannermen officers who played key roles in the conquest of southern China were Shang Kexi, Geng Zhongming, and Kong Youde, who governed southern China autonomously as viceroys for the Qing after the conquest. Han Chinese Bannermen made up the majority of governors in the early Qing, stabilizing Qing rule. To promote ethnic harmony, a 1648 decree allowed Han Chinese civilian men to marry Manchu women from the Banners with the permission of the Board of Revenue if they were registered daughters of officials or commoners, or with the permission of their banner company captain if they were unregistered commoners. Later in the dynasty the policies allowing intermarriage were done away with.
[[in 1636.svg|thumb|Qing Empire in 1636](File:Mongolia)]
The first seven years of the young Shunzhi Emperor's reign were dominated by Dorgon's regency. Because of his own political insecurity, Dorgon followed Hong Taiji's example by ruling in the name of the emperor at the expense of rival Manchu princes, many of whom he demoted or imprisoned under one pretext or another. Dorgon's precedents and example cast a long shadow. First, the Manchus had entered "South of the Wall" because Dorgon had responded decisively to Wu Sangui's appeal, then, instead of sacking Beijing as the rebels had done, Dorgon insisted, over the protests of other Manchu princes, on making it the dynastic capital and reappointing most Ming officials. No major Chinese dynasty had directly taken over its immediate predecessor's capital, but keeping the Ming capital and bureaucracy intact helped quickly stabilize the regime and sped up the conquest of the rest of the country. Dorgon then drastically reduced the influence of the eunuchs, a major force in the Ming bureaucracy, and directed Manchu women not to [their feet](bind)(Foot binding) in the Chinese style.
However, not all of Dorgon's policies were equally popular or as easy to implement. The controversial July 1645 edict (the "[order](haircutting)(Queue Order)") forced adult Han Chinese men to shave the front of their heads and comb the remaining hair into the [queue](Queue (hairstyle)) hairstyle which was worn by Manchu men, on pain of death. The popular description of the order was: "To keep the hair, you lose the head; To keep your head, you cut the hair." To the Manchus, this policy was a test of loyalty and an aid in distinguishing friend from foe. For the Han Chinese, however, it was a humiliating reminder of Qing authority that challenged traditional Confucian values. The order triggered strong resistance in [Jiangnan](Jiangnan). In the ensuing unrest, some 100,000 Han were slaughtered.}}
[[File:Qing Dynasty 1760.jpg|thumb|The [conquest of the Ming](Qing)(Qing conquest of the Ming) and expansion of the empire]]
On 31 December 1650, Dorgon suddenly died during a hunting expedition, marking the start of the Shunzhi Emperor's personal rule. Because the emperor was only 12 years old at that time, most decisions were made on his behalf by his mother, [Dowager Xiaozhuang](Empress)(Empress Dowager Xiaozhuang), who turned out to be a skilled political operator. Although his support had been essential to Shunzhi's ascent, Dorgon had centralised so much power in his hands as to become a direct threat to the throne. So much so that upon his death he was bestowed the extraordinary posthumous title of Emperor Yi (), the only instance in Qing history in which a Manchu "[of the blood](prince)(Prince)" () was so honored. Two months into Shunzhi's personal rule, however, Dorgon was not only stripped of his titles, but his corpse was disinterred and mutilated. Dorgon's fall from grace also led to the purge of his family and associates at court, thus reverting power back to the person of the emperor. Shunzhi's promising start was cut short by his early death in 1661 at the age of 24 from [smallpox](smallpox). He was succeeded by his third son Xuanye, who reigned as the [Emperor](Kangxi)(Kangxi Emperor).
The Manchus sent Han Bannermen to fight against Koxinga's Ming loyalists in Fujian. They removed the population from coastal areas in order to deprive Koxinga's Ming loyalists of resources. This led to a misunderstanding that Manchus were "afraid of water". Han Bannermen carried out the fighting and killing, casting doubt on the claim that fear of the water led to the coastal evacuation and ban on maritime activities. Even though a poem refers to the soldiers carrying out massacres in Fujian as "barbarians", both Han [Standard Army](Green)(Green Standard Army) and Han Bannermen were involved and carried out the worst slaughter. 400,000 Green Standard Army soldiers were used against the Three Feudatories in addition to the 200,000 Bannermen.
### Kangxi Emperor's reign and consolidation
[[File:Portrait of the Kangxi Emperor in Court Dress.jpg|thumb|upright|The [Emperor](Kangxi)(Kangxi Emperor) (r. 1661–1722)]]
The sixty-one year reign of the [Emperor](Kangxi)(Kangxi Emperor) was the longest of any emperor of China and marked the beginning of the "[Qing](High)(High Qing era)" era, the zenith of the dynasty's social, economic and military power. The early Manchu rulers established two foundations of legitimacy that help to explain the stability of their dynasty. The first was the bureaucratic institutions and the [neo-Confucian](neo-Confucian) culture that they adopted from earlier dynasties. Manchu rulers and Han Chinese [scholar-official](scholar-official) elites gradually came to terms with each other. The [system](examination)(Imperial exams#Qing dynasty (1636–1912)) offered a path for ethnic Han to become officials. Imperial patronage of [Dictionary](Kangxi)(Kangxi Dictionary) demonstrated respect for Confucian learning, while the [Edict](Sacred)(Sacred Edict) of 1670 effectively extolled Confucian family values. His attempts to discourage Chinese women from [binding](foot)(foot binding), however, were unsuccessful.
The second major source of stability was the Central Asian aspect of their Manchu identity, which allowed them to appeal to Mongol, Tibetan and Uighur constituents. The Qing used the title of Emperor (Huangdi) in Chinese, while among Mongols the Qing monarch was referred to as [khan](Bogda)(Khan (title)) (wise Khan), and referred to as Gong Ma in Tibet.Alexander Golikov, [Translating through the Cultural Barriers: the Qing Imperial Multilingualism](https://www.ied.edu.hk/include/getrichfile.php?key=65354134b204988772a35c7e1ebdf461&secid=3779&filename=asahkconf/conference/E002-Translating%20through%20the%20Cultural%20Barriers-the%20Qing%20Imperial%20Multilingualism.pdf) The [Emperor](Qianlong)(Qianlong Emperor) propagated the image of himself as a [sage ruler](Buddhist)(chakravartin), a patron of [Buddhism](Tibetan)(Tibetan Buddhism). The Kangxi Emperor also welcomed to his court [Jesuit](Society of Jesus) missionaries, who had first come to China under the Ming.
Kangxi's reign started when he was seven years old. To prevent a repeat of Dorgon's monopolizing of power, on his deathbed his father hastily appointed four regents who were not closely related to the imperial family and had no claim to the throne. However, through chance and machination, [Oboi](Oboi), the most junior of the four, gradually achieved such dominance as to be a potential threat. Even though Oboi's loyalty was never an issue, his arrogance and conservatism led him into an escalating conflict with the young emperor. In 1669 Kangxi, through trickery, disarmed and imprisoned Oboi – a significant victory for a fifteen-year-old emperor.
The young emperor faced challenges in maintaining control of his kingdom, as well. Three Ming generals singled out for their contributions to the establishment of the dynasty had been granted governorships in Southern China. They became increasingly autonomous, leading to the [of the Three Feudatories](Revolt)(Revolt of the Three Feudatories), which lasted for eight years. Kangxi was able to unify his forces for a counterattack led by a new generation of Manchu generals. By 1681, the Qing government had established control over a ravaged southern China, which took several decades to recover.
[[File:The Emperor at the Kherlen river.jpg|thumb|left|Emperor with Manchu army in [Khalkha](Khalkha) 1688]]
To extend and consolidate the dynasty's control in Central Asia, the Kangxi Emperor personally led a series of military campaigns against the [Dzungars](Dzungar people) in [Mongolia](Outer)(Outer Mongolia). The Kangxi Emperor expelled [Galdan](Galdan)'s invading forces from these regions, which were then incorporated into the empire. Galdan was eventually killed in the [War](Dzungar–Qing)(Dzungar–Qing War). In 1683, Qing forces received the surrender of [Formosa](Formosa) (Taiwan) from [Keshuang](Zheng)(Zheng Keshuang), grandson of [Koxinga](Koxinga), who had conquered Taiwan from the [Dutch](Dutch Empire) colonists as a base against the Qing. Winning Taiwan freed Kangxi's forces for a series of battles over [Albazin](Albazin), the far eastern outpost of the [of Russia](Tsardom)(Tsardom of Russia). The 1689 [of Nerchinsk](Treaty)(Treaty of Nerchinsk) was China's first formal treaty with a European power and kept the border peaceful for the better part of two centuries. After Galdan's death, his followers, as adherents to Tibetan Buddhism, attempted to control the choice of the next [Lama](Dalai)(Dalai Lama). Kangxi dispatched two armies to [Lhasa](Lhasa (prefecture-level city)), the capital of Tibet, and installed a Dalai Lama sympathetic to the Qing.
### Reigns of the Yongzheng and Qianlong emperors
[[File:Budala5.jpg|thumb|[Zongcheng Temple](Putuo)(Putuo Zongcheng Temple), [Chengde](Chengde), Qianlong reign; built on the model of [Palace](Potala)(Potala Palace), Lhasa]]
The reigns of the [Emperor](Yongzheng)(Yongzheng Emperor) (r. 1723–1735) and his son, the [Emperor](Qianlong)(Qianlong Emperor) (r. 1735–1796), marked the height of Qing power. Yet, as the historian Jonathan Spence puts it, the empire by the end of the Qianlong reign was "like the sun at midday". In the midst of "many glories", he writes, "signs of decay and even collapse were becoming apparent".
After the death of the [Emperor](Kangxi)(Kangxi Emperor) in the winter of 1722, his fourth son, Prince Yong (), became the Yongzheng Emperor. In the later years of Kangxi's reign, Yongzheng and his brothers had fought, and there were unsubstantiated rumors that he had usurped the throne by tampering with the Kangxi's testament on the night when Kangxi died. In fact, his father had trusted him with delicate political issues and discussed state policy with him. When Yongzheng came to power at the age of 45, he felt a sense of urgency about the problems that had accumulated in his father's later years, and he did not need instruction on how to exercise power. In the words of one recent historian, he was "severe, suspicious, and jealous, but extremely capable and resourceful", and in the words of another, he turned out to be an "early modern state-maker of the first order".
Yongzheng moved rapidly. First, he promoted Confucian orthodoxy and reversed what he saw as his father's laxness by cracking down on unorthodox sects and by decapitating an anti-Manchu writer his father had pardoned. In 1723 he outlawed Christianity and expelled Christian missionaries, though some were allowed to remain in the capital. Next, he moved to control the government. He expanded his father's system of [Memorials](Palace)(Official Communications of the Chinese Empire#Memorials), which brought frank and detailed reports on local conditions directly to the throne without being intercepted by the bureaucracy, and he created a small [Council](Grand)(Grand Council (Qing dynasty)) of personal advisors, which eventually grew into the emperor's *de facto* cabinet for the rest of the dynasty. He shrewdly filled key positions with Manchu and Han Chinese officials who depended on his patronage. When he began to realize that the financial crisis was even greater than he had thought, Yongzheng rejected his father's lenient approach to local landowning elites and mounted a campaign to enforce collection of the land tax. The increased revenues were to be used for "money to nourish honesty" among local officials and for local irrigation, schools, roads, and charity. Although these reforms were effective in the north, in the south and lower Yangzi valley, where Kangxi had wooed the elites, there were long-established networks of officials and landowners. Yongzheng dispatched experienced Manchu commissioners to penetrate the thickets of falsified land registers and coded account books, but they were met with tricks, passivity, and even violence. The fiscal crisis persisted.
[[File:Battle of Oroi-Jalatu.jpg|thumb|Campaign against the [Dzungars](Dzungar Khanate) in the [conquest of Xinjiang](Qing)(Dzungar–Qing Wars) 1755–1758]]
Yongzheng also inherited diplomatic and strategic problems. A team made up entirely of Manchus drew up the [of Kyakhta (1727)](Treaty)(Treaty of Kyakhta (1727)) to solidify the diplomatic understanding with Russia. In exchange for territory and trading rights, the Qing would have a free hand in dealing with the situation in Mongolia. Yongzheng then turned to that situation, where the Zunghars threatened to re-emerge, and to the southwest, where local [Miao](Miao people) chieftains resisted Qing expansion. These campaigns drained the treasury but established the emperor's control of the military and military finance.
When Yongzheng Emperor died in 1735 his 24-year-old son, Prince Bao (), became the Qianlong Emperor. Qianlong personally led the [Great Campaigns](Ten)(Ten Great Campaigns) to expand military control into present-day [Xinjiang](Xinjiang) and [Mongolia](Mongolia), putting down revolts and uprisings in [Sichuan](Sichuan) and parts of southern China while expanding control over Tibet.
[[File:LordMacartneyEmbassyToChina1793.jpg|thumb|left|Lord Macartney saluting the [Emperor](Qianlong)(Qianlong Emperor)]]
The Qianlong Emperor launched several ambitious cultural projects, including the compilation of the *[Quanshu](Siku)(Siku Quanshu)*, or *Complete Repository of the Four Branches of Literature*, the largest collection of books in Chinese history. Nevertheless, Qianlong used the [inquisition](literary)(literary inquisition) to silence opposition. Beneath outward prosperity and imperial confidence, the later years of Qianlong's reign were marked by rampant corruption and neglect. [Heshen](Heshen), the emperor's handsome young favorite, took advantage of the emperor's indulgence to become one of the most corrupt officials in the history of the dynasty.Schoppa, R. Keith. *Revolution and its Past: Identities and Change in Modern Chinese History*. Pearson Hall, 2010, pp. 42–43. Qianlong's son, the [Emperor](Jiaqing)(Jiaqing Emperor) (r. 1796–1820), eventually forced Heshen to commit suicide.
[[File:Xu Yang - Commerce on the water.jpg|thumb|Commerce on the water, *[Suzhou](Prosperous)(Prosperous Suzhou)* by [Yang](Xu)(Xu Yang (Qing dynasty)), 1759]]
Population was stagnant for the first half of the 17th century due to civil wars and epidemics, but prosperity and internal stability gradually reversed this trend. The Qianlong Emperor bemoaned the situation by remarking, "The population continues to grow, but the land does not." The introduction of new crops from the Americas such as the [potato](potato) and [peanut](peanut) allowed an improved food supply as well, so that the total population of China during the 18th century ballooned from 100 million to 300 million people. Soon farmers were forced to work ever-smaller holdings more intensely. The only remaining part of the empire that had arable farmland was [Manchuria](Manchuria), where the provinces of [Jilin](Jilin) and [Heilongjiang](Heilongjiang) had been walled off as a Manchu homeland. Despite prohibitions, by the 18th century Han Chinese streamed into Manchuria, both illegally and legally, over the Great Wall and [Palisade](Willow)(Willow Palisade).
In 1796, open rebellion broke out among followers of the [Lotus Society](White)(White Lotus), who blamed Qing officials, saying "the officials have forced the people to rebel." Officials in other parts of the country were also blamed for corruption, failing to keep the famine relief granaries full, poor maintenance of roads and waterworks, and bureaucratic factionalism. There soon followed uprisings of "new sect" Muslims against local Muslim officials, and Miao tribesmen in southwest China. The [Lotus Rebellion](White)(White Lotus Rebellion) continued for eight years, until 1804, when badly run, corrupt, and brutal campaigns finally ended it.
### Rebellion, unrest, and external pressure
[[File:Destroying Chinese war junks, by E. Duncan (1843).jpg|thumb|British Steamship destroying Chinese war [junks](Junk (ship)) (E. Duncan) (1843)]]
At the start of the dynasty, the [empire](Chinese)(Late Imperial China) continued to be the hegemonic power in East Asia. Although there was no formal ministry of foreign relations, the [Yuan](Lifan)(Lifan Yuan) was responsible for relations with the Mongol and Tibetans in Central Asia, while the [system](tributary)(Imperial Chinese tributary system), a loose set of institutions and customs taken over from the Ming, in theory governed relations with East and Southeast Asian countries. The [of Nerchinsk](Treaty)(Treaty of Nerchinsk) (1689) stabilized relations with Tsarist Russia.
However, during the 18th century European empires gradually expanded across the world, as European states developed economies built on maritime trade, colonial extraction, and advances in technology. The dynasty was confronted with [developing concepts of the international system](newly)(Westphalian sovereignty) and state-to-state relations. European trading posts expanded into territorial control in nearby [India](India) and on the islands that are now [Indonesia](Indonesia). The Qing response, successful for a time, was to establish the [System](Canton)(Canton System) in 1756, which restricted maritime trade to that city (modern-day [Guangzhou](Guangzhou)) and gave monopoly trading rights to [Chinese merchants](private)(Hong (business)). The [East India Company](British)(British East India Company) and the [East India Company](Dutch)(Dutch East India Company) had long before been granted similar monopoly rights by their governments.
In 1793, the British East India Company, with the support of the British government, sent a [mission](diplomatic)(Macartney Mission) to China led by [George Macartney](Lord)(George Macartney, 1st Earl Macartney) in order to open trade and put relations on a basis of equality. The imperial court viewed trade as of secondary interest, whereas the British saw maritime trade as the key to their economy. The Qianlong Emperor told Macartney "the kings of the myriad nations come by land and sea with all sorts of precious things", and "consequently there is nothing we lack..."
[[File:Foreign factory site.jpg|thumb|upright=1.25|left|View of the Canton River, showing the [Factories](Thirteen)(Thirteen Factories) in the background, 1850–1855]]
Since China had little demand for European goods, Europe paid in silver for Chinese goods such as silk, tea, and ceramics, an imbalance that worried the [mercantilist](mercantilist) governments of Britain and France. The [Chinese demand for opium](growing)(History of opium in China) provided the remedy. The British East India Company greatly expanded its production in Bengal. The [Emperor](Daoguang)(Daoguang Emperor), concerned both over the outflow of silver and the damage that opium smoking was causing to his subjects, ordered [Zexu](Lin)(Lin Zexu) to end the opium trade. Lin confiscated the stocks of opium without compensation in 1839, leading Britain to send a military expedition the following year.
The [Opium War](First)(First Opium War) revealed the outdated state of the Chinese military. The Qing navy, composed entirely of wooden sailing [junks](Junk (ship)), was severely outclassed by the modern tactics and firepower of the [Royal Navy](British)(Royal Navy). British soldiers, using advanced muskets and artillery, easily outmaneuvered and outgunned Qing forces in ground battles. The Qing surrender in 1842 marked a decisive, humiliating blow. The [of Nanjing](Treaty)(Treaty of Nanking), the first of the "[treaties](unequal)(Unequal treaty)", demanded war reparations, forced China to open up the [Ports](Treaty)(Treaty Ports) of [Canton](Shamian Island), [Amoy](Xiamen), [Fuzhou](Fuzhou), [Ningbo](Ningbo) and [Shanghai](Shanghai) to Western trade and missionaries, and to cede [Kong Island](Hong)(Hong Kong Island) to Britain. It revealed weaknesses in the Qing government and provoked rebellions against the regime.
The [Rebellion](Taiping)(Taiping Rebellion) in the mid-19th century was the first major instance of [sentiment](anti-Manchu)(Anti-Manchuism). The rebellion began under the leadership of Hong Xiuquan (1814–64), a disappointed civil service examination candidate who, influenced by Christian teachings, had a series of visions and believed himself to be the son of God, the younger brother of Jesus Christ, sent to reform China. A friend of Hong's, Feng Yunshan, utilized Hong's ideas to organize a new religious group, the God Worshippers’ Society (Bai Shangdi Hui), which he formed among the impoverished peasants of Guangxi province. Causes, Effects, & Facts |url=https://www.britannica.com/event/Taiping-Rebellion |access-date=2021-11-07|website=Encyclopedia Britannica|language=en |archive-date=3 May 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150503075129/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/580815/Taiping-Rebellion |url-status=live}} Amid widespread social unrest and worsening famine, the rebellion not only posed the most serious threat towards Qing rulers, it has also been called the "bloodiest civil war of all time"; during its fourteen-year course from 1850 to 1864 between 20 and 30 million people died. [Xiuquan](Hong)(Hong Xiuquan), a failed [service](civil)(Imperial examination) candidate, in 1851 launched an uprising in [Guizhou](Guizhou) province, and established the [Heavenly Kingdom](Taiping)(Taiping Heavenly Kingdom) with Hong himself as king. Hong announced that he had visions of [God](Jehovah) and that he was the brother of Jesus Christ. Slavery, concubinage, arranged marriage, opium smoking, footbinding, judicial torture, and the worship of idols were all banned. However, success led to internal feuds, defections and corruption. In addition, British and French troops, equipped with modern weapons, had come to the assistance of the Qing imperial army. It was not until 1864 that Qing armies under [Guofan](Zeng)(Zeng Guofan) succeeded in crushing the revolt. After the outbreak of this rebellion, there were also revolts by the [Muslims](Hui people) and [people](Miao)(Miao people) of China against the Qing dynasty, most notably in the [Rebellion (1854–1873)](Miao)(Miao Rebellion (1854–1873)) in [Guizhou](Guizhou), the [Rebellion](Panthay)(Panthay Rebellion) (1856–1873) in [Yunnan](Yunnan) and the [Revolt (1862–77)](Dungan)(Dungan Revolt (1862–77)) in the northwest.
[[the Provincial Capital of Ruizhou.jpg|thumb|upright=1.5|Government forces defeating Taiping armies](File:Regaining)]
The Western powers, largely unsatisfied with the Treaty of Nanjing, gave grudging support to the Qing government during the [Taiping](Taiping Rebellion) and [Rebellion](Nian)(Nian Rebellion)s. China's income fell sharply during the wars as vast areas of farmland were destroyed, millions of lives were lost, and countless armies were raised and equipped to fight the rebels. In 1854, Britain tried to re-negotiate the Treaty of Nanjing, inserting clauses allowing British commercial access to Chinese rivers and the creation of a permanent British embassy at Beijing.
[[File:Prince Gong.jpg|thumb|upright=.5|left|[Prince Gong](Yixin,)(Prince Gong)]]
In 1856, Qing authorities, in searching for a pirate, boarded a ship, the *Arrow*, which the British claimed had been flying the British flag, an incident which led to the [Opium War](Second)(Second Opium War). In 1858, facing no other options, the [Emperor](Xianfeng)(Xianfeng Emperor) agreed to the [of Tientsin](Treaty)(Treaty of Tientsin), which contained clauses deeply insulting to the Chinese, such as a demand that all official Chinese documents be written in English and a proviso granting British warships unlimited access to all navigable Chinese rivers.
Ratification of the treaty in the following year led to a resumption of hostilities. In 1860, with Anglo-French forces marching on Beijing, the emperor and his court fled the capital for the [hunting lodge at Rehe](imperial)(Chengde Mountain Resort). Once in Beijing, the Anglo-French forces looted and burned the [Summer Palace](Old)(Old Summer Palace) and, in an act of revenge for the arrest, torture, and execution of the English diplomatic mission. [Gong](Prince)(Prince Gong (Qing dynasty)), a younger half-brother of the emperor, who had been left as his brother's proxy in the capital, was forced to sign the [of Beijing](Convention)(Convention of Beijing). The humiliated emperor died the following year at Rehe.
### Self-strengthening and the frustration of reforms
Yet the dynasty rallied. Chinese generals and officials such as [Zongtang](Zuo)(Zuo Zongtang) led the suppression of rebellions and stood behind the Manchus. When the [Emperor](Tongzhi)(Tongzhi Emperor) came to the throne at the age of five in 1861, these officials rallied around him in what was called the [Restoration](Tongzhi)(Tongzhi Restoration). Their aim was to adopt Western military technology in order to preserve Confucian values. [Guofan](Zeng)(Zeng Guofan), in alliance with Prince Gong, sponsored the rise of younger officials such as [Hongzhang](Li)(Li Hongzhang), who put the dynasty back on its feet financially and instituted the [Movement](Self-Strengthening)(Self-Strengthening Movement). The reformers then proceeded with institutional reforms, including China's first unified ministry of foreign affairs, the [Yamen](Zongli)(Zongli Yamen); allowing foreign diplomats to reside in the capital; establishment of the [Maritime Customs Service](Imperial)(Chinese Maritime Customs Service); the formation of modernized armies, such as the [Army](Beiyang)(Beiyang Army), as well as a navy; and the purchase from Europeans of armament factories.
The dynasty lost control of peripheral territories bit by bit. In return for promises of support against the British and the French, the [Empire](Russian)(Russian Empire) took large chunks of territory in the Northeast in 1860. The period of cooperation between the reformers and the European powers ended with the [Massacre](Tientsin)(Tientsin Massacre) of 1870, which was incited by the murder of French nuns set off by the belligerence of local French diplomats. Starting with the [Campaign](Cochinchina)(Cochinchina Campaign) in 1858, France expanded control of Indochina. By 1883, France was in full control of the region and had reached the Chinese border. The [War](Sino-French)(Sino-French War) began with a surprise attack by the French on the Chinese southern fleet at Fuzhou. After that the Chinese declared war on the French. A [invasion of Taiwan was halted](French)(Keelung Campaign) and the French were defeated on land in Tonkin at the [of Bang Bo](Battle)(Battle of Bang Bo). However Japan threatened to enter the war against China due to the Gapsin Coup and China chose to end the war with negotiations. The war ended in 1885 with the [of Tientsin (1885)](Treaty)(Treaty of Tientsin (1885)) and the Chinese recognition of the French protectorate in Vietnam.
In 1884, pro-Japanese Koreans in Seoul led the [Coup](Gapsin)(Gapsin Coup). Tensions between China and Japan rose after China intervened to suppress the uprising. Japanese Prime Minister [Hirobumi](Itō)(Itō Hirobumi) and Li Hongzhang signed the [of Tientsin](Convention)(Convention of Tientsin), an agreement to withdraw troops simultaneously, but the [Sino-Japanese War](First)(First Sino-Japanese War) of 1895 was a military humiliation. The [of Shimonoseki](Treaty)(Treaty of Shimonoseki) recognized Korean independence and ceded Taiwan and the [Pescadores](Pescadores) to Japan. The terms might have been harsher, but when a Japanese citizen attacked and wounded Li Hongzhang, an international outcry shamed the Japanese into revising them. The original agreement stipulated the cession of [Peninsula](Liaodong)(Liaodong Peninsula) to Japan, but Russia, with its own designs on the territory, along with Germany and France, in the [Intervention](Triple)(Triple Intervention), successfully put pressure on the Japanese to abandon the peninsula.
[[File:Empress-Dowager-Cixi1.jpg|thumb|upright|Empress Dowager Cixi (Oil painting by [Vos](Hubert)(Hubert Vos) c. 1905))]]
These years saw an evolution in the participation of [Dowager Cixi](Empress)(Empress Dowager Cixi) ([Wade–Giles](Wade–Giles): Tz'u-Hsi) in state affairs. She entered the imperial palace in the 1850s as a concubine to the [Emperor](Xianfeng)(Xianfeng Emperor) (r. 1850–1861) and came to power in 1861 after her five-year-old son, the Tongzhi Emperor ascended the throne. She, the [Dowager Ci'an](Empress)(Empress Dowager Ci'an) (who had been Xianfeng's empress), and Prince Gong (a son of the Daoguang Emperor), staged [coup](a)(Xinyou Coup) that ousted several regents for the boy emperor. Between 1861 and 1873, she and Ci'an served as regents, choosing the reign title "Tongzhi" (ruling together). Following the emperor's death in 1875, Cixi's nephew, the [Emperor](Guangxu)(Guangxu Emperor), took the throne, in violation of the dynastic custom that the new emperor be of the next generation, and another regency began. In the spring of 1881, Ci'an suddenly died, aged only forty-three, leaving Cixi as sole regent.
From 1889, when Guangxu began to rule in his own right, to 1898, the Empress Dowager lived in semi-retirement, spending the majority of the year at the [Palace](Summer)(Summer Palace). On 1 November 1897, two German Roman Catholic missionaries were murdered in the southern part of [province](Shandong)(Shandong) (the [Incident](Juye)(Juye Incident)). Germany used the murders as a pretext for a naval occupation of [Bay](Jiaozhou)(Jiaozhou Bay). The occupation prompted a "scramble for concessions" in 1898, which included the [lease of Jiazhou Bay](German)(Kiautschou Bay concession), the [acquisition of Liaodong](Russian)(Kwantung Leased Territory), and the [lease of the New Territories of Hong Kong](British)(Convention for the Extension of Hong Kong Territory).
[[File:China imperialism cartoon.jpg|thumb|upright|left|[Britain](United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland), [Germany](German Empire), [Russia](Russian Empire), [France](French Third Republic), and [Japan](Empire of Japan) dividing China]]
In the wake of these external defeats, the Guangxu Emperor initiated the [Days' Reform](Hundred)(Hundred Days' Reform) of 1898. Newer, more radical advisers such as [Youwei](Kang)(Kang Youwei) were given positions of influence. The emperor issued a series of edicts and plans were made to reorganize the bureaucracy, restructure the school system, and appoint new officials. Opposition from the bureaucracy was immediate and intense. Although she had been involved in the initial reforms, the Empress Dowager [in to call them off](stepped)(Wuxu Coup), arrested and executed several reformers, and took over day-to-day control of policy. Yet many of the plans stayed in place, and the goals of reform were implanted.
[[File:Within historic grounds of the Forbidden City in Pekin, China, on November 28 celebrated the victory of the Allies., ca. - NARA - 532582.jpg|thumb|right|The foreign armies of the [Alliance](Eight-Nation)(Eight-Nation Alliance) celebrating their victory in the [of Peking](Battle)(Battle of Peking (1900)), within the walls of the [City](Forbidden)(Forbidden City) on 28 November 1900]]
Drought in North China, combined with the imperialist designs of European powers and the instability of the Qing government, created background conditions for the [Boxers](Boxer Rebellion). In 1900, local groups of Boxers proclaiming support for the Qing dynasty murdered foreign missionaries and large numbers of Chinese Christians, then converged on Beijing to besiege the Foreign Legation Quarter. A coalition of European, Japanese, and Russian armies (the [Alliance](Eight-Nation)(Eight-Nation Alliance)) then entered China without diplomatic notice, much less permission. Cixi declared war on all of these nations, only to lose control of Beijing after a short, but hard-fought campaign. She fled to [Xi'an](Xi'an). The victorious allies then enforced their demands on the Qing government, including compensation for their expenses in invading China and execution of complicit officials, via the [Protocol](Boxer)(Boxer Protocol).
### Reform, revolution, collapse
[[File:YuanShikaiPresidente1915.jpg|thumb|upright|[Shikai](Yuan)(Yuan Shikai)]]
[[1911 en.svg|thumb|Qing China in 1911](File:China)]
The defeat by Japan in 1895 created a sense of crisis which the failure of the 1898 reforms and the disasters of 1900 only exacerbated. Cixi in 1901 moved to mollify the foreign community, called for reform proposals, and initiated a set of "[Policies](New)(New Policies)", also known as the "Late Qing Reform". Over the next few years the reforms included the restructuring of the national education, judicial, and fiscal systems, the most dramatic of which was the abolition of the [examination](imperial)(imperial examination)s in 1905. The court directed a constitution to be drafted, and provincial elections were held, the first in China's history. Sun Yat-sen and revolutionaries debated reform officials and constitutional monarchists such as Kang Youwei and Liang Qichao over how to transform the Manchu Empire into a modernised Han Chinese state.
[[File:2ndPrinceChun1.jpg|thumb|upright|[Prince Chun](Zaifeng,)(Zaifeng, Prince Chun)]]
The Guangxu Emperor died on 14 November 1908 and Cixi died the following day. Rumors held that she or [Shikai](Yuan)(Yuan Shikai) ordered trusted eunuchs to poison the Guangxu Emperor, and an autopsy conducted nearly a century later confirmed lethal levels of [arsenic](arsenic) in his corpse. [Puyi](Puyi), the oldest son of [Prince Chun](Zaifeng,)(Zaifeng, Prince Chun), and nephew to the childless Guangxu Emperor, was appointed successor at the age of two, leaving Zaifeng with the regency. Zaifeng forced Yuan Shikai to resign. The Qing dynasty became a constitutional monarchy on 8 May 1911, when Zaifeng created a "responsible cabinet" led by [Yikuang](Yikuang), Prince Qing. However, the cabinet became known as the "royal cabinet" because among the thirteen cabinet members, five were members of the imperial family or Aisin-Gioro relatives.Chien-nung Li, Jiannong Li, Ssŭ-yü Têng, "The political history of China, 1840–1928", p. 234
The [Uprising](Wuchang)(Wuchang Uprising) of 10 October 1911 set off a series of uprisings. By November, 14 of the 15 provinces had rejected Qing rule. This led to the creation of the [of China](Republic)(Republic of China (1912–1949)), in [Nanjing](Nanjing) on 1 January 1912, with [Yat-sen](Sun)(Sun Yat-sen) as its provisional head. Seeing a desperate situation, the Qing court brought Yuan Shikai back to power. His [Army](Beiyang)(Beiyang Army) crushed the revolutionaries in Wuhan at the [of Yangxia](Battle)(Battle of Yangxia). After taking the position of [Minister](Prime)(Chancellor (China)) he created his own cabinet, with the support of [Dowager Longyu](Empress)(Empress Dowager Longyu). However, Yuan Shikai decided to cooperate with Sun Yat-sen's revolutionaries to overthrow the Qing dynasty.
[[battle between the imperial and revolutionary army Wellcome L0040013.jpg|thumb|A pitched battle between the imperial and revolutionary armies in 1911](File:Pitched)]
On 12 February 1912, Longyu issued the [abdication](Puyi#Abdication) of the child emperor Puyi leading to the fall of the Qing dynasty under the pressure of Yuan Shikai's Beiyang army despite objections from [conservatives](Royalist Party) and royalist reformers. This brought an end to over 2,000 years of [China](Imperial)(Imperial China) and nearly 268 years of ruling China by the Manchu people, and began a period of instability. In July 1917, there was an [attempt](abortive)(Manchu Restoration) to restore the Qing dynasty led by [Xun](Zhang)(Zhang Xun (Qing loyalist)). Puyi was allowed to live in the [City](Forbidden)(Forbidden City) after his abdication until 1924, when he moved to the Japanese concession in Tianjin. The [of Japan](Empire)(Empire of Japan) [Northeast China](invaded)(Japanese invasion of Manchuria) and founded [Manchukuo](Manchukuo) there in 1932, with Puyi as its [emperor](Emperor of Manchukuo). After the [of Northeast China](invasion)(Soviet invasion of Manchuria) to fight Japan by the [Union](Soviet)(Soviet Union), Manchukuo fell in 1945.
## Government
[[File:Yantai (Chefoo), Qing Dynasty postage stamp.gif|thumb|left|A postage stamp from [Yantai](Yantai) (Chefoo) in the Qing dynasty]]
[[Dynasty Mandarin.jpg|thumb|upright|A Qing dynasty mandarin](File:Qing)]
The early Qing emperors adopted the [bureaucratic](bureaucratic) structures and institutions from the preceding [dynasty](Ming)(Ming dynasty) but split rule between [Chinese](Han)(Han Chinese) and [Manchus](Manchus), with some positions also given to [Mongols](Mongols). Like previous dynasties, the Qing recruited officials via the [examination system](imperial)(Imperial examination), until the system was abolished in 1905. The Qing divided the positions into civil and military positions, each having nine grades or ranks, each subdivided into a and b categories. Civil appointments ranged from an attendant to the emperor or a Grand Secretary in the Forbidden City (highest) to being a prefectural tax collector, deputy jail warden, deputy police commissioner, or tax examiner. Military appointments ranged from being a field marshal or chamberlain of the imperial bodyguard to a third class sergeant, corporal or a first or second class private.
### Central government agencies
The formal structure of the Qing government centered on the Emperor as the absolute ruler, who presided over six Boards (Ministries}}), each headed by two presidents; |v=aliha amban|a=aliha amban}}}} and assisted by four vice presidents.; |v=ashan i amban|a=ashan-i amban}}}} In contrast to the Ming system, however, Qing ethnic policy dictated that appointments were split between Manchu noblemen and Han officials who had passed the highest levels of the [examinations](state)(Imperial examination). The [Secretariat](Grand)(Grand Secretariat),; |v=dorgi yamun|a=dorgi yamun}}}} which had been an important policy-making body under the Ming, lost its importance during the Qing and evolved into an imperial [chancery](Chancery (medieval office)). The institutions which had been inherited from the Ming formed the core of the Qing "[Court](Outer)(Outer Court)", which handled routine matters and was located in the southern part of the [City](Forbidden)(Forbidden City).
[[emperor of China from 'The Universal Traveller'.jpg|thumb|upright|*The emperor of China from The Universal Traveller*](File:The)]
In order not to let the routine administration take over the running of the empire, the Qing emperors made sure that all important matters were decided in the "[Court](Inner)(Inner Court)", which was dominated by the imperial family and Manchu nobility and which was located in the northern part of the Forbidden City. The core institution of the inner court was the [Council](Grand)(Grand Council (Qing dynasty)).; |v=coohai nashūn i ba|a=qouhai nashvn-i ba}}}} It emerged in the 1720s under the reign of the [Emperor](Yongzheng)(Yongzheng Emperor) as a body charged with handling Qing military campaigns against the Mongols, but soon took over other military and administrative duties, centralizing authority under the crown. The Grand Councillors}} served as a sort of [council](privy)(privy council) to the emperor.
[[File:Qing Dynasty-2000 wen-1859.jpg|thumb|upright|2000–[cash](Chinese cash (currency)) [Baochao](Da-Qing)(Da-Qing Baochao) banknote from 1859]]
From the early Qing, the central government was characterized by a system of dual appointments by which each position in the central government had a Manchu and a Han Chinese assigned to it. The Han Chinese appointee was required to do the substantive work and the Manchu to ensure Han loyalty to Qing rule.
There was also another government institution called [Household Department](Imperial)(Imperial Household Department) which was unique to the Qing dynasty. It was established before the fall of the Ming, but it became mature only after 1661, following the death of the [Emperor](Shunzhi)(Shunzhi Emperor) and the accession of his son, the [Emperor](Kangxi)(Kangxi Emperor). The department's original purpose was to manage the internal affairs of the imperial family and the activities of the [palace](inner)(Forbidden City#Inner Court or the Northern Section) (in which tasks it largely replaced [eunuchs](Chinese eunuch)), but it also played an important role in Qing relations with [Tibet](History of Tibet#Khoshuts, Zunghars, and Manchus) and [Mongolia](Mongolia during Qing rule), engaged in trading activities (jade, [ginseng](ginseng), salt, furs, etc.), managed textile factories in the [Jiangnan](Jiangnan) region, and even published books. [with the Salt Superintendents and salt merchants](Relations)(Salt in Chinese History#Prosperity, culture, corruption, reform in the Qing dynasty), such as those at Yangzhou, were particularly lucrative, especially since they were direct, and did not go through absorptive layers of bureaucracy. The department was manned by *[booi](Booi Aha)*,; |v=booi|a=boui}}}} or "bondservants," from the Upper Three [Banners](Eight Banners). By the 19th century, it managed the activities of at least 56 subagencies.
### Administrative divisions
[[File:China Proper Map William Mackenzie c1866.png|thumb|The Eighteen Provinces of [proper](China)(China proper) in 1875]]
[[Chinois, Japon (1832).jpg|thumb|Qing China in 1832](File:Empire)]
[[Dynasty 1820.png|thumb|upright=1.25|The Qing dynasty in ca. 1820, with provinces in yellow, military governorates and protectorates in light yellow, tributary states in orange](File:Qing)]
Qing China reached its largest extent during the 18th century, when it ruled [proper](China)(China proper) (eighteen provinces) as well as the areas of present-day [China](Northeast)(Northeast China), [Mongolia](Inner)(Inner Mongolia), [Mongolia](Outer)(Outer Mongolia), [Xinjiang](Xinjiang) and [Tibet](Tibet), at approximately 13 million km2 in size. There were originally 18 provinces, all of which in China proper, but later this number was increased to 22, with Manchuria and Xinjiang being divided or turned into provinces. [Taiwan](Taiwan), originally part of [Fujian](Fujian) province, became a province of its own in the 19th century,Davidson, James W. (1903). *The Island of Formosa, Past and Present : history, people, resources, and commercial prospects : tea, camphor, sugar, gold, coal, sulphur, economical plants, and other productions*. London and New York: Macmillan. . pp. 247, 620. but was ceded to the [of Japan](Empire)(Empire of Japan) following the [Sino-Japanese War](First)(First Sino-Japanese War) in 1895."Treaty of Peace between China and Japan (Treaty of Shimonoseki)". Ch'ing Dynasty Treaties and Agreements Preserved by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of China (Taiwan). National Palace Museum. 17 April 1895. 中國將管理下開地方之權並將該地方所有堡壘軍器工廠及一切屬公物件永遠讓於日本...台湾全岛及所有附属各岛屿...澎湖列岛 [shall yield to Japan in perpetuity the rights to administer the following regions as well as all fortresses, munition factories, and public properties thereof ... the entire island of Taiwan and all appertaining islands ... Penghu archipelago](China)
### Territorial administration
The Qing organization of [provinces](Province (China)) was based on the fifteen administrative units set up by the Ming dynasty, later made into eighteen provinces by splitting for example, [Huguang](Huguang Province) into Hubei and Hunan provinces. The provincial bureaucracy continued the Yuan and Ming practice of three parallel lines, civil, military, and [censorate](censorate), or surveillance. Each province was administered by a [governor](Provincial governor of Imperial China) (, *xunfu*) and a [military commander](provincial)(provincial military commander) (, *tidu*). Below the province were [prefectures](Prefecture (China)) (, *fu*) operating under a prefect (, *zhīfǔ*), followed by [subprefectures](Zhou (country subdivision)) under a subprefect. The lowest unit was the [county](Counties of the People's Republic of China#History), overseen by a [magistrate](county)(county magistrate (China)). The eighteen provinces are also known as "China proper". The position of [viceroy](Viceroy (China)) or governor-general (, *zongdu*) was the highest rank in the provincial administration. There were eight regional viceroys in China proper, each usually took charge of two or three provinces. The [of Zhili](Viceroy)(Viceroy of Zhili), who was responsible for the area surrounding the capital [Beijing](Beijing), is usually considered as the most honorable and powerful viceroy among the eight.
By the mid-18th century, the Qing had successfully put outer regions such as [Inner](Inner Mongolia) and [Mongolia](Outer)(Outer Mongolia), [Tibet](Tibet) and [Xinjiang](Xinjiang) under its control. [commissioners](Imperial)(Amban) and garrisons were sent to Mongolia and Tibet to oversee their affairs. These territories were also under supervision of a central government institution called [Yuan](Lifan)(Lifan Yuan). [Qinghai](Qinghai) was also put under direct control of the Qing court. Xinjiang, also known as Chinese Turkestan, was subdivided into the regions north and south of the [Shan](Tian)(Tian Shan) mountains, also known today as [Dzungaria](Dzungaria) and [Basin](Tarim)(Tarim Basin) respectively, but the post of Ili General was established in 1762 to exercise unified military and administrative jurisdiction over both regions. Dzungaria was fully opened to Han migration by the Qianlong Emperor from the beginning. Han migrants were at first forbidden from permanently settling in the Tarim Basin but were the ban was lifted after the invasion by [Khoja](Jahangir)(Jahangir Khoja) in the 1820s. Likewise, [Manchuria](Manchuria) was also governed by military generals until its division into provinces, though some areas of Xinjiang and Northeast China were lost to the [Empire](Russian)(Russian Empire) in the mid-19th century. Manchuria was originally separated from China proper by the Inner [Palisade](Willow)(Willow Palisade), a ditch and embankment planted with willows intended to restrict the movement of the Han Chinese, as the area was off-limits to civilian Han Chinese until the government started colonizing the area, especially since the 1860s.
With respect to these outer regions, the Qing maintained imperial control, with the emperor acting as Mongol khan, patron of [Buddhism](Tibetan)(Tibetan Buddhism) and protector of [Muslims](Uyghur people). However, Qing policy changed with the establishment of Xinjiang province in 1884. During [Great Game](The)(The Great Game) era, taking advantage of the [revolt](Dungan)(Dungan Revolt (1862–77)) in northwest China, [Beg](Yaqub)(Yaqub Beg) invaded Xinjiang from Central Asia with support from the British Empire, and made himself the ruler of the kingdom of [Kashgar](Kashgar)ia. The Qing court sent forces to defeat Yaqub Beg and Xinjiang was reconquered, and then the political system of China proper was formally applied onto Xinjiang. The [Khanate](Kumul)(Kumul Khanate), which was incorporated into the Qing dynasty as a vassal after helping Qing defeat the Zunghars in 1757, maintained its status after Xinjiang turned into a province through the end of the dynasty in the [Revolution](Xinhai)(Xinhai Revolution) up until 1930. In the early 20th century, Britain sent [expedition force](an)(British Expedition to Tibet) to [Tibet](Tibet) and forced Tibetans to sign a treaty. The Qing court responded by asserting Chinese sovereignty over Tibet, resulting in the 1906 Anglo-Chinese Convention signed between Britain and China. The British agreed not to annex Tibetan territory or to interfere in the administration of Tibet, while China engaged not to permit any other foreign state to interfere with the territory or internal administration of Tibet. Furthermore, similar to Xinjiang which was converted into a province earlier, the Qing government also turned Manchuria into three provinces in the early 20th century, officially known as the "[Northeast Provinces](Three)(Northeast China)", and established the post of [of the Three Northeast Provinces](Viceroy)(Viceroy of the Three Northeast Provinces) to oversee these provinces, making the total number of regional viceroys to nine.
## Society
### Population growth and mobility
The population grew in numbers, density, and mobility. The population grew from roughly 150 million in 1700, about what it had been a century before, then doubled over the next century, and reached a height of 450 million on the eve of the [Rebellion](Taiping)(Taiping Rebellion) in 1850. The spread of New World crops, such as maize, peanuts, sweet potatoes, and potatoes decreased the number of deaths from malnutrition. Diseases such as [smallpox](smallpox) were brought under control by an increase in inoculations. In addition, infant deaths were decreased due to improvements in birthing techniques performed by doctors and midwives and an increase in medical books available to the public. Government campaigns decreased the incidence of [infanticide](infanticide). In Europe population growth in this period was greatest in the cities, but in China growth in cities and the lower Yangzi was low. The greatest growth was in the borderlands and the highlands, where farmers could clear large tracts of marshlands and forests.
The population was also remarkably mobile, perhaps more so than at any time in Chinese history. Indeed, the Qing government did far more to encourage mobility than to discourage it. Millions of Han Chinese migrated to [Yunnan](Yunnan) and [Guizhou](Guizhou) in the 18th century, and also to Taiwan. After the conquests of the 1750s and 1760s, the court organized agricultural colonies in Xinjiang. Migration might be permanent, for resettlement, or the migrants (in theory at least) might regard the move as a temporary sojourn. The latter included an increasingly large and mobile workforce. Local-origin-based merchant groups also moved freely. This mobility also included the organized movement of Qing subjects overseas, largely to [Asia](Southeastern)(Southeastern Asia), to pursue trade and other economic opportunities.
Manchuria, however, was formally closed to Han settlement by the [Palisade](Willow)(Willow Palisade), with the exception of some bannermen. Nonetheless, by 1780, Han Chinese had become 80% of the population. The relatively low populated territory was vulnerable as the [Empire](Russian)(Russian Empire) demanded the [Annexation](Amur)(Amur Annexation) annexing Outer Manchuria. In response, the Qing officials such as Tepuqin (), the Military Governor of [Heilongjiang](Heilongjiang) in 1859–1867, made proposals (1860) to open parts of Guandong for Chinese civilian farmer settlers in order to oppose further possible annexations. In the later 19th century, Manchuria was opened up for Han settlers leading to a more extensive migration, which was called [Guandong](Chuang)(Chuang Guandong) () literally "Crashing into Guandong" with *Guandong* being an older name for [Manchuria](Manchuria). At the end of the 19th century and turn of the 20th century, to counteract increasing Russian influence, the Qing Dynasty abolished the existing administrative system in Manchuria (created by the bannermen) and reclassified all immigrants to the region as *Han* (Chinese) instead of *minren* (民人, civilians, non-bannermen), while replacing provincial generals with provincial governors. This reform occurred when Inner Manchuria was a battleground between Russia and Japan. From 1902–1911, seventy civil administrations were created due to the increasing population of Manchuria.
### Statuses in society
According to statute, Qing society was divided into relatively closed estates, of which in most general terms there were five. Apart from the estates of the officials, the comparatively minuscule aristocracy, and the degree-holding [literati](Scholar-official), there also existed a major division among ordinary Chinese between commoners and people with inferior status. They were divided into two categories: one of them, the good "commoner" people, the other "mean" people who were seen as debased and servile. The majority of the population belonged to the first category and were described as *liangmin*, a legal term meaning good people, as opposed to *jianmin* meaning the mean (or ignoble) people. Qing law explicitly stated that the traditional [occupational groups](four)(four occupations) of scholars, farmers, artisans and merchants were "good", or having a status of commoners. On the other hand, slaves or bondservants, entertainers (including prostitutes and actors), tattooed criminals, and those low-level employees of government officials were the "mean people". Mean people were legally inferior to commoners and suffered unequal treatments, such as being forbidden to take the [examination](imperial)(imperial examination). Furthermore, such people were usually not allowed to marry with free commoners and were even often required to acknowledge their abasement in society through actions such as bowing. However, throughout the Qing dynasty, the emperor and his court, as well as the bureaucracy, worked towards reducing the distinctions between the debased and free but did not completely succeed even at the end of its era in merging the two classifications together.}}
#### Qing gentry
Although there had been no powerful hereditary aristocracy since the [dynasty](Song)(Song dynasty), the gentry (*shenshi*), like their British counterparts, enjoyed imperial privileges and managed local affairs. The status of this [scholar-official](scholar-official) was defined by passing at least the first level of civil service examinations and holding a degree, which qualified him to hold imperial office, although he might not actually do so. The gentry member could legally wear gentry robes and could talk to officials as equals. Officials who had served for one or two terms could retire to enjoy the glory of their status. Informally, the gentry then presided over local society and could use their connections to influence the magistrate, acquire land, and maintain large households. The gentry thus included not only males holding degrees but also their wives, descendants, some of their relatives.
[[era brush container.jpg|thumb|left|upright=.6|Brush container symbol of elegant gentry culture](File:Qing)]The gentry class was divided into groups. Not all who held office were literati, as merchant families could purchase degrees, and not all who passed the exams found employment as officials, since the number of degree-holders was greater than the number of openings. The gentry class also differed in the source and amount of their income. Literati families drew income from landholding, as well as from lending money. Officials, of course, drew a salary, which, as the years went by, were less and less adequate, leading to widespread reliance on "squeeze," irrgular payments. Those who prepared for but failed the exams, like those who passed but were not appointed to office, could become tutors or teachers, private secretaries to sitting officials, administrators of guilds or temples, or other positions that required literacy. Others turned to fields such as engineering, medicine, or law, which by the nineteenth century demanded specialized learning. By the nineteenth century, it was no longer shameful to become an author or publisher of fiction.
The Qing gentry were marked as much by their aspiration to a cultured lifestyle as by their legal status. They lived more refined and comfortable lives than the commoners and used sedan-chairs to travel any significant distance. They often showed off their learning by collecting objects such as [stones](scholars')(Gongshi),
porcelain or pieces of art for their beauty, which set them off from less cultivated commoners.
#### Qing nobility
### Family and kinship
[[Clan Ancestral Hall 1930s.jpg|thumb|Chen Clan Ancestral Hall (陈家祠) built in 1894](File:Chan)]
By the Qing, the building block of society was [kinship](patrilineal)(Patrilineality), that is, the local family lineage with descent through the male line, often translated as "clan". A shift in marital practices, identity and loyalty had begun during the Song dynasty when the civil service examination began to replace nobility and inheritance as a means for gaining status. Instead of intermarrying within aristocratic elites of the same social status, they tended to form marital alliances with nearby families of the same or higher wealth, and established the local people's interests as first and foremost which helped to form intermarried townships. The neo-Confucian ideology, especially the Cheng-Zhu thinking favored by Qing social thought, emphasised patrilineal families and genealogy in society.
The emperors and local officials exhorted families to compile genealogies in order to stabilize local society. The genealogy was placed in the ancestral hall, which served as the lineage's headquarters and a place for annual ancestral sacrifice.The genealogy recorded the lineage's history, biographies of respected ancestors, a chart of all the family members of each generation, rules for the members to follow, and often copies of title contracts for collective property as well. A specific [character](Chinese)(Chinese characters) appeared in the given name of each male of each generation, often well into the future. These lineages claimed to be based on biological descent but when a member of a lineage gained office or became wealthy, he might use considerable creativity in selecting a prestigious figure to be "founding ancestor". Such worship was intended to ensure that the ancestors remain content and benevolent spirits (*[shen](Shen (Chinese religion))*) who would keep watch over and protect the family. Later observers felt that the ancestral cult focused on the family and lineage, rather than on more public matters such as community and nation.}}
Inner Mongols and Khalkha Mongols in the Qing rarely knew their ancestors beyond four generations and Mongol tribal society was not organized among patrilineal clans, contrary to what was commonly thought, but included unrelated people at the base unit of organization. The Qing tried but failed to promote the Chinese Neo-Confucian ideology of organizing society along patrimonial clans among the Mongols.
### Religion
Manchu rulers presided over a multi-ethnic empire and the emperor, who was held responsible for "[Under Heaven](All)(Tianxia)" or [Xia](Tian)(Tian Xia), patronized and took responsibility for all religions and belief systems. The empire's "spiritual center of gravity" was the "religio-political state." Since the empire was part of the order of the cosmos, which conferred the [of Heaven](Mandate)(Mandate of Heaven), the [Emperor](Emperor of China) as "Son of Heaven" was both the head of the political system and the head priest of the [Cult](State)(Imperial cult#Imperial China). He united [and spiritual roles](political)(Caesaropapism) that in medieval Europe were separated into the roles of emperor and pope and performed the imperial rites that ensured political order, prosperity, and social morality. The emperor and his officials, who were his personal representatives, took responsibility over all aspects of the empire, especially spiritual life and religious institutions and practices. The [magistrate](county)(county magistrate), as the emperor's political and spiritual representative, made offerings at officially recognized temples, for instance those dedicated to the God of Walls and Moats, (the so-called "[God](City)(City God)), and local deified heroes. The magistrate lectured on the Emperor's [Edict](Sacred)(Sacred Edict) to promote civic morality; he kept close watch over religious organizations whose actions might threaten the sovereignty and religious prerogative of the state. p. 27
[[官人進諫.jpg|thumb|right|upright|Patriarchal family](File:清代官宦人家居家生活圖集.)]
#### Manchu and imperial religion
[[File:Yonghe Gong sign.jpg|thumb|left|Placard (right to left) in Manchu, Chinese, Tibetan, Mongolian [Lamasery](Yonghe)(Yonghe Temple), Beijing]]The Manchu imperial family were especially attracted by Yellow Sect or [Gelug](Gelug) Buddhism that had spread from Tibet into Mongolia. The [Dalai Lama](Fifth)(Fifth Dalai Lama), who had gained power in 1642, just before the Manchus took Beijing, looked to the Qing court for support. The Kangxi and Qianlong emperors practiced this form of Tibetan Buddhism as one of their household religions and built temples that made Beijing one of its centers, and constructed a replica Lhasa's [Palace](Potala)(Potala Palace) at their summer retreat in [Rehe](Rehe)..
[Shamanism](Shamanism), the most common religion among Manchus, was a spiritual inheritance from their [Tungusic](Tungusic peoples) ancestors that set them off from Han Chinese. [shamanism](State)(Shamanism in the Qing dynasty#State shamanism after 1644) was important to the imperial family both to maintain their Manchu cultural identity and to promote their imperial legitimacy among tribes in the northeast. Imperial obligations included rituals on the first day of [New Year](Chinese)(Chinese New Year) at a shamanic shrine (tangse). [in Manchu families](Practices)(Shamanism in the Qing dynasty#Shamanism and Manchu identity) included sacrifices to the ancestors, and the use of shamans, often women, who went into a trance to seek healing or exorcism
#### Popular religion
The belief system most widely practiced among Han Chinese is often called [popular, or folk religion](local,)(Chinese folk religion), and was centered around the patriarchal family, the maintenance of the male family line, and [shen](Shen (Chinese religion)), or spirits. Common practices included [veneration](ancestor)(Ancestor veneration in China), [piety](filial)(filial piety), [gods and spirits](local)(Chinese communal deity religion). Rites included [funeral, burial, practices](mourning,)(Ancestral veneration in China#Practices).Richard J. Smith (2007). *[Settling the Dead: Funerals, Memorials and Beliefs Concerning the Afterlife](http://afe.easia.columbia.edu/cosmos/prb/journey.htm) *. *Living in the Chinese Cosmos: Understanding Religion in Late-Imperial China* Since they did not require exclusive allegiance, forms and branches of [Confucianism](Confucianism), [Buddhism](Buddhism), and [Daoism](Daoism) were intertwined, for instance in the syncretic [teachings](Three)(Three teachings)."Living in the Chinese Cosmos: Understanding Religion in Late Imperial China (1644–1911)" (Columbia University) [Institutional Religion: The Three Teachings](http://afe.easia.columbia.edu/cosmos/ort/teachings.htm) Chinese folk religion combined elements of the three, with local variations County magistrates, who were graded and promoted on their ability to maintain local order, tolerated local sects and even patronized local temples as long as they were orderly, but were suspicious of [sects](heterodox)(Chinese salvationist religions) that defied state authority and rejected imperial doctrines. Some of these sects indeed had long histories of rebellion, such as the [of Former Heaven](Way)(Xiantiandao), which drew on Daoism, and the [Lotus](White)(White Lotus) society, which drew on millennial Buddhism. The [Lotus Rebellion](White)(White Lotus Rebellion) (1796–1804) confirmed official suspicions as did the [Rebellion](Taiping)(Taiping Rebellion), which drew on millennial Christianity.
#### Christianity, Judaism, and Islam
The [religions](Abrahamic)(Abrahamic religions) had arrived from Western Asia as early as the Tang dynasty but their insistence that they should be practiced to the exclusion of other religions made them less adaptable than Buddhism, which had quickly been accepted as native. [Islam](Islam) predominated in Central Asian areas of the empire, while [Judaism](Judaism in China) and [Christianity](Christianity in China) were practiced in well-established but self-contained communities., pp. 958–961.
Several hundred Catholic missionaries arrived from the late Ming period until the proscription of Christianity in 1724. The [Jesuits](Jesuit China missions) adapted to Chinese expectations, evangelized from the top down, adopted the robes and lifestyles of literati, becoming proficient in the Confucian classics, and did not challenge Chinese moral values, such as ancestor veneration. They proved their value to the early Manchu emperors with their work in gunnery, cartography, and astronomy, but fell out of favor for a time until the Kangxi Emperor's 1692 edict of toleration. In the countryside, the newly arrived [Dominican](Dominican Order) and [Franciscan](Franciscan) clerics established rural communities that adapted to local folk religious practices by emphasizing healing, festivals, and holy days rather than sacraments and doctrine. By the beginning of the eighteenth century, a spectrum of Christian believers had established communities. In 1724, the [Emperor](Yongzheng)(Yongzheng Emperor) (1678–1735) announced that Christianity was a "heterodox teaching" and hence proscribed. Since the European Catholic missionaries kept control in their own hands and had not allowed the creation of a native clergy, however, the number of Catholics would grow more rapidly after 1724 and local communities could set their own rules and standards. In 1811, Christian religious activities were further criminalized by the [Emperor](Jiaqing)(Jiaqing Emperor) (1760–1820). The imperial ban was lifted by Treaty in 1846.
The first Protestant missionary to China was [Morrison](Robert)(Robert Morrison (missionary)) (1782–1834) of the [Missionary Society](London)(London Missionary Society) (LMS), who arrived at Canton on September 6, 1807. He completed a translation of the entire Bible in 1819. [Afa](Liang)(Liang Fa) (1789–1855), a Morrison-trained Chinese convert, branched out the evangelization mission in inner China. The two [Wars](Opium)(Opium Wars) (1839–1860) marked the watershed of Protestant Christian missions. The 1842 [of Nanjing](Treaty)(Treaty of Nanjing), the American treaty and the French treaty signed in 1844, and the 1858 Treaty of Tianjin, distinguished Christianity from the local religions and granted it protected status. Chinese popular cults, such as the [Lotus](White)(White Lotus) and the Eight Trigram, presented themselves as Christian to share this protection.
In the late 1840s [Xiuquan](Hong)(Hong Xiuquan) read Morrison's Chinese Bible, as well as Liang Afa's evangelistic pamphlet, and announced to his followers that Christianity in fact had been the religion of ancient China before Confucius and his followers drove it out. He formed the [Movement](Taiping)(Taiping Rebellion), which emerged in South China as a "collusion of the Chinese tradition of millenarian rebellion and Christian messianism", "apocalyptic revolution, Christianity, and 'communist utopianism'".
After 1860, enforcement of the treaties allowed missionaries to spread their evangelization efforts outside Treaty Ports. Their presence created cultural and political opposition. Historian [K. Fairbank](John)(John K. Fairbank) observed that "[t]o the scholar-gentry, Christian missionaries were foreign subversives, whose immoral conduct and teaching were backed by gunboats".. In the next decades, there were 800 some conflicts between village Christians and non-Christians (''jiao'an'') mostly about non-religious issues, such as land rights or local taxes, but religious conflict often behind such cases. In the summer of 1900, as foreign powers contemplated the division of China, village youths, known as Boxers, who practiced Chinese martial arts and spiritual practices, reacted against Western power and churches, attacked and murdered Chinese Christians and foreign missionaries in the [Uprising](Boxer)(Boxer Uprising). The imperialist powers once again invaded and imposed a substantial [indemnity](Boxer Indemnity). The Beijing government reacted by implementing substantial fiscal and administrative reforms but this defeat convinced many among the educated elites that popular religion was an obstacle to China's development as a modern nation, and some turned to Christianity as a spiritual tool to build one.
By 1900, there were about 1,400 Catholic priests and nuns in China serving nearly 1 million Catholics. Over 3,000 Protestant missionaries were active among the 250,000 Protestant Christians in China. Western medical [missionaries](Mission (Christian)) established clinics and hospitals, and led medical training in China. Missionaries began establishing nurse training schools in the late 1880s, but nursing of sick men by women was rejected by local tradition, so the number of students was small until the 1930s.
## Economy
[[File:1 dragon dollar Qing dynasty - 1911.png|thumb|260px|[coin](Silver)(Silver coin): 1 yuan/dollar [Xuantong](Xuantong) 3rd year – 1911 [Chopmark](Chop marks on coins)]]
[[Fēng Tōng Bǎo (咸豐通寶) 1850–1861 Qing Dynasty cash coin.png|thumb|upright|right|Xián Fēng Tōng Bǎo (咸豐通寶) 1850–1861 Qing dynasty copper (brass) cash coin](File:Xián)]
By the end of the 17th century, the Chinese economy had recovered from the devastation caused by the wars in which the [dynasty](Ming)(Ming dynasty) were overthrown, and the resulting breakdown of order. In the following century, markets continued to expand as in the late Ming period, but with more trade between regions, a greater dependence on overseas markets and a greatly increased population. By the end of the 18th century the population had risen to 300 million from approximately 150 million during the late Ming dynasty. The dramatic rise in population was due to several reasons, including the long period of peace and stability in the 18th century and the import of new crops China received from the Americas, including peanuts, sweet potatoes and maize. New species of rice from [Asia](Southeast)(Southeast Asia) led to a huge increase in production. Merchant guilds proliferated in all of the growing Chinese cities and often acquired great social and even political influence. Rich merchants with official connections built up huge fortunes and patronized literature, theater and the arts. Textile and handicraft production boomed.
The government broadened land ownership by returning land that had been sold to large landowners in the late Ming period by families unable to pay the land tax. To give people more incentives to participate in the market, they reduced the tax burden in comparison with the late Ming, and replaced the [corvée](corvée) system with a head tax used to hire laborers. The administration of the [Canal](Grand)(Grand Canal (China)) was made more efficient, and transport opened to private merchants. A system of monitoring grain prices eliminated severe shortages, and enabled the price of rice to rise slowly and smoothly through the 18th century. Wary of the power of wealthy merchants, Qing rulers limited their trading licenses and usually refused them permission to open new mines, except in poor areas. These restrictions on domestic resource exploration, as well as on foreign trade, are [by some scholars](held)(Qing conquest theory) as a cause of the [Divergence](Great)(Great Divergence), by which the [world](Western)(Western world) overtook China economically.
During the Ming–Qing period (1368–1911) the biggest development in the Chinese economy was its transition from a command to a market economy, the latter becoming increasingly more pervasive throughout the Qing's rule.}} From roughly 1550 to 1800 China proper experienced a second commercial revolution, developing naturally from the first commercial revolution of the [Song](Song dynasty) period which saw the emergence of long-distance inter-regional trade of luxury goods. During the second commercial revolution, for the first time, a large percentage of farming households began producing crops for sale in the local and national markets rather than for their own consumption or barter in the traditional economy. Surplus crops were placed onto the national market for sale, integrating farmers into the commercial economy from the ground up. This naturally led to regions specializing in certain cash-crops for export as China's economy became increasingly reliant on inter-regional trade of bulk staple goods such as cotton, grain, beans, vegetable oils, forest products, animal products, and fertilizer.}}
### Silver
Silver entered in large quantities from mines in the [World](New)(New World) after the Spanish conquered the Philippines in the 1570s. The re-opening of the southeast coast, which had been closed in the late 17th century, quickly revived trade, which expanded at 4% per annum throughout the latter part of the 18th century. China continued to export tea, silk and manufactures, creating a large, favorable [balance](trade)(Balance of trade) with the West. The resulting expansion of the money supply supported competitive and stable markets. During the mid-Ming China had gradually shifted to silver as the standard currency for large scale transactions and by the late [Kangxi](Kangxi Emperor) reign the assessment and collection of the land tax was done in silver. Landlords began only accepting rent payments in silver rather than in crops themselves, which in turn incentivized farmers to produce crops for sale in local and national markets rather than for their own personal consumption or barter.}} Unlike the copper coins, *qian* or cash, used mainly for smaller transactions, silver was not reliably minted into a coin but rather was traded in units of weight: the *liang* or *tael*, which equaled roughly 1.3 ounces of silver. A third-party had to be brought in to assess the weight and purity of the silver, resulting in an extra "meltage fee" added on to the price of transaction. Furthermore, since the "meltage fee" was unregulated until the reign of the [emperor](Yongzheng)(Yongzheng Emperor) it was the source of much corruption at each level of the bureaucracy. The Yongzheng emperor cracked down on the corrupt "meltage fees," legalizing and regulating them so that they could be collected as a tax, "returning meltage fees to the public coffer." From this newly increased public coffer, the Yongzheng emperor increased the salaries of the officials who collected them, further legitimizing silver as the standard currency of the Qing economy.}}
### Urbanization and the proliferation of market-towns
The second commercial revolution also had a profound effect on the dispersion of the Qing populace. Up until the late Ming there existed a stark contrast between the rural countryside and city metropoles and very few mid-sized cities existed. This was due to the fact that extraction of surplus crops from the countryside was traditionally done by the state and not commercial organizations. However, as commercialization expanded in the late-Ming and early-Qing, mid-sized cities began popping up to direct the flow of domestic, commercial trade. Some towns of this nature had such a large volume of trade and merchants flowing through them that they developed into full-fledged market-towns. Some of these more active market-towns even developed into small-cities and became home to the new rising merchant-class.}} The proliferation of these mid-sized cities was only made possible by advancements in long-distance transportation and methods of communication. As more and more Chinese-citizens were travelling the country conducting trade they increasingly found themselves in a far-away place needing a place to stay, in response the market saw the expansion of guild halls to house these merchants.}}
[[File:Puankhequa_oil_painting_on_a_mirror.jpg|thumb|upright|[Puankhequa](Puankhequa) (1714–1788). Chinese merchant and member of a [Cohong](Cohong) family.]]
Full-fledged trade guilds emerged, which, among other things, issued regulatory codes and price schedules, and provided a place for travelling merchants to stay and conduct their business. Along with the *huiguan* trade guilds, guild halls dedicated to more specific professions, *gongsuo*, began to appear and to control commercial craft or artisanal industries such as carpentry, weaving, banking, and medicine.}} By the nineteenth century guild halls worked to transform urban areas into cosmopolitan, multi-cultural hubs, staged theatre performances open to general public, developed real estate by pooling funds together in the style of a trust, and some even facilitated the development of social services such as maintaining streets, water supply, and sewage facilities.}}
### Trade with the West
In 1685, the Kangxi emperor legalized private maritime trade along the coast, establishing a series of customs stations in major port cities. The customs station at [Canton](Guangzhou) became by far the most active in foreign trade; by the late Kangxi reign, more than forty mercantile houses specializing in trade with [West](the)(Western world) had appeared. The Yongzheng emperor made a parent corporation comprising those forty individual houses in 1725 known as the [Cohong](Cohong) system. Firmly established by 1757, the [Cohong](Canton)(Cohong) was an association of thirteen business firms that had been awarded exclusive rights to conduct trade with Western merchants in Canton. Until its abolition after the [War](Opium)(First Opium War) in 1842, the Canton Cohong system was the only permitted avenue of Western trade into China, and thus became a booming hub of international trade by the early eighteenth century.}} By the eighteenth century, the most significant export China had was tea. British demand for tea increased exponentially up until they figured out how to grow it for themselves in the hills of northern India in the 1880s. By the end of the eighteenth century, tea exports going through the Canton Cohong system amounted to one-tenth of the revenue from taxes collected from the British and nearly the entire revenue of the British East India Company; in fact, until the early nineteenth century tea, comprised ninety percent of exports leaving Canton.}}
### Revenue
#### 1735-1893
The recorded revenues of the central Qing government increased little over the course of the 18th and early 19th century from 36,106,483 taels in 1725 to 43,343,978 taels in 1812 before declining to 38,600,570 taels in 1841, the land tax was the principal source of revenue for the central government with the salt, customs and poll taxes being important seconday sources. Following the [wars](Opium)(Opium Wars) and the opening of China to foreign trade and the mid-century rebellions against the Qing 2 further important sources of revenue were added the foreign maritime customs revenue and the [likin](Likin (taxation)) revenue though only 20% of the likin revenue was actually given by the provinces to Hu Pu ([of revenue](board)(Ministry of Revenue (imperial China))) in Beijing the rest remaining in provincial hands, the Hu Pu also managed to raise some miscellaneous taxes and increased the rate of the salt tax these measures doubled revenue by the late 19th century, this however was insufficient for the central government which was facing numerous crises and wars during the period and 9 foreign loans amounting to 40mil taels were contracted by the Qing government prior to 1890.
It was estimated in the 1850s that wages around the capital of Beijing and the Yangtze delta region for a farmer was between 0.99-1.02 taels a month assuming every day was worked this would amount to roughly 12 taels a year with over 400,000,000 citizens in 1890 the level of taxation was extremely low.
*Fairbank provides an average of the early 1890s
**Taizu provides data specifically for 1894
Pao Chao gives a record of revenues and expenditures in 1887:
*1,000 copper coins to 1 tael was the official rate
**not explicity stated
#### 1894-1912
It is important to note that the revenue and expediture detailed above concerns that only of the central government in Beijing. There have been estimates of total national revenue the Financial Reorganisation bureau of the Dynasty (established in 1909) estimated total revenue to be 292,000,000 taels H.B. Morse estimated in the early 1900s a total of 284,150,000 taels of which 99,062,000 taels was spent by the Central government, 142,374,000 taels by the provincial governments and the remainder by the local government. In 1911 the Consultative assembly estimated total revenue to be 301,910,297 taels. Included in this figure was over 44,000,000 taels from the Likin of which only 13,000,000 was reported to Beijing.
The Qing government during and following the First Sino-Japanese war increasingly took on loans to meet its expenditure requirements a total of 746,220,453 taels of which slightly over 330,000,000 taels was for Railway construction and the repayment to come from the revenues of the railways themselves thus these loans did not burden the central government finances. A relatively small sum of just over 25,500,000 taels was borrowed for industrial projects, over 5,000,000 taels for Telegraph lines with less than 1,000,000 taels for miscellaneous purposes. The remainder was primarily for the costs of the Sino-Japanese war and the indemnity in the Treaty of Shimonoseki amounting to over 382,000,000 taels.
It is noted by Taizu that these figures for formal taxation only amounted to half of the total taxation and therefore revenue of the government with these surcharges being levied at a local level by local officials who found the level of taxation far too low to support even basic governance this is despite the ability to levy surcharges belonging solely to the central government.
## Science and technology
Chinese scholars, court academies, and local officials carried on late Ming dynasty strengths in [astronomy](Chinese astronomy#Astronomy during Ming China), [mathematics](Chinese mathematics), and [geography](Chinese geography), as well as technologies in [ceramics](Chinese ceramics), [metallurgy](History of metallurgy in China), [transport](water)(History of transport in China), [printing](History of printing in East Asia). Contrary to stereotypes in some Western writing, 16th and 17th century Qing dynasty officials and literati eagerly explored the technology and science introduced by [missionaries](Jesuit)(History of science and technology in China#Jesuit activity in China). Manchu leaders employed Jesuits to use cannon and gunpowder to great effect in the conquest of China, and the court sponsored their research in astronomy. The aim of these efforts, however, was to reform and improve inherited science and technology, not to replace it. Scientific knowledge advanced during the Qing, but there was not a change in the way this knowledge was organized or the way scientific evidence was defined or its truth tested. Those who studied the physical universe shared their findings with each other and identified themselves as men of science, but they did not have a separate and independent professional role with its own training and advancement. They were still literati.
The [Wars](Opium)(Opium Wars), however, demonstrated the power of steam engine and military technology that had only recently been put into practice in the West. During the [Movement](Self-Strengthening)(Self-Strengthening Movement) of the 1860s and 1870s Confucian officials in several coastal provinces established an industrial base in military technology. The introduction of [into China](railroads)(History of rail transport in China) raised questions that were more political than technological. A British company built the Shanghai–Woosung line in 1876, obtaining the land under false pretenses, and it was soon torn up. Court officials feared local public opinion and that railways would help invaders, harm farmlands, and obstruct [shui](feng)(feng shui). To keep development in Chinese hands, the Qing government borrowed 34 billion taels of silver from foreign lenders for railway construction between 1894 and 1911. As late as 1900, only were in operation, with a further in the planning stage. Finally, of railway was completed. The British and French after 1905 were finally able to open lines to Burma and Vietnam.
Protestant missionaries by the 1830s translated and printed Western science and medical textbooks. The textbooks found homes in the rapidly enlarging network of missionary schools, and universities. The textbooks opened learning open possibilities for the small number of Chinese students interested in science, and a very small number interested in technology. After 1900, Japan had a greater role in bringing modern science and technology to Chinese audiences but even then they reached chiefly the children of the rich landowning gentry, who seldom engaged in industrial careers.
## Arts and culture
[[Plum and Cranes.jpg|thumb|upright|*Pine, Plum and Cranes*, 1759, by Shen Quan (1682–1760).](File:Pine,)]
Under the Qing, inherited forms of art flourished and innovations occurred at many levels and in many types. High levels of literacy, a successful publishing industry, prosperous cities, and the Confucian emphasis on cultivation all fed a lively and creative set of cultural fields.
By the end of the nineteenth century, national artistic and cultural worlds had begun to come to terms with the cosmopolitan culture of the West and Japan. The decision to stay within old forms or welcome Western models was now a conscious choice rather than an unchallenged acceptance of tradition. Classically trained Confucian scholars such as [Qichao](Liang)(Liang Qichao) and [Guowei](Wang)(Wang Guowei) read widely and broke aesthetic and critical ground later cultivated in the [Culture Movement](New)(New Culture Movement).
### Fine arts
[[File:Imperial Yellow Peking Glass Vase.jpg|thumb|upright|left|A [Daoguang](Daoguang Emperor) period [glass](Peking)(Peking glass) vase. Colored in "Imperial Yellow", due to its association with the Qing.]]
The Qing emperors were generally adept at poetry and often skilled in painting, and offered their patronage to Confucian culture. The Kangxi and Qianlong Emperors, for instance, embraced Chinese traditions both to control them and to proclaim their own legitimacy. The Kangxi Emperor sponsored the *[Yunfu](Peiwen)(Peiwen Yunfu)*, a rhyme dictionary published in 1711, and the *[Dictionary](Kangxi)(Kangxi Dictionary)* published in 1716, which remains to this day an authoritative reference. The Qianlong Emperor sponsored the largest collection of writings in Chinese history, the *[Quanshu](Siku)(Siku Quanshu)*, completed in 1782. Court painters made new versions of the Song masterpiece, [Zeduan](Zhang)(Zhang Zeduan)'s *[the River During the Qingming Festival](Along)(Along the River During the Qingming Festival)*, whose depiction of a prosperous and happy realm demonstrated the beneficence of the emperor. The emperors undertook tours of the south and commissioned monumental scrolls to depict the grandeur of the occasion. Columbia University |url=http://www.learn.columbia.edu/nanxuntu/start.html |access-date=2020-05-17 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121220222345/http://learn.columbia.edu/nanxuntu/start.html |archive-date=20 December 2012}} [painting](Chinese)(Chinese painting) Imperial patronage also encouraged the industrial production of [ceramics](Chinese ceramics) and [export porcelain](Chinese)(Chinese export porcelain). [glass](Peking)(Peking glass)ware became popular after European glass making processes were introduced by Jesuits to Beijing.Boda, Yang. *Study of glass wares from the Qing Dynasty (1644–1911).* 1983.
Yet the most impressive aesthetic works were done among the scholars and urban elite. [Calligraphy](Chinese calligraphy) and [painting](Chinese painting) remained a central interest to both court painters and [scholar-gentry](Scholar-official) who considered the [arts](four)(four arts) part of their cultural identity and social standing. The painting of the [years of the dynasty](early)(Chinese art#Early Qing painting) included such painters as the orthodox [Wangs](Four)(Four Wangs) and the individualists [Shanren](Bada)(Bada Shanren) (1626–1705) and [Shitao](Shitao) (1641–1707). The nineteenth century saw such innovations as the [School](Shanghai)(Shanghai School) and the Lingnan School, which used the technical skills of tradition to set the stage for modern painting.
### Traditional learning and literature
Traditional learning flourished, especially among Ming loyalists such as [Zhen](Dai)(Dai Zhen) and [Yanwu](Gu)(Gu Yanwu), but scholars in the school of [learning](evidential)(Kaozheng) made innovations in skeptical textual scholarship. Scholar-bureaucrats, including [Zexu](Lin)(Lin Zexu) and [Yuan](Wei)(Wei Yuan), developed a school of [statecraft](practical)(He Changling) which rooted bureaucratic reform and restructuring in classical philosophy.
[[File:Jade book-IMG 4433 4434 4435 4436-white.jpg|thumb|left|upright=1.5|Jade book of the [Qianlong](Qianlong Emperor) period on display at the [Museum](British)(British Museum)]]
Philosophy and [literature](Chinese literature) grew to new heights in the Qing period. [Poetry](Qing poetry) continued as a mark of the cultivated gentleman, but women wrote in larger and larger numbers and [poets](:Category:Qing dynasty poets) came from all walks of life. The poetry of the Qing dynasty is a lively field of research, being studied (along with the [of the Ming dynasty](poetry)(Ming poetry)) for its association with [opera](Chinese)(Chinese opera), developmental trends of [Chinese poetry](Classical)(Classical Chinese poetry), the transition to a greater role for [language](vernacular)(Written vernacular Chinese), and for poetry by [women](Women in ancient and imperial China#Qing dynasty). The Qing dynasty was a period of literary editing and criticism, and many of the modern popular versions of Classical Chinese poems were transmitted through Qing dynasty anthologies, such as the [Tangshi](Quan)(Quan Tangshi) and the *[Hundred Tang Poems](Three)(Three Hundred Tang Poems)*. Although fiction did not have the prestige of poetry, novels flourished. [Songling](Pu)(Pu Songling) brought the short story to a new level in his *[Tales from a Chinese Studio](Strange)(Strange Tales from a Chinese Studio)*, published in the mid-18th century, and [Fu](Shen)(Shen Fu) demonstrated the charm of the informal memoir in *[Chapters of a Floating Life](Six)(Six Records of a Floating Life)*, written in the early 19th century but published only in 1877. The art of the novel reached a pinnacle in [Xueqin](Cao)(Cao Xueqin)'s *[of the Red Chamber](Dream)(Dream of the Red Chamber)*, but its combination of social commentary and psychological insight were echoed in highly skilled novels such as [Jingzi](Wu)(Wu Jingzi)'s *[Scholars](The)(The Scholars (novel))* (1750) and [Ruzhen](Li)(Li Ruzhen)'s *[in the Mirror](Flowers)(Flowers in the Mirror)* (1827). [[by Wang Gai 1694.tiff|thumb|upright|Landscape by Wang Gai, 1694](File:Landscape)]
### Cuisine
[Cuisine](History of Chinese cuisine#History) aroused a cultural pride in the richness of a long and varied past. The gentleman gourmet, such as [Mei](Yuan)(Yuan Mei#Yuan as a gastronome), applied aesthetic standards to the art of cooking, eating, and appreciation of [tea](Chinese tea culture) at a time when [World crops and products](New)(Columbian Exchange) entered everyday life. Yuan's *[Shidan](Suiyuan)(Suiyuan Shidan)* expounded culinary aesthetics and theory, along with a range of recipes. The [Imperial Feast](Manchu–Han)(Manchu–Han Imperial Feast) originated at the court. Although this banquet was probably never common, it reflected an appreciation of Manchu culinary customs.Reprinted in Nevertheless, culinary traditionalists such as Yuan Mei lambasted the opulence of the Manchu Han Feast. Yuan wrote that the feast was caused in part by the "vulgar habits of bad chefs" and that "displays this trite are useful only for welcoming new relations through one's gates or when the boss comes to visit". (皆惡廚陋習。只可用之於新親上門，上司入境)
## Historiography and memory
### Nationalism
After 1912, writers, scholars and popular opinion in China and abroad generally deprecated Qing rule, blaming it for China's weakness in the [of Humiliation](Century)(Century of Humiliation) and [of the Manchus](racism)(Manchu nationalism) against other peoples of China. However, in the 21st century, a favorable view has emerged in popular culture, and some nationalists have even portrayed Imperial China as benevolent, strong and more advanced than the West. They blame ugly wars and diplomatic controversies on imperialist exploitation by Western nations and Japan. Although officially still communist and Maoist, in practice China's rulers have used this grassroots settlement to proclaim that their current policies are restoring China's historical glory.Haiyang Yu, "Glorious memories of imperial China and the rise of Chinese populist nationalism." *Journal of Contemporary China* 23.90 (2014): 1174–1187. [Communist Party](Chinese)(Communist Party of China) [Secretary](General)(General Secretary of the Communist Party of China) [Jinping](Xi)(Xi Jinping) has sought parity between Beijing and Washington and promised to restore China to its historical glory.
### New Qing History
The **New Qing History** is a [revisionist](Historical revisionism) historiographical trend starting in the mid-1990s emphasizing the Manchu nature of the dynasty. Earlier historians had emphasized the power of [Chinese](Han)(Han Chinese) to "[sinicize](sinicization)" their [conquerors](Conquest dynasty), that is, to assimilate and make them Chinese in their thought and institutions. In the 1980s and early 1990s, American scholars began to learn Manchu and took advantage of newly opened Chinese- and Manchu-language documents in the archives. In addition, a general growing interest in ethnicity led to fresh understandings of non-Han peoples in Chinese politics and society, which was also part of a rethinking of how the modern Chinese nation-state developed, a rethinking not based on received ideas of Han superiority. This new research found that the Manchu rulers manipulated their subjects and from the 1630s through at least the 18th century, emperors developed a sense of Manchu identity and used [Asia](Central)(Central Asia)n models of rule as much as they did [Confucian](Confucianism) ones. They argue that the Manchu rulers regarded "China" as only a part, although a very important part, of [much wider empire that extended into](a)(Qing dynasty in Inner Asia) the [Asia](Inner)(Inner Asia)n territories of Mongolia, Tibet, [Manchuria](Northeast China) and [Xinjiang](Xinjiang).
[Ho](Ping-ti)(Ping-ti Ho) criticized the new approach for exaggerating the Manchu character of the dynasty, which he argued had become sinified. Some scholars in China accused the American group of imposing American concerns with race and identity or even of imperialist misunderstanding to weaken China. Still others in China agree that this scholarship has opened new vistas for the study of Qing history.
The "New Qing History" is not related to the *New Qing History*, a multi-volume history authorized by the [State Council](Chinese)(State Council of the People's Republic of China) in 2003.
## See also
*[sentiment](Anti-Qing)(Anti-Qing sentiment)
*[of humiliation](Century)(Century of humiliation)
*[in China](Christianity)(Christianity in China)
*[of Qing officials](Costumes)(Mandarin square)
*''[Chinese of the Ch'ing Period](Eminent)(Eminent Chinese of the Ch'ing Period)''
*[relations of the Qing dynasty](Foreign)(Foreign relations of imperial China#Early Qing dynasty)
*[of China](History)(History of China)
*[Chinese harem system](Imperial)(Imperial Chinese harem system)
*[relations (1814–1919)](International)(International relations (1814–1919))
*[during the Qing dynasty](Islam)(Islam during the Qing dynasty)
*[of emperors of the Qing dynasty](List)(List of emperors of the Qing dynasty)
*[of rebellions in China](List)(List of rebellions in China)
*[of recipients of tribute from China](List)(List of recipients of tribute from China)
*[of Chinese monarchs](List)(List of Chinese monarchs)
*[under Qing rule](Manchuria)(Manchuria under Qing rule)
*[history of China before 1911](Military)(Military history of China before 1911)
*[under Qing rule](Mongolia)(Mongolia under Qing rule)
*[of the Qing dynasty](Names)(Names of the Qing dynasty)
*[Qing History](New)(New Qing History)
*[emperors' family tree](Qing)(Chinese emperors family tree (late)#Qing dynasty)
*[dynasty in Inner Asia](Qing)(Qing dynasty in Inner Asia)
*[official headwear](Qing)(Qing official headwear)
**[Rise and Fall of Qing Dynasty](The)(The Rise and Fall of Qing Dynasty)*
*[and noble ranks of the Qing dynasty](Royal)(Royal and noble ranks of the Qing dynasty)
*[under Qing rule](Taiwan)(Taiwan under Qing rule)
*[under Qing rule](Tibet)(Tibet under Qing rule)
*[of Chinese history](Timeline)(Timeline of Chinese history)
*[of late anti-Qing rebellions](Timeline)(Timeline of late anti-Qing rebellions)
*[under Qing rule](Xinjiang)(Xinjiang under Qing rule)
## Notes
## References
### Citations
### Sources
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* Available at Digital Access to Scholarship at Harvard [HERE](https://dash.harvard.edu/bitstream/handle/1/27409233/Elliott_LIC_Manchu_Language_Archives_and_Palace_Memorial_System.pdf?sequence=4)
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## Further reading
General studies. For works on specific topics, please see the article on that topic.
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*
*Morse, Hosea Ballou. *The international relations of the Chinese empire*
***[Vol. I: The period of conflict, 1834–1860](https://archive.org/details/internationalrel01mors)* (1910)
***[Vol. II: The period of submission, 1861–1893](https://archive.org/details/internationalrel1917mors2)* (1918)
***[Vol. III: The period of subjection, 1894–1911](https://archive.org/details/internationalrel1917mors3)* (1918)
*
*
*
*
*
* Legible color maps.
*
*
*
### Primary source collections and reference
* Lists bureaucratic structure and offices, with standard translations.
* (2 vol); reprinted: Leiden: Brill, 2010); revised ed: *Eminent Chinese of the Qing Period*; Wade–Giles converted to *pinyin*; Introductory matter by Pamela Kyle Crossley (Great Barrington, MA: Berkshire, 2018 ). 800 biographical articles on people who died 1644 to 1912. [Vol 1 of 1943 edition Internet Archive](https://archive.org/details/eminentchineseof0001unse/page/n3/mode/2up); [Vol 2 Internet Archive](https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.280002)
*
*
*
*
### Historiography
* Chapters on: The problem with "China's response to the West"Moving beyond "Tradition and modernity"Imperialism: reality or myth?Toward a China-centered history of China.
*
*
* Still useful for discussion of issues, schools of interpretation, and published sources.
*
*Rawski, Evelyn S. "The Qing in Historiographical Dialogue." *Late Imperial China* (2016) 37#1 pp 1–4 [summary online](https://muse.jhu.edu/article/621793/summary)
* Discusses developments in scholarship on 18th century history published after 2000.
*
*
* Covers the New Qing History approach that arose in the U.S. in the 1980s and the responses to it.
*
## External links
*Section on the Ming and Qing dynasties of "[China's Population: Readings and Maps](http://afe.easia.columbia.edu/special/china_1950_population.htm)."
*[Collection: "Manchu, Qing Dynasty"](https://exchange.umma.umich.edu/resources/23945) from the [of Michigan Museum of Art](University)(University of Michigan Museum of Art)
*[Qing Dynasty resource](https://www.vmfa.museum/learn/resources/pre-visit-evans-dlp-qing-dynasty-export-porcelain/) at the [Museum of Fine Arts](Virginia)(Virginia Museum of Fine Arts)
[ ](Category:Qing dynasty)
[of China](Category:Dynasties)(Category:Dynasties of China)
[countries in Chinese history](Category:Former)(Category:Former countries in Chinese history)
[monarchies](Category:Former)(Category:Former monarchies)
[monarchies of Asia](Category:Former)(Category:Former monarchies of Asia)
[of Manchuria](Category:History)(Category:History of Manchuria)
[of Mongolia](Category:History)(Category:History of Mongolia)
[*02](Category:17th century in China)
[*](Category:18th century in China)
[*](Category:19th century in China)
[*](Category:20th century in China)
[and territories established in 1636](Category:States)(Category:States and territories established in 1636)
[and territories established in 1644](Category:States)(Category:States and territories established in 1644)
[and territories disestablished in 1912](Category:States)(Category:States and territories disestablished in 1912)
[establishments in China](Category:1644)(Category:1644 establishments in China)
[disestablishments in China](Category:1912)(Category:1912 disestablishments in China)
[containing video clips](Category:Articles)(Category:Articles containing video clips)
|
IOS version history
|
ios_version_history
|
# IOS version history
*Revision ID: 1159237612 | Timestamp: 2023-06-09T03:54:11Z*
---
[iOS](iOS) is a mobile operating system developed by [Inc.](Apple)(Apple Inc.) and was first released as [OS](iPhone)(iPhone OS 1) in June 2007, coinciding with the launch of the [generation iPhone](first)(iPhone (1st generation)). iPhone OS was renamed iOS following the release of the iPad, starting with iOS 4. With iOS 13, Apple began offering a separate operating system, [iPadOS](iPadOS), for the iPad. iOS is also the foundation of the newer [audioOS](audioOS) and [tvOS](tvOS), and shares some of its code with [macOS](macOS). New iOS versions are released every year alongside new iPhone models. From its launch in 2007 until 2010, this occurred in June or July, since then, new major versions are released in September or October. Since the launch of the iPhone in June 2007, there have been 16 major releases of iOS. The current major version of iOS is iOS 16, released in September 2022.
## Overview
## Releases
### iPhone OS 1
Apple announced iPhone OS 1 at the iPhone keynote on January 9, 2007, and it was released to the public alongside the first-generation [iPhone](iPhone) on June 29, 2007. No official name was given when the iPhone was released, and Steve Jobs just said "iPhone runs [X](OS)(MacOS)". During the development phase of iPhone OS 1, "probably 16, 17 different concepts" were developed. Many on the team were skeptical of the feasibility of a touchscreen keyboard, and believed that users would prefer hardware keyboards. A number of different user interfaces were prototyped, including one that involved a multi-touch click-wheel.
iPhone OS 1 was criticized for its lack of support for [Flash](Adobe)(Adobe Flash) web content, copy and paste, and [Bluetooth](Bluetooth) stereo headphones. It also lacked support for third-party native apps, and only supported web apps, which was criticized by reviewers and developers, including [Carmack](John)(John Carmack).
iPhone OS 1.1 was the first version supported by the [generation iPod Touch](first)(iPod Touch (1st generation)). iPhone OS 1.1.4 is the final version of iPhone OS 1 for the first generation iPhone, with iPhone OS 1.1.5 being the final version of iPhone OS 1 available for the first generation iPod Touch. It was succeeded by [OS 2](iPhone)(iPhone OS 2) on July 11, 2008.
### iPhone OS 2
Apple announced iPhone OS 2 at a March 6 keynote, and it was released to the public on July 11, 2008, alongside the [3G](iPhone)(iPhone 3G).
iPhone OS 2 was the first release to have the [Store](App)(App Store (iOS/iPadOS)) and to come with an official iPhone SDK allowing third-party developers to create native iPhone apps. It also added many enterprise features, including [Exchange](Microsoft)(Microsoft Exchange Server) support through [ActiveSync](ActiveSync) for push emails, push contact and push calendars, and support for [IPsec](IPsec) VPNs.
Apple did not drop support for any of its devices with the release; iPhone OS 2 was compatible with all devices released up to that time. The release of iPhone OS 2.1.1 brought support for the [generation iPod Touch](second)(iPod Touch (2nd generation)). iPhone OS 2.2.1 is the final version of iPhone OS 2. It was succeeded by [OS 3](iPhone)(iPhone OS 3) on June 17, 2009.
### iPhone OS 3
Apple announced iPhone OS 3 on March 17, 2009, and it was released to the public on June 17, 2009, alongside the [3GS](iPhone)(iPhone 3GS). Apple did not drop support for any devices with this release. iPhone OS 3 was compatible with all devices released up to that time, but not all features were available on the [iPhone](original)(iPhone (1st generation)). The final release supported on the original iPhone and [Touch (1st generation)](iPod)(iPod Touch (1st generation)) is iPhone OS 3.1.3. The first [iPad](iPad (1st generation)) was introduced along with iPhone OS 3.2. iPhone OS 3 was succeeded by [4](iOS)(iOS 4) on June 21, 2010.
iPhone OS 3 was the first version to support cut, copy and paste. The feature had previously only been available through [jailbreaking](iOS jailbreaking).
### iOS 4
Apple announced iOS 4 in April 2010, and released it to the public on June 21, 2010, alongside the [4](iPhone)(iPhone 4). It was the first version of the operating system to be called "iOS", due to the iPad being released. With this release, Apple dropped support for [original iPhone](the)(iPhone (1st generation)) and the [generation iPod Touch](first)(iPod Touch (1st generation)), which is the first time Apple had dropped support for any device in an iOS release. The [3G](iPhone)(iPhone 3G) and the [generation iPod Touch](second)(iPod Touch (2nd generation)) were capable of running iOS 4, but had more limited features. For example, both devices lacked multitasking, and the ability to set a custom home screen wallpaper. This was also the first major release to be free of charge for iPod Touch users. The release of iOS 4.2.1 brought compatibility to the [iPad](original)(iPad (1st generation)) and was the final release supported on the iPhone 3G and 2nd generation iPod Touch due to significant performance issues. The release of iOS 4.3 added support for the [2](iPad)(iPad 2). It was succeeded by [5](iOS)(iOS 5) on October 12, 2011.
### iOS 5
Apple announced iOS 5 on June 6, 2011, at its annual [Developers Conference](Worldwide)(Worldwide Developers Conference) (WWDC) event, and it was released to the public on October 12, 2011, alongside the [4S](iPhone)(iPhone 4S). With this release, Apple did not drop support for these devices, though support for the [3G](iPhone)(iPhone 3G) and the [Touch (2nd generation)](iPod)(iPod Touch (2nd generation)) had already been dropped with iOS 4.3 seven months earlier due to hardware limitations and performance issues. The release of iOS 5.1 brought support for the [(3rd generation)](iPad)(iPad (3rd generation)). iOS 5.1.1 was the final release supported for the [(1st generation)](iPad)(iPad (1st generation)) and iPod Touch (3rd generation). iOS 5.0 was also the last iOS version announced while Steve Jobs was alive. It was succeeded by [6](iOS)(iOS 6) on September 19, 2012.
### iOS 6
Apple announced iOS 6 on June 11, 2012, at its annual Apple Worldwide Developers Conference (WWDC) event, and it was released to the public on September 19, 2012, alongside the [5](iPhone)(iPhone 5), [Touch (5th generation)](iPod)(iPod Touch (5th generation)), and [(4th generation)](iPad)(iPad (4th generation)). With this release, Apple dropped support for the [Touch (3rd generation)](iPod)(iPod Touch (3rd generation)) and the [(1st generation)](iPad)(iPad (1st generation)) due to performance issues, and offered only limited support on the [3GS](iPhone)(iPhone 3GS) and [Touch (4th generation)](iPod)(iPod Touch (4th generation)). The [4](iPhone)(iPhone 4) onwards, the iPod Touch (5th generation), the [2](iPad)(iPad 2) onwards, and the [Mini (1st generation)](iPad)(iPad Mini (1st generation)) were fully supported. iOS 6.1.6 was the final release supported for the iPhone 3GS and iPod Touch (4th generation). It was succeeded by [7](iOS)(iOS 7) on September 18, 2013.
### iOS 7
Apple announced iOS 7 on June 10, 2013, at its annual Apple Worldwide Developers Conference (WWDC) event, and it was released to the public on September 18, 2013, alongside the [5C](iPhone)(iPhone 5C) and [5S](iPhone)(iPhone 5S). With this release, Apple dropped support for the [3GS](iPhone)(iPhone 3GS) due to hardware limitations and the [Touch (4th generation)](iPod)(iPod Touch (4th generation)) due to performance issues. iOS 7 has limited support on the [2](iPad)(iPad 2) and the [4](iPhone)(iPhone 4) since they do not support Siri. However, other devices from the [4S](iPhone)(iPhone 4S) onwards, [Touch (5th generation)](iPod)(iPod Touch (5th generation)) onwards, the [(3rd generation)](iPad)(iPad (3rd generation)) onwards, and the [Mini (1st generation)](iPad)(iPad Mini (1st generation)) onwards were fully supported. The release of iOS 7.0.3 brought support for the [Air](iPad)(iPad Air) and [Mini 2](iPad)(iPad Mini 2). iOS 7.1.2 was the final release on the iPhone 4. iOS 7 is the first iOS version to support 64-bit processors. It is also the first iOS version to run 64-bit apps. It was succeeded by [8](iOS)(iOS 8) on June 2, 2014.
### iOS 8
Apple announced iOS 8 on June 2, 2014, at its annual Apple Worldwide Developers Conference (WWDC) event, and it was released to the public on September 17, 2014, alongside the [6](iPhone)(iPhone 6) and [6 Plus](iPhone)(iPhone 6 Plus). With this release, Apple dropped support for the [4](iPhone)(iPhone 4) due to performance issues, and the Apple TV (2nd generation) due to hardware limitations. iOS 8 has limited support on the [2](iPad)(iPad 2), [4S](iPhone)(iPhone 4S), [(3rd generation)](iPad)(iPad (3rd generation)), [Mini (1st generation)](iPad)(iPad Mini (1st generation)), and the [Touch (5th generation)](iPod)(iPod Touch (5th generation)), as Apple received widespread complaints of extremely poor performance from owners of these devices. All other devices from the [5](iPhone)(iPhone 5) onwards, [Touch (6th generation)](iPod)(iPod Touch (6th generation)) onwards, the [(4th generation)](iPad)(iPad (4th generation)) onwards, and the [Mini 2](iPad)(iPad Mini 2) onwards were fully supported. The release of iOS 8.1 brought support for the [Air 2](iPad)(iPad Air 2) and [Mini 3](iPad)(iPad Mini 3), and the release of iOS 8.4 brought support for the iPod Touch (6th generation). iOS 8.3 was the first version of iOS to have public beta testing available, where users could test the beta for upcoming releases of iOS and send feedback to Apple about bugs and issues. The final version of iOS 8 was iOS 8.4.1. iOS 8 was succeeded by [9](iOS)(iOS 9) on June 8, 2015.
### iOS 9
Apple announced iOS 9 on June 8, 2015, at its annual Apple Worldwide Developers Conference (WWDC) event, and it was released to the public on September 16, 2015, alongside the [6S](iPhone)(iPhone 6S), [6S Plus](iPhone)(iPhone 6S Plus) and [Mini 4](iPad)(iPad Mini 4). With this release, Apple did not drop support for any iOS devices, but support for Apple TV (3rd generation) has been dropped following the release due to 32-bit deprecations. Therefore, iOS 9 was supported on the [4S](iPhone)(iPhone 4S) onwards, [Touch (5th generation)](iPod)(iPod Touch (5th generation)) onwards, the [2](iPad)(iPad 2) onwards, and the [Mini (1st generation)](iPad)(iPad Mini (1st generation)) onwards. However, iOS 9 has limited support on devices with an [A5](Apple)(Apple A5) or [A5X](A5X) processor: the iPhone 4S, iPad 2, [(3rd generation)](iPad)(iPad (3rd generation)), iPad Mini (1st generation), and iPod Touch (5th generation). This release made the iPad 2 the first device to support six major releases of iOS, supporting iOS 4 through iOS 9. Despite Apple's promise of better performance on these devices, there were still widespread complaints that the issue had not been fixed. iOS 9.3.5 is the final release on the iPod Touch (5th generation), the Wi-Fi-only iPad 2, the Wi-Fi-only iPad (3rd generation), and the Wi-Fi-only iPad Mini (1st generation). iOS 9.3.6 is the final release on the iPhone 4S, the Wi-Fi + cellular iPad 2, the Wi-Fi + cellular iPad (3rd generation), and the Wi-Fi + cellular iPad Mini (1st generation). iOS 9 is the last version to run on iPhones and iPads with 30-pin connector. iOS 9 was succeeded by [10](iOS)(iOS 10) on September 10, 2016.
### iOS 10
Apple announced iOS 10 on June 13, 2016, at its annual Apple Worldwide Developers Conference (WWDC) event, and it was released to the public on September 13, 2016, alongside the [7](iPhone)(iPhone 7) and [7 Plus](iPhone)(iPhone 7 Plus). With this release, Apple dropped support for devices using an [A5](Apple A5) or [A5X](Apple A5X) processor: the [4S](iPhone)(iPhone 4S), the [2](iPad)(iPad 2), [(3rd generation)](iPad)(iPad (3rd generation)), [Mini (1st generation)](iPad)(iPad Mini (1st generation)), and [Touch (5th generation)](iPod)(iPod Touch (5th generation)) due to hardware limitations and performance issues, ending software support for iPhones and iPads with 30-pin connector and 3.5-inch display. iOS 10 has limited support on devices with 32-bit processors: the [5](iPhone)(iPhone 5), [5C](iPhone)(iPhone 5C), and [(4th generation)](iPad)(iPad (4th generation)). However, the [5S](iPhone)(iPhone 5S) onwards, [Touch (6th generation)](iPod)(iPod Touch (6th generation)), [Air](iPad)(iPad Air) onwards, and the [Mini 2](iPad)(iPad Mini 2) onwards are fully supported. The release of iOS 10.2.1 brought support for the [(5th generation)](iPad)(iPad (5th generation)), and iOS 10.3.2 brought support for the [Pro](iPad)(iPad Pro) (10.5-inch) and the iPad Pro (12.9-inch, 2nd generation). iOS 10.3.3 is the final supported release for the iPhone 5C and the Wi-Fi—only iPad (4th generation), while iOS 10.3.4 is the final supported release for the iPhone 5 and the iPad (4th generation) with cellular modem. iOS 10 is the final iOS version to run on 32-bit processors, including non–[ID](Touch)(Touch ID) iPhones and the final iOS version for devices with 64-bit processors to support [Vista](Windows)(Windows Vista). It is also the final version of iOS to run 32-bit apps. It was succeeded by [11](iOS)(iOS 11) on September 19, 2017.
### iOS 11
Apple announced iOS 11 on June 5, 2017, at its annual Apple Worldwide Developers Conference (WWDC) event, and it was released to the public on September 19, 2017, alongside the [8](iPhone)(iPhone 8) and [8 Plus](iPhone)(iPhone 8 Plus). With this release, Apple dropped support for the 32-bit [5](iPhone)(iPhone 5), [5C](iPhone)(iPhone 5C), and [(4th generation)](iPad)(iPad (4th generation)) and also for 32-bit applications. iOS 11 has limited support on devices with the Apple A7 or A8 processors: the iPhone 5S, iPhone 6, iPod Touch (6th generation), iPad Air, iPad Air 2, iPad Mini 2, 3, and 4. However, all other devices from the [6S](iPhone)(iPhone 6S) onwards, [SE (1st generation)](iPhone)(iPhone SE (1st generation)), [Pro](iPad)(iPad Pro), and [(5th generation)](iPad)(iPad (5th generation)) onwards are fully supported. iOS 11.0.1 brought support for the [X](iPhone)(iPhone X) and iOS 11.3 brought support for the [(6th generation)](iPad)(iPad (6th generation)). The final version of iOS 11 to be released was iOS 11.4.1. iOS 11 is the first version of iOS to only run on 64-bit processors. It is also the first iOS version to run only 64-bit apps; 32-bit apps are not supported on iOS 11 or later. It was succeeded by [12](iOS)(iOS 12) on September 17, 2018.
### iOS 12
Apple announced iOS 12 on June 4, 2018, at its annual Apple Worldwide Developers Conference (WWDC) event, and it was released to the public on September 17, 2018, alongside the [XS](iPhone)(iPhone XS), [XS Max](iPhone)(iPhone XS Max) and [XR](iPhone)(iPhone XR). With this release, Apple did not drop support for any iOS devices. Therefore, iOS 12 was supported on the [5S](iPhone)(iPhone 5S) onwards, [Touch (6th generation)](iPod)(iPod Touch (6th generation)), the [Air](iPad)(iPad Air) onwards and the [Mini 2](iPad)(iPad Mini 2) onwards. However, iOS 12 has limited support on devices with the [A7](Apple)(Apple A7) or [A8](Apple A8) processors: the [5S](iPhone)(iPhone 5S), [6](iPhone)(iPhone 6), [Touch (6th generation)](iPod)(iPod Touch (6th generation)), [Air](iPad)(iPad Air), [Air 2](iPad)(iPad Air 2), [Mini 2](iPad)(iPad Mini 2), [3](iPad Mini 3) and [4](iPad Mini 4). All other devices from the [6S](iPhone)(iPhone 6S) onwards, the [Air (2019)](iPad)(iPad Air (2019)), the [(5th generation)](iPad)(iPad (5th generation)) onwards and all [Pro](iPad)(iPad Pro) models are fully supported. iOS 12.1 brought support to the [Pro](iPad)(iPad Pro) (12.9-inch, 3rd generation) and iPad Pro (11-inch, 1st generation) and iOS 12.2 brought support to the [Mini (5th generation)](iPad)(iPad Mini (5th generation)) and [Air (3rd generation)](iPad)(iPad Air (3rd generation)). iOS 12.5.7 is the last supported release for the iPhone 5S, iPhone 6, iPhone 6 Plus, iPad Air (1st generation), iPad mini 2, iPad mini 3, and iPod touch (6th generation). It was the last version named "iOS" to run on iPads; it was succeeded by [13](iOS)(iOS 13) on iPhones and [13](iPadOS)(iPadOS 13) on iPads on September 19, 2019.
iOS 12 put a major focus on improving the performance of the operating system, especially on older iOS devices like the iPhone 6. Several areas that were focused on were the keyboard, made to appear up to 50% faster; app launch times, improved to be up to 40% faster; and the action to slide up to take a photo, made up to 70% faster. However, several new features were also introduced with the update, such as [Memoji](Implementation of emojis#Memoji), a feature that allows users to create "personalized emojis", a new Screen Time feature to track device usage, improvements to [Siri](Siri), Apple's [assistant](virtual)(virtual assistant), and Apple's book reading application, [Books](Apple)(Apple Books) (previously named iBooks), was given a significant redesign.
### iOS 13 / iPadOS 13
Apple announced iOS 13 on June 3, 2019, at its annual Apple Worldwide Developers Conference (WWDC) event, and it was released to the public on September 19, 2019, alongside the iPhone 11 series (11, 11 Pro, 11 Pro Max). The principal features include an option for dark mode and Memoji support for A9+ devices. The [NFC](Near-field communication) framework now supports reading several types of contactless smartcards and tags. The iPad gains several tablet-oriented features, and its operating system has been rebranded as [iPadOS](iPadOS); [13](iPadOS)(iPadOS 13) was announced at the 2019 WWDC as well. With this release, Apple dropped support for all devices with less than 2 GB of RAM, which included the [5S](iPhone)(iPhone 5S) and [6](iPhone)(iPhone 6), [iPod Touch](sixth-generation)(iPod Touch (6th generation)), [Mini 2](iPad)(iPad Mini 2), [Mini 3](iPad)(iPad Mini 3), and [Air](iPad)(iPad Air). iOS/iPadOS 13 has limited support on devices with the [A8](Apple A8)/[A8X](Apple A8X) chip (which are the [Air 2](iPad)(iPad Air 2) and [Mini 4](iPad)(iPad Mini 4)). However, all other devices from the [6S](iPhone)(iPhone 6S) and later, [Touch (7th generation)](iPod)(iPod Touch (7th generation)), [Pro (1st generation)](iPad)(iPad Pro (1st generation)), [(5th generation)](iPad)(iPad (2017)), and [Mini (5th generation)](iPad)(iPad Mini (5th generation)) and later are fully supported (A9 and A10 devices have almost full support, while those with A11 and later chips have full support). iOS 13 brought support for the [11](iPhone)(iPhone 11) series and the [iPhone SE](second-generation)(iPhone SE (2nd generation)), while iPadOS 13 brought support for the [iPad](seventh-generation)(iPad (2019)), the [Pro](iPad)(iPad Pro) (12.9-inch, 4th generation), and the iPad Pro (11-inch, 2nd generation). It was succeeded by [14](iOS)(iOS 14) and [14](iPadOS)(iPadOS 14) on September 16, 2020.
### iOS 14 / iPadOS 14
Apple announced iOS 14 and iPadOS 14 on June 22, 2020, at its annual [2020](WWDC)(Apple Worldwide Developers Conference#2020) event, with a developer beta released on the same day and a public beta released on July 9, 2020. iOS 14 and iPadOS 14 were released on September 16, 2020, alongside the [iPad](eighth-generation)(IPad (8th generation)) and [iPad Air](fourth-generation)(IPad Air (4th generation)). All devices that supported iOS 13 also support iOS 14. This makes the iPad Air 2 the first device to support seven versions of iOS and iPadOS, from iOS 8 to iPadOS 14. Some new features introduced in iOS 14 and iPadOS 14 include redesigned widgets that can now be placed directly on the home screen (only for iOS); the App Library, which automatically categorizes apps into one page; Picture-in-Picture in iPhone and iPod Touch; and the CarKey technology to unlock and start a car with NFC. iOS 14 and iPadOS 14 also allow the user to have incoming calls shown in banners rather than taking up the whole screen (the latter view is still available as an optional function). It was succeeded by [15](iOS)(iOS 15) and [15](iPadOS)(iPadOS 15) on September 20, 2021.
The release of iPadOS 14.0 brought support for the [generation iPad](8th)(iPad (2020)) and the [generation iPad Air](4th)(iPad Air (2020)) and the release of iOS 14.1 brought support for the [12](iPhone)(iPhone 12) series. iOS 14 and iPadOS 14 have limited support on devices with A8/A8X, A9/A9X, and A10 Fusion chips, whereas devices with A10X Fusion and A11 Bionic chip have almost full support, and devices with A12 Bionic chip and later have full support.
### iOS 15 / iPadOS 15
Apple announced iOS 15 and iPadOS 15 on June 7, 2021, at its annual [2021](WWDC)(Apple Worldwide Developers Conference#2021) event, with a developer beta released on the same day and a public beta released a few weeks later, at the end of June 2021. All devices that supported [13](iOS)(iOS 13), [13](iPadOS)(iPadOS 13), [14](iOS)(iOS 14), and [14](iPadOS)(iPadOS 14) also support [15](iOS)(iOS 15) and [15](iPadOS)(iPadOS 15). This makes the iPad Air 2 the first device to support eight versions of iOS and iPadOS, from iOS 8 to iPadOS 15. However, iOS 15 and iPadOS 15 have limited support on devices with A8/A8X, A9/A9X, A10/A10X Fusion, and A11 Bionic chips, which include the [6S](iPhone)(iPhone 6S), [7](iPhone)(iPhone 7), [8](iPhone)(iPhone 8), [X](iPhone)(iPhone X), [SE (1st generation)](iPhone)(iPhone SE (1st generation)), [Touch (7th generation)](iPod)(iPod Touch (7th generation)), [(5th generation)](iPad)(iPad (5th generation)), [(6th generation)](iPad)(iPad (6th generation)), [(7th generation)](iPad)(iPad (7th generation)), [Air 2](iPad)(iPad Air 2), [Mini 4](iPad)(iPad Mini 4), [Pro (1st generation)](iPad)(iPad Pro (1st generation)), and [Pro (2nd generation)](iPad)(iPad Pro (2nd generation)). The release of iOS 15.4 brought support for the [SE 3rd generation](iPhone)(IPhone SE (3rd generation)), while the release of iPadOS 15.4 brought support for the new [Air 5th generation](iPad)(IPad Air (5th generation)). iOS 15 is the final version of iOS to work on the [Touch](iPod)(iPod Touch) line, as the final model, the [generation](7th)(IPod Touch (7th generation)), was discontinued without a successor. iOS 15 and iPadOS 15 were succeeded by [16](iOS)(iOS 16) and [16](iPadOS)(iPadOS 16) on September 12, 2022.
### iOS 16 / iPadOS 16
Apple announced iOS 16 and iPadOS 16 on June 6, 2022, at its annual [2022](WWDC)(Apple Worldwide Developers Conference#2022) event, with a developer beta released the same day. Support for [6S](iPhone)(iPhone 6S), [SE (1st generation)](IPhone)(IPhone SE (1st generation)), [7](iPhone)(iPhone 7), [touch (7th generation)](iPod)(iPod touch (7th generation)), [Air 2](iPad)(iPad Air 2), and [Mini 4](iPad)(iPad Mini 4) was dropped while the [8](iPhone)(iPhone 8) and [X](iPhone)(iPhone X) have limited support, and [fifth](IPad (5th generation)), [sixth](IPad (6th generation)), and [iPads](seventh-generation)(IPad (7th generation)) along with the [first](IPad Pro (1st generation)) and [second](IPad Pro (2nd generation)) generation [Pro](iPad)(iPad Pro)s have limited support on iPadOS 16. iOS 16 is the first release to not support any [Touch](iPod)(iPod Touch) models, as the line was discontinued by Apple in May 2022, leaving the [iPhone](iPhone) as the only supported product line. iOS 16 served as the version that shipped on the [14](iPhone)(iPhone 14) and [14 Pro](iPhone)(iPhone 14 Pro).
iOS 16 introduced several major new features to the operating system, such as a comprehensive overhaul of the lock screen which added support for widgets and various customization features such changing the font and color of the time and date display, more customization options for wallpapers, along with the ability to have multiple lock screens, the ability to edit and unsend messages sent via [iMessage](iMessage), support for Live Activities via ActivityKit (added in iOS 16.1), among other features. iOS 16 also introduced support for a new update type entitled Rapid Security Response, a type of update that focuses only on fixes for security vulnerabilities, however this feature was not used until after the release of iOS 16.4.1.
}}
* Adds "Clean Energy Charging", a feature that attempts to reduce carbon emissions when charging by selectively charging when cleaner energy is available.
* Adds the ability to remove the [Wallet](Apple Wallet) app, where previously it was unable to be removed.
* Adds support for the Live Activities [API](API) (also known as ActivityKit), allowing developers to create interactive [interface](user)(user interface)s (UIs) that exist on the Lock Screen as well as the Dynamic Island of the iPhone 14 Pro and Pro Max.
}}
and .
}}
* Adds [Music](Apple)(Apple Music) Sing, a [karaoke](karaoke) feature designed to allow users to sing along to songs by using [learning](machine)(machine learning) to remove the vocals from a song while leaving in the instruments.
}}
* Adds support for using [tokens](security)(security tokens) like the [YubiKey](YubiKey) with an Apple ID as an alternative security method to unlock a users' Apple device, such as an iPhone or iPad.
* Changes the behaviour of "Call with Hold" in the Emergency SOS options to rename it to "Call with Hold and Release", and to wait until the user releases the side button and either volume button before calling [service](emergency)(emergency service)s.
}}
}}
* In [Podcasts](Apple Podcasts), a *Channels* section in Library was added, and support for *Listen Now* and *Browse* was added to Podcasts' [CarPlay](Apple CarPlay) implementation.
* As part of the update to [Unicode](Unicode) 15.0, support for 21 new usable [emoji](emoji) was added.
* Support for Sony's DualSense Edge wireless controller was added.
* 33 security vulnerabilities were fixed.
}}
}}
}}
}}
}}
### iOS 17 / iPadOS 17
Apple announced iOS 17 and iPadOS 17 on June 5, 2023, at its annual [2023](WWDC)(Apple Worldwide Developers Conference#2023) event, with a developer beta released the same day.
| June 5, 2023
|
* First developer beta of iOS 17.
}}
}}
## See also
; Information on other operating systems developed by Apple Inc.
* [iPadOS](iPadOS)
* [macOS](macOS)
* [watchOS](watchOS)
* [tvOS](tvOS)
; Notable software bugs and issues in iOS
* [relating to iOS](Issues)(Issues relating to iOS)
; Version histories for other operating systems and products by Apple Inc.
* [version history](iPadOS)(iPadOS version history)
* [version history](macOS)(macOS version history)
* [version history](iTunes)(History of iTunes)
* [version history](Safari)(Safari version history)
; Version histories for other mobile operating systems
* [version history](Android)(Android version history)
## References
## External links
* – official site
* – official site
[*](Category:IOS)
[of operating systems](Category:Lists)(Category:Lists of operating systems)
[version histories](Category:Software)(Category:Software version histories)
[operating systems](Category:Tablet)(Category:Tablet operating systems)
|
Cybill Shepherd
|
cybill_shepherd
|
# Cybill Shepherd
*Revision ID: 1155982438 | Timestamp: 2023-05-20T17:10:21Z*
---
| birth_place = [Tennessee](Memphis,)(Memphis, Tennessee), U.S.
| death_date =
| death_place =
| occupation =
| years_active = 1968–present
| spouse =
*
}}
| partner =
| children = 3, including [Ford](Clementine)(Clementine Ford)
}}
**Cybill Lynne Shepherd** (born February 18, 1950) is an American actress and former model. Her film debut and [role](breakthrough)(breakthrough role) came as Jacy Farrow in [Bogdanovich](Peter)(Peter Bogdanovich)'s coming-of-age drama *[Last Picture Show](The)(The Last Picture Show)* (1971) alongside [Bridges](Jeff)(Jeff Bridges). She also had roles as Kelly in [May](Elaine)(Elaine May)'s *[Heartbreak Kid](The)(The Heartbreak Kid (1972 film))* (1972), Betsy in [Scorsese](Martin)(Martin Scorsese)'s *[Driver](Taxi)(Taxi Driver)* (1976), and Nancy in [Allen](Woody)(Woody Allen)'s *[Alice](Alice (1990 film))* (1990).
On television, her first major role was as Colleen Champion in the one season of the night-time drama *[Yellow Rose](The)(The Yellow Rose)* (1983). Shepherd played Madeline Hayes on the detective comedy-drama *[Moonlighting](Moonlighting (TV series))* (1985–1989) opposite [Willis](Bruce)(Bruce Willis), for which she won two [Globes](Golden)(Golden Globe Awards) for [Actress in a Comedy/Musical TV Series](Best)(Golden Globe Award for Best Actress – Television Series Musical or Comedy) out of three such nominations. She later starred as Cybill Sheridan on *[Cybill](Cybill)* (1995–1998), for which she won her third Golden Globe Award as Best Actress in a Comedy/Musical TV series. Her later television roles included [Kroll](Phyllis)(Phyllis Kroll) on *[L Word](The)(The L Word)* (2007–2009), Madeleine Spencer on *[Psych](Psych)* (2008–2013), Cassie in the television film *[Client List](The)(The Client List)* (2010), and Linette Montgomery on *[Client List](The)(The Client List (TV series))* (2012–2013).
## Early life and career
Shepherd was born February 18, 1950, in [Tennessee](Memphis,)(Memphis, Tennessee). She is the second of three children. She had an older sister, Terry, and has a younger brother, William. Cybill was named with a blend of her grandfather Cy and her father Bill's names. While attending [High School](East)(East High School (Memphis, Tennessee)), Shepherd won the "Miss Teenage Memphis" title and represented the city at the 1966 [Teenage America](Miss)(Miss Teenage America) pageant at age 16, where she won the congeniality award. She competed at the 1968 "Model of the Year" contest at age 18, resulting in fashion model assignments through high school and afterwards.
[[File:Cybill Shepherd 1970.jpg|thumb|upright|Cybill Shepherd in a photo from *[Teen](Teen (magazine))* from 1970]]
According to Shepherd's autobiography, a 1970 *[Glamour](Glamour (magazine))* magazine cover caught the eye of film director [Bogdanovich](Peter)(Peter Bogdanovich). His then-wife, [Platt](Polly)(Polly Platt), claimed that when she saw the cover in a check-out line in a [Ralphs](Ralphs) grocery store in southern California, he said "That's Jacy," referring to the role Bogdanovich was casting—and ultimately given to Shepherd—in *[Last Picture Show](The)(The Last Picture Show)* (1971).
### Celebrity
Her first film was *[Last Picture Show](The)(The Last Picture Show)*, also starring [Bridges](Jeff)(Jeff Bridges) and [Bottoms](Timothy)(Timothy Bottoms). The film became a critical and box office hit, earning eight Academy Awards nominations and winning two. Shepherd was nominated for a Golden Globe. In 1972, Shepherd was cast opposite [Grodin](Charles)(Charles Grodin) in *[Heartbreak Kid](The)(The Heartbreak Kid (1972 film))*. She played Kelly, a young woman for whom Grodin's character falls while on his honeymoon in Miami. Directed by [May](Elaine)(Elaine May) and written by [Simon](Neil)(Neil Simon), it was another critical and box office hit. Also in 1972, Shepherd posed as a [Kodak](Kodak) Girl for the [camera](camera) manufacturer's then-ubiquitous cardboard store poster displays.
In 1974, Shepherd again teamed up with Peter Bogdanovich for the title role in *[Miller](Daisy)(Daisy Miller (film))*, based on the [James](Henry)(Henry James) novella. The film—a period piece set in Europe—was a [office](box)(box office) failure. That same year, she launched a singing career, releasing a studio album *Cybill Does It...To Cole Porter* for MCA Records. It was panned by *[Voice](Village)(Village Voice)* critic [Christgau](Robert)(Robert Christgau), who wrote: "Her voice is surprisingly pleasant, but you'd never know how these songs sparkle. Since [Cole](Cole Porter) didn't like to . . . do it with (or 'to') women very much, maybe the 'do' is as hostile as it sounds."
In 1975, she made *[Long Last Love](At)(At Long Last Love)*, a [musical](film)(film musical) directed by Bogdanovich, but, like *Daisy Miller*, it flopped. Shepherd returned with good reviews for her work in [Scorsese](Martin)(Martin Scorsese)'s *[Driver](Taxi)(Taxi Driver)* (1976). According to Shepherd, Scorsese had requested a "Cybill Shepherd type" for the role. She portrayed Betsy, a volunteer for a presidential candidate with whom [De Niro](Robert)(Robert De Niro)'s character, Travis Bickle, becomes infatuated.
A series of less-successful roles followed, including *[Lady Vanishes](The)(The Lady Vanishes (1979 film))*, a remake of [Hitchcock](Alfred)(Alfred Hitchcock)'s [film](1938)(The Lady Vanishes (1938 film)). Already sitting in on an acting class taught by [Adler](Stella)(Stella Adler), Shepherd was offered work at a dinner theater in [Virginia](Norfolk,)(Norfolk, Virginia), and turned to friend [Welles](Orson)(Orson Welles) for advice. He encouraged her to get experience on stage in front of an audience, anywhere but Los Angeles or New York City, away from the harsh big-city critics so she moved back to her home town of Memphis to work in regional theatre.
### Return to Hollywood
In 1982, Shepherd returned to New York and to the stage when she played alongside [MacArthur](James)(James MacArthur) in a theatre tour of *Lunch Hour* by [Kerr](Jean)(Jean Kerr). The following year, Shepherd went back to Los Angeles and was cast as Colleen Champion in the [NBC](NBC) television drama *[Yellow Rose](The)(The Yellow Rose)* (1983), opposite [Elliott](Sam)(Sam Elliott). Although critically acclaimed, the series lasted only one season. A year later, Shepherd was cast as Maddie Hayes on *[Moonlighting](Moonlighting (TV series))* (1985–1989), a role that defined her career. The producers knew that her role depended on having "chemistry" with her co-star, and involved her in the selection of [Willis](Bruce)(Bruce Willis). A lighthearted combination of [mystery](Mystery fiction) and [comedy](comedy), the series won Shepherd two [Globe Award](Golden)(Golden Globe Award)s.
[[Shepherd - 1985.jpg|thumb|180px|left|Shepherd in 1985](File:Cybill)]
She starred in *[Are](Chances)(Chances Are (film))* (1989) with [Downey Jr.](Robert)(Robert Downey Jr.) and [O'Neal](Ryan)(Ryan O'Neal), receiving excellent reviews. She then reprised her role as Jacy in *[Texasville](Texasville)* (1990), the sequel to *[Last Picture Show](The)(The Last Picture Show)* (1971), as the original cast (and director Peter Bogdanovich) reunited 20 years after filming the original. She appeared in Woody Allen's *[Alice](Alice (1990 film))* (1990) and [Levy](Eugene)(Eugene Levy)'s *[Upon a Crime](Once)(Once Upon a Crime)* (1992), as well as several television films. In 1997, she won her third Golden Globe award for *[Cybill](Cybill)* (1995–1998), a television [sitcom](sitcom) in which the title character, Cybill Sheridan, an actress struggling with hammy roles in [movie](B)(B movie)s and bad [opera](soap)(soap opera)s, was loosely modeled on herself (including portrayals of her two ex-husbands).
In 2000, Shepherd's bestselling autobiography, *[Disobedience](Cybill)(Cybill Disobedience): How I Survived Beauty Pageants, Elvis, Sex, Bruce Willis, Lies, Marriage, Motherhood, Hollywood, and the Irrepressible Urge to Say What I Think*, written in collaboration with Aimee Lee Ball, was published. That same year, Shepherd hosted a short-lived syndicated talk show version of the book *[Are from Mars, Women Are from Venus](Men)(Men Are from Mars, Women Are from Venus)*, but left the show in early 2001. In 2003, she guest-starred on *[Simple Rules](8)(8 Simple Rules)* as the sister of Cate Hennessy (portrayed by [Sagal](Katey)(Katey Sagal)). She has played [Stewart](Martha)(Martha Stewart) in two television films: *[Inc.: The Story of Martha Stewart](Martha,)(Martha, Inc.: The Story of Martha Stewart)* (2003) and *[Behind Bars](Martha:)(Martha: Behind Bars)* (2005).
From 2007 until it ended, Shepherd appeared on *[L Word](The)(The L Word)* as [Kroll](Phyllis)(Phyllis Kroll) for the show's final three seasons. In 2008, she joined the cast of *[Psych](Psych)* as main character [Spencer](Shawn)(Shawn Spencer)'s mother, [Spencer](Madeleine)(Madeleine Spencer). On November 7, 2008, Shepherd guest-starred in a February episode of the CBS drama *[Minds](Criminal)(Criminal Minds)*.[Exclusive: Michael Biehn, Cybill Shepherd Cop *Criminal* Roles](http://www.tvguide.com/News/Criminal-Minds-Casting-35440.aspx)" *[Guide](TV)(TV Guide)*. November 7, 2008. Retrieved on November 7, 2008. In 2010 Shepherd appeared in an episode of *[Ordinary Family](No)(No Ordinary Family)* and in November of the same year she guest-starred in an episode of *[My Dad Says]($♯*!)($♯*! My Dad Says)*.
Shepherd appeared alongside [Love Hewitt](Jennifer)(Jennifer Love Hewitt) in the 2010 television film *[Client List](The)(The Client List)* and then in the 2012-13 [based on the film](series)(The Client List (TV series)).
In July 2012, Shepherd made her [Broadway](Broadway theatre) debut in the revival of [Vidal](Gore)(Gore Vidal)'s *[Best Man](The)(The Best Man (play))* at the [Schoenfeld Theatre](Gerald)(Gerald Schoenfeld Theatre) alongside [Earl Jones](James)(James Earl Jones), [Stamos](John)(John Stamos), [Larroquette](John)(John Larroquette), [Davis](Kristin)(Kristin Davis), and [Ashley](Elizabeth)(Elizabeth Ashley) to positive reviews.; ;
Shepherd appeared as a mother grieving the death of her daughter in *[You Believe?](Do)(Do You Believe? (film))* (2015), a Christian-themed movie produced by [Flix Entertainment](Pure)(Pure Flix Entertainment).
In 2023, Shepherd starred in the [Lifetime](Lifetime (TV network)) film *[to Murder Your Husband: The Nancy Brophy Story](How)(How to Murder Your Husband: The Nancy Brophy Story),* where she portrayed Nancy Brophy, opposite [Guttenberg](Steve)(Steve Guttenberg) as Daniel Brophy, in a dramatization of the [of Daniel Brophy](Murder)(Murder of Daniel Brophy).
## Political activism
[[File:President Ronald Reagan greeting actress Cybill Shepherd in the Oval Office.jpg|thumb|right|Shepherd with [President](President of the United States) [Reagan](Ronald)(Ronald Reagan) in 1988]]
Throughout her career, Shepherd has been an outspoken activist for issues such as [rights](gay)(gay rights) and [rights](abortion)(abortion rights).; In 2009, she was honored by the [Rights Campaign](Human)(Human Rights Campaign) in [Atlanta](Atlanta) with one of two National Ally for Equality awards. She has been an advocate for [marriage](same-sex)(same-sex marriage).
She was present at the opening of the [Civil Rights Museum](National)(National Civil Rights Museum) in her hometown of Memphis, to which she lent financial support.
## Personal life
In her autobiography, Shepherd revealed that she called her mother in 1978, crying and unhappy with the way her life and career were going. Her mother replied, "Cybill, come home." Shepherd went home to Memphis, where she met and began dating David M. Ford, a local auto parts dealer and nightclub entertainer. She became [pregnant](pregnant), and the couple married that year. Their daughter, [Ford](Clementine)(Clementine Ford), was born in 1979. The marriage ended in divorce in 1982.
In 1987, Shepherd became pregnant by chiropractor Bruce Oppenheim and married him. They had twins named Ariel and Zachariah Shepherd Oppenheim born during the fourth season of *[Moonlighting](Moonlighting (TV series))*. The couple divorced in 1990.
In June 2012, Shepherd became engaged to psychologist Andrei Nikolajevic. By 2015, the engagement had been called off.
### Religious beliefs
Shepherd was raised Christian, but stated that she eventually "lost touch" with the religion. In a 2007 interview with *[Weekly](Metro)(Metro Weekly)*, she described herself as being "a [goddess](goddess)-worshipping Christian [Pagan](Paganism) [Buddhist](Buddhism)".
In October 2014, Shepherd said that she had reconnected with her Christian faith.
## Awards
### Emmy Awards
Nominations:
* 1986 - [Lead Actress - Drama Series](Outstanding)(Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actress - Drama Series) - *[Moonlighting](Moonlighting (TV series))*
* 1995 - [Lead Actress - Comedy Series](Outstanding)(Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actress - Comedy Series) - *[Cybill](Cybill)*
* 1996 - [Lead Actress - Comedy Series](Outstanding)(Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actress - Comedy Series) - *[Cybill](Cybill)*
* 1997 - [Lead Actress - Comedy Series](Outstanding)(Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actress - Comedy Series) - *[Cybill](Cybill)*
In her autobiography, Shepherd addressed rumors that she was jealous of her co-stars [Willis](Bruce)(Bruce Willis) and [Baranski](Christine)(Christine Baranski) for winning Emmy awards while she has not: "The grain of truth in this controversy was that of course I was envious. Who doesn't want to win an Emmy?"
### Golden Globe Awards
Wins:
* 1985 - [Actress in a TV series, Comedy/Musical](Best)(Golden Globe Award for Best Actress – Television Series Musical or Comedy) - *[Moonlighting](Moonlighting (TV series))*
* 1986 - [Actress in a TV series, Comedy/Musical](Best)(Golden Globe Award for Best Actress – Television Series Musical or Comedy) - *[Moonlighting](Moonlighting (TV series))*
* 1995 - [Actress in a TV series, Comedy/Musical](Best)(Golden Globe Award for Best Actress – Television Series Musical or Comedy) - *[Cybill](Cybill)*
Nominations:
* 1971 - Most Promising Newcomer (Female) - *[Last Picture Show](The)(The Last Picture Show)*
* 1987 - Best Actress in a TV series, Comedy/Musical - *[Moonlighting](Moonlighting (TV series))*
* 1996 - [Actress in a TV series, Comedy/Musical](Best)(List of Golden Globe Awards: Television, Best Actress, Comedy/Musical) - *[Cybill](Cybill)*
## Filmography
### Film
### Television
## Discography
* *Cybill Does It...To Cole Porter* ([Paramount](Paramount Records), 1974)
* *Mad About the Boy* (Tombstone, 1976)
* *Cybill Getz Better* ([City](Inner)(Inner City Records), 1976)
* *Vanilla* (Gold Castle, 1979)
* *Somewhere Down the Road* (Gold Castle, 1990)
* *Talk Memphis to Me* (Drive Archive, 1997)
* *Songs from The Cybill Show* (1999)
* *Live at the Cinegrill* (2001)
* *At Home With Cybill* (2004)
* *Jazz Baby Volumes 1–3* (2005)
### Appearances
* *At Long Last Love* (soundtrack) (1975)
* *[Moonlighting](Moonlighting Soundtrack)* (soundtrack) (1987)
## Notes
## References
## External links
*
*
*
*
[births](Category:1950)(Category:1950 births)
[people](Category:Living)(Category:Living people)
[from Memphis, Tennessee](Category:Actresses)(Category:Actresses from Memphis, Tennessee)
[female models](Category:American)(Category:American female models)
[women jazz singers](Category:American)(Category:American women jazz singers)
[jazz singers](Category:American)(Category:American jazz singers)
[film actresses](Category:American)(Category:American film actresses)
[abortion-rights activists](Category:American)(Category:American abortion-rights activists)
[stage actresses](Category:American)(Category:American stage actresses)
[television actresses](Category:American)(Category:American television actresses)
[television producers](Category:American)(Category:American television producers)
[women television producers](Category:American)(Category:American women television producers)
[beauty pageant winners](Category:American)(Category:American beauty pageant winners)
[Musical or Comedy Actress Golden Globe (television) winners](Category:Best)(Category:Best Musical or Comedy Actress Golden Globe (television) winners)
[LGBT rights activists](Category:American)(Category:American LGBT rights activists)
[Records artists](Category:MCA)(Category:MCA Records artists)
[television talk show hosts](Category:American)(Category:American television talk show hosts)
[of Southern California alumni](Category:University)(Category:University of Southern California alumni)
[Adler Studio of Acting alumni](Category:Stella)(Category:Stella Adler Studio of Acting alumni)
[American actresses](Category:20th-century)(Category:20th-century American actresses)
[American actresses](Category:21st-century)(Category:21st-century American actresses)
[autobiographers](Category:American)(Category:American autobiographers)
[autobiographers](Category:Women)(Category:Women autobiographers)
[American women writers](Category:20th-century)(Category:20th-century American women writers)
[American non-fiction writers](Category:20th-century)(Category:20th-century American non-fiction writers)
[models from Tennessee](Category:Female)(Category:Female models from Tennessee)
[from Tennessee](Category:Singers)(Category:Singers from Tennessee)
[women non-fiction writers](Category:American)(Category:American women non-fiction writers)
[musicians from Tennessee](Category:Jazz)(Category:Jazz musicians from Tennessee)
[City Records artists](Category:Inner)(Category:Inner City Records artists)
[Media Awards winners](Category:GLAAD)(Category:GLAAD Media Awards winners)
[from Memphis, Tennessee](Category:Writers)(Category:Writers from Memphis, Tennessee)
|
13 Hours_ The Secret Soldiers of Benghazi
|
13_hours__the_secret_soldiers_of_benghazi
|
# 13 Hours: The Secret Soldiers of Benghazi
*Revision ID: 1159513308 | Timestamp: 2023-06-10T20:32:13Z*
---
| screenplay = [Hogan](Chuck)(Chuck Hogan)
| based_on =
| starring =
| music = [Balfe](Lorne)(Lorne Balfe)
| cinematography = [Beebe](Dion)(Dion Beebe)
| editing =
| distributor = [Pictures](Paramount)(Paramount Pictures)
| released =
| runtime = 144 minutes
| country = United States
| language = English
| budget = $50 million
| gross = $69.4 million
| border = no
| production_companies =
}}
***13 Hours: The Secret Soldiers of Benghazi*** (also known simply as ***13 Hours***) is a 2016 American [biographical](Biographical film) [film](action-thriller)(action thriller film) directed and produced by [Bay](Michael)(Michael Bay) and written by [Hogan](Chuck)(Chuck Hogan); based on [Zuckoff](Mitchell)(Mitchell Zuckoff)'s [book of the same name](2014)(13 Hours (book)). The film follows six members of the Annex Security Team who fought to defend the American diplomatic compound in [Benghazi](Benghazi), [Libya](Libya) after waves of [by militants on September 11, 2012](attacks)(2012 Benghazi attack). The film stars [Badge Dale](James)(James Badge Dale), [Krasinski](John)(John Krasinski), [Schreiber](Pablo)(Pablo Schreiber), [Martini](Max)(Max Martini), [Denman](David)(David Denman) and [Fumusa](Dominic)(Dominic Fumusa), with supporting roles by [Stephens](Toby)(Toby Stephens), [Barlier](Alexia)(Alexia Barlier) and [Costabile](David)(David Costabile).
Filming began on April 27, 2015, in [Malta](Malta) and [Morocco](Morocco). Known colloquially as "the Benghazi movie," the film was released on January 15, 2016, by [Pictures](Paramount)(Paramount Pictures). Upon release, *13 Hours* grossed $69 million worldwide against a production budget of $50 million (not including advertising and distribution), and became one of Bay's lowest-grossing films until the 2022 release of *[Ambulance](Ambulance (2022 film)). 13 Hours* also received many mixed reviews from critics. While the film was praised for its acting performances, action sequences, and dark tone, the script was criticized for its historical liberties. Bay's direction also received a mixed response, with many criticizing his emphasis on over-the-top action, but some also noting it as one of his most mature and grounded films.
The film received an [Oscar](Academy Awards) nomination for [Sound Mixing](Best)(Academy Award for Best Sound Mixing) at the [Academy Awards](89th)(89th Academy Awards).
## Plot
In 2012, following the overthrow of [Gaddafi](Muammar)(Muammar Gaddafi), [Benghazi](Benghazi) in [Libya](Libya) is named one of the most dangerous places in the world, and countries have pulled their diplomatic offices out of the country in fear of an attack by militants. The [States](United)(United States) still has a diplomatic compound, not an official consulate, open in the city. Less than a mile away is a top secret [CIA](CIA) base, "the Annex," which is protected by a team of [military contractors](private)(private military company) from [Response Staff](Global)(Global Response Staff) (GRS). New to the detail is former [Navy SEAL](US)(United States Navy SEALs) Jack Silva, who arrives in Benghazi and is picked up by fellow former [Navy SEAL](US)(United States Navy SEALs) ["Rone" Woods](Tyrone)(Tyrone S. Woods), the commander of the GRS team and a personal friend of Silva. Arriving at the Annex, Silva is introduced to the rest of the GRS team: former [Marines](US)(United States Marine Corps) Mark "Oz" Geist, John "Tig" Tiegen and Dave "Boon" Benton and former [Army Ranger](US)(United States Army Rangers) ["Tanto" Paronto](Kris)(Kris Paronto) and the CIA [of Station](Chief)(Chief of Station), "Bob", who constantly gives the team strict reminders to never engage the citizens.
Prior to the US Ambassador's arrival, the GRS team members visit the [Mission](Special)(Diplomatic mission), where the Ambassador will be staying. They review the location and warn [Security Service](Diplomatic)(Diplomatic Security Service) (DSS) Agents Scott Wickland and Dave Ubben about the risk of minimal-security arrangements and the high probability of a surprise attack due to the weak central government. [Ambassador](US)(U.S. Ambassador to Libya) [Stevens](Chris)(J. Christopher Stevens) arrives in Benghazi to maintain diplomatic connections amid the political and social chaos, with limited protection from five DSS Agents, principally Wickland and Ubben, along with guards hired from the local [17th Martyrs Brigade](February)(February 17th Martyrs Brigade) militia, nicknamed "17-Feb." On the morning of the eleventh anniversary of the [11 attacks](September)(September 11 attacks), Stevens notices suspicious men taking pictures of the compound and notifies his security detail. Back at the Annex, Silva finds out that his wife is pregnant.
That night, a group of militants from [al-Sharia](Ansar)(Ansar al-Sharia (Libya)) assault the compound. The 17-Feb guards are quickly overrun, which allows the attackers easy access to the compound. Wickland takes Stevens and [Smith](Sean Smith (diplomat)), an IT specialist, to the safe room. Unable to breach the safe room, the attackers set the building on fire hoping to burn the men out. Wickland escapes but loses both Stevens and Smith. At the Annex, the GRS team desperately wants to go to the compound to help, but the Chief refuses for fear that the team's departure would expose the Annex. However, the team dispatches to the compound anyway and meets up with the DSS Agents, with the team splitting up: Silva, Woods, and Tiegen head to the consulate, while Paronto and Benton head to the back gate, assisted by a few 17-Feb militants. Silva and Woods enter the building searching for Stevens and Smith but find only Smith's body. After an intense firefight inside the compound against the militants, the DSS team retreats in a car, but after a beat-up Wickland goes the wrong way, they are followed by militants on their way back to the Annex. Later, the GRS team also retreats to the Annex.
Knowing that an attack by the militants is imminent, the CIA staff of the Annex makes several desperate calls for help, but only former [Navy SEAL](US)(United States Navy SEALs) ["Bub" Doherty](Glen)(Glen Doherty), a GRS operator in [Tripoli](Tripoli, Libya), helps. He forms a team, including two [Force](Delta)(Delta Force) operators, that flies to Benghazi after several delays. Meanwhile, the GRS team fends off the militants as they try to breach the Annex perimeter. After repelling the largest attack wave, the Annex receives word from [ISR](intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance) that help is coming.
The Tripoli GRS reinforcements arrive and begin to prepare the CIA and DSS staff for their departure to the airport. The militants launch a [mortar](mortar (weapon)) attack in which Ubben and Geist are wounded, and Geist's left arm is partially severed. Woods rushes to aid Geist and is killed by another mortar round. Doherty is also killed when a third mortar detonates directly in front of him.
While a wounded Geist and Ubben are being tended to, Delta Force operatives dispose of Woods' body, angering Silva. With the GRS team compromised and the Annex now vulnerable, the remaining GRS operators watch as a convoy of vehicles rolls toward the Annex. Fearing the worst, the operators prepare to make a [stand](final)(final stand) until it is revealed that the convoy is an element of the [Shield Force](Libya)(Libya Shield Force) militia that is escorting the GRS reinforcements. They also find out that Stevens had been found behind the compound but was pronounced dead at the hospital.
At the airport, the CIA staff and the wounded Geist board the plane to Tripoli while the remainder of the GRS team waits for the next plane with the bodies of Stevens, Smith, Woods, and Doherty. Paronto is approached by his 17-Feb allies and gives them some keys to Gaddafi's old armored vehicles. Meanwhile, Silva speaks with his wife and tells her that he is finally coming home; however, he tearfully admits that Woods didn't make it and isn't coming home. Shortly after, he briefly recalls a conversation with Woods they had at the annex and zips his bodybag up. Closing titles reveal that all of the surviving members of the Annex security GRS team received contractor medals at a private ceremony, have since retired from the GRS team, and live with their families and that Geist was able to save his arm after several surgeries after re-enlisting.
## Cast
### GRS Team
* [Krasinski](John)(John Krasinski) as Jack Silva, newest member of the team and former [Navy SEAL](US)(United States Navy SEALs)
* [Badge Dale](James)(James Badge Dale) as [S. "Rone" Woods](Tyrone)(American fatalities and injuries of the 2012 Benghazi attack#Tyrone S. Woods), commander of the GRS team and former [Navy SEAL](US)(United States Navy SEALs)
* [Martini](Max)(Max Martini) as Mark "Oz" Geist, team member and former [Marine](US)(United States Marine Corps)
* [Fumusa](Dominic)(Dominic Fumusa) as John "Tig" Tiegen, team member and former [Marine](US)(United States Marine Corps)
* [Schreiber](Pablo)(Pablo Schreiber) as ["Tanto" Paronto](Kris)(Kris Paronto), team member and former [Army Ranger](US)(75th Ranger Regiment)
* [Denman](David)(David Denman) as Dave "Boon" Benton, team member and former [Marine](US)(United States Marine Corps) [Sniper](Scout)(United States Marine Corps Scout Sniper)
* [Stephens](Toby)(Toby Stephens) as ["Bub" Doherty](Glen)(American fatalities and injuries of the 2012 Benghazi attack#Glen Doherty), GRS operator in Tripoli, former [Navy SEAL](US)(United States Navy SEALs), and good friend of Woods and Silva
### CIA
* [Barlier](Alexia)(Alexia Barlier) as Sona Jillani, an undercover [CIA](Central Intelligence Agency) Officer in Libya
* [Stroma](Freddie)(Freddie Stroma) as Brit Vayner, an undercover [CIA](Central Intelligence Agency) Officer in Libya
* [Costabile](David)(David Costabile) as "Bob" aka. "The Chief", the [Benghazi](Benghazi) [CIA](Central Intelligence Agency) [Chief-of-Station](Station chief)
* Shane Rowe as CIA Annex Cook, who participates in the defense of the Annex
* Gábor Bodis as CIA Agent, a security officer
### U.S. State Department
* [Letscher](Matt)(Matt Letscher) as [Christopher Stevens](J.)(J. Christopher Stevens), [Ambassador](US)(Ambassadors of the United States) to [Libya](Libya)
* [Giuntoli](David)(David Giuntoli) as Scott Wickland, [DSS](Diplomatic Security Service) Agent
* [Grosse](Demetrius)(Demetrius Grosse) as Dave Ubben, [DSS](Diplomatic Security Service) Agent
* [Furr](David)(David Furr) as Alec Henderson, [DSS](Diplomatic Security Service) Agent
* [Tucci](Davide)(Davide Tucci) as [Attaché](Defense)(military attache)
* Christopher Dingli as [Smith](Sean)(Sean Smith (diplomat)), an IT specialist
### Civilians
* [Schmidt](Wrenn)(Wrenn Schmidt) as Becky Silva, wife of Jack Silva
* [Moaadi](Peyman)(Peyman Moaadi) as Amahl, a local interpreter
## Production
### Development
On February 10, 2014, it was announced that [Pictures](Paramount)(Paramount Pictures) was in talks with 3 Arts Entertainment to acquire the film rights to the book *[Hours](13)(13 Hours (book))*, written by [Zuckoff](Mitchell)(Mitchell Zuckoff), with [Stoff](Erwin)(Erwin Stoff) to produce. [Hogan](Chuck)(Chuck Hogan) was set to adapt the book, based on the true events of the [attack](Benghazi)(2012 Benghazi attack) by militants on the American diplomatic compound in Benghazi, Libya, on the evening of September 11, 2012. The film would focus on six members of a security team that fought to defend the Americans stationed there. On October 29, 2014, [Bay](Michael)(Michael Bay) was set to direct and produce the thriller.
### Casting
On January 14, 2015, [Krasinski](John)(John Krasinski) was cast in the film, to play one of the lead roles, a former [Navy SEAL](US)(United States Navy SEALs). On February 3, [Schreiber](Pablo)(Pablo Schreiber) also signed on to star in the film, playing Kris "Tanto" Paronto, one of the six-man security team. On February 6, [Badge Dale](James)(James Badge Dale) was set to star, as the leader of the security team. [Martini](Max)(Max Martini) was cast as another member of the security team on February 17, 2015. [Denman](David)(David Denman) signed on to star in the film on March 3, 2015, playing Boon, an elite sniper. On March 5, 2015, *THR* reported that [Fumusa](Dominic)(Dominic Fumusa) also signed on, to play John "Tig" Tiegen, one of the members of the security team, who is also a former Marine with weapons expertise. [Stroma](Freddie)(Freddie Stroma) was added to the cast on March 17, 2015, to play the role of an undercover CIA officer in Libya. On May 7, 2015, [Stephens](Toby)(Toby Stephens) was set to play Glen "Bub" Doherty, another of the security team members.
### Filming
[photography](Principal)(Principal photography) began on April 27, 2015, in [Malta](Malta) and [Morocco](Morocco). A large film set was built in March 2015 in [Qali](Ta')(Ta' Qali), Malta at .
## Release
On June 30, 2015, Paramount announced that the new title would be *13 Hours: The Secret Soldiers of Benghazi*, and set the film to be released on January 15, 2016, on the [Holiday](MLK)(MLK Day) weekend. The film premiered on January 12, 2016, at the [Stadium](AT&T)(AT&T Stadium) in [Texas](Arlington,)(Arlington, Texas), benefiting the Shadow Warriors Project, which supports private military security personnel and other groups.
Unusual for a major American film, the film was given only a [release](limited)(limited release) in Canada during its American wide opening weekend, playing in select theatres in [Toronto](Toronto), [Montreal](Montreal), [Vancouver](Vancouver), [Edmonton](Edmonton), [Calgary](Calgary) and [Ottawa](Ottawa). The film expanded to a [release](wide)(wide release) in Canadian theatres the following weekend, January 22–24.
Paramount specifically marketed the film to conservatives, in a method similar to previous films *Lone Survivor* and *American Sniper*, both of which had beaten box office expectations. This included screening the film for key [Party](Republican)(Republican Party (United States)) figures in order to generate endorsement quotations.
### Home media
*13 Hours: The Secret Soldiers of Benghazi* was released on DVD and Blu-ray on June 7, 2016. Likely due to a boost from the [U.S. Presidential Election](2016)(2016 U.S. Presidential Election), the film made $40 million in DVD and Blu-ray sales by August 2016.
13 Hours: The Secret Soldiers of Benghazi was released on [UHD Blu-Ray](4K)(Ultra HD Blu-ray) on June 11, 2019.
## Reception
### Box office
*13 Hours* grossed $52.9 million in North America and $16.5 million in other territories for a worldwide total of $69.4 million, against a production budget of $50 million, making it Michael Bay's lowest-grossing directorial film to-date.
The film was projected to earn around $20 million in its four-day Martin Luther King weekend debut. It faced competition from fellow newcomer *[Along 2](Ride)(Ride Along 2)*, as well as holdovers *[Revenant](The)(The Revenant (2015 film))* and *[Wars: The Force Awakens](Star)(Star Wars: The Force Awakens)*. Other films in a similar vein that had opened on the MLK weekend in previous years, *[Sniper](American)(American Sniper)* ($107.2 million in 2015) and *[Survivor](Lone)(Lone Survivor (film))* ($37.8 million in 2014), found success, although they had faced weaker competition, and were considered less politically divisive. However, *[Hollywood Reporter](The)(The Hollywood Reporter)* noted that the film could outperform expectations if it was buoyed by waves of patriotism. The film made $900,000 from 1,995 theaters during its Thursday previews and $16.2 million in its opening weekend, finishing fourth at the box office. The film added 528 theaters in its second weekend and grossed $9 million, a 39.8% drop.
### Critical response
*13 Hours* received mixed reviews from critics, though some viewed it as a welcomed tame effort from Michael Bay. On [aggregator](review)(review aggregator) [Tomatoes](Rotten)(Rotten Tomatoes), the film has an approval rating of 51% based on 222 reviews, with an average rating of 5.60/10. The site's consensus reads, "*13 Hours: The Secret Soldiers of Benghazi* is a comparatively mature and restrained effort from Michael Bay, albeit one that can't quite boast the impact its fact-based story deserves." On [Metacritic](Metacritic) the film has a score of 48 out of 100, based on 36 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews". Audiences polled by [CinemaScore](CinemaScore) gave the film an average grade of "A" on an A+ to F scale.
Soren Andersen, writing for *[Seattle Times](The)(The Seattle Times)*, gave the film 3 stars out of 4, criticizing the lack of distinctive characters but ultimately summarizing *13 Hours* as "engrossing" and "a ground-level depiction of heroism in the midst of the fog of war". [Roeper](Richard)(Richard Roeper) similarly praised *13 Hours* in his review for the *[Sun-Times](Chicago)(Chicago Sun-Times)*. Although he lamented the script, Roeper found the film to be a "solid action thriller with well-choreographed battle sequences and strong work from the ensemble cast". Like Roeper's review, *[York Daily News](New)(New York Daily News)* Joe Dziemianowicz was less receptive toward the script, but applauded the film's focus on the real-life attack, summarizing: "War is gritty here, not glamorous... [[Bay](Michael)(Michael Bay)] delivers a gripping, harrowing, and heartfelt film."
In a mixed review, Inkoo Kang of *[TheWrap](TheWrap)* praised *13 Hours* for its action scenes, but panned Bay's direction as "myopic". She writes, "*13 Hours* is the rare Michael Bay movie that wasn't made with teenage boys in mind. But that doesn't make his latest any less callously juvenile." Lindsey Bahr of the [Press](Associated)(Associated Press) was critical of the film's direction and cinematography, and found the screenplay to be confusing. Similarly, *[Economist](The)(The Economist)* described the film as "a sleek, poorly scripted and largely meaningless film".
### Libyan response
The film caused controversy in Libya. Many Libyans believed it ignored the contributions of local people who attempted to save the US ambassador. Libya's Foreign Ministry spokesman, Salah Belnaba, denounced the film's portrayal of the Libyan people and described it as "fanatical and ignorant." Culture and Information Minister, Omar Gawaari, also criticized the film saying: "the movie shows the US contractors who actually failed to secure the ambassador [...] as heroes", adding that Michael Bay "turned America's failure to protect its own citizens in a fragile state into a typical action movie all about American heroism".
### Accolades
At the [Academy Awards](89th)(89th Academy Awards), *13 Hours* received a nomination for [Sound Mixing](Best)(Academy Award for Best Sound Mixing). However, [P. Russell](Greg)(Greg P. Russell) (one of the four nominees from the film) had his nomination rescinded when it was discovered that he had contacted voters for the award by telephone in violation of campaigning regulations.
## Historical accuracy
The film's historical accuracy has been disputed. In the film's most controversial scene, the CIA chief in Benghazi (identified only as "Bob") tells the military contractors there when they seek permission to go defend the embassy to "stand down" and thus denies them permission. The real-life CIA chief stated that there was no stand-down order, but multiple sources who were willing to identify themselves have refuted the still-unnamed CIA chief. However, no help was sent even though officials at the highest levels had found out about the attack within the first few hours out of the 13. Also, the *[Review](National)(National Review)* commentator [French](David)(David A. French) argues that the Senate committee cited above found plenty of evidence of the "stand down" order in the form of personal testimony from multiple witnesses but chose to rule that the contrary testimony outweighed it.
Kris "Tanto" Paronto, a CIA contractor who was involved in action during the event, said, "We were told to 'stand down'. Those words were used verbatim—100 percent. If the truth of it affects someone's political career? Well, I'm sorry. It happens." The CIA base chief portrayed in the film has directly contradicted Paronto's claims, saying "There never was a stand-down order.... At no time did I ever second-guess that the team would depart."
Also disputed is the film's portrayal that air support was denied. A House Armed Services Committee report found that air support was unavailable or that it would have arrived too late to make a difference.
## See also
* [Benghazi attack](2012)(2012 Benghazi attack)
* [Center](Counterterrorism)(Counterterrorism Center)
* [of films featuring the United States Navy SEALs](List)(List of films featuring the United States Navy SEALs)
## References
## External links
*
*
*
*
*
*
* [*13 Hours: The Secret Soldiers of Benghazi*](http://www.historyvshollywood.com/reelfaces/13-hours/) at *[vs. Hollywood](History)(History vs. Hollywood)*
[films](Category:2016)(Category:2016 films)
[action drama films](Category:2016)(Category:2016 action drama films)
[English-language films](Category:2010s)(Category:2010s English-language films)
[war films](Category:2010s)(Category:2010s war films)
[Benghazi attack](Category:2012)(Category:2012 Benghazi attack)
[Arts Entertainment films](Category:3)(Category:3 Arts Entertainment films)
[films based on actual events](Category:Action)(Category:Action films based on actual events)
[action drama films](Category:American)(Category:American action drama films)
[films based on actual events](Category:American)(Category:American films based on actual events)
[war films](Category:American)(Category:American war films)
[about the Central Intelligence Agency](Category:Films)(Category:Films about the Central Intelligence Agency)
[about Delta Force](Category:Films)(Category:Films about Delta Force)
[about terrorism in Africa](Category:Films)(Category:Films about terrorism in Africa)
[about United States Navy SEALs](Category:Films)(Category:Films about United States Navy SEALs)
[based on non-fiction books](Category:Films)(Category:Films based on non-fiction books)
[directed by Michael Bay](Category:Films)(Category:Films directed by Michael Bay)
[produced by Michael Bay](Category:Films)(Category:Films produced by Michael Bay)
[scored by Lorne Balfe](Category:Films)(Category:Films scored by Lorne Balfe)
[set in 2012](Category:Films)(Category:Films set in 2012)
[set in Libya](Category:Films)(Category:Films set in Libya)
[shot in Malta](Category:Films)(Category:Films shot in Malta)
[shot in Morocco](Category:Films)(Category:Films shot in Morocco)
[Pictures films](Category:Paramount)(Category:Paramount Pictures films)
[films based on actual events](Category:Thriller)(Category:Thriller films based on actual events)
[films based on actual events](Category:War)(Category:War films based on actual events)
[American films](Category:2010s)(Category:2010s American films)
|
Eddie Mabo
|
eddie_mabo
|
# Eddie Mabo
*Revision ID: 1160331551 | Timestamp: 2023-06-15T20:24:21Z*
---
| birth_place = [Mer](Mer Island, Queensland), [Strait Islands](Torres)(Torres Strait Islands), [Queensland](Queensland), Australia
| death_date =
| death_place = Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
| spouse =
| children = 10
}}
**Edward Koiki Mabo** (29 June 1936 – 21 January 1992) was an [Australian](Indigenous)(Indigenous Australians) man from the [Strait Islands](Torres)(Torres Strait Islands) known for his role in campaigning for [land rights in Australia](Indigenous)(Indigenous land rights in Australia), in particular the landmark decision of the [Court of Australia](High)(High Court of Australia) that recognised that indigenous rights to land had continued after the British Crown acquired sovereignty and that the international law doctrine of [nullius](terra)(terra nullius) was not applicable to Australian domestic law. High court judges considering the case *[v Queensland (No 2)](Mabo)(Mabo v Queensland (No 2))* found in favour of Mabo, which led to the *[Title Act 1993](Native)(Native Title Act 1993)* and established [title in Australia](native)(native title in Australia), officially recognising the rights of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people in Australia.
## Early life and family
Mabo was born **Edward Koiki Sambo** on 29 June 1936 in the village of Las on the [of Mer](island)(Mer Island) in the [Strait](Torres)(Torres Strait). His parents were Robert Zesou Sambo and Poipe Mabo, but Eddie was adopted by his uncle Benny Mabo when his mother died shortly after he was born. This adoption was part of traditional [Strait Islander](Torres)(Torres Strait Islander) adoption practices.
When young, Mabo was influenced by his teacher Robert 'Bob' Victor Miles, a relieving teacher with the Schools for Islanders. Miles was known as a friend of all his students; he not only taught the children of the islands but also learnt their language and encouraged them to use their own language in class. Mabo was one of these students and learnt more than just language from Miles, he also gained an understanding of 'mainland' culture. Mabo, who lived with Miles for a time while his mother was ill, later reflected on the importance of his education. That, along with his confident use of language, self-assured public speaking and understanding of mainland politics, culminated in the landmark case *Mabo v Queensland* in 1992.
Eddie had a great bond with his tradition. He enjoyed activities such as Aboriginal painting, dancing and singing. But his uncle and aunt, Benny and Maigo Mabo, taught him to respect other’s cultures as well.
Mabo married [Neehow](Bonita)(Bonita Mabo), an Australian [Sea Islander](South)(South Sea Islander), in 1959. The couple had seven children and adopted three more. Bonita Mabo died in Townsville on 26 November 2018, aged 75, just days after receiving an honorary doctorate of letters from [Cook University](James)(James Cook University) for her contributions to Indigenous rights and human rights.
One daughter, [Mabo](Gail)(Gail Mabo) (born 1965), is a successful [artist](visual)(visual artist) who has had her work exhibited across Australia. Before beginning her studies in art in the 2000s, she had a career in dance, [choreography](choreography), and acting.
She has also worked with schools in [South Wales](New)(New South Wales) as a cultural advisor, and has served as the family's designated spokesperson.
Mabo's nephew was Anglican Bishop [Mabo](Saibo)(Saibo Mabo).
His great-nephew is [NBA](NBA) athlete [Mills](Patty)(Patty Mills), the third Indigenous Australian to represent the nation in [basketball](Olympic)(Basketball_at_the_Summer_Olympics).
## Career
Mabo worked on pearling boats, as a cane cutter, and as a railway fettler (worker), becoming a gardener at [Cook University](James)(James Cook University) in [Townsville](Townsville), Queensland at age 31.
In 1973, Eddie and Bonita Mabo established the [Community School](Black)(Black Community School) in Townsville, where children could learn their own culture rather than white culture.
The time Mabo spent on the campus had a massive impact on his life. In 1974, he was talking with James Cook University historians [Loos](Noel)(Noel Loos) and [Reynolds](Henry)(Henry Reynolds (historian)), and Loos recalls:
we were having lunch one day in Reynolds' office when Koiki was just speaking about his land back on Mer, or Murray Island. Henry and I realised that in his mind he thought he owned that land, so we sort of glanced at each other, and then had the difficult responsibility of telling him that he didn't own that land, and that it was [land](Crown)(Crown land). Koiki was surprised, shocked and even ... he said and I remember him saying 'No way, it's not theirs, it's ours.' See also
Later, when Mabo was a research assistant on an oral history project in the [Strait](Torres)(Torres Strait), Reynolds records:
He got as far as Thursday Island and no further. He was refused permission to land on any of the other islands in the Straits. A reputation as a radical was a heavy burden in Queensland at the time. For Eddie the rejection was devastating. He could not go home. He was not only landless in the eyes of white man's law, he was an exile as well.Id., p. 186.
## Land rights advocate
In 1981 a [rights](land)(Indigenous land rights in Australia) conference was held at [Cook University](James)(James Cook University) and Mabo gave a speech in which he explained the land inheritance system on Murray Island. The significance of this in terms of Australian [law](common)(common law) doctrine was noted by one of the attendees, a lawyer, who suggested there should be a test case to claim land rights through the court system. [Perth](Perth)-based solicitor Greg McIntyre was at the conference and agreed to take the case; he then recruited barristers [Castan](Ron)(Ron Castan) and Bryan Keon-Cohen. McIntyre represented Mabo during the hearings.
Of the eventual outcome of that decision a decade later, Reynolds said: "it was a ten-year battle and it was a remarkable saga really".
## Death and Mabo decision
On 21 January 1992, Eddie Mabo died of cancer at the age of 55.
Five months later, on 3 June 1992, the High Court announced its historic decision to recognise the land rights of Indigenous Australians. That decision, formally *[v Queensland (No 2)](Mabo)(Mabo v Queensland (No 2))*, now commonly called "Mabo" in Australia, is recognised for its landmark status.
Three years after Mabo died, that being the traditional mourning period for the people of Murray Island, a memorial service was held. The next day, Mabo's gravesite was attacked by vandals who spray-painted swastikas and racial slurs on his tombstone as well as removing a bronze bas-relief portrait of him. His family decided to have his body reburied on Murray Island. On the night of his reinternment, the Islanders performed their traditional ceremony for the burial of a Meriam king, a ritual not seen on the island for 80 years.
## Legacy
In 1992, Mabo was posthumously awarded the Australian [Rights Medal](Human)(Human Rights Medal) in the [Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission](Human)(Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission) Awards, together with the Reverend Dave Passi, Sam Passi (deceased), James Rice (deceased), Celuia Mapo Salee (deceased) and Barbara Hocking (deceased). The award was in recognition "of their long and determined battle to gain justice for their people" and the "work over many years to gain legal recognition for indigenous people's rights".
In 1993 *[Australian](The)(The Australian)* newspaper commemorated his work by voting him the 1992 Australian of the Year (not to be confused with the official [of the Year](Australian)(Australian of the Year) awards issued by the Australian Government).
A documentary film, *[Life of an Island Man](Mabo:)(Mabo: Life of an Island Man)*, directed by Trevor Graham, was released in 1997 and received the [Film Institute Award for Best Documentary](Australian)(Australian Film Institute Award for Best Documentary).
The [Koiki Mabo Lecture Series](Eddie)(Eddie Koiki Mabo Lecture Series) was established in his honour in 2004 at James Cook University. The lectures have been given by eminent Australians on [Day](Mabo)(Mabo Day) (3 June), in [Reconciliation Week](National)(National Reconciliation Week), in most years since then.
On 21 May 2008, James Cook University named its Townsville campus library the Eddie Koiki Mabo Library.
[Day](Mabo)(Mabo Day) is an official holiday in the Torres Shire, celebrated on 3 June, and occurs during [Reconciliation Week](National)(National Reconciliation Week) in Australia. [50px](File:CC-BY icon.svg) [Attribution 3.0 Australia (CC BY 3.0 AU)](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/au/) licence.
On 10 June 2012, *[Mabo](Mabo (film))*, a television drama based on Mabo's life, was broadcast on the [Broadcasting Corporation](Australian)(Australian Broadcasting Corporation) (ABC).
In June 2014, the annual [Mabo Award for Social Justice](Eddie)(Eddie Mabo Award for Social Justice) was created as one of three awards at the newly-established [Indigenous Human Rights Awards](National)(National Indigenous Human Rights Awards) in [Sydney](Sydney), [South Wales](New)(New South Wales).
On 3 June 2015, on the 23rd anniversary of the Mabo decision, a star was named Koiki after Eddie Koiki Mabo. It was named by [of Applied Arts and Sciences](Museum)(Museum of Applied Arts and Sciences), with the naming ceremony taking place at [Observatory](Sydney)(Sydney Observatory). The star is within the [Cross](Southern)(Southern Cross) constellation as well as the huge Torres Strait Islanders' constellation known as [Tagai](Torres Strait Islanders#Religion and beliefs), which is very culturally significant and used for [navigation](nautical)(nautical navigation).
On 24 August 2015, [Abbott](Tony)(Tony Abbott) became the first [Minister of Australia](Prime)(Prime Minister of Australia) to visit Mabo's grave on Murray Island, where he paid tribute to his legacy.
In 2016, [Doodle](Google)(Google Doodle) commemorated his 80th birthday.
In 2017, the [Australian Mint](Royal)(Royal Australian Mint) issued a 50-cent coin commemorating 25 years since Mabo's death and the legal decision and 50 years since the referendum. It was designed by his granddaughter Boneta-Marie Mabo and released in [Reconciliation Week](National)(National Reconciliation Week).
In 2022, the [Library of Queensland](State)(State Library of Queensland) produced a podcast called *Hi, I’m Eddie*. Hosted by Rhianna Patrick, the podcast discusses the Mabo's life, the High Court case, and the enduring legacy of both.
The State Library of Queensland holds several significant collections relating to the Mabo decision and the Mabo family, including:
* OM95-26 Mabo Cutting Books - these books contain newspaper clippings relating to the Mabo case between November 1990 and October 1994
* 29122 Album of Photographs Relating to the Mabo Case on Mer Island 1989 - a photographic account of the proceedings of the Mabo case on Mer (Murray Island)
* 6837 Justice Moynihan - Determination re Mabo Case Papers 27 Feb 1986 - three bound volumes regarding the determination of a reference from the High Court of Australia of the factual issues raised in the action by Eddie Mabo and others, prepared by Justice Moynihan.
* 32825 Mabo family collection - Includes a collection of shirts worn by and commemorating Eddie Mabo, many made by his wife Dr. Bonita Mabo AO for the extended family. Other significant items include the annotated Mabo family copy of [Lawrie](Margaret)(Margaret Lawrie)'s *Myths and legends of the Torres Strait*.
## See also
**[v Queensland (No 1)](Mabo)(Mabo v Queensland (No 1))*
**[v Queensland (No 2)](Mabo)(Mabo v Queensland (No 2))*
*[title in Australia](Native)(Native title in Australia)
**[Mabo](Mabo (film))* (TV film)
## References
## Further reading
*
* [Apek kebile: Eddie Koiki Mabo : the boy from the other side of the island](http://nla.gov.au/nla.cat-vn803047) (videorecording) – "about Eddie Mabo, his love for his people and his homeland ..." / Office for Torres Strait Islander Affairs
* *[Mabo: life of an island man](http://nla.gov.au/nla.cat-vn1426877)* / original screenplay by Trevor Graham (1999, )
## External links
*
*
*
* [Hi, I'm Eddie](https://www.slq.qld.gov.au/discover/podcasts/hi-im-eddie) - Podcast by the State Library of Queensland. Winner 2021 Best Indigenous podcast, Australian Podcast Awards.
*
* [Album of Photographs Relating to the Mabo Case on Mer Island 1989](https://onesearch.slq.qld.gov.au/permalink/61SLQ_INST/tqqf2h/alma99291223402061), State Library of Queensland
[births](Category:1936)(Category:1936 births)
[deaths](Category:1992)(Category:1992 deaths)
[Strait Islands culture](Category:Torres)(Category:Torres Strait Islands culture)
[indigenous rights activists](Category:Australian)(Category:Australian indigenous rights activists)
[from cancer in Queensland](Category:Deaths)(Category:Deaths from cancer in Queensland)
[Strait Islanders](Category:Torres)(Category:Torres Strait Islanders)
[Icons](Category:Q150)(Category:Q150 Icons)
|
Marilyn Manson
|
marilyn_manson
|
# Marilyn Manson
*Revision ID: 1160033302 | Timestamp: 2023-06-14T01:20:29Z*
---
| birth_place = [Ohio](Canton,)(Canton, Ohio), U.S.
| death_date =
| occupation =
| years_active = 1989–present
| spouse =
*
}}
| website =
| signature = Signature of Marilyn Manson.png
| module =
| label =
| current_member_of =
| signature =
}}
}}
**Brian Hugh Warner** (born January 5, 1969), known professionally as **Marilyn Manson**, is an American rock musician. He came to prominence as the lead singer of the [that shares his name](band)(Marilyn Manson (band)), of which he remains the only constant member since its formation in 1989. Known for his controversial stage personality and public image, his stage name (like the other founding members of the band) was formed by combining the names of two opposing American cultural icons: actress [Monroe](Marilyn)(Marilyn Monroe) and cult leader [Manson](Charles)(Charles Manson).
Manson is best known for music released in the 1990s, including the albums *[of an American Family](Portrait)(Portrait of an American Family)* (1994), *[Superstar](Antichrist)(Antichrist Superstar)* (1996) and *[Animals](Mechanical)(Mechanical Animals)* (1998), which earned him a reputation in mainstream media as a controversial figure and negative influence on young people when combined with his public image.Cullen, Dave. [Inside the Columbine High investigation](http://www.salon.com/news/feature/1999/09/23/columbine/index.html) . *Salon News*, September 23, 1999. In the U.S. alone, three of the band's albums have been awarded [platinum](music recording sales certification#Certification thresholds) status and three more went gold, and the band has had eight releases debut in the top 10, including two No. 1 albums. Manson has been ranked at No. 44 on the list of the "Top 100 Heavy Metal Vocalists" by *[Parader](Hit)(Hit Parader)* and, along with his band, has been nominated for four [Awards](Grammy)(Grammy Awards)–Manson himself earned an additional Grammy nomination for his work on [West](Kanye)(Kanye West)'s *[Donda](Donda)*. Manson made his film debut as an actor in [Lynch](David)(David Lynch)'s *[Highway](Lost)(Lost Highway (1997 film))* (1997), and has since appeared in a variety of minor roles and cameos. In 2002, his first art show, *The Golden Age of Grotesque*, was held at the [Angeles Contemporary Exhibitions](Los)(Los Angeles Contemporary Exhibitions) center.
He is widely considered one of the most controversial figures in [metal music](heavy)(heavy metal music), and has been involved in numerous controversies throughout his career. His lyrics were criticized by American politicians and were examined in [hearing](congressional)(congressional hearing)s. Several U.S. states enacted legislation specifically banning the group from performing in state-operated venues. In 1999, news media [blamed Manson for influencing the perpetrators of the Columbine High School massacre](falsely)(Marilyn Manson–Columbine High School massacre controversy). His work has been cited in several other violent events; his paintings and films appeared as evidence in a [trial](murder)(Murder of Jodi Jones), and he has been accused of inspiring several other murders and school shootings.
In 2021, multiple women, including his former partner [Rachel Wood](Evan)(Evan Rachel Wood), accused Manson of psychologically and sexually abusing them, allegations he denied.
## Early life
Brian Hugh Warner was born in [Ohio](Canton,)(Canton, Ohio), on January 5, 1969, the son of Barbara Warner Wyer (died May 13, 2014) and Hugh Angus Warner (died July 7, 2017). He is of English, German, Irish, and Polish descent, and has also claimed that his mother's family (who hailed from the [Mountains](Appalachian)(Appalachian Mountains) in [Virginia](West)(West Virginia)) had [Sioux](Sioux) heritage. As a child, he attended his mother's [Episcopal](Episcopal Church in the United States of America) church, though his father was a [Catholic](Roman)(Roman Catholic). He attended [Christian School](Heritage)(Heritage Christian School (Canton, Ohio)) from first to tenth grade. In that school, his instructors tried to show children what music they were not supposed to listen to; Warner then fell in love with what he "wasn't supposed to." Warner later transferred to [High School](GlenOak)(GlenOak High School) and graduated from there in 1987. After relocating with his parents, he became a student at [Community College](Broward)(Broward College) in [Lauderdale, Florida](Fort)(Fort Lauderdale, Florida), in 1990. He was working towards a degree in [journalism](journalism), gaining experience in the field by writing articles for the music magazine *[Parallel](25th)(25th Parallel (magazine))*. He also interviewed musicians and soon met several of the musicians to whom his own work was later compared, including [Mann](Groovie)(Groovie Mann) from [Life with the Thrill Kill Kult](My)(My Life with the Thrill Kill Kult) and [Reznor](Trent)(Trent Reznor) of [Inch Nails](Nine)(Nine Inch Nails), with the latter later becoming his mentor and producing his debut album.
## Career
### Music
The band was formed in 1989 by Warner and guitarist [Putesky](Scott)(Scott Putesky), with Warner writing lyrics and Putesky composing the majority of music. Warner adopted the stage name Marilyn Manson and, alongside a revolving lineup of musicians, recorded the band's first demo tape as [Manson & the Spooky Kids](Marilyn)(Marilyn Manson (band)) in 1990. The group quickly developed a loyal [fanbase](fanbase) within the [Florida punk and hardcore](South)(South Florida punk and hardcore) music scene, primarily as a result of their intentionally [shocking](shock value) concerts; band members often performed in women's clothing or bizarre costumes, and live shows routinely featured amateur [pyrotechnics](pyrotechnics), naked women nailed to [crucifix](crucifix)es, children locked in cages, as well as experiments in [psychology](reverse)(reverse psychology) and butchered animals remains.|group=N}} Within six months of forming, they were playing sold-out shows in 300-capacity nightclubs throughout Florida. They signed a [deal](record)(recording contract) with [Music](Sony)(Sony Music) in early 1991, although this deal was rescinded before any material was recorded for the label. The band instead used the proceeds of this deal to fund the recording of subsequent demo tapes, which were released independently.
[[of Nothing MM.jpg|thumb|Left to right: Twiggy, Gacy and Manson performing at the "A Night of Nothing" industry showcase, 1995](File:Nights)]
The name of the group was shortened to Marilyn Manson in 1992, and they continued to perform and release cassettes until the summer of 1993, when Reznor signed the act to his [label](vanity)(vanity label) [Records](Nothing)(Nothing Records). Their debut studio album, *[of an American Family](Portrait)(Portrait of an American Family)*, was released in July 1994. Manson later criticized Nothing Records and its parent label [Interscope](Interscope Records) for a perceived lack of promotion.|group=N}} While recording b-sides and remixes for the album's proposed third single, "[Hat](Dope)(Dope Hat)", the band decided to issue the resultant material as a standalone release titled *[Like Children](Smells)(Smells Like Children)*. The record included their cover version of the [Eurythmics](Eurythmics)'s "[Dreams (Are Made of This)](Sweet)(Sweet Dreams (Are Made of This)#Marilyn Manson cover)", which established the band as a mainstream act. The song's music video was placed on heavy rotation on [MTV](MTV), and earned the band their first nomination for [Rock Video](Best)(MTV Video Music Award for Best Rock Video) at the [MTV Video Music Awards](1996)(1996 MTV Video Music Awards). Their second studio album, 1996's *[Superstar](Antichrist)(Antichrist Superstar)*, sparked a fierce backlash among [fundamentalists](Christian)(Christian fundamentalism). The album was an immediate commercial success, debuting at number three on the [200](*Billboard*)(Billboard 200) and selling almost 2 million copies in the United States alone, and 7 million copies worldwide. Lead single "[Beautiful People](The)(The Beautiful People (song))" received three nominations at the [MTV Video Music Awards](1997)(1997 MTV Video Music Awards), where the band also performed.
For 1998's *[Animals](Mechanical)(Mechanical Animals)*, Manson said he took inspiration from 1970s [rock](glam)(glam rock), and adopted a wardrobe and hairstyle similar to [Bowie](David)(David Bowie). He said he did this to avoid being portrayed as a "[bogeyman](bogeyman)", a role which had been ascribed to him by mainstream media following the band's commercial breakthrough. Interscope's promotion of the album was massive, with the label erecting enormous billboards of Manson as an [androgynous](Androgyny) [extraterrestrial](Extraterrestrial life) in [Square](Times)(Times Square) and the [Strip](Sunset)(Sunset Strip). Lead single "[Dope Show](The)(The Dope Show)" was nominated for [Hard Rock Performance](Best)(Grammy Award for Best Hard Rock Performance) at the [Annual Grammy Awards](41st)(41st Annual Grammy Awards). The album debuted at number one on the *Billboard* 200, but was the [number-one album of 1998](lowest-selling)(List of Billboard 200 number-one albums of 1998) in the United States, with sales of 1.4 million copies in the country as of 2017. The album was not well received by longtime fans, who complained about its radio-friendly sound and accused the vocalist of "[out](selling)(sell out)", and Interscope were reportedly disappointed with its commercial performance. |group=N}}
*[Wood (In the Shadow of the Valley of Death)](Holy)(Holy Wood (In the Shadow of the Valley of Death))* was a return to the band's [metal](industrial)(industrial metal) roots after the glam-influenced *Mechanical Animals*, and was the vocalist's response to media coverage blaming him for influencing [perpetrators](the)(Eric Harris and Dylan Klebold) of the [High School massacre](Columbine)(Columbine High School massacre). The album was a critical success, with numerous publications praising it as the band's finest work. Despite being certified gold in the United States for shipments in excess of half a million units, mainstream media openly questioned the band's commercial appeal, noting the dominance of [metal](nu)(nu metal) and controversial [hop artist](hip)(hip hop artist)s such as [Eminem](Eminem). A cover of "[Love](Tainted)(Tainted Love#Marilyn Manson version (2001))" was an international hit in 2002, peaking at number one in several territories.
*[Golden Age of Grotesque](The)(The Golden Age of Grotesque)* was released the following year, an album primarily inspired by the [swing](Swing music) and [burlesque](burlesque) movements of [Berlin](1920s)(1920s Berlin). In an [metaphor](extended)(extended metaphor) found throughout the record, Manson compared his own often-criticized work to the *[Kunst](Entartete)(Degenerate art)* banned by the [Nazi](Nazi Germany) regime. Like *Mechanical Animals* in 1998, *The Golden Age of Grotesque* debuted at number one on the *Billboard* 200, but was the lowest-selling studio album to debut at number one that year, selling 527,000 copies in the United States as of 2008. The album was more successful in Europe, where it sold over 400,000 on its first week of release to debut at number one on *Billboard*s [Top 100 Albums](European)(European Top 100 Albums). Manson began his collaboration with French fashion designer [Gaultier](Jean-Paul)(Jean-Paul Gaultier) during this period, who designed much of the elaborate attire worn by the band on the supporting "[Burlesk Tour](Grotesk)(Grotesk Burlesk Tour)". The [hits](greatest)(greatest hits album) compilation *[We Forget: The Best Of](Lest)(Lest We Forget: The Best Of)* was released in 2004.
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After a three-year hiatus, in which the vocalist pursued other interests, the band returned with 2007's *[Me, Drink Me](Eat)(Eat Me, Drink Me)*. The album's lyrical content largely related to the dissolution of Manson's marriage to [Von Teese](Dita)(Dita Von Teese) and his affair with 19-year-old actress [Rachel Wood](Evan)(Evan Rachel Wood). Seventh studio album *[High End of Low](The)(The High End of Low)* was released in 2009, and was their final album issued by Interscope. While promoting the record, Manson made a series of disparaging comments about the label and its artistic censorship, as well as its president [Iovine](Jimmy)(Jimmy Iovine). Manson signed a lucrative recording contract with British independent record label [Vinyl](Cooking)(Cooking Vinyl) in 2011, with the band and label sharing profits equally after the label recouped costs associated with marketing, promotion and distribution. The first album released under the deal was 2012's *[Villain](Born)(Born Villain)*. Lead single "[Reflection](No)(No Reflection)" earned the band their fourth Grammy nomination. Subsequent albums were released in the United States by [Vista Recordings](Loma)(Loma Vista Recordings), beginning with 2015's *[Pale Emperor](The)(The Pale Emperor)*, which was widely seen as a return to form and was a commercial success upon release.
*[Upside Down](Heaven)(Heaven Upside Down)* followed in 2017, with its single "[Kill4Me](Kill4Me)" becoming the band's highest-peaking single ever on *Billboard* [Rock](Mainstream)(Mainstream Rock (chart)). While [in support of the record](touring)(Heaven Upside Down Tour), Manson was injured by two large falling stage props as he performed on stage at the [Ballroom](Hammerstein)(Hammerstein Ballroom) in New York, breaking his [fibula](fibula) in two places, requiring a plate and ten screws to be inserted in the bone, as well as another screw in his ankle, which he had sprained during a show in [Pittsburgh](Pittsburgh). "[Gonna Cut You Down](God's)(God's Gonna Cut You Down#Marilyn Manson version)" was released as a non-album single in 2019, and is the band's highest-peaking single on *Billboard* [Rock Songs](Hot)(Hot Rock Songs) and [Digital Songs](Rock)(Rock Digital Songs). Their most recent studio album, 2020's *[Are Chaos](We)(We Are Chaos)*, was the band's tenth top ten release on the *Billboard* 200.
According to [SoundScan](Nielsen)(Nielsen SoundScan), the band sold 8.7 million albums alone in the United States as of 2011. Three of their albums received platinum awards from the [Industry Association of America](Recording)(Recording Industry Association of America), and a further three received gold certifications. Ten of their releases debuted in the top ten of the *Billboard* 200, including two number-one albums. In the United Kingdom, the band are certified for sales of almost 1.75 million units. Marilyn Manson has sold over 50 million records worldwide.
### Musical collaborations
In addition to his work with the band, Manson has collaborated extensively with other musicians. [rock](Cello)(Cello rock) act [Rasputina](Rasputina (band)) opened for the band throughout the "[to the World Tour](Dead)(Dead to the World Tour)", the controversial tour supporting *Antichrist Superstar*. Lead vocalist [Creager](Melora)(Melora Creager) performed cello and backing vocals for the band, most notably for renditions of "[of Sodom](Apple)(Apple of Sodom)", a live version of which appeared as a [b-side](b-side) on Manson's 1998 single "The Dope Show". Manson also created three remixes of the song "Transylvanian Concubine", two of which appeared on their 1997 EP *[Regurgitations](Transylvanian)(Transylvanian Regurgitations)*. Manson befriended [Smashing Pumpkins](The)(The Smashing Pumpkins) vocalist [Corgan](Billy)(Billy Corgan) in 1997, and performed renditions of "[Eye](Eye (song))" and "The Beautiful People" alongside that band at the 1997 edition of [School Benefit](Bridge)(Bridge School Benefit) concert. Manson frequently consulted Corgan during the early stages of recording *Mechanical Animals*. Referring to its inclusion of glam rock influences, Corgan advised Manson that "This is definitely the right direction" but to "go all the way with it. Don't just hint at it". In 2015, Marilyn Manson and the Smashing Pumpkins embarked on a [co-healining](double feature) tour titled "[End Times Tour](The)(The End Times Tour)".
To promote *Mechanical Animals* in 1998, the band embarked on their first co-headlining concert tour: the "[Monsters Tour](Beautiful)(Beautiful Monsters Tour)" with [Hole](Hole (band)). The tour was problematic, with Manson and Hole vocalist [Love](Courtney)(Courtney Love) frequently insulting one another both on-stage and during interviews. Private disputes also arose over finances, as Hole were unwittingly financing most of Manson's production costs, which were disproportionately high relative to Hole's. The tour was to consist of thirty-seven dates, although Hole left after nine. When Hole departed from the tour, it was renamed the "[Is Dead Tour](Rock)(Rock Is Dead Tour)", with [Off Jill](Jack)(Jack Off Jill) announced as one of the support acts. Manson had produced many of Jack Off Jill's demo recordings in the early 90s, and later wrote the [notes](liner)(liner notes) to their 2006 compilation *[Teenage Mediocrity 1992–1996](Humid)(Humid Teenage Mediocrity 1992–1996)*.
Manson launched his own vanity label in 2000, [Records](Posthuman)(Posthuman Records). The label released two albums – the 2000 soundtrack to *[of Shadows: Blair Witch 2](Book)(Book of Shadows: Blair Witch 2 (soundtrack))* and [Godhead](Godhead (band))'s 2001 album *[Years of Human Error](2000)(2000 Years of Human Error)* – before being dissolved in 2003. The latter album sold over 100,000 copies in the United States, and featured him performing vocals on the track "Break You Down". Reviews Godhead|author=Richardson, Sean|work=[New Music](CMJ)(CMJ New Music)|date=February 2001|page=67|access-date=March 4, 2022}} He performed vocals on "Redeemer", a song written by [Korn](Korn) vocalist [Davis](Jonathan)(Jonathan Davis) that featured on the 2002 album *[of the Damned: Music from the Motion Picture](Queen)(Queen of the Damned: Music from the Motion Picture)*. Davis had been prevented from singing the song due to contractual issues with his record label. Manson also contributed a remix of the [Park](Linkin)(Linkin Park) song "By Myself" to that band's remix album *[Reanimation](Reanimation (Linkin Park album))*, and collaborated with [Beltrami](Marco)(Marco Beltrami) to create the score for the 2002 film ''[Evil](Resident)(Resident Evil (film)).
He performed vocals on the [Fu](Chew)(Chew Fu) GhettoHouse Fix remix of [Gaga](Lady)(Lady Gaga)'s "[LoveGame](LoveGame)", which was featured as a b-side on the song's single in 2008. He was a featured vocalist on "Can't Haunt Me", a track recorded in 2011 for [Grey](Skylar)(Skylar Grey)'s unreleased album *Invinsible*. He appeared on "[Girl](Bad)(Bad Girl (Avril Lavigne song))", a song from [Lavigne](Avril)(Avril Lavigne)'s 2013 [album](self-titled)(Avril Lavigne (album)), and featured on the song "Hypothetical" from [Emigrate](Emigrate (band))'s 2014 album *[So Long](Silent)(Silent So Long)*. [Orleans](New)(New Orleans) brass ensemble [Soul Rebels](the)(the Soul Rebels) performed "The Beautiful People" alongside Manson at the 2015 edition of the Japanese [Sonic Festival](Summer)(Summer Sonic Festival). Manson recorded vocals on a cover of Bowie's "[People (Putting Out Fire)](Cat)(Cat People (Putting Out Fire))" for country musician [Jennings](Shooter)(Shooter Jennings)'s 2016 album *[(For Giorgio)](Countach)(Countach (For Giorgio))*. The two were introduced in 2013 by Manson's then-bassist [Ramirez](Twiggy)(Twiggy Ramirez), and the pair first collaborated that same year on a song for the soundtrack to television series *[of Anarchy](Sons)(Sons of Anarchy)*. Their version of the song, "Join the Human Gang", remains unreleased, but the track was eventually rewritten and released by [White Buffalo](The)(The White Buffalo (musician)) as "Come Join the Murder". Jennings later produced Manson's 2020 album *We Are Chaos*.
Manson has collaborated with numerous [hop](hip)(Hip hop music) artists. In 1998, he featured on "The Omen (Damien II)", a track on [DMX](DMX)'s album *[of My Flesh, Blood of My Blood](Flesh)(Flesh of My Flesh, Blood of My Blood)*. Following the Columbine High School massacre, Manson was mentioned in the lyrics to [Eminem](Eminem)'s "[Way I Am](The)(The Way I Am (Eminem song))" from *[Marshall Mathers LP](The)(The Marshall Mathers LP)*, in the lyric "When a dude's getting bullied and he shoots up the school and they blame it on Marilyn". Manson appeared in the song's music video, and a remix created by [Lohner](Danny)(Danny Lohner) and featuring Manson appeared on special editions of *The Marshall Mathers LP*. Manson also joined Eminem on-stage for several live performances of the track, one of which featured on Eminem's 2002 video album *[Access Europe](All)(All Access Europe)*. He featured on "Pussy Wet", a song on [Mane](Gucci)(Gucci Mane)'s 2013 [mixtape](mixtape) *Diary of a Trap God*, and provided vocals on the song "Marilyn Manson" on the 2020 mixtape *Floor Seats II* by [Ferg](ASAP)(ASAP Ferg).
Alongside [DaBaby](DaBaby), Manson co-wrote and was a featured artist on "[pt 2](Jail)(Jail pt 2)", a song on [West](Kanye)(Kanye West)'s 2021 album *[Donda](Donda)*. Manson and DaBaby appeared alongside West at several events promoting the album, including at a listening event held at [Field](Soldier)(Soldier Field) in August, and at one of West's Sunday Church Services in October. The appearances attracted significant media attention and controversy. West said the trio collaborated on a total of five songs. The album was nominated for the [Award for Best Rap Album](Grammy)(Grammy Award for Best Rap Album), which entitled Manson to a co-nomination credit for his work on the song. Manson continued his collaboration with West for the follow-up album, *[2](Donda)(Donda 2)*. West collaborator [Nas](Digital)(Digital Nas) said Manson was in the recording studio "every day" while the album was recorded, and explained that West "doesn't want Marilyn to play rap beats. He wants Marilyn to play what he makes, and then Ye will take parts of that and sample parts of that and use parts of that, like he did [when making](generally) *[Yeezus](Yeezus)*." Manson band-member [Skold](Tim)(Tim Skold) has confirmed he was involved in the process.
While with The Spooky Kids, Manson teamed with [White](Jeordie)(Jeordie White) (also known as Twiggy Ramirez) and Stephen Gregory Bier Jr. (also known as [Wayne Gacy](Madonna)(Madonna Wayne Gacy)) in two side-projects: Satan on Fire, a faux-[metal](Christian)(Christian metal) ensemble where he played bass guitar, and drums in Mrs. Scabtree, a collaborative band formed with White and then girlfriend [Jessicka](Jessicka) (vocalist with the band [Off Jill](Jack)(Jack Off Jill)) as a way to combat contractual agreements that prohibited Marilyn Manson from playing in certain clubs.
### Film and television
[[File:Marilyn Manson Cannes.jpg|thumb|left|upright|Manson at the [Cannes Film Festival](2006)(2006 Cannes Film Festival)]]
Manson made his film debut in 1997, as an actor in [Lynch](David)(David Lynch)'s *[Highway](Lost)(Lost Highway (1997 film))*. Since then he has appeared in many minor roles and cameos, including *[Monster](Party)(Party Monster (2003 film))*; then-girlfriend [McGowan](Rose)(Rose McGowan)'s 1999 film *[Jawbreaker](Jawbreaker (film))*; [Argento](Asia)(Asia Argento)'s 2004 film *[Heart Is Deceitful Above All Things](The)(The Heart Is Deceitful Above All Things)*; *[Rise](Rise: Blood Hunter)*; *[Hire](The)(The Hire): Beat The Devil*, the sixth installment in the [films](BMW)(BMW films) series; and [Showtime](Showtime (TV network))'s comedy-drama TV series *[Californication](Californication (TV series))* in 2013, in which Manson portrayed himself. He also appeared on HBO's *[& Down](Eastbound)(Eastbound & Down)*, of which Manson is reportedly a longtime fan, and had lobbied to appear on for years; and ABC's *[Upon a Time](Once)(Once Upon a Time (TV series))*, for which he provided the voice of the character "Shadow".
He was interviewed in [Moore](Michael)(Michael Moore)'s political documentary *[for Columbine](Bowling)(Bowling for Columbine)* (2002) discussing possible motivations for the [massacre](Columbine)(Columbine High School massacre) and allegations that his music was somehow a factor. He has appeared in animated form in *[High](Clone)(Clone High)* and participated in several episodes of the MTV series *[Deathmatch](Celebrity)(Celebrity Deathmatch)*, becoming the show's unofficial champion and mascot; he often performed the voice for his [claymated](claymation) puppet, and contributed the song "[Panorama of the Endtimes](Astonishing)(Astonishing Panorama of the Endtimes)" to the soundtrack album. In July 2005, Manson told *[Stone](Rolling)(Rolling Stone)* that he was shifting his focus from music to filmmaking – "I just don't think the world is worth putting music into right now. I no longer want to make art that other people – particularly record companies – are turning into a product. I just want to make art." [Depp](Johnny)(Johnny Depp) reportedly used Manson as his inspiration for his performance as [Wonka](Willy)(Willy Wonka) in the film *[and the Chocolate Factory](Charlie)(Charlie and the Chocolate Factory (film))*.
[[File:Manson en concierto 6.jpg|thumb|right|upright|Manson performing in São Paulo in 2007 during the [of the World Tour](Rape)(Rape of the World Tour)]]
He had been working on his directorial debut, *Phantasmagoria: The Visions of Lewis Carroll*, a project that has been in [hell](development)(development hell) since 2004, with Manson also set to portray the role of [Carroll](Lewis)(Lewis Carroll), author of ''[Adventures in Wonderland](Alice's)(Alice's Adventures in Wonderland)*. Initially announced as a web-only release, it was later decided to give the estimated $4.2 million budget film a conventional cinema release, with a slated release date of mid-2007. The film was to have an original music soundtrack with previously unreleased songs. Production of the film had been postponed indefinitely until after the *Eat Me, Drink Me'' tour. In 2010, studio bosses shut down production on the project, reportedly due to viewers' responses to the violent content of clips released on the internet. The film was later officially put on "indefinite production hold".
However, according to a 2010 interview with co-writer Anthony Silva about the hold, the film was still on and the talk of it being shut down was just a myth.
In a June 2013 interview, Manson stated that he had "resurrected" the project, and that [Avary](Roger)(Roger Avary) would direct it. In a separate interview during the previous year, he said a small crew similar to what he used for his "[Slo-Mo-Tion](Slo-Mo-Tion)" music video would be used, and would rather film the movie on an iPhone than not film it at all. In a [Reddit](Reddit) AMA with [Corgan](Billy)(Billy Corgan) on April 4, 2015, Manson commented that he had withdrawn from the project because the writing process for the film was "so... damaging to my psyche, I've decided I don't want to have anything to do with it", and further commented that the only footage that had been created thus far had been content created for the trailer, which was made in order to promote the film.
Manson appeared in the final season of the TV series *[of Anarchy](Sons)(Sons of Anarchy)*, portraying white supremacist Ron Tully. In January 2016, it was announced that Manson would be joining the cast for season 3 of WGN's *[Salem](Salem (TV series))*. He played Thomas Dinley, a barber and surgeon described as "the go-to man in Salem, from a shave and a haircut to being leeched, bled, sliced open or sewn up". In 2020, Manson was a guest star on the HBO television series *[New Pope](The)(The New Pope)*, in which he has a personal audience with the series' [Pope](Pope) and recommends that he visit the prior Pope that lies unconscious in a coma.
### Art
[[Manson - Omega.jpg|thumb|left|upright|Manson as *Mechanical Animals* antagonist/character "Omega"](File:Marilyn)]
Manson stated in a 2004 interview with *[magazine](i-D)(i-D magazine)* to have begun his career as a [watercolor](watercolor) painter in 1999 when he made five-minute concept pieces and sold them to drug dealers. On September 13–14, 2002, his first show, The Golden Age of Grotesque, was held at the Los Angeles Contemporary Exhibitions Centre. *[in America](Art)(Art in America)*s Max Henry likened them to the works of a "psychiatric patient given materials to use as [therapy](art therapy)" and said his work would never be taken seriously in a fine art context, writing that the value was "in their celebrity, not the work". On September 14–15, 2004, Manson held a second exhibition on the first night in Paris and the second in [Berlin](Berlin). The show was named 'Trismegistus' which was also the title of the center piece of the exhibit – a large, three-headed Christ painted onto an antique wood panel from a portable embalmers table.
Manson named his self-proclaimed [movement](art)(art movement) Celebritarian Corporation. He has coined a [slogan](slogan) for the movement: "We will sell our shadow to those who stand within it." In 2005 he said that the Celebritarian Corporation has been "incubating for seven years" which if correct would indicate that Celebritarian Corporation, in some form, started in 1998. Celebritarian Corporation is also the namesake of an [gallery](art)(art gallery) owned by Manson, called the *Celebritarian Corporation Gallery of Fine Art* in Los Angeles for which his third exhibition was the inaugural show. From April 2–17, 2007, his works were on show at the Space 39 Modern & Contemporary art gallery in Fort Myers, Florida. Forty pieces from this show traveled to Germany's Gallery Brigitte Schenk in [Cologne](Cologne) to be publicly exhibited from June 28 – July 28, 2007. Manson revealed a series of 20 paintings in 2010 entitled *Genealogies of Pain*, an exhibition showcased at Vienna's Kunsthalle gallery which the artist collaborated on with [Lynch](David)(David Lynch).
### Video games
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Manson has made an appearance in the video game *[51](Area)(Area 51 (first-person shooter))* as Edgar, a [alien](grey)(grey alien). His song "Cruci-Fiction in Space" is featured in a commercial for the video game, *[Darkness](The)(The Darkness (video game))*. His likeness is also featured on the *[Deathmatch](Celebrity)(Celebrity Deathmatch (video game))* video game for which he recorded a song for the soundtrack (2003). The song "Use Your Fist and Not Your Mouth" was the credits score of the game *[Fear](Cold)(Cold Fear)* as well as *[Armageddon](Spawn:)(Spawn: Armageddon)*. The song "Four Rusted Horses" had an alternate version used in trailers for the video game *[3](Fear)(F3ar)*. A remix of the song "[Love](Tainted)(Tainted Love)" appears in the debut trailer for the 2010 video game, *[for Speed: Hot Pursuit](Need)(Need for Speed: Hot Pursuit (2010 video game))* and in the launch trailer of the 2012 video game *[Metal](Twisted)(Twisted Metal (2012 video game))*. Manson's song "The Beautiful People" was featured in *[SmackDown! Shut Your Mouth](WWE)(WWE SmackDown! Shut Your Mouth)*, *[KickBeat](KickBeat)* and *[Legend](Brütal)(Brütal Legend)*. The song "[Arma-goddamn-motherfuckin-geddon](Arma-goddamn-motherfuckin-geddon)" is also featured in *[Row: The Third](Saints)(Saints Row: The Third)*. His music video to the song "Personal Jesus" was used in some parts of the *[Buzz!](Buzz!)* game series.
### Other ventures
Manson launched "Mansinthe", his own brand of Swiss-made [absinthe](absinthe), which has received mixed reviews; some critics described the taste as being "just plain", but it came second to Versinthe in an Absinthe top five and won a gold medal at the 2008 San Francisco World Spirits Competition. Other reviewers, such as critics at The Wormwood Society, have given the absinthe moderately high praise. In 2015, Manson stated he was no longer drinking absinthe.
## Vocal style
[[File:Marilyn Manson - Rock am Ring 2015-8751.jpg|thumb|Manson at [am Ring](Rock)(Rock am Ring) in 2015]]
Manson predominantly delivers lyrics in a melodic fashion, although he invariably enhances his [register](vocal)(vocal register) by utilizing several [vocal technique](extended)(extended vocal technique)s, such as [fry](vocal)(vocal fry), [screaming](Screaming (music)), [growling](Death growl) and [crooning](crooner). In one interview he claimed his voice has five different [tones](Tonality), which [engineer](mixing)(mixing engineer) [Carranza](Robert)(Robert Carranza) discovered can form a [pentagram](pentagram) when imported into a [analyzer](phrasal)(Audio analyzer). He possesses a [baritone](baritone) vocal type, and has a [range](vocal)(vocal range) which spans three [octave](octave)s. His lowest [note](bass)(bass note) of A1 can be heard in "Arma-goddamn-motherfuckin-geddon", while his highest note, an E6 — the first note of the [register](whistle)(whistle register) — can be heard on the *Born Villain* song "Hey, Cruel World...".
## Name
The name Marilyn Manson is formed by a juxtaposition of two opposing American [cultural icons](pop)(cultural icon): [Monroe](Marilyn)(Marilyn Monroe) and [Manson](Charles)(Charles Manson). Monroe, an actress, was one of the most popular [symbol](sex)(sex symbol)s of the 1950s and continues to be a major icon over 50 years after, while Manson, a cult leader, was responsible for [murder](the)(Tate murders) of actress [Tate](Sharon)(Sharon Tate), as well as several others; and served a [sentence](life)(life imprisonment) on murder and conspiracy charges until his death in 2017.Bugliosi, Vincent with Gentry, Curt. *Helter SkelterThe True Story of the Manson Murders 25th Anniversary Edition*, W.W. Norton & Company, 1994. . oclc=15164618.
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Manson has mentioned on at least two occasions that he trademarked the name Marilyn Manson. In an interview at the 2015 [Lions Festival](Cannes)(Cannes Lions International Festival of Creativity), he said: "I trademarked the name 'Marilyn Manson' the same way as Walt Disney and Mickey Mouse. It's not a stage name. It's not my legal name. ... Marilyn Manson is owned by Brian Warner, my real name." He also mentioned this in a 2013 interview with [King](Larry)(Larry King). The records of the [States Patent and Trademark Office](United)(United States Patent and Trademark Office) show that he registered four trademarks of the name between 1994 and 1999, protecting entertainment services, merchandising and branding.
Manson says he used those trademark registrations to issue [and desist](cease)(cease and desist) orders to media outlets who wrongly blamed him for the [High School massacre](Columbine)(Columbine High School massacre). One journalist had erroneously reported the shooters were "wearing Marilyn Manson makeup and t-shirts", although the reports were soon proved incorrect. However, Manson said, "Once the wheels started spinning, [News](Fox)(Fox News) started going." As a result of these accusations, Manson's career was seriously harmed: He was shunned by many venue owners and received numerous death threats.
Manson generally uses the name in lieu of his birth name. Though his mother referred to him by his birth name of Brian, his father opted to refer to his son as simply "Manson" since about 1993, saying, "It's called respect of the artist."
## Lawsuits
In September 1996, former bassist [Gein](Gidget)(Gidget Gein) negotiated a settlement with Manson where he would receive and 20 percent of any royalties paid for recordings and for any songs he had a hand in writing and his share of any other royalties or fees the group earned while he was a member and he could market himself as a former member of Marilyn Manson. This settlement was not honored, however.[*Pushing Up Daisy Berkowitz*](http://www.spookykids.net/articles/Daisy_Suit.htm) . *City Link*. Jane Musgrave. 1999.
Former guitarist and founding member [Putesky](Scott)(Scott Putesky) (a.k.a. Daisy Berkowitz) filed a $15 million lawsuit in a Fort Lauderdale court against the singer, the [band](Marilyn Manson (band)) and the band's attorney (David Codikow) in January 1998 after his departure from the group in the spring of 1996. Berkowitz claimed "thousands of dollars in royalties, publishing rights, and performance fees" and filed an attorney malpractice suit against Codikow, alleging that "Codikow represented Warner's interests more than the band's and ... gave Warner disproportionate control.." By October of that year, the suit had been settled out of court for an undisclosed amount.
On November 30, 1998, a few days after the band accumulated "[a] total [of] more than $25,000" in backstage and hotel room damages during the [New York](Poughkeepsie,)(Poughkeepsie, New York), stop of their [Animals Tour](Mechanical)(Mechanical Animals Tour), *[SPIN](Spin (magazine))* editor Craig Marks filed a $24-million lawsuit against Manson and his [bodyguard](bodyguard)s. On February 19, 1999, Manson counter-sued Marks for libel, slander and defamation, seeking million}} in reparation. Marks later dropped the lawsuit. Manson apologized for the Poughkeepsie incident and offered to make financial restitution.
In a civil battery suit, David Diaz, a security officer from a concert in [Minneapolis](Minneapolis), Minnesota, on October 27, 2000, sued for in a Minneapolis federal court. The federal court jury found in Manson's favor. In a civil suit presented by [County](Oakland)(Oakland County), [Michigan](Michigan), Manson was charged with [misconduct](sexual)(sexual misconduct) against another security officer, Joshua Keasler, during a concert in [Michigan](Clarkston,)(Clarkston, Michigan), on July 30, 2001. Oakland County originally filed assault and [battery](battery (crime)) and [sexual misconduct](criminal)(sexual misconduct) charges, but the judge reduced the latter charge to misdemeanor disorderly conduct. Manson pleaded [contest](no)(nolo contendere) to the reduced charges, paid a fine, and later settled the lawsuit under undisclosed terms.
On April 3, 2002, Maria St. John filed a lawsuit in Los Angeles Superior Court accusing Manson of providing her adult daughter, [Syme](Jennifer)(Jennifer Syme), with [cocaine](cocaine) and instructing her to drive while under the influence. After attending a party at Manson's house, Syme was given a lift home; Manson claims she was taken home by a designated driver. After she got home, she got behind the wheel of her own vehicle and was killed when she crashed it into three parked cars. Manson is reported to have said there were no alcohol or other drugs at the party; St. John's lawyer disputed this claim.
On August 2, 2007, former band member [Bier](Stephen)(Madonna Wayne Gacy) filed a lawsuit against Manson for unpaid "partnership proceeds", seeking $20 million in back pay. Several details from the lawsuit leaked to the press. In December 2007, Manson countersued, claiming that Bier failed to fulfill his duties as a band member to play for recordings and to promote the band. On December 28, 2009, the suit was settled with an agreement which saw Bier's attorneys being paid a total of $380,000.["Marilyn Manson Settles Lawsuit With Former Band Member Stephen Bier"](http://www.metalunderground.com/news/details.cfm?newsid=51602) www.metalunderground.com. Access date: February 15, 2011.
## Philanthropy
Manson has supported various charitable causes throughout his career. In 2002, he worked with the [Foundation](Make-A-Wish)(Make-A-Wish Foundation) to collaborate with a fan who had been diagnosed with a life-threatening illness. 16-year-old Andrew Baines from [Tennessee](Tennessee) was invited into the band's recording studio to record backing vocals for their then-upcoming album, *[Golden Age of Grotesque](The)(The Golden Age of Grotesque)*. Manson said on his website, "Yesterday, I spent the afternoon with Andrew, who reminded me the things I create are only made complete by those who enjoy them. I just want to simply say, thank you to Andrew for sharing such an important wish with me." He contributed to [Oxfam](Oxfam)'s 2013 "Rumble in the Jumble" event, which raised money to aid victims of domestic and sexual abuse in the [Republic of the Congo](Democratic)(Democratic Republic of the Congo). He has supported various organizations – such as Music for Life and Little Kids Rock — which enable access to musical instruments and education to children of low-income families. He has also worked with Project Nightlight, a group that encourages children and teenagers to speak out against physical and sexual abuse. In 2019, he performed alongside [Lauper](Cyndi)(Cyndi Lauper) at her annual 'Home for the Holidays' benefit concert, with all proceeds donated to Lauper's [Colors United](True)(True Colors United), which "works to develop solutions to youth homelessness that focus on the unique experiences of [LGBTQ](LGBTQ) young people".
## Personal life
### Relationships
[[File:Dita Von Teese at Cannes 2007.jpg|thumb|upright|[Von Teese](Dita)(Dita Von Teese) and Manson were married from 2005 to 2007.]]
Manson is [heterosexual](heterosexual). He was engaged to actress [McGowan](Rose)(Rose McGowan) from February 1999 to January 2001. McGowan later ended their engagement, citing "lifestyle differences."
Manson and [burlesque](burlesque) dancer, model, and [designer](costume)(costume designer) [Von Teese](Dita)(Dita Von Teese) became a couple in 2001. He proposed on March 22, 2004, and they were married in a private, [non-denominational](non-denominational) ceremony officiated by [Chilean](Chileans) film director [Jodorowsky](Alejandro)(Alejandro Jodorowsky). On December 30, 2006, Von Teese filed for divorce due to "irreconcilable differences". Von Teese also eventually stated she did not agree with Manson's "partying or his relationship with another girl". Manson's "heavy [boozing](Alcoholic drink)" and distant behavior were also cited as cause for the split. A judgment of divorce was entered in [Angeles Superior Court](Los)(Los Angeles County Superior Court) on December 27, 2007.
Manson's relationship with actress, model, and musician [Rachel Wood](Evan)(Evan Rachel Wood) was made public in 2007. They reportedly maintained an [off-again relationship](on-again,)(on-again, off-again relationship) for several years. He proposed to Wood during a [Paris](Paris) stage performance in January 2010, but the couple broke off the engagement later that year.
In the March 2012 issue of *[Revolver](Revolver (magazine))* magazine, American photographer Lindsay Usich was referred to as Manson's [girlfriend](girlfriend). The article referenced a new painting by him featuring her. Usich is credited as the photo source for the cover art of Manson's 2012 album, *[Villain](Born)(Born Villain)*. It was later confirmed that the two were romantically involved. In February 2015, Manson told *[Beat](Beat Magazine)* magazine that he is "newly single".
In October 2020, Manson revealed in an interview with [Cage](Nicolas)(Nicolas Cage) on [News Radio](ABC)(ABC News Radio) that he was married in a private ceremony during the [pandemic](COVID-19)(COVID-19 pandemic). The person he married was revealed to be Usich after she changed her social media name to "Lindsay Elizabeth Warner".
Manson is the godfather of [Depp](Lily-Rose)(Lily-Rose Depp).
### Beliefs
Manson claims he was a friend of [LaVey](Anton)(Anton LaVey), and early on had also claimed LaVey inducted him as a minister in the [of Satan](Church)(Church of Satan). Later in his career, Manson downplayed this, saying he was "not necessarily" a minister: "that was something earlier... it was a friend of mine who's now dead, who was a philosopher that I thought I learned a lot from. And that was a title I was given, so a lot of people made a lot out of it. But it's not a real job, I didn't get paid for it." The Church of Satan itself later confirmed Manson was never ordained as a minister in their church, explaining "he was given an honorary priesthood for his real world accomplishments at the time."
Manson has been described as "the highest profile Satanist ever" with strong [anti-Christian](anti-Christian) views and [Darwinist](social)(social Darwinist) leanings. However, Manson denies being an atheist, and stated the following:
}}
Manson is also familiar with the writings of [Crowley](Aleister)(Aleister Crowley) and [Nietzsche](Friedrich)(Friedrich Nietzsche). He quotes Crowley throughout his autobiography, including [Thelema](Thelema)'s principal dictum, "Do what thou wilt shall be the whole of the Law." Crowley's esoteric subject matter forms an important theme in much of Manson's early work.
## Controversies
Marilyn Manson has been referred to as one of the most iconic and controversial figures in [metal music](heavy)(heavy metal music), with some referring to him as a "[culture](pop)(Popular culture) [icon](Cultural icon)". *[Paste](Paste (magazine))* magazine said there were "few artists in the 90s as shocking as Marilyn Manson, the most famous of the [shock-rockers](Shock rock)". In her book *Music in American Life: An Encyclopedia of the Songs, Styles, Stars, and Stories That Shaped Our Culture*, author Jacqueline Edmondson writes that Manson creates music that "challenges people's worldviews and provokes questions and further thinking". Manson, his work, and the work of his eponymous band, have been involved in numerous controversies throughout their career.
On May 30, 1996, the co-directors of political [group](advocacy)(advocacy group) [America](Empower)(FreedomWorks) organized a [bipartisan](bipartisan) press conference with [Republican](Republican Party (United States)) [Bennett](William)(William Bennett) and [Democrat](Democratic Party (United States))s [Lieberman](Joseph)(Joe Lieberman) and [Delores Tucker](C.)(C. Delores Tucker), in which the [industry](record)(record industry) was admonished for selling "prepackaged, shrink-wrapped [nihilism](nihilism)." The three largely targeted rap music, but also referenced Manson; Tucker called *Smells Like Children* the "dirtiest, nastiest porno record directed at children that has ever hit the market" and said distributing record labels had "the blood of children on their hands", while Lieberman said the music "celebrates some of the most antisocial and immoral behaviors imaginable." They also announced that Empower America would be launching a $25,000 radio advertising campaign to collect petitions from listeners who wanted record companies to "stop spreading this vicious, vulgar music."
The release of *Antichrist Superstar* in 1996 coincided with the band's commercial breakthrough, and much of the attention received by Manson from mainstream media was not positive. Empower America organized another press conference in December 1996, where they criticized [MCA](MCA Records)—the owner of Interscope—president [Bronfman Jr.](Edgar)(Edgar Bronfman Jr.) for profiting from "profanity-laced" albums by Manson, [Shakur](Tupac)(Tupac Shakur) and [Doggy Dogg](Snoop)(Snoop Dogg). The band's live performances also came under fire during this period; the "Dead to the World Tour" was followed by protesters at nearly every North American venue it visited. Opponents of the band claimed the shows featured elements of [Satanism](Satanism), including a satanic [altar](altar), [bestiality](bestiality), rape, the distribution of free drugs, homosexual acts, as well as [animal](Animal sacrifice) and even [sacrifice](human)(human sacrifice)s. Anonymous [affidavit](affidavit)s compiled by the [Coast](Gulf)(Gulf Coast of the United States) division of the [Family Association](American)(American Family Association) made various other claims about the live shows. Students in Florida were threatened with expulsion for attending the band's concerts.
Several [legislatures](state)(State legislature (United States)), including the [State Legislature](Utah)(Utah State Legislature), [Carolina Legislature](South)(South Carolina Legislature) and the [General Assembly](Virginia)(Virginia General Assembly), enacted legislation specifically targeting the group, banning them from performing at [state-operated](State ownership) venues. These laws would later be repealed, following separate lawsuits from fans and the [Civil Liberties Union](American)(American Civil Liberties Union). [Osbourne](Ozzy)(Ozzy Osbourne) sued the [Jersey Sports and Exposition Authority](New)(New Jersey Sports and Exposition Authority) after they forced the cancelation of the New Jersey date of the [Ozzfest](1997)(Ozzfest (1997)) at [Stadium](Giants)(Giants Stadium); Manson's appearance had been cited as the reason for the cancelation. In November 1997, Manson's lyrical content was examined during [hearings](congressional)(United States congressional hearing) led by Lieberman and [Brownback](Sam)(Sam Brownback), in an attempt to determine the effects—if any—of violent lyrics on young listeners. The subcommittee heard testimony from Raymond Kuntz, who blamed his son's suicide on *Antichrist Superstar*—specifically the song "The Reflecting God". Lieberman went on to claim that the band's music was driving young listeners to commit suicide, and called the band the "sickest group ever promoted by a mainstream record company."
### Columbine High School massacre
On April 20, 1999, [High School](Columbine)(Columbine High School) students [Harris and Dylan Klebold](Eric)(Eric Harris and Dylan Klebold) killed thirteen people and wounded twenty-one others before committing suicide. At the time, it was the [school shooting in US history](deadliest)(List of school shootings in the United States by death toll). In the immediate aftermath of [massacre](the)(Columbine High School massacre), media reports surfaced that were heavily critical of [subculture](Goth)(Goth subculture), alleging the perpetrators were wearing Marilyn Manson T-shirts during the massacre, and that they were influenced by violence in entertainment, specifically movies, video games and music. Five days after the incident, William Bennet and Joseph Lieberman – longtime critics of the vocalist – appeared on *[the Press](Meet)(Meet the Press)*, where they cited his music as a contributing factor to the shooting. Soon after, [sensationalist](Sensationalism) headlines such as "Killers Worshipped Rock Freak Manson" and "Devil-Worshipping Maniac Told Kids To Kill" began appearing in media coverage of the tragedy. Despite confirmation that the pair were fans of German [industrial](Industrial music) bands such as [KMFDM](KMFDM) and [Rammstein](Rammstein), and had "nothing but contempt" for Manson's music, mainstream media continued to direct the [of blame for the shooting at Manson](majority)(Marilyn Manson–Columbine High School massacre controversy).
The [of Denver](Mayor)(List of mayors of Denver), [Webb](Wellington)(Wellington Webb), successfully petitioned for the cancelation of [KBPI-FM](KBPI)'s annual "Birthday Bash", at which Manson was scheduled to appear on April 30. Webb said the concert would be "inappropriate" because the two gunmen were thought to be fans of Manson. [Colorado](Colorado)an politicians [Owens](Bill)(Bill Owens (Colorado politician)) and [Tancredo](Tom)(Tom Tancredo) accused Manson of promoting "hate, violence, death, suicide, drug use and the attitudes and actions of the Columbine High School killers." On April 29, ten US senators led by Brownback sent a letter to the head of [Seagram](Seagram), the [conglomerate](Conglomerate (company)) which owned Manson's record label, requesting they stop distributing music to children that "glorifies violence". The letter named Manson, accusing him of producing songs that "eerily reflect" the actions of Harris and Klebold.
Manson canceled the final four dates of the Rock Is Dead Tour out of respect for the victims while criticizing the media for their irresponsible coverage of the tragedy. He elaborated on this point in an [op-ed](op-ed) written for *[Stone](Rolling)(Rolling Stone)* titled "Columbine: Whose Fault Is It?". In the article, Manson castigated [gun culture](America's)(Gun culture in the United States) and the political influence of the [Rifle Association](National)(National Rifle Association), but was heavily critical of [media](news)(news media). He argued the media should be blamed for the next school shooting, as it was them who propagated the ensuing hysteria and "witch hunt", and said that instead of debating more relevant societal issues, the media instead facilitated the placing of blame on a [scapegoat](scapegoat).
On May 4, Brownback chaired a congressional hearing of the [States Senate Committee on Commerce, Science and Transportation](United)(United States Senate Committee on Commerce, Science and Transportation) on the distribution and marketing of supposedly violent content to children by the film, music, television and video-game industries. The committee heard testimony from Bennett, the Archbishop of Denver [J. Chaput](Charles)(Charles J. Chaput), as well as professors and mental health professionals; they criticized Manson, his label mates Nine Inch Nails, and the 1999 film *[Matrix](The)(The Matrix)* for their alleged contribution to a cultural environment enabling violence such as the Columbine shootings. [Industry Association of America](Recording)(Recording Industry Association of America) executive [Rosen](Hilary)(Hilary Rosen) said she refused to participate in the hearing as it was "staged as [theater](political)(Political posturing). They just wanted to find a way to shame the industry, and I'm not ashamed." The committee eventually requested the [Trade Commission](Federal)(Federal Trade Commission) and the [States Department of Justice](United)(United States Department of Justice) investigate the entertainment industry's marketing practices to minors. The lyrical content of the band's 2000 album *Holy Wood (In the Shadow of the Valley of Death)* was largely inspired by the massacre, with Manson saying it was a rebuttal to the accusations leveled against him by mainstream media. He also discussed the massacre and its aftermath in [Moore](Michael)(Michael Moore)'s 2002 documentary *[for Columbine](Bowling)(Bowling for Columbine)*.
### Other alleged incidents
In 2000, an elderly nun was murdered by three schoolgirls in Italy, with their diaries reportedly containing numerous references to and pictures of Manson. Soon after, he was arrested following a concert in [Rome](Rome) for [allegedly](allegedly) "tearing off his genitals". Manson said the arrest was politically motivated following his implication in the murder by Italian [tabloid](Tabloid journalism)s. In 2003, French media blamed Manson when several teenagers vandalized the graves of British war heroes in [Arras](Arras), [France](France).
On June 30, 2003, 14-year old schoolgirl [Jones](Jodi)(Murder of Jodi Jones) was brutally murdered in [Scotland](Scotland). Her mutilated body was discovered in woodland near her home, with her injuries said to closely resemble those of Elizabeth Short, commonly referred to by media as the [Dahlia](Black)(Black Dahlia). Ten months later, Jones's boyfriend Luke Mitchell, then-fifteen years old, was arrested on suspicion of her murder. Police confiscated a copy of *The Golden Age of Grotesque* containing the short film *Doppelherz* during a search of Mitchell's family home, which had been purchased by Mitchell two days after Jones's death. A ten-minute excerpt from the film, as well as several paintings created by Manson depicting the Black Dahlia's mutilated body, were presented as evidence during the trial. Mitchell was found guilty of her murder and was sentenced to a minimum of twenty years in prison. In his closing summation, [Nimmo Smith](Lord)(William Nimmo Smith, Lord Nimmo Smith) said he believed Mitchell "carried an image of [Manson's] paintings in your memory when you killed Jodi." Mitchell continues to profess his innocence.
The controversy connecting Manson to school shootings continued on October 10, 2007, when fourteen-year old Asa Coon [four people](shot)(2007 SuccessTech Academy shooting) at [Academy](SuccessTech)(SuccessTech Academy) in [Ohio](Cleveland,)(Cleveland, Ohio), before committing suicide. While exiting a bathroom, Coon was punched in the face by another student, and responded by shooting his attacker in the abdomen. Coon then walked down the hallway and shot in to two occupied classrooms – wounding two teachers and a student – before entering a bathroom and committing suicide. Coon was wearing a Marilyn Manson T-shirt during the shooting. A photograph of Coon's dead body was circulated online by Cleveland police officer Walter Emerick. On May 18, 2009, Justin Doucet, a fifteen-year-old student at [Off Middle School](Larose-Cut)(Lafourche Parish Public Schools) in [Parish, Louisiana](Lafourche)(Lafourche Parish, Louisiana), entered the school with a [pistol](semi-automatic)(semi-automatic pistol). After a teacher refused to comply with Doucet's demand to say "Hail Marilyn Manson", he fired two shots that narrowly missed the teacher's head, before shooting himself. Doucet died from his injuries a week later.
### Abuse allegations
Several of Manson's former acquaintances began communicating with one another in September 2020. In a letter dated January 21, 2021, California State Senator [Rubio](Susan)(Susan Rubio) wrote to the director of the [FBI](Federal Bureau of Investigation) and the [Attorney General](U.S.)(United States Attorney General), asking them to investigate allegations several women had made against Manson. On February 1, former [fiancée](fiancée) [Rachel Wood](Evan)(Evan Rachel Wood) wrote on [Instagram](Instagram) and in a statement to *[Fair](Vanity)(Vanity Fair (magazine))*, accusing Manson of being abusive during their relationship a decade earlier. Four other women simultaneously issued statements also accusing Manson of abuse. Wood continued to make [allegation](allegation)s against Manson and his wife Lindsay Usich on Instagram, claiming that his alleged abuse included [antisemitism](antisemitism), and said she filed a report with the [Angeles Police Department](Los)(Los Angeles Police Department) against Usich for threatening to [leak](Internet leak) photographs of Wood dressed in a [uniform](Nazi)(Nazi uniform) while wearing an [Hitler](Adolf)(Adolf Hitler)-style [moustache](toothbrush)(toothbrush moustache). A total of sixteen people have made various allegations against Manson, including five accusations of sexual assault.
Manson was immediately dropped by distributing record label [Vista Recordings](Loma)(Loma Vista Recordings), his talent agency [Artists](Creative)(Creative Artists Agency), and his long-time manager Tony Ciulla. He was also removed from future episodes of TV series *[Gods](American)(American Gods (TV series))* and *[Creepshow](Creepshow (TV series))*, in which he was scheduled to appear. On February 2, Manson issued a statement via Instagram, saying, "Obviously, my art and my life have long been magnets for controversy, but these recent claims about me are horrible distortions of reality. My intimate relationships have always been entirely consensual with like-minded partners", and claimed the accusers were "misrepresenting the past". His former wife Dita Von Teese stated that "the details made public do not match my personal experience during our 7 years together as a couple." Former girlfriend Rose McGowan said that Manson was not abusive during their relationship but that her experience had "no bearing on whether he was like that with others before or after". On February 3, the LAPD performed a "welfare check" at Manson's home after receiving a call from a purported friend who was concerned for his wellbeing. The [Angeles County Sheriff's Department](Los)(Los Angeles County Sheriff's Department) confirmed on February 19 that they were investigating Manson due to allegations of domestic violence.
Five women filed [lawsuit](civil)(civil lawsuit)s against Manson in the months that followed Wood's allegations: [Bianco](Esmé)(Esmé Bianco), Ashley Morgan Smithline, Ashley Walters, and two [Doe](Jane)(Jane Doe)s. Manson's legal team issued statements denying the allegations. They filed a motion to dismiss these lawsuits, calling the claims "untrue, meritless" and alleging that several of the accusers "spent months plotting, workshopping, and fine-tuning their stories to turn what were consensual friendships and relationships with Warner from more than a decade ago, into twisted tales that bear no resemblance to reality". The lawsuit filed by the anonymous woman was initially dismissed because it exceeded the [of limitations](statute)(statute of limitations), although an amended complaint was refiled soon after. Manson's legal team also sought to have Bianco's lawsuit dismissed because it exceeded the statute of limitations, although a federal judge denied that motion. Walters's lawsuit was dismissed [prejudice](with)(with prejudice) in May. Smithline's lawsuit was also dismissed by a federal judge, after her lawyer withdrew from her case and she did not meet a court-ordered deadline regarding her representation in the case. Bianco and Manson reached an out-of-court settlement in January 2023 with undisclosed terms of agreement. Also in January 2023, another plantiff identified as Jane Doe, filed a lawsuit against him, alleging that he groomed and sexually assaulted her in the 1990s. The lawsuit also named defunct record label [Records](Nothing)(Nothing Records) and its parent company [Interscope](Interscope Records) as co-defendants, accusing them of being aware of Manson's alleged abuse. Smithline recanted her allegations in legal documents in February 2023, claiming she was "manipulated" and "pressured" by Wood and her associates to make allegations against Manson that were "not true".
Manson filed a lawsuit against Wood and Ashley "Illma" Gore for defamation, intentional infliction of emotional distress, violations of the [Comprehensive Computer Data Access and Fraud Act](California)(California Comprehensive Computer Data Access and Fraud Act), as well as the impersonation of an FBI agent and falsifying federal documents. In the suit, it is alleged that Wood and Gore spent three years contacting his former girlfriends and provided "checklists and scripts" to prospective accusers in order to corroborate Wood's claims, and that the pair impersonated and falsified documents from an FBI agent. The suit additionally claims Gore hacked into Manson's computers and social media, and created fake email accounts to manufacture evidence he had been distributing "illicit pornography". It is also alleged that Gore [swatted](swatting) Manson by calling the FBI claiming to be a friend concerned about an "emergency" at his home. As a result of the call, several police officers were dispatched to his property, where "there was no emergency". He is seeking a jury trial. A portion of the defamation and intentional infliction of emotional distress claims of the lawsuit, specifically Warner's allegation that Wood and Gore forged an FBI letter and publicly spread false claims regarding his unreleased short film *Groupie*, were dismissed after the two filed [anti-SLAPP](anti-SLAPP) notices. Warner's attorney said he plans to appeal the decision.
The LACSD presented the findings of their 19-month investigation of the sexual assault allegations made against Manson to California [attorney](district)(district attorney) [Gascón](George)(George Gascón) in September 2022. Gascón called the file "partial" and said more evidence was needed in order to file charges.
## Discography
**Studio albums**
* *[of an American Family](Portrait)(Portrait of an American Family)* (1994)
* *[Superstar](Antichrist)(Antichrist Superstar)* (1996)
* *[Animals](Mechanical)(Mechanical Animals)* (1998)
* *[Wood (In the Shadow of the Valley of Death)](Holy)(Holy Wood (In the Shadow of the Valley of Death))* (2000)
* *[Golden Age of Grotesque](The)(The Golden Age of Grotesque)* (2003)
* *[Me, Drink Me](Eat)(Eat Me, Drink Me)* (2007)
* *[High End of Low](The)(The High End of Low)* (2009)
* *[Villain](Born)(Born Villain)* (2012)
* *[Pale Emperor](The)(The Pale Emperor)* (2015)
* *[Upside Down](Heaven)(Heaven Upside Down)* (2017)
* *[Are Chaos](We)(We Are Chaos)* (2020)
## Guest appearances in music videos
* 1992: [Inch Nails](Nine)(Nine Inch Nails)"[Up](Gave)(Gave Up)"
* 2000: [Inch Nails](Nine)(Nine Inch Nails)"[Inc.](Starfuckers,)(Starfuckers, Inc.)"
* 2000: [Eminem](Eminem)"[Way I Am](The)(The Way I Am (Eminem song))"
* 2002: [Murderdolls](Murderdolls)"[in Hollywood](Dead)(Dead in Hollywood)"
* 2010: [Rammstein](Rammstein) "[Haifisch](Haifisch)"
* 2011: [D'hask](D'Hask)"Tempat Ku"
* 2014: [Antwoord](Die)(Die Antwoord)"Ugly Boy"
* 2017: [John](Elton)(Elton John)"[Dancer](Tiny)(Tiny Dancer)"
* 2020: [Taylor](Corey)(Corey Taylor) "CMFT Must Be Stopped"
## Tours
## Awards and nominations
## Filmography and TV roles
* *[Highway](Lost)(Lost Highway (film))* (1997)
* [Stern](Howard)(Howard Stern television shows) (1997–2004)
* *[Deathmatch](Celebrity)(Celebrity Deathmatch)* (1998)
* *[Jawbreaker](Jawbreaker (film))* (1999)
* *[High](Clone)(Clone High)* (2002)
* *[for Columbine](Bowling)(Bowling for Columbine)* (2002)
* *[the Devil](Beat)(The Hire#Beat the Devil)* (2002)
* *[Monster](Party)(Party Monster (2003 film))* (2003)
* *[Heart Is Deceitful Above All Things](The)(The Heart Is Deceitful Above All Things)* (2004)
* *[Villain](Born)(Born Villain (film))* (2011)
* *[Cops](Wrong)(Wrong Cops)* (2013)
* *[Californication](Californication (TV series))* (2013)
* *[Ghost Stories](Celebrity)(Celebrity Ghost Stories)*
* *[Upon a Time](Once)(Once Upon a Time (TV series))* (2013) Voice of Peter Pan's shadow
* *[The Visions of Lewis Carroll](Phantasmagoria:)(Phantasmagoria: The Visions of Lewis Carroll)* (cancelled)
* *[of Anarchy](Sons)(Sons of Anarchy)* (2014) (Ron Tully)
* *[Me Make You a Martyr](Let)(Let Me Make You a Martyr)* (2016) (Pope)
* *[Salem](Salem (TV series))* (2016–2017) (Thomas Dinley)
* *[New Pope](The)(The New Pope)* (2020)
* *[New Mutants](The)(The New Mutants (film))* (2020) Voice of the Smile Man
* *[Gods](American)(American Gods (TV series))* (2021) Johan Wengren
## Books
* *[Long Hard Road Out of Hell](The)(The Long Hard Road Out of Hell)*. New York: [HarperCollins](HarperCollins) division [ReganBooks](ReganBooks), 1998 .
* *[Wood](Holy)(Holy Wood (novel))*. New York: HarperCollins division ReganBooks, Unreleased.
* *[of Pain](Genealogies)(Genealogies of Pain)*. Nuremberg: Verlag für moderne Kunst Nürnberg, 2011 .
* *[Campaign](Campaign (book))*. Calabasas: Grassy Slope Incorporated, 2011 .
## References
**Notes**
**Bibliography**
*
**References**
## Sources
*
*
## External links
*
*
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Ontology
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ontology
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# Ontology
*Revision ID: 1158825171 | Timestamp: 2023-06-06T13:23:32Z*
---
[[File:Cartesian_Theater.svg|right|thumb|upright=1.5|An illustration of [materialism](Cartesian)(Cartesian materialism), which argues that it is possible to find the content of [experience](conscious)(Consciousness) moment by moment in the mind. [Materialism](Materialism) in general, arguing that [matter](matter) is the fundamental '[substance](Substance theory)', is an influential perspective on ontology.]]
In [metaphysics](metaphysics), **ontology** is the [philosophical](philosophy) study of being, as well as related concepts such as [existence](existence), [becoming](Becoming (philosophy)), and [reality](reality).
Ontology addresses questions like how entities are grouped into [categories](Category of being) and which of these entities exist on the most fundamental level. Ontologists often try to determine what the categories or highest kinds are and how they form a system of categories that encompasses the classification of all entities. Commonly proposed categories include [substances](Substance (philosophy)), [properties](Property (philosophy)), [relations](Relations (philosophy)), [of affairs](states)(State of affairs (philosophy)), and [events](Event (philosophy)). These categories are characterized by fundamental ontological concepts, including particularity and universality, abstractness and concreteness, or possibility and necessity. Of special interest is the concept of ontological dependence, which determines whether the entities of a category exist on the most fundamental level. Disagreements within ontology are often about whether entities belonging to a certain category exist and, if so, how they are related to other entities.
When used as a [noun](countable)(Count noun), the words *ontology* and *ontologies* refer not to the science of being but to theories within the science of being. Ontological theories can be divided into various types according to their theoretical commitments. Monocategorical ontologies hold that there is only one basic category, but polycategorical ontologies rejected this view. Hierarchical ontologies assert that some entities exist on a more fundamental level and that other entities depend on them. Flat ontologies, on the other hand, deny such a privileged status to any entity.
## Etymology
The [compound](Compound (linguistics)) word *ontology* ('study of being') combines
: *[onto](wikt:onto-)-* ([Greek](Greek language): ; ](Genitive)].|Genitive case}} ) and
: *[-logia](wikt:-logia)* (|lit=logical discourse|label=none}}).
While the [etymology](etymology) is Greek, the oldest extant records of the word itself is a [Neo-Latin](Neo-Latin) form , which appeared
: in 1606 in the *[Scholastica](Ogdoas)(Ogdoas Scholastica)* by [Lorhard](Jacob)(Jacob Lorhard) (*Lorhardus*), and
: in 1613 in the *Lexicon philosophicum* by [Göckel](Rudolf)(Rudolph Goclenius) (*Goclenius*).
The first occurrence in English of *ontology*, as recorded by the *[English Dictionary](Oxford)(Oxford English Dictionary)*,"[ontology](https://www.oxfordlearnersdictionaries.com/us/definition/english/ontology?q=ontology)." ''[Advanced Learner's Dictionary](Oxford)(Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary)*. [University Press](Oxford)(Oxford University Press) (2008) came in 1664 through *Archelogia philosophica nova...* by Gideon Harvey.Harvey, Gideon. 1663. *[Archelogia philosophica nova, or, New Principles of Philosophy. Containing Philosophy in General, Metaphysicks or Ontology, Dynamilogy or a Discourse of Power, Religio Philosophi or Natural Theology, Physicks or Natural philosophy](http://name.umdl.umich.edu/A43008.0001.001).'' London: J.H. The word was first used, in its Latin form, by philosophers, and based on the Latin roots (and in turn on the Greek ones).
## Overview
Ontology is closely associated with Aristotle's question of 'being *qua* being': the question of what all entities in the widest sense have in common. The **Eleatic principle** is one answer to this question: it states that being is inextricably tied to causation, that "Power is the mark of Being". One problem with this answer is that it excludes abstract objects. Another explicit but little accepted answer can be found in Berkeley's slogan that "to be is to be perceived". Intimately related but not identical to the question of 'being *qua* being' is the problem of [categories](Category of being). Categories are usually seen as the highest kinds or genera. A system of categories provides a classification of entities that is exclusive and exhaustive: every entity belongs to exactly one category. Various such classifications have been proposed, they often include categories for [substances](Substance (philosophy)), [properties](Property (philosophy)), [relations](Relations (philosophy)), [of affairs](states)(states of affairs) or [events](Event (philosophy)). At the core of the differentiation between categories are various fundamental ontological concepts and distinctions, for example, the concepts of *particularity and universality*, of *abstractness and concreteness*, of *ontological dependence*, of *identity* and of *modality*. These concepts are sometimes treated as categories themselves, are used to explain the difference between categories or play other central roles for characterizing different ontological theories. Within ontology, there is a lack of general consensus concerning how the different categories are to be defined. Different ontologists often disagree on whether a certain category has any members at all or whether a given category is fundamental.
### Particulars and universals
[Particular](Particular)s or individuals are usually contrasted with [universals](Universal (metaphysics)). Universals concern features that can be exemplified by various different particulars. For example, a tomato and a strawberry are two particulars that exemplify the universal redness. Universals can be present at various distinct locations in space at the same time while particulars are restricted to one location at a time. Furthermore, universals can be fully present at different times, which is why they are sometimes referred to as *repeatables* in contrast to non-repeatable particulars. The so-called [of universals](problem)(problem of universals) is the problem to explain how different things can agree in their features, e.g. how a tomato and a strawberry can both be red. [Realists](Problem of universals#realism) about universals believe that there are universals. They can solve the *problem of universals* by explaining the commonality through a universal shared by both entities. Realists are divided among themselves as to whether universals can exist independently of being exemplified by something ("ante res") or not ("in rebus"). [Nominalists](Nominalism), on the other hand, deny that there are universals. They have to resort to other notions to explain how a feature can be common to several entities, for example, by positing either fundamental resemblance-relations between the entities (resemblance nominalism) or a shared membership to a common natural class (class nominalism).
### Abstract and concrete
Many philosophers agree that there is an exclusive and exhaustive distinction between *concrete objects* and *abstract objects*. Some philosophers consider this to be the most general division of being. Examples of concrete objects include plants, human beings and planets while things like numbers, sets and propositions are abstract objects. But despite the general agreement concerning the paradigm cases, there is less consensus as to what the characteristic marks of concreteness and abstractness are. Popular suggestions include defining the distinction in terms of the difference between (1) existence inside or outside space-time, (2) having causes and effects or not and (3) having contingent or necessary existence.
### Ontological dependence
An entity *ontologically depends* on another entity if the first entity cannot exist without the second entity. Ontologically independent entities, on the other hand, can exist all by themselves. For example, the surface of an apple cannot exist without the apple and so depends on it ontologically. Entities often characterized as ontologically dependent include properties, which depend on their bearers, and boundaries, which depend on the entity they demarcate from its surroundings. As these examples suggest, ontological dependence is to be distinguished from causal dependence, in which an effect depends for its existence on a cause. It is often important to draw a distinction between two types of ontological dependence: rigid and generic. Rigid dependence concerns the dependence on one specific entity, as the surface of an apple depends on its specific apple. Generic dependence, on the other hand, involves a weaker form of dependence, on merely a certain type of entity. For example, electricity generically depends on there being charged particles, but it does not depend on any specific charged particle. Dependence-relations are relevant to ontology since it is often held that ontologically dependent entities have a less robust form of being. This way a *hierarchy* is introduced into the world that brings with it the distinction between more and less fundamental entities.
### Identity
[Identity](Identity (philosophy)) is a basic ontological concept that is often expressed by the word "same". It is important to distinguish between *qualitative identity* and *numerical identity*. For example, consider two children with identical bicycles engaged in a race while their mother is watching. The two children have the *same* bicycle in one sense (*qualitative identity*) and the *same* mother in another sense (*numerical identity*). Two qualitatively identical things are often said to be indiscernible. The two senses of *sameness* are linked by two principles: the principle of *indiscernibility of identicals* and the principle of *[of indiscernibles](identity)(identity of indiscernibles)*. The principle of *indiscernibility of identicals* is uncontroversial and states that if two entities are numerically identical with each other then they exactly resemble each other. The principle of *identity of indiscernibles*, on the other hand, is more controversial in making the converse claim that if two entities exactly resemble each other then they must be numerically identical. This entails that "no two distinct things exactly resemble each other". A well-known counterexample comes from [Black](Max)(Max Black), who describes a symmetrical universe consisting of only two spheres with the same features. Black argues that the two spheres are indiscernible but not identical, thereby constituting a violation of the principle of *identity of indiscernibles*.
The problem of *identity over time* concerns the question of *persistence*: whether or in what sense two objects at different times can be *numerically identical*. This is usually referred to as *diachronic identity* in contrast to *synchronic identity*. The statement that "[t]he table in the next room is identical with the one you purchased last year" asserts diachronic identity between the table now and the table then. A famous example of a denial of diachronic identity comes from [Heraclitus](Heraclitus), who argues that it is impossible to step into the same river twice because of the changes that occurred in-between. The traditional position on the problem of *persistence* is [endurantism](endurantism), the thesis that diachronic identity in a strict sense is possible. One problem with this position is that it seems to violate the principle of *indiscernibility of identicals*: the object may have undergone changes in the meantime resulting in it being discernible from itself. [Perdurantism](Perdurantism) or [four-dimensionalism](four-dimensionalism) is an alternative approach holding that *diachronic identity* is possible only in a loose sense: while the two objects differ from each other strictly speaking, they are both temporal parts that belong to the same temporally extended whole. *Perdurantism* avoids many philosophical problems plaguing *endurantism*, but *endurantism* seems to be more in touch with how we ordinarily conceive *diachronic identity*.
### Modality
[Modality](Modal logic) concerns the concepts of possibility, actuality and necessity. In contemporary discourse, these concepts are often defined in terms of [worlds](possible)(possible worlds). A possible world is a complete way how things could have been. The actual world is one possible world among others: things could have been different from what they actually are. A proposition is possibly true if there is at least one possible world in which it is true; it is necessarily true if it is true in all possible worlds. *[Actualists](Actualism)* and *possibilists* disagree on the *ontological status* of possible worlds. Actualists hold that reality is at its core actual and that possible worlds should be understood in terms of actual entities, for example, as fictions or as sets of sentences. Possibilists, on the other hand, assign to possible worlds the same *fundamental ontological status* as to the actual world. This is a form of [realism](modal)(modal realism), holding that reality has *irreducibly modal features*. Another important issue in this field concerns the distinction between *contingent* and *necessary beings*. Contingent beings are beings whose existence is possible but not necessary. Necessary beings, on the other hand, could not have failed to exist. It has been suggested that this distinction is the highest division of being.
### Substances
The category of *substances* has played a central role in many ontological theories throughout the history of philosophy. "Substance" is a technical term within philosophy not to be confused with the more common usage in the sense of chemical substances like gold or sulfur. Various definitions have been given but among the most common features ascribed to substances in the philosophical sense is that they are *particulars* that are *ontologically independent*: they are able to exist all by themselves. Being ontologically independent, substances can play the role of *fundamental entities* in the *ontological hierarchy*. If 'ontological independence' is defined as including *causal independence* then only self-caused entities, like Spinoza's God, can be substances. With a specifically ontological definition of 'independence', many everyday objects like books or cats may qualify as substances. Another defining feature often attributed to substances is their ability to *undergo changes*. Changes involve something existing *before*, *during* and *after* the change. They can be described in terms of a persisting substance gaining or losing properties, or of *matter* changing its *form*. From this perspective, the ripening of a tomato may be described as a change in which the tomato loses its greenness and gains its redness. It is sometimes held that a substance can have a property in two ways: *[essentially](Essence)* and *accidentally*. A substance can survive a change of *accidental properties* but it cannot lose its *essential properties*, which constitute its nature.
### Properties and relations
The category of *properties* consists of entities that can be exemplified by other entities, e.g. by substances. Properties characterize their bearers, they express what their bearer is like. For example, the red color and the round shape of an apple are properties of this apple. Various ways have been suggested concerning how to conceive properties themselves and their relation to substances. The traditionally dominant view is that properties are universals that inhere in their bearers. As universals, they can be shared by different substances. Nominalists, on the other hand, deny that universals exist. Some nominalists try to account for properties in terms of resemblance relations or class membership. Another alternative for nominalists is to conceptualize properties as simple particulars, so-called [tropes](Trope (philosophy)#In metaphysics). This position entails that both the apple and its redness are particulars. Different apples may still exactly resemble each other concerning their color, but they do not share the same particular property on this view: the two color-tropes are *numerically distinct*. Another important question for any theory of properties is how to conceive the relation between a bearer and its properties. Substratum theorists hold that there is some kind of substance, *substratum* or *[particular](bare)(Substance theory#Bare particular)* that acts as bearer. [theory](Bundle)(Bundle theory) is an alternative view that does away with a substratum altogether: objects are taken to be just a bundle of properties. They are held together not by a substratum but by the so-called *compresence-relation* responsible for the bundling. Both substratum theory and bundle theory can be combined with conceptualizing properties as universals or as particulars.
An important distinction among properties is between *categorical* and *dispositional* properties. Categorical properties concern what something is like, e.g. what qualities it has. Dispositional properties, on the other hand, involve what powers something has, what it is able to do, even if it is not actually doing it. For example, the shape of a sugar cube is a categorical property while its tendency to dissolve in water is a dispositional property. For many properties there is a lack of consensus as to how they should be classified, for example, whether colors are categorical or dispositional properties. [Categoricalism](Property (philosophy)#Categoricalism vs. dispositionalism) is the thesis that on a fundamental level there are only categorical properties, that dispositional properties are either non-existent or dependent on categorical properties. [Dispositionalism](Property (philosophy)#Categoricalism vs. dispositionalism) is the opposite theory, giving ontological primacy to dispositional properties. Between these two extremes, there are dualists who allow both categorical and dispositional properties in their ontology.
*Relations* are ways in which things, the relata, stand to each other. Relations are in many ways similar to properties in that both characterize the things they apply to. Properties are sometimes treated as a special case of relations involving only one relatum. Central for ontology is the distinction between *internal* and *external* relations. A relation is *internal* if it is fully determined by the features of its relata. For example, an apple and a tomato stand in the *internal relation* of [similarity](Similarity (philosophy)) to each other because they are both red. Some philosophers have inferred from this that internal relations do not have a proper ontological status since they can be reduced to intrinsic properties. *External* relations, on the other hand, are not fixed by the features of their relata. For example, a book stands in an *external* relation to a table by lying on top of it. But this is not determined by the book's or the table's features like their color, their shape, etc.
### States of affairs and events
[of affairs](States)(State of affairs (philosophy)) are complex entities, in contrast to substances and properties, which are usually conceived as simple. Complex entities are built up from or constituted by other entities. Atomic states of affairs are constituted by one particular and one property exemplified by this particular. For example, the state of affairs that Socrates is wise is constituted by the particular "Socrates" and the property "wise". Relational states of affairs involve several particulars and a relation connecting them. States of affairs that *obtain* are also referred to as [facts](Fact#In philosophy). It is controversial which ontological status should be ascribed to states of affairs that do not obtain. States of affairs have been prominent in 20th-century ontology as various theories were proposed to describe the world as composed of states of affairs. It is often held that states of affairs play the role of [truthmaker](truthmaker)s: judgments or assertions are true because the corresponding state of affairs obtains.
[Events](Event (philosophy)) take place in time, they are sometimes thought of as involving a change in the form of acquiring or losing a property, like the lawn's becoming dry. But on a liberal view, the retaining of a property without any change may also count as an event, e.g. the lawn's staying wet. Some philosophers see events as universals that can repeat at different times, but the more dominant view is that events are particulars and therefore non-repeatable. Some events are complex in that they are composed of a sequence of events, often referred to as a process. But even simple events can be conceived as complex entities involving an object, a time and the property exemplified by the object at this time. So-called [philosophy](process)(process philosophy) or [ontology](process)(process ontology) ascribes ontological primacy to changes and processes as opposed to the emphasis on static being in the traditionally dominant substance metaphysics.
### Reality of things
The word 'real' is derived from the Latin word *res*, which is often translated as 'thing'. The word 'thing' is often used in ontological discourse as if it had a presupposed meaning, not needing an explicit philosophical definition because it belongs to ordinary language. Nevertheless, what is a thing and what is real or substantial are concerns of ontology.Thomasson, A.L. (2007). *Ordinary Objects*, Oxford University Press, New York, , p. 7: "I argue that while there are various ways of addressing questions about what ‘things’ exist, ..."Eddington, A.S. (1928). *The Nature of the Physical World: The Gifford Lectures 1927*, Macmillan, London, New York, reprinted 1929 p. ix: "... it is the distinctive characteristic of a "thing" to have this substantiality." Different views are held about this. Plato proposed that underlying, and constituting the real basis of, the concretely experienced world are '[forms](Theory of forms)' or 'ideas', which today are generally regarded as high abstractions. In earlier days, philosophers used the term '[realism](Platonic realism)' to refer to Plato's belief that his 'forms' are 'real'; nowadays, the term 'realism' often has an almost opposite meaning, so that Plato's belief is sometimes called '[idealism](idealism)'.Hale, B (2009). "Realism and antirealism about abstract entities", pp. 65–73 in Jaegwon Kim, Ernest Sosa, and Gary S. Rosenkrantz, *A Companion to Metaphysics*, 2nd edition, Wiley–Blackwell, Chichester UK, .1 Philosophers debate whether entities such as tables and chairs, lions and tigers, philosophical doctrines, numbers, truth, and beauty, are to be regarded as 'things', or as something or nothing 'real'.
## Types of ontologies
Ontological theories can be divided into various types according to their theoretical commitments. Particular ontological theories or types of theories are often referred to as "ontologies" ([or plural](singular)(Count noun)). This usage contrasts with the meaning of "ontology" ([singular](only)(Mass noun)) as a branch of philosophy: the *science of being* in general.
### Flat vs polycategorical vs hierarchical
One way to divide ontologies is by the number of basic categories they use. *Monocategorical* or *one category ontologies* hold that there is only one basic category while *polycategorical ontologies* imply that there are several distinct basic categories. Another way to divide ontologies is through the notion of ontological hierarchy. Hierarchical ontologies assert that some entities exist on a more fundamental level and that other entities depend on them. Flat ontologies, on the other hand, deny such a privileged status to any entities. Jonathan Schaffer provides an overview of these positions by distinguishing between *flat* ontologies (non-hierarchical), *sorted* ontologies (polycategorical non-hierarchical) and *ordered* ontologies (polycategorical hierarchical).
*Flat* ontologies are only interested in the difference between existence and non-existence. They are *flat* because each flat ontology can be represented by a simple set containing all the entities to which this ontology is committed. An influential exposition of this approach comes from [Van Orman Quine](Willard)(Willard Van Orman Quine) which is why it has been referred to as the [Quinean](Meta-ontology#Quinean approach) approach to [meta-ontology](meta-ontology). This outlook does not deny that the existing entities can be further subdivided and may stand in various relations to each other. These issues are questions for the more specific sciences, but they do not belong to ontology in the Quinean sense.
*Polycategorical* ontologies are concerned with the categories of being. Each polycategorical ontology posits a number of categories. These categories are exclusive and exhaustive: every existing entity belongs to exactly one category. A recent example of a polycategorical ontology is [Lowe](E.J.)(E.J. Lowe)'s four-category-ontology. The four categories are object, kind, mode and attribute. The fourfold structure is based on two distinctions. The first distinction is between substantial entities (objects and kinds) and non-substantial entities (modes and attributes). The second distinction is between particular entities (objects and modes) and universal entities (kinds and attributes). Reality is built up through the interplay of entities belonging to different categories: particular entities instantiate universal entities, and non-substantial entities characterize substantial entities.
*Hierarchical* ontologies are interested in the degree of fundamentality of the entities they posit. Their main goal is to figure out which entities are fundamental and how the non-fundamental entities depend on them. The concept of fundamentality is usually defined in terms of [grounding](metaphysical)(Grounding (metaphysics)). Fundamental entities are different from non-fundamental entities because they are not grounded in other entities. For example, it is sometimes held that elementary particles are more fundamental than the macroscopic objects (like chairs and tables) they compose. This is a claim about the grounding-relation between microscopic and macroscopic objects. Schaffer's priority monism is a recent form of a hierarchical ontology. He holds that on the most fundamental level there exists only one thing: the world as a whole. This thesis does not deny our common-sense intuition that the distinct objects we encounter in our everyday affairs like cars or other people exist. It only denies that these objects have the most fundamental form of existence. An example of a *hierarchical* ontology in [philosophy](continental)(continental philosophy) comes from [Hartmann](Nicolai)(Nicolai Hartmann). He asserts that reality is made up of four [levels](Integrative level): the inanimate, the biological, the psychological and the spiritual. These levels form a hierarchy in the sense that the higher levels depend on the lower levels while the lower levels are indifferent to the higher levels.
### Thing ontologies vs fact ontologies
*Thing ontologies* and *fact ontologies* are one-category-ontologies: they both hold that all fundamental entities belong to the same category. They disagree on whether this category is the category of things or of facts. A slogan for fact ontologies comes from [Wittgenstein](Ludwig)(Ludwig Wittgenstein): "The world is the totality of facts, not of things".
One difficulty in characterizing this dispute is to elucidate what things and facts are, and how they differ from each other. Things are commonly contrasted with the properties and relations they instantiate. Facts, on the other hand, are often characterized as having these things and the properties/relations as their constituents. This is reflected in a rough linguistic characterization of this difference where the subjects and objects of an assertion refer to things while the assertion as a whole refers to a fact.
[Reism](Reism) is one form of thing ontology. [Brentano](Franz)(Franz Brentano) developed a version of reism in his later philosophy. He held that only concrete particular things exist. Things can exist in two forms: either as spatio-temporal bodies or as temporal souls. Brentano was aware of the fact that many common-sense expressions seem to refer to entities that do not have a place in his ontology, like properties or intentional objects. This is why he developed a method to paraphrase these expressions in order to avoid these ontological commitments.
[M. Armstrong](D.)(D. M. Armstrong) is a well-known defender of fact ontology. He and his followers refer to facts as states of affairs. States of affairs are the basic building blocks of his ontology: they have particulars and universals as their constituents but they are primary in relation to particulars and universals. States of affairs have ontologically independent existence while "[u]npropertied particulars and uninstantiated universals are false abstractions".
### Constituent ontologies vs blob theories
*Constituent ontologies* and *blob theories*, sometimes referred to as *relational ontologies*, are concerned with the internal structure of objects. Constituent ontologies hold that objects have an internal structure made up of constituents. This is denied by blob theories: they contend that objects are structureless "blobs".
[theories](Bundle)(Bundle theory) are examples of constituent ontologies. Bundle theorists assert that an object is nothing but the properties it "has". On this account, a regular apple could be characterized as a bundle of redness, roundness, sweetness, etc. Defenders of bundle theory disagree on the nature of the bundled properties. Some affirm that these properties are universals while others contend that they are particulars, so-called "tropes".
Class [nominalism](nominalism), on the other hand, is a form of blob theory. Class nominalists hold that properties are classes of things. To instantiate a property is merely to be a member of the corresponding class. So properties are not constituents of the objects that have them.
### Information science and natural sciences
In [science](information)(Ontology (information science)) ontologies are classified in various ways, using criteria such as the degree of abstraction and field of application:
# *[ontology](Upper)(Upper ontology)*: concepts supporting development of an ontology, [meta-ontology](meta-ontology).
# *[ontology](Domain)(Ontology (information science))*: concepts relevant to a particular topic, [of discourse](domain)(domain of discourse), or area of interest, for example, to information technology or to computer languages, or to particular branches of science.
# *Interface ontology*: concepts relevant to the juncture of two disciplines.
# *[ontology](Process)(Process ontology)*: inputs, outputs, constraints, sequencing information, involved in business or engineering processes.
In the [sciences](biomedical)(biomedical sciences), ontologies have been used to create terminologies for various aspects of living organism or medical applications. A prominent example is the [ontology](gene)(Gene Ontology), but many other ontologies exist, e.g. for anatomical terms or physiology. Standards have been established to maintain and organize biological ontologies under the [OBO](OBO Foundry) (Open Biological Ontologies) project.
## History
### Ancient Greek
[[File:Parmenides.jpg|thumb|200px|[Parmenides](Parmenides) was among the first to propose an ontological characterization of the fundamental nature of reality.]]
In the [philosophical tradition](Greek)(Ancient Greek philosophy), [Parmenides](Parmenides) was among the first to propose an ontological characterization of the fundamental nature of existence. In the prologue (or [*proem*](Parmenides#Proem)) to *On Nature*, he describes two views of [existence](existence). Initially, nothing comes from nothing, thus [existence](existence) is [eternal](Monism). This posits that existence is what may be conceived of by thought, created, or possessed. Hence, there may be neither void nor vacuum; and true reality neither may come into being nor vanish from existence. Rather, the entirety of creation is eternal, uniform, and immutable, though not infinite (Parmenides characterized its shape as that of a perfect sphere). Parmenides thus posits that change, as perceived in everyday experience, is illusory.
Opposite to the [Eleatic](Eleatics) [monism](monism) of [Parmenides](Parmenides) is the [pluralistic](Pluralism (philosophy)) conception of [being](being). In the 5th century BC, [Anaxagoras](Anaxagoras) and [Leucippus](Leucippus) replacedGraham, Daniel W. 2006. *Explaining the Cosmos: The Ionian Tradition of Scientific Philosophy*. Princeton: [University Press](Princeton)(Princeton University Press). . [Lay summary](https://press.princeton.edu/books/hardcover/9780691125404/explaining-the-cosmos). the reality of *being* (unique and unchanging) with that of [*becoming*](Becoming (philosophy)), therefore by a more fundamental and elementary *[ontic](ontic)* plurality. This thesis originated in the [world](Hellenic)(Hellenic world), stated in two different ways by Anaxagoras and by Leucippus. The first theory dealt with "seeds" (which Aristotle referred to as "*homeomeries*") of the various substances. The second was the [atomistic](Atom (order theory)) theory, which dealt with reality as based on the [vacuum](vacuum), the atoms and their intrinsic movement in it.Lloyd, G. E. R. (2006). Leucippus and Democritus. In D. M. Borchert (Ed.), *Encyclopedia of philosophy* (2nd ed., Vol. 5, pp. 297-303). Macmillan Reference USA.
The materialist *[atomism](atomism)* proposed by Leucippus was [indeterminist](indeterminism), but [Democritus](Democritus) ( 460 – 370 BC) subsequently developed it in a [deterministic](determinism) way. Later (4th century BC), [Epicurus](Epicurus) took the original *atomism* again as indeterministic. He saw reality as composed of an infinity of indivisible, unchangeable corpuscles or [atom](atom)s (from the Greek *atomon*, lit. 'uncuttable'), but he gives weight to characterize atoms whereas for Leucippus they are characterized by a "figure", an "order" and a "position" in the cosmos.Aristotle, *Metaphysics*, I, 4, 985 Atoms are, besides, creating the whole with the intrinsic movement in the *vacuum*, producing the diverse flux of being. Their movement is influenced by the *parenklisis* ([Lucretius](Lucretius) names it *[clinamen](clinamen)*) and that is determined by [chance](Randomness). These ideas foreshadowed the understanding of [physics](traditional)(physics) until the advent of 20th-century theories on the nature of atoms.
[Plato](Plato) developed the distinction between true reality and illusion, in arguing that what is real are eternal and unchanging [forms](Theory of Forms) or ideas (a precursor to [*universals*](universal (metaphysics))), of which things experienced in sensation are at best merely copies, and real only in so far as they copy ("partake of") such forms. In general, Plato presumes that all nouns (e.g., "beauty") refer to real entities, whether sensible bodies or insensible forms. Hence, in [Sophist*](*The)(Sophist (dialogue)), Plato argues that *being* is a *form* in which all existent things participate and which they have in common (though it is unclear whether "Being" is intended in the sense of [existence](existence), [copula](copula (linguistics)), or [identity](identity (philosophy))); and argues, against [Parmenides](Parmenides), that forms must exist not only of *being*, but also of [Negation](Negation) and of non-being (or *Difference*).
In his [*Categories*](Categories (Aristotle)), Aristotle (384–322 BCE) identifies ten possible kinds of things that may be the subject or the predicate of a proposition. For Aristotle there are four different ontological dimensions:
# according to the various categories or ways of addressing a being as such
# according to its truth or falsity (e.g. fake gold, counterfeit money)
# whether it exists in and of itself or simply 'comes along' by accident
# according to its potency, movement (energy) or finished presence ([Book Theta](*Metaphysics*)(Metaphysics (Aristotle))).
### Hindu philosophy
Ontology features in the [Samkhya](Samkhya) school of [philosophy](Hindu)(Hindu philosophy) from the first millennium BCE.Larson, G. J., R. S. Bhattacharya, and K. Potter, eds. 2014. "Samkhya." Pp. 3–11 in *The Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies* 4. [University Press](Princeton)(Princeton University Press). . Samkhya philosophy regards the universe as consisting of two independent realities: [puruṣa](puruṣa) (pure, contentless consciousness) and [prakṛti](prakṛti) (matter). The [dualism](substance)(substance dualism) between puruṣa and prakṛti is similar but not identical to the substance dualism between mind and body that, following the works of [Descartes](Descartes), has been central to many disputes in the Western philosophical tradition. Samkhya sees the mind as being the subtle part of prakṛti. It is made up of three faculties: the sense mind (manas), the intellect ([buddhi](buddhi)), and the ego ([ahaṁkāra](Ahamkara)). These faculties perform various functions but are by themselves unable to produce consciousness, which belongs to a distinct ontological category and for which puruṣa alone is responsible. The [school](Yoga)(Yoga (philosophy)) agrees with Samkhya philosophy on the fundamental dualism between puruṣa and prakṛti but it differs from Samkhya's atheistic position by incorporating the concept of a "personal, yet essentially inactive, deity" or "personal god" ([Ishvara](Ishvara)).[Burley](Mikel)(Mikel Burley) (2012), Classical Samkhya and Yoga – An Indian Metaphysics of Experience, Routledge, , page 39-41Lloyd Pflueger, Person Purity and Power in Yogasutra, in Theory and Practice of Yoga (Editor: Knut Jacobsen), Motilal Banarsidass, , pages 38-39Kovoor T. Behanan (2002), Yoga: Its Scientific Basis, Dover, , pages 56-58 These two schools stand in contrast to [Vedanta](Advaita)(Advaita Vedanta), which adheres to non-duality by revealing that the apparent plurality of things is an illusion ([Maya](Maya (Hinduism))) hiding the true oneness of reality at its most fundamental level ([Brahman](Brahman)).
### Medieval
*Medieval ontology* was strongly influenced by Aristotle's teachings. The thinkers of this period often relied on Aristotelian categories like *substance*, *act and potency* or *matter and form* to formulate their own theories. Important ontologists in this epoch include Avicenna, Thomas Aquinas, [Scotus](Duns)(Duns Scotus) and [of Ockham](William)(William of Ockham).
According to [Avicenna](Avicenna)'s interpretation of Greek Aristotelian and Platonist ontological doctrines in medieval [metaphysics](metaphysics), being is either necessary, contingent *qua* possible, or impossible. Necessary being is that which cannot but be, since its non-being would entail a contradiction. Contingent *qua* possible being is neither necessary nor impossible for it to be or not to be. It is ontologically neutral, and is brought from potential existing into actual existence by way of a cause that is external to its essence. Its being is borrowed – unlike the necessary existent, which is self-subsisting and impossible not to be. As for the impossible, it necessarily does not exist, and the affirmation of its being would involve a contradiction.
[El-Bizri](Nader)(Nader El-Bizri), '[Sina](Ibn)(Ibn Sina) and [Essentialism](Essentialism), Review of [Metaphysics](Metaphysics), Vol. 54 (2001), pp. 753–778.
Fundamental to [Aquinas](Thomas)(Thomas Aquinas)'s ontology is his distinction between [essence](essence) and [existence](existence): all entities are conceived as composites of essence and existence. The essence of a thing is what this thing is like, it signifies the definition of this thing. God has a special status since He is the only entity whose essence is identical to its existence. But for all other, finite entities there is a *real distinction* between essence and existence. This distinction shows itself, for example, in our ability to understand the essence of something without knowing about its existence. Aquinas conceives of existence as an *act of being* that actualizes the potency given by the essence. Different things have different essences, which impose different limits on the corresponding *act of being*. The paradigm examples of essence-existence-composites are material substances like cats or trees. Aquinas incorporates Aristotle's distinction between [and form](matter)(matter and form) by holding that the essence of *material* things, as opposed to the essence of *immaterial* things like angels, is the composition of their matter and form. So, for example, the essence of a marble statue would be the composition of the marble (its matter) and the shape it has (its form). Form is universal since substances made of different matter can have the same form. The forms of a substance may be divided into substantial and accidental forms. A substance can survive a change of an accidental form but ceases to exist upon a change of a substantial form.
### Modern
Ontology is increasingly seen as a separate domain of philosophy in the *modern period*. Many ontological theories of this period were rationalistic in the sense that they saw ontology largely as a deductive discipline that starts from a small set of first principles or axioms, a position best exemplified by Baruch Spinoza and Christian Wolff. This rationalism in metaphysics and ontology was strongly opposed by [Kant](Immanuel)(Immanuel Kant), who insisted that many claims arrived at this way are to be dismissed since they go beyond any possible experience that could justify them.
[Descartes](René)(René Descartes)' ontological distinction between mind and body has been one of the most influential parts of his philosophy. On his view, minds are thinking things while bodies are extended things. *Thought* and *extension* are two *attributes* that each come in various *modes* of being. Modes of *thinking* include judgments, doubts, volitions, sensations and emotions while the shapes of material things are modes of *extension*. Modes come with a lower degree of reality since they depend for their existence on a substance. Substances, on the other hand, can exist on their own. Descartes' [dualism](substance)(substance dualism) asserts that every finite substance is either a thinking substance or an extended substance. This position does not entail that minds and bodies *actually are* separated from each other, which would defy the intuition that we both have a body and a mind. Instead, it implies that minds and bodies *can*, at least in principle, be separated, since they are distinct substances and therefore are capable of independent existence. A longstanding problem for substance dualism since its inception has been to explain how minds and bodies can [interact](causally)(Problem of mental causation) with each other, as they apparently do, when a volition causes an arm to move or when light falling on the retina causes a visual impression.
[Spinoza](Baruch)(Baruch Spinoza) is well-known for his *substance monism:* the thesis that only one substance exists. He refers to this substance as "God or Nature", emphasizing both his [pantheism](pantheism) and his [naturalism](Naturalism (philosophy)). This substance has an infinite amount of attributes, which he defines as "what the intellect perceives of substance as constituting its essence". Of these attributes, only two are accessible to the human mind: thought and extension. *Modes* are properties of a substance that follow from its attributes and therefore have only a dependent form of existence. Spinoza sees everyday-things like rocks, cats or ourselves as mere modes and thereby opposes the traditional [Aristotelian](Aristotle) and [Cartesian](Descartes) conception of categorizing them as substances. Modes compose [deterministic](deterministic) systems in which the different modes are linked to each other as cause and effect. Each deterministic system corresponds to one attribute: one for extended things, one for thinking things, etc. Causal relations only happen within a system while the different systems run in parallel without causally interacting with each other. Spinoza calls the system of modes *Natura naturata* ("nature natured") and opposes it to *Natura naturans* ("nature naturing"), the attributes responsible for the modes. Everything in Spinoza's system is necessary: there are no contingent entities. This is so since the attributes are themselves necessary and since the system of modes follows from them.
[Wolff](Christian)(Christian Wolff (philosopher)) defines ontology as the science of being in general. He sees it as a part of metaphysics besides cosmology, psychology and natural theology. According to Wolff, it is a [deductive](deductive) science, knowable [priori](a)(a priori) and based on two fundamental principles: the [of non-contradiction](principle)(principle of non-contradiction) ("it cannot happen that the same thing is and is not") and the [of sufficient reason](principle)(principle of sufficient reason) ("nothing exists without a sufficient reason for why it exists rather than does not exist"). *Beings* are defined by their *determinations* or *predicates*, which cannot involve a contradiction. Determinates come in 3 types: *essentialia*, *attributes*, and *modes*. *Essentialia* define the nature of a being and are therefore necessary properties of this being. *Attributes* are determinations that follow from essentialia and are equally necessary, in contrast to *modes*, which are merely contingent. Wolff conceives *existence* as just one determination among others, which a being may lack. Ontology is interested in being at large, not just in actual being. But all beings, whether actually existing or not, have a sufficient reason. The sufficient reason for things without actual existence consists in all the determinations that make up the essential nature of this thing. Wolff refers to this as a "reason of being" and contrasts it with a "reason of becoming", which explains why some things have actual existence.
[Schopenhauer](Arthur)(Arthur Schopenhauer) was a proponent of [voluntarism](metaphysical)(Voluntarism (philosophy)#Metaphysical voluntarism): he regards will as the underlying and ultimate reality. Reality as a whole consists only of one will, which is equated with the [Kantian](Kantian) [thing-in-itself](thing-in-itself). Like the Kantian thing-in-itself, the will exists outside space and time. But, unlike the Kantian thing-in-itself, the will has an experiential component to it: it comes in the form of striving, desiring, feeling, etc. The manifold of things we encounter in our everyday experiences, like trees or cars, are mere appearances that lack existence independent of the observer. Schopenhauer describes them as objectivations of the will. These objectivations happen in different "steps", which correspond to the [forms](platonic)(platonic forms). All objectivations are grounded in the will. This grounding is governed by the [individuationis](principium)(principium individuationis), which enables a manifold of individual things spread out in space and time to be grounded in the one will.
### 20th century
Dominant approaches to ontology in the *20th century* were phenomenology, linguistic analysis and naturalism. *Phenomenological ontology*, as exemplified by Edmund Husserl and Martin Heidegger, relies for its method on the description of experience. *Linguistic analysis* assigns to language a central role for ontology, as seen, for example, in Rudolf Carnap's thesis that the truth value of existence-claims depends on the linguistic framework in which they are made. *Naturalism* gives a prominent position to the natural sciences for the purpose of finding and evaluating ontological claims. This position is exemplified by Quine's method of ontology, which involves analyzing the ontological commitments of scientific theories.
[Husserl](Edmund)(Edmund Husserl) sees ontology as a *science of essences*. *Sciences of essences* are contrasted with *factual sciences*: the former are knowable [priori](a)(a priori) and provide the foundation for the later, which are knowable [posteriori](a)(a posteriori). Ontology as a science of essences is not interested in *actual facts*, but in the essences themselves, whether they *have instances or not*. Husserl distinguishes between *formal ontology*, which investigates the essence of *objectivity in general*, and *regional ontologies*, which study *regional essences* that are shared by all entities belonging to the region. Regions correspond to the highest [genera](genera) of [entities](concrete)(Abstract and concrete): material nature, personal consciousness and interpersonal spirit. Husserl's method for studying ontology and sciences of essence in general is called [variation](eidetic)(eidetic variation). It involves imagining an object of the kind under investigation and varying its features. The changed feature is *inessential* to this kind if the object can survive its change, otherwise it belongs to the ''kind's essence''. For example, a triangle remains a triangle if one of its sides is extended but it ceases to be a triangle if a fourth side is added. Regional ontology involves applying this method to the essences corresponding to the highest genera.
Central to [Heidegger](Martin)(Martin Heidegger)'s philosophy is the notion of *ontological difference*: the difference between *being* as such and specific entities. He accuses the philosophical tradition of being *forgetful* of this distinction, which has led to the mistake of understanding *being* as such as a kind of ultimate entity, for example as "idea, energeia, substance, monad or will to power". Heidegger tries to rectify this mistake in his own "fundamental ontology" by focusing on the *meaning of being* instead, a project which is akin to contemporary [meta-ontology](meta-ontology). One method to achieve this is by studying the human being, or [Dasein](Dasein), in Heidegger's terminology. The reason for this is that we already have a *pre-ontological understanding* of *being* that shapes how we experience the world. [Phenomenology](Phenomenology (philosophy)) can be used to make this implicit understanding explicit, but it has to be accompanied by [hermeneutics](Hermeneutics#Heidegger (1889–1976)) in order to avoid the distortions due to the *forgetfulness of being*. In his later philosophy, Heidegger attempted to reconstruct the "history of being" in order to show how the different epochs in the history of philosophy were dominated by different conceptions of *being*. His goal is to retrieve the *original experience of being* present in the [Greek thought](early)(Pre-Socratic philosophy) that was covered up by later philosophers.
[Hartmann](Nicolai)(Nicolai Hartmann) is a 20th-century philosopher within the [tradition of philosophy](continental)(Continental philosophy). He interprets ontology as [Aristotle](Aristotle)'s science of being qua being: the science of the most general characteristics of entities, usually referred to as categories, and the relations between them. According to Hartmann, the most general categories are *moments of being* (existence and essence), *modes of being* (reality and ideality) and *modalities of being* (possibility, actuality and necessity). Every entity has both *existence* and *essence*. *Reality* and *ideality*, by contrast, are two disjunctive categories: every entity is either real or ideal. Ideal entities are universal, returnable and always existing while real entities are individual, unique and destructible. Among the ideal entities are mathematical objects and values. The *modalities of being* are divided into the absolute modalities (actuality and non-actuality) and the relative modalities (possibility, impossibility and necessity). The relative modalities are *relative* in the sense that they depend on the absolute modalities: something is possible, impossible or necessary because something else is actual. Hartmann asserts that reality is made up of four [levels](Integrative level) (*inanimate*, *biological*, *psychological* and *spiritual*) that form a hierarchy.
[Carnap](Rudolf)(Rudolf Carnap) proposed that the truth value of ontological statements about the existence of entities depends on the linguistic framework in which these statements are made: they are [internal](Internal-external distinction) to the framework. As such, they are often trivial in that it just depends on the rules and definitions within this framework. For example, it follows analytically from the rules and definitions within the mathematical framework that numbers exist. The problem Carnap saw with traditional ontologists is that they try to make framework-independent or *external* statements about what *really* is the case. Such statements are at best *pragmatic considerations* about which framework to choose and at worst outright *meaningless*, according to Carnap. For example, there is no matter of fact as to whether [realism](Realism (philosophical)) or [idealism](idealism) is true, their truth depends on the adopted framework. The job of philosophers is not to discover which things exist by themselves but "conceptual engineering": to create interesting frameworks and to explore the consequences of adopting them. The choice of framework is guided by practical considerations like expedience or fruitfulness since there is no framework-independent notion of truth.
The notion of [commitment](ontological)(ontological commitment) plays a central role in [Van Orman Quine](Willard)(Willard Van Orman Quine)'s contributions to ontology. A theory is ontologically committed to an entity if that entity must exist in order for the theory to be true. Quine proposed that the best way to determine this is by translating the theory in question into [predicate logic](first-order)(first-order predicate logic). Of special interest in this translation are the logical constants known as [quantifiers](existential)(existential quantification), whose meaning corresponds to expressions like "there exists..." or "for some...". They are used to [the variables](bind)(First-order logic#Free and bound variables) in the expression following the quantifier. The ontological commitments of the theory then correspond to the variables bound by existential quantifiers. This approach is summed up by Quine's famous dictum that "[t]o be is to be the value of a variable". This method by itself is not sufficient for ontology since it depends on a theory in order to result in ontological commitments. Quine proposed that we should base our ontology on our best scientific theory. Various followers of Quine's method chose to apply it to different fields, for example to "everyday conceptions expressed in natural language".
## Other ontological topics
### Ontological formations
The concept of *ontological formations* refers to formations of social relations understood as dominant ways of living. Temporal, spatial, corporeal, [epistemological](Epistemology), and performative relations are taken to be central to understanding a dominant formation. That is, a particular ontological formation is based on how ontological categories of time, space, embodiment, knowing and performing are lived—objectively and subjectively. Different ontological formations include the *customary* (including the tribal), the *traditional*, the *modern*, and the *postmodern*. The concept was first introduced by [James](Paul)(Paul James (academic)) in 2006, together with a series of writers including Damian Grenfell and [Steger](Manfred)(Manfred Steger).
In the *[theory](engaged)(engaged theory)* approach, ontological formations are seen as layered and intersecting rather than singular formations. They are 'formations of being'. This approach avoids the usual problems of a Great Divide being posited between the modern and the pre-modern. From a philosophical distinction concerning different formations of being, the concept then provides a way of translating into practical understandings concerning how humans might design cities and communities that live creatively across different ontological formations, for example cities that are not completely dominated by modern valences of spatial configuration. Here the work of Tony Fry is important.
### Ontology of fictional characters
According to [N. Zalta](Edward)(Edward N. Zalta), the ontology of fiction analyses such sentences as:[Edward N.](Zalta,)(Edward N. Zalta) 2009. "Fictional truth, objects, and characters." Pp. 267–69 in *A Companion to Metaphysics* (2nd ed.), edited by J. Kim G. S. Rosenkrantz, and E. Sosa. [Chichester](Chichester), UK: [Wiley–Blackwell](Wiley-Blackwell). . p. 267.
* '[Nero](Nero) worshipped (the god) [Mars](Mars (mythology));'
* '[Mars](Mars (mythology)), the god, does not exist;' and
* '[Doolittle](Eliza)(Eliza Doolittle), in [Bernard Shaw](George)(George Bernard Shaw)'s [*Pygmalion*](Pygmalion (play)), is a flower girl.'
According to [L. Thomasson](Amie)(Amie L. Thomasson), fictional discourse can be of four sorts:
* Uttered *within* works of fiction;
* Philosophical exercises such as '[Marvel](Captain)(Captain Marvel (DC Comics)) does not exist';
* Treating fictional characters as if they were 'real', such as '[Superman](Superman) can leap tall buildings;' and
* Discourse *about* works of fiction, such as '[Higgins](Professor)(Pygmalion (play)) was created by [Bernard Shaw](George)(George Bernard Shaw)'.
[Bentham](Jeremy)(Jeremy Bentham) distinguished three kinds of entities:Harrison, R. (2009). Jeremy Bentham, p. 145 in *A Companion to Metaphysics*, ed. Kim, J., Rosenkrantz, G.S., Sosa, E., Wiley–Blackwell, Chichester UK, 2nd edition, .
* the *real*: those that can be perceived, or can be inferred from perception.
* the *fictitious*: abstractions that referred to perceptible things.
* the *fabulous*: those that can be found only in the imagination, where the word 'exist' applies to such only in the sense that they do not really exist.
[Herbert Bradley](Francis)(Francis Herbert Bradley) thought that real things exist respectively at particular times and places. He recognised several kinds of entity:Stock, G. (2009). Francis Herbert Bradley, pp. 155–158 in *A Companion to Metaphysics*, ed. Kim, J., Rosenkrantz, G.S., Sosa, E., Wiley–Blackwell, Chichester UK, 2nd edition, , p. 157.
* the genuinely historical;
* the fictional;
* the real;
* the merely imagined;
* the existent; and
* the non-existent.
[Meinong](Alexius)(Alexius Meinong) would put fictional entities into the category which he called *subsistence*. This category contains objects that neither exist spatially or non-spatially. However, they do have properties. The properties are given to these objects in the way they are said to be described. For example, we can talk about the tall unicorn even though the tall unicorn does not exist. We can say the unicorn is in fact tall because this follows from the properties in which the object is characterized.
### Ontological and epistemological certainty
[Descartes](René)(René Descartes), with *[ergo sum](cogito,)(cogito, ergo sum)* (*je pense donc je suis,* "I think, therefore I am"), argued that a person's thinking agency, his *res cogitans*, as distinct from his material body, his *res extensa*, is something that we can know exists with [epistemological](epistemology) certainty. Descartes argued further that this knowledge could lead to a proof of the certainty of the [of God](existence)(existence of God), using the [argument](ontological)(ontological argument) that had been formulated first by [of Canterbury](Anselm)(Anselm of Canterbury).
### Body and environment, questioning the meaning of being
Schools of [subjectivism](metaphysical subjectivism), [objectivism](metaphysical objectivism) and [relativism](relativism) existed at various times in the 20th century, and the [postmodernists](postmodernism) and [philosophers](body)(embodied philosophy) tried to reframe all these questions in terms of bodies taking some specific [action](philosophy of action) in an environment. This relied to a great degree on insights derived from scientific research into animals taking instinctive action in natural and artificial settings—as studied by [biology](biology), [ecology](ecology),Smith, Barry. 2001. "[Objects and Their Environments: From Aristotle to Ecological Ontology](http://ontology.buffalo.edu/smith/articles/napflion.pdf)" *The Life and Motion of SocioEconomic Units* ([data](GIS)(Geographic information system) 8). London: [& Francis](Taylor)(Taylor & Francis). pp. 79–97. and [science](cognitive)(cognitive science).
The processes by which bodies related to environments became of great concern, and the idea of [being](being) itself became difficult to really define. What did people mean when they said "A is B", "A must be B", "A was B"...? Some linguists advocated dropping the verb "to be" from the English language, leaving "[E Prime](E-Prime)", supposedly less prone to bad abstractions. Others, mostly philosophers, tried to dig into the word and its usage. [Heidegger](Martin)(Martin Heidegger) distinguished *human being* as *existence* from the being of things in the world. Heidegger proposes that our way of being human and the way the world is for us are cast historically through a fundamental ontological questioning. These fundamental ontological categories provide the basis for communication in an age: a horizon of unspoken and seemingly unquestionable background meanings, such as human beings understood unquestioningly as subjects and other entities understood unquestioningly as objects. Because these basic ontological meanings both generate and are regenerated in everyday interactions, the locus of our way of being in a historical epoch is the communicative event of language in use.Hyde, R. Bruce. "Listening Authentically: A Heideggerian Perspective on Interpersonal Communication". In *Interpretive Approaches to Interpersonal Communication*, edited by Kathryn Carter and Mick Presnell. State University of New York Press, 1994. For Heidegger, however, communication in the *first* place is not among human beings, but language itself shapes up in response to questioning (the inexhaustible meaning of) being.Heidegger, Martin. 1971 [1959]. *On the Way to Language.* New York: Harper & Row.
*original*: 1959. *Unterwegs zur Sprache* Neske. [Pfullingen](Pfullingen). Even the focus of traditional ontology on the 'whatness' or *quidditas* of beings in their substantial, standing presence can be shifted to pose the question of the 'whoness' of human being itself.Eldred, Michael. 2008. [*Social Ontology: Recasting Political Philosophy Through a Phenomenology of Whoness*](http://www.arte-fact.org/sclontlg.html). Frankfurt. . pp. xiv, 688.
### Ontology and language
Some philosophers suggest that the question of "What is?" is (at least in part) an issue of *usage* rather than a question about facts. This perspective is conveyed by an analogy made by [Davidson](Donald)(Donald Davidson (philosopher)): Suppose a person refers to a 'cup' as a 'chair' and makes some comments pertinent to a cup, but uses the word 'chair' consistently throughout instead of 'cup'. One might readily catch on that this person simply calls a 'cup' a 'chair' and the oddity is explained.
Davidson refers to a 'ketch' and a 'yawl' (p. 18). Analogously, if we find people asserting 'there are' such-and-such, and we do not ourselves think that 'such-and-such' exist, we might conclude that these people are not nuts (Davidson calls this assumption 'charity'), they simply use 'there are' differently than we do. The question of *What is?* is at least partly a topic in the philosophy of language, and is not entirely about ontology itself. This viewpoint has been expressed by [Hirsch](Eli)(Eli Hirsch).Hirsch, Eli. 2011. "[Physical-object ontology, verbal disputes and common sense](https://books.google.com/books?id=iPRqtcjeHPsC&pg=PA144)." Pp. 144–77 in *Quantifier Variance and Realism: Essays in Metaontology*. New York: [University Press](Oxford)(Oxford University Press). .
First published as "[Physical-Object Ontology, Verbal Disputes, and Common Sense](http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1933-1592.2005.tb00506.x/abstract)."Hirsch, Eli. 2011. "[Quantifier variance and realism](https://books.google.com/books?id=iPRqtcjeHPsC&pg=PA68)." Pp. 68–95 in *Quantifier Variance and Realism: Essays in Metaontology*. New York: Oxford University Press. .
First published as "[Quantifier variance and realism](http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1758-2237.2002.tb00061.x/abstract)."
Hirsch interprets [Putnam](Hilary)(Hilary Putnam) as asserting that different concepts of "the existence of something" can be correct. This position does not contradict the view that some things do exist, but points out that different 'languages' will have different rules about assigning this property. How to determine the 'fitness' of a 'language' to the world then becomes a subject for investigation.
Common to all [copula](Indo-European)(Indo-European copula) languages is the double use of the verb "to be" in both stating that entity X exists ("X is.") as well as stating that X has a property ("X is P"). It is sometimes argued that a third use is also distinct, stating that X is a member of a class ("X is a C"). In other language families these roles may have completely different verbs and are less likely to be confused with one another. For example they might say something like "the car has redness" rather than "the car is red." Hence any discussion of "being" in Indo-European language philosophy may need to make distinctions between these senses.
### Ontology and human geography
In human geography there are two types of ontology: small "o" which accounts for the practical orientation, describing functions of being a part of the group, thought to oversimplify and ignore key activities. The other "o", or big "O", systematically, logically, and rationally describes the essential characteristics and universal traits. This concept relates closely to Plato's view that the human mind can only perceive a bigger world if they continue to live within the confines of their "caves". However, in spite of the differences, ontology relies on the symbolic agreements among members. That said, ontology is crucial for the axiomatic language frameworks.Harvey, F. 2006. "Ontology. Pp. 341–43 in *Encyclopedia of Human Geography*, edited by B. Warf. Thousand Oaks, CA: [Publications](SAGE)(SAGE Publications).
### Anthropology
The topic of ontology has received increased attention in [anthropology](anthropology) since the 1990s. This is sometimes termed the "[turn](ontological)(ontological turn)". This type of inquiry is focused on how people from different cultures experience and understand the nature of being. Specific interest in this regard has been given to the ontological outlook of [people](indigenous)(indigenous people) and how their outlook tends to differ from a more Western perspective. As an example of this contrast, it has been argued that various indigenous communities ascribe [intentionality](intentionality) to non-human entities, like plants, forests, or rivers. This outlook is known as [animism](animism).
### Reality and actuality
According to [N. Whitehead](Alfred)(Alfred North Whitehead), for ontology, it is useful to distinguish the terms 'reality' and 'actuality'. In this view, an 'actual entity' has a philosophical status of fundamental ontological priority, while a 'real entity' is one which may be actual, or may derive its reality from its logical relation to some actual entity or entities. For example, an occasion in the life of Socrates is an actual entity. But Socrates' being a man does not make 'man' an actual entity, because it refers indeterminately to many actual entities, such as several occasions in the life of Socrates, and also to several occasions in the lives of [Alcibiades](Alcibiades), and of others. But the notion of man is real; it derives its reality from its reference to those many actual occasions, each of which is an actual entity. An actual occasion is a concrete entity, while terms such as 'man' are abstractions from many concrete relevant entities.
According to Whitehead, an actual entity must earn its philosophical status of fundamental ontological priority by satisfying several philosophical criteria, as follows:
* There is no going behind an actual entity, to find something more fundamental in fact or in efficacy. This criterion is to be regarded as expressing an axiom, or postulated distinguished doctrine.
* An actual entity must be completely determinate in the sense that there may be no confusion about its identity that would allow it to be confounded with another actual entity. In this sense an actual entity is completely concrete, with no potential to be something other than itself. It is what it is. It is a source of potentiality for the creation of other actual entities, of which it may be said to be a part cause. Likewise it is the concretion or realization of potentialities of other actual entities which are its partial causes.
* Causation between actual entities is essential to their actuality. Consequently, for Whitehead, each actual entity has its distinct and definite extension in physical [space](Minkowski)(Minkowski space), and so is uniquely identifiable. A description in Minkowski space supports descriptions in time and space for particular observers.
* It is part of the aim of the philosophy of such an ontology as Whitehead's that the actual entities should be all alike, *qua* actual entities; they should all satisfy a single definite set of well stated ontological criteria of actuality.
Whitehead proposed that his notion of an occasion of experience satisfies the criteria for its status as the philosophically preferred definition of an actual entity. From a purely logical point of view, each occasion of experience has in full measure the characters of both objective and subjective reality. Subjectivity and objectivity refer to different aspects of an occasion of experience, and in no way do they exclude each other.[Alfred N.](Whitehead,)(Alfred North Whitehead) 1929. *Process and Reality*. Cambridge: [University Press](Cambridge)(Cambridge University Press). *passim*.
Examples of other philosophical proposals or candidates as actual entities, in this view, are Aristotle's 'substances', Leibniz' monads, and Descartes' *res verae*, and the more modern 'states of affairs'. Aristotle's substances, such as Socrates, have behind them as more fundamental the 'primary substances', and in this sense do not satisfy Whitehead's criteria. Whitehead is not happy with Leibniz' monads as actual entities because they are "windowless" and do not cause each other. 'States of affairs' are often not closely defined, often without specific mention of extension in physical Minkowski space; they are therefore not necessarily processes of becoming, but may be as their name suggests, simply static states in some sense. States of affairs are contingent on particulars, and therefore have something behind them.[D.M.](Armstrong,)(David Malet Armstrong) (1997). *A World of States of Affairs*, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, , p. 1. One summary of the Whiteheadian actual entity is that it is a process of becoming. Another summary, referring to its causal linkage to other actual entities, is that it is "all window", in contrast with Leibniz' windowless monads.
This view allows philosophical entities other than actual entities to really exist, but not as fundamentally and primarily factual or causally efficacious; they have existence as abstractions, with reality only derived from their reference to actual entities. A Whiteheadian actual entity has a unique and completely definite place and time. Whiteheadian abstractions are not so tightly defined in time and place, and in the extreme, some are timeless and placeless, or 'eternal' entities. All abstractions have logical or conceptual rather than efficacious existence; their lack of definite time does not make them unreal if they refer to actual entities. Whitehead calls this 'the ontological principle'.
### Microcosmic ontology
There is an established and long philosophical history of the concept of atoms as microscopic physical objects. They are far too small to be visible to the naked eye. It was as recent as the nineteenth century that precise estimates of the sizes of putative physical [atom](atom)s began to become plausible. Almost direct empirical observation of atomic effects was due to the theoretical investigation of [motion](Brownian)(Brownian motion) by [Einstein](Albert)(Albert Einstein) in the very early twentieth century. But even then, the real existence of atoms was debated by some. Such debate might be labeled 'microcosmic ontology'. Here the word 'microcosm' is used to indicate a physical world of small entities, such as for example atoms.
Subatomic particles are usually considered to be much smaller than atoms. Their real or actual existence may be very difficult to demonstrate empirically.Kaiser, D. 1994. "Niels Bohr's legacy in contemporary particle physics." Pp. 257–268 in *Niels Bohr and Contemporary Philosophy*, edited by J. Faye and H. J. Folse. Dordrecht, HL: [Springer](Springer Publishing). .
s. 4 ("Questions of ontology and particle physics phenomenology"). pp. 262–64. A distinction is sometimes drawn between actual and [virtual](virtual particle) subatomic particles. Reasonably, one may ask, in what sense, if any, do virtual particles exist as physical entities? For atomic and subatomic particles, difficult questions arise, such as do they possess a precise position, or a precise momentum? A question that continues to be controversial is "to what kind of physical thing, if any, does the [mechanical](quantum)(Quantum mechanics) [function](wave)(wave function) refer?"Isham, C. J. 1995. *Lectures on Quantum Theory: Mathematical and Structural Foundations.* London: [College Press](Imperial)(Imperial College Press). . pp. 63–7.
### Ontological argument
In the [Christian](Western)(Christian philosophy) tradition, in his 1078 work *[Proslogion](Proslogion)*, [of Canterbury](Anselm)(Anselm of Canterbury) proposed what is known as 'the ontological argument' for the existence of God. Anselm defined God as "that than which nothing greater can be thought", and argued that this being must exist in the mind, even in the mind of the person who denies the existence of God. He suggested that, if the greatest possible being exists in the mind, it must also exist in reality. If it only exists in the mind, then an even greater being must be possible—one which exists both in the mind and in reality. Therefore, this greatest possible being must exist in reality. Seventeenth century French philosopher [Descartes](René)(René Descartes) deployed a similar argument. Descartes published several variations of his argument, each of which centred on the idea that God's existence is immediately inferable from a "clear and distinct" idea of a supremely perfect being. In the early eighteenth century, [Leibniz](Gottfried)(Gottfried Leibniz) augmented Descartes's ideas in an attempt to prove that a "supremely perfect" being is a coherent concept. [Malcolm](Norman)(Norman Malcolm) revived the ontological argument in 1960 when he located a second, stronger ontological argument in Anselm's work; [Plantinga](Alvin)(Alvin Plantinga) challenged this argument and proposed an alternative, based on [logic](modal)(modal logic). Attempts have also been made to validate Anselm's proof using an [theorem prover](automated)(automated theorem prover).
More recently, [Gödel](Kurt)(Kurt Gödel) proposed a [argument](formal)(Mathematical logic) [God's existence](for)(Gödel's ontological proof). Other arguments for God's existence have been advanced, including those made by Islamic philosophers [Sadra](Mulla)(Mulla Sadra) and [Tabatabai](Allama)(Allama Tabatabai).
### Hintikka's locution for existence
[Hintikka](Jaakko)(Jaakko Hintikka) puts the view that a useful explication of the notion of existence is in the words "one can find," implicitly in some world or [of discourse](universe)(Domain of discourse).[Jaakko.](Hintikka,)(Jaakko Hintikka) 1998. *Paradigms for Language Theory and Other Essays*. Dordrecht: [Science+Business Media](Springer)(Springer Science+Business Media). . p. 3.
## See also
*
*
*
## Notes
## References
}}
## External links
*
*
[ ](Category:Ontology)
[(philosophy of language)](Category:Meaning)(Category:Meaning (philosophy of language))
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Terry Nichols
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terry_nichols
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# Terry Nichols
*Revision ID: 1160195320 | Timestamp: 2023-06-15T00:08:47Z*
---
| birth_place = [Michigan](Lapeer,)(Lapeer, Michigan), U.S.
| death_date =
| death_place =
| cause =
| alias = Ted Parker, Joe Rivers, Shawn Rivers, Joe Havens, Terry Havens, Mike Havens, Joe Kyle, Daryl Bridges
| conviction = **Federal**[manslaughter of a federal employee (18 U.S.C. §§ 1112 and 1114)](Involuntary)(Manslaughter (United States law)#Involuntary manslaughter) (8 counts)[to use a weapon of mass destruction resulting in death (18 U.S.C. § 2332a)](Conspiracy)(Title 18 of the United States Code)**Oklahoma**[degree murder](First)(Murder in United States law) (161 counts)[degree arson](First)(Arson)[Conspiracy](Conspiracy (criminal))
| motive = [sentiment](Anti-government)(Patriot movement)Retaliation for [Ridge](Ruby)(Ruby Ridge) and [siege](Waco)(Waco siege)
| conviction_penalty = [imprisonment](Life)(Life imprisonment in the United States) without the possibility of [parole](parole)
| conviction_status = Incarcerated at [Florence](ADX)(ADX Florence)
| occupation = Various short term and temporary jobs including farmer, real estate salesman, carpenter, ranch hand. Ten months of service in the Army.
| spouse = Lana Walsh (divorced) Marife Torres (divorced)
| parents =
| children = 3
}}
**Terry Lynn Nichols** (born April 1, 1955) is an American [terrorist](domestic)(domestic terrorism in the United States) who was convicted for his participation in the 1995 [City bombing](Oklahoma)(Oklahoma City bombing). Prior to his incarceration, he held a variety of short-term jobs, working as a farmer, [elevator](grain)(grain elevator) manager, real estate salesman, and ranch hand. He met his future co-conspirator, [McVeigh](Timothy)(Timothy McVeigh), during a brief stint in the [Army](U.S.)(United States Army), which ended in 1989 when he requested a [discharge](hardship)(Military discharge#Types of discharge) after less than one year of service. In 1994 and 1995, he conspired with McVeigh in the planning and preparation of the [bombing](truck)(Car bomb) of the [P. Murrah Federal Building](Alfred)(Alfred P. Murrah Federal Building) in [City](Oklahoma)(Oklahoma City), [Oklahoma](Oklahoma), on April 19, 1995. The bombing killed 168 people.
In a federal trial in 1997, Nichols was convicted of [conspiracy](Conspiracy (crime)) to use a [of mass destruction](weapon)(Weapon of mass destruction#Legal definitions) and eight counts of [manslaughter](involuntary)(Manslaughter#Involuntary manslaughter) for killing federal law enforcement personnel. He was sentenced to [imprisonment](life)(life imprisonment) without the possibility of [parole](parole) after the [deadlocked](jury)(hung jury) on the [penalty](death)(death penalty). He was also tried in Oklahoma on state charges of murder in connection with the bombing. In 2004, he was convicted of 161 counts of [degree murder](first)(Murder#Degrees of murder in the United States), including one count of [homicide](fetal)(Feticide), first-degree [arson](arson), and conspiracy. As in the federal trial, the state jury deadlocked on imposing the death penalty. He was sentenced to 161 consecutive life terms without the possibility of parole, and is incarcerated at [Florence](ADX)(ADX Florence), a [maximum](super)(supermax) security prison near [Colorado](Florence,)(Florence, Colorado). He shared a cell block that is commonly referred to as "Bomber's Row" with [Yousef](Ramzi)(Ramzi Yousef) and [Rudolph](Eric)(Eric Rudolph), as well as [Kaczynski](Ted)(Ted Kaczynski) until his transfer in 2021.
## Early years
Nichols was born in [Michigan](Lapeer,)(Lapeer, Michigan). He was raised on a farm, the third of four children of Joyce and Robert Nichols. Growing up, he helped his parents on the farm, learning to operate and maintain the equipment. According to the *[Post](Denver)(Denver Post)*, he also cared for injured birds and animals.
## Adulthood
Nichols attended [High School](Lapeer)(Lapeer High School) where he took elective classes in crafts and business law. Throughout school, friends characterized him as shy. While in high school he played [varsity](junior)(Junior varsity team) [football](American football), wrestled, and was a member of the ski club. His brother James, who self-published a 400-page book about the bombing,Nichols, J. D., ''Freedom's End: Conspiracy in Oklahoma'' ([MI](Decker,)(Decker, MI): Freedom's End, 1997). has stated that Terry was good at artwork and book smart. He graduated from high school in 1973 with a 3.6 [point average](grade)(grade point average), with ambitions of becoming a [physician](physician).
Nichols enrolled at [Michigan University](Central)(Central Michigan University). He completed one term of 13 credit hours with B grade average. He had Cs in biology, chemistry and trigonometry, a B in literature and an A in archery. In 1974, after another brother, Leslie, was badly burned in a fuel tank explosion on the farm, he offered to give him skin for [grafts](Skin grafting). He tried farming with his brother James for a while, but they did not get along; he felt his brother was too bossy. Later he moved to [Colorado](Colorado) and obtained a license to sell real estate in 1976. Soon after he closed on his first big sale, his mother told him she needed his help on the farm, so he returned to Michigan.
In 1980, Nichols met real estate agent Lana Walsh, a twice-divorced mother of two who was five years his senior. They married and had a son, Joshua, in 1982. During the marriage, Nichols engaged in a succession of part-time and short-term jobs: carpentry work, managing a grain elevator, and selling life insurance and real estate. According to Lana, she was the one with a career; Nichols was a house husband, who spent most of his time at home with the children cooking and gardening.
Nichols had never liked farm life, and in 1988, at the age of 33, he tried to escape it by enlisting in the [States Army](United)(United States Army). He was sent to [Benning](Fort)(Fort Benning) next to [Georgia](Columbus,)(Columbus, Georgia) for basic training. As the oldest man in his [platoon](platoon), he had difficulty with the physical aspect of the training,Stickney, p. 95. and was sometimes called "grandpa" by the other men. However, he was soon made the platoon guide because of his age. [McVeigh](Timothy)(Timothy McVeigh) was in his platoon, and they quickly became close friends. They had a common background: both men grew up in white rural areas. Both had tried college for a while and had parents who were divorced.Stickney, pp. 93-94. They shared political views and interests in gun collecting and the survivalist movement. The two were later stationed together at [Riley](Fort)(Fort Riley) in [City, Kansas](Junction)(Junction City, Kansas), where they met and became friends with their future accomplice, Michael Fortier.Stickney, p. 101.
Nichols's wife filed for divorce soon after he joined the Army. Due to a conflict over childcare, he requested and was given a hardship discharge in May 1989 to return home to take care of his son, who was seven years old at the time. As he departed, he told a fellow soldier that he would be starting his own military organization soon, and would have an unlimited supply of weapons.
In 1990, Nichols, 35, married a 17-year-old girl, Marife Torres, from the [Philippines](Philippines) whom he met through a [bride](mail-order)(mail-order bride) agency. When she arrived in Michigan several months later, she was pregnant with another man's child. The child died at age two when he suffocated after getting tangled up with a plastic bag from a banana box that was left overnight in his bedroom. Marife initially suspected foul play from either Nichols or McVeigh, but there were no bruises or signs of trauma to the child. The death was ruled accidental. Nichols and Marife had two more children during their marriage. Nichols and Torres frequently visited the Philippines, where she was attending a local college working on a degree in [therapy](physical)(physical therapy). He sometimes traveled to the Philippines alone, while she remained in [Kansas](Kansas).
Nichols left a cryptic note and a package of documents with his ex-wife, Lana (Walsh) Padilla, prior to one of his many visits to the Philippines. Upon returning from the visit to learn that she had prematurely opened a letter instructing her what to do in the event of his death, he made a series of telephone calls to a [City](Cebu)(Cebu City) boarding house.
Nichols and Torres divorced after his arrest. Marife returned to the [Philippines](Philippines) with the children.
## Anti-government views
Nichols' anti-[government](federal government of the United States) views developed and grew over the years. Nichols spent most of his adult life in the [Lapeer](Lapeer County, Michigan) and [County](Sanilac)(Sanilac County, Michigan) areas of Michigan where mistrust and resentment of the federal government was common, especially after bank foreclosures of many farms during the 1980s.Stickney, p. 91. Neighbors said he attended meetings of anti-government groups, experimented with explosives and got more radical as time went on.
Nichols began to adhere to [citizen](sovereign)(Sovereign citizen movement) ideology. In February 1992, he attempted to [his US citizenship](renounce)(Renunciation of United States citizenship) by writing to the local county clerk in Michigan, stating that the political system was corrupt, and declaring himself a "non resident alien". Several months later, he appeared in court and tried to avoid responsibility for some of his credit card bills (he owed approximately $40,000 altogether), refusing to come before the bench, and shouting at the judge that the government had no [jurisdiction](jurisdiction) over him. On October 19, 1992, he signed another document renouncing his US citizenship. In May 1993, Nichols appeared before a county judge regarding an $8,421 unpaid credit card debt. He also renounced his [license](driver’s)(driver’s license).
McVeigh and Nichols grew closer after McVeigh's discharge from the Army. In December 1991, Nichols invited McVeigh to join him in Michigan and help him out selling military surplus at [show](gun)(gun show)s.Stickney, p. 129. For the next three years, McVeigh stayed with Nichols off and on.Stickney, p. 144. On April 19, 1993, Nichols was watching TV with McVeigh at the Nichols' farmhouse in Michigan during the [of the Branch Davidian compound](siege)(Waco siege) in [Texas](Waco,)(Waco, Texas). When the compound went up in flames, McVeigh and Nichols were enraged and began to plot revenge on the federal government. In the fall of 1993, Nichols and McVeigh, who were living at the farm, became business partners, selling weapons and military surplus at gun shows. For a while, they lived an itinerant life, following the gun shows from town to town.
Nichols then went to [Vegas](Las)(Las Vegas Valley) to try working in construction but failed. Next, he went to central Kansas and was hired in March 1994 as a ranch hand in [Kansas](Marion,)(Marion, Kansas). In March 1994, he sent a letter to the clerk of [County, Kansas](Marion)(Marion County, Kansas), saying he was not subject to the laws of the U.S. government and asked his employer not to [withhold](Withholding tax) any federal taxes from his check. His employer said Nichols was hard-working but had unusual political views. In the fall of 1994, Nichols quit his job, telling his employer he was going into business with McVeigh.
## The bombing
[[bombing site on April 21, 1995](File:Oklahomacitybombing-DF-ST-96-00587.jpg|thumb|230px|The)]
On September 22, 1994, Nichols and McVeigh rented a storage shed and began gathering supplies for the truck bomb. In late September or early October, Nichols and McVeigh stole [dynamite](dynamite) and [caps](blasting)(blasting caps) from a nearby [quarry](quarry). Nichols began purchasing large quantities of [nitrate](ammonium)(ammonium nitrate) fertilizer and storing it in three rental storage units. Nichols also robbed an [Arkansas](Arkansas) gun dealer who had befriended him and McVeigh at various gun shows.
In February 1995 Nichols bought a small house in [Kansas](Herington,)(Herington, Kansas), with a cash down payment. In March 1995, he bought diesel fuel. On April 14, Nichols gave McVeigh some cash, according to McVeigh. On April 16, [Sunday](Easter)(Easter), Nichols and McVeigh drove to Oklahoma City to drop off the getaway car. On April 18, the day before the bombing, Nichols helped McVeigh prepare the truck bomb at a lake near Herington. McVeigh remarked about Nichols's and Fortier's partial withdrawal from the plot, saying they "were men who liked to talk tough, but in the end their bitches and kids ruled." Nichols was at home in Kansas with his family when the bomb went off.
On April 21, Nichols learned he was wanted for questioning, turned himself in, and consented to a search of his home. The search turned up blasting caps, detonating cords, ground ammonium nitrate, barrels made of plastic similar to fragments found at the bombing site, 33 firearms, anti-government warfare literature, a receipt for ammonium nitrate fertilizer with McVeigh's fingerprints on it, a telephone credit card that McVeigh had used when he was shopping for bomb-making equipment, and a hand-drawn map of downtown Oklahoma City. Nichols was held as a [witness](material)(material witness) to the bombing until he was charged on May 10.
Investigators also combed the [Michigan](Decker,)(Decker, Michigan), farm of James Nichols where Terry Nichols and McVeigh had stayed intermittently in the months preceding the bombing. James was held in custody on charges that he made small bombs on the farm but was released without charges on May 24, with the judge saying there was no evidence he was a danger to others.Stickney, p. 234.
## Prosecutions
### Federal case
[[File:Florence ADMAX.jpg|thumb|[ADMAX USP](Florence)(Florence ADMAX USP), the supermax security prison where Nichols resides.]]
McVeigh was tried before Nichols and sentenced to death. Former army soldier and friend of Nichols, Michael Fortier, testified against both McVeigh and Nichols. Fortier had entered into a federal plea agreement for reduced charges in return for his agreement to testify. He was charged with failing to notify authorities in advance of the crime and sentenced to 12 years in prison. Fortier testified that Nichols and McVeigh had expressed anti-government feelings and conspired to blow up the Murrah federal building. He said he helped McVeigh survey the building before the attack. He also testified that Nichols had robbed an Arkansas gun dealer to finance the cost of the bombing. Fortier provided "solid bricks of evidence" for the cases against McVeigh and Nichols, according to the prosecutor.
Nichols' wife Marife testified as a defense witness, but her story may have helped the prosecution's case. She said her husband had been living a double life prior to the bombing, using aliases, renting storage lockers and lying that he had broken off his relationship with McVeigh. She also testified that Nichols traveled to Oklahoma City three days before the bombing, supporting the prosecution's contention that Nichols helped McVeigh station a getaway car near the Murrah building. Marife also failed to give Nichols an alibi for April 18, 1995, the day the prosecution said Nichols helped McVeigh assemble the truck bomb.
Nichols was represented by criminal defense attorney [Tigar](Michael)(Michael Tigar). The trial lasted nine weeks with the prosecution calling 100 witnesses tying Nichols to McVeigh and the bombing plot. The prosecution argued that Nichols helped McVeigh purchase and steal bomb ingredients, park the getaway car near the Murrah building and assemble the bomb. The defense attempted to cast doubt on the case against Nichols by calling witnesses who said they saw other men with McVeigh before the bombing and by claiming the government had manipulated the evidence against Nichols.
The jury deliberated for 41 hours over a period of six days, acquitting Nichols on December 24, 1997, of actually detonating the bomb, but convicting him of conspiring with McVeigh to use a weapon of mass destruction, a [offense](capital)(capital punishment). They acquitted Nichols on the charges of first degree (premeditated) murder, but convicted him on the lesser charge of involuntary (unintentional) manslaughter in the deaths of the federal law enforcement officers.
In assessing why Nichols was not convicted of first degree murder, *[Washington Post](The)(The Washington Post)* noted: Another theory is that some members of the jury believed Nichols' attorneys' arguments that he had withdrawn from the conspiracy before the bombing. His apparent remorse as shown by his crying several times during the testimony could also have swayed the jury.
After the penalty hearing concluded, the jury deliberated for 13 hours over two days on whether to give Nichols a death sentence, but deadlocked. U.S. District Court Judge [P. Matsch](Richard)(Richard Paul Matsch) then had the option of giving Nichols a sentence of life imprisonment or a lesser term. On June 4, 1998, he sentenced Nichols to life in prison without parole on the conspiracy conviction, calling Nichols "an enemy of the [Constitution](United States Constitution)" who had conspired to destroy everything the Constitution protects. Nichols also received a concurrent 48-year sentence for his eight involuntary manslaughter convictions, six for each victim. Nichols [no emotion](showed)(blunted affect). He was sent to the [Supermax Prison in Florence, Colorado](Federal)(ADX Florence). On February 26, 1999, a federal appeals court affirmed Nichols' conviction and sentence.
### Oklahoma state case
After the federal jury deadlocked on the death penalty, which resulted in a life sentence, citizens of Oklahoma petitioned to empanel a state court [jury](grand)(grand jury) to investigate the bombing. State representative Charles Key led a citizens group that circulated the petitions. It was hoped that evidence implicating other conspirators would be uncovered. A grand jury heard testimony for 18 months about allegations of other accomplices but returned only the indictments against Nichols in March 1999. Oklahoma County District Attorney Wes Lane denied the state prosecution was conducted solely for the purpose of having Nichols executed, saying it was important Nichols be convicted of killing all the victims. "This case has always been about 161 men, women and children and an unborn baby having the same rights to their day in court as eight federal law enforcement officers," Lane said.
Nichols was brought from the prison in Colorado to Oklahoma in January 2000 to face the state trial on 160 capital counts of first-degree murder and one count each of fetal homicide, first-degree arson, and conspiracy. The prosecutor's goal was to get the death penalty.
During the two-month trial, the prosecution presented a "mountain of [evidence](circumstantial)(circumstantial evidence)", calling 151 witnesses. Their star witness was Fortier, who said Nichols was intimately involved in the conspiracy and had helped obtain bomb ingredients including fertilizer that was mixed with high octane fuel. Fortier also testified that McVeigh and Nichols stole cord and blasting caps from a rock quarry, and that Nichols robbed a gun collector to obtain money for the plot. Nichols' lawyers said he was the "fall guy" and that others had conspired with McVeigh. They wanted to introduce evidence that a group of [supremacists](white)(white supremacists) had been McVeigh's accomplices. However, the judge did not allow them to do so, saying that the defense had not shown that any of these people committed acts in furtherance of the conspiracy. In their concluding argument, the defense said, "People who are still unknown assisted Timothy McVeigh." On May 26, 2004, the six-man, six-woman jury took five hours to reach guilty verdicts on all charges. When the verdict was read, Nichols showed no emotion, staring straight ahead.
The penalty phase of the trial started on June 1, 2004. The same jury that determined Nichols's guilt would also determine whether he would be put to death. During the five-day hearing, 87 witnesses were called including victims and family members of Nichols. Nichols's relatives testified that he was a loving family man. During the closing arguments, the prosecutor argued for the death penalty, stating that 168 people had died so that Nichols and McVeigh "could make a political statement". The defense argued that Nichols had been controlled by a "dominant, manipulative" McVeigh and urged jurors not to be persuaded by the "flood of tears" of the victims who testified. The defense also said that Nichols had "sincerely" converted to Christianity. After 19½ hours of deliberation over a three-day period, the jury could not reach a unanimous decision on the death penalty. With the death penalty no longer an option, Nichols spoke publicly for the first time in the proceedings, making a lengthy statement laced with religious references to Judge [W. Taylor](Steven)(Steven W. Taylor). Nichols also apologized for the murders and offered to write to survivors to "assist in their healing process". Judge Taylor called Nichols a terrorist and said "No American citizen has ever brought this kind of devastation; you are in U.S. history the No. 1 mass murderer in all of U.S. history" and sentenced Nichols to 161 consecutive life terms without the possibility of parole. Nichols was returned to the federal prison in Colorado.
Darlene Welch, whose niece was killed in the explosion, said she "didn't appreciate being preached to" by Nichols and that she regretted that "he won't stand before God sooner."
## Post-conviction
### Additional explosives
Acting on a tip from reputed mobster [Scarpa, Jr.](Greg)(Greg Scarpa, Jr.) (son of mobster [Scarpa](Greg)(Greg Scarpa), Sr.), a fellow inmate of Nichols, the FBI searched the [space](crawl)(Basement#Crawl space) of Nichols's former home in Kansas, 10 years after the bombing. They found explosives in boxes, wrapped in plastic, buried under a foot of rock. The tipster had indicated that the explosives were buried before the attack.
### Allegations by Nichols
McVeigh, Nichols, and Fortier were the only defendants indicted in the bombing. Nichols denied his involvement in the plot until 2004. Nichols's mother claimed that her son had [syndrome](Asperger)(Asperger syndrome), was manipulated by McVeigh and didn't know what the bomb was for. In a May 2005 letter that he wrote to a relative of two of the victims, Nichols claimed that an Arkansas gun dealer also conspired in the 1995 bombing plot by donating some of the explosives that were used. In a 2006 letter requesting that a judge give his son a light sentence for assault with a deadly weapon, battery of a police officer, and possession of a stolen vehicle, Nichols admitted his participation in the Oklahoma City bombing but said that McVeigh had forced and intimidated him into cooperating.
In a 2007 [affidavit](affidavit),The 2007 statement by Nichols was filed in a wrongful death suit by the brother of a man who died in 1995 while in federal custody. The suit alleged that [Trentadue](Kenneth)(Kenneth Trentadue) was killed while being interrogated by FBI agents in connection with the Oklahoma City bombing, although his death had officially been ruled a suicide. Jesse Trentadue, the plaintiff, wanted to conduct a videotaped deposition of Nichols and one other prisoner to support his contentions that the FBI had killed his brother and was withholding documents related to his brother's death. He was ultimately unable to obtain a court order allowing this. Nichols claimed that in 1992 McVeigh claimed to have been recruited for undercover missions while serving in the military. Nichols also said that in 1995 McVeigh told him that FBI official [Potts](Larry)(Larry A. Potts), who had supervised the [Ridge](Ruby)(Ruby Ridge) and [Waco](Waco Siege) operations, had directed McVeigh to blow up a government building. Nichols claimed that he and McVeigh had learned how to make the bomb from individuals they met while attending gun shows. In the same affidavit, Nichols admitted that he and McVeigh stole eight cases of the gel type explosive [Tovex](Tovex) from a [Kansas](Marion,)(Marion, Kansas) quarry, some of which was later used in the Oklahoma City truck bomb. Nichols, who had been employed in Marion County as a ranch hand, was familiar with numerous quarries, there. He admitted that he had helped McVeigh mix the bomb ingredients in the truck the day before the attack, but he denied that he knew the exact target of the bomb. Nichols wanted to testify in more detail in a videotaped deposition, but a federal appeals court ruled against it in 2009.
## References
A writer who mailed copies of his book advancing [theories](conspiracy)(conspiracy theories) to members of a grand jury investigating the possibility of a larger conspiracy or government coverup was charged with jury tampering in 1999.
}}
## Further reading
*[Stephen](Jones,)(Stephen Jones (attorney)). Peter Israel. *Others Unknown: The Oklahoma City Bombing Conspiracy*. New York: PublicAffairs, 2001. .
*
## External links
*[Oklahoma Bombing Chronology](https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/national/longterm/oklahoma/stories/chron.htm), Washington Post, 1998
*[Bombing & Legal Timeline](http://www.cbsnews.com/htdocs/oklahoma_city_bombing/framesource_timeline.html:), CBS News, April 2005
*[Nichols Accuses 3rd In OKC Plot](http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2005/05/04/national/main692877.shtml), May 4, 2005
*[Inside Bomber Row](https://archive.today/20130204124520/http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,1555145,00.html), November 5, 2006
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|
Dwight Howard
|
dwight_howard
|
# Dwight Howard
*Revision ID: 1160054714 | Timestamp: 2023-06-14T04:33:56Z*
---
| birth_place = [Georgia](Atlanta,)(Atlanta, Georgia), U.S.
| high_school = [Atlanta Christian Academy](Southwest)(Southwest Atlanta Christian Academy)(Atlanta, Georgia)
| draft_year = 2004
| draft_round = 1
| draft_pick = 1
| draft_team = [Magic](Orlando)(Orlando Magic)
| career_start = 2004
| career_end =
| years1 = –
| team1 = [Magic](Orlando)(Orlando Magic)
| years2 =
| team2 = [Angeles Lakers](Los)(Los Angeles Lakers)
| years3 = –
| team3 = [Rockets](Houston)(Houston Rockets)
| years4 =
| team4 = [Hawks](Atlanta)(Atlanta Hawks)
| years5 =
| team5 = [Hornets](Charlotte)(Charlotte Hornets)
| years6 =
| team6 = [Wizards](Washington)(Washington Wizards)
| years7 =
| team7 = Los Angeles Lakers
| years8 =
| team8 = [76ers](Philadelphia)(Philadelphia 76ers)
| years9 =
| team9 = Los Angeles Lakers
| years10 = [2022](2022–23 T1 League season)–present
| team10 = [Leopards](Taoyuan)(Taoyuan Leopards)
| highlights =
* [champion](NBA)(List of NBA champions) ()
* 8× [All-Star](NBA)(NBA All-Star) (–)
* 5× [First Team](All-NBA)(All-NBA First Team) (–)
* [Second Team](All-NBA)(All-NBA Second Team) ()
* 2× [Third Team](All-NBA)(All-NBA Third Team) (, )
* 3× [Defensive Player of the Year](NBA)(NBA Defensive Player of the Year Award) (–)
* 4× [All-Defensive First Team](NBA)(NBA All-Defensive First Team) (–)
* [All-Defensive Second Team](NBA)(NBA All-Defensive Second Team) ()
* [All-Rookie First Team](NBA)(NBA All-Rookie First Team) (2005)
* 5× [rebounding leader](NBA)(List of National Basketball Association annual rebounding leaders) (–, , )
* 2× [blocks leader](NBA)(List of National Basketball Association annual blocks leaders) (, )
* [Slam Dunk Contest](NBA)(NBA Slam Dunk Contest) champion ([2008](2008 NBA All-Star Game))
* [League](T1)(T1 League) Most Valuable Import ([2023](2022–23 T1 League season))
* All-[League](T1)(T1 League) First Team ([2023](2022–23 T1 League season))
* [League](T1)(T1 League) All-Defensive First Team ([2023](2022–23 T1 League season))
* [League](T1)(T1 League) rebounds leader ([2023](2022–23 T1 League season))
* [League](T1)(T1 League) All-Star ([2023](2023 T1 League All-Star Game))
* [League](T1)(T1 League) All-Star Game Most Famous Player ([2023](2023 T1 League All-Star Game))
* [League](T1)(T1 League) All-Star Game MVP ([2023](2023 T1 League All-Star Game))
* [Prep Player of the Year](Naismith)(Naismith Prep Player of the Year) (2004)
* [All-American Game](McDonald's)(McDonald's All-American Game) Co-MVP ([2004](2004 McDonald's All-American Boys Game))
* First-team [All-American](*Parade*)(Parade All-America Boys Basketball Team) (2004)
* [Georgia Basketball](Mr.)(Mr. Georgia Basketball) (2004)
| medal_templates =
}}
}}
**Dwight David Howard II** (born December 8, 1985) is an American professional [basketball](basketball) player for the [Leopards](Taoyuan)(Taoyuan Leopards) of the [League](T1)(T1 League). He began his career in the [Basketball Association](National)(National Basketball Association) (NBA), where he was an [champion](NBA)(List of NBA champions), eight-time [All-Star](List of NBA All-Stars), eight-time [Team](All-NBA)(All-NBA Team) honoree, five-time [Team](All-Defensive)(NBA All-Defensive Team) member, and three-time [Player of the Year](Defensive)(NBA Defensive Player of the Year Award).
Howard, who plays [center](center (basketball)), spent his high school career at [Atlanta Christian Academy](Southwest)(Southwest Atlanta Christian Academy). He chose to forgo college, entered the [NBA draft](2004)(2004 NBA draft), and was selected [overall](first)(List of first overall NBA draft picks) by the [Magic](Orlando)(Orlando Magic). Howard set numerous franchise and league records with the Magic. He led the team to the [NBA Finals](2009)(2009 NBA Finals).
In 2012, after eight seasons with Orlando, Howard was traded to the [Angeles Lakers](Los)(Los Angeles Lakers), with whom he spent three separate one year-stints over the course of his career, winning the [Finals](NBA)(NBA Finals) in [2020](2020 NBA Finals). He has also played for the [Rockets](Houston)(Houston Rockets), the [Hawks](Atlanta)(Atlanta Hawks), the [Hornets](Charlotte)(Charlotte Hornets), the [Wizards](Washington)(Washington Wizards), and the [76ers](Philadelphia)(Philadelphia 76ers).
After playing with the Lakers in 2021–22, Howard moved overseas and signed with the Taiwanese-based Leopards. In his first season with the team, he was named a [All-Star](T1)(2023 T1 League All-Star Game).
## Early life
Howard was born in Atlanta, to Dwight Sr. and Sheryl Howard, a family with strong athletic connections. His father is a [State Trooper](Georgia)(Georgia State Patrol) and is the athletic director at [Atlanta Christian Academy](Southwest)(Southwest Atlanta Christian Academy), a private academy with one of the country's best high school basketball programs; his mother played on the inaugural women's basketball team at [Brown College](Morris)(Morris Brown College).[Dwight Howard](http://www.usabasketball.com/biosmen/dwight_howard_bio.html) , usabasketball.com, accessed February 24, 2008. Howard's mother had seven [miscarriage](miscarriage)s before he was born. A devout Christian since his youth, Howard became serious about basketball around the age of nine.Smith, Aran, ["adidas Superstar Camp Asia: Dwight Howard Interview"](http://www.nbadraft.net/2006beijing005.asp) , nbadraft.net, May 27, 2006, accessed July 11, 2007.[Dwight Howard Biography](http://jockbio.com/Bios/DHoward/DHoward_bio.html) , jockbio.com, accessed August 2, 2008. Despite his large frame, Howard was quick and versatile enough to play the [position](guard)(guard (basketball)). He attended Southwest Atlanta Christian Academy and played mostly as [forward](power)(power forward (basketball)), averaging 16.6 points, 13.4 rebounds and 6.3 blocks per game in 129 appearances. As a senior, Howard led his team to a 31–2 record and the 2004 state title, while averaging 25 points, 18 rebounds, 8.1 blocks and 3.5 assists per game. The same year, he was widely recognized as the best American high school basketball player, and received the [Prep Player of the Year Award](Naismith)(Naismith Prep Player of the Year Award), the [Wootten](Morgan)(Morgan Wootten) High School Player of the Year Award, [National Player of the Year](Gatorade)(Gatorade Player of the Year awards) and the McDonald's National High School Player of the Year honor.[Dwight Howard Info Page – Bio](http://www.nba.com/playerfile/dwight_howard/bio.html) , nba.com, accessed July 11, 2007. He was also co-[MVP](Most Valuable Player) (with [R. Smith](J.)(J. R. Smith)) of the [All-American Game](McDonald's)(McDonald's All-American Game) that year. On January 31, 2012, Howard was honored as one of the 35 greatest McDonald's All-Americans.
## Professional career
### Orlando Magic (2004–2012)
#### Early years (2004–2008)
Following his high school successes, Howard chose to forego college and declared for the [NBA draft](2004)(2004 NBA draft)—a decision partly inspired by his idol [Garnett](Kevin)(Kevin Garnett) who had done the same in 1995—where the [Magic](Orlando)(Orlando Magic) selected him first overall over [UConn](UConn) junior [Okafor](Emeka)(Emeka Okafor). He took the number 12 for his jersey, in part because it was the reverse of Garnett's 21 when he played for [Minnesota](Minnesota Timberwolves).[Howard becomes youngest to win Defensive Player of the Year](http://www.nba.com/2009/news/04/21/defensive.player.of.year.ap/) , nba.com, April 21, 2009, accessed April 22, 2009. Howard joined a depleted Magic squad that had finished with only 21 victories the previous season; further, the club had just lost perennial [All-Star](NBA)(NBA All-Star) [McGrady](Tracy)(Tracy McGrady). Howard, however, made an immediate impact. He finished his [season](rookie)(2004–05 NBA season) with an average of 12 points and 10 rebounds,[Dwight Howard Info Page – Career Stats and Totals](http://www.nba.com/playerfile/dwight_howard/career_stats.html) , nba.com, accessed December 5, 2007. setting several NBA records in the process. He became the youngest player in NBA history to average a [double](double)(Double-double) in the regular season. He also became the youngest player in NBA history to average at least 10 rebounds in a season and youngest NBA player ever to record at least 20 rebounds in a game. Howard's importance to the Magic was highlighted when he became the first player in NBA history directly out of high school to start all 82 games during his rookie season. For his efforts, he was selected to play in the 2005 NBA Rookie Challenge, and was unanimously selected to the [Team](All-Rookie)(NBA All-Rookie Team). He also finished third in the [of the Year](Rookie)(NBA Rookie of the Year Award) voting.[2005 Award Winners](http://www.nba.com/features/2005awards.html), nba.com, accessed March 28, 2007.
Howard reported to camp for his [NBA season](second)(2005–06 NBA season) having added 20 pounds of muscle during the off-season. Orlando coach [Hill](Brian)(Brian Hill (basketball coach))—responsible for grooming former Magic superstar [O'Neal](Shaquille)(Shaquille O'Neal)—decided that Howard should be converted into a full-fledged center. Hill identified two areas where Howard needed to improve: his post-up game and his defense. He exerted extra pressure on Howard, saying that the Magic would need him to emerge as a force in the middle before the team had a chance at the [playoffs](NBA Playoffs). On November 15, 2005, in a home game against the [Bobcats](Charlotte)(Charlotte Bobcats), Howard recorded 21 points and 20 rebounds, becoming the youngest player ever to score 20 or more points and gather 20 or more rebounds in the same game.[Howard's 20/20](http://www.nba.com/magic/news/Howardrsquos_2020-157777-800.html), nba.com/magic, November 16, 2005, accessed March 28, 2007. He was selected to play on the Sophomore Team in the 2006 [Challenge](Rookie)(Rookie Challenge) during the [break](All-Star)(NBA All-Star Weekend). Overall, he averaged 15.8 points and 12.5 rebounds per game, ranking second in the NBA in rebounds per game, offensive rebounds, and double-doubles and sixth in [goal percentage](field)(field goal percentage). Despite Howard's improvement, the Magic finished the season with a 36–46 record and failed to qualify for the playoffs for the second consecutive season since Howard's arrival.[2005–06 DIVISION STANDINGS](http://www.nba.com/standings/2005/team_record_comparison/conferenceNew_Std_Div.html), nba.com/standings, accessed March 28, 2007.
[[File:Jameer Nelson and Dwight Howard.jpg|200px|thumb|right|Howard and [Nelson](Jameer)(Jameer Nelson) in 2008]]
In the [season](2006–07)(2006–07 NBA season) (and for the third consecutive season), Howard played in all 82 regular-season games. On February 1, 2007, he received his first NBA All-Star selection as a reserve on the [Conference](Eastern)(Eastern Conference (NBA)) squad for the [NBA All-Star Game](2007)(2007 NBA All-Star Game). On February 9, he made a game-winning alley-oop off an inbound pass at the buzzer against the [Antonio Spurs](San)(San Antonio Spurs).[Greatest Moment in Amway Arena History](http://www.nba.com/magic/news/savagecohen_amwaymoments_032410.html), nba.com, accessed October 27, 2010. Howard set a new career high with 35 points against the Philadelphia 76ers on April 14.[Howard Carries Magic Past Sixers](http://www.nba.com/games/20070414/ORLPHI/recap.html), nba.com, April 14, 2007, accessed April 19, 2007. Under his leadership, the Magic qualified for the [NBA Playoffs](2007)(2007 NBA Playoffs) as the eighth seed in the Eastern Conference.Long, Mark, [Magic Top Heat, Draw Pistons in First Round](http://www.nba.com/games/20070418/MIAORL/recap.html), nba.com, April 19, 2007, accessed April 19, 2007. There, the Magic were swept by the [Pistons](Detroit)(Detroit Pistons) in the first round.[At a Glance 2007](http://www.nba.com/playoffs2007/series/index.html) , nba.com/playoffs2007, accessed May 1, 2007. For the season, Howard averaged 17.6 points and 12.3 rebounds per game, finishing first in the NBA in total rebounds, second in field goal percentage, and ninth in blocks. He was named to the [All-NBA](All-NBA) Third Team at the end of the 2006–07 campaign.[Phoenix Duo Highlights All-NBA First Team](http://www.nba.com/news/allnba_070510.html), nba.com, May 10, 2007, accessed May 12, 2007.
Howard continued posting impressive numbers in the [season](2007–08)(2007–08 NBA season) and helped the Magic have their best season to date. Howard was named as a starter for the Eastern Conference All-Star team.Medeiros, Andrew, ["Around the Association presented by T-Mobile: February 13"](http://www.nba.com/aroundtheassociation/080213.html) , nba.com, February 13, 2008, accessed February 15, 2008.[MVP Kobe Bryant Highlights All-NBA First Team](http://www.nba.com/news/all_nba_080508.html) , nba.com, May 8, 2008, accessed May 9, 2008. On February 16, 2008, he won the [Slam Dunk Contest](NBA)(NBA Slam Dunk Contest) by receiving 78% of the fan's votes via text messaging or online voting; in that contest, he performed a series of innovative dunks said to have rejuvenated the contest, including donning a Superman cape for one of the dunks.Schuhmann, John, ["All-Star Saturday Dwight"](http://www.nba.com/allstar2008/slam_dunk/recap.html), nba.com, February 17, 2008, accessed February 17, 2008. Howard led the Magic to their first division title in 12 years and to the third seed for the [NBA Playoffs](2008)(2008 NBA Playoffs). In their first round match-up against the Toronto Raptors, Howard's dominance (three 20-point/20-rebound games) helped Orlando to prevail in five games.[Magic Beat Raptors, Move to Second Round](http://www.nba.com/games/20080428/TORORL/recap.html), nba.com, April 29, 2008, accessed May 1, 2008. Howard's series total of 91 rebounds was also greater than the total rebounds collected by the entire Toronto [frontcourt](frontcourt).Feschuk, Dave, ["Nelson dangerous, Howard kills"](https://www.thestar.com/Sports/NBA/article/538603), thestar.com, November 18, 2008, accessed November 19, 2008. In the second round against the Pistons, the Magic lost in five games.Schmitz, Brian, ["Pistons end Magic's season in Game 5"](http://www.orlandosentinel.com/sports/basketball/magic/orl-magic-pistons-nba-playoffs-051308,0,5376337.story) , orlandosentinel.com, May 13, 2008, accessed May 14, 2008. For the season, Howard was named to the All-NBA First Team for the first time, and was also named to the [All-Defensive Second Team](NBA)(NBA All-Defensive).[Kobe, Garnett Headline All-Defensive Team](http://www.nba.com/news/defensive_team_080512.html) , nba.com, May 12, 2008, accessed May 13, 2008.
#### Dominance and NBA Finals appearance (2008–2011)
[[File:Dwight Howard2.Jpg|200px|thumb|left|Howard in 2008, boxing out [McGee](JaVale)(JaVale McGee) of the Washington Wizards]]
The [season](2008–09)(2008–09 NBA season) began well for Howard. Ten games into the season, the center was leading the league in blocks per game (4.2).Grange, Michael, "O'Neal prepares for tall challenge", *Globe and Mail*, November 17, 2008. In December, Howard injured his left knee, which caused him to miss a game due to injury for the first time in his NBA career; previously, he had played in 351 consecutive games. He garnered a record 3.1 million votes to earn the starting berth on the Eastern Conference team for the [NBA All-Star Game](2009)(2009 NBA All-Star Game).[Howard tops balloting for 2009 NBA All-Star Game](http://www.nba.com/2009/allstar2009/01/22/allstar_final.allstar09.20090122/index.html) , nba.com, January 22, 2009, accessed January 23, 2009. Howard led Orlando to its second straight Southeast Division titleGonzalez, Antonio, ["Magic Switch: Orlando bounces Boston from 2nd"](http://www.nba.com/games/20090325/BOSORL/recap.html), nba.com, March 25, 2009, accessed March 28, 2009. and to the third seed for the [NBA Playoffs](2009)(2009 NBA Playoffs); the team finished the season with a 59–23 record.[2008–09 NBA Season Summary](https://www.basketball-reference.com/leagues/NBA_2009.html), basketball-reference.com, accessed April 16, 2009. In the first round of the playoffs against the 76ers, Howard recorded 24 points and 24 rebounds in Game 5 to give Orlando a 3–2 lead before the Magic closed out the series in six games. In the second round against the [Celtics](Boston)(Boston Celtics), after the Magic blew a lead in Game 5 to fall behind 3–2 in the series, Howard publicly stated that he should have been given the ball more and questioned coach [Van Gundy](Stan)(Stan Van Gundy)'s tactics. The Magic went on to defeat Boston to win the series and move on to the Eastern Conference Finals. There they, defeated the [Cavaliers](Cleveland)(Cleveland Cavaliers) 4–2. Howard had a playoff career-high 40 points to go with his 14 rebounds in the deciding Game 6, leading Orlando to the NBA Finals for the first time in 14 years.Withers, Tom, ["Howard scores 40 as Magic make finals"](http://www.nba.com/games/20090530/CLEORL/recap.html), nba.com, May 30, 2009, accessed May 31, 2009. In the [Finals](NBA)(2009 NBA Finals), the [Angeles Lakers](Los)(Los Angeles Lakers) took the first two home games, before a home win by the Magic brought the deficit to 2–1. In Game 4, despite Howard putting up 21 rebounds and a Finals record of 9 blocks in a game, the Magic lost in overtime.[Lakers and Magic tied at 87 at end of regulation in Game 4](http://www.nba.com/games/20090611/LALORL/recap.html), nba.com, June 12, 2009, accessed June 12, 2009. The Lakers went on to clinch the series with a win in Game 5.[2009 NBA Finals Composite Box Score](https://www.basketball-reference.com/playoffs/NBA_2009_finals.html), basketball-reference.com, accessed November 1, 2009. For the season, Howard became the youngest player ever to win the [Defensive Player of the Year Award](NBA)(NBA Defensive Player of the Year Award). He was also named to the NBA All-Defensive First Team,[Howard, Bryant headline 2008–09 NBA All-Defensive First Team](http://www.nba.com/2009/news/05/06/defensive.team/index.html) , nba.com, May 6, 2009, accessed May 7, 2009. and to the All-NBA First Team.[James a unanimous pick for All-NBA First Team](http://www.nba.com/2009/news/05/12/allnba.team.release/) , nba.com, May 13, 2009, accessed May 14, 2009.
[[File:Kobe Bryant left floater.jpg|200px|thumb|right|Howard in 2010, contesting a shot by future teammate [Bryant](Kobe)(Kobe Bryant) of the Los Angeles Lakers]]
In the [season](2009–10)(2009–10 NBA season), the Magic got off to a strong start, winning 17 of their first 21 games and setting a franchise record. On January 21, 2010, Howard was named as the starting center for the East in the [NBA All-Star Game](2010)(2010 NBA All-Star Game).[All-Star starters announced Thursday](https://www.espn.com/nba/allstar2010/news/story?id=4846991), ESPN, January 21, 2010, accessed January 22, 2010. The Magic completed the regular season with 59 wins and their third consecutive division title. The Magic's [playoff](2010 NBA Playoffs) run resulted another Eastern Conference Finals appearance, where they lost in six games to the Celtics. Howard won the Defensive Player of the Year Award for the second straight year.[Howard wins Kia Defensive Player of Year honors again](http://www.nba.com/2010/news/04/20/player.of.year.ap/index.html?ls=iref:nbahpt1) , nba.com, April 20, 2010, accessed April 21, 2010. He became the first player in NBA history to lead the league in blocks and rebounds in the same season twice—and for two years in a row.
In the [season](2010–11)(2010–11 NBA season), Howard posted career highs in points and field goal percentage. He became the first player in league history to win Defensive Player of the Year honors for three consecutive seasons. Howard led the league in double-doubles and also averaged 14.1 rebounds, 2.3 blocks and a career-high 1.3 steals this season. He led the Magic to 52 wins, as they finished as the fourth seed in the Eastern Conference. They went on to lose to the [Hawks](Atlanta)(Atlanta Hawks) in the first round of [NBA Playoffs](2011)(2011 NBA Playoffs).[Joe Johnson scores 23 points as Hawks eliminate Magic](https://www.espn.com/nba/recap?gameId=310428001), ESPN, accessed February 28, 2020. He had a playoff career-high 46 points and 19 rebounds in Orlando's 103–93 loss to Atlanta in Game 1. Howard led the NBA in [fouls](technical)(technical fouls) with 18 in the regular season, and received one-game suspensions after his 16th and 18th technicals.Robbins, Josh, ["Dwight Howard's technical foul in Game 1 of playoffs will stand as called"](http://articles.orlandosentinel.com/2011-04-18/sports/os-orlando-magic-news-0419-20110418_1_nba-disciplinary-officials-dwight-howard-league-officials-review) , orlandosentinel.com, April 18, 2011, accessed March 12, 2012.
#### Final season in Orlando (2011–2012)
Due to a [lockout](2011 NBA lockout), the [regular season](2011–12)(2011–12 NBA season) was shortened to 66 games. Not long after the lockout ended, Howard, who was eligible to become a free agent at the end of the season, demanded a trade to the [Jersey Nets](New)(New Jersey Nets), [Angeles Lakers](Los)(Los Angeles Lakers) or [Mavericks](Dallas)(Dallas Mavericks). Howard stated that although his preference was to remain in Orlando, he did not feel the Magic organization was doing enough to build a championship contender.Windhorst, Brian, ["Dwight Howard explains trade demands"](https://www.espn.com/nba/story/_/id/7343330/dwight-howard-orlando-magic-cites-poor-relationship-gm-reason-trade-demand), ESPN December 12, 2011, accessed February 28, 2020. He would later meet with Magic officials and agree to back off his trade demands, but stated that he also felt the team needed to make changes to the roster if they wanted to contend for a championship.Dunlap, Evan, ["NBA Rumors: Dwight Howard "By Far" Wants to Stay with Orlando Magic; Shane Battier on Magic's Radar"](http://www.orlandopinstripedpost.com/2011/12/8/2620158/nba-rumors-dwight-howard-orlando-magic-trade-shane-battier-free-agent), orlandopinstripedpost.com, accessed March 12, 2012.
On January 12, 2012, Howard attempted an NBA regular season record 39 free throws against the [State Warriors](Golden)(Golden State Warriors). Howard entered the game making 42 percent of his free throws for the season and just below 60 percent for his career. The Warriors [Howard intentionally](hacked)(Hack-a-Shaq) throughout the game, and he broke [Chamberlain](Wilt)(Wilt Chamberlain)'s regular-season record of 34 set in 1962. Howard made 21 of the 39 attempts, finishing with 45 points and 23 rebounds in the Magic's 117–109 victory.[Dwight Howard breaks FT attempts mark as Magic top Warriors](https://www.espn.com/nba/recap?gameId=320112009), ESPN, January 12, 2012, accessed February 27, 2020. On January 24, 2012, Howard became the Magic's all-time scoring leader.[Dwight Howard becomes Magic's all-time leading scorer in win](https://www.espn.com/nba/recap?gameId=320124011) ESPN, accessed January 26, 2012.
On March 15, 2012, on the day of the trading deadline for the [NBA season](2011–12)(2011–12 NBA season), Howard waived his right to opt out of his contract at the end of the season and committed to stay with the Magic through the [season](2012–13)(2012–13 NBA season). He had previously asked to be traded to the New Jersey Nets. Had he not signed the amendment, the Magic were prepared to trade him to avoid losing him as a free agent. On April 5, Van Gundy said that he had been informed by management that Howard wanted him fired. During the interview, the center walked up and hugged his coach, unaware that Van Gundy had confirmed a report that Howard denied. Van Gundy was let go after the season.
On April 19, 2012, Howard's agent said that Howard would undergo surgery to repair a [disk](herniated)(spinal disc herniation) in his back and would miss the rest of the 2011–12 season, as well as the [Summer Olympics in London](2012)(Basketball at the 2012 Summer Olympics). During the offseason, Howard again requested a trade to the Nets, who had relocated to Brooklyn. He intended to become a free agent at the end of the 2012–13 season if he was not traded to Brooklyn.
### Los Angeles Lakers (2012–2013)
[[Howard 2013 cropped.JPG|thumb|left|Howard with the Lakers in 2013](File:Dwight)]
On August 10, 2012, Howard was traded from Orlando to the [Angeles Lakers](Los)(Los Angeles Lakers) in a deal that also involved the [76ers](Philadelphia)(Philadelphia 76ers) and the [Nuggets](Denver)(Denver Nuggets). Howard took six months off from basketball after his April back surgery, and only had the combined four weeks of training camp and preseason to prepare for the season. Still working himself into shape, Howard paced himself throughout the season on both offense and defense. On January 4, 2013, Howard injured his right shoulder in the second half of the Lakers' 107–102 loss to the [Angeles Clippers](Los)(Los Angeles Clippers). At the midpoint of the season, the Lakers were a disappointing 17–24. Howard was averaging 17.1 points on 58.2% shooting, 12.3 rebounds, and 2.5 blocks, but also 3.6 fouls a game with 3.2 turnovers while making only 50.4% of his free throws.
Howard was upset that he was not getting the ball enough, and he felt that [Bryant](Kobe)(Kobe Bryant) was shooting too much. Moving forward, Howard said he needed to "bring it" and dominate in more ways than just scoring. Howard missed games due to his recurring shoulder injury in January and February. In February, Bryant said that Howard "worries too much" and "doesn't want to let anyone down", urging him to play through the pain when [Gasol](Pau)(Pau Gasol) was sidelined with a torn [fascia](plantar)(plantar fascia). Howard returned the next game after commenting that Bryant was "not a doctor, I'm not a doctor. That's his opinion."
[[Howard Lakers February 2013.jpg|thumb|right|Howard with the Lakers in 2013](File:Dwight)]
During the [break](All-Star)(All-Star break (NBA)), Howard adopted a healthier diet to get into better shape to anchor the Lakers' defense and run head coach [D'Antoni](Mike)(Mike D'Antoni)'s preferred [and roll](pick)(pick and roll)s. Still, on February 23, Howard said he was "not even close" to physically being where he wanted to be. Coach Mike D'Antoni attributed Howard's difficulty running the pick-and-roll—a play the coach had expected would be a staple for the team—with [Nash](Steve)(Steve Nash) to Howard's lack of [conditioning](Conditioning exercise). The Lakers were 8–2 after the All-Star break, passing Utah for the eighth and final playoff spot in the [Conference](Western)(Western Conference (NBA)), and Howard averaged 15.5 points, 14.8 rebounds, and 2.6 blocks. In his first game back in Orlando on March 12, Howard scored a season-high 39 points and had 16 rebounds in a 106–97 Lakers win. Booed throughout the game, he made 25 of 39 free throws, setting franchise records for free throws made and attempted while tying his own NBA record for attempts. Howard made 16 of 20 free throws when he was fouled intentionally by the Magic. With Howard anchoring the Lakers defense and his improved overall play, the Lakers made the playoffs, but were swept in the opening round by San Antonio. Howard was ejected in Game 4 with over nine minutes left in the third quarter.
Howard finished the season with his lowest scoring average since his second year in the NBA, but he was the league leader in rebounding and ranked second in field goal percentage. Although he was recovering from his back surgery, he only missed six games all season—all due to his torn [labrum](Glenoid labrum). Howard was named to the All-NBA Third Team after having received five consecutive first-team honors. He became a [agent](free)(free agent (NBA)) in the summer, and he was offered a maximum contract of five years and $118 million by the Lakers.
### Houston Rockets (2013–2016)
[[File:Dwight Howard Chandler Parsons.jpg|thumb|left|Howard with the Rockets in 2014, alongside teammate [Parsons](Chandler)(Chandler Parsons)]]
On July 13, 2013, Howard signed with the [Rockets](Houston)(Houston Rockets), joining [Harden](James)(James Harden) to form a formidable duo. Howard finished the regular season with averages of 18.3 points and 12.2 rebounds and earned [Second Team](All-NBA)(All-NBA Second Team) honors. During the [playoffs](2014)(2014 NBA Playoffs), Howard averaged 26 points and 13.7 rebounds per game, but the Rockets were eliminated by the [Trail Blazers](Portland)(Portland Trail Blazers) in the first round, losing the series 4–2.
After playing in the Rockets' first 10 out of 11 games to start the [season](2014–15)(2014–15 Houston Rockets season), Howard missed 11 straight due to a strained right knee before returning to action on December 13 against the Denver Nuggets and recording his 10,000th career rebound. However, on January 31, Howard was ruled out for a further month due to persistent trouble with his right knee. After setbacks forced him out for a further month and a total of 26 games, Howard returned to action on March 25 against the New Orleans Pelicans. He started the game but was held under 17 minutes by coach Kevin McHale and finished with just four points and seven rebounds in a 95–93 win. Howard played only 41 games in the regular season. The Rockets clinched their first division title in over 20 years and made it to the Western Conference Finals, where they lost 4–1 to the [State Warriors](Golden)(Golden State Warriors).
On November 4, 2015, Howard had 23 points and 14 rebounds against the Orlando Magic. He shot 10-of-10 to become the first Rocket to make 10 or more field goals without a miss since [Ming](Yao)(Yao Ming) went 12-of-12 in 2009. On December 26, he eclipsed 15,000 points for his career in a loss to the New Orleans Pelicans. On January 18, 2016, in an overtime loss to the Los Angeles Clippers, Howard had 36 points and tied a career high with 26 rebounds en route to his 10th straight double-double, the league's longest active streak at the time, and his longest since a 14-game run in 2012–13. On June 22, 2016, Howard declined his $23 million player option for the 2016–17 season and became an unrestricted free agent.
### Atlanta Hawks (2016–2017)
[[Gortat, Dwight Howard (34294323395).jpg|thumb|Howard with the Hawks in 2017](File:Marcin)]
On July 12, 2016, Howard signed a three-year, $70 million contract with his hometown team the [Hawks](Atlanta)(Atlanta Hawks). With the retirement of [Duncan](Tim)(Tim Duncan), Howard entered the 2016–17 season as the NBA's active leader in rebounds (12,089) and blocked shots (1,916). In his debut for the Hawks in their season opener on October 27, Howard grabbed 19 rebounds in a 114–99 win over the [Wizards](Washington)(Washington Wizards). It was the most rebounds for anyone in their Atlanta debut, breaking the mark of 18 that [Abdur-Rahim](Shareef)(Shareef Abdur-Rahim) set on October 30, 2001. On November 2, he scored a season-high 31 points in a 123–116 loss to the [Angeles Lakers](Los)(Los Angeles Lakers). On February 2, he had a season-best game with 24 points and 23 rebounds in a 113–108 win over the Rockets in Houston.
### Charlotte Hornets (2017–2018)
On June 20, 2017, the Hawks traded Howard, along with the 31st overall pick in the [NBA draft](2017)(2017 NBA draft), to the [Hornets](Charlotte)(Charlotte Hornets) in exchange for [Belinelli](Marco)(Marco Belinelli), [Plumlee](Miles)(Miles Plumlee) and the 41st overall pick in the 2017 NBA draft. To begin the season, Howard became the first Charlotte player since [Okafor](Emeka)(Emeka Okafor) in 2007 with four consecutive 15-rebound games. In the fifth game of the season, he had another 15-rebound game. On March 15, he scored 20 of his season-high 33 points in the second half of the Hornets' 129–117 win over the [Hawks](Atlanta)(Atlanta Hawks). On March 21, Howard recorded 32 points and a franchise-record 30 rebounds in a 111–105 win over the Nets, becoming just the eighth player in league history with a 30–30 game. He became the first NBA player with a 30-point, 30-rebound game since [Love](Kevin)(Kevin Love) in November 2010, and the first player with a 30–30 game against the Nets since [Abdul-Jabbar](Kareem)(Kareem Abdul-Jabbar) in February 1978. The next day, Howard was suspended for one game without pay due to receiving his 16th technical foul of the season. Howard finished the season with a franchise-record 53 double-doubles and joined Abdul-Jabbar and [Chamberlain](Wilt)(Wilt Chamberlain) as the only players to hold single-season records with two teams. Howard also became one of six players to average a double-double in each of his first 13 seasons in the league.
On July 6, 2018, Howard was traded to the [Nets](Brooklyn)(Brooklyn Nets) in exchange for [Mozgov](Timofey)(Timofey Mozgov), the draft rights to [Diallo](Hamidou)(Hamidou Diallo), a 2021 second-round draft pick and cash considerations. He was waived by the Nets immediately upon being acquired.
### Washington Wizards (2018–2019)
[[File:Dwight Howard smile(1) (50595921677) (cropped).jpg|thumb|right|Howard with the [Wizards](Washington)(Washington Wizards) in 2018]]
On July 12, 2018, Howard signed with the [Wizards](Washington)(Washington Wizards). He missed all of training camp, every exhibition game and the first seven regular-season games with a sore backside. He appeared in nine games in November before missing the rest of the season after undergoing spinal surgery to relieve pain in his glutes. In March 2019, it was revealed that Howard, in addition to his back injury, was also dealing with a hamstring issue. On April 18, 2019, Howard exercised his $5.6 million player option to play a second season with the Wizards.
On July 6, 2019, Howard was traded to the [Grizzlies](Memphis)(Memphis Grizzlies) for forward [J. Miles](C.)(C. J. Miles). On August 24, 2019, Howard was waived by the Grizzlies.
### Second stint with the Lakers (2019–2020)
On August 26, 2019, Howard signed a $2.6 million veteran's minimum contract with the [Angeles Lakers](Los)(Los Angeles Lakers), reuniting him with his former team. He was replacing [Cousins](DeMarcus)(DeMarcus Cousins), a free agent signed earlier in the offseason who was lost for the year after suffering a knee injury. To assure the team that he would accept any role the team asked, Howard offered to sign a non-guaranteed contract, freeing the Lakers to cut him at any time.
During the season, the Lakers split time fairly evenly between him and starting center [McGee](JaVale)(JaVale McGee). On January 13, 2020, Howard scored a season-high 21 points on a 9-of-11 shooting and got a season-high 15 rebounds. In Game 4 of the Western Conference finals against the [Nuggets](Denver)(2019-20 Denver Nuggets season), Lakers coach [Vogel](Frank)(Frank Vogel) started Howard to match up against the Nuggets' [Jokić](Nikola)(Nikola Jokić). Howard had 12 points and 11 rebounds in 23 minutes to help the Lakers win and take a 3–1 lead in the series. He had started twice during the regular season, but this was his first start by coach's decision when McGee was available. The Lakers advanced to [NBA Finals](the)(2020 NBA Finals), winning the series 4–2 over the [Heat](Miami)(Miami Heat) and giving Howard his first [championship](NBA)(NBA championship).
### Philadelphia 76ers (2020–2021)
On November 21, 2020, the [76ers](Philadelphia)(Philadelphia 76ers) signed Howard to a one-year deal worth $2,564,753. With the 76ers he averaged 7 points and 8.4 rebounds. Howard played 69 games with the Sixers with six starts in 17.3 minutes. He was suspended for one game after getting into a scuffle with [Haslem](Udonis)(Udonis Haslem) where both were assessed technical fouls and Haslem was ejected. Howard was suspended because he incurred his 16th technical foul of the year. Despite winning the Atlantic division and the Eastern Conference regular season, in the Conference Semifinals against the [Hawks](Atlanta)(Atlanta Hawks), the 76ers would lose in seven games which included a squandered 26-point lead in Game 5.
### Third stint with the Lakers (2021–2022)
Howard signed a $2.6 million veteran's minimum contract with the [Angeles Lakers](Los)(Los Angeles Lakers) on August 6, 2021. He averaged 6.2 points and 5.9 rebounds playing 60 games, starting 27 for the injury-ridden [Davis](Anthony)(Anthony Davis). Despite one of the strongest rosters in the league, the Lakers, viewed by many as the premier championship contender, failed to make the playoffs, which was widely regarded by experts to be one of the greatest underachievements in NBA history.
### Taoyuan Leopards (2022–present)
[[File:2022年11月20日 桃園永豐雲豹 vs 臺中太陽 桃園市政府.jpg|thumb|220px|Howard with the [Leopards](Taoyuan)(Taoyuan Leopards) in 2022]]
On November 7, 2022, Howard signed with the [Leopards](Taoyuan)(Taoyuan Leopards) of the [League](T1)(T1 League) in [Taiwan](Taiwan). While the league usually caps the salary of foreign players to US$200,000, it approved an exception for Howard, who will receive over $1 million. The league argued that Howard will raise the level of competition and boost the audience’s interest. On November 19, Howard made his Leopards debut, putting up 38 points, 25 rebounds, 9 assists, and 4 blocks in a 120–115 win over [Taipei CTBC DEA](New)(New Taipei CTBC DEA). However, just one day later, after playing his first two games back-to-back and nearly averaging a triple-double, Howard was sidelined with a knee injury until mid-December. Howard attributed this to playing over 90 minutes within 26 hours, which he was no longer used to. His knee injury resurfaced after playing another string of back-to-back games from December 16 to 17, causing him to sit out another two weeks and it was decided that in the future, Howard would mostly be used in home games to not further aggravate the injury.
In February 2023, Howard was named an [All-Star](2023 T1 League All-Star Game) for the T1 League as well as the All-Star Game Most Famous Player, and was also selected to participate in the Three-Point Contest. He scored 37 points and was named All-Star game MVP. He was the league's rebounds leader for the [season](2022–23)(2022–23 T1 League season). On May 10, 2023, Howard was selected to the [League](T1)(T1 League) All-Defensive First Team in [season](2022–23)(2022–23 T1 League season). On May 11, 2023, Howard was selected to the all-[League](T1)(T1 League) first team in [season](2022–23)(2022–23 T1 League season). On May 12, 2023, Howard awarded the Most Valuable Import of the [League](T1)(T1 League) in [season](2022–23)(2022–23 T1 League season).
## National team career
[[Howard olympics2008.jpg|thumb|upright|Howard at the 2008 Olympics](File:Dwigth)]
On March 5, 2006, Howard was named to the 2006–2008 [Basketball Men's Senior National Team](USA)(United States men's national basketball team) program. As the team's regular starting center, he helped lead the team to a 5–0 record during its pre-World Championship tour, and subsequently helped the team win the bronze medal at the [FIBA World Championship](2006)(2006 FIBA World Championship). During the [Americas Championship 2007](FIBA)(FIBA Americas Championship 2007), Howard was on the team which won its first nine games en route to qualifying for the finals and a spot for the [Olympics](2008)(2008 Olympics).[USA Routs Puerto Rico, Advances to FIBA Finals](http://www.nba.com/usabasketball/), nba.com/usabasketball, accessed September 4, 2007. He started in eight of those nine games, averaging 8.9 ppg, 5.3 rpg and led the team in shooting .778 from the field.[Season Box Score](http://www.usabasketball.com/seniormen/2007/stats/USA.HTM#team.ind) , usabasketball.com, accessed September 4, 2007. In the finals, he made all seven of his shots and scored 20 points as the USA defeated [Argentina](Argentina national basketball team) to win the gold medal.[James Leads U.S. Squad Past Argentina to Claim Gold](http://www.nba.com/news/usa_defeats_argentina_070902.html), nba.com, September 2, 2007, accessed September 4, 2007.
On June 23, 2008, Howard was named as one of the members of the 12-man squad representing the United States in the 2008 Olympic Games in Beijing.[USA Basketball Announces 12-Member 2008 Men’s Senior National Team](http://www.nba.com//news/usab_announcement_080623.html), nba.com, June 23, 2008, accessed July 4, 2008. With Howard starting as center, Team USA won all of its games en route to the gold medal, restarting a streak of gold medals interrupted at the [Olympics](2004)(Basketball at the 2004 Summer Olympics – Men's tournament).[US hoops back on top, beats Spain for gold medal](https://sports.yahoo.com/olympics/beijing/basketball/news;_ylt=AuGHmuNqSb9u8mF3f8TKyce8vLYF?slug=ap-bko-spain-us&prov=ap&type=lgns), sports.yahoo.com, August 24, 2008, accessed August 25, 2008. Howard averaged 10.9 points and 5.8 rebounds per game in the tournament.[USA](http://www.usabasketball.com/seniormen/2008/stats/USA.HTM) , usabasketball.com, accessed August 25, 2008.
## Player profile
Standing and weighing , Howard plays the [center](center (basketball)) position. He led the NBA in rebounding from 2007 to 2010, and again from 2012 to 2013. Howard's rebounding is in part facilitated by his extraordinary athleticism; his running [leap](vertical)(vertical leap) was tested at in 2011, rare for a player of his size.[ESPN Sport Science: Superman](https://www.espn.com/video/clip/_/id/7181826), ESPN, November 3, 2011, accessed February 28, 2020.Bucher, Rich, ["The man who just can't wait to be king"](https://www.espn.com/nba/news/story?page=magdwighthoward/060906) , ESPN, December 10, 2006, accessed February 28, 2020. He demonstrated this skill in the 2007 [Dunk Contest](Slam)(Slam Dunk Contest), where he completed an [oop](alley)(Alley-oop (basketball)) dunk from teammate [Nelson](Jameer)(Jameer Nelson) while slapping a sticker onto the backboard at high.[Just a 42 for 12'6" sticker slap? Bigs get no respect](http://static.espn.go.com/nba/allstar2007/lineup/slamdunk.html), ESPN, accessed March 7, 2009. The sticker showed an image of his own smiling face with a handwritten "All things through Christ Phil: 4:13", a paraphrase of .Abbot, Henry, ["Howard's sticker slam wins buzz but not contest"](https://www.espn.com/nba/allstar2007/columns/story?columnist=abbott_henry&id=2769976), ESPN, February 17, 2007, accessed March 28, 2007.
Howard's abilities and powerful physique have drawn attention from fellow NBA All-Stars. [Duncan](Tim)(Tim Duncan) remarked in 2007, "[Howard] is so developed... He has so much promise and I am glad that I will be out of the league when he is peaking."[Chat Transcript: Dwight Howard](http://www.nba.com/magic/news/chat_howard_060411.html), nba.com/magic, accessed March 28, 2007. [Garnett](Kevin)(Kevin Garnett) echoed those sentiments: "[Howard] is a freak of nature, man... I was nowhere near that physically talented. I wasn't that gifted, as far as body and physical presence." After a game in the [NBA Playoffs](2009)(2009 NBA Playoffs), [76ers](Philadelphia)(Philadelphia 76ers) [swingman](swingman) [Iguodala](Andre)(Andre Iguodala) said: "It's like he can guard two guys at once. He can guard his guy and the guy coming off the pick-and-roll, which is almost impossible to do... If he gets any more athletic or jumps any higher, they're going to have to change the rules." In December 2007, [ESPN](ESPN) writer David Thorpe declared Howard the most dominant center in the NBA.Thorpe, David, "Scouting Report: What makes Dwight Howard so dominant?", *ESPN Insider*, December 11, 2007. Early in his career, many sports pundits rated Howard one of the top young prospects in the NBA.Neel, Eric, "No ceiling in sight", *ESPN Insider*, December 19, 2006
Howard has a reputation as a negative locker room presence. In a 2013 interview, he called his former Orlando Magic teammates a "team full of people no one wanted". In a 2013 article titled "Is Dwight Howard the NBA's Worst Teammate?", *Bleacher Report* asserted that Howard had "extinguished all bridges with the franchise where he spent his first eight NBA seasons". Howard did not get along with [Bryant](Kobe)(Kobe Bryant) when he first played for the Lakers and did not get along with [Harden](James)(James Harden) when he played for the Rockets. When he was traded from the [Hawks](Atlanta)(Atlanta Hawks) to the [Hornets](Charlotte)(Charlotte Hornets), some of his Hawks teammates reportedly cheered. After Charlotte traded Howard to the [Wizards](Washington)(Washington Wizards), Charlotte player [Haywood](Brendan)(Brendan Haywood) asserted that Howard's teammates were "sick and tired of his act". In 2018, NBC News reported that "Howard’s time with the Magic, Lakers and Rockets devolved into interpersonal strife well before he left those teams". Also in 2018, *The Ringer* published a piece titled "Everybody (Still) Hates Dwight" in which it called Howard "almost certainly the least popular player in the NBA". Before signing with the Lakers in 2019, Howard reportedly met with the team multiple times, "promising not to live up to his reputation as a difficult teammate who disrupts locker rooms"; the team warned him that he would be released if he became a disruptive presence.
## NBA career statistics
### Regular season
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|
| style="text-align:left;"|[Orlando](2004–05 Orlando Magic season)
| **82** || style="background:#cfecec;"|**82*** || 32.6 || .520 || .000 || **.671** || 10.0 || .9 || .9 || 1.7 || 12.0
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|
| style="text-align:left;"|[Orlando](2005–06 Orlando Magic season)
| style="background:#cfecec;"|**82*** || 81 || 36.8 || .531 || .000 || .595 || 12.5 || 1.5 || .8 || 1.4 || 15.8
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|
| style="text-align:left;"|[Orlando](2006–07 Orlando Magic season)
| style="background:#cfecec;"|**82*** || style="background:#cfecec;"|**82*** || 36.9 || .603 || .500 || .586 || 12.3 || **1.9** || .9 || 1.9 || 17.6
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|
| style="text-align:left;"|[Orlando](2007–08 Orlando Magic season)
| style="background:#cfecec;"|**82*** || style="background:#cfecec;"|**82*** || 37.7 || .599 || .000 || .590 || style="background:#cfecec;"| 14.2* || 1.3 || .9 || 2.1 || 20.7
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|
| style="text-align:left;"|[Orlando](2008–09 Orlando Magic season)
| 79 || 79 || 35.7 || .572 || .000 || .594 || style="background:#cfecec;"| 13.8* || 1.4 || 1.0 || style="background:#cfecec;"| **2.9*** || 20.6
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|
| style="text-align:left;"|[Orlando](2009–10 Orlando Magic season)
| style="background:#cfecec;"|**82*** || style="background:#cfecec;"|**82*** || 34.7 || style="background:#cfecec;"| .612* || .000 || .592 || style="background:#cfecec;"| 13.2* || 1.8 || .9 || style="background:#cfecec;"| 2.8* || 18.3
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|
| style="text-align:left;"|[Orlando](2010–11 Orlando Magic season)
| 78 || 78 || 37.5 || .593 || .000 || .596 || 14.1 || 1.4 || 1.4 || 2.4 || **22.9**
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|
| style="text-align:left;"|[Orlando](2011–12 Orlando Magic season)
| 54 || 54 || **38.3** || .573 || .000 || .491 || style="background:#cfecec;"|**14.5*** || **1.9** || **1.5** || 2.1 || 20.6
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|
| style="text-align:left;"|[Lakers](L.A.)(2012–13 Los Angeles Lakers season)
| 76 || 76 || 35.8 || .578 || .167 || .492 ||bgcolor="CFECEC"| 12.4* || 1.4 || 1.1 || 2.4 || 17.1
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|
| style="text-align:left;"|[Houston](2013–14 Houston Rockets season)
| 71 || 71 || 33.7 || .591 || .286 || .547 || 12.2 || 1.8 || .8 || 1.8 || 18.3
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|
| style="text-align:left;"|[Houston](2014–15 Houston Rockets season)
| 41 || 41 || 29.8 || .593 || .500 || .528 || 10.5 || 1.2 || .7 || 1.3 || 15.8
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|
| style="text-align:left;"|[Houston](2015–16 Houston Rockets season)
| 71 || 71 || 32.1 || .620 || .000 || .489 || 11.8 || 1.4 || 1.0 || 1.6 || 13.7
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|
| style="text-align:left;"|[Atlanta](2016–17 Atlanta Hawks season)
| 74|| 74 || 29.7 || .633 || .000 || .533 || 12.7 || 1.4 || .9 || 1.2 || 13.5
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|
| style="text-align:left;"|[Charlotte](2017–18 Charlotte Hornets season)
| 81 || 81 || 30.4 || .555 || .143 || .574 || 12.5 || 1.3 || .6 || 1.6 || 16.6
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|
| style="text-align:left;"|[Washington](2018–19 Washington Wizards season)
| 9 || 9 || 25.6 || .623 || .000 || .604 || 9.2 || .4 || .8 || .4 || 12.8
|-
| style="text-align:left;background:#afe6ba;"|†
| style="text-align:left;"|[Lakers](L.A.)(2019–20 Los Angeles Lakers season)
| 69 || 2 || 18.9 || **.729** || **.600** || .514 || 7.3 || .7 || .4 || 1.1 || 7.5
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|
| style="text-align:left;"|[Philadelphia](2020–21 Philadelphia 76ers season)
| 69 || 6 || 17.3 || .587 || .250 || .576 || 8.4 || .9 || .4 || .9 || 7.0
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|
| style="text-align:left;"|[Lakers](L.A.)(2021–22 Los Angeles Lakers season)
| 60 || 27 || 16.2 || .612 || .533 || .658 || 5.9 || .6 || .6 || .6 || 6.2
|- class="sortbottom"
| style="text-align:center;" colspan="2"|Career
| 1,242 || 1,078 || 31.8 || .587 || .214 || .567 || 11.8 || 1.3 || .9 || 1.8 || 15.7
|- class="sortbottom"
| style="text-align:center;" colspan="2"|All-Star
| 8 || 6 || 23.3 || .642 || .154 || .450 || 8.8 || 1.5 || .6 || 1.1 || 12.1
### Playoffs
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|[2007](2007 NBA playoffs)
| style="text-align:left;"|[Orlando](2006–07 Orlando Magic season)
| 4 || 4 || 41.8 || .548 || .000 || .455 || 14.8 || 1.8 || .5 || 1.0 || 15.3
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|[2008](2008 NBA playoffs)
| style="text-align:left;"|[Orlando](2007–08 Orlando Magic season)
| 10 || 10 || 42.1 || .581 || .000 || .542 || **15.8** || .9 || .8 || 3.4 || 18.9
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|[2009](2009 NBA playoffs)
| style="text-align:left;"|[Orlando](2008–09 Orlando Magic season)
| **23** || **23** || 39.3 || .601 || .000 || .636 || 15.3 || **1.9** || .9 || 2.6 || 20.3
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|[2010](2010 NBA playoffs)
| style="text-align:left;"|[Orlando](2009–10 Orlando Magic season)
| 14 || 14 || 35.5 || .614 || .000 || .519 || 11.1 || 1.4 || .8 || **3.5**|| 18.1
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|[2011](2011 NBA playoffs)
| style="text-align:left;"|[Orlando](2010–11 Orlando Magic season)
| 6 || 6 || **43.0** || .630 || .000 ||**.682** || 15.5 || 0.5 || .7 || 1.8 || **27.0**
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|[2013](2013 NBA playoffs)
| style="text-align:left;"|[Lakers](L.A.)(2012–13 Los Angeles Lakers season)
| 4 || 4 || 31.5 || .619 || .000 || .444 || 10.8 || 1.0 || .5 || 2.0 || 17.0
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|[2014](2014 NBA playoffs)
| style="text-align:left;"|[Houston](2013–14 Houston Rockets season)
| 6 || 6 || 38.5 || .547 || .000 || .625 || 13.7 || 1.8 || .7 || 2.8 || 26.0
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|[2015](2015 NBA playoffs)
| style="text-align:left;"|[Houston](2014–15 Houston Rockets season)
| 17 || 17 || 33.8 || .577 || .000 || .412 || 14.0 || 1.2 || **1.4** || 2.3 || 16.4
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|[2016](2016 NBA playoffs)
| style="text-align:left;"|[Houston](2015–16 Houston Rockets season)
| 5 || 5 || 36.0 || .542 || .000 || .368 || 14.0 || 1.6 || .8 || 1.4 || 13.2
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|[2017](2017 NBA playoffs)
| style="text-align:left;"|[Atlanta](2016–17 Atlanta Hawks season)
| 6 || 6 || 26.1 || .500 || .000 || .632 || 10.7 || 1.3 || 1.0 || .8 || 8.0
|-
|style="text-align:left;background:#afe6ba;"|[2020](2020 NBA playoffs)†
|style="text-align:left;"|[Lakers](L.A.)(2019–20 Los Angeles Lakers season)
| 18 || 7 || 15.7 || **.684** || **.500** || .556 || 4.6 || .5 || .4 || .4 || 5.8
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|[2021](2021 NBA playoffs)
| style="text-align:left;"|[Philadelphia](2020–21 Philadelphia 76ers season)
| 12 || 0 || 12.4 || .533 || .000 || .600 || 6.3 || .7 || .2 || .5 || 4.7
|- class="sortbottom"
| style="text-align:center;" colspan="2"|Career
| 125 || 102 || 31.6 || .589 || .143 || .548 || 11.8 || 1.2 || .8 || 2.0 || 15.3
## Other media
Howard appeared as a special guest on an episode of the [ABC](American Broadcasting Company) series *[Makeover: Home Edition](Extreme)(Extreme Makeover: Home Edition)* that aired April 2, 2006, in which [Pennington](Ty)(Ty Pennington) and his team built a new home and ministry offices for Sadie Holmes, who operates a social services ministry in the Orlando area.[Extreme Makeover: Magic Style](http://www.nba.com/nbabuzz/nbabuzz-extrememakeover.html), nba.com/nbabuzz, accessed March 28, 2007.
Howard competed in [6](season)(The Masked Singer (American season 6)) of *[Masked Singer](The)(The Masked Singer (American TV series))* as "Octopus". He was the first one to be eliminated during the two-night premiere alongside [A. Fox](Vivica)(Vivica A. Fox) as "Mother Nature" and [Braxton](Toni)(Toni Braxton) as "Pufferfish".
Starting with 2004's *[NBA 2K5](ESPN)(ESPN NBA 2K5)*, Howard appeared in every entry of the [2K series*](*NBA)(NBA 2K) of basketball simulation video games up until 2021's *[2K22](NBA)(NBA 2K22)*, totaling 18 entries and covering his entire NBA career. Similarly, he appeared in every *[Live](NBA)(NBA Live)* entry from 2004's *[Live 2005](NBA)(NBA Live 2005)* onwards until the series was canceled in 2018 following *[Live 19](NBA)(NBA Live 19)*, totaling 11 games. Additionally, he was the [athlete](cover)(cover model) of *[Live 09](NBA)(NBA Live 09)*. Furthermore, he appeared in multiple spin-off titles for both series, such as *[Street V3](NBA)(NBA Street V3)*, *[Street Homecourt](NBA)(NBA Street Homecourt)*, *[Jam](NBA)(NBA Jam (2010 video game))*, *[Elite 11](NBA)(NBA Elite 11)*, *[Playgrounds](NBA)(NBA Playgrounds)*, and *[2K Playgrounds 2](NBA)(NBA 2K Playgrounds 2)*.
In 2023, he finished third on ''[Forces: World's Toughest Test](Special)(Special Forces: World's Toughest Test)*.
## Personal life
Howard has five children by five women. In 2010, Howard won a defamation judgment against Royce Reed, the mother of his oldest child Braylon. A Florida judge ruled that she violated a court order prohibiting her from mentioning Howard in the media. He had initially sought about half a billion dollars in damages, claiming that she had disparaged him through [Twitter](Twitter) and her appearances on the reality television show, *[Wives](Basketball)(Basketball Wives)'', as the couple's paternity agreement stipulated a $500 fine for each time she mentioned him in public.
In October 2014, police in [County, Georgia](Cobb)(Cobb County, Georgia) investigated claims by Reed that Howard abused their son. Howard had admitted to hitting Braylon with a belt; he had been disciplined in the same manner while growing up, and he stated that he did not realize it was wrong to do so. Howard was not charged in connection with the allegations. Howard was also involved in a civil case with Reed over custody of their son.
Howard keeps approximately 20 snakes as pets and has appeared twice in [Planet](Animal)(Animal Planet)'s reality TV series *[Tanked](Tanked)*. He owns a farm "in north Georgia where he relaxes [with] cows, hogs, turkeys and deer," and also grows vegetables on his estate.
Melissa Rios, the mother of his son, David, died on March 27, 2020, following an epileptic seizure. David was with Howard at his home in Georgia at the time.
### Philanthropy, faith, and public image
Before he was drafted in 2004, Howard said that he wanted to use his NBA career and Christian faith to "raise the name of God within the league and throughout the world".Rovell, Darren, [On a mission from God](https://www.espn.com/nba/news/story?id=1769153), ESPN, May 25, 2004, accessed February 28, 2020. He has stated he believes in reaching out to his community and fans and thus contributes substantially in the field of [philanthropy](philanthropy). Together with his parents, Howard established the Dwight D. Howard Foundation Inc. in 2004.[Dwight D. Howard Foundation Inc. WHAT WE DO](http://www.dwight-howard.com/foundationwhatwedo.html), dwight-howard.com, accessed March 28, 2007. In November 2009, the center was named one of the 10 finalists for the Jefferson Awards for Public Service, which awards athletes for their charitable work.Santich, Kate, [Accolades pile up for Dwight Howard’s good deeds](http://blogs.orlandosentinel.com/changetheworld/2009/11/accolades-pile-up-for-dwight-howards-good-deeds.html) , orlandosentinel.com, November 25, 2009, accessed January 5, 2010.
In 2014, [Epix](Epix (TV network)) featured Howard as the focal point of a documentary about his life called *In the Moment*.
## See also
* [of career achievements by Dwight Howard](List)(List of career achievements by Dwight Howard)
* [of National Basketball Association career games played leaders](List)(List of National Basketball Association career games played leaders)
* [of National Basketball Association career rebounding leaders](List)(List of National Basketball Association career rebounding leaders)
* [of National Basketball Association career blocks leaders](List)(List of National Basketball Association career blocks leaders)
* [of National Basketball Association career turnovers leaders](List)(List of National Basketball Association career turnovers leaders)
* [of National Basketball Association career free throw scoring leaders](List)(List of National Basketball Association career free throw scoring leaders)
* [of National Basketball Association career playoff blocks leaders](List)(List of National Basketball Association career playoff blocks leaders)
* [of National Basketball Association annual rebounding leaders](List)(List of National Basketball Association annual rebounding leaders)
* [of National Basketball Association annual blocks leaders](List)(List of National Basketball Association annual blocks leaders)
* [of National Basketball Association players with most blocks in a game](List)(List of National Basketball Association players with most blocks in a game)
* [of National Basketball Association players with most rebounds in a game](List)(List of National Basketball Association players with most rebounds in a game)
* [of National Basketball Association franchise career scoring leaders](List)(List of National Basketball Association franchise career scoring leaders)
## Notes
## References
## External links
*
}}
[births](Category:1985)(Category:1985 births)
[people](Category:Living)(Category:Living people)
[FIBA World Championship players](Category:2006)(Category:2006 FIBA World Championship players)
[African-American sportspeople](Category:21st-century)(Category:21st-century African-American sportspeople)
[basketball players](Category:African-American)(Category:African-American basketball players)
[Christians](Category:African-American)(Category:African-American Christians)
[men's basketball players](Category:American)(Category:American men's basketball players)
[Hawks players](Category:Atlanta)(Category:Atlanta Hawks players)
[players at the 2008 Summer Olympics](Category:Basketball)(Category:Basketball players at the 2008 Summer Olympics)
[players from Atlanta](Category:Basketball)(Category:Basketball players from Atlanta)
[(basketball)](Category:Centers)(Category:Centers (basketball))
[Hornets players](Category:Charlotte)(Category:Charlotte Hornets players)
[Rockets players](Category:Houston)(Category:Houston Rockets players)
[Angeles Lakers players](Category:Los)(Category:Los Angeles Lakers players)
[High School All-Americans](Category:McDonald's)(Category:McDonald's High School All-Americans)
[at the 2008 Summer Olympics](Category:Medalists)(Category:Medalists at the 2008 Summer Olympics)
[Basketball Association All-Stars](Category:National)(Category:National Basketball Association All-Stars)
[Basketball Association high school draftees](Category:National)(Category:National Basketball Association high school draftees)
[gold medalists for the United States in basketball](Category:Olympic)(Category:Olympic gold medalists for the United States in basketball)
[Magic draft picks](Category:Orlando)(Category:Orlando Magic draft picks)
[Magic players](Category:Orlando)(Category:Orlando Magic players)
[High School All-Americans (boys' basketball)](Category:Parade)(Category:Parade High School All-Americans (boys' basketball))
[76ers players](Category:Philadelphia)(Category:Philadelphia 76ers players)
[forwards (basketball)](Category:Power)(Category:Power forwards (basketball))
[Leopards players](Category:Taoyuan)(Category:Taoyuan Leopards players)
[League imports](Category:T1)(Category:T1 League imports)
[States men's national basketball team players](Category:United)(Category:United States men's national basketball team players)
[Wizards players](Category:Washington)(Category:Washington Wizards players)
[African-American people](Category:20th-century)(Category:20th-century African-American people)
[expatriate basketball people in Taiwan](Category:American)(Category:American expatriate basketball people in Taiwan)
[League All-Stars](Category:T1)(Category:T1 League All-Stars)
|
No Labels
|
no_labels
|
# No Labels
*Revision ID: 1160316867 | Timestamp: 2023-06-15T18:20:06Z*
---
(public launch)
| type = Political
| status = [501(c)(4)](501(c)(4))
| purpose =
| headquarters = [D.C.](Washington,)(Washington, D.C.)
| location =
| region_served = United States
| leader_title = CEO
| leader_name = [Jacobson](Nancy)(Nancy Jacobson)
| leader_title2 = Board of Directors
| leader_name2 = [Jacobson](Nancy)(Nancy Jacobson) (President) Jerald S Howe Jr. (Treasurer) Margie Fox [Tisch](Andrew)(Andrew Tisch) Kenneth A Gross Andrew M. Bursky [C. Blair](Dennis)(Dennis C. Blair) [R. Black Jr.](Charles)(Charles R. Black Jr.)
| leader_title3 = National Co-chairs
| leader_name3 = [Chavis](Benjamin)(Benjamin Chavis) [Hogan](Larry)(Larry Hogan) ([R](Republican Party (United States))) [Lieberman](Joe)(Joe Lieberman) ([I](Independent politician))
| leader_title4 =
| leader_name4 =
| board_of_directors =
| website =
}}
**No Labels** is an American political organization that supports [centrism](centrism) and bipartisanship. No Labels was founded in 2010 by current board president and CEO [Jacobson](Nancy)(Nancy Jacobson) as a [501(c)(4)](501(c)(4)).
## Focus
### 2024 presidential ticket
No Labels has begun prioritizing efforts to run a [third-party](Third party (United States)) "unity ticket" in the [presidential election](2024)(2024 United States presidential election). Democratic Senator [Manchin](Joe)(Joe Manchin) and former Republican Maryland Governor [Hogan](Larry)(Larry Hogan) have been widely viewed as potential No Labels candidates.
The effort has been controversial among some notable Democrats and centrists who fear that it would [split](Vote splitting) the anti-[Trump](Donald Trump) vote. For example, center-left members of No Labels' [Solvers Caucus](Problem)(Problem Solvers Caucus) are reportedly "in open revolt" while co-founder [Galston](William)(William Galston) resigned in protest. No Labels May Re-Elect Donald Trump |url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/no-labels-may-re-elect-donald-trump-third-party-independent-galston-rematch-f2e7697d |access-date=May 6, 2023 |website=The Wall Street Journal |language=en-US}}
### Domestic policies
In 2017, the group helped to start the [Solvers Caucus](Problem)(Problem Solvers Caucus) in the [of Representatives](House)(United States House of Representatives), a bipartisan group of around 60 congresspeople.
For the [House term](2019-2020)(116th United States Congress), the [Solvers Caucus](Problem)(Problem Solvers Caucus) reached an agreement with [Pelosi](then-Leader)(Nancy Pelosi) on House rules changes that some praised as practical and necessary while others claimed it would essentially give House Republicans and/or corporate interests more power for that term.
In 2021, the [Solvers Caucus](Problem)(Problem Solvers Caucus) released a "Building Bridges" blueprint for a bipartisan infrastructure deal. It was the first deal to be endorsed by Republicans and Democrats during that budget cycle.
Efforts to block tax increases on the wealthiest Americans and corporations, especially in 2021 and 2022, have been attributed to No Labels by [Intercept*](*The)(The Intercept)** and *[Jacobin](Jacobin (magazine))*.
## Funding
No Labels' early donors include Billionaire [Tisch](Andrew)(Andrew Tisch), co-chairman of [Corporation](Loews)(Loews Corporation); Ron Shaich, founder of [Bread](Panera)(Panera Bread); [Morin](Dave)(Dave Morin), a former [Facebook](Facebook) executive, and supporters of [Bloomberg](Michael)(Michael Bloomberg).
A 2018 *[Sun-Times](Chicago)(Chicago Sun-Times)* investigation first linked these five [PACs](super)(super PACs) to No Labels: United for Progress, Inc.; Citizens for a Strong America, Inc.; United Together; Govern or Go Home; and Forward, Not Back. *[OpenSecrets](OpenSecrets)* built on that work later in the year and linked two additional [PACs](super)(Super-PACs) to No Labels (Patriotic Americans PAC and Progress Tomorrow, Inc.). According to the FEC's website, all 7 of these [PACs](super)(Super-PACs) were closed in 2020.
According to *[Daily Beast](The)(The Daily Beast)*, by the end of the 2018 cycle, No Labels' [PACs](super)(super PACs) received more than $11 million from fifty-three donors, most of whom come from the financial industry.
*[New Republic](The)(The New Republic)* reported in 2023 that No Labels has received major funding (along with nearly two dozen new donors) from [Crow](Harlan)(Harlan Crow), a leading donor to Republican and conservative causes.
Critics of the organization have suggested that No Labels in practice works to advance the financial interests of the wealthy. This has been echoed in critiques that the group caters to the special interests that drive partisanship (instead of promoting bipartisanship) with [Rich](Frank)(Frank Rich) opining, "what America needs is not another political organization with a toothless agenda and less-than-transparent finances."
## Leadership
[Jacobson](Nancy)(Nancy Jacobson) has been the board president since the founding of the organization and currently serves as CEO as well. In December 2020, No Labels announced Maryland Governor [Hogan](Larry)(Larry Hogan) ([R](Republican Party (United States))), as a national co-chair (prominent spokesperson) to serve alongside No Labels Founding co-chair [Lieberman](Joe)(Joe Lieberman). In January 2023, [Chavis](Benjamin)(Benjamin Chavis) joined Hogan as national co-chair.
[Jacobson](Nancy)(Nancy Jacobson) (Board President and CEO), Jerald S. Howe Jr. (Board Treasurer), and Margie Fox have been on the board since the group's founding in 2010. [Tisch](Andrew)(Andrew Tisch) and Kenneth A. Gross joined in 2012. Andrew M. Bursky joined in 2015. [C. Blair](Dennis)(Dennis C. Blair) and [R. Black Jr.](Charles)(Charles R. Black Jr.) joined in 2019. Previous board members include: Ted Buerger (2010), [Bekenstein](Josh)(Joshua Bekenstein) (2010), [Nunnelly](Mark)(Mark Nunnelly) (2010), [McKinnon](Mark)(Mark McKinnon) (2010-2012), Nate Garvis (2010-2013), Holly Page (2010-2013), and [Borders](Lisa)(Lisa Borders) (2014-2017).
### Work environment
In December 2022, *[Politico](Politico)*, based on a reported 14 interviews with former employees, described a "toxic" culture within No Labels. The article cited a "cutthroat culture, one where staffers are routinely fired or pushed out, have little trust in management, and believe the workplace environment can be difficult for minority and female colleagues." In response to the criticism, several senior officials for the group described to *Politico* the complaints as coming from, "aggrieved ex-workers" who could not adapt to a demanding office culture.
*Politico* reported that in addition to requiring NDAs, [Jacobson](Nancy)(Nancy Jacobson) has been accused by former employees of asking staff to obscure where they work on [LinkedIn](LinkedIn) in order to allegedly make it harder for journalists to ascertain (and interview) No Labels' employees.
## See also
* [Party](Forward)(Forward Party (United States))
* [moderate](Political)(Political moderate)
* [Democrat](Reagan)(Reagan Democrat)
* [Party](Reform)(Reform Party of the United States of America)
* [candidate](Spoiler)(Spoiler candidate)
* [party](Third)(Third party (United States))
## References
-->
}}
## External links
*
[nonprofit organizations](Category:501(c)(4))(Category:501(c)(4) nonprofit organizations)
[establishments in the United States](Category:2010)(Category:2010 establishments in the United States)
[political advocacy groups in the United States](Category:Centrist)(Category:Centrist political advocacy groups in the United States)
[organizations based in Washington, D.C.](Category:Non-profit)(Category:Non-profit organizations based in Washington, D.C.)
[established in 2010](Category:Organizations)(Category:Organizations established in 2010)
[movements in the United States](Category:Political)(Category:Political movements in the United States)
[parties in Arizona](Category:Political)(Category:Political parties in Arizona)
[parties in Colorado](Category:Political)(Category:Political parties in Colorado)
[parties in Oregon](Category:Political)(Category:Political parties in Oregon)
[States political action committees](Category:United)(Category:United States political action committees)
|
Soul music
|
soul_music
|
# Soul music
*Revision ID: 1153284901 | Timestamp: 2023-05-05T09:54:28Z*
---
| cultural_origins = late 1950s – early 1960s, United States
| derivatives =
| subgenres =
| fusiongenres = }}
| regional_scenes =
| local_scenes =
| other_topics = [of soul musicians](List)(List of soul musicians)
}}
**Soul music** is a popular [genre](music)(music genre) that originated in the [American](African)(African-American culture) [community](African-American neighborhood) throughout the United States in the late 1950s and early 1960s.[https://www.encyclopedia.com/media/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/soul-music] - Encyclopedia.com It has its roots in African-American [music](gospel)(gospel music) and [and blues](rhythm)(rhythm and blues).[https://www.britannica.com/art/soul-music] - Encyclopædia Britannica Soul music became popular for dancing and listening, where U.S. record labels such as [Motown](Motown), [Atlantic](Atlantic Records) and [Stax](Stax Records) were influential during the [Rights Movement](Civil)(Civil Rights Movement). Soul also became popular around the world, directly influencing [music](rock)(rock music) and the [of Africa](music)(music of Africa). It also had a resurgence with artists like [Badu](Erykah)(Erykah Badu) under the genre [neo-soul](Neo soul).
Catchy rhythms, stressed by handclaps and extemporaneous body moves, are an important feature of soul music. Other characteristics are a [and response](call)(Call and response (music)) between the lead vocalist and the [chorus](backup vocals) and an especially tense vocal sound. The style also occasionally uses [improvisational](Musical improvisation) additions, twirls, and auxiliary sounds. Soul music reflects the African-American identity, and it stresses the importance of an African-American culture. The new-found African-American consciousness led to new styles of music that boasted pride in being black, and being such a creative genre of music, it emerged from the power struggle to increase black Americans' awareness of their African ancestry. |doi=10.1111/j.0022-3840.1983.1702_51.x }} Soul music also combines different elements of music which includes gospel music, rhythm and blues and jazz. The History of Rock and Roll Radio Show |url=https://thehistoryofrockandroll.net/soul-music/ |access-date=2022-12-05 |language=en-US}}
Soul music dominated the U.S. [chart](R&B)(R&B chart) in the 1960s, and many recordings crossed over into the pop charts in the U.S., Britain, and elsewhere. By 1968, the soul music genre had begun to splinter. Some soul artists developed [funk](funk) music, while other singers and groups developed slicker, more sophisticated, and in some cases more politically conscious varieties. Many soul artists gained popularity due to the domination of soul music in the R&B charts. Among these artists were [Charles](Ray)(Ray Charles), [Brown](James)(James Brown) and the soul group [Temptations](The)(The Temptations). Definition, Songs, Artists, & Facts Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/art/soul-music |access-date=2022-12-05 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}} By the early 1970s, soul music had been influenced by [psychedelic](psychedelic rock) and [rock](progressive)(progressive rock), among other genres, leading to [psychedelic](psychedelic soul) and [soul](progressive)(progressive soul). The United States saw the development of [soul](neo)(neo soul) around 1994. There are also several other subgenres and offshoots of soul music.
The key subgenres of soul include the [Motown](Motown (music style)) style, a more [pop](pop music)-friendly and rhythmic style; *deep soul* and *southern soul*, driving, energetic soul styles combining [R&B](Rhythm and blues) with southern [music](gospel)(gospel music) sounds; [soul](Memphis)(Memphis soul), a shimmering, sultry style; [Orleans soul](New)(New Orleans soul), which came out of the rhythm and blues style; [soul](Chicago)(Chicago soul), a lighter gospel-influenced sound; [soul](Philadelphia)(Philadelphia soul), a lush [orchestral](orchestral) sound with [doo-wop](doo-wop)-inspired vocals; as well as [soul](psychedelic)(psychedelic soul), a blend of [rock](psychedelic)(psychedelic rock) and soul music.
## History
### Origins
[[File:Ray_Charles_classic_piano_pose.jpg|thumb|left|upright|[Charles](Ray)(Ray Charles) pioneered the soul music genre during the 1950s by combining blues, rhythm and blues, and gospel styles]]
Soul music has its roots in [African-American gospel music](traditional)(traditional black gospel music) and [and blues](rhythm)(rhythm and blues) and as the hybridization of their respective religious and secular styles – in both lyrical content and instrumentation – that began in the 1950s. The term "soul" had been used among African-American musicians to emphasize the feeling of being an African-American in the United States.Szatmary, David P. (2014). Rockin' in Time. New Jersey: Pearson. p. 177. According to [musicologist](musicologist) [Hansen](Barry)(Barry Hansen),Barry Hansen, *Rhythm and Gospel*, in Jim Miller (ed.), *The Rolling Stone Illustrated History of Rock & Roll*, 1976, pp. 15–18.Though this hybrid produced a clutch of hits in the R&B market in the early 1950s, only the most adventurous white fans felt its impact at the time; the rest had to wait for the coming of soul music in the 1960s to feel the rush of [and roll](rock)(rock and roll) sung gospel-style.
[[File:JamesBrown.jpg|thumb|upright|[Brown](James)(James Brown) was known as the "Godfather of Soul"]]
According to AllMusic, "Soul music was the result of the urbanization and commercialization of rhythm and blues in the '60s."[*About Soul*, AllMusic](http://www.allmusic.com/subgenre/soul-ma0000002865). Retrieved July 11, 2013 The phrase "soul music" itself, referring to gospel-style music with secular lyrics, was first attested in 1961. The term "soul" in African-American parlance has connotations of African-American pride and culture. [Gospel](Gospel music) groups in the 1940s and '50s occasionally used the term as part of their names. The [jazz](jazz) style that originated from gospel became known as [jazz](soul)(soul jazz). As singers and arrangers began using techniques from both gospel and soul jazz in African-American popular music during the 1960s, soul music gradually functioned as an umbrella term for African-American popular music at the time.[Richie Unterberger, "Little Richard – Artist Biography"](http://www.allmusic.com/artist/little-richard-p4765), AllMusic
[[File:Sam_Cooke_1961.jpg|thumb|left|upright|[Cooke](Sam)(Sam Cooke) is acknowledged as one of soul music's "forefathers".]]
According to the Acoustic Music organization, the "first clear evidence of soul music shows up with ["5" Royales](the)(the "5" Royales), an ex-gospel group that turned to R&B and in [Adams](Faye)(Faye Adams), whose "Shake A Hand" becomes an R&B standard".
Important innovators whose recordings in the 1950s contributed to the emergence of soul music included [McPhatter](Clyde)(Clyde McPhatter), [Ballard](Hank)(Hank Ballard), and [James](Etta)(Etta James). [Charles](Ray)(Ray Charles) is often cited as popularizing the soul music genre with his series of hits, starting with 1954's "[Got a Woman](I)(I Got a Woman)". Singer [Womack](Bobby)(Bobby Womack) said, "Ray was the genius. He turned the world onto soul music."[BBC Music, Episode guides to *Soul Deep – The Story Of Black Popular Music*, 2007](https://www.bbc.co.uk/music/static/p/episodes.pdf). Retrieved July 12, 2013. Charles was open in acknowledging the influence of [Travelers](Pilgrim)(Pilgrim Travelers) vocalist Jesse Whitaker on his singing style.
[Richard](Little)(Little Richard), who inspired [Redding](Otis)(Otis Redding),White, Charles. (2003), p. 229. *The Life and Times of Little Richard: The Authorised Biography.* Omnibus Press. and [Brown](James)(James Brown) both were equally influential. Brown was nicknamed the "Godfather of Soul Music", and Richard proclaimed himself as the "King of Rockin' and Rollin', Rhythm and Blues Soulin'", because his music embodied elements of all three, and since he inspired artists in all three genres.Frederick Douglass Opie, *Hog and Hominy: Soul Food from Africa to America* (Columbia University Press, 2008), chapter 7.
[Cooke](Sam)(Sam Cooke) and [Wilson](Jackie)(Jackie Wilson) also are often acknowledged as soul forefathers. Cooke became popular as the lead singer of the gospel group [Soul Stirrers](the)(the Soul Stirrers), before controversially moving into secular music. His recording of "[Send Me](You)(You Send Me)" in 1957 launched a successful [music](pop)(pop music) career. Furthermore, his 1962 recording of "[It On Home To Me](Bring)(Bring It On Home To Me)" has been described as "perhaps the first record to define the soul experience".Joe McEwen, *Sam Cooke*, in Jim Miller (ed.), *The Rolling Stone Illustrated History of Rock & Roll*, 1976, pp. 113–116. Jackie Wilson, a contemporary of both Cooke and James Brown, also achieved [crossover](crossover (music)) success, especially with his 1957 hit "[Petite](Reet)(Reet Petite)". He even was particularly influential for his dramatic delivery and performances.Joe McEwen, *Jackie Wilson*, in Jim Miller (ed.), *The Rolling Stone Illustrated History of Rock & Roll*, 1976, pp. 117–119.
### 1960s
[[File:Solomon Burke.jpg|thumb|[Burke](Solomon)(Solomon Burke) recorded for Atlantic in the 1960s]]
Writer [Guralnick](Peter)(Peter Guralnick) is among those to identify [Burke](Solomon)(Solomon Burke) as a key figure in the emergence of soul music, and [Records](Atlantic)(Atlantic Records) as the key [label](record)(record label). Burke's early 1960s songs, including "[to Me](Cry)(Cry to Me)", "[Out of Reach](Just)(Just Out of Reach)" and "Down in the Valley" are considered classics of the genre. Guralnick wrote: "Soul started, in a sense, with the 1961 success of Solomon Burke's "Just Out Of Reach". Ray Charles, of course, had already enjoyed enormous success (also on Atlantic), as had James Brown and Sam Cooke — primarily in a pop vein. Each of these singers, though, could be looked upon as an isolated phenomenon; it was only with the coming together of Burke and Atlantic Records that you could begin to see anything even resembling a movement."Peter Guralnick, *Soul*, in Jim Miller (ed.), *The Rolling Stone Illustrated History of Rock & Roll*, 1976, pp. 206.
[[File:Aretha Franklin on January 20, 2009.jpg|thumb|[Franklin](Aretha)(Aretha Franklin) is widely known as the "[of Soul](Queen)(Honorific nicknames in popular music)"]]
[E. King](Ben)(Ben E. King) also achieved success in 1961 with "[By Me](Stand)(Stand by Me (Ben E. King song))", a song directly based on a gospel hymn. By the mid-1960s, the initial successes of Burke, King, and others had been surpassed by new soul singers, including [Stax](Stax Records) artists such as [Redding](Otis)(Otis Redding) and [Pickett](Wilson)(Wilson Pickett), who mainly recorded in [Tennessee](Memphis,)(Memphis, Tennessee), and [Shoals, Alabama](Muscle)(Muscle Shoals, Alabama). According to [Landau](Jon)(Jon Landau):Jon Landau, *Otis Redding*, in Jim Miller (ed.), *The Rolling Stone Illustrated History of Rock & Roll*, 1976, pp. 210–213."Between 1962 and 1964 Redding recorded a series of soul ballads characterized by unabashedly sentimental lyrics usually begging forgiveness or asking a girlfriend to come home... He soon became known as "Mr. Pitiful" and earned a reputation as the leading performer of soul ballads."
The most important female soul singer to emerge was [Franklin](Aretha)(Aretha Franklin), originally a gospel singer who began to make secular recordings in 1960 but whose career was later revitalized by her recordings for Atlantic. Her 1967 recordings, such as "[Never Loved a Man (The Way I Love You)](I)(I Never Loved a Man (The Way I Love You))", "[Respect](Respect (song))" (written and originally recorded by Otis Redding), and "[Right Woman, Do Right Man](Do)(Do Right Woman, Do Right Man)" (written by [Moman](Chips)(Chips Moman) and [Penn](Dan)(Dan Penn)), were significant and commercially successful productions.
Soul music dominated the U.S. African-American music charts in the 1960s, and many recordings crossed over into the pop charts in the U.S. Otis Redding was a huge success at the [Pop Festival](Monterey)(Monterey Pop Festival) in 1967. The genre also became highly popular in the UK, where many leading acts toured in the late 1960s. "Soul" became an umbrella term for an increasingly wide variety of R&B-based music styles – from the dance and pop-oriented acts at [Records](Motown)(Motown Records) in [Detroit](Detroit), such as [Temptations](the)(the Temptations), [Gaye](Marvin)(Marvin Gaye) and [Wonder](Stevie)(Stevie Wonder), to "[soul](deep)(deep soul)" performers such as [Sledge](Percy)(Percy Sledge) and [Carr](James)(James Carr (musician)). Different regions and cities within the U.S., including New York City, Detroit, Chicago, [Memphis](Memphis, Tennessee), [Orleans](New)(New Orleans), [Philadelphia](Philadelphia), and Muscle Shoals, Alabama (the home of [Studios](FAME)(FAME Studios) and [Shoals Sound Studios](Muscle)(Muscle Shoals Sound Studios)) became noted for different subgenres of the music and recording styles.
By 1968, while at its peak of popularity, soul began to fragment into different subgenres. Artists such as James Brown and [and the Family Stone](Sly)(Sly and the Family Stone) evolved into [funk](funk) music, while other singers such as Marvin Gaye, Stevie Wonder, [Mayfield](Curtis)(Curtis Mayfield) and [Green](Al)(Al Green) developed slicker, more sophisticated and in some cases more politically conscious varieties of the genre. However, soul music continued to evolve, informing most subsequent forms of R&B from the 1970s-onward, with pockets of musicians continuing to perform in traditional soul style.
### 1970s and 1980s
[[File:Marvin Gaye (1973).png|thumb|left|[Gaye](Marvin)(Marvin Gaye) shifted to a soul sound with his 1971 hit "[Going On](What's)(What's Going On (Marvin Gaye song))"]]
Mitchell's [Records](Hi)(Hi Records) continued in the [Stax](Stax Records) tradition of the previous decade, releasing a string of hits by Green, [Peebles](Ann)(Ann Peebles), [Clay](Otis)(Otis Clay), [Wright](O.V.)(O.V. Wright) and [Johnson](Syl)(Syl Johnson). [Womack](Bobby)(Bobby Womack), who recorded with Chips Moman in the late 1960s, continued to produce soul recordings in the 1970s and 1980s.
In [Detroit](Detroit), producer [Davis](Don)(Don Davis (producer)) worked with [Stax](Stax Records) artists such as [Taylor](Johnnie)(Johnnie Taylor) and [Dramatics](the)(the Dramatics). Early 1970s recordings by [Detroit Emeralds](the)(the Detroit Emeralds), such as *[Me Right](Do)(Do Me Right (album))*, are a link between soul and the later [disco](disco) style. [Records](Motown)(Motown Records) artists such as [Gaye](Marvin)(Marvin Gaye), [Jackson](Michael)(Michael Jackson), [Wonder](Stevie)(Stevie Wonder) and [Robinson](Smokey)(Smokey Robinson) contributed to the evolution of soul music, although their recordings were considered more in a [music](pop)(pop music) vein than those of Redding, Franklin and Carr. Although stylistically different from classic soul music, recordings by [Chicago](Chicago)-based artists are often considered part of the genre.
By the early 1970s, soul music had been influenced by [rock](psychedelic)(psychedelic rock) and other genres. Artists like [Brown](James)(James Brown (musician)) led soul towards [funk](funk) music, which became typified by 1970s bands like [Parliament-Funkadelic](Parliament-Funkadelic) and [Meters](the)(the Meters). More versatile groups such as [War](War (U.S. band)), [Commodores](the)(the Commodores), and [Wind and Fire](Earth,)(Earth, Wind and Fire) became popular around this time. During the 1970s, some slick and commercial [soul](blue-eyed)(blue-eyed soul) acts like Philadelphia's [& Oates](Hall)(Hall & Oates) and Oakland's [of Power](Tower)(Tower of Power) achieved mainstream success, as did a new generation of street-corner harmony or "city-soul" groups such as [Delfonics](the)(the Delfonics) and the historically black [University](Howard)(Howard University)'s [Unifics](Unifics).
The syndicated music/dance variety television series *[Train](Soul)(Soul Train)*, hosted by Chicago native [Cornelius](Don)(Don Cornelius), debuted in 1971. The show provided an outlet for soul music for several decades, also spawning a franchise that saw the creation of a record label ([Train Records](Soul)(Soul Train Records)) that distributed music by [Whispers](the)(the Whispers), [Lucas](Carrie)(Carrie Lucas), and an up-and-coming group known as [Shalamar](Shalamar). Numerous disputes led to Cornelius spinning off the record label to his talent booker, [Griffey](Dick)(Dick Griffey), who transformed the label into [Records](Solar)(Solar Records), itself a prominent soul music label throughout the 1980s. The TV series continued to air until 2006, although other predominantly African-American music genres such as hip-hop began overshadowing soul on the show beginning in the 1980s.
### Beyond
As [disco](disco) and funk musicians had hits in the late 1970s and early 1980s, soul went in the direction of [storm](quiet)(quiet storm). With its relaxed tempos and soft melodies, quiet storm soul took influences from [fusion](Jazz fusion) and [contemporary](adult)(adult contemporary). Some funk bands, such as EW&F, the Commodores and [Funk Shun](Con)(Con Funk Shun) would have a few quiet storm tracks on their albums. Among the most successful acts in this era include Smokey Robinson, Jeffry Osbourne, [Bryson](Peabo)(Peabo Bryson), [Khan](Chaka)(Chaka Khan), and [Graham](Larry)(Larry Graham).
After the decline of disco and funk in the early 1980s, soul music became influenced by [music](electro)(electro music). It became less raw and more slickly produced, resulting in a style is known as [R&B](contemporary)(contemporary R&B), which sounded very different from the original [and blues](rhythm)(rhythm and blues) style. The United States saw the development of [neo-soul](neo-soul) around 1994.
## Notable labels and producers
### Motown Records
[[File:LeviStubbs.jpg|thumb|left|[Stubbs](Levi)(Levi Stubbs) singing lead with the Four Tops in 1966]]
[Gordy](Berry)(Berry Gordy)'s successful Tamla/Motown group of labels was notable for being African-American owned, unlike most of the earlier independent R&B labels. Notable artists under this label were [Knight and the Pips](Gladys)(Gladys Knight and the Pips), [Supremes](the)(the Supremes), [Temptations](the)(the Temptations), [Miracles](the)(the Miracles), the [Tops](Four)(Four Tops), [Marvelettes](the)(the Marvelettes), [Wells](Mary)(Mary Wells), [Walker & the All-Stars](Jr.)(Junior Walker), [Wonder](Stevie)(Stevie Wonder), [Gaye](Marvin)(Marvin Gaye), [Terrell](Tammi)(Tammi Terrell), [and the Vandellas](Martha)(Martha and the Vandellas), and [Jackson Five](the)(the Jackson Five).
Hits were made using a quasi-industrial "[production-line](Assembly line)" approach. The producers and songwriters brought artistic sensitivity to the three-minute tunes. [Holland](Brian)(Brian Holland), [Dozier](Lamont)(Lamont Dozier) and [Holland](Eddie)(Eddie Holland) were rarely out of the charts for their work as [songwriter](songwriter)s and [producer](record)(record producer)s for [Supremes](the)(the Supremes), the [Tops](Four)(Four Tops) and [and the Vandellas](Martha)(Martha and the Vandellas). They allowed important elements to shine through the dense musical texture. The rhythm was emphasized by handclaps or [tambourine](tambourine). [Robinson](Smokey)(Smokey Robinson) was another writer and record producer who added lyrics to "[Tracks of My Tears](The)(The Tracks of My Tears)" by his group [Miracles](the)(the Miracles), which was one of the most important songs of the decade.
### Stax Records and Atlantic Records
Stax Records and Atlantic Records were independent labels that produced high-quality dance records featuring many well-known singers of the day. They tended to have smaller ensembles marked by expressive gospel-tinged vocals. Brass and saxophones were also used extensively. [Records](Stax)(Stax Records), founded by siblings Estelle and James Stewart, was the second most successful record label behind [Records](Motown)(Motown Records). They were responsible for releasing hits by [Redding](Otis)(Otis Redding), [Pickett](Wilson)(Wilson Pickett), [Staple Singers](the)(the Staple Singers), and many more.Pareles, Jon, *Estelle Stewart Axton, 85, A Founder of Stax Records* (New York Times) 2004. Ahmet Ertegun, who had anticipated being a diplomat until 1944 when his father died, founded [Records](Atlantic)(Atlantic Records) in 1947 with his friend [Abramson](Herb)(Herb Abramson). Ertegun wrote many songs for [Charles](Ray)(Ray Charles) and [Clovers](the)(the Clovers). He even sang [vocals](backup)(backup vocals) for his artist [Joe Turner](Big)(Big Joe Turner) on the song, "Shake Rattle and Roll".Adams, Michael, *Review of: Atlantic Records: The House That Ahmet Built, by Susan Steinberg* (Notes) 2008
## Subgenres
### Detroit (Motown)
Dominated by [Gordy](Berry)(Berry Gordy)'s [Records](Motown)(Motown) empire, Detroit's soul is strongly rhythmic and influenced by gospel music. The Motown sound often includes hand [clapping](clapping), a powerful [bassline](bassline), [strings](string section), [brass](brass section) and [vibraphone](vibraphone). Motown Records' house band was [Funk Brothers](the)(the Funk Brothers). [AllMusic](AllMusic) cites Motown as the pioneering label of pop-soul, a style of soul music with raw vocals, but polished production and toned-down subject matter intended for pop radio and [crossover](crossover (music)) success. Artists of this style included [Ross](Diana)(Diana Ross), [Jackson 5](the)(the Jackson 5), [Wonder](Stevie)(Stevie Wonder), and [Preston](Billy)(Billy Preston). Popular during the 1960s, the style became glossier during the 1970s and led to [disco](disco). In the late 2000s, the style was revisited by contemporary soul singers such as [Winehouse](Amy)(Amy Winehouse), [Saadiq](Raphael)(Raphael Saadiq) (specifically his 2008 album *[Way I See It](The)(The Way I See It)*) and [Knowles](Solange)(Solange Knowles) (her 2008 album *[and the Hadley St. Dreams](Sol-Angel)(Sol-Angel and the Hadley St. Dreams)*).
### Deep and southern
[[File:Otis Redding.png|thumb|Soul singer [Redding](Otis)(Otis Redding) was an electrifying stage presence]]
The terms *deep soul* and *southern soul* generally refer to a driving, energetic soul style combining [R&B](Rhythm and blues)'s energy with pulsating southern United States [music](gospel)(gospel music) sounds. [Tennessee](Memphis,)(Memphis, Tennessee), label [Records](Stax)(Stax Records) nurtured a distinctive sound, which included putting vocals further back in the mix than most contemporary R&B records, using vibrant horn parts in place of background vocals, and a focus on the low end of the frequency spectrum. The vast majority of Stax releases were backed by house bands [T & the MGs](Booker)(Booker T & the MGs) (with [T. Jones](Booker)(Booker T. Jones), [Cropper](Steve)(Steve Cropper), [Dunn](Duck)(Duck Dunn), and [Jackson](Al)(Al Jackson Jr.)) and the Memphis Horns (the splinter horn section of [Mar-Keys](the)(the Mar-Keys), trumpeter [Jackson](Wayne)(Wayne Jackson (musician)) and saxophonist [Love](Andrew)(Andrew Love (musician))).
### Memphis
*Memphis soul* is a shimmering, sultry style of soul music produced in the 1960s and 1970s at [Records](Stax)(Stax Records) and [Records](Hi)(Hi Records) in [Tennessee](Memphis,)(Memphis, Tennessee). It featured melancholic and melodic horns, [organ](Hammond)(Hammond organ), bass, and drums, as heard in recordings by Hi's [Green](Al)(Al Green) and Stax's [T. & the M.G.'s](Booker)(Booker T. & the M.G.'s). The latter group also sometimes played in the harder-edged [soul](Southern)(Southern soul) style. The Hi Records house band ([Rhythm Section](Hi)(Hi Rhythm Section)) and producer [Mitchell](Willie)(Willie Mitchell (musician)) developed a surging soul style heard in the label's 1970s hit recordings. Some Stax recordings fit into this style but had their own unique sound.
### New Orleans
The New Orleans soul scene directly came out of the rhythm and blues era, when such artists as [Richard](Little)(Little Richard), [Domino](Fats)(Fats Domino), and [Piano Smith](Huey)(Huey Piano Smith) made a huge impact on the pop and R&B charts and a huge direct influence on the birth of [Funk](Funk) music. The principal architect of Crescent City's soul was a songwriter, arranger, and producer [Toussaint](Allen)(Allen Toussaint). He worked with such artists as [Thomas](Irma)(Irma Thomas) ("the Soul Queen of New Orleans"), Jessie Hill, [Kenner](Chris)(Chris Kenner), Benny Spellman, and [K. Doe](Ernie)(Ernie K. Doe) on the Minit/Instant label complex to produce a distinctive New Orleans soul sound that generated a passel of national hits. Other notable New Orleans hits came from Robert Parker, [Harris](Betty)(Betty Harris), and [Neville](Aaron)(Aaron Neville). While record labels in New Orleans largely disappeared by the mid-1960s, producers in the city continued to record New Orleans soul artists for other mainly New York City- and Los Angeles-based record labels—notably [Dorsey](Lee)(Lee Dorsey) for New York-based Amy Records and the Meters for New York-based Josie and then LA-based Reprise.
### Chicago
Chicago soul generally had a light gospel-influenced sound, but the large number of record labels based in the city tended to produce a more diverse sound than other cities. [Jay Records](Vee)(Vee Jay Records), which lasted until 1966, produced recordings by [Butler](Jerry)(Jerry Butler (singer)), [Everett](Betty)(Betty Everett), [Clark](Dee)(Dee Clark), and [Chandler](Gene)(Gene Chandler). [Records](Chess)(Chess Records), mainly a blues and rock and roll label, produced several major soul artists, including [Dells](the)(the Dells) and [Stewart](Billy)(Billy Stewart). [Mayfield](Curtis)(Curtis Mayfield) not only scored many hits with his group, [Impressions](the)(the Impressions), but wrote many hit songs for Chicago artists and produced hits on his own labels for [Fascinations](the)(the Fascinations), [Lance](Major)(Major Lance), and the [Stairsteps](Five)(Five Stairsteps).
### Philadelphia
Based primarily in the [International](Philadelphia)(Philadelphia International) record label, Philadelphia soul (or Philly Soul) had lush [string](string section) and [horn](horn section) arrangements and [doo-wop](doo-wop)-inspired vocals. [Bell](Thom)(Thom Bell), and [Gamble & Leon Huff](Kenneth)(Kenneth Gamble & Leon Huff) are considered the founders of Philadelphia soul, which produced hits for [LaBelle](Patti)(Patti LaBelle), [O'Jays](the)(the O'Jays), [Intruders](the)(The Intruders (music group)), [Three Degrees](the)(the Three Degrees), [Delfonics](the)(the Delfonics), [Stylistics](the)(the Stylistics), [Melvin & the Blue Notes](Harold)(Harold Melvin & the Blue Notes), and [Spinners](the)(The Spinners (American R&B group)).
### Progressive
[[File:BLACK SOUL SINGER ISAAC HAYES PERFORMS AT THE INTERNATIONAL AMPHITHEATER IN CHICAGO AS PART OF THE ANNUAL PUSH 'BLACK... - NARA - 556307.jpg|thumb|[Hayes](Isaac)(Isaac Hayes) performing in 1973]]
By the 1970s, African-American popular musicians had drawn from the conceptual album-oriented approach of the then-burgeoning [rock](progressive)(progressive rock) development. This progressive-soul development inspired a newfound sophisticated musicality and ambitious lyricism in black pop.; . Among these musicians were [Stone](Sly)(Sly Stone), [Wonder](Stevie)(Stevie Wonder), [Gaye](Marvin)(Marvin Gaye), [Mayfield](Curtis)(Curtis Mayfield), and [Clinton](George)(George Clinton (funk musician)). In discussing the progressive soul of the 1970s, Martin cites this period's albums from Wonder (*[Book](Talking)(Talking Book)*, *[Innervisions](Innervisions)*, *[in the Key of Life](Songs)(Songs in the Key of Life)*), [War](War (band)) (*[Day Music](All)(All Day Music)*, *[World Is a Ghetto](The)(The World Is a Ghetto)*, *[Live](War)(War Live (album))*), and [Isley Brothers](the)(the Isley Brothers) (*[+ 3](3)(3 + 3)*). [Hayes](Isaac)(Isaac Hayes)'s 1969 recording of "[on By](Walk)(Walk on By (song))" is considered a "classic" of prog-soul, according to *[Pages](City)(City Pages)* journalist Jay Boller. Later prog-soul music includes recordings by [Prince](Prince (musician)), [Gabriel](Peter)(Peter Gabriel), [Ndegeocello](Meshell)(Meshell Ndegeocello), [Joi](Joi (singer)), [Bilal](Bilal (American singer)), [Dwele](Dwele), [David](Anthony)(Anthony David (singer)), [Monáe](Janelle)(Janelle Monáe), and the [Soulquarians](Soulquarians), an experimental black-music collective active during the late 1990s and early 2000s.
### Psychedelic
Psychedelic soul, sometimes known as "black rock", was a blend of [rock](psychedelic)(psychedelic rock) and soul music in the late 1960s, which paved the way for the mainstream emergence of [funk](funk) music a few years later.J. S. Harrington, ''Sonic Cool: the Life & Death of Rock 'n' Roll* (Milwaukee, WI: Hal Leonard Corporation, 2002), , pp. 249–50. Early pioneers of this subgenre of soul music include [Hendrix](Jimi)(Jimi Hendrix), [and the Family Stone](Sly)(Sly and the Family Stone), [Whitfield](Norman)(Norman Whitfield), and [Hayes](Isaac)(Isaac Hayes). While psychedelic rock began its decline, the influence of psychedelic soul continued on and remained prevalent through the 1970s.
### British
[['Adele Live 2016' - Nashville DSC04671 (30410853565).jpg|alt=|thumb|Adele performing in 2016](File:Adele)]
In the early 1960s, small soul scenes began popping up around the UK. Liverpool in particular had an established [black](Black British) community from which artists such as Chants and Steve Aldo emerged and go on to record within the British music industry. As a result, many recordings were commercially released by British soul acts during the 1960s which were unable to connect with the mainstream market. Nevertheless, soul has been a major influence on British popular music since the 1960s including bands of the [Invasion](British)(British Invasion), most significantly [Beatles](the)(the Beatles).P. Humphries, *The Complete Guide to the Music of the Beatles* (Music Sales Group, 1998), p. 83. There were a handful of significant British [soul](blue-eyed)(blue-eyed soul) acts, including [Springfield](Dusty)(Dusty Springfield) and [Jones](Tom)(Tom Jones (singer)).R. Gulla, *Icons of R&B and soul: an encyclopedia of the artists who revolutionized rhythm* (Greenwood Publishing Group, 2008), p. xxii. In the 1970s [Douglas](Carl)(Carl Douglas), [Real Thing](the)(The Real Thing (British band)) and [Delegation](Delegation (band)) had hits in the UK. American soul was extremely popular among some youth sub-cultures like the [mod](Mod (subculture)), [soul](Northern)(Northern soul) and modern soul movements, but a clear genre of British soul did not emerge until the 1980s when several artists including [Michael](George)(George Michael), [Sade](Sade (band)), [Red](Simply)(Simply Red), [Stansfield](Lisa)(Lisa Stansfield) and [II Soul](Soul)(Soul II Soul) enjoyed commercial success.G. Wald, "Soul's Revival: White Soul, Nostalgia and the Culturally Constructed Past", M. Guillory and R. C. Green, *Soul: Black power, politics, and pleasure* (New York University Press, 1997), pp. 139–58. The popularity of British soul artists in the U.S., most notably [Winehouse](Amy)(Amy Winehouse), [Adele](Adele), [Estelle](Estelle (musician)), [Duffy](Duffy (singer)), [Stone](Joss)(Joss Stone) and [Lewis](Leona)(Leona Lewis), led to talk of a "[British Invasion](Third)(Third British Invasion)" or "British Soul Invasion" in the 2000s and 2010s.[Selling their soul: women leading the way in R&B British invasion](http://www.canada.com/topics/entertainment/story.html?id=eae2e9c5-d992-4afc-ab23-0bb8046b1bcb) Canada.com June 9, 2008[The New British Invasion: Soul Divas 2008](http://thedailyvoice.com/voice/2008/04/the-new-british-invasion-soul-000485.php) *[Daily Voice](The)(The Daily Voice (African American news website))*, April 30, 2008.
### Neo
*Neo soul* is a blend of 1970s soul-style vocals and instrumentation with [R&B](contemporary)(contemporary R&B) sounds, [hip-hop](hip hop music) beats, and poetic interludes. The style was developed in the early to mid-1990s, and the term was coined in the early 1990s by producer and [label](record)(record label) executive [Massenburg](Kedar)(Kedar Massenburg). A key element in neo soul is a heavy dose of [Rhodes](Fender)(Fender Rhodes) or [electric piano](Wurlitzer)(Wurlitzer electric piano) "pads" over a mellow, grooving interplay between the drums (usually with a rim shot snare sound) and a muted, deep funky bass. The Fender Rhodes piano sound gives the music a warm, organic character.
### Northern
Northern soul is a music and dance movement that emerged in the late 1960s out of the British [subculture](mod)(mod subculture) in [England](Northern)(Northern England) and the [Midlands](English)(Midlands), based on a particular style of soul music with a heavy beat and fast tempo. The phrase *northern soul* was coined by a journalist [Godin](Dave)(Dave Godin) and popularised through his column in *Blues and Soul* magazine. The rare soul records were played by DJs at [nightclub](nightclub)s, and included obscure 1960s and early 1970s American recordings with an [uptempo](uptempo) beat, such as those on [Motown](Motown) and smaller labels, not necessarily from the [United States](Northern)(Northern United States).
### Hypersoul
[[File:MaRainey.jpg|thumb|282x282px|[Rainey](Ma)(Ma Rainey)]]
Hypersoul is a medley of soul and dance music. It maintains the vocal quality, techniques, and style, but includes a movement towards technology, materialism, heightened sexuality, and sensationalism in the rhythm and lyricism. These values represent a departure from the typical religious and spiritual undercurrents of traditional soul music.
While the subgenre is still focused on human, often romantic, relationships, it presents them in more artificial, material constructs. These aspects of hypersoul are more in line with the 'playa' culture of [and modern R&B culture](hip-hop)(Hip hop (culture)). In his 2001 article on the genre, Bat describes it as being "more like an accent than a genre". Hypersoul is also remarkable for possessing a more European sound influence than the other subgenres of soul. The subgenre provides more roles that may be adopted by the song's female subjects and more space to express different facets of gender experience as compared to traditional soul, through the reversal of male–female dynamics and the embrace of dominating and confrontational attitudes. These attitudes can be seen as success of the early blueswomen of the 1920s such as [Rainey](Ma)(Ma Rainey). Performers included [Timbaland](Timbaland), [Aaliyah](Aaliyah), [Houston](Whitney)(Whitney Houston) and [Child](Destiny's)(Destiny's Child). Hypersoul maybe also be seen as a precursor to [R&B](modern)(modern R&B).
### Nu-jazz and other influenced electronica
Many artists in various genres of [music](electronic)(electronic music) (such as [house](House music), [n bass](drum)(drum n bass), [garage](UK)(UK garage), and [downtempo](downtempo)) are heavily influenced by soul, and have produced many soul-inspired compositions.
## Non-black musicians
The impact of soul music was manifold; internationally, white and other non-black musicians were influenced by soul music. [soul](British)(British soul) and [soul](Northern)(Northern soul), rare soul music played by DJs at [nightclub](nightclub)s in Northern England, are examples.
Several terms were introduced, such as "[soul](blue-eyed)(blue-eyed soul)", which is [R&B](Rhythm and Blues) or soul music performed by [white](White (people)) artists. The meaning of *blue-eyed soul* has evolved over the decades. Originally the term was associated with mid-1960s white artists who performed soul and R&B that was similar to the music released by [Records](Motown)(Motown Records) and [Records](Stax)(Stax Records). The Righteous Brothers, the Rascals, Spencer Davis Group, [Winwood](Steve)(Steve Winwood), Van Morrison & Them, and [Grass Roots](the)(the Grass Roots) were famous blue-eyed soul musicians in the 1960s. The term continued to be used in the 1970s and 1980s, particularly by the British media to refer to a new generation of singers who adopted elements of the Stax and Motown sounds. To a lesser extent, the term has been applied to singers in other [genre](music)(music genre)s that are influenced by soul music. Artists like [and Oates](Hall)(Hall and Oates), [Bowie](David)(David Bowie), [Marie](Teena)(Teena Marie), [Joe Frank & Reynolds](Hamilton,)(Hamilton, Joe Frank & Reynolds), [Valli](Frankie)(Frankie Valli), [Aguilera](Christina)(Christina Aguilera), [Winehouse](Amy)(Amy Winehouse) and [Adele](Adele) are known as blue-eyed soul singers.
Another term is [soul](brown-eyed)(brown-eyed soul), or soul music or R&B created and performed mainly by [Latinos](Hispanic and Latino Americans) in [California](Southern)(Southern California) during the 1960s, continuing through to the early 1980s.[allmusic: Brown-eyed Soul](). All Media Guide, LLC. Retrieved on December 30, 2008. |first1=Richard |last1=Torres |title=Sonidos Latinos Latin Sounds / A True Talent, in English and Spanish |newspaper=Newsday |date=17 September 2000 |page=D27 }} The genre of soul music occasionally draws from [Latin](Latin American music), and often contains rock music influences.Bennet, Bobby. The Ultimate Soul Music Trivia Book This contrasts with blue-eyed soul, soul music performed by [white](non-Hispanic)(non-Hispanic white) artists. [Valens](Ritchie)(Ritchie Valens), one of the original pioneers of brown-eyed soul music, also became one of the first brown-eyed soul artists to bring traditional Latin music and rock and roll influences into the genre. Latino groups on the East and West Coast also drew from the [funk](funk)-influenced Philadelphia soul, or [soul]("Philly")(Philly soul). The West Coast [rock](Latin)(Chicano rock) scene continued to influence brown-eyed soul artists as well. Inspired by Valens, 1960s and 1970s bands such as [& the Headhunters](Cannibal)(Cannibal & the Headhunters) ("[of a Thousand Dances](Land)(Land of a Thousand Dances)") and [Midniters](Thee)(Thee Midniters) played brown-eyed R&B music with a rebellious [and roll](rock)(rock and roll) edge. Many of these artists drew from the [rock](frat)(frat rock) and [rock](garage)(garage rock) scenes. However, the large Hispanic population on the West Coast began gradually moving away from energetic R&B to romantic soul, and the results were "some of the sweetest soul music heard during the late '60s and '70s."
## See also
* [of soul musicians](List)(List of soul musicians)
* [Funk](Funk)
* [Disco](Disco)
* [music](African-American)(African-American music)
* [of the United States](Music)(Music of the United States)
## References
## Bibliography
* Adams, Michael (2008). Review of Atlantic Records: The House That Ahmet Built, by Susan Steinberg. Notes 65, no. 1.
* Cummings, Tony (1975). *The Sound of Philadelphia.* London: Eyre Methuen.
* [Colin](Escott,)(Colin Escott). (1995). Liner notes for *The Essential James Carr*. Razor and Tie Records.
* [Charlie](Gillett,)(Charlie Gillett) (1974). *Making Tracks.* New York: E. P. Dutton.
* [Peter](Guralnick,)(Peter Guralnick) (1986). *Sweet Soul Music.* New York: Harper & Row.
* Hannusch, Jeff (1985). ''I Hear You Knockin': The Sound of New Orleans Rhythm and Blues.* Ville Platte, LA: Swallow Publications. .
*
* Hoskyns, Barney (1987). *Say it One More Time for the Broken Hearted.* Glasgow: Fontana/Collins.
* Jackson, John A. (2004). *A House on Fire: The Rise and Fall of Philadelphia Soul.* New York: Oxford University Press. .
*
* Miller, Jim (editor) (1976). *The Rolling Stone Illustrated History of Rock & Roll*. New York: Rolling Stone Press/Random House. . Chapter on "Soul," by Guralnick, Peter, pp. 194–197.
* Pareles, Jon. 2004. Estelle Stewart Axton, 85, A Founder of Stax Records. New York Times.
* Pruter, Robert (1991). *Chicago Soul: Making Black Music Chicago-Style*. Urbana, Illinois: University of Illinois Press. .
* Pruter, Robert, editor (1993). *Blackwell Guide to Soul Recordings.* Oxford: Basil Blackwell Ltd. .
**Rolling Stone 500 Greatest Songs of All Time*. Alfred Music.
* Walker, Don (1985). *The Motown Story.'' New York: Charles Scribner's Sons.
* Winterson, Julia, Nickol, Peter, Bricheno, Toby (2003). *Pop Music: The Text Book*, Edition Peters. .
## Further reading
* Garland, Phyl (1969). *The Sound of Soul: the History of Black Music*. New York: Pocket Books, 1971, cop. 1969. xii, 212 p. 300 p. + [32] p. of b&w photos.
[ ](Category:Soul music)
[cultural history](Category:African-American)(Category:African-American cultural history)
[music](Category:African-American)(Category:African-American music)
[styles of music](Category:American)(Category:American styles of music)
[of the Southern United States](Category:Culture)(Category:Culture of the Southern United States)
[improvisation](Category:Musical)(Category:Musical improvisation)
[music](Category:Popular)(Category:Popular music)
[formats](Category:Radio)(Category:Radio formats)
[and blues music genres](Category:Rhythm)(Category:Rhythm and blues music genres)
|
Villains _Queens of the Stone Age album
|
villains__queens_of_the_stone_age_album
|
# Villains (Queens of the Stone Age album)
*Revision ID: 1159616337 | Timestamp: 2023-06-11T13:12:24Z*
---
| recorded = January – March 2017
| studio =
| genre =
* [rock](Alternative)(Alternative rock)
* [rock](hard)(hard rock)
* [dance-rock](dance-rock)
* [rock](stoner)(stoner rock)
* [rock](boogie)(boogie rock)
| length = 48:00
| label = [Matador](Matador Records)
| producer = [Ronson](Mark)(Mark Ronson)
| prev_title = [Cologne](...Like)(...Like Cologne)
| prev_year = 2013
| next_title = [Times New Roman...](In)(In Times New Roman...)
| next_year = 2023
| misc =
}}
***Villains*** is the seventh studio album by American rock band [of the Stone Age](Queens)(Queens of the Stone Age), released on August 25, 2017 through [Matador](Matador Records). The album was announced on June 14, with a teaser trailer taking the form of a comedy skit featuring the band performing a polygraph test with [Lynch](Liam)(Liam Lynch (musician)). The first single, "[Way You Used to Do](The)(The Way You Used to Do)", was released the following day along with the announcement of a [tour](world)(Villains World Tour). *Villains* is the first Queens of the Stone Age album to not feature any special guest musicians, the second to not feature [Lanegan](Mark)(Mark Lanegan), and the first to feature [Theodore](Jon)(Jon Theodore) as full time member of the band.
The album received widely positive reviews and performed well commercially, topping *[Billboard](Billboard (magazine))*s [Alternative Albums](Top)(Top Alternative Albums) and [Rock Albums](Top)(Top Rock Albums) charts. At the [Grammy Awards ceremony](2018)(60th Annual Grammy Awards), it was nominated for [Rock Album](Best)(Grammy Award for Best Rock Album), losing to [War on Drugs](The)(The War on Drugs (band))' *[Deeper Understanding](A)(A Deeper Understanding)*.
## Background and recording
Several of the songs from the album were previewed in some form prior to its release. The album's final track, "Villains of Circumstance", was first premiered by [Homme](Josh)(Josh Homme) in 2014 at an acoustic concert for [Lavelle](James)(James Lavelle)'s Meltdown Festival, while "The Evil Has Landed" was performed by the band during their first gig of 2017 on June 22 at [Rapids Theatre](The)(The Rapids Theatre) in [Falls, New York](Niagara)(Niagara Falls, New York). "The Evil Has Landed" was released as a single on August 10, 2017. In addition to this, several snippets of songs have been featured in teaser trailers released online in promotion of the album, including a short clip of the album's opening track, "Feet Don't Fail Me", as well as an a cappella from the intro to the same song.
The album has been described as "a little looser and more uptempo than their last release *[Clockwork](...Like)(...Like Clockwork)* and "more carefree". Homme cites his interest in dancing, working with [Ronson](Mark)(Mark Ronson), and Ronson's collaboration with [Mars](Bruno)(Bruno Mars) "[Funk](Uptown)(Uptown Funk)" for the direction of the album. Kory Grow of *[Stone](Rolling)(Rolling Stone)* notes, "While the guitars still have the limber crunch of Queens albums past, they're playing around easy-breezy disco beats and chilly synths on songs like "Feet Don't Fail Me" and "Un-Reborn Again."" The song "Un-Reborn Again" was seen as a nod to [Rex](T.)(T. Rex (band)) by critics, with the lyrics "Scaredy nose Jack/ Scaredy nose Jack/ Knowing nothing about nothing" echoing T. Rex's "[Sam](Telegram)(Telegram Sam)" with the lines "Golden Nose Slim/ Golden Nose Slim/ I knows where you’ve been", a T. Rex influence that Homme mentioned during the promotion of the album.
## Artwork
The cover art for *Villains* was designed by graphic artist Boneface, who designed the artwork for Queens of the Stone Age's previous album, *...Like Clockwork.* It was the first time that the band had returned to an artist to request artwork on a subsequent album. In an interview with the [Juxtapoz](Juxtapoz) magazine, Boneface talked about returning to create a cover for the album and his working relationship with Josh Homme. In the article he stated that, "Returning was honestly a pretty daunting task. People seemed to like all the artwork I did for the last album, so I felt I had something to live up to. Also, the fact that QOTSA tend to use a different artist for each album cover made it kind of special that they decided to use me again. I think Josh likened our relationship to [S. Thompson](Hunter)(Hunter S. Thompson) and [Steadman](Ralph)(Ralph Steadman) in the initial rallying call. So after I’d decided to plunge back into the QOTSA jacuzzi, I started work the way I usually do, just trying to create something cool. I did a bunch of preliminary drawings before I’d heard any new songs or we’d even talk about the album, and one of those sketches actually ended up being the basis for the album cover." Each band member was given their own artwork, with Homme's on the front cover, and the rest of the band members on the back. An alternate vinyl cover that was released exclusively through independent record stores had a light blue tint over the image, gave Josh Homme a bloody nose, and the devil behind Homme giving two middle fingers.
## Reception
### Commercial performance
In the *[Billboard](Billboard (magazine))* charting week of September 3, 2017, *Villains* was the No. 3 album on the [200](*Billboard*)(Billboard 200) upon its first week of release, selling 73,000 equivalent units, and 69,000 in traditional album sales. It was also the best selling album of the week, starting at No. 1 on the Top Album Sales chart.
### Critical reception
| MC = 81/100
| rev1 = [AllMusic](AllMusic)
| rev1Score =
| rev2 = *[A.V. Club](The)(The A.V. Club)*
| rev2Score = B
| rev3 = *[Guardian](The)(The Guardian)*
| rev3Score =
| rev4 = *[Independent](The)(The Independent)*
| rev4Score =
| rev5 = *[Mojo](Mojo (magazine))*
| rev5score =
| rev6 = *[NME](NME)*
| rev6Score =
| rev7 = *[Pitchfork](Pitchfork (website))*
| rev7Score = 6.9/10
| rev8 = *[Q](Q (magazine))*
| rev8score =
| rev9 = *[Stone](Rolling)(Rolling Stone)*
| rev9Score =
| rev10 = *[Uncut](Uncut (magazine))*
| rev10Score = 8/10
}}
*Villains* received widespread acclaim from music critics. At [Metacritic](Metacritic), which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics, the album has an average score of 81 based on 30 reviews, indicating 'universal acclaim'.
Giving the album four out of five, [AllMusic](AllMusic) editor [Thomas Erlewine](Stephen)(Stephen Thomas Erlewine) claimed that "At this stage, Queens of the Stone Age don't have many new tricks in their bag, but their consummate skill -- accentuated by the fact that this is the first QOTSA album that features just the band alone, not even augmented by Mark Lanegan -- means they know when to ratchet up the tempo, when to slide into a mechanical grind, and when to sharpen hooks so they puncture cleanly. All that makes Villains a dark joy, a record that offers visceral pleasure in its winking menace." In his review for *[Stone](Rolling)(Rolling Stone)*, [Hermes](Will)(Will Hermes) wrote, "*Queens of the Stone Age* always sounded like the best glam-band name ever, and while Josh Homme's free-ranging heavy rock hypnotists were never quite that, they come as close as ever on *Villains*."
In a more reserved review for *[Pitchfork](Pitchfork (website))*, contributor Zoe Camp concluded that, "*Villains* isn’t always so smooth and several sections fall flat, like the staccato-spiked funk that surfaces midway through “The Evil Has Landed” or the melodically static refrains on “Fortress.” Nevertheless, the stalled moments don't detract from the fun of the ride. Queens’ final destination is what matters—and a beeline into the unknown sure beats another go at the merry-go-round. Villains reaffirms what makes this band so special to begin with: their willingness to blow up the status quo as established by their riff-rock brethren, and even themselves."
Amongst the most critical reviews was an article by Will Butler for *[the Radar](Under)(Under the Radar (magazine))*. In the review, Butler claimed "It'll be of concern to Queens purists that *Villains* pulls from sounds that expired a decade ago and beyond. Dwelling on better times of a bygone era is a fundamental pillar of escapism, but it's disconcerting when one of the most uncompromising, forward-thinking bands in the rock pantheon leans so heavily on what worked in the past that they forget that the onus is on them to innovate."
### Accolades
## Track listing
## Personnel
**Queens of the Stone Age***Villains* ([notes](liner)(liner notes)). [of the Stone Age](Queens)(Queens of the Stone Age). [Records](Matador)(Matador Records). 2017.
* [Homme](Josh)(Josh Homme) – lead vocals, guitars
* [Van Leeuwen](Troy)(Troy Van Leeuwen) – guitars, keys, backing vocals
* [Fertita](Dean)(Dean Fertita) – keys, guitar, backing vocals
* [Shuman](Michael)(Michael Shuman) – bass guitar, vocals
* [Theodore](Jon)(Jon Theodore) – drums
**Additional personnel**
* [Costa](Nikka)(Nikka Costa) – background vocals
* [Sweeney](Matt)(Matt Sweeney) – background vocals
* Fred Martin – background vocals
* Tai Phillips – background vocals
* Faith Matovia – background vocals
* [Section Quartet](The)(The Section Quartet) – strings on tracks 1, 3, 6
* [King](James)(James King (musician)) – saxophone on tracks 2, 6
**Production and design**
* [Ronson](Mark)(Mark Ronson) – production
* [Rankin](Mark)(Mark Rankin (record engineer)) – co-production, engineering
* Wesley Seidman – engineering assistant
* Justin Smith – engineering assistant
* Caesar Edmunds – mix engineering
* [Moulder](Alan)(Alan Moulder) – mixing
* [Lurssen](Gavin)(Gavin Lurssen) – mastering
* Reuben Cohen – mastering
* Matt Zivich – guitar technician
* Wayne Faler – guitar technician
* Sahir Hanif – drum technician
* Boneface – design, illustrations
## Charts
### Weekly charts
### Year-end charts
## Certifications and sales
|nocert=true}}
}}
## References
[albums](Category:2017)(Category:2017 albums)
[of the Stone Age albums](Category:Queens)(Category:Queens of the Stone Age albums)
[produced by Mark Ronson](Category:Albums)(Category:Albums produced by Mark Ronson)
[Records albums](Category:Matador)(Category:Matador Records albums)
[rock albums by American artists](Category:Alternative)(Category:Alternative rock albums by American artists)
[albums](Category:Dance-rock)(Category:Dance-rock albums)
[rock albums](Category:Boogie)(Category:Boogie rock albums)
|
Doctor Sleep _2019 film
|
doctor_sleep__2019_film
|
# Doctor Sleep (2019 film)
*Revision ID: 1158922451 | Timestamp: 2023-06-07T02:46:47Z*
---
}}
| producer =
| starring =
| cinematography = [Fimognari](Michael)(Michael Fimognari)
| editing = Mike Flanagan
| music = [Newton Brothers](The)(The Newton Brothers)
| production_companies =
| distributor = Warner Bros. Pictures
| released =
| runtime = 152 minutes British Board of Film Classification |url=https://www.bbfc.co.uk/releases/doctor-sleep-film |website=[Board of Film Classification](British)(British Board of Film Classification) |access-date=April 28, 2020}}
| country = United States
| language = English
| budget = $45–55 million
| gross = $72.3 million
}}
***Doctor Sleep*** is a 2019 American [horror film](supernatural)(supernatural horror film) written and directed by [Flanagan](Mike)(Mike Flanagan (filmmaker)). It is based on the 2013 [King](Stephen)(Stephen King) [of the same name](novel)(Doctor Sleep (novel)), and is a sequel to [Kubrick](Stanley)(Stanley Kubrick)'s *[Shining](The)(The Shining (film))* (1980). Set several decades after the events of its predecessor, the film stars [McGregor](Ewan)(Ewan McGregor) as [Torrance](Danny)(Danny Torrance), a man with psychic abilities who struggles with childhood trauma. [Ferguson](Rebecca)(Rebecca Ferguson), [Curran](Kyliegh)(Kyliegh Curran), and [Curtis](Cliff)(Cliff Curtis) have supporting roles.
[Bros. Pictures](Warner)(Warner Bros. Pictures) began developing a film adaptation shortly after *Doctor Sleep* was published in 2013. Writer-producer [Goldsman](Akiva)(Akiva Goldsman) wrote a script, but the studio did not secure a budget for the film until the box office success of its 2017 horror film *[It](It (2017 film))*, also based on a novel by King. Flanagan was hired to rewrite Goldsman's script and direct the *Doctor Sleep* film. Flanagan said he wanted to reconcile the differences between [Shining* novel](*The)(The Shining (novel)) and film. Filming began in September 2018 in Georgia, including [Atlanta](Atlanta, Georgia) and the surrounding area, and concluded that December.
*Doctor Sleep* held its world premiere at the [Village Theater](Regency)(Regency Village Theater) in Los Angeles on October 21, 2019, and was theatrically released worldwide on October 31, 2019, and in the United States on November 8. The film received lukewarm to positive reviews from critics, who praised Flanagan's screenplay and the performances of the cast (especially McGregor, Ferguson, and Curran) but criticized its length. Grossing $72.3 million worldwide, its performance at the box office was considered a disappointment compared to the other King adaptations released in 2019, *[Chapter Two](It)(It Chapter Two)* and *[Sematary](Pet)(Pet Sematary (2019 film))*.
## Plot
[Torrance](Dan)(Danny Torrance), still traumatized from his family's [ordeal at the Overlook Hotel](1980)(The Shining (film)), is guided by the ghost of [Hallorann](Dick)(Dick Hallorann) to capture the ghosts of the Overlook in lockboxes. By 2011, he has become an alcoholic to suppress his shining. After moving to a [Hampshire](New)(New Hampshire) town, he recovers through [Anonymous](Alcoholics)(Alcoholics Anonymous) set up by his new friend Billy Freeman and becomes a [hospice](hospice) orderly, where he uses his shining to comfort dying patients, who nickname him "Doctor Sleep". Meanwhile, the True Knot, a cult of psychics led by Rose the Hat, extend their lifespans by consuming "steam", a psychic essence released by torturing and killing those who have the shining.
In 2019, the True Knots are starving, as steam has become increasingly rare. They torture a boy to death for steam; a young girl named Abra Stone, whose shining is even greater than Dan's, senses this. She [telepathically](Telepathy) alerts Dan about the murder, but Rose senses Abra in the process. Rose projects her consciousness across the country and infiltrates Abra's mind, but is physically injured by a psychic trap set by Abra. Rose sends the remaining members after her for steam.
Abra informs Dan about the True Knot. Although he is initially skeptical about stopping them, he changes his mind and recruits Billy and Abra's father, Dave, to help. They successfully kill most of the group except Rose, but Billy and Dave are killed and Abra is captured by Rose's partner, Crow Daddy. Dan shines into Abra and saves her from Crow Daddy, killing him in the process. Dan brings Abra to the Overlook as a last resort, believing it will be equally dangerous for Rose. He starts the hotel's [boiler](boiler) and explores the dormant building, "awakening" it with his shining. At the same time, he has visions of his time at the hotel.
Rose arrives at the Overlook and overpowers Dan in a fight, but he saves himself by opening lockboxes in his mind and releasing the Overlook's ghosts. Drawn by Rose's power, the ghosts overwhelm and devour her before turning on Danny and possessing him in a bid to try and make him kill Abra. After a brief moment where she cuts through his possessed mind, he tells her to save herself before the hotel overcomes him again. He goes to the boiler room but regains control before the hotel can make him deactivate it. Before he passes out, Dan sees a vision of himself as a child being comforted by his mother, Wendy. Abra escapes as the Overlook burns down and the authorities arrive.
Sometime later, Abra speaks to Dan's spirit, assuring him that she is fine. Dan comforts Abra, telling her to "shine on" and not to hide her gifts from the world. She shares to her mother that she has been conversing with Dan and her deceased father and that they are okay. Abra later encounters Mrs. Massey, the ghost of the bathroom in the Overlook's Room 237, in her bathtub; she confronts it and closes the door behind her.
## Cast
[[File:Ewan McGregor Cannes 2012.jpg|thumb|upright|[McGregor](Ewan)(Ewan McGregor) plays the role of an aged-up [Torrance](Danny)(Danny Torrance), originally portrayed by [Lloyd](Danny)(Danny Lloyd) in 1980's [Shining*](*The)(The Shining (film)).]]
* [McGregor](Ewan)(Ewan McGregor) as [Torrance](Dan)(Danny Torrance), an alcoholic man with psychic powers known as "the shining". Roger Dale Floyd plays a young Danny Torrance.
** The character first appeared as his young self and in the film *[Shining](The)(The Shining (film))*; where he was played by [Lloyd](Danny)(Danny Lloyd), who, in this film, makes a [appearance](cameo)(cameo appearance) as a spectator at Bradley Trevor's baseball game. Lloyd had been retired from acting for roughly 38 years and was direct-messaged on [Twitter](Twitter) by Flanagan to appear in the film. Producer Trevor Macy said of Lloyd's involvement, "[Lloyd] was excited to do [cameo](the). He hadn't acted since [original](the). He's a schoolteacher, and a very successful one at that, like making the world better. He came back for a day, and we were thrilled to have him." When pressed as to why the filmmakers did not extend the same offer to [Nicholson](Jack)(Jack Nicholson), Macy responded, "With Jack, I knew that they approached him for *[Player One](Ready)(Ready Player One (film))*, and that he seems to be very serious about being retired. I had known that he was supportive [the sequel](of) but retired."
* [Ferguson](Rebecca)(Rebecca Ferguson) as [the Hat](Rose)(Rose the Hat), leader of the True Knot, a cult that feeds on people with psychic powers. Ferguson said she had difficulty filming the scene where the True Knot attacks a young child.
* [Curran](Kyliegh)(Kyliegh Curran) as Abra Stone, a girl with "the shining".
**Dakota Hickman plays a young Abra Stone.
* [Lumbly](Carl)(Carl Lumbly) as [Hallorann](Dick)(Dick Hallorann), the late head chef of the Overlook Hotel who has "the shining". Dick was played by [Crothers](Scatman)(Scatman Crothers) in *The Shining*.
* [McClarnon](Zahn)(Zahn McClarnon) as Crow Daddy, Rose the Hat's lover and right-hand man in the True Knot.
* [Alyn Lind](Emily)(Emily Alyn Lind) as Snakebite Andi, a young member of the True Knot who is able to psychically control people.
* [Greenwood](Bruce)(Bruce Greenwood) as Dr. John Dalton, leader of Dan's AA group and his boss at the hospice.
* [Donahue](Jocelin)(Jocelin Donahue) as Lucy Stone, Abra's mother.
* [Curtis](Cliff)(Cliff Curtis) as Billy Freeman, Dan's friend, coworker, and AA sponsor
* Robert Longstreet as Barry the Chunk, a member of the True Knot.
* [Struycken](Carel)(Carel Struycken) as Grandpa Flick, an aging member of the True Knot.
* [Essoe](Alex)(Alex Essoe) as [Torrance](Wendy)(Wendy Torrance), Dan's mother. Wendy was played by [Duvall](Shelley)(Shelley Duvall) in *The Shining*.
* [Momoh](Zackary)(Zackary Momoh) as Dave Stone, Abra's father.
* [Tremblay](Jacob)(Jacob Tremblay) as Bradley Trevor, a victim of the True Knot, known to Abra as the "baseball boy".
* [Thomas](Henry)(Henry Thomas) as The Bartender, an apparition who calls himself Lloyd but resembles Dan's late father, [Torrance](Jack)(Jack Torrance); Thomas thus also portrays Torrance briefly in flashback scenes. In *The Shining*, Torrance was portrayed by [Nicholson](Jack)(Jack Nicholson) and Lloyd was portrayed by [Turkel](Joe)(Joe Turkel).
Additionally, Catherine Parker appears as Silent Sarey, Met Clark as Short Eddie, Selena Anduze as Apron Annie, and James Flanagan as Diesel Doug, all members of the True Knot cult. [McGraw](Violet)(Violet McGraw) portrays Violet, a child who is murdered at the start of the film by the True Knot cult and later fed to Snakebite Andi as part of her induction into the group, while [Anne Lind](Bethany)(Bethany Anne Lind) portrays Violet's mother. Sadie and KK Heim portray the Grady sisters, with Kaitlyn McCormick and Molly Jackson providing their voices; the characters were originally played by twins Lisa and Louise Burns in *The Shining*. Sallye Hooks portrays Mrs. Massey, Michael Monks portrays Delbert Grady, and Hugh Maguire portrays Horace Derwent, respectively; played by Lia Beldam and Billie Gibson, [Stone](Philip)(Philip Stone), and Norman Gay in *The Shining*.
Regarding the recast characters, Flanagan explained, "We explored everything, and there were only really two options as I saw it: It was either going to be something that was performed, or something that was digital. And even if we had Nicholson come back, based on the rules of the hotel and how the ghosts appear with respect to their age, he'd be performing the part through a digital avatar." Flanagan said that [and digital actors](de-aging)(De-aging in motion pictures), while improving rapidly, were still inadequate. "The idea of having a digital Danny Torrance riding a trike five minutes into the movie, that just seemed like we were making a video game at that point. It felt disrespectful." Noting that any solution would be controversial, the director decided that the best approach "was not to do impressions; it was to find actors who would remind us of those iconic performances, without ever tipping into parody... I just want to be able to tilt people's memories toward those original actors, but then let the characters be their own. I want to cast someone to play Dick Hallorann; I don't want to cast someone to play Scatman Crothers". The idea of casting a Nicholson impersonator as Jack was also considered, as was casting a big-name actor associated with or reminiscent of Nicholson, such as [DiCaprio](Leonardo)(Leonardo DiCaprio) or [Slater](Christian)(Christian Slater). Nicholson was also invited to make a cameo appearance as another character, but declined.
## Themes
Author Stephen King said he wrote *Doctor Sleep* because he wondered what Danny Torrance would be like as an adult. Flanagan has stated, "Danny is so traumatized by what he's been through, he has no idea how to deal with this," and McGregor added, "Dan Torrance's philosophy early on in the story is not to use the shining. He's drunk to suppress the horrible visitations, the spirits that are from the Overlook Hotel."
*
Flanagan described *The Shining* as "very much about addiction, which is doom. It's about annihilation and the destruction of a family," while *Doctor Sleep* was about "recovery," stating, "In the way that addiction feels like doom and annihilation, recovery is rebirth, and recovery is salvation, in a way." On themes, Flanagan has stated that “(‘Doctor Sleep’) incorporates a lot of nostalgia from the first film... It also brings in themes that weren’t in the first book, and focuses a lot more on the aspects of addiction and recovery.”
The Daily Bruin noted that "many elements in the film – particularly during the climax when Rose, Dan and Abra converge in a “shine” to the death – reference recognizable characters and scenes from *The Shining*.”
### Connections to *The Shining* novel and film
*Doctor Sleep* is based on the [novel of the same name](2013)(Doctor Sleep (novel)) by [King](Stephen)(Stephen King). His 1977 novel *[Shining](The)(The Shining (novel))* was adapted into [1980 film of the same name](the)(The Shining (film)) directed by [Kubrick](Stanley)(Stanley Kubrick). King was critical of Kubrick's film adaptation to the point of writing and executive-producing a new adaptation with [1997 television miniseries](the)(The Shining (miniseries)).
While the film *Doctor Sleep* is intended to be a direct adaptation of the 2013 sequel novel, director Mike Flanagan said *Doctor Sleep* still "acknowledge[s] Kubrick's *The Shining* in some way". Flanagan said, "It is an adaptation of the novel *Doctor Sleep*, which is Stephen King's sequel to his novel, *The Shining*. But this also exists very much in the same cinematic universe that Kubrick established in his adaptation of *The Shining*." He explained working with all the sources, "Reconciling those three, at times very different, sources has been kind of the most challenging and thrilling part of this creatively for us." He first read the novel, and then had a conversation with King to work out adapting all the sources. As part of the process, Flanagan recreated scenes from *The Shining* to use in flashbacks. Same as *The Shining*, Flanagan also avoided the horror [trope](film)(trope (cinema)) of [scare](jump)(jump scare)s.
On why he wanted to present the film as a continuation of Kubrick's film, Flanagan expressed, "*The Shining* is so ubiquitous and has burned itself into the collective imagination of people who love cinema in a way that so few movies have. There’s no other language to tell that story in. If you say ‘Overlook Hotel,’ I see something. It lives right up in my brain because of Stanley Kubrick. You can't pretend that isn't the case". King is famously known to dislike Kubrick's adaptation of *The Shining,* particularly due to omitting several aspects of the novel that were personal to him, such as themes related to alcoholism and its role in the disintegration of family, which Flanagan read as "an examination of his fear of what his alcoholism could do to his family... and he wrote himself hope and sacrifice at the end. None of that is present in the Kubrick film... that was a bridge too far of a personal level for him." The opening of the *Doctor Sleep* novel was seen as King undoing and avoiding the changes Kubrick made to the *Shining* film.
During early talks, King's two stipulations for the *Doctor Sleep* adaptation was that the Overlook would not be present, and that the novel's ending would be retained. King initially rejected Flanagan's pitch of bringing back the Overlook as seen in Kubrick's film, but changed his mind after Flanagan pitched a scene within the hotel towards the end of the film that served as his reason to bring back the Overlook. Upon reading the script, King was so satisfied with the result that he said, "Everything that I ever disliked about the Kubrick version of *The Shining* is redeemed for me here."
Flanagan later revealed that there were two scenes that convinced King to accept his idea. The first was the scene involving Dan talking with The Bartender in the form of Jack, which was not adapted from either novel and was fully written by Flanagan before finishing his first draft. The second was the ending which directly adapts the final act of *The Shining* novel that was heavily omitted from Kubrick's film, with Dan and Abra taking the place of the novel's Jack and Danny, as well as the Overlook burning down due to the overloaded boiler. Thus, this film can be seen as a bridge for King's *Doctor Sleep* and *The Shining*, incorporating events from both novels. Flanagan said that in his film, "Almost everything Dan does [is] Jack's story from [original novel](the)" and that he "really wanted to try to bring back the ending from *The Shining* novel and give it to Dan." In including these elements into the *Doctor Sleep* film, Flanagan explained, "I saw it as this gift, to me as a fan, and from me to him as well — that yes, we're going to bring back this Kubrickian Overlook world, and I wanted to celebrate that film. But what if, in doing so, at the same time, you get elements of that ending of that novel, *The Shining*, that Kubrick jettisoned? Then you start to get the ending you never did, and that King was denied."
## Production
[Bros. Pictures](Warner)(Warner Bros. Pictures) began developing a film adaptation of *Doctor Sleep* as early as 2014. In 2016, filmmaker [Goldsman](Akiva)(Akiva Goldsman) announced that he would write and produce the film for Warner Bros. For several years, Warner Bros. could not secure a budget for *Doctor Sleep*, or for a different project, a prequel to *The Shining* called *Overlook Hotel*.
In late 2017, Warner Bros. released *[It](It (2017 film))*, a film adaptation of King's [novel of the same name](1986)(It (novel)), and its box office success led the studio to fast track production of *Doctor Sleep*. In January 2018, Warner Bros. hired [Flanagan](Mike)(Mike Flanagan (director)) to rewrite Goldsman's script and direct the film, with Goldsman receiving executive producer credit. On why he was interested in directing *Doctor Sleep*, Flanagan stated, "It touches on themes that are the most attractive to me, which are childhood trauma leading into adulthood, addiction, the breakdown of a family, and the after effects, decades later."
From June to November 2018, the cast was assembled. Filming began in September 2018 in the U.S. state of [Georgia](Georgia (U.S. state)); locations included [Atlanta](Atlanta) and [Simons](St.)(St. Simons, Georgia).
* In the area of Atlanta, specific locations included [Covington](Covington, Georgia), [Canton](Canton, Georgia), [Mountain](Stone)(Stone Mountain, Georgia), [Midtown](Midtown Atlanta), [Porterdale](Porterdale, Georgia), and [Fayetteville](Fayetteville, Georgia). Production concluded in December 2018. By January 2019, Flanagan was editing the film.
The film score was composed by [Newton Brothers](The)(The Newton Brothers) (Andy Grush and Taylor Stewart), who also composed scores for Flanagan's previous works. [Music](WaterTower)(WaterTower Music) has released the film score. The score is heavily inspired by the music of *The Shining* and includes a reworked rendition of the main theme, [Irae](Dies)(Dies Irae).
Vintage music by Al Bowlly, Ray Noble and Henry Hall is also included in the film, reprising the key part it played in “The Shining”. “Home” by Henry Hall & The Gleneagles Hotel Band is available on one release. “And The Bands Played On”. Decca DDV 5001/2. The song was never issued before 1977 and was remastered by Keith Gooden & Geoff Milne at Decca in England.
## Release
*Doctor Sleep* had its world premiere at the [Village Theater](Regency)(Regency Village Theater) in [Los Angeles](Westwood,)(Westwood, Los Angeles) on October 21, 2019. [Bros. Pictures](Warner)(Warner Bros. Pictures) released the film theatrically in the United States and Canada on , 2019. They opened the film globally earlier, , 2019, coinciding with [Halloween](Halloween). The film was initially scheduled to be released on January 24, 2020. *[Hollywood](Deadline)(Deadline Hollywood)* said the rescheduling reflected Warner Bros. giving "a major vote of confidence" in the film.
A [cut](director's)(director's cut) along with the theatrical cut of *Doctor Sleep* was released on [HD](Digital)(Digital copy) on January 21, 2020, and was released on [DVD](DVD), [Blu-ray](Blu-ray) and [4K](Ultra HD Blu-ray) on February 4. The director's cut is 28 minutes longer.
## Reception
### Box office
*Doctor Sleep* grossed $31.5 million in the United States and Canada, and $40.7 million in other territories, for a worldwide total of $72.2 million.
In the United States and Canada, the film was released alongside *[Christmas](Last)(Last Christmas (film))*, *[Midway](Midway (2019 film))*, and *[with Fire](Playing)(Playing with Fire (2019 film))*, and was initially projected to gross $25–30 million from 3,855 theaters in its opening weekend. *[BoxOffice](BoxOffice (magazine))* wrote, "Early social and trailer trends are indicative of a potential box office hit should reviews and audience reception prove favorable," but added, "*Doctor Sleep*s primary barrier to breakout status could be how reliant it is on younger audience familiarity with the source Stephen King novels and/or *The Shining*." The film made $5.2 million on its first day, including a combined $1.5 million from advanced preview screenings on October 30 and Thursday night previews on November 7, lowering weekend projections to $12 million. It ended up debuting to $14.1 million, getting upset by *Midway* for the top spot. *[Hollywood](Deadline)(Deadline Hollywood)* speculated that despite it being "well-reviewed and well-received" by critics and audiences, the underperformance was due to the 2-hour runtime, as well as the perception the film was meant for older audiences (67% of the opening weekend attendance was over the age of 24).
Following its debut, it was projected the film would lose Warner Bros. around $20 million. In its second weekend the film made $6.0 million, dropping to sixth. *[Insider](Business)(Business Insider)* speculated that, according to box-office experts, Warner Bros. overestimated *The Shining*s influence among younger audiences, who don't care much about Kubrick's film, as well as the mistake Warner Bros. made to release the film worldwide in November after Halloween.
### Critical response
[[File:Rebecca Ferguson in 2018.jpg|thumb|287x287px|[Ferguson](Rebecca)(Rebecca Ferguson)'s performance was praised by critics, winning her the [Chainsaw Award](Fangoria)(Fangoria Chainsaw Awards) for Best Supporting Actress.]]
On [aggregator](review)(review aggregator) website [Tomatoes](Rotten)(Rotten Tomatoes), the film holds an approval rating of based on reviews, with an average rating of . The website's critics consensus reads, "*Doctor Sleep* forsakes the elemental terror of its predecessor for a more contemplative sequel that balances poignant themes against spine-tingling chills."}} [Metacritic](Metacritic) assigned the film a weighted average score of 59 out of 100, based on 46 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews". Audiences polled by [CinemaScore](CinemaScore) gave the film an average grade of "B+" on an A+ to F scale, while those surveyed at [PostTrak](PostTrak) gave it an average four out of five, with 60% saying they would definitely recommend it to a friend.
Brian Tallerico of *[RogerEbert.com](RogerEbert.com)* gave the film three out of four, stating, "Flanagan was tasked with making a sequel to a film that stays loyal to a book that ignores the changes made in the first movie. That ain't easy... And while one can sometimes feel Flanagan struggling to satisfy both King and Kubrick fans when he really should be trusting his own vision, he's talented enough to pull off this difficult blend of legacies." Roger Ebert |url=https://www.rogerebert.com/reviews/doctor-sleep-movie-review-2019 |website=[RogerEbert.com](RogerEbert.com) |access-date=December 25, 2019 |language=en |date=November 8, 2019}} Simran Hans of *[Guardian](The)(The Guardian)* gave the film four out of five, noting "adapting Stephen King is one thing, writing a spiritual sequel to a Stanley Kubrick movie quite another. Director Mike Flanagan takes on King's 2013 follow-up novel to *The Shining*, but adjusts some details to ensure continuity with Kubrick's cult 1980 adaptation of the original book... The new material is fresher and considerably more fun."
[BBC](BBC)'s critic Nicholas Barber gave the film four out of five and stated, "Credible in its characterisation, rich in mythological detail, and touchingly sincere in its treatment of alcoholism and trauma, the film is impressive in all sorts of ways. But its greatest achievement is that it makes *The Shining* seem like a prequel—a tantalising glimpse of a richer and more substantial narrative." Chris Hewitt of *[Empire](Empire (film magazine))* gave the film three out of five and noted, "Working off source material that is very different from its predecessor, anyone expecting a straightforward *Shining* sequel will be disappointed. This isn't a gruelling exercise in pure horror. It's odder and more contemplative, but worth checking in." Kyle Smith of *[Review](National)(National Review)* wrote "Though Kubrick's adaptation and *[Shawshank Redemption](The)(The Shawshank Redemption)* are the only films made from King's stories that achieved greatness, nearly everything he writes contains at least one brilliantly twisted element, and *Doctor Sleep* has lots of them. It's a shame that more top-tier directors haven't chosen to dig around in the capacious mines of King's imagination."
[Travers](Peter)(Peter Travers) of *[Stone](Rolling)(Rolling Stone)* gave the film three out of five stars, saying: "*Doctor Sleep* relies way too much on borrowed inspiration and eventually runs out of—pardon the word—steam. But this flawed hybrid of King and Kubrick still has the stuff to keep you up nights." [Jade Bastién](Angelica)(Angelica Jade Bastién) of *[Vulture](Vulture (magazine))* wrote "The film aims in its closing moments to be bittersweet yet hopeful. Instead, it has an unintended, even dour messaging about the cost of escaping your past and whether that's even possible in life. *Doctor Sleep* could probably never fully stand on its own, and perhaps it's not meant to. It's a horror film with messy pleasures if you're able to meet it on its own level." Todd McCarthy of *[Hollywood Reporter](The)(The Hollywood Reporter)* stated, "It doesn't have Jack Nicholson, Stanley Kubrick or even much of the Overlook Hotel, but Rebecca Ferguson and other good actors provide some shine of their own in *Doctor Sleep*, a drawn-out and seldom pulse-quickening follow-up to *The Shining* that still has enough going on to forestall any audience slumber."
[[File:Kyliegh Curran on Dulce Osuna.jpg|left|thumb|253x253px|[Curran](Kyliegh)(Kyliegh Curran) won the [Award](Saturn)(Saturn Awards) for [Performance by a Younger Actor](Best)(Saturn Award for Best Performance by a Younger Actor) for her performance.]]
Tim Grierson of *[Daily](Screen)(Screen Daily)* commented, "For a horror director, Flanagan is particularly adept with actors, concerned more about character arcs than cheap frights. That's why *Doctor Sleep*s uninspired plotting feels even more disappointing. Flanagan gives us such a sense of these people—their demons, their fears, their resilience—that it's a shame that the twists and turns aren't as compelling. Not everyone will make it out alive from the Overlook, but Flanagan brings enough smarts and soul to the flawed, fascinating *Doctor Sleep* that he manages to escape *The Shining*s shadow mostly unscathed." Michael O'Sullivan of *[Washington Post](The)(The Washington Post)* gave the film two stars out of four and wrote "Part homage to Kubrick's moody atmospherics, and part hyper-literal superhero story, *Doctor Sleep* is stylish, engrossing, at times frustratingly illogical and, ultimately less than profoundly unsettling... *Doctor Sleep* will by no means make you drowsy, but it won't keep anyone up at night either." 'The Shining' sequel pays homage to the original 1980 film, but is not its equal |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/goingoutguide/movies/the-shining-sequel-pays-homage-to-the-original-1980-film-but-is-not-its-equal/2019/11/06/10d09e7c-fc03-11e9-8906-ab6b60de9124_story.html?arc404=true |newspaper=[Washington Post](The)(The Washington Post) |access-date=December 25, 2019 |date=November 6, 2019}} Austin Collins of *[Fair](Vanity)(Vanity Fair (magazine))* added "*Doctor Sleep* is a horror movie, but what's immediately striking is its sudden breadth, it's humble resistance to the usual perils and thrills of blockbuster. It's refreshing. This is a story that feels larger than it is, in part because this story takes the shine and does something with it, reveals it for the tenuous, impermanent, vulnerable force that it is." Michael Roffman of *[of Sound](Consequence)(Consequence of Sound)* mentioned "*Doctor Sleep* shouldn't work. Even now, the idea of making a big-budget sequel to arguably the greatest horror film of all time reads like a disaster on paper. Yet, to our surprise, Flanagan's execution warrants its existence."
Tom Philip of *[GQ](GQ)* wrote, "while Flanagan delivers an ending that sort of respects King's book and rhymes with *The Shining*s filmed conclusion, it all feels quite forced. At its heart, this is a film about a son rejecting his destiny to become his ghoulish father and forge his own path. It's a shame *Doctor Sleep* doesn't have the guts to do the same." Johnny Oleksinski of *[York Post](New)(New York Post)* gave the film three out of four and said, "The movie skillfully builds to the tense final sequence, in which writer/director Mike Flanagan has re-created the hotel just as it was in the 1980 film. He even films it in Kubrick's cavernous, blinding manner."
David Sims of *[Atlantic](The)(The Atlantic)* said, "Flanagan clearly understands how Kubrick's adaptation eclipsed King's attachment to the original story and became entrenched in the broader culture. But this movie is still just a very good facsimile. *Doctor Sleep* is wonderfully reverent when it comes to Kubrick's film, but that means it can't escape *The Shining*s shadow, no matter how much King might have wanted it to." Eric Kohn of [IndieWire](IndieWire) gave the film a C+ grade, commenting, "... *Doctor Sleep* shows considerable effort to ingratiate itself to discerning cinephiles, from the moody Newton Brothers score to cinematographer Michael Fimognari's dark blue nighttime palette; as a whole, the movie conjures an eerie and wondrous atmosphere that blends abject terror with a somber, mournful quality unique to Flanagan's oeuvre. But his pandering to dueling source material results in a jagged puzzle beneath both of their standards". Alison Foreman of [Mashable](Mashable) stated, "*Doctor Sleep* could have tried to be *The Shining*s sequel, an intimidated son yearning to be like his father. Instead, it's entirely new... *Doctor Sleep* isn't *The Shining*, but it does shine." Justin Chang of *[Angeles Times](Los)(Los Angeles Times)* wrote, "You can't blame Flanagan for fetishizing the visual iconography of Kubrick's movie, for plunging back into his funhouse of horrors like the proverbial kid in a candy store. But the effect can't help but fundamentally alter the tone and intent of *Doctor Sleep*, briefly transforming a richly disturbing fantasy into an extravagant act of fan service. It taps into the minutiae of Kubrick's masterwork without fully teasing out its mystery."
### Accolades
## Future
Prior to the film's release, Warner Bros. had enough confidence in the film that they hired Flanagan to script a prequel with the working title *Hallorann*, focusing on the character of [Hallorann](Dick)(Dick Hallorann). Following the disappointing box-office performance of *Doctor Sleep*, the future of the project was cancelled.
Flanagan also confirmed that he was interested in directing a sequel focused on [Stone](Abra)(Abra Stone), and that he had asked King, who was open to the idea.
## See also
*[vampire](Psychic)(Psychic vampire)
*[of adaptations of works by Stephen King](List)(List of adaptations of works by Stephen King)
*[of vampire films](List)(List of vampire films)
## References
## External links
*
*
}}
[ghost films](Category:2010s)(Category:2010s ghost films)
[supernatural horror films](Category:2010s)(Category:2010s supernatural horror films)
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[films](Category:2019)(Category:2019 films)
[ghost films](Category:American)(Category:American ghost films)
[road movies](Category:American)(Category:American road movies)
[supernatural horror films](Category:American)(Category:American supernatural horror films)
[vampire films](Category:American)(Category:American vampire films)
[sequel films](Category:American)(Category:American sequel films)
[projection in popular culture](Category:Astral)(Category:Astral projection in popular culture)
[set in 1980](Category:Films)(Category:Films set in 1980)
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[based on American horror novels](Category:Films)(Category:Films based on American horror novels)
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[directed by Mike Flanagan](Category:Films)(Category:Films directed by Mike Flanagan)
[scored by the Newton Brothers](Category:Films)(Category:Films scored by the Newton Brothers)
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[Shining (franchise)](Category:The)(Category:The Shining (franchise))
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[ja:ドクター・スリープ#映画](ja:ドクター・スリープ#映画)
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Steely Dan
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steely_dan
|
# Steely Dan
*Revision ID: 1157372349 | Timestamp: 2023-05-28T05:43:09Z*
---
* [pop](pop music)
* [fusion](jazz)(jazz fusion)}}
| years_active = 1971–1981, 1993–present
| label =
| associated_acts =
* [Carlton](Larry)(Larry Carlton)
}}
| website =
| current_members = [Fagen](Donald)(Donald Fagen)
| past_members =
}}
**Steely Dan** is an American [rock](Rock music) band founded in 1971 in New York by [Becker](Walter)(Walter Becker) (guitars, bass, backing vocals) and [Fagen](Donald)(Donald Fagen) (keyboards, lead vocals). Initially the band had a stable lineup, but in 1974 Becker and Fagen retired from live performances to become a studio-only band, opting to record with a revolving cast of [musicians](session)(session musicians). *[Stone](Rolling)(Rolling Stone)* has called them "the perfect musical [antihero](antihero)es for the seventies".
Becker and Fagen played together in a variety of bands from their time together studying at [College](Bard)(Bard College) in [New York](Annandale-on-Hudson,)(Annandale-on-Hudson, New York). They later moved to Los Angeles, gathered a band of musicians, and began recording albums. Their first album, ''[Buy a Thrill](Can't)(Can't Buy a Thrill)* (1972), established a template for their career, blending elements of rock, [jazz](jazz), [music](Latin)(Latin music), [R&B](rhythm and blues), [blues](blues),AllMusic [Steely Dan: Biography](). and sophisticated [production](studio)(music production) with cryptic and ironic lyrics. The band enjoyed critical and commercial success through seven studio albums, peaking with their top-selling album *[Aja](Aja (album))'', released in 1977. After the group disbanded in 1981, Becker and Fagen worked sporadically on solo projects through the 1980s, though a [following](cult)(cult following) remained devoted to the group's work. Since reuniting in 1993, Steely Dan has toured steadily and released two albums of new material, the first of which, *[Against Nature](Two)(Two Against Nature)*, earned a [Award for Album of the Year](Grammy)(Grammy Award for Album of the Year). Their final album of new studio material was 2003's *[Must Go](Everything)(Everything Must Go (Steely Dan album))*, though the band has continued to release compilations, [set](box)(box set)s, and live albums on a regular basis. After Becker's death in 2017, Fagen reluctantly continued the group with himself as the sole official member.
They have sold more than 40 million albums worldwide and were inducted into the [and Roll Hall of Fame](Rock)(Rock and Roll Hall of Fame) in March 2001. [VH1](VH1) ranked Steely Dan at No. 82 on their list of the 100 Greatest Musical Artists of All Time. *[Stone](Rolling)(Rolling Stone)* ranked them No. 15 on its list of the 20 greatest duos of all time.
## History
### Formative and early years (1967–1972)
Becker and Fagen met in 1967 at [College](Bard)(Bard College), in [New York](Annandale-on-Hudson,)(Annandale-on-Hudson, New York). As Fagen passed by a café, The Red Balloon, he heard Becker practicing the electric guitar. In an interview, Fagen recounted the experience: "I hear this guy practising, and it sounded very professional and contemporary. It sounded like, you know, like a black person, really." He introduced himself to Becker and asked, "Do you want to be in a band?" Discovering that they enjoyed similar music, the two began writing songs together.
Becker and Fagen began playing in local groups. One such group – known as the Don Fagen Jazz Trio, the Bad Rock Group and later the Leather Canary – included future comedy star [Chase](Chevy)(Chevy Chase) on drums. They played covers of songs by [Rolling Stones](The)(The Rolling Stones) ("[Dandelion](Dandelion (Rolling Stones song))"), [Grape](Moby)(Moby Grape) ("Hey Grandma"), and [Dixon](Willie)(Willie Dixon) ("[Spoonful](Spoonful)"), as well as some original compositions. [Boylan](Terence)(Terence Boylan), another Bard musician, remembered that Fagen took readily to the [beatnik](beatnik) life while attending college: "They never came out of their room, they stayed up all night. They looked like ghosts—black [turtleneck](turtleneck)s and skin so white that it looked like yogurt. Absolutely no activity, chain-smoking [Strikes](Lucky)(Lucky Strikes) and [dope](cannabis (drug))."
After Fagen graduated in 1969, the two moved to [Brooklyn](Brooklyn) and tried to peddle their tunes in the [Building](Brill)(Brill Building) in [Manhattan](midtown)(midtown Manhattan). [Vance](Kenny)(Kenny Vance) (of [and the Americans](Jay)(Jay and the Americans)), who had a production office in the building, took an interest in their music, which led to work on the soundtrack of the low-budget film (featuring [Pryor](Richard)(Richard Pryor) and [Downey Sr.](Robert)(Robert Downey Sr.)) ''[Got to Walk It Like You Talk It or You'll Lose That Beat](You've)(You've Got to Walk It Like You Talk It or You'll Lose That Beat)''. Becker later said bluntly, "We did it for the money."Metal Leg [Issue #2](https://web.archive.org/web/20001026235525/http://www.granatino.com/sdresource/2radio.htm). A series of demos from 1968 to 1971 are available in multiple different releases, not authorized by Becker and Fagen. This collection features approximately 25 tracks and is notable for its sparse arrangements (Fagen plays solo piano on many songs) and [lo-fi](lo-fi) production, a contrast with Steely Dan's later work. Although some of these songs ("Caves of Altamira", "Brooklyn", "Barrytown") were re-recorded for Steely Dan albums, most were never officially released.
In 1970, [Katz](Gary)(Gary Katz) produced an album by [Hoover](Linda)(Linda Hoover), *I Mean to Shine*, featuring Fagen, Becker, and Jeff "Skunk" Baxter, and including five Becker/Fagen songs. The album was shelved over songwriting licensing issues, but was finally released 52 years later, in 2022.
Becker and Fagen joined the touring band of [and the Americans](Jay)(Jay and the Americans) for about a year and a half.Metal Leg: [Issue #1](http://www.granatino.com/sdresource/1radio.htm) . They were at first paid $100 per show, but partway through their tenure the band's [manager](tour)(tour manager) cut their salaries in half. The group's lead singer, [Black](Jay)(Jay Black), dubbed Becker and Fagen "the Manson and Starkweather of rock 'n' roll", referring to cult leader [Manson](Charles)(Charles Manson) and [killer](spree)(spree killer) [Starkweather](Charles)(Charles Starkweather).
They had little success after moving to Brooklyn, although [Streisand](Barbra)(Barbra Streisand) recorded their song "I Mean To Shine" on her 1971 *[Joan Streisand](Barbra)(Barbra Joan Streisand (album))* album. Their fortunes changed when one of Vance's associates, [Katz](Gary)(Gary Katz), moved to [Angeles](Los)(Los Angeles) to become a staff producer for [Records](ABC)(ABC Records). He hired Becker and Fagen as staff songwriters; they flew to California. Katz would produce all their 1970s albums in collaboration with engineer [Nichols](Roger)(Roger Nichols (recording engineer)). Nichols would win six Grammy Awards for his work with the band from the 1970s to 2001.
Also realizing that their songs were too complex for other ABC artists, at Katz's suggestion Becker and Fagen formed their own band with guitarists [Dias](Denny)(Denny Dias) and ["Skunk" Baxter](Jeff)(Jeff Baxter), drummer [Hodder](Jim)(Jim Hodder (musician)) and singer [Palmer](David)(David Palmer (vocalist)), and Katz signed them to ABC as recording artists. Fans of [Generation](Beat)(Beat Generation) literature, Fagen and Becker named the band after a "revolutionary" steam-powered [dildo](dildo) mentioned in the [S. Burroughs](William)(William S. Burroughs) novel *[Lunch](Naked)(Naked Lunch)*. Palmer joined as a second lead vocalist because of Fagen's occasional [fright](stage)(stage fright), his reluctance to sing in front of an audience, and because the label believed that his voice was not "commercial" enough.
In 1972, ABC issued Steely Dan's first single, "[Dallas](Dallas (Steely Dan song))", backed with "Sail the Waterway". Distribution of "stock" copies available to the general public was apparently extremely limited; the single sold so poorly that promotional copies are much more readily available than stock copies in today's collectors market. As of 2015, "Dallas" and "Sail the Waterway" are the only officially released Steely Dan tracks that have not been reissued on [cassette](Compact Cassette) or compact disc. In an interview (1995), Becker and Fagen called the songs "stinko". "Dallas" was later covered by [Poco](Poco) on their *[Over Heels](Head)(Head Over Heels (Poco album))* album.
### ''Can't Buy a Thrill* and *Countdown to Ecstasy* (1972–1973)
*[Buy a Thrill](Can't)(Can't Buy a Thrill)'', Steely Dan's debut album, was released in 1972. Its hit singles "[It Again](Do)(Do It Again (Steely Dan song))" and "[In the Years](Reelin')(Reelin' In the Years)" reached No. 6 and No. 11 respectively on the Billboard singles chart. Along with "[Work](Dirty)(Dirty Work (Steely Dan song))" (sung by [Palmer](David)(David Palmer (vocalist))), the songs became staples on radio.
Because of Fagen's reluctance to sing live, Palmer handled most of the vocal duties on stage. During the first tour, however, Katz and Becker decided that they preferred Fagen's interpretations of the band's songs, persuading him to take over. Palmer quietly left the group while it recorded its second album; he later co-wrote the No. 2 hit "[Jazzman](Jazzman)" (1974) with [King](Carole)(Carole King). *[Voice](Village)(The Village Voice)* rock critic [Christgau](Robert)(Robert Christgau) was pleased with the elevation of Fagen, noting that Palmer "fit in like a cheerleader at a crap game."
Released in 1973, *[to Ecstasy](Countdown)(Countdown to Ecstasy)* was not as commercially successful as Steely Dan's first album. Becker and Fagen were unhappy with some of the performances on the record and believed that it sold poorly because it had been recorded hastily on tour. The album's singles were "[Biz Kids](Show)(Show Biz Kids)" and "[Old School](My)(My Old School (song))", both of which stayed in the lower half of the Billboard charts (though "My Old School" and—to a lesser extent—"Bodhisattva" became FM Rock staples in time).
### *Pretzel Logic* and *Katy Lied* (1974–1976)
[[Doobie Brothers - Jeff Skunk Baxter.jpg|thumb|Guitarist Jeff "Skunk" Baxter left Steely Dan in 1974 when they ceased performing live and began working in the studio exclusively.](File:The)]
*[Logic](Pretzel)(Pretzel Logic) *was released in early 1974. A diverse set, it includes the group's most successful single, "[Don't Lose That Number](Rikki)(Rikki Don't Lose That Number)" (No. 4 on the [Hot 100](Billboard)(Billboard Hot 100)), and a note-for-note rendition of [Ellington](Duke)(Duke Ellington) and ["Bubber" Miley](James)(James "Bubber" Miley)'s "[St. Louis Toodle-Oo](East)(East St. Louis Toodle-Oo)".
During the previous album's tour, the band had added vocalist-percussionist [Jones](Royce)(Royce Jones), vocalist-keyboardist [McDonald](Michael)(Michael McDonald (musician)), and session drummer [Porcaro](Jeff)(Jeff Porcaro). Porcaro played the sole drum track on one song, "Night By Night" on *Pretzel Logic* ([Gordon](Jim)(Jim Gordon (musician)) played drums on all the remaining tracks, and he and Porcaro both played on "Parker's Band"), reflecting Steely Dan's increasing reliance on session musicians (including [Parks](Dean)(Dean Parks) and [Derringer](Rick)(Rick Derringer)). Jeff Porcaro and *[Lied](Katy)(Katy Lied)* pianist [Paich](David)(David Paich) would go on to form [Toto](Toto (band)). Striving for perfection, Becker and Fagen sometimes asked musicians to record as many as forty takes of each track.[Magazine](Q)(Q Magazine), No 103 April 1995. "Hasn't he grown", written by [Gill](Andy)(Andy Gill (writer)), pages 41–3 published by [Metro](EMAP)(EMAP Metro)
*Pretzel Logic* was the first Steely Dan album to feature Walter Becker on guitar. "Once I met [musician](session) [Rainey](Chuck)(Chuck Rainey)", he explained, "I felt there really was no need for me to be bringing my bass guitar to the studio anymore".
A rift began growing between Becker-Fagen and Steely Dan's other members (particularly Baxter and Hodder), who wanted to tour. Becker and Fagen disliked constant touring and wanted to concentrate solely on writing and recording. The other members gradually left the band, discouraged by this and by their diminishing roles in the studio. However, Dias remained with the group until 1980's *[Gaucho](Gaucho (album))* and Michael McDonald contributed vocals until the group's twenty-year hiatus after *Gaucho*. Baxter and McDonald went on to join [Doobie Brothers](The)(The Doobie Brothers). Steely Dan's last tour performance was on July 5, 1974, a concert at the [Monica Civic Auditorium](Santa)(Santa Monica Civic Auditorium) in California.
Becker and Fagen recruited a diverse group of session players for *[Lied](Katy)(Katy Lied)* (1975), including Porcaro, Paich, and McDonald, as well as guitarist [Randall](Elliott)(Elliott Randall), jazz saxophonist [Woods](Phil)(Phil Woods), saxophonist/bass-guitarist [Felder](Wilton)(Wilton Felder), percussionist/vibraphonist/keyboardist [Feldman](Victor)(Victor Feldman), keyboardist (and later producer) [Omartian](Michael)(Michael Omartian), and guitarist [Carlton](Larry)(Larry Carlton)—Dias, Becker, and Fagen being Steely Dan's only original members. The album went gold on the strength of "Black Friday" and "[Sneakers](Bad)(Bad Sneakers)", but Becker and Fagen were so dissatisfied with the album's sound (compromised by a faulty [DBX](Dbx (noise reduction)) noise reduction system) that they publicly apologized for it (on the album's back cover) and for years refused to listen to it in its final form. *Katy Lied* also included "Doctor Wu" and "Chain Lightning".
### *The Royal Scam* and *Aja* (1976–1978)
*[Royal Scam](The)(The Royal Scam)* was released in May 1976. Partly because of Carlton's prominent contributions, it is the band's most guitar-oriented album. It also features performances by session drummer [Purdie](Bernard)(Bernard Purdie). The album sold well in the United States, though without the strength of a hit single. In the UK the single "[Divorce](Haitian)(Haitian Divorce)" (Top 20) drove album sales, becoming Steely Dan's first major hit there.
Steely Dan's sixth album, the jazz-influenced *[Aja](Aja (album)), * was released in September 1977. *Aja* reached the Top Five in the U.S. charts within three weeks, winning the Grammy award for "Engineer – Best Engineered Recording – Non-Classical." It was also one of the first American LPs to be certified 'platinum' for sales of over 1 million albums.
The records we did could not have been done without Roger. He was just maniacal about making the sound of the records be what we liked... He always thought there was a better way to do it, and he would find a way to do what we needed to in ways that other people hadn't done yet.
| salign = right
| source = ~ Steely Dan producer [Katz](Gary)(Gary Katz) regarding [Nichols](Roger)(Roger Nichols (recording engineer))' role in the band's recording legacy.
}}
Featuring Michael McDonald's backing vocals, "[Peg](Peg (song))" (No. 11) was the album's first single, followed by "Josie" (No. 26) and "[Blues](Deacon)(Deacon Blues)" (No. 19). *Aja* solidified Becker's and Fagen's reputations as songwriters and studio perfectionists. It features such jazz and fusion luminaries as guitarists [Carlton](Larry)(Larry Carlton) and [Ritenour](Lee)(Lee Ritenour); bassist [Rainey](Chuck)(Chuck Rainey); saxophonists [Shorter](Wayne)(Wayne Shorter), [Christlieb](Pete)(Pete Christlieb), and [Scott](Tom)(Tom Scott (saxophonist)); drummers [Gadd](Steve)(Steve Gadd), [Marotta](Rick)(Rick Marotta) and [Purdie](Bernard)(Bernard Purdie); pianist [Sample](Joe)(Joe Sample) and ex-[Davis](Miles)(Miles Davis) pianist/vibraphonist [Feldman](Victor)(Victor Feldman) and Grammy award-winning producer/arranger [Omartian](Michael)(Michael Omartian) (piano).
Planning to tour in support of *Aja*, Steely Dan assembled a live band. Rehearsal ended and the tour was canceled when backing musicians began comparing pay. The album's history was documented in an episode of the TV and DVD series *[Albums](Classic)(Classic Albums)*.
After ''Aja's *success, Becker and Fagen were asked to write the title track for the movie *[FM](FM (film))*. The movie was a box-office disaster, but the [song](FM (No Static At All)) was a hit, earning Steely Dan another engineering Grammy award. It was a minor hit in the UK and barely missed the Top 20 in the U.S.A.
### *Gaucho* and breakup (1978–1981)
Becker and Fagen took a break from songwriting for most of 1978 before starting work on *[Gaucho](Gaucho (album))''. The project would not go smoothly: technical, legal, and personal setbacks delayed the album's release and subsequently led Becker and Fagen to suspend their partnership for over a decade.James L. Kelley, "Steely Dan's Donald Fagen: A case of mistaken self-identity, corrected by self-reformulation." In: E. Vanderheiden, & C.-H. Mayer (Eds.), *Mistakes, errors and failures across cultures: Navigating potentials* (pp. 91-107). Cham, Switzerland: Springer, 2019, p. 100.
Misfortune struck early when an assistant engineer accidentally erased most of "The Second Arrangement", a favorite track of Katz and Nichols, |page= 137}} which was never recovered. More trouble — this time legal — followed. In March 1979, [Records](MCA)(MCA Records) bought ABC, and for much of the next two years Steely Dan could not release an album. Becker and Fagen had planned on leaving ABC for [Bros. Records](Warner)(Warner Bros. Records), but MCA claimed ownership of their music, preventing them from changing labels.
Turmoil in Becker's personal life also interfered. His girlfriend died of a drug overdose in their [West Side](Upper)(Upper West Side) apartment, and he was [sued](Wrongful death claim) for $17 million. Becker settled out of court, but he was shocked by the accusations and by the [press](tabloid)(tabloid press) coverage that followed. Soon after, Becker was struck by a taxi while crossing a Manhattan street, shattering his right leg in several places and forcing him to use crutches.
Still more legal trouble was to come. Jazz composer [Jarrett](Keith)(Keith Jarrett) sued Steely Dan for [infringement](copyright)(copyright infringement), claiming that they had based *Gaucho*'s title track on one of his compositions, "[As You Know You're Living Yours](Long)(Belonging (album)#Controversy and legal dispute)" (Fagen later admitted that he'd loved the song and that it had been a strong influence).
*Gaucho* was finally released in November 1980. Despite its tortured history, it was another major success. The album's first single, "[Nineteen](Hey)(Hey Nineteen)", reached No. 10 on the pop chart in early 1981, and "Time Out of Mind" (featuring guitarist [Knopfler](Mark)(Mark Knopfler) of [Straits](Dire)(Dire Straits)) was a moderate hit in the spring. "My Rival" was featured in John Huston's 1980 film *[Phobia](Phobia (1980 film))*. Roger Nichols won a third engineering Grammy award for his work on the album.
### Time off (1981–1993)
Steely Dan disbanded in June 1981. Becker moved to [Maui](Maui), where he became an "[avocado](avocado) rancher and self-styled critic of the contemporary scene." Official Steely Dan|last=Fagen|first=Donald|website=www.steelydan.com|access-date=August 18, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120316064606/http://www.steelydan.com/timelinebio.html|archive-date=March 16, 2012|url-status=dead}} He stopped using drugs, which he had used for most of his career. Meanwhile, Fagen released a solo album, *[Nightfly](The)(The Nightfly) *(1982), which went platinum in both the U.S. and the UK and yielded the Top-20 hit "[(What a Beautiful World)](I.G.Y.)(I.G.Y. (What a Beautiful World))". In 1988 Fagen wrote the score of *[Lights, Big City](Bright)(Bright Lights, Big City (film))* and a song for its soundtrack, but otherwise recorded little. He occasionally did production work for other artists, as did Becker. The most prominent of these were two albums Becker produced for the British [sophisti-pop](sophisti-pop) group [Crisis](China)(China Crisis), who were strongly influenced by Steely Dan. Becker is listed as an official member of China Crisis on the first of these albums, 1985's *[the Imperfection](Flaunt)(Flaunt the Imperfection)*, and played keyboards on the band's Top 20 UK hit "[Man Ray](Black)(Black Man Ray)". For the second of the two albums, 1989's *[of a Hollow Horse](Diary)(Diary of a Hollow Horse)*, Becker is only listed as a producer and not as a band member.
In 1986 Becker and Fagen performed on *[Zazu](Zazu (album))*, an album by former model [Vela](Rosie)(Rosie Vela) produced by Gary Katz. The two rekindled their friendship and held songwriting sessions between 1986 and 1987, leaving the results unfinished. On October 23, 1991, Becker attended a concert by [York Rock and Soul Revue](New)(New York Rock and Soul Revue), co-founded by Fagen and producer/singer [Titus](Libby)(Libby Titus) (who was for many years the partner of [Helm](Levon)(Levon Helm) of [Band](The)(The Band) and would later become Fagen's wife), and spontaneously performed with the group.
Becker produced Fagen's second solo album, *[Kamakiriad](Kamakiriad)*, in 1993. Fagen conceived the album as a sequel to *The Nightfly*.
### Reunion, *Alive in America* (1993–2000)
[[Dan - Donald Fagen - Luzern 2007.jpg|thumb|Steely Dan, shown here in 2007, toured frequently after reforming in 1993.](File:Steely)]
Becker and Fagen reunited for an American tour to support *Kamakiriad*, which sold poorly despite a Grammy nomination for Album of the Year. With Becker playing lead and rhythm guitar, the pair assembled a band that included a second keyboard player, second lead guitarist, bassist, drummer, vibraphonist, three female backing singers, and four-piece saxophone section. Among the musicians from the live band, several would continue to work with Steely Dan over the next decade, including bassist [Barney](Tom)(Tom Barney) and saxophone players [Bumpus](Cornelius)(Cornelius Bumpus) and [Potter](Chris)(Chris Potter (jazz saxophonist)). During this tour, Fagen introduced himself as "[Strauss](Rick)(Richard Strauss)" and Becker as "[Poulenc](Frank)(Francis Poulenc)".
The next year, MCA released *[Steely Dan](Citizen)(Citizen Steely Dan)*, a boxed set featuring their entire catalog (except their debut single "Dallas"/"Sail The Waterway") on four CDs, plus four extra tracks: "Here at the Western World" (originally released on 1978's "Greatest Hits"), "FM" (1978 single), a 1971 demo of "Everyone's Gone to the Movies" and "Bodhisattva (live)", the latter recorded on a cassette in 1974 and released as a B-side in 1980. That year Becker released his debut solo album, *[Tracks of Whack](11)(11 Tracks of Whack)*, which Fagen co-produced.
Steely Dan toured again in support of the boxed set and *Tracks*. In 1995 they released a live CD, *[in America](Alive)(Alive in America)*, compiled from recordings of several 1993 and 1994 concerts. The Art Crimes Tour followed, including dates in the United States, Japan, and their first European shows in 22 years. After this activity, Becker and Fagen returned to the studio to begin work on a new album.
### *Two Against Nature* and *Everything Must Go* (2000–2003)
In 2000 Steely Dan released their first studio album in 20 years: *[Against Nature](Two)(Two Against Nature)*. It won four Grammy Awards: Best Engineered Album – Non-Classical, Best Pop Vocal Album, Best Pop Performance by Duo or Group with Vocal ("[Dupree](Cousin)(Cousin Dupree)"), and Album of the Year (despite competition in this category from [Eminem](Eminem)'s *[Marshall Mathers LP](The)(The Marshall Mathers LP)* and [Radiohead](Radiohead)'s *[A](Kid)(Kid A)*). In the summer of 2000, they began another American tour, followed by an international tour later that year. The tour featured guitarist [Herington](Jon)(Jon Herington), who would go on to play with the band over the next two decades. The group released the *[TV Jazz-Rock Party](Plush)(Plush TV Jazz-Rock Party)* DVD, documenting a live-in-the-studio concert performance of popular songs from throughout Steely Dan's career. In March 2001, Steely Dan was inducted into the [and Roll Hall of Fame](Rock)(Rock and Roll Hall of Fame).
In 2002 during the recording of *Everything Must Go*, Becker and Fagen fired their engineer Roger Nichols, who had worked with them for 30 years, without explanation or notification, according to band biographer Brian Sweet's 2018 revision of his book ''Reelin' in the Years.''
In 2003 Steely Dan released *[Must Go](Everything)(Everything Must Go (Steely Dan album))*. In contrast to their earlier work, they had tried to write music that captured a live feel. Becker sang lead vocals on a Steely Dan studio album for the first time ("Slang of Ages" — he had sung lead on his own "Book of Liars" on *Alive in America*). Fewer session musicians played on *Everything Must Go* than had become typical of Steely Dan albums: Becker played bass on every track and lead guitar on five tracks; Fagen added piano, electric piano, organ, synthesizers, and percussion on top of his vocals; touring drummer [Carlock](Keith)(Keith Carlock) played on every track.
### Touring, solo activity (2003–2017)
To complete his *Nightfly* trilogy, Fagen issued *[the Cat](Morph)(Morph the Cat)* in 2006. Steely Dan returned to annual touring that year with the Steelyard "Sugartooth" McDan and The Fab-Originees.com Tour. Despite much fluctuation in membership, the live band featured mainstays Herington, Carlock, bassist [Washington](Freddie)(Freddie Washington (bassist)), the horn section of [Leonhart](Michael)(Michael Leonhart), [Pugh](Jim)(James E. Pugh), Roger Rosenberg, and [Weiskopf](Walt)(Walt Weiskopf), and backing vocalists [Leonhart](Carolyn)(Carolyn Leonhart) and Cindy Mizelle. The 2007 Heavy Rollers Tour included dates in North America, Europe, Japan, Australia, and New Zealand, making it their most expansive tour.
The smaller Think Fast Tour followed in 2008, with keyboardist [Beard](Jim)(Jim Beard) joining the live band. That year Becker released a second album, *[Money](Circus)(Circus Money)*, produced by [Klein](Larry)(Larry Klein) and inspired by [music](Jamaican)(Music of Jamaica). In 2009 Steely Dan toured Europe and America extensively in their Left Bank Holiday and Rent Party Tour, alternating between standard one-date concerts at large venues and multi-night theater shows that featured performances of *The Royal Scam*, *Aja*, or *Gaucho* in their entirety on certain nights. The following year, Fagen formed the touring [supergroup](supergroup (music)) [of September Rhythm Revue](Dukes)(Dukes of September Rhythm Revue) with McDonald, [Scaggs](Boz)(Boz Scaggs), and members of Steely Dan's live band, whose repertoire included songs by all three songwriters. Longtime studio engineer Roger Nichols died of [cancer](pancreatic)(pancreatic cancer) on April 10, 2011. Steely Dan's Shuffle Diplomacy Tour that year included an expanded set list and dates in Australia and New Zealand. Fagen released his fourth album, *[Condos](Sunken)(Sunken Condos)*, in 2012. It was his first solo release unrelated to the *Nightfly* trilogy.
The Mood Swings: 8 Miles to Pancake Day Tour began in July 2013 and featured an eight-night run at the [Theatre](Beacon)(Beacon Theatre (New York City)) in New York City. Jamalot Ever After, their 2014 United States tour, ran from July 2 in [Portland](Portland, Oregon), [Oregon](Oregon) to September 20 in [Chester](Port)(Port Chester), [York](New)(New York (state)). 2015's Rockabye Gollie Angel Tour included opening act [Costello and the Imposters](Elvis)(Elvis Costello and the Imposters) and dates at the [Valley Music and Arts Festival](Coachella)(Coachella Valley Music and Arts Festival). The Dan Who Knew Too Much tour followed in 2016, with [Winwood](Steve)(Steve Winwood) opening. Steely Dan also performed at [Hollywood Bowl](The)(The Hollywood Bowl) in Los Angeles with an accompanying orchestra.
The band played its final shows with Becker in 2017. In April, they played the 12-date Reelin' In the Chips residency in [Vegas](Las)(Las Vegas) and [California](Southern)(Southern California). Becker's final performance came on May 27 at the Greenwich Town Party in [Connecticut](Greenwich,)(Greenwich, Connecticut). Due to illness, Becker did not play Steely Dan's two Classics East and West concerts at [Stadium](Dodger)(Dodger Stadium) and [Field](Citi)(Citi Field) in July. Fagen embarked on a tour that summer with a new backing band, The Nightflyers.
### After Becker's death (2017–present)
Becker died from complications of [cancer](esophageal)(esophageal cancer) on September 3, 2017. In a note released to the media, Fagen remembered his longtime friend and bandmate, and promised to "keep the music we created together alive as long as I can with the Steely Dan band." After Becker's death, Steely Dan honored commitments to perform a short North American tour in October 2017 and three concert dates in the United Kingdom and Ireland for Bluesfest on a double bill with the Doobie Brothers. The band played its first concert following Becker's death in [Oklahoma](Thackerville,)(Thackerville, Oklahoma), on October 13. In tribute to Becker, they performed his solo song "Book of Liars", with Fagen singing the lead vocals, at several concerts on the tour.
Becker's widow and estate sued Fagen later that year, arguing that the estate should control 50% of the band's shares. Fagen filed a counter suit, arguing that the band had drawn up plans in 1972 stating that band members leaving the band or dying relinquish shares of the band's output to the surviving members. In December, Fagen said that he would rather have retired the Steely Dan name after Becker's death, and would instead have toured with the current iteration of the group under another name, but was persuaded not to by promoters for commercial reasons.
In 2018, Steely Dan performed on a summer tour of the United States with The Doobie Brothers as co-headliners. The band also played a nine-show residency at the Beacon Theatre in New York City that October. In February 2019, the band embarked on a tour of Great Britain with Steve Winwood. Guitarist Connor Kennedy of The Nightflyers joined the live band, beginning with a nine-night residency at The Venetian Resort in Las Vegas in April 2019.
As of September 2021, the legal battle over the band's royalties was still ongoing, with Fagen speculating during an interview that "thousands of lawyers" were probably involved in the dispute.
## Musical and lyrical style
### Music
#### Overall sound
Steely Dan's albums are notable for the characteristically 'warm' and 'dry' production sound, and the sparing use of [echo](Echo (phenomenon)) and [reverberation](reverberation).
#### Backing vocals
Becker and Fagen favored a distinctly soul-influenced style of backing vocals, which after the first few albums were almost always performed by a female chorus (although [McDonald](Michael)(Michael McDonald (musician)) features prominently on several tracks, including the 1975 song "Black Friday" and the 1977 song "[Peg](Peg (song))"). [Fields](Venetta)(Venetta Fields), [Matthews](Sherlie)(Sherlie Matthews) and [King](Clydie)(Clydie King) were the preferred trio for backing vocals on the group's late 1970s albums.[Steely Dan Session Players](http://banyantrees.net/collector/session.html) , Under the Banyan Trees with Steely Dan (archives). Retrieved January 18, 2007 Other backing vocalists include [B. Schmit](Timothy)(Timothy B. Schmit), [Agee](Tawatha)(Tawatha Agee), [Leonhart](Carolyn)(Carolyn Leonhart), [Pendarvis](Janice)(Janice Pendarvis), and [Russell](Catherine)(Catherine Russell (singer)). The band also featured singers like [Austin](Patti)(Patti Austin) and [Simpson](Valerie)(Valerie Simpson) on later projects such as *Gaucho*.
#### Horns
Horn arrangements have been used on songs from all Steely Dan albums. They typically feature instruments such as trumpets, [trombone](trombone)s and saxophones, although they have also used other instruments such as [flute](flute)s and [clarinet](clarinet)s. The horn parts occasionally integrate simple synth lines to alter the tone quality of individual horn lines; for example in "Deacon Blues" this was done to "thicken" one of the saxophone lines. On their earlier albums Steely Dan featured guest arrangers and on their later albums the arrangement work is credited to Fagen.
#### Composition and chord use
Steely Dan is famous for their use of [sequence](chord)(chord sequence)s and harmonies that explore the area of musical tension between traditional pop sounds and [jazz](jazz). In particular, they are known for their use of the add 2 chord, a type of [tone chord](added)(added tone chord), which they nicknamed the "mu major". The mu major chord differs from a [second (sus2)](suspended)(Suspended chord) chord, as suspended chords do not contain the [major](major third) (or [minor](minor third)) third. In a 1989 interview, [Becker](Walter)(Walter Becker) explained that the use of the chord developed from trying to enrich the sound of a major chord without making it into a "jazz chord".["Winter 1989 interview with Walter Becker"](http://www.granatino.com/sdresource/14zollo.htm) , *Metal Leg: The Steely Dan Magazine*, Issue 14, Fall 1990. In the *Steely Dan Songbook*, Becker and Donald Fagen state that "[inversions](Inversion (music)) of the mu major may be formed in the usual manner with one caveat: the voicing of the second and third scale tones, which is the essence of the chord's appeal, should always occur as a whole tone [dissonance](consonance and dissonance)."Becker and Fagen. ["Intro to the Steely Dan Song Book "](https://sdarchive.com/songbook.html), *SteelyDan.com*. Posted 05/96. Other common chords used by Steely Dan include [chord](slash)(slash chord)s.
### Lyrics
Steely Dan's lyrical subjects are diverse, but in their basic approach they often create fictional [persona](persona)e that participate in a narrative or situation. The duo have said that in retrospect, most of their albums have a "feel" of either Los Angeles or New York City, the two main cities where Becker and Fagen lived and worked. Characters appear in their songs that evoke these cities, such as Aja in the song of the same name, which is a personification of Los Angeles.
Steely Dan's lyrics are often puzzling to the listener, with the true meaning of the song "uncoded" through repeated listening, and a richer understanding of the references within the lyrics. In the song "Everyone's Gone to the Movies", the line "I know you're used to 16 or more, sorry we only have eight" refers not to the count of some article, but to [mm film](8)(8 mm film), which was lower quality than 16 mm or larger formats and often used for [pornography](pornography), underscoring the illicitness of Mr. LaPage's movie parties.
Steely Dan lyrics are often "about people who can't help driving headlong toward one form of destruction or another, people telling themselves they're doing something other than that even when they know the truth." Some have argued that Steely Dan never wrote a genuine love song, instead dealing with personal passion in the guise of a destructive obsession. Many of their songs concern love, but typical of Steely Dan songs is an ironic or disturbing twist in the lyrics that reveals a darker reality. For example, expressed "love" is actually about prostitution ("Pearl of the Quarter"), incest ("[Dupree](Cousin)(Cousin Dupree)"), pornography ("Everyone's Gone to the Movies"), or some other socially unacceptable subject. However, some of their demo-era recordings show Fagen and Becker expressing romance, including "This Seat's Been Taken", "Oh, Wow, It's You" and "Come Back Baby".
Steely Dan's lyrics contain subtle and encoded references, unusual (and sometimes original) slang expressions, a wide variety of "word games". The obscure and sometimes teasing lyrics have given rise to considerable efforts by fans to explain the "inner meaning" of certain songs. Jazz is a recurring theme, and there are numerous other film, television and literary references and allusions, such as "Home at Last" (from *Aja*), which was inspired by [Homer](Homer)'s *[Odyssey](Odyssey)*.
## Members
**Current members**
* [Fagen](Donald)(Donald Fagen) – lead vocals, keyboards
**Current touring musicians**
* [Russell](Catherine)(Catherine Russell (singer)) – backing vocals
* [Leonhart](Carolyn)(Carolyn Leonhart) – backing vocals
* [Leonhart](Michael)(Michael Leonhart) – trumpet, horn arrangements
* [Herington](Jon)(Jon Herington) – guitar, backing vocals, musical director
* [Pugh](Jim)(James E. Pugh) – trombone
* Roger Rosenberg – baritone saxophone, bass clarinet
* [Weiskopf](Walt)(Walt Weiskopf) – tenor saxophone
* [Carlock](Keith)(Keith Carlock) – drums, percussion
* [Washington](Freddie)(Freddie Washington (bassist)) – bass
* [Beard](Jim)(Jim Beard) – keyboards
* La Tanya Hall – backing vocals
* [Rogers](Adam)(Adam Rogers (musician)) – guitar
**Former members**
* [Becker](Walter)(Walter Becker) – guitar, bass, backing and occasional lead vocals
* ["Skunk" Baxter](Jeff)(Jeff Baxter) – guitar, backing vocals
* [Dias](Denny)(Denny Dias) – guitar
* [Hodder](Jim)(Jim Hodder (musician)) – drums, backing and lead vocals
* [Palmer](David)(David Palmer (vocalist)) – backing and lead vocals
* [Jones](Royce)(Royce Jones) – backing vocals, percussion
* [McDonald](Michael)(Michael McDonald (musician)) – keyboards, backing vocals
* [Porcaro](Jeff)(Jeff Porcaro) – drums
### Timeline
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bar:David text:David Palmer
bar:Royce text:Royce Jones
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bar:Porcaro from:01/04/1974 till: 01/07/1974 color:drums
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at:01/06/1973 color:lines layer:back
at:20/02/1974 color:lines layer:back
at:01/03/1975 color:lines layer:back
at:01/05/1976 color:lines layer:back
at:23/09/1977 color:lines layer:back
at:21/03/1980 color:lines layer:back
at:28/02/2000 color:lines layer:back
at:10/06/2003 color:lines layer:back
}}
## Discography
**Studio albums**
* ''[Buy a Thrill](Can't)(Can't Buy a Thrill)* (1972)
* *[to Ecstasy](Countdown)(Countdown to Ecstasy)* (1973)
* *[Logic](Pretzel)(Pretzel Logic)* (1974)
* *[Lied](Katy)(Katy Lied)* (1975)
* *[Royal Scam](The)(The Royal Scam)* (1976)
* *[Aja](Aja (album))* (1977)
* *[Gaucho](Gaucho (album))* (1980)
* *[Against Nature](Two)(Two Against Nature)* (2000)
* *[Must Go](Everything)(Everything Must Go (Steely Dan album))'' (2003)
## See also
* [of songwriter tandems](List)(List of songwriter tandems)
## References
## External links
*
}}
[ ](Category:Steely Dan)
[establishments in New York (state)](Category:1971)(Category:1971 establishments in New York (state))
[musical duos](Category:American)(Category:American musical duos)
[soft rock music groups](Category:American)(Category:American soft rock music groups)
[College alumni](Category:Bard)(Category:Bard College alumni)
[(music)](Category:Crossover)(Category:Crossover (music))
[Records (Warner) artists](Category:Giant)(Category:Giant Records (Warner) artists)
[Award winners](Category:Grammy)(Category:Grammy Award winners)
[jazz-rock groups](Category:American)(Category:American jazz-rock groups)
[fusion ensembles](Category:Jazz)(Category:Jazz fusion ensembles)
[Records artists](Category:MCA)(Category:MCA Records artists)
[musical duos](Category:Male)(Category:Male musical duos)
[groups established in 1971](Category:Musical)(Category:Musical groups established in 1971)
[groups disestablished in 1981](Category:Musical)(Category:Musical groups disestablished in 1981)
[groups reestablished in 1993](Category:Musical)(Category:Musical groups reestablished in 1993)
[Records artists](Category:Reprise)(Category:Reprise Records artists)
[music duos](Category:Rock)(Category:Rock music duos)
[music groups from New York (state)](Category:Rock)(Category:Rock music groups from New York (state))
|
Tiffany Trump
|
tiffany_trump
|
# Tiffany Trump
*Revision ID: 1160083655 | Timestamp: 2023-06-14T09:40:07Z*
---
| birth_place = [Palm Beach, Florida](West)(West Palm Beach, Florida), U.S.
| death_date =
| death_place =
| education =
| party = [Republican](Republican Party (United States))
| spouse =
| parents = [Trump](Donald)(Donald Trump)[Maples](Marla)(Marla Maples)
| family = [Trump](Family of Donald Trump)
}}
**Tiffany Ariana Trump** (born October 13, 1993) is the fourth child of former U.S. President [Trump](Donald)(Donald Trump) and his only child with his second wife, [Maples](Marla)(Marla Maples).
## Early life and education
Tiffany Ariana Trump was born on October 13, 1993, at St. Mary's Medical Center in [Palm Beach, Florida](West)(West Palm Beach, Florida), two months before her parents married. She is Donald Trump's only child with his second wife, actress and television personality [Maples](Marla)(Marla Maples), whom he married in December 1993. She was named after jeweler [& Co.](Tiffany)(Tiffany & Co.); her father purchased the [rights](air)(air rights) above the company's [Avenue flagship store](Fifth)(Tiffany & Co. flagship store) in the 1980s while building [Tower](Trump)(Trump Tower) next door. Her parents divorced in 1999 after being separated for two years. She was raised by her mother in [California](California).
She has three older half-siblings, [Jr.](Donald)(Donald Trump Jr.), [Ivanka](Ivanka Trump) and [Eric](Eric Trump), from Donald Trump's first wife, [Ivana](Ivana Trump), and a younger half-brother, Barron, from Trump's third wife, [Melania](Melania Trump).
Trump attended [School](Viewpoint)(Viewpoint School) in [California](Calabasas,)(Calabasas, California), graduating in 2012. She attended [of Pennsylvania](University)(University of Pennsylvania) (her father's alma mater) and graduated in 2016 with a [of Arts](Bachelor)(Bachelor of Arts) degree in [sociology](sociology) with a concentration in law and society, and was a member of [Alpha Theta](Kappa)(Kappa Alpha Theta) sorority. She then entered [University Law Center](Georgetown)(Georgetown University Law Center) in [D.C.](Washington,)(Washington, D.C.), and was awarded a [J.D.](Doctor of Jurisprudence) degree in May 2020.
## Career
In 2011, Trump released a music single called "Like a Bird". She later told *[Oprah Winfrey Show](The)(The Oprah Winfrey Show)* that she was evaluating whether to take her music career "to the next level as a professional".
In 2015, Trump worked as an intern for *[Vogue](Vogue (magazine))* and, in 2016, modeled for an Andrew Warren fashion show during [York Fashion Week](New)(New York Fashion Week).
### 2016, 2020, and 2024 Trump presidential campaigns
[[File:Tifanny, Barron, and Melania Trump at RNC.png|thumb|upright=1.1|Tiffany, half-brother [Barron](Barron Trump), and stepmother [Trump](Melania)(Melania Trump) at the [Republican National Convention](2016)(2016 Republican National Convention)]]
Trump made numerous appearances during her father's [presidential campaign](2016)(Donald Trump 2016 presidential campaign). She spoke at the [Republican National Convention](2016)(2016 Republican National Convention) on the second night of the convention.
Trump again campaigned for her father in [2020](2020 United States presidential election), including speaking at the [Republican National Convention](2020)(2020 Republican National Convention). She spoke at several in-person campaign events in the weeks before the election.
Trump appeared in person for her father during a speech at Mar-a-Lago following [indictment](his)(Prosecution of Donald Trump in New York) in 2023.
## Personal life
In summer 2018, while on vacation in Greece with actress [Lohan](Lindsay)(Lindsay Lohan), Trump met Michael Boulos, a Lebanese-American billionaire heir and business executive whose family owns [Enterprises](Boulos)(Boulos Enterprises) and SCOA Nigeria in Nigeria. She has been in a relationship with Boulos since 2018. They were married on November 12, 2022, at [Mar-a-Lago](Mar-a-Lago) in [Beach, Florida](Palm)(Palm Beach, Florida).
Trump is a frequent poster on [Instagram](Instagram), where she had 1.4 million followers . Her Instagram posts have frequently included photographs of herself with friends or with descendants of famous parents or grandparents, such as Kyra Kennedy, Gaïa Jacquet-Matisse, Reya Benitez, [J. William](Ezra)(Ezra J. William), and [Johnson](EJ)(EJ Johnson). The group has been named the "rich kids of Instagram" by the *[York Post](New)(New York Post)* and the "Snap Pack" by *[New York Times](The)(The New York Times)* and *[York](New)(New York (magazine))* magazine.
## See also
* [of Kappa Alpha Theta sisters](List)(List of Kappa Alpha Theta sisters)
* [of children of presidents of the United States](List)(List of children of presidents of the United States)
## References
## External links
*
*
*
[births](Category:1993)(Category:1993 births)
[American women](Category:20th-century)(Category:20th-century American women)
[American women](Category:21st-century)(Category:21st-century American women)
[Internet celebrities](Category:American)(Category:American Internet celebrities)
[people of German descent](Category:American)(Category:American people of German descent)
[people of Scottish descent](Category:American)(Category:American people of Scottish descent)
[socialites](Category:American)(Category:American socialites)
[Republicans](Category:California)(Category:California Republicans)
[of presidents of the United States](Category:Children)(Category:Children of presidents of the United States)
[models from California](Category:Female)(Category:Female models from California)
[models from Philadelphia](Category:Female)(Category:Female models from Philadelphia)
[University Law Center alumni](Category:Georgetown)(Category:Georgetown University Law Center alumni)
[people](Category:Living)(Category:Living people)
[York (state) Republicans](Category:New)(Category:New York (state) Republicans)
[Republicans](Category:Pennsylvania)(Category:Pennsylvania Republicans)
[from Calabasas, California](Category:People)(Category:People from Calabasas, California)
[from Manhattan](Category:People)(Category:People from Manhattan)
[from West Palm Beach, Florida](Category:People)(Category:People from West Palm Beach, Florida)
[Tiffany](Category:Trump family)
[of Pennsylvania alumni](Category:University)(Category:University of Pennsylvania alumni)
[of presidents](Category:Children)(Category:Children of presidents)
[of Donald Trump](Category:Children)(Category:Children of Donald Trump)
|
Megyn Kelly
|
megyn_kelly
|
# Megyn Kelly
*Revision ID: 1159903956 | Timestamp: 2023-06-13T07:45:47Z*
---
| birth_place = [Illinois](Champaign,)(Champaign, Illinois), U.S.
| other_names = Megyn Kendall
| alma_mater =
| occupation =
| years active = 2003present
| employer = [ABC](American Broadcasting Company) (20032004)[News](Fox)(Fox News) (20042017)[NBC](NBC) (20172019)[SiriusXM](SiriusXM) (2021present)
| notable_works = *[Night with Megyn Kelly](Sunday)(Sunday Night with Megyn Kelly)[Kelly Today](Megyn)(Megyn Kelly Today)[Kelly File](The)(The Kelly File)[Live](America)(America Live with Megyn Kelly)**The Megyn Kelly Show*
| spouse =
| }}
| children = 3
}}
**Megyn Marie Kelly** (; born November 18, 1970) is an American conservative journalist and media personality. She currently hosts a talk show and podcast, *The Megyn Kelly Show*, that airs live daily on [SiriusXM](SiriusXM). She was a talk show host at [News](Fox)(Fox News) from 2004 to 2017 and a host and correspondent with [News](NBC)(NBC News) from 2017 to 2018. She is also active in posting to her [Instagram](Instagram) page and [YouTube](YouTube) channel.
During her time at Fox News, Kelly hosted *[Live](America)(America Live with Megyn Kelly)* and, before that, co-hosted ''[Newsroom](America's)(America's Newsroom)'' with [Hemmer](Bill)(Bill Hemmer). From 2007 to 2012, the two reporters hosted Fox News Channel's New Year's Eve specials. Kelly also hosted *[Kelly File](The)(The Kelly File)* from October 2013 to January 2017. In 2014, she was included in the *[TIME](Time (magazine))* list of the [100](Time 100) most influential people. Kelly left Fox News in January 2017 and joined NBC News. She started hosting the third hour of the [show](morning)(morning show) *[Today](Today (U.S. TV program))* with her program titled *[Kelly Today](Megyn)(Megyn Kelly Today)* in September 2017. The show was cancelled in October 2018 after a segment discussing [blackface](blackface), and she left the network in January 2019.
## Early life
Kelly was born in [Illinois](Champaign,)(Champaign, Illinois), to Edward Francis Kelly, Ed.D.,Kelly, Edward Francis. "Curriculum Evaluation and Literary Criticism: The Explication of an Analogy." Ed.D. dissertation, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 1971. who taught in the School of Education at the [University of New York at Albany](State)(University at Albany, SUNY), and Linda (*née* DeMaio), a homemaker. She is of Italian and German descent on her mother's side and Irish descent on her father's. She was raised [Catholic](Catholic Church). Her father died of a heart attack in 1985 when she was 15 years old.
Kelly attended [Elementary School](Tecumseh)(Jamesville-DeWitt Central School District#Elementary) in suburban [New York](Syracuse,)(Syracuse, New York). When she was 9, her family moved to [New York](Delmar,)(Delmar, New York), a suburb of [Albany](Albany, New York), where she attended [Central High School](Bethlehem)(Bethlehem Central High School). She obtained an undergraduate degree in [science](political)(political science) from the [School of Citizenship and Public Affairs](Maxwell)(Maxwell School of Citizenship and Public Affairs) at [University](Syracuse)(Syracuse University) in 1992 and earned a [J.D.](Juris Doctor) from [Law School](Albany)(Albany Law School) in 1995.
Kelly was an [associate](Associate attorney) attorney in the Chicago office of [firm](law)(law firm) Bickel & Brewer LLP. In fall 1996, she co-wrote an article, "The Conflicting Roles of Lawyer as Director", for the [Bar Association](American)(American Bar Association)'s journal, *Litigation*. She later worked at [Day](Jones)(Jones Day) for nine years, where one of her clients was the [bureau](credit)(credit bureau) [Experian](Experian).
## Television career
### Early career
In 2003, Kelly moved to [D.C.](Washington,)(Washington, D.C.), where she was hired by the [ABC](American Broadcasting Company) affiliate [WJLA-TV](WJLA-TV) as a general assignment reporter. She covered national and local events, including live coverage of the confirmation hearings for U.S. Supreme Court Justice [Alito](Samuel)(Samuel Alito) and Chief Justice [G. Roberts](John)(John G. Roberts), the retirement of Justice [Day O'Connor](Sandra)(Sandra Day O'Connor), the death of Chief Justice [Rehnquist](William)(William Rehnquist), and the [presidential election](2004)(2004 United States presidential election). [CNN](CNN) president [Klein](Jonathan)(Jonathan Klein (CNN)) later said he regretted not hiring Kelly as a reporter at the beginning of her career, as she was "the one talent you'd want to have from somewhere else".
### 2004–2017: Fox News
In 2004, Kelly applied for a job at [News](Fox)(Fox News). She contributed legal segments for *[Report with Brit Hume](Special)(Special Report with Brit Hume)* and hosted her own legal segment, ''Kelly's Court*, during *[Live](Weekend)(Weekend Live)*. She appeared in a weekly segment on *[O'Reilly Factor](The)(The O'Reilly Factor)* and occasionally filled in for [Van Susteren](Greta)(Greta Van Susteren) on *[the Record](On)(On the Record w/ Greta Van Susteren)'', where most of her reporting focused on legal and political matters. She occasionally contributed as an anchor, but more often as a substitute anchor on weekends. On February 1, 2010, Kelly began hosting her own two-hour afternoon show, *[Live](America)(America Live with Megyn Kelly)*, which replaced *[Live Desk](The)(The Live Desk (U.S. TV program))*. She was a guest panelist on Fox News' late-night satire program *[Eye w/ Greg Gutfeld](Red)(Red Eye w/ Greg Gutfeld)*. In 2010, viewership for *America Live* increased by 20%, averaging 1,293,000 viewers, and increased by 4% in the 25–54 age demographic, averaging 268,000 viewers. In December 2010, Kelly hosted a New Year's Eve special with [Hemmer](Bill)(Bill Hemmer).
[[File:Megyn Kelly in 2012.jpg|thumb|left|upright|Kelly reporting during Fox's [Republican National Convention](2012)(2012 Republican National Convention) coverage]]
Kelly received media attention for her coverage of the results of the [United States presidential election](2012)(2012 United States presidential election). On election night, Fox News' [desk](decision)(decision desk) projected that Obama would win the state of [Ohio](Ohio) along with a second term after part of the results had been released. In response to [Rove](Karl)(Karl Rove)'s opposition to this projection, Kelly walked backstage to the decision desk on camera and spoke with them; she also asked Rove, "Is this just math that you do as a [Republican](Republican Party (United States)) to make yourself feel better? Or is this real?"
Kelly left *[Live](America)(America Live with Megyn Kelly)* in July 2013 and took [leave](maternity)(maternity leave). That October she began hosting a new nightly program, *[Kelly File](The)(The Kelly File)*. *The Kelly File* was occasionally the channel's ratings leader, topping ''[O'Reilly Factor](The)(The O'Reilly Factor)''.
In December 2013, Kelly commented on a *[Slate](Slate (magazine))* article on *The Kelly File*: "For all you kids watching at home, Santa just is white, but this person is just arguing that maybe we should also have a black Santa," adding, "But Santa is what he is, and just so you know, we're just debating this because someone wrote about it." Kelly also said that [was a white man](Jesus)(Race and appearance of Jesus) later in the segment. Soon after, [Stewart](Jon)(Jon Stewart), [Colbert](Stephen)(Stephen Colbert), [Maddow](Rachel)(Rachel Maddow), [Barro](Josh)(Josh Barro), and others satirized her remarks. Two days later, she said on the air that her original comments were "[tongue-in-cheek](tongue-in-cheek)", and that the skin color of Jesus is "far from settled".
In June 2015, Kelly interviewed [Bob Duggar](Jim)(Jim Bob Duggar) and Michelle Duggar of *[Kids and Counting](19)(19 Kids and Counting)* regarding their son [Duggar](Josh)(Josh Duggar)'s alleged molestation of five girls in 2002. She later interviewed two of their daughters, Jill and Jessa. This show's Nielsen national estimates ratings of 3.09 million viewers, above its average 2.11 million, ranked with the 3.2 million for the [Airlines Flight 17](Malaysia)(Malaysia Airlines Flight 17) shootdown coverage and 7.3 million for the [riots](Ferguson)(Ferguson riots) coverage.
In the [Party presidential debate](Republican)(Republican Party presidential debates, 2016#August 6, 2015 – Cleveland, Ohio) on August 6, 2015, Kelly asked then-presidential candidate [Trump](Donald)(Donald Trump) whether a man of his temperament ought to be elected president, noting that he has called various women insulting names in the past. Kelly's moderating generated a range of media and political reactions and her professionalism was criticized by Trump. Kelly responded to Trump's criticism by saying she would not "apologize for doing good journalism". Trump declined to attend the [January 28 debate](Iowa)(Republican Party presidential debates, 2016#January 28, 2016 – Des Moines, Iowa) that she moderated. After the debate and off-camera, [Cruz](Ted)(Ted Cruz) said that Kelly had referred to Trump off-camera as "[Voldemort](Lord Voldemort)", though Fox News denied it. [Maher](Bill)(Bill Maher) complimented Kelly as being "so much better" than the candidates who attended the January 28 debate and argued that she was a more viable candidate for the Republican nomination.
In an interview with *[News Sunday Morning](CBS)(CBS News Sunday Morning)*, Kelly reflected that she was disappointed with the lack of support she received from coworker [O'Reilly](Bill)(Bill O'Reilly (political commentator)) and [CNN](CNN), the latter airing a Trump event the same time as the debate. In April, at her request, Kelly met with Trump at [Tower](Trump)(Trump Tower), having "a chance to clear the air". The following month, after interviewing Trump and being met with mixed reception, she expressed interest in doing another one with him. In June, she criticized Trump for his claims against [P. Curiel's](Gonzalo)(Gonzalo P. Curiel) impartiality. In October, a contentious discussion between Kelly and [Gingrich](Newt)(Newt Gingrich) on *The Kelly File* regarding Trump's sexual comments in a [audio recording](2005)(Donald Trump and Billy Bush recording controversy) gained widespread social media reaction.
In March 2016, it was announced that Kelly would host a one-hour prime time special on the [network](Fox)(Fox Broadcasting Company) wherein she would interview celebrities from the worlds of "politics, entertainment, and other areas of human interest". The special aired in May 2016, which was a [sweeps](sweeps) month. It acquired 4.8 million viewers, but placed third in the ratings. [Sherman](Gabriel)(Gabriel Sherman) wrote of the stakes for Kelly as "high", elaborating that with Kelly being in the final year of her contract with Fox and having confirmed her ambitions, "[t]he special was essentially a public interview for her next job."
In July 2016, amid allegations of sexual harassment on the part of Fox News CEO [Ailes](Roger)(Roger Ailes), Kelly was reported to have confirmed that she herself was also subjected to his harassment. Two days after the report, Ailes resigned from Fox News and his lawyer, [Estrich](Susan)(Susan Estrich), publicly denied the charge.
During her coverage of the [Republican National Convention](2016)(2016 Republican National Convention), her attire received criticism. In a defense of Kelly, Jenavieve Hatch of *[Huffington Post](The)(The Huffington Post)* commented, "If you're a woman on national television reporting on a political event from hot, humid Cleveland, wearing a weather-appropriate outfit makes you the target of an endless stream of sexist commentary." In September, it was reported that Kelly would be collaborating with [De Luca](Michael)(Michael De Luca) to produce *Embeds*, a scripted comedy about reporters covering politics, to be aired on a streaming service.
Kelly appeared on the cover of the February 2016 issue of *[Fair](Vanity)(Vanity Fair (magazine))*. In 2016, she was an honoree for *[Variety](Variety (magazine))*s *Power of Women* for her addressing [abuse](child)(child abuse).
### 2017–2018: NBC News
[[File:Vladimir Putin and Megyn Kelly 03.jpg|thumb|Kelly with Russian president [Putin](Vladimir)(Vladimir Putin), June 2017]]
[[File:Prime Minister Narendra Modi speaks with Russian President Vladimir Putin, Austrian Federal Chancellor Christian Kern, and Moldovan President Igor Dodon on the sidelines of the St Petersburg International Economic Forum.jpg|thumb|Kelly with Putin, Indian prime minister [Modi](Narendra)(Narendra Modi), and Austrian chancellor [Kern](Christian)(Christian Kern)]]
In late 2016, Kelly was alleged to be actively considering other news networks aside from Fox News, since her contract was a few months from expiring. In January 2017, *[New York Times](The)(The New York Times)* reported that she would leave Fox News for a "triple role" at [News](NBC)(NBC News), which would include a daytime talk show, a Sunday-night newsmagazine, and becoming a correspondent for major news events and political coverage. She departed Fox News on January 6, 2017, after the last episode of *The Kelly File* was aired. In January 2017, *[People](People (magazine))* quoted an unspecified source that Kelly remained under a [clause](non-compete)(non-compete clause) with Fox until July 2017 which would prevent her from working for a competitor until the clause expires or is canceled.
On June 2, 2017, Kelly interviewed Russian president [Putin](Vladimir)(Vladimir Putin), first in a panel discussion she moderated at the [Petersburg International Economic Forum](St.)(St. Petersburg International Economic Forum) and later in a one-on-one interview for the premiere episode of NBC's *[Night with Megyn Kelly](Sunday)(Sunday Night with Megyn Kelly)*, which aired June 4, 2017. Kelly's daytime talk show, *[Kelly Today](Megyn)(Megyn Kelly Today)*, premiered in September 2017.
Kelly was being paid reportedly between $15 million and $20 million a year at NBC. After an initial run of eight episodes in the summer of 2017, NBC decided to bring her newsmagazine show *Sunday Night with Megyn Kelly* back for summer 2018 after a hiatus for football and the Winter Olympics, but only periodically. However, this return never materialized. Instead, Kelly continued to report stories for *[NBC](Dateline)(Dateline NBC)* during the summer of 2018, continuing her work for the show which she joined in 2017.
On October 23, 2018, Kelly was criticized for on-air remarks she made on *Megyn Kelly Today* related to the appropriateness of [blackface](blackface) as part of [costume](Halloween)(Halloween costume)s. She recollected that "when I was a kid, that was okay as long as you were dressing up like a character", and defended [de Lesseps](Luann)(Luann de Lesseps)'s use of skin darkening spray to portray [Ross](Diana)(Diana Ross). After receiving backlash for her comments, Kelly issued an internal email apologizing for the remarks later that day. On October 26, 2018, NBC canceled *Megyn Kelly Today*. It had been reported that Kelly was considering ending the program to focus on her role as a correspondent. Her employment was terminated on January 11, 2019, and she was paid the $30 million due for the remainder of her contract.
### 2019–present: After NBC
Kelly announced the launch of Devil May Care Media, her media production company, on September 10, 2020, with a podcast, *The Megyn Kelly Show*. Its first episode premiered on September 28.
On July 6, 2021, it was announced that the podcast would move to [XM](Sirius)(Sirius XM) on September 7, 2021, to broadcast weekdays at 12 noon ET on the talk radio channel Triumph, along with a video simulcast available to Sirius XM subscribers.
## Writing
In February 2016, Kelly signed an agreement with [HarperCollins](HarperCollins) to write an autobiography scheduled for release later that year, in a deal worth more than $10 million. The book, titled *[for More](Settle)(Settle for More)*, was released on November 15, 2016.
## Accolades
* In 2009, Kelly received an award from [Childhelp](Childhelp) for her work as a Fox News anchor covering the subject of child abuse.
* Kelly was honored with an Alumni Achievement Award from the Albany Law School in 2010 for her 15th class reunion.
* She was included in the 2014 *[Time](Time (magazine))* list of the [most influential people](100)(Time 100).
* On September 26, 2015, Kelly was inducted into the Hall of Fame at [Central High School](Bethlehem)(Bethlehem Central High School), her alma mater.
## In popular culture
*[Bombshell](Bombshell (2019 film))*, a 2019 film depicting [Ailes](Roger)(Roger Ailes)' sexual abuses and his subsequent resignation from [News](Fox)(Fox News), was released on December 13, 2019. Kelly is portrayed in the film by [Theron](Charlize)(Charlize Theron), who was nominated for the [Award for Best Actress](Academy)(Academy Award for Best Actress) for her performance.
Kelly said she was not consulted for the film's content. However, after viewing a screening of the film, Kelly held a roundtable discussion with other involved parties such as [Huddy](Juliet)(Juliet Huddy), [Bakhtiar](Rudi)(Rudi Bakhtiar), [Brunt](Douglas)(Douglas Brunt), and former Fox News producer Julie Zann. Kelly confirmed and denied several moments in the film, while describing the film overall as an emotional experience for her.
## Personal life
Kelly married Daniel Kendall, an [anesthesiologist](anesthesiologist), in 2001. The marriage ended in divorce in 2006. In 2008, she married [Brunt](Douglas)(Douglas Brunt), who was then president and CEO of the cybersecurity firm [Authentium](Authentium), and who became a full-time writer and novelist. They have three children.
On October 12, 2016, Kelly stated in a segment on her show with Fox News commentator [Roginsky](Julie)(Julie Roginsky) that she is a lifelong [Catholic](Catholic Church in the United States). Kelly has appeared at a fundraiser for parental rights organization [for Liberty](Moms)(Moms for Liberty).
### Politics
Politically, Kelly identifies as an [independent](Independent (voter)), and told *[Variety](Variety (magazine))* in 2015 that she had voted for both Democrats and Republicans.
She has spoken out in support of [legalization](drug)(War on drugs) and supports accepting more [immigrants](legal)(legal immigrants), but objected to Muslim immigration in Europe. After the [high school shooting](Parkland)(Parkland high school shooting) in 2018, Kelly criticized the [Rifle Association](National)(National Rifle Association) for being too powerful and criticized lawmakers for not pushing for reform on guns.
On June 2, 2023, Megyn Kelly explained why she had changed her position on "preferred pronouns" from being for them to being against them.https://www.realclearpolitics.com/video/2023/06/02/megyn_kelly_i_was_unfortunately_an_early_proponent_of_using_preferred_pronouns_trans_people_were_tortured_enough.html
## See also
* [Yorkers in journalism](New)(New Yorkers in journalism)
## References
## External links
*
*
*
[ ](Category:Megyn Kelly)
[births](Category:1970)(Category:1970 births)
[people](Category:Living)(Category:Living people)
[American journalists](Category:20th-century)(Category:20th-century American journalists)
[Roman Catholics](Category:20th-century)(Category:20th-century Roman Catholics)
[American journalists](Category:21st-century)(Category:21st-century American journalists)
[Roman Catholics](Category:21st-century)(Category:21st-century Roman Catholics)
[American lawyers](Category:20th-century)(Category:20th-century American lawyers)
[American lawyers](Category:21st-century)(Category:21st-century American lawyers)
[American women lawyers](Category:20th-century)(Category:20th-century American women lawyers)
[American women lawyers](Category:21st-century)(Category:21st-century American women lawyers)
[American memoirists](Category:21st-century)(Category:21st-century American memoirists)
[American women writers](Category:21st-century)(Category:21st-century American women writers)
[Law School alumni](Category:Albany)(Category:Albany Law School alumni)
[autobiographers](Category:American)(Category:American autobiographers)
[people of German descent](Category:American)(Category:American people of German descent)
[people of Irish descent](Category:American)(Category:American people of Irish descent)
[people of Italian descent](Category:American)(Category:American people of Italian descent)
[television news anchors](Category:American)(Category:American television news anchors)
[women journalists](Category:American)(Category:American women journalists)
[women podcasters](Category:American)(Category:American women podcasters)
[podcasters](Category:American)(Category:American podcasters)
[from Illinois](Category:Catholics)(Category:Catholics from Illinois)
[from New York (state)](Category:Catholics)(Category:Catholics from New York (state))
[lawyers](Category:Corporate)(Category:Corporate lawyers)
[News people](Category:Fox)(Category:Fox News people)
[Independents](Category:Illinois)(Category:Illinois Independents)
[Day people](Category:Jones)(Category:Jones Day people)
[from Illinois](Category:Journalists)(Category:Journalists from Illinois)
[from New York (state)](Category:Journalists)(Category:Journalists from New York (state))
[from Syracuse, New York](Category:Lawyers)(Category:Lawyers from Syracuse, New York)
[School of Citizenship and Public Affairs alumni](Category:Maxwell)(Category:Maxwell School of Citizenship and Public Affairs alumni)
[News people](Category:NBC)(Category:NBC News people)
[York (state) Independents](Category:New)(Category:New York (state) Independents)
[York (state) lawyers](Category:New)(Category:New York (state) lawyers)
[from Albany, New York](Category:Lawyers)(Category:Lawyers from Albany, New York)
[from Champaign, Illinois](Category:People)(Category:People from Champaign, Illinois)
[autobiographers](Category:Women)(Category:Women autobiographers)
|
James Blunt
|
james_blunt
|
# James Blunt
*Revision ID: 1157895805 | Timestamp: 2023-05-31T17:18:22Z*
---
| birth_place = [Hampshire](Tidworth,)(Tidworth), (now Wiltshire), UK
| occupation =
| spouse =
| children = 2
| years_active = 2003–present
| module = |[pop](folk)(Folk-pop)|[rock](soft)(soft rock)}}
| instrument =
| label =
| website =
}}
}}
| branch = [Army](British)(British Army)
| serviceyears = 1996–2002
|servicenumber = 547098
| rank = [[Army OF2.png|23px|border](File:UK)] [Captain](Captain (British Army and Royal Marines))
| unit = [Guards](Life)(Life Guards (United Kingdom))
| battles = [War](Kosovo)(Kosovo War)
}}
}}
[[with James Blunt from 2021.webm|thumb|Interview with James Blunt from 2021.](File:Interview)]
**James Blunt** (born **James Hillier Blount**; 22 February 1974) is a British singer, songwriter, and musician. A former [reconnaissance](reconnaissance) [officer](Officer (armed forces)) in the [Guards](Life)(Life Guards (United Kingdom)) [regiment](regiment) of the [Army](British)(British Army), he served under [NATO](NATO) during the 1999 [War](Kosovo)(Kosovo War). After he left the military, he rose to fame in 2004 with the release of his debut album *[to Bedlam](Back)(Back to Bedlam)*, achieving worldwide fame with the singles "[Beautiful](You're)(You're Beautiful)" and "[My Lover](Goodbye)(Goodbye My Lover)".
Blunt's first album has sold over 11 million copies worldwide, topping the [Albums Chart](UK)(UK Albums Chart) and peaking at number two in the US. "You're Beautiful" was number one in the UK, the US and a dozen other countries. *Back to Bedlam* was [best-selling album of the 2000s in the UK](the)(List of best-selling albums of the 2000s (decade) in the United Kingdom), and is one of the [albums in UK chart history](best-selling)(List of best-selling albums in the United Kingdom). Blunt has sold over 20 million records worldwide. He has received several awards, including two [Awards](Brit)(Brit Awards)—winning Best British Male in 2006—two [Video Music Awards](MTV)(MTV Video Music Awards), and two [Novello Awards](Ivor)(Ivor Novello Awards), as well as receiving five [Award nominations](Grammy)(48th Annual Grammy Awards) and an Honorary Doctorate of Music in 2016 from the [of Bristol](University)(University of Bristol).
## Early life
Blunt was born James Hillier Blount on 22 February 1974National Archives, England & Wales, Birth Index: 1916–2005 volume 6b, page 446 confirms birth as Q1, 1974. at [Camp](Tidworth)(Tidworth Camp) military hospital in Hampshire, the first of three children born to Jane Ann Farran ( Amos) and Colonel Charles Blount. His mother started up a ski chalet company in the French Alpine resort of [Méribel](Méribel), while his father was a cavalry officer in the [Royal Hussars](13th/18th)(13th/18th Royal Hussars) and then a [pilot](helicopter)(helicopter pilot), becoming [Colonel](Colonel (United Kingdom)) of the [Air Corps](Army)(Army Air Corps (United Kingdom)). The family has a long history of military service, dating back to the 10th-century arrival of their Danish ancestors in England.
Blunt grew up primarily in [Mary Bourne, Hampshire](St)(St Mary Bourne),[HAmshire Life - Force of nature - Andover](https://www.greatbritishlife.co.uk/homes-and-gardens/places-to-live/force-of-nature-andover-7086910) Retrieved 4 May 2021. but moved every two years according to his father's military postings around England ([Wallop](Middle)(AAC Middle Wallop), [Netheravon](AAC Netheravon), and [York](York)) as well as Cyprus ([Nicosia](Blue Beret Camp)) and Germany ([Soest](Soest-Bad Sassendorf Airfield)). He also spent time in [Cley-next-the-Sea](Cley-next-the-Sea), where his father owned the [Windmill](Cley)(Cley Windmill). He was educated at [School](Elstree)(Elstree School) in [Woolhampton](Woolhampton) and then [School](Harrow)(Harrow School), [Middlesex](Middlesex), gaining [A-level](A-level)s in physics, chemistry, and economics. He then went up to the [of Bristol](University)(University of Bristol), where he read [manufacturing engineering](aerospace)(Manufacturing engineering) and [sociology](sociology), graduating in 1996 with a [(Hons)](BSc)(Bachelor of Science). In March 2022 he was the subject of 'James Blunt: From A to Z', broadcast by [Radio](Burst)(Burst Radio), Bristol University's radio station. Like his father, Blunt is a pilot and gained his [fixed-winged](fixed-wing aircraft) private [licence](pilot)(pilot licence) at age 16. He also developed a keen interest in motorbikes around this time.
## Military service
Having been sponsored through university on an army bursary, Blunt was committed to serve a minimum of four years in the armed forces. He trained at the [Military Academy, Sandhurst](Royal)(Royal Military Academy, Sandhurst), in intake 963, and was commissioned into the [Guards](Life)(Life Guards (British Army)), a reconnaissance regiment. He rose to the rank of [captain](Captain (British Army and Royal Marines)). The Life Guards, part of the [Cavalry Regiment](Household)(Household Cavalry Regiment), were primarily based in [Barracks](Combermere)(Combermere Barracks). Blunt was trained in [Army Training Unit Suffield](British)(British Army Training Unit Suffield) in Alberta, Canada, where his regiment was posted for six months in 1998 to act as the [army](opposing)(OPFOR) in combat training exercises.
In 1999, Blunt volunteered to join a [and Royals](Blues)(Blues and Royals) [squadron](Squadron (army)) deploying with [NATO](NATO) to [Kosovo](Kosovo). Initially assigned to carry out reconnaissance of the [Macedonia](North)(North Macedonia)–[Yugoslavia](Federal Republic of Yugoslavia) border, Blunt's [troop](troop) worked ahead of the front lines, locating and targeting [Serb](Serb)ian forces for the [bombing campaign](NATO)(1999 NATO bombing of Yugoslavia). On 12 June 1999, the troop led the 30,000-strong NATO peacekeeping force from the North Macedonia border towards [International Airport](Pristina)(Pristina International Airport Adem Jashari). However, a Russian [contingent had moved in and taken control of the airport](military)(Incident at Pristina) before his unit's arrival. American NATO commander [Clark](Wesley)(Wesley Clark) ordered that the unit forcibly take the airport from the Russians. [Mike Jackson](General)(Mike Jackson (British Army officer)), the British commander, refused the order, telling Clark that they were "not going to start [War Three](World)(Third World War) for you". Blunt has said that he would have refused to obey such an order if General Jackson had not blocked it.
During Blunt's Kosovo assignment, he had brought along his guitar strapped to the outside of his tank and would sometimes perform for locals and troops. It was while on duty there that he wrote the song "[Bravery](No)(No Bravery)". Blunt extended his military service in November 2000, and was posted to the [Cavalry Mounted Regiment](Household)(Household Cavalry Mounted Regiment) in London, as a member of the [Guard](Queen's)(Queen's Guard). During this posting, he was featured on the television programme *Girls on Top*, a series highlighting unusual career choices. He stood guard at the coffin of HM The [Mother](Queen)(Elizabeth Bowes-Lyon) during her [in state](lying)(lying in state) and was part of the funeral procession on 9 April 2002.
A keen skier, Blunt captained the Household Cavalry alpine ski team in [Verbier](Verbier), Switzerland, becoming the [Armoured Corps](Royal)(Royal Armoured Corps) [slalom](giant)(giant slalom) champion in 2000. He left the army on 1 October 2002 having served six years.
## Music career
### Early career
Blunt had piano and violin lessons as a child, but was introduced to the electric guitar aged 14 at Harrow by a fellow student. His dissertation at [University](Bristol)(University of Bristol) was entitled *The Commodification of Image – Production of a Pop Idol*. One of his sources was [Frith](Simon)(Simon Frith), a [sociologist](sociologist) and [critic](rock)(Music journalism), and chair of the [Music Prize](Mercury)(Mercury Music Prize) panel of judges since 1992, who later undertook a lecture tour entitled "The unpopular and unpleasant thoughts inspired by the work of James Blunt".
While still in the army, Blunt would write songs during his time off. A backing vocalist and songwriting collaborator suggested he contact [John](Elton)(Elton John)'s manager, Todd Interland, with whom she used to share a house. Interland told [HitQuarters](HitQuarters) that he listened to Blunt's demo while driving home and, after hearing the track "Goodbye My Lover", pulled over and called the mobile number written on the CD to set up a meeting.
Blunt left the British Army in 2002 so that he could pursue his musical career. He started using the stage name "[Blunt](James)(I, James Blunt)" in part to make it easier for others to spell; "Blount" is pronounced the same way, and remains his legal last name. Shortly after leaving the army he was signed to [EMI](EMI) [publishers](music)(Music publisher (popular music)) and to Twenty-First Artists management. A [contract](record)(recording contract) remained elusive, with label executives pointing to his [posh](wikt:posh) speaking voice as a barrier in class-divided Britain. [Perry](Linda)(Linda Perry), who was just launching her own label [Records](Custard)(Custard Records) in early 2003, heard Blunt's promotional tape when visiting London, and soon after heard him perform live at the [by Southwest Music Festival](South)(SXSW). She made an offer to him the same night, and within a few days he signed a recording contract with her. A month later, he travelled to Los Angeles to meet producer [Rothrock](Tom)(Tom Rothrock).
### 2003–2006: *Back to Bedlam*
[[performing in the United States, 2008](File:James-Blunt2.jpg|thumb|upright|Blunt)]
Blunt recorded *[to Bedlam](Back)(Back to Bedlam)* in 2003 with Rothrock as producer in [Recording Studios](Conway)(Conway Recording Studios) and Rothrock's home studio in Los Angeles, playing many instruments himself.[to Bedlam](Back)(Back to Bedlam) album liner notes, Atlantic Records, October 2004 During recording, he lodged with actress [Fisher](Carrie)(Carrie Fisher). Fisher contributed in naming the album, and he recorded the song "[My Lover](Goodbye)(Goodbye My Lover)" in her bathroom. *Back to Bedlam* was released in the UK in October 2004.
Blunt's debut single in the UK was "[High](High (James Blunt song))" (co-written with [Ross](Ricky)(Ricky Ross (musician)) of [Blue](Deacon)(Deacon Blue)). This song initially peaked below the Top 100 of the [Singles Chart](UK)(UK Singles Chart), however after the subsequent success of "[Beautiful](You're)(You're Beautiful)" it made the Top 75 before being re-released. The song was chosen to appear in a [Vodafone](Vodafone) commercial in Italy, and was a Top 10 hit in that country.
The debut album from the unknown Blunt initially attracted little critical attention; there were no published reviews from major UK music journals. His live performances, mainly in support of better-known musicians, received generally favourable reviews. His lack of performing experience and inconsistent approach with audiences was commented upon, while his music was likened to that of [Rice](Damien)(Damien Rice) and [Gray](David)(David Gray (musician)).
In March 2004, with Blunt performing in the support role for [Melua](Katie)(Katie Melua) in Manchester, Alex McCann of *Designer Magazine* wrote, "Blunt's ascendance is a dead cert and this time next year it isn't that far removed from reality to suggest that a number one album, Brit Award and countless accolade's [sic] will be his for the taking." After the release of the album, concert support slots for [John](Elton)(Elton John) and [Cole and the Commotions](Lloyd)(Lloyd Cole and the Commotions) in late 2004 and early 2005 followed, as did a band residency at London club 93 Feet East. In March 2005, his second single, "[Wisemen](Wisemen)", was released.[www.discogs.com](https://www.discogs.com/release/1796542-James-Blunt-Wisemen)
Blunt's third single, "You're Beautiful", was his break-out hit. The song debuted at number 12 in the UK, and reached number one six weeks later. The song received huge airplay in the UK, propelling *Back to Bedlam* to number one on the [Albums Chart](UK)(UK Albums Chart). The extensive airplay ultimately led to Blunt and his co-writers being awarded the Ivor Novello Award for Most Performed Work.
After the success of "You're Beautiful" in the UK, the song crossed over to mainland Europe, becoming one of the biggest hits of summer 2005 across the continent. In the US, "You're Beautiful" made its debut in the summer of 2005 on [WPLJ](WPLJ), a prominent radio station in New York City, despite not having been released to radio. The song was released to radio stations in the autumn of 2005 and climbed into the Top 10 in three radio formats: [Contemporary Music](Adult)(Adult Contemporary Music), [Adult Top 40 Tracks](Hot)(Hot Adult Top 40 Tracks), and [album alternative](Adult)(Adult album alternative).
Blunt became the first British artist to top the American singles chart in nearly a decade when "You're Beautiful" reached number one on the [Hot 100](*Billboard*)(Billboard Hot 100) in 2006; the last British artist to do so had been [John](Elton)(Elton John) in 1997 with the song "[in the Wind 1997](Candle)(Candle in the Wind 1997)".
"Goodbye My Lover" was released as the fourth UK single from the album in December 2005, and the second US single. The songs "High" and "Wisemen" were subsequently re-released in 2006. Blunt began 2006 celebrating five [Award](Brit)(Brit Award) nominations, and went on to win Best British male solo artist and Best pop act categories, having already started an 11-month world tour. On 31 August 2006, he won two awards at the [MTV Video Music Awards](2006)(2006 MTV Video Music Awards), with "You're Beautiful" winning the award for Best Male Video.
In late 2005, Blunt made appearances on *[Oprah Winfrey Show](The)(The Oprah Winfrey Show)* and as a musical guest on *[Night Live](Saturday)(Saturday Night Live)*. Eight of the songs on the album were featured in television shows (*[O.C.](The)(The O.C.)*, ''[Anatomy](Grey's)(Grey's Anatomy)* and many more), films (*[Undiscovered](Undiscovered)''), and advertising campaigns ([Hotels](Hilton)(Hilton Hotels), [Sprint](Sprint Nextel) telecommunications) throughout 2005 and 2006. He performed "You're Beautiful" at the [Grammy Awards](49th)(49th Grammy Awards) in February 2007, dedicating the song to the late [Ertegün](Ahmet)(Ahmet Ertegün) of [Records](Atlantic)(Atlantic Records), but he did not win in any of the five categories for which he had received nominations (including [New Artist](Best)(Best New Artist), won by [Underwood](Carrie)(Carrie Underwood)).
The album sold 11.2 million copies and topped the album charts in 16 territories worldwide. It sold 2.6 million in the US and was certified 2× platinum. In Britain the album sold over three million copies, was certified 10× platinum, and entered the *[Book of World Records](Guinness)(Guinness Book of Records)* for the fastest selling album in one year.
In 2005, Blunt performed 90 live shows, mainly across the UK and Europe, and supported [Mraz](Jason)(Jason Mraz) in a North American tour. The "Back to Bedlam World Tour" started off in January 2006, covering cities in Europe, the UK, Australia, New Zealand, and Japan, as well as three separate headline tours in North America, ending in November of that year. Not including promotional appearances, he performed over 140 live shows in 2006.
The videos for all of Blunt's singles from *Back To Bedlam* feature symbolism and dark imagery. In the first video for "High", he is buried in a desert. In the first video for "Wisemen", he is kidnapped and taken hostage. In the video for "You're Beautiful", he alludes to suicide by jumping off a cliff into the sea. In the "[My Lover](Goodbye)(Goodbye My Lover)" video, he is the outsider in a love triangle, imagining the couple, a man and woman (played by [Dallas](Matt)(Matt Dallas) of *[XY](Kyle)(Kyle XY)* and [Barton](Mischa)(Mischa Barton) of *[O.C.](The)(The O.C.)*) together. The re-release video for "High" features Blunt running in a forest. The re-release video for "Wisemen" has him burning identification papers, and then walking through a forest while he is on fire.
Blunt appeared on an episode of *[Street](Sesame)(Sesame Street)* which aired on 14 November 2007, singing about triangles to the tune of "You're Beautiful". A parody of "You're Beautiful" titled "[Pitiful](You're)(You're Pitiful)" was recorded by [Al Yankovic](Weird)(Weird Al Yankovic). He gave personal permission for this parody to be included on a Weird Al album, but [Records](Atlantic)(Atlantic Records), his label, stepped in to forbid the commercial release of the song. Weird Al has since made the song available as a free MP3 download on his website. In a request by Yankovic to include the song on an upcoming compilation CD, Blunt's manager replied via email, "Thanks for your email, but both James and I will never approve this parody to be released on any label."
On 28 December 2009, [Radio 1](BBC)(BBC Radio 1) announced that *Back to Bedlam* was the biggest-selling album of the 2000s decade in the United Kingdom.
### 2007–2008: *All the Lost Souls*
[[File:James Blunt 2007.jpg|thumb|left|upright|Blunt at a concert in [Gate Park](Golden)(Golden Gate Park) in San Francisco, 2007]]
Blunt's second studio album, *[the Lost Souls](All)(All the Lost Souls)*, was released on 17 September 2007 in the United Kingdom and one day later in North America. It sold 65,000 units in its first week, and was certified gold in the UK after only four days. By the end of January 2008, the album had sold 600,000 copies in the UK, and 4.5 million copies internationally. Blunt completed the album's songs at his home in [Ibiza](Ibiza) in the winter of 2006–2007. He performed five of the ten album tracks during his 2005–2006 tours; lyrics, melodies, and harmonies were refined for the studio recording, on which his touring band played and Tom Rothrock worked as producer.
While Blunt's first album received little critical attention, critics from every major music publication, and newspapers around the world, weighed in on *All the Lost Souls*. The album was met with generally mixed to positive reviews, and maintains a 53/100 rating at [Metacritic](Metacritic)." Eric Danton, of the *[Journal Sentinel](Milwaukee)(Milwaukee Journal Sentinel)* and *[Hartford Courant](The)(The Hartford Courant)* wrote that the album is "a collection so bland, it makes [hardtack](hardtack) seem sumptuous". However, Kerri Mason of *Billboard* said Blunt "shows the abandon and confidence of a long-term artist, not just a [wonder](one-hit)(one-hit wonder)" and continued "there is not a misstep throughout". Equally effusive, Liz Hoggard of *[Observer](The)(The Observer)* wrote that "it's impossible to resist Blunt's [troubadour](troubadour) yearning."
The first single from *All the Lost Souls*, "1973", was inspired by Blunt's nights out at [Pacha](Pacha Group), an [Ibiza](Ibiza) club, which opened in that year. The song became another hit, reaching number one on the Billboard European Hot 100 Singles chart. |title=1973 – James Blunt | Billboard.com |publisher=Billboard |access-date=19 November 2010 }} D.J. [Tong](Pete)(Pete Tong) remixed "1973" and played the track during his set at Pacha over the summer of 2007. The second single, "[Mistake](Same)(Same Mistake)", was released in early December 2007 but did not fare well in the UK charts, peaking at number 57. It was Number one in Brazil and a hit in many South American countries. The third single from the album was "[You Home](Carry)(Carry You Home (James Blunt song))", released in March 2008, peaking at number 20 in the U.K charts and bringing the album back into the Top 10, six months after its release. The fourth and final single from the original "All The Lost Souls" album was "[Really Want You](I)(I Really Want You)".
Blunt collaborated twice during this album cycle. In late 2007, he worked with French rapper [Sinik](Sinik). They released "Je Réalise", which took elements of Blunt's song "I'll Take Everything", which hit the top three in France. On 14 November 2008, "[in anticipo](Primavera)(Primavera in anticipo)", [Pausini](Laura)(Laura Pausini)'s new album, was released. The title track is a duet with Blunt. The album reached the Number one in Italy.
Throughout 2007 and 2008, Blunt went on his second world tour, including a performance in London's [Arena](O2)(The O2 (London)). In July and August 2008, he supported [Crow](Sheryl)(Sheryl Crow) on a 25-date tour along with [and the Maytals](Toots)(Toots and the Maytals).Laudadio, Marisa. "Sheryl Crow Preps for Life on the Road with Baby Wyatt". People magazine. Time inc. 16 April 2008. Retrieved 9 December 2016. On 24 November 2008, *All The Lost Souls* was re-released as a deluxe edition, with new album artwork, new single "[Love, Love](Love,)(Love, Love, Love (James Blunt song))" and the documentary *[Blunt: Return to Kosovo](James)(James Blunt: Return to Kosovo)*.
### 2010–2013: *Some Kind of Trouble*
Blunt's third studio album titled *[Kind of Trouble](Some)(Some Kind of Trouble)*, was released on 8 November 2010. The album debuted at number four in the UK with over 100,000 copies sold in the first week. The album's first single "[the Night](Stay)(Stay the Night (James Blunt song))" was released on 27 October 2010. The single did much better in Europe than the UK, sitting at number two on the European Airplay Chart for five consecutive weeks, but only charting at number 37 in the UK top 40. The second single from the album, "So Far Gone" was released in the UK on 3 January 2011. The third single from the album, "If Time Is All I Have" was released in the UK on 4 April 2011. Overall critical reception has been mixed, with [Allmusic](Allmusic) saying, in a positive review, that "Some Kind of Trouble is a step in the right direction for Blunt, a move toward love songs free of pretension" whilst [BBC](BBC) Music felt "When all's said, Some Kind of Trouble is not a terrible record by any means, but there's little sense that Blunt has advanced, and equally little sense that it'll make any difference to his bottom line."
As of February 2011, worldwide sales stand at over one million copies.
### 2013–2017: *Moon Landing*
[[James Blunt - by 2eight - DSC7939.jpg|thumb|Blunt performing in October 2017](File:2017)]
Blunt's fourth album, *[Landing](Moon)(Moon Landing (album))*, was released on 18 October 2013. It featured production from *Back to Bedlam* producer Tom Rothrock. The lead single, "[Heart](Bonfire)(Bonfire Heart)", debuted at number six before peaking at number four the following week in the UK Singles Chart. The single went to number 1 in Australia, Germany, Switzerland and Austria, and was in the top 10 in several other countries.
On 16 September 2014, Blunt confirmed on his official Instagram account that "Moon Landing" would be re-released on 3 November 2014. The new version of the album was named Moon Landing – Apollo Edition and contained 19 tracks: 11 from the original disc, plus the three bonus tracks of the deluxe version ("Telephone", "Kiss This Love Goodbye", and "Hollywood") and five new tracks ("Smoke Signals", "When I Find Love Again", "Breathe", "Trail of Broken Hearts", and "Working it Out"). The new track "When I Find Love Again" was released as a single that same day, after being played on BBC's Radio 2 for the first time. The official music video for "When I Find Love Again" was released on 14 October 2014. The new version of the album also contains a 19-track live DVD recorded during Blunt's performance in the 2014 edition of the [Festival](Paléo)(Paléo Festival), Switzerland.
On 3 May 2015, Blunt was confirmed to be replacing [Keating](Ronan)(Ronan Keating) on the [season](seventh)(The X Factor (Australia season 7)) of *[X Factor Australia](The)(The X Factor (Australian TV series))*. He was joined by American rock musician [Isaak](Chris)(Chris Isaak) and returning judges [Sebastian](Guy)(Guy Sebastian) and [Minogue](Dannii)(Dannii Minogue).
### 2017–2019: *The Afterlove* and *Walk Away*
In early 2016, Blunt announced via his newsletter that he had started work on his fifth album. Titled *[Afterlove](The)(The Afterlove)*, it was released in March 2017. In 2019, Blunt collaborated with German DJ and producer [Farben](Alle)(Alle Farben) to release "Walk Away" in the dance music genre.
### 2019–present: *Once Upon a Mind*
Blunt's sixth album, *[Upon a Mind](Once)(Once Upon a Mind)*, was released on 25 October 2019. He released the song "Cold" as the lead single on 29 August.
His first "greatest hits" album *The Stars Beneath My Feet (2004–2021)* was released on 19 November 2021 and included four new songs, two of them released as singles: "Love Under Pressure" and "Unstoppable". A Greatest Hits tour followed, with UK dates in February 2022.
## Personal life
[[File:James Blunt NRJ 2014.jpg|thumb|right|Blunt and his wife Sofia at the 2014 [Music Award](NRJ)(NRJ Music Award)s]]
Blunt primarily resides on the Spanish island of [Ibiza](Ibiza). He also owns a [chalet](chalet) in the Swiss Alpine village of [Verbier](Verbier), where he has a ski lift named after him. In 2012, alongside motorcycle racer [Fogarty](Carl)(Carl Fogarty) and rugby player [Dallaglio](Lawrence)(Lawrence Dallaglio), he opened a restaurant at the top of the ski lift called La Vache. The same year, he was a victim of the [International phone hacking affair](News)(News International phone hacking scandal) and filed for damages in a civil case.
On 6 September 2014, Blunt married Sofia Wellesley, the granddaughter of [Wellesley, 8th Duke of Wellington](Valerian)(Valerian Wellesley, 8th Duke of Wellington).[www.burkespeerage.com](https://www.burkespeerage.com/) Blunt and Wellesley have two sons; the godfather of their elder son is [Sheeran](Ed)(Ed Sheeran), and the godmother was [Fisher](Carrie)(Carrie Fisher).
Blunt received the honorary degree of [of Music](Doctor)(Doctor of Music) (Hon DMus) from the [of Bristol](University)(University of Bristol) in 2016.[www.bristol.ac.uk](http://www.bristol.ac.uk/graduation/honorary-degrees/2016.html/blount.html/)
Blunt is an active user of [Twitter](Twitter) with over two million followers and a feed notable for self-deprecating humour. In 2020, [Constable](Constable (publisher)) published a compendium of his tweets as a book called *How to Be a Complete and Utter Blunt: Diary of a Reluctant Social Media Sensation*.
## Charity work
Blunt is a [patron](patron) of [for Heroes](Help)(Help for Heroes), a charity that raises money to provide better facilities for wounded British [servicemen](Soldier), and has also held benefit concerts for this charity.
He raises funds for the medical charity [Sans Frontières](Médecins)(Médecins Sans Frontières). He first encountered the non-governmental organisation while on operations in Kosovo. Since then, he has been an active supporter by holding meet-and-greet auctions at many of his concerts, and filming the documentary *[to Kosovo](Return)(James Blunt: Return to Kosovo)*, in which he visited the people and places he had encountered while there.
Blunt also supports environmental causes. He screened the trailer for *[Inconvenient Truth](An)(An Inconvenient Truth)* at his concerts, and for each advance sales concert ticket purchased through his designated website, a tree is planted. On 7 July 2007, he performed at the [Earth](Live)(Live Earth) concert at [Stadium](Wembley)(Wembley Stadium) in [London](London). He contributed to the charity single, "[Hurts](Everybody)(Everybody Hurts (Helping Haiti song))" in aid of the [Haiti earthquake](2010)(2010 Haiti earthquake) appeal.
## Discography
* *[to Bedlam](Back)(Back to Bedlam)* (2004)
* *[the Lost Souls](All)(All the Lost Souls)* (2007)
* *[Kind of Trouble](Some)(Some Kind of Trouble)* (2010)
* *[Landing](Moon)(Moon Landing (album))* (2013)
* *[Afterlove](The)(The Afterlove)* (2017)
* *[Upon a Mind](Once)(Once Upon a Mind)* (2019)
## Tours
;Headlining
*Back to Bedlam World Tour
*All the Lost Souls Tour
*Some Kind of Trouble Tour
*[Landing World Tour](Moon)(Moon Landing World Tour)
*[Afterlove Tour](The)(The Afterlove Tour)
*Once Upon a Mind Tour
*The Stars Beneath My Feet Tour
;Opening act
*[Tour](2004)(Elton John 2004 Tour)
*The Secret Migration Promo Tour
*[Road Tour](Peachtree)(Peachtree Road Tour)
*Fall Tour 2005
*2008 Summer Tour
*[Tour](÷)(÷ Tour)
## James Blunt Band
*[Brazil](Karl)(Karl Brazil) (drums, backing vocals): 2004–present
*Ben Castle (lead guitar, backing vocals): 2005–present
*[Garrison](John)(John Garrison (musician)) (bass, guitar, backing vocals): 2007–present
*Christopher Pemberton (keyboards, backing vocals): 2014–present
*Richard Cardwell (keyboards, backing vocals): 2014–present
*Kristoffer Sonne (drums): 2017–present
### Former members
*Daisy Blount (backing vocals): 2004
*[Freeman](Paul)(Paul Freeman (songwriter)) (lead guitar, backing vocals): 2004–2005
*Malcolm Moore (bass, backing vocals): 2004–2007, 2010–2014
*Paul Beard (piano, keyboards, backing vocals): 2004–2014Hardy, 2010, p. 3.
*Simon Lea (drums): 2014–2015
*Morten Hellborn (drums): 2015
## Awards and nominations
### Brit Awards
|-
|rowspan="5"|[2006](2006 Brit Awards)
|rowspan="3"|James Blunt
|[Pop Act](British)(Brit Award for British Pop Act)
|
|-
|[Male Solo Artist](British)(Brit Award for British Male Solo Artist)
|
|-
|[Breakthrough Act](British)(Brit Award for British Breakthrough Act)
|
|-
|*Back to Bedlam*
|[Album of the Year](British)(Brit Award for British Album of the Year)
|
|-
|"You're Beautiful"
|[Single of the Year](British)(Brit Award for British Single of the Year)
|
|-
|[2008](2008 Brit Awards)
|"1973"
|British Single of the Year
|
|}
### BT Digital Music Awards
|-
|[2005](BT Digital Music Awards#2005 Awards)
|James Blunt
|Best Pop Artist
|
|}
### Grammy Awards
|-
|rowspan="5"|[2007](49th Annual Grammy Awards)
|James Blunt
|[New Artist](Best)(Grammy Award for Best New Artist)
|
|-
|rowspan="3"|"You're Beautiful"
|[of the Year](Record)(Grammy Award for Record of the Year)
|
|-
|[of the Year](Song)(Grammy Award for Song of the Year)
|
|-
|[Male Pop Vocal Performance](Best)(Grammy Award for Best Male Pop Vocal Performance)
|
|-
|*Back to Bedlam*
|[Pop Vocal Album](Best)(Grammy Award for Best Pop Vocal Album)
|
|}
### MTV Australia Awards
|-
|rowspan="2"|[2006](MTV Australia Video Music Awards 2006)
|rowspan="2"|"You're Beautiful"
|Song of the Year
|
|-
|Best Male Artist
|
|}
### MTV Europe Music Awards
|-
|rowspan="3"|[2005](2005 MTV Europe Music Awards)
|rowspan="2"|James Blunt
|[New Act](Best)(MTV Europe Music Award for Best New Act)
|
|-
|[UK & Ireland Act](Best)(MTV Europe Music Award for Best UK & Ireland Act)
|
|-
|"You're Beautiful"
|[Song](Best)(MTV Europe Music Award for Best Song)
|
|}
### MTV Video Music Awards
|-
|rowspan="3"|[2006](2006 MTV Video Music Awards)
|rowspan="3"|"You're Beautiful"
|[New Artist](Best)(MTV Video Music Award for Best New Artist)
|
|-
|[Male Video](Best)(MTV Video Music Award for Best Male Video)
|
|-
|[Cinematography](Best)(MTV Video Music Award for Best Cinematography)
|
|}
### Q Awards
|-
|rowspan="3"|[2005](Q Awards#2005)
|James Blunt
|Best New Act
|
|-
|"You're Beautiful"
|Best Track
|
|-
|*Back to Bedlam*
|Best Album
|
|}
### Teen Choice Awards
|-
|rowspan="4"|[2006](2006 Teen Choice Awards)
|rowspan="2"|James Blunt
|Choice Music: Male Artist
|
|-
|Choice Music: Breakout Male Artist
|
|-
|rowspan="2"|"You're Beautiful"
|Choice Music: Single
|
|-
|Choice Music: Love Song
|
|}
### 2006
* [Music Award](NRJ)(NRJ Music Award) (France) – Best International Newcomer
* [Music Prize](Echo)(Echo Music Prize) (Germany) – Best International Newcomer
* [Awards](NME)(NME Awards) – Worst Album
* [Novello Awards](Ivor)(Ivor Novello Awards) – Most Performed Work and International Hit of the Year
* [Music Awards](World)(2006 World Music Awards) – Best New Artist in the World and Biggest Selling British Artist in the World
* [40 Principales](Premios)(Premios 40 Principales) – Mejor Artista Revelación Internacional (Nominated)
### 2007
* IFPI Hong Kong Top Sales Music Awards – Top 10 Best Selling Foreign Albums *[the Lost Souls](All)(All the Lost Souls)*
### 2008
* [Music Prize](Echo)(Echo Music Prize) (Germany) – Best International Male Artist
### 2010
* Virgin Media Music Awards – The Hottes
### 2011
*Elele Magazine Teen Idol of Turkey 2011
### 2014
*[Awards](NME)(NME Awards) for Best Band Blog or Twitter (nominated)
*[Music Awards](Hungarian)(Hungarian Music Awards) – Pop/Rock Album of the Year for *[Landing](Moon)(Moon Landing (album))*
### 2016
* [doctorate](Honorary)(Honorary doctorate) from the University of Bristol
## References
## Bibliography
* Hardy, Peter (2010). *Different Country, Same State*. London: Headline Publishing Group. . Retrieved 25 August 2013.
## See also
*[baronets](Blount)(Blount baronets)
## External links
*
*
}}
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|
Robert E. Lee
|
robert_e._lee
|
# Robert E. Lee
*Revision ID: 1159378222 | Timestamp: 2023-06-09T23:20:41Z*
---
| birth_date =
| birth_place = [Hall](Stratford)(Stratford Hall (plantation)), [County, Virginia](Westmoreland)(Westmoreland County, Virginia), U.S.
| death_date =
| death_place = [Virginia](Lexington,)(Lexington, Virginia), U.S.
| placeofburial = [Chapel](University)(University Chapel) at [and Lee University](Washington)(Washington and Lee University), [Virginia](Lexington,)(Lexington, Virginia), U.S.
| allegiance = [of Virginia](Commonwealth)(Commonwealth of Virginia)
| branch = [25px](File:Seal of the United States Board of War.png) [States Army](United)(United States Army)
| serviceyears =
| rank = [35px](File:Union Army colonel rank insignia.png) [Colonel](Colonel (United States))
(U.S.)[35px](File:Confederate States of America General-collar.svg) [General](General officers in the Confederate States Army) (C.S.)
| commands =
| battles =
| alma_mater = [States Military Academy](United)(United States Military Academy)
| spouse =
| children =
| relations =
| signature = Robert E Lee Signature.svg
| module =
}}
**Robert Edward Lee** (January 19, 1807 – October 12, 1870) was a [general](Confederate)(General officers in the Confederate States Army) during the [Civil War](American)(American Civil War), towards the end of which he was appointed the [commander](overall)(General in Chief of the Armies of the Confederate States) of the [States Army](Confederate)(Confederate States Army). He led the [of Northern Virginia](Army)(Army of Northern Virginia)—the Confederacy's most powerful army—from 1862 until its surrender in 1865, earning a reputation as a skilled tactician.
A son of Revolutionary War officer ["Light Horse Harry" Lee III](Henry)(Henry Lee III), Lee was a top graduate of the [States Military Academy](United)(United States Military Academy) and an exceptional officer and [engineer](military)(Military engineering) in the [States Army](United)(United States Army) for 32 years. He served across the United States, distinguished himself extensively during the [War](Mexican–American)(Mexican–American War), and was [of the United States Military Academy](Superintendent)(Superintendent of the United States Military Academy). He married [Anna Custis Lee](Mary)(Mary Anna Custis Lee), great-granddaughter of [Washington](George)(George Washington)'s wife [Martha](Martha Washington). While he opposed [slavery](slavery in the United States) from a philosophical perspective, he supported its legality and held hundreds of slaves. When Virginia [declared](Virginia Secession Convention of 1861) secession from the [Union](Union (American Civil War)) in 1861, Lee chose to follow his home state, despite his desire for the country to remain intact and an offer of a senior Union command. During the first year of the Civil War, he served in minor combat operations and as a senior military adviser to [President](Confederate)(President of the Confederate States of America) [Davis](Jefferson)(Jefferson Davis).
Lee took command of the Army of Northern Virginia in June 1862 during the [Campaign](Peninsula)(Peninsula Campaign) following the wounding of [E. Johnston](Joseph)(Joseph E. Johnston). He succeeded in driving the Union [of the Potomac](Army)(Army of the Potomac) under [B. McClellan](George)(George B. McClellan) away from the Confederate capital of [Richmond](Richmond, Virginia) during the [Days Battles](Seven)(Seven Days Battles), although he was unable to destroy McClellan's army. Lee then overcame Union forces under [Pope](John)(John Pope (military officer)) at the [Battle of Bull Run](Second)(Second Battle of Bull Run) in August. His [of Maryland](invasion)(Maryland Campaign) that September ended with the inconclusive [of Antietam](Battle)(Battle of Antietam), after which he retreated to Virginia. Lee won two of his most decisive victories at [Fredericksburg](Battle of Fredericksburg) and [Chancellorsville](Battle of Chancellorsville) before launching a [invasion of the North](second)(Gettysburg Campaign) in the summer of 1863, where he was decisively defeated at the [of Gettysburg](Battle)(Battle of Gettysburg) by the Army of the Potomac under [Meade](George)(George Meade). He led his army in the minor and inconclusive [Campaign](Bristoe)(Bristoe Campaign) that fall before General [S. Grant](Ulysses)(Ulysses S. Grant) took command of Union armies in the spring of 1864. Grant engaged Lee's army in bloody but inconclusive battles at the [Wilderness](Battle of the Wilderness) and [Spotsylvania](Battle of Spotsylvania Court House) before the lengthy [of Petersburg](Siege)(Siege of Petersburg), which was followed in April 1865 by the capture of Richmond and the destruction of most of Lee's army, which he finally surrendered to Grant at [Court House](Appomattox)(Battle of Appomattox Court House).
In 1865, Lee became president of Washington College (now [and Lee University](Washington)(Washington and Lee University)) in [Virginia](Lexington,)(Lexington, Virginia); in that position, he supported reconciliation between North and South. Lee accepted the extinction of slavery provided for by the [Amendment](Thirteenth)(Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution), but opposed [equality](racial)(racial equality) for [Americans](African)(African Americans). After his death in 1870, Lee became a cultural icon in the [South](Southern United States) and is largely hailed as one of the Civil War's greatest generals. As commander of the Army of Northern Virginia, he fought most of his battles against armies of significantly larger size, and managed to win many of them. Lee built up a collection of talented subordinates, most notably [Longstreet](James)(James Longstreet), [Jackson](Stonewall)(Stonewall Jackson), and [E. B. Stuart](J.)(J. E. B. Stuart), who along with Lee were critical to the Confederacy's battlefield success.Jay Luvaas, "Lee and the Operational Art: The Right Place, the Right Time", *Parameters: US Army War College*, September 1992, vol. 22#3, pp. 2–18. In spite of his success, his two major strategic offensives into Union territory both ended in failure. Lee's aggressive and risky tactics, especially at Gettysburg, which resulted in high casualties at a time when the Confederacy had a shortage of manpower, have come under criticism.
## Early life and education
Lee was born at [Hall Plantation](Stratford)(Stratford Hall Plantation) in [County, Virginia](Westmoreland)(Westmoreland County, Virginia), to [Lee III](Henry)(Henry Lee III) and [Hill Carter Lee](Anne)(Anne Hill Carter Lee) on January 19, 1807.Pryor, Elizabeth Brown (October 29, 2009). ["Robert E. Lee (ca. 1806–1870)"](http://encyclopediavirginia.org/Lee_Robert_Edward_1807-1870). [Encyclopedia Virginia](http://encyclopediavirginia.org/). Retrieved February 18, 2011. His ancestor, [Lee I](Richard)(Richard Lee I), emigrated from [Shropshire](Shropshire), [England](England), to Virginia in 1639.Harrison Dwight Cavanagh, *Colonial Chesapeake Families: British Origins and Descendants*, vol. 2 (Dallas, Tex.: p. p., 2014), 118–125, esp. 119.
Lee's father suffered severe financial reverses from failed investments and was put in [prison](debtors')(debtors' prison). Soon after his release the following year, the family moved to the city of [Alexandria](Alexandria, Virginia) which at the time was still part of the [of Columbia](District)(District of Columbia) (it [back to Virginia](retroceded)(District of Columbia retrocession) in 1847), both because there were then high quality local schools there, and because several members of Anne's extended family lived nearby. In 1811, the family, including the newly born sixth child, Mildred, moved to a house on Oronoco Street..In 1812 Lee's father moved permanently to the [Indies](West)(West Indies).. Lee attended Eastern View, a school for young gentlemen, in [County, Virginia](Fauquier)(Fauquier County, Virginia), and then at the Alexandria Academy, free for local boys, where he showed an aptitude for mathematics. Although brought up to be a practicing [Christian](Christians), he was not confirmed in the [Church](Episcopal)(Episcopal Church (United States)) until age 46..
Anne Lee's family was often supported by a relative, [Henry Fitzhugh](William)(William Henry Fitzhugh), who owned the Oronoco Street house and allowed the Lees to stay at his country home [Ravensworth](Ravensworth (plantation)). Fitzhugh wrote to [States Secretary of War](United)(United States Secretary of War), [C. Calhoun](John)(John C. Calhoun), urging that Robert be given an appointment to the [States Military Academy](United)(United States Military Academy) at West Point. Fitzhugh had young Robert deliver the letter.. Lee entered West Point in the summer of 1825. At the time, the focus of the curriculum was engineering; the head of the [States Army Corps of Engineers](United)(United States Army Corps of Engineers) supervised the school and the superintendent was an engineering officer. Cadets were not permitted leave until they finished two years of study and were rarely allowed off the academy grounds. Lee graduated second in his class behind [Mason](Charles)(Charles Mason (Iowa judge)) (who resigned from the Army a year after graduation). Lee did not incur any demerits during his four-year course of study, a distinction shared by only five of his 45 classmates. In June 1829, Lee was commissioned a [brevet](brevet (military)) second lieutenant in the Corps of Engineers.. After graduation, while awaiting assignment, he returned to Virginia to find his mother on her deathbed; she died at Ravensworth on July 26, 1829..
## Military engineer career
[[E Lee 1838.jpg|thumb|upright=.8|right|Lee at age 31 in 1838, as a Lieutenant of Engineers in the U.S. Army](File:Robert)]
On August 11, 1829, Brigadier General [Gratiot](Charles)(Charles Gratiot) ordered Lee to [Island](Cockspur)(Cockspur Island), [Georgia](Georgia (U.S. state)). The plan was to build a fort on the marshy island which would command the outlet of the [River](Savannah)(Savannah River). Lee was involved in the early stages of construction as the island was being drained and built up.. In 1831, it became apparent that the existing plan to build what became known as [Pulaski](Fort)(Fort Pulaski) would have to be revamped, and Lee was transferred to [Monroe](Fort)(Fort Monroe) at the tip of the [Peninsula](Virginia)(Virginia Peninsula) (today in [Virginia](Hampton,)(Hampton, Virginia))..
While home in the summer of 1829, Lee had apparently courted [Custis](Mary)(Mary Anna Custis Lee) whom he had known as a child. Lee obtained permission to write to her before leaving for Georgia, though Mary Custis warned Lee to be "discreet" in his writing, as her mother read her letters, especially from men.. Custis refused Lee the first time he asked to marry her; her father did not believe the son of the disgraced Light-Horse Harry Lee was a suitable man for his daughter.. She accepted him with her father's consent in September 1830, while he was on summer leave,. and the two were wed on June 30, 1831..
Lee's duties at Fort Monroe were varied, typical for a junior officer, and ranged from budgeting to designing buildings.. Although Mary Lee accompanied her husband to [Roads](Hampton)(Hampton Roads), she spent about a third of her time at Arlington, though the couple's first son, [Lee](Custis)(George Washington Custis Lee) was born at Fort Monroe. Although the two were by all accounts devoted to each other, they were different in character: Robert Lee was tidy and punctual, qualities his wife lacked. Mary Lee also had trouble transitioning from being a rich man's daughter to having to manage a household with only one or two slaves.. Beginning in 1832, Robert Lee had a close but platonic relationship with Harriett Talcott, wife of his fellow officer [Talcott](Andrew)(Andrew Talcott)..
Life at Fort Monroe was marked by conflicts between artillery and engineering officers. Eventually, the War Department transferred all engineering officers away from Fort Monroe, except Lee, who was ordered to take up residence on the artificial island of [Raps](Rip)(Rip Raps) across the river from Fort Monroe, where [Wool](Fort)(Fort Wool) would eventually rise, and continue work to improve the island. Lee duly moved there, then discharged all workers and informed the War Department he could not maintain laborers without the facilities of the fort..
In 1834, Lee was transferred to Washington as General Gratiot's assistant.. Lee had hoped to rent a house in Washington for his family, but was not able to find one; the family lived at Arlington, though Lieutenant Lee rented a room at a Washington boarding house for when the roads were impassable.. In mid-1835, Lee was assigned to assist Andrew Talcott in surveying the southern border of Michigan.. While on that expedition, he responded to a letter from an ill Mary Lee, which had requested he come to Arlington, "But why do you urge my *immediate* return, & tempt one in the *strongest* manner[?]... I rather require to be strengthened & encouraged to the *full* performance of what I am called on to execute." Lee completed the assignment and returned to his post in Washington, finding his wife ill at Ravensworth. Mary Lee, who had recently given birth to their second child, remained bedridden for several months. In October 1836, Lee was promoted to first lieutenant..
Lee served as an assistant in the chief engineer's office in Washington, D.C. from 1834 to 1837, but spent the summer of 1835 helping to lay out the state line between [Ohio](Ohio) and [Michigan](Michigan). As a [lieutenant](first)(First Lieutenant (United States)) of engineers in 1837, he supervised the engineering work for [Louis](St.)(St. Louis, Missouri) harbor and for the upper [Mississippi](Mississippi River) and [Missouri](Missouri River) rivers. Among his projects was the mapping of the [Moines Rapids](Des)(Des Moines Rapids) on the Mississippi above [Iowa](Keokuk,)(Keokuk, Iowa), where the Mississippi's mean depth of was the upper limit of steamboat traffic on the river. His work there earned him a promotion to [captain](Captain (United States O-3)). Around 1842, Captain Robert E. Lee arrived as [Hamilton](Fort)(Fort Hamilton)'s post engineer.
## Marriage and family
[[File:Robert E Lee 1845.jpg|thumb|upright|right|Robert E. Lee, around age 38, and his son [Henry Fitzhugh Lee](William)(William Henry Fitzhugh Lee), around age 8, c. 1845]]
While Lee was stationed at Fort Monroe, he married [Anna Randolph Custis](Mary)(Mary Anna Custis Lee) (1808–1873), great-granddaughter of [Washington](Martha)(Martha Washington) by her first husband [Parke Custis](Daniel)(Daniel Parke Custis), and step-great-granddaughter of [Washington](George)(George Washington), the first president of the United States. Mary was the only surviving child of [Washington Parke Custis](George)(George Washington Parke Custis), George Washington's stepgrandson, and [Lee Fitzhugh Custis](Mary)(Mary Lee Fitzhugh Custis), daughter of [Fitzhugh](William)(William Fitzhugh) and [Bolling Randolph](Ann)(Ann Bolling Randolph Fitzhugh). Robert and Mary married on June 30, 1831, at [House](Arlington)(Arlington House, The Robert E. Lee Memorial), her parents' house just across the Potomac from Washington. The 3rd U.S. Artillery served as honor guard at the marriage. They eventually had seven children, three boys and four girls:
# [Washington Custis Lee](George)(George Washington Custis Lee) (Custis, "Boo"); 1832–1913; served as major general in the Confederate Army and aide-de-camp to President Jefferson Davis, captured during the Battle of Sailor's Creek; unmarried
# [Custis Lee](Mary)(Mary Custis Lee) (Mary, "Daughter"); 1835–1918; unmarried
# [Henry Fitzhugh Lee](William)(William Henry Fitzhugh Lee) ("Rooney"); 1837–1891; served as major general in the Confederate Army (cavalry); married twice; surviving children by second marriage
# [Carter Lee](Anne)(Anne Carter Lee) (Annie); June 18, 1839 – October 20, 1862; died of [fever](typhoid)(typhoid fever), unmarried
# [Agnes Lee](Eleanor)(Eleanor Agnes Lee) (Agnes); 1841 – October 15, 1873; died of [tuberculosis](tuberculosis), unmarried
# [Edward Lee, Jr.](Robert)(Robert Edward Lee, Jr.) (Rob); 1843–1914; served in the Confederate Army, first as a private in the [Artillery](Rockbridge)(1st Rockbridge Artillery), later as a Captain on the staff of his brother Rooney; married twice; surviving children by second marriage
# [Childe Lee](Mildred)(Mildred Childe Lee) (Milly, "Precious Life"); 1846–1905; unmarried
All the children survived him except for Annie, who died in 1862. They are all buried with their parents in the crypt of the [Chapel](University)(University Chapel) at [and Lee University](Washington)(Washington and Lee University) in Lexington, Virginia.
Lee is a great-great-great-grandson of [Randolph](William)(William Randolph) and a great-great-grandson of [Bland](Richard)(Richard Bland (burgess)). [Lee](Fitzhugh)(Fitzhugh Lee) (1835–1905), a Confederate general and later a United States Army general in the [War](Spanish–American)(Spanish–American War), is Lee's nephew. Lee is a second cousin of [Keller](Helen)(Helen Keller)'s grandmother, and is a distant relative of Admiral [Augustus Lee](Willis)(Willis Augustus Lee).
On May 1, 1864, General Lee was present at the baptism of General [Hill](A.P.)(A.P. Hill)'s daughter, Lucy Lee Hill, to serve as her godfather. This is referenced in the painting *Tender is the Heart* by [Künstler](Mort)(Mort Künstler). He was also the godfather of actress and writer [Tyler](Odette)(Odette Tyler), the daughter of Brigadier General [Whedbee Kirkland](William)(William Whedbee Kirkland).
## Mexican–American War
[[E Lee 1851.jpg|thumb|upright|Robert E. Lee around age 43, when he was a brevet lieutenant-colonel of engineers, c. 1850](File:Robert)]
Lee distinguished himself in the [War](Mexican–American)(Mexican–American War) (1846–1848). He was one of [Scott](Winfield)(Winfield Scott)'s chief aides in the march from [Veracruz](Veracruz (city)) to Mexico City.. He was instrumental in several American victories through his personal reconnaissance as a staff officer; he found routes of attack that the [Mexicans](Mexico) had not defended because they thought the terrain was impassable.
He was promoted to [brevet](brevet (military)) major after the [of Cerro Gordo](Battle)(Battle of Cerro Gordo) on April 18, 1847.. He also fought at [Contreras](Battle of Contreras), [Churubusco](Battle of Churubusco), and [Chapultepec](Battle of Chapultepec) and was wounded at the last. By the end of the war, he had received additional brevet promotions to lieutenant colonel and colonel, but his permanent rank was still captain of engineers, and he would remain a captain until his transfer to the [cavalry](cavalry) in 1855.
For the first time, Robert E. Lee and [S. Grant](Ulysses)(Ulysses S. Grant) met and worked with each other during the Mexican–American War. Close observations of their commanders constituted a learning process for both Lee and Grant. The Mexican–American War concluded on February 2, 1848.
After the Mexican War, Lee spent three years at [Carroll](Fort)(Fort Carroll) in [Baltimore](Baltimore) harbor. During this time, his service was interrupted by other duties, among them surveying and updating maps in Florida. Cuban revolutionary [López](Narciso)(Narciso López) intended to forcibly liberate Cuba from Spanish rule. In 1849, searching for a leader for his [filibuster](Filibuster (military)) expedition, he approached Jefferson Davis, then a United States senator. Davis declined and suggested Lee, who also declined. Both decided it was inconsistent with their duties..
## Early 1850s: West Point and Texas
The 1850s were a difficult time for Lee, with his long absences from home, the increasing disability of his wife, troubles in taking over the management of a large slave plantation, and his often morbid concern with his personal failures.
In 1852, Lee was appointed Superintendent of the [Academy at West Point](Military)(United States Military Academy).. He was reluctant to enter what he called a "snake pit", but the War Department insisted and he obeyed. His wife occasionally came to visit. During his three years at West Point, Brevet Colonel Robert E. Lee improved the buildings and courses and spent much time with the cadets. Lee's oldest son, George Washington Custis Lee, attended West Point during his tenure. Custis Lee graduated in 1854, first in his class..
Lee was enormously relieved to receive a long-awaited promotion as second-in-command of the [Cavalry Regiment](2nd)(5th Cavalry Regiment) in Texas in 1855. It meant leaving the Engineering Corps and its sequence of staff jobs for the combat command he truly wanted. He served under Colonel [Sidney Johnston](Albert)(Albert Sidney Johnston) at [Cooper](Camp)(Camp Cooper), Texas; their mission was to protect settlers from attacks by the [Apache](Apache) and the [Comanche](Comanche).
## Late 1850s: Arlington plantation and the Custis slaves
In 1857, his father-in-law [Washington Parke Custis](George)(George Washington Parke Custis) died, creating a serious crisis when Lee took on the burden of [executing](Executor) the [will](Will and testament). Custis's will encompassed vast landholdings and hundreds of slaves balanced against massive debts, and required Custis's former slaves "to be emancipated by my executors in such manner as to my executors may seem most expedient and proper, the said emancipation to be accomplished in not exceeding five years from the time of my decease". The estate was in disarray, and the plantations had been poorly managed and were losing money.
Lee tried to hire an overseer to handle the plantation in his absence, writing to his cousin, "I wish to get an energetic honest farmer, who while he will be considerate & kind to the negroes, will be firm & make them do their duty.". But Lee failed to find a man for the job, and had to take a two-year leave of absence from the army in order to run the plantation himself.
Lee's more strict expectations and harsher punishments of the slaves on Arlington plantation nearly led to a slave revolt, since many of the slaves had been given to understand that they were to be made free as soon as Custis died, and protested angrily at the delay.Wesley Norris, [interview](http://fair-use.org/national-anti-slavery-standard/1866/04/14/robert-e-lee-his-brutality-to-his-slaves) in *National Anti-Slavery Standard* (April 14, 1866) 4, reprinted in . In May 1858, Lee wrote to his son Rooney, "I have had some trouble with some of the people. Reuben, Parks & Edward, in the beginning of the previous week, rebelled against my authority—refused to obey my orders, & said they were as free as I was, etc., etc.—I succeeded in capturing them & lodging them in jail. They resisted till overpowered & called upon the other people to rescue them." Less than two months after they were sent to the [Alexandria](Alexandria, Virginia) jail, Lee decided to remove these three men and three female house slaves from Arlington, and sent them under lock and key to the slave-trader William Overton Winston in [Richmond](Richmond, Virginia), who was instructed to keep them in jail until he could find "good & responsible" slaveholders to work them until the end of the five-year period.
By 1860 only one slave family was left intact on the estate. Some of the families had been together since their time at Mount Vernon.
### The Norris case
In 1859, three of the Arlington slaves—Wesley Norris, his sister Mary, and a cousin of theirs—fled for the North, but were captured a few miles from the [Pennsylvania](Pennsylvania) border and forced to return to Arlington. On June 24, 1859, the anti-slavery newspaper *[York Daily Tribune](New)(New York Tribune)* published two anonymous letters (dated June 19, 1859[Letter from "A Citizen"](http://fair-use.org/new-york-tribune/1859/06/24/letter-from-a-citizen), *New York Tribune*, June 24, 1859. . and June 21, 1859["Some Facts That Should Come To Light"](http://fair-use.org/new-york-tribune/1859/06/24/some-facts-that-should-come-to-light), *New York Tribune*, June 24, 1859. .), each claiming to have heard that Lee had the Norrises whipped, and each going so far as to claim that the overseer refused to whip the woman but that Lee took the whip and flogged her personally. Lee privately wrote to his son Custis that "The N. Y. Tribune has attacked me for my treatment of your grandfather's slaves, but I shall not reply. He has left me an unpleasant legacy.".
Wesley Norris himself spoke out about the incident after the war, in an 1866 interview printed in an abolitionist newspaper, the *[Anti-Slavery Standard](National)(National Anti-Slavery Standard)*. Norris stated that after they had been captured, and forced to return to Arlington, Lee told them that "he would teach us a lesson we would not soon forget". According to Norris, Lee then had the three of them firmly tied to posts by the overseer, and ordered them whipped with fifty lashes for the men and twenty for Mary Norris. Norris claimed that Lee encouraged the whipping, and that when the overseer refused to do it, called in the county constable to do it instead. Unlike the anonymous letter writers, he does not state that Lee himself whipped any of the slaves. According to Norris, Lee "frequently enjoined [Constable] Williams to 'lay it on well', an injunction which he did not fail to heed; not satisfied with simply lacerating our naked flesh, Gen. Lee then ordered the overseer to thoroughly wash our backs with [brine](brine), which was done."Wesley Norris, ["Testimony of Wesley Norris"](http://fair-use.org/wesley-norris/testimony-of-wesley-norris), *National Anti-Slavery Standard*, April 14, 1866.
The Norris men were then sent by Lee's agent to work on the railroads in Virginia and [Alabama](Alabama). According to the interview, Norris was sent to Richmond in January 1863 "from which place I finally made my escape through the rebel lines to freedom". But Federal authorities reported that Norris came within their lines on September 5, 1863, and that he "left Richmond ... with a pass from General Custis Lee."*War of the Rebellion: Official Records of the Union and Confederate Armies*, Series 1, volume 29, part 2, pp. 158–159 (Meade to Halleck, September 6, 1863, 4 p.m.). [http://ebooks.library.cornell.edu/cgi/t/text/pageviewer-idx?c=moawar;cc=moawar;q1=wesley;q2=norris;op2=near;op3=near;rgn=full%20text;amt2=40;amt3=40;idno=waro0049;didno=waro0049;view=image;seq=160;page=root;size=100]Monte Akers, *Year of Desperate Struggle: Jeb Stuart and His Cavalry, from Gettysburg to Yellow Tavern, 1863–1864*, p.102 [https://books.google.com/books?id=ifuxBgAAQBAJ&dq=norris+pass+%22g.w.+custis+lee%22&pg=PA102] Lee freed the Custis slaves, including Wesley Norris, after the end of the five-year period in the winter of 1862, filing the deed of [manumission](manumission) on December 29, 1862..List of Slaves Emancipated in the Will of George W. P. Custis, December 29, 1862 ("Sally Norris [and] Len Norris and their three children: Mary, Sally and Wesley") [http://www.ccharity.com/contents/transcriptions-wills-property-tax-rolls-inventory-lists-and-newspaper-clippings-contributed-website/list-slaves-emancipated-will-george-w-p-custis-december-29-1862/]
Biographers of Lee have differed over the credibility of the account of the punishment as described in the letters in the *Tribune* and in Norris's personal account. They broadly agree that Lee had a group of escaped slaves recaptured, and that, after recapturing them, he hired them out off of the Arlington plantation as a punishment; however, they disagree over the likelihood that Lee flogged them, and over the charge that he personally whipped Mary Norris. In 1934, [S. Freeman](Douglas)(Douglas S. Freeman) described them as "Lee's first experience with the extravagance of irresponsible antislavery agitators" and asserted that "There is no evidence, direct or indirect, that Lee ever had them or any other Negroes flogged. The usage at Arlington and elsewhere in Virginia among people of Lee's station forbade such a thing.".
In 2000, Michael Fellman, in *[Making of Robert E. Lee](The)(The Making of Robert E. Lee)*, found the claims that Lee had personally whipped Mary Norris "extremely unlikely", but found it not at all unlikely that Lee had ordered the runaways whipped: "corporal punishment (for which Lee substituted the euphemism 'firmness') was (believed to be) an intrinsic and necessary part of slave discipline. Although it was supposed to be applied only in a calm and rational manner, overtly physical domination of slaves, unchecked by law, was always brutal and potentially savage.".
In 2003, Bernice-Marie Yates's *The Perfect Gentleman*, cited Freeman's denial and followed his account in holding that, because of Lee's family connections to George Washington, he "was a prime target for abolitionists who lacked all the facts of the situation".
Lee biographer Elizabeth Brown Pryor concluded in 2008 that "the facts are verifiable", based on "the consistency of the five extant descriptions of the episode (the only element that is not repeatedly corroborated is the allegation that Lee gave the beatings himself), as well as the existence of an account book that indicates the constable received compensation from Lee on the date that this event occurred".Elizabeth Brown Pryor, Reading the Man: A Portrait of Robert E. Lee Through His Private Letters (New York: Penguin, 2008), chapter 16.Ariel Burriss, ["The Fugitive Slaves of Robert E. Lee: From Arlington to Westminster"](http://www.crossroadsofwar.org/wp-content/uploads/CWS_Robert-E.-Lees-Slaves.pdf).
In 2014, Michael Korda wrote that "Although these letters are dismissed by most of Lee's biographers as exaggerated, or simply as unfounded abolitionist propaganda, it is hard to ignore them.... It seems incongruously out of character for Lee to have whipped a slave woman himself, particularly one stripped to the waist, and that charge may have been a flourish added by the two correspondents; it was not repeated by Wesley Norris when his account of the incident was published in 1866. ... [A]lthough it seems unlikely that he would have done any of the whipping himself, he may not have flinched from observing it to make sure his orders were carried out exactly.".
### Lee's views on race and slavery
Several historians have noted what they consider the contradictory nature of Lee's beliefs and actions concerning race and slavery. While Lee protested he had sympathetic feelings for blacks, they were subordinate to his own racial identity.. While Lee held slavery to be an evil institution, he also saw some benefit to blacks held in slavery.Cox, R. David. *The Religious Life of Robert E. Lee* 2017, , p. 157. While Lee helped assist individual slaves to freedom in Liberia, and provided for their emancipation in his own will,. he believed the enslaved should be eventually freed in a general way only at some unspecified future date as a part of God's purpose. Slavery for Lee was a moral and religious issue, and not one that would yield to political solutions.. Emancipation would sooner come from Christian impulse among slave masters before "storms and tempests of fiery controversy" such as was occurring in "[Kansas](Bleeding)(Bleeding Kansas)". Countering Southerners who argued for [as a positive good](slavery)(Slavery as a positive good in the United States), Lee in his well-known analysis of slavery from an 1856 letter (*see below*) called it a moral and political evil. While both Lee and his wife were disgusted with slavery, they also defended it against [abolitionist](Abolitionism) demands for immediate emancipation for all enslaved..
Lee argued that slavery was bad for white people, claiming that he found slavery bothersome and time-consuming as an everyday institution to run. In an 1856 letter to his wife, he maintained that slavery was a great evil, but primarily due to adverse impact that it had on white people:
In this enlightened age, there are few I believe, but what will acknowledge, that slavery as an institution, is a moral & political evil in any Country. It is useless to expatiate on its disadvantages. I think it however a greater evil to the white man than to the black race, & while my feelings are strongly enlisted in behalf of the latter, my sympathies are more strong for the former. The blacks are immeasurably better off here than in Africa, morally, socially & physically. The painful discipline they are undergoing, is necessary for their instruction as a race, & I hope will prepare & lead them to better things. How long their subjugation may be necessary is known & ordered by a wise Merciful Providence..
Before leaving to serve in Mexico, Lee had written a will providing for the [manumission](manumission) of the slaves he owned, "a woman and her children inherited from his mother and apparently leased to his father-in-law and later sold to him".. Lee's father-in-law, [W. Parke Custis](G.)(George Washington Parke Custis), was a member of the [Colonization Society](American)(American Colonization Society), which was formed to gradually end slavery by establishing a free republic in [Liberia](Liberia) for African-Americans, and Lee assisted several ex-slaves to emigrate there. Also, according to historian Richard B. McCaslin, Lee was a gradual emancipationist, denouncing extremist proposals for the immediate abolition of slavery. Lee rejected what he called evilly motivated political passion, fearing a civil and servile war from precipitous emancipation..
Historian [Brown Pryor](Elizabeth)(Elizabeth Brown Pryor) offered an alternative interpretation of Lee's voluntary manumission of slaves in his will, and assisting slaves to a life of freedom in Liberia, seeing Lee as conforming to a "primacy of slave law". She wrote that Lee's private views on race and slavery,
: "which today seem startling, were entirely unremarkable in Lee's world. No visionary, Lee nearly always tried to conform to accepted opinions. His assessment of black inferiority, of the necessity of racial stratification, the primacy of slave law, and even a divine sanction for it all, was in keeping with the prevailing views of other moderate slaveholders and a good many prominent Northerners."Pryor, Elizabeth Brown. [Reading the Man: A Portrait of Robert E. Lee through his private letters](https://www.amazon.com/Reading-Man-Portrait-Through-Private/dp/0143113909) (2008), p. 151.
In 1857, George Custis died, leaving Robert Lee as the executor of his estate, which included nearly 200 slaves. In his will, Custis stated the slaves were to be freed within five years of his death. On taking on the role of administrator for the Parke Custis will, Lee used a provision to retain them in slavery to produce income for the estate to retire debt.. Lee did not welcome the role of planter while administering the Custis properties at Romancoke, another nearby the Pamunkey River and Arlington; he rented the estate's mill. While all the estates prospered under his administration, Lee was unhappy at direct participation in slavery as a hated institution..
Even before what Michael Fellman called a "sorry involvement in actual slave management", Lee judged the experience of white mastery to be a greater moral evil to the white man than blacks suffering under the "painful discipline" of slavery which introduced Christianity, literacy and a work ethic to the "heathen African".. Columbia University historian [Foner](Eric)(Eric Foner) notes that:
: Lee "was not a pro-slavery ideologue. But I think equally important is that, unlike some white southerners, he never spoke out against slavery"
By the time of Lee's career in the U.S. Army, the officers of West Point stood aloof from political-party and sectional strife on such issues as slavery, as a matter of principle, and Lee adhered to the precedent.Skelton, William B., [ An American Profession of Arms: the Army Officer Corps, 1784–1861](https://archive.org/details/americanprofessi00skel), 1992, p. 285. "Officers developed a conception of the army as an apolitical instrument of public policy. As servants of the nation, they should stand aloof from party and sectional strife" and avoid taking public positions on controversial issues such as slavery.Davis, William. [Crucible of Command: Ulysses S. Grant and Robert E. Lee](https://www.amazon.com/Crucible-Command-Ulysses-Robert-Lee/dp/0306822458/ref=sr_1_1?s=books&ie=UTF8&qid=1511772719&sr=1-1&keywords=Crucible+of+Command%3A+Ulysses+S.+Grant+and+Robert+E.+Lee) (2015), p. 46. "From early manhood Lee held a low opinion of politicians, and believed military men should stay out of politics." He considered it his patriotic duty to be apolitical while in active Army service,. In 1863, even before Chancellorsville, Lee began to advance, "for the first time, a political understanding of the war, quite unlike his previous apolitical belief in duty".Taylor, John. [Duty Faithfully Performed: Robert E. Lee and His Critics](https://www.amazon.com/Duty-Faithfully-Performed-Robert-Critics/dp/157488297X), 1999, p. 223. "He epitomized the nonpolitical tradition in the U.S. military, and his lifelong attempt to remain aloof from the political turmoil about him would be emulated by twentieth-century soldiers ..."Pryor, Elizabeth Brown. [Reading the Man: A Portrait of Roberty E. Lee](https://www.amazon.com/Reading-Man-Portrait-Through-Private/dp/0143113909), 2008, p. 284. Pryor notes in describing Lee's public silence on controversial sectional issues such as slavery, that the regular army "was an apolitical institution, which discouraged displays of partisan sentiment and muted any parochialism in its officers. At the military academy a cadet was 'taught that he belongs no longer to section or party but, in his life and all his faculties, to his country'." and Lee did not speak out publicly on the subject of slavery prior to the Civil War.Foner, Eric quoted in Fortin, Jacey. ["What Robert E. Lee Wrote to the Times About Slavery in 1858"](https://www.nytimes.com/2017/08/18/us/robert-e-lee-slaves.html), NYT Aug 18, "unlike some white southerners, [Lee] never spoke out against slavery".. "Lee believed in God's time, not man's, and God's disposition, not human politics. So when it came to grappling with the issue of slavery, he could not comprehend why men could not leave well enough alone. ... on major public conflicts, Lee had no active position." Before the outbreak of the War, in 1860, Lee voted for [C. Breckinridge](John)(John C. Breckinridge), who was the extreme pro-slavery candidate in the 1860 presidential election, not [Bell](John)(John Bell (Tennessee politician)), the more moderate Southerner who won Virginia.
Lee himself owned a small number of slaves in his lifetime and considered himself a paternalistic master. There are various historical and newspaper hearsay accounts of Lee personally whipping a slave, but they are not direct eyewitness accounts. He was definitely involved in administering the day-to-day operations of a plantation and was involved in the recapture of runaway slaves. One historian noted that Lee separated slave families, something that prominent slave-holding families in Virginia such as Washington and Custis did not do. On December 29, 1862, Lee freed all the slaves his wife had inherited from George Custis, but this was in accordance with the Custis will, as that was the last day he was allowed to legally retain them. Prior to this, Lee had petitioned the courts to keep the Custis slaves longer than the five years allotted in Custis' will, since the estate was still in debt, but the courts rejected his appeals. In 1866, one of Lee's former slaves, Wesley Norris, charged that Lee personally beat him and other slaves harshly after they had tried to run away from Arlington. Lee never publicly responded to this charge, but privately told a friend "There is not a word of truth in it ... No servant, soldier, or citizen, that was ever employed by me can with truth charge me with bad treatment.”
Foner writes that "Lee's code of gentlemanly conduct did not seem to apply to blacks" during the War, as he did not stop his soldiers from kidnapping free black farmers and selling them into slavery. Princeton University historian [M. McPherson](James)(James M. McPherson) noted that Lee initially rejected a [exchange between the Confederacy and the Union](prisoner)(American Civil War prison camps#Prisoner exchanges) when the Union demanded that black Union soldiers be included. Lee did not accept the swap until a few months before the Confederacy's surrender. He also called the [Proclamation](Emancipation)(Emancipation Proclamation) "a savage and brutal policy...which leaves us no alternative but success or degradation worse than death".
As the war dragged on and Lee's losses mounted, he eventually advocated enlisting slaves in the Confederate army in exchange for freedom. However, he came to this position with great reluctance. In an 1865 letter to his friend [Hunter](Andrew)(Andrew Hunter (lawyer)), he wrote: "Considering the relation of master and slave, controlled by humane laws and influenced by Christianity and an enlightened public sentiment, as the best that can exist between the white and black races while intermingled as at present in this country, I would deprecate any sudden disturbance of that relation unless it be necessary to avert a greater calamity to both. I should therefore prefer to rely upon our white population to preserve the ratio between our forces and those of the enemy, which experience has shown to be safe. But in view of the preparations of our enemies, it is our duty to provide for continued war and not for a battle or a campaign, and I fear that we cannot accomplish this without overtaxing the capacity of our white population."
After the War, Lee told a congressional committee that blacks were "not disposed to work" and did not possess the intellectual capacity to vote and participate in politics. Lee also said to the committee that he hoped that Virginia could "get rid of them", referring to blacks. While not politically active, Lee defended Lincoln's successor [Johnson](Andrew)(Andrew Johnson)'s approach to Reconstruction, which according to Foner, "abandoned the former slaves to the mercy of governments controlled by their former owners". According to Foner, "A word from Lee might have encouraged white Southerners to accord blacks equal rights and inhibited the violence against the freed people that swept the region during Reconstruction, but he chose to remain silent." Lee was also urged to condemn the white-supremacy organization [Klux Klan](Ku)(Ku Klux Klan), but opted to remain silent.
In the generation following the war, Lee, though he died just a few years later, became a central figure in the [Cause](Lost)(Lost Cause of the Confederacy) interpretation of the war. The argument that Lee had always somehow opposed slavery, and freed his wife's slaves, helped maintain his stature as a symbol of Southern honor and national reconciliation.
## Harpers Ferry and return to Texas, 1859–1861
Both [Ferry](Harpers)(John Brown's raid on Harpers Ferry) and the [of Texas](secession)(Texas in the American Civil War) were monumental events leading up to the Civil War. Robert E. Lee was at both events. Lee initially remained loyal to the Union after Texas seceded.
### Harpers Ferry
[Brown](John)(John Brown (abolitionist)) led a band of 21 abolitionists who seized the [arsenal](federal)(Harpers Ferry Armory) at [Ferry](Harpers)(Harpers Ferry, West Virginia), Virginia, in October 1859, hoping to incite a slave rebellion. President [Buchanan](James)(James Buchanan) gave Lee command of detachments of militia, soldiers, and [States Marines](United)(United States Marines), to suppress the uprising and arrest its leaders.. By the time Lee arrived that night, the militia on the site had surrounded Brown and his hostages. At dawn, Brown refused the demand for surrender. Lee attacked, and Brown and his followers were captured after three minutes of fighting. Lee's summary report of the episode shows Lee believed it "was the attempt of a fanatic or madman". Lee said Brown achieved "temporary success" by creating panic and confusion and by "magnifying" the number of participants involved in the raid.
### Texas
In 1860, Lt. Col. Robert E. Lee relieved Major [Heintzelman](Samuel P. Heintzelman) at [Brown](Fort)(Fort Brown, Texas), and the Mexican authorities offered to restrain "their citizens from making predatory descents upon the territory and people of Texas ... this was the last active operation of the [War](Cortina)(Cortina War)". [Ford](Rip)(Rip Ford), a [Ranger](Texas)(Texas Rangers Division) at the time, described Lee as "dignified without hauteur, grand without pride ... he evinced an imperturbable self-possession, and a complete control of his passions ... possessing the capacity to accomplish great ends and the gift of controlling and leading men".
When Texas seceded from the [Union](Union (American Civil War)) in February 1861, General [E. Twiggs](David)(David E. Twiggs) surrendered all the American forces (about 4,000 men, including Lee, and commander of the Department of Texas) to the Texans. Twiggs immediately resigned from the U.S. Army and was made a Confederate general. Lee went back to Washington and was appointed Colonel of the First Regiment of Cavalry in March 1861. Lee's colonelcy was signed by the new president, Abraham Lincoln. Three weeks after his promotion, Colonel Lee was offered a senior command (with the rank of Major General) in the expanding Army to fight the Southern States that had left the Union. [Mason, Texas](Fort)(Fort Mason (Texas)), was Lee's last command with the United States Army.
## Civil War
### Resignation from United States Army
Unlike many Southerners who expected a glorious war, Lee correctly predicted it as protracted and devastating. He privately opposed the new [States of America](Confederate)(Confederate States of America) in letters in early 1861, denouncing secession as "nothing but revolution" and an unconstitutional betrayal of the efforts of the [Fathers](Founding)(Founding Fathers). Writing to George Washington Custis in January, Lee stated:
}}
[[E Lee in 1863.png|thumb|Lee in uniform, 1863](File:Robert)]
Despite opposing secession, Lee said in January that "we can with a clear conscience separate" if all peaceful means failed. He agreed with secessionists in most areas, rejecting the Northern abolitionists' criticisms and their prevention of the expansion of slavery to the new western territories, and fear of the North's larger population. Lee supported the [Compromise](Crittenden)(Crittenden Compromise), which would have constitutionally protected slavery.
Lee's objection to secession was ultimately outweighed by a sense of personal honor, reservations about the legitimacy of a strife-ridden "Union that can only be maintained by swords and bayonets", and his duty to defend his native Virginia if attacked. He was asked while leaving Texas by a lieutenant if he intended to fight for the Confederacy or the Union, to which Lee replied, "I shall never bear arms against the Union, but it may be necessary for me to carry a musket in the defense of my native state, Virginia, in which case I shall not prove recreant to my duty"..
Although Virginia had the most slaves of any state, it was more similar to Maryland, which stayed in the Union, than to the Deep South; a convention voted against secession in early 1861. Scott, commanding general of the Union Army and Lee's mentor, told Lincoln he wanted him for a top command, telling Secretary of War [Cameron](Simon)(Simon Cameron) that he had "entire confidence" in Lee. Lee accepted a promotion to colonel of the [Cavalry Regiment](1st)(1st Cavalry Regiment (United States)) on March 28, again swearing an oath to the United States.. Meanwhile, Lee ignored an offer of command from the Confederacy. After Lincoln's call for troops to put down the rebellion, a second Virginia convention in Richmond voted to secede on April 17, and a May 23 referendum would likely ratify the decision. That night Lee dined with brother [Smith](Sydney Smith Lee) and cousin [Phillips](Samuel Phillips Lee), naval officers. Because of Lee's indecision, Phillips went to the War Department the next morning to warn that the Union might lose his cousin if the government did not act quickly.
In Washington that day, Lee was offered by presidential advisor [P. Blair](Francis)(Francis P. Blair) a role as major general to command the [of the national capital](defense)(Civil War Defenses of Washington). He replied:
}}
Lee immediately went to Scott, who tried to persuade him that Union forces would be large enough to prevent the South from fighting, so he would not have to oppose his state; Lee disagreed. When Lee asked if he could go home and not fight, the fellow Virginian said that the army did not need equivocal soldiers and that if he wanted to resign, he should do so before receiving official orders. Scott told him that Lee had made "the greatest mistake of your life".
Lee agreed that to avoid dishonor he had to resign before receiving unwanted orders. While historians have usually called his decision inevitable ("the answer he was born to make", wrote [Southall Freeman](Douglas)(Douglas Southall Freeman); another called it a "no-brainer") given the ties to family and state, an 1871 letter from his eldest daughter, Mary Custis Lee, to a biographer described Lee as "worn and harassed" yet calm as he deliberated alone in his office. People on the street noticed Lee's grim face as he tried to decide over the next two days, and he later said that he kept the resignation letter for a day before sending it on April 20. Two days later the Richmond convention invited Lee to the city. It elected him as commander of Virginia state forces before his arrival on April 23, and almost immediately gave him George Washington's sword as symbol of his appointment; whether he was told of a decision he did not want without time to decide, or did want the excitement and opportunity of command, is unclear..
A cousin on Scott's staff told the family that Lee's decision so upset Scott that he collapsed on a sofa and mourned as if he had lost a son, and asked to not hear Lee's name. When Lee told family his decision, he said "I suppose you will all think I have done very wrong", as the others were mostly pro-Union; only Mary Custis was a secessionist, and her mother especially wanted to choose the Union, but told her husband that she would support whatever he decided. Many younger men like nephew [Fitzhugh](Fitzhugh Lee) wanted to support the Confederacy, but Lee's three sons joined the Confederate military only after their father's decision.
Most family members, like brother Smith, also reluctantly chose the South, but Smith's wife and Anne, Lee's sister, still supported the Union; Anne's son joined the Union Army, and no one in his family ever spoke to Lee again. Many cousins fought for the Confederacy, but Phillips and John Fitzgerald told Lee in person that they would uphold their oaths; [H. Upshur](John)(John H. Upshur) stayed with the Union military despite much family pressure; [Jones](Roger)(Roger Jones (Inspector General)) stayed in the Union army after Lee refused to advise him on what to do; and two of [Fendall](Philip)(Philip Richard Fendall II)'s sons fought for the Union. Forty percent of Virginian officers stayed with the North.
### Early role
At the outbreak of war, Lee was appointed to command all of Virginia's forces, which then encompassed the [Army of Virginia](Provisional)(Provisional Army of Virginia) and the [State Navy](Virginia)(Virginia State Navy). He was appointed a Major General by the Virginia Governor, but upon the formation of the Confederate States Army, he was named one of its first five [generals](full)(Full General (CSA)). Lee did not wear the insignia of a Confederate general, but only the three stars of a Confederate colonel, equivalent to his last U.S. Army rank.. He did not intend to wear a general's insignia until the Civil War had been won and he could be promoted, in peacetime, to general in the Confederate Army.
Lee's first field assignment was commanding Confederate forces in western Virginia, where he was defeated at the [of Cheat Mountain](Battle)(Battle of Cheat Mountain) and was widely blamed for Confederate setbacks.. He was then sent to organize the coastal defenses along the Carolina and Georgia seaboard, appointed commander, "Department of South Carolina, Georgia and Florida" on November 5, 1861. Between then and the fall of [Pulaski](Fort)(Battle of Fort Pulaski), April 11, 1862, he put in place a defense of Savannah that proved successful in blocking Federal advance on Savannah. Confederate fort and naval gunnery dictated nighttime movement and construction by the besiegers. Federal preparations required four months. In those four months, Lee developed a defense in depth. Behind Fort Pulaski on the Savannah River, [Jackson](Fort)(Fort James Jackson) was improved, and two additional batteries covered river approaches.Fort Pulaski's masonry was impervious to round shot, but it was penetrated in 30 hours by [rifle](Parrott)(Parrott rifle) guns, much to the surprise of senior commanders of both sides. In the future, Confederate breastworks defending coastal areas were successfully protected against rifle-fired explosive projectiles with banks of dirt and sand such as at Fort McAllister. Later, holding the city of Savannah would allow two additional attempts at breaking the Union blockade with ironclads [Atlanta*](*CSS)(USS Atlanta (1861)) (1862) and [Savannah*](*CSS)(CSS Savannah (ironclad)) (1863). In the face of the Union superiority in naval, artillery and infantry deployment, Lee was able to block any Federal advance on Savannah, and at the same time, well-trained Georgia troops were released in time to meet McClellan's Peninsula Campaign. The city of Savannah would not fall until [approach from the interior](Sherman's)(Sherman's March to the Sea) at the end of 1864.
At first, the press spoke to the disappointment of losing Fort Pulaski. Surprised by the effectiveness of large caliber Parrott Rifles in their first deployment, it was widely speculated that only betrayal could have brought overnight surrender to a [System Fort](Third)(Seacoast defense in the United States). Lee was said to have failed to get effective support in the Savannah River from the three sidewheeler gunboats of the Georgia Navy. Although again blamed by the press for Confederate reverses, he was appointed military adviser to [President](Confederate)(President of the Confederate States) [Davis](Jefferson)(Jefferson Davis), the former [Secretary of War](U.S.)(United States Secretary of War). While in [Richmond](Richmond, Virginia), Lee was ridiculed as the 'King of Spades' for his excessive digging of trenches around the capitol. These trenches would later play a pivotal role in battles near the end of the war.*Foot Soldier: The Rebels*. Prod. A&E Television Network. Karn, Richard. The History Channel. 1998. DVD. A&E Television Networks, 2008.
### Commander, Army of Northern Virginia (June 1862 – June 1863)
In the spring of 1862, during the [Campaign](Peninsula)(Peninsula Campaign), the Union [of the Potomac](Army)(Army of the Potomac) under General [B. McClellan](George)(George B. McClellan) advanced on Richmond from [Monroe](Fort)(Fort Monroe). Progressing up the Peninsula, McClellan forced Gen. [E. Johnston](Joseph)(Joseph E. Johnston) and the Army of Virginia to retreat to a point just north and east of the Confederate capital.
Johnston was wounded at the [of Seven Pines](Battle)(Battle of Seven Pines), on June 1, 1862, giving Lee his first opportunity to lead an army in the field – the force he renamed the [of *Northern* Virginia](Army)(Army of Northern Virginia), signalling confidence that the Union army could be driven away from Richmond. Early in the war, Lee had been called "Granny Lee" for his allegedly timid style of command.. Confederate newspaper editorials objected to him replacing Johnston, opining that Lee would be passive, waiting for Union attack. This seemed true, initially; for the first three weeks of June, Lee did not show aggression, instead strengthening Richmond's defenses.
[[File:General R. E. Lee and Traveler.jpg|thumb|left|Lee mounted on [Traveller](Traveller (horse)) (September 1866)]]
However, on June 25, he surprised the Army of the Potomac and launched a rapid series of bold attacks: the [Days Battles](Seven)(Seven Days Battles). Despite superior Union numbers and some clumsy tactical performances by his subordinates, Lee's attacks derailed McClellan's plans and drove back most of his forces. Confederate casualties were heavy, but an unnerved McClellan, famed for his caution, retreated to the lower [River](James)(James River (Virginia)), and abandoned the Peninsula completely in August. This success changed Confederate morale and the public's regard for Lee. After the Seven Days Battles, and until the end of the war, his men called him “Marse Robert", a term of respect and affection.
The setback, and the resulting drop in Union morale, impelled Lincoln to adopt a new policy of relentless, committed warfare... After the Seven Days, Lincoln decided he had to move to emancipate most Confederate slaves by executive order, as a military act, using his authority as commander-in-chief.. To make this possible, he needed a Union victory.
Wheeling to the north, Lee marched rapidly towards Washington, D.C. and defeated another Union army under Gen. [Pope](John)(John Pope (military officer)) at the [Battle of Bull Run](Second)(Second Battle of Bull Run) in late August. He eliminated Pope before reinforcements from McClellan arrived, knocking out an entire field command before another could arrive to support it. In less than 90 days, Lee had run McClellan off the Peninsula, defeated Pope, and moved the battle lines north, from north of Richmond to south of Washington.
Lee chose to take the battle off southern ground and invaded Maryland and Pennsylvania, hoping to collect supplies in Union territory, and possibly win a victory that would sway [upcoming Union elections](the)(United States elections, 1862) in favor of ending the war. This was sent amiss when McClellan's men found a lost Confederate dispatch, [Order 191](Special)(Special Order 191), revealing Lee's plans and movements. McClellan always exaggerated Lee's numerical strength, but now he knew the Confederate army was divided and could be destroyed in detail. Still, in a characteristic manner, McClellan moved slowly; he failed to realize a spy had informed Lee that he possessed the plans. Lee quickly concentrated his forces west of Antietam Creek, near [Maryland](Sharpsburg,)(Sharpsburg, Maryland), where McClellan attacked on September 17. The [of Antietam](Battle)(Battle of Antietam) was the single bloodiest day of the war, with both sides suffering enormous losses. Lee's army barely withstood the Union assaults, and retreated to Virginia the next day. The narrow Confederate defeat gave President [Lincoln](Abraham)(Abraham Lincoln) the opportunity to issue his [Proclamation](Emancipation)(Emancipation Proclamation),. which put the Confederacy on the diplomatic and moral defensive..
Disappointed by McClellan's failure to destroy Lee's army, Lincoln named [Burnside](Ambrose)(Ambrose Burnside) the commander of the Army of the Potomac. Burnside ordered an attack across the [River](Rappahannock)(Rappahannock River) at [Virginia](Fredericksburg,)(Fredericksburg, Virginia). Delays in bridging the river allowed Lee's army ample time to organize strong defenses, and [Union frontal assault](the)(Battle of Fredericksburg) on December 13, 1862, was a disaster. There were 12,600 Union casualties to 5,000 Confederate, making the engagement one of the most one-sided battles in the Civil War.. After this victory, Lee reportedly said, "It is well that war is so terrible, else we should grow too fond of it." At Fredericksburg, according to historian Michael Fellman, Lee had completely entered into the "spirit of war, where destructiveness took on its own beauty".
The bitter Union defeat at Fredericksburg prompted President Lincoln to appoint [Hooker](Joseph)(Joseph Hooker) as the next commander of the Army of the Potomac. In May 1863, Hooker maneuvered to attack Lee's army by crossing the Rapahannock further upriver and positioning himself at the [crossroads](Chancellorsville)(Chancellorsville, Virginia). Doing this could give him an opportunity to strike Lee in the rear, but the Confederate General barely managed to pivot his forces in time to face an attack. Hooker's command was nearly twice the size of Lee's but he nonetheless [beaten](was)(Battle of Chancellorsville) after Lee performed a daring movement that broke all terms of conventional warfare: dividing his army. Lee sent [Jackson](Stonewall)(Stonewall Jackson)'s corps to attack Hooker's exposed flank, on the opposite side of the battlefield. The decisive victory that followed came with a price. Among the heavy casualties was Jackson, his finest corps commander, accidentally fired on by his own troops.
Even though he scored another impressive victory over an enemy army much larger than his own, Lee felt unsatisfied by the fact that he had made little territorial gains up to that point. Things were going poorly for the Confederacy in the West, and Lee started to grow restless; he devised a plan to once again invade the North, for similar reasons to before: relieve Virginia and its citizens of the weariness of battle, and potentially march on the Federal Capital and force terms of peace.
### Battle of Gettysburg
Critical decisions came in May–June 1863, after Lee's smashing victory at the Battle of Chancellorsville. The western front was crumbling, as multiple uncoordinated Confederate armies were unable to handle General [S. Grant](Ulysses)(Ulysses S. Grant)'s campaign against Vicksburg. The top military advisers wanted to save Vicksburg, but Lee persuaded Davis to overrule them and authorize yet another invasion of the North. The immediate goal was to acquire urgently needed supplies from the rich farming districts of Pennsylvania; a long-term goal was to stimulate peace activity in the North by demonstrating the power of the South to invade. Lee's decision proved a significant strategic blunder and cost the Confederacy control of its western regions, and nearly cost Lee his own army as Union forces cut him off from the South.Stephen W. Sears, "'We Should Assume the Aggressive': Origins of the Gettysburg Campaign", *North and South: The Official Magazine of the Civil War Society*, March 2002, vol. 5#4, pp. 58–66; Donald Stoker, *The Grand Design: Strategy and the U.S. Civil War* (2010) p. 295 says that "attacking Grant would have been the wiser choice" for Lee.
[[File:Thure de Thulstrup - L. Prang and Co. - Battle of Gettysburg - Restoration by Adam Cuerden.jpg|thumb|right|upright=1.4|Battle of Gettysburg, by [de Thulstrup](Thure)(Thure de Thulstrup)]]
Lee launched the [Campaign](Gettysburg)(Gettysburg Campaign) when he abandoned his position on the Rapahannock and crossed the Potomac River into Maryland in June. Hooker mobilized his men and pursued, but was replaced by Gen. [G. Meade](George)(George G. Meade) on June 28, a few days before the two armies [clashed](Battle of Gettysburg) at the town of Gettysburg, Pennsylvania in early July; the battle produced the largest number of casualties in the American Civil War. Some of Lee's subordinates were new and inexperienced to their commands, and [Stuart](J.E.B.)(J.E.B. Stuart)’s cavalry failed to perform effective reconnaissance. The first day was a surprise affair for both sides, and the Confederates managed to rally their forces first, pushing the panicked Union troops away from town, and towards key terrain that should have been taken by [Ewell](General)(Richard S. Ewell), but was not. The second day unfolded differently for the Confederates. They took too much time to assemble, and launched repeated failed assaults against the Union left flank over difficult terrain. Lee's decision on the third day, going against the advice of his best corps commander, Gen. [Longstreet](James)(James Longstreet), to launch a massive frontal assault on the center of the Union line, was disastrous. It was carried out over a wide field, and has come to be known commonly as [Charge](Pickett's)(Pickett's Charge). Easily repulsed, Pickett’s Charge, named after the [general](George Pickett) whose division participated, resulted in severe Confederate losses. Lee rode out to meet the remains of the division and proclaimed, "All this has been my fault." He had no choice but to withdraw, and he escaped Meade's ineffective pursuit, slipping back into Virginia.
Following his defeat at Gettysburg, Lee sent a letter of resignation to President Davis on August 8, 1863, but Davis refused Lee's pleads to retire. That fall, Lee and Meade met again in two minor campaigns, [Bristoe](Bristoe Campaign) and [Run](Mine)(Mine Run Campaign), that did little to change the strategic standoff. The Confederate Army never fully recovered from the substantial losses incurred during the three-day battle in southern Pennsylvania. Civil War Historian [Foote](Shelby)(Shelby Foote) once stated, "Gettysburg was the price the South paid for having Robert E. Lee as commander."
### Ulysses S. Grant and the Union offensive
In 1864 the new Union general-in-chief, Lt. Gen. [S. Grant](Ulysses)(Ulysses S. Grant), sought to use his large advantages in manpower and material resources to destroy Lee's army by [attrition](attrition warfare), pinning Lee against his capital of Richmond. Lee successfully stopped each attack, but Grant with his superior numbers kept pushing each time a bit farther to the southeast. These battles in the [Campaign](Overland)(Overland Campaign) included the [Wilderness](Battle of the Wilderness), [Court House](Spotsylvania)(Battle of Spotsylvania Court House) and [Harbor](Cold)(Battle of Cold Harbor).
Grant eventually was able to stealthily move his army across the [River](James)(James River (Virginia)). After stopping a Union attempt to capture [Virginia](Petersburg,)(Petersburg, Virginia), a vital railroad link supplying Richmond, Lee's men built elaborate trenches and were besieged in Petersburg, a development which presaged the [warfare](trench)(trench warfare) of [War I](World)(World War I). Lee attempted to break the stalemate by sending [A. Early](Jubal)(Jubal A. Early) on a raid through the [Valley](Shenandoah)(Shenandoah Valley) to Washington, D.C., but Early was defeated early on by the superior forces of [Sheridan](Philip)(Philip Sheridan). The [of Petersburg](Siege)(Siege of Petersburg) lasted from June 1864 until March 1865, with Lee's outnumbered and poorly supplied army shrinking daily because of desertions by disheartened Confederates.
### General in Chief
[[File:Robt E Lee & Staff by Brady, 1865.jpg|thumb|right|upright|Lee with son Custis (left) and aide [H. Taylor](Walter)(Walter H. Taylor) (right) by [Brady](Mathew Brady), April 16, 1865]]
On February 6, 1865, Lee was appointed [in Chief of the Armies of the Confederate States](General)(General in Chief of the Armies of the Confederate States).
As the South ran out of manpower the issue of arming the slaves became paramount. Lee explained, "We should employ them without delay ... [with](along) gradual and general emancipation". The first units were in training as the war ended... As the Confederate army was devastated by casualties, disease and desertion, the Union attack on [Petersburg](Petersburg, Virginia) succeeded on April 2, 1865. Lee abandoned Richmond and retreated west. Lee then made an attempt to escape to the southwest and join up with Joseph E. Johnston's Army of Tennessee in North Carolina. However, his forces were soon surrounded and he surrendered them to Grant on April 9, 1865, at the [of Appomattox Court House](Battle)(Battle of Appomattox Court House).. Other Confederate armies followed suit and the war ended. The day after his surrender, Lee issued his [Address](Farewell)(Lee's Farewell Address) to his army.
Lee resisted calls by some officers to reject surrender and allow small units to melt away into the mountains, setting up a lengthy guerrilla war. He insisted the war was over and energetically campaigned for inter-sectional reconciliation. "So far from engaging in a war to perpetuate slavery, I am rejoiced that slavery is abolished. I believe it will be greatly for the interests of the South.".
## Summaries of Lee's Civil War battles
The following are summaries of Civil War campaigns and major battles where Robert E. Lee was the commanding officer:
## Postbellum life
[[File:Levin C. Handy - General Robert E. Lee in May 1869.jpg|thumb|left|Lee in 1869 (photo by [C. Handy](Levin)(Levin Corbin Handy))]]
After the war, Lee was not arrested or punished (although he was indicted),, lecture given by historian John Reeves at the [National Archives and Records Administration](U.S.)(U.S. National Archives and Records Administration) on June 13, 2018 but he did lose the right to vote as well as some property. Lee's prewar family home, the [Mansion](Custis-Lee)(Arlington House, The Robert E. Lee Memorial), was seized by Union forces during the war and turned into [National Cemetery](Arlington)(Arlington National Cemetery), and his family was not compensated until more than a decade after his death.In December 1882, the U.S. Supreme Court returned the property to Lee's son because it had been confiscated without due process of law. In 1883, the government paid the Lee family US$150,000 ().
In 1866, Lee counseled Southerners not to resume fighting, of which Grant said Lee was "setting an example of forced acquiescence so grudging and pernicious in its effects as to be hardly realized". Lee joined with Democrats in opposing the Radical Republicans, who demanded punitive measures against the South, distrusted the South's commitment to the abolition of slavery, and, indeed, distrusted the region's loyalty to the United States... Lee supported a system of free public schools for blacks but forthrightly opposed allowing blacks to vote: "My own opinion is that, at this time, they [Southerners](black) cannot vote intelligently, and that giving them the [vote] would lead to a great deal of demagogism, and lead to embarrassments in various ways.". [Thomas](Emory)(Emory Thomas) says Lee had become a suffering Christ-like icon for ex-Confederates. President Grant invited him to the White House in 1869, and he went. Nationally he became an icon of reconciliation between the North and South, and the reintegration of former Confederates into the national fabric..
[[E Lee with his Generals, 1869.jpg|thumb|upright=1.5|General Lee and his Confederate officers in their first meeting since Appomattox, August 1869](File:Robert)]
Lee hoped to retire to a farm of his own, but he was too much a regional symbol to live in obscurity. From April to June 1865, he and his family resided in Richmond at the [House](Stewart-Lee)(Stewart-Lee House). He accepted an offer to serve as the president of Washington College (now [and Lee University](Washington)(Washington and Lee University)) in [Virginia](Lexington,)(Lexington, Virginia), and served from October 1865 until his death. The Trustees used his famous name in large-scale fund-raising appeals and Lee transformed Washington College into a leading Southern college, expanding its offerings significantly, adding programs in commerce and journalism, and incorporating the [Law School](Lexington)(Washington and Lee University School of Law). Lee was well liked by the students, which enabled him to announce an "[system](honor)(honor system)" like that of West Point, explaining that "we have but one rule here, and it is that every student be a [gentleman](Gentleman#Robert E. Lee)". To speed up national reconciliation Lee recruited students from the North and made certain they were well treated on campus and in town..
Several glowing appraisals of Lee's tenure as college president have survived, depicting the dignity and respect he commanded among all. Previously, most students had been obliged to occupy the campus dormitories, while only the most mature were allowed to live off-campus. Lee quickly reversed this rule, requiring most students to board off-campus, and allowing only the most mature to live in the dorms as a mark of privilege; the results of this policy were considered a success. A typical account by a professor there states that "the students fairly worshipped him, and deeply dreaded his displeasure; yet so kind, affable, and gentle was he toward them that all loved to approach him. ... No student would have dared to violate General Lee's expressed wish or appeal."
While at Washington College, Lee told a colleague that the greatest mistake of his life was taking a military education. He also defended his father in a biographical sketch..
### President Johnson's amnesty pardons
[[File:Robert E Lee's Amnesty Oath 1865.gif|thumb|Oath of [amnesty](amnesty) submitted by Robert E. Lee in 1865]]
On May 29, 1865, President [Johnson](Andrew)(Andrew Johnson) issued a Proclamation of [Amnesty](Amnesty) and [Pardon](Pardon) to persons who had participated in the [rebellion](rebellion) against the United States. There were fourteen excepted classes, though, and members of those classes had to make special application to the president. Lee sent an application to Grant and wrote to President Johnson on June 13, 1865:
}}
On October 2, 1865, the same day that Lee was inaugurated as president of [College](Washington)(Washington and Lee University) in [Virginia](Lexington,)(Lexington, Virginia), he signed his Amnesty Oath, thereby complying fully with the provision of Johnson's proclamation. Lee was not pardoned, nor was his citizenship restored.
Three years later, on December 25, 1868, Johnson proclaimed a second amnesty which removed previous exceptions, such as the one that affected Lee.
### Postwar politics
Lee, who had opposed secession and remained mostly indifferent to politics before the Civil War, supported President [Johnson](Andrew)(Andrew Johnson)'s plan of Presidential [Reconstruction](Reconstruction era of the United States) that took effect in 1865–66. However, he opposed the Congressional Republican program that took effect in 1867. In February 1866, he was called to testify before the [Congressional Committee on Reconstruction](Joint)(United States Congress Joint Committee on Reconstruction) in Washington, where he expressed support for Johnson's plans for quick restoration of the former Confederate states, and argued that restoration should return, as far as possible, to the *[quo ante](status)(status quo ante bellum)* in the Southern states' governments (with the exception of slavery)..
[[File:Robert E Lee Edward Caledon Bruce 1865.jpeg|thumb|upright|left|*Robert E. Lee*, oil on canvas, Edward Calledon Bruce, 1865. [Historical Society](Virginia)(Virginia Historical Society)]]
Lee told the committee that "every one with whom I associate expresses kind feelings towards the freedmen. They wish to see them get on in the world, and particularly to take up some occupation for a living, and to turn their hands to some work." Lee also expressed his "willingness that blacks should be educated, and ... that it would be better for the blacks and for the whites". Lee forthrightly opposed allowing blacks to vote: "My own opinion is that, at this time, they [Southerners](black) cannot vote intelligently, and that giving them the [vote] would lead to a great deal of demagogism, and lead to embarrassments in various ways.".
In an interview in May 1866, Lee said: "The Radical party are likely to do a great deal of harm, for we wish now for good feeling to grow up between North and South, and the President, Mr. Johnson, has been doing much to strengthen the feeling in favor of the Union among us. The relations between the Negroes and the whites were friendly formerly, and would remain so if legislation be not passed in favor of the blacks, in a way that will only do them harm.".
In 1868, Lee's ally [H. H. Stuart](Alexander)(Alexander H. H. Stuart) drafted a public letter of endorsement for the [Party's](Democratic)(United States Democratic Party) [campaign](presidential)(1868 United States presidential election), in which [Seymour](Horatio)(Horatio Seymour) ran against Lee's old foe Republican Grant. Lee signed it along with thirty-one other ex-Confederates. The Democratic campaign, eager to publicize the endorsement, published the statement widely in newspapers.. Their letter claimed paternalistic concern for the welfare of freed Southern blacks, stating that "The idea that the Southern people are hostile to the negroes and would oppress them, if it were in their power to do so, is entirely unfounded. They have grown up in our midst, and we have been accustomed from childhood to look upon them with kindness.". However, it also called for the restoration of white political rule, arguing that "It is true that the people of the South, in common with a large majority of the people of the North and West, are, for obvious reasons, inflexibly opposed to any system of laws that would place the political power of the country in the hands of the negro race. But this opposition springs from no feeling of enmity, but from a deep-seated conviction that, at present, the negroes have neither the intelligence nor the other qualifications which are necessary to make them safe depositories of political power.".
In his public statements and private correspondence, Lee argued that a tone of reconciliation and patience would further the interests of white Southerners better than hotheaded antagonism to federal authority or the use of violence. Lee repeatedly expelled white students from Washington College for violent attacks on local black men, and publicly urged obedience to the authorities and respect for law and order.. He privately chastised fellow ex-Confederates such as Davis and [Early](Jubal)(Jubal Early) for their frequent, angry responses to perceived Northern insults, writing in private to them as he had written to a magazine editor in 1865, that "It should be the object of all to avoid controversy, to allay passion, give full scope to reason and to every kindly feeling. By doing this and encouraging our citizens to engage in the duties of life with all their heart and mind, with a determination not to be turned aside by thoughts of the past and fears of the future, our country will not only be restored in material prosperity, but will be advanced in science, in virtue and in religion.".
## Illness and death
On September 28, 1870, Lee suffered a stroke. He died two weeks later, shortly after 9 a.m. on October 12, 1870, in [Virginia](Lexington,)(Lexington, Virginia), from the effects of [pneumonia](pneumonia). According to one account, his last words on the day of his death, were "Tell [Hill](A. P. Hill) he *must* come up! Strike the tent", but this is debatable because of conflicting accounts and because Lee's stroke had resulted in [aphasia](aphasia), possibly rendering him unable to speak.
At first no suitable coffin for the body could be located. The muddy roads were too flooded for anyone to get in or out of the town of Lexington. An undertaker had ordered three from Richmond that had reached Lexington, but due to unprecedented flooding from long-continued heavy rains, the caskets were washed down the [River](Maury)(Maury River). Two neighborhood boys, C.G. Chittum and Robert E. Hillis, found one of the coffins that had been swept ashore. Undamaged, it was used for the General's body, though it was a bit short for him. As a result, Lee was buried without shoes.. He was buried underneath the college chapel now known as [Chapel](University)(University Chapel) at [and Lee University](Washington)(Washington and Lee University), where his body remains.
## Legacy
[[Edward Lee in art at the Battle of Chancellorsville in a stained glass window of the Washington National Cathedral, from- Robert E Lee Stain Glass (cropped).JPG|thumb|150px|Robert Edward Lee in art at the Battle of Chancellorsville in a stained glass window of the Washington National Cathedral](File:Robert)]
Among the supporters of the Confederacy, Lee came to be even more revered after his surrender than he had been during the war, when [Jackson](Stonewall)(Stonewall Jackson) had been the great Confederate hero. In an 1874 address before the [Historical Society](Southern)(Southern Historical Society) in [Atlanta](Atlanta), Georgia, [Harvey Hill](Benjamin)(Benjamin Harvey Hill) described Lee in this way:
}}
By the end of the 19th century, Lee's popularity had spread to the North. Lee's admirers have pointed to his character and devotion to duty, and his occasional tactical successes in battles against a stronger foe.
Military historians continue to pay attention to his battlefield tactics and maneuvering, though many think he should have designed better strategic plans for the Confederacy. He was not given full direction of the Southern war effort until late in the conflict.
Historian [Foner](Eric)(Eric Foner) writes that at the end of his life
Robert E. Lee has been commemorated on U.S. postage stamps at least five times, the first one being a commemorative stamp that also honored [Jackson](Stonewall)(Stonewall Jackson), issued in 1936. A second "regular-issue" stamp was issued in 1955. He was commemorated with a 32-cent stamp issued in the American Civil War Issue of June 29, 1995. His horse Traveller is pictured in the background."32c Robert E. Lee single", Arago: people, postage & the post, National Postal Museum online, viewed May 7, 2014. An image of the stamp is available at Arago, [Robert E. Lee stamp](http://arago.si.edu/index.asp?con=2&cmd=1&id=192339&img=1&mode=2&pg=1&tid=2043413) .
Washington and Lee University in Lexington, Virginia was commemorated on its 200th anniversary on November 23, 1948, with a three-cent postage stamp. The central design is a view of the university, flanked by portraits of generals George Washington and Robert E. Lee.Rod, Steven J., "Landing of the Pilgrims Issue", Arago: people, postage & the post, National Postal Museum. Viewed March 19, 2014. Lee was again commemorated on a commemorative stamp in 1970, along with Jefferson Davis and Thomas J. "Stonewall" Jackson, depicted on horseback on the six-cent Stone Mountain Memorial commemorative issue, modeled after the actual [Mountain Memorial](Stone)(Stone Mountain Memorial) carving in Georgia. The stamp was issued on September 19, 1970, in conjunction with the dedication of the Stone Mountain Confederate Memorial in Georgia on May 9, 1970. The design of the stamp replicates the memorial, the largest high relief sculpture in the world. It is carved on the side of Stone Mountain 400 feet above the ground."Stone Mountain Memorial Issue", Arago: people, postage & the post, National Postal Museum online, viewed March 16, 2014.
[[of President Gerald R. Ford Signing Joint Resolution 23, Restoration of the Citizenship Rights to the Late Robert E. Lee, at the Custis Lee Mansion in Arlington National Cemetery in Arlington, Virginia - NARA - 7462033.jpg|thumb|left|President Gerald Ford signs Joint Resolution 23 at Arlington National Cemetery on August 5, 1975, restoring the citizenship rights of Robert E. Lee](File:Photograph)]
Stone Mountain also led to Lee's appearance on a [coin](commemorative)(Early United States commemorative coins), the 1925 [Mountain Memorial half dollar](Stone)(Stone Mountain Memorial half dollar). During the 1920s and '30s dozens of specially designed half dollars were struck to raise money for various events and causes. This issue had a particularly wide distribution, with 1,314,709 minted. Unlike some of the other issues it remains a very common coin.
In 1865, after the war, Lee was paroled and signed an [of allegiance](oath)(Loyalty oath), asking to have his [of the United States](citizenship)(citizenship of the United States) restored. However, his application was not processed by Secretary of State [Seward](William)(William Seward), and as a result Lee did not receive a pardon and his citizenship was not restored.["General Robert E. Lee's Parole and Citizenship"](https://www.archives.gov/publications/prologue/2005/spring/piece-lee.html), *Prologue*, Spring 2005, vol. 37, no. 1. On January 30, 1975, Senate Joint Resolution 23, "A joint resolution to restore posthumously full rights of citizenship to General R. E. Lee" was introduced into the Senate by Senator [F. Byrd Jr.](Harry)(Harry F. Byrd Jr.) (I-VA), the result of a five-year campaign to accomplish this. Proponents portrayed the lack of pardon as a mere clerical error. The resolution, which enacted Public Law 94–67, was passed, and the bill was signed by President [Ford](Gerald)(Gerald Ford) on August 5. Ten objecting Congressmen argued the resolution should include [for Vietnam war draft dodgers](amnesty)(Draft dodger#Vietnam War), subsequently granted in 1977.
World War II general [S. Patton](George)(George S. Patton) said he had prayed to a portrait of General Lee, as well as one of [Jackson](Stonewall)(Stonewall Jackson), as a young child, believing them to be portraits of God and Jesus, and associating their features with his perceptions of the two men.
### Monuments, memorials and commemorations
Lee opposed the construction of public memorials to Confederate rebellion on the grounds that they would prevent the healing of wounds inflicted during the war.Simon Romero, [The Lees Are Complex': Descendants Grapple With a Rebel General's Legacy"](https://www.nytimes.com/2017/08/22/us/lee-family-confederate-monuments-legacy.html), *ThebNew York Times* (August 22, 2017). Nevertheless, after his death, he became an icon used by promoters of "[Cause](Lost)(Lost Cause of the Confederacy)" mythology, who sought to romanticize the Confederate cause and strengthen [supremacy](white)(white supremacy) in the South. Later in the 20th century, particularly following the [rights movement](civil)(civil rights movement), historians reassessed Lee; his reputation fell based on his failure to support rights for [freedmen](Freedman) after the war, and even his strategic choices as a military leader fell under scrutiny. The truth about Confederate Gen. Robert E. Lee: He wasn't very good at his job |last=Rosenwald |first=Michael S. |date=October 8, 2017 |newspaper=The Washington Post |access-date= October 9, 2017 |issn= 0190-8286}}
[[House front view.JPG|thumb|Facade view of Arlington House, the Robert E. Lee Memorial — at Arlington National Cemetery, in Virginia, pictured in 2006](File:Arlington)]
[House, The Robert E. Lee Memorial](Arlington)(Arlington House, The Robert E. Lee Memorial), also known as the Custis–Lee Mansion, is a [revival](Greek)(Greek Revival architecture) mansion in Arlington, Virginia, that was once Lee's home. It overlooks the [River](Potomac)(Potomac River) and the [Mall](National)(National Mall) in Washington, D.C. During the Civil War, the grounds of the mansion were selected as the site of [National Cemetery](Arlington)(Arlington National Cemetery), in part to ensure that Lee would never again be able to return to his home. The United States designated the mansion as a [Memorial](National)(National Memorial (United States)) to Lee in 1955, a mark of widespread respect for him in both the [North](Northern United States) and [South](Southern United States).
[[Lee statue unveiling.jpg|thumb|left|150px|Unveiling of the Equestrian Statue of Robert E. Lee, May 29, 1890, Richmond, Virginia](File:1890)]
In Richmond, Virginia, a [equestrian statue of Lee](large)(Robert E. Lee Monument (Richmond, Virginia)) by French sculptor [Antonin Mercié](Jean)(Jean Antonin Mercié) was the centerpiece of [Avenue](Monument)(Monument Avenue), along with four other statues of Confederates. This monument to Lee was unveiled on May 29, 1890; over 100,000 people attended this dedication. That has been described as "the day white Virginia stopped admiring Gen. Robert E. Lee and started worshiping him". The four other Confederate statues were removed in 2020, and the equestrian statue of Lee was removed on September 8, 2021 at the direction of the state government.
Lee is also shown mounted on Traveller in [National Military Park](Gettysburg)(Gettysburg National Military Park) on top of the Virginia Monument; he is facing roughly in the direction of [Charge](Pickett's)(Pickett's Charge). Lee's portrayal on a mural on Richmond's [wall](flood)(flood wall) on the [River](James)(James River), considered offensive by some, was removed in the late 1990s, but currently is back on the flood wall.
In [Baltimore](Baltimore)'s Wyman Park, a large double equestrian statue of Lee and Jackson is located directly across from the Baltimore Museum of Art. Designed by Laura Gardin Fraser and dedicated in 1948, Lee is depicted astride his horse Traveller next to Stonewall Jackson who is mounted on "Little Sorrel". Architect John Russell Pope created the base, which was dedicated on the anniversary of the eve of the [of Chancellorsville](Battle)(Battle of Chancellorsville). The Baltimore area of [Maryland](Maryland) is also home to a large nature park called [E. Lee Memorial Park](Robert)(Robert E. Lee Memorial Park).
[[File:Stone mountain closeup mosaic crop.jpg|thumb|[Davis](Jefferson)(Jefferson Davis), Lee, and Stonewall Jackson at [Mountain](Stone)(Stone Mountain#Carving)]]
A statue of Robert E. Lee was one of the two statues (the other is George Washington) representing [Virginia](Virginia) in [Hall](Statuary)(National Statuary Hall) in the [Capitol](U.S.)(United States Capitol) in Washington, D.C. It was removed from the Capitol on December 21, 2020, after a state commission voted to replace it with a statue of Civil Rights activist [Rose Johns](Barbara)(Barbara Rose Johns). Lee is one of the figures depicted in [bas-relief](bas-relief) carved into [Mountain](Stone)(Stone Mountain) near [Atlanta](Atlanta). Accompanying him on horseback in the relief are Stonewall Jackson and Jefferson Davis.
The birthday of Robert E. Lee is celebrated or commemorated in several states. In Texas, he is celebrated as part of [Heroes Day](Confederate)(Confederate Memorial Day) on January 19, Lee's birthday. In Alabama and Mississippi, his birthday is celebrated on the same day as Martin Luther King, Jr. Day, while in Georgia, this occurred on the day after Thanksgiving before 2016, when the state stopped officially recognizing the holiday. In Virginia, [Day](Lee–Jackson)(Lee–Jackson Day) was celebrated on the Friday preceding [Luther King, Jr. Day](Martin)(Martin Luther King, Jr. Day) which is the third Monday in January, until 2020, when the Virginia legislature eliminated the holiday, making Election Day a state holiday instead.
One United States college and one junior college are named for Lee: [and Lee University](Washington)(Washington and Lee University) in Lexington, Virginia; and [College](Lee)(Lee College) in Baytown, Texas, respectively. [Chapel](University)(University Chapel) at Washington and Lee University marks Lee's final resting place. Throughout the South, many primary and secondary schools were also named for him as well as private schools such as [E. Lee Academy](Robert)(Robert E. Lee Academy) in Bishopville, South Carolina.
Lee is featured on the 1925 [Mountain Memorial half dollar](Stone)(Stone Mountain Memorial half dollar).
File:Lee r.jpg|*[E. Lee](Robert)(Robert E. Lee (Valentine))*, [Statuary Hall](National)(National Statuary Hall), Washington, D.C. [Virginius Valentine](Edward)(Edward Virginius Valentine), sculptor, 1909
File:Robert-E-Lee-by-Sievers.jpg|Robert E Lee, [Virginia](Virginia) Monument, [Pennsylvania](Gettysburg,)(Gettysburg, Pennsylvania), [William Sievers](Frederick)(Frederick William Sievers), sculptor, 1917
File:Monument Ave Robert E. Lee.jpg|[E. Lee Monument](Robert)(Robert E. Lee Monument (Richmond, Virginia)) by [Mercié](Mercié), Monument Avenue, [Virginia](Richmond,)(Richmond, Virginia), 1890
File:Lee4.JPG|Statue of Lee at the [War Memorial](Confederate)(Confederate War Memorial (Dallas)), Dallas, 1896
File:Confederate Monument in Murray cropped.JPG|Statue of Lee in [Kentucky](Murray,)(Murray, Kentucky)
File:Lee Chapel.jpg|[Chapel](University)(University Chapel) on the campus of [and Lee University](Washington)(Washington and Lee University)
[[*Robert E. Lee*](File:CSSRobertELee.jpg|thumb|CSS)]
In 1862, the newly formed Confederate Navy purchased a 642-ton iron-hulled side-wheel gunboat, built in at Glasgow, Scotland, and gave her the name of [*Robert E. Lee*](CSS)(CSS Robert E. Lee) in honor of this Confederate General. During the next year, she became one of the South's most famous [blockade runners](Confederate)(Blockade runners of the American Civil War), successfully making more than twenty runs through the Union blockade.
The [River](Mississippi)(Mississippi River) [steamboat](steamboat) *[E. Lee](Robert)(Robert E. Lee (steamboat))* was named for Lee after the Civil War. It was the participant in an 1870 [Louis](St.)(St. Louis) – [Orleans](New)(New Orleans) race with the *Natchez VI*, which was featured in a [and Ives](Currier)(Currier and Ives) lithograph. The *Robert E. Lee* won the race. The steamboat inspired the 1912 song *Waiting for the Robert E. Lee* by [F. Muir](Lewis)(Lewis F. Muir) and [Wolfe Gilbert](L.)(L. Wolfe Gilbert). In more modern times, the , a built in 1958, was named for Lee, as was the [Lee](M3)(M3 Lee) tank, produced in 1941 and 1942.
The Commonwealth of [Virginia](Virginia) issues an optional [plate](license)(license plate) honoring Lee, making reference to him as 'The Virginia Gentleman'. In February 2014, a road at [Bliss](Fort)(Fort Bliss) previously named for Lee was renamed to honor [Soldier](Buffalo)(Buffalo Soldier)s.
A recent biographer, Jonathan Horn, outlines the unsuccessful efforts in Washington to memorialize Lee in the naming of the [Memorial Bridge](Arlington)(Arlington Memorial Bridge) after both Grant and Lee.Horn, Jonathan. (2015). ''The Man who would not be Washington: Robert E. Lee's Civil War and his decision that changed American History''. New York: Scribner. p. 249. .
#### Unite the Right rally
[[File:Lee Removal.jpg|thumb|left|The removal of Lee's statue from [monument](a)(Robert E. Lee Monument (New Orleans, Louisiana)) in New Orleans]]
In February 2017, the City Council of [Charlottesville](Charlottesville, Virginia), [Virginia](Virginia), voted to remove a [of Lee](sculpture)(Robert Edward Lee (sculpture)), who has no historical link to the city, as well as one of Stonewall Jackson. This was temporarily stayed by court action, though the city did rename Lee Park: first to Emancipation Park, then later to Market Street Park. The prospect of the statues being removed and the parks being renamed brought many out-of-towners, described as [supremacist](white)(white supremacist) and [alt-right](alt-right), to Charlottesville in the [the Right rally](Unite)(Unite the Right rally) of August 2017, in which 3 people died. As of July 2021, the statue [been permanently removed](has)(Robert E. Lee Monument (Charlottesville, Virginia)#Removal).
[[File:Robert E Lee Stain Glass.JPG|thumb|150px|[glass](Stained)(Stained glass) of Lee's life in the [Cathedral](National)(Washington National Cathedral)]]
Several other statues and monuments to Lee were removed in the aftermath of the incident, including:
* A -tall [monument](Robert E. Lee Monument (New Orleans, Louisiana)) in the center of [Circle](Lee)(Lee Circle) (formerly Tivoli Circle) in [Orleans](New)(New Orleans). Installed in 1884, it featured a bronze statue of Lee on a marble column. Former Confederate soldier [Washington Cable](George)(George Washington Cable) described it in a tribute: "His arms are folded on that breast that never knew fear, and his calm, dauntless gaze meets the morning sun as it rises."*Silent South*, 1885, The Century Illustrated Monthly Magazine The statue was removed on May 19, 2017, the last of four Confederate monuments in New Orleans to be taken down.
* A [window](stained-glass)(stained-glass window) in the [National Cathedral](Washington)(Washington National Cathedral), showing Lee on horseback at [Chancellorsville](Battle of Chancellorsville), as well as one in honor of Stonewall Jackson.Michelle Boorstein, [Washington National Cathedral to remove stained glass windows honoring Robert E. Lee, Stonewall Jackson](https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/acts-of-faith/wp/2017/09/06/washington-national-cathedral-to-remove-stained-glass-windows-honoring-robert-e-lee-stonewall-jackson/), *Washington Post* (September 6, 2017). Sponsored by the [Daughters of the Confederacy](United)(United Daughters of the Confederacy), they were installed in 1953 and removed in September 2017.Bill Chappell, [National Cathedral Is Removing Stained-Glass Windows Honoring Confederate Leaders](https://www.npr.org/sections/thetwo-way/2017/09/06/548929726/national-cathedral-is-removing-stained-glass-windows-honoring-confederate-leader), NPR (September 6, 2017). The cathedral plans to keep the windows and eventually display them in historical context.
* A bust of Lee in the [of Fame for Great Americans](Hall)(Hall of Fame for Great Americans) (the first Hall of Fame in the United States, completed 1900), in what is now [Community College](Bronx)(Bronx Community College).
* [bronze statue of Lee](A)(Statue of Robert E. Lee (Austin, Texas)) which had been on display at the [of Texas at Austin](University)(University of Texas at Austin), and [another](Robert E. Lee (Proctor)), with his horse Traveller, in Robert E. Lee Park in [Dallas](Dallas).
### Biographies
[Southall Freeman](Douglas)(Douglas Southall Freeman)'s Pulitzer prize-winning four-volume *R. E. Lee: A Biography* (1936), which was for a long period considered the definitive work on Lee, downplayed his involvement in slavery and emphasized Lee as a virtuous person. Eric Foner, who describes Freeman's volume as a "[hagiography](hagiography)", notes that on the whole, Freeman "displayed little interest in Lee's relationship to slavery. The index to his four volumes contained 22 entries for 'devotion to duty', 19 for 'kindness', 53 for Lee's celebrated horse, [Traveller](Traveller (horse)). But 'slavery', 'slave emancipation' and 'slave insurrection' together received five. Freeman observed, without offering details, that slavery in Virginia represented the system 'at its best'. He ignored the postwar testimony of Lee's former slave Wesley Norris about the brutal treatment to which he had been subjected."
More recent biographies offer a broader variety of perspectives. [L. Connelly](Thomas)(Thomas L. Connelly)’s *The Marble Man: Robert E. Lee and His Image in American Society* (1977) was an iconoclastic revision of Lee's mythical status in the South. *Robert E. Lee: A Biography* (1995) by [M. Thomas](Emory)(Emory M. Thomas) attempted a "post-revisionist" compromise between the traditional and more recent views. *Robert E. Lee: A Life* (2021) by [C. Guelzo](Allen)(Allen C. Guelzo) focuses on a study of Lee's character.
## Dates of rank
* § Breveted for conduct in the [of Cerro Gordo](Battle)(Battle of Cerro Gordo)
* † Breveted for conduct in Battles of [Contreras](Battle of Contreras) and [Churubusco](Battle of Churubusco)
* ‡ Breveted for conduct in [of Chapultepec](Battle)(Battle of Chapultepec)
## In popular culture
Lee is a main character in the Shaara Family novels *[Killer Angels](The)(The Killer Angels)* (1974), *[and Generals](Gods)(Gods and Generals (novel))* (1996), and *[Last Full Measure](The)(The Last Full Measure (novel))* (2000), as well as the film adaptations of *[Gettysburg](Gettysburg (1993 film))* (1993) and *[and Generals](Gods)(Gods and Generals (film))* (2003). He is played by [Sheen](Martin)(Martin Sheen) in the former and by Lee's descendant [Duvall](Robert)(Robert Duvall) in the latter. Lee is portrayed as a hero in the historical children's novel *[and Grant at Appomattox](Lee)(Lee and Grant at Appomattox)* (1950) by [Kantor](MacKinlay)(MacKinlay Kantor). His part in the Civil War is told from the perspective of his horse in [Adams](Richard)(Richard Adams)'s book *[Traveller](Traveller (novel))* (1988).
Lee is an obvious subject for [Civil War alternate histories](American)(American Civil War alternate histories). [Moore](Ward)(Ward Moore)'s *[the Jubilee](Bring)(Bring the Jubilee)* (1953), [Kantor](MacKinlay)(MacKinlay Kantor)'s *[the South Had Won the Civil War](If)(If the South Had Won the Civil War)* (1960), and [Turtledove](Harry)(Harry Turtledove)'s *[Guns of the South](The)(The Guns of the South)* (1992), all have Lee ending up as president of a victorious Confederacy and freeing the slaves (or laying the groundwork for the slaves to be freed in a later decade). Although Moore and Kantor's novels relegate him to a set of passing references, Lee is more of a main character in Turtledove's *Guns*. He is also the prime character of Turtledove's "Lee at the Alamo". Turtledove's "[Between the Provinces](War)(War Between the Provinces)" series is an allegory of the Civil War told in the language of fairy tales, with Lee appearing as a [knight](knight) named "Duke Edward of Arlington". Lee is also a knight in "The Charge of Lee's Brigade" in *Alternate Generals* volume 1, written by Turtledove's friend [M. Stirling](S.)(S. M. Stirling) and featuring Lee, whose [Virginia](Colony of Virginia) is still a loyal [British](British Empire) colony, fighting for the [Crown](Queen Victoria) against the [Russians](Russian Empire) in [Crimea](Crimean War). In Lee Allred's "East of Appomattox" in *[Generals](Alternate)(Alternate Generals III)* volume 3, Lee is the Confederate Minister to [London](London) circa 1868, desperately seeking help for a CSA which has turned out poorly suited to independence. [Skimin](Robert)(Robert Skimin)'s *[Victory](Grey)(Grey Victory)* features Lee as a supporting character preparing to run for the presidency in 1867.
In [Willis](Connie)(Connie Willis)' 1987 novel ''[Dreams](Lincoln's)(Lincoln's Dreams)'', a research assistant meets a young woman who dreams about the Civil War from Robert E. Lee's point of view.
The [Charger](Dodge)(Dodge Charger) featured in the CBS television series *[Dukes of Hazzard](The)(The Dukes of Hazzard)* (1979–1985) was named [General Lee](The)(General Lee (car)). In [2005 film based on this series](the)(The Dukes of Hazzard (film)), the car is driven past a statue of Lee, while the car's occupants salute him.
## See also
* [of American Civil War generals (Confederate)](List)(List of American Civil War generals (Confederate))
* [of memorials to Robert E. Lee](List)(List of memorials to Robert E. Lee)
* [of Confederate monuments and memorials](Removal)(Removal of Confederate monuments and memorials)
## References
## Notes
## Bibliography
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
### Historiography
* Foner, Eric. "The Making and the Breaking of the Legend of Robert E. Lee", [*New York Times* Aug 28, 2017](https://www.nytimes.com/2017/08/28/books/review/eric-foner-robert-e-lee.html?emc=edit_bk_20170915&nl=book-review&nlid=8258846&te=1)
## Further reading
*
*
*
* [Allen C.](Guelzo,)(Allen C. Guelzo) (2021). *Robert E. Lee: A Life*. New York: Knopf.
*
*
*
* Reeves, John (2018). *The Lost Indictment of Robert E. Lee: The Forgotten Case Against an American Icon*. Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield.
*
*
## External links
*
* [Biographical article](https://www.robertelee.org/) by [L. Klos](Stanley)(Stanley L. Klos)
* [Obituary of Robert E. Lee](https://learning.blogs.nytimes.com/2011/10/12/oct-12-1870-gen-robert-e-lee-dies), from a Northern point of view. *The New York Times*; October 13, 1870
* [*Robert E. Lee*](https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/americanexperience/films/lee/) – An *[Experience](American)(American Experience)* documentary
* [Letter from Dwight Eisenhower about Lee](http://www.civilwarprofiles.com/dwight-d-eisenhower-in-defense-of-robert-e-lee/)
### Primary sources
* [Original Historical Letters: Lincoln Refuses Lee's Armistice](https://www.shapell.org/manuscript/general-grant-rejects-general-lee-armistice-proposal/) Shapell Manuscript Foundation
* [Interactive Animation of the Battle of Gettysburg](http://anthonyworld.org/newmedia/GettysburgProjectMK2.html) – A chronicle of the 3-day battle, it also touches on Lee's tactical strategies during the American Civil War.
* [Correspondences of Robert E. Lee during the American Civil War](https://digital.lib.miamioh.edu/digital/collection/richey/search/searchterm/robert%20e.%20lee/mode/all/order/datea) – held in the Walter Havighurst Special Collections, Miami University
*
*
*
* [Stuart A. Rose Manuscript, Archives, and Rare Book Library](https://rose.library.emory.edu/), Emory University: [Robert E. Lee collection, 1835–1869](https://findingaids.library.emory.edu/documents/lee206/)
### Monuments and memorials
* [University Chapel at Washington and Lee University where Robert E. Lee is buried](https://my.wlu.edu/university-chapel-and-galleries/)
}}
}}
}}
[ ](Category:Robert E. Lee)
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Amish
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amish
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# Amish
*Revision ID: 1159938593 | Timestamp: 2023-06-13T13:48:30Z*
---
| popplace = [States](United)(United States) (large populations in [Indiana](Indiana), [Ohio](Ohio), [Pennsylvania](Pennsylvania); notable populations in [Kentucky](Kentucky), [Missouri](Missouri), [Michigan](Michigan), [York](New)(New York State), and [Wisconsin](Wisconsin); small populations in various other states)[Canada](Canada) (mainly in [Ontario](Ontario))
| founder = [Ammann](Jakob)(Jakob Ammann)
| rels = [Anabaptist](Anabaptist)
| scrips = [Bible](The)(The Bible)
| langs = [Dutch](Pennsylvania)(Pennsylvania Dutch language), [German](Bernese)(Bernese German), [Alemannic](Low)(Low Alemannic German) [German](Alsatian)(Alsatian dialect), [High German](Amish)(Standard German), English
}}
The **Amish** (; ; ), formally the **Old Order Amish**, are a group of traditionalist [Anabaptist](Anabaptism) [Christian](Christianity) [fellowships](church)(Christian denomination) with [German](Swiss)(Swiss German people) and [Alsatian](Alsace) (French) origins. They are closely related to [Mennonite](Mennonites) churches, a separate Anabaptist denomination. The Amish are known for [living](simple)(simple living), [dress](plain)(plain dress), [pacifism](Christian)(Christian pacifism#Anabaptist churches), and slowness to adopt many [convenience](convenience)s of modern technology, with a view neither to interrupt family time, nor replace face-to-face conversations whenever possible, and a view to maintain self-sufficiency. The Amish value rural life, manual labor, humility and *[Gelassenheit](Ordnung#Gelassenheit)* (submission to God's will).
The Amish church began with a [schism](schism (religion)) in Switzerland within a group of Swiss and Alsatian Mennonite Anabaptists in 1693 led by [Ammann](Jakob)(Jakob Ammann). Those who followed Ammann became known as Amish. In the second half of the 19th century, the Amish divided into Old Order Amish and [Mennonite](Amish)(Amish Mennonite)s; the latter do not abstain from using motor cars, whereas the Old Order Amish retained much of their traditional culture. When people refer to the Amish today, they normally refer to the Old Order Amish, though there are other [of Amish](subgroups)(subgroups of Amish). In the early 18th century, many Amish and Mennonites immigrated to Pennsylvania for a variety of reasons. Today, the Old Order Amish, the [Order Amish](New)(New Order Amish), and the [Beachy Amish](Old)(Old Beachy Amish) as well as [Order Mennonite](Old)(Old Order Mennonite)s continue to speak [Dutch](Pennsylvania)(Pennsylvania Dutch language), although two different [dialects](Alemannic)(Alemannic German) are used by Old Order Amish in [Adams](Adams County, Indiana) and [Allen](Allen County, Indiana) counties in Indiana. , over 350,000 Old Order Amish lived in the United States, and about 6,000 lived in Canada: a population that is rapidly growing, as the Amish generally do not use birth control. Amish church groups seek to maintain a degree of separation from the non-Amish world. Non-Amish people are generally referred to as "English" by the Amish, and outside influences are often described as "worldly".
Amish church membership begins with adult [baptism](Believer's baptism), usually between the ages of 16 and 23. Church districts have between 20 and 40 families, and worship services are held every other [Sunday](Lord's Day) in a member's home or barn. The rules of the church, the *[Ordnung](Ordnung)*, which differs to some extent between different districts, are reviewed twice a year by all members of the church. The *Ordnung* must be observed by every member and covers many aspects of day-to-day living, including prohibitions or limitations on the use of power-line electricity, telephones, and automobiles, as well as regulations on clothing. Generally, a heavy emphasis is placed on church and family relationships. The Amish typically operate their own [school](one-room)(one-room school)s and discontinue formal education after grade eight. Most Amish do not buy commercial insurance or participate in [Security](Social)(Social Security (United States)). As [Anabaptists](present-day)(Anabaptist#Today), Amish church members practice [nonresistance](nonresistance) and will not perform any type of military service.
## History
### Beginnings of Anabaptist Christianity
[[cover.jpg|thumb|right|upright|alt=Cover of "Little Known Facts About The Amish and the Mennonites. A Study of the Social Customs and Habits of Pennsylvania's 'Plain People'. By Ammon Monroe Aurand, Jr. Aurand Press. 1938. |Cover of *The Amish and the Mennonites*, 1938](File:Amish)]
[[File:amish cemetery.gif|thumb|alt=Cemetery filled many small plain headstones with simple inscriptions and two large bare trees. |An old Amish cemetery in [County, Pennsylvania](Lancaster)(Lancaster County, Pennsylvania), 1941]]
The [Anabaptist](Anabaptist) movement, from which the Amish later emerged, started in circles around [Zwingli](Huldrych)(Huldrych Zwingli) (1484–1531) who led the early [in Switzerland](Reformation)(Reformation in Switzerland). In [Zürich](Zürich) on January 21, 1525, [Grebel](Conrad)(Conrad Grebel) and [Blaurock](George)(George Blaurock) practiced [baptism](believer's)(believer's baptism) to each other and then to others.Anthony L. Chute, Nathan A. Finn, Michael A. G. Haykin. *The Baptist Story*, Nashville, 2015, p. 12. This Swiss movement, part of the [Reformation](Radical)(Radical Reformation), later became known as [Brethren](Swiss)(Swiss Brethren).C. Arnold Snyder. *Anabaptist History and Theology: An Introduction*. Kitchener, Ontario, 1995, p. 62.
### Emergence of the Amish
The term Amish was first used as a (a term of disgrace) in 1710 by opponents of [Amman](Jakob)(Jakob Amman), an Anabaptist leader. The first informal division between Swiss Brethren was recorded in the 17th century between s ([living in the hills](those)(Bernese Highlands)) and (those living in the [Emmental](Emmental) ). The s were a more extreme congregation; their zeal pushed them into more remote areas.
Swiss Anabaptism developed, from this point, in two parallel streams, most clearly marked by disagreement over the preferred treatment of "fallen" believers. The Emmentalers (sometimes referred to as Reistians, after bishop [Reist](Hans)(Hans Reist), a leader among the Emmentalers) argued that fallen believers should only be withheld from [communion](Holy Communion), and not regular meals. The Amish argued that those who had been banned should be avoided even in common meals. The Reistian side eventually formed the basis of the [Mennonite Conference](Swiss)(Swiss Mennonite Conference). Because of this common heritage, Amish and conservative Mennonites from southern Germany and Switzerland retain many similarities. Those who leave the Amish fold tend to join various congregations of [Mennonites](Conservative)(Conservative Mennonites).
### Migration to North America
Amish began migrating to Pennsylvania, then-regarded favorably due to the lack of [persecution](religious)(religious persecution) and attractive land offers, in the early 18th century as part of a larger migration from the [Palatinate](Palatinate (region)) and neighboring areas. Between 1717 and 1750, approximately 500 Amish migrated to North America, mainly to the region that became [County, Pennsylvania](Berks)(Berks County, Pennsylvania), but later moved, motivated by land issues and by security concerns tied to the [and Indian War](French)(French and Indian War). Many eventually settled in [County](Lancaster)(Lancaster County, Pennsylvania). A second wave of around 1,500 arrived around the mid 19th century and settled mostly in Ohio, Illinois, Iowa and southern Ontario. Most of these late immigrants eventually did not join the Old Order Amish but more liberal groups.
### 1850–1878 Division into Old Orders and Amish Mennonites
Most Amish communities that were established in North America did not ultimately retain their Amish identity. The major division that resulted in the loss of identity of many Amish congregations occurred in the third quarter of the 19th century. The forming of factions worked its way out at different times at different places. The process was rather a "sorting out" than a split. Amish people are free to join another Amish congregation at another place that fits them best.
In the years after 1850, tensions rose within individual Amish congregations and between different Amish congregations. Between 1862 and 1878, yearly (ministerial conferences) were held at different places, concerning how the Amish should deal with the tensions caused by the pressures of modern society. The meetings themselves were a progressive idea; for bishops to assemble to discuss uniformity was an unprecedented notion in the Amish church. By the first several meetings, the more traditionally minded bishops agreed to [boycott](boycott) the conferences.
The more progressive members, comprising roughly two-thirds of the group, became known by the name Amish Mennonite, and eventually united with the [Church](Mennonite)(Mennonite Church (1683–2002)), and other Mennonite denominations, mostly in the early 20th century. The more traditionally minded groups became known as the Old Order Amish. The [Amish](Egli)(Fellowship of Evangelical Churches) had already started to withdraw from the Amish church in 1858. They soon drifted away from the old ways and changed their name to "Defenseless Mennonite" in 1908. Congregations who took no side in the division after 1862 formed the [Amish Mennonite Conference](Conservative)(Conservative Mennonite Conference) in 1910, but dropped the word "Amish" from their name in 1957; in the year 2000 many congregations left to organize the [Mennonite Alliance](Biblical)(Biblical Mennonite Alliance) in order to continue the practice of traditional Anabaptist ordinances, such as [headcovering](Christian headcovering).[Scott](Stephen)(Stephen Scott (writer)). *An Introduction to Old Order and Conservative Mennonite Groups*. Intercourse, Penn.: 1996, pp. 122–123.
Because no division occurred in Europe, the Amish congregations remaining there took the same way as the change-minded Amish Mennonites in North America and slowly merged with the [Mennonites](Mennonites). The last Amish congregation in Germany to merge was the [Ixheim](Zweibrücken) Amish congregation, which merged with the neighboring Mennonite Church in 1937. Some Mennonite congregations, including most in [Alsace](Alsace), are descended directly from former Amish congregations.
### 20th century
Though splits happened among the Old Order in the 19th century in Mifflin County, Pennsylvania, a major split among the Old Orders took until [War I](World)(World War I). At that time, two very conservative affiliations emerged – the [Amish](Swartzentruber)(Swartzentruber Amish) in [County, Ohio](Holmes)(Holmes County, Ohio), and the [Amish](Buchanan)(Buchanan Amish affiliation) in Iowa. The Buchanan Amish soon were joined by like-minded congregations all over the country.
With World War I came the massive [of the German language in the US](suppression)(German language in the United States#Persecution during World War I) that eventually led to language shift of most Pennsylvania German speakers, leaving the Amish and other [Orders](Old)(Old Order Movement) as almost the only speakers by the end of the 20th century. This created a [barrier](language)(language barrier) around the Amish that did not exist before in that form.Donald B. Kraybill, Karen M. Johnson-Weiner, Steven M. Nolt. *The Amish*. Baltimore: [Hopkins University Press](Johns)(Johns Hopkins University Press), 2013, p. 122.
In the late 1920s, the more change minded faction of the Old Order Amish, that wanted to adopt the car, broke away from the mainstream and organized under the name [Amish](Beachy)(Beachy Amish).
During the [World War](Second)(Second World War), the old question of [service](military)(military service) for the Amish came up again. Because Amish young men in general refused military service, they ended up in the [Public Service](Civilian)(Civilian Public Service) (CPS), where they worked mainly in forestry and hospitals. The fact that many young men worked in hospitals, where they had a lot of contact with more progressive Mennonites and the outside world, had the result that many of these men never joined the Amish church.
In the 1950s, the [Amish](Beachy)(Beachy Amish), as with the [Order Amish](New)(New Order Amish), laid heavy emphasis on the [Birth](New)(Born again#Anabaptism), personal holiness and [School](Sunday)(Sunday School) education. The ones who wanted to preserve the old way of the Beachy became the [Beachy Amish](Old)(Old Beachy Amish).
Until about 1950, almost all Amish children attended small, rural, non-Amish schools, but then school consolidation and mandatory schooling beyond eighth grade caused Amish opposition. Amish communities opened their own Amish schools. In 1972, the [States Supreme Court](United)(Supreme Court of the United States) exempted Amish pupils from [education](compulsory)(compulsory education) past [grade](eighth)(junior high school). By the end of the 20th century, almost all Amish children attended Amish schools.Donald B. Kraybill, Karen M. Johnson-Weiner, and Steven M. Nolt, (2013) *The Amish*. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, pp. 250–255.
In the last quarter of the 20th century, a growing number of Amish men left farm work and started small businesses because of increasing pressure on small-scale farming. Though a wide variety of small businesses exists among the Amish, construction work and woodworking are quite widespread.Donald B. Kraybill, Karen M. Johnson-Weiner, Steven M. Nolt. *The Amish*, Baltimore: 2013, p. 294. In many Amish settlements, especially the larger ones, farmers are now a minority.Donald B. Kraybill, Karen M. Johnson-Weiner, and Steven M. Nolt, *The Amish* Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press 2013, pp. 281–282. Approximately 12,000 of the 40,000 dairy farms in the United States are Amish-owned as of 2018.
Until the early 20th century, Old Order Amish identity was not linked to the limited use of technologies, as the Old Order Amish and their rural neighbors used the same farm and household technologies. Questions about the use of technologies also did not play a role in the Old Order division of the second half of the 19th century. Telephones were the first important technology that was rejected, soon followed by the rejection of cars, tractors, radios, and many other technological inventions of the 20th century.
Old Order Mennonites, Old Colony Mennonites and the Amish are often grouped together in North America's popular press. This is incorrect, according to a 2017 report by *Canadian Mennonite* magazine:
## Religious practices
[[Ausbund 329.jpg|right|thumb|upright|alt=A page of ornate old German text. See description.|A scan of the historical document ](File:De)]
Two key concepts for understanding Amish practices are their rejection of (pride, arrogance, haughtiness) and the high value they place on (humility) and (calmness, composure, placidity), often translated as "submission" or "letting be". is perhaps better understood as a reluctance to be forward, to be self-promoting, or to assert oneself. The Amish's willingness to submit to the "Will of [Jesus](Jesus in Christianity)", expressed through group norms, is at odds with the individualism so central to the wider American culture. The Amish anti-individualist orientation is the motive for rejecting labor-saving technologies that might make one less dependent on the community. Modern innovations such as electricity might spark a competition for status goods, or photographs might cultivate personal vanity. Electric power lines would be going against the Bible, which says that you shall not be "conformed to the world" ().
Amish church membership begins with [baptism](Believer's baptism), usually between the ages of 16 and 23. It is a requirement for [marriage](marriage) within the Amish church. Once a person is baptized within the church, he or she may marry only within the faith. Church districts have between 20 and 40 families and worship services are held every other Sunday in a member's home or [barn](barn). The district is led by a [bishop](bishop) and several [minister](Minister (Christianity))s and [deacons](deacons) who are chosen by a combination of [election](election) and [cleromancy](cleromancy) (lot).
The rules of the church, the so-called *[Ordnung](Ordnung)*, which differs to some extent between different districts, is reviewed twice a year by all members of the church. Only if all members give their consent to it, [supper](Lord's)(Eucharist) is held. The *Ordnung* must be observed by every member and covers many aspects of day-to-day living, including prohibitions or limitations on the use of power-line [electricity](electricity), [telephones](telephones), and [automobiles](automobiles), as well as [regulations](regulations) on [clothing](clothing). As [Anabaptists](present-day)(Anabaptist#Today), Amish church members practice [nonresistance](nonresistance) and will not perform any type of military service. The Amish value rural life, manual labor, humility, and *[Gelassenheit](Ordnung#Gelassenheit)*, all under the auspices of living what they interpret to be God's word.
Members who do not conform to these community expectations and who cannot be convinced to [repent](Repentance) are excommunicated. In addition to [excommunication](excommunication), members may be [shunned](Shunning), a practice that limits social contacts to shame the wayward member into returning to the church. Almost 90 percent of Amish teenagers choose to be baptized and join the church. During an adolescent period of *[rumspringa](rumspringa)* (dialectal [Pennsylvania] German for "jumping around", "hopping around") in some communities, nonconforming behavior that would result in the shunning of an adult who had made the permanent commitment of baptism, may be met with a degree of forbearance.
## Way of life
[[File:DSCN4624 holmescountyamishbuggy e.jpg|right|thumb|alt=See description.|Amish couple in horse-driven buggy in rural [County, Ohio](Holmes)(Holmes County, Ohio), September 2004]]
Amish lifestyle is regulated by the ("rules") which differs slightly from community to community and from district to district within a community. There is no central Amish [authority](governing)(governing body), so each individual community makes its own decisions, and what is acceptable in one community may not be acceptable in another. The is agreed upon – or changed – within the whole community of baptized members prior to Communion which takes place two times a year. The meeting where the is discussed is called in Standard German and in Pennsylvania Dutch. The include matters such as dress, permissible uses of technology, religious duties, and rules regarding interaction with outsiders. In these meetings, women also vote in questions concerning the .
Bearing children, raising them, and socializing with neighbors and relatives are the greatest functions of the Amish family. Amish typically believe that large families are a blessing from God. Farm families tend to have larger families, because sons are needed to perform farm labor. Community is central to the Amish way of life.
Working hard is considered godly, and some technological advancements have been considered undesirable because they reduce the need for hard work. Machines such as automatic floor cleaners in barns have historically been rejected as this provides young farmhands with too much free time.
### Transportation
Amish communities are known for traveling by [and buggy](horse)(horse and buggy) because they feel horse-drawn carriages promote a slow pace of life. But most Amish communities do also allow riding in [vehicles](motor)(motor vehicles), such as buses and cars. In recent years many Amish people have taken to using [bicycles](electric)(electric bicycles) because they're faster than either walking or harnessing up a horse and buggy.
### Clothing
The Amish are known for their plain attire. Men wear solid colored shirts, broad-brimmed hats, and suits that signify similarity amongst one another. Amish men grow beards to symbolize manhood and marital status, as well as to promote humility. They are forbidden to grow mustaches because mustaches are seen by the Amish as being affiliated with the military, which they are strongly opposed to, due to their pacifist beliefs. Women have similar guidelines on how to dress, which are also expressed in the , the Amish version of legislation. They are to wear calf-length dresses, muted colors along with [bonnets](Bonnet (headgear)) and [apron](apron)s. [kapps](Prayer)(Kapp (headcovering)) and bonnets are worn by the women because they are a visual representation of their religious beliefs and promote unity through the tradition of every woman wearing one. The color of the bonnet signifies whether a woman is single or married. Single women wear black bonnets and married women wear white. The color coding of bonnets is important because women are not allowed to wear jewelry, such as wedding rings, as it is seen as drawing attention to the body which can induce pride in the individual. All clothing is sewn by hand, but the way to fasten the garment widely depends on whether the Amish person is a part of the New Order or Old Order Amish. The Old Order Amish seldom, if ever, use buttons because they are seen as too flashy; instead, they use the [and eye](hook)(hook and eye) approach to fashion clothing or metal snaps. The New Order Amish are slightly more progressive and allow the usage of buttons to help attire clothing.
### Cuisine
Amish cuisine is noted for its simplicity and traditional qualities. Food plays an important part in Amish social life and is served at [potluck](potluck)s, weddings, fundraisers, farewells, and other events.Sherry Gore Zondervan. *Simply Delicious Amish Cooking*.Zondervan, 2013.Lovina Eicher. *[The Amish Cook at Home: Simple Pleasures of Food, Family, and Faith](https://books.google.com/books?isbn=0740773720)*. 2008. Many Amish foods are sold at markets including pies, preserves, bread mixes, pickled produce, desserts, and canned goods. Many Amish communities have also established restaurants for visitors. Amish meat consumption is similar to the American average though they tend to eat more preserved meat.Gebra Cuyun Carter. Food Intake, Dietary Practices...Among the Amish *[https://etd.ohiolink.edu/pg_10?::NO:10:P10_ETD_SUBID:66950]* 2008.
Amish cuisine is often mistaken for the similar [of the Pennsylvania Dutch](cuisine)(cuisine of the Pennsylvania Dutch) with some ethnographic and regional variances, as well as differences in what cookbook writers and food historians emphasize about the traditional [foodway](foodway)s and intertwined religious culture and celebrations of Amish communities. While mythologies about the diffusion of [pie](shoofly)(shoofly pie) are common subject matter for studies of [cuisine](American)(American cuisine), food anthropologists point out that the culinary practices of Pennsylvania Dutch and Amish are innovative and dynamic, evolving across time and geographical spaces, and that not all the Pennsylvania Dutch are Amish, and not all Amish live in Pennsylvania. Distinguishing local mythologies from culinary fact is accomplished by dedicated anthropological field studies in combination with studies of literary sources, usually newspaper archives, diaries and household records.
## Subgroups
Over the years, the Amish churches have divided many times mostly over questions concerning the Ordnung, but also over doctrinal disputes, mainly about shunning. The largest group, the "Old Order" Amish, a conservative faction that separated from other Amish in the 1860s, are those who have most emphasized traditional practices and beliefs. The [Order Amish](New)(New Order Amish) are a group of Amish whom some scholars see best described as a subgroup of Old Order Amish, despite the name.
### Affiliations
As of 2011, about 40 different Old Order Amish affiliations were known to exist. The eight major affiliations are listed below, with Lancaster as the largest one in number of districts and population:Kraybill, Donald B., Karen M. Johnson-Weiner, and Steven M. Nolt (eds.). *The Amish*. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2013, p. 139.
### Use of technology by different affiliations
The table below indicates the use of certain technologies by different Amish affiliations. The use of cars is not allowed by any Old and New Order Amish, nor are radio, television, or in most cases the use of the Internet. Three affiliations – "Lancaster", "Holmes Old Order" and "Elkhart-LaGrange" — are not only the three largest affiliations but also represent the mainstream among the Old Order Amish. The most conservative affiliations are at the top, the most modern ones at the bottom. Technologies used by very few are on the left; the ones used by most are on the right. The percentage of all Amish who use a technology is also indicated approximately. The Old Order Amish culture involves lower greenhouse gas emissions in all sectors and activities with the exception of diet, and their per-person emissions has been estimated to be less than one quarter that of the wider society.''
### Language
Most Old Order Amish speak Pennsylvania Dutch, and refer to non-Amish people as "English", regardless of ethnicity. Site d'aide à la phonologie anglaise, grammaire, linguistique et civilisations anglophones |language=fr-CA}} Two Amish subgroups – called Swiss Amish – whose ancestors migrated to the United States in the 1850s speak a form of [German](Bernese)(Bernese German) (Adams County, IN and daughter setllements) or a [Alemannic](Low)(Low Alemannic German) [dialect](Alsatian)(Alsatian dialect) (Allen County, IN and daughter setllements).Chad Thompson: *The Languages of the Amish of Allen County, Indiana: Multilingualism and Convergence*, in Anthropological Linguistics, Vol. 36, No. 1 (Spring, 1994), pp. 69–91
Contrary to popular belief, the word "Dutch" in "Pennsylvania Dutch" is not a mistranslation, but rather a corruption of the Pennsylvania German [endonym](endonym) , which means "Pennsylvania Dutch / German" or "German".Hughes Oliphant Old: The Reading and Preaching of the Scriptures in the Worship of the Christian Church, Volume 6: The Modern Age. Eerdmans Publishing, 2007, p. 606.Mark L. Louden: Pennsylvania Dutch: The Story of an American Language. JHU Press, 2006, p. 2Hostetler, John A. (1993), *Amish Society*, The Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, p. 241Irwin Richman: The Pennsylvania Dutch Country. Arcadia Publishing, 2004, p. 16. Ultimately, the terms Deitsch, [Dutch](Dutch language), [Diets](Middle Dutch) and [Deutsch](German language) are all [cognate](cognate)s and descend from the [Proto-Germanic](Proto-Germanic language) word meaning "popular" or "of the people".W. Haubrichs, "*Theodiscus*, Deutsch und Germanisch – drei Ethnonyme, drei Forschungsbegriffe. Zur Frage der Instrumentalisierung und Wertbesetzung deutscher Sprach- und Volksbezeichnungen." In: H. Beck et al., *Zur Geschichte der Gleichung "germanisch-deutsch"* (2004), 199–228 The continued use of "Pennsylvania Dutch" was strengthened by the Pennsylvania Dutch in the 19th century as a way of distinguishing themselves from later (post 1830) waves of German immigrants to the United States, with the Pennsylvania Dutch referring to themselves as and to Germans as (literally "Germany-ers", compare ) whom they saw as a related but distinct group.Mark L. Louden: *Pennsylvania Dutch: The Story of an American Language*. JHU Press, 2006, pp. 3–4
According to one scholar, "today, almost all Amish are functionally bilingual in Pennsylvania Dutch and English; however, domains of usage are sharply separated. Pennsylvania Dutch dominates in most in-group settings, such as the dinner table and preaching in church services. In contrast, English is used for most reading and writing. English is also the medium of instruction in schools and is used in business transactions and often, out of politeness, in situations involving interactions with non-Amish. Finally, the Amish read prayers and sing in [German](Standard)(Standard German) (which, in Pennsylvania Dutch, is called is the Pennsylvania Dutch equivalent of the Standard German word ; both words literally mean "High German".) at church services. The distinctive use of three different languages serves as a powerful conveyor of Amish identity. "Although 'the English language is being used in more and more situations,' Pennsylvania Dutch is 'one of a handful of minority languages in the United States that is neither endangered nor supported by continual arrivals of immigrants.'"
### Ethnicity
The Amish largely share a German or [Swiss](Swiss people)-German ancestry.Hugh F. Gingerich and Rachel W. Kreider. *Revised Amish and Amish Mennonite Genealogies*. Morgantown, Penn.: 2007. This comprehensive volume gives names, dates, and places of births and deaths, and relationships of most of the known people of this unique sect from the early 1700s until about 1860 or so. The authors also include a five-page "History of the First Amish Communities in America". They generally use the term "Amish" only for members of their faith community and not as an ethnic designation. However some [descendants](Amish)(List of Amish and their descendants) recognize their cultural background knowing that their genetic and cultural traits are uniquely different from other ethnicities. Those who choose to affiliate with the church, or young children raised in Amish homes, but too young to yet be church members, are considered to be Amish. Certain Mennonite churches have a high number of people who were formerly from Amish congregations. Although more Amish immigrated to North America in the 19th century than during the 18th century, most of today's Amish descend from 18th-century immigrants. The latter tended to emphasize tradition to a greater extent, and were perhaps more likely to maintain a separate Amish identity. There are a number of Amish Mennonite church groups that had never in their history been associated with the Old Order Amish because they split from the Amish mainstream in the time when the Old Orders formed in the 1860s and 1870s. The former Western Ontario Mennonite Conference (WOMC) was made up almost entirely of former Amish Mennonites who reunited with the Mennonite Church in Canada. Orland Gingerich's book *The Amish of Canada* devotes the vast majority of its pages not to the Beachy or Old Order Amish, but to congregations in the former WOMC.
### Para-Amish groups
Several other groups, called "[para-Amish](para-Amish)" by [Waldrep](G. C.)(G. C. Waldrep) and others, share many characteristics with the Amish, such as [and buggy](horse)(horse and buggy) transportation, [dress](plain)(plain dress), and the preservation of the German language. The members of these groups are largely of Amish origin, but they are not in fellowship with other Amish groups because they adhere to theological doctrines (e.g., [of salvation](assurance)(assurance of salvation)) or practices ([of goods](community)(community of goods)) that are normally not accepted among mainstream Amish. The [Community](Bergholz)(Bergholz Community) is a different case, it is not seen as Amish anymore because the community has shifted away from many core Amish principles.
## Population and distribution
[[with Amish settlements 2021.png|thumb|300px|US Counties with Amish settlements in 2021](File:Counties)]
2000, 2010, 2020, 2021, 2022
}}
Because the Amish are usually baptized no earlier than 18 and children are not counted in local congregation numbers, estimating their numbers is difficult. Rough estimates from various studies placed their numbers at 125,000 in 1992, 166,000 in 2000, and 221,000 in 2008. Thus, from 1992 to 2008, population growth among the Amish in North America was 84 percent (3.6 percent per year). During that time, they established 184 new settlements and moved into six new states. In 2000, about 165,620 Old Order Amish resided in the United States, of whom 73,609 were church members. The Amish are among the fastest-growing populations in the world, with an average of seven children per family in the 1970s and a total fertility rate of 5.3 in the 2010s.
In 2010, a few religious bodies, including the Amish, changed the way their adherents were reported to better match the standards of the Association of Statisticians of American Religious Bodies. When looking at all Amish adherents and not solely Old Order Amish, about 241,000 Amish adherents were in 28 U.S. states in 2010.
### Distribution by country
#### United States
The United States is the home to the overwhelming majority (98 percent) of the Amish people. In 2022, Old Order communities were present in 32 U.S. states. The total Amish population in the United States has stood at 367,300 up 11,635 or 3.3 percent, compared to the previous year. Pennsylvania has the largest population (87 thousand), followed by Ohio (81.7 thousand) and Indiana (62.8 thousand), . The largest Amish settlements are in [County](Lancaster)(Lancaster County, Pennsylvania) in southeastern Pennsylvania (40,525), [County](Holmes)(Holmes County, Ohio) and adjacent counties in northeastern Ohio (36,955), and [Elkhart](Elkhart County, Indiana) and [LaGrange](LaGrange County, Indiana) counties in northeastern Indiana (26,380), . The highest concentration of Amish in the world is in the Holmes County community; nearly 50 percent of the entire population of Holmes County is Amish as of 2010.
The largest concentration of Amish west of the [River](Mississippi)(Mississippi River) is in Missouri, with other settlements in eastern Iowa and [Minnesota](southeast)(southeast Minnesota). The largest Amish settlements in Iowa are located near [Kalona](Kalona, Iowa) and [Bloomfield](Bloomfield, Iowa). The largest settlement in Wisconsin is near [Cashton](Cashton, Wisconsin) with 13 congregations, i.e. about 2,000 people in 2009.["Wisconsin Amish: Cashton"](http://amishamerica.com/wisconsin-amish/#cashton) at amishamerica.com.
Because of the rapid population growth of the Amish communities, new settlements in the United States are being established each year, thus: 17 new settlements were established in 2016, 24 in 2017, 19 in 2018, 27 in 2019, 26 in 2020 and 18 in 2021.[Amish Population in the United States and Canada by State and County, September 18, 2021 by Edsel Burdge, Jr., Young Center for Anabaptist and Pietist Studies, Elizabethtown College.](http://groups.etown.edu/amishstudies/files/2021/08/Amish-Pop-2021_by-state-and-county.pdf) The main reason for the continuous expansion is to obtain enough affordable farmland, other reasons for new settlements include locating in isolated areas that support their lifestyle, moving to areas with cultures conducive to their way of life, maintaining proximity to family or other Amish groups, and sometimes to resolve church or leadership conflicts.
The adjacent table shows the eight states with the largest Amish population in the years 1992, 2000, 2010, 2020, 2021 and 2022.[*2010 U.S. Religion Census*](http://www.rcms2010.org/) , official website.
#### Canada
Amish settlements are in four Canadian provinces: Ontario, Prince Edward Island, Manitoba, and New Brunswick. The majority of Old Order settlements is located in the province of Ontario, namely [Oxford](Oxford County, Ontario) ([Township](Norwich)(Norwich Township, Ontario)) and [Norfolk](Norfolk County, Ontario) Counties. A small community is also established in [County](Bruce)(Bruce County, Ontario) ([Township](Huron-Kinloss)(Huron-Kinloss)) near [Lucknow](Lucknow, Ontario).
In 2016, several dozen Old Order Amish families founded two new settlements in [County](Kings)(Kings County, Prince Edward Island) in the province of Prince Edward Island. Increasing land prices in Ontario had reportedly limited the ability of members in those communities to purchase new farms. At about the same time a new settlement was founded near [Perth-Andover](Perth-Andover) in New Brunswick, only about from Amish settlements in Maine. In 2017, an Amish settlement was founded in Manitoba near [Stuartburn](Stuartburn, Manitoba).[*Amish Moving To Fourth Canadian Province*](http://amishamerica.com/amish-moving-to-fourth-canadian-province/) at amishamerica.com.
#### Latin America
There are currently two Amish settlements in South American nations: Argentina and Bolivia. The majority of Old Order settlements are located in Bolivia. The first attempt by Old Order Amish to settle in Latin America was in Paradise Valley, near [Nuevo León](Galeana,)(Galeana, Nuevo León), Mexico, but the settlement lasted from only 1923 to 1929. An Amish settlement was tried in Honduras from about 1968 to 1978, but this settlement failed too. In 2015, new settlements of New Order Amish were founded east of [Catamarca](San Fernando del Valle de Catamarca), Argentina, and Colonia Naranjita, Bolivia, about southwest of [Cruz](Santa)(Santa Cruz de la Sierra). Most of the members of these new communities come from [Colony Mennonite](Old)(Old Colony Mennonite) background and have been living in the area for several decades.[*Amish Population Profile, 2018*](https://groups.etown.edu/amishstudies/statistics/amish-population-profile-2018/) at Amish Studies – The Young Center.
#### Europe
In Europe, no split occurred between Old Order Amish and Amish Mennonites; like the Amish Mennonites in North America, the European Amish assimilated into the Mennonite mainstream during the second half of the 19th century through the first decades of the 20th century. Eventually, they dropped the word "Amish" from the names of their congregations and lost their Amish identity and culture. The last European Amish congregation joined the Mennonites in 1937 in Ixheim, today part of [Zweibrücken](Zweibrücken) in the [region](Palatinate)(Palatinate (region)).
## Seekers and joiners
Only a few hundred outsiders, so-called seekers, have ever joined the Old Order Amish. Since 1950, only some 75 non-Anabaptist people have joined and remained lifelong members of the Amish.Donald B. Kraybill, Karen M. Johnson-Weiner, Steven M. Nolt. *The Amish*. Baltimore: 2013, p. 159. Since 1990, some twenty people of [Mennonite](Russian)(Russian Mennonite) background have joined the Amish in [Ontario](Aylmer,)(Aylmer, Ontario).Donald B. Kraybill, Karen M. Johnson-Weiner, Steven M. Nolt. *The Amish*. Baltimore: 2013, pp. 160f.
Two whole Christian communities have joined the Amish: The church at [Maine](Smyrna,)(Smyrna, Maine), one of the five [Communities](Christian)(Christian Communities (Elmo Stoll)) of [Stoll](Elmo)(Elmo Stoll) after Stoll's death and the church at [Michigan](Manton,)(Manton, Michigan), which belonged to a community that was founded by Harry Wanner (1935–2012), a minister of [Old Order Mennonite](Stauffer)(Stauffer Mennonite) background. The "[Amish Churches](Michigan)(Michigan Amish Churches)", with which Smyrna and Manton affiliated, are said to be more open to seekers and converts than other Amish churches. Most of the members of these two para-Amish communities originally came from [churches](Plain)(Plain people), i.e. Old Order Amish, [Order Mennonite](Old)(Old Order Mennonite), or [German Baptist Brethren](Old)(Old German Baptist Brethren).
More people have tested Old Order Amish life for weeks, months, or even years, but in the end decided not to join. Others remain close to the Amish, but never think of joining.
On the other hand, the [Amish](Beachy)(Beachy Amish), many of whom conduct their services in English and allow for a limited range of modern conveniences, regularly receive seekers into their churches as visitors, and eventually, as members.
[Scott](Stephen)(Stephen Scott (writer)), himself a convert to the [Order River Brethren](Old)(Old Order River Brethren), distinguishes four types of seekers:
* *Checklist seekers* are looking for a few certain specifications.
* *Cultural seekers* are more enchanted with the lifestyle of the Amish than with their religion.
* *Spiritual utopian seekers* are looking for true [Testament](New)(New Testament) Christianity.
* *Stability seekers* come with emotional issues, often from [families](dysfunctional)(dysfunctional family).
## Health
[[farm morristown new york.jpg|thumb|alt=An Amish woman and three children, on a path to a house and six wooden farm buildings, past some farm equipment|Amish farm near Morristown, New York](File:Amish)]
[[the Load - Amish Healthcare Financing.pdf|alt=|thumb|right|A 2016 study on Amish community funding for health care](File:Sharing)]
Amish populations have higher incidences of particular conditions, including [dwarfism](dwarfism), [syndrome](Angelman)(Angelman syndrome), and various [disorders](metabolic)(metabolic disorders), as well as an unusual distribution of blood types. The Amish represent a collection of different [demes](deme (biology)) or genetically closed communities. Although the Amish do not have higher [incidence](Incidence (epidemiology)) of genetic disorders than the general population, since almost all Amish descend from a few hundred 18th-century founders, some recessive conditions are more [prevalent](Prevalence) (an example of the [effect](founder)(founder effect)). Some of these disorders are rare or unique, and are serious enough to increase the mortality rate among Amish children. The Amish are aware of the advantages of [exogamy](exogamy), but for religious reasons, marry only within their communities. The majority of Amish accept these as (God's will); they reject the use of preventive genetic tests prior to marriage and genetic testing of unborn children to discover genetic disorders. When children are born with a disorder, they are accepted into the community and tasked with chores within their ability. However, Amish are willing to participate in studies of genetic diseases. Their extensive family histories are useful to researchers investigating diseases such as [Alzheimer's](Alzheimer's), [Parkinson's](Parkinson's), and [degeneration](macular)(macular degeneration).
While the Amish are at an increased risk for some genetic disorders, researchers have found their tendency for clean living can lead to better health. Overall cancer rates in the Amish are reduced and tobacco-related cancers in Amish adults are 37 percent and non-tobacco-related cancers are 72 percent of the rate for Ohio adults. Skin cancer rates are lower for Amish, even though many Amish make their living working outdoors where they are exposed to sunlight. They are typically covered and dressed by wearing wide-brimmed hats and long sleeves which protect their skin.
Treating genetic problems is the mission of [for Special Children](Clinic)(Clinic for Special Children) in [Pennsylvania](Strasburg,)(Strasburg, Pennsylvania), which has developed effective treatments for such problems as [syrup urine disease](maple)(maple syrup urine disease), a previously fatal disease. The clinic is embraced by most Amish, ending the need for parents to leave the community to receive proper care for their children, an action that might result in shunning. Another clinic is DDC Clinic for Special Needs Children, located in [Ohio](Middlefield,)(Middlefield, Ohio), for special-needs children with inherited or metabolic disorders. The DDC Clinic provides treatment, research, and educational services to Amish and non-Amish children and their families.
People's Helpers is an Amish-organized network of mental health caregivers who help families dealing with mental illness and recommend professional counselors. Suicide rates for the Amish are about half that of the general population.}}
The Old Order Amish do not typically carry private commercial health insurance. A handful of American hospitals, starting in the mid-1990s, created special outreach programs to assist the Amish. In some Amish communities, the church will collect money from its members to help pay for medical bills of other members. Although the Amish are often perceived by outsiders as rejecting all modern technologies, this is not the case and modern medicine is employed by Amish communities, including hospital births and other advanced treatments. As they go without health insurance and pay up front for services, Amish individuals will often travel to Mexico for non-urgent care and surgery to reduce costs.
Although not forbidden, most Amish do not practice any form of [control](birth)(birth control). They are against abortion and also find "[insemination](artificial)(artificial insemination), genetics, [eugenics](eugenics), and [cell research](stem)(stem cell research)" to be "inconsistent with Amish values and beliefs". However, some communities allow access to birth control to women whose health would be compromised by childbirth.
## Life in the modern world
[[File:Traditional Amish buggy.jpg|thumb|alt=Horsedrawn grey buggy in multilane auto traffic, with rearview mirrors, directional signals, lights, and reflectors|Traditional, [Lancaster](Lancaster Amish affiliation) style Amish buggy]]
[[File:Amish School near Rebersburg PA.jpg|thumb|Amish school near [Pennsylvania](Rebersburg,)(Rebersburg, Pennsylvania)]]
As time has passed, the Amish have felt pressures from the modern world. Issues such as taxation, [education](Amish life in the modern world#Education), law and its enforcement, and occasional discrimination and hostility are areas of difficulty.
The modern way of life in general has increasingly diverged from that of Amish society. On occasion, this has resulted in sporadic discrimination and hostility from their neighbors, such as throwing of stones or other objects at Amish horse-drawn carriages on the roads.
The Amish do not usually educate their children past the eighth grade, believing that the basic knowledge offered up to that point is sufficient to prepare one for the Amish lifestyle. Almost no Amish go to high school and college. In many communities, the Amish operate their own schools, which are typically one-room schoolhouses with teachers (usually young, unmarried women) from the Amish community. On May 19, 1972, Jonas Yoder and Wallace Miller of the Old Order Amish, and Adin Yutzy of the Conservative Amish Mennonite Church were each fined $5 for refusing to send their children, aged 14 and 15, to high school. In *[v. Yoder](Wisconsin)(Wisconsin v. Yoder)* (1972), the Wisconsin Supreme Court overturned the conviction,*Wisconsin v. Yoder*, 182 N.W.2d 539 (Wis. 1971). and the [Supreme Court](U.S.)(U.S. Supreme Court) affirmed this, finding the benefits of universal education were not sufficient justification to overcome scrutiny under the [Exercise Clause](Free)(Free Exercise Clause) of the [Amendment](First)(First Amendment to the United States Constitution).*Wisconsin v. Yoder*, 406 U.S. 205, 32 L.Ed.2d 15, 92 S.Ct. 1526 (1972).
The Amish are subject to sales and property taxes. As they seldom own motor vehicles, they rarely have occasion to pay motor vehicle registration fees or spend money on the purchase of fuel for vehicles. Under their beliefs and traditions, generally the Amish do not agree with the idea of Social Security benefits and have a religious objection to insurance. On this basis, the United States [Revenue Service](Internal)(Internal Revenue Service) agreed in 1961 that they did not need to pay [Security](Social)(Social Security (United States))-related taxes. In 1965, this policy was codified into law. Self-employed individuals in certain sects do not pay into or receive benefits from the United States Social Security system. This exemption applies to a religious group that is conscientiously opposed to accepting benefits of any private or public insurance, provides a reasonable level of living for its dependent members, and has existed continuously since December 31, 1950. The U.S. Supreme Court clarified in 1982 that Amish employers are not exempt, but only those Amish individuals who are self-employed.
## Publishing
In 1964, [Publishers](Pathway)(Pathway Publishers) was founded by two Amish farmers to print more material about the Amish and Anabaptists in general. It is located in [Indiana](Lagrange,)(Lagrange, Indiana), and [Aylmer](Aylmer, Ontario), Ontario. Pathway has become the major publisher of Amish school textbooks, general-reading books, and periodicals. Also, a number of private enterprises publish everything from general reading to reprints of older literature that has been considered of great value to Amish families. Some Amish read the Pennsylvania German newspaper , and some of them even contribute dialect texts.
## Dog breeding
Amish and [Mennonite](Mennonites) communities across many states have turned to [breeding](dog)(dog breeding) as a lucrative source of income. According to the USDA list of licensees, over 98% of Ohio's [mill](puppy)(puppy mill)s are run by the Amish, as are 97% of Indiana's, and 63% of Pennsylvania's. In [County](Lancaster)(Lancaster County, Pennsylvania), Pennsylvania, there are roughly 300 licensed breeders, and an estimated further 600 unlicensed breeding facilities.
Reports of poor standards of care and treatment of dogs as a [crop](cash)(cash crop) by members of the Amish community has led to calls for puppy mills and auctions to be closed, with one breeder being issued with a restraining order from the practice for numerous violations of the federal Animal Welfare Act. At the time the restraining order was issued, the breeder had at least 1000 dogs in their care.
## Similar groups
Anabaptist groups that sprang from the same late 19th century [Order Movement](Old)(Old Order Movement) as the Amish share their [German heritage](Pennsylvania)(Pennsylvania Dutch) and often still retain similar features in dress. These Old Order groups include different subgroups of [Order Mennonite](Old)(Old Order Mennonite)s, traditional [Brethren](Schwarzenau)(Schwarzenau Brethren) and [Order River Brethren](Old)(Old Order River Brethren). The [Hoover Old Order Mennonites](Noah)(Noah Hoover Mennonite) are so similar in outward aspects to the Old Order Amish, including dress, beards, horse and buggy, extreme restrictions on modern technology, Pennsylvania German language, that they are often perceived as Amish and even called Amish.
["Russian" Mennonites](Conservative)(Russian Mennonites) and [Hutterite](Hutterite)s who also dress plain and speak German dialects emigrated from other European regions at different times with different German dialects, separate cultures, and related but different religious traditions. Particularly, the Hutterites live communally and are generally accepting of modern technology.
In Ukraine there is a [movement of Baptists](nameless)(:uk:Кашкетники) that has been compared to the Amish, due to their similar beliefs of plain living and pacifism.
The few remaining [Quakers](Plain)(Conservative Friends) are similar in manner and lifestyle, including their attitudes toward war, but are unrelated to the Amish. Early Quakers were influenced, to some degree, by the [Anabaptists](Anabaptists), and in turn influenced the Amish in colonial Pennsylvania. Almost all modern Quakers have since abandoned their traditional dress.
## Relations with Native Americans
The [Amish Settlement](Northkill)(Northkill Amish Settlement), established in 1740 in [County, Pennsylvania](Berks)(Berks County, Pennsylvania), was the first identifiable Amish community in the [World](New)(New World). During the [and Indian War](French)(French and Indian War), the Hochstetler Massacre occurred: Local tribes attacked the Jacob Hochstetler [homestead](homestead (buildings)) in the Northkill settlement on September 19, 1757. The sons of the family took their weapons but father Jacob did not allow them to shoot due to the [doctrine](Anabaptist)(Anabaptist doctrine) of [nonresistance](nonresistance). Jacob Sr.'s wife, Anna (Lorentz) Hochstetler, a daughter (name unknown) and Jacob Jr. were killed by the Native Americans. Jacob Sr. and sons Joseph and Christian were taken captive. Jacob escaped after about eight months, but the boys were held for several years. When freed, both of these sons joined the church and one of them became a minister.
As early as 1809 Amish were farming side by side with Native American farmers in Pennsylvania. According to Cones Kupwah Snowflower, a Shawnee genealogist, the Amish and Quakers were known to incorporate Native Americans into their families to protect them from ill-treatment, especially after the [Act of 1832](Removal)(Indian Removal Act).Cones Kupwah Snowflower in NAAH No. July 14, 1996 "Let's Get Physical"
The Amish, as pacifists, did not engage in warfare with Native Americans, nor displace them directly, but were among the European immigrants whose arrival resulted in their displacement.
In 2012, the Lancaster Mennonite Historical Society collaborated with the Native American community to construct a replica Iroquois Longhouse.
## See also
* [& Mennonite Heritage Center](Amish)(Amish & Mennonite Heritage Center)
* [furniture](Amish)(Amish furniture)
* [music](Amish)(Amish music)
* [raising](Barn)(Barn raising)
* [of Bird-in-Hand](Bank)(Bank of Bird-in-Hand)
* [views on poverty and wealth](Christian)(Christian views on poverty and wealth)
* [Dutch](Fancy)(Fancy Dutch)
* [Hutterites](Hutterites)
* [of Amish and their descendants](List)(List of Amish and their descendants)
* ''[Mirror](Martyr's)(Martyr's Mirror)*
* [Mennonites](Mennonites)
* [Neo-Luddism](Neo-Luddism)
* [Shaker](Shakers)
* [Pinecraft](Pinecraft (Sarasota))
* [people](Plain)(Plain people)
* [Nickel Mines School shooting](West)(West Nickel Mines School shooting)
## Notes
## References
## Bibliography
*
* .
* Kraybill, Donald B., Karen M. Johnson-Weiner, and Steven M. Nolt, *The Amish* (Johns Hopkins University Press, 2013), 500 pp.
* .
* .
* }}.
* .
* .
* Mackall, Joe: *Plain Secrets: An Outsider among the Amish'', Boston, Mass. 2007.
* .
* .
## Further reading
* *Die Botschaft* – Lancaster, PA – Newspaper for Old Order Amish and Old Order Mennonites; only Amish may place advertisements.
* [*The Budget*](http://www.thebudgetnewspaper.com/) – Sugarcreek, OH – Weekly newspaper by and for Amish.
* *The Diary* – Gordonville, PA – Monthly newsmagazine by and for Old Order Amish.
* Beachy, Leroy (2011). *Unser Leit ... The Story of the Amish*. Millersburg, OH: Goodly Heritage Books.
* DeWalt, Mark W. (2006). *Amish Education in the United States and Canada*. Rowman and Littlefield Education.
* Garret, Ottie A and Ruth Irene Garret (1998). *True Stories of the X-Amish: Banned, Excommunicated and Shunned*, Horse Cave, KY: Neu Leben.
* Garret, Ruth Irene (1998). ''Crossing Over: One Woman's Escape from Amish Life'', Thomas More.
* Gehman Richard. "Plainest of Pennsylvania's Plain People Amish Folk". *National Geographic*, August 1965, pp. 226–53.
* Good, Merle and Phyllis (1979). *20 Most Asked Questions about the Amish and Mennonites*. Intercourse, PA: Good Books.
* Hostetler, John A. ed. (1989). *Amish Roots: A Treasury of History, Wisdom, and Lore*. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.
* Igou, Brad (1999). *The Amish in Their Own Words: Amish Writings from 25 Years of Family Life*, Scottdale, PA: Herald Press.
* Johnson-Weiner, Karen M. (2006). *Train Up a Child: Old Order Amish and Mennonite Schools*. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.
* Johnson-Weiner, Karen M. (2017) *New York Amish : Life in the Plain Communities of the Empire State* (Cornell UP, 2017).
* Keim, Albert (1976). *Compulsory Education and the Amish: The Right Not to be Modern*. Beacon Press.
* Kraybill, Donald B. "Amish." in *Gale Encyclopedia of Multicultural America,* edited by Thomas Riggs, (3rd ed., vol. 1, Gale, 2014), pp. 97–112. [online](https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/CX3273300018/GPS?u=wikipedia&sid=GPS&xid=2101fa51)
* Kraybill, Donald B. (2008). *The Amish of Lancaster County*. Mechanicsburg, PA: Stackpole Books.* Kraybill, Donald B. ed. (2003). *The Amish and the State*. Foreword by Martin E. Marty. 2nd ed.: Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.
* Kraybill, Donald B. (2014). *Renegade Amish: Beard Cutting, Hate Crimes, and the Trial of the Bergholz Barbers*. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.
* Kraybill, Donald B. & Carl D. Bowman (2002). *On the Backroad to Heaven: Old Order Hutterites, Mennonites, Amish, and Brethren*. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.
* Kraybill, Donald B. & Steven M. Nolt (2004). *Amish Enterprise: From Plows to Profits*. 2nd ed. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.
* Kraybill, Donald B., Steven M. Nolt & David L. Weaver-Zercher (2006). *Amish Grace: How Forgiveness Transcended Tragedy*. New York: Jossey-Bass.
* Kraybill, Donald B., Steven M. Nolt & David L. Weaver-Zercher (2010). *The Amish Way: Patient Faith in a Perilous World*. New York: Jossey-Bass.
* Luthy, David (1991). *Amish Settlements That Failed, 1840–1960*. LaGrange, IN: Pathway Publishers.
* Nolt, Steven M. and Thomas J. Myers (2007). *Plain Diversity: Amish Cultures and Identities*. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.
* Schachtman, Tom (2006). *Rumspringa: To be or not to be Amish*. New York: North Point Press.
* Schlabach, Theron F. (1988). *Peace, Faith, Nation: Mennonites and Amish in Nineteenth-Century America*. Scottdale, PA: Herald Press.
* Schmidt, Kimberly D., Diane Zimmerman Umble, & Steven D. Reschly, eds. (2002) *Strangers at Home: Amish and Mennonite Women in History*. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.
* [Stephen](Scott,)(Stephen Scott (writer)) (1988). *The Amish Wedding and Other Special Occasions of the Old Order Communities*. Intercourse, PA: Good Books.
* Smith, Jeff (2016). *Becoming Amish*. Cedar, MI: Dance Hall Press
* Stevick, Richard A. (2007). *Growing Up Amish: the Teenage Years*. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.
* Umble, Diane Zimmerman (2000). *Holding the Line: the Telephone in Old Order Mennonite and Amish Life*. Johns Hopkins University Press.
* Umble, Diane Zimmerman & David L. Weaver-Zercher, eds. (2008). *The Amish and the Media*. Johns Hopkins University Press
* Weaver-Zercher, David L. (2001). *The Amish in the American Imagination*. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.
* Yoder, Harvey (2007). *The Happening: Nickel Mines School Tragedy*. Berlin, OH: TGS International.
## External links
* ["Amish"](http://gameo.org/index.php?title=Amish) in the [Anabaptist Mennonite Encyclopedia Online](Global)(Global Anabaptist Mennonite Encyclopedia Online)
* ["FAQs About the Amish"](https://lancasterpa.com/amish/amish-frequently-asked-questions/), by resident experts at the Mennonite Information Center.
* *[The Journal of Amish and Plain Anabaptist Studies](https://ideaexchange.uakron.edu/amishstudies/)*
* ["Amish Studies"](http://www.amishstudies.org) at the Amish & Plain Anabaptist Studies Association, a professional organization of scholars and service providers to the Amish and plain people
* ["Amish Studies"](http://www2.etown.edu/amishstudies/Index.asp) at Young Center for Anabaptist & Pietist Studies at [College](Elizabethtown)(Elizabethtown College)
* [Mennonite Historical Library at Goshen College](https://www.goshen.edu/mhl/)
* ["The Amish"](http://missourifolkloresociety.truman.edu/Amish.htm) from the Missouri Folklore Society
* ["Amish in Serbia – reportage"](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9RJLsjqLJ5Q&t=13s) Amish in Serbia
[ ](Category:Amish)
[Category:Anabaptists](Category:Anabaptists)
[establishments in Europe](Category:1693)(Category:1693 establishments in Europe)
[establishments in Switzerland](Category:17th-century)(Category:17th-century establishments in Switzerland)
[in Pennsylvania](Category:Anabaptism)(Category:Anabaptism in Pennsylvania)
[organizations established in the 17th century](Category:Christian)(Category:Christian organizations established in the 17th century)
[groups](Category:Ethnoreligious)(Category:Ethnoreligious groups)
[diaspora in North America](Category:European)(Category:European diaspora in North America)
[diaspora](Category:German)(Category:German diaspora)
[culture](Category:German-American)(Category:German-American culture)
[history](Category:German-American)(Category:German-American history)
[of Lancaster, Pennsylvania](Category:History)(Category:History of Lancaster, Pennsylvania)
[culture](Category:Ohio)(Category:Ohio culture)
[churches](Category:Peace)(Category:Peace churches)
[culture](Category:Pennsylvania)(Category:Pennsylvania culture)
[in Indiana](Category:Protestantism)(Category:Protestantism in Indiana)
[in Ohio](Category:Protestantism)(Category:Protestantism in Ohio)
[in Wisconsin](Category:Protestantism)(Category:Protestantism in Wisconsin)
[in Lancaster, Pennsylvania](Category:Religion)(Category:Religion in Lancaster, Pennsylvania)
[organizations established in 1693](Category:Religious)(Category:Religious organizations established in 1693)
[living](Category:Simple)(Category:Simple living)
[culture](Category:Swiss-American)(Category:Swiss-American culture)
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Cloud Atlas _film
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cloud_atlas__film
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# Cloud Atlas (film)
*Revision ID: 1156187889 | Timestamp: 2023-05-21T16:59:28Z*
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| editing = Alexander Berner
| distributor = [Bros. Pictures](Warner)(Warner Bros. Pictures)}}
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| language = English
| budget = $100–146.7 million
| gross = $130.5 million
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***Cloud Atlas*** is a 2012 [epic](epic film) [fiction film](science)(science fiction film) written and directed by [Wachowskis](the)(the Wachowskis) and [Tykwer](Tom)(Tom Tykwer). Based on the [novel](2004)(Cloud Atlas (novel)) by [Mitchell](David)(David Mitchell (author)), it has multiple plots occurring during six eras in time, with the cast members performing multiple roles.
The film was produced by [Hill](Grant)(Grant Hill (producer)) and [Arndt](Stefan)(Stefan Arndt), in addition to the Wachowskis and Tykwer. During its four years of development, the producers had difficulties securing financial support. It was eventually produced with a budget between US$100 million and US$146.7 million provided by independent sources, making it one of the most expensive [film](independent)(independent film)s ever produced. Filming for *Cloud Atlas* began in September 2011 at [Studio](Babelsberg)(Babelsberg Studio) in [Germany](Potsdam-Babelsberg,)(Babelsberg).
It premiered on 8 September 2012 at the [Toronto International Film Festival](37th)(2012 Toronto International Film Festival), and was publicly released on 26 October 2012 in conventional and [IMAX](IMAX) cinemas. Critics were polarized, causing it to be included on various "[Film](Best)(Best Film)" and "[Film](Worst)(Worst film)" lists. It was nominated for a [Globe Award for Best Original Score](Golden)(Golden Globe Award for Best Original Score) for Tykwer (who co-scored the film), [Klimek](Johnny)(Johnny Klimek), and [Heil](Reinhold)(Reinhold Heil). It received several nominations at the [Awards](Saturn)(Saturn Awards), including [Science Fiction Film](Best)(Saturn Award for Best Science Fiction Film), and won for [Editing](Best)(Saturn Award for Best Editing) and [Make-up](Best)(Saturn Award for Best Make-up).
## Plot
The story jumps between eras, spanning hundreds of years, until each storyline eventually resolves. Writings from characters in prior storylines are found in future storylines. Characters appear to recur in each era, but change relationships to each other. Slaves or abusers often change roles, suggesting [reincarnation](reincarnation) or other connection between souls through the ages.
In the [Islands](Chatham)(Chatham Islands), 1849, American lawyer Adam Ewing witnesses the whipping of Autua, an [enslaved](Slavery) [Moriori](Moriori people) man. Autua [away](stows)(stowaway) on Ewing's ship and persuades him to advocate for Autua to join the crew as a free man. Autua saves Ewing's life before his doctor, Henry Goose, can poison him and steal his gold under the guise of treating him for a parasitic worm. In San Francisco, Ewing and his wife denounce her father's complicity in slavery and leave to join the [movement](abolition)(Abolitionism in the United States).
In 1936, English composer Robert Frobisher finds work as an [amanuensis](amanuensis) to aging composer Vyvyan Ayrs, allowing Frobisher to compose his own masterpiece, "The Cloud Atlas Sextet". Frobisher reads from Ewing's journal among the books at Ayrs's mansion. Ayrs demands credit for the sextet and threatens to expose Frobisher's bisexuality if he refuses. Frobisher shoots and wounds Ayrs and goes into hiding. He finishes the sextet and shoots himself before his lover Rufus Sixsmith arrives.
In San Francisco, 1973, journalist Luisa Rey meets Sixsmith, now a nuclear physicist. Sixsmith tips off Rey to a conspiracy to create a catastrophe at a [reactor](nuclear)(nuclear reactor) run by Lloyd Hooks, who secretly promotes oil-energy interests. He is killed by Hooks's hitman, Bill Smoke, before he can give her a report as proof. Rey finds Frobisher's letters to Sixsmith, just as Frobisher had found Ewing's journal earlier. She tracks down Frobisher's obscure sextet in a record store. Scientist Isaac Sachs passes her a copy of Sixsmith's report. Smoke kills Sachs by blowing up his plane and then runs Rey's car off a bridge, destroying the report. With help from the plant's head of security, Joe Napier, Rey evades another assassination attempt, and Smoke is killed. With a copy of the report from Sixsmith's niece, she exposes the plot and has Hooks indicted.
In London, 2012, [gangster](gangster) Dermot Hoggins murders a critic after a harsh review of his memoir, generating huge sales. Hoggins's brothers threaten the publisher, the aging Timothy Cavendish, for Hoggins's profits. Timothy's brother, Denholme, tells him to hide at Aurora House. On the way, Timothy reads a manuscript based on Rey's story. Believing Aurora House is a hotel, Timothy signs in, only to discover he has unwittingly committed himself to a [home](nursing)(nursing home) where all outside contact is prohibited; Denholme reveals that he sent Timothy there as revenge for an affair with his wife. Timothy escapes with three other residents, resumes his relationship with an old flame, and writes a screenplay about his experience.
In 2144, Sonmi-451 is a "fabricant", a humanoid clone indentured as a fast food server and implied sex worker in a dystopian Neo [Seoul](Seoul). She is exposed to ideas of rebellion by another fabricant, Yoona-939, who has obtained a clip of the movie about Cavendish's involuntary institutionalization. After Yoona is killed, Sonmi is rescued by rebel Commander Hae-Joo Chang, who exposes Sonmi to the banned writings of [Solzhenitsyn](Aleksandr)(Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn) and the full film version of Cavendish's experience. Hae-Joo eventually introduces her to the leader of the rebel movement, and shows her that clones when 'freed' are actually recycled into "Soap", food for fabricants. Sonmi makes a public broadcast of her revelations before the authorities attack, killing Hae-Joo and recapturing Sonmi. After recounting her story to an archivist, she is executed.
In 2321, the tribespeople of the post-apocalyptic [Hawaii](Hawaii (island)) worship Sonmi; their sacred text is taken from her recorded testimony. Zachry Bailey's village is visited by Meronym, a member of an advanced society called the Prescients. Prescients use nuclear powered ships and remnants of high technology, but are dying from a plague. Meronym is searching for a forgotten communication station on Mauna Sol to send an SOS to off-world humans. In exchange for healing Zachry's niece, Catkin, Meronym is guided by Zachry to the station where Sonmi made her recording. Returning home, Zachry finds his tribe slaughtered by the cannibalistic Kona tribe. He kills the sleeping Kona chief and rescues Catkin before he and Meronym fight off the other Kona tribesmen. Zachry and Catkin join Meronym and the Prescients as their ship leaves Big Island. On a distant planet, Zachry is married to Meronym and recounts the story to his grandchildren.
## Main cast
The main character in each story is indicated in **bold**.
Other cast members who appear in more than one segment include [Wuttke](Martin)(Martin Wuttke), [Havill](Andrew)(Andrew Havill), Brody Nicholas Lee, [Petrie](Alistair)(Alistair Petrie), and [Le Touzel](Sylvestra)(Sylvestra Le Touzel). In addition, author David Mitchell makes a cameo appearance as a double agent in the futuristic Korea section.
## Production
### Development
The film is based on the 2004 novel *[Atlas](Cloud)(Cloud Atlas (novel))* by [Mitchell](David)(David Mitchell (author)). Filmmaker [Tykwer](Tom)(Tom Tykwer) revealed in January 2009 his intent to adapt the novel and said he was working on a screenplay with [Wachowskis](the)(the Wachowskis), who optioned the novel. By June 2010, Tykwer had asked actors [Portman](Natalie)(Natalie Portman), [Hanks](Tom)(Tom Hanks), [Berry](Halle)(Halle Berry), [McAvoy](James)(James McAvoy), and [McKellen](Ian)(Ian McKellen) to star in *Cloud Atlas*. By April 2011, the Wachowskis joined Tykwer in co-directing the film. In the following May, with Hanks and Berry confirmed in their roles, [Weaving](Hugo)(Hugo Weaving), [Whishaw](Ben)(Ben Whishaw), [Sarandon](Susan)(Susan Sarandon), and [Broadbent](Jim)(Jim Broadbent) also joined the cast. Actor [Grant](Hugh)(Hugh Grant) joined the cast days before the start of filming; he was originally supposed to have only five roles, but asked the Wachowskis for a sixth one, and subsequently was also cast as Denholme Cavendish in the 2012 storyline. According to Berry, the character of Ovid she plays in the 2144 storyline was originally meant to be a female character played by Tom Hanks, until the directors felt that Ovid was a logical part of the journey of the soul played by Berry.
It was financed by the German production companies A Company, [ARD](ARD (broadcaster)) Degeto Film and X Filme. In May 2011, *Variety* reported that it had a production budget of . The filmmakers secured approximately $20 million from the [government](German)(Politics of Germany), including () from the (DFFF), () development funding and () from Medienboard [Berlin-Brandenburg](Berlin/Brandenburg Metropolitan Region), a German funder, as part of their plans to film at [Babelsberg](Studio)(Studio Babelsberg) later in 2011. The project also received () financial support from Filmstiftung [NRW](North Rhine-Westphalia), () from [Medienförderung](Mitteldeutsche)(Central Germany (cultural area)), €30 million () from UE-Fonds (the biggest proportion of the budget), and () from FFF [Bayern](Bayern), another German organization. The Wachowskis contributed approximately $7 million to the project out of their own finances. The budget was updated to .
The Wachowskis stated that due to lack of financing, the film was almost abandoned several times. However, they noted how the crew was enthusiastic and determined: "They flew—even though their agents called them and said, 'They don't have the money, the money's not closed. They specifically praised Tom Hanks's enthusiasm: "Warner Bros. calls and, through our agent, says they've looked at the math and decided that they don't like this deal. They're pulling all of the money away, rescinding the offer. I was shaking. I heard, 'Are you saying the movie is dead?' They were like, 'Yes, the movie is dead.' ... At the end of the meeting, Tom says, 'Let's do it. I'm in. When do we start?' ... Tom said this unabashed, enthusiastic 'Yes!' which put our heart back together. We walked away thinking, this movie is dead but somehow, it's alive and we're going to make it." "Every single time, Tom Hanks was the first who said, 'I'm getting on the plane.' And then once he said he was getting on the plane, basically everyone said, 'Well, Tom's on the plane, we're on the plane.' And so everyone flew [Berlin to begin the film](to). It was like this giant [of faith](leap)(leap of faith). From all over the globe."
Some German journalists called it "the first attempt at a German blockbuster".
### Principal photography
Tykwer and the Wachowskis filmed parallel to each other using separate camera crews. Although all three shot scenes together when permitted by the schedule, the Wachowskis mostly directed the 19th-century story and the two set in the future, while Tykwer directed the stories set in the 1930s, the 1970s, and 2012. Tykwer said that the three directors planned every segment of the film together in pre-production, and continued to work closely together through post-production. [Bros. Pictures](Warner)(Warner Bros. Pictures) representatives agreed to the film's 172-minute running time, after previously stating that it should not exceed 150 minutes.[Cloud Atlas gets December US release date; test screenings taking place](http://filmonic.com/cloud-atlas-gets-december-us-release-date-test-screenings-taking-place) , Filmonic, 17 May 2012
Filming began at [Babelsberg](Studio)(Studio Babelsberg) in [Potsdam-Babelsberg](Potsdam-Babelsberg), Germany, on 2011, the base camp for the production. Other German locations include the city of [Düsseldorf](Düsseldorf) and the [Switzerland](Saxon)(Saxon Switzerland) landscape, furthermore sets in and near [Edinburgh](Edinburgh) and [Glasgow](Glasgow), Scotland, and the [Mediterranean](Mediterranean) island of [Majorca](Majorca), Spain. Glasgow doubled for both San Francisco and London. Scenes filmed in Scotland feature the new [Bridge](Clackmannanshire)(Clackmannanshire Bridge) near [Alloa](Alloa). The "Big Island" and "Pacific Islands" stories were shot on [Majorca](Majorca), mostly in the [Heritage site](World)(UNESCO World Heritage Site) of the [de Tramuntana](Serra)(Serra de Tramuntana) mountains. Scenes were shot at [Tuent](Cala)(Cala Tuent) and near [Formentor](Formentor), amongst others. The opening scene, when Adam Ewing meets Dr. Henry Goose, was filmed at [Calobra](Sa)(Sa Calobra) beach. [de Sóller](Port)(Sóller) provided the setting for the scene when the 19th-century ship is mooring.
The film was meant to be shot in chronological order; however, Berry broke her foot two days before she was supposed to start filming. Instead of replacing her, the Wachowskis and Tykwer heavily changed the initial filming schedule; Berry stated that "it involved travelling back and forth to Majorca and then Germany then we had to go back to Majorca when my foot got a little bit better and we were able to shoot some of that stuff on the mountainside when I could climb a little bit better. It was all over the place." According to her, "Tom [Hanks] would play nurse to me. He really took care of me. He would bring me coffee and soup and just stay with me during breaks in shooting because it was difficult for me to move around, especially at the beginning ... I basically had to be helped back to my chair after every take, but you learn to adapt to the situation. But with Tom at my side, I was really able to go beyond my own expectations of what I was capable of as an actress."
## Music
The soundtrack was composed by director [Tykwer](Tom)(Tom Tykwer) and his longtime collaborators, [Heil](Reinhold)(Reinhold Heil) and [Klimek](Johnny)(Johnny Klimek). The trio worked together for years as Pale 3, composing music for several films directed by Tykwer, most notably *[Lola Run](Run)(Run Lola Run)*, *[Princess and the Warrior](The)(The Princess and the Warrior)*, *[The Story of a Murderer](Perfume:)(Perfume: The Story of a Murderer (film))*, and *[International](The)(The International (2009 film))*, and contributing music to the Wachowskis' *[Matrix Revolutions](The)(The Matrix Revolutions)*. The music was recorded in [Leipzig](Leipzig), Germany with the MDR Radio Symphony Orchestra and the Leipzig Radio Chorus. The music was orchestrated by [Pritsker](Gene)(Gene Pritsker) and the closing credits contain the 6th movement of Pritsker's Cloud Atlas Symphony.
The film contains approximately two hours of original music. [Music](WaterTower)(WaterTower Music) released the soundtrack album via digital download on 23 October 2012 and CD on 6 November 2012.
### Reception
The *Cloud Atlas* soundtrack received critical acclaim. *Film Music Magazine* critic Daniel Schweiger described the soundtrack as "a singular piece of multi-themed astonishment ... Yet instead of defining one sound for every era, Klimek, Heil and Tykwer seamlessly merge their motifs across the ages to give *Cloud Atlas* its rhythms, blending orchestra, pulsating electronics, choruses and a soaring salute to [Adams](John)(John Adams (composer)) in an astonishing, captivating score that eventually becomes all things for all personages".
Daniel Schweiger selected the score as one of the best soundtracks of 2012, writing that "*Cloud Atlas* is an immense sum total of not only the human experience, but of mankind's capacity for musical self-realization itself, all as embodied in a theme for the ages."
The film's soundtrack was nominated for the 2012 [Globe Award for Best Original Score](Golden)(Golden Globe Award for Best Original Score), and for several awards by the [Film Music Critics Association](International)(International Film Music Critics Association), including Score of the Year.
## Release
The film premiered at the [Toronto International Film Festival](2012)(2012 Toronto International Film Festival), where it received a 10-minute standing ovation.
It was released on 26 October 2012 in the United States. [Bros. Pictures](Warner)(Warner Bros. Pictures) distributed it in the United States, Canada and the United Kingdom, and [Features](Focus)(Focus Features) International handled sales for other territories. According to the Wachowskis, [Entertainment](Summit)(Summit Entertainment), who previously worked with Tykwer on *[The Story of a Murderer](Perfume:)(Perfume: The Story of a Murderer (film))*, was originally going to distribute it internationally, but ultimately rejected it.
It was released in cinemas in China on 31 January 2013 with 39 minutes of cuts, including removal of nudity, a sexual scene, and numerous conversations.
### Marketing
A six-minute trailer, accompanied by a short introduction by the three directors describing the ideas behind the creation of the film, was released on 2012. A shorter official trailer was released on 7 September 2012. The six-minute trailer includes three pieces of music. The opening piano music is the main theme of the soundtrack (*Prelude: The Atlas March/The Cloud Atlas Sextet*) by composing trio [Tykwer](Tom)(Tom Tykwer), Johnny Klimek, and [Heil](Reinhold)(Reinhold Heil), followed by an instrumental version of the song "Sonera" from [J. Bergersen](Thomas)(Thomas J. Bergersen)'s album *[Illusions](Illusions (Thomas Bergersen album))*. The song in the last part is "[Outro](Outro (M83 song))" from [M83](M83 (band))'s album ''[Up, We're Dreaming](Hurry)(Hurry Up, We're Dreaming)''.
### Home media
The film was released on home media ([Blu-ray](Blu-ray), DVD and [Digital Copy](UV)(UltraViolet (system))) on May 14, 2013.
## Reception
### Critical response
The film has had polarized reactions from both critics and audiences, who debated its length and editing of the interwoven stories, but praised other aspects such as its cinematography, score, visual style, ensemble cast, and ambition. It received a lengthy standing ovation at the [Toronto International Film Festival](37th)(2012 Toronto International Film Festival), where it premiered on 9 September 2012.
According to [aggregator](review)(review aggregator) website [Tomatoes](Rotten)(Rotten Tomatoes), 66% of 293 critics gave the film a positive review, with an average rating of 6.7/10. The site's critics' consensus is that "Its sprawling, ambitious blend of thought-provoking narrative and eye-catching visuals will prove too unwieldy for some, but the sheer size and scope of *Cloud Atlas* are all but impossible to ignore." Review aggregator [Metacritic](Metacritic) assigned the film a weighted average score of 55 out of 100, based on 45 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews". According to the website, the film appeared on 14 critics' top 10 lists for 2012. Audiences polled by [CinemaScore](CinemaScore) gave the film an average grade of "C+" on an A+ to F scale.
Film critic [Ebert](Roger)(Roger Ebert) gave the film four out of four stars and listed the film among his best of the year: "One of the most ambitious films ever made ... Even as I was watching *Cloud Atlas* the first time, I knew I would need to see it again. Now that I've seen it the second time, I know I'd like to see it a third time ... I think you will want to see this daring and visionary film ... I was never, ever bored by *Cloud Atlas*. On my second viewing, I gave up any attempt to work out the logical connections between the segments, stories and characters". Conversely, *[Magazine](Slant)(Slant Magazine)*s Calum Marsh called it a "unique and totally unparalleled disaster" and commented "[its] badness is fundamental, an essential aspect of the concept and its execution that I suspect is impossible to remedy or rectify." *[Guardian](The)(The Guardian)* stated "At 172 minutes, *Cloud Atlas* carries all the marks of a giant folly, and those unfamiliar with the book will be baffled" and awarded the film two out of five stars.
Nick Pickerton, who reviewed the film for *[Village Voice](The)(The Village Voice)*, said, "There is a great deal of humbug about art and love in *Cloud Atlas*, but it is decidedly unlovable, and if you want to learn something about feeling, you're at the wrong movie." English critic [Kermode](Mark)(Mark Kermode) on his first viewing called it "an extremely honourable failure, but a failure", but then on a second viewing for the release of the DVD in the UK stated, "Second time around, I find it to be more engaging – still not an overall success, but containing several moments of genuine magic, and buoyed up by the exuberance of high-vaulting ambition." *Village Voice* and *[Time](Time (magazine))* magazine both named *Cloud Atlas* the worst film of 2012.
*[Variety](Variety (magazine))* described it as "an intense three-hour mental workout rewarded with a big emotional payoff. ... One's attention must be engaged at all times as the mosaic triggers an infinite range of potentially profound personal responses." James Rocchi of *[MSN](MSN) Movies* stated, "It is so full of passion and heart and empathy that it feels completely unlike any other modern film in its range either measured through scope of budget or sweep of action." *[Daily Beast](The)(The Daily Beast)* called *Cloud Atlas* "one of the year's most important movies". [Cieply](Michael)(Michael Cieply) of *[New York Times](The)(The New York Times)* commented on the film, "You will have to decide for yourself whether it works. It's that kind of picture. ... Is this the stuff of Oscars? Who knows? Is it a force to be reckoned with in the coming months? Absolutely."
### Box office
Despite expectations that the film could be a success, the film opened to only $9.6 million from 2,008 theaters, an average of $4,787 per theater, finishing second at the U.S. box office. The debut was described as "dreadful" by [Office Mojo](Box)(Box Office Mojo). The film ultimately grossed $27.1 million in the U.S. and $103.4 million internationally for a total of $130.5 million.
### Reaction from the crew
#### Directors
On 25 October 2012, after the premiere at Toronto (and despite the standing ovation it received there), Lilly Wachowski stated as "soon as [critics] encounter a piece of art they don't fully understand the first time going through it, they think it's the fault of the movie or the work of art. They think, 'It's a mess ... This doesn't make any sense.' And they reject it, just out of an almost knee-jerk response to some ambiguity or some gulf between what they expect they should be able to understand, and what they understand."
In the same interview, Lana Wachowski stated people "will try to will *Cloud Atlas* to be rejected. They will call it messy, or complicated, or undecided whether it's trying to say something New Agey-profound or not. And we're wrestling with the same things that [Dickens](Charles Dickens) and [Hugo](Victor Hugo) and David Mitchell and [Melville](Herman)(Herman Melville) were wrestling with. We're wrestling with those same ideas, and we're just trying to do it in a more exciting context than conventionally you are allowed to. ... We don't want to say, 'We are making this to mean this.' What we find is that the most interesting art is open to a spectrum of interpretation."
#### Cast
Tom Hanks has come to praise *Cloud Atlas* heavily in the years that followed its release. In 2013, he stated "I've seen it three times now and discovered, I swear to God, different, profound things with each viewing." In a 2017 interview, he called it "a movie that altered my entire consciousness," stating, "it's the only movie I've been in that I've seen more than twice."
Halle Berry stated in an interview, "It would be impossible to explain what I really feel or think about the film. It exists on so many different levels. ... I love the totality of all the characters." She talked about playing characters belonging to other ethnicities, and playing a male: "This is so poignant for an actor and someone like me, to be able to shed my skin ... you know, to do something that I would have never been able to do. If it were not for this kind of project, I still wouldn't have done that."
In a 2017 interview, Jim Broadbent called the film "great to do" and "fantastic". In another interview, he expressed disappointment over the commercial failure of the film, stating, "It was an independent film and needed a lot of money behind it to get it out there. Warner Bros. had the distribution rights but it wasn't one of their own, so I think it might have been [marketed] harder if it was."
Hugh Grant stated in an October 2014 interview, "I thought [Atlas*](*Cloud) was amazing. [Wachowskis](The) are the bravest film-makers in the world, and I think it's an amazing film ... it's frustrating to me. Every time I've done something outside the genre of light comedy, the film fails to find an audience at the box office. And, sadly, *Cloud Atlas* never really found the audience it deserved." He later stated in 2016 "the whole thing was fascinating. You know, when you work with proper people who love cinema, [Wachowskis are](the) a special breed, they're not the same as people who just make movies and we happen to use cameras. [are](They) people who really love cinema."
#### David Mitchell
Before hearing about the Wachowskis and Tykwer's project, David Mitchell believed it was impossible to adapt his book into a film: "My only thought was 'What a shame this could never be a film. It has a [doll](Russian)(Matryoshka doll) structure. God knows how the book gets away with it but it does, but you can't ask a viewer of a film to begin a film six times, the sixth time being an hour and a half in. They'd all walk out.
In October 2013, Mitchell called the film "magnificent", having been very impressed by the screenplay. He was very satisfied by the casting, especially by Hanks, Berry and Broadbent, and stated he could not even remember now how he was originally portraying the characters in his mind before the movie. He also supported the changes from the novel, impressed by how the Wachowskis and Tykwer successfully disassembled the structure of the book for the needs of the movie.
### Controversy
The advocacy group Media Action Network for Asian Americans (MANAA) and several commentators online criticized the film's use of [yellowface](yellowface) to allow non-East Asian actors to portray East Asian characters in the neo-Seoul sequences. MANAA President [Aoki](Guy)(Guy Aoki) also called the lack of [blackface](blackface) being used to portray black characters a double standard. The directors responded that the same multi-racial actors portrayed multiple roles of various nationalities and races (not just East Asian) across a 500-year story arc, showing "the continuity of souls" critical to the story. The portrayal of [Moriori](Moriori) character Autua by a [British](Black)(Black British people) man was subject to similar scrutiny, and was seen as offensive and confusing for audiences.
### Accolades
The film was pre-nominated for the [Award for Best Visual Effects](Academy)(Academy Award for Best Visual Effects), but was not nominated in any category.
## Notes
## References
## External links
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Jamie Raskin
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jamie_raskin
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# Jamie Raskin
*Revision ID: 1160037270 | Timestamp: 2023-06-14T01:51:58Z*
---
| term_start1 = January 3, 2017
| term_end1 =
| predecessor1 = [Van Hollen](Chris)(Chris Van Hollen)
| successor1 =
| state_senate2 = Maryland
| district2 = [20th](Maryland Legislative District 20)
| term_start2 = January 10, 2007
| term_end2 = November 10, 2016
| predecessor2 = [G. Ruben](Ida)(Ida G. Ruben)
| successor2 = [Smith](Will)(William C. Smith Jr.)
| birth_name = Jamin Ben Raskin
| birth_date =
| birth_place = Washington, D.C., U.S.
| death_date =
| death_place =
| party = [Democratic](Democratic Party (United States))
| spouse =
| children = 3}}
| relatives = [Raskin](Marcus)(Marcus Raskin) (father)
| education = [University](Harvard)(Harvard University) ([BA](Bachelor of Arts), [JD](Juris Doctor))
| website =
| signature = Jamie Raskin signature.svg
}}
**Jamin Ben Raskin** (born December 13, 1962) is an American attorney, law professor, and politician serving as the [representative](U.S.)(United States House of Representatives) for [8th congressional district](Maryland's)(Maryland's 8th congressional district) since 2017. A member of the [Party](Democratic)(Democratic Party (United States)), he served in the [State Senate](Maryland)(Maryland State Senate) from 2007 to 2016. The district previously included portions of [County](Montgomery)(Montgomery County, Maryland), a suburban county northwest of Washington, D.C., and extended through rural [County](Frederick)(Frederick County, Maryland) to the Pennsylvania border. Since redistricting in 2022, Raskin's district now encompasses only part of Montgomery County.
Raskin co-chairs the [Freethought Caucus](Congressional)(Congressional Freethought Caucus). He was the lead impeachment manager for [second impeachment of President Donald Trump](the)(Second impeachment of Donald Trump) in response to the [on the U.S. Capitol](attack)(2021 United States Capitol attack). Before his election to Congress, Raskin was a [law](constitutional)(constitutional law) professor at [University Washington College of Law](American)(Washington College of Law), where he co-founded and directed the [LL.M.](Master of Laws) program on law and government and co-founded the [Constitutional Literacy Project](Marshall-Brennan)(Marshall-Brennan Constitutional Literacy Project).
## Early life and career
Jamin Ben Raskin was born to a Jewish family in Washington, D.C., on December 13, 1962, to Barbara (née Bellman) Raskin and [Raskin](Marcus)(Marcus Raskin). His mother was a journalist and novelist, and his father was a former staff aide to [John F. Kennedy](President)(John F. Kennedy) on the [Security Council](National)(United States National Security Council), co-founder of the [for Policy Studies](Institute)(Institute for Policy Studies), and a progressive activist. Raskin's ancestors immigrated to the U.S. from Russia. He graduated from [Day School](Georgetown)(Georgetown Day School) in 1979 at age 16, and *[cum laude](magna)(magna cum laude)* and [Beta Kappa](Phi)(Phi Beta Kappa) from [College](Harvard)(Harvard College) in 1983 with a Bachelor of Arts in government with concentration in [theory](political)(political philosophy). In 1987, he received a [J.D.](Juris Doctor) degree *magna cum laude* from [Law School](Harvard)(Harvard Law School), where he was an editor of the *[Law Review](Harvard)(Harvard Law Review)*.[Editorial Board listing](https://archive.org/details/100HarvLRev99s) in "Front Matter." *Harvard Law Review*, vol. 100, no. 1, 1986, p. 99.
For more than 25 years, Raskin was a [law](constitutional)(constitutional law) professor at [University Washington College of Law](American)(Washington College of Law), where he taught future fellow [impeachment](Second impeachment of Donald Trump) manager [Plaskett](Stacey)(Stacey Plaskett). He co-founded and directed the [LL.M.](Master of Laws) program on law and government and co-founded the [Constitutional Literacy Project](Marshall-Brennan)(Marshall-Brennan Constitutional Literacy Project). From 1989 to 1990, Raskin served as [counsel](general)(general counsel) for [Jackson](Jesse)(Jesse Jackson)'s [Rainbow Coalition](National)(Rainbow/PUSH). In 1996, he represented [Perot](Ross)(Ross Perot) regarding Perot's exclusion from the [United States presidential debates](1996)(1996 United States presidential debates). Raskin wrote a *[Post](Washington)(Washington Post)* op-ed that strongly condemned the [Election Commission](Federal)(Federal Election Commission) and the [on Presidential Debates](Commission)(Commission on Presidential Debates) for their decisions.
## Maryland legislature
In 2006, Raskin was elected as a [state senator](Maryland)(Maryland Senate) for District 20, representing parts of [Spring](Silver)(Silver Spring, Maryland) and [Park](Takoma)(Takoma Park) in Montgomery County. In 2012, he was named Senate [whip](majority)(whip (politics)) and chaired the Montgomery County Senate Delegation and the Select Committee on Ethics Reform, and was a member of the Judicial Proceedings Committee.
Raskin sponsored bills advocating the repeal of [death penalty in Maryland](the)(Capital punishment in Maryland), the expansion of the state [interlock device](ignition)(ignition interlock device) program, and the establishment of the legal guidelines for [corporation](benefit)(benefit corporation)s, a type of for-profit corporation that includes a material societal benefit in its bylaws and decision-making processes. A former board member of [FairVote](FairVote), he introduced and sponsored the first bill in the country for the [Popular Vote](National)(National Popular Vote Interstate Compact), a plan for an interstate compact to provide for presidential election by popular vote. Raskin long championed efforts to reform marijuana laws and legalize [marijuana](medical)(medical marijuana) in Maryland. He introduced a medical marijuana bill in 2014 that was signed by Governor [O'Malley](Martin)(Martin O'Malley) and went into effect in January 2015.
Raskin helped lead the fight to legalize [marriage](same-sex)(same-sex marriage) in Maryland. On March 1, 2006, during a Maryland State Senate hearing on same-sex marriage, Raskin was noted for his response to an opposing lawmaker: "Senator, when you took your oath of office, you placed your hand on the Bible and swore to uphold the [Constitution](U.S. Constitution). You did not place your hand on the Constitution and swear to uphold the Bible."
## U.S. House of Representatives
### Elections
#### 2016
[[File:Warren4Raskin 0582 (31206074592).jpg|thumb|Raskin campaigning in 2016 with Senator [Warren](Elizabeth)(Elizabeth Warren)|alt=An older man and an older woman raise their hands together on a small stage in front of three flags]]
On April 19, 2015, *[Baltimore Sun](The)(The Baltimore Sun)* and *[Washington Post](The)(The Washington Post)* reported that Raskin announced his campaign for Congress and said, "My ambition is not to be in the political center, it is to be in the moral center." The district's seven-term incumbent, [Van Hollen](Chris)(Chris Van Hollen), gave up the seat [run](to)(2016 United States Senate election in Maryland) for the [States Senate](United)(United States Senate).
During the primary, Raskin was endorsed by the Progressive Action PAC, the political arm of the [Progressive Caucus](Congressional)(Congressional Progressive Caucus), which grew from 72 members at the time of the endorsement to 92 members in early 2020. Raskin won the seven-way Democratic primary—the real contest in this heavily Democratic district—with 33% of the vote. He was viewed as the most liberal candidate in the race. The primary election was the most expensive House race in 2016, and Raskin was heavily outspent.
During the general election, Raskin was endorsed by the [Sanders](Bernie)(Bernie Sanders)-affiliated political organizing network [Revolution](Our)(Our Revolution), and the community organizing effort [Action](People's)(People's Action). He defeated Republican nominee [Cox](Dan)(Daniel L. Cox) with 60% of the vote.
### Tenure
[[File:2020 AFGE Legislative Conference - Sunday (49521000448).jpg|thumb|Raskin speaking at the 2020 [AFGE](American Federation of Government Employees) Legislative Conference|alt=An older man with curly black hair speaking in front of an indoor lectern in front of a blue and yellow backdrop]]
As one of his first actions in Congress, Raskin and several other members of the House objected to the certification of the [presidential election](2016)(2016 United States elections) in favor of [Trump](Donald)(Donald Trump) due to alleged ties with Russia, and Russia's interference in the 2016 election, as well as voter suppression efforts. Then-[President Joe Biden](Vice)(Joe Biden) ruled their objection out of order because it had to be sponsored by at least one member of each chamber, and it had no Senate sponsor. Raskin questioned the legitimacy of the election, claiming it was "badly tainted by everything from cyber-sabotage by Vladimir Putin, to deliberate voter suppression by Republicans in numerous swing states". In late June 2017, Raskin was the chief sponsor of legislation to establish a congressional "oversight" commission with the authority to declare a president "incapacitated" and removed from office under the [Amendment to the United States Constitution](25th)(25th Amendment to the United States Constitution).
In April 2018, Raskin, [Huffman](Jared)(Jared Huffman), [McNerney](Jerry)(Jerry McNerney), and [Kildee](Dan)(Dan Kildee) launched the [Freethought Caucus](Congressional)(Congressional Freethought Caucus). Its stated goals include "pushing public policy formed on the basis of reason, science, and moral values", promoting the "[of church and state](separation)(separation of church and state)", and opposing discrimination against "[atheists](atheism), agnostics, [humanists](secular humanism), seekers, religious, and nonreligious persons". Huffman and Raskin are co-chairs.
Raskin supports banning discrimination based on [orientation](sexual)(sexual orientation) and [identity](gender)(gender identity). In 2019, he voted in favor of the [Act](Equality)(Equality Act (United States)) and urged Congress members to do the same.
On January 12, 2021, Raskin was named the lead impeachment manager for the Senate trial during Trump's [impeachment](second)(Second impeachment of Donald Trump). He was the primary author of the impeachment article, along with Representatives [Cicilline](David)(David Cicilline) and [Lieu](Ted)(Ted Lieu), which charged Trump with inciting an [on the United States Capitol](insurrection)(2021 storming of the United States Capitol). During the Senate trial, Raskin recounted that after being there on January 6 as the mob was forcibly entering, his daughter said to him, "Dad, I don't want to come back to the Capitol".
In February 2022, while his wife was under consideration for a position as the Federal Reserve's vice chair of supervision, it was reported that Raskin violated the [Trading on Congressional Knowledge Act](Stop)(STOCK Act) by failing to properly disclose her share dealings. One instance was when his wife received stock for advising a Colorado-based financial technology trust company, and the other was when she sold stock in Reserve Trust for $1.5 million, but the sale was not disclosed for eight months. His wife had sat on the advisory board of the Federal Reserve when it "granted Reserve Trust unusual access to its master account", but it is not clear when she first acquired the shares.
#### Syria
In 2023, Raskin voted against H.Con.Res. 21, which directed President [Biden](Joe)(Joe Biden) to remove U.S. troops from [Syria](Syria) within 180 days.
### Investigation into the January 6 attack on the Capitol
On July 1, 2021, Raskin was one of seven Democrats appointed to the [States House Select Committee on the January 6 Attack](United)(United States House Select Committee on the January 6 Attack) by Speaker Nancy Pelosi. Following the announcement, Raskin said, "As Chair of the Oversight Committee's Civil Rights and Civil Liberties Subcommittee, I've helped lead the Oversight Committee's painstaking investigation into violent white supremacy over the last two years. The Department of Homeland Security (DHS) has declared domestic violent extremism the number one security threat in the country. We saw that threat explode right in front of our eyes at the Capitol on January 6."
On July 12, 2022, Raskin co-led the Select Committee's seventh public hearing with Representative [Murphy](Stephanie)(Stephanie Murphy). The hearing focused on the role the far-right extremist groups Proud Boys and Oath Keepers played in organizing the attack. It also discussed the importance of Trump's December 19 tweet "Big protest in D.C. on January 6th. Be there, will be wild!" and how it spread to his supporters. To show the impact, the committee played recordings of its interview with an anonymous Twitter employee who worked from 2020 to 2021 and was on the team responsible for the platform's content moderation policies. During the interview, they said that the tweet served as a "call to action, and in some cases as a call to arms" to his supporters.
In Raskin's closing statement of the July 12 hearing, he opened by emphasizing the importance of the December 19 tweet: "When Donald Trump sent out his tweet, he became the first president ever to call for a crowd to descend on the capital city to block the constitutional transfer of power." He later summarized the second focus of the hearing: "On January 6, Trump knew the crowd was angry. He knew the crowd was armed. He sent them to the Capitol anyway." Raskin concluded his statement, "We need to defend both our democracy and our freedom with everything we have and declare that this American carnage ends here and now. In a world of resurgent authoritarianism and racism and antisemitism, let’s all hang tough for American democracy."
### Committee assignments
*[on Oversight and Accountability](Committee)(United States House Committee on Oversight and Accountability) (Ranking Member)
### Party leadership and caucus membership
* [Democratic Caucus](House)(House Democratic Caucus), Senior Whip
* [Democratic Steering and Policy Committee](House)(House Democratic Steering and Policy Committee), Freshman Representative
* [Progressive Caucus](Congressional)(Congressional Progressive Caucus), Vice Chair and Liaison to New Members
* [LGBT Equality Caucus](Congressional)(Congressional LGBT Equality Caucus)
* [Pro-Choice Caucus](House)(House Pro-Choice Caucus)
* [Public Education Caucus](House)(House Public Education Caucus)
* [Quiet Skies Caucus](House)(House Quiet Skies Caucus)
* House 115th Class Caucus
* [Baltic Caucus](House)(House Baltic Caucus)
* [Freethought Caucus](Congressional)(Congressional Freethought Caucus), Co-Founder and Co-Chair
* [Asian Pacific American Caucus](Congressional)(Congressional Asian Pacific American Caucus)
* [NextGen 9-1-1 Caucus](Congressional)(Congressional NextGen 9-1-1 Caucus)
* [Solar Caucus](Congressional)(Congressional Solar Caucus)
*[for All Caucus](Medicare)(Medicare for All Caucus)
## Electoral history
### 2016
### 2018
### 2020
### 2022
## Personal life
Raskin is married to [Bloom Raskin](Sarah)(Sarah Bloom Raskin), who served as the Maryland Commissioner of Financial Regulation from 2007 to 2010. They live in [Park](Takoma)(Takoma Park), Maryland. [Barack Obama](President)(Barack Obama) nominated Bloom Raskin to the [Reserve Board](Federal)(Federal Reserve Board) on April 28, 2010. On October 4, 2010, she was sworn in as a governor of the Federal Reserve Board by [Chairman](Fed)(Chairman of the Federal Reserve) [Bernanke](Ben)(Ben Bernanke).[Fed Press Release](http://www.federalreserve.gov/newsevents/press/other/20101004a.htm) federalreserve.gov, October 4, 2010 (October 9, 2010) President [Biden](Joe)(Joe Biden) nominated her for chair of the Federal Reserve Board, but Republicans boycotted her committee hearing and [Manchin](Joe)(Joe Manchin) opposed her because of her views on the use of monetary policy to address [change](climate)(climate change). Given that stalemate, she withdrew her nomination.[Sarah Bloom Raskin withdraws nomination to Fed board](https://www.washingtonpost.com/us-policy/2022/03/15/sarah-bloom-raskin-fed-withdraw/), *[Washington Post](The)(The Washington Post)*, Rachel Siegel, Tyler Pager, Mike DeBonis and Seung Min Kim, March 15, 2022. Retrieved March 16, 2022. She served as the [States Deputy Secretary of the Treasury](United)(United States Deputy Secretary of the Treasury) from March 19, 2014, to January 20, 2017.
The Raskins have two daughters, Hannah and Tabitha, and a son, Tommy. On December 31, 2020, Raskin's office announced that his son Tommy, a graduate of [Blair High School](Montgomery)(Montgomery Blair High School), a graduate of [College](Amherst)(Amherst College), and a second-year student at Harvard Law School, had died at the age of 25. On January 4, 2021, Raskin and his wife posted a tribute to their son online that stated that, after a prolonged battle with [depression](Major depressive disorder), he had died by suicide. In a farewell note, Tommy said, "Please forgive me. My illness won today. Look after each other, the animals and the global poor. All my love, Tommy." Tommy was buried on January 5, 2021. The next day, Raskin was in the [Capitol](United States Capitol) with his daughter and son-in-law during the [6 Capitol attack](January)(2021 storming of the United States Capitol). Hours later, he began drafting an [of impeachment](article)(article of impeachment) against President Trump, and six days later, [Speaker](House)(Speaker of the United States House of Representatives) [Pelosi](Nancy)(Nancy Pelosi) named Raskin the lead manager of [second impeachment](Trump's)(second impeachment of Donald Trump). His 2022 book *Unthinkable: Trauma, Truth, and the Trials of American Democracy* focuses on his son's life and his preparation for the impeachment trial.
Raskin has been [vegetarian](Vegetarianism) since 2009.
### Health
In May 2010, Raskin was diagnosed with [cancer](colon)(colon cancer). He received six weeks of [radiation](radiation therapy) and [chemotherapy](chemotherapy), and surgery to remove part of his colon, followed by more chemotherapy through early 2011.
In December 2022, Raskin announced that he had been diagnosed with [large B-cell lymphoma](diffuse)(diffuse large B-cell lymphoma), and said he would undergo [chemoimmunotherapy](chemoimmunotherapy), which he completed in April 2023. On April 27, he said the cancer was in remission.
## Publications
* *The Wealth Primary: Campaign Fundraising and the Constitution* (1994) (with [Bonifaz](John)(John Bonifaz))
* *Overruling Democracy: The Supreme Court versus the American People* (2003)
* *We the Students: Supreme Court Cases for and about Students* (2014)
* *Youth Justice in America* (2014) (with Maryam Ahranjani and Andrew G. Ferguson)
**Unthinkable* — *Trauma, Truth, and the Trials of American Democracy* (2022)
## Notes and references
### Notes
### References
## External links
*[Congressman Jamie Raskin](https://raskin.house.gov/)
*[Campaign website](https://jamieraskin.com/)
*
*[Urban Legends Reference Pages: Politics (Jamie Raskin)](http://www.snopes.com/politics/quotes/raskin.asp)
*[WCL Faculty Page](http://www.wcl.american.edu/faculty/raskin/)
*
|-
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|
Mike Yastrzemski
|
mike_yastrzemski
|
# Mike Yastrzemski
*Revision ID: 1160212930 | Timestamp: 2023-06-15T02:44:28Z*
---
|birth_place = [Massachusetts](Andover,)(Andover, Massachusetts), U.S.
|bats = Left
|throws = Left
|debutleague = MLB
|debutdate = May 25
|debutyear = 2019
|debutteam = San Francisco Giants
|statyear = June 14, 2023
|statleague = MLB
|stat1label = [average](Batting)(Batting average (baseball))
|stat1value = .243
|stat3label = [run](Home)(Home run)s
|stat3value = 81
|stat4label = [batted in](Runs)(Run batted in)
|stat4value = 239
|teams =
* [Francisco Giants](San)(San Francisco Giants) (–present)
| awards = * [Second Team](All-MLB)(All-MLB Team) (2020)
* [Mac Award](Willie)(Willie Mac Award) (2020)
* [triples leader](NL)(List of Major League Baseball annual triples leaders) (2020)
}}
**Michael Andrew Yastrzemski** (; born August 23, 1990), nicknamed "**Yaz**", is an American [baseball](professional)(professional baseball) [outfielder](outfielder) for the [Francisco Giants](San)(San Francisco Giants) of [League Baseball](Major)(Major League Baseball) (MLB). He is the grandson of Hall of Famer and Triple Crown winner [Yastrzemski](Carl)(Carl Yastrzemski). Yastrzemski played [baseball](college)(college baseball) for the [Commodores](Vanderbilt)(Vanderbilt Commodores baseball). The [Orioles](Baltimore)(Baltimore Orioles) selected him in the 14th round of the [MLB draft](2013)(2013 MLB draft). He made his MLB debut with the Giants in 2019.
## Early life and amateur career
Yastrzemski attended [John's Preparatory School](St.)(St. John's Preparatory School (Massachusetts)) in [Massachusetts](Danvers,)(Danvers, Massachusetts). He played for the school's baseball team, and was named [captain](team)(captain (baseball)) in his senior year. He committed to attend [University](Vanderbilt)(Vanderbilt University), on a [baseball](college)(college baseball) scholarship. Seen as a potential early-round selection in the [Major League Baseball (MLB) draft](2009)(2009 Major League Baseball draft), Yastrzemski indicated that he would attend college unless chosen in the first round. The [Red Sox](Boston)(Boston Red Sox) selected him in the 36th round (1,098th overall). Yastrzemski did not sign with the Red Sox, and instead enrolled at Vanderbilt to play for the [Commodores baseball](Vanderbilt)(Vanderbilt Commodores baseball) team.
Yastrzemski became a starter for the Commodores in the middle of his freshman year. In 2010 and 2011, he played [summer baseball](collegiate)(collegiate summer baseball) with the [Kettleers](Cotuit)(Cotuit Kettleers) of the [Cod Baseball League](Cape)(Cape Cod Baseball League). After his junior year, the [Mariners](Seattle)(Seattle Mariners) selected him in the 30th round (911th overall) of the [MLB draft](2012)(2012 MLB draft). The Mariners offered Yastrzemski a $300,000 [bonus](signing)(signing bonus), well above the suggested bonus for a player chosen in that round. Yastrzemski chose not to sign, and returned to Vanderbilt for his senior year. As a senior, Yastrzemski was named All-[Conference](Southeastern)(Southeastern Conference).
## Professional career
### Draft and minor leagues
[[File:Mike Yastrzesmki lead off 2.jpg|thumb|250px|Yastrzemski on first base at [Park](Harbor)(Harbor Park) in a game with the [Tides](Norfolk)(Norfolk Tides) in 2016]]
The [Orioles](Baltimore)(Baltimore Orioles) selected Yastrzemski in the 14th round (429th overall) of the [MLB draft](2013)(2013 MLB draft), and he signed. After signing, Yastrzemski began his professional career with the [IronBirds](Aberdeen)(Aberdeen IronBirds) of the [A-Short Season](Class)(Class A-Short Season) [York–Penn League](New)(New York–Penn League) (NY-P), where he had a .273 [average](batting)(batting average (baseball)), three [run](home)(home run)s, and 25 [batted in](runs)(runs batted in) (RBIs). He was an NYP mid-season All Star, and appeared in the NY-P [game](all-star)(all-star game).
Yastrzemski began the 2014 season with the [Shorebirds](Delmarva)(Delmarva Shorebirds) of the [A](Class)(Class A (baseball)) [Atlantic League](South)(South Atlantic League) (SAL), where he led the league with 10 triples and batted .306/.365/.554 (5th in the league) with 10 home runs and 44 RBIs. He was an SAL mid-season All Star, and appeared in the SAL all-star game. After the all-star game, he was promoted to the [Keys](Frederick)(Frederick Keys) of the [A-Advanced](Class)(Class A-Advanced) [League](Carolina)(Carolina League), where he batted .312 in 93 [at-bat](at-bat)s. He was then promoted again, to the [Baysox](Bowie)(Bowie Baysox) of the [AA](Class)(Class AA) [League](Eastern)(Eastern League (1938–2020)). Between Frederick and Bowie, Yastrzemski combined to bat .288 with 14 home runs, 18 [base](stolen)(stolen base)s in 24 attempts, and 18 [triples](triple (baseball)), which led all of [League Baseball](Minor)(Minor League Baseball). He was an MiLB Orioles organization All Star.
Yastrzemski spent the 2015 season with Bowie, where he batted .246 with six home runs and 59 RBIs. He was a 2015 Eastern League All Star. He spent 2016 with both Bowie and the [Tides](Norfolk)(Norfolk Tides) of the [AAA](Class)(Class AAA) [League](International)(International League), where he posted combined statistics of a .234 batting average, with 13 home runs, and 59 RBIs.
Yastrzemski underwent surgery after the 2016 season and was not healthy for the beginning of the 2017 season. During the 2017 season, he was with the Tides for 81 games between May and September, except for several weeks in June and July when he played 20 games with the Baysox. He returned to Norfolk in 2018. He was an MiLB Orioles organization All Star.
The Orioles invited Yastrzemski to [training](spring)(spring training) as a non-roster player in 2019.
### San Francisco Giants (2019–present)
#### 2019
On March 22, 2019, the Orioles traded Yastrzemski to the [Francisco Giants](San)(San Francisco Giants) in exchange for minor league pitcher Tyler Herb. He was assigned to the [River Cats](Sacramento)(Sacramento River Cats) of the Class AAA [Coast League](Pacific)(Pacific Coast League) to start the 2019 season, for whom he batted .316/.414/.676 with 38 runs, 12 home runs and 25 RBIs in 136 at bats.
The Giants promoted Yastrzemski to the Major Leagues on May 25, 2019, and he made his debut the same day, going 0-for-3 with a run scored in a 10–4 loss to the [Diamondbacks](Arizona)(Arizona Diamondbacks). He collected his first career hit, a single, the following day but was thrown out returning to first base and went 3-for-4 with a run scored in the Giants' 6–2 loss. Yastrzemski hit his first career home run against his former organization, the Baltimore Orioles, off [Cashner](Andrew)(Andrew Cashner) on May 31. On August 16, he hit three home runs against the Arizona Diamondbacks at [Field](Chase)(Chase Field), including the game-winning home run in the top of the 11th inning. On September 17, he hit his 20th home run, a solo shot to the center field bleachers, in his first game at [Park](Fenway)(Fenway Park), where his grandfather played his entire 23-year MLB career. The Giants won 7–6.
For the 2019 season, Yastrzemski played in 107 games while batting .272/.334/.518 with 21 home runs, 55 RBIs, and 64 runs scored in 371 at bats. His 21 home runs tied [Pillar](Kevin)(Kevin Pillar) for the most on the team. He was the first rookie since [Kingman](Dave)(Dave Kingman) in 1972 to hit more than 20 home runs for the Giants.
#### 2020
[[Yastrzemski (49593460788).jpg|thumb|250px|Yastrzemski batting in 2020](File:Mike)]
On September 9, 2020, he hit his 30th home run in his 151st game. Yastrzemski joined [Thomson](Bobby)(Bobby Thomson) and Dave Kingman as the only other Giants to hit 30 home runs so quickly in their careers.
Yastrzemski finished the pandemic-shortened 2020 season batting .297/.400/.568 with 10 home runs and leading the team in RBIs with 35. He led the NL in triples (4) and range factor/9 IP as a right fielder (2.38), and was 8th in OPS (.968), 9th in doubles (14), and 10th in OBP (.400).
Yastrzemski received All-MLB second team honors for his performance during the season. He was 8th in voting for NL MVP.
#### 2021
On June 15, 2021, at [Park](Oracle)(Oracle Park), in a 9-8 win over the [Diamondbacks](Arizona)(2021 Arizona Diamondbacks season), with the Giants trailing 8-5 in the eighth inning with two outs and having earlier trailed 7-0, Yastrzemski hit his first career [slam](grand)(Grand slam (baseball)), a go-ahead home run off of [Castellanos](Humberto)(Humberto Castellanos) into [Cove](McCovey)(McCovey Cove) for a "Splash Hit".
In the 2021 regular season, Yastrzemski batted .224/.311/.457 with 28 doubles, 25 home runs, and 71 RBIs in 468 at bats. He had a 2.26 range factor per 9 innings as a right fielder, leading the National League for the second season in a row. His salary was $600,000.
He was one of three nominees for a National League [Glove Award](Gold)(Gold Glove Award) in right field, ultimately losing to [Duvall](Adam)(Adam Duvall).
#### 2022
In 2022, Yastrzemski batted .214/.305/.392 in 485 at bats, with 73 runs, 31 doubles (a career high), 17 home runs, and 57 RBIs, stealing five bases in six attempts. He played 104 games in right field, 93 games in center field, and one game at DH. In November, Yastrzemski and the Giants agreed on a one-year, $6.1 million contract for the 2023 season.
## Personal life
Yastrzemski grew up in [Massachusetts](Andover,)(Andover, Massachusetts). His father, Carl Jr. (who went by Mike), played college baseball for the [State Seminoles baseball](Florida)(Florida State Seminoles baseball) team, and played professionally in the minor leagues from 1984 to 1988. His father and mother, Anne-Marie, divorced when he was six years old. Carl Jr. died in 2004 at the age of 43 from a [clot](blood)(Thrombus) after having hip surgery. His grandfather, [Yastrzemski](Carl)(Carl Yastrzemski), is a member of the [Baseball Hall of Fame](National)(National Baseball Hall of Fame) and began teaching young Mike hitting during his grandson’s freshman year in high school.
Yastrzemski married Paige (Cahill) Yastrzemski in November 2018. They have one child, a daughter.
## References
## External links
[births](Category:1990)(Category:1990 births)
[people](Category:Living)(Category:Living people)
[IronBirds players](Category:Aberdeen)(Category:Aberdeen IronBirds players)
[people of Polish descent](Category:American)(Category:American people of Polish descent)
[players from Massachusetts](Category:Baseball)(Category:Baseball players from Massachusetts)
[Baysox players](Category:Bowie)(Category:Bowie Baysox players)
[Shorebirds players](Category:Delmarva)(Category:Delmarva Shorebirds players)
[Keys players](Category:Frederick)(Category:Frederick Keys players)
[League Baseball outfielders](Category:Major)(Category:Major League Baseball outfielders)
[Tides players](Category:Norfolk)(Category:Norfolk Tides players)
[from Andover, Massachusetts](Category:People)(Category:People from Andover, Massachusetts)
[River Cats players](Category:Sacramento)(Category:Sacramento River Cats players)
[Francisco Giants players](Category:San)(Category:San Francisco Giants players)
[Commodores baseball players](Category:Vanderbilt)(Category:Vanderbilt Commodores baseball players)
[Kettleers players](Category:Cotuit)(Category:Cotuit Kettleers players)
[from Essex County, Massachusetts](Category:Sportspeople)(Category:Sportspeople from Essex County, Massachusetts)
|
Noel Gallagher
|
noel_gallagher
|
# Noel Gallagher
*Revision ID: 1160257038 | Timestamp: 2023-06-15T10:26:52Z*
---
| birth_place = [Manchester](Manchester), England
| citizenship =
| occupation =
| spouse = |}}}}
| children = 3
| relatives = [Gallagher](Liam)(Liam Gallagher) (brother)
| module =
| instrument =
| years_active = 1991–present
| label =
| associated_acts =
}}
| website =
}}
**Noel Thomas David Gallagher** (born 29 May 1967) is an English singer, songwriter and musician. He was the chief songwriter, lead guitarist and co-lead vocalist of the rock band [Oasis](Oasis (band)) until their split in 2009. After leaving Oasis, he formed [Gallagher's High Flying Birds](Noel)(Noel Gallagher's High Flying Birds). He is one of the most successful songwriters in British music history, as the writer of eight UK number-one singles and co-writer of a further number one, as well as the sole or primary writer of ten UK number-one studio albums. He is widely considered to be one of the most influential songwriters in the history of British rock music, cited by numerous major subsequent artists as an influence.
Gallagher began playing the guitar at age twelve, and became a roadie and technician for [Carpets](Inspiral)(Inspiral Carpets) at age 21. He learnt that his younger brother [Liam](Liam Gallagher) had joined a band called The Rain, which eventually became Oasis; Liam invited him to join the group as manager. After rejecting the offer, Gallagher agreed to join the band, on the condition that he would take creative control of the group and become its sole songwriter and lead guitarist.
The band's debut album, *[Maybe](Definitely)(Definitely Maybe)* (1994), was a widespread critical and commercial success. Their second album, ''[the Story) Morning Glory?]((What's)((What's the Story) Morning Glory?)* (1995), reached the top of the album charts in many countries, and their third studio album, *[Here Now](Be)(Be Here Now (album))* (1997), became the fastest-selling album in UK chart history. [Britpop](Britpop) eventually declined in popularity, and Oasis failed to revive it, though their final two albums, *[Believe the Truth](Don't)(Don't Believe the Truth)* (2005) and *[Out Your Soul](Dig)(Dig Out Your Soul)'' (2008), were hailed as their best efforts in over a decade. In August 2009, following an altercation with his brother, Gallagher announced his departure from Oasis. He would go on to form Noel Gallagher's High Flying Birds, with whom he has released four studio albums.
Oasis's time was marked by turbulence, especially during the peak of Britpop, during which Gallagher was involved in several disputes with Liam; their conflicts and wild lifestyles regularly made tabloid headlines. The band notably had a rivalry with fellow Britpop band [Blur](Blur (band)). Gallagher himself was often regarded as a pioneer and spearhead of the Britpop movement.Kessler, Ted; "Noelrock!". *NME*, 8 June 1996. Many have praised his songwriting, with [Beatles](The Beatles) producer [Martin](George)(George Martin) calling him "the finest songwriter of his generation". Conversely, he was voted the most overrated guitarist of the last millennium in a 1999 poll, and the ninth-most-overrated ever in a 2002 listener survey. He cited being named the most overrated guitarist of the last millennium as the accolade he most enjoyed receiving.
## Early life
[[File:The street where the Gallagher brothers used to live - panoramio.jpg|alt=A short streetside|thumb|Cranwell Drive in [Burnage](Burnage), where the Gallaghers lived]]
Noel Thomas David Gallagher was born on 29 May 1967 in the [Longsight](Longsight) area of [Manchester](Manchester), to Irish Catholic parents Peggy (née Sweeney) and Thomas Gallagher. Aside from [Liam](Liam Gallagher), he also has an older brother named Paul. Shortly after Liam's birth in 1972, the family moved to Ashby Avenue and then Cranwell Drive in the Manchester suburb of [Burnage](Burnage).Harris, John. *Britpop!: Cool Britannia and the Spectacular Demise of English Rock*. Da Capo Press, 2004. Pg. 118. As the eldest child, Paul was given his own bedroom while Noel had to share his bedroom with Liam.
Described as "the weirdo in the family" by Liam, he was known to be a daydreamer and a loner who was often reclusive due to his unhappy childhood. Both he and Paul were beaten regularly by their father, who was an alcoholic."Oasis". *Behind the Music*, [VH1](VH1). 2000. In the documentary *[Supersonic](Oasis: Supersonic)*, Noel quipped that his father "beat the talent into him", and that he had never acknowledged or discussed the abuse with a mental health doctor or in a therapeutic setting. Both he and Paul struggled with [stammer](stammer)s which were made worse by their father's abuse and were resolved with weekly sessions in four years of speech therapy.
In 1976 Peggy acquired legal separation from Thomas, and in 1982 she left him, taking her three sons with her and continuing to raise them alone as a single mother.
As teenagers, the Gallagher brothers were regular [truants](Truancy), often getting into trouble with the police. When his mother took a job in the school canteen, Gallagher ensured that he stopped by to visit her during lunch before skipping the rest of the day.Harris, pg. 119 He was expelled from school at the age of 15 for allegedly throwing a "flour bomb" at a teacher, though he has since claimed that he didn't do it and that he was only present in the classroom when it happened. He used to hang around with the [City](Manchester)(Manchester City F.C.) [firms](hooligan)(List of hooligan firms) Maine Line Crew, Under-5s, and Young Guvnors in the 1980s, and received six months' probation at the age of 14 for robbing a corner shop. It was during this period of probation, with little else to do, that he first began to teach himself to play guitar, a gift from his mother. He would play his favourite songs from the radio, and was particularly inspired by the debut of [Smiths](the)(the Smiths) on *[of the Pops](Top)(Top of the Pops)* in 1983, performing their single "[Charming Man](This)(This Charming Man)". He later said that, from that day on, he "wanted to be [Marr](Johnny)(Johnny Marr)".Harris, pg. 120 He also appeared (and scored) for Manchester [football](Gaelic)(Gaelic football) team [Oisín](CLG)(CLG Oisín) at [Park](Croke)(Croke Park) in Dublin in 1983.
As teenagers, the Gallagher brothers maintained limited contact with their father and secured jobs in construction. However, the relationship between father and sons continued to be tempestuous; Gallagher said, "Because we were always arguing, we'd still be working at nine o'clock every night." Having left his father's building company, he took a job at another building firm sub-contracted to [Gas](British)(British Gas). He sustained an injury when a heavy cap from a steel gas pipe landed on his right foot. Following a period of recuperation, he was offered a less physically demanding role in the company's storehouse, freeing up time for him to practise the guitar and write songs. He claimed to have written at least three of the songs on *[Maybe](Definitely)(Definitely Maybe)* in this storehouse, including "[Forever](Live)(Live Forever (Oasis song))". He later called the storehouse "The Hit Hut" and claimed the walls were painted gold. Much of the late 1980s found Gallagher unemployed and living in a [bedsit](bedsit), occupying his time by using recreational drugs, writing songs, and playing the guitar. He is left-handed, but plays right-handed.This is cited at many sources, including an interview with VH1's Behind the Music (2000), [Brand](Russell)(Russell Brand) on *[Leicester Square](1)(1 Leicester Square)* (2006) and *Oasis: In Their Own Words* (1996)
In May 1988, Gallagher met guitarist Graham Lambert of [Carpets](Inspiral)(Inspiral Carpets) during a [Roses](Stone)(The Stone Roses) show. The two became acquainted and Gallagher became a regular at Inspiral Carpets shows. When he heard singer Steve Holt was leaving the band, he auditioned to be the new vocalist.Harris, pg. 121 He was unsuccessful, but became part of the band's road crew for the next two years. He struck up a friendship with monitor engineer Mark Coyle over their love of [Beatles](the)(the Beatles), and the pair spent soundchecks dissecting the group's songs.Harris, pg. 123
Around the time of his work with the Inspirals, Gallagher - who had already begun writing his own songs - answered an advert in a local newspaper asking for a collaborator and to record some demos.. These recordings, featuring tracks such as 'Baj', 'What's It Got To Do With You?' and 'Womb To Tomb' were Gallagher's first steps into recording his own music.
## Career
### Oasis
In 1991, Gallagher returned from an American tour with the Inspiral Carpets to find that his brother Liam had become a singer with a local band called [Rain](the)(The Rain (Manchester band)). He attended one of their concerts at Manchester's Boardwalk but was unimpressed by the group's act. After rejecting an offer from Liam to be the band's manager,Interview with [Skinner](Frank)(Frank Skinner), *The Frank Skinner Show*, 2000 Gallagher agreed to join the band, on the condition that he would take creative control of the group and become its sole songwriter. According to another source, Noel told Liam and the rest of the group after having heard them play for the first time: "Let me write your songs and I'll take you to superstardom, or else you'll rot here in Manchester". His control over the band in its early years earned him the nickname "The Chief".
In May 1993, the band heard that a record executive from [Records](Creation)(Creation Records) would be scouting for talent at [Tut's](King)(King Tut's Wah Wah Hut) in Glasgow. Together, they found the money to hire a van and make the six-hour journey. When they arrived, they were refused entry to the club because no one notified the venue that Oasis had been added to the bill. The band eventually secured the opening slot and played a four-song set that impressed Creation founder [McGee](Alan)(Alan McGee).Harris, pg. 128–29
McGee then took the *[Demonstration](Live)(Live Demonstration)* tape to Sony America and invited Oasis to meet with him a week later in London, at which point they were signed to a six-album contract. Gallagher has since claimed that he only had six songs written at the time, and has put his success in the interview down to "bullshitting". However, McGee believes that when they met, Gallagher had fifty or so songs written, and merely lied about how prolific he had been following the contract. [Ashcroft](Richard)(Richard Ashcroft) was so impressed with Oasis during the time, that he invited them to tour with his band [Verve](the)(the Verve) as an opening act.
Gallagher claimed to have written Oasis' first single, "[Supersonic](Supersonic (Oasis song))", in "the time it takes to play the song". "Supersonic" was released in early 1994 and peaked at No. 31 on the official UK charts. The single was later followed by Oasis' debut album *Definitely Maybe*, which was released in August 1994 and was a critical and commercial success.
It became the fastest-selling debut album in British history at the time and entered the UK charts at number one. Despite their rapidly growing popularity, Gallagher briefly left Oasis in 1994 during their first American tour. The conditions were poor, and he felt the American audience—still preoccupied with [grunge](grunge) and [metal](Heavy metal music)—did not understand the band. Gallagher stated that his early songs, especially "Live Forever", were written to refute grunge's pessimism. Tensions mounted between him and Liam, culminating in a fight after a disastrous gig in Los Angeles. Having effectively decided to quit the music industry, he flew to San Francisco without telling the band, management or the crew. It was during this time that Gallagher wrote "[Tonight](Talk)(Talk Tonight)" as a "thank you" for the girl he stayed with, who "talked him from off the ledge". He was tracked down by Creation's Tim Abbot, and during a trip by the pair to Las Vegas, Gallagher decided to continue with the band. He reconciled with his brother and the tour resumed in [Minneapolis](Minneapolis).Harris, pg. 189
[[File:EpiphoneSupernova.jpg|thumb|upright=0.7|left|Gallagher first played a customised [Sheraton](Epiphone Sheraton) guitar with [Jack](Union)(Union Jack) paintwork—commercially sold as Supernova—in late 1995 during the tour promoting ''[the Story) Morning Glory?]((What's)((What's the Story) Morning Glory?)''.]]
Gallagher followed up the debut in 1995 with Oasis' first UK number-one single in "[Might Say](Some)(Some Might Say)". This preceded their second album, ''(What's the Story) Morning Glory?*, released later that year. Though it suffered initial critical apathy, the album became the second fastest-selling album ever in the UK, entering the UK album charts at number one and peaking at number four on the US [200](*Billboard'')(Billboard 200) chart.
The success of Oasis and his newfound fame and fortune were not lost on Gallagher, and both he and his brother became famous for their "rock and roll lifestyle". They drank heavily, abused drugs, fought fans, critics, peers, and each other, and made celebrity friends such as [Brown](Ian)(Ian Brown), [Weller](Paul)(Paul Weller (singer)), [Mani](Gary Mournfield), [Jagger](Mick)(Mick Jagger), [Cash](Craig)(Craig Cash), [Moss](Kate)(Kate Moss) and [Depp](Johnny)(Johnny Depp). Gallagher spent extravagantly, buying various cars and a swimming pool despite the fact he can neither drive nor swim. He named his house in [Park](Belsize)(Belsize Park) in London [Heights](Supernova)(Supernova Heights) (after the song "[Supernova](Champagne)(Champagne Supernova)"), and his two cats "Benson" and "Hedges" after his favourite brand of cigarettes.
Oasis went on to have greater success with their next two singles, "[Wonderwall](Wonderwall (song))" and "[Look Back in Anger](Don't)(Don't Look Back in Anger)" charting at number two and number one respectively; the former becoming their sole top 10 hit in the US. Originally, Noel had wanted to take lead vocals on "Wonderwall", but Liam insisted on singing it. As compensation, Noel decided he would sing lead vocals on "Don't Look Back in Anger".Interview at *[AM](Soccer)(Soccer AM)* (Sky Sports 1), 11 September 2004 1995 also saw Gallagher play two songs for the charity album *[Help!](The Help Album)*: "Fade Away", accompanied by friend and Oasis fan Johnny Depp and Depp's then-girlfriend Kate Moss; and the Beatles' 1969 hit "[Together](Come)(Come Together)", along with Paul Weller, [McCartney](Paul)(Paul McCartney) and others in a [supergroup](supergroup (bands)) called Smokin' Mojo Filters. He began collaborating with the [Brothers](Chemical)(Chemical Brothers), [Brown](Ian)(Ian Brown), [Stands](the)(the Stands), [Prodigy](the)(the Prodigy) and Weller, amongst others. Gallagher became so influential that a June 1996 *NME* article argued that "If Noel Gallagher, the most successful songwriter of his generation, champions a group, then said group are guaranteed more mainstream kudos and, quite possibly, more sales. And since Noel has taken to championing only five or six groups, then it's a powerful cabal he's promoting." The *NME* article grouped the bands Gallagher praised, including [Boo Radleys](the)(the Boo Radleys), [Colour Scene](Ocean)(Ocean Colour Scene), and [Cast](Cast (band)), under the banner of "[Noelrock](Noelrock)". John Harris typified these bands, and Gallagher, of "sharing a dewy-eyed love of the 1960s, a spurning of much beyond rock's most basic ingredients, and a belief in the supremacy of 'real music'".Harris, pg. 296
In March 1996, Gallagher and his brother Liam met their father again when the *[of the World](News)(News of the World)* paid him to go to their hotel during a tour. He left for his room, later commenting "as far as I'm concerned, I haven't got a father. He's not a father to me, y'know? I don't respect him in any way whatsoever". In August 1996, Oasis sold out two nights at [Knebworth](Concerts at Knebworth House), playing to over 250,000 fans. Following the worldwide success of *Morning Glory?*, *[Here Now](Be)(Be Here Now (album))* (1997) became Oasis' most eagerly anticipated album to date. As with the previous two albums, all the tracks were written by Gallagher. After an initial blaze of publicity, positive critical reviews, and commercial success, the album failed to live up to long-term expectations, and public goodwill towards *Be Here Now* was short-lived.Cavanagh, David (2000). *The Creation Records Story: My Magpie Eyes Are Hungry for the Prize*. (London) Virgin Books The album was ultimately regarded by many as a bloated, over-indulgent version of Oasis, which Gallagher has since blamed on the drug-addicted state and indifference of the band at the time.*Live Forever: The Rise and Fall of Brit Pop*. Passion Pictures, 2004. While the album was a recordbreaker, selling 813,000 copies in seven days, Gallagher has been critical of the album's popularity, saying: "Just because you sell lots of records, it doesn't mean to say you're any good. Look at [Collins](Phil)(Phil Collins)."
Gallagher began to have drug-induced [attack](panic)(panic attack)s during this period. His depression and paranoia inspired the song "Gas Panic!", subsequently included on the 2000 album *[on the Shoulder of Giants](Standing)(Standing on the Shoulder of Giants)*. He claimed to have quit using illicit drugs on 5 June 1998. Gallagher stated in 2001, "I liked drugs, I was good at them. But I'd had panic attacks for about a year and I stopped because I wanted to. After you make the decision, it is quite easy." Of the period between 1993 and 1998, Gallagher claims, "I can hardly remember a thing."
[[Gallagher3.jpg|thumb|upright=0.75|Gallagher performing with Oasis on 18 September 2005](File:Noel)]
After the hype surrounding the release of *Be Here Now* had started to wane, critical response to the band became calmer and more considered, leading to a media backlash. In 1997, Gallagher was criticised for attending a high-profile and well-publicised media party at [Downing Street](10)(10 Downing Street), hosted by the new Prime Minister, [Blair](Tony)(Tony Blair), along with other celebrities and industry figures who had supported [Labour](New)(British Labour party) in the run-up to the general election. Liam and Blur's Damon Albarn declined their invitations, with Albarn commenting "Enjoy the schmooze, comrade". The perception of Gallagher as someone now mixing with politicians and a famous photograph of him sipping champagne with Blair conflicted with the "working class hero" status championed through songs such as "Up in the Sky".
In 1999, rhythm guitarist ["Bonehead" Arthurs](Paul)(Paul Arthurs) quit the band, with bassist [McGuigan](Paul)(Paul McGuigan (musician)) following soon afterwards. As a result, the fourth studio album, *[on the Shoulder of Giants](Standing)(Standing on the Shoulder of Giants)*, was recorded by just the Gallaghers and drummer [White](Alan)(Alan White (Oasis drummer)), with Noel playing all guitar parts. He later commented on Bonehead's departure, "It's hardly Paul McCartney leaving the Beatles, is it?". After the recording sessions were completed, Gallagher selected [Archer](Gem)(Gem Archer) to join in place of Bonehead.
Later that year Alan McGee decided to leave Creation and sold the rest of his 51% stake in the label to Sony. Gallagher took this opportunity to set up [Brother Recordings](Big)(Big Brother Recordings), which took over Oasis' distribution in the UK, but Sony imprint [Records](Epic)(Epic Records) continued to handle the band's international distribution. Around the time of the album's release, [Bell](Andy)(Andy Bell (musician)), formerly of [Ride](Ride (band)), joined the band as bassist. In 2001, Gallagher formed his label, Sour Mash Records, which released records by the likes of Shack and [Mary](Proud)(Proud Mary (band)). The incorporation of the label followed Gallagher's debut as a producer, working with Proud Mary on their debut, *[Same Old Blues](The)(The Same Old Blues)*. In 2003, Gallagher received songwriting credits from [Aloud](Girls)(Girls Aloud)'s single "[Got Cold](Life)(Life Got Cold)" due to the song's guitar riff being similar to "[Wonderwall](Wonderwall (song))".
In late 2006, Gallagher toured the UK, Europe, Japan, America and Australia in a series of acclaimed intimate semi-acoustic gigs accompanied by Gem Archer and [Kirkbride](Terry)(Terry Kirkbride) on percussion. The show proved successful and a further series of sets took place in 2007. March 2007 saw Gallagher perform in Moscow—the first time an Oasis member has performed in Russia. Gallagher dismissed claims that he was planning to embark on a solo career. In early 2007, Gallagher joined the rest of Oasis to collect the "Outstanding Contribution to Music" Award at the [Awards 2007](Brit)(Brit Awards 2007).
Gallagher, along with the band recorded their seventh studio album between 2007 and the next year at [Road Studios](Abbey)(Abbey Road Studios) and in Los Angeles. At the end of the summer of 2008 the band began a tour that lasted 12 months. In March 2009, *[Times](The)(The Times)* in conjunction with iTunes released a selection of live recordings by Noel Gallagher taken from his semi-acoustic performance at the Royal Albert Hall on 27 March 2007 in aid of Teenage Cancer Trust. *[Dreams We Have as Children](The)(The Dreams We Have as Children – Live at the Royal Albert Hall)* features classic and rare tracks from the Oasis canon along with several cover versions of some of Gallagher's favourite artists.
On 28 August 2009, Gallagher quit Oasis after a fight with his brother, Liam. Shortly before midnight on Friday, Gallagher posted a statement on his message board called "Tales from the Middle of Nowhere" on the band's website announcing his departure.
### Solo career and High Flying Birds
[[Gallagher at Razzmatazz, Barcelona, Spain-5March2012 (6).jpg|thumb|right|upright=0.7|Noel Gallagher's High Flying Birds performing March 2012](File:Noel)]
Gallagher's first concerts without Oasis were announced on 1 February 2010 to be at London's [Albert Hall](Royal)(Royal Albert Hall) on 25 and 26 March 2010 for Teenage Cancer Trust. He was supported by [Courteeners](the)(the Courteeners) and [B](Plan)(Plan B (rapper)), respectively. [Kirkbride](Terry)(Terry Kirkbride) and [Archer](Gem)(Gem Archer) joined him on-stage, as did [Darlington](Jay)(Jay Darlington), all of whom Gallagher had previously worked with while he was still a member of Oasis. He played a mostly acoustic set, and played a variety of Oasis album tracks and B-sides. It was almost the same set he played at the Royal Albert Hall in 2007. Gallagher also joined friend [Weller](Paul)(Paul Weller) onstage in London on 21 April 2010, and played the Oasis song "Mucky Fingers" and a song he co-wrote with Weller, "Echoes Round the Sun".
Gallagher confirmed that he would be returning to the studio in August 2010 to record drums for an unnamed artist, later confirmed to be Paul Weller. He also denied rumours that he would be the Best Man for [Brand](Russell)(Russell Brand)'s marriage to [Perry](Katy)(Katy Perry). In August, it was mentioned on a UK Music blog, Sourmash Music, that Gallagher had been working with Liverpool group the Sand Band. Lead singer David McDonnell has been co-writing with Gallagher and are looking to collaborate on future solo projects together.
On 24 November 2010, [Kane](Miles)(Miles Kane) revealed that Gallagher sang on a track from his debut solo album titled *My Fantasy*. Kane also revealed that he will appear on Gallagher's forthcoming album, playing guitar.
On 10 February 2011, Gallagher stated he had "not even started" his first solo record, despite Liam rumouring that he 'swiped' material from the *[Out Your Soul](Dig)(Dig Out Your Soul)* sessions. "I am not recording new stuff, not just yet," he said to [Talksport](Talksport). "It'll be out when it's finished I guess. Well I've not even started it, so I don't know."
[[Gallagher 2.jpg|thumb|left|Noel Gallagher during FIB 2015](File:Noel)]
[Gallagher's High Flying Birds](Noel)(Noel Gallagher's High Flying Birds) released a [album](self-titled)(Noel Gallagher's High Flying Birds (album)) on 17 October 2011; a collaboration album with [Androgynous](Amorphous)(Amorphous Androgynous) was to be released in 2012 but has now been shelved indefinitely. He began touring in [Dublin](Dublin) on 23 October 2011. The touring band announced for Noel Gallagher's High Flying Birds comprised David McDonnell (guitar), [Pritchard](Russell)(Russell Pritchard) (bass), Mikey Rowe (keyboards) and [Stacey](Jeremy)(Jeremy Stacey) (drums); McDonnell left during rehearsals and was replaced before the tour with Tim Smith who had played with Rowe and Stacey previously. On 20 July 2011, Gallagher released a 47-second trailer of his first single "[Death of You and Me](The)(The Death of You and Me)". The video for the debut single was released on 25 July at 8:21 am (GMT).
Following the self-titled debut, Noel Gallagher's High Flying Birds released their second album *[Yesterday](Chasing)(Chasing Yesterday (album))* 2 March 2015. In 2016 Gallagher co-wrote "Birth of an Accidental Hipster" with Paul Weller for [Monkees](the)(the Monkees). In June 2015, Gallagher confirmed he was working on a third High Flying Birds album, later announced to be titled *[Built the Moon?](Who)(Who Built the Moon?)* and released on 27 November 2017. On 9 September 2017, Gallagher along with his band served as the headline act of "We Are Manchester", a benefit concert to mark the reopening of [Arena](Manchester)(Manchester Arena) (following [terrorist attack there in May](a)(Manchester Arena bombing)).
On 2 May 2019, the band released "Black Star Dancing", the title track of their EP, which was released on 14 June 2019. On 5 August 2019, Gallagher's band released the title track "This Is The Place" for a second EP which was released on 27 September 2019. The same month, Gallagher toured the United States with [Smashing Pumpkins](The)(The Smashing Pumpkins). Gallagher appeared on First We Feast's *[Ones](Hot)(Hot Ones)* in October 2019.Archived at [Ghostarchive](https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211211/NxZwXy8kds8) and the [Wayback Machine](https://web.archive.org/web/20191003183157/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NxZwXy8kds8):
On 14 November 2019, Noel released a new single 'Wandering Star'. The single was released in promotion of his studio EP 'Blue Moon Rising'. The EP also featured reflex and 7" mixes of the title track, released on 6 March 2020.
On 29 April 2021, Gallagher announced the release of the band's first greatest hits album, titled *[the Way We Came: Vol. 1 (2011–2021)](Back)(Back The Way We Came: Vol 1 (2011-2021))*. The album is a double release, which along with 16 previously released tracks, features two new songs; "We're On Our Way Now" and "Flying On the Ground", the former of which was released as a single the same day as its announcement. It was released on 11 June 2021. In an interview with [Music](Apple)(Apple Music), Gallagher said that *[of Bee Gees](Best)(Best of Bee Gees)* is one of his favourite albums and that it inspired the cover of *Back The Way We Came*. Apple Music|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xW4b_n-NEmw|language=en|access-date=2021-06-13}} Seven days after its release, *Back the Way We Came* became Gallagher's 12th UK No. 1 album.
In January 2023, Noel Gallagher announced that his fourth studio album with the High Flying Birds, called *[Skies](Council)(Council Skies)* would be released on June 2. The album was previewed with the single ‘Easy Now’, which is accompanied by a video starring [Alcock](Milly)(Milly Alcock) of [Of The Dragon](House)(House Of The Dragon) fame. §The album sees Gallagher pay homage to his formative years and Mancunian roots. He acknowledges that the title 'Council Skies'
was inspired from the title of a book by Sheffield artist [Mckee](Pete)(Pete Mckee).
February 2023 saw the announcement of a North American co-headline tour by the High Flying Birds & [(band)](Garbage)(Garbage (band)). The 24 date tour begins on 2 June in [WA](Auburn,)(Auburn, WA) and ends on 15 Jul in [MA](Boston,)(Boston, MA). An autumn UK arena tour was announced in March 2023, playing venues in Hull, London, Birmingham, Cardiff, Leeds, Glasgow and Liverpool.
### Other projects
In 2004, Gallagher featured on backing vocals on [Gervais](Ricky)(Ricky Gervais)'s [Love Freeway](Free)(Free Love Freeway).
On 10 September 2011, Gallagher alongside his long-time friend [Morgan](Matt)(Matt Morgan (comedian)), stood in for [O'Leary](Dermot)(Dermot O'Leary) on [Radio 2](BBC)(BBC Radio 2).
In March 2013, Gallagher, along with [Brand](Russell)(Russell Brand), Morgan and Mr Gee, hosted a one-off radio show on XFM in aid of Teenage Cancer Trust.
In an interview with *[NME](NME)* in 2014 whilst promoting his solo debut album *[Robots](Everyday)(Everyday Robots)*, [Albarn](Damon)(Damon Albarn) hinted at a collaborative project with Gallagher. Despite the years of animosity during [Blur](Blur (band)) and Oasis' respective heyday, Albarn said: "We're talking. It's not anything to get excited about yet. I mean, he's doing his thing. He's finishing a new record. I've got my record coming out, but the principle of us making music together is something, you know. It would be fair to say, we have discussed it at least once."
In March 2015, Gallagher revealed that he was considering retirement from live shows within the following 10 years. He stated: "It's not fun being on a bus for six weeks in America. It's fine when you're young, but I'm almost 50."
In February 2016, Gallagher and Morgan hosted a one-off show for [Radio](Absolute)(Absolute Radio).
In March 2017, Albarn's animated band [Gorillaz](Gorillaz) released the track "[Got the Power](We)(We Got the Power (Gorillaz song))" featuring Gallagher on backing vocals.
From 8 to 22 August 2021, Gallagher presented "The Radio X Residency" with Morgan every Sunday 7 pm to 9 pm throughout on [X](Radio)(Radio X (United Kingdom)).
Gallagher is among those interviewed for the documentary film *[These Walls Could Sing](If)(If These Walls Could Sing)* directed by [McCartney](Mary)(Mary McCartney) about the recording studios at [Road](Abbey)(Abbey Road Studios).
## Personal life
### Relationships
Gallagher became engaged to his girlfriend Diane at the age of 18, but they never married and eventually separated. In 1988, he moved out of his family home to live with Louise Jones, whom he described as his "soulmate" and for whom he wrote "[Away](Slide)(Slide Away (Oasis song))". They had an on-again, off-again relationship before separating in June 1994, with Gallagher stating, "I don't think I'll ever get over it."
In June 1997, Gallagher married Meg Mathews in [Vegas](Las)(Las Vegas). He had met her in 1994 through her roommate, MTV presenter [de Ruvo](Rebecca)(Rebecca de Ruvo), whom he was dating at the time and whom he left for Mathews. Mathews gave birth to a daughter, Anaïs Gallagher, on 27 January 2000. Gallagher and Mathews divorced in January 2001 on the grounds of his adultery with Scottish publicist Sara MacDonald, whom he met at [Ibiza](Ibiza) nightclub [Space](Space (Ibiza nightclub)) in June 2000. After the divorce was finalised, Gallagher claimed that he had never actually been unfaithful and had only claimed to have cheated on Mathews to speed up the divorce process.
Gallagher then began a relationship with MacDonald, and wrote "Waiting for the Rapture" about their meeting. They have two sons: Donovan Rory MacDonald Gallagher (born 22 September 2007) and Sonny Patrick MacDonald Gallagher (born 1 October 2010). They were married on 18 June 2011 in a private ceremony at the Lime Wood Hotel in [Forest National Park](New)(New Forest National Park). His close friend [Brand](Russell)(Russell Brand) was the best man. Actually Me GQ|date=5 December 2017|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6UYQnpDT1UM|access-date=8 May 2019}} They lived in [Hampshire](Hampshire). In January 2023, the couple announced that they would be divorcing after 11 years of marriage.
Gallagher is friends with [Mounfield](Gary)(Gary Mounfield), [Ashcroft](Richard)(Richard Ashcroft) (to whom he dedicated the Oasis song "[No Shadow](Cast)((What's the Story) Morning Glory?)"), the [Brothers](Chemical)(Chemical Brothers), [Lydon](John)(John Lydon), [Jones](Steve)(Steve Jones (musician)), [Kasabian](Kasabian), [Nicholson](Andy)(Andy Nicholson), [Hatton](Ricky)(Ricky Hatton), [McCartney](Paul)(Paul McCartney), [Carragher](Jamie)(Jamie Carragher), [Martin](Chris)(Chris Martin), [Buckland](Jonny)(Jonny Buckland), [Marr](Johnny)(Johnny Marr), [Albarn](Damon)(Damon Albarn), [Morrissey](Morrissey), [Bono](Bono), [Weller](Paul)(Paul Weller), [Depp](Johnny)(Johnny Depp) (who played slide guitar on the Oasis song "Fade In-Out"), and [Moss](Kate)(Kate Moss) (who used to stay with him when she was visiting London). Around the time that actor [McGregor](Ewan)(Ewan McGregor) found out he had been cast as [Kenobi](Obi-Wan)(Obi-Wan Kenobi), Gallagher (his next-door neighbour) challenged him to a battle with toy [lightsabers](lightsabers) in his garden the morning after a party.
### Other
In 1998, Gallagher made a cameo appearance as himself in an episode of ''[Young Person's Guide to Becoming a Rock Star](The)(The Young Person's Guide to Becoming a Rock Star)''.Archived at [Ghostarchive](https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211211/03ZZSsxnEh8) and the [Wayback Machine](https://web.archive.org/web/20140411185534/http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=03ZZSsxnEh8): He was a frequent guest on *[Russell Brand Show](The)(The Russell Brand Show (radio show))* on [Radio 2](BBC)(BBC Radio 2), appearing on almost every show, leading Brand to dub him an unofficial "co-presenter". He is also a regular on the digital radio sports show *[TalkSPORT](TalkSPORT)*.
In 2001, Gallagher was reported to have an estimated personal fortune of £25 million. In 2009, *[Sunday Times](The)(The Sunday Times)* Rich List estimated his and Liam's combined personal fortune at £52 million.
Gallagher is a lifelong [City F.C.](Manchester)(Manchester City F.C.) supporter, admitting he "cried like a baby" when they won the [Premier League](2011–12)(2011–12 Premier League). He is a friend of the team's former midfielder [Barton](Joey)(Joey Barton), as well as Italian striker [Del Piero](Alessandro)(Alessandro Del Piero), who described Gallagher as Italy's "lucky mascot" during the [FIFA World Cup](2006)(2006 FIFA World Cup) and appears in the video for Oasis' "[Don't Slow Me Down](Lord)(Lord Don't Slow Me Down (song))". Gallagher and Kasabian lead guitarist [Pizzorno](Sergio)(Sergio Pizzorno) took part in drawing teams for the [Cup](FA)(FA Cup) third round in 2011. Coincidentally, Pizzorno drew his hometown team [City](Leicester)(Leicester City) with Gallagher's Manchester City for the third round tie, in which both teams drew 2–2 and Manchester City proceeded to win 4–2 in the replay. He participated in the unveiling of [Umbro](Umbro)-sponsored football kits with captain [Kompany](Vincent)(Vincent Kompany). In the advertising campaign, the two men are pictured wearing the new Manchester City home and away shirts for the 2012–13 season. Formerly, Kompany had introduced Gallagher to 80,000 fans during the [Werchter](Rock)(Rock Werchter) music festival in Belgium. After home matches, Manchester City regularly play the Oasis song [Wonderwall](Wonderwall (song)), which was written by Gallagher.
The son of Irish immigrants, Gallagher identifies as [Irish](Irish people). He supports the [national football team](Irish)(Republic of Ireland national football team) and has said that he does not consider himself "to be English at all". Nevertheless, he did serve as an official ambassador for England's bid to host the [FIFA World Cup](2018)(2018 FIFA World Cup). Gallagher is also a fan of the [Football League](National)(National Football League), noting in an [ESPN](ESPN) interview, "I love the NFL. I don't have a team *per se*, but I'm into it. NFL comes on late night in the UK when I'm up. I love the colour and energy of it all. There's so many things going on in American football. It took me a while to get it, but I like it a lot."
Gallagher also supports Scottish football team [F.C.](Celtic)(Celtic F.C.).
Gallagher stated in a 2006 radio interview with Russell Brand that he does not believe in "God or an all-guiding force".Archived at [Ghostarchive](https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211211/63rOA2foEDU) and the [Wayback Machine](https://web.archive.org/web/20130918204426/http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=63rOA2foEDU): Despite this, many of his songs have mentioned God (such as "[Hindu Times](The)(The Hindu Times)" and "[by Little](Little)(Little by Little (Oasis song))"), and all the tracks he had contributed to *[Out Your Soul](Dig)(Dig Out Your Soul)* (as well as the other bandmates' songs) have lyrics and references to God and other biblical terms. *Dig Out Your Soul* has been described by Gallagher as a "religious Armageddon". In 2009, he stated, "See, I don't know what I am. If I was an atheist I'd just write songs about not believing in God – but I don't know what I am." In 2017, he reaffirmed his lack of belief in God in an "Actually Me" segment for GQ.
In 2008, Gallagher sold his home in Ibiza near the home of fellow musician [Blunt](James)(James Blunt), saying in an interview that he "can't stand living there in the knowledge that Blunt is nearby making terrible music".
Gallagher was reportedly asked by [Cowell](Simon)(Simon Cowell) to be a judge on [X Factor*](*The)(The X Factor (UK)) after [Minogue](Dannii)(Dannii Minogue), [Cole](Cheryl)(Cheryl Cole), and Cowell himself declined to participate in [8](series)(The X Factor (UK series 8)), but he declined.
In 2012, Gallagher was among the British cultural icons selected by Sir [Blake](Peter)(Peter Blake (artist)) to appear in a new version of his most famous artwork ([Beatles](the)(the Beatles)' ''[Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band](Sgt.)(Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band)'' album cover) to celebrate the British cultural figures of his life.
## Songwriting and musicianship
### Style and abilities
Gallagher was the primary songwriter in Oasis, and the sole songwriting contributor on the group's first three albums. He is often criticised for the praise he gives to his own songs, to which he quipped, "If you'd written '[Forever](Live)(Live Forever (Oasis song))', you'd be walking to a different tune the next day too."Interview with [Ross](Jonathan)(Jonathan Ross (television presenter)), *[Night with Jonathan Ross](Friday)(Friday Night with Jonathan Ross)*, 10 September 2004 He has often been accused by critics of plagiarising the music of his heroes, but he has maintained that outright homages in his music are intentional. In a 1996 *[World](Guitar)(Guitar World)* interview, he described himself as "a fan who writes songs" and stated, "I'm not saying, 'I'm the greatest songwriter in the world. Listen to me.' Usually, I'm saying, '*These* are the greatest songwriters in the world. And I'm gonna put them all in this song.'" His response to critics on the topic of "blatantly" stealing riffs was, "No, I don't feel guilty. But you feel pissed off because you didn't do it first."Caws, Matthew. "Top of the Pops". *Guitar World*. May 1996. He added, "When I'm making a record, I've always been of the notion that if a song sounds like [Rex](T.)(T. Rex (band)), well, fuck it, let's make it sound more like T. Rex! I know there's bands that might write something that sounds like [Smiths](the)(the Smiths), and they'll go, 'Oh, it sounds like the Smiths, we've got to make it sound not like the Smiths.' If I'm writing a song and I say to myself, 'Oh, hey, it sounds like [Kinks](the)(the Kinks),' then I'm going to turn it into a Kinks track."
Gallagher has commented on his musical ability:
}}
Comparing himself to other guitarists, Gallagher stated, "I can barely play like [Green](Peter)(Peter Green (musician)), let alone fucking [Beck](Jeff)(Jeff Beck)." He also said, "I'm unfortunate enough that two of my best mates are [Marr](Johnny)(Johnny Marr) and [Weller](Paul)(Paul Weller). Those two are [virtuoso](virtuoso)s to me although neither of them would admit it. On the electric guitar they're it. So if you're asking me how do I compare to those two—and I like to compare myself to the greats—I'm average at fucking best." Weller described Gallagher's ability as a guitarist as "rudimentary", saying, "Noel doesn't pretend to be a guitar god. He's very good at putting chords together and he's got a distinctive style in terms of his chord sequences and his rhythm playing. It's recognisable." Though naturally left-handed, Gallagher plays guitar right-handed, which he claims is the only thing he can do with his non-dominant hand.Sutcliffe, Phil. "Meet the New Boss". *Mojo Classic: Morrissey and the Story of Manchester*. Vol. 1, issue 13. 2006
Gallagher has said he sometimes does not understand his own lyrics, commenting in 2005, "When I'm halfway through '[Look Back in Anger](Don't)(Don't Look Back in Anger)' I say to myself, 'I still don't know what these words mean!'" By 2017, he had reflected, "There is a bit of truth in that statement. Like the bit in '[Supernova](Champagne)(Champagne Supernova)' about 'slowly walking down the hall faster than a cannonball'. What does that mean? And the answer is, I don't know what it means. I don't care what it means. It must mean something, though, because I play it to a sea of people every night and they seem to understand it. That's all that matters, I guess." He has stated that he is [dyslexic](dyslexia), which slows down the process of his songwriting, and that he can neither read nor write [notation](music)(music notation).
### Changing band dynamic
Gallagher's role as a chief songwriter for Oasis changed over time as he allowed a greater level of lyrical input from the other band members. *[on the Shoulder of Giants](Standing)(Standing on the Shoulder of Giants)* included Oasis' first-ever album track written by his brother Liam. *[Chemistry](Heathen)(Heathen Chemistry)* included a further three tracks by Liam (including "[Songbird](Songbird (Oasis song))"), one by [Archer](Gem)(Gem Archer), and one by [Bell](Andy)(Andy Bell (musician)). The album ''[Believe the Truth](Don't)(Don't Believe the Truth)* featured another three tracks by Liam (one of them, "Love Like a Bomb", co-written with Archer), one from Archer, and two from Bell. The latter two albums have been greeted with increasing critical and commercial success in the UK, particularly *Don't Believe the Truth*. The second single from *Don't Believe the Truth'', "[Importance of Being Idle](The)(The Importance of Being Idle (song))", became the second Oasis track sung by Noel to top the UK charts and was named 2005's finest track by [*Q*](Q (magazine)) magazine, as well as being nominated for the *NME* "Best Song of 2005" award. On the final Oasis albums, Gallagher's increasing role as lead singer, apparently to compensate for his diminished role as songwriter, caused some tension with Liam.
[Starkey](Zak)(Zak Starkey), son of Beatles drummer [Starr](Ringo)(Ringo Starr) and previous drummer for [Who](The)(The Who) and [Marr](Johnny)(Johnny Marr), replaced long-time drummer [White](Alan)(Alan White (Oasis drummer)) during the recording sessions for ''Don't Believe the Truth''. The loss of White prompted Gallagher to comment in a 2005 interview that he credits Oasis' trouble with drummers, in part, to the fact that he is himself a talented drummer: "I get a lot of stick for it, but I'm the best drummer in the group."*NME*, issue of 10 December 2005
## Controversy
Gallagher is well known for his controversial and outspoken statements in the press; he acknowledged his tendency for *faux pas* in the song "My Big Mouth" on the album *[Here Now](Be)(Be Here Now (album))*. He has defended himself, saying, "People think [I'm] controversial for the answers [I] give to silly questions in interviews, but ... I'm not thinking about insulting people; I say what I genuinely feel is in my heart. My conscience is clean, d'you know what I mean? Y'know, I'm true to myself—fuck everybody else."Noel Gallagher; Etalk Daily Interview; 2005 On-stage at the 1996 Brit Awards, where INXS singer Michael Hutchence presented Oasis' "Best Video" award for *Wonderwall*, after receiving the award from Hutchence, Gallagher pointed his award to Hutchence and said, "Has-beens should not be presenting awards to gonna-be's." referring to INXS' popularity declining. Those words reportedly devastated Michael Hutchence.
### Damon Albarn and Blur
The most infamous of Gallagher's controversial statements was in a 1995 interview with *[Observer](The)(The Observer)*, where he expressed a wish for [Albarn](Damon)(Damon Albarn) and [James](Alex)(Alex James (musician)) of rivals [Blur](Blur (band)) to "catch AIDS and die". He quickly apologised for the comment and stated that "AIDS is no laughing matter". (scroll down to section 3.5) This statement was preceded by the success of ''(What's the Story) Morning Glory?*, which led to a [feud](well-documented)(The Battle of Britpop) with Blur. The differing styles of the bands, coupled with their prominence within the Britpop movement, led the British media to seize upon the rivalry between the bands. Both groups played along, with the Gallaghers taunting Blur at the 1996 [Awards](BRIT)(BRIT Awards) by singing a rendition of "[Parklife](Parklife (song))" when they collected their "Best British Band" award, with Liam changing the lyrics to "shite-life".
Gallagher maintains that the rivalry was conceived by the magazine *NME'' and members of Blur's entourage as a ploy to raise their respective profiles, and that he has had no respect for either party ever since. However, Albarn has suggested the roots of the feud were much more personal.Gallagher and Albarn both interviewed on *[Forever: The Rise and Fall of Brit Pop](Live)(Live Forever: The Rise and Fall of Brit Pop)*; John Dower; 2003 Tension between the two had largely cooled by 2007, and Gallagher said in an *NME* interview, "I've got a lot of respect for Damon, I really do mean it. Because I'm indifferent to Damon he thinks that I think he's a cunt. Our Liam will talk to him, I won't because he's just another singer in a band to me, but I don't think he's a cunt." On 23 March 2013, Gallagher, Albarn, [Coxon](Graham)(Graham Coxon), and Paul Weller performed the Blur hit "[Tender](Tender (song))" at the [Cancer Trust](Teenage)(Teenage Cancer Trust). Gallagher and Coxon later provided backing vocals on the song "We Got the Power" on Albarn's [Gorillaz](Gorillaz) album *[Humanz](Humanz)*. In 2019, he confirmed in an interview with [O'Leary](Dermot)(Dermot O'Leary) on [Two](BBC)(BBC Two) that he and Albarn had become friends.
### Liam Gallagher
[[File:Oasis Noel and Liam WF.jpg|thumb|right|Gallagher (right) performing with [brother](his)(Liam Gallagher) in September 2005]]
The Gallagher brothers infamously share a tumultuous relationship, and one of their arguments was even released on the 1995 [bootleg](bootleg recording) single "[Rivalry](Wibbling)(Wibbling Rivalry)". Although their relationship had stabilised in later years, there were a handful of incidents during the band's early career where the two physically attacked each other. At a Los Angeles show during their first American tour in 1994, Liam took to changing the words of the songs so that they were offensive to both Americans and Noel. An argument after the show which led to a chair being thrown and a fight breaking out caused Noel to leave the tour and head for [Vegas](Las)(Las Vegas), and he later claimed he had "visions of *[and Loathing](Fear)(Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas)* flashing in [his] eyes". During recording sessions for ''(What's the Story) Morning Glory?*, the brothers had a violent fight involving a cricket bat when Liam invited everyone from a local pub into the studio while Noel was trying to work.*Definitely Maybe* DVD Interview. In 1995, Noel sang "[Wonderwall](Wonderwall (song))" on *[with Jools Holland](Later...)(Later... with Jools Holland)* when Liam failed to turn up.
In 1996, Noel provided lead vocals at a performance for *[Unplugged](MTV)(MTV Unplugged)'' when Liam backed out minutes before the set was due to start. Liam claimed to have been struck down with a "sore throat", but the band later found out that Liam did not like performing acoustically. Noel was further annoyed when Liam proceeded to heckle him from the balcony and "nurse his sore throat" with beer and cigarettes while the band performed. Just before the band were about to board a plane to the United States for a big tour, Liam left the airport, claiming he had to find a house for his then-wife [Kensit](Patsy)(Patsy Kensit). He later joined the band for their last few gigs and the infamous [Awards](MTV)(MTV Video Music Awards) performance, while the remaining dates were scrapped.
While on tour in [Barcelona](Barcelona) in 2000, Oasis were forced to cancel a gig when Alan White's arm seized up, and the band spent the evening drinking instead. Liam made a crude remark about Gallagher's then-wife [Mathews](Meg)(Meg Mathews) and attempted to cast doubt over the legitimacy of his daughter Anaïs, causing Noel to headbutt him. Following this, he declared he was quitting overseas touring, but returned for an Oasis gig in [Dublin](Dublin) on 8 July 2000. During the performance, the two brothers shook hands at the end of "[Acquiesce](Acquiesce)".
Liam once stated that he did not speak much with Noel and that they "don't really have a relationship". During the final tour, the only time that they ever spoke directly was when onstage. Noel would later reveal that while they were in Oasis, the two "never hung out together outside of the band, ever".
The relationship between the two brothers again became strained throughout 2009, eventually leading to a last-minute cancellation of an Oasis concert scheduled to take place on 28 August in Paris due to an "altercation within the group". Later that evening, Gallagher confirmed he had left Oasis as he "simply could not go on working with Liam a day longer". Through the Oasis website, he said, "It's with some sadness and great relief to tell you that I quit Oasis tonight." On 29 August, he expanded further on his blog: "The level of verbal and violent intimidation towards me, my family, friends and comrades has become intolerable. And the lack of support and understanding from my management and band mates has left me with no other option than to get me cape and seek pastures new."
When asked in 2012 about his brother and an Oasis reunion, Gallagher said, "I last texted Liam at Christmas after the [City](Manchester City FC) match. I don't think it's gonna happen. It would be great for everyone else except me. It'd be mega for the millions and millions and for everybody else it would be brilliant, but I wouldn't be very happy about it. I guess you don't know what you're gonna feel like in 20-odd years but right now, I mean I was in Oasis for nearly 20 years. I've been doing what I'm doing now for one year and I'd like to see what it's like to do it for longer. I don't think anyone is pushing for a reunion either. Nobody ever brings it up in any seriousness; I mean Liam does publicly but he says a lot of things publicly. I wouldn't take anything he says seriously." After their performance of "Wonderwall" at the London Olympics Closing Ceremony, which Gallagher had originally turned down, he referred to Liam's band [Eye](Beady)(Beady Eye) as "Stratford's finest Oasis tribute band".
In December 2017, during an interview with an Australian newspaper, Liam claimed that he and Noel had declared a "truce". However, in February 2018, Liam revealed that the truce did not happen and that it was just "in his head" after "a couple of drinks". In a 2019 interview in Norwegian-Swedish talk show *[Skavlan](Skavlan)*, Noel said that Liam is spreading a false rumour online that Oasis would get back together if Noel's wife would let him, and that she is receiving lots of abuse because of it.
### Jay-Z
Gallagher reportedly criticised the organisers of the [2008](Glastonbury Festival 2008) [Festival](Glastonbury)(Glastonbury Festival) for scheduling U.S. [hip-hop](Hip hop music) artist [Jay-Z](Jay-Z) as a headliner for the traditionally rock-focused festival: "If it ain't broke don't fix it. If you start to break it then people aren't going to go. I'm sorry, but Jay-Z? No chance. Glastonbury has a tradition of guitar music and even when they throw the odd curveball in on a Sunday night you go, '[Minogue](Kylie)(Kylie Minogue)?' I don't know about it. But I'm not having hip-hop at Glastonbury. It's wrong." [Eavis](Emily)(Emily Eavis), the organiser of the festival, said she was honoured Jay-Z was headlining the event: "He's absolutely the right act for our festival. There's no reason why we should not have the greatest living hip-hop artist on at Glastonbury." Eavis also reminded Gallagher that [Roots](The)(The Roots), [Hill](Cypress)(Cypress Hill), and [La Soul](De)(De La Soul) had all previously performed at Glastonbury. Jay-Z said, "We don't play guitars, Noel, but hip-hop has put in its work like any other form of music. This headline show is just a natural progression. [...] We have to respect each other's genre of music and move forward."
Jay-Z opened his Glastonbury set with a cover of Oasis' song "Wonderwall". When Gallagher was asked about the incident, he replied:
}}
When Jay-Z was asked about Gallagher's comments, he said, "I haven't spoken to [Gallagher], I heard he was reaching out. I don't bear any grudge, it's all good. I just believe in good music and bad music, I've always said that. You look at any interview from the beginning of time, I've always stated that I don't believe in the lines and classifications that people put music in so they can easily define it." When asked who he would be interested in collaborating with, he said, "Anyone. Oasis as well. It doesn't matter to me."
### Phil Collins
Gallagher has frequently criticised [Collins](Phil)(Phil Collins), saying his music is bland and the opposite of what he stands for. He was quoted as saying, "People hate fucking cunts like Phil Collins, and if they don't, they fucking should!" He also called Collins the "[antichrist](antichrist)". Prior to the [UK election](2005)(2005 United Kingdom general election), he stated that he was still supporting the [Labour](Labour Party (UK)) government partly because of his concern that "Phil Collins is threatening to come back and live here [if the [Conservatives](Conservative Party (UK)) win] and let's face it, none of us want that". Collins responded by saying that Gallagher "loves slagging me off". He also denied that he was a Conservative Party supporter in an interview in *[Guardian](The)(The Guardian)*. He appeared on the BBC television series *[101](Room)(Room 101 (British TV series))* and nominated to banish the Gallagher brothers, describing them as "rude and not as talented as they think they are". In his 2016 autobiography, *Not Dead Yet*, Collins recalled meeting Gallagher in 1996 at a bar in [Mustique](Mustique). Gallagher declined Collins' request to jam with him.Archived at [Ghostarchive](https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211211/23fyY-2psCs) and the [Wayback Machine](https://web.archive.org/web/20201102010157/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=23fyY-2psCs&feature=youtu.be):
## Political views
Gallagher has spoken about his political views on several occasions. He was quoted: "Politics is like football for me. [Labour](Labour Party (UK)) is my team and even if you don't like a striker you don't give up supporting the whole team. Labour is the lesser of two evils. What else should we have? Anarchy? Someone has to be responsible". In 1997, he visited the recently appointed Prime Minister [Blair](Tony)(Tony Blair) at [Downing Street](10)(No. 10 Downing Street). In an interview that year, when he was asked about why he visited Blair, he replied:
}}
In an interview in 2007, when asked about politics, he said:
and the [Wayback Machine](https://web.archive.org/web/20070222080636/http://www.youtube.com:80/watch?v=1hOUN99LtUg): }}
Gallagher was passionate in his support for [Obama](Barack)(Barack Obama)'s successful bid for President of the United States, calling his acceptance speech to the [Democratic National Convention](2008)(2008 Democratic National Convention) "spellbinding".
In 1997, he played a 5-song set at the Tibetan Freedom Concert in New York City.Archived at [Ghostarchive](https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211211/uwIQwonJppo) and the [Wayback Machine](https://web.archive.org/web/20140111114257/http://www.youtube.com/watch?gl=GB&hl=en-GB&v=uwIQwonJppo): As a result, Oasis were deemed "unsuitable" by the Chinese government, forcing a planned tour of the country in 2009 to be cancelled.
Gallagher has also been very vocal about [crime](knife)(Knife legislation). In 2008 he was quoted: "The scumbags are taking over the streets. I don't know what David Cameron and Gordon Brown are going to do about it. It all goes back to the [years](Thatcher)(Premiership of Margaret Thatcher). It sounds like a cliché but that's when the rot set in." When the interviewer suggested it was for status he replied, "In my day status was about trying to be somebody, not trying to kill somebody, so how's that all changed?"Archived at [Ghostarchive](https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211211/-vLwqOeb5ww) and the [Wayback Machine](https://web.archive.org/web/20110202191149/http://www.youtube.com//watch?v=-vLwqOeb5ww):
In the [general election](2010)(2010 United Kingdom general election), he voted for [candidate dressed as a pirate](a)(Tom Scott (entertainer)) as a [vote](protest)(protest vote). Speaking out about the August 2011 riots that took place in England, Gallagher stated, "Last August I was on tour in Europe and people were asking me about the riots. All over the world, Syria and Egypt, people were rioting for freedom. And these kids in England are rioting for tracksuits. It's embarrassing." Gallagher claimed that violent video games and violent television shows which children were being exposed to were partially to blame for social problems.
In February 2012, he implied that the UK under the premiership of Margaret Thatcher was a more fertile ground for dissent in the arts: "Under Thatcher, who ruled us with an iron rod, great art was made. Amazing designers and musicians. Acid house was born. Very colourful and progressive. Now, no one's got anything to say. 'Write a song? No thanks, I'll say it on Twitter.' It's a sad state when more people retweet than buy records."
In a February 2015 interview with *[Quietus](The)(The Quietus)*, Gallagher elaborated on his disillusion with current politicians and how they'll do anything to say they're just regular people: "And now the Conservatives are just [...] David Cameron, he's trying to be your mate. 'Oh, I really like [Jam](the)(the Jam).'" Gallagher then went on to say that Thatcher was brutal but more direct, and "you can kind of respect that".
In an interview with *[HuffPost](HuffPost)* shortly before the [United Kingdom general election](2015)(2015 United Kingdom general election), he summed up his views of contemporary political leaders: "David Cameron a bell-end, [Miliband](Ed)(Ed Miliband) a [communist](Communism), the rest of them don't really count". In 2016, Gallagher stated that while he remained left-wing, he opposed Milliband's replacement as Labour leader, [Corbyn](Jeremy)(Jeremy Corbyn), deeming him to be another communist. He said that "the Tories don't care about the vulnerable, and the communists don't care about the aspirational."
Gallagher did not vote in the [EU referendum](2016)(2016 United Kingdom European Union membership referendum), saying that he "didn't think we should have been given the vote in the first place because as ordinary members of the public how are the fuck are you qualified to talk about the break-up of the oldest continent in the fucking world." However, he also said that he felt Britain should have remained part of the EU saying, "I feel right at the time of it happening, we turned our back on the French, who were going through some dark terror shit." Conversely, he also said, "But it's happened now. It was a legal vote. Fucking get it done and let's move on."
During the 2020 [pandemic](COVID-19)(COVID-19 pandemic), Gallagher garnered attention for refusing to wear a [covering](face)(Face masks during the COVID-19 pandemic) while shopping. He explained, during [Morgan](Matt)(Matt Morgan (comedian))'s Podcast, "I choose not to wear one and if I get the virus it's on me, it's not on anyone else."
In 2021, after being asked what he thought of the recent controversies surrounding the Royal Family, Gallagher expressed sympathy and support for [William](Prince)(Prince William) and criticised [Harry](Prince)(Prince Harry) and [Markle](Meghan)(Meghan Markle) over allegations they had made against other Royals by drawing a parallel between the situation and his brother Liam's public statements, stating "He's got a fucking younger brother shooting his fucking mouth off with shit that is just so unnecessary. I'd like to think I was always the William." Gallagher furthermore accused Meghan of negatively influencing Harry's personality and describing Harry as "coming across like a typical fucking [woke](woke) snowflake", adding that "this is what happens when you get involved with Americans".
## Musical equipment
[[File:Noel Gallagher live in Rome 2012.JPG|thumb|Noel Gallagher playing a [Martin](C. F. Martin & Company) acoustic guitar in Rome on 13 March 2012]]
Throughout his career, Gallagher has used a wide range of different guitars, effect pedals and amplifiers from his large collection. Most of it emerged from the *Standing on the Shoulder of Giants* sessions, where he decided to drop the equipment used in the three previous albums and instead buy "loads of really weird pedals, old guitars, and small amps", as the lack of deadline to deliver the album allowed Gallagher to "take quite a few days just messing around".
### Guitars
;Electric guitars
* [Les Paul](Epiphone)(Epiphone Les Paul) – Gallagher played a cherry sunburst model in the early years of Oasis.
* [Les Paul](Gibson)(Gibson Les Paul) – A sunburst Les Paul was given to Gallagher by [Marr](Johnny)(Johnny Marr), formerly of [Smiths](the)(the Smiths), in the early days of Oasis. He used this guitar to compose [& Alcohol](Cigarettes)(Cigarettes & Alcohol) and [Away (Oasis song)](Slide)(Slide Away (Oasis song)) The section where he talks about it starts at 11:15. Before Johnny Marr got, it belonged to [Townshend](Pete)(Pete Townshend). When this Les Paul was severely damaged, Marr gave him another Les Paul, used prominently on the Smiths' album *[Queen Is Dead](The)(The Queen Is Dead)*. In the same interview he shows this guitar and mention the accident at 50:40. He points at the les Paul he was holding couple of minutes before which was the sunburst les Paul whilst mentioning a damaged guitar
* [Telecaster](Fender)(Fender Telecaster) – Gallagher uses several, one of which, a '60s model, was given to Noel by [Depp](Johnny)(Johnny Depp) as a birthday present.
* [Casino](Epiphone)(Epiphone Casino)
* [ES-355](Gibson)(Gibson ES-355) Vintage Model – Since 2001, this has become Gallagher's main stage guitar.
* [Sheraton](Epiphone)(Epiphone Sheraton) – Gallagher used two Epiphone Sheratons, a sunburst one and one with a Union Jack painted on the front which Epiphone sold as a signature model named 'Supernova'.
* [Riviera](Epiphone)(Epiphone Riviera) – Gallagher used a dark wine red Riviera throughout 1995.
### Effect pedals
In the early days of Oasis, Gallagher did not use pedals: "I used to just turn up the amps as full as I could get them." Since then, he has begun using a large number of effects, but singled out the [Tube Screamer](Ibanez)(Ibanez Tube Screamer).
### Amplification
Gallagher has said that he used only 100-watt [Marshalls](Marshall Amplification) early in his career. After *Definitely Maybe*, he began using smaller amps, singling out [Fenders](Fender Amplifiers) ([Princeton](Fender Princeton) and [Bandmaster](Fender Bandmaster)), and also a combo made by Clark Amplification, which builds amplifiers based on vintage Fender and Marshall amps. While recording ''What's the Story Morning Glory?'' Gallagher also used [Orange](Orange Music Electronic Company) and [Vox](Vox (musical equipment)) amps. Orange later made Gallagher a custom amplifier, which was later sold online for £6,800.
## Discography
### Solo
**Live albums**
* *[Dreams We Have as Children – Live at the Royal Albert Hall](The)(The Dreams We Have as Children – Live at the Royal Albert Hall)* (2009)
**Other appearances**
### Other charted songs
### As featured artist
### As session musician
* 1995: *[Road](Stanley)(Stanley Road)* by [Weller](Paul)(Paul Weller), acoustic guitar on "I Walk on Gilded Splinters"
* 1998: *[Return](Saturnz)(Saturnz Return)* by [Goldie](Goldie), guitar on "Temper Temper"
* 2000: *Tailgunner* by [Tailgunner](Mark Coyle), drums
* 2001: *[Same Old Blues](The)(The Same Old Blues)* by [Mary](Proud)(Proud Mary (band)), production, plus additional vocals, guitars, bass and percussion
* 2002: *[Illumination](Illumination (Paul Weller album))* by Paul Weller, drums, percussion & bass on "One X One"
* 2003: *Polaris* by [Mississippi Allstars](North)(North Mississippi Allstars), vocals on "One To Grow On" & "Polaris"
* 2003: *[at the Royal Albert Hall](Live)(Live at the Royal Albert Hall (The Who album))* by [Who](the)(the Who), guitar, backing vocals on "[Get Fooled Again](Won't)(Won't Get Fooled Again)"
* 2004: *Always Outnumbered, Never Outgunned* by the Prodigy, bass on "Shoot Down"
* 2004: *[Years Leaving](All)(All Years Leaving)* by [Stands](the)(the Stands), guitar on "Some Weekend Night"
* 2008: *[Dreams](22)(22 Dreams)* by [Weller](Paul)(Paul Weller), bass, piano, mellotron and Wurlitzer on "Echoes Round the Sun"
* 2011: *[of the Trap](Colour)(Colour of the Trap)* by [Kane](Miles)(Miles Kane), backing vocals on "My Fantasy"
* 2015: *[Head Full Of Dreams](A)(A Head Full Of Dreams)* by [Coldplay](Coldplay), guitar on "[Up&Up](Up & Up)"
* 2017: "[Got the Power](We)(We Got the Power (Gorillaz song))" by [Gorillaz](Gorillaz), additional vocals
* 2018: *[Meanings](True)(True Meanings)* by Paul Weller, pump organ
* 2020: *[Walls](Walls (Louis Tomlinson album))* by [Tomlinson](Louis)(Louis Tomlinson), writing credits on "[Walls](Walls (Louis Tomlinson song))"
* 2020: ''Where's My Family Gone?'' by [Cushin](Andrew)(Andrew Cushin), production, guitar, bass, keys, backing vocals on "Where's My Family Gone?"
### Other
*2004: "[Love Freeway](Free)(Free Love Freeway)" – [Gervais](Ricky)(Ricky Gervais) feat. Noel Gallagher; credited as a 'special guest' on backing vocals for [Office* Christmas Special](*The)(The Office Christmas specials) DVD, on which the video of the recording session featuring Noel & Ricky is available
*2011: *Well ... All Right!* – compilation album compiled by Gallagher, released [covermount](covermount) into *[Mojo](Mojo (magazine))* magazine
### Oasis
* *[Maybe](Definitely)(Definitely Maybe)* (1994)
* ''[the Story) Morning Glory?]((What's)((What's the Story) Morning Glory?)* (1995)
* *[Here Now](Be)(Be Here Now (album))* (1997)
* *[on the Shoulder of Giants](Standing)(Standing on the Shoulder of Giants)* (2000)
* *[Chemistry](Heathen)(Heathen Chemistry)* (2002)
* *[Believe the Truth](Don't)(Don't Believe the Truth)* (2005)
* *[Out Your Soul](Dig)(Dig Out Your Soul)'' (2008)
### Noel Gallagher's High Flying Birds
* ''[Gallagher's High Flying Birds](Noel)(Noel Gallagher's High Flying Birds (album))* (2011)
* *[Yesterday](Chasing)(Chasing Yesterday (album))* (2015)
* *[Built the Moon?](Who)(Who Built the Moon?)* (2017)
* *[Skies](Council)(Council Skies)* (2023)
## Notes
## References
## Further reading
* Gallagher, Paul; Christian, Terry. *Brothers, From Childhood to Oasis* (Virgin Books)
* Harris, John. *Britpop!: Cool Britannia and the Spectacular Demise of English Rock*. Da Capo Press, 2004.
* Hewitt, Paolo. *Getting High: The Adventures of Oasis* (Boxtree Press)
* Mathur, Paul. *Take Me There: The Story of Oasis* (Bloomsbury Publishing PLC)
* Middles, Mick. *Oasis: Round Their Way* (Independent Music Press)
* Moody, P. *Oasis: Lost Inside* (UFO Music Ltd)
* Robertson, I. *Oasis: What's The Story?* (Blake Books)
* Wheeler, J. *Oasis: How Does It Feel?* (UFO Books Ltd)
* Hingley, Tom. *Carpet Burns – My life with Inspiral Carpets* (Route)
* Williams, J. & Cook J. *Oasis member attacked on stage'' (Canoe.ca)
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Kiernan Shipka
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kiernan_shipka
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# Kiernan Shipka
*Revision ID: 1159251373 | Timestamp: 2023-06-09T06:24:00Z*
---
| birth_place = [Chicago](Chicago), [Illinois](Illinois), U.S.
| occupation = Actress
| yearsactive = 2006–present
}}
**Kiernan Brennan Shipka** (born November 10, 1999) is an American actress, best-known for her roles as [Draper](Sally)(List of Mad Men characters#Sally Draper) in the [AMC](AMC (TV channel)) drama series *[Men](Mad)(Mad Men)* (2007–2015), [Spellman](Sabrina)(Sabrina Spellman) in the [Netflix](Netflix) series *[Adventures of Sabrina](Chilling)(Chilling Adventures of Sabrina (TV series))* (2018–2020) and the sixth season of [CW](The)(The CW) series *[Riverdale](Riverdale (2017 TV series))* (2021–2022), [D. Hyman](B.)(B. D. Hyman) in the [FX](FX (TV channel)) series *[Bette and Joan](Feud:)(Feud: Bette and Joan)* (2017), and Jinora in *[Legend of Korra](The)(The Legend of Korra)* (2012–2014).
Shipka has also starred in several films, including *[Carriers](Carriers (film))* (2009), *[in the Attic](Flowers)(Flowers in the Attic (2014 film))* (2014), ''[Blackcoat's Daughter](The)(The Blackcoat's Daughter)* (2015), and *[Silence](The)(The Silence (2019 film))'' (2019).
## Early life
Kiernan Brennan Shipka was born in [Chicago](Chicago), [Illinois](Illinois), to John Young Shipka, a real estate developer, and Erin Ann Brennan. Shipka started taking [dancing](ballroom)(ballroom dancing) classes at the age of five, and was still attending classes as of March 2012. Her family relocated to [Angeles](Los)(Los Angeles), [California](California) when she was six to help with her acting career.
## Career
### 2006–2015: Beginnings and *Mad Men*
[[File:Kiernan Shipka (cropped).jpg|thumb|left|upright|Shipka at the 2010 [Actors Guild Awards](Screen)(Screen Actors Guild Awards)]]
Shipka made her television debut at five months of age on the hospital drama *[ER](ER (TV series))*. She also began doing commercial-print modeling when she was a baby. After undertaking numerous small television roles, her first major role was as [Draper](Sally)(List of Mad Men characters#Sally Draper), the daughter of main character [Draper](Don)(Don Draper), on the 2007–2015 TV series *[Men](Mad)(Mad Men)*. She won the role after two auditions. She was a recurring guest star for the show's first three seasons, then became a series regular in [four](season)(Mad Men (season 4)).
As part of *Mad Men*'s ensemble cast, she won the [Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Drama Series](Screen)(Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Drama Series) in 2008 and 2009. Shipka received praise for her performance on *Mad Men*. In 2010, *[American-Statesman](Austin)(Austin American-Statesman)* critic Dale Roe named her as his dream nominee for the [Emmy Award for Outstanding Guest Actress in a Drama Series](Primetime)(Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Guest Actress in a Drama Series), writing, "This 10-year-old actress was so affecting as troubled Sally Draper last season that it seems odd that she's only just been upgraded to series regular. If Shipka's upcoming *Mad Men* work—struggling with the broken marriage of her parents and entering preteendom in the tumultuous 1960s—remains as amazing as it was in [three](season)(Mad Men (season 3)), this is a ballot wish that could come true next year."Dale Roe. "Devoted TV watchers name their dream Emmy winners", *Austin American-Statesman*, July 4, 2010, page H-1.
In 2014, Shipka was named one of "The 25 Most Influential Teens of 2014" by [magazine](*Time*)(Time Magazine). That same year, [IndieWire](IndieWire) included her in their list of "20 Actors To Watch That Are Under 20". Shipka starred in the 2014 [Lifetime](Lifetime (TV network)) movie *[in the Attic](Flowers)(Flowers in the Attic (2014 film))*, and co-starred (with [Roberts](Emma)(Emma Roberts)) in the 2015 [Perkins](Oz)(Oz Perkins) horror film ''[Blackcoat's Daughter](The)(The Blackcoat's Daughter)''.
### 2016–present: Further work and streaming projects
In 2017, she portrayed [Hyman](B.D.)(B.D. Hyman), daughter of [Davis](Bette)(Bette Davis), in the FX television series *[Bette and Joan](Feud:)(Feud (TV series))*. In January 2018, it was announced that Shipka would be starring as [Spellman](Sabrina)(Sabrina Spellman) in [Netflix](Netflix)'s *[Adventures of Sabrina](Chilling)(Chilling Adventures of Sabrina (TV series))* series based on the [series of the same name](comic)(Chilling Adventures of Sabrina). The first part was released by [Netflix](Netflix) on October 26, 2018, and an episode that December. The show ran for three more parts, concluding on December 31, 2020, with a total of 36 episodes. Shipka would reprise the role in a sixth season episode of *[Riverdale](Riverdale (2017 TV series))*, “Chapter Ninety-Nine: The Witching Hour(s)”, aired on December 7, 2021.
Shipka co-starred in a 2019 [Christmas](Christmas film) [comedy](romantic)(romantic comedy) film directed by [Snellin](Luke)(Luke Snellin), *[It Snow](Let)(Let It Snow (2019 film))*, based on the [of the same name](novel)(Let It Snow: Three Holiday Romances). Shooting began in February 2019.
Shipka next played a deaf teenager opposite [Tucci](Stanley)(Stanley Tucci) in [R. Leonetti](John)(John R. Leonetti)'s [film](horror)(horror film) *[Silence](The)(The Silence (2019 film))*, based on the 2015 horror novel of the same name by [Lebbon](Tim)(Tim Lebbon). Netflix released *The Silence* on April 10, 2019. Shipka learned [Sign Language](American)(American Sign Language) for the role. Leonetti praised her performance saying "She's acting alongside Stanley Tucci, and believe me, she's more than holding her own. It's been spellbinding watching her."
In May 2021, Shipka was cast in the [HBO](HBO) political drama limited series [House Plumbers*](*White)(White House Plumbers (miniseries)). She played Bea Johnson, the daughter of two intellectually disabled parents, in the 2022 drama [*Wildflower*](Wildflower (2022 film)).
In September 2022, Shipka was cast in *[One](Red)(Red One (film))*, co-starring [Johnson](Dwayne)(Dwayne Johnson) and [Evans](Chris)(Chris Evans (actor)). In May 2023, she joined the cast of *[Twisters](Twisters (film))*. She will also star in *Maximum Truth*, which is set to release on June 23, 2023.
## Filmography
### Film
### Television
### Music videos
### Video games
## Awards and nominations
## References
## External links
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Lobotomy
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lobotomy
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# Lobotomy
*Revision ID: 1160326542 | Timestamp: 2023-06-15T19:42:21Z*
---
| ICD10 =
| ICD9 =
| MeshID = D011612
| OPS301 =
| OtherCodes =
| HCPCSlevel2 =
}}
A **lobotomy** () or **leucotomy** is a form of [treatment](neurosurgical)(Neurosurgery) for [disorder](psychiatric)(mental disorder) or [disorder](neurological)(neurological disorder) (e.g. [epilepsy](epilepsy), [depression](Depression in childhood and adolescence)) that involves severing connections in the brain's [cortex](prefrontal)(prefrontal cortex). The surgery causes most of the connections to and from the prefrontal cortex, the [anterior](anterior) part of the [lobe](frontal)(frontal lobe)s of the [brain](brain), to be severed.
In the past, this treatment was used for treating [disorder](psychiatric)(mental disorder)s as a mainstream procedure in some countries. The procedure was controversial from its initial use, in part due to a lack of recognition of the severity and chronicity of severe and enduring psychiatric illnesses, so it was said to be an inappropriate treatment.
The originator of the procedure, Portuguese neurologist [Egas Moniz](António)(António Egas Moniz), shared the [Prize for Physiology or Medicine](Nobel)(Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine) of 1949 for the "discovery of the therapeutic value of leucotomy in certain psychoses",|group=n}} although the awarding of the prize has been subject to controversy.
The use of the procedure increased dramatically from the early 1940s and into the 1950s; by 1951, almost 20,000 lobotomies had been performed in the United States and proportionally more in the United Kingdom. More lobotomies were performed on women than on men: a 1951 study found that nearly 60% of American lobotomy patients were women, and limited data shows that 74% of lobotomies in [Ontario](Ontario) from 1948 to 1952 were performed on female patients. From the 1950s onward, lobotomy began to be abandoned, first in the Soviet Union and Europe.
## Effects
}}
Historically, patients of lobotomy were, immediately following surgery, often [stuporous](stuporous), [confused](confused), and [incontinent](Fecal incontinence). Some developed an enormous appetite and gained considerable weight. [Seizures](Seizures) were another common complication of surgery. Emphasis was put on the training of patients in the weeks and months following surgery.
The purpose of the operation was to reduce the symptoms of [disorders](mental)(mental disorders), and it was recognized that this was accomplished at the expense of a person's personality and intellect. British psychiatrist Maurice Partridge, who conducted a follow-up study of 300 patients, said that the treatment achieved its effects by "reducing the complexity of psychic life". Following the operation, spontaneity, responsiveness, self-awareness, and self-control were reduced. The activity was replaced by inertia, and people were mostly left [blunted](emotionally)(Emotional blunting) and restricted in their intellectual range.
The consequences of the operation have been described as "mixed". Some patients died as a result of the operation and others later committed suicide. Some were left severely brain damaged. Others were able to leave the hospital, or became more manageable within the hospital. A few people managed to return to responsible work, while at the other extreme, people were left with severe and disabling impairments. Most people fell into an intermediate group, left with some improvement of their symptoms but also with emotional and intellectual deficits to which they made a better or worse adjustment. On average, there was a mortality rate of approximately 5% during the 1940s. But as such deaths grew, new innovations for more feasible and trustable surgery; this growth of studying on lobotomy changed the way we think about brain disorders.
The lobotomy procedure could have severe negative effects on a patient's personality and ability to function independently. Lobotomy patients often show a marked reduction in initiative and inhibition. They may also exhibit difficulty imagining themselves in the position of others because of decreased cognition and detachment from society.
[Freeman](Walter)(Walter Jackson Freeman II) coined the term "surgically induced childhood" and used it constantly to refer to the results of lobotomy. The operation left people with an "infantile personality"; a period of maturation would then, according to Freeman, lead to recovery. In an unpublished memoir, he described how the "personality of the patient was changed in some way in the hope of rendering him more amenable to the social pressures under which he is supposed to exist." He described one 29-year-old woman as being, following lobotomy, a "smiling, lazy and satisfactory patient with the personality of an oyster" who could not remember Freeman's name and endlessly poured coffee from an empty pot. When her parents had difficulty dealing with her behaviour, Freeman advised a system of rewards (ice cream) and punishment (smacks).
## History
[[File:Insulin shock therapy.jpg|thumb|[shock therapy](Insulin)(Insulin shock therapy) administered in Helsinki in the 1950s.]]
In the early 20th century, the number of patients residing in mental hospitals increased significantly; The report also observed that psychiatric patients occupied 55 per cent of all hospital beds in America. Conditions within US mental hospitals became the subject of public debate as a series of exposes were published in the 1940s.; ; ;; A 1946 *[Life](Life (magazine))* magazine article remarked that the nation's system of mental hospitals resembled "little more than concentration camps on the Belsen pattern";Albert Q. Maisel, "Bedlam 1946, Most U.S. Mental Hospitals are a Shame and a Disgrace", *Life* 20 (1946), pp. 102–03, quoted in a point the piece emphasized with documentary photography that depicted patient neglect and dilapidated material conditions within psychiatric institutions.|group=n}} while little in the way of effective medical treatment was available. Likewise Egas Moniz, the inventor of leucotomy, referred to the "impotência terapeutica" (therapeutic impotence) of existing therapeutic remedies during the 1930s.|group=n}} Lobotomy was one of a series of radical and invasive physical therapies developed in Europe at this time that signaled a break with a psychiatric culture of [nihilism](therapeutic)(therapeutic nihilism) that had prevailed since the late nineteenth-century.;; The new "[heroic](heroic measure)" physical therapies devised during this experimental era, including [therapy](malarial)(malarial therapy) for [paresis of the insane](general)(general paresis of the insane) (1917), [sleep therapy](deep)(deep sleep therapy) (1920), [shock therapy](insulin)(insulin shock therapy) (1933), [cardiazol](cardiazol) shock therapy (1934), and [therapy](electroconvulsive)(electroconvulsive therapy) (1938),; helped to imbue the therapeutically moribund and demoralised psychiatric profession with a renewed sense of optimism in the curability of insanity and the potency of their craft.; ; The success of the shock therapies, despite the considerable risk they posed to patients, also helped to accommodate psychiatrists to ever more drastic forms of medical intervention, including lobotomy.
The clinician-historian Joel Braslow argues that from malarial therapy onward to lobotomy, physical psychiatric therapies "spiral closer and closer to the interior of the brain" with this organ increasingly taking "center stage as a source of disease and site of cure". For [Porter](Roy)(Roy Porter), once the doyen of medical history, the often violent and invasive psychiatric interventions developed during the 1930s and 1940s are indicative of both the well-intentioned desire of psychiatrists to find some medical means of alleviating the suffering of the vast number of patients then in psychiatric hospitals and also the relative lack of social power of those same patients to resist the increasingly radical and even reckless interventions of asylum doctors. Many doctors, patients and family members of the period believed that despite potentially catastrophic consequences, the results of lobotomy were seemingly positive in many instances or, were at least deemed as such when measured next to the apparent alternative of long-term institutionalisation. Lobotomy has always been controversial, but for a period of the medical mainstream, it was even feted and regarded as a legitimate last-resort remedy for categories of patients who were otherwise regarded as hopeless.; Today, lobotomy has become a disparaged procedure, a byword for medical barbarism and an exemplary instance of the medical trampling of [rights](patients')(patients' rights).
### Early psychosurgery
[[File:Gottlieb Burckhardt.jpg|thumb|left|The Swiss psychiatrist [Burckhardt](Gottlieb)(Gottlieb Burckhardt) (1836–1907)]]
Before the 1930s, individual doctors had infrequently experimented with novel surgical operations on the brains of those deemed insane. Most notably in 1888, the Swiss psychiatrist [Burckhardt](Gottlieb)(Gottlieb Burckhardt) initiated what is commonly considered the first systematic attempt at modern human [psychosurgery](psychosurgery).; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; He operated on six chronic patients under his care at the Swiss Préfargier Asylum, removing sections of their [cortex](cerebral)(cerebral cortex). Burckhardt's decision to operate was informed by three pervasive views on the nature of mental illness and its relationship to the brain. First, the belief that mental illness was organic in nature, and reflected an underlying brain pathology; next, that the nervous system was organized according to an [associationist](associationism) model comprising an input or [system](afferent)(Afferent nerve fiber) (a sensory center), a connecting system where information processing took place (an [center](association)(association center)), and an output or [efferent](Efferent nerve fiber) system (a motor center); and, finally, a modular conception of the brain whereby discrete mental faculties were connected to specific regions of the brain. Burckhardt's hypothesis was that by deliberately creating [lesion](lesion)s in regions of the brain identified as association centers a transformation in behaviour might ensue. According to his model, those mentally ill might experience "excitations abnormal in quality, quantity and intensity" in the sensory regions of the brain and this abnormal stimulation would then be transmitted to the motor regions giving rise to [pathology](mental)(psychopathology). He reasoned, however, that removing material from either of the sensory or motor zones could give rise to "grave functional disturbance". Instead, by targeting the association centers and creating a "ditch" around the motor region of the [lobe](temporal)(temporal lobe), he hoped to break their lines of communication and thus alleviate both mental symptoms and the experience of [distress](mental)(mental distress).
[[File:Ludvig Puusepp, 1920s.jpg|thumb|right|upright|The Estonian neurosurgeon [Puusepp](Ludvig)(Ludvig Puusepp) c. 1920]]
Intending to ameliorate symptoms in those with violent and intractable conditions rather than effect a cure, Burckhardt began operating on patients in December 1888,; but both his surgical methods and instruments were crude and the results of the procedure were mixed at best. He operated on six patients in total and, according to his own assessment, two experienced no change, two patients became quieter, one patient experienced [convulsions](epileptic)(Epileptic seizure) and died a few days after the operation, and one patient improved.|group=n}} Complications included motor weakness, [epilepsy](epilepsy), [aphasia](sensory)(sensory aphasia) and "[deafness](word)(word deafness)". Claiming a success rate of 50 percent, he presented the results at the Berlin Medical Congress and published a report, but the response from his medical peers was hostile and he did no further operations.
In 1912, two physicians based in [Petersburg](Saint)(Saint Petersburg), the leading Russian neurologist [Bekhterev](Vladimir)(Vladimir Bekhterev) and his younger Estonian colleague, the neurosurgeon [Puusepp](Ludvig)(Ludvig Puusepp), published a paper reviewing a range of surgical interventions that had been performed on the mentally ill.; While generally treating these endeavours favorably, in their consideration of psychosurgery they reserved unremitting scorn for Burckhardt's surgical experiments of 1888 and opined that it was extraordinary that a trained medical doctor could undertake such an unsound procedure.;
}}
The authors neglected to mention, however, that in 1910 Puusepp himself had performed surgery on the brains of three mentally ill patients,|group=n}}; ; sectioning the [cortex](cerebral cortex) between the [frontal](frontal lobe) and [lobe](parietal)(parietal lobe)s. He had abandoned these attempts because of unsatisfactory results and this experience probably inspired the invective that was directed at Burckhardt in the 1912 article. By 1937, Puusepp, despite his earlier criticism of Burckhardt, was increasingly persuaded that psychosurgery could be a valid medical intervention for the mentally disturbed. At that point he had completed a series of 14 leucotomies to relieve aggressive symptoms in patients. Convinced that the results had been positive in these cases, he felt that further research into psychosurgery was warranted.}} In the late 1930s, he worked closely with the neurosurgical team of the Racconigi Hospital near [Turin](Turin) to establish it as an early and influential centre for the adoption of leucotomy in Italy.
### Development
[[File:Moniz.jpg|thumb|left|upright|The pioneer of lobotomies, the Portuguese neurologist and Nobel Laureate [Egas Moniz](António)(António Egas Moniz)]]
Leucotomy was first undertaken in 1935 under the direction of the [Portuguese](Portuguese people) [neurologist](neurologist) (and inventor of the term *psychosurgery*) [Egas Moniz](António)(António Egas Moniz). but after the Portuguese [d'état of 1926](coup)(28 May 1926 coup d'état), which ushered in the [Nacional](Ditadura)(Ditadura Nacional) (National Dictatorship), the [Republican](Republicanism) Moniz, then 51 years old, devoted his considerable talents and energies to neurological research entirely. Throughout his career he published on topics as diverse as neurology, sexology, historical biography, and the history of card games.; ; For his 1927 development of [angiography](cerebral)(cerebral angiography), which allowed routine visualisation of the brain's peripheral blood vessels for the first time, he was twice nominated, unsuccessfully, for a Nobel Prize. Some have attributed his development of leucotomy to a determination on his part to win the Nobel after these disappointments.; |group=n}}; First developing an interest in psychiatric conditions and their somatic treatment in the early 1930s, Moniz apparently conceived a new opportunity for recognition in the development of a surgical intervention on the brain as a treatment for mental illness.
#### Frontal lobes
The source of inspiration for Moniz's decision to hazard psychosurgery has been clouded by contradictory statements made on the subject by Moniz and others both contemporaneously and retrospectively. The traditional narrative addresses the question of why Moniz targeted the frontal lobes by way of reference to the work of the Yale neuroscientist [Fulton](John)(John Farquhar Fulton) and, most dramatically, to a presentation Fulton made with his junior colleague Carlyle Jacobsen at the Second International Congress of Neurology held in London in 1935.; ; ; Fulton's primary area of research was on the cortical function of primates and he had established America's first primate neurophysiology laboratory at Yale in the early 1930s. At the 1935 Congress, with Moniz in attendance,}} Fulton and Jacobsen presented two [chimpanzees](Common chimpanzee), named Becky and Lucy who had had frontal lobectomies and subsequent changes in behaviour and intellectual function. According to Fulton's account of the congress, they explained that before surgery, both animals, and especially Becky, the more emotional of the two, exhibited "frustrational behaviour"that is, have tantrums that could include rolling on the floor and defecatingif, because of their poor performance in a set of experimental tasks, they were not rewarded.; Following the surgical removal of their frontal lobes, the behaviour of both primates changed markedly and Becky was pacified to such a degree that Jacobsen apparently stated it was as if she had joined a "happiness cult". During the question and answer section of the paper, Moniz, it is alleged, "startled" Fulton by inquiring if this procedure might be extended to human subjects suffering from mental illness. Fulton stated that he replied that while possible in theory it was surely "too formidable" an intervention for use on humans.;
[[File:Frontal lobe animation.gif|thumb|[Brain](Human brain) animation: left [lobe](frontal)(frontal lobe) highlighted in red. Moniz targeted the frontal lobes in the leucotomy procedure he first conceived in 1933.]]
Moniz began his experiments with leucotomy just three months after the congress had reinforced the apparent cause and effect relationship between the Fulton and Jacobsen presentation and the Portuguese neurologist's resolve to operate on the frontal lobes. As the author of this account Fulton, who has sometimes been claimed as the father of lobotomy, was later able to record that the technique had its true origination in his laboratory. Endorsing this version of events, in 1949, the Harvard neurologist [Cobb](Stanley)(Stanley Cobb) remarked during his presidential address to the [Neurological Association](American)(American Neurological Association) that "seldom in the history of medicine has a laboratory observation been so quickly and dramatically translated into a therapeutic procedure". Fulton's report, penned ten years after the events described, is, however, without corroboration in the historical record and bears little resemblance to an earlier unpublished account he wrote of the congress. In this previous narrative he mentioned an incidental, private exchange with Moniz, but it is likely that the official version of their public conversation he promulgated is without foundation. In fact, Moniz stated that he had conceived of the operation some time before his journey to London in 1935, having told in confidence his junior colleague, the young [neurosurgeon](neurosurgeon) Pedro Almeida Lima, as early as 1933 of his psychosurgical idea. The traditional account exaggerates the importance of Fulton and Jacobsen to Moniz's decision to initiate frontal lobe surgery, and omits the fact that a detailed body of neurological research that emerged at this time suggested to Moniz and other neurologists and neurosurgeons that surgery on this part of the brain might yield significant personality changes in the mentally ill.;
The frontal lobes had been the object of scientific inquiry and speculation since the late 19th century. Fulton's contribution, while it may have functioned as source of intellectual support, is of itself unnecessary and inadequate as an explanation of Moniz's resolution to operate on this section of the brain. Under an evolutionary and hierarchical model of brain development it had been hypothesized that those regions associated with more recent development, such as the [brain](mammalian)(mammalian brain) and, most especially, the frontal lobes, were responsible for more complex cognitive functions. However, this theoretical formulation found little laboratory support, as 19th-century experimentation found no significant change in animal behaviour following surgical removal or electrical stimulation of the frontal lobes. This picture of the so-called "silent lobe" changed in the period after World War I with the production of clinical reports of ex-servicemen with brain trauma. The refinement of neurosurgical techniques also facilitated increasing attempts to remove brain tumours, treat [epilepsy](focal)(focal epilepsy) in humans and led to more precise experimental neurosurgery in animal studies. Cases were reported where mental symptoms were alleviated following the surgical removal of diseased or damaged brain tissue. The accumulation of medical case studies on behavioural changes following damage to the frontal lobes led to the formulation of the concept of *[Witzelsucht](Witzelsucht#Frontal lobe)*, which designated a neurological condition characterised by a certain hilarity and childishness in those with the condition. The picture of frontal lobe function that emerged from these studies was complicated by the observation that neurological deficits attendant on damage to a single lobe might be compensated for if the opposite lobe remained intact. In 1922, the Italian neurologist [Bianchi](Leonardo)(Leonardo Bianchi) published a detailed report on the results of bilateral lobectomies in animals that supported the contention that the frontal lobes were both integral to intellectual function and that their removal led to the disintegration of the subject's personality.; ; This work, while influential, was not without its critics due to deficiencies in experimental design.
The first bilateral lobectomy of a human subject was performed by the American neurosurgeon [Dandy](Walter)(Walter Dandy) in 1930.; |group=n}} The neurologist Richard Brickner reported on this case in 1932, relating that the recipient, known as "Patient A", while experiencing a [of affect](blunting)(blunted affect), had no apparent decrease in intellectual function and seemed, at least to the casual observer, perfectly normal. Brickner concluded from this evidence that "the frontal lobes are not 'centers' for the intellect".Quoted in These clinical results were replicated in a similar operation undertaken in 1934 by the neurosurgeon [Glenwood Spurling](Roy)(Roy Glenwood Spurling) and reported on by the neuropsychiatrist [Ackerly](Spafford)(S. Spafford Ackerly). By the mid-1930s, interest in the function of the frontal lobes reached a high-water mark. This was reflected in the 1935 neurological congress in London, which hosted as part of its deliberations, "a remarkable symposium ... on the functions of the frontal lobes".Quoted in The panel was chaired by [Claude](Henri)(Henri Claude), a French neuropsychiatrist, who commenced the session by reviewing the state of research on the frontal lobes, and concluded that "altering the frontal lobes profoundly modifies the personality of subjects". This parallel symposium contained numerous papers by neurologists, neurosurgeons and psychologists; amongst these was one by Brickner, which impressed Moniz greatly, that again detailed the case of "Patient A". Fulton and Jacobsen's paper, presented in another session of the conference on experimental physiology, was notable in linking animal and human studies on the function of the frontal lobes. Thus, at the time of the 1935 Congress, Moniz had available to him an increasing body of research on the role of the frontal lobes that extended well beyond the observations of Fulton and Jacobsen.
Nor was Moniz the only medical practitioner in the 1930s to have contemplated procedures directly targeting the frontal lobes. Although ultimately discounting brain surgery as carrying too much risk, physicians and neurologists such as [Mayo](William)(William James Mayo), Thierry de Martel, Richard Brickner, and [Davidoff](Leo)(Leo M. Davidoff) had, before 1935, entertained the proposition.}} Inspired by [Wagner-Jauregg](Julius)(Julius Wagner-Jauregg)'s development of malarial therapy for the treatment of [paresis of the insane](general)(general paresis of the insane), the French physician Maurice Ducosté reported in 1932 that he had injected 5 ml of malarial blood directly into the frontal lobes of over 100 paretic patients through holes drilled into the skull. He claimed that the injected paretics showed signs of "uncontestable mental and physical amelioration" and that the results for psychotic patients undergoing the procedure was also "encouraging".Quoted in The experimental injection of fever-inducing malarial blood into the frontal lobes was also replicated during the 1930s in the work of Ettore Mariotti and M. Sciutti in Italy and Ferdière Coulloudon in France.; ; In Switzerland, almost simultaneously with the commencement of Moniz's leucotomy programme, the neurosurgeon François Ody had removed the entire right frontal lobe of a [schizophrenic](catatonic)(Catatonic Schizophrenia) patient.; ; In Romania, Ody's procedure was adopted by Dimitri Bagdasar and Constantinesco working out of the Central Hospital in Bucharest. Ody, who delayed publishing his own results for several years, later rebuked Moniz for claiming to have cured patients through leucotomy without waiting to determine if there had been a "lasting remission".Quoted in
#### Neurological model
The theoretical underpinnings of Moniz's psychosurgery were largely commensurate with the nineteenth-century ones that had informed Burckhardt's decision to excise matter from the brains of his patients. Although in his later writings Moniz referenced both the [theory](neuron)(neuron theory) of [y Cajal](Ramón)(Ramón y Cajal) and the [reflex](conditioned)(conditioned reflex) of [Pavlov](Ivan)(Ivan Pavlov), in essence he simply interpreted this new neurological research in terms of the old psychological theory of [associationism](associationism). He differed significantly from Burckhardt, however in that he did not think there was any organic pathology in the brains of the mentally ill, but rather that their neural pathways were caught in fixed and destructive circuits leading to "predominant, obsessive ideas".|group=n}}; As Moniz wrote in 1936:
[The] mental troubles must have ... a relation with the formation of cellulo-connective groupings, which become more or less fixed. The cellular bodies may remain altogether normal, their cylinders will not have any anatomical alterations; but their multiple liaisons, very variable in normal people, may have arrangements more or less fixed, which will have a relation with persistent ideas and deliria in certain morbid psychic states.Quoted in
For Moniz, "to cure these patients", it was necessary to "destroy the more or less fixed arrangements of cellular connections that exist in the brain, and particularly those which are related to the frontal lobes",Quoted in thus removing their fixed pathological brain circuits. Moniz believed the brain would functionally adapt to such injury. Unlike the position adopted by Burckhardt, it was [unfalsifiable](unfalsifiable) according to the knowledge and technology of the time as the absence of a known correlation between physical brain pathology and mental illness could not disprove his thesis.
#### First leucotomies
}}
On 12 November 1935 at the Hospital Santa Marta in [Lisbon](Lisbon), Moniz initiated the first of a series of operations on the brains of people with mental illnesses.; The initial patients selected for the operation were provided by the medical director of Lisbon's Miguel Bombarda Mental Hospital, José de Matos Sobral Cid.; As Moniz lacked training in neurosurgery and his hands were impaired by gout, the procedure was performed under general anaesthetic by Pedro Almeida Lima, who had previously assisted Moniz with his research on [angiography](cerebral)(cerebral angiography).|group=n}}; ; The intention was to remove some of the long fibres that connected the frontal lobes to other major brain centres. To this end, it was decided that Lima would [trephine](trephine) into the side of the skull and then inject [ethanol](ethanol) into the "[subcortical](Cerebral cortex#Connections) [matter](white)(white matter) of the prefrontal area" so as to destroy the connecting fibres, or [tract](association)(association tract)s, and create what Moniz termed a "frontal barrier".}} After the first operation was complete, Moniz considered it a success and, observing that the patient's depression had been relieved, he declared her "cured" although she was never, in fact, discharged from the mental hospital. Moniz and Lima persisted with this method of injecting alcohol into the frontal lobes for the next seven patients but, after having to inject some patients on numerous occasions to elicit what they considered a favourable result, they modified the means by which they would section the frontal lobes. For the ninth patient they introduced a surgical instrument called a [leucotome](leucotome); this was a [cannula](cannula) that was in length and in diameter. It had a retractable wire loop at one end that, when rotated, produced a diameter circular lesion in the white matter of the frontal lobe.; ; . For Moniz's account of the procedure see, Typically, six lesions were cut into each lobe, but, if they were dissatisfied by the results, Lima might perform several procedures, each producing multiple lesions in the left and right frontal lobes.
By the conclusion of this first run of leucotomies in February 1936, Moniz and Lima had operated on twenty patients with an average period of one week between each procedure; Moniz published his findings with great haste in March of the same year.; ; The patients were aged between 27 and 62 years of age; twelve were female and eight were male. Nine of the patients were diagnosed with [depression](major depressive disorder), six with [schizophrenia](schizophrenia), two with [disorder](panic)(panic disorder), and one each with [mania](mania), [catatonia](catatonia) and [manic-depression](manic-depression). Their most prominent symptoms were anxiety and agitation. The duration of their illness before the procedure varied from as little as four weeks to as much as 22 years, although all but four had been ill for at least one year. Patients were normally operated on the day they arrived at Moniz's clinic and returned within ten days to the Miguel Bombarda Mental Hospital. A perfunctory post-operative follow-up assessment took place anywhere from one to ten weeks following surgery.; Complications were observed in each of the leucotomy patients and included: "increased temperature, vomiting, [bladder](urinary incontinence) and [incontinence](bowel)(fecal incontinence), diarrhea, and ocular affections such as [ptosis](ptosis (eyelid)) and [nystagmus](nystagmus), as well as psychological effects such as apathy, [akinesia](akinesia), lethargy, timing and local disorientation, [kleptomania](kleptomania), and abnormal sensations of hunger". Moniz asserted that these effects were transitory and, according to his published assessment, the outcome for these first twenty patients was that 35%, or seven cases, improved significantly, another 35% were somewhat improved and the remaining 30% (six cases) were unchanged. There were no deaths and he did not consider that any patients had deteriorated following leucotomy.;
## Reception
Moniz rapidly disseminated his results through articles in the medical press and a monograph in 1936. Initially, however, the medical community appeared hostile to the new procedure. On 26 July 1936, one of his assistants, Diogo Furtado, gave a presentation at the Parisian meeting of the Société Médico-Psychologique on the results of the second cohort of patients leucotomised by Lima. Sobral Cid, who had supplied Moniz with the first set of patients for leucotomy from his own hospital in Lisbon, attended the meeting and denounced the technique, declaring that the patients who had been returned to his care post-operatively were "diminished" and had experienced a "degradation of personality".Quoted in He also claimed that the changes Moniz observed in patients were more properly attributed to shock and brain trauma, and he derided the theoretical architecture that Moniz had constructed to support the new procedure as "cerebral mythology." At the same meeting the Parisian psychiatrist, Paul Courbon, stated he could not endorse a surgical technique that was solely supported by theoretical considerations rather than clinical observations. He also opined that the mutilation of an organ could not improve its function and that such cerebral wounds as were occasioned by leucotomy risked the later development of [meningitis](meningitis), epilepsy and [abscess](brain)(brain abscess)es. Nonetheless, Moniz's reported successful surgical treatment of 14 out of 20 patients led to the rapid adoption of the procedure on an experimental basis by individual clinicians in countries such as Brazil, Cuba, Italy, Romania and the United States during the 1930s.;
### Italian leucotomy
}}
Throughout the remainder of the 1930s the number of leucotomies performed in most countries where the technique was adopted remained quite low. In Britain, which was later a major centre for leucotomy,; }} only six operations had been undertaken before 1942. Generally, medical practitioners who attempted the procedure adopted a cautious approach and few patients were leucotomised before the 1940s. Italian neuropsychiatrists, who were typically early and enthusiastic adopters of leucotomy, were exceptional in eschewing such a gradualist course.
Leucotomy was first reported in the Italian medical press in 1936 and Moniz published an article in Italian on the technique in the following year. In 1937, he was invited to Italy to demonstrate the procedure and for a two-week period in June of that year he visited medical centres in [Trieste](Trieste), [Ferrara](Ferrara), and one close to [Turin](Turin)the Racconigi Hospitalwhere he instructed his Italian neuropsychiatric colleagues on leucotomy and also oversaw several operations. Leucotomy was featured at two Italian psychiatric conferences in 1937 and over the next two years a score of medical articles on Moniz's psychosurgery was published by Italian clinicians based in medical institutions located in [Racconigi](Racconigi), [Trieste](Trieste), [Naples](Naples), [Genoa](Genoa), [Milan](Milan), [Pisa](Pisa), [Catania](Catania) and [Rovigo](Rovigo). The major centre for leucotomy in Italy was the Racconigi Hospital, where the experienced neurosurgeon [Puusepp](Ludvig)(Ludvig Puusepp) provided a guiding hand.; }} Under the medical directorship of Emilio Rizzatti, the medical personnel at this hospital had completed at least 200 leucotomies by 1939. Reports from clinicians based at other Italian institutions detailed significantly fewer leucotomy operations.
Experimental modifications of Moniz's operation were introduced with little delay by Italian medical practitioners. Most notably, in 1937 [Fiamberti](Amarro)(Amarro Fiamberti), the medical director of a psychiatric institution in [Varese](Varese), first devised the transorbital procedure whereby the frontal lobes were accessed through the eye sockets. Fiamberti's method was to puncture the thin layer of [orbital](orbit (anatomy)) bone at the top of the socket and then inject alcohol or formalin into the white matter of the frontal lobes through this aperture.; ; Using this method, while sometimes substituting a [leucotome](leucotome) for a hypodermic needle, it is estimated that he leucotomised about 100 patients in the period up to the outbreak of World War II. Fiamberti's innovation of Moniz's method would later prove inspirational for [Freeman's](Walter)(Walter Freeman (surgeon)) development of transorbital lobotomy.
### American leucotomy
[[1.jpg|thumb|Site of borehole for the standard pre-frontal lobotomy/leucotomy operation as developed by Freeman and Watts](File:Lobotomy)]
The first prefrontal leucotomy in the United States was performed at the George Washington University Hospital on 14 September 1936 by the [neurologist](neurologist) [Freeman](Walter)(Walter Jackson Freeman II) and his friend and colleague, the neurosurgeon, [W. Watts](James)(James W. Watts).; Freeman had first encountered Moniz at the London-hosted Second International Congress of Neurology in 1935 where he had presented a poster exhibit of the Portuguese neurologist's work on cerebral angiography.; Fortuitously occupying a booth next to Moniz, Freeman, delighted by their chance meeting, formed a highly favourable impression of Moniz, later remarking upon his "sheer genius". According to Freeman, if they had not met in person it is highly unlikely that he would have ventured into the domain of frontal lobe psychosurgery.; Freeman's interest in psychiatry was the natural outgrowth of his appointment in 1924 as the medical director of the Research Laboratories of the Government Hospital for the Insane in Washington, known colloquially as St Elizabeth's. Ambitious and a prodigious researcher, Freeman, who favoured an organic model of mental illness causation, spent the next several years exhaustively, yet ultimately fruitlessly, investigating a [neuropathological](neuropathology) basis for insanity. Chancing upon a preliminary communication by Moniz on leucotomy in the spring of 1936, Freeman initiated a correspondence in May of that year. Writing that he had been considering psychiatric brain surgery previously, he informed Moniz that, "having your authority I expect to go ahead".Quoted in Moniz, in return, promised to send him a copy of his forthcoming monograph on leucotomy and urged him to purchase a leucotome from a French supplier.
Upon receipt of Moniz's monograph, Freeman reviewed it anonymously for the *Archives of Neurology and Psychiatry*. Praising the text as one whose "importance can scarcely be overestimated", he summarised Moniz's rationale for the procedure as based on the fact that while no physical abnormality of cerebral cell bodies was observable in the mentally ill, their cellular interconnections may harbour a "fixation of certain patterns of relationship among various groups of cells" and that this resulted in obsessions, delusions and mental morbidity. While recognising that Moniz's thesis was inadequate, for Freeman it had the advantage of circumventing the search for diseased brain tissue in the mentally ill by instead suggesting that the problem was a functional one of the brain's internal wiring where relief might be obtained by severing problematic mental circuits.
In 1937 Freeman and Watts adapted Lima and Moniz's surgical procedure, and created the *Freeman-Watts technique*, also known as the *Freeman-Watts standard prefrontal lobotomy,* which they styled the "precision method".
### Transorbital lobotomy
The Freeman–Watts prefrontal lobotomy still required drilling holes in the skull, so surgery had to be performed in an operating room by trained neurosurgeons. Walter Freeman believed this surgery would be unavailable to those he saw as needing it most: patients in state mental hospitals that had no operating rooms, surgeons, or [anesthesia](anesthesia) and limited budgets. Freeman wanted to simplify the procedure so that it could be carried out by psychiatrists in [hospital](psychiatric)(psychiatric hospital)s.
Inspired by the work of Italian psychiatrist [Fiamberti](Amarro)(Amarro Fiamberti), Freeman at some point conceived of approaching the frontal lobes through the eye sockets instead of through drilled holes in the skull. In 1945 he took an [icepick](icepick)|group=n}} from his own kitchen and began testing the idea on grapefruit|group=n}} and [cadavers](cadavers). This new "transorbital" lobotomy involved lifting the upper eyelid and placing the point of a thin surgical instrument (often called an [orbitoclast](orbitoclast) or leucotome, although quite different from the wire loop leucotome described above) under the eyelid and against the top of the eyesocket. A mallet was used to drive the orbitoclast through the thin layer of bone and into the brain along the plane of the bridge of the nose, around 15 degrees toward the interhemispherical fissure. The orbitoclast was malleted 5 centimeters (2 in) into the frontal lobe, and then pivoted 40 degrees at the orbit perforation so the tip cut toward the opposite side of the head (toward the nose). The instrument was returned to the neutral position and sent a further 2 centimeters ( in) into the brain, before being pivoted around 28 degrees each side, to cut outward and again inward. (In a more radical variation at the end of the last cut described, the butt of the orbitoclast was forced upward so the tool cut vertically down the side of the cortex of the [fissure](interhemispheric)(interhemispheric fissure); the "Deep Frontal Cut".) All cuts were designed to transect the white fibrous matter connecting the cortical tissue of the prefrontal cortex to the [thalamus](thalamus). The leucotome was then withdrawn and the procedure repeated on the other side.
Freeman performed the first transorbital lobotomy on a live patient in 1946. Its simplicity suggested the possibility of carrying it out in mental hospitals lacking the surgical facilities required for the earlier, more complex procedure. (Freeman suggested that, where conventional anesthesia was unavailable, [therapy](electroconvulsive)(electroconvulsive therapy) be used to render the patient unconscious.) In 1947, the Freeman and Watts partnership ended, as the latter was disgusted by Freeman's modification of the lobotomy from a surgical operation into a simple "office" procedure. Between 1940 and 1944, 684 lobotomies were performed in the United States. However, because of the fervent promotion of the technique by Freeman and Watts, those numbers increased sharply toward the end of the decade. In 1949, the peak year for lobotomies in the US, 5,074 procedures were undertaken, and by 1951 over 18,608 individuals had been lobotomized in the US.
## Prevalence
[[File:Lobotomy 1949.jpg|right|thumb|Lobotomy (by [Nilsson](Lennart)(Lennart Nilsson)) underway at [Södersjukhuset](Södersjukhuset), [Stockholm](Stockholm), in 1949]]
In the United States, approximately 40,000 people were lobotomized and in England, 17,000 lobotomies were performed. According to one estimate, in the three Nordic countries of Denmark, Norway, and Sweden, a combined figure of approximately 9,300 lobotomies were performed. Scandinavian hospitals lobotomized 2.5 times as many people per capita as hospitals in the US. According to another estimate, Sweden lobotomized at least 4,500 people between 1944 and 1966, mainly women. This figure includes young children. And in Norway, there were 2,005 known lobotomies. In Denmark, there were 4,500 known lobotomies. In Japan, the majority of lobotomies were performed on children with behaviour problems. The Soviet Union banned the practice in 1950 on moral grounds. In Germany, it was performed only a few times.Bangen, Hans: Geschichte der medikamentösen Therapie der Schizophrenie. Berlin 1992, By the late 1970s, the practice of lobotomy had generally ceased, although it continued as late as the 1980s in France. (French national consultative committee on ethics, opinion #71: Functional neurosurgery of severe psychiatric conditions)
## Criticism
As early as 1944, an author in the *[of Nervous and Mental Disease](Journal)(Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease)* remarked: "The history of prefrontal lobotomy has been brief and stormy. Its course has been dotted with both violent opposition and with slavish, unquestioning acceptance." Beginning in 1947 Swedish psychiatrist Snorre Wohlfahrt evaluated early trials, reporting that it is "distinctly hazardous to [leucotomize](Wiktionary:lobotomize) schizophrenics" and that lobotomy was "still too imperfect to enable us, with its aid, to venture on a general offensive against chronic cases of mental disorder", stating further that "Psychosurgery has as yet failed to discover its precise indications and contraindications and the methods must unfortunately still be regarded as rather crude and hazardous in many respects." In 1948 [Wiener](Norbert)(Norbert Wiener), the author of *[Or the Control and Communication in the Animal and the Machine](Cybernetics:)(Cybernetics: Or the Control and Communication in the Animal and the Machine)*, said: "[P]refrontal lobotomy ... has recently been having a certain vogue, probably not unconnected with the fact that it makes the custodial care of many patients easier. Let me remark in passing that killing them makes their custodial care still easier."
Concerns about lobotomy steadily grew. Soviet psychiatrist Vasily Gilyarovsky criticized lobotomy and the mechanistic brain localization assumption used to carry out lobotomy:
}}
The Soviet Union officially banned the procedure in 1950; on the initiative of Gilyarovsky. Doctors in the Soviet Union concluded that the procedure was "contrary to the principles of humanity" and through lobotomy' an insane person is changed into an idiot". By the 1970s, numerous countries had banned the procedure, as had several US states.
In 1977, the US Congress, during the presidency of [Carter](Jimmy)(Jimmy Carter), created the National Committee for the Protection of Human Subjects of Biomedical and Behavioral Research to investigate allegations that psychosurgeryincluding lobotomy techniqueswas used to control minorities and restrain individual rights. The committee concluded that some extremely limited and properly performed psychosurgery could have positive effects.
[Wiesel](Torsten)(Torsten Wiesel) has called the award of the Nobel Prize to Moniz an "astounding [error] of judgment.. a terrible mistake",}}
and there have been calls for the [Foundation](Nobel)(Nobel Foundation) to rescind the award; The Foundation has not done so, and its website still hosts an article defending lobotomy.
## Notable cases
* [Kennedy](Rosemary)(Rosemary Kennedy), sister of US President [F. Kennedy](John)(John F. Kennedy), underwent a lobotomy in 1941 that left her incapacitated and institutionalized for the rest of her life.
* [Dully](Howard)(Howard Dully) wrote a memoir of his late-life discovery that he had been lobotomized in 1960 at age 12.
* New Zealand author and poet [Frame](Janet)(Janet Frame) received a literary award in 1951 the day before a scheduled lobotomy was to take place, and it was never performed.
* [Hassid](Josef)(Josef Hassid), a Polish violinist and composer, was diagnosed with schizophrenia and died at the age of 26 following a lobotomy performed on him in England.
* Swedish modernist painter [Hjertén](Sigrid)(Sigrid Hjertén) died following a lobotomy in 1948.
* American playwright [Williams](Tennessee)(Tennessee Williams)' older sister Rose received a lobotomy that left her incapacitated for life; the episode is said to have inspired characters and motifs in some of his works.
* It is often said that when an iron rod was accidentally driven through the head of [Gage](Phineas)(Phineas Gage) in 1848, this constituted an "accidental lobotomy", or that this event somehow inspired the development of surgical lobotomy a century later. According to the only book-length study of Gage, careful inquiry turns up no such link.
* In 2011, Daniel Nijensohn, an Argentine-born neurosurgeon at Yale, examined X-rays of [Perón](Eva)(Eva Perón) and concluded that she underwent a lobotomy for the treatment of pain and anxiety in the last months of her life.
## Literary and cinematic portrayals
Lobotomies have been featured in several literary and cinematic presentations that both reflected society's attitude toward the procedure and, at times, changed it. Writers and film-makers have played a pivotal role in turning public sentiment against the procedure.
* [Penn Warren's](Robert)(Robert Penn Warren) 1946 novel ''[the King's Men](All)(All the King's Men)* describes a lobotomy as making "a Comanche brave look like a tyro with a scalping knife", and portrays the surgeon as a repressed man who cannot change others with love, so he instead resorts to "high-grade carpentry work".
* Tennessee Williams criticized lobotomy in his play *[Last Summer](Suddenly,)(Suddenly, Last Summer)'' (1958) because it was sometimes inflicted on [homosexuals](LGBT)to render them "morally sane". In the play, a wealthy matriarch offers the local mental hospital a substantial donation if the hospital will give her niece a lobotomy, which she hopes will stop the niece's shocking revelations about the matriarch's son. Warned that a lobotomy might not stop her niece's "babbling", she responds, "That may be, maybe not, but after the operation, who would *believe* her, Doctor?".
* In [Kesey](Ken)(Ken Kesey)'s 1962 novel ''[Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest](One)(One Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest (novel))'' and its [film adaptation](1975)(One Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest (film)), lobotomy is described as "frontal-lobe castration", a form of punishment and control after which "There's nothin' in the face. Just like one of those store dummies." In one patient, "You can see by his eyes how they burned him out over there; his eyes are all smoked up and gray and deserted inside."
* In [Plath](Sylvia)(Sylvia Plath)'s 1963 novel *[Bell Jar](The)(The Bell Jar)*, the protagonist reacts with horror to the "perpetual marble calm" of a lobotomized young woman.
* [Baker](Elliott)(Elliott Baker)'s 1964 novel and 1966 film version, *[Fine Madness](A)(A Fine Madness)*, portrays the dehumanizing lobotomy of a womanizing, quarrelsome poet who, afterward, is just as aggressive as ever. The surgeon is depicted as an inhumane crackpot.
* The 1982 [biopic](biopic) film *[Frances](Frances (film))* depicts actress [Farmer](Frances)(Frances Farmer) (the subject of the film) undergoing transorbital lobotomy (though the idea that a lobotomy was performed on Farmer, and that Freeman performed it, has been criticized as having little or no factual foundation).;
* The 2018 film *[Mountain](The)(The Mountain (2018 film))* centers on lobotomization, its cultural significance in the context of 1950s America, and mid-century attitudes surrounding mental health in general. The film interrogates the ethical and social implications of the practice through the experiences of its protagonist, a young man whose late mother had been lobotomized. The protagonist takes a job as a [photographer](medical)(medical photography) for the fictional Dr. Wallace Fiennes, portrayed by [Goldblum](Jeff)(Jeff Goldblum). Fiennes is loosely based on Freeman.
## See also
* [cingulotomy](Bilateral)(Bilateral cingulotomy) – destruction of a part of the brain
* [Bioethics](Bioethics) and [ethics](Medical)(Medical ethics)
* [lobe disorder](Frontal)(Frontal lobe disorder)
* [lobe injury](Frontal)(Frontal lobe injury)
* [Psychosurgery](Psychosurgery)
* [of psychosurgery in the United Kingdom](History)(History of psychosurgery in the United Kingdom)
## Notes
## Citations
## Sources
**Print Sources**
*
* |title=Shadowland |publisher=Berkley Books |year=1982 |isbn=0-425-05481-0|harvid=Arnold1982}}
*
*
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* |year=1995|title=Effect of therapeutic innovation on perception of disease and the doctor-patient relationship: a history of general paralysis of the insane and malaria fever therapy, 1910–1950|journal=[Journal of Psychiatry](American)(American Journal of Psychiatry)|volume=152|date=May 1995|issue=2|pages=660–65|pmid=7726304|harvid=Braslow1995}}
* |year=1997|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ozPLJPqQpmgC&dq=lobotomy+thorazine&pg=PA169|title=Mental Ills and Bodily Cures: Psychiatric Treatment in the First Half of the Twentieth Century|publisher=University of California|isbn=0-520-20547-2|harvid=Braslow1997}}
* |title=An interpretation of frontal lobe function based upon the study of a case of partial bilateral frontal lobotomy|journal=Research Publications – Association for Research for Nervous end Mental Disease|volume=13|year=1932|pages=259–351|harvid=Brickner1932}}
* | year = 2000 | title = Why Wagner-Jauregg won the Nobel Prize for discovering malaria therapy for General Paresis of the Insane | url = http://hpy.sagepub.com/cgi/pdf_extract/11/44/371 | journal = [of Psychiatry](History)(History of Psychiatry (journal)) | volume = 11 | issue = 4 | pages = 371–82 | harvid = Brown2000 | doi = 10.1177/0957154X0001104403 | url-status = dead | archiveurl = https://archive.today/20130104191955/http://hpy.sagepub.com/cgi/pdf_extract/11/44/371 | archivedate = 4 January 2013 | df = dmy-all }}
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* |chapter=Neuropatients in Historyland|editor=Jacyna, Stephen J.; Casper, Stephen T. (eds)|title=The Neurological Patient in History|year=2012|publisher=University of Rochester Press|location=Rochester, NY|pages=215–22|isbn=978-1-58046-412-3|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3jHS3ZBzgssC&pg=PA216|harvid=Cooter2012}}
* |url=https://www.theguardian.com/science/2008/jan/13/neuroscience.medicalscience|title=He was bad, so they put an ice pick in his brain..|work=The Guardian|accessdate=31 March 2010|date=12 January 2008|harvid=Day2008}}
* |title=Protection on Human Subjects: Use of Psychosurgery in Practice and Research: Report and Recommendations for Public Comment. Part 3 |journal=[Register](Federal)(Federal Register) |volume=42 |issue=99 |pages=26317–32 |url=https://www.hhs.gov/ohrp/archive/documents/19770523.pdf |date=23 May 1977 |harvid=DHEW1977 |url-status=unfit |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130618134258/http://www.hhs.gov/ohrp/archive/documents/19770523.pdf |archivedate=18 June 2013 }}
* |title=Shame of the States|location=New York|publisher=Harcourt, Brace|year=1948|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ISBN0405052022|harvid=Deutsch1948}}
* |title=Portrayal of lobotomy in the popular press: 1935–1960 |journal=[of the History of the Neurosciences](Journal)(Journal of the History of the Neurosciences) |year=1999 |month=April |volume=8 |issue=1 |pages=60–69 |doi=10.1076/jhin.8.1.60.1766 |pmid=11624138 |url=http://facstaff.unca.edu/ddiefenb/lobotomy.html |harvid=DiefenbachDiefenbachBaumeisterWest1999 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100323015412/http://facstaff.unca.edu/ddiefenb/lobotomy.html |archivedate=23 March 2010 }}
* | year = 1992 | title = Cerebral Angiography and Egas Moniz | url = http://www.ajronline.org/cgi/reprint/159/2/364.pdf | journal = [Journal of Roentgenology](American)(American Journal of Roentgenology) | volume = 359 | issue = 2 | page = 364 | harvid = Doby1992 }}
* |year=2005|title=The Lobotomist: A Maverick Medical Genius and His Tragic Quest to Rid the World of Mental Illness|publisher=Wiley|isbn=0-471-23292-0|harvid=El-Hai2005|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/lobotomistmaveri0000elha}}
* |title=The Nobel prize: a history of genius, controversy, and prestige|publisher=Arcade Publishing|year=2001|isbn=1-55970-592-2|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xnckeeTICn0C|harvid=Feldman2001}}
* |title=Psychosurgery: A Historical Overview|journal=[Neurosurgery](Neurosurgery (journal))|volume=48|issue=3|date=March 2001|year=2001|pmid=11270556|harvid=FeldmanGoodrich2001|pages=647–57; discussion 657–59|doi=10.1097/00006123-200103000-00041}}
* |title=Origins of Neuroscience: A History of Explorations into Brain Function|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Oxford|year=2001|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_GMeW9E1IB4C|isbn=978-0-19-514694-3|harvid=Finger2001}}
* | chapter = Functional neurosurgical intervention: neuroethics in the operating rooms| publisher = Oxford University Press| isbn = 978-0-19-856721-9| editor = Illes, Judy (ed.)| title = Neuroethics: defining the issues in theory, practice, and policy| year = 2006| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=m7USFu5Z0lQC| harvid = FordHenderson2006}}
* |title=Discovering Biological Psychology|year=2010|publisher=Wadsworth|location=Belmont, California|isbn=0-547-17779-8|edition=2nd|harvid=Freberg2010}}
* | year = 1944 | title = Psychosurgery: An Evaluation of Two Hundred Cases over Seven Years | journal = [of Mental Science](Journal)(Journal of Mental Science) | volume = 90 | issue = 379| pages = 532–37|harvid= FreemanWatts1944 | doi=10.1192/bjp.90.379.532}}
* |title=Psychiatry and the Cinema |edition=2nd |publisher=American Psychiatric Publishing, Inc. |year=1999 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=D42m3IIrEDoC |isbn=978-0-88048-964-5 |harvid=GabbardGabbard1999 }}
* |title=Учение Павлова – основа психиатрии|journal=Медицинский работник [Worker](Health)|language=Russian|date=14 September 1950|issue=37|trans_title=Pavlov's teaching is the basis of psychiatry|harvid=Gilyarovsky1950}}
* |title=Избранные труды|trans_title=Selected Works|year=1973|publisher=Медицина [Medicine]|location=Moscow|page=4|language=Russian|harvid=Gilyarovsky1973}}
* |title=Norway compensates lobotomy victims|journal=[Medical Journal](British)(British Medical Journal)|date=21 September 1996|doi=10.1136/bmj.313.7059.708a|volume=313|issue=7059|pages=708–09|pmid=11644825|pmc=2352081|harvid=Goldbeck-Wood1996}}
* | chapter = Functional and epilepsy neurosurgery| publisher = Oxford University Press| isbn = 978-0-19-959125-1| editor = Johnson, Reuben; Green, Alexander (eds)| title = Landmark Papers in Neurosurgery| year = 2010| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=dp58uHAFr-kC| harvid = GreenAstradssonStaceyAziz2010}}
* |title=Of Graver Import Than History: Psychiatry in Fiction |journal=[of Libertarian Studies](Journal)(Journal of Libertarian Studies) |volume=2 |issue=1 |pages=29–44 |year=1978 |url=https://www.mises.org/journals/jls/2_1/2_1_3.pdf |accessdate=22 January 2008 |pmid=11614766 |harvid=Grenander1978 }}
* |volume=30|issue=2|pages=8|title=Egas Moniz (1874–1955) and the "invention" of modern psychosurgery: a historical and ethical reanalysis under special consideration of Portuguese original sources|journal=Neurosurgical Focus|year=2011|doi=10.3171/2010.10.FOCUS10214|pmid=21284454|harvid=GrossSchäfer2011}}
* |title=Some continuities and discontinuities in the pharmacotherapy of nervous conditions before and after chlorpromazine and imipramine| journal=[of Psychiatry](History)(History of Psychiatry (journal))|year=2000|date=January 2000|volume= 11|issue=44|doi= 10.1177/0957154X0001104405|pages=393–412|harvid=Healy2000}}
* |volume = 59| issue = 4| page = 727| title = Surgery of the mind and mood: A mosaic of issues in time and evolution| journal = [Neurosurgery](Neurosurgery (journal))| year = 2006|harvid=HellerAmarLiuApuzzo2006}}
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
* |title=On the history of psychosurgery in Russia|journal=Acta Neurochirugie|year=1993|volume=125|pages=1–4|pmid=8122532|harvid=Lichterman1993|doi=10.1007/BF01401819|issue=1–4}}
*
*
*
*
*
* |title=Psychosurgery: Past, Present, and Future|journal=Brain Research Reviews|volume=48|year=2005|pages=409–19|url=http://dura.stanford.edu/Articles/Psychosurgery.pdf|doi=10.1016/j.brainresrev.2004.09.002|harvid=MashourWalkerMartuza2005|issue=3|pmid=15914249|url-status=dead|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130117044606/http://dura.stanford.edu/Articles/Psychosurgery.pdf|archivedate=17 January 2013|df=dmy-all}}
*
*
* |title=New evidence of prefrontal lobotomy in the last months of the illness of Eva Perón|journal=World Neurosurgery|volume=77|issue=3-4|year=2012|pages=582–90|doi=10.1016/j.wneu.2011.02.036|harvid=Nijensohn2012|pmid=22079825}}
*
*
* | year = 2005 | title = Psychosurgery in Sweden 1944–1964 | journal = [of the History of the Neurosciences](Journal)(Journal of the History of the Neurosciences) | volume = 14 | issue = 4| pages = 353–67 | pmid = 16338693 | doi=10.1080/096470490897692|harvid=OgrenSandlund2005}}
* |title=Pre-frontal leucotomy:|publisher=Blackwell Scientific Publications|location=Oxford|year=1950|harvid=Partridge1950}}
* |title=Last Resort: Psychosurgery and the Limits of Medicine|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge|year=2002|isbn=0-521-52459-8|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tJ080WN0JFgC|harvid=Pressman2002}}
*
*
* |title=Alcune considerazioni sugli interventi chirurgici nelle malattie mentali|journal=G Accad Med Torino|trans_title=Some Considerations about Surgery in Mental Illness|volume=100|pages=3–16|year=1937|harvid=Puusepp1937}}
* |title=Psychosurgery, Industry and Personal Responsibility, 1940–1965|journal=[History of Medicine](Social)(Social History of Medicine)|volume=23|issue=1|year=2009|pages=116–33|doi=10.1093/shm/hkp061|harvid=Raz2009}}
* |title=The lobotomy letters: the making of American psychosurgery|publisher=University of Rochester Press|isbn=9781580464499|year=2013|harvid=Raz2013}}
* |publisher = ABC-CLIO|isbn = 978-0-313-34576-0|title = Encyclopedia of Emotion|year = 2010|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=tnPkFDU8orEC|harvid = ReevyOzerIto2010}}
* | chapter = Neurosurgery for psychiatric disorders: from the excision of brain tissue to the chronic electrical stimulation of neural networks| publisher = Springer| isbn = 978-3-211-33081-4| editor = Sakas, D.E.; Simpson, B.A. (eds)| title = Operative Neuromodulation. Functional Neuroprosthetic Surgery. Volume II: Neural Networks Surgery| volume = 2| year = 2007| pages = 365–74| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=pWOx5aU6v3YC| harvid = SakasPanouriasSingounasSimpson2007}}
* |year=1997|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-Oybg_APowMC|title=A History of Psychiatry: From the Era of the Asylum to the Age of Prozac|publisher=Wiley|isbn=0-471-24531-3|harvid=Shorter1997}}
* |title=Overcoming Depression Without Drugs: Mahler's Polka With Introductory Funeral March|year=2012|publisher=AuthorHouse|isbn=1-4685-4962-6|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=krm_cgIqzesC&pg=PA52|harvid=SnyderSteffen-Fluhr2012}}
* |title=Lobotomy: resort to the knife|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=54BsAAAAMAAJ|year=1982|publisher=Van Nostrand Reinhold|isbn=978-0-442-20252-1|harvid=Shutts1982}}
* |title=An Introduction to Physical Methods of Treatment in Psychiatry|publisher=Williams & Wilkins|year=1963|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4rlrAAAAMAAJ|harvid=SargantSlater1963}}
* | title = Milestones in the development of neurology and psychiatry in Europe| journal = Schweizer Archiv für Neurologie und Psychiatrie| year = 2010|volume = 161| issue = 3| pages = 85–89| harvid=Steck2010| doi = 10.4414/sanp.2010.02153}}
* | year = 2001 | title = Gottlieb Burckhardt – The Pioneer of Psychosurgery | journal =[of the History of the Neurosciences](Journal)(Journal of the History of the Neurosciences) | volume = 10 | issue = 1| pages = 79–92 | doi = 10.1076/jhin.10.1.79.5634 | pmid=11446267|harvid=Stone2001}}
* | publisher = Guilford Press| isbn = 978-1-60918-072-0| title = Clinical Neuropsychology of Emotion| year = 2011| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=Zy5tzjiUV9oC| harvid = Suchy2011}}
* |year=1995|title=Frontal leukotomy and related psychosurgical procedures in the era before antipsychotics (1935–1954): a historical overview|journal=[Journal of Psychiatry](American)(American Journal of Psychiatry)|volume=152|pages=505–15|pmid=7900928|url=http://ajp.psychiatryonline.org/cgi/content/abstract/152/4/505|issue=4|harvid=Swayze1995|doi=10.1176/ajp.152.4.505}}
* |title=Coercion as Cure: A Critical History of Psychiatry|year=2007|publisher=Transaction|location=New Brunswick, New Jersey|isbn=0-7658-0379-8|harvid=Szasz2007}}
* |title=Egas Moniz and the Origins of Psychosurgery: A Review Commemorating the 50th Anniversary of Moniz's Nobel Prize|journal=[of the History of the Neurosciences](Journal)(Journal of the History of the Neurosciences)|volume=9|issue=1|pages=22–36|doi=10.1076/0964-704X(200004)9:1;1-2;FT022|date=April 2000|year=2000|harvid=Tierney2000|pmid=11232345}}
* |journal=[Journal of Mind and Behavior](The)(The Journal of Mind and Behavior) |month=Winter |year=1996 |issue=1 |pages=1–20 |title=Lobotomy in Scandinavian psychiatry |volume=17 |url=http://www.umaine.edu/jmb/archives/volume17/17_1_1996winter.html |harvid=Tranøy1996 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080526000558/http://www.umaine.edu/jmb/archives/volume17/17_1_1996winter.html |archivedate=26 May 2008 |df=dmy-all }}
* |title=Lobotomy in Norwegian Psychiatry|3=|year=2005|month=March|journal=[of Psychiatry](History)(History of Psychiatry (journal))|volume=16|issue=1|doi=10.1177/0957154X05052224|pages=107–10|url=http://www.geocities.ws/jordotradini_/fil24.pdf|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20071203005450/http://www.geocities.com/jordotradini/fil24.pdf|archivedate=3 December 2007|harvid=TranøyBlomberg2005}}
* |trans_title=Order 1003 (9 December 1950)|journal=Невропатология и психиатрия [and Psychiatry](Neuropathology)|year=1951|volume=20|issue=1|pages=17–18|language=Russian|title=Приказ МЗ СССР 1003 (9 декабря 1950)|harvid=USSR Ministry of Health1951}}
* |chapter=The Prefrontal Area and Psychosurgery|title=The Prefrontal Cortex: Its Structure, Function and Pathology|series=Progress in Brain Research, Volume 85|editor=Uylings, H.B.M.; Van Eden, C.G.; De Bruin, J.P.C.; Corner, M.A.; Feenstra, M.G.P. (eds)|publisher=Elsevier|location=Amsterdam & New York|year=1990|isbn=978-0-444-81124-0|pages=539–54|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ozklfl1zj5YC&pg=PA540|harvid=Valenstein1990}}
* |chapter=History of Psychosurgery|title=A History of Neurosurgery: In Its Scientific and Professional Contexts|pages=499–516|editor=Greenblatt, Samuel H. (ed.)|publisher=The American Association of Neurological Surgeons|location=Park Ridge, IL|isbn=978-1-879284-17-3|year=1997|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QMNfYE8XVXcC&pg=PA499|secondaryauthor=Contributing editors Dagi, T. Forcht; Epstein, Mel H.|harvid=Valenstein1997}}
* |chapter=Neurosurgical intervention for psychiatric illness: past, present and future|title=The Human Frontal Lobes: Functions and Disorders|editor=Miller, Bruce L.; Cummings, Jeffrey L. (eds)|year=2007|publisher=Guilford Press|isbn=978-1-59385-329-7|pages=505–17|harvid=WeissRauchPrice2007|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hBcPYvqE19QC&pg=PA506}}
* | chapter = A psychosurgical chapter in the history of cerebral localization: the six cases of Gottlieb Burkhardt| location = Hove| publisher = Psychology Press| isbn = 978-0-86377-395-2| editor = Code, Christopher; Wallesch, C.-W.; Joanette Y.; Roch A. (eds)| title = Classic Cases in Neuropsychology| year = 1996| pages = 275–304| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=59pMz9m83yQC| harvid = WhitakerStemmerJoanette1996}}
* |year=1948|title=Cybernetics|publisher=MIT Press|isbn=0-262-73009-X|harvid=Wiener1948}}
* |authorlink=Tennessee Williams |title=Suddenly Last Summer |publisher=Dramatists Play Service |year=1998 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MvX7y3Rb4osC |isbn=978-0-8222-1094-8 |harvid=Williams1998 }}
* |title=Therapy 101: A Brief Look at Modern Psychotherapy Techniques & How They Can Help |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NwR_ppR3Ib8C |year=2008 |month=September |publisher=[Harbinger Publications](New)(New Harbinger Publications) |isbn=978-1-57224-568-6 |harvid=WoodWood2008 }}
* |title=Out of Sight, Out of Mind: A Graphic Picture of Present-day Institutional Care of the Mentally Ill in America, Based on More Than Two Thousand Eye-witness Reports|publisher=Mental Health Foundation|location=Philadelphia|year=1947|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=n_KOGAAACAAJ|harvid=Wright1947}}
**Online sources**
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## External links
* [My Lobotomy Radio story: Interview with Sallie Ellen Ionesco, lobotomised in 1946](https://web.archive.org/web/20060908162759/http://www.soundportraits.org/on-air/my_lobotomy/)
* [Mental Cruelty: *Sunday Times* article on lobotomy and contemporary psychosurgery](http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/life_and_style/article729403.ece?token=null&offset=24&page=3)
* [Lobotomy's back: *Discover* article on cingulotomy](http://discovermagazine.com/1997/oct/lobotomysback1240)
* ['My Lobotomy': Howard Dully's Journey. NPR Radio Documentary](https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=5014080)
* [A Qualified Defence of 'Then': QJM](https://web.archive.org/web/20100428055056/http://qjmed.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/full/94/8/451)
* [Ten Notable Lobotomies](http://listverse.com/2009/06/24/top-10-fascinating-and-notable-lobotomies/)
* [Nobel Panel Urged to Rescind Prize for Lobotomies](https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=4794007&ps=rs)
* [The Lobotomists: BBC Radio 4 documentary on the history of lobotomy](http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b016wx0w)
[ ](Category:Lobotomy)
[controversies](Category:Medical)(Category:Medical controversies)
[procedures](Category:Neurosurgical)(Category:Neurosurgical procedures)
[disputed medical practices](Category:Ethically)(Category:Ethically disputed medical practices)
[inventions](Category:Portuguese)(Category:Portuguese inventions)
|
List of minerals
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list_of_minerals
|
# List of minerals
*Revision ID: 1160315266 | Timestamp: 2023-06-15T18:06:21Z*
---
This is a **list of minerals** which have Wikipedia articles.
[Mineral](Mineral)s are distinguished by various chemical and physical properties. Differences in chemical composition and crystal structure distinguish the various *species*. Within a mineral species there may be variation in physical properties or minor amounts of impurities that are recognized by mineralogists or wider society as a mineral *variety*.
Mineral variety names are listed after the valid minerals for each letter.
For a more complete listing of all mineral names, see [of minerals recognized by the International Mineralogical Association](List)(List of minerals recognized by the International Mineralogical Association).
## A
[[File:(61-365) Can you imagine? (5320329773).jpg|thumb|[Amethyst](Amethyst) crystals – a purple quartz]]
[[File:Apophyllite-(KF)-Stilbite-Ca-118260.jpg|thumb|[Apophyllite](Apophyllite) crystals sitting right beside a cluster of peachy bowtie [stilbite](stilbite)]]
[[File:Aquamarine J1.JPG|thumb|[Aquamarine](Beryl#Aquamarine and maxixe) variety of [beryl](beryl) with [tourmaline](tourmaline) on [orthoclase](orthoclase)]]
[[File:Arsenopyrite-117874.jpg|thumb|[Arsenopyrite](Arsenopyrite) from [del Parral](Hidalgo)(Hidalgo del Parral), [Chihuahua](Chihuahua (state)), Mexico]]
[[File:Aurichalcite-Hemimorphite-230159.jpg|thumb|[Aurichalcite](Aurichalcite) needles spraying out within a protected pocket lined by bladed [calcite](calcite) crystals]]
[[File:Austinite-177832.jpg|thumb|[Austinite](Austinite) from the Ojuela Mine, [Mapimí](Mapimí, Durango), [Durango](Durango), Mexico]]
[[File:Ametrin from Bolivia.jpg|thumb|[Ametrine](Ametrine) containing [amethyst](amethyst) and [citrine](Citrine quartz), from [Bolivia](Bolivia)]]
:Varieties that are not valid species:
*[spar](Adamantine)(Adamantine spar) (variety of corundum)
*[Agate](Agate) (variety of chalcedony and quartz)
*[Alabaster](Alabaster) (variety of gypsum)
*[Alexandrite](Alexandrite) (variety of chrysoberyl)
*[Allingite](Allingite) (synonym of amber)
*[Alum](Alum)
*[Amazonite](Amazonite) (variety of microcline)
*[Amethyst](Amethyst) (purple variety of quartz)
*[Ametrine](Ametrine) (variety of quartz)
*[Ammolite](Ammolite) (organic; also a [gemstone](gemstone))
*[Amosite](Amosite) (asbestiform grunerite)
*[Antozonite](Antozonite) (variety of fluorite)
*[Anyolite](Anyolite) (metamorphic rock - zoisite, ruby, and hornblende)
*[Aquamarine](Beryl#Aquamarine and maxixe) (light blue variety of beryl)
*[Argentite](Argentite) (high temperature form of acanthite)
*[Asbestos](Asbestos) (fibrous serpentine- or amphibole minerals)
*[Auerlite](Auerlite) (variety of thorite)
*[Avalite](Avalite) (chromian variety of illite)
*[Aventurine](Aventurine) (variety of quartz)
## B
[[File:Barite-Malachite-denv08-37a.jpg|thumb|[Baryte](Baryte) (included by malachite) on malachite, from Shangulowé Mine, [Kambove](Kambove), Central area, Katanga, Democratic Republic of Congo]]
[[File:Benstonite-Calcite-Fluorite-154901.jpg|thumb|Spiky calcite scalenohedra with a coating of whitish [benstonite](benstonite) on a layer of teal-colored fluorite]]
[[File:Biotite aggregate - Ochtendung, Eifel, Germany.jpg|thumb|Thin tabular [biotite](biotite) cluster]]
[[File:Brookite-gem7-07a.jpg|thumb|[Brookite](Brookite) from [Kharan](Kharan District), [Balochistan](Balochistan), Pakistan]]
:Varieties that are not valid species:
*[Barbertonite](Barbertonite) (polytype of stichtite)
*[Bauxite](Bauxite) (aluminium ore)
*[Beckerite](Beckerite) (natural resin)
*[Bentonite](Bentonite) (mixture of montmorillonite and other clays)
*[Bixbite](Bixbite) (red gem variety of beryl)
*[Bowenite](Bowenite) (variety of antigorite)
*[Brammallite](Brammallite) (variety of illite)
*[Brokenhillite](Brokenhillite) (not approved by IMA)
*[Buergerite](Buergerite) (renamed to fluor-buergerite)
*[Bursaite](Bursaite) (not approved by IMA)
*[Bytownite](Bytownite) (variety of anorthite)
## C
[[File:Calcite-20188.jpg|thumb|Radiating spray of colorless wheatsheaf [calcite](calcite) crystals on matrix, from [Iraí](Iraí), [Grande do Sul](Rio)(Rio Grande do Sul), Brazil]]
[[File:Calcite-Dolomite-Gypsum-159389.jpg|thumb|Rhombohedrons of [calcite](calcite) that appear almost as books of petals, piled up 3-dimensionally on the matrix, from Eastern Europe]]
[[File:Celestine-d06-182a.jpg|thumb|Sky blue, prismatic crystals of [celestine](Celestine (mineral)) from [Majunga](Mahajanga), Madagascar ]]
[[File:Chrysocolla-230109.jpg|thumb|Pocket cavity of small [chrysocolla](chrysocolla) stalactites from Ray Mine, Scott Mountain area, Mineral Creek District, [Arizona](Arizona), USA]]
[[File:Cinnabar on Dolomite.jpg|thumb|[Cinnabar](Cinnabar) on dolomite]]
:Varieties that are not valid species:
*[Campylite](Campylite) (variety of mimetite)
*[Carnelian](Carnelian) (variety of quartz)
*[Cementite](Cementite) (synthetic cohenite)
*[Ceylonite](Ceylonite) (variety of spinel)
*[Chalcedony](Chalcedony) (cryptocrystalline variety of quartz and moganite)
*[Chiastolite](Chiastolite) (variety of andalusite)
*[Chlorastrolite](Chlorastrolite) (variety of pumpellyite-(Mg))
*[Chrysoprase](Chrysoprase) (green nickel bearing chalcedony)
*[Chrysotile](Chrysotile) (group name - asbestiform serpentine)
*[Citrine](Citrine quartz) (yellow variety of quartz)
*[Cleveite](Cleveite) (variety of uraninite)
*[Clinochrysotile](Clinochrysotile) (polytype of chrysotile)
*[Coltan](Coltan) (short for minerals of the columbite group)
*[Crocidolite](Crocidolite) (asbestiform riebeckite)
*[Cymophane](Cymophane) (variety of chrysoberyl)
## D
[[File:Rough diamond.jpg|thumb|The slightly misshapen octahedral shape of this rough [diamond](diamond) crystal in matrix is typical of the mineral]]
:Varieties that are not valid species:
*[Delessite](Delessite) (magnesian chamosite)
*[Diallage](Diallage) (a junction between augite and diopside)
## E
[[File:Émeraude, quartz 2.jpg|thumb|[Emerald](Emerald) on quartz, from Carnaiba Mine, Pindobaçu, Campo Formoso ultramafic complex, [Bahia](Bahia), Brazil]]
:Varieties that are not valid species:
*[Elsmoreite](Elsmoreite) (pure hydrokenoelsmoreite)
*[Emerald](Emerald) (green gem variety of beryl)
## F
[[File:Fluorapophyllite-Stilbite-Ca-indi-94b.jpg|thumb|Translucent [fluorapophyllit-(K)](Apophyllite-(KF)) crystal and stilbite, from Jalgaon District, [Maharashtra](Maharashtra), India]]
[[File:3192M-fluorite1.jpg|thumb|Deep green isolated [fluorite](fluorite) crystal showing cubic and octahedral faces, set upon a [micaceous](micaceous) matrix]]
:Varieties that are not valid species:
*[Fassaite](Fassaite) (variety of augite)
*[Ferrocolumbite](Ferrocolumbite) (synonym of columbite-(Fe))
*[Ferrotantalite](Ferrotantalite) (synonym of tantalite-(Fe))
*[Fluorspar](Fluorspar) (synonym of fluorite)
*[Francolite](Francolite) (variety of fluorapatite)
## G
[[File:Garnet Andradite20.jpg|thumb|[Garnet](Garnet)]]
[[File:Gold vein stockwork in limonite (Gold Flake Vein, Farncomb Hill, near Breckenridge, Colorado, USA) 3 (17078770851).jpg|thumb|[Gold](Gold) vein stockwork in limonite, from Gold Flake Vein, Farncomb Hill, Breckenridge Mining District, Summit County, [Colorado](Colorado), USA]]
:Varieties that are not valid species:
*[Garnierite](Garnierite) (a nickel ore)
*[Gedanite](Gedanite) (fossilized resin)
*[Glessite](Glessite) (natural resin)
*[Goshenite](Beryl#Goshenite) (colorless variety of beryl)
## H
[[File:WLA hmns Hematite.jpg|thumb|Brazilian [trigonal](trigonal crystal system) [hematite](hematite) crystals]]
[[File:Heulandite-Celadonite-191727.jpg|thumb|[Heulandite](Heulandite)]]
[[File:Hubnerite-Quartz-denv08-32a.jpg|thumb|[Hübnerite](Hübnerite) and quartz]]
:Varieties that are not valid species:
*[Hatchettite](Hatchettite) (a paraffin wax)
*[Heliodor](Heliodor) (greenish-yellow variety of beryl)
*[Heliotrope](Heliotrope (mineral)) (variety of chalcedony)
*[Hessonite](Hessonite) (variety of grossular)
*[Hiddenite](Hiddenite) (variety of spodumene)
*[Hyalite](Hyalite) (variety of opal)
*[Hyalophane](Hyalophane) (synonym of jaloallofane)
*[Hypersthene](Hypersthene) (synonym of enstatite or ferrosilite, or mid-way member of the enstatite–ferrosilite series) (not approved by IMA)
## I
[[File:Inyoite-Meyerhofferite-146744.jpg|thumb|[Inyoite](Inyoite) from Monte Azul deposit, Sijes, Salta, Argentina]]
:Varieties that are not valid species:
*[Idocrase](Idocrase) (synonym of vesuvianite)
*[Iolite](Iolite) (a gem-quality variety of cordierite)
## J
[[File:Bénitoïte, neptunite, joaquinite-(Ce) sur natrolite et serpentine (USA) 2.jpg|thumb|Benitoite (blue), [joaquinite-(Ce)](joaquinite-(Ce)) (brown) and neptunite (dark red) on natrolite (white), from Dallas Gem Mine area, San Benito River headwaters area, New Idria District, Diablo Range, San Benito Co., [California](California), USA ]]
:Varieties that are not valid species:
*[Jade](Jade) (tough, green mineral either jadeite or [nephrite](nephrite) amphibole)
*[Jasper](Jasper) (variety of quartz)
*[Jeffersonite](Jeffersonite) (variety of augite)
## K
[[File:Kainosite-(Y)-tuc1051a.jpg|thumb|[Kainosite-(Y)](Kainosite-(Y)) from the Amphibolite quarry, [Haslach](Haslach im Kinzigtal), [Forest](Black)(Black Forest), [Baden-Württemberg](Baden-Württemberg), Germany]]
[[File:Krohnkite-21581.jpg|thumb|[Kröhnkite](Kröhnkite) from Cuquicamata Mine, Chuquicamata District, [Calama](Calama, Chile), [Loa Province](El)(El Loa Province), [Region](Antofagasta)(Antofagasta Region), Chile]]
:Varieties that are not valid species:
*[Keilhauite](Keilhauite) (variety of titanite)
*[Kerolite](Kerolite) (variety of talc) (not approved by IMA)
*[Krantzite](Krantzite) (natural resin)
*[Kunzite](Kunzite) (variety of spodumene)
## L
[[File:Langite-47272.jpg|thumb|[Langite](Langite) from [Elsass](Elsass), France]]
[[File:Legrandite, limonite 1100.1.2839.jpg|thumb|[Legrandite](Legrandite) on limonite]]
[[File:Liddicoatite, quartz, feldspath 300-4-0983.JPG|thumb|[Liddicoatite](Fluor-liddicoatite) on quartz and feldspar]]
:Varieties that are not valid species:
*[Larimar](Larimar) (blue variety of [pectolite](pectolite))
*[Lignite](Lignite) (a type of coal)
*[Lodestone](Lodestone) (a synonym of magnetite)
*[Lublinite](Lublinite) (variety of calcite)
## M
[[File:Magnetite-170591.jpg|thumb|[Magnetite](Magnetite) from Speen Ghar, Nangarhar Province, Afghanistan ]]
[[File:Manganite-180085.jpg|thumb|[Manganite](Manganite) from Ilfeld, Thuringia, Germany ]]
[[File:Mesolite.jpg|thumb|[Mesolite](Mesolite) at the [Museum of Natural History](Carnegie)(Carnegie Museum of Natural History), [Pittsburgh](Pittsburgh), [Pennsylvania](Pennsylvania), USA]]
[[File:Mimetite-145027.jpg|thumb|[Mimetite](Mimetite) on limonite matrix]]
:Varieties that are not valid species:
*[Magnesia](Magnesia (mineral))
*[Magnesiocummingtonite](Magnesiocummingtonite) (magnesium-rich variety of cummingtonite)
*[Malacolite](Malacolite) (synonym of diopside)
*[Manganocolumbite](Manganocolumbite) (synonym of columbite-(Mn))
*[Manganotantalite](Manganotantalite) (synonym of tantalite-(Mn))
*[Mariposite](Mariposite) (variety of phengite/muscovite)
*[Meerschaum](Meerschaum) (variety of sepiolite)
*[Melanite](Melanite) (variety of andradite)
*[Menilite](Menilite) (variety of opal)
*[quartz](Milky)(Milky quartz) (a cloudy white quartz)
*[Morganite](Morganite) (a pink beryl)
## N
[[File:Natrolite-Inesite-21148.jpg|thumb|Needles of [natrolite](natrolite) on deep pink inesite]]
[[File:Neptunite, bénitoïte, joaquinite-(Ce) sur natrolite et serpentine (USA) 2.jpg|thumb|[Neptunite](Neptunite) from [California](California), USA ]]
:Varieties that are not valid species:
*[Nephrite](Nephrite) (variety of tremolite/actinolite)
*[Niobite](Niobite) (synonym of columbite)
*[Niobite-tantalite](Niobite-tantalite) (synonym of columbite-tantalite)
## O
[[File:Boulder Opal.jpg|thumb|Boulder [opal](opal), Carisbrooke Station near [Queensland](Winton,)(Winton, Queensland), Australia]]
:Varieties that are not valid species:
*[Oligoclase](Oligoclase) (a mixture of albite and anorthite)
*[Onyx](Onyx) (a monochromatic banded variety of chalcedony)
*[Orthochrysotile](Orthochrysotile) (a polytype of chrysotile)
## P
[[and sigloite crystals associated with micro crystallized iron-stained wavellite needles on matrix](File:Paravauxite-Sigloite-251012.jpg|thumb|Paravauxite)]
[[File:Pectolite-54540.jpg|thumb|[Pectolite](Pectolite) from [Paterson](Paterson, New Jersey), [County](Passaic)(Passaic County, New Jersey), [Jersey](New)(New Jersey), USA]]
[[File:Phosphophyllite-359315.jpg|thumb|[Phosphophyllite](Phosphophyllite) from Cerro de Potosí, [Department](Potosí)(Potosí Department), Bolivia]]
[[File:Pyrrhotite-Quartz-kw-tcq03a.jpg|thumb|[Pyrrhotite](Pyrrhotite) on quartz]]
:Varieties that are not valid species:
*[Parachrysotile](Parachrysotile) (a polytype of chrysotile)
*[Pelagosite](Pelagosite) (variety of aragonite)
*[Pericline](Pericline) (variety of albite)
*[Peridot](Peridot) (gem-quality olivine)
*[Perlite](Perlite) (volcanic glass)
*[Phengite](Phengite) (variety of muscovite)
*[Phosphorite](Phosphorite) (name given to impure, massive apatite.)
*[Pimelite](Pimelite) (not approved by IMA)
*[Pitchblende](Pitchblende) (a massive impure form of uraninite)
*[Plessite](Plessite) (mixture of [kamacite](kamacite) and [taenite](taenite))
*[alum](Potassium)(Potassium alum) or potash alum (as a mineral, is called [alum-(K)](alum-(K)))
## Q
[[File:Quartz oisan.jpg|thumb|[Quartz](Quartz)]]
## R
[[File:Corundum-winza-17d.jpg|thumb|Crystals of cherry red [ruby](ruby) in matrix]]
[[File:Quarz 01.JPG|thumb|[crystal](Rock)(Rock crystal)]]
:Varieties that are not valid species:
*[Rashleighite](Rashleighite) (variety of turquoise)
*[Rhodolite](Rhodolite) (variety of pyrope)
*[crystal](Rock)(Rock crystal) (quartz)
*[quartz](Rose)(Rose quartz) (pink variety of quartz)
*[Roumanite](Roumanite) (amber)
*[Ruby](Ruby) (red gem corundum)
## S
[[File:Scolecite, Apophyllite, Stilbite-450733.jpg|thumb|Acicular colorless [scolecite](scolecite) crystals in a group with pale green apophyllite and very light pink stilbite]]
[[File:Gypse-sélénite 3.jpeg|thumb|Gypsum ([selenite](Selenite (mineral)) variety): [Eulalia District](Santa)(Santa Eulalia, Chihuahua), [Chihuahua](Chihuahua (state)), Mexico]]
[[File:Serandite-Aegirine-20264.jpg|thumb|[Serandite](Serandite) clusters from Poudrette quarry, [Saint-Hilaire](Mont)(Mont Saint-Hilaire), [Montérégie](Montérégie), [Québec](Québec), Canada]]
[[File:Shattuckite-k-123a.jpg|thumb|Botryoidal balls of [shattuckite](shattuckite), from Otjikotu, Kaokoveld, [Kunene](Kunene Region), Namibia]]
[[File:Stannite-Chalcopyrite-Quartz-168837.jpg|thumb|Ball of stepped [stannite](stannite) crystals flanked by splaying GEM quartzes and golden chalcopyrite at its upper edge, from Yaogangxian Mine, [County](Yizhang)(Yizhang County), Chenzhou Prefecture, [Province](Hunan)(Hunan Province), China]]
:Varieties that are not valid species:
*[Sapphire](Sapphire) (gem corundum of any color except red, especially blue varieties)
*[Sard](Sard) (a variety of chalcedony/quartz)
*[Satinspar](Satinspar) (a variety of gypsum)
*[Selenite](Selenite (mineral)) (a variety of gypsum)
*[Simetite](Simetite) (a variety of amber)
*[quartz](Smoky)(Smoky quartz) (a brown or black variety of quartz)
*[niter](Soda)(Soda niter) (synonym of nitratine)
*[Spectrolite](Spectrolite) (a variety of labradorite)
*[Spessartite](Spessartite) (synonym of spessartine)
*[Sphene](Sphene) (synonym of titanite)
*[Stantienite](Stantienite) (a variety of amber)
*[Stibiconite](Stibiconite) (grandfathered by IMA)
*[Sunstone](Sunstone) (a variety of either oligoclase or orthoclase)
## T
[[File:Titanite-Adularia-Clinochlore-275128.jpg|thumb|Crystal of [titanite](titanite) with adularia and minor clinochlore on matrix]]
[[File:Albite-Fluorite-jmix08-19a.jpg|thumb|Fluorite crystal sitting beside a glassy, dark green [tourmaline](tourmaline) crystal, which itself sits atop a green tourmaline of a lighter color. All sit on a bed of sparkly, bladed stark white albite]]
[[File:Turquoise, pyrite, quartz 300-4-FS 1.jpeg|thumb|Crystals of [turquoise](turquoise), from Copper Cities Mine, Globe-Miami District, Arizona, USA]]
:Varieties that are not valid species:
*[Tanzanite](Tanzanite) (variety of zoisite)
*[Thulite](Thulite) (variety of zoisite)
*[Thuringite](Thuringite) (variety of chamosite)
*[Travertine](Travertine) (form of calcium carbonate)
*[Tsavorite](Tsavorite) (gem variety of grossularite garnet)
## U
[[File:Uvite sur quartz (Brésil) 1.JPG|thumb|Crystals of tourmaline ([uvite](Fluor-uvite) variety) on quartz, from Pomba pit, Serra das Éguas, Brumado, Bahia, Brazil]]
## V
[[File:Vanadinite, barytine 4.jpeg|thumb|[Vanadinite](Vanadinite) from the Mibladen Mining District, Morocco]]
## W
[[File:Wavellite-162460.jpg|thumb|Deep green balls of [wavellite](wavellite) in exposed pocket, from Mauldin Mountain Quarries, Montgomery County, [Arkansas](Arkansas), USA]]
## X
[[File:Xonotlite-Inesite-21179.jpg|thumb|Radial fibrous inesite and [xonotlite](xonotlite) from Northern Cape Province, South Africa]]
## Y
[[File:Yugawaralite-pkn45b.jpg|thumb|[Yugawaralite](Yugawaralite) crystals in a sheltered vug, from Jalgaon District, Maharashtra, India]]
:Varieties that are not valid species:
*[Yttrocerite](Yttrocerite) (variety of fluorite)
*[Yttrocolumbite](Yttrocolumbite) (variety of columbite)
## Z
[[File:Goosecreekite-Heulandite-Ca-Quartz-indi-41a.jpg|thumb|[Zeolite](Zeolite) with heulandite on quartz]]
[[File:Zircon-dtn1a.jpg|thumb|[Zircon](Zircon) from [Gilgit](Gilgit), Pakistan]]
:Varieties that are not valid species:
*[Zajacite-(Ce)](Zajacite-(Ce)) (name changed to gagarinite-(Ce))
*[Zhonghuacerite-(Ce)](Zhonghuacerite-(Ce)) (considered to be kukharenkoite-(Ce) or huanghoite-(Ce))
*[Zinalsite](Zinalsite) (synonym of fraipontite)
## See also
*
*
**
**
**
*
*
*
*
*
* [of minerals named after people](List)(List of minerals named after people)
*
*
*
*
* [of the discovery and classification of minerals](Timeline)(Timeline of the discovery and classification of minerals)
## External links
* [Mineralatlas.eu - The mineralogical and geological database](https://www.mineralatlas.eu/)
* [Mindat.org – The Mineral Database](https://www.mindat.org/)
* [Gemdat.org – The Gemstone Database](https://www.gemdat.org/)
* [Gemsociety.org - Gemstone Toxicity Table](https://www.gemsociety.org/article/gemstone-toxicity-table/)
[ List01](Category:Minerals)
[*List01](Category:Mineralogy)
[Minerals01](Category:Geology-related lists)
|
List of Riverdale episodes
|
list_of_riverdale_episodes
|
# List of Riverdale episodes
*Revision ID: 1160209431 | Timestamp: 2023-06-15T02:07:44Z*
---
*[Riverdale](Riverdale (2017 TV series))* is an American [drama](teen)(teen drama) television series based on the characters of [Comics](Archie)(Archie Comics). The series was adapted for [CW](The)(The CW) by Archie Comics' chief creative officer [Aguirre-Sacasa](Roberto)(Roberto Aguirre-Sacasa), and is produced by [Bros. Television](Warner)(Warner Bros. Television) and [Studios](CBS)(CBS Studios), in association with [Productions](Berlanti)(Berlanti Productions) and Archie Comics. Originally conceived as a feature film adaptation for [Bros. Pictures](Warner)(Warner Bros. Pictures), the idea was re-imagined as a television series for [Fox](Fox Broadcasting Company). In 2015, development on the project moved to The CW, where the series was ordered for a pilot. Filming takes place in [Vancouver](Vancouver), [Columbia](British)(British Columbia). The series debuted on January 26, 2017.
It features an ensemble cast based on the [characters](List of Archie Comics characters) of Archie Comics, with [Apa](KJ)(KJ Apa) in the role of [Andrews](Archie)(Archie Andrews); [Reinhart](Lili)(Lili Reinhart) as [Cooper](Betty)(Betty Cooper), [Mendes](Camila)(Camila Mendes) as [Lodge](Veronica)(Veronica Lodge), [Sprouse](Cole)(Cole Sprouse) as [Jones](Jughead)(Jughead Jones), the series' narrator, [Petsch](Madelaine)(Madelaine Petsch) as [Blossom](Cheryl)(Cheryl Blossom), [Murray](Ashleigh)(Ashleigh Murray) as [McCoy](Josie)(Josie McCoy), [Morgan](Vanessa)(Vanessa Morgan) as [Topaz](Toni)(Toni Topaz), [Melton](Charles)(Charles Melton (actor)) as [Mantle](Reggie)(Reggie Mantle) and [Cott](Casey)(Casey Cott) as [Keller](Kevin)(Kevin Keller (comics)).
In March 2022, the series was renewed for its seventh season, which premiered on March 29, 2023, and will serve as the series' final season.
## Series overview
| end1 =
| infoA1 = 154
| infoB1 = 1.69
| color2 = #232427
| link2 = List of Riverdale episodes#Season 2 (2017–18)
| episodes2 = 22
| start2 =
| end2 =
| infoA2 = 173
| infoB2 = 2.12
| color3 = #AB9176
| link3 = List of Riverdale episodes#Season 3 (2018–19)
| episodes3 = 22
| start3 =
| end3 =
| infoA3 = 166
| infoB3 = 1.74
| color4 = #5B94F6
| link4 = List of Riverdale episodes#Season 4 (2019–20)
| episodes4 = 19
| start4 =
| end4 =
| infoA4 = 122
| infoB4 = 1.35
| color5 = #101154
| link5 = List of Riverdale episodes#Season 5 (2021)
| episodes5 = 19
| start5 =
| end5 =
| infoA5 = 145
| infoB5 = 1.01
| color6 = #442B1A
| link6 = List of Riverdale episodes#Season 6 (2021–22)
| episodes6 = 22
| start6 =
| end6 =
| infoA6 =
| infoB6 =
| color7 = #864123
| link7 = List of Riverdale episodes#Season 7 (2023)
| episodes7 = 20
| start7 =
| end7 =
| infoA7 =
| infoB7 =
}}
## Episodes
### Season 1 (2017)
### Season 2 (2017–18)
| ProdCode = T13.20801
| Viewers = 2.34
| ShortSummary = After being shot, Fred is rushed to the hospital by Archie, who is soon joined by his friends. Sheriff Keller gains a description of the shooter from Archie and calls him in for a lineup, but none of the men in the lineup are the shooter. When Veronica searches Fred's belongings, Archie sees that his wallet is missing. Betty and Jughead visit Pop's to look for the wallet but find nothing; instead, they learn from Pop that the shooter did not take any money from the register, meaning that it was actually a hit against Fred. Jughead asks the Southside Serpents to investigate the shooting, but to no avail. Veronica accuses Hermione of hiring a hitman to kill Fred, but she vehemently denies this and tensions develop between them when Veronica is not sure her mother is telling the truth. Meanwhile, Cheryl intimidates Penelope—who suffered severe burns due to the fire at their mansion and is hospitalized—into lying that it was an accident. Fred survives his shooting. Hiram returns to Riverdale, further escalating the tensions in the Lodge family. In the nearby town of Greendale, Ms. Grundy is strangled to death by Fred's shooter.
| LineColor = 232427
}}
| ProdCode = T13.20802
| Viewers = 1.76
| ShortSummary = After learning of Ms. Grundy's murder, an increasingly anxious Archie suspects that her death is connected with Fred's shooting, which pushes him to get a gun from Dilton Doiley. Following the shooting, business at Pop's Chock'lit Shoppe has declined, leading Pop to consider selling the diner, but Betty convinces Pop to let her throw a retro fun night to drum up business. Jughead learns that F.P. is facing 20 years in prison and seeks help from Penny Peabody, a Serpent lawyer, who advises Jughead to ask the Blossoms to testify on F.P.'s behalf. Cheryl initially refuses, but relents when Betty extorts her with the video of Jason's murder. With Cheryl's testimony, the judge decides to revisit F.P.'s sentence. Hiram quietly buys the diner from Pop, but tells Veronica he made a "charitable donation". In the woods, Moose Mason and Midge Klump take some jingle jangle (a new drug to Riverdale), and as they do so, they are shot by Fred's shooter.
| LineColor = 232427
}}
| ProdCode = T13.20803
| Viewers = 1.62
| ShortSummary = Kevin, who was in the forest, hears the gunshots and rushes to find Midge crying. Moose, who shielded Midge from the gunfire, is hospitalized and survives. Following the incident, Archie founds a vigilante group called the Red Circle, to protect Riverdale High students. The Coopers receive a letter from "the [Hood](Black)(Black Hood)", taking responsibility for the shootings and the murder of Ms. Grundy, and detailing his intentions to target sinners. Polly leaves town, fearing for her babies. Meanwhile, Jughead begins his tenure at Southside High, befriends Toni Topaz, a Serpent, and refounds the school newspaper, the Red and Black, under the advisory of English teacher Robert Philips. Kevin keeps going out late at night, which concerns Betty. Betty follows him on one of his runs, which leads to him lashing out at her. Hiram tells Archie that he should utilize the Black Hood's main weapons for the Red Circle. Inspired by this, the Red Circle makes a video calling out the Black Hood.
| LineColor = 232427
}}
| ProdCode = T13.20804
| Viewers = 1.51
| ShortSummary = Archie's viral video results in negative repercussions, as Principal Waldo Weatherbee demands he disband the Red Circle. Though Archie refuses, the Red Circle disbands regardless due to the football team being suspended but later reassembles with Veronica's help. Archie runs into trouble when he vandalizes the Serpent's territory with Red Circle graffiti.Veronica finds out that Archie intends to murder the Black Hood and convinces him to discard his gun. Betty receives a letter from the Black Hood, revealing that her speech from the jubilee ball inspired his actions and gives her a cipher that only she could solve. Mayor Sierra McCoy (Josie's mother) hosts a town meeting to discuss action against the Black Hood, in which Alice blames the Serpents, but Fred argues against letting fear rule them. Betty and Jughead figure out that the Black Hood intends to attack town hall and have the meeting evacuated, before showing the letter to her parents, Sheriff Keller and Mayor McCoy. Later, Betty receives a call from the Black Hood.
| LineColor = 232427
}}
| ProdCode = T13.20805
| Viewers = 1.47
| ShortSummary = The Black Hood reveals to Betty that he knows where Polly is and threatens to kill her unless she publishes a mugshot of Alice, which she does. Hiram invites the St. Clair's, friends of the Lodges from New York. On the Southside, Jughead attempts to stop Sweet Pea and the Serpents from blowing up the Riverdale Register office and joins the gang to prevent this from happening. The Black Hood forces Betty to cut ties with Veronica and Jughead and later gives her a hood. At the Lodge's open house event, Nick St. Clair drugs Cheryl and takes her back to his hotel room to rape her, but is stopped and beaten by Veronica and the Pussycats. Jughead and Toni sit in his trailer, where he tells her his relationship with Betty is over; they kiss. Back at Betty's house, the Black Hood tells her she has broken the rules and he will now kill Polly unless she gives him the name of a "sinner" to kill, to which Betty names Nick St. Clair.
| LineColor = 232427
}}
| ProdCode = T13.20806
| Viewers = 1.43
| ShortSummary = The Black Hood challenges Betty to find the identity of The Sugarman, who has been supplying the jingle jangle to Riverdale. Cheryl wants to press charges against Nick, whom the Black Hood did not attack, but Penelope agrees not to in exchange for money from the St. Clair's. Archie goes to Southside High, where he saves Jughead from a raid organized by McCoy and Sheriff Keller. Tall Boy, F.P.'s right hand man, reaches an agreement with the Ghoulies, the dealers of jingle jangle. Jughead and Archie visit F.P., who tells Jughead to challenge the Ghoulies to a race. During the race, Archie pulls the brake on Jughead's car, and reveals he called Sheriff Keller, who arrests the Ghoulies leader. Veronica convinces Hiram and Hermione to stop investing with the St. Clair's, while Cheryl does the same with Penelope. Later, the Lodges receive a call that the St. Clair's have been run off the road, but will recover in months. Penelope reveals to Cheryl that the Sugarman is Robert Philips; Cheryl later tells Betty, who exposes him in the Blue and Gold. Philips is subsequently arrested, and then was shot by the Black Hood while in jail.
| LineColor = 232427
}}
| ProdCode = T13.20807
| Viewers = 1.45
| ShortSummary = After killing Phillips, the Black Hood leaves a letter at Pop's challenging Riverdale to go 48 hours without sinning or he will kill again. Jughead is enlisted by Penny Peabody to deliver a crate of drugs to repay her for her earlier help, which he does with Archie. She says this is a one-time thing, but Jughead later finds she was lying. Josie begins to receive weird messages from a secret admirer, implied to be Chuck, including a box with a pig's heart. Mayor McCoy reprimands her for coming home late, revealing she has received death threats. Betty, realizing that Phillips was killed in the sheriff's office, believes Sheriff Keller might be the Black Hood. She investigates, but Keller is able to provide proof that he is not the Black Hood. However, Betty and Veronica discover that he is having an affair with Mayor McCoy. Archie, Jughead, Betty, Veronica, Josie, and Cheryl all gather at Pop's. After Jughead leaves to visit F.P., the Black Hood calls Pop to inform him Riverdale failed his challenge and Pop grimly announces that "The reckoning is upon us."
| LineColor = 232427
}}
| ProdCode = T13.20808
| Viewers = 1.48
| ShortSummary = F.P. is released from jail and begins working at Pop's, intending to quit the Serpents. Jughead and Betty decide to throw F.P. a "retirement" party at the Whyte Worm, so they enlist Archie and Veronica to do the detective work. While Jughead reconnects with his dad, Betty goes to the Whyte Worm to organize the party. There, she meets Toni and tells her she wants to keep watch over Jughead. Archie and Veronica follow a lead on a past serial killer called the Riverdale Reaper, who murdered a family of four before being killed himself by a lynch mob. Their investigation leads them to discover there was a fifth member of the family, the school's janitor Joseph Svenson. Archie and Veronica confront Svenson, but decide he is not the Black Hood. At the party, F.P., who is upset that Jughead helped Peabody, decides to stay with the Serpents. Outside, Veronica breaks up with Archie following a discussion about love. Jughead, not wanting to bring Betty into the Serpents' business, also ends their relationship.
| LineColor = 232427
}}
| ProdCode = T13.20809
| Viewers = 1.43
| ShortSummary = Fred receives a hospital bill of $86,000. Failing to convince her parents to help Fred, Veronica sneaks into Hiram's study and finds out that he bought Pop's. She later convinces him and Hermione to stop keeping secrets from her and help Fred. Jughead rallies the younger Serpents, who kidnap Peabody and cut out her Serpent tattoo. Betty and Archie receive a box from the Black Hood, containing Svenson's severed finger. They then receive a call from the Black Hood, who challenges them to find Svenson. They are able to find Svenson's location, but instead find an empty coffin. The Black Hood then appears and tries to force Betty into burying Archie alive, but flees when the police arrive. After a chase, Keller shoots and kills the Black Hood before he can escape. The Black Hood is then revealed to be Svenson himself. Later, with the Black Hood dead, Veronica and Archie get back together, while Betty throws away all of her findings surrounding Svenson, but keeps the hood he gave her earlier.
| LineColor = 232427
}}
| ProdCode = T13.20810
| Viewers = 1.44
| ShortSummary = The Lodges strike a land deal with Mayor McCoy which involves shutting down Southside High, causing Jughead, Toni, Sweet Pea, and the other Serpents to transfer to Riverdale High, putting them at odds with the other students. Archie is approached by [FBI](FBI) Agent Adams, who wants his help finding proof of Hiram's criminal dealings. Archie agrees to help in exchange for immunity for Veronica and Fred. Archie investigates Nick, who implies that Hiram was behind his car crash, which broke both of his legs. Despite Hal's objections, Betty and Alice track down Alice's son Chic whom she gave up for adoption. Chic initially refuses to come with them, but Betty returns to his residence and saves him from an assault, bringing him to the Cooper household. Jughead, following advice from F.P., gets his fellow Serpents to lay low. Archie reveals to Adams that he secretly doubts Svenson was really the Black Hood. That night, Chic lurks in Betty's room while she sleeps.
| LineColor = 232427
}}
| ProdCode = T13.20811
| Viewers = 1.39
| ShortSummary = Pickens' Day, a day in remembrance of Riverdale's founder, nears. Archie tries out for the wrestling team in order to impress Hiram, a former wrestler. Betty learns that Chic is a [model](webcam)(webcam model) and attempts to reach out to him. Jughead interviews Toni's grandfather for a school project, learning that he is a member of a Native American tribe that was slaughtered by Pickens. Jughead publishes the story, escalating tensions between the two sides. At the Pickens' Day fest, the Serpents protest the event, but Hiram spins their words positively. That night, Archie meets with Hiram, who offers him his business tutelage, which Archie accepts. The next morning, Mayor McCoy, Sheriff Keller, and the Lodges meet at the statue of Pickens, which has been decapitated.
| LineColor = 232427
}}
| ProdCode = T13.20812
| Viewers = 1.34
| ShortSummary = Veronica's [confirmation](confirmation) nears, bringing many Lodge family members and business associates to Riverdale. While serving at a poker game with Hiram and his associates, Archie learns that Hiram is a [mobster](mobster) and his associates are planning his 'removal' after Veronica's confirmation. Archie alerts Hiram to this and Hiram later arranges that mobster's death. Meanwhile, Mayor McCoy orchestrates the eviction of all the Serpents from their trailer park. Jughead and Betty are alerted to the location of the Pickens head by a scrapyard owner who gives them evidence that Tall Boy decapitated the statue. Jughead and F.P. put Tall Boy on trial, where he reveals that Hiram assisted him in launching a mutiny so that Tall Boy could remove F.P. and Jughead from the Serpents. Betty and Jughead get back together. A strange man comes to the Cooper house asking for Chic. Later, Betty returns home to find Alice cleaning up the man's blood.
| LineColor = 232427
}}
| ProdCode = T13.20813
| Viewers = 1.28
| ShortSummary = Betty and Alice clean up the man's body and dispose of it with help from F.P. and Jughead. Jughead sends the Pickens statue's head to the Lodges, which Hiram believes may be a declaration of war. Mayor McCoy attempts to take control of her deal with the Lodges and the Lodges prepare to expose her affair with Sheriff Keller. Veronica, however, warns her of this and McCoy resigns from office. Agent Adams tries to strong-arm Archie into giving him information, including blackmailing Archie to plant a bug in Hiram's office. Archie instead reveals this to Hiram. Andre, who is Hiram's driver and his main capo, takes Archie to a private location to meet with "the boss," revealed to be Hermione. Hermione tells Archie that Adams is actually one of the Lodges' [capos](Caporegime) and it was a test, which Archie has passed. Hermione welcomes him to the family.
| LineColor = 232427
}}
| ProdCode = T13.20814
| Viewers = 1.26
| ShortSummary = Hiram suggests Archie, Veronica, Betty, and Jughead go to the Lodges' lake house for a romantic getaway. Cheryl, upset over not being invited, calls Jughead and informs him of Betty's kiss with Archie, causing tension within the group. Veronica and Jughead kiss to "level the playing field." Later, the girls go into town while the guys have a discussion over the close mutual bonds between the four. Back in Riverdale, Josie informs Kevin of their parents' affair. Cheryl reveals to Toni that she had a friendship-turned-almost-same-sex-relationship broken up by Penelope. At the lake house, tensions return when Jughead and Betty learn that Hiram bought the trailer park and the Riverdale Register. A group of men with whom Veronica interacted in town break into the house, but Veronica activates a silent alarm. Andre arrives and kills one of the intruders before the four return to Riverdale.
| LineColor = 232427
}}
| ProdCode = T13.20815
| Viewers = 1.19
| ShortSummary = Jughead keeps investigating the Lodges' plans, but he cannot use what he finds. Hiram and Hermione want Fred to run for mayor and offer to finance his run. Hal asks Alice for a divorce and Polly comes back to Riverdale. Clifford's secret will is read, which entitles money to anyone of Blossom blood. Clifford's twin brother Claudius returns. When Chic refuses the DNA test, Betty steals his dental floss to do her own test and discovers that Chic is not who he says he is. After Smithers points Jughead to Shankshaw Prison, F.P.'s inside contact allows them to learn the truth about the Lodges' plans: they want to turn Southside High into a private prison and the housing Fred is building will be for the employees of the prison. After the Lodges are forced to tell Fred, he refuses to run for Mayor, so Hermione announces her run instead. Archie undergoes a blood ritual with Hiram, pledging loyalty. Meanwhile, Claudius and Penelope plot to get their house "in order," including Nana and Cheryl, who overhears the plan.
| LineColor = 232427
}}
| ProdCode = T13.20816
| Viewers = 1.16
| ShortSummary = Jughead learns Southside High will be turned into a prison and goes on a hunger strike to protest. Hiram accelerates the timeline for demolition, but the high school Serpents chain themselves to the school. Fred attempts to end his contract with the Lodges, leading to a legal dispute. Hiram asks Archie to cut the Serpents' chains, which Archie does in exchange for Fred being released from his contract. Betty learns Hal is not Chic's father. Penelope and Claudius attempt to kill Nana Rose, but she survives. Veronica runs for student president, but everyone seems to be against her. Jughead also considers running with Betty. Betty moves in with Jughead to avoid Chic. Cheryl tells Penelope she knows what she did, leading Penelope to get Cheryl [committed](involuntary commitment). Free of his contract with the Lodges, Fred announces he is running for mayor against Hermione.
| LineColor = 232427
}}
| ProdCode = T13.20817
| Viewers = 0.96
| ShortSummary = Hermione's run for mayor is considered risky by fellow mobsters Kowalski and Martin, who believe it may lead to unwanted investigation. They demand a 25% cut of the prison's profits, which Hiram refuses. Kowalski and Martin, however, convince Hiram's capo Adams to hospitalize Andre, leaving the Lodges shorthanded on security. Archie scares the two into abandoning the deal with the help of Reggie and other Riverdale athletes. Meanwhile, the car belonging to the man Chic killed is found. The owner of the car demands $10,000 from the Coopers to prevent her from going to the police, but Jughead and the Serpents scare her away. Alice sends Chic away and apologizes to the Serpents for her years of badmouthing them. Toni and Veronica discover that Cheryl has been admitted into [therapy](conversion)(conversion therapy) and, with help from Nana Rose, they find out that she is at the Sisters of Quiet Mercy. Toni, Veronica, and Kevin rescue Cheryl and Toni and Cheryl kiss. Cheryl soon returns to Riverdale High, which she declares 'will burn.'
| LineColor = 232427
}}
| ProdCode = T13.20818
| Viewers = 1.10
| ShortSummary = During a rehearsal of Riverdale High's musical production of *[Carrie](Carrie (musical))*, Cheryl calls out those who question her ability to play the lead role of [White](Carrie)(Carrie White) by demonstrating her singing ability. After rehearsal, Kevin confides in Jughead that he received several threats demanding that the role of Carrie be recast, supposedly from the Black Hood. Kevin gives in and Midge replaces Cheryl as Carrie. Tensions arise between Archie and Fred after he finds out that Hiram bought Archie his first car, resulting in Archie warning Hiram not to get between him and his father. Cheryl, doused in blood, confronts her mother for her actions against the family and demands that she be emancipated. During the performance, a set wall is moved up to reveal Midge hung up to the wall with knives, murdered by the Black Hood with a warning of his return.
| LineColor = 232427
}}
| ProdCode = T13.20819
| Viewers = 1.17
| ShortSummary = Following Midge's funeral, her mother, Cheryl, and the River Vixens blame Sheriff Keller for her death, causing him to consider resigning. Archie is abducted by Nick St. Clair, who demands a ransom from the Lodges. With her parents unwilling to pay and lacking the money herself, Veronica pretends to surrender herself to Nick, but drugs him. Archie manages to escape and they hold Nick for ransom instead. Meanwhile, Betty and Jughead investigate Chic and learn from the Sisters of the Quiet Mercy that he is an impostor, resulting in his imprisonment. Betty is secretly contacted by the Black Hood, who offers to get rid of Chic. Betty gets Chic to confess that he murdered her real brother, Charles, by accident and then hands him over to the Black Hood, leaving him to die. Betty lies to Alice and says that Chic left town of his own accord, then learns that Hal was absent at the time of the exchange, leading her to suspect him of being the Black Hood.
| LineColor = 232427
}}
| ProdCode = T13.20820
| Viewers = 1.11
| ShortSummary = Betty tells Cheryl that she believes Hal is the Black Hood. Hiram restarts The Red Circle in hopes of causing unrest and to help Hermione's campaign. Moose reveals that Midge was having an affair with Fangs. A body, first thought to be Chic's, is found and Betty reveals she feels guilty for his presumed death. Fangs is arrested at school. Members of The Red Circle damage The Whyte Worm and Reggie later reveals that Hiram is playing them against each other. Betty and Cheryl visit a room being paid for by Hal and find the same book used as a cipher previously. After the Black Hood attacks the Mayoral debate, Veronica wants her mother to stop running, but she insists on continuing. Betty confronts her father and arranges a meeting with him later. The Black Hood then appears at Cheryl's door. Fangs is released from prison, but is shot amidst the protesters outside.
| LineColor = 232427
}}
| ProdCode = T13.20821
| Viewers = 1.00
| ShortSummary = The Black Hood attacks Cheryl, but she wounds him with a bow and arrow. Reggie is accused of being Fangs' shooter, but it is later revealed to be Midge's mother. Veronica finds out that Hiram planned to reveal Hermione's affair with Fred, but Hermione reveals her involvement, as it would destroy Fred's campaign. The son of the mobster whose death Hiram arranged attacks the Lodges, killing Andre, but Hermione shoots him dead. The Ghoulies are released from prison and attack Pop's. Meanwhile, Hal reveals himself as the Black Hood to Betty and Alice. After admitting he did not attack the debate, he is subdued by Betty and arrested. Fred, who is wearing a bullet proof vest, is shot by a man in a black hood and Betty and Archie realize the man was not Hal. Penny Peabody resurfaces and holds Toni captive, but Jughead and Cheryl help her escape. F.P. alerts the Serpents of Fangs' death and the Serpents decide to fight the Ghoulies. Jughead turns himself over to avoid bloodshed, but Penny breaks her promise and the Ghoulies attack Jughead. Learning of this, F.P. goes to save him. Later, Archie, Cheryl, Betty, and the Serpents find F.P. carrying Jughead's bloodied, unconscious body.
| LineColor = 232427
}}
| ProdCode = T13.20822
| Viewers = 1.28
| ShortSummary =Jughead survives his assault and F.P. discloses that Fangs is alive. Sheriff Minetta reveals the second Black Hood to be Tall Boy, who was killed by an officer. Cheryl discovers Penelope and Claudius meeting with Hiram and tells Veronica, who informs Hermione. Hermione, believing it to be conceivable that Hiram planned the attack at the debate, reveals to Veronica that Hiram plans to consolidate the entire Southside and needs the Whyte Wyrm to set his plan fully into motion. Jughead, Archie, and Cheryl lead the Serpents to the Northside, where they are offered asylum. Veronica buys the Wyrm and trades it with Hiram for Pop's. F.P. retires from the Serpents, naming Jughead the new King, with Cheryl joining the Serpents. Hermione wins the mayoral election. Later, Hiram meets with Penny, Penelope, Claudius, Sheriff Minetta, and Malachi to discuss joining forces. Archie is elected student body president, but is wrongfully arrested by Sheriff Minetta during his inauguration for the murder of one of the intruders from the lake house that Andre killed.
| LineColor = 232427
}}
}}
### Season 3 (2018–19)
| ProdCode = T13.21251
| Viewers = 1.50
| ShortSummary = Archie's friends and family spend the summer at his trial. The judge orders the jury to deliberate over Labor Day weekend. Archie, Betty, Veronica, and Jughead decide to spend the weekend together. A furious Veronica confronts Hiram, while Hiram explains that he did this because of her betrayal. Meanwhile, Betty has trouble with Alice and Polly as the two of them try to persuade her to join their cult, the Farm. Jughead faces off with Penny Peabody and the Ghoulies over Hot Dog and after taking over the Southside, the Ghoulies declare the Northside fair game. Later, Archie accepts a plea deal to serve two years in juvenile detention after a hung jury causes a mistrial. Betty arrives home and sees Alice and Polly carrying out a strange ceremony involving the twins and fire, triggering Betty to faint and convulse. Meanwhile, Dilton's strange actions lead Jughead to discover him and Ben in Fox Forest, unconscious in front of a dark skeletal totem Dilton had referred to as the Gargoyle King.
| LineColor = AB9176
}}
| ProdCode = T13.21252
| Viewers = 1.28
| ShortSummary = Archie is processed in jail, but without protection due to his refusal to stab a Ghoulie, he faces abuse from Ghoulies he previously helped lock up. Archie then tries to bring the prisoners together but his attempt is ambushed by Hiram, who orders the guards to beat the prisoners and start a riot. Dilton dies, and Betty and Jughead investigate what happened to him and Ben and discover three symbols etched into Dilton's back. They later search for Dilton's bunker where they find Ben and Dilton were participating in a board game turned lethal. They then question Ethel about the game, who after refusing to talk about it, begins to have a seizure. Later, at the hospital, Betty and Jughead witness Ben commit suicide, after claiming he will ascend to the Kingdom and be reunited with Dilton. Elsewhere, Fred, Hermione, Alice, F.P., Hiram, Sierra McCoy, Tom Keller, and Penelope Blossom gather to discuss an incident that occurred in their youth, one they swore not to speak of ever again. Hermione claims it is happening again with their children.
| LineColor = AB9176
}}
| ProdCode = T13.21253
| Viewers = 1.40
| ShortSummary = After spending time in solitary confinement, Archie accepts the Warden's offer to participate in a trial by combat beneath the prison. Veronica opens a speakeasy under Pop's but is shaken down by Sherriff Mineta and Penny. With Cheryl and Toni's help she gets evidence of the Whyte Worm being used to make jingle jangle, and blackmails Hiram. Betty befriends Evelyn to try learn more about the Farm and is taken aback when she learns Alice has told them all their family secrets. Meanwhile, Ethel plays *Gryphons and Gargoyles* with Jughead, and after giving Jughead the scripture, Ethel drinks from a poisoned chalice and is placed on suicide watch. Later, F.P. burns the scripture; however, a copy is placed in each student's locker at Riverdale High, with Ethel proclaiming to the Gargoyle King that everyone will soon join them.
| LineColor = AB9176
}}
| ProdCode = T13.21254
| Viewers = 1.37
| ShortSummary = With the Riverdale kids playing *Gryphons and Gargoyles*, Alice opens up to Betty about her past and her involvement with the game. In 1992, Alice, a rebellious teenager pregnant with F.P.'s child, is forced to spend detention along with Penelope, Sierra, Hermione, Fred, and F.P. Initially strangers, they soon find the *Gryphons and Gargoyles* game and play it as a group, gradually becoming addicted to it. However, after receiving strange invitations from the Gargoyle King, Alice soon finds the bathroom graffitied with messages and so finds chalices, she encounters the creature. Principal Featherhead encounters the Gargoyle King and is found dead with the same symbols from Dilton's back etched into the door. The group vow to never talk about the incident. After explaining, Alice tells Betty that they do not know who was trying to kill one of them, but it was a member of their group. Later on, Betty finds Jughead in the cellar playing the game as he reveals he is about to ascend to the third level.
| LineColor = AB9176
}}
| ProdCode = T13.21255
| Viewers = 1.25
| ShortSummary = Betty asks Jughead to investigate their parents as she believes one of them is a murderer. Jughead finds out the game is a metaphor for Riverdale itself, and claims he will eventually be able to confront the Gargoyle King. After a failed prison escape, Archie is branded by the Warden and finds out Hiram paid the witnesses to lie and frame him. Jughead tells F.P. whoever killed the principal when their parents were at school was the game master. Before the fight club, Joaquin stabs Archie, claiming the Warden told him if he did he would ascend. Joaquin is later seen by Kevin escaping to a "new gang". Veronica, Betty, Josie, Reggie, and Kevin hatch a plan and manage to help Archie escape and they hide him in Dilton's bunker. Jughead realizes Archie's brand is the same symbol that was on Dilton's back. Kevin, Josie, and Reggie begin to play the game. The Warden, set to meet with Hermione, commits suicide by cyanide poisoning after failing to ascend in the game by killing Archie. Jughead comes face to face with the Gargoyle King.
| LineColor = AB9176
}}
| ProdCode = T13.21256
| Viewers = 1.27
| ShortSummary = The students are questioned about their whereabouts during Archie's escape when Josie has a seizure. Betty gathers the Midnight Club at Veronica's speakeasy and questions them about the murder of Principal Featherhead, where Penelope confesses Dilton's father, Darryl, poisoned the chalices so they could all ascend together, and later killed himself out of guilt, but Betty is not convinced. Veronica, determined to clear Archie's name finds the full interview footage on Hermione's computer proving Archie's innocence and emails it to the prosecution. Archie is cleared of all charges, but he refuses to return to Riverdale and breaks up with Veronica before leaving town with Jughead. Joaquin proclaims the symbol branded on Archie means sacrifices, and he is later found dead with the same symbol carved into his forehead. Meanwhile, Betty and Alice are horrified to find the Gargoyle King in their house. They retreat to Betty's room but find a gravestone on Betty's bed before F.P. arrives and comforts them. Later, Alice has Betty forcibly taken to the Sisters of Quiet Mercy where she discovers all the patients are painting pictures of The Gargoyle King.
| LineColor = AB9176
}}
| ProdCode = T13.21257
| Viewers = 1.09
| ShortSummary = Archie and Jughead plan to take a break at a farm, where they meet Laurie and Gracie. Laurie, during a meeting with Archie, kisses him and he reciprocates, but later thinks of Veronica and stops. Jughead finds children taking Fizzle Rocks and playing *Gryphons and Gargoyles* and the common symbols regarding the Gargoyle King appear. When Jughead finds that the entire town is owned by Hiram and Laurie is helping him trace Archie, he and Archie flee. Veronica moves out, and opens a Casino in her speakeasy, later learning about Minneta's brutal killing. Betty finds Ethel at the Sisters of Quiet Mercy, where she tries to make her life seem insignificant. She finds the Sisters feeding the patients with Fizzle Rocks and finds Hiram helping them to do so. Now with solid evidence of who the Sisters really are, she tries to flee, but the Sisters and Ethel catch her. They then make her meet the Gargoyle King and then forcefully feed her Fizzle Rocks. Later while being interrogated, Betty hallucinates and finds the Gargoyle King approaching her.
| LineColor = AB9176
}}
| ProdCode = T13.21258
| Viewers = 1.20
| ShortSummary = The Riverdale Vixens squad suffer from a mass seizure with the exception of Cheryl who soon asks for Toni to move in. Veronica learns that Hiram intends to shut down Riverdale High. Reggie informs Veronica that the drugs are coming from the prison Hiram is constructing. Elsewhere, Jughead and Archie meet his mother Gladys and sister Jellybean, and learn that Hiram intends to take over the town. Archie leaves to prevent danger. Betty learns that the Gargoyle King is a hallucination from the drugs and along with Ethel, tie up Sister Woodhouse. They set free the patients afterwards. Cheryl and Veronica interrogate Penelope and learn that she was helping Hiram. However, as they both, along with Kevin and the RROTC decide to stop Riverdale from closing down, they are too late as the town is shut down, quarantined and blocked off. Alice takes Betty and the patients home. Hiram calls the Governor and thanks him for sealing the town off. They hang up and Hiram raises his drink to the Gargoyle King, who stands in front of him.
| LineColor = AB9176
}}
| ProdCode = T13.21259
| Viewers = 1.32
| ShortSummary = A month after Riverdale's shutdown, Archie has now fled town and staying in a cabin with Vegas. Betty has taken in the freed patients from the SOQM while Veronica is being forced by Hiram to pay for protection for the speakeasy. However, Reggie is beaten up by Gargoyle-dressed men sent by Hiram while on a run for supplies and eventually she hires the Serpents to protect her club. Cheryl and Toni are both kicked out of the Serpents after stealing from Hiram and Reggie and Veronica kiss. Meanwhile, Archie is attacked and mauled by a bear and experiences strange hallucinations before being found bloodied and unresponsive by park rangers while Betty tries to convince the nuns to testify against Hiram. After a meeting with Attorney McCoy, Betty realises that the nun's argument may be useless but soon discovers that the Sisters have all committed suicide to avoid testifying against Hiram. Betty is shocked when she learns that Alice kicked out the patients from their house and shipped them off to the Farm.
| LineColor = AB9176
}}
| ProdCode = T13.21260
| Viewers = 1.12
| ShortSummary = Archie, having survived his attack, returns to Riverdale to face his demons and to overcome his problems. Alice liquidates Betty's college funds to provide for the escaped SOQM patients who have been living at the Farm. A furious Betty then seeks help from attorney McCoy, who informs Betty that she must go visit Hal, as Alice forged his signature. Betty does so and finds Hal is impressed with the Gargoyle King's kill count and wants to see one of the game's manuals in return for him signing an affidavit for Betty so she can pursue legal action. Betty learns Penelope visits him and Hal wants Betty to return for visits. The Serpents find Fangs and the Gargoyle Gang in a clearing in Fox Forest having a ceremony. They crash the ceremony and Jughead and F.P. unmask the Gargoyle King, revealing Tall Boy, who faked his death and has been working for Hiram. However, he is killed during an escape attempt. Hiram is shot and critically injured in the Pembrooke. Believing Archie may have been responsible, Veronica breaks up with Archie and reconciles with Reggie. Hermione appoints F.P. as the new sheriff of Riverdale after Claudius is found dead.
| LineColor = AB9176
}}
| ProdCode = T13.21261
| Viewers = 1.26
| ShortSummary = Veronica sets Jughead out on a mission to find who shot her father. Betty investigates Penelope, learning that she killed Claudius and Clifford, and stumbles upon her brothel "The Maple Club". Meanwhile, Archie is still spiraling, and Josie tries to help him face his demons. Veronica and Reggie set out to find the truth about the quarantine and the series of seizures that occurred in the town. Jughead comes face-to-face with Mrs. Mulwray, and later finds that Sweet Pea, who had been tracking Hermione for him, spots her and the believed-to-be dead Sheriff Minetta conspiring against F.P. in a secluded cabin. Jughead goes and warns F.P. that Hermione put him up to shooting Hiram in the first place. Archie considers murdering Hiram, but ends up saving his life instead. After this, Veronica and Archie share their apologies and Hiram, now awake, calls a truce with Archie. Hermione, after meeting with Jughead, is called out on her mission to kill Hiram, and kills Minetta to tie up loose ends.
| LineColor = AB9176
}}
| ProdCode = T13.21262
| Viewers = 0.96
| ShortSummary = Sierra McCoy and Tom Keller are preparing to get married where Kevin invites Moose to be his date and Moose decides to come out to his strict father Marcus. However, Moose is not ready yet and is almost outed by Cheryl during a school morning announcement but Moose decides to come out anyway after Kevin gives him an ultimatum and they consummate their love in Dilton's bunker. However, Sierra and Tom both receive a message from the "Gargoyle King" calling the Midnight Club to reassemble and complete their ascension that failed when they were teenagers. The parents assemble at the school to sip from the chalices; however, it is revealed to be a hoax. Marcus dresses up as the Gargoyle King and captures Kevin and Moose, hoping to scare his son straight. Moose leaves Riverdale afterwards. Archie and Josie get close to one another and kiss, starting a relationship while Veronica and Reggie discover that Jughead's mother Gladys is Hermione's buyer of the Fizzle Rocks lab which was burned. Gladys and Jellybean return to Riverdale, intending to stay for good with a plan.
| LineColor = AB9176
}}
| ProdCode = T13.21263
| Viewers = 0.86
| ShortSummary = The Serpents' numbers have decreased due to the Pretty Poisons, leading Jughead to go after the Ghoulies. Archie has been getting into boxing and must throw his first fight. Hiram wants Veronica to take control of his drugs, but she starts working for Gladys. Alice is preparing to be rebaptized by the Farm, and only Betty realizes that she is doing something dangerous. The Ghoulies (now the Gargoyles) are led by Kurtz, who has been keeping G&G going. Kurtz tells Jughead that only the worthy will ascend, while promising the Gargoyle King is alive. Hiram and Gladys meet and when Gladys threatens Hermione, Veronica is forced to join Hiram. Betty meets with an ex-Farm member, who left the farm after her sister's death. Betty learns they believe in reaching near-death to reach ascension. Archie fights in the match but loses. Alice takes place in the rebirth. Almost dying, Polly and the Farm refuse to help her until Betty intervenes. Veronica covers for Hermione and now owes debt to Hiram. Gladys takes control of the Gargoyles. Alice claims she is reborn and sees her purpose. She says she will sell the house and she, Betty, and the Farm will be one forever.
| LineColor = AB9176
}}
| ProdCode = T13.21264
| Viewers = 0.92
| ShortSummary = Alice attempts to sell the house, only to be sabotaged by Betty. Archie finds a boy named Ricky branded with the Sacrifice Symbol in the boxing gym. He starts taking care of him, until Ricky runs away to hide from the Gargoyles. The Serpents, Gargoyles, and Pretty Poisons begin clashing at school, and chemistry equipment is stolen to make drugs. Betty finds Kevin going deep into the Farm, and stumbles across a ceremony where he walks across fire. She threatens to expose the Farm, but Evelyn and Kevin respond by threatening to expose all of Alice's secrets. Veronica opens a casino and uses it to lower her debt, leading to Hiram's associates clashing at a showcase. Veronica recruits the Pretty Poisons to work at the speakeasy, who ban Hiram and Gladys from entering. The Gargoyles and the Serpents begin working with the police, causing Kurtz to walk out. Archie finds out Ricky is Joaquain's little brother. Ricky reveals he is working with the Gargoyles and faked everything and tries to kill Archie to complete the Red Paladin quest. Jughead tells Archie that it is time for them to end it (along with Betty). Alice sells the house and comes home to find it in flames.
| LineColor = AB9176
}}
| ProdCode = T13.21265
| Viewers = 0.95
| ShortSummary = Archie, Betty, and Jughead set out on a journey to eliminate the "Red Paladin" quest from the realm of *Gryphons and Gargoyles* that was initially spread about by Hiram. Meanwhile, Betty finds out about Gladys' criminal intentions from Veronica after she learns that the Jones family has bought her house. After Betty informs Jughead of his mother's business in town, he becomes angered and plans to drive his mom out of town after giving a speech at F.P.'s 50th birthday party. Archie defeats all players that set out to kill him, lifting his brand for sacrifice. Cheryl and Toni continue to experience tension in their relationship, up to the point that Cheryl asks Toni to move out. Consequently, she summons Kevin to inform him that she must channel her anger into the school musical, which she demands to be *[Heathers](Heathers: The Musical)*.
| LineColor = AB9176
}}
| ProdCode = T13.21266
| Viewers = 0.81
| ShortSummary = While preparing the Riverdale High production of Heathers, Cheryl discovers that Toni has been assigned as choreographer while Kevin makes Evelyn co-director due to the Farm financially backing the musical. Veronica learns that her parents are breaking up and turns to Reggie for comfort. Jughead learns that the old trailer is being used as a Fizzle Rock lab by Gladys and with the help of Betty, sets fire to it. Betty becomes angered at Evelyn's involvement and attempts to involve Principal Weatherbee who turns out to be a follower of the Farm. Evelyn throws a pre-show party where Kevin has a frightening drug induced hallucination driving him closer to Evelyn and the Farm. Toni and Cheryl soon decide to repair their relationship after a fight. Veronica divulges the state of her parents marriage and Reggie realizing this is why she slept with him decides to end their relationship. On the night of the show, the cast performs and is followed by the appearance of Edgar Evernever, Evelyn's father who starts clapping while those audience members dressed in white follow suit giving a standing ovation to the musical.
| LineColor = AB9176
}}
| ProdCode = T13.21267
| Viewers = 0.81
| ShortSummary = While on a tour of the Farm, Betty enlists Cheryl to help her infiltrate the farm. Archie is given word by his old cell mate, Mad Dog, that Leopold and Loeb is being closed, and that all juvenile prisoners are to be transferred to Hiram's prison. They persuade the governor to pardon Archie's prison friends. When they get out, they jump right into action helping Jughead take down the Gargoyles after Mad Dog learns his family is in danger. Veronica tries to get her parents together, but her plans do not work, when their marriage is annulled. While Cheryl is at the Farm, she gets in with Edgar, and they discuss Jason's death and the location of the testimonies that Betty wants Cheryl to get her hands on. Cheryl decides to join the cult, after she tells Betty that the Farm has allowed her to see Jason. Betty goes asks Alice if the reason she has joined the Farm is that she can see Charles, and Alice says yes. Jughead and Archie, receive a single baby tooth as a message. They learn that Archie's prison mate, Baby Teeth, has fallen victim to the Gargoyle King, after F.P. finds him dead in a clearing in the forest.
| LineColor = AB9176
}}
| ProdCode = T13.21268
| Viewers = 0.80
| ShortSummary = F.P. and Jughead investigate Baby Teeth's death; the coroner tells them that a matchbook from the Maple Club had been lodged in his throat at the time of his death. At Penelope's brothel, they find a client foaming at the mouth and gripping a knife after consuming a bad batch of Fizzle Rocks, known as "G". Kurtz is the one dealing "G". Betty sends Toni the video of Clifford murdering Jason, but it does not convince Cheryl that Jason is dead. Betty tries the same tactic, as she takes Alice to a fake grave of Charles, she is not convinced. Betty chloroforms her and holds her in Dilton's bunker to force her to remember her past. She threatens both Edgar and Evelyn—but decides that she must let her mother heal. She hires Toni to join the Farm to try and free Cheryl and Alice. Archie, while participating in a boxing tournament, must rematch Randy Ronson, who has just taken "G" and collapses after the fight. F.P. and Jughead capture Kurtz making a drug deal at Archie's gym, he informs them that Jellybean has been "summoned". She is led into the woods with Ricky, who reveals the Gargoyle King standing behind her.
| LineColor = AB9176
}}
| ProdCode = T13.21269
| Viewers = 0.71
| ShortSummary = After the death of Randy Ronson, Elio tries to frame Archie for dealing him drugs to use for the fight. Veronica reveals that Archie and Mad Dog passed a drug test and helps Archie raise money for the Ronson family. The Jones family and Kurtz play a game of *Gryphons and Gargoyles* to bring Jellybean home. F.P. is shot while they rob Pop's, Gladys is severely ingured while in a fight with an undead Penny Peabody, but wins the fight; Jughead is nearly killed after Kurtz locks him in a freezer—emerging to find Kurtz has been killed by the Gargoyle King. Jughead returns home to Jellybean and Gladys makes the decision to leave town. Betty learns of Edgar's plans to adopt Polly's babies as his own after his marriage to Alice. Betty continues an investigation on the Farm, discovering that Evelyn is 26 years old, recruits, and is Edgar's wife. Josie leaves town. After this, she enters the Farm to save the babies, but is led into a room of several cult members by Toni, who is now in the cult. They try to capture her. Later, Veronica tells Betty that her father has died in an accident while being transported to her father's prison.
| LineColor = AB9176
}}
| ProdCode = T13.21270
| Viewers = 0.70
| ShortSummary = Betty is dubious that her father actually has died after seeing the crash scene with Veronica. At the same moment, Archie's mom returns to town and makes plans for Archie to meet with a recruiter at the naval academy so Archie can go to college on a boxing scholarship. While Cheryl and Toni campaign for prom queens, Edgar and Evelyn both remind them that doing so is against the rules of the Farm. Meanwhile, while Jughead speaks with Jellybean, she informs him about the Gargoyle King's gospel, which Jughead finds on an abandoned bus with F.P., so he can bring the serial killer down. When Betty wins prom queen, she is summoned by the Gargoyle King, who plans for her to ascend, placing chalices in the girls' bathroom. When Betty rejects and is about to shoot the Gargoyle King, the Black Hood attacks her, revealing to Betty that her dad did indeed survive the crash and is now working with the Gargoyle King. Afterwards, Betty goes to warn her mom that Hal is likely going to prey on the Farm next. In doing so, Betty is asked by Edgar if she will stay at the Farm for her safety, and she accepts.
| LineColor = AB9176
}}
| ProdCode = T13.21271
| Viewers = 0.74
| ShortSummary = Edgar has Betty come face-to-face with her "dark side", that he is faking, while she learns that Kevin and Fangs have undergone massive surgeries; Toni is next. Betty realizes Edgar hypnotizes and creates pain which makes everyone follow him; turning crazy. Jughead finds Ricky trying to ascend who sends a group of Boy Scouts to attack him; he hides in the bunker where he finds Ethel. Jughead and Ethel search for a young scout that has gone to the abandoned bus at the junkyard, leading them into the arms of the Black Hood. Archie, Mary, and Veronica plan to get Hiram arrested when he makes a move at the town. During a boxing match Archie set up, the FBI arrests him for illegal activity at his businesses, which includes La Bonne Nuit. Betty realizes that the Farm has been performing surgery to harvest organs, she informs Cheryl, who saves Toni from receiving her procedure. Toni escapes, but Cheryl is taken away by guards. When Betty warns Kevin and Fangs, they send her to the operating room so she can undergo her organ harvest next. At the police station, Ethel tells Jughead the Gargoyle King's identity—Jason Blossom. He digs up Jason's grave to reveal an empty casket.
| LineColor = AB9176
}}
| ProdCode = T13.21272
| Viewers = 0.86
| ShortSummary = Penelope buys Betty from Edgar before receiving surgery, and she wakes at the Thorn Hill Hunting Lodge where she finds the gang having dinner with Penelope. Penelope reveals herself as the mastermind of the game; Chic as the Gargoyle King. She sends them on a final quest. Alice learns of Edgar's plans for ascension and Cheryl attempts to break Kevin and Fangs out. Cheryl stumbles upon Jason, grave robbed by Edgar. Alice frees Juniper and Cheryl, staying back to save Polly. In the woods, the four are nearly killed and Betty shoots Hal to receive the antidote to Cyanide. Penelope then kills Hal. The Pretty Poisons and the Serpents save the four before raiding the Farm, finding only Kevin. Hermione is arrested for attempting to kill Hiram, who plots revenge; Cheryl brings Jason's body home. Betty and Jughead are greeted at home by their brother, Charles, alive and an FBI agent, who reveals that Alice had been undercover at the Farm. The gang vows to enjoy their senior year. A flash-forward shows Archie, Betty, and Veronica out in the woods and covered with blood, as they burn Jughead's beanie in a fire and promise never to speak of that day to anyone, so they will not get caught.
| LineColor = AB9176
}}
}}
### Season 4 (2019–20)
| ProdCode = T13.21851
| Viewers = 1.14
| ShortSummary = As Riverdale prepares for the first Independence Day parade since Jason Blossom's death, Archie learns that his father has been killed by a hit-and-run driver in the town of Cherry Creek. The funeral home notifies Archie and his mom that they'll be unable to transport Fred's body home until after the holiday, which Archie finds unsettling. So, he asks Veronica, Betty, and Jughead to come with him to bring his dad home. While retrieving Fred's truck, the gang meets a woman ([Doherty](Shannen)(Shannen Doherty)) and learns that Fred died saving her life by pushing her out of the way of the speeding car that killed him. They share [prayer](a)(the Lord's Prayer) and leave flowers at the edge of the road. F.P. calls Archie to inform him that the man responsible for his father's death has turned himself in. Archie abandons the others and runs to the man's home. He learns that the man was protecting his own son by taking the blame for the accident and forgives the man and his son. Arriving back in Riverdale, the friends are greeted by the residents of Riverdale holding signs in Fred's honor. Fred's funeral takes place and Archie and his friends set off fireworks in his backyard in remembrance of his father.
| LineColor = 5B94F6
}}
| ProdCode = T13.21852
| Viewers = 0.80
| ShortSummary = On the first day of senior year, the gang encounters some surprises. Veronica struggles with the paparazzi, Betty deals with trusting Kevin after his affiliation with the Farm, and Jughead is offered a position at the prestigious Stonewall Prep, which he declines. Meanwhile, the school's new principal, Mr. Honey, cancels the dance due to the murders that occurred at the junior prom. Upset, Cheryl throws a party at Thistle House instead. Betty learns that Kevin is still talking to Fangs, who is feeding him information about the Farm and how Kevin can prove his loyalty. Learning that Kevin is still brainwashed, Betty and Charles help him recover, which actually allows Kevin to trick Fangs into telling him where the Farm has been relocated. Archie witnesses Reggie's father's abuse towards Reggie—which causes him to speak out to Mr. Mantle. Reggie and Archie then decide to break Mr. Mantle's car for payback for the abuse he has inflicted on Reggie. Betty encourages Jughead to go to Stonewall Prep; and when he obliges, F.P. speaks on his pride for Jughead's acceptance to the school. An ominous closing flash-forward shows a desperate search party looking for Jughead during Spring Break.
| LineColor = 5B94F6
}}
| ProdCode = T13.21853
| Viewers = 0.87
| ShortSummary = As Jughead settles in at Stonewall Prep, he develops a hostile relationship with his roommate, Bret. Jughead also reconciles with Moose, who is another roommate of his, now going by "Marmaduke". Cheryl deals with having to conceal Jason's body when Toni hires a live-in assistant to help Nana Rose. When Cheryl is talking with Jason in the basement, Toni stumbles upon them. Archie wrestles with coming up with $40,000 to help renovate the gym so it can be turned into a community center. Veronica pulls together some money to help him, while in the process of changing her name to ditch the Lodge label. Betty and Charles work on safely retrieving the members of the Farm. Edgar asks for money, food, passports, and a bus. Charles refuses, but Betty manages to acquire the items herself, and infiltrates the motel where the cult has relocated. While there, Evelyn knocks Betty unconscious. Betty later wakes up tied to a chair next to Alice in a motel room, and they escape—knocking Evelyn unconscious. Alice follows Edgar to the roof of the motel, where he "ascends" after Alice fatally shoots him. At home, Betty and Jughead are met with a ring of the doorbell, to reveal a videotape at the doorstep.
| LineColor = 5B94F6
}}
| ProdCode = T13.21854
| Viewers = 0.74
| ShortSummary = On the eve of Halloween, Riverdale families receive videotapes of their houses being watched. As Halloween approaches, Cheryl and Toni re-bury Jason's body, but Cheryl is worried that Jason's ghost will now haunt Thistlehouse. After a seance in the Blossom chapel, Nana Rose reveals that Cheryl was supposed to have a second brother named Julian, but she absorbed him before birth. Meanwhile, at Stonewall Prep, Jughead's classmates haze him and lock him inside a coffin in Mr. Chipping's office for Halloween night. Elsewhere, Archie and Munroe throw a Halloween party for the kids of the community in order to keep Dodger away, but the party ends in Dodger shooting one of the kids who attended the party. Veronica wards off an escaped patient from Shady Grove, as he poses as another man and tries to murder her. Betty and Jellybean, while home alone, receive phone calls by someone claiming to be the Black Hood. When Charles tracks the phone calls, Betty learns that they are coming from Polly. Later, it's revealed Charles is secretly listening to Betty's calls. An ominous closing flash-forward shows F.P. and Betty at the coroner's office identifying what appears to be Jughead's dead body.
| LineColor = 5B94F6
}}
| ProdCode = T13.21855
| Viewers = 0.76
| ShortSummary = The trials of Hermione and Hiram begin, and Veronica is working hardest on proving her mother's innocence. When some revelations come to the surface, Veronica is forced to have her mother plead guilty to her crimes and bribe the governor to pardon her. Veronica meets her sister, Hermosa, who has helped Hiram get released—much to her dismay. At Hiram's release, he says he will be running for mayor. Meanwhile, Archie and Munroe continue to ward off Dodger from the community center. Elsewhere, Betty and Kevin join the Junior FBI Training Program where Betty is incredibly successful. Betty is also haunted by her past when it is confirmed that she has the "serial killer genes". Jughead, while at Stonewall Prep, learns more about the Baxter Brothers novels that he loved when he was a kid, and enters a contest to become the next ghost writer for the series. A flash forward reveals Archie, Veronica, and Betty being arrested in biology class for the murder of Jughead.
| LineColor = 5B94F6
}}
| ProdCode = T13.21856
| Viewers = 0.82
| ShortSummary = Archie continues to get kids off the streets, despite Dodger's threats. With Veronica's parents out of jail, she wants nothing to do with Hermosa and Hiram. Hiram and Hermione sleep together, leading them to renew their vows, which Veronica is reluctant to attend. Jughead finds proof that his grandfather wrote the first Baxter Brothers Book, which the original writer denies. After asking for Mr. Chipping's help with the investigation, Mr. Chipping apologizes to Jughead and dives out of a window in his office. Cheryl and Toni try to expel Julian's spirit from Thistlehouse with an interruption from Cheryl's Aunt Cricket and Uncle Bedford who want her to sign away the family business. Later, Uncle Bedford gains access to the chapel to find Jason's body, and declares Cheryl sick and pins her against the wall. Toni then kills him with a candlestick. Betty deals with proving Charles's trust to her family. She visits Chic, and Chic lies and tells her that Charles killed someone. Chic tells the authorities that Alice murdered a man, leading F.P. and Charles to remove any proof, proving his trust to Betty. Charles visits Chic, and it becomes clear that they are lovers and are working on the demise of the Cooper family.
| LineColor = 5B94F6
}}
| ProdCode = T13.21857
| Viewers = 0.74
| ShortSummary = Betty and Jughead look into Mr. Chipping's death while staying on Stonewall Prep's campus during an ice storm. With Thanksgiving on the way, Archie and Veronica make plans to host a Thanksgiving dinner at the community center, which Hiram derails as the new mayor of Riverdale. While preparing for the Thanksgiving dinner, Dodger's family preys on the community center to kill Archie for revenge, believing that he had hurt Dodger. Things escalate quickly, but just as Archie is about to be killed, an explosion occurs with one of the dishes, prompting Mary to order them to leave. Alice and F.P. decide that they want to have turkey dinner at Pop's for Thanksgiving and joined by Hiram and Hermione, which ends in an altercation between Hiram and F.P. in La Bonne Nuit. While Cheryl and Toni are trying to cover up Bedford's murder, Cheryl's Aunt Cricket will not stop stalking them. They invite her over to dinner and lead her to believe that the meat she is eating is Bedford's body, when really it was just a distraction so they could dump Bedford's body in Sweetwater River before it froze over. Archie dedicates the community center to Fred's legacy while the town watches.
| LineColor = 5B94F6
}}
| ProdCode = T13.21858
| Viewers = 0.69
| ShortSummary = More videotapes appear at Riverdale doorsteps. Betty learns that she does not get into Yale and Alice claims it is because of her sexual activity. After a session with Ms. Burble, the guidance counselor, Betty and her mother argue and Alice reveals that Betty is her favorite child. Archie and Ms. Burble discuss Archie's business as a vigilante, and she urges him to take discretion. Archie then decides to move out, so his mother is no longer in danger. Cheryl loses the leadership of the Vixens due to her delicate mental state. After meeting with Ms. Burble, they discuss how Cheryl can find better outlets to deal with her trauma and that Julian's ghost has not truly been haunting Thistle House. Veronica receives an acceptance to Harvard but learns that Hiram had influence in the acceptance. Ms. Burble advises her to no longer associate with Hiram. Jughead is advised to receive recommendations from Riverdale staff to better supplement his applications. Betty and Jughead deduce the murders disguised as suicides that happened to members of the secret society that Mr. Chipping was a part of. A flashforward shows Archie, Betty, and Veronica being taken into custody at the police station for Jughead's murder.
| LineColor = 5B94F6
}}
| ProdCode = T13.21859
| Viewers = 0.73
| ShortSummary = After receiving a phone call, Polly attacks a Shady Grove nurse. Alice attempts to stab Betty with a knife, also after receiving a phone call. Betty learns that Evelyn had been making calls using a trigger word to initiate attacks on Dark Betty. FP is shot by Dodger at Pop's, and Archie fights Dodger in an alley, despite the family being in the process of fleeing. Archie then meets his uncle. Veronica invites her Abuelita to town to tell her how her father's been treating her and to get the family rum recipe, although Hiram claims to have patented it. Jughead is awarded the Baxter Brothers contract, which causes him to track down his grandfather. His grandfather tells him that Dupont legally took over writing the book after he left Stonewall Prep. Jughead goes back later to find that his grandfather is gone. He is inducted into the Quill & Skull Society. Cheryl lures Penelope out of the walls of Thistlehouse where she has been staying. She then banishes Penelope to Dilton's bunker and decides to give Jason a final farewell by way of a Norse funeral on Sweetwater River. A flash forward is then shown indicating that Betty had killed Jughead with a rock.
| LineColor = 5B94F6
}}
| ProdCode = T13.21860
| Viewers = 0.79
| ShortSummary = The Riverdale Bulldogs make it to the state finals against the Stonewall Stallions, who have been reported to play unfairly. Betty attempts to find the truth. The Vixens receive a new cheer coach Mrs. Appleyard, much to Cheryl's dismay. Veronica continues to pursue her rum-making endeavors until her father comes after her for copying his recipe. Archie learns that his uncle Frank has a troubled past, and Jughead gets in deeper with the Quill & Skull Society after discovering that he has earned an interview with Yale. Tension builds up between Riverdale High and Stonewall Prep before game day, as after Munroe is attacked outside the community center, Archie and the Bulldogs get into a fight with Stonewall's team. On game day, Frank gives Munroe drugs so that he can play and Cheryl locks Appleyard in a classroom so she can have the squad to herself. The Stonewall Stallions won, prompting Betty to form a quiz team so that Riverdale High still has a chance to get an edge over Stonewall Prep in something. Jughead is accepted to Yale and a flash-forward shows Betty packing up Jughead's dorm room with Bret telling her that she "got what she wanted."
Without being a crossover, this episode features a [appearance](cameo)(cameo appearance) by [Wood](Ty)(Ty Wood) as Billy Marlin, a character from *[Adventures of Sabrina](Chilling)(Chilling Adventures of Sabrina (TV series))*.
| LineColor = 5B94F6
}}
| ProdCode = T13.21861
| Viewers = 0.73
| ShortSummary = Betty, Veronica, Cheryl, and Toni win in the Quiz Show semifinals and earn a spot in the finals against Stonewall Prep. Jughead and Bret tell Betty that they got into Yale, and Betty learns out that Bret's father bought his way in. Cheryl and Veronica turn the speakeasy into a club in to cover up serving rum. Hiram finds them and they must relocate. Cheryl and Veronica decide to set up in the Maple Club. They make a deal with Penelope to keep watch on the Maple Club. Archie lands in hot water with Tom as Frank takes over Andrews construction and makes risky moves. Kevin earns money by making videos where he is tickled by men. Charles tells Betty that the reason she was denied to Yale was because she was the daughter of the Black Hood. Betty smashes Hal's gravestone. At the Quiz Finals, the Yale recruiter says Betty is in if Riverdale wins against Stonewall Prep. Alice leaves Betty the answers, but Betty tears them up. Bret plants the evidence in Betty's room, which leads Alice to be suspended from work and Betty to be suspended from school. A flash-forward then reveals Archie comforting Betty in a booth at Pop's as she mourns the loss of Jughead.
| LineColor = 5B94F6
}}
| ProdCode = T13.21862
| Viewers = 0.65
| ShortSummary = Betty decides to spend suspension time with Alice to look more into Mr. Chipping's murder. They meet with Mr. Chipping's wife, who says Donna was lying about the affair she had with him, and Moose, who says that Bret videotaped him having sex. Betty and Alice go to find Bret's videotapes while he is preoccupied with Jughead and the duel, but he finds them. Archie meets Frank's friend from the Army, who turns out to be a mercenary out for blood. F.P. locks him up, but he escapes and attacks Archie at school. Frank was also a mercenary, so he is forced to leave town before capture. Veronica catches up with her friend [Keene](Katy)(Katy Keene) in New York, and after she returns learns that her father is ill. Nick St. Clair appears, and Toni, Kevin, and Fangs turn the tables on him, forcing him to leave Riverdale from Cheryl. Jughead gives Bret the win in their duel, and Betty reveals that she was able to sneak a tape labeled "Donna" from Stonewall Prep. The tape shows Donna giving the same speech she gave to Betty about her affair with Mr. Chipping, only this time she is incriminating a man who does not exist, pushing Betty to investigate Donna.
----
| LineColor = 5B94F6
}}
| ProdCode = T13.21863
| Viewers = 0.65
| ShortSummary = Jughead learns that his Baxter Brothers contract is being terminated and he has been removed from the Quill & Skull Society. Archie tries to make decisions about his future, which includes almost selling Andrews Construction. Veronica struggles with Hiram's diseased state. Cheryl and Toni discover Hermosa in disguise trying to gain knowledge on Cheryl and Veronica's business. Jughead is accused of plagiarizing the story that got him into Yale. He plans to fight these accusations until Bret informs Jughead that he must accept his punishment and leave Stonewall Prep or he will release a video of him and Betty having sex. Bret still invites him and Betty into the woods for a party to celebrate the [of March](Ides)(Ides of March). Betty invites Veronica and Archie so they can all spend some time together. Jughead goes to the party seeking revenge on Bret, luring him into the woods. Betty follows Donna into the woods, where Donna reveals that she met with Evelyn in prison and Evelyn revealed to Donna that there is a special word that will hypnotize Betty into hurting people she loves. Donna and Bret are then seen walking out of the woods, with Archie and Veronica stumbling upon Betty, who has bludgeoned Jughead to a death with a rock.
| LineColor = 5B94F6
}}
| ProdCode = T13.21864
| Viewers = 0.67
| ShortSummary = After Jughead's death, Betty, Archie, and Veronica burn his beanie and their clothes in the woods. When arriving home late that night, they all provide different explanations to their parents. Meanwhile, Betty decides to plant a bug at Stonewall Prep to determine the events of the night Jughead died because she doesn't remember anything after her conversation with Donna in the woods. However, it is soon found by Bret and Donna and destroyed. Back in Riverdale, Alice and F.P. discover Jughead's cellphone is in Betty's jacket, having been planted by Joan. While continuing the investigation, F.P. takes a bloody rock into evidence which is replaced by Charles with a decoy with fake blood. Charles helps Betty come to terms with what happened the night of the murder. She remembers that Donna blew a powder in her face called "devil's breath", which would've made her incapable of murdering Jughead. This means that the Stonewall kids murdered Jughead and planted the evidence on her. Jughead's body is found when a search party goes out for him, and Betty and F.P. identify it at the morgue. After, Betty, Archie, and Veronica go back to Pop's to discuss their next moves.
| LineColor = 5B94F6
}}
| ProdCode = T13.21865
| Viewers = 0.66
| ShortSummary = Alice begins to make a documentary about Jughead's alleged death as investigation is under way. At Stonewall Prep, F.P. is in Donna's room looking for evidence for the case when Donna tells him that the Core Three killed Jughead. F.P. then goes to Riverdale High and arrests them but lets them go when the test results on the rock reveal that the blood was fake. Betty plans a funeral for Jughead and Donna, Bret, and Joan attend. Donna, believing that Jughead is alive, orders Bret to open the casket, which gets them kicked out. Donna, believing that they are being fooled decides to dig a little deeper into the death of Jughead. At school, Cheryl creates a locker memorial for Jughead which makes Betty emotional. She runs to the music room, followed by Archie and they kiss. Cheryl tells Veronica; who angrily confronts them in the lounge. Donna follows Betty into Dilton's bunker that night to find her and Archie kissing. Knowing that Donna was following her, she hid a very alive Jughead under the cot as a diversion so Bret and Donna would crack under pressure. At home, Betty and Archie flirtatiously text and Hermosa finds evidence about Donna's identity to help take-down the Stonewall kids.
| LineColor = 5B94F6
}}
| ProdCode = T13.21866
| Viewers = 0.66
| ShortSummary = Jughead and Betty hold a locked room with the Stonewall kids and Mr. DuPont, explaining all. Mr. Chipping killed himself out of guilt as he orchestrated each student to commit the perfect murder. Whoever was assigned the ghostwriter job, would write their murder. Moose was supposed to be the murdered student. Betty and Jughead deduce that all four students had a hand in killing Jughead. Charles ordered the trio to burn their clothes and all evidence while he took Jughead in for injuries. Betty brings in Charles, FP, and Forsythe. Forsythe has been living in hiding, trying to prove Mr. DuPont murdered his original literary circle. Jughead was bait to lure out Forsythe so Mr. DuPont could finish the murder. DuPont kills himself to avoid jail, Joan leaves the country. Brett reveals the location of the tapes, while he faces charges. Betty blackmails Donna into disappearing, figuring out Donna's grandmother was murdered by DuPont, making her the mastermind behind everything. Betty starts to realize she might have feelings for Archie. FP and Forsythe begin talking. Veronica and Betty promise to tutor the guys so they can graduate together.
| LineColor = 5B94F6
}}
| ProdCode = T13.21867
| Viewers = 0.54
| ShortSummary = Residents of Riverdale receive more videotapes of their houses. Kevin wants to sing a song from the musical *[and the Angry Inch](Hedwig)(Hedwig and the Angry Inch (musical))* at the school's variety show. Archie and the gang decide to sing as a band; however, Principal Honey believes the show to be too inappropriate. Hiram has been skipping his doctor appointments which leads to him collapsing. Betty tutors Jughead, who is not taking it seriously and investigating the videotapes. Cheryl and Toni devise a plan to try to get Honey to accept the show, but he denies, threatening to ban students from senior prom. After a peaceful protest, Honey cancels the variety show. Veronica and Archie fight over Hiram going to the gym, just as Betty and Jughead fight over him taking school seriously. Only Archie and Betty show up to rehearsal, and they end up kissing. Later, Veronica and Jughead apologize for their blowup, as Betty and Archie look at each other longingly from their windows and share a dream dance sequence. Veronica hosts the variety show at La Bonne Nuit and the Archies perform there, where Archie and Betty continue to share longing looks. Watching the tapes, Jughead sees a person tied up wearing a Jughead face mask who is brutally murdered by another person in a Betty face mask.
| LineColor = 5B94F6
}}
| ProdCode = T13.21868
| Viewers = 0.66
| ShortSummary = Charles, investigating the videotapes, learns that a video store has a video of Clifford killing Jason. Kevin brings Toni, Fangs, and Reggie into the tickle videos to earn some cash; they decide to start their own website. Afterwards, Kevin is threatened by Terry who demands a share of his profits. Betty reminisces about her relationship with Archie as a child and their long and complicated love story. Archie is conflicted over his feelings about Betty while working on a song for her. Cheryl and Veronica's rum business is attacked by Jinx Malloy's clan, who then Hiram threatens. In return, Hunter Malloy severely beats him. Reggie and the Bulldogs threaten Terry so they can continue making videos. After Cheryl quits the business, Veronica partners with Hiram, feeling he has changed. However, Hiram murders Jinx, the head of the gang. Mr. Honey, a secret visitor to the store, finds out about the tickling website and demands that it be shut down. Archie wants to act on his feelings for Betty, but she tells him she will not hurt anyone, so they decide not to. In return, Archie plans to leave for the Naval Academy. Cheryl receives a videotape, this time with someone wearing a Clifford mask murdering someone in a Jason mask.
| LineColor = 5B94F6
}}
| ProdCode = T13.21869
| Viewers = 0.65
| ShortSummary = When Mr. Honey threatens to cancel prom, the gang is frustrated. Jughead must write a story for the University of Iowa, so he writes a tale about the group killing Honey for ruining their senior year. In this story, Archie, Veronica, Betty, Jughead, Reggie, and Cheryl murder Honey and later begin to give into darkness inside of them when covering up the murder. When the school receives a suspicious tape, Honey believes there is danger and cancels prom. In Jughead's story, Reggie dies in a car accident and foul play is suspected. Betty watches the full tape and catches a reflection of Honey in it. Filming the tape as an excuse to cancel prom, Charles and Betty have him fired and prom reinstated. Ms. Bell tells the gang that Honey was good for the school and gives Jughead his letter of recommendation for college. Jughead, moved, changes his story so Veronica and Archie are taking Honey to the hospital and saving his life; not wanting to become evil. Betty and Jughead are left another videotape inviting them to a cabin. They find another videotape, this time with a group of people wearing masks of the gang who stab Mr. Honey to death.
| LineColor = 5B94F6
}}
}}
### Season 5 (2021)
| ProdCode = T13.22701
| Viewers = 0.63
| ShortSummary = Betty and Jughead ask Charles to investigate the tape and Bret leads them to secret red-band screenings led by the Blue Velvet owner, David. Betty and Kevin deliver a homemade snuff film to gain her ticket to the screening. David spots it as a fake and Betty must give him the snuff film of her father as a child. KO Kelly comes to town to go up against Archie in a boxing match for one of them to be admitted into the Naval Academy; Archie loses. Toni tells Cheryl amid their prom queen campaign that her grandmother is not accepting of her dating a Blossom. Betty sneaks Jughead in the rave. They find several snuff films being shown containing the gang and Jellybean in attendance. At prom, Archie tells Veronica about his and Betty's kiss and they break up. During prom, a livestream of the masked gang is played killing a masked owl at the video store, later revealed to be David. Cheryl and Toni do not go home together following prom. Veronica returns home and tells her parents of Archie's unfaithfulness, and Hiram overhears. Archie returns home to find a videotape that shows a recreation of his encounter with the Black Hood.
| LineColor = 101154
}}
| ProdCode = T13.22702
| Viewers = 0.52
| ShortSummary = Archie wrestles with emotions after he watches the videotape and is told by Mary that George Augustine and his son are asking Archie to write a letter to negotiate for a lesser sentence for killing Fred. Jughead and Betty discover that Bret has been murdered in prison. They suspect David killed Bret, but later find that he had been hanged in the Lodge's cabin. Cheryl attempts to persuade the Blossom Maple Board to construct a sanctuary for the Uktena tribe so that she can be with Toni, but they refuse. So, Penelope kills them while Cheryl and Toni are out of town. The Molloy family attacks Veronica, but Hermosa steps in to kill them. Veronica and Hermosa, along with Hermione, devise a plan to force Hiram into retirement. Hermione later decides to divorce Hiram. Another tape arrives at Betty's house showing the auteur making their way inside. Betty and Jughead figure out that Charles is behind the recent murders of Bret, Joan, and David and confront him. They suspect that he is the auteur, but, after questioning Jellybean, Betty and Jughead realize that she and her friends had been making the videotapes because she was upset that Jughead was leaving town.
| LineColor = 101154
}}
| ProdCode = T13.22703
| Viewers = 0.54
| ShortSummary = With graduation approaching, Archie learns that he will have to repeat his senior year. However, Principal Weatherbee still allows him to walk with his classmates. With Jellybean being exposed as the voyeur, FP makes the decision to move back to Toledo with Gladys. The gang graduates while Archie makes a decision to join the Army after he struggles with the absence of Fred. FP and Jellybean depart, and the Riverdale High Students bury a time capsule. Meanwhile, Cheryl decides not to attend college and breaks up with Toni. Archie announces to the gang that he is leaving for the Army and they say their final goodbyes the next day, before swearing they would meet a year from that day. After Archie leaves, the gang quickly stops talking. Veronica vacations with Hermione before college. Betty tells Jughead about kissing Archie. Jughead moves out of the Cooper house after Betty leaves for Yale and squats in Archie's house before it is sold. He then moves into the bunker until college begins. One year from their final goodbyes, Jughead goes to Pop's to meet Archie, Betty, and Veronica, but they do not show. He notes that it was ultimately six more years before the gang reunited, brought back together by another mystery.
| LineColor = 101154
}}
| ProdCode = T13.22704
| Viewers = 0.48
| ShortSummary = After seven years away from Riverdale, Archie returns home to find Toni performing with Fangs and Sweet Pea in what was formerly La Bonne Nuit, and now the Whyte Wyrm. Toni is now pregnant; however, she says the identity of her child's father is a "secret", and seems reluctant to speak about Pops' present whereabouts. Toni shows Archie around town, where he realizes that Hiram is trying to clear out Riverdale for his benefit. Meanwhile, Betty is training with the FBI in [Virginia](Quantico,)(Quantico, Virginia), and has been having vivid nightmares about being held captive by the Trash Bag Killer (TBK)—a result of a mission that went horribly wrong for her. Veronica is seen celebrating her wedding anniversary with her husband, Chad, who is found to be controlling of where she chooses to work. He wants them to start a family, but Veronica does not want to put her ambitions on hold. In New York, Jughead's girlfriend moves out because she realizes that his novel is more important to him, and his drinking is getting more out of control. Depressed, he heads to his favorite bar. There he picks up a woman who, after they sleep together, leaves a manuscript she wrote for Jughead to read and subtly blackmails him with a threat to rat him out to some [collector](debt)(debt collector)s he has been ducking for months now. Back in Riverdale, Cheryl has been rebuffing Toni's advances for years as she has been hiding out in Thornhill with Nana Rose. Archie and Toni return to Pop's to find Betty, Jughead, and Veronica, all having been receptive to the phone calls from Archie. Meanwhile, Lynette "Squeaky" Fields, a waitress from Pop's, decides to leave Riverdale and hitches a dangerous ride to California, as Jughead ominously narrates that she never will arrive in California.
| LineColor = 101154
}}
| ProdCode = T13.22705
| Viewers = 0.59
| ShortSummary = After returning home, the gang soon realizes that Riverdale High is in danger of losing its funding due to teachers and students defecting to Stonewall Prep. Betty returns home to find Alice and the twins, but stumbles upon Polly sneaking in late at night. Polly claims to have been working in a nightclub, but Archie sees her with the Ghoulies and suspects that she is using drugs. Betty confronts Polly but Alice shuts her down. Archie and Betty, along with some of the Serpents, raid the Andrews house and find evidence to send them to jail. Betty and Archie clean up the mess and have sex in the shower. Meanwhile, Jughead dodges debt collectors as he still faces writer's block. He asks Tabitha for a job waiting tables at Pop's. Veronica realizes Chad is having her followed and has frozen their bank accounts. Archie persuades Betty, Jughead, and Veronica to become temporary teachers at Riverdale High so that doors will be able to stay open. Riverdale High is later privatized, being funded by Cheryl, and Hiram dissolves Riverdale's township. Elsewhere, Polly, having run away after fighting with Betty, is seen being chased by a truck.
| LineColor = 101154
}}
| ShortSummary = The gang begins their first day as Riverdale High's newest teachers while Hiram and Reggie struggle to find ways to keep the town suffering. Polly has been missing for several days and Toni tells Betty that Polly had been meeting up with a trucker for sex at a sketchy truck stop. Betty and Alice follow a lead from the trucker and find Polly's belongings on the side of the Lonely Highway. Meanwhile, Archie asks Veronica to fund the football team as Chad visits town. Doris Bell now works as an informant to both Cheryl and Hiram and tells Cheryl that Toni reinstated the Vixens and Hiram that Archie has started the football team. Veronica looks to open a jewelry store at the former Blue Velvet Video and Betty and Archie struggle with finding places to hook up unbeknownst to Jughead. Tabitha helps Jughead with his book, and leads him to an old man who tells him about how his friends were abducted by aliens known as the Moth Men who live in the woods off of the Lonely Highway. Alice, Betty, and Kevin ping Polly's cell phone leading to a discovery in Swedlow Swamp. Jughead alerts Archie to the fact that fires have been started outside their house.
| ProdCode = T13.22706
| Viewers = 0.60
| LineColor = 101154
}}
| ShortSummary = Betty, Alice, and Kevin take a body that they found in Swedlow Swamp to the morgue. Dr. Curdle Jr. is unable to identify the body, and Betty suspects it is the body of Margaret, a woman who went missing years ago. However, Margaret's body is recovered days later. Meanwhile, Veronica enlists her students to help build her jewelry store while funneling money back into Riverdale's economy. Hiram, however, tries to deconstruct her plan. Archie receives a visit from Corporal Jackson just as he is reinstating the Riverdale Fire Department. Cheryl and Toni agree to coach the Vixens together, but they butt heads. Jughead and Tabitha continue to investigate the Moth Men and find that Nana Rose has kept a disfigured corpse of one of the Moth Men in a maple barrel for several decades. They unpack the corpse in the kitchen at Pop's. During the graveyard shift, Jughead sees a bright light outside of Pop's. His mind goes blank, and he can't remember what happened after that. The corpse from the kitchen is gone the next day. As Betty comes to realize more women are missing from nearby towns, she begins to suspect a serial killer is on the loose.
| ProdCode = T13.22707
| Viewers = 0.52
| LineColor = 101154
}}
| ShortSummary = Jughead struggles with his possible alien encounter, and Tabitha comforts him. He later also sees an alien-type hallucination while teaching at Riverdale High and also after having a bath at the house. Kevin and Fangs decide to abandon their open relationship and announce to the gang that they are engaged and helping Toni raise her child. However, Kevin struggles with committing to Fangs. Cheryl is saddened by the announcement and decides to host a key party at Thornhill. At the party, Archie and Chad squabble, which causes Veronica to file for divorce. Cheryl reveals to a disinterested Toni that she built a nursery so that they could raise the child together. Archie and Betty end their sexual relationship and Archie and Veronica rekindle their romance. Kevin calls off his engagement with Fangs and Cheryl shares a passionate moment with Minerva. Betty and Alice receive a call from Polly, claiming to be at a phone booth off of the Lonely Highway. When they arrive, the phone booth is dismantled and covered in blood.
| ProdCode = T13.22708
| Viewers = 0.45
| LineColor = 101154
}}
| ShortSummary = Archie and Veronica struggle to keep the Bulldogs' spirit alive after they lose several games. Betty receives a call from Glen about the blood discovered on the destroyed phone booth; and it is a match to Polly. Betty struggles with realizing that Polly is most likely dead, and tells Alice that Polly's blood was not a match. Meanwhile, Jughead realizes a student in his class may have had encounters with the Moth Men. However, the student leaves town with his parents. Betty and Jughead visit Old Man Dreyfus off of the Lonely Highway, and he is convinced that Polly had an encounter with the Moth Men. Kevin decides to go back to cruising, but hits a roadblock. The Bulldogs face the Stonewall Stallions, and receive a small victory when they score for the first time in the season. Betty goes to the truck stop to save girls and get justice for Polly. Back at home, Betty finds Glen, who tells Alice that Polly's blood was a match.
| ProdCode = T13.22709
| Viewers = 0.46
| LineColor = 101154
}}
| ShortSummary = Betty discovers Glen is writing a dissertation about the Cooper family while Alice and Betty discover that Juniper and Dagwood may be victim to the family's darkness. Archie learns he may have been sent on a dirty mission just as he and Kevin prepare for Parent Teacher Night. Hiram and Reggie prepare to buy the Blossom Maple Groves from Cheryl, who refuses. Jughead and Tabitha share a moment at Pop's. Jughead convinces Tabitha to watch over him as he takes psychedelic maple mushrooms to help him write his novel. She reluctantly agrees after Jessica comes to town. Hiram intentionally causes a break out at the prison. Charles and Chic arrive at the Cooper house to be married by Alice. When Glen arrives, they decide to play a game of "the Pincushion Man". Juniper is told to stab Glen, but Betty does so instead before violently stabbing Chic and causing Charles to get shot. Veronica hits a roadblock in her divorce. Reggie sets fire to the maple groves and Jughead experiences a horrifying drug trip. The FBI decides to move the case upstate, and Betty takes matters into her own hands. Tabitha returns to the bunker to find bloody handprints on a completed copy of Jughead's novel.
| ProdCode = T13.22710
| Viewers = 0.49
| LineColor = 101154
}}
| ShortSummary = Archie and Kevin get to work rounding up the escaped inmates. Veronica returns from New York and Archie breaks things off with her until the divorce is finalized. At her jewelry store, she is robbed by Darla and Dodger. Meanwhile, Tabitha grows concerned about Jughead and asks for Betty's help. Jessica comes from New York to help them, and drugs them with psychedelic mushrooms in order for them to give her Jughead's completed manuscript so that she won't be implicated for anything he may have written about her. Hiram and Governor Dooley argue about the acquisition palladium that was being extracted beneath the prison. Several inmates hold the duo and Sheriff Keller hostage in the El Royale in order to receive the palladium, with Veronica serving as the collateral. At Thornhill, Penelope begins a ministry to once again help her try and cope with Jason's unjust death and Cheryl is reluctant to join until she experiences a revelation. Elsewhere, Jughead lives amongst the homeless before deciding to hitch a ride on a semi truck back to New York; leaving Tabitha with a voicemail so that she knows his whereabouts.
| ProdCode = T13.22711
| Viewers = 0.38
| LineColor = 101154
}}
| ShortSummary = Reggie pays back his father's debt to Hiram, but decides he still wants to work for Hiram due to his strained relationship with his father. Reggie asks questions of Hiram's journey to the top and Hiram tells him his origin story. Hiram, then Jaime Luna, got his start shining shoes with his father. Jaime realized that the shoe shining business wasn't providing for his family, and began to work for a local gangster to Riverdale, known as Vito. Meanwhile, Jaime pursued a young Hermione and developed a connection with her through the money he gained at his gig working for Vito. Jaime's father resented his behavior, especially following a fight that Jaime started at school after he wished to be referred to as Hiram Lodge due to his embarrassment he associated with the Luna name. Elsewhere, Jaime's father met with Vito to request that he stop bothering his son; leading to Jaime's father being shot in front of Pop's. Following his father's death, Hiram vowed to avenge the Luna name and legacy and killed the men who shot his father. In present day, Hiram locates Vito with Hermosa's help; and murders him. Later, Hiram tells Reggie to reconcile with his father, as he wished he had done the same with his before it was too late. Hiram later vows to do whatever it takes to extract the palladium that lies beneath the Blossom Maple Groves.
| ProdCode = T13.22712
| Viewers = 0.47
| LineColor = 101154
}}
| ShortSummary = Betty and Tabitha develop a plan to lure truckers to Pop's after Betty is prohibited from affiliating with the FBI. Meanwhile, Archie and Eric wrestle with trauma and Frank gives them a dog to help them cope. Later, though, they realize that their dog was in a fighting ring and they target the leader of the dog fights in town. Elsewhere, Reggie and Veronica build business at the jewelry store and aim at poaching investors of SoDale, due to it being a complete scam. Cheryl offers Kevin advice, telling him to reconcile with Fangs, but Fangs has begun dating Moose. Kevin later joins Cheryl and Penelope's ministry. At the Whyte Wyrm, there is a ladies night that helps lure potential suspects in the highway murders in. Betty is eyed by a trucker and baits him under the false pretense of sex. Tabitha tracks her location and he pulls over and tries to kill her with a chainsaw. Betty eventually strikes him with a wrench and they haul him off to keep him hostage.
| ProdCode = T13.22713
| Viewers = 0.47
| LineColor = 101154
}}
| ShortSummary = At Thorn Hill, Cheryl shows a reluctant Minerva her newest collection of paintings centered around Archie, Betty, and Jughead. Cheryl's painting shows a troubled Archie, and tells the story of his journey with a new therapist. Within Archie's story, it is learned that several of the guys have started mining for palladium at the Blossom Maple Groves. However, a carbon monoxide leak in the mines causes them all to have terrifying hallucinations, including those of the Moth Men. Moving to Betty's painting, it tells the story of her keeping Polly's potential killer captive in a classroom at Riverdale High. When the trucker won't admit to his killing of several women, including Polly, Alice gives Betty permission to kill him. Betty comes to terms with the idea, but just as she is about to murder him, she discovers he has killed himself by biting off his tongue and choking to death on it. With Jughead's story, it is discovered that he returned to New York after his drug trip, only to discover the truth about the night that he had sent Betty the menacing voicemail--that he had fallen into the sewers. He experienced hallucinations of an entity known as the "Rat King", who taunted him relentlessly. Back in town, he comes to terms with his issues with drugs and alcohol in a group meeting at the high school.
| ProdCode = T13.22714
| Viewers = 0.36
| LineColor = 101154
}}
| ShortSummary = During her world tour, Josie McCoy disappears and returns to Riverdale; seeking inspiration for her new album after learning of her father's death. During her time in Riverdale, she retaliates against her old classmates who suggest that she can help them save the town from dying; marking how they have wronged her in the past. She also reconnects with Valerie and Melody, who have each pursued careers in political activism and writing; respectively. Valerie and Melody are reluctant to trust Josie, following her abandonment of the Pussycats in high school. Later, though, the girls decide to perform with Josie at a one-night event hosted at the Whyte Wyrm. Meanwhile, Veronica and Tabitha discuss franchising the diner with Alexandra Cabot and Toni gives birth to her son in the kitchen at Pop's. While in town, Josie also reconnects with Sweet Pea and proposes that the Pussycats get back together for their own tour, to which Valerie and Melody agree. Before boarding the bus to depart on tour, Sweet Pea asks to come, and Josie agrees. A man that knew Josie's father passes by before the departure, and suggests to Sierra and Josie that her father may have been murdered because of his shady dealings prior to his passing. All set aside, though, Josie boards the bus, excited for the future.
| ProdCode = T13.22715
| Viewers = 0.39
| LineColor = 101154
}}
| ShortSummary = Archie seeks justice for the men who lost their lives under his employ in the army. Veronica gets creative in order to re-attain financial stability; making moves against Chad and her father with the help of Reggie and Cheryl. Meanwhile, Kevin and Cheryl attempt to take control of the ministry after Penelope begins to defy their authority. Jughead embarks on an apology tour, and is placed on administrative leave from his teaching job. His book deadline is approaching fast and he realizes Jessica has his manuscript. Attempting to maintain his sobriety, he doesn't go to see her and rather attempts to pass off Cora's work, which he still retains, as his own. However, he does tell his agent, and is let go as a client. Elsewhere, Betty surveys the Lonely Highway posing as a hitchhiker dressed as Polly. Tabitha dislikes the idea of her doing so alone, and steps in to help her.
| ProdCode = T13.22716
| Viewers = 0.45
| LineColor = 101154
}}
| ShortSummary = With Veronica's divorce looming, Hiram gives Chad a chance to kill Archie—-but he fails. Veronica gets everything in the divorce so Chad can avoid a murder charge. Meanwhile, Kevin leaves the ministry and an explosion at the mines tests Cheryl's relationship with her faith. Veronica threatens Hiram for causing the explosion at the mines and leaving Archie and Eric's lives in jeopardy. The duo survive, though, and Veronica spares him. Chad attacks Veronica at the Pembrooke, but she kills him. Elsewhere, Jughead and Betty discover that a group of inbred Blossoms have been living in the forest for two generations; with Old Man Dreyfus and the captured trucker being among them. Lynette Fields' body is also found and then stolen from the morgue. Toni's student runs away after coming out to her family, leading Betty and Jughead's investigation to come to a head with Toni's situation. The trio survey the junkyard with Fangs and Tabitha and discover the group of Moth Men and a shed where victims were being held. Old Man Dreyfus admits to the murders and tells Betty where Polly's body is. Betty and Alice visit the junkyard and confirm it is her.
| ProdCode = T13.22717
| Viewers = 0.35
| LineColor = 101154
}}
| ShortSummary = Alice struggles to cope with Polly's death and imagines a world where the Coopers are still a happy family. Betty tries to get her to cope as best she can, but Alice blames Betty for Polly's death and for breaking her promises to return to Riverdale sooner. Meanwhile, Cheryl takes in Britta when she is kicked out of her parents' house. Archie and Veronica break up after Veronica realizes that they are on separate paths. Toni and Fangs declare their love for each other and vow to have each other's backs moving forward. Tabitha lures Jughead into a dinner with her parents, and the two decide to begin a romantic relationship. The gang buries Polly's ashes at the cemetery.
| ProdCode = T13.22718
| Viewers = 0.25
| LineColor = 101154
}}
| ShortSummary = Betty graduates to the title of Special Agent at the FBI and re-opens the Riverdale field office, where she is called by TBK. Veronica vows to exile Hiram once and for all after he is responsible for a fire at Pop's. Jughead and Tabitha burn the office of the Lodge Ledger to get revenge. Toni and Fangs struggle to maintain control of the Serpents. Cheryl learns that her ancestor was burned at the stake by Jughead, Archie, and Betty's ancestors and demands they apologize at the town forum. She vows to use her good to create a school for troubled girls on Thornhill's grounds, and unincorporated from Riverdale. Veronica and Reggie rekindle their romance as they plan for a casino in town. Archie names Tabitha, Toni, Alice, and Frank to the town council to help reincorporate Riverdale. Betty and Archie decide to begin a romantic relationship themselves, but as they are about to have sex in Archie's bedroom, they find a bomb under the bed that is about to go off, having revealed to be placed by Hiram as his final rebuke. As Hiram drives away, Archie's house is seen blown up in a fiery smoke.
| ProdCode = T13.22719
| Viewers = 0.36
| LineColor = 101154
}}
}}
### Season 6 (2021–22)
|c=#442B1A}}
| ShortSummary = Following the events of the explosion at the Andrews house, Archie and Betty awaken in the town of Rivervale. Archie and the gang attempt to stop Cheryl’s vendetta against the town of Rivervale after her secession. Betty and Archie talk about starting a family together. Cheryl hosts a Maple Fest at Thornhill, where Archie is crowned king and is given a pie as his prize. Later that evening, Archie and Betty eat the pie and have sex on the kitchen table. Archie is woken in the middle of the night and called to the maple grove, where the entire town is waiting to sacrifice him. Cheryl affixes him to a post and carves out his heart, as the town rejoices.
| ProdCode = T13.23301
| Viewers = 0.33
| LineColor = 442B1A
}}
| ShortSummary = Betty hunts La Llorona as she makes her way through Rivervale, haunting all of its residents. La Llorona nearly drowns Juniper in the bathtub at Thornhill and kidnaps Anthony from Toni’s apartment. Toni reveals to Betty that La Llorona likely materialized because she killed Darla Dickinson’s son in a gang fight. Darla called La Llorona to Rivervale to kill Anthony. Betty and Toni find the entity about to drown Anthony when Toni gives her soul to the ghost to save Anthony’s life.
| ProdCode = T13.23302
| Viewers = 0.34
| LineColor = 442B1A
}}
| ShortSummary = The devil comes to Rivervale, posing under the alias of Louis Cypher. He threatens several of the town’s residents with their darkest secrets and sins and exchanges favors with them in turn for their souls. Jughead sells his soul to the devil, leading there to be a disgrace on his name. Veronica nearly sells her soul to the devil to avoid misfortune at the Babylonium, but sells Reggie’s soul instead when she realizes he undermined her.
| ProdCode = T13.23303
| Viewers = 0.26
| LineColor = 442B1A
}}
| ShortSummary = As Bailey’s Comet travels over Rivervale, Nana Rose falls deathly ill. Cheryl calls in Sabrina Spellman from Greendale to help perform a transference of Nana Rose’s soul to Cheryl’s body. Realizing that she is inhabited with the soul of Abigail Blossom, Cheryl recounts the stories of Blossom women past who shared Abigail’s soul through the years, including Poppy Blossom in the 1950’s and Abigail Blossom herself in the late 1800’s. Cheryl realizes both women were victims of severe persecution, and she resonates with their pain. Cheryl and Sabrina perform a successful transference of Nana Rose’s soul to Cheryl’s body just as Bailey’s Comet passes over town.
----
| ProdCode = T13.23304
| Viewers = 0.27
| LineColor = 442B1A
}}
| ShortSummary = Jughead spirals when he notices a dead body resembling his own on the outskirts of town. He starts to notice cracks in the surface of the town, when two Reggies arrive in Rivervale and when he sees both Jason Blossom and Ben Button alive and well. He finds that there are a series of ninety-five comics that follow the stories of him and his friends in the town of Riverdale, but find that they cut off after the explosion at Archie’s house, with the name of the comics changing to Rivervale. He realizes that the two universes are connected, and seeks help from Ethel Muggs and a very much alive Dilton Doiley to close the gap between the two universes. Jughead and Betty recreate the events prior to the bomb erupting to close the gap. One of the versions of Jughead is sealed away in the bunker with Ethel watching over him, so that they may keep writing the stories of Riverdale, uninterrupted from the Rivervale universe.
| ProdCode = T13.23305
| Viewers = 0.29
| LineColor = 442B1A
}}
|c=#442B1A}}
| ShortSummary = Archie and Betty deal with mysterious side effects following the explosion at the Andrews house. Betty sees a malicious aura from a male orderly at the hospital whom she later detains as a suspect in the murder of a nurse. Fangs and Toni attempt a ceasefire agreement with the new Ghoulies leader, Twyla Twyst, but are rejected as they are reportedly still receiving money from Hiram Lodge to continue destroying the town. Archie, now seemingly invincible, confronts them alone which leads to Twyla's declaring war on the Serpents. Veronica conspires to have Hiram killed. After witnessing Reggie's reaction to his father's heart attack, she attempts to call off the hit but she is too late. Jughead suffers severe hearing loss and visits a doctor at Tabitha's request. Cheryl attempts to reverse Abigail's curse but realizes Abigail has possessed Britta's body. Nana Rose and Cheryl perform a banishment, but Nana Rose secretly redirects Abigail's spirit into Cheryl's body. Percival Pickens offers to buy the Andrews house, but Archie convinces his mother to sell it to him instead. While working on Hiram's case, Glen assaults Betty and she has him dismissed. Glen is later suffocated in his car by TBK.
| ProdCode = T13.23306
| Viewers = 0.23
| LineColor = 442B1A
}}
| ShortSummary = Hermione arrives in Riverdale, learning that Veronica was responsible for Hiram's death. Archie is gifted palladium found on the site by one of his workers. With the palladium later in his possession, Archie falls through the planks on the second floor and is injured, defying his expectations of being indestructible. Elsewhere, Betty and her unit hunt TBK after learning that Glen is being held captive by him. Betty is met at the office one night by TBK, who threatens Archie's life. She becomes concerned that she cannot see his threatening aura. Archie and Betty realize that palladium and TBK are their respective "kryptonite" to their newfound "superpowers". The same construction worker, dressed as TBK, later holds Archie captive in the attic, and Bingo attacks him, causing him to fall through the wall. Nana Rose conspires with Abigail's spirit to help the Blossoms reclaim Riverdale, but Abigail becomes distracted by Toni, who resembles Thomasina. Nana Rose criticizes Abigail's distraction with Toni and is later banished by Abigail. Tabitha helps Jughead come to terms with his deafness by introducing him to another deaf writer. Betty decides to leave Riverdale to lure TBK to the FBI once and for all. While writing, Jughead listens to Tabitha's thoughts and realizes his deafness may be a disguise for his ability to read minds.
| ProdCode = T13.23307
| Viewers = 0.21
| LineColor = 442B1A
}}
| ShortSummary = Percival writes an article detesting Riverdale, which angers Archie. During a town hall meeting, Percival suggests that the homeless population of Riverdale is removed, but Archie counters his thoughts with a plan to build housing for the homeless in Sketch Alley and seeks funds from Toni and Tabitha. While working on the project, Kevin is attacked by Doc with a hammer. Veronica and Reggie struggle with the town's approval of Babylonium, as Alice believes it is not ideal to have the Lodge name associated with rebranding the town. Just as Veronica and Reggie are drafting a plan to have the board on their side, they discover a man has hanged himself in their casino, and learn that Percival whispered something to the man prior to his hanging. Britta attempts to lure Abigail's spirit out of Cheryl's body by entering Abigail's dreamscape, which finds Cheryl tormented by a figment of Penelope. Britta reframes Cheryl's perception so that she is aware she is in a dreamscape and that Abigail has possessed her. Jughead meets with Percival and learns that he has the ability to control minds, as he hears his thoughts. Betty visits Archie, revealing that she has lost track of TBK. Archie warns Betty that Percival is controlling the minds of the townspeople. Percival is seen staring at a board of Riverdale citizens in his office with a smirk on his face.
| ProdCode = T13.23308
| Viewers = 0.18
| LineColor = 442B1A
}}
| ShortSummary = Percival motions to have Toni removed from the town council due to increasing tensions between the Serpents and Ghoulies. Tabitha attempts to protect her, but the remainder of the town votes her off, to which Percival is appointed by Alice and Frank. Archie assembles Betty and Jughead to get to the bottom of Percival's agenda. Meanwhile, Abigail Blossom, still possessing Cheryl's body, attempts to kill Betty, Archie, and Jughead with arsenic-laced scones. When her plan is foiled, Abigail lights Archie on fire in the parking lot of the El Royale. Betty convinces her that Archie had not survived the incident, but suffocates her, and ties her to a stake, performing an exorcism, with Abigail's spirit being directed into the Julian doll. Meanwhile, Kevin calls Ms. Weiss to do a wellness check on Anthony, seeing Toni as an unfit mother. Anthony is captured by the Ghoulies, and the Ghoulies later lure the Serpents to a trap with the sheriff under Percival's bidding. The Serpents are arrested, and the Ghoulies, with the exception of their leader, are killed in a shootout with the sheriff's force, although Dr. Curdle Jr. believes that the Ghoulies killed themselves. Anthony is returned to Toni but Kevin tells her he intends to file for primary custody. Elsewhere, Veronica and Reggie deal with Marty as he is on the mend, but makes poor choices when visiting the Babylonium. Archie informs Betty and Jughead that he believes Percival intends to decimate Riverdale entirely.
| ProdCode = T13.23309
| Viewers = 0.22
| LineColor = 442B1A
}}
| ShortSummary = The town council permits a billboard for Babylonium and removes Pop's from the town slogan on proposed new signs, angering Tabitha and Toni, who are losing business. Percival colludes with Veronica, causing a fallout with Reggie. Tabitha and Toni replicate business ideas from the Babylonium, but later reached an agreement with Veronica. Archie performs a series of incredible feats and invites KO Kelly into Riverdale for a boxing match. After KO Kelly is injured walking into traffic, Percival challenges Archie to a fight, but Percival hides palladium in his boxing gloves, causing Archie to be badly injured during the match. It is later revealed that Percival manipulated Alice and Betty to have him be told Archie's weaknesses. Elsewhere, Britta leaves Thornhill and Cheryl appears to be sick. Nana Rose hires a night nurse because she must keep watch over Abigail. When Cheryl awakes in the morning, the nurse's body is disintegrated, leaving only his feet. Cheryl calls Betty, who reports that it is a rare case of spontaneous human combustion. However, Betty stays to monitor Cheryl, whose temperature continues to rise to unfathomable heights. Betty meets with a colleague who specializes in rare cases and is told that Cheryl is likely pyrokinetic, allowing her to control fire with her mind. Betty helps Cheryl realize her newfound ability, causing Cheryl to realize that she can use this as an asset to her bout with Abigail.
| ProdCode = T13.23310
| Viewers = 0.23
| LineColor = 442B1A
}}
| ShortSummary = Tabitha and Jughead attempt to have Pop's declared a historical landmark to block Percival's agenda to dismantle the diner. While at the diner, a man walks in and shoots Tabitha, triggering her to jump through time, arriving in 1944 as Teresa Tate. After Teresa is found harboring a young family in Pop's, Percival's 1944 equivalent attempts to have her arrested. However, Teresa has the angel show Percival his true form, causing his eyes to bleed and bones to break. An angered Percival returns to the diner later and shoots Teresa, triggering another time jump to 1968. Tabitha assumes the form of Tina Tate, and attempts to stop the [of Martin Luther King Jr.](assassination)(assassination of Martin Luther King Jr.), but is unsuccessful. An angel reminds her that she must stop Percival in this timeline. After King's assassination is revealed, a group mourns Pop's and Percival attempts to have them arrested for rioting. Tina has Percival fired, but he leaves a bomb in the kitchen at Pop's. When it goes off, Tabitha jumps to 1999 and assumes the form of Tessa Tate. Her angel in this time period alerts her to find her talisman to use against Percival in the present. Tessa finds her talisman in the Holy Grail, warding off Percival in 1999, and returning to the present. Tabitha realizes she is chronokinetic, and is able to stop her initial attacker in the present. She meets with Jughead, Cheryl, Betty, and Archie to reveal that they must fight at all costs to stop Percival from destroying Riverdale, a future event that she says is arriving soon.
| ProdCode = T13.23311
| Viewers = 0.21
| LineColor = 442B1A
}}
| ShortSummary = As a dense fog rolls into Riverdale, Alice and Percival make a play to order a town curfew so that they can block the gang's plan to dismantle the town council. Cheryl reluctantly allows a visiting Penelope to stay with her but finds her speaking to Abigail's spirit. Cheryl, enraged, knocks Penelope unconscious and tortures her with her pyrokinetic powers. Penelope gives Cheryl letters from her childhood crush, Heather, as a bid of peace before departing. Toni, Fangs, and Kevin continue to battle for custody of Anthony. As Kevin is preparing to speak with them over dinner, he is met by Moose at Riverdale High. The two reconnect and have sex, but Kevin is haunted by their first time in high school. Veronica and Reggie have a serious talk about their future after they are blocked in at the Babylonium, coming to the realization that they both need to make changes. Tabitha and Jughead spend the evening at Pop's, colluding on how to block Percival. Tabitha reveals that during her time jumps to the future, there are only minimal scenarios where Jughead survives the ordeal with Percival, worrying her. Betty opens up to Archie about TBK and reveals that she suspects she may be pregnant. After the fog leaves town, it is reported that Percival has been appointed mayor of Riverdale. Betty and Archie anxiously await results from a pregnancy test.
| ProdCode = T13.23312
| Viewers = 0.16
| LineColor = 442B1A
}}
| ShortSummary = Betty's pregnancy test is negative, and Reggie moves out of the Pembrooke. Percival hunts down overdue library books from Jughead, Archie, Betty, Veronica, and Cheryl, who are all unable to produce the copies they borrowed from the library. Percival takes their personal effects as collateral until they can find the books. While in his possession, Percival uses the gang's items to torture them and unleash their darkest trauma. Betty faces early childhood memories of Hal's murderous habits, Archie deals with his affair with Miss Grundy, Jughead faces the circumstances of his grandfather's death, Veronica deals with being alone, and Cheryl is met by the ghost of Heather in her past. Reggie and Kevin are hunted for overdue books by Percival but are able to return them. Percival gains an ally in Reggie, and during a heart-to-heart, Percival and Kevin kiss. Veronica sleeps with Heraldo, but the next morning discovers him dead. Dr. Curdle confirms the cause of death as poisoning from a black widow spider. The gang returns their books to Percival and gain their items back. Cheryl hosts a gathering where the gang burns their items, so Percival has no hold over them with them in their possession.
| ProdCode = T13.23313
| Viewers = 0.19
| LineColor = 442B1A
}}
| ShortSummary = Archie struggles to overcome his weakness in palladium in order to stand a chance against Percival. He turns to Cheryl for help, and she suggests she perform a ritual to help transform his body to not reject the palladium. The ritual is successful, and Archie and Betty rejoice. Meanwhile, Veronica bouts head with Reggie over control of the Babylonium while learning to deal with the intense amount of toxins her body is producing. Cheryl reaches out to Heather, going against the advice of Nana Rose. Elsewhere, Betty turns to Jughead for help uncovering her repressed memories of her father. She discovers that Alice tested positive for the serial killer gene and that Hal and Alice covered up a murder together before Hal assumed the role of the Black Hood. Betty is angry at Alice for shielding her from her father's grooming and confronts her. Veronica regains control of the Babylonium. Jughead is met with fond memories of his time with Betty and Heather arrives at Thornhill to Cheryl's surprise.
| ProdCode = T13.23314
| Viewers = 0.20
| LineColor = 442B1A
}}
| ShortSummary = Heather coaches Cheryl in the arcane arts after revealing to Cheryl that she is a witch. Meanwhile, after seeing a threatening aura around Dagwood, Betty consults Agent Drake to make sense of her visions. They assume Betty only sees the aura around those without the MAOA gene, but when Alice erupts on Betty for taking the twins from her custody, Betty sees an aura around Alice. Betty also sees an aura around her reflection in the mirror, undermining her hunch. Elsewhere, Veronica consults Jughead for help drawing business to the Babylonium. Reggie blackmails her, so she instructs Jughead to erase his memory. Toni and Fangs continue to fight for custody of Anthony, while Fangs struggles to hold down a job. Archie and Tabitha get to work dismantling Pop's to relocate from Percival's demolition. They load the furnishings onto the truck, but are surprised to see the diner reassembled the next day. Tabitha accosts Percival, but consults Heather and Cheryl when she realizes that the diner is being inhabited by ghosts who refuse to move the location of the diner. Tabitha compromises with them, agreeing to rapidly move the diner.
| ProdCode = T13.23315
| Viewers = 0.21
| LineColor = 442B1A
}}
| ShortSummary = Archie and Tabitha persuade Percival’s work crew to unionize after learning that he is exploiting them. Archie enlists Cheryl to find evidence of worker mistreatment in the Pickens’ history, which Heather assists with. Heather and Cheryl attempt a spell where Cheryl enters Percival’s curiosity shop unseen so that they can retrieve a book. Meanwhile, Reggie and Percival toy with Jughead’s mind for revenge and Toni and Fangs continue to battle for custody against Kevin. When Toni enlists Britta to babysit, Kevin visits with Anthony and takes his pacifier to determine whether or not he is Anthony’s father. However, Toni storms his apartment and picks a fight with him. Elsewhere, Betty arrives home to find Charles sleeping in her bed, dying of leukemia. Alice tries to smother him to cease his suffering, but Betty stops her because she wants to learn how Charles copes with what he’s done. Betty realizes that Charles is poisoned by his darkness, and enlists Veronica and Agent Drake to help her remove the toxins from his body. They do this via a blood transfusion with Veronica, which is seemingly successful. Betty is determined to trap TBK once and for all, and asks Veronica for permission to hold a serial killer convention at the Babylonium.
| ProdCode = T13.23316
| Viewers = 0.17
| LineColor = 442B1A
}}
| ShortSummary = Betty and Veronica get the final plans for the convention hammered out, while Toni tells Cheryl about the wedding. Cheryl is upset, and enlists Kevin to perform a misfortune spell upon the couple. When the spell backfires, causing Anthony to develop colic, Heather steps in to help. Meanwhile, Archie and Tabitha continue to put up a front against Percival. Percival then manipulates the crew into restarting the railroad job, which Tabitha and Archie convince them to quit, Archie sings [and Roses](Bread)(Bread and Roses#Song) at the construction site. Elsewhere, Agent Drake confesses her attraction to Betty in the midst of the convention. However, Veronica confronts her for doing so at a vulnerable time for Betty, and convinces Betty to have a serious talk with Archie. At the convention, TBK calls Betty in front of the audience, leading her to believe he is in attendance. That evening, Betty sees TBK. She follows him back to her house, to find an FBI agent murdered and Alice and Charles tied up at the kitchen table. TBK waits for Betty in the garage, but Betty kills him. She returns home and has a conversation with Archie to reaffirm the direction of their relationship.
| ProdCode = T13.23317
| Viewers = 0.24
| LineColor = 442B1A
}}
| ShortSummary = As Jughead continues to spiral in the bunker, Archie and Tabitha try to get the union to hold onto hope. Meanwhile, Percival elicits a series of plagues on the town, including having the Sweetwater River run red. Veronica plans Toni and Fangs’ wedding, but hits a roadblock in finding a wedding date. Cheryl attempts to set Percival on fire, ultimately killing him, as a wedding gift for Toni. However, the spell Heather and Cheryl perform fails, and Percival sets Nana Rose on fire. Betty researches the events and finds that Percival is likening her to the Harlot of Babylon, planning to capture her in a stockade. Betty confronts him, but he requests that she bring Anthony to him as a bargaining chip. Betty brings a decoy to Percival’s shop, with the gang using Heather’s invisibility spell so they can back her up. They incapacitate Percival in time for Toni’s wedding, but he escapes. During the wedding, Percival suffocates Nana Rose, the eldest first-born child in Riverdale, causing all first-born children to die, including Archie, Jughead, Fangs, and Toni. Jughead comes face-to-face with his Rivervale counterpart, and Heather plans to call in Sabrina Spellman to help the gang.
| ProdCode = T13.23318
| Viewers = 0.29
| LineColor = 442B1A
}}
| ShortSummary = With little time to spare, Heather calls Sabrina Spellman to Riverdale to perform a resurrection of the victims of Percival’s biblical plague. Meanwhile, Kevin attempts to flee to New York but is captured by Percival. Reggie is given full ownership of the Babylonium by Percival, but he is made to realize that Percival’s intentions aren’t good when Percival tells him he'll have Kevin executed there. He then tries to save Kevin with the help of his father Marty but is captured by Percival and his goons. Elsewhere, Sabrina arrives and converts Veronica, Betty and Tabitha into witches so that they may help perform the resurrection. Sabrina enters the afterlife and attempts to lure Jughead’s soul back into his body, but Jughead refuses. So she directs her boyfriend Nick Scratch’s soul into Jughead’s body temporarily in order to spend more time with him after he sacrificed himself so that she could come back to life. After several failed attempts to lure the gang out of their ideal paradises, Sabrina suggests that Cheryl possesses the power of the [phoenix](Phoenix (mythology)) and must use it to allow the fallen souls to be reborn in fire. Cheryl attempts this and is successful, but Sabrina warns her of the dangers of the spell. Everyone reunites with their loved ones except for Veronica, who later learns from Tabitha that there are an almost equal number of possible futures where she and Archie are endgame or Betty and Archie. Cheryl reveals to Heather that she resurrected Jason and Polly as well despite them having been dead much longer than the others, and Tabitha reveals to Fangs and Toni that Baby Anthony can't die and that she is the guardian angel of Riverdale.
----
| ProdCode = T13.23319
| Viewers = 0.22
| LineColor = 442B1A
}}
| ShortSummary = Jughead realizes that he can open portals, taking him and Tabitha to the Rivervale universe to find answers about Percival. Meanwhile, Tom and Frank hold Kevin, Marty, and Reggie hostage in the Babylonium to save them for execution. Alice interviews Percival, learning that he is an immortal being that was brought into Riverdale the night of the bomb when the universes bled into each other as a result of the Rivervale Jughead tipping off Riverdale Betty. He was on his way to seek revenge against the early settlers whom he came to Riverdale with, the ancestors of the gang. Betty reunited with Polly, and Polly helps her realize that her evil does not define her. Cheryl and Archie plan to explode the train tracks after freeing Kevin, Reggie, and Marty. Jughead and Tabitha gather intel about Percival from Mr. Cypher in Rivervale and realize that the chances of them winning the war against Percival in Riverdale are bleak. Jughead helps Kevin, Reggie, and Marty escape by opening a portal back in Riverdale. In retaliation, Percival announces the execution of Frank, Tom, and Alice to the gang.
| ProdCode = T13.23320
| Viewers = 0.26
| LineColor = 442B1A
}}
| ShortSummary = As tensions grow higher, the gang gets creative in the war on Percival. Archie and Veronica attempt to negotiate that Percival returns the bodies of Tom, Alice, and Frank. He complies, but the bodies are returned headless, meaning Cheryl is unable to perform a resurrection. Toni and Fangs develop a plan to seize the heads in the Babylonium, by incapacitating the Ghoulies, who have taken post. Also, Tabitha ages up Anthony to go against Percival as his greatest weakness, as they are both immortal. The plan fails, and they regroup. In the meantime, Percival summons attacks on Archie, Betty, Cheryl, and Veronica. Tabitha grows concerned over their ability to win the battle, and suggests that Jughead open a portal to Rivervale, as their odds may be better. They relocate Pop’s from the El Royale as Tabitha speeds up time, and battle Percival in the parking lot of Pop’s in Riverdale. Percival dominates everyone but Jughead, who is seen sitting in the window. Percival walks through the door, entering a portal to Rivervale. Jughead meets Percival in his mind, incapacitating Percival’s body, so that the Rivervale counterparts of the gang can stab him. Tabitha delivers him to Mr. Cypher, and Percival curses the town. After resurrecting Alice, Tom, and Frank, Cheryl and Heather call a meeting to let everyone know that Bailey’s Comet is heading straight for Riverdale as a result of Percival’s curse.
| ProdCode = T13.23321
| Viewers = 0.23
| LineColor = 442B1A
}}
| ShortSummary = Due to Percival's recent curse, Bailey's Comet is headed straight for Riverdale and a barrier is placed around the town. While no one can leave, people can still enter. Heather and Cheryl summon Abigail on how to destroy the comet. Cheryl plans to use all of her Phoenix powers to destroy the comet, but it will result in one or more of the those who have been resurrected to die. Archie decides to propose to Betty, but she decides to hold off until the comet is destroyed. After watching Titanic, Jughead and Tabitha go on a date with Tabitha using her chronokinetic abilities to see her and Jughead having a family and growing old together. Heather casts a spell to allow Abigail and Toni's ancestor Thomasina to spend one last time together using the bodies of Cheryl and Toni. Mary comforts Archie about his fears of losing his loved ones. Betty decides to propose to Archie, and he happily agrees. Veronica plans to siphon the powers of the gang and give them to Cheryl so she has more than enough power to destroy the comet and keep everyone alive and is successful. The next day, the residents of Riverdale are sent back in time to the year 1955 where the gang are teenagers again and only Jughead remembering the events that happened before.
| ProdCode = T13.23322
| Viewers = 0.17
| LineColor = 442B1A
}}
}}
### Season 7 (2023)
|airdateR= |episodes=
| ShortSummary = Following the strike of Bailey's Comet in Riverdale in the present, the gang is sent back to 1955 where they are all in high school again. Jughead is seemingly the only person who remembers their old lives, and tries to convince the gang of the truth after new girl Veronica rolls into town from Hollywood. Jughead unearths the time capsule that the gang buried during graduation weekend in high school, and tries to jog the memory of the group to no avail. Meanwhile, Betty and Toni try to get justice for Emmett Till and to get his story out there but are hit with several roadblocks. Archie competes with Cheryl's brother Julian for Veronica's attention, which becomes difficult when Mary forbids him to drive following [Dean's recent fatal car crash](James)(Death of James Dean). Jughead tries desperately to connect with Tabitha, who eventually decides to tour the country with Emmett Till's mother, and is met by her chronokinetic counterpart from the present at Pop's one evening, saying that she remembers the events that brought them to 1955. Tabitha says that the comet did destroy Riverdale and that she has to figure out a way to get the gang back, but she says that she must erase Jughead's memory to do so. She does just that, and before Jughead is able to recall everything, he realizes it is too late.
| ProdCode = T13.23901
| Viewers = 0.26
| LineColor = 864123
}}
| ShortSummary = Determined to take Veronica to the upcoming annual [hop](sock)(sock hop), Archie writes her a poem and asks Betty for dance lessons, but he eventually gives up when Veronica auditions Julian and several other boys. Toni pressures Cheryl to change the performer from Kevin to Fangs, succeeding after Cheryl finds Fangs and Midge are secretly dating. Betty reprimands Kevin for not committing to her, develops feelings for Archie, and confides in her mother, who gives Kevin a pin to give to Betty, promising him it will be enough, while Kevin develops feelings for a new transfer student, Clay Walker. After learning he will not be Veronica's date, Betty tries to ask Archie to the dance, but Kevin apologizes and gives her the pin, promising to commit. Jughead, believing a comic book publisher to have plagiarized a story he wrote, attempts to get a job writing stories. He does, and gets Ethel a job as an artist as well, which gets her into trouble with her parents and the school, though they agree to attend the sock hop together. After finding the poem, Veronica apologizes to Archie at the sock hop and asks to dance with him, but he refuses. Cheryl and Toni dance together, to Principal Featherhead's disgust. Ethel walks in, covered in blood, and tells Jughead something terrible has happened.
| ProdCode = T13.23902
| Viewers = 0.27
| LineColor = 864123
}}
| ShortSummary = Ethel is revealed to have found her parents brutally murdered, and claims the milkman killed them, though the authorities do not believe her. She tells Jughead that one of her drawings features her killing her parents, and he retrieves it from her house along with a violent comic called "The Milkman", hiding them in his trailer, nearly caught by Betty, who finds a book on sex education in a drawer. Meanwhile, after the sock hop, Archie tells Veronica he doesn't think they are a good match, and after seeing Cheryl's drawings of women, Penelope tells Julian to set Cheryl up with a boy. Julian encourages Archie to pursue her, which he does, accompanying her to a poetry reading Toni and Clay are participating in, which Kevin and Betty attend, as well as Veronica and Julian. At the reading, Toni's poem causes Cheryl to feel aroused, and she asks Archie to leave, kissing him when he takes her home. That night, the students fantasize about each other. The next day, after a lecture on sex education, Veronica invites the group to a makeout party at her apartment, though Clay declines, later confiding in Kevin that he is gay, while Archie reads Betty's book and is aroused by her. At the makeout party, Veronica makes her interest in Archie known but after Cheryl takes Archie away, she spends the night talking to Jughead, while Betty finds Kevin is not aroused by her. The next day, Betty continues to have feelings for Archie, and gives Kevin the book to get him interested. Jughead and Ethel are called into the principal's office, where Sheriff Keller reveals they have searched his trailer and found the comics and drawings.
| ProdCode = T13.23903
| Viewers = 0.22
| LineColor = 864123
}}
| ShortSummary = Jughead and Ethel are arrested for the murder of Ethel's parents, and Veronica promises to help them. She proves Jughead's innocence and gets him released, after which he tells her Julian tried to hit on Ethel, but she refused and went home, finding her parents murdered. They force him to admit it, and the Coopers take Ethel in again, becoming closer in the process as he stays at the Pembrooke and she helps him renovate his trailer, before sharing a kiss. Betty breaks up with Kevin when he tells her he wants to wait until marriage. Afterwards, she sees Kevin dancing with Clay, and realizes he is gay. When she tells her mother, Alice tries to convince her it is just a phase and she should help Kevin get through it. She confronts Kevin, and they repair their friendship. Later, after he admits the pin came from her mother, she confronts Alice, who reveals she has sent Ethel to the Sisters of Quiet Mercy. Archie confronts Cheryl about her lie about having sex with him, but she begs him to go along with it. After a dinner with the Blossoms, Mary tells him their parents have decided they have to marry. However, despite the pressure, Archie tells Cheryl he wants to get to know her better before making the decision, and confides in Betty, who disapproves, while Mr. Blossom tries to control their lives. Archie tries to convince her to elope instead, but after a talk with Toni, she breaks up with him and encourages him to pursue Betty. Meanwhile, Fangs and Midge get pregnant, and Toni encourages them to get married. When Midge's parents refuse to give their blessing, Toni decides to help Fangs become a rock star so he will be acceptable for them. Archie's uncle Frank comes to town to get him back on track.
| ProdCode = T13.23904
| Viewers = 0.25
| LineColor = 864123
}}
| ShortSummary = Mr. Blossom, Principal Featherhead and Dr. Werthers decide to distract the town from the murders by demonizing what they believe caused the murders; comic books. Meanwhile, Jughead is asked by Mr. Fieldstone to write four stories for the next issue by the next day. He decides to write them about high schoolers, as they are the ones who read the stories. When Veronica shows up at his trailer, he shows her the stories. In the first story, Dilton fails to perform well at basketball, and the coach punishes the whole team. Blaming Dilton, the team locks him in a locker all night, causing him to suffer a psychotic break. The next day, he kills the team and uses their heads as basketballs. In the second story, Archie suffers a flat tire and asks Rose Blossom for shelter for the night. She agrees, but tells him not to engage with her granddaughter, who suffers from [nymphomania](nymphomania). He does anyway, and the next day, she reveals Cheryl also has a contagious form of leprosy, and that she caused his car accident to test him. In the third story, Betty is not noticed by anyone, so she gets a new hairstyle which cannot be undone and has to be maintained with hairspray. When she becomes the most popular girl as a result, she sprays it more and more, eventually dying when black widow spiders make a nest in her hair due to this. In the fourth and final story, Archie dates both Betty and Veronica, telling each that she is his favorite. On Valentine's Day, he lies and claims he will spend it with his mother, but they find him actually dating Cheryl on that day. To get revenge, they offer him a threesome, but actually drug and kill him. After hearing the stories, Veronica breaks up with Jughead due to them demonizing women, though Mr. Fieldstone likes them and offers to credit Jughead for them.
| ProdCode = T13.23905
| Viewers = 0.19
| LineColor = 864123
}}
| ShortSummary = Archie's uncle Frank pushes Archie to be better, including getting him a job and forcing him to be water boy for Riverdale's basketball team. After Archie gets into a fight with Julian over this, he admits to Mary that he cannot join the basketball team because he is still struggling with the death of Fred. Mary consoles him, saying Fred would be honored for him to join, and he does. Betty asks Veronica how to be attractive to Archie, and Veronica tries to help her, by giving her lingerie and later going out with other boys, but they are eventually seen looking at Archie through his bedroom window. Jughead realizes some of the stories of Pep Comics are plagiarized from a writer he likes, Brad Rayberry, and informs him, getting him to come to a deal with Mr. Fieldstone and befriending him. When he visits Rayberry, he finds an unpublished manuscript, and steals it to read it. When he says it is good enough to be published, Rayberry is enraged that he stole it. Cheryl invites Toni to join the cheerleading squad, against Evelyn's objections, and they continue to grow closer, eventually sharing a kiss. Archie and Betty agree to give each other a peep show, but are caught by their parents, while Dr. Werthers finds out that Jughead is writing stories for comics.
| ProdCode = T13.23906
| Viewers = 0.21
| LineColor = 864123
}}
| ShortSummary = After Archie and Betty are caught, Alice spreads the news to the whole town, as well as Veronica's parents. Alice also forces Betty to become a dancer on the Coopers' show, where she is harassed by her coworkers, while Veronica is forced to take a job at the Babylonium where she, along with Clay, comes up with ways to draw in viewers, though she finds out her parents intend to buy and raze it. She prevents this by buying it herself, while Betty manages to get off the show by escalating her reputation, only for Alice to refer her to Dr. Werthers. After Tom suspects Kevin of being gay and forces him to join the basketball team, Archie tries to bond with him, despite pressure from others to be more traditional. Julian eventually forces him to see a prostitute, but Archie tells Betty, who gets him to interfere. This causes him to find out Kevin is gay, but he continues to be friends with him, while Tom reveals he set the whole thing up to confirm Kevin's sexuality. Meanwhile, Jughead drops out of school when he is forced to choose between writing comics and school, and Rayberry suggests he use a [pseudonym](pseudonym) to continue writing, afterward pressuring the school to take him back, causing Jughead to ask him to mentor him. However, Rayberry is later visited by a milkman late at night.
| ProdCode = T13.23907
| Viewers = 0.20
| LineColor = 864123
}}
| ShortSummary = Following a losing streak for the basketball team, Frank is given permission to recruit a player from out of town, Reggie Mantle. He moves in with Archie's family while attending Riverdale High. He proves his worth, but most of the basketball team seems to dislike him, to his indifference. Tabitha returns to town, and becomes closer to Jughead. Kevin gets a job at the Babylonium, and Veronica asks him to help her get a date with Clay, not knowing he is gay. When Kevin tells her, she reveals she already suspected, and accepts it. Betty is forced to join the River Vixens, and is paired with Reggie, though he is indifferent to her too. After Cheryl asks Toni to go steady, Toni quits the cheerleading team and breaks up with her, claiming they are too different. She later attempts to start a club about black literature, and tries to get Cheryl to help her. She does, taking money chosen for another cause to do so, and Toni considers getting back together. Reggie tells Archie that he was ostracized at his last school due to being half Korean, and Archie finds out the town looks down on him for this. The next practice, he stands up for Reggie and forces the team to stop, as they need him. After failing to introduce Tabitha to Rayberry, Jughead finds that he is dead, seemingly having killed himself.
| ProdCode = T13.23908
| Viewers = 0.23
| LineColor = 864123
}}
| ShortSummary = While Jughead mourns Rayberry, Betty goes through therapy with Dr. Werthers. After she admits that she may not want to get married, and writes about sexual dreams in her diary, he tells Alice, and both try to conform Betty to their way of thinking. Betty responds by breaking into Dr. Werthers' office to read his notes on her, and finds a copy of [Lolita](Lolita). After reading it, she confronts him and accuses him of fantasizing about her. He attempts to stop counseling her, but Alice refuses to allow this. When Betty tries to talk to Alice about her feelings, they are stopped by Hal. The next day, Alice tells Betty she is no longer her mother. Meanwhile, Veronica attempts to promote the Babylonium, but finds her parents are interfering with her business as revenge for her buying it from under them. She adapts by showing lesser known movies with a gimmick, and manages to bring in business, only for her parents to respond by kicking her out of her apartment, forcing her to move into her office in the Babylonium. Jughead, after coming to terms with Rayberry's death, is asked by Sheriff Keller to help with the case.
| ProdCode = T13.23909
| Viewers = 0.19
| LineColor = 864123
}}
| ShortSummary = Cheryl feels distant due to not spending time with Toni due to her involvement with the black literature club. After Kevin tells her that he was invited to a meeting, she pressures Toni into letting her attend too. When she does, she realizes Toni needs her own space and they decide to attend a concert Fangs is performing at. Archie is allowed to drive his car again, impressing Reggie, who asks to borrow it to take Veronica on a date. Archie, meanwhile, dates Betty, but is unable to not think about his car and reprimands Reggie when he gets home late. Following this, Veronica and Betty decide to take the boys on a double date to Fangs' concert, but they are still at odds, and the girls end up getting a ride with Cheryl, Toni and Midge, while Archie and Reggie reconcile after Pop gives Reggie an old jalopy to fix up, which he enlists Betty's help for. Investigating Rayberry's death, Jughead and Tabitha find he sent half his salary to South Carolina, and discover he was married to a black woman who lives there. Finding letters written between them and speaking to her, they deduce he didn't kill himself. Sheriff Keller, however, having other evidence, refuses to believe them. Afterward, Tabitha decides to go back to touring the country with Mrs. Till, which Jughead supports. Jughead later discovers that Rayberry was visited by a milkman the night he died.
| ProdCode = T13.23910
| Viewers = 0.28
| LineColor = 864123
}}
| ShortSummary = After failing to convince anyone of the milkman being the killer, Jughead talks to Ethel who tells him to find out who wrote the comic. Meanwhile, Ethel escapes from the Sisters of Quiet Mercy and meets Jughead, who stashes her at Rayberry's apartment until they can find the writer. Investigating a party at Pep Comics, Jughead discovers the writer seemingly killed himself the same way Rayberry did, citing the comic as the reason. Veronica, after finding out Halloween is not celebrated in Riverdale, hosts a ghost show at the Babylonium despite being threatened by Alice, which Cheryl and Toni perform in, kissing in public. Afterward, Kevin and Clay confront her on living at the office, but she lies about why. Cheryl, Toni, Midge and Fangs tell each other their secrets, which is observed by Evelyn. Archie, Betty and Dilton try to give Reggie his first Halloween, though Dilton drops out due to being scared by Julian and the Bulldogs. Archie and Reggie compete for Betty's attention, but when Reggie sees that Betty prefers Archie he leaves. Archie and Betty kiss, but Betty is scared by the sight of a milkman in the window and they leave, passing several full milk bottles. They attempt to kiss again but are interrupted by Alice. On the road, Reggie is pressured into joining the Bulldogs in raising hell. Dropping Ethel off at the apartment, Jughead hears that the milkman was back, and breaks in to find Ethel has killed him. Frank informs Archie that the Bulldogs went over the bridge into the river.
| ProdCode = T13.23911
| Viewers = 0.23
| LineColor = 864123
}}
| DirectedBy = Julia Bettencourt
| WrittenBy = Gigi Swift
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| DirectedBy = [Amick](Mädchen)(Mädchen Amick)
| WrittenBy = Janine Salinas Schoenberg & Will Ewing
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## Ratings
### Season 1
### Season 2
| title2 = [Fifteen: Nighthawks](Chapter)(#ep15)
| date2 = October 18, 2017
| rs2 = 0.6/2
| viewers2 = 1.76
| dvr2 = 0.6
| dvrv2 = 1.34
| total2 = 1.2
| totalv2 = 3.10
| title3 = [Sixteen: The Watcher in the Woods](Chapter)(#ep16)
| date3 = October 25, 2017
| rs3 = 0.6/2
| viewers3 = 1.62
| dvr3 = 0.6
| dvrv3 = 1.32
| total3 = 1.2
| totalv3 = 2.94
| title4 = [Seventeen: The Town That Dreaded Sundown](Chapter)(#ep17)
| date4 = November 1, 2017
| rs4 = 0.6/2
| viewers4 = 1.51
| dvr4 = 0.5
| dvrv4 = 1.30
| total4 = 1.1
| totalv4 = 2.80
| title5 = [Eighteen: When a Stranger Calls](Chapter)(#ep18)
| date5 = November 8, 2017
| rs5 = 0.5/2
| viewers5 = 1.47
| dvr5 = 0.5
| dvrv5 = 1.23
| total5 = 1.0
| totalv5 = 2.70
| title6 = [Nineteen: Death Proof](Chapter)(#ep19)
| date6 = November 15, 2017
| rs6 = 0.5/2
| viewers6 = 1.43
| dvr6 = 0.5
| dvrv6 = 1.23
| total6 = 1.0
| totalv6 = 2.66
| title7 = [Twenty: Tales from the Darkside](Chapter)(#ep20)
| date7 = November 29, 2017
| rs7 = 0.5/2
| viewers7 = 1.45
| dvr7 = 0.5
| dvrv7 = 1.19
| total7 = 1.0
| totalv7 = 2.64
| title8 = [Twenty-One: House of the Devil](Chapter)(#ep21)
| date8 = December 6, 2017
| rs8 = 0.5/2
| viewers8 = 1.48
| dvr8 = 0.6
| dvrv8 = 1.20
| total8 = 1.1
| totalv8 = 2.68
| title9 = [Twenty-Two: Silent Night, Deadly Night](Chapter)(#ep22)
| date9 = December 13, 2017
| rs9 = 0.5/2
| viewers9 = 1.43
| dvr9 = n/a
| dvrv9 = n/a
| total9 = n/a
| totalv9 = n/a
| title10 = [Twenty-Three: The Blackboard Jungle](Chapter)(#ep23)
| date10 = January 17, 2018
| rs10 = 0.5/2
| viewers10 = 1.44
| dvr10 = 0.5
| dvrv10 = 1.14
| total10 = 1.0
| totalv10 = 2.59
| title11 = [Twenty-Four: The Wrestler](Chapter)(#ep24)
| date11 = January 24, 2018
| rs11 = 0.5/2
| viewers11 = 1.39
| dvr11 = 0.5
| dvrv11 = 1.15
| total11 = 1.0
| totalv11 = 2.54
| title12 = [Twenty-Five: The Wicked and the Divine](Chapter)(#ep25)
| date12 = January 31, 2018
| rs12 = 0.5/2
| viewers12 = 1.34
| dvr12 = 0.5
| dvrv12 = 1.06
| total12 = 1.0
| totalv12 = 2.40
| title13 = [Twenty-Six: The Tell-Tale Heart](Chapter)(#ep26)
| date13 = February 7, 2018
| rs13 = 0.5/2
| viewers13 = 1.28
| dvr13 = 0.4
| dvrv13 = 0.96
| total13 = 0.9
| totalv13 = 2.24
| title14 = [Twenty-Seven: The Hills Have Eyes](Chapter)(#ep27)
| date14 = March 7, 2018
| rs14 = 0.5/2
| viewers14 = 1.26
| dvr14 = 0.4
| dvrv14 = 0.95
| total14 = 0.9
| totalv14 = 2.22
| title15 = [Twenty-Eight: There Will Be Blood](Chapter)(#ep28)
| date15 = March 14, 2018
| rs15 = 0.4/2
| viewers15 = 1.19
| dvr15 = 0.4
| dvrv15 = 0.91
| total15 = 0.8
| totalv15 = 2.10
| title16 = [Twenty-Nine: Primary Colors](Chapter)(#ep29)
| date16 = March 21, 2018
| rs16 = 0.4/2
| viewers16 = 1.16
| dvr16 = 0.4
| dvrv16 = 0.94
| total16 = 0.8
| totalv16 = 2.10
| title17 = [Thirty: The Noose Tightens](Chapter)(#ep30)
| date17 = March 28, 2018
| rs17 = 0.3/1
| viewers17 = 0.96
| dvr17 = 0.4
| dvrv17 = 0.91
| total17 = 0.7
| totalv17 = 1.87
| title18 = [Thirty-One: A Night to Remember](Chapter)(#ep31)
| date18 = April 18, 2018
| rs18 = 0.4/2
| viewers18 = 1.10
| dvr18 = 0.3
| dvrv18 = 0.83
| total18 = 0.7
| totalv18 = 1.93
| title19 = [Thirty-Two: Prisoners](Chapter)(#ep32)
| date19 = April 25, 2018
| rs19 = 0.4/2
| viewers19 = 1.17
| dvr19 = 0.4
| dvrv19 = 0.81
| total19 = 0.8
| totalv19 = 1.97
| title20 = [Thirty-Three: Shadow of a Doubt](Chapter)(#ep33)
| date20 = May 2, 2018
| rs20 = 0.4/2
| viewers20 = 1.11
| dvr20 = 0.4
| dvrv20 = 0.93
| total20 = 0.8
| totalv20 = 2.04
| title21 = [Thirty-Four: Judgment Night](Chapter)(#ep34)
| date21 = May 9, 2018
| rs21 = 0.4/2
| viewers21 = 1.00
| dvr21 = 0.3
| dvrv21 = 0.90
| total21 = 0.7
| totalv21 = 1.91
| title22 = [Thirty-Five: Brave New World](Chapter)(#ep35)
| date22 = May 16, 2018
| rs22 = 0.4/2
| viewers22 = 1.28
| dvr22 = 0.4
| dvrv22 = 0.76
| total22 = 0.8
| totalv22 = 2.04
}}
### Season 3
| title2 = [Thirty-Seven: Fortune and Men's Eyes](Chapter)(#ep37)
| date2 = October 17, 2018
| rs2 = 0.4/2
| viewers2 = 1.28
| dvr2 = 0.6
| dvrv2 = 1.27
| total2 = 1.0
| totalv2 = 2.55
| title3 = [Thirty-Eight: As Above, So Below](Chapter)(#ep38)
| date3 = October 24, 2018
| rs3 = 0.5/2
| viewers3 = 1.40
| dvr3 = 0.4
| dvrv3 = 1.03
| total3 = 0.9
| totalv3 = 2.43
| title4 = [Thirty-Nine: The Midnight Club](Chapter)(#ep39)
| date4 = November 7, 2018
| rs4 = 0.4/2
| viewers4 = 1.37
| dvr4 = 0.5
| dvrv4 = 1.15
| total4 = 0.9
| totalv4 = 2.52
| title5 = [Forty: The Great Escape](Chapter)(#ep40)
| date5 = November 14, 2018
| rs5 = 0.4/2
| viewers5 = 1.25
| dvr5 = 0.5
| dvrv5 = 1.01
| total5 = 0.9
| totalv5 = 2.26
| title6 = [Forty-One: Manhunter](Chapter)(#ep41)
| date6 = November 28, 2018
| rs6 = 0.4/2
| viewers6 = 1.27
| dvr6 = 0.5
| dvrv6 = 1.01
| total6 = 0.9
| totalv6 = 2.28
| title7 = [Forty-Two: The Man in Black](Chapter)(#ep42)
| date7 = December 5, 2018
| rs7 = 0.4/2
| viewers7 = 1.09
| dvr7 = 0.5
| dvrv7 = 1.05
| total7 = 0.9
| totalv7 = 2.14
| title8 = [Forty-Three: Outbreak](Chapter)(#ep43)
| date8 = December 12, 2018
| rs8 = 0.4/2
| viewers8 = 1.20
| dvr8 = 0.5
| dvrv8 = 1.08
| total8 = 0.9
| totalv8 = 2.28
| title9 = [Forty-Four: No Exit](Chapter)(#ep44)
| date9 = January 16, 2019
| rs9 = 0.5/2
| viewers9 = 1.32
| dvr9 = 0.4
| dvrv9 = 1.00
| total9 = 0.9
| totalv9 = 2.32
| title10 = [Forty-Five: The Stranger](Chapter)(#ep45)
| date10 = January 23, 2019
| rs10 = 0.4/2
| viewers10 = 1.12
| dvr10 = 0.4
| dvrv10 = 0.95
| total10 = 0.8
| totalv10 = 2.07
| title11 = [Forty-Six: The Red Dahlia](Chapter)(#ep46)
| date11 = January 30, 2019
| rs11 = 0.4/2
| viewers11 = 1.26
| dvr11 = 0.4
| dvrv11 = 0.91
| total11 = 0.8
| totalv11 = 2.18
| title12 = [Forty-Seven: Bizarrodale](Chapter)(#ep47)
| date12 = February 6, 2019
| rs12 = 0.3/2
| viewers12 = 0.96
| dvr12 = 0.4
| dvrv12 = 0.93
| total12 = 0.7
| totalv12 = 1.89
| title13 = [Forty-Eight: Requiem for a Welterweight](Chapter)(#ep48)
| date13 = February 27, 2019
| rs13 = 0.3/2
| viewers13 = 0.86
| dvr13 = 0.4
| dvrv13 = 0.87
| total13 = 0.7
| totalv13 = 1.73
| title14 = [Forty-Nine: Fire Walk with Me](Chapter)(#ep49)
| date14 = March 6, 2019
| rs14 = 0.3/2
| viewers14 = 0.92
| dvr14 = 0.3
| dvrv14 = 0.80
| total14 = 0.6
| totalv14 = 1.72
| title15 = [Fifty: American Dreams](Chapter)(#ep50)
| date15 = March 13, 2019
| rs15 = 0.3/2
| viewers15 = 0.95
| dvr15 = 0.3
| dvrv15 = 0.78
| total15 = 0.6
| totalv15 = 1.73
| title16 = [Fifty-One: Big Fun](Chapter)(#ep51)
| date16 = March 20, 2019
| rs16 = 0.3/2
| viewers16 = 0.81
| dvr16 = 0.3
| dvrv16 = 0.66
| total16 = 0.6
| totalv16 = 1.47
| title17 = [Fifty-Two: The Raid](Chapter)(#ep52)
| date17 = March 27, 2019
| rs17 = 0.3/2
| viewers17 = 0.81
| dvr17 = 0.3
| dvrv17 = 0.76
| total17 = 0.6
| totalv17 = 1.57
| title18 = [Fifty-Three: Jawbreaker](Chapter)(#ep53)
| date18 = April 17, 2019
| rs18 = 0.2/2
| viewers18 = 0.80
| dvr18 = 0.3
| dvrv18 = 0.64
| total18 = 0.5
| totalv18 = 1.44
| title19 = [Fifty-Four: Fear the Reaper](Chapter)(#ep54)
| date19 = April 24, 2019
| rs19 = 0.2/1
| viewers19 = 0.71
| dvr19 = 0.3
| dvrv19 = 0.70
| total19 = 0.5
| totalv19 = 1.41
| title20 = [Fifty-Five: Prom Night](Chapter)(#ep55)
| date20 = May 1, 2019
| rs20 = 0.2/1
| viewers20 = 0.70
| dvr20 = 0.3
| dvrv20 = 0.66
| total20 = 0.5
| totalv20 = 1.36
| title21 = [Fifty-Six: The Dark Secret of Harvest House](Chapter)(#ep56)
| date21 = May 8, 2019
| rs21 = 0.3/1
| viewers21 = 0.74
| dvr21 = 0.2
| dvrv21 = 0.70
| total21 = 0.5
| totalv21 = 1.44
| title22 = [Fifty-Seven: Survive the Night](Chapter)(#ep57)
| date22 = May 15, 2019
| rs22 = 0.3/2
| viewers22 = 0.86
| dvr22 = 0.2
| dvrv22 = 0.61
| total22 = 0.5
| totalv22 = 1.47
}}
### Season 4
| title2 = [Fifty-Nine: Fast Times at Riverdale High](Chapter)(#ep59)
| date2 = October 16, 2019
| rs2 = 0.2/2
| viewers2 = 0.80
| dvr2 = 0.4
| dvrv2 = 0.73
| total2 = 0.6
| totalv2 = 1.53
| title3 = [Sixty: Dog Day Afternoon](Chapter)(#ep60)
| date3 = October 23, 2019
| rs3 = 0.3/2
| viewers3 = 0.87
| dvr3 = 0.3
| dvrv3 = 0.66
| total3 = 0.6
| totalv3 = 1.53
| title4 = [Sixty-One: Halloween](Chapter)(#ep61)
| date4 = October 30, 2019
| rs4 = 0.2/1
| viewers4 = 0.74
| dvr4 = 0.4
| dvrv4 = 0.75
| total4 = 0.6
| totalv4 = 1.49
| title5 = [Sixty-Two: Witness for the Prosecution](Chapter)(#ep62)
| date5 = November 6, 2019
| rs5 = 0.2/1
| viewers5 = 0.76
| dvr5 = 0.4
| dvrv5 = 0.73
| total5 = 0.6
| totalv5 = 1.48
| title6 = [Sixty-Three: Hereditary](Chapter)(#ep63)
| date6 = November 13, 2019
| rs6 = 0.3/1
| viewers6 = 0.82
| dvr6 = 0.3
| dvrv6 = 0.68
| total6 = 0.6
| totalv6 = 1.50
| title7 = [Sixty-Four: The Ice Storm](Chapter)(#ep64)
| date7 = November 20, 2019
| rs7 = 0.2/1
| viewers7 = 0.74
| dvr7 = 0.3
| dvrv7 = 0.63
| total7 = 0.5
| totalv7 = 1.37
| title8 = [Sixty-Five: In Treatment](Chapter)(#ep65)
| date8 = December 4, 2019
| rs8 = 0.2/1
| viewers8 = 0.69
| dvr8 = 0.3
| dvrv8 = 0.65
| total8 = 0.5
| totalv8 = 1.34
| title9 = [Sixty-Six: Tangerine](Chapter)(#ep66)
| date9 = December 11, 2019
| rs9 = 0.2/1
| viewers9 = 0.73
| dvr9 = 0.3
| dvrv9 = 0.59
| total9 = 0.5
| totalv9 = 1.32
| title10 = [Sixty-Seven: Varsity Blues](Chapter)(#ep67)
| date10 = January 22, 2020
| rs10 = 0.2/1
| viewers10 = 0.79
| dvr10 = 0.3
| dvrv10 = 0.60
| total10 = 0.5
| totalv10 = 1.39
| title11 = [Sixty-Eight: Quiz Show](Chapter)(#ep68)
| date11 = January 29, 2020
| rs11 = 0.2/1
| viewers11 = 0.73
| dvr11 = 0.3
| dvrv11 = 0.59
| total11 = 0.5
| totalv11 = 1.32
| title12 = [Sixty-Nine: Men of Honor](Chapter)(#ep69)
| date12 = February 5, 2020
| rs12 = 0.2
| viewers12 = 0.65
| dvr12 = 0.3
| dvrv12 = 0.64
| total12 = 0.5
| totalv12 = 1.29
| title13 = [Seventy: The Ides of March](Chapter)(#ep70)
| date13 = February 12, 2020
| rs13 = 0.2
| viewers13 = 0.65
| dvr13 = 0.2
| dvrv13 = 0.55
| total13 = 0.4
| totalv13 = 1.20
| title14 = [Seventy-One: How to Get Away with Murder](Chapter)(#ep71)
| date14 = February 26, 2020
| rs14 = 0.2
| viewers14 = 0.67
| dvr14 = 0.2
| dvrv14 = 0.51
| total14 = 0.4
| totalv14 = 1.18
| title15 = [Seventy-Two: To Die For](Chapter)(#ep72)
| date15 = March 4, 2020
| rs15 = 0.2
| viewers15 = 0.66
| dvr15 = 0.2
| dvrv15 = 0.51
| total15 = 0.4
| totalv15 = 1.17
| title16 = [Seventy-Three: The Locked Room](Chapter)(#ep73)
| date16 = March 11, 2020
| rs16 = 0.2
| viewers16 = 0.66
| dvr16 = 0.2
| dvrv16 = 0.55
| total16 = 0.4
| totalv16 = 1.21
| title17 = [Seventy-Four: Wicked Little Town](Chapter)(#ep74)
| date17 = April 15, 2020
| rs17 = 0.2
| viewers17 = 0.54
| dvr17 = 0.2
| dvrv17 = 0.51
| total17 = 0.4
| totalv17 = 1.05
| title18 = [Seventy-Five: Lynchian](Chapter)(#ep75)
| date18 = April 29, 2020
| rs18 = 0.2
| viewers18 = 0.66
| dvr18 = 0.2
| dvrv18 = 0.49
| total18 = 0.4
| totalv18 = 1.15
| title19 = [Seventy-Six: Killing Mr. Honey](Chapter)(#ep76)
| date19 = May 6, 2020
| rs19 = 0.2
| viewers19 = 0.65
| dvr19 = 0.2
| dvrv19 = 0.47
| total19 = 0.4
| totalv19 = 1.12
}}
### Season 5
| totalv1 = n/a
| title2 = [Seventy-Eight: The Preppy Murders](Chapter)(#ep78)
| date2 = January 27, 2021
| rs2 = 0.1
| viewers2 = 0.52
| dvr2 = n/a
| dvrv2 = n/a
| total2 = n/a
| totalv2 = n/a
| title3 = [Seventy-Nine: Graduation](Chapter)(#ep79)
| date3 = February 3, 2021
| rs3 = 0.1
| viewers3 = 0.54
| dvr3 = 0.2
| dvrv3 = 0.36
| total3 = 0.3
| totalv3 = 0.90
| title4 = [Eighty: Purgatorio](Chapter)(#ep80)
| date4 = February 10, 2021
| rs4 = 0.1
| viewers4 = 0.48
| dvr4 = 0.3
| dvrv4 = n/a
| total4 = 0.4
| totalv4 = n/a
| title5 = [Eighty-One: The Homecoming](Chapter)(#ep81)
| date5 = February 17, 2021
| rs5 = 0.2
| viewers5 = 0.59
| dvr5 = n/a
| dvrv5 = n/a
| total5 = n/a
| totalv5 = n/a
| title6 = [Eighty-Two: Back to School](Chapter)(#ep82)
| date6 = February 24, 2021
| rs6 = 0.2
| viewers6 = 0.60
| dvr6 = 0.2
| dvrv6 = n/a
| total6 = 0.4
| totalv6 = n/a
| title7 = [Eighty-Three: Fire in the Sky](Chapter)(#ep83)
| date7 = March 10, 2021
| rs7 = 0.1
| viewers7 = 0.52
| dvr7 = 0.1
| dvrv7 = n/a
| total7 = 0.2
| totalv7 = n/a
| title8 = [Eighty-Four: Lock & Key](Chapter)(#ep84)
| date8 = March 17, 2021
| rs8 = 0.1
| viewers8 = 0.45
| dvr8 = n/a
| dvrv8 = n/a
| total8 = n/a
| totalv8 = n/a
| title9 = [Eighty-Five: Destroyer](Chapter)(#ep85)
| date9 = March 24, 2021
| rs9 = 0.2
| viewers9 = 0.46
| dvr9 = n/a
| dvrv9 = n/a
| total9 = n/a
| totalv9 = n/a
| title10 = [Eighty-Six: The Pincushion Man](Chapter)(#ep86)
| date10 = March 31, 2021
| rs10 = 0.1
| viewers10 = 0.49
| dvr10 = 0.3
| dvrv10 = 0.33
| total10 = 0.4
| totalv10 = 0.82
| title11 = [Eighty-Seven: Strange Bedfellows](Chapter)(#ep87)
| date11 = August 11, 2021
| rs11 = 0.1
| viewers11 = 0.38
| dvr11 = 0.2
| dvrv11 = 0.37
| total11 = 0.2
| totalv11 = 0.75
| title12 = [Eighty-Eight: Citizen Lodge](Chapter)(#ep88)
| date12 = August 18, 2021
| rs12 = 0.1
| viewers12 = 0.47
| dvr12 = 0.1
| dvrv12 = 0.32
| total12 = 0.2
| totalv12 = 0.79
| title13 = [Eighty-Nine: Reservoir Dogs](Chapter)(#ep89)
| date13 = August 25, 2021
| rs13 = 0.1
| viewers13 = 0.47
| dvr13 = n/a
| dvrv13 = n/a
| total13 = n/a
| totalv13 = n/a
| title14 = [Ninety: The Night Gallery](Chapter)(#ep90)
| date14 = September 1, 2021
| rs14 = 0.1
| viewers14 = 0.36
| dvr14 = n/a
| dvrv14 = n/a
| total14 = n/a
| totalv14 = n/a
| title15 = [Ninety-One: The Return of the Pussycats](Chapter)(#ep91)
| date15 = September 8, 2021
| rs15 = 0.1
| viewers15 = 0.39
| dvr15 = n/a
| dvrv15 = n/a
| total15 = n/a
| totalv15 = n/a
| title16 = [Ninety-Two: Band of Brothers](Chapter)(#ep92)
| date16 = September 15, 2021
| rs16 = 0.1
| viewers16 = 0.45
| dvr16 = n/a
| dvrv16 = n/a
| total16 = n/a
| totalv16 = n/a
| title17 = [Ninety-Three: Dance of Death](Chapter)(#ep93)
| date17 = September 22, 2021
| rs17 = 0.1
| viewers17 = 0.35
| dvr17 = n/a
| dvrv17 = n/a
| total17 = n/a
| totalv17 = n/a
| title18 = [Ninety-Four: Next to Normal](Chapter)(#ep94)
| date18 = September 29, 2021
| rs18 = 0.1
| viewers18 = 0.25
| dvr18 = n/a
| dvrv18 = n/a
| total18 = n/a
| totalv18 = n/a
| title19 = [Ninety-Five: Riverdale: RIP(?)](Chapter)(#ep95)
| date19 = October 6, 2021
| rs19 = 0.1
| viewers19 = 0.36
| dvr19 = n/a
| dvrv19 = n/a
| total19 = n/a
| totalv19 = n/a
}}
### Season 6
| title2 = [Ninety-Seven: Ghost Stories](Chapter)(#ep97)
| date2 = November 23, 2021
| rs2 = 0.1
| viewers2 = 0.34
| dvr2 = 0.1
| dvrv2 = 0.31
| total2 = 0.2
| totalv2 = 0.65
| title3 = [Ninety-Eight: Mr. Cypher](Chapter)(#ep98)
| date3 = November 30, 2021
| rs3 = 0.1
| viewers3 = 0.26
| dvr3 = 0.1
| dvrv3 = 0.26
| total3 = 0.1
| totalv3 = 0.52
| title4 = [Ninety-Nine: The Witching Hour(s)](Chapter)(#ep99)
| date4 = December 7, 2021
| rs4 = 0.1
| viewers4 = 0.27
| dvr4 = 0.1
| dvrv4 = 0.18
| total4 = 0.1
| totalv4 = 0.45
| title5 = [One Hundred: The Jughead Paradox](Chapter)(#ep100)
| date5 = December 14, 2021
| rs5 = 0.1
| viewers5 = 0.29
| dvr5 = 0.1
| dvrv5 = 0.24
| total5 = 0.2
| totalv5 = 0.53
| title6 = [One Hundred and One: Unbelievable](Chapter)(#ep101)
| date6 = March 20, 2022
| rs6 = 0.1
| viewers6 = 0.23
| dvr6 = 0.1
| dvrv6 = 0.27
| total6 = 0.1
| totalv6 = 0.50
| title7 = [One Hundred and Two: Death at a Funeral](Chapter)(#ep102)
| date7 = March 27, 2022
| rs7 = 0.1
| viewers7 = 0.21
| dvr7 = 0.1
| dvrv7 = 0.20
| total7 = 0.1
| totalv7 = 0.41
| title8 = [One Hundred and Three: The Town](Chapter)(#ep103)
| date8 = April 3, 2022
| rs8 = 0.0
| viewers8 = 0.18
| dvr8 = n/a
| dvrv8 = n/a
| total8 = n/a
| totalv8 = n/a
| title9 = [One Hundred and Four: The Serpent Queen's Gambit](Chapter)(#ep104)
| date9 = April 10, 2022
| rs9 = 0.0
| viewers9 = 0.22
| dvr9 = n/a
| dvrv9 = n/a
| total9 = n/a
| totalv9 = n/a
| title10 = [One Hundred and Five: Folk Heroes](Chapter)(#ep105)
| date10 = April 17, 2022
| rs10 = 0.1
| viewers10 = 0.23
| dvr10 = n/a
| dvrv10 = n/a
| total10 = n/a
| totalv10 = n/a
| title11 = [One Hundred and Six: Angels in America](Chapter)(#ep106)
| date11 = April 24, 2022
| rs11 = 0.1
| viewers11 = 0.21
| dvr11 = n/a
| dvrv11 = n/a
| total11 = n/a
| totalv11 = n/a
| title12 = [One Hundred and Seven: In the Fog](Chapter)(#ep107)
| date12 = May 1, 2022
| rs12 = 0.0
| viewers12 = 0.16
| dvr12 = n/a
| dvrv12 = n/a
| total12 = n/a
| totalv12 = n/a
| title13 = [One Hundred and Eight: Ex-Libris](Chapter)(#ep108)
| date13 = May 8, 2022
| rs13 = 0.1
| viewers13 = 0.19
| dvr13 = n/a
| dvrv13 = n/a
| total13 = n/a
| totalv13 = n/a
| title14 = [One Hundred and Nine: Venomous](Chapter)(#ep109)
| date14 = May 15, 2022
| rs14 = 0.0
| viewers14 = 0.20
| dvr14 = n/a
| dvrv14 = n/a
| total14 = n/a
| totalv14 = n/a
| title15 = [One Hundred and Ten: Things That Go Bump in the Night](Chapter)(#ep110)
| date15 = May 22, 2022
| rs15 = 0.1
| viewers15 = 0.21
| dvr15 = n/a
| dvrv15 = n/a
| total15 = n/a
| totalv15 = n/a
| title16 = [One Hundred and Eleven: Blue Collar](Chapter)(#ep111)
| date16 = May 29, 2022
| rs16 = 0.0
| viewers16 = 0.17
| dvr16 = n/a
| dvrv16 = n/a
| total16 = n/a
| totalv16 = n/a
| title17 = [One Hundred and Twelve: American Psychos](Chapter)(#ep112)
| date17 = June 12, 2022
| rs17 = 0.0
| viewers17 = 0.24
| dvr17 = n/a
| dvrv17 = n/a
| total17 = n/a
| totalv17 = n/a
| title18 = [One Hundred and Thirteen: Biblical](Chapter)(#ep113)
| date18 = June 26, 2022
| rs18 = 0.1
| viewers18 = 0.29
| dvr18 = n/a
| dvrv18 = n/a
| total18 = n/a
| totalv18 = n/a
| title19 = [One Hundred and Fourteen: The Witches of Riverdale](Chapter)(#ep114)
| date19 = July 10, 2022
| rs19 = 0.1
| viewers19 = 0.22
| dvr19 = n/a
| dvrv19 = n/a
| total19 = n/a
| totalv19 = n/a
| title20 = [One Hundred and Fifteen: Return to Rivervale](Chapter)(#ep115)
| date20 = July 17, 2022
| rs20 = 0.1
| viewers20 = 0.26
| dvr20 = n/a
| dvrv20 = n/a
| total20 = n/a
| totalv20 = n/a
| title21 = [One Hundred and Sixteen: The Stand](Chapter)(#ep116)
| date21 = July 24, 2022
| rs21 = 0.0
| viewers21 = 0.23
| dvr21 = n/a
| dvrv21 = n/a
| total21 = n/a
| totalv21 = n/a
| title22 = [One Hundred and Seventeen: Night of the Comet](Chapter)(#ep117)
| date22 = July 31, 2022
| rs22 = 0.0
| viewers22 = 0.17
| dvr22 = n/a
| dvrv22 = n/a
| total22 = n/a
| totalv22 = n/a
}}
### Season 7
## Notes
## References
## External links
*
[ ](Category:Riverdale (2017 TV series) episodes)
[of American mystery television series episodes](Category:Lists)(Category:Lists of American mystery television series episodes)
[of American teen drama television series episodes](Category:Lists)(Category:Lists of American teen drama television series episodes)
|
Academy Award for Best Actor
|
academy_award_for_best_actor
|
# Academy Award for Best Actor
*Revision ID: 1159954797 | Timestamp: 2023-06-13T15:54:16Z*
---
}}
The **Academy Award for Best Actor** is an award presented annually by the [of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences](Academy)(Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences) (AMPAS). It is given to an actor who has delivered an outstanding performance in a [leading](Leading actor) role in a film released that year. The award is traditionally presented by the previous year's [Actress](Best)(Academy Award for Best Actress) winner.
The [Academy Awards](1st)(1st Academy Awards) were held in 1929 with [Jannings](Emil)(Emil Jannings) receiving the award for his roles in *[Last Command](The)(The Last Command (1928 film))* (1928) and *[Way of All Flesh](The)(The Way of All Flesh (1927 film))* (1927). Currently, nominees are determined by [transferable vote](single)(single transferable vote) within the actors branch of AMPAS; winners are selected by a [vote](plurality)(Plurality (voting)) from the entire eligible voting members of the Academy.
In the first three years of the awards, actors were nominated as the best in their categories. At that time, all of their work during the qualifying period (as many as three films, in some cases) was listed after the award. During [third ceremony](the)(3rd Academy Awards) in 1930, only one of those films was cited in each winner's final award, even though each of the acting winners had two films following their names on the ballots. The following year, this system was replaced by the current system in which an actor is nominated for a specific performance in a single film. Starting with [ninth ceremony](the)(9th Academy Awards) in 1937, the category was officially limited to five nominations per year.
Since its inception, the award has been given to 85 actors. [Day-Lewis](Daniel)(Daniel Day-Lewis) has won the award a record three times. [Tracy](Spencer)(Spencer Tracy) and [Olivier](Laurence)(Laurence Olivier) were nominated a record nine times. [O'Toole](Peter)(Peter O'Toole) is the most nominated actor in this category without a single win. [Dean](James)(James Dean) is the only actor posthumously nominated more than once. [Finch](Peter)(Peter Finch) is the only posthumous winner, for *[Network](Network (1976 film))* (1976). Italian actor [Benigni](Roberto)(Roberto Benigni) gave the first winning non-English performance in *[Is Beautiful](Life)(Life Is Beautiful)* (1997). At 29, [Brody](Adrien)(Adrien Brody) of *[Pianist](The)(The Pianist (2002 film))* (2002) is the youngest winner, and [Hopkins](Anthony)(Anthony Hopkins), 83, is the oldest, for playing Anthony in *[Father](The)(The Father (2020 film))* (2020). As of the [Academy Awards](95th)(95th Academy Awards), [Fraser](Brendan)(Brendan Fraser) is the most recent winner for his portrayal of Charlie in *[Whale](The)(The Whale (2022 film))*, in which he became the first Canadian actor to win.
## Winners and nominees
In the following table, the years are listed as per Academy convention, and generally correspond to the year of film release in [Angeles County](Los)(Los Angeles County); the ceremonies are always held the following year. For the first five ceremonies, the eligibility period spanned twelve months, from August 1 to July 31. For the 6th ceremony held in 1934, the eligibility period lasted from August 1, 1932, to December 31, 1933. Since the 7th ceremony held in 1935, the period of eligibility became the full previous calendar year from January 1 to December 31.
### 1920s
[[File:Emil Jannings - no watermark.jpg|thumb|120px|[Jannings](Emil)(Emil Jannings) was the first winner of this category for his roles in *[Last Command](The)(The Last Command (1928 film))* (1928) and *[Way of All Flesh](The)(The Way of All Flesh (1927 film))* (1927).|alt=Black and white portrait of Emil Jannings—a corpulent white man of middle-age with short hair brushed to one side, wearing a sophisticated suit—in 1926.]]
### 1930s
[[File:Wallace Beery-publicity.JPG|thumb|120px|[Beery](Wallace)(Wallace Beery) won for *[Champ](The)(The Champ (1931 film))'' (1931). Also nominated for 1930's *[Big House](The)(The Big House (1930 film))*.]]
[[File:Charles Laughton-publicity2.JPG|thumb|120px|[Laughton](Charles)(Charles Laughton) won for *[Private Life of Henry VIII](The)(The Private Life of Henry VIII)* (1933).|alt=Black and white promotional portrait of Charles Laughton for *The Barretts of Wimpole Street* (1934).]]
[[File:Gable, Clark 01.jpg|thumb|120px|[Gable](Clark)(Clark Gable) won for his performance in *[Happened One Night](It)(It Happened One Night)* (1934).|alt=Black and white publicity photo of Clark Gable—a middle-aged white man with a mustache and straight gray hair combed to the side, wearing a suit and smiling—in 1940.]]
[[File:Paul Muni - Zola - 1936.jpg|thumb|120px|[Muni](Paul)(Paul Muni) won for his portrayal of [Pasteur](Louis)(Louis Pasteur) in *[Story of Louis Pasteur](The)(The Story of Louis Pasteur)* (1936).|alt=Black and white publicity photo of Paul Muni for the film "The Life of Emile Zola" (1937) in 1936.]]
[[File:Spencer Tracy.jpg|thumb|120px|[Tracy](Spencer)(Spencer Tracy) was the first of two actors to win this award over two consecutive years, winning for *[Courageous](Captains)(Captains Courageous (1937 film))* (1937) and *[Town](Boys)(Boys Town (film))* (1938).|alt=Black and white publicity photo of Spencer Tracy—a middle-aged white man with short curly hairstyle combed to the side and a square face, wearing a suit—in 1935.]]
### 1940s
[[File:Annex - Stewart, James (Call Northside 777) 01.jpg|thumb|120px|[Stewart](James)(James Stewart) won for his performance in *[Philadelphia Story](The)(The Philadelphia Story (film))* (1940).|alt=Black and white publicity photo of James Stewart—an elegant white man with arched eyebrows and short, smooth hair combed to the side, around 40 years of age—in 1948.]]
[[File:Gary Cooper 1936.jpg|thumb|120px|[Cooper](Gary)(Gary Cooper) won twice for his roles in *[York](Sergeant)(Sergeant York (film))* (1941) and *[Noon](High)(High Noon)* (1952).|alt=Black and white publicity photo of Gary Cooper—a handsome white man, light-eyed with hair combed back, wearing a light-colored suit and around 35 years of age—in 1936.]]
[[File:James cagney promo photo.jpg|thumb|120px|[Cagney](James)(James Cagney) won for his portrayal of [M. Cohan](George)(George M. Cohan) in *[Doodle Dandy](Yankee)(Yankee Doodle Dandy)* (1942).|alt=Black and white publicity photo of James Cagney—a white man with serious features and an arched eyebrow, dark eyes and hair combed back, wearing a suit and around 30 years of age—in the early 1930s.]]
[[File:Ronald Colman - publicity.jpg|thumb|152x152px|[Colman](Ronald)(Ronald Colman) won for his performance in *[Double Life](A)(A Double Life (1947 film))* (1947).]]
[[File:Laurence Olivier - Rebecca.jpg|thumb|120px|[Olivier](Laurence)(Laurence Olivier) won for his performance as the [role](title)(Prince Hamlet) in *[Hamlet](Hamlet (1948 film))* (1948), a film which he directed himself.|alt=Black and white portrait of Laurence Olivier—a handsome white man with a square face with dark eyes and dark hair, with a split chin and white smile, wearing a suit, around 30 years of age—in the 1940s.]]
[[File:All-the-King's-Men-Willie-Stark.jpg|thumb|120px|[Crawford](Broderick)(Broderick Crawford) won for ''[the King's Men](All)(All the King's Men (1949 film))* (1949).]]
### 1950s
[[File:Humphrey Bogart 1940.jpg|thumb|120px|[Bogart](Humphrey)(Humphrey Bogart) won for his performance in *[African Queen](The)(The African Queen (film))* (1951).|alt=Black and white publicity photo of Humphrey Bogart—a charming white man with dark eyes and a square face, wearing a dark hat and a light-colored overcoat, around 41 years of age—in 1940.]]
[[File:Marlon Brando in The Men.jpg|thumb|120px|[Brando](Marlon)(Marlon Brando) won twice from seven nominations, for *[the Waterfront](On)(On the Waterfront)* (1954) and *[Godfather](The)(The Godfather)'' (1972), although he declined the 1972 award.]]
[[File:Ernest Borgnine McHale McHale's Navy 1962.JPG|thumb|120px|[Borgnine](Ernest)(Ernest Borgnine) won for *[Marty](Marty (film))* in 1955.]]
[[File:Yul Brynner Anna and the King television 1972.JPG|thumb|120px|[Brynner](Yul)(Yul Brynner) won for *[King and I](The)(The King and I (1956 film))* in 1956.]]
[[File:Sir Alec Guinness 4 (2) Allan Warren.jpg|thumb|120px|[Guinness](Alec)(Alec Guinness) won for *[Bridge on the River Kwai](The)(The Bridge on the River Kwai)* in 1957.]]
[[File:Charlton Heston - 1953.jpg|thumb|120px|[Heston](Charlton)(Charlton Heston) won for his performance in *[Ben-Hur](Ben-Hur (1959 film))* (1959).]]
### 1960s
[[File:Burt Lancaster - publicity 1947.JPG|thumb|120px|[Lancaster](Burt)(Burt Lancaster) won for his performance in *[Gantry](Elmer)(Elmer Gantry (film))* (1960).|alt=Black and white publicity photo of Burt Lancaster—a handsome white man with light eyes and wavy light-colored hair, oval face, wearing a light-colored shirt, around 34 years of age—in 1947.]]
[[File:Maximilian Schell - 1970-1.jpg|thumb|120px|[Schell](Maximilian)(Maximilian Schell) won for his performance in *[at Nuremberg](Judgment)(Judgment at Nuremberg)* (1961).]]
[[File:Gregory Peck 1948.jpg|thumb|120px|[Peck](Gregory)(Gregory Peck) won for his performance as [Finch](Atticus)(Atticus Finch) in *[Kill a Mockingbird](To)(To Kill a Mockingbird (film))* (1962).|alt=Black and white publicity photo of Gregory Peck—a white man with dark eyes and straight hair, smiling and wearing a suit, around 32 years of age—in 1948.]]
[[File:Sidney Poitier 1968.jpg|thumb|120px|[Poitier](Sidney)(Sidney Poitier) won for his performance in *[of the Field](Lilies)(Lilies of the Field (1963 film))* (1963), becoming the first black actor to win this category.|alt=Black and white publicity photo of Sidney Poitier—a black man wearing a suit around 38 years of age—in 1968.]]
[[File:Rex Harrison face.jpg|thumb|120px|[Harrison](Rex)(Rex Harrison) won for *[Fair Lady](My)(My Fair Lady (film))* (1964).|alt=Black and white portrait of Rex Harrison at his home in London in 1976.]]
### 1970s
[[File:Gene Hackman - 1972.jpg|thumb|120px|[Hackman](Gene)(Gene Hackman) won for *[French Connection](The)(The French Connection (film))* (1971)]]
[[File:Jack Lemmon - 1968 (cropped).jpg|thumb|120px|[Lemmon](Jack)(Jack Lemmon) won for *[the Tiger](Save)(Save the Tiger)* (1973).|alt=Black and white portrait of Jack Lemmon—a white man with a broad forehead and round face, short dark hair parted on his left, with dark eyes, smiling slightly, and wearing a dark suit, around 43 years of age—in 1968.]]
[[File:Jack Nicholson - 1976 (new).jpg|thumb|120px|[Nicholson](Jack)(Jack Nicholson) won twice for ''[Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest](One)(One Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest (film))* (1975) and *[Good as It Gets](As)(As Good as It Gets)* (1997).|alt=Photo of Jack Nicholson in 1976.]]
[[File:Peter Finch 2.jpg|thumb|120px|[Finch](Peter)(Peter Finch) won for his portrayal of [Beale](Howard)(Howard Beale (Network)) in *[Network](Network (1976 film))* (1976), becoming the first and, to date, only actor to win this award posthumously.|alt=Photo of Peter Finch.]]
[[File:Dustin Hoffman - 1968.jpg|thumb|120px|[Hoffman](Dustin)(Dustin Hoffman) won for *[vs. Kramer](Kramer)(Kramer vs. Kramer)* (1979) and *[Man](Rain)(Rain Man)* (1988).|alt=Black and white publicity photo of Dustin Hoffman—a young white man with dark hair, small eyes and a big nose, wearing a suit—in 1968.]]
### 1980s
[[File:RobertdeNiro26 (cropped).JPG|thumb|120px|[De Niro](Robert)(Robert De Niro) won for his portrayal of [LaMotta](Jake)(Jake LaMotta) in *[Bull](Raging)(Raging Bull)* (1980).|alt=Photo of Robert De Niro at the Deauville Film Festival, 1988.]]
[[File:Henry Fonda, 1940.jpg|thumb|120px|[Fonda](Henry)(Henry Fonda) won for *[Golden Pond](On)(On Golden Pond (1981 film))* (1981).|alt=Photo of Henry Fonda in 1940.]]
[[File:Ben Kingsley by Gage Skidmore.jpg|thumb|120px|[Kingsley](Ben)(Ben Kingsley) won for his portrayal of [Gandhi](Mahatma)(Mahatma Gandhi) in *[Gandhi](Gandhi (film))* (1982).|alt=Photo of Ben Kingsley in Sweden talking about his film Gandhi.]]
[[File:F Murray.Abraham cropped.jpg|thumb|120px|[Murray Abraham](F.)(F. Murray Abraham) won for his portrayal of [Salieri](Antonio)(Antonio Salieri) in *[Amadeus](Amadeus (film))* (1984); the first [Arab](Arab) to win the award.|alt=Photo of F. Murray Abraham at Seattle International Film Festival in May 2008.]]
[[File:Paul Newman 1954.JPG|thumb|120px|[Newman](Paul)(Paul Newman) won for *[Color of Money](The)(The Color of Money)* (1986).|alt=An original studio publicity photo of Paul Newman.]]
[[File:Daniel Day-Lewis2 Berlinale 2008 (2).jpg|thumb|120px|[Day-Lewis](Daniel)(Daniel Day-Lewis) won thrice, for *[Left Foot](My)(My Left Foot)* (1989), *[Will Be Blood](There)(There Will Be Blood)* (2007), and *[Lincoln](Lincoln (film))* (2012).|alt=Photo of Daniel Day-Lewis at a Jaguar Mille Miglia event in 2013.]]
### 1990s
[[File:Anthony Hopkins cropped 2009.jpg|thumb|120px|[Hopkins](Anthony)(Anthony Hopkins) won for *[Silence of the Lambs](The)(The Silence of the Lambs (film))* (1991) and *[Father](The)(The Father (2020 film))* (2020), winning the latter at age 83, becoming the [Best Actor winner](oldest)(List of oldest and youngest Academy Award winners and nominees#Best Actor in a Leading Role).]]
[[File:Al Pacino 2016 (30401544240).jpg|thumb|169x169px|[Pacino](Al)(Al Pacino) won for *[of A Woman](Scent)(Scent of a Woman (1992 film))* (1992).]]
[[File:Tom Hanks 2014.jpg|thumb|120px|[Hanks](Tom)(Tom Hanks) was the second of two actors to win this award over two consecutive years, winning for *[Philadelphia](Philadelphia (film))* (1993) and *[Gump](Forrest)(Forrest Gump)* (1994).|alt=Photo of Tom Hanks at the U.S. Department of State in Washington, D.C. in 2014.]]
[[File:Nicolas Cage Comic-Con 2011.jpg|thumb|120px|[Cage](Nicolas)(Nicolas Cage) won for *[Las Vegas](Leaving)(Leaving Las Vegas)* (1995).]]
[[File:Roberto Benigni-5274.jpg|thumb|120px|[Benigni](Roberto)(Roberto Benigni) won for *[is Beautiful](Life)(Life is Beautiful)* (1997), the first for a [language performance](foreign)(List of actors nominated for Academy Awards for non-English performances).]]
### 2000s
[[File:Denzel Washington cropped 02.jpg|thumb|120px|[Washington](Denzel)(Denzel Washington) won for *[Day](Training)(Training Day)* (2001).|alt=Photo of Denzel Washington at the Berlin International Film Festival in 2000.]]
[[File:Adrien Brody 2011 Shankbone (2).jpg|thumb|120px|[Brody](Adrien)(Adrien Brody) won for *[Pianist](The)(The Pianist (2002 film))* (2002) at age 29, becoming the [Best Actor winner](youngest)(List of oldest and youngest Academy Award winners and nominees#Best Actor in a Leading Role).|alt=Photo of Adrien Brody at the Cannes Film Festival in 2014.]]
[[File:Sean Penn by Sachyn Mital (cropped).jpg|thumb|120px|[Penn](Sean)(Sean Penn) won twice for *[River](Mystic)(Mystic River (film))* (2003) and *[Milk](Milk (2008 American film))* (2008).|alt=Photo of Sean Penn at the New York Film Festival in 2013.]]
[[File:Philip Seymour Hoffman 2011.jpg|thumb|120px|[Seymour Hoffman](Philip)(Philip Seymour Hoffman) won for *[Capote](Capote (film))* (2005).]]
[[File:Forest Whitaker 2014.jpg|thumb|120px|[Whitaker](Forest)(Forest Whitaker) won for *[Last King of Scotland](The)(The Last King of Scotland (film))* (2006).|alt=Photo of Forest Whitaker at the Berlin International Film Festival in 2014.]]
[[File:Jeff Bridges by Gage Skidmore 3.jpg|thumb|120px|[Bridges](Jeff)(Jeff Bridges) won for *[Heart](Crazy)(Crazy Heart)* (2009).]]
### 2010s
[[File:Jean Dujardin Cannes 2011.jpg|thumb|120px|[Dujardin](Jean)(Jean Dujardin) became the first French actor to win for *[Artist](The)(The Artist (film))* (2011).]]
[[File:Matthew McConaughey - Goldene Kamera 2014 - Berlin.jpg|thumb|120px|[McConaughey](Matthew)(Matthew McConaughey) won for *[Buyers Club](Dallas)(Dallas Buyers Club)* (2013).]]
[[File:LeonardoDiCaprioNov08.jpg|thumb|120px|[DiCaprio](Leonardo)(Leonardo DiCaprio) won for *[Revenant](The)(The Revenant (2015 film))* (2015).]]
[[File:Gary Oldman in 2017 (36334517524).jpg|thumb|120px|[Oldman](Gary)(Gary Oldman) won for *[Hour](Darkest)(Darkest Hour (film))* (2017).]]
[[File:Rami Malek in 2015 (2) (cropped).jpg|thumb|120px|[Malek](Rami)(Rami Malek) won for *[Rhapsody](Bohemian)(Bohemian Rhapsody (film))* (2018); the first [Egyptian](Egyptians) to win the award.|alt=Rami Malek at the Paley Center for Media in 2015.]]
[[File:Joaquin Phoenix-2196 (cropped).jpg|thumb|120px|[Phoenix](Joaquin)(Joaquin Phoenix) won for *[Joker](Joker (2019 film))* (2019).|alt=Joaquin Phoenix at the [Berlin International Film Festival](2018)(2018 Berlin International Film Festival).]]
### 2020s
[[File:TechCrunch Disrupt 2019 (48834434641) (cropped).jpg|thumb|120px|[Smith](Will)(Will Smith) won for *[Richard](King)(King Richard (film))* (2021).]]
## Multiple awards and nominations
The following individuals received two or more Best Actor awards:
The following individuals received four or more Best Actor nominations:
## Age superlatives
## Films with multiple Leading Actor nominations
Winners are in **bold**.
**[on the Bounty](Mutiny)(Mutiny on the Bounty (1935 film))* (1935) -- [Gable](Clark)(Clark Gable), [Laughton](Charles)(Charles Laughton), and [Tone](Franchot)(Franchot Tone)
**[My Way](Going)(Going My Way)* (1944) -- **[Crosby](Bing)(Bing Crosby)** and [Fitzgerald](Barry)(Barry Fitzgerald)
**[Here to Eternity](From)(From Here to Eternity)* (1953) -- [Clift](Montgomery)(Montgomery Clift) and [Lancaster](Burt)(Burt Lancaster)
**[Cowboy](Midnight)(Midnight Cowboy)* (1969)-- [Hoffman](Dustin)(Dustin Hoffman) and [Voight](Jon)(Jon Voight)
**[ Network](Network (1976 film))* (1976) -- **[Finch](Peter)(Peter Finch)** and [Holden](William)(William Holden)
**[Amadeus](Amadeus (film))* (1984) -- **[Murray Abraham](F.)(F. Murray Abraham)** and [Hulce](Tom)(Tom Hulce)
## See also
* [Academy Award acting nominees](All)(List of actors with Academy Award nominations)
* [Award for Best Actor in a Leading Role](BAFTA)(BAFTA Award for Best Actor in a Leading Role)
* [Choice Movie Award for Best Actor](Critics')(Critics' Choice Movie Award for Best Actor)
* [Globe Award for Best Actor – Motion Picture Drama](Golden)(Golden Globe Award for Best Actor – Motion Picture Drama)
* [Globe Award for Best Actor – Motion Picture Musical or Comedy](Golden)(Golden Globe Award for Best Actor – Motion Picture Musical or Comedy)
* [Spirit Award for Best Male Lead](Independent)(Independent Spirit Award for Best Male Lead)
* [Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Male Actor in a Leading Role](Screen)(Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Male Actor in a Leading Role)
## Notes
:**A**: According to longstanding Hollywood legend, reported by [Orlean](Susan)(Susan Orlean), [Tin Tin](Rin)(Rin Tin Tin) actually received the most Best Actor votes, but the Academy (not wishing to give the first award to a dog) refactored the votes to ensure that Jannings won.
:**B**:*[Circus](The)(The Circus (1928 film))* originally received three nominations: Best Director (Comedy Picture), Best Actor, and Best Writing (Original Story) for [Chaplin](Charles)(Charlie Chaplin). However, the [Academy](Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences) subsequently decided to remove Chaplin's name from the competitive award categories and instead to confer upon him a [Award](Special)(Academy Honorary Award) "for acting, writing, directing and producing *The Circus*".
:**C**: Rules at the time of the first three ceremonies allowed for a performer to receive a single nomination which could honor their work in more than one film. [Arliss](George)(George Arliss), [Chevalier](Maurice)(Maurice Chevalier), and [Colman](Ronald)(Ronald Colman) were all nominated for two different roles in the same category. Current Academy rules forbid this from happening. No official reason was ever given as to why Arliss won the award for only one of the two films he was listed for.
:**D**: [March](Fredric)(Fredric March) received one more vote than [Beery](Wallace)(Wallace Beery). Academy rules at that time considered such a close margin to be a tie, so both March and Beery received the award. Under current Academy rules, dual awards are given only for exact ties.
## References
## Bibliography
*
*
*
*
*
*
## External links
* [Oscars.org](http://www.oscars.org/) (official Academy site)
* [The Academy Awards Database](http://awardsdatabase.oscars.org/) (official site)
* [Oscar.com](http://oscar.go.com) (official ceremony promotional site)
[Awards](Category:Academy)(Category:Academy Awards)
[ ](Category:Best Actor Academy Award winners)
[awards for lead actor](Category:Film)(Category:Film awards for lead actor)
|
Las Vegas Raiders
|
las_vegas_raiders
|
# Las Vegas Raiders
*Revision ID: 1159653503 | Timestamp: 2023-06-11T17:49:16Z*
---
| first_season = [1960](1960 Oakland Raiders season)
| city = [Stadium](Allegiant)(Allegiant Stadium)[Nevada](Paradise,)(Paradise, Nevada)
| misc = **Headquartered** in the [Healthcare](Intermountain)(Intermountain Healthcare) Performance Center[Nevada](Henderson,)(Henderson, Nevada)
| logo = Las Vegas Raiders logo.svg
| wordmark = Las Vegas Raiders wordmark.svg
| affiliate_old =
[Football League](American)(American Football League) (1960–1969)
* Western Division (1960–1969)
| NFL_start_yr = 1970
| division_hist =
* **[Football Conference](American)(American Football Conference) (1970–present)**
** **[West](AFC)(AFC West) (1970–present)**
| uniform = [180px](File:Raiders uniform update 1-03-2017.png)
| colors = Silver, black
| song = "[Autumn Wind](The)(The Autumn Wind)"
| mascot = Raider Rusher
| owner = [Mark](Mark Davis (American football)) and [Davis](Carol)(Carol Davis (American football))(majority owner)
| president = [Douglass Morgan](Sandra)(Sandra Douglass Morgan)
| general manager = [Ziegler](Dave)(Dave Ziegler)
| coach = [McDaniels](Josh)(Josh McDaniels)
| hist_yr = 2020
| hist_misc =
* [Raiders](Oakland)(Oakland Raiders) (1960–1981)
* [Angeles Raiders](Los)(Los Angeles Raiders) (1982–1994)
* [Raiders](Oakland)(Oakland Raiders) (1995–2019)
| nicknames =
* Silver and Black
* Men in Black
* Team of the Decades
* The World's Team
* *Malosos* ("Bad Boys"; Mexican fan base)
| no_league_champs = 3†
| no_sb_champs = 3
| no_conf_champs = 4
| no_div_champs = 15
| league_champs =
* **[championships](AFL)(American Football League playoffs) (pre-1970 [merger](AFL–NFL)(AFL–NFL merger)) (1)**[1967](1967 American Football League Championship Game)
| no_pre1970sb_champs =
| pre1970sb_champs =
| conf_champs =
* **AFC:** , , ,
| sb_champs = [1976](1976 NFL season) ([XI](Super Bowl XI)), [1980](1980 NFL season) ([XV](Super Bowl XV)), [1983](1983 NFL season) ([XVIII](Super Bowl XVIII))
| div_champs =
* **AFL West:** [1967](1967 American Football League season), [1968](1968 American Football League season), [1969](1969 American Football League season)
* **AFC West:** [1970](1970 NFL season), [1972](1972 NFL season), [1973](1973 NFL season), [1974](1974 NFL season), [1975](1975 NFL season), [1976](1976 NFL season), [1983](1983 NFL season), [1985](1985 NFL season), [1990](1990 NFL season), [2000](2000 NFL season), [2001](2001 NFL season), [2002](2002 NFL season)
† – Does not include the AFL or NFL Championships won during the same seasons as the AFL–NFL Super Bowl Championships prior to the 1970 [merger](AFL–NFL)(AFL–NFL merger)
| playoff_appearances =
* **AFL:** [1967](1967 American Football League Championship Game), [1968](1968 American Football League Championship Game), [1969](1969 American Football League Championship Game)
* **NFL:** [1970](1970–71 NFL playoffs), [1972](1972–73 NFL playoffs), [1973](1973–74 NFL playoffs), [1974](1974–75 NFL playoffs), [1975](1975–76 NFL playoffs), [1976](1976–77 NFL playoffs), [1977](1977–78 NFL playoffs), [1980](1980–81 NFL playoffs), [1982](1982–83 NFL playoffs), [1983](1983–84 NFL playoffs), [1984](1984–85 NFL playoffs), [1985](1985–86 NFL playoffs), [1990](1990–91 NFL playoffs), [1991](1991–92 NFL playoffs), [1993](1993–94 NFL playoffs), [2000](2000–01 NFL playoffs), [2001](2001–02 NFL playoffs), [2002](2002–03 NFL playoffs), [2016](2016–17 NFL playoffs), [2021](2021–22 NFL playoffs)
| no_playoff_appearances = 23
| stadium_years =
* [Stadium](Kezar)(Kezar Stadium) ([1960](1960 American Football League season))
* [Park](Candlestick)(Candlestick Park) ([1961](1961 American Football League season))
* [Youell Field](Frank)(Frank Youell Field) ([1962](1962 American Football League season)–[1965](1965 American Football League season))
* [Coliseum](Oakland)(Oakland Coliseum) ([1966](1966 American Football League season)–, )
* [Angeles Memorial Coliseum](Los)(Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum) ()
* **[Stadium](Allegiant)(Allegiant Stadium) (–present)**
}}
The **Las Vegas Raiders** are a professional [football](American)(American football) team based in the [Vegas metropolitan area](Las)(Las Vegas Valley). The Raiders compete in the [Football League](National)(National Football League) (NFL) as a member club of the league's [Football Conference](American)(American Football Conference) (AFC) [West](AFC West) division. The club plays its home games at [Stadium](Allegiant)(Allegiant Stadium) in [Nevada](Paradise,)(Paradise, Nevada), and is headquartered in [Nevada](Henderson,)(Henderson, Nevada).
Founded on January 30, 1960, and originally based in [California](Oakland,)(Oakland, California), the Raiders played their first regular season game on September 11, 1960, as a charter member of the [Football League](American)(American Football League) (AFL). They moved to the NFL with the [merger](AFL–NFL)(AFL–NFL merger) in 1970. The team was almost chosen under the nickname "Señors" when established, as close to the team sporting the "Oakland Señors" team name is the original idea of the orange and black team theme colors, that were discontinued as well. The team departed Oakland to play in [Angeles](Los)(Los Angeles) from the [season](1982)(1982 Los Angeles Raiders season) through the [season](1994)(1994 Los Angeles Raiders season) before returning to Oakland at the start of the [season](1995)(1995 Oakland Raiders season). On March 27, 2017, NFL team owners voted nearly unanimously to approve the Raiders' application to [relocate](Oakland Raiders relocation to Las Vegas) to Las Vegas. Nearly three years later, on January 22, 2020, the Raiders moved to Las Vegas.
The Raiders' on-field fortunes have varied considerably over the years. The team's first three years of operation ([1960](1960 Oakland Raiders season)–[1962](1962 Oakland Raiders season)) were marred by poor performance, financial difficulties, and spotty attendance. In [1963](1963 Oakland Raiders season), the Raiders' fortunes improved dramatically with the introduction of head coach (and eventual owner) [Davis](Al)(Al Davis). In [1967](1967 Oakland Raiders season), after several years of improvement, the Raiders reached the postseason for the first time. The team would go on to win its first (and only) [Championship](AFL)(1967 American Football League Championship Game) that year; in doing so, the Raiders advanced to [Bowl II](Super)(Super Bowl II), where they were soundly defeated by the [Bay Packers](Green)(Green Bay Packers). Since 1963, the team has won 15 division titles (3 AFL and 12 NFL), 4 AFC Championships ([1976](1976–77 NFL playoffs), [1980](1980–81 NFL playoffs), [1983](1983–84 NFL playoffs), and [2002](2002–03 NFL playoffs)), one AFL Championship ([1967](1967 American Football League Championship Game)), and three Super Bowl Championships: [(1976)](XI)(Super Bowl XI), [(1980)](XV)(Super Bowl XV), and [(1983)](XVIII)(Super Bowl XVIII). As of the end of the NFL's [season](2022)(2022 NFL season), the Raiders have an all-time regular season record of 497 wins, 458 losses, and 11 ties; their all-time playoff record currently stands at 25 wins and 20 losses. Pro-Football-Reference.com|website=Pro-Football-Reference.com|language=en|access-date=July 11, 2017|archive-date=July 7, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170707115845/http://www.pro-football-reference.com/teams/rai/|url-status=live}}
Al Davis owned the team from 1972 until his death in 2011. Control of the franchise was then given to Al's son [Davis](Mark)(Mark Davis (American football)), with Al's wife [Carol](Carol Davis (American football)) maintaining ownership. The Raiders are known for their [fan base](extensive)(Raider Nation) and distinctive team culture. The Raiders have had 17 former players who have been enshrined in the [Football Hall of Fame](Pro)(Pro Football Hall of Fame) as well as two former coaches and Al Davis. They have previously played at [Stadium](Kezar)(Kezar Stadium) and [Park](Candlestick)(Candlestick Park) in San Francisco, [Youell Field](Frank)(Frank Youell Field) and [Coliseum](Oakland)(Oakland Coliseum) in Oakland, and the [Angeles Memorial Coliseum](Los)(Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum) in Los Angeles.
## Franchise history
### First Oakland era (1960–1981)
The Oakland Raiders were originally going to be called the "Oakland Señors""Grid Team Named-- They're Senors", *Oakland Tribune*, April 5, 1960, p37. Soda said, "My own personal choice would have been Mavericks, but I believe we came up with a real fine name." The selection committee narrowed the choices down to Admirals, Lakers, Diablos, Seawolves, Gauchos, Nuggets, Señors, Dons, Costers, Grandees, Sequoias, Missiles, Knights, Redwoods, Clippers, Jets and Dolphins. after a name-the-team contest had that name finish first, but after being the target of local jokes, the name was changed to the Raiders before the 1960 season began. Having enjoyed a successful collegiate coaching career as an assistant coach at [Navy](United States Naval Academy) during the 1950s, San Francisco native [Erdelatz](Eddie)(Eddie Erdelatz) was hired as the Raiders' first head coach. On February 9, 1960, after rejecting offers from the NFL's [Redskins](Washington)(Washington Commanders) and the AFL's [Angeles Chargers](Los)(Los Angeles Chargers), Erdelatz accepted the Raiders' head coaching position. In January 1960, the Raiders were established in Oakland, and, because of NFL interference with the original eighth franchise owner, were the last team of eight in the new [Football League](American)(American Football League) to select players, thus relegated to the remaining talent available (see below).
The [Raiders](1960)(1960 Oakland Raiders season) 42-man roster included 28 rookies and only 14 veterans. Among the Raiders rookies were future Pro Football Hall of Fame inductee center [Otto](Jim)(Jim Otto) and future Raiders head coach, quarterback [Flores](Tom)(Tom Flores). In their debut year under Erdelatz, the [Raiders](1960 Oakland Raiders season) finished with a 6–8 record.
On September 18, 1961, Erdelatz was dismissed after the Raiders were outscored 77–46 in the first two games of the season. On September 24, 1961, after the dismissal of Erdelatz, management named Los Angeles native and offensive line coach [Feldman](Marty)(Marty Feldman (American football coach)) as the Raiders head coach. The team finished the 1961 season with a 2–12 record.
Feldman began the [season](1962)(1962 Oakland Raiders season) as Raiders head coach but was fired on October 16, 1962, after an 0–5 start. From October 16 through December, the Raiders were coached by Oklahoma native and former assistant coach [Conkright](Red)(Red Conkright). Under Conkright, the Raiders went 1–8, finishing the season with 1–13 record. Following the 1962 season the Raiders appointed Conkright to an interim mentor position as they looked for a new head coach.
After the 1962 season, Raiders managing general partner [Wayne Valley](F.)(F. Wayne Valley) hired Al Davis as Raiders head coach and general manager. At 33, he was the youngest person in professional football history to hold the positions. Davis immediately began to implement what he termed the "vertical game", an aggressive offensive strategy inspired by the offense developed by Chargers head coach [Gillman](Sid)(Sid Gillman). Under Davis the [Raiders](1963 Oakland Raiders season) improved to 10–4 and he was named the AFL's Coach of the Year in 1963. Though the team slipped to 5–7–2 in [1964](1964 Oakland Raiders season), they rebounded to an 8–5–1 record in [1965](1965 Oakland Raiders season). The famous silver and black Raider uniform debuted at the regular season-opening game on September 7, 1963. Prior to this, the team wore a combination of black and white with gold trim on the pants and oversized numerals.
In April 1966 Davis left the Raiders after being named AFL Commissioner, promoting assistant coach [Rauch](John)(John Rauch) to head coach. Two months later, the league announced its [with the NFL](merger)(AFL–NFL merger).
The leagues would retain separate regular seasons until [1970](1970 NFL season). With the merger, the position of commissioner was no longer needed, and Al Davis entered into discussions with Valley about returning to the Raiders. On July 25, 1966, Davis returned as part-owner of the team. He purchased a 10% interest in the team for $18,000 (), and became the team's third general partner. He also became head of football operations.Dickey, *Just Win, Baby*, p. 41.
Under Rauch, the Raiders matched their 1965 season's 8–5–1 record in [1966](1966 Oakland Raiders season) but missed the playoffs, finishing second in the AFL West Division.
#### AFL champions (1967)
On the field, the team Davis had assembled steadily improved. Led by quarterback [Lamonica](Daryle)(Daryle Lamonica), acquired in a trade with the [Bills](Buffalo)(Buffalo Bills), the Raiders finished the [season](1967)(1967 Oakland Raiders season) with a 13–1 record and won the [AFL Championship](1967)(1967 American Football League Championship Game), defeating the [Oilers](Houston)(1967 Houston Oilers season) 40–7. The win earned the team a trip to the [Bowl](Orange)(Miami Orange Bowl) in Miami, Florida to participate in [Bowl II](Super)(Super Bowl II). On January 14, 1968, the Raiders were defeated in the second-ever Super Bowl, losing 33–14 to [Lombardi](Vince)(Vince Lombardi)'s [Bay Packers](Green)(1967 Green Bay Packers season).
The following year, the [Raiders](1968 Oakland Raiders season) ended the [season](1968)(1968 AFL season) with a 12–2 record and again winning the AFL West Division title. They lost 27–23 to the [York Jets](New)(1968 New York Jets season) in the [Championship Game](AFL)(1968 American Football League Championship Game).
Citing management conflicts with day-to-day coaching decisions, Rauch resigned as Raiders head coach on January 16, 1969, accepting the head coaching job of the Buffalo Bills.
During the early 1960s, [Madden](John)(John Madden) was a defensive assistant coach at [Diego State University](San)(San Diego State University) under SDSU head coach [Coryell](Don)(Don Coryell). Madden credited Coryell as being an influence on his coaching. In 1967, Madden was hired by Al Davis as the Raiders linebacker coach. On February 4, 1969, after the departure of John Rauch, Madden was named the Raiders sixth head coach. Under Madden, the [Raiders](1969)(1969 Oakland Raiders season) won the AFL West Division title for the third consecutive year with a 12–1–1 record. On December 20, 1969, the Raiders defeated the [Oilers](1969 Houston Oilers season) 56–7 in the AFL Division playoff game. In the [Championship game](AFL)(1969 American Football League Championship Game) on January 4, 1970, the Raiders were defeated by [Stram](Hank)(Hank Stram)'s [City Chiefs](Kansas)(1969 Kansas City Chiefs season) 17–7.
In 1970, the AFL–NFL merger was completed after four years and the Raiders joined the Western Division of the [Football Conference](American)(American Football Conference) (actually the AFL West with the same teams as in 1969, except for the [Bengals](Cincinnati)(Cincinnati Bengals)) in the newly merged NFL. The first [season](post-merger)(1970 Oakland Raiders season) saw the Raiders win the AFC West with an 8–4–2 record and advance to the [championship](conference)(1970 AFC Championship Game), where they lost to the [Colts](Baltimore)(1970 Baltimore Colts season). Despite another 8–4–2 season in [1971](1971 NFL season), it was only good for second place in the AFC West, and the team failed to make the playoffs. When backup offensive lineman [Mix](Ron)(Ron Mix) played, the 1971 Raiders had an eventual all-Pro Football Hall of Fame offensive line with tackle [Shell](Art)(Art Shell), guard [Upshaw](Gene)(Gene Upshaw), center Jim Otto, and tackle [Brown](Bob)(Bob Brown (offensive lineman)).
[[File:John Madden in 2007.jpg|thumb|200px|right|[Madden](John)(John Madden) was the head coach of the Raiders for 10 seasons. Madden's overall winning percentage including playoff games ranks second in league history. He won a Super Bowl and never had a losing season as a head coach.]]
The teams of the 1970s were thoroughly dominant teams, with eight Hall of Fame inductees on the roster and a Hall of Fame coach in John Madden. The 1970s Raiders created the team's identity and persona as a team that was hard-hitting. Dominant on defense, with the crushing hits of safeties [Tatum](Jack)(Jack Tatum) and [Atkinson](George)(George Atkinson (safety)) and cornerback [Thomas](Skip)(Skip Thomas), the Raiders regularly held first place in the AFC West, entering the playoffs nearly every season. From 1973 through 1977, the Raiders reached the conference championship every year.
This was also the era of a bitter rivalry between the [Steelers](Pittsburgh)(Pittsburgh Steelers) and Raiders. In the 1970s, the Steelers and Raiders were frequently the two best teams in the AFC and, arguably, the NFL. The teams would meet on five occasions in the playoffs, and the winner of the Steelers-Raiders game went on to win the Super Bowl in three of those instances, from 1974 to 1976. The rivalry garnered attention in the sports media, with controversial plays, late hits, accusations and public statements.
The rivalry began with and was fueled by a controversial last-second play in their first playoff game in [1972](1972 NFL season). That season the [Raiders](1972 Oakland Raiders season) achieved a 10–3–1 record and an AFC West title. In the divisional round, the Raiders would lose to the [Steelers](1972 Pittsburgh Steelers season) 13–7 on the controversial play that has become known as the "[Reception](Immaculate)(Immaculate Reception)".
The [Raiders](1973 Oakland Raiders season) and [Steelers](1973 Pittsburgh Steelers season) would meet again the [season](following)(1973 NFL season) as the Raiders won the AFC West again with a 9–4–1 record. Lamonica was replaced as starting quarterback early in the season by [Stabler](Ken)(Ken Stabler). The Raiders defeated Pittsburgh 33–14 in the divisional round of the playoffs to reach the AFC Championship, but lost 27–10 to the [Dolphins](Miami)(1973 Miami Dolphins season).
In [1974](1974 NFL season) [Oakland](1974 Oakland Raiders season) had a 12–2 regular season, which included a nine-game winning streak. They beat the [Dolphins](1974 Miami Dolphins season) 28–26 in the divisional round of the playoffs in a see-saw battle remembered as the "Sea of Hands" game.National Football League lore They then lost the AFC Championship to the [Steelers](1974 Pittsburgh Steelers season), who went on to win the Super Bowl. The Raiders were held to only 29 yards rushing by the Pittsburgh defense, and late mistakes turned a 10–3 lead at the start of the fourth quarter into a disappointing 24–13 loss.
In the [season](1975)(1975 NFL season) opener, the [Raiders](1975 Oakland Raiders season) beat [Miami](1975 Miami Dolphins season) and ended their 31-game home winning streak. With an 11–3 record, they defeated [Cincinnati](1975 Cincinnati Bengals season) 31–28 in the divisional playoff round. Again, the Raiders faced the [Steelers](1975 Pittsburgh Steelers season) in the conference championship, eager for revenge. According to Madden and Davis, the Raiders relied on quick movement by their wide receivers on the outside sidelines – the deep threat, or 'long ball' – more so than the Steelers of that year, whose offense was far more run-oriented than it would become later in the 1970s. Forced to adapt to the frozen field of Three Rivers Stadium, with receivers slipping and unable to make quick moves to beat coverage, the Raiders lost, 16–10. The rivalry had now grown to hatred, and became the stereotype of the 'grudge match.' Again, the Raiders came up short, as the Steelers won the AFC Championship and then went on to another Super Bowl title.
#### Super Bowl XI champions (1976)
In [1976](1976 NFL season), the [Raiders](1976 Oakland Raiders season) came from behind dramatically to beat [Pittsburgh](1976 Pittsburgh Steelers season) 31–28 in the season opener and continued to cement its reputation for dirty play by knocking WR [Swann](Lynn)(Lynn Swann) out for two weeks with a clothesline to the helmet. Al Davis later tried to sue Steelers coach [Noll](Chuck)(Chuck Noll) for libel after the latter called safety [Atkinson](George)(George Atkinson (safety)) a criminal for the hit. The Raiders won 13 regular-season games and a close controversial 21–17 victory over [England](New)(1976 New England Patriots season) in the divisional playoffs. With the Patriots up by three points in the final two minutes, referee Ben Dreith called roughing the passer on New England's ["Sugar Bear" Hamilton](Ray)(Ray Hamilton) after he hit Oakland QB Ken Stabler. The Raiders went on to score a touchdown in the final minute to win. They then defeated the Steelers 24–7 in the AFC Championship to advance to their second Super Bowl. In [Bowl XI](Super)(Super Bowl XI), Oakland's opponent was the [Vikings](Minnesota)(1976 Minnesota Vikings season), a team that had lost three previous Super Bowls. The Raiders jumped out to an early lead and led 16–0 at halftime. By the end, having forced Minnesota into multiple turnovers, the Raiders won 32–14 for their first Super Bowl and post-merger championship.
The [season](following)(1977 NFL season) saw the [Raiders](1977 Oakland Raiders season) finish 11–3, but they lost the division title to the [Broncos](Denver)(1977 Denver Broncos season). They settled for a wild card, beating the [Colts](1977 Baltimore Colts season) in the second-longest overtime game in NFL history and which featured the [to the Post](Ghost)(Ghost to the Post). The Raiders then fell to the Broncos in the AFC Championship.
During a 1978 preseason game, Patriots WR [Stingley](Darryl)(Darryl Stingley) was injured by a hit from Raiders FS Jack Tatum and paralyzed for life. Although the [Raiders](1978)(1978 Oakland Raiders season) achieved a winning record at 9–7, they missed the playoffs for the first time since 1971, losing critical games down the stretch to miss the playoffs.
After 10 consecutive winning seasons and one Super Bowl championship, John Madden left coaching in 1979 to pursue a career as a television football commentator. His replacement was former Raiders quarterback [Flores](Tom)(Tom Flores), the first Hispanic head coach in NFL history. Flores led the [Raiders](1979 Oakland Raiders season) to another 9–7 [season](1979 NFL season), but the team missed the playoffs.
#### Super Bowl XV champions (1980)
In the midst of the turmoil of Al Davis' attempts to move the team to Los Angeles in [1980](1980 NFL season), Flores looked to lead the [Raiders](1980 Oakland Raiders season) to their third Super Bowl by finishing the season 11–5 and earning a wild card berth. Quarterback [Plunkett](Jim)(Jim Plunkett) revitalized his career, taking over in game five when starter [Pastorini](Dan)(Dan Pastorini) was lost for the season to a broken leg after owner Al Davis had picked up Pastorini when he swapped quarterbacks with the [Oilers](Houston)(1980 Houston Oilers season), sending the beloved [Stabler](Ken)(Ken Stabler) to the Oilers. The Raiders defeated Stabler and the Oilers in the Wild Card game and advanced to the AFC Championship by defeating the [Browns](Cleveland)(1980 Cleveland Browns season) 14–12. The Raiders slipped by the AFC West champion San Diego Chargers to advance to their third Super Bowl. In [Bowl XV](Super)(Super Bowl XV), the Raiders faced head coach [Vermeil](Dick)(Dick Vermeil)'s [Eagles](Philadelphia)(Philadelphia Eagles). The Raiders dominated the Eagles, taking an early 14–0 lead in the first quarter behind two touchdown passes by Plunkett, including a then-Super Bowl record 80-yard pass and catch to running back [King](Kenny)(Kenny King (running back)). A [Branch](Cliff)(Cliff Branch) third-quarter touchdown reception put the Raiders up 21–3 in the third quarter. They would go on to win 27–10, winning their second Super Bowl and becoming the first team to ever win the Super Bowl after getting into the playoffs as the wild card team.
The Raiders' final campaign of their first run in Oakland of [1981](1981 Oakland Raiders season) saw the team fall to a 7–9 record, failing to make the playoffs following their Super Bowl win.
### Los Angeles Raiders (1982–1994)
In 1980 Al Davis attempted unsuccessfully to have improvements made to the [County Coliseum](Oakland–Alameda)(Oakland–Alameda County Coliseum), specifically the addition of [box](luxury)(luxury box)es. That year, he signed a [of agreement](memorandum)(memorandum of agreement) to move the Raiders from Oakland to Los Angeles. The move, which required three-fourths approval by league owners, was defeated 22–0 (with five owners abstaining). When Davis tried to move the team anyway, he was blocked by an [injunction](injunction). In response, the Raiders not only became an active partner in an [antitrust](Competition law) lawsuit filed by the [Angeles Memorial Coliseum](Los)(Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum) (who had recently lost the [Angeles Rams](Los)(Los Angeles Rams) to [Anaheim](Angel Stadium)), but filed an antitrust lawsuit of their own.Dickey, *Just Win, Baby*. p. 168. After the first case was declared a [mistrial](Trial), in May 1982, a second jury found in favor of Davis and the Los Angeles Coliseum, clearing the way for the move.Dickey, *Just Win, Baby*. p. 172. With the ruling, the Raiders would relocate to Los Angeles for the [season](1982)(1982 NFL season) to play their home games at the Memorial Coliseum.
The newly minted [Angeles Raiders](Los)(1982 Los Angeles Raiders season) finished the [strike-shortened](1982 NFL strike) [season](1982)(1982 NFL season) 8–1 to win the AFC West, but lost in the second round of the [playoffs](1982–83 NFL playoffs) to the [Jets](1982 New York Jets season).
#### Super Bowl XVIII champions (1983)
The [season](following)(1983 NFL season), the [Raiders](1983 Los Angeles Raiders season) finished 12–4 to win the AFC West. Convincing playoff wins over the [Steelers](1983 Pittsburgh Steelers season) and [Seahawks](Seattle)(1983 Seattle Seahawks season) in the [playoffs](AFC)(1983–84 NFL playoffs) propelled the Raiders to their fourth Super Bowl. Against the [Redskins](Washington)(1983 Washington Redskins season) in [Bowl XVIII](Super)(Super Bowl XVIII), the Raiders built a lead after blocking a punt and recovering for a touchdown early in the game. A Branch touchdown reception from Plunkett put the Raiders up 14–0 with more than nine minutes remaining in the first quarter. With seven seconds remaining in the first half, linebacker [Squirek](Jack)(Jack Squirek) intercepted a [Theismann](Joe)(Joe Theismann) [pass](swing)(swing pass) at the Washington five-yard line and scored, sending the Raiders to a 21–3 halftime lead. Following a [Riggins](John)(John Riggins) one-yard touchdown run (extra point was blocked), [Allen](Marcus)(Marcus Allen) scored from five yards out to build the lead to 28–9. The Raiders sealed the game with Allen reversed his route on a Super Bowl record run that turned into a 74-yard touchdown. The Raiders went on to a 38–9 victory and their third NFL championship. Allen set a record for most rushing yards (191) and combined yards (209) in a Super Bowl as the Raiders won their third Super Bowl in eight years.
[[File:1985 Police Raiders-Rams - 01 Marcus Allen (crop).jpg|thumb|230px|Raiders' Hall of Famer [Allen](Marcus)(Marcus Allen) is considered one of the greatest goal line and short-yard runners in National Football League history.]]
The [team](1984 Los Angeles Raiders season) had another successful regular season in [1984](1984 NFL season), finishing 11–5, but a three-game losing streak forced them to enter the playoffs as a wild-card, where they fell to the [Seahawks](1984 Seattle Seahawks season) in the Wild Card game.
The [Raiders](1985)(1985 Los Angeles Raiders season) campaign saw 12 wins and a division title as Marcus Allen was named MVP. A loss to the [Patriots](1985 New England Patriots season) derailed any further postseason hopes.
The Raiders' fortunes declined after that, and from [1986](1986 Los Angeles Raiders season) to [1989](1989 Los Angeles Raiders season), they finished no better than 8–8 and posted consecutive losing seasons for the first time since 1961–62. Also in 1986, Al Davis got into a widely publicized argument with Marcus Allen, whom he accused of faking injuries. The feud continued into [1987](1987 Los Angeles Raiders season), and Davis retaliated by signing [Jackson](Bo)(Bo Jackson) to essentially replace Allen. Jackson was also a [fielder](left)(left fielder) for [League Baseball](Major)(Major League Baseball)'s [City Royals](Kansas)(Kansas City Royals), and could not play full-time until baseball season ended in October. Even worse, another [strike](1987 NFL strike) cost the NFL one game and prompted them to use substitute players. The Raiders achieved a 1–2 record before the regular players returned after the strike. After a weak 5–10 finish, Tom Flores moved to the front office and was replaced by Denver Broncos offensive assistant coach [Shanahan](Mike)(Mike Shanahan).
Shanahan led the team to a 7–9 season in [1988](1988 Los Angeles Raiders season), and Allen and Jackson continued to trade places as the starting running back. Low game attendance and fan apathy were evident by this point, and in the summer of 1988, rumors of a Raiders return to Oakland intensified when a preseason game against the [Oilers](Houston)(1988 Houston Oilers season) was scheduled at Oakland–Alameda County Coliseum.Dickey, *Just Win, Baby*. p. 234.
After starting the [season](1989)(1989 NFL season) with a 1–3 record, Shanahan was fired by Davis, which began a long-standing feud between the two. He was replaced by former Raider offensive lineman [Shell](Art)(Art Shell), who had been voted into the [Football Hall of Fame](Pro)(Pro Football Hall of Fame) earlier in the year. With the hiring, Shell became the first African American head coach in the modern NFL era, but the [team](1989 Los Angeles Raiders season) still finished a middling 8–8.
In [1990](1990 NFL season) Shell led the [Raiders](1990 Los Angeles Raiders season) to a 12–4 record. Behind Bo Jackson's spectacular play, they beat the [Bengals](Cincinnati)(1990 Cincinnati Bengals season) in the divisional round of the playoffs. Jackson suffered a severe hip and leg injury after a tackle during the game. Without him, the Raiders were blown out 51–3 in the AFC Championship by the [Bills](Buffalo)(1990 Buffalo Bills season). Jackson was forced to quit football as a result of the injury, although surgery allowed him to continue playing baseball until he retired in 1994.
[[File:Tim Brown.jpg|thumb|190px|right|Raiders' Hall of Famer [Brown](Tim)(Tim Brown (American football)) spent 16 years with the Raiders, during which he established himself as one of the NFL's most prolific wide receivers.]]
The [Raiders](1991 Los Angeles Raiders season) finished with a 9–7 record in [1991](1991 NFL season), but struggled looking for a reliable quarterback and lost to the [City Chiefs](Kansas)(1991 Kansas City Chiefs season) in the Wild Card game. The struggle for a quarterback continued in 1992 as the Raiders started two different quarterbacks and stumbled to a 7–9 record, two other playoff appearances during the 1990s, and finished higher than third place only three times.
The [Raiders](1993 Los Angeles Raiders season) rebounded well in 1993 with [Hostetler](Jeff)(Jeff Hostetler) as the everyday quarterback, finishing in second place in the AFC West with a 10–6 record. A win over the [Broncos](1993 Denver Broncos season) in the wild card game means a rematch against the [Bills](1993 Buffalo Bills season) for the right to go to the AFC Championship game. The Raiders, led by two [McCallum](Napoleon)(Napoleon McCallum) rushing touchdowns took a halftime lead, but could only manage six points in the second half losing to the Bills again 29–23.
Following a 9–7 record in the [season](1994)(1994 Los Angeles Raiders season) that resulted in the team missing the playoffs, Art Shell was fired.
### Second Oakland era (1995–2019)
As early as 1986, Davis sought to abandon the Coliseum in favor of a more modern stadium. In addition to sharing the venue with the [Trojans](USC)(USC Trojans football), the Raiders were less than ecstatic with the Coliseum as it was aging and still lacked the luxury suites and other amenities that Davis was promised when he moved the Raiders to Los Angeles.Dickey, *Just Win, Baby*. p. 230. Finally, the Coliseum had 95,000 seats and the Raiders were rarely able to fill all of them even in their best years, and so most Raiders home games were blacked out in Southern California. Numerous sites in California were considered, including one near the now-defunct [Park](Hollywood)(Hollywood Park Racetrack) in [Inglewood](Inglewood, California), where [Stadium](SoFi)(SoFi Stadium) for the Rams and Chargers now stands, and another in [Carson](Carson, California). In August 1987 it was announced that the city of [Irwindale](Irwindale, California) paid Davis US$10 million as a good-faith deposit for a prospective stadium site.Dickey, *Just Win, Baby*. p. 232. When the bid failed, Davis kept the non-refundable deposit. During this time Davis also almost moved the team to [Sacramento](Sacramento, California) in a deal that would have included Davis becoming the managing partner of the [Kings](Sacramento)(Sacramento Kings).
Negotiations between Davis and Oakland commenced in January 1989, and on March 11, 1990, Davis announced his intention to bring the Raiders back to Oakland.Dickey, *Just Win, Baby*. pp. 234–239. By September 1990, numerous delays had prevented the completion of the deal between Davis and Oakland. On September 11, Davis announced a new deal to stay in Los Angeles, leading many fans in Oakland to burn Raiders paraphernalia in disgust.Dickey, *Just Win, Baby*. pp. 240–244.
On June 23, 1995, Davis signed a [of intent](letter)(letter of intent) to move the Raiders back to Oakland. The move was approved by the Alameda County Board of Supervisors the next month. As the NFL had never recognized the Raiders' initial move to Los Angeles, they could not disapprove of the move or request a relocation fee, which had to be paid by the [Angeles Rams](Los)(Los Angeles Rams) for their move to [Louis](St.)(St. Louis). In order to convince Davis to return, Oakland spent $220 million on stadium renovations. These included a new seating section – commonly known as "[Davis](Mount)(Mount Davis (Oakland))" – with 10,000 seats. It also built the team a training facility and paid all its moving costs. The Raiders paid $525,000 a year in rent – a fraction of what the nearby [Francisco 49ers](San)(San Francisco 49ers) paid to play at the now-extinct [Park](Candlestick)(Candlestick Park) – and did not pay maintenance or game-day operating costs.
The move was greeted with much fanfare, and under new head coach [White](Mike)(Mike White (American football coach)) the [season](1995)(1995 NFL season) began well for the [Raiders](1995 Oakland Raiders season). Oakland started 8–2, but injuries to starting quarterback Jeff Hostetler contributed to a six-game losing streak for an 8–8 finish and the Raiders failed to qualify for the playoffs for a second consecutive season.
After two more losing seasons (7–9 in [1996](1996 Oakland Raiders season) and 4–12 in [1997](1997 Oakland Raiders season)) under White and his successor, [Bugel](Joe)(Joe Bugel), Davis selected a new head coach from outside the Raiders organization for only the second time when he hired Philadelphia Eagles offensive coordinator [Gruden](Jon)(Jon Gruden). Gruden previously worked for the 49ers and [Bay Packers](Green)(Green Bay Packers) under head coach [Holmgren](Mike)(Mike Holmgren). Under Gruden, the Raiders posted consecutive 8–8 seasons in [1998](1998 Oakland Raiders season) and [1999](1999 Oakland Raiders season).
Oakland finished 12–4 in the [season](2000)(2000 Oakland Raiders season), the team's most successful in a decade. Led by veteran quarterback [Gannon](Rich)(Rich Gannon) (MVP), Oakland won their first division title since 1990, and advanced to the AFC Championship, where Gannon was hurt when sacked by [Ravens](Baltimore)(2000 Baltimore Ravens season)' lineman [Siragusa](Tony)(Tony Siragusa). The Raider offense struggled without Gannon, and the Raiders fell 16–3 to the eventual Super Bowl champion Ravens.
[[File:Charles Woodson 2014 2.JPG|thumb|190px|[Woodson](Charles)(Charles Woodson) was the first and is still the only primarily defensive player to win the [Trophy](Heisman)(Heisman Trophy). Woodson was selected by the Raiders with the fourth overall pick of the [NFL Draft](1998)(1998 NFL Draft).]]
The Raiders acquired all-time leading receiver [Rice](Jerry)(Jerry Rice) prior to the [season](2001)(2001 Oakland Raiders season). They started 10–3 but lost their last three games and finished with a 10–6 record and a wild card playoff spot. They defeated the [York Jets](New)(2001 New York Jets season) 38–24 in the wild card round to advance to face the [England Patriots](New)(2001 New England Patriots season). In a game in which the Raiders led for most of the game, the game was played in a heavy snowstorm. In what would be known as the "[Rule Game](Tuck)(Tuck Rule Game)", late in the fourth quarter with the Patriots trailing the Raiders by a field goal, Raiders star cornerback [Woodson](Charles)(Charles Woodson) blitzed Patriots quarterback [Brady](Tom)(Tom Brady), causing an apparent fumble which was recovered by Raiders linebacker [Biekert](Greg)(Greg Biekert). The recovery would assuredly have led to a Raiders victory, as the Raiders would have a first down with 1:43 remaining and the Patriots had no more time outs); the play was reviewed and determined to be an incomplete pass (it was ruled that Brady had pump-faked and then had not yet "tucked" the ball into his body, which, by rule, cannot result in a fumble, was instead an incomplete pass—though this explanation was not given on the field, but after the NFL season had ended). The Patriots retained possession and drove for a game-tying field goal. The game went into overtime and the Patriots won 16–13.
On February 18, 2002, the Raiders made a move that involved releasing Gruden from his contract and allowing the [Bay Buccaneers](Tampa)(Tampa Bay Buccaneers) to sign him. In return, the Raiders received $8 million and four future draft picks from the Buccaneers (Davis was later quoted as stating that he did not regret the move at all). [Callahan](Bill)(Bill Callahan (American football)), who served as the team's offensive coordinator and offensive line coach during Gruden's tenure, was named head coach.
Under Callahan, the Raiders finished the [season](2002)(2002 Oakland Raiders season) 11–5, won their third-straight division title, and clinched the top seed in the playoffs. [Gannon](Rich)(Rich Gannon) was named MVP of the NFL after passing for a league-high 4,689 yards. After beating the [Jets](2002 New York Jets season) and [Titans](2002 Tennessee Titans season) by large margins in the [playoffs](2002–03 NFL playoffs), the Raiders made their fifth Super Bowl appearance in [Bowl XXXVII](Super)(Super Bowl XXXVII). Their opponent was the [Bay Buccaneers](Tampa)(2002 Tampa Bay Buccaneers season), coached by Gruden. The Raiders, who had not made significant changes to Gruden's offensive schemes, were intercepted five times by the Buccaneers en route to a 48–21 blowout. Some Tampa Bay players claimed that Gruden had given them so much information on Oakland's offense, they knew exactly what plays were being called.
Callahan's [season](second)(2003 Oakland Raiders season) as head coach was considerably less successful. Oakland finished 4–12, which was their worst showing since 1997. After a late-season loss to the [Broncos](Denver)(2003 Denver Broncos season), a visibly frustrated Callahan exclaimed, "We've got to be the dumbest team in America in terms of playing the game." At the end of the 2003 regular season Callahan was fired and replaced by former Washington Redskins head coach [Turner](Norv)(Norv Turner).
The team's fortunes did not improve in Turner's first year. Oakland finished the [season](2004)(2004 Oakland Raiders season) 5–11, with only one divisional win (a one-point victory over the [Broncos](2004 Denver Broncos season) in Denver). During a Week 3 victory against the [Buccaneers](2004 Tampa Bay Buccaneers season), Rich Gannon suffered a neck injury that ended his season and eventually his career. He never returned to the team and retired before the 2005 season. [Collins](Kerry)(Kerry Collins), who led the New York Giants to an appearance in [Bowl XXXV](Super)(Super Bowl XXXV) and signed with Oakland after the 2003 season, became the team's starting quarterback.
In an effort to bolster their offense, in early [2005](2005 Oakland Raiders season) the Raiders acquired Pro Bowl wide receiver [Moss](Randy)(Randy Moss) via trade with the [Vikings](Minnesota)(Minnesota Vikings), and signed free agent running back [Jordan](Lamont)(Lamont Jordan) of the New York Jets. After a 4–12 season and a second consecutive last-place finish, Turner was fired as head coach.
On February 11, 2006, the team announced the return of [Shell](Art)(Art Shell) as head coach. In announcing the move, [Davis](Al)(Al Davis) said that firing Shell in 1995 had been a mistake.
Under Shell, the Raiders lost their first five games in [2006](2006 Oakland Raiders season) en route to a 2–14 record, the team's worst since 1962. Despite having one of the best defenses, Oakland's offense struggled greatly, scoring just 168 points (fewest in franchise history) and allowing a league-high 72 sacks. Wide receiver [Porter](Jerry)(Jerry Porter (American football)) was benched by Shell for most of the season in what many viewed as a personal, rather than football-related, decision. Shell was fired again at the end of the season. The Raiders also earned the right to the first overall pick in the [NFL Draft](2007)(2007 NFL Draft) for the first time since 1962, by virtue of having the league's worst record.
On January 22, 2007, the team announced the hiring of 31-year-old [USC](USC Trojans football) offensive coordinator [Kiffin](Lane)(Lane Kiffin), the youngest coach in franchise history and the youngest coach in the NFL. In the 2007 NFL Draft, the Raiders selected [LSU](LSU Tigers football) quarterback [Russell](JaMarcus)(JaMarcus Russell) with the No. 1 overall pick, despite a strong objection from Kiffin. Russell, arguably the biggest bust in NFL history, held out until September 12 and did not make his first career start until week 17. Kiffin coached the Raiders to a 4–12 record in the [season](2007)(2007 Oakland Raiders season). After a 1–3 start to [2008](2008 Oakland Raiders season) and months of speculation and rumors, Davis fired Kiffin on September 30.
[Cable](Tom)(Tom Cable) was named as Kiffin's interim replacement, and subsequently signed as the 17th head coach of the Raiders on February 3, 2009.
The team's finish to the [season](2008)(2008 NFL season) would turn out to match their best since they lost the Super Bowl in the 2002 season. They still finished 5–11 and ended up third in the AFC West, the first time they did not finish last since 2002. They would produce an identical record in [2009](2009 Oakland Raiders season); the season was somewhat ameliorated by the fact that four of the Raiders' five wins were against opponents with above .500 records. In [2010](2010 Oakland Raiders season) the Raiders became the first team in NFL history to go undefeated against their division yet miss the playoffs (6–0 in the AFC West, 8–8 overall, 3 games behind the [Jets](2010 New York Jets season) for the second Wild Card entry). On January 4, 2011, owner Al Davis informed head coach Tom Cable that his contract would not be renewed, ending his tenure with the organization. Many Raider players, such as punter Shane Lechler, were upset with the decision.
On January 17, 2011, it was announced that offensive coordinator [Jackson](Hue)(Hue Jackson) was going to be the next Raiders head coach. A press conference was held on January 18, 2011, to formally introduce Jackson as the next Raiders head coach, the fifth in just seven years. Following Davis's death during the [season](2011)(2011 Oakland Raiders season), new owners [Carol](Carol Davis (American football)) and [Davis](Mark)(Mark Davis (American football)) decided to take the franchise in a drastically different direction by hiring a general manager. On New Year's Day of 2012, the Raiders played the [Diego Chargers](San)(San Diego Chargers), hoping to go to the playoffs for the first time since 2002, the game ended with a 38–26 loss. Their season ended with another disappointing 8–8 record.
The Raiders named [Bay Packers](Green)(Green Bay Packers) director of football operations [McKenzie](Reggie)(Reggie McKenzie (linebacker)) as the team's first general manager since Al Davis on January 6, 2012.
On January 24, 2012, McKenzie hired [Allen](Dennis)(Dennis Allen (American football)) as the team's 18th head coach. He was the first Raiders defense-oriented head coach since [Madden](John)(John Madden)'s retirement after the 1978 season.
The Raiders began [2012](2012 Oakland Raiders season) by running a [tackle](nose)(nose tackle) when they run a [defense](4–3)(4-3 defense). They lost their home opener on Monday Night Football against San Diego 22–14, and finished the season 4–12.
In the 2013 off-season, the Raiders began making major roster moves. These included the signing of linebackers [Burnett](Kevin)(Kevin Burnett), [Roach](Nick)(Nick Roach), and [Maiava](Kaluka)(Kaluka Maiava), defensive tackles [Sims](Pat)(Pat Sims) and [Walker](Vance)(Vance Walker), cornerbacks [Porter](Tracy)(Tracy Porter) and [Jenkins](Mike)(Mike Jenkins (American football)), defensive end [Hunter](Jason)(Jason Hunter (American football)), and safety [Young](Usama)(Usama Young) and the release of wide receiver [Heyward-Bey](Darrius)(Darrius Heyward-Bey), safety [Huff](Michael)(Michael Huff), linebacker [McClain](Rolando)(Rolando McClain) and defensive tackle [Kelly](Tommy)(Tommy Kelly). Starting quarterback [Palmer](Carson)(Carson Palmer) was traded to the [Cardinals](Arizona)(Arizona Cardinals) in exchange for a sixth-round draft pick and a conditional seventh-round draft pick. Shortly before, they had traded a fifth-round pick and an undisclosed conditional pick in exchange for [Flynn](Matt)(Matt Flynn). In addition to signing Matt Flynn, the Raiders also welcomed back [Woodson](Charles)(Charles Woodson), signing him to a 1-year deal in mid-May. The Raiders finished the [season](2013)(2013 Oakland Raiders season) with a record of 4–12.
In the [NFL Draft](2014)(2014 NFL Draft), the Raiders selected linebacker [Mack](Khalil)(Khalil Mack) in the first round and quarterback [Carr](Derek)(Derek Carr (American football)) in the second round hoping each would anchor their side of the ball. Carr was given control early as he was chosen as the starter for the opener of the 2014 season. After an 0–4 start to the [season](2014)(2014 Oakland Raiders season), and an 8–28 overall record as head coach, Allen was fired. Offensive line coach [Sparano](Tony)(Tony Sparano) was named interim head coach on September 30. The Raiders finished the 2014 season with a record of 3–13. Carr started all 16 games for the Raiders, the first Raider since [2002](2002 Oakland Raiders season) to do so. First-round pick Mack finished third in Defensive Rookie of the Year voting.
[Del Rio](Jack)(Jack Del Rio) was hired to become the new head coach of the Raiders on January 14, 2015, replacing the fired [Allen](Dennis)(Dennis Allen (American football)) (who coincidentally had preceded him as the Broncos defensive coordinator) and interim head coach [Sparano](Tony)(Tony Sparano).
The Raiders showed great improvement in Del Rio's first season, improving upon their three-win 2014 season, going 7–9 in the [season](2015)(2015 Oakland Raiders season). Rookie wide receiver [Cooper](Amari)(Amari Cooper) fulfilled almost all expectations and [Carr](Derek)(Derek Carr (American football)) continued his improvement at quarterback. Cooper, Mack, Murray, and Carr were selected to participate in the Pro Bowl. DE Khalil Mack was the first player ever to be selected as an AP [All-Pro Team](2015)(2015 All-Pro Team) at two positions in the same year.
The day following the conclusion of the 2015 regular season, the Raiders, [Louis Rams](St.)(St. Louis Rams), and [Diego Chargers](San)(San Diego Chargers) all filed to relocate to Los Angeles. On January 12, 2016, the NFL owners voted 30–2 to allow the Rams to return to L.A. and approved a [project](stadium)(SoFi Stadium) in [Inglewood](Inglewood, California) proposed by Rams owner [Kroenke](Stan)(Stan Kroenke) over a competing project in [Carson](Carson, California) that the Chargers and Raiders had jointly proposed. The Chargers were given a one-year approval to relocate as well, conditioned on negotiating a lease agreement with the Rams or an agreement to partner with the Rams on the new stadium construction. The Raiders were given conditional permission to relocate if the Chargers were to decline their option first.
As part of the Rams' relocation decision, the NFL offered to provide both the Chargers and Raiders $100 million each if they could work out new stadiums in their home markets. The Chargers eventually announced on January 12, 2017, that they would exercise their option to relocate to Los Angeles following the failure of a November 2016 ballot initiative to fund a new stadium in San Diego. In an official statement on the Rams decision, the Raiders offered they would "now turn our attention to exploring all options to find a permanent stadium solution." [Vegas](Las)(Las Vegas) and [Antonio](San)(San Antonio) were heavily rumored as possible relocation destinations. By mid-February 2016, the team had worked out a one-year lease agreement with the City of Oakland to play at O.co Coliseum with the option for a second one-year lease.
[[File:Derek Carr 2019.JPG|190px|right|thumb|[Carr](Derek)(Derek Carr)'s 53 TD passes in his first two seasons are the second-most in NFL history.]]
In late January 2016 billionaire [Adelson](Sheldon)(Sheldon Adelson), president and CEO of the [Vegas Sands](Las)(Las Vegas Sands) Corporation casino empire, proposed [new domed stadium](a)(Allegiant Stadium) in Las Vegas to potentially house the [of Nevada, Las Vegas](University)(University of Nevada, Las Vegas) [team](football)(UNLV Rebels football) and a possible NFL team. Adelson quickly reached out to the Raiders to discuss the team partnering on the new stadium. In April 2016, without promising the team would move, Raiders owner Mark Davis met with the Southern Nevada Tourism Infrastructure Committee and pledged $500 million toward Adelson's stadium if public officials agreed to contribute to the stadium.
A [of investors](group)(Fortress Investment Group) led by former NFL stars [Lott](Ronnie)(Ronnie Lott) and [Peete](Rodney)(Rodney Peete) proposed a new stadium to the city of Oakland in June 2016 as a way to keep the Raiders in the city.
Nevada's legislature approved a $750 million public subsidy for the proposed domed Las Vegas stadium in October 2016. Davis informed his fellow NFL owners that he intended to file for relocation to Las Vegas following the end of the season.
On November 28, 2016, the Raiders secured their first winning season since 2002 with a comeback win against the [Panthers](Carolina)(Carolina Panthers), and on December 18, the team clinched their first postseason berth since 2002 with a victory over the San Diego Chargers. On December 20, 2016, the NFL announced that the Raiders would have seven Pro Bowl selections: [Mack](Khalil)(Khalil Mack), [Carr](Derek)(Derek Carr), [Cooper](Amari)(Amari Cooper), [Penn](Donald)(Donald Penn), [Osemele](Kelechi)(Kelechi Osemele), [Hudson](Rodney)(Rodney Hudson) and [Nelson](Reggie)(Reggie Nelson). This was the most selections for the team since 1991, and the most for any team in the 2016 NFL season.
As the fifth seed in the AFC in the [NFL playoffs](2016)(2016–17 NFL playoffs), the Raiders faced the [Texans](Houston)(Houston Texans) in the opening Wild Card round. With significant injuries hampering the team, including the loss of starting quarterback Carr in the second to last regular-season game, they lost to the Texans 27–14.
The Raiders filed paperwork with the NFL on January 19, 2017, to relocate the club from Oakland to [Vegas](Las)(Las Vegas), [Nevada](Nevada) by the 2020 season. The vote for the team's relocation took place on March 27, 2017, and the NFL approved the Raiders' relocation to Las Vegas by a 31–1 vote. Only the [Dolphins](Miami)(Miami Dolphins) dissented the proposed move. Subsequently, the team announced that it would continue to be known as the Oakland Raiders for the 2017 and 2018 NFL seasons and play its games in Oakland for at least those two seasons.
Prior to the [season](2017)(2017 Oakland Raiders season), the Raiders signed quarterback Derek Carr to a then-NFL record contract extension of five years, $125 million. Following their first trip to the playoffs in 14 years, the Raiders expected bigger things in 2017, with a return to the playoffs seeming likely. The Raider defense struggled mightily on the year under [Norton Jr.](Ken)(Ken Norton Jr.), but later improved with [Pagano](John)(John Pagano) as the defensive coordinator and the Raider offense could not return to its previous year's form under first-year offensive coordinator [Downing](Todd)(Todd Downing). After winning the first two games of the season, the Raiders lost four straight and six of their next eight leaving them two games below .500 with six games remaining. They would win their next two games, but lose their final four games, ending the season a disappointing 6–10. On December 31, 2017, following a loss to the [Angeles Chargers](Los)(Los Angeles Chargers) in Week 17, head coach Del Rio was fired by Mark Davis after being granted a four-year contract extension prior to the season.[[File:Darren Waller 2019.JPG|190px|right|thumb|[Waller](Darren)(Darren Waller) is the single-season franchise receptions leader (107).]]
On January 6, 2018, the team announced the return of [Gruden](Jon)(Jon Gruden) as head coach. Gruden returned to the Raiders and coaching after a nine-year stint with [ESPN](ESPN) serving as analyst for [Night Football](Monday)(Monday Night Football). Davis, who had reportedly been wanting to hire Gruden for six years, gave Gruden a 10-year contract worth an estimated $100 million. One of the first major moves of the second Gruden era was a blockbuster trade that sent [Mack](Khalil)(Khalil Mack) who was holding out for a new contract to the [Bears](Chicago)(Chicago Bears) for two first-round draft picks, and later sent [Cooper](Amari)(Amari Cooper) to the [Cowboys](Dallas)(Dallas Cowboys) for another first-round draft pick. During the 2018 season the Raiders fired general manager [McKenzie](Reggie)(Reggie McKenzie (linebacker)), replacing him with [Network](NFL)(NFL Network)'s draft expert [Mayock](Mike)(Mike Mayock) for the 2019 season. The Raiders finished 4–12 and in last place in the AFC West for the first time since 2014. The next year, in what would be the last season of the team's second tenure in Oakland, the team posted a three-game turnaround with a 7–9 record.
### Las Vegas Raiders (2020–present)
[[File:Maxx Crosby.JPG|190px|right|thumb|[Crosby](Maxx)(Maxx Crosby) was drafted by the Raiders in the fourth round of the 2019 NFL Draft.]]
[[File:Hunter Renfrow 2021 (cropped).jpg|190px|right|thumb|[Renfrow](Hunter)(Hunter Renfrow)]]
[[File:Josh Jacobs WFT at Raiders - 51736817249.jpg|190px|right|thumb|[Jacobs](Josh)(Josh Jacobs) was the [rushing yards leader](NFL)(List of National Football League rushing champions) with 1653 yards.]]
On January 22, 2020, it was announced that the Raiders had relocated to Las Vegas. The Raiders played the [season](2020)(2020 Las Vegas Raiders season) without fans in attendance for home games due to the ongoing [pandemic](COVID-19)(COVID-19 pandemic in the United States). They started the season 6–3, but lost five of their last seven games to finish the season 8–8 and miss the playoffs for the fourth consecutive season.
A league investigation in 2021 revealed that Gruden had used racist, misogynistic, and homophobic language in emails in 2011 while working for ESPN. The emails referred to NFL commissioner [Goodell](Roger)(Roger Goodell) as a "faggot" and a "clueless anti football pussy". He also said Goodell should not have pressured the Rams to draft "queers", referring to [Sam](Michael)(Michael Sam), the first openly gay player drafted in NFL history. He also stated that players who [the National Anthem](protest)(U.S. national anthem protests (2016–present)) should be "fired", specifically referring to former [49ers](San Francisco 49ers) safety [Reid](Eric)(Eric Reid). Gruden also called then United States Vice President [Biden](Joe)(Joe Biden) a "nervous clueless pussy". He resigned on October 11, 2021, after more details of the emails were released by *[New York Times](The)(The New York Times)*. Special Teams Coordinator, [Bisaccia](Rich)(Rich Bisaccia), was named the interim head coach of the Raiders following Gruden's resignation. Shortly after the resignation, owner Mark Davis refused to comment on the controversy.
On November 2, 2021, starting wide receiver [Ruggs](Henry)(Henry Ruggs) was arrested and charged with multiple felonies after killing a woman in a car crash. Later that day, the Raiders released Ruggs. On November 8, cornerback [Arnette](Damon)(Damon Arnette) was released after a video surfaced of him brandishing firearms.
On January 30, 2022, the Raiders announced the hiring of [Ziegler](Dave)(Dave Ziegler) as general manager. Ziegler was previously the director of player personnel for the [England Patriots](New)(New England Patriots) and served in the Patriots scouting department from 2013 to 2021. On January 31, 2022, the Raiders announced the hiring of [McDaniels](Josh)(Josh McDaniels) as head coach. On February 4, 2022, the Raiders announced the hiring of [Graham](Patrick)(Patrick Graham (American football)) as defensive coordinator.
## Championships
### AFL championships
The Raiders finished the [season](1967)(1967 Oakland Raiders season) with a 13–1–0 record and won the 1967 [AFL](American Football League) Championship. They subsequently lost to the [Bay Packers](Green)(Green Bay Packers) in [Bowl II](Super)(Super Bowl II).
### Super Bowl championships
The Raiders have won a total of three Super Bowl championships. They won their first Super Bowl under head coach [Madden](John)(John Madden), and their next two with [Flores](Tom)(Tom Flores).
### AFC championships
### Division championships
## Logos and uniforms
[[Edwards, Foster Moreau, DJax Raiders 2021.jpg|260px|thumb|The 2021 Raiders wearing the black uniform](File:Bryan)]
When the team was founded in 1960, the *[Tribune](Oakland)(Oakland Tribune)* held a name-the-team contest. The winning name was the **Oakland Señors**. After a few days of being the butt of local jokes (and accusations that the contest was fixed, as Chet Soda was fairly well known within the Oakland business community for calling his acquaintances "señor"), the fledgling team (and its owners) changed the team's name nine days later to the Oakland Raiders, which had finished third in the naming contest.Dickey, *Just Win, Baby*, p. 8. Chet Soda hired a well-known sportswriter, Gene Lawrence Perry, as the first Director of Public Relations. Perry (who was hired in 1959 as the first front-office hire) commissioned an unknown Berkeley artist and asked that a logo be created which included a helmeted man with an eye-patch, with the firm chin of a [Scott](Randolph)(Randolph Scott),Otto, *The Pain of Glory*, p. 69. a well known Western film actor. The new owners had their newly minted Raiders logo, a pirate wearing a football helmet with an eye patch on a gold football background with two white swords in black trim with gold handles crossed behind the football.
The original Raiders uniforms were black and gold with [numerals](Gothic)(Sans serif), while the helmets were black with a white stripe and no logo. The team wore this design from 1960 to 1962. In a very rare move, the jerseys displayed the player's full name on the back, before being pared down to only the surname in 1963. When Al Davis became head coach and general manager in 1963, he changed the team's color scheme to silver and black, and added a logo to the helmet. This logo is a shield that consists of the word "RAIDERS" at the top, two crossed cutlasses with handles up and cutting edge down, and superimposed head of a Raider wearing a football helmet and a black eye patch covering his right eye. Over the years, it has undergone minor color modifications (such as changing the background from silver to black in 1964), but it has essentially remained the same.
The Raiders' current silver and black uniform design has essentially remained the same since it debuted in 1963. It consists of silver helmets, silver pants, and either black or white jerseys. The black jerseys have silver lettering names and numbers, while the white jerseys have black lettering names and numbers with silver outlining the numbers only. Originally, the white jerseys had black letters for the names and silver numbers with a thick black outline, but they were changed to black with a silver outline for the 1964 season. In 1970, the team used silver numerals with black outline and black lettering names for the season. In 1971, the team again displayed black numerals and have stayed that way ever since (with the exception of the 1994 season as part of the NFL's 75th Anniversary where they donned the 1963 helmets with the 1970 silver away numbers and black lettering names).
The Raiders wore their white jerseys at home for the first time in their history on September 28, 2008, against the San Diego Chargers. The decision was made by Lane Kiffin, who was coaching his final game for the Raiders, and was purportedly due to intense heat. The high temperature in Oakland that day was 78°.
For the [2009](2009 Oakland Raiders season) season, the Raiders took part in the AFL Legacy Program and wore 1960s [jersey](throwback)(throwback jersey)s for games against other teams from the former [AFL](American Football League).
In the [2012](2012 Oakland Raiders season) and [2013](2013 Oakland Raiders season) seasons, the team wore black cleats as a tribute to Al Davis. The team reverted to white cleats in [2014](2014 Oakland Raiders season), though in recent years the NFL relaxed its rules on primary cleat colors, allowing some players to wear black or gray/silver cleats.
In the [2016](2016 Oakland Raiders season) season, the Raiders brought back their classic white jerseys with silver numerals as part of the [Color Rush](NFL)(NFL Color Rush) initiative. Unlike the regular uniforms which are paired with silver pants and black/white socks, the Color Rush jerseys were paired with white pants with silver stripes and all-white socks. Starting in [2018](2018 Oakland Raiders season), the Raiders retired the white pants but kept the throwback white jerseys, wearing them along with silver pants and black socks in a style reminiscent of the 1970 road set.
No changes to uniforms or logos were made during the team's move to Las Vegas, aside from changing "OAKLAND" to "LAS VEGAS" on various [wordmark](wordmark) logos.
## Home fields
[[File:Allegiantstadiumjune2020.jpg|thumb|330px|right|[Stadium](Allegiant)(Allegiant Stadium) is a domed [stadium](stadium) located in [Nevada](Paradise,)(Paradise, Nevada).]]
After splitting the first home season between [Stadium](Kezar)(Kezar Stadium) and [Candlestick](Candlestick Park), the Raiders moved exclusively to [Park](Candlestick)(Candlestick Park) in 1961, where total attendance for the season was about 50,000, and finished 2–12. Valley threatened to move the Raiders out of the area unless a stadium was built in Oakland, so in 1962 the Raiders moved into 18,000-seat [Youell Field](Frank)(Frank Youell Field) (later expanded to 22,000 seats), their first home in Oakland.Dickey, *Just Win, Baby*, p. 10. It was a temporary home for the team while the 53,000 seat [Coliseum](Oakland)(Oakland Coliseum) was under construction; the Coliseum was completed in 1966. The Raiders shared the Coliseum with the [Athletics](Oakland)(Oakland Athletics) once the A's moved to Oakland from Kansas City in 1968, except for the years the Raiders called Los Angeles home (1982–94). The Raiders defeated and lost to all 31 other NFL teams at the Coliseum at least once.
The Raiders did play one regular-season game at [Memorial Stadium](California)(California Memorial Stadium) in [Berkeley](Berkeley, California). On September 23, 1973, they played the [Dolphins](Miami)(Miami Dolphins) in Berkeley due to a scheduling conflict with the Athletics. The team defeated the Dolphins 12–7, ending Miami's winning streak.
During the Los Angeles years, the Raiders played in the 93,000-seat [Angeles Memorial Coliseum](Los)(Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum).
From the assumption of the team by [Davis](Mark)(Mark Davis (American football)) in 2011, the Raiders had been subject to rampant relocation speculation as the team attempted to find a new stadium in Oakland or elsewhere, due to the age of [Alameda Coliseum](Oakland)(Oakland Alameda Coliseum), being secondary tenants to [League Baseball](Major)(Major League Baseball)'s [Athletics](Oakland Athletics), and the expiration of the team's lease at the end of 2013. After looking into a variety of options in the Bay Area, Los Angeles and elsewhere the team ultimately relocated to the [Vegas](Las)(Las Vegas, Nevada) area in 2020 where [Stadium](Allegiant)(Allegiant Stadium) was finishing construction. The Raiders share the 65,000-seat stadium with the [Rebels football](UNLV)(UNLV Rebels football) program.
## Culture
[[File:Black Hole at Falcons at Raiders 11-2-08.JPG|thumb|260px|The [Nation](Raider)(Raider Nation) is the unofficial name for the fans of the Las Vegas Raiders. They were previously associated with a section of the Oakland Coliseum known as the "Black Hole" before the team's relocation to Las Vegas.]]
### Slogans
[Davis](Al)(Al Davis) coined [slogan](slogan)s such as "Pride and Poise", "Commitment to Excellence", and "Just Win, Baby"—all of which are registered trademarks of the team.
"Commitment to Excellence" comes from a quote from Vince Lombardi, "The quality of a person's life is in direct proportion to their commitment to excellence, regardless of their chosen field of endeavor."
### Raider Nation
The nickname **Raider Nation** refers to the fans of the team spread throughout the United States and the world. Members of the Raider Nation who attend home games are known for arriving to the stadium early, [tailgating](tailgate party), and dressing up in face masks and black outfits. The Raider Nation is also known for the Black Hole, originally a specific area of the Coliseum (sections 104–107) frequented by the team's rowdiest and most fervent fans from 1995 until 2019.
Al Davis created the phrase Raider Nation in 1968. In September 2009, [Cube](Ice)(Ice Cube) recorded a song for the Raiders named "Raider Nation". In 2010, Davis took part in a documentary for [ESPN](ESPN)'s *[for 30](30)(30 for 30)* series titled *[Outta L.A.](Straight)(Straight Outta L.A.)*. It mainly focuses on [N.W.A](N.W.A) and the effect of the Raiders' image on their persona. In 2012, Ice Cube wrote another song for the Raiders as part of [Pepsi](Pepsi)'s NFL Anthems campaign, "Come and Get It". It was released on September 14, 2012.
## Cheerleaders
[[Raiderettes at Falcons at Raiders 11-2-08 04.JPG|thumb|260px|right|The Oakland Raiderettes performing a routine](File:Oakland)]
The Las Vegas Raiderettes are the [cheerleading](NFL Cheerleading) squad for the Las Vegas Raiders. They were established in 1961 as the Oakland Raiderettes. During the team's time in Los Angeles they were the Los Angeles Raiderettes. They have been billed as "Football's Fabulous Females".
## Radio and television
### Las Vegas Raiders Radio Network
[[Raiders radio affiliates.png|190px|thumb|Map of radio affiliates in the western US](File:Oakland)]
Raider games are broadcast in English on 36 radio stations across the western United States, including flagship stations [KOMP](KOMP (FM)) 92.3 FM *The Rock Station* and [KRLV](KRLV (AM)) *Raider Nation Radio 920AM* in Las Vegas. Games are broadcast on radio stations in [Nevada](Nevada), [California](California), [Oregon](Oregon), [Colorado](Colorado), [Hawaii](Hawaii), and [Arkansas](Arkansas). Jason Horowitz is the play-by-play announcer, along with former Raiders tackle [Kennedy](Lincoln)(Lincoln Kennedy) doing commentary. [Atkinson](George)(George Atkinson (safety)) and [Plunkett](Jim)(Jim Plunkett) offer pre- and post-game commentary. [Media Networks](Compass)(Compass Media Networks) is responsible for producing and distributing Raiders radio broadcasts. Raider games are broadcast in Spanish on 8 radio stations across Nevada and California, including flagship Spanish language station [KENO](KENO (AM)) *1460 Deportes Vegas* in Las Vegas. Cristian Echeverria is the Spanish-language play-by-play announcer with Harry Ruiz doing commentary.
[King](Bill)(Bill King) was the voice of the Raiders from 1966 to 1992, during which time he called approximately 600 games. The Raiders awarded him rings for all three of their Super Bowl victories. It is King's radio audio heard on most of the NFL Films highlight footage of the Raiders. King's call of the [Roller](Holy)(Holy Roller (American football)) has been labeled (by [Berman](Chris)(Chris Berman), among others) as one of the five best in NFL history. King died in October 2005 from complications after surgery. Former San Francisco 49ers tight end [Stickles](Monty)(Monty Stickles) and [Stirling](Scotty)(Scotty Stirling), an *[Tribune](Oakland)(Oakland Tribune)* sportswriter, served as [commentator](color)(color commentator)s with King. The Raider games were called on radio from 1960 to 1962 by Bud (Wilson Keene) Foster and Mel Venter, and from 1963 to 1965 by Bob Blum and Dan Galvin. Until their [dismissal](dismissal (employment)) prior to the 2018 season, [Papa](Greg)(Greg Papa) was the voice of the Raiders with former Raiders quarterback and coach [Flores](Tom)(Tom Flores) doing commentary from 1997 to 2017. From 2018 until 2022 [Musburger](Brent)(Brent Musburger) was the voice of the Raiders.
In June 2017, it was announced that [Media Group](Beasley)(Beasley Broadcast Group) signed a two-year deal as the Las Vegas flagship radio partner of the Raiders. Beasley's stations [KCYE](KVGS) (102.7) "The Coyote" and [KDWN](KDWN) (720) began carrying all preseason and regular season games in the 2017 season. Beginning with the 2019 season, the Raiders' Las Vegas flagship station became "93.1 The Mountain" [KYMT](KYMT). In 2020, a deal was signed with [Broadcasting](Lotus)(Lotus Broadcasting) to make KOMP the Raiders flagship station and re-brand KBAD to KRLV *Raider Nation Radio*.
### Television
The Raiders' games are broadcast in Las Vegas on CBS affiliate [KLAS-TV](KLAS-TV) (channel 8) and in the Bay Area on [CBS](NFL on CBS) [station](owned-and-operated)(Owned-and-operated television stations in the United States) [KPIX-TV](KPIX-TV) (channel 5) (when playing an [AFC](American Football Conference) opponent) and on Las Vegas Fox affiliate [KVVU-TV](KVVU-TV) (channel 5) and in the Bay Area on [Fox](NFL on Fox) owned-and-operated station [KTVU](KTVU) (channel 2) (when hosting an [NFC](National Football Conference) opponent), unless there is an [blackout](NFL)(NFL blackout) locally. Sunday night games are on Las Vegas [NBC](NBC) affiliate [KSNV](KSNV) (channel 3) and in the Bay Area on NBC owned-and-operated station [KNTV](KNTV) (channel 11). In 2018, Thursday games moved to KTVU and KVVU-TV in Oakland and Las Vegas, respectively, formerly airing on either NBC or CBS prior to 2018. All Thursday games air on NFL Network otherwise. Traditionally, Monday night games airing on ESPN would air on ABC affiliates [KTNV-TV](KTNV-TV) (channel 13) in Las Vegas and [KGO-TV](KGO-TV) (channel 7) in Oakland.
During the team's two tenures in Oakland, the Raiders were a [of league scheduling policies](beneficiary)(NFL on Television#49ers and Raiders in the San Francisco Bay Area (1960–1981 and 1995–2019)). Both the Raiders and the [Francisco 49ers](San)(San Francisco 49ers) shared the San Francisco Bay Area market, on the West Coast of the United States. This meant that the Raiders could not play any home games, road division games against the [Broncos](Denver)(Denver Broncos) or [Angeles Chargers](Los)(Los Angeles Chargers), or interconference road games against the [West](NFC)(NFC West) (in seasons that the [West](AFC)(AFC West) and NFC West meet in interconference play) in the early 10:00 a.m. [time](Pacific)(Pacific Time Zone) slot. In addition, they could not play interconference home games at the same time or network as the 49ers. As a result, both teams generally had more limited scheduling options and also benefited by receiving more prime time games than usual.
Starting shortly after the announcement of the Raider franchise relocation to Las Vegas, KVVU-TV, the local Fox affiliate in Las Vegas began carrying all Raiders preseason games and special content. In 2020, a deal was made with [Media Group](Nexstar)(Nexstar Media Group) for stations in Raiders markets placing Raiders preseason and special content on [KRON-TV](KRON-TV) (moving from KTVU) in the Bay Area, [KTLA](KTLA) in Los Angeles, [KTVX](KTVX) in Salt Lake City, [KHON-TV](KHON-TV) in Honolulu, and [KGET-TV](KGET-TV) in Bakersfield alongside KVVU and KLAS in Las Vegas.
## Rivals
The Raiders have rivalries with the other three teams in the [West](AFC)(AFC West) ([Broncos](Denver)(Denver Broncos), [City Chiefs](Kansas)(Kansas City Chiefs), and [Angeles Chargers](Los)(Los Angeles Chargers)) and a geographic rivalry with the [Francisco 49ers](San)(San Francisco 49ers). They also have rivalries with other teams that arose from playoff battles in the past, most notably with the [Steelers](Pittsburgh)(Pittsburgh Steelers) and the [England Patriots](New)(New England Patriots). The [Seahawks](Seattle)(Seattle Seahawks) have an old rivalry with Oakland/Los Angeles/Las Vegas as well, but the rivalry largely died down when the Seahawks moved to the [West](NFC)(NFC West) as part of the NFL's 2002 realignment.
### Divisional rivals
;Kansas City Chiefs
[[File:1986 Jeno's Pizza - 49 - Robert Holmes.jpg|thumb|190px|right|The Raiders playing the Chiefs in the 1969–70 [championship game](AFL)(1969 American Football League Championship Game)]]
The [Chiefs](Kansas City Chiefs) are one of the Raiders' most iconic and longstanding divisional foes, with the rivalry dating back to the earliest days of the AFL. Oakland lost the 1969 AFL Championship against Kansas City, who went on to beat the [Vikings](Minnesota)(1969 Minnesota Vikings season) and win the Super Bowl. From 1990 to 1999, the Raiders have lost 17 out of 20 regular-season meetings between the Chiefs, including a 10–game losing streak at Kansas City; the Raiders also lost to the Chiefs 10–6 in the Wild Card round on December 28, 1991. On September 8, 1996, the Chiefs also began to lead the overall series against the Raiders for the first time since November 23, 1969. On January 1, 2000, the last game of the 1999 NFL regular season, the Raiders defeated the Chiefs for the first time in Kansas City since 1988 in overtime on a 33-yard field goal kick made by Joe Nedney. The Chiefs lead the overall series **71–54–2**, and are the only team in the AFC West that the Raiders have a losing record against. Las Vegas currently have defeated Kansas City just three times since the 2012 NFL season. Until October 19, 2017 - when they defeated the Chiefs, 31–30 on a game-tying touchdown on the last play of the game, leading to a game-winning PAT - the Raiders had lost five straight to the Chiefs, their previous win against them being in the 2014 season.
;Denver Broncos
[[File:1986 Jeno's Pizza - 47 - Randy Gradishar.jpg|right|thumb|The Raiders playing against the Broncos in the [AFC Championship Game](1977–78)(1977–78 NFL playoffs)]]
The Raiders' rivalry with the [Broncos](Denver Broncos), is considered to be one of the most heated and well-known rivalries in NFL history. The Raiders managed a 14-game winning streak against the Broncos from 1965 to 1971, which lasted until October 22, 1972, when the Broncos defeated the Raiders 30–23. While the Raiders still hold the advantage in the all-time series **70–54–2**, the Broncos amassed 21 wins in 28 games, from the 1995 season and the arrival of Broncos head coach [Shanahan](Mike)(Mike Shanahan), through the 2008 season. Shanahan coached the Raiders before being fired just four games into the 1989 season, which has only served to intensify this rivalry. On October 24, 2010, the Raiders beat the Broncos (59–14), giving the Raiders the most points scored in a game in the team's history. On December 13, 2015, the Raiders pulled a huge upset on the Broncos (15–12) by a spectacular performance from their defense allowing 4 field goals. Linebacker Khalil Mack who recorded 5 sacks in that game against Denver which is tied the most sacks in franchise along with Howie Long. The Broncos reached their first-ever Super Bowl when they defeated the Raiders 20–17 in the AFC Championship Game. The two teams have faced off on Monday Night Football a total of 19 times, making it the most frequent Monday Night matchup in NFL history.
;Los Angeles Chargers
The [Angeles Chargers](Los)(Los Angeles Chargers)' rivalry with Oakland dates to the 1963 season, when the Raiders defeated the heavily favored Chargers twice, both come-from-behind fourth-quarter victories. The Raiders held a streak without losing to the Chargers with a 16–0–2 record from 1968 to 1977. One of the most memorable games between these teams was the "Holy Roller" game in 1978, in which the Raiders fumbled for a touchdown in a very controversial play. In January 1981 the Chargers hosted their first AFC title against the Raiders. The Raiders were victorious over the Chargers of a score 34–27. The Raiders ended up moving on to play in Super Bowl 15 defeating the Eagles 27–10. On November 22, 1982, the Raiders hosted their first Monday Night football game in Los Angeles against the San Diego Chargers. The Chargers led the game in the 1st half 24–0 until the Raiders came into the 2nd half and made a huge comeback and defeated the San Diego Chargers 28–24. On October 10, 2010, the Raiders ended their 13-game losing streak to the San Diego Chargers with a score of 35–27. The Raiders hold the overall series advantage at **67–57–2**.
### Historical rivals
#### Miami Dolphins
The Raiders faced the [Dolphins](Miami)(Miami Dolphins) thrice in the early 1970s. The Raiders defeated the Dolphins 21–14 in the 1970 divisional round, then the Dolphins exacted revenge in the 1973 AFC Championship Game by winning 27–10 on their way to [Bowl VIII](Super)(Super Bowl VIII). The next year in the divisional playoffs the Raiders trailed Miami 26–21; in the final minute the Raiders drove to the Miami eight-yard line; a desperation pass by [Stabler](Ken)(Ken Stabler) was caught in traffic by [Davis](Clarence)(Clarence Davis) in the play known as the "Sea of Hands".
#### Pittsburgh Steelers
The [Steelers](Pittsburgh)(Pittsburgh Steelers)' rivalry with the Raiders has historically been very tight; as of the 2018 season the Raiders lead the regular-season series 13 wins to 10, and their playoff rivalry is tied 3–3. The rivalry was extremely intense during the 1970s, and considered by many to be one of the most vicious and brutal in the history of Professional football. From 1972 to 1976 the teams would meet in the playoffs five consecutive times, including three consecutive AFC Championship games. The rivalry really kicked off during the teams' first playoff meeting at the 1972 AFC divisional round in Pittsburgh. Considered to be one of the most famous plays in NFL history, the "[Reception](Immaculate)(Immaculate Reception)", as it was dubbed, saw the Steelers beat the Raiders on a controversial last-second play. During the 1975 AFC Championship game, Raiders strong safety [Atkinson](George)(George Atkinson (safety)) delivered a hit on Pittsburgh wide receiver [Swann](Lynn)(Lynn Swann), which left him concussed. When the two teams met in the 1976 season opener, Atkinson again hit Swann, this time with a forearm to the head, causing yet another concussion. After the second incident, Steelers head coach [Noll](Chuck)(Chuck Noll) referred to Atkinson as part of the "criminal element" in the NFL. Atkinson filed a $2 million [defamation](defamation) lawsuit against Noll and the Steelers, which he lost. The rivalry reached its apex in the late 1980s, cooled when the teams faced each other only sporadically, then headed up again in the late 1990s before cooling again.
The four most recent contests between the Raiders and Steelers harkened back to the rivalry's history of bitterness and close competition. On December 6, 2009, the 3–8 Raiders helped spoil the [champions](defending)(Super Bowl XLIII)' quest for the playoffs as the game lead changed five times in the fourth quarter and a [Murphy](Louis)(Louis Murphy) touchdown with 11 seconds to go won it 27–24 for the Raiders. Oakland was then beaten 35–3 by Pittsburgh on November 21, 2010; this game brought out the roughness of the rivalry's 1970s history when Steelers quarterback [Roethlisberger](Ben)(Ben Roethlisberger) was punched by Raiders defensive end [Seymour](Richard)(Richard Seymour) following a touchdown. On November 8, 2015, the Steelers outplayed the Raiders for a 38–35 victory. During the game, the Raiders defense allowed wide receiver [Brown](Antonio)(Antonio Brown) to catch 17 passes for 284 yards. Both are Steelers team records and the 284 yards is the 7th most yards receiving in a game in NFL history. In 2018, the Raiders upset the Steelers again, scoring a late touchdown to take a 24–21 fourth-quarter lead and getting the last laugh when Steelers kicker [Boswell](Chris)(Chris Boswell) slipped and missed a game-tying field goal. This game, which was the teams' final matchup in Oakland, contributed to the Steelers' late-season collapse and missing the playoffs that year.
#### New England Patriots
The rivalry between the Raiders and [England Patriots](New)(New England Patriots) dates to their time in the AFL, but was intensified during a 1978 preseason game, when Patriots wide receiver [Stingley](Darryl)(Darryl Stingley) was permanently paralyzed after a vicious hit delivered by Raiders free safety [Tatum](Jack)(Jack Tatum). Before that, New England also lost a playoff game in 1976 to the Raiders; the game is unofficially known as "The [Dreith](Ben)(Ben Dreith) Game" due to a controversial penalty by head referee Dreith. While based in Los Angeles, the team hosted New England in the divisional round of the playoffs in 1986. The game was won by New England and marred by a chaotic rumble between the teams in the end zone as players were leaving the field after the game. The brawl was especially notable for [Millen](Matt)(Matt Millen) attacking Patriots GM [Sullivan](Patrick)(Patrick Sullivan (American football executive)) with his helmet. The two teams met in a [divisional-round](2001–02 NFL playoffs) playoff game in 2002, which became known as the "[Rule Game](Tuck)(Tuck Rule Game)". Late in the game, an incomplete pass, ruled a fumble, by Patriots quarterback Tom Brady was overturned, and New England went on to win in overtime and eventually won the Super Bowl against the heavily favored [Louis Rams](St.)(2001 St. Louis Rams season), the Raiders' former crosstown rivals in Los Angeles. Since that game, the Patriots have won five of the last six regular-season contests between the two teams. The first contest being the following year during the 2002 season in Oakland, with the Raiders winning 27–20; they met in the 2005 season opener in New England with the Patriots ruining [Moss](Randy)(Randy Moss)' debut as a Raider 30–20; the Patriots defeated the Raiders 49–26 in December 2008 in [Belichick](Bill)(Bill Belichick)'s 100th regular-season win as Patriots coach; a Patriots 31–19 win during the [season](2011)(2011 NFL season); a scrappy 16–9 Patriots win in the third week of the [season](2014)(2014 NFL season), and the Patriots' 33–8 win in Mexico City in [2017](2017 NFL season). The Raiders would not beat New England again until 2022, after they relocated to Las Vegas, with a [lateral pass play by New England at the end of regulation](failed)(Lunatic Lateral) resulting in a walkoff touchdown and a 30–24 win for the Raiders.
#### New York Jets
The [York Jets](New)(New York Jets) began a strong rivalry with the Raiders in the AFL during the 1960s that continued through much of the 1970s, fueled in part by Raider [Lassiter](Ike)(Ike Lassiter) breaking star quarterback [Namath](Joe)(Joe Namath)'s jaw during a 1967 game (though [Davidson](Ben)(Ben Davidson) was wrongly blamed), the famous [Game](Heidi)(Heidi Game) during the 1968 season, and the Raiders' bitter loss to the Jets in the AFL Championship later that season. The rivalry waned in later years, but saw a minor resurgence in the 2000–02 period. The Jets edged the Raiders in the final week of the 2001 season 24–22 on a last-second [Hall](John)(John Hall (placekicker)) field goal; the Raiders hosted the Jets in the Wild Card round the following Saturday and won 38–24. In the 2002 season the Raiders defeated the Jets 26–20 in December, then defeated them again in the AFC Divisional Playoffs, 30–10. The Raiders lost the 37–27 on December 8, 2013, but won the most recent matchup 20–34 on November 1, 2015.
#### Seattle Seahawks
#### Houston Oilers/Tennessee Titans
The Raiders faced the Houston Oilers throughout the AFL era and twice in AFL playoffs in the late 1960s, winning 40–7 in 1967 on their way to [Bowl II](Super)(Super Bowl II) and 56–7 in the 1969 divisional playoffs. Oakland defeated the Oilers in the 1980 Wild Card playoffs 27–7 and defeated the Titans in the 2002 AFC Championship Game 41–24.
#### Historic battle of the Bay rivalry
The [Francisco 49ers](San)(San Francisco 49ers), located on the other side of [Francisco Bay](San)(San Francisco Bay), were the Raiders' geographic rivals during the Raiders' time in Oakland. The first exhibition game, played in 1967, ended with the 49ers defeating the AFL Raiders 13–10. After the 1970 merger, the 49ers won in Oakland 38–7. As a result, games between the two are referred to as the "Battle of the Bay". Since the two teams play in different conferences, regular-season matchups happen only once every four years. Fans and players of the winning team could claim "bragging rights" as the better team in the area.
On August 20, 2011, in the third week of the preseason, the preseason game between the rivals was marked by fights in restrooms and stands at [Park](Candlestick)(Candlestick Park), including a shooting outside the stadium in which several were injured. The NFL has decided to cancel all future preseason games between the Raiders and 49ers.
The series ended on November 1, 2018, during a Thursday Night Football broadcast at Levi's Stadium, marking the last time both teams would meet before the Raiders moved to their new home in Las Vegas. The 49ers won the game 34–3 to tie their regular-season series at 7.
#### Historic battle for Los Angeles rivalry
As mentioned earlier, the Raiders and [Angeles Rams](Los)(Los Angeles Rams) had a rivalry during the 13 years both teams shared the Los Angeles market. The teams met six times in the regular season in this period; the Raiders won the first meeting of this era, 37–31, on December 18, 1982. The Raiders won four of their five games against the Rams while the teams shared the Los Angeles market.
## Ownership, administration and financial operations
### Founding of the franchise
Max Winter, a Minneapolis businessman was among the eight proposed franchise owners in the American Football League. In a move typical of the NFL owners who were frightened by the prospect of competition and continually obstructed the new league, they offered Winter an expansion franchise in the NFL. This was after the NFL had rejected Lamar Hunt's feelers, saying they were not interested in expansion. One of many obfuscations put forward by the NFL in its attempt to derail the AFL.
After the AFL's first draft, in which players were selected for the then nameless Minneapolis franchise, Winter reneged from his agreement with the AFL owners and defected to the NFL with a franchise that started play in 1961 and was named the [Vikings](Minnesota)(Minnesota Vikings). The Vikings were never an AFL team, nor did they have any association with the AFL. Many of the players (including Abner Haynes) that had been assigned to the UNNAMED and defunct Minneapolis AFL franchise were signed by some of the seven loyal remaining members of the AFL's '[Club](Foolish)(Foolish Club)'.
The city of Oakland was awarded the eighth AFL franchise on January 30, 1960. Once the consortium of owners was found for the eighth franchise, the team was named the Raiders.Dickey, *Just Win, Baby*, p. 7. Because many of the defunct Minneapolis franchise's originally drafted players were signed by other AFL teams, the AFL held an 'allocation' draft, in which each team earmarked players that could be chosen by the Raiders.
The Minneapolis group did not take with them any of the rights to players they drafted when they defected to the NFL, because their first draft in that league was in 1961. The Raiders were not originally in Minnesota as some claim. They were a new, charter franchise in the [Football League](American)(American Football League). One reason they were so weak in the first few years of the AFL was that the other AFL teams did not make quality players available in the allocation draft.
At the time, Oakland seemed an unlikely venue for a professional football team. The city had not asked for a team, there was no ownership group and there was no stadium in Oakland suitable for pro football (the closest stadiums were in [Berkeley](Berkeley, California) and San Francisco) and there was already a successful NFL franchise in the [Area](Bay)(San Francisco Bay Area) in the [Francisco 49ers](San)(San Francisco 49ers). The AFL owners selected Oakland after [Angeles Chargers](Los)(Los Angeles Chargers) owner [Hilton](Barron)(Barron Hilton) threatened to forfeit his franchise unless a second team was placed on the West Coast.Dickey, *Just Win, Baby*, pp. 7–8.
Upon receiving the franchise, Oakland civic leaders found a number of businesspeople willing to invest in the new team. A [partnership](limited)(limited partnership) was formed to own the team headed by managing general partner [Charles (Chet) Soda](Y.)(Chet Soda) (1908–1989), a local real estate developer, and included general partners Ed McGah (1899–1983), Robert Osborne (1898–1968), [Wayne Valley](F.)(F. Wayne Valley) (1914–1986), restaurateur Harvey Binns (1914–1982), Don Blessing (1904–2000), and contractor Charles Harney (1902–1962)Harney was the builder of San Francisco's Candlestick Park, built on a bleak parcel of land he owned; to date, the road leading to the stadium is known as Harney Way. With a push from Harney, the Raiders were allowed to play their final three 1960 home games at Candlestick. as well as numerous limited partners.
The [Raiders](1960 Oakland Raiders season) finished their first campaign with a 6–8 record, and lost $500,000. Desperately in need of money to continue running the team, Valley received a $400,000 loan from [Bills](Buffalo)(Buffalo Bills) founder [C. Wilson Jr.](Ralph)(Ralph C. Wilson Jr.)
After the conclusion of the first season Soda dropped out of the partnership, and on January 17, 1961, Valley, McGah and Osborne bought out the remaining four general partners. Soon after, Valley and McGah purchased Osborne's interest, with Valley named as the managing general partner.
In 1962 Valley hired Al Davis, a former assistant coach for the San Diego Chargers, as head coach and general manager. In April 1966 Davis left the Raiders after being named AFL Commissioner. Two months later, the league announced its [with the NFL](merger)(AFL–NFL merger). With the merger, the position of commissioner was no longer needed, and Davis entered into discussions with Valley about returning to the Raiders. On July 25, 1966, Davis returned as part owner of the team. He purchased a 10% interest in the team for US$18,000, and became the team's third general partner. As part of the deal, Davis was also given control over football operations.
In 1972, with Wayne Valley out of the country for several weeks attending the [Games](Olympic)(1972 Summer Olympics) in Munich, Davis's attorneys drafted a revised partnership agreement that made him the new managing general partner, with complete control over all of the Raiders' operations. McGah, a supporter of Davis, signed the agreement. Under partnership law, by a 2–1 vote of the general partners, the new agreement was thus ratified. Valley was furious when he discovered this, and immediately filed suit to have the new agreement overturned, but the court sided with Davis and McGah.
In 1976 Valley sold his interest in the team. Although Davis only owned 25 percent of the team, no other partners have had any voice in team operations since.Dickey, *Just Win, Baby*, pp. 98–101.
#### Current ownership structure
Legally, the club is owned by a nine-member limited partnership. A. D. Football, Inc., the company founded by Al Davis to hold his interest, is the general partner. The heirs of the original eight-member ownership group are limited partners.
From 1972 onward, Davis had exercised total control of the Raiders as president of A.D. Football, Inc. Although exact ownership stakes are not known, it has been reported that Davis owned 47% of the team shares before his death in 2011. The limited partners have almost no role in team operations, though they were briefly mentioned in team media guides. Many of them had not watched, let alone attended, Raiders games in years at the time of Davis' death.
Ed McGah, the last surviving member of the original ownership group, died in September 1983. Upon his death, his interest was devised to a family [trust](Trust law), of which his son, [McGah](E.J.)(Eddie McGah), was the [trustee](trustee). The younger McGah was himself a part-owner of the team, as a limited partner, and died in 2002. Several members of the McGah family filed suit against Davis in October 2003, alleging mismanagement of the team by Davis. The lawsuit sought monetary damages and to remove Davis and A. D. Football, Inc. as general partner. Among their specific complaints, the McGahs alleged that Davis failed to provide them with detailed financial information previously provided to Ed and E.J. McGah. The Raiders countered that—under the terms of the partnership agreement as amended in 1972—upon the death of the elder McGah in 1983, his general partner interest converted to that of a limited partner. The team continued to provide the financial information to the younger McGah as a courtesy, though it was under no obligation to do so.
The majority of the lawsuit was dismissed in April 2004, when an Alameda County Superior Court judge ruled that the case lacked merit since none of the other partners took part in the lawsuit. In October 2005 the lawsuit was settled out of court. The terms of the settlement are confidential, but it was reported that under its terms Davis purchased the McGah family's interest in the Raiders (approximately 31%), which gave him for the first time a majority interest, speculated to be approximately 67% of the team. As a result of the settlement, confidential details concerning Al Davis and the ownership of the Raiders were not released to the public.
In 2006 it was reported that Davis had been attempting to sell the 31% ownership stake in the team obtained from the McGah family. He was unsuccessful in this effort, reportedly because the sale would not give the purchaser any control of the Raiders, even in the event of Davis's death.
Al Davis died on October 8, 2011, at age 82. According to a 1999 partnership agreement, Davis' interest passed to his wife, [Carol](Carol Davis (American football)). After Davis' death, Raiders chief executive [Trask](Amy)(Amy Trask) said that the team "will remain in the Davis family." Al and Carol's son, [Mark](Mark Davis (American football)), inherited his father's old post as managing general partner and serves as operating head of the franchise. Unlike his father, Mark mostly leaves on-field matters to the football operations staff.
### Financial operations
According to a 2017 report released by *[Forbes](Forbes) Magazine*, the Raiders' overall team value is US 2.38 billion ranked 19th out of 32 NFL teams. This valuation was made after the team's announcement of relocation to Las Vegas by 2020 and into a new stadium which moved the team's value up 19 percent.
Although the team has regularly sold out since 2013, the team ranked in the bottom three in league attendance from 2003 to 2005, and failed to sell out a majority of their home games. One of the reasons cited for the poor attendance figures was the decision to issue costly [seat license](personal)(personal seat license)s (PSLs) upon the Raiders' return to Oakland in 1995. The PSLs, which ranged in cost from $250 to $4,000, were meant to help repay the $200 million it cost the city of Oakland and Alameda County to expand the Oakland Coliseum. They were only valid for ten years, while other teams issue them permanently. As a result, fewer than 31,000 PSLs were sold for a stadium that holds twice that number. From 1995 until the lifting of the policy in 2014 [blackouts](television)(NFL blackout) of Raiders home games were common.
In November 2005 the team announced that it was taking over ticket sales from the privately run Oakland Football Marketing Association (OFMA), and abolishing PSLs. In February 2006 the team also announced that it would lower ticket prices for most areas of the Oakland Coliseum. Just prior to the start of the [NFL season](2006)(2006 NFL season), the Raiders revealed that they had sold 37,000 season tickets, up from 29,000 the previous year. Despite the team's 2–14 record, they sold out six of their eight home games in 2006.
### Legal battles
The Raiders and Al Davis have been involved in several lawsuits throughout their history, including ones against the NFL. When the NFL declined to approve the Raiders' move from Oakland to Los Angeles in 1980, the team joined the [Angeles Memorial Coliseum](Los)(Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum) Commission in a lawsuit against the league alleging a violation of antitrust laws. The Coliseum Commission received a settlement from the NFL of $19.6 million in 1987. In 1986, Davis testified on behalf of the [States Football League](United)(United States Football League) in their unsuccessful antitrust lawsuit against the NFL. He was the only NFL owner to do so.
After relocating back to Oakland, the team sued the NFL for interfering with their negotiations to build a new stadium at [Park](Hollywood)(Hollywood Park Racetrack) prior to the move. The Raiders' lawsuit further contended that they had the rights to the Los Angeles market, and thus were entitled to compensation from the league for giving up those rights by moving to Oakland. A jury found in favor of the NFL in 2001, but the verdict was overturned a year later due to alleged juror misconduct. In February 2005, a [Court of Appeal](California)(California Courts of Appeal) unanimously upheld the original verdict.
When the Raiders moved back from Los Angeles in 1995, the city of Oakland and the Oakland–Alameda County Coliseum Authority agreed to sell Personal Seat Licenses (PSLs) to help pay for the renovations to their stadium. But after games rarely sold out, the Raiders filed suit, claiming that they were misled by the city and the Coliseum Authority with the false promise that there would be sellouts. On November 2, 2005, a settlement was announced, part of which was the abolishment of PSLs as of the 2006 season.
#### Trademark and trade dress dilution
In 1996 the team sued the NFL in [Clara County](Santa)(Santa Clara County, California), in a lawsuit that ultimately included 22 separate causes of action. Included in the team's claims were claims that the [Bay Buccaneers](Tampa)(Tampa Bay Buccaneers)' pirate logo diluted the team's California trademark in its own pirate logo and for trade dress dilution on the ground that the League had improperly permitted other teams (including the Buccaneers and [Panthers](Carolina)(Carolina Panthers)) to adopt colors for their uniforms similar to those of the Raiders. Among other things, the lawsuit sought an injunction to prevent the Buccaneers and Panthers from wearing their uniforms while playing in California. In 2003 these claims were dismissed on [judgment](summary)(summary judgment) because the relief sought would violate the [Clause](Commerce)(Commerce Clause) of the [States Constitution](United)(United States Constitution).
#### BALCO scandal
In 2003 a number of current and former Oakland players such as [Romanowski](Bill)(Bill Romanowski), [Wheatley](Tyrone)(Tyrone Wheatley), [Robbins](Barrett)(Barrett Robbins), [Cooper](Chris)(Chris Cooper (defensive lineman)) and [Stubblefield](Dana)(Dana Stubblefield) were named as clients of the **[Area Laboratory Co-Operative](Bay)(Bay Area Laboratory Co-Operative)** (**BALCO**). BALCO was an [company](American)(Economy of the United States) led by founder and owner [Conte](Victor)(Victor Conte). Also in 2003, journalists [Williams and Mark Fainaru-Wada](Lance)(Lance Williams and Mark Fainaru-Wada) investigated the company's role in a drug sports scandal later referred to as the *BALCO Affair*. BALCO marketed [tetrahydrogestrinone](tetrahydrogestrinone) ("the Clear"), a then-undetected, performance-enhancing steroid developed by chemist [Arnold](Patrick)(Patrick Arnold). Conte, BALCO vice president James Valente, weight trainer [Anderson](Greg)(Greg Anderson (trainer)) and coach [Korchemny](Remi)(Remi Korchemny) had supplied a number of high-profile sports stars from the United States and Europe with the Clear and [growth hormone](human)(human growth hormone) for several years.
Headquartered in [Burlingame](Burlingame, California), BALCO was founded in 1984. Officially, BALCO was a service business for blood and urine analysis and food supplements. In 1988, Victor Conte offered free blood and urine tests to a group of athletes known as the *BALCO Olympians*. He then was allowed to attend the [Olympics](Summer)(1988 Summer Olympics) in [Seoul](Seoul), South Korea. From 1996 Conte worked with well-known American football star Bill Romanowski, who proved to be useful to establish new connections to athletes and coaches.Mark Fainaru-Wada, Lance Williams: [Barry Bonds: Anatomy of a scandal.](http://www.seattlepi.com/baseball/153951_steriods25.html) San Francisco Chronicle, 25. December 2003
## Players of note
### Current roster
### Pro Football Hall of Fame members
The [Football Hall of Fame](Pro)(Pro Football Hall of Fame) has inducted 17 players who made their primary contribution to professional football while with the Raiders, in addition to coach-owner-commissioner Al Davis, head coach John Madden, head coach Tom Flores and executive Ron Wolf. The Raiders' total is of 30 Hall of Famers.
[[File:Jim Otto 60-74.JPG|thumb|190px|right|Hall of Fame C [Otto](Jim)(Jim Otto)]]
[[File:Art Shell in 2006.jpg|thumb|190px|right|Raiders Hall of Famer [Shell](Art)(Art Shell)]]
[[File:Ted Hendricks 2-4-05 050204-N-0874H-006.jpg|thumb|190px|right|[Hendricks](Ted)(Ted Hendricks) was a member of four [Bowl](Super)(Super Bowl)-winning teams (three with the Raiders and one with the Colts).]]
[[File:Howie Long - American Football Player TV host.jpg|thumb|190px|Raiders Hall of Famer [Long](Howie)(Howie Long)]]
**Notes:**
* Hall of Famers who made the major part of their primary contribution for the Raiders are listed in **bold**.
* Hall of Famers who spent only a minor portion of their career with the Raiders are listed in normal font.
### Retired numbers
The Raider organization does not retire the jersey numbers of former players on an official or unofficial basis. All 100 numbers are available for any player, regardless of stature or who previously wore the number.
### Individual awards
### Career leaders
***Passing yards**: 35,222 [Carr](Derek)(Derek Carr) (active player) (2014–2022)
***Pass completions**: 3,201 [Carr](Derek)(Derek Carr) (active player) (2014–2022)
***Passing touchdowns**: 217 [Carr](Derek)(Derek Carr) (active player) (2014–2022)
***Rushing yards**: 8,545 [Allen](Marcus)(Marcus Allen) (1982–1992)
***Rushing touchdowns**: 79 [Allen](Marcus)(Marcus Allen) (1982–1992)
***Receptions**: 1,070 [Brown](Tim)(Tim Brown (American football)) (1988–2003)
***Receiving yards**: 14,734 [Brown](Tim)(Tim Brown (American football)) (1988–2003)
***Receiving touchdowns**: 99 [Brown](Tim)(Tim Brown (American football)) (1988–2003)
***Total touchdowns**: 104 [Brown](Tim)(Tim Brown (American football)) (1988–2003)
***Points**: 1,799 [Janikowski](Sebastian)(Sebastian Janikowski) (2000–2016)
***Field goals made**: 414 [Janikowski](Sebastian)(Sebastian Janikowski) (2000–2016)
***Total punt yardage**: 48,215 [Lechler](Shane)(Shane Lechler) (2000–2012)
***Punting average**: 47.5 [Lechler](Shane)(Shane Lechler) (2000–2012)
***Kickoff return yards**: 4,841 [Carr](Chris)(Chris Carr (American football)) (2005–2007)
***Punt Return yards**: 3,272 [Brown](Tim)(Tim Brown (American football)) (1988–2003)
***Pass interceptions**: 39 [Brown](Willie)(Willie Brown (American football)) (1967–1978), [Hayes](Lester)(Lester Hayes) (1977–1986)
***Defended passes/pass deflections**: 84 [Woodson](Charles)(Charles Woodson) (1998–2015)
***Sacks**: 107.5 [Townsend](Greg)(Greg Townsend) (1983–1997)
***Forced fumbles**: 18 [Woodson](Charles)(Charles Woodson) (1998–2015)
***Winningest coach**: 103 [Madden](John)(John Madden) (1969–1978)
### Single-season leaders
***Passing yards**: 4,804 [Carr](Derek)(Derek Carr) (2021)
***Passing touchdowns**: 34 [Lamonica](Daryle)(Daryle Lamonica) (1969)
***Rushing yards**: 1,759 [Allen](Marcus)(Marcus Allen) (1985)
***Rushing touchdowns**: 16 [Banaszak](Pete)(Pete Banaszak) (1975)
***Receptions**: 107 [Waller](Darren)(Darren Waller) (2020)
***Receiving yards**: 1,516 [Adams](Davante)(Davante Adams) (2022)
***Receiving touchdowns**: 16 [Powell](Art)(Art Powell (wide receiver)) (1963)
***Total touchdowns**: 18 [Allen](Marcus)(Marcus Allen) (1984)
***Points**: 150 [Carlson](Daniel)(Daniel Carlson) (2021)
***Field goals made**: 40 [Carlson](Daniel)(Daniel Carlson) (2021)
***Total punt yardage**: 4,930 [King](Marquette)(Marquette King) (2014)
***Punting average**: 51.1 [Lechler](Shane)(Shane Lechler) (2009)
***Kickoff return yards**: 1,762 [Carr](Chris)(Chris Carr (American football)) (2006)
***Punt return yards**: 692 [Walker](Fulton)(Fulton Walker) (1985)
***Pass interceptions**: 13 [Hayes](Lester)(Lester Hayes) (1980)
***Sacks**: 16.0 [Burgess](Derrick)(Derrick Burgess) (2005)
### All-Pro selections
The following Raiders players have been named to the [All-Pro](All-Pro) team:
* **QB** [Lamonica](Daryle)(Daryle Lamonica), [Stabler](Ken)(Ken Stabler), [Gannon](Rich)(Rich Gannon) (2)
* **RB** [Daniels](Clem)(Clem Daniels) (4), [Allen](Marcus)(Marcus Allen) (3), [Jacobs](Josh)(Josh Jacobs) (1)
* **FB** [Dixon](Hewritt)(Hewritt Dixon), [Reece](Marcel)(Marcel Reece) (1)
* **WR** [Branch](Cliff)(Cliff Branch) (3), [Brown](Tim)(Tim Brown (American football)), [Biletnikoff](Fred)(Fred Biletnikoff) (2), [Powell](Art)(Art Powell (wide receiver)), [Adams](Davante)(Davante Adams) (1)
* **TE** [Casper](Dave)(Dave Casper), [Christensen](Todd)(Todd Christensen) (4), [Cannon](Billy)(Billy Cannon) (2)
* **T** [Shell](Art)(Art Shell) (4), [Schuh](Harry)(Harry Schuh), [Kennedy](Lincoln)(Lincoln Kennedy) (2)
* **G** [Upshaw](Gene)(Gene Upshaw) (5), [Wisniewski](Steve)(Steve Wisniewski) (2), [Osemele](Kelechi)(Kelechi Osemele) (1)
* **C** [Otto](Jim)(Jim Otto) (10), [Robbins](Barret)(Barret Robbins) (1)
* **DE** [Long](Howie)(Howie Long), [Mack](Khalil)(Khalil Mack) (2), [Davidson](Ben)(Ben Davidson) (1)
* **DT** [Keating](Tom)(Tom Keating (American football)), [Birdwell](Dan)(Dan Birdwell), [Pickel](Bill)(Bill Pickel), [McGlockton](Chester)(Chester McGlockton), [Russell](Darrell)(Darrell Russell (American football)) (1)
* **LB** [Hendricks](Ted)(Ted Hendricks) (3), [Martin](Rod)(Rod Martin), [Matsos](Archie)(Archie Matsos), [Mack](Khalil)(Khalil Mack) (1)
* **CB** [Brown](Willie)(Willie Brown (American football)), [Asomugha](Nnamdi)(Nnamdi Asomugha) (4), [Grayson](Dave)(Dave Grayson), [Woodson](Charles)(Charles Woodson) (3), [Williamson](Fred)(Fred Williamson), [McCloughan](Kent)(Kent McCloughan), [Haynes](Mike)(Mike Haynes (cornerback)) (2), [Hayes](Lester)(Lester Hayes) (1)
* **S** [Morrow](Tom)(Tom Morrow (American football)), [Lott](Ronnie)(Ronnie Lott), [Woodson](Rod)(Rod Woodson), [Woodson](Charles)(Charles Woodson) (1)
* **K** [Jaeger](Jeff)(Jeff Jaeger) (1)
* **P** [Lechler](Shane)(Shane Lechler) (6), [Guy](Ray)(Ray Guy) (3), [Gossett](Jeff)(Jeff Gossett), [J. Cole III](A.)(A. J. Cole III) (1)
### Pro Bowl selections
The following Raiders players have been named to the [Bowl](Pro)(Pro Bowl):
* **QB** [Lamonica](Daryle)(Daryle Lamonica), [Stabler](Ken)(Ken Stabler), [Gannon](Rich)(Rich Gannon) (4), [Carr](Derek)(Derek Carr (American football)) (3), [Davidson](Cotton)(Cotton Davidson), [Flores](Tom)(Tom Flores), [Blanda](George)(George Blanda), [Hostetler](Jeff)(Jeff Hostetler) (1)
* **RB** [Allen](Marcus)(Marcus Allen) (5), [Daniels](Clem)(Clem Daniels) (4), [Hubbard](Marv)(Marv Hubbard) (3), [Jacobs](Josh)(Josh Jacobs) (2), [King](Kenny)(Kenny King (running back)), [Pruitt](Greg)(Greg Pruitt), [Jackson](Bo)(Bo Jackson), [Murray](Latavius)(Latavius Murray) (1)
* **FB** [Dixon](Hewritt)(Hewritt Dixon) (4), [Reece](Marcel)(Marcel Reece) (4), [Miller](Alan)(Alan Miller (American football)) (1)
* **WR** [Brown](Tim)(Tim Brown (American football)) (9), [Biletnikoff](Fred)(Fred Biletnikoff) (6), [Powell](Art)(Art Powell (wide receiver)), [Branch](Cliff)(Cliff Branch) (4), [Wells](Warren)(Warren Wells), [Cooper](Amari)(Amari Cooper) (2), [Rice](Jerry)(Jerry Rice), [Renfrow](Hunter)(Hunter Renfrow), [Adams](Davante)(Davante Adams) (1)
* **TE** [Casper](Dave)(Dave Casper), [Christensen](Todd)(Todd Christensen) (5), [Chester](Raymond)(Raymond Chester) (4), [Cannon](Billy)(Billy Cannon), [Horton](Ethan)(Ethan Horton), [Miller](Zach)(Zach Miller (tight end, born 1985)), [Cook](Jared)(Jared Cook), [Waller](Darren)(Darren Waller) (1)
* **T** [Shell](Art)(Art Shell) (8), [Schuh](Harry)(Harry Schuh), [Kennedy](Lincoln)(Lincoln Kennedy) (3), [Lawrence](Henry)(Henry Lawrence (American football)), [Penn](Donald)(Donald Penn) (2), [Brown](Bob)(Bob Brown (offensive lineman)) (1)
* **G** [Wisniewski](Steve)(Steve Wisniewski) (8), [Upshaw](Gene)(Gene Upshaw) (7), [Hawkins](Wayne)(Wayne Hawkins) (5), [Osemele](Kelechi)(Kelechi Osemele) (2), [Montoya](Max)(Max Montoya), [Gogan](Kevin)(Kevin Gogan) (1)
* **C** [Otto](Jim)(Jim Otto) (12), [Mosebar](Don)(Don Mosebar) (3), [Hudson](Rodney)(Rodney Hudson) (2), [Dalby](Dave)(Dave Dalby), [Robbins](Barret)(Barret Robbins) (1)
* **DE** [Long](Howie)(Howie Long) (8), [Davidson](Ben)(Ben Davidson), [Mack](Khalil)(Khalil Mack) (3), [Townsend](Greg)(Greg Townsend), [Burgess](Derrick)(Derrick Burgess), [Crosby](Maxx)(Maxx Crosby) (2), [Lassiter](Ike)(Ike Lassiter) (1)
* **DT** [McGlockton](Chester)(Chester McGlockton) (4), [Keating](Tom)(Tom Keating (American football)), [Russell](Darrell)(Darrell Russell (American football)), [Seymour](Richard)(Richard Seymour) (2), [Costa](Dave)(Dave Costa), [Birdwell](Dan)(Dan Birdwell), [Sistrunk](Otis)(Otis Sistrunk) (1)
* **LB** [Villapiano](Phil)(Phil Villapiano), [Hendricks](Ted)(Ted Hendricks) (4), [Conners](Dan)(Dan Conners) (3), [Martin](Rod)(Rod Martin) (2), [Matsos](Archie)(Archie Matsos), [Otto](Gus)(Gus Otto), [Millen](Matt)(Matt Millen), [Perryman](Denzel)(Denzel Perryman) (1)
* **CB** [Brown](Willie)(Willie Brown (American football)) (7), [Hayes](Lester)(Lester Hayes), [McDaniel](Terry)(Terry McDaniel) (5), [Woodson](Charles)(Charles Woodson) (4), [Williamson](Fred)(Fred Williamson), [Grayson](Dave)(Dave Grayson), [Haynes](Mike)(Mike Haynes (cornerback)), [Asomugha](Nnamdi)(Nnamdi Asomugha) (3), [McCloughan](Kent)(Kent McCloughan) (2)
* **S** [Tatum](Jack)(Jack Tatum) (3), [Atkinson](George)(George Atkinson (safety)), [McElroy](Vann)(Vann McElroy) (2) [Woodson](Charles)(Charles Woodson), [Lott](Ronnie)(Ronnie Lott), [Woodson](Rod)(Rod Woodson), [Nelson](Reggie)(Reggie Nelson) (1)
* **K** [Jaeger](Jeff)(Jeff Jaeger), [Janikowski](Sebastian)(Sebastian Janikowski) (1)
* **P** [Guy](Ray)(Ray Guy) (7), [Lechler](Shane)(Shane Lechler) (7), [Gossett](Jeff)(Jeff Gossett), [J. Cole III](A.)(A. J. Cole III) (1)
* **LS** [Condo](Jon)(Jon Condo) (2)
## Front office and coaching staff
### Coaches/Executives
The coaches and executives that have contributed to the history & success of the Los Angeles/Oakland/Las Vegas Raiders franchise are as follows:
* [Davis](Al)(Al Davis): head coach (1963–1965), general manager/owner (1966–2011), AFL commissioner (1966)
* [Wolf](Ron)(Ron Wolf): scout/executive, director of player personnel (1963–1974; 1978–1989)
* [Rauch](John)(John Rauch): head coach (1965–1968)
* [Madden](John)(John Madden): head coach (1969–1978)
* [Flores](Tom)(Tom Flores): assistant head coach, executive assistant coach (1972–1978), head coach (1979–1987), executive (1988)
* [Herrera](John)(John Herrera (gridiron football)): business & public relations (1967–1978), director of public relations (1978–1982), senior executive (1985–2012)
* Al LoCasale: executive assistant (1969–2003)
* [Herock](Ken)(Ken Herock): scout/executive assistant, scout/personnel director (1970–1975), player personnel (1984–1986), executive assistant (1997–1998)
* [Shell](Art)(Art Shell): assistant head coach (1983–1989), head coach (1989–1994, 2006)
* [Trask](Amy)(Amy Trask): chief executive officer (1987–2013)
* [Allen](Bruce)(Bruce Allen (American football)): senior executive (1995–2003)
* [Gruden](Jon)(Jon Gruden): head coach (1998–2001; 2018–2021)
* [McKenzie](Reggie)(Reggie McKenzie (linebacker)): general manager (2012–2018)
* [Badain](Marc)(Marc Badain): president (2013–2021)
* [Del Rio](Jack)(Jack Del Rio): head coach (2015–2017)
* [Mayock](Mike)(Mike Mayock): general manager (2019–2021)
### Current staff
## See also
*[in the Las Vegas metropolitan area](Sports)(Sports in the Las Vegas metropolitan area)
## References
## External links
*
* [Las Vegas Raiders](https://www.nfl.com/teams/las-vegas-raiders/) at the [Football League](National)(National Football League) official website
|list =
}}
[ ](Category:Las Vegas Raiders)
[Football League teams](Category:American)(Category:American Football League teams)
[Football League teams](Category:National)(Category:National Football League teams)
[teams in Las Vegas](Category:Sports)(Category:Sports teams in Las Vegas)
[football teams established in 1960](Category:American)(Category:American football teams established in 1960)
[establishments in California](Category:1960)(Category:1960 establishments in California)
|
Black Clover
|
black_clover
|
# Black Clover
*Revision ID: 1159502188 | Timestamp: 2023-06-10T18:50:51Z*
---
}}
|demographic = *[Shōnen](Shōnen manga)*
|imprint = [Comics](Jump)(Jump Comics)
|magazine = [Shōnen Jump](Weekly)(Weekly Shōnen Jump)
|magazine_en =
|first = February 16, 2015
|last =
|volumes = 35
|volume_list = List of Black Clover chapters
}}
for episodes #153–170}}|Ayataka Tanemura (#153–170)}}
|producer = |Hatsuo Nara (#129–170)}}
|writer =
|music = Minako Seki
|studio = [Pierrot](Pierrot (company))
|licensee = [Crunchyroll](Crunchyroll)
|network = [TXN](TX Network) ([Tokyo](TV)(TV Tokyo))
|network_en = |US=[Swim](Adult)(Adult Swim) ([Toonami](Toonami))}}
|first = October 3, 2017
|last = March 30, 2021
|episodes = 170
|episode_list = List of Black Clover episodes
}}
|music =
|studio = [DLE](DLE (company))
|licensee = Crunchyroll
|first = July 1, 2019
|last = August 19, 2019
|episodes = 8
|episode_list =
|runtime =
}}
}}
}}
is a Japanese [manga](manga) series written and illustrated by [Tabata](Yūki)(Yūki Tabata). It has been serialized in [Shueisha](Shueisha)'s [manga](*shōnen*)(Shōnen manga) magazine *[Shōnen Jump](Weekly)(Weekly Shōnen Jump)* since February 2015, with its chapters collected in 35 *[tankōbon](tankōbon)* volumes as of June 2023. The story follows [Asta](Asta (Black Clover)), a young boy born without any magic power. This is unknown to the world he lives in because seemingly everyone has some sort of magic power. With his fellow mages from the Black Bulls, Asta plans to become the next Wizard King.
The manga was first adapted into an [video animation](original)(original video animation) produced by [Zwei](Xebec)(Xebec (studio)), released in 2017. An [anime](anime) television series adaptation produced by [Pierrot](Pierrot (company)) aired in Japan on [Tokyo](TV)(TV Tokyo) from October 2017 to March 2021. An anime film, titled *[Clover: Sword of the Wizard King](Black)(Black Clover: Sword of the Wizard King)*, is set to premiere simultaneously in Japanese theaters and internationally on [Netflix](Netflix) in June 2023.
In North America, the manga is licensed for English release by [Media](Viz)(Viz Media), while the anime series is licensed by [Crunchyroll](Crunchyroll).
## Plot
List of *Black Clover* characters}}
The series focuses on [Asta](Asta (Black Clover)), a young orphan who is left to be raised in an orphanage alongside his fellow orphan, Yuno. While everyone is born with the ability to utilize *mana* in the form of magical power, Asta, with no magic instead focuses on physical strength. Conversely, Yuno was born as a prodigy with immense magical power and the talent to control wind magic.
Motivated by a desire to become the next Wizard King, an authority figure second to the king of Clover Kingdom, the two youths developed a friendly rivalry. Yuno obtains a legendary four-leaf grimoire held by the kingdom's first Wizard King. The four-leaf grimoire is a rare grimoire, only given to the most immense mages. Asta, despite his lack of magic, obtained a mysterious five-leaf grimoire that contains mysterious elf swords and a bodiless member of the Devil race who utilizes rare anti-magic. Afterward, he and Yuno each join a Magic Knight squad as the first step to fulfill their ambitions.
Asta joins the Black Bulls under [Sukehiro](Yami)(Yami Sukehiro) alongside [Silva](Noelle)(Noelle Silva) while Yuno becomes a member of the Golden Dawn. They embark on various adventures while contending with an extremist group called the Eye of the Midnight Sun, whose leadership is manipulated by a Devil in avenging an injustice committed against the Elves by the Clover Kingdom at the time of its founding. The Magic Knights then face the Dark Triad of the Spade Kingdom, with Asta and Yuno learning of their Devils’ influence on their lives and of the Dark Triad’s plan to fully manifest the Devils into their world.
## Production
Manga author [Tabata](Yūki)(Yūki Tabata) started in the manga industry at the age of 20 and worked as an assistant for seven years before his [fiction](science)(science fiction) [one-shot](one-shot (comics)) *Hungry Joker* was briefly serialized in the [Shueisha](Shueisha) magazine *[Shōnen Jump](Weekly)(Weekly Shōnen Jump)*. Tabata considered this manga a failure which he attributed largely to its quiet and dark-natured main character, who was very unlike the author himself. After its cancellation his friends advised him to develop an energetic, happy-go-lucky protagonist that more closely resembled Tabata and he began working on the fantasy-themed one-shot for *Black Clover*. After its publication, he was assigned a new [editor](Manga artist#Editor) (Tatsuhiko Katayama) and Shueisha picked up the series for full serialization.
The weekly production process for *Black Clover* involved Tabata consulting with Katayama for the first few days on the [thumbnails](storyboard) of the chapter then spending the remaining days composing the actual art. Tabata credited himself for coming up with a rough outline and ending for the chapter while Katayama aided him in filling in its content and making corrections. Early in the series the artist claimed to only sleep an average of three hours per night due to stress, but after the anime adaptation of *Black Clover* began airing he was able to increase this to six hours per night. As of at least the seventh volume of *Black Clover*, he did not utilize digital tools in his drafting, opting for traditional "analog" inking and toning by hand. Tabata stayed motivated during the manga's long run due to his readers looking forward to each week's chapter. Despite the fast pace of most chapters, the author expressed a desire to occasionally create slower yet still satisfying stories. The [fantasy](dark)(dark fantasy) *[seinen](seinen manga)* series *[Berserk](Berserk (manga))* by [Miura](Kentaro)(Kentaro Miura) was a heavy influence on Tabata. He wanted to craft a *[shōnen](Shōnen manga)* equivalent of *Berserk* while also taking inspiration from other fantasy properties such as *[Quest: The Adventure of Dai](Dragon)(Dragon Quest: The Adventure of Dai)*, *[Lord of the Rings](The)(The Lord of the Rings)*, *[Potter](Harry)(Harry Potter)*, and the films of [del Toro](Guillermo)(Guillermo del Toro). Tabata professed to not be a big fan of fantasy [video game](role-playing)(role-playing video game)s like *[Quest](Dragon)(Dragon Quest)* or *[Fantasy](Final)(Final Fantasy)* and used the few fantasy movies he did watch as reference material. To give *Black Clover*'s world a European look, Tabata researched photograph books for sets and locations and documented various weapons, clothing, and buildings.
Tabata stated he enjoyed both writing the manga's script and illustrating its battle scenes, particularly in magnifying his characters' movements and making the action more dynamic. For this latter aspect, he took ideas from the *shōnen* fighting manga *[Ball](Dragon)(Dragon Ball (manga))* by [Toriyama](Akira)(Akira Toriyama). Tabata recounted he was inspired to become a manga artist after seeing the *[Ball Z](Dragon)(Dragon Ball Z)* [anime](anime) series as a child then learning it was an adaptation of Toriyama's work. He stated that he was also a fan of other *shōnen* series, such as *[Hakusho](YuYu)(YuYu Hakusho)* by [Togashi](Yoshihiro)(Yoshihiro Togashi) and *[Bleach](Bleach (manga))* by [Kubo](Tite)(Tite Kubo). Tabata wished to create a diverse cast of [archetypical](archetype) characters with opposing attributes. He modeled the characters [Asta](Asta (Black Clover)) and [Pappitson](Charmy)(List of Black Clover characters#Charmy Pappitson) after himself and his wife respectively. He admitted in the manga's fourth volume that Charmy was his favorite character to draw. He chose names for characters by looking up words he found interesting in dictionaries of various languages. He found that an important aspect of character design in *Black Clover* was giving them traits that make them easy to remember for the reader. He also wanted to "feel good" drawing them, would revise the characters if he was getting frustrated, and strived to improve on balancing the attention each one gets during the course of the story. Once the characters were made, Tabata decided on their magic abilities based on their personalities and whatever magic would fit the current events of the plot.
## Media
### Manga
List of *Black Clover* chapters}}
Written and illustrated by [Tabata](Yūki)(Yūki Tabata), *Black Clover* has been serialized in [Shueisha](Shueisha)'s [manga](*shōnen*)(Shōnen manga) anthology *[Shōnen Jump](Weekly)(Weekly Shōnen Jump)* since February 16, 2015. The manga is Tabata's second series in *Weekly Shōnen Jump*: his first series, *Hungry Joker*, ran in the magazine for 24 chapters from November 12, 2012, to May 13, 2013, before being canceled. In April 2022, it was announced that the series would enter on a three-month hiatus to prepare it for its final arc. Shueisha has collected its chapters into individual *[tankōbon](tankōbon)* volumes. The first volume was published on June 4, 2015. As of June 2, 2023, 35 volumes have been released.
On February 9, 2015, [Media](Viz)(Viz Media) announced that they would publish the first three chapters of the series in their *[Shonen Jump](Weekly)(Weekly Shonen Jump (American magazine))* digital magazine as part of their "[Start](Jump)(Weekly Shonen Jump (American magazine)#Jump Start series)" program in North America. On March 30, 2015, they announced that the series would join their weekly lineup, beginning with chapter 4 on April 6, and publishing at an accelerated rate until the chapters were current with Japan. Plans to release the series in print were announced during their panel at [York Comic Con](New)(New York Comic Con) on October 9, 2015. Shueisha began to simulpublish the series in English on the app and website Manga Plus in February 2019.
#### Spin-offs
A gag manga spin-off by Setta Kobayashi, titled , was serialized in Shueisha's *[Jump](Saikyō)(Saikyō Jump)* from February 2, 2018, to April 1, 2021. Shueisha collected its chapters in three *tankōbon* volume, released from January 4, 2019, to July 2, 2021.
On September 30, 2018, a manga based on the video game *Black Clover: Quartet Knights*, illustrated by Yumiya Tashiro, launched on the *[Jump+](Shōnen)(Shōnen Jump+)* app on October 7, 2018, and finished on April 12, 2020. Its chapters were collected in six *tankōbon* volumes, released from January 4, 2019, to October 2, 2020.
### Novels
Three novels written by Johnny Onda have been released under the [J-Books](Jump)(Jump (magazine line)#Jump J-Books) imprint. The first, , was released on August 4, 2016; the second, , was released on October 4, 2017; and the third, , was released on October 4, 2019. A novel adaptation of the film *[Clover: Sword of the Wizard King](Black)(Black Clover: Sword of the Wizard King)'', authored by Atarō Kuma with Johnny Onda in charge of the scenario, is set to be released on June 9, 2023.
### Anime
#### Original video animation
An [video animation](original)(original video animation) (OVA) produced by [Zwei](Xebec)(Xebec (studio)) that is based on the series was shown at the 2016 [Festa](Jump)(Jump Festa) between November 27 and December 18, 2016. It was bundled with the 11th volume of the manga, which was released on May 2, 2017. A second original video animation was shown at the 2018 Jump Festa. It was later released on DVD releases alongside *[Hero Academia](My)(My Hero Academia)* and *[Wars!: Shokugeki no Soma](Food)(Food Wars!: Shokugeki no Soma)* bundled with the future volumes of their respective manga, as it was announced on Jump Special Anime Festa event.
#### Television series
List of *Black Clover* episodes}}
At the *Black Clover* [Festa](Jump)(Jump Festa) event on December 18, 2016, an [anime](anime) television series adaptation by [Pierrot](Pierrot (company)) was announced. It was directed by Tatsuya Yoshihara, with [Fudeyasu](Kazuyuki)(Kazuyuki Fudeyasu) writing scripts, Itsuko Takeda doing character designs, and Minako Seki composing the music. The series premiered on [Tokyo](TV)(TV Tokyo) on October 3, 2017. with the first two seasons each consisting of 51 episodes.
Season 3 premiered on October 1, 2019. The anime has been broadcast without any major interruption until late April 2020, when it was announced that future episodes would be postponed based on studio production delays caused by the [pandemic](COVID-19)(COVID-19 pandemic). The broadcasting and distribution of episode 133 onward were delayed and in its place, the first episode of the series was rebroadcast on May 5, 2020; the series resumed on July 7 of the same year, and finished at episode 170 on March 30, 2021.
[Crunchyroll](Crunchyroll) has simulcast the series, while [Funimation](Funimation) produced an English dub as part of its SimulDub program as it aired. [Swim](Adult)(Adult Swim)'s [Toonami](Toonami) programming block premiered the English dub on December 2, 2017. The series was added to the [Hulu](Hulu) streaming service. [Pictures UK](Sony)(Sony Pictures UK) and Funimation released the first part of the series on home video in the United Kingdom and Ireland, with subsequent parts released by [Entertainment](Manga)(Manga Entertainment). Universal Sony classified the first part of the series for release in Australia and New Zealand, on behalf of Funimation, with [Entertainment](Madman)(Madman Entertainment) releasing subsequent parts. The first of *Black Clover* became available on [Netflix](Netflix) India with Japanese audio and English subtitles on February 23, 2021.
#### Original net animation
A short [net animation](original)(original net animation) titled , produced by DLE and directed by Tsukasa Nishiyama, began airing on dTV on July 1, 2019. The opening theme song for the short is "Possible" by Gakuto Kajiwara and [Shimazaki](Nobunaga)(Nobunaga Shimazaki), under the name "Clover×Clover". Crunchyroll made the short available internationally on December 31, 2019.
#### Film
*Black Clover*: Sword of the Wizard King}}
On March 28, 2021, it was announced that the series would be receiving an anime film, with details to be revealed at a later date. It was later announced that the film's title is . It will be directed by Ayataka Tanemura, with the screenplay written by Johnny Onda and Ai Orii, character designs by Itsuko Takeda, and music by Minako Seki. Tabata will also supervise the film and provide the original character designs. The film was originally set to premiere simultaneously in Japanese theaters and internationally on [Netflix](Netflix) on March 31, 2023, but was later delayed to June 16th of the same year due to the [pandemic](COVID-19)(COVID-19 pandemic) affecting its production. [Treasure](Treasure (band)) will perform the theme song "Here I Stand".
### Video games
At Jump Festa 2017, a video game, titled *Black Clover: Quartet Knights*, was announced for a 2018 release on [4](PlayStation)(PlayStation 4) and [PC](Personal computer). It was developed by Ilinx and published by [Namco](Bandai)(Bandai Namco Entertainment). It was released in Japan on September 13, 2018, while the western release was on September 14 of the same year.
On April 22, 2018, a mobile game called was announced. It was released in Japan on November 14, 2018. On December 6, 2019, Bandai Namco Entertainment announced that the game would be released on January 16, 2020. On December 9, 2020, Bandai Namco Entertainment closed its servers and removed the game from all [iOS](iOS) and [Android](Android (operating system)) mobile app stores worldwide.
Asta is featured as a playable character in the *[Shōnen Jump](Weekly)(Weekly Shōnen Jump)* crossover game *[Force](Jump)(Jump Force)*.
On December 19, 2021, during [Festa](Jump)(Jump Festa) 2022, a mobile game was announced. Titled and developed by Vic Game Studios, it was originally announced to be released sometime in 2022; however, it was later announced that it will be released in worldwide in the first half of 2023. The band [Glay](Glay) contributed two songs to the game; and "Pianista".
Another mobile game, , developed by South Korean company Vic Game Studios, was released on May 25, 2023. The game has made roughly $2 million on [iOS](iOS) devices, and $800,000 on Android devices, across both Japanese and Korean servers.
## Reception
### Manga
In 2016, *Black Clover* ranked ninth on the second [Manga Award](Next)(Next Manga Award), presented by [Corporation](Kadokawa)(Kadokawa Corporation)'s *[Vinci](Da)(Da Vinci (magazine))* magazine and [Niconico](Niconico) streaming website; in the same year, the series ranked third on the "Nationwide Bookstore Employees' Recommended Comics" by the Honya Club website in 2016.
Tokyo-based [labor](dispatched)(dispatched labor) company included the series on a list of three manga series about protagonists who struggle to overcome their own weakness and self-doubt, recommended for low self-confidence people.|access-date=March 18, 2023|language=ja|date=May 30, 2018|archive-date=March 18, 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230318111109/https://www.staffservice.co.jp/cheer/jobs/manga05.html|url-status=live}}
#### Sales
Volume 1 reached 23rd place on the weekly [Oricon](Oricon) manga charts, with 38,128 copies sold; volume 2 reached 17th place, with 61,918 copies; volume 3 also reached 17th place, with 80,462 copies; volume 4 reached 13th place, with 93,866 copies; volume 5 reached 15th place, with 108,503 copies; and volume 6 reached 11th place, with 118,783 copies. By December 2017, the manga had over 4.8 million copies in circulation; it had over 5.5 million copies in circulation by February 2018; over 7 million copies in circulation by January 2019; over 12 million copies in circulation by March 2021; over 15 million copies in circulation by May 2021; over 16 million copies in circulation by December 2021; over 17 million copies in circulation by June 2022, over 18 million copies in circulation by November 2022; and over 19 million copies in circulation by June 2023.
The series ranked 48th on [Rakuten](Rakuten)'s Top 100 Best Selling Digital Manga of 2019; it ranked 47th in 2020; 50th in 2021; and 47th in the first half of 2022.
*Black Clover: Quartet Knights* had over 300,000 copies in circulation by October 2020.
In the United States, the manga sold 204,620 copies in 2021, and 223,163 copies in 2022, while on [BookScan](NPD)(NPD BookScan)'s top-selling authors in the country for each year, manga author Yuki Tabata ranked 45th and 39th, respectively.
#### Critical reception
When reviewing the series for *[ComicsAlliance](Townsquare Media)*, Tom Speelman described the premise as "what if Harry Potter was a knight and also kinda dumb?" He recommended it for fans of *[Naruto](Naruto)* and *[Tail](Fairy)(Fairy Tail)*, noting its similarities to the former series as well as to *[Bleach](Bleach (manga))*. He praised the author's ability to invigorate stock characters. Henry Ma of *[Leo O Hawaii](Ka)(Ka Leo O Hawaii)* praised the series' humor and art, noting that the latter was "very nice" and was similar to *Fairy Tail*. Danica Davidson of *[USA](Otaku)(Otaku USA)* noted that the first volume showed promise and recommended it for fans of action/adventure shonen manga. Matthew Warner from *The Fandom Post*, in his review of Volume 1, stated "With a likable enough main cast and a seemingly solid world, this volume gets the series off to a nice start." Leroy Douresseaux of *ComicBookBin* said that the story reminds him of some of his favorite shonen manga and has an intriguing backstory and internal mythology, calling it "one of the best new series of the year for young readers" and giving it an "A" rating. Dale Bashir of *[Southeast Asia](IGN)(IGN Southeast Asia)* praised the series for its fast and engaging pacing, action sequences, and presentation of female characters on equal grounds compared to their male counterparts, calling it the "perfect encapsulation of the strengths and weaknesses of the shonen genre as a whole." However, not all critics were positive, with a board of comic book writers at [Diego Comic-Con](San)(San Diego Comic-Con) listing the manga as one of the worst from 2016.
### Anime
In November 2019, [Crunchyroll](Crunchyroll) listed *Black Clover* in their "Top 100 best anime of the 2010s". In January 2021, it was revealed that *Black Clover* was the most-watched anime series on Crunchyroll in 2020, being watched in 87 countries and territories all over the world. Asta and Yami's fight against Dante was also listed as the sixth best anime fight from 2021 by Crunchyroll.
Alex Osborn of *[IGN](IGN)*, in his review of the first episode, mentioned that its premise is not novel but concludes that it is "ultimately a solid introduction to the Clover Kingdom, and lays the groundwork for what will hopefully be an empowering story about the importance of never giving up." Writing for *[News Network](Anime)(Anime News Network)*, Rachel Trujillo praised the anime for "the grand lessons that one can take away from the story" and ambitious animation efforts from the staff. In his review of Episode 170, Shawn Hacaga of *The Fandom Post* complimented the anime's improvement since its beginning, saying that he was "glad that *Black Clover* was able to turn it around." Ivy Rose from *Anime Feminist* praised the way the story handles its female characters, giving them narrative importance and letting them partake in battles. Rose wrote: "*Black Clover* has truly raised the bar for depictions of female leaders in shounen anime, and female characters in general, as these solid portrayals are not just limited to women in leadership positions."
#### Accolades
## Notes
## References
## External links
* at *[Shōnen Jump](Weekly)(Weekly Shōnen Jump)*
*
* at [Viz.com](Viz Media)
*
*
}}
[anime television series debuts](Category:2017)(Category:2017 anime television series debuts)
[anime ONAs](Category:2019)(Category:2019 anime ONAs)
[anime and manga](Category:Adventure)(Category:Adventure anime and manga)
[television series about orphans](Category:Animated)(Category:Animated television series about orphans)
[series based on manga](Category:Anime)(Category:Anime series based on manga)
[Group](Category:Avex)(Category:Avex Group)
[anime](Category:Crunchyroll)(Category:Crunchyroll anime)
[in anime and manga](Category:Demons)(Category:Demons in anime and manga)
[anime and manga](Category:Fantasy)(Category:Fantasy anime and manga)
[Category:Funimation](Category:Funimation)
[(company)](Category:Pierrot)(Category:Pierrot (company))
[manga](Category:Shōnen)(Category:Shōnen manga)
[franchises](Category:Shueisha)(Category:Shueisha franchises)
[manga](Category:Shueisha)(Category:Shueisha manga)
[Category:Toonami](Category:Toonami)
[Tokyo original programming](Category:TV)(Category:TV Tokyo original programming)
[Media manga](Category:Viz)(Category:Viz Media manga)
[(studio)](Category:Xebec)(Category:Xebec (studio))
|
Military organization
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military_organization
|
# Military organization
*Revision ID: 1157913346 | Timestamp: 2023-05-31T19:29:41Z*
---
[[File:Royal Danish Army 1940.png|thumb|upright=1.2|Organization chart of the [Danish Army](Royal)(Royal Danish Army), April 1940]]
**Military organization** or **military organisation** is the structuring of the [force](armed)(armed force)s of a [state](State (polity)) so as to offer such [capability](military)(military capability) as a [defense policy](national)(military policy) may require. In some countries [paramilitary](paramilitary) forces are included in a nation's armed forces, though not considered military. Armed forces that are not a part of military or paramilitary organizations, such as [insurgent](Insurgency) forces, often [mimic](mimic) military organizations, or use these structures, while formal military organization tends to use [hierarchical](hierarchical) forms.
## History
The use of formalized [ranks](Military rank) in a hierarchical structure came into widespread use with the [Army](Roman)(Roman Army).
In modern times, executive control, management and administration of military organization is typically undertaken by governments through a [department](government)(Ministry (government department)) within the structure of [administration](public)(public administration), often known as a [ ministry of defence or department of defense](Ministry of defence). These in turn manage [branches](military)(military branches) that themselves command formations and units specialising in combat, [support](combat)(combat support) and [support](combat-service)(combat service support).
## Executive control, management and administration
The usually [or partly civilian executive control over the national military organization](civilian)(civilian control of the military) is exercised in [democracies](democracy) by an elected political leader as a member of the government's [cabinet](Cabinet (government)), usually known as a [of defence](minister)(minister of defence). In [system](presidential)(presidential system)s, such as the [States](United)(United States Armed Forces), the president is the [commander-in-chief](commander-in-chief), and the cabinet-level defense minister is second in command. Subordinated to that position are often [secretaries](Secretary (title)) for specific major operational divisions of the armed forces as a whole, such as those that provide general support services to the military, including their dependants.
Then there are the heads of specific departmental agencies responsible for the provision and management of specific skill- and knowledge-based services such as [strategic](Strategy) advice, [development](capability)(Military capability) assessment, or [science](military)(military science) provision of research, and design and development of technologies. Within each departmental agency will be found administrative branches responsible for further agency [specialization](business)(business) work.
## Military branches
[[Image:USN-JASDF ship and aircraft formations during ANNUALEX 2008 081119-N-7047S-140.jpg|thumb|A mixed aircraft and ship formation of military vehicles during an exercise with [USN](United States Navy) and [JASDF](Japan Air Self-Defense Force) vehicles.]]
In most countries, the *armed forces* are divided into three [branch](military)(military branch)es (also *service, armed service, or military service*): [army](army), [navy](navy), and [force](air)(air force).
Many countries have a variation on the standard model of three basic military branches. Some nations also organize their [force](cyber)(cyber force), emergencies service, [service](medical)(Military medicine), [logistics](military)(military logistics), [force](space)(space force), [marines](marines), and [forces](special)(special forces) such as [commando](commando)s or [forces](airborne)(airborne forces) as independent armed services. A nation's [guard](border)(border guard) or [guard](coast)(coast guard) may also be an independent branch of its military, although in many nations border guard or coast guard is a civil [enforcement agency](law)(law enforcement agency). A number of countries have no navy, for geographical reasons.
In larger armed forces, the cultures between the different branches of the armed forces can be quite different.
Most smaller countries have a single organization that encompasses all armed forces employed by the country in question. Armies of [countries](developing)(developing country) tend to consist primarily of [infantry](infantry), while [countries](developed)(developed country) armies tend to have larger units manning expensive equipment and only a fraction of personnel in infantry units.
In western militaries, a [force](joint)(joint warfare) is defined as a unit or formation comprising representation of combat power from two or more branches of the military.
### Internal security forces
[Gendarmerie](Gendarmerie)s, [police](military)(military police) and [forces](security)(security forces), including equivalents such as [forces](paramilitary)(Paramilitary), [militia](militia), [troops](internal)(Internal Troops) and [tactical unit](police)(police tactical unit) similar, are an [security](internal)(internal security) service common in most of the world, but uncommon in countries with English [law](common)(common law) histories where civil police are employed to enforce the law, and there are tight restrictions on how the armed forces may be used to assist.
## Commands, formations, and units
It is common, at least in the European and North American militaries, to refer to the building blocks of a military as [[(military formation)|s](Command)], **s**, and **s**.
In a military context, a command is a collection of units and formations under the control of a single officer, although during the [World War](Second)(Second World War) a command was also a name given to a [group](battle)(Battlegroup (army)) in the [Army](US)(US Army). In general it is an administrative and executive [strategic](military strategy) [headquarters](headquarters) that is responsible to the national government or the national military headquarters. It is not uncommon for a nation's services to each consist of their own command (such as Land Component, Air Component, Naval Component, and Medical Component in the [Army](Belgian)(Belgian Army)), but this does not preclude the existence of commands that are not service-based.
A formation is defined by the [Department of Defense](US)(United States Department of Defense) as "two or more aircraft, ships, or units proceeding together under a commander".[States Department of Defense](United)(United States Department of Defense), [DOD Dictionary](http://www.dtic.mil/doctrine/jel/doddict/data/f/02222.html) Fomin in the *[Soviet Encyclopedia](Great)(Great Soviet Encyclopedia)* emphasised its combined-arms nature: "Formations are those military organisations which are formed from different speciality Arms and Services troop units to create a balanced, combined combat force. The formations only differ in their ability to achieve different scales of application of force to achieve different strategic, operational and tactical goals and mission objectives."Fomin, N. N., *Great Soviet Encyclopaedia* (), Moscow, 1978 It is a composite military organization that includes a mixture of integrated and operationally attached sub-units, and is usually combat-capable. Example of formations include: [division](Division (military))s, [brigade](brigade)s, [battalion](battalion)s, [wings](Wing (air force unit)), etc. Formation may also refer to [formation](tactical)(tactical formation), the physical arrangement or disposition of troops and weapons.*[Oxford English Dictionary](Shorter)(Shorter Oxford English Dictionary)* Examples of formation in such usage include: [pakfront](pakfront), [panzerkeil](panzerkeil), [formation](testudo)(testudo formation), etc.
A typical unit is a homogeneous military organization (either combat, [combat-support](Combat support) or non-combat in capability) that includes service personnel predominantly from a single arm of service, or a branch of service, and its administrative and command functions are self-contained. Any unit subordinate to another unit is considered its sub-unit or minor unit. It is not uncommon in the United States for unit and formation to be used synonymously. In [of Nations](Commonwealth)(Commonwealth of Nations) practice, formation is not used for smaller organizations such as battalions, which are instead called "units", and their constituent [platoon](platoon)s or [companies](Company (military unit)) are referred to as sub-units. In the Commonwealth, formations are divisions, brigades, etc.
Different [forces](armed)(armed forces), and even different branches of service of the armed forces, may use the same name to denote different types of organizations. An example is the "squadron". In most navies a [squadron](Squadron (naval)) is a formation of several ships; in most air forces it is a unit; in the U.S. Army it is a battalion-sized [cavalry](cavalry) unit; and in Commonwealth armies a squadron is a company-sized sub-unit.
## Table of organization and equipment
A [of organization and equipment](table)(table of organization and equipment) (TOE or TO&E) is a document published by the U.S. Army Force Management Support Agency that prescribes the organization, manning, and equipage of units from divisional size and down, but also including the headquarters of Corps and Armies.
It also provides information on the mission and capabilities of a unit as well as the unit's current status. A general TOE is applicable to a type of unit (for instance, infantry) rather than a specific unit (the 3rd Infantry Division). In this way, all units of the same branch (such as infantry) follow the same structural guidelines.
## Modern hierarchy
### Army
The following table gives an overview of some of the terms used to describe army hierarchy in armed forces across the world. Whilst it is recognized that there are differences between armies of different nations, many are modeled on the [British](British Army) or [American](United States Armed Forces) models, or both. However, many military units and formations go back in history for a long time, and were devised by various military thinkers throughout European history.
For example, the modern *Corps* was first introduced in France about 1805 by Napoleon as a more flexible tactical grouping of two or more divisions during the [Wars](Napoleonic)(Napoleonic Wars).
Rungs may be skipped in this ladder: for example, typically NATO forces skip from battalion to brigade. Likewise, only large military powers may have organizations at the top levels and different armies and countries may also use traditional names, creating considerable confusion: for example, a British or Canadian armored regiment (battalion) is divided into [squadron](Squadron (army))s (companies) and [troop](troop)s (platoons), whereas an American cavalry squadron (battalion) is divided into troops (companies) and platoons. In the French system (used by many African countries) the company is divided into sections (platoons) composed of 3 x "groupes de combat" of 7 soldiers, plus a group of vehicle crews and a HQ that includes 2 x snipers.
[Army](Army (unit)), [group](army)(army group), [region](region), and [theatre](theater (military)) are all large formations that vary significantly between armed forces in size and hierarchy position. While [division](Division (military))s were the traditional level at which support elements (field artillery, hospital, logistics and maintenance, etc.) were added to the unit structure, since World War II, many brigades now have such support units, and since the 1980s, regiments also have been receiving support elements. A regiment with such support elements is called a [combat team](regimental)(regimental combat team) in US military parlance, or a [battlegroup](Battlegroup (army)) in the UK and other forces. Canadian Army doctrine also includes the [team](combat)(combat team) which is a company of infantry augmented with tanks, or a squadron of tanks augmented with infantry, or the combination of a full company of infantry with a full squadron of tanks.
During [War II](World)(World War II) the [Army](Red)(Red Army) used the same basic organizational structure. However, in the beginning many units were greatly underpowered and their size was actually one level below on the ladder that is usually used elsewhere; for example, a division in the early-WWII Red Army would have been about the size of most nations' regiments or brigades. At the top of the ladder, what other nations would call an army group, the Red Army called a [front](Front (Soviet Army)). By contrast, during the same period the German [Wehrmacht](Wehrmacht) army groups, particularly on the [Front](Eastern)(Eastern Front (World War II)), such as [Group Centre](Army)(Army Group Centre) significantly exceeded the above numbers, and were more cognate with the Soviet [Direction](Strategic)(Strategic Direction)s.
### Navy
Naval organization at the [flotilla](flotilla) level and higher is less commonly abided by, as ships operate in smaller or larger groups in various situations that may change at a moment's notice. However, there is some common terminology used throughout navies to communicate the general concept of how many vessels might be in a unit.
Navies are generally organized into groups for a specific purpose, usually strategic, and these organizational groupings appear and disappear frequently based on the conditions and demands placed upon a navy. This contrasts with army organization where units remain static, with the same men and equipment, over long periods of time.
The five-star ranks of [of the fleet](admiral)(admiral of the fleet) and fleet admiral have largely been out of regular use since the 1990s, with the exception of ceremonial or honorary appointments. Currently, all major navies ([blue-water](Blue-water navy) and [green-water](Green-water navy) navies) are commanded by an [admiral](admiral) of either four-star rank or three-star rank depending on relative size. Smaller naval forces, such as the [New Zealand Navy](Royal)(Royal New Zealand Navy), or those navies that are effectively [guard](coast)(coast guard)s, are commanded by a [rear-admiral](rear-admiral) (two-star rank), [commodore](Commodore (rank)) (one-star rank) or even a [captain](Captain (naval)).
[carrier](Aircraft)(Aircraft carrier)s are typically commanded by a captain. [Submarine](Submarine)s and [destroyer](destroyer)s are typically commanded by a captain or commander. Some destroyers, particularly smaller destroyers such as [frigate](frigate)s (formerly known as [escort](destroyer)(destroyer escort)s) are usually commanded by officers with the rank of commander. [Corvette](Corvette)s, the smallest class of warship, are commanded by officers with the rank of commander or [lieutenant-commander](lieutenant-commander). Auxiliary ships, including [gunboat](gunboat)s, [minesweepers](Minesweeper (ship)), [boat](patrol)(patrol boat)s, military [craft](riverine)(riverboat), [tenders](Ship's tender) and [boat](torpedo)(torpedo boat)s are usually commanded by [lieutenant](lieutenant)s, [sub-lieutenant](sub-lieutenant)s or [officers](warrant)(warrant officers). Usually, the smaller the vessel, the lower the rank of the ship's commander. For example, [boat](patrol)(patrol boat)s are often commanded by [ensign](Ensign (rank))s, while frigates are rarely commanded by an officer below the rank of commander.
Historically, navies were far more rigid in structure. Ships were collected in [divisions](Division (naval)), which in turn were collected in numbered [squadrons](Squadron (naval)), which comprised a numbered [fleet](Naval fleet). Permission for a vessel to leave one unit and join another would have to be approved on paper.
The modern U.S. Navy is primarily based on a number of standard groupings of vessels, including the [strike group](carrier)(carrier strike group) and the [strike group](expeditionary)(expeditionary strike group).
Additionally, naval organization continues aboard a single ship. The complement forms three or four departments (such as tactical and engineering), each of which has a number of divisions, followed by work centers.
### Air force
The organizational structures of air forces vary between nations: some air forces (such as the [States Air Force](United)(United States Air Force) and the [Air Force](Royal)(Royal Air Force)) are divided into commands, groups and squadrons; others (such as the [Air Force](Soviet)(Soviet Air Force)) have an Army-style organizational structure. The modern [Canadian Air Force](Royal)(Royal Canadian Air Force) uses [division](Air)(Air division) as the formation between wings and the entire air command. Like the RAF, Canadian wings consist of squadrons.
## Task force
A [force](task)(task force) is a unit or formation created as a temporary grouping for a specific operational purpose. Aside from administrative hierarchical forms of organization that have evolved since the early 17th century in Europe, fighting forces have been grouped for specific operational purposes into mission-related organizations such as the German [Kampfgruppe](Kampfgruppe) or the U.S. Combat Team (Army) and Task Force (Navy) during the Second World War, or the Soviet [manoeuvre group](Operational)(Operational manoeuvre group) during the Cold War. In the British and Commonwealth armies the [battlegroup](Battlegroup (army)) became the usual grouping of companies during the [World War](Second)(Second World War) and the Cold War.
Within NATO, a [Task Force](Joint)(Joint Task Force) (JTF) would be such a temporary grouping that includes elements from more than one armed service, a Combined Task Force (CTF) would be such a temporary grouping that includes elements from more than one nation, and a Combined Joint Task Force (CJTF) would be such a temporary grouping that includes elements of more than one armed service and more than one nation.
## See also
* [(military)](Chalk)(Chalk (military))
* [and control](Command)(Command and control)
* [administration](Military)(Military administration)
## Explanatory notes
## References
[ ](Category:Military organization)
[Organization](Category:Military science)
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Adrien Brody
|
adrien_brody
|
# Adrien Brody
*Revision ID: 1159431231 | Timestamp: 2023-06-10T07:59:19Z*
---
| birth_place = [York City](New)(New York City), U.S.
| alma_mater =
| occupation = Actor
| years_active = 1988–present
| mother = [Plachy](Sylvia)(Sylvia Plachy)
| father =
}}
**Adrien Nicholas Brody** (born April 14, 1973) is an American actor. He received widespread recognition and acclaim for starring as [Szpilman](Władysław)(Władysław Szpilman) in [Polanski](Roman)(Roman Polanski)'s *[Pianist](The)(The Pianist (2002 film))* (2002), for which he won the [Award for Best Actor](Academy)(Academy Award for Best Actor) at age 29, becoming the [actor](youngest)(List of oldest and youngest Academy Award winners and nominees#Best Actor in a Leading Role) to win in that category. He also became the second American male actor to win the [Award for Best Actor](César)(César Award for Best Actor).
Brody has also starred in *[Thin Red Line](The)(The Thin Red Line (1998 film))* (1998), *[Village](The)(The Village (2004 film))* (2004), *[Kong](King)(King Kong (2005 film))* (2005), *[Hollywoodland](Hollywoodland)* (2006), *[Records](Cadillac)(Cadillac Records)* (2008), *[Predators](Predators (film))* (2010) and *[How They Run](See)(See How They Run (2022 film))* (2022). He is a frequent collaborator of [Anderson](Wes)(Wes Anderson)'s, having starred in five of Anderson's films, *[Darjeeling Limited](The)(The Darjeeling Limited)* (2007), *[Mr. Fox](Fantastic)(Fantastic Mr. Fox (film))* (2009), *[Grand Budapest Hotel](The)(The Grand Budapest Hotel)* (2014), *[French Dispatch](The)(The French Dispatch)* (2021), and *[City](Asteroid)(Asteroid City)* (2023). He portrayed [Dali](Salvador)(Salvador Dali) in [Allen](Woody)(Woody Allen)'s *[in Paris](Midnight)(Midnight in Paris)* (2011), and [Miller](Arthur)(Arthur Miller) in [Dominik](Andrew)(Andrew Dominik)'s *[Blonde](Blonde (2022 film))* (2022)
He is also known for his roles on television including [Changretta](Luca)(Peaky Blinders (TV series)#Cast and characters) in the fourth season of the [BBC](BBC) series *[Blinders](Peaky)(Peaky Blinders (TV series))*, and [Riley](Pat)(Pat Riley) in the first season of the [HBO](HBO) sports drama series *[Time: The Rise of the Lakers Dynasty](Winning)(Winning Time: The Rise of the Lakers Dynasty)*. He earned [Emmy Award](Primetime)(Primetime Emmy Award) nominations for his roles as [Houdini](Harry)(Harry Houdini) in the [Channel](History)(History Channel) miniseries *[Houdini](Houdini (miniseries))* (2014), and Josh Aaronson in the [HBO](HBO) series *[Succession](Succession (TV series))* (2021).
## Early life
Brody was born in [Queens](Woodhaven,)(Woodhaven, Queens), New York City, the son of [Plachy](Sylvia)(Sylvia Plachy), a photographer, and Elliot Brody, a retired history professor and painter. Brody's father is of [Jewish](Polish)(Polish Jews) descent; Brody's mother, who was raised [Catholic](Catholic), was born in [Budapest](Budapest), Hungary, and is the daughter of a [Catholic](Catholic) [Hungarian](Hungarian nobility) aristocrat father and a [Jewish](Czech)(History of the Jews in the Czech Republic) mother, although Brody says he was raised "without a strong connection" to either [Judaism](Judaism) or [Christianity](Christianity).
As a child, Brody performed magic shows at children's birthday parties as "The Amazing Adrien". He attended I.S. 145 [Pulitzer](Joseph)(Joseph Pulitzer) Middle School and New York's [H. LaGuardia High School of Music & Art and Performing Arts](Fiorello)(Fiorello H. LaGuardia High School). His parents enrolled him in acting classes to distance him from the dangerous children with whom he associated. He attended [camp](summer)(summer camp) at Long Lake Camp for the Arts in the [Adirondacks](Adirondack Mountains) in [New York](upstate)(upstate New York). Brody attended [Brook University](Stony)(Stony Brook University) before transferring to [College](Queens)(Queens College, City University of New York) for a semester.
## Career
Taking acting classes as a child, by age thirteen, he appeared in an [Off-Broadway](Off-Broadway) play and a [PBS](PBS) television film. After appearing in *[Bullet](Bullet (1996 film))* in 1996 with [Shakur](Tupac)(Tupac Shakur) and [Rourke](Mickey)(Mickey Rourke), Brody hovered on the brink of stardom, receiving an Independent Spirit Award nomination for his role in the 1998 film *[Restaurant](Restaurant (1998 film))*, and later praise for his roles in [Lee](Spike)(Spike Lee)'s *[of Sam](Summer)(Summer of Sam)* and [Malick](Terrence)(Terrence Malick)'s *[Thin Red Line](The)(The Thin Red Line (1998 film))*. He received widespread recognition when he was cast as the lead in [Polanski](Roman)(Roman Polanski)'s *[Pianist](The)(The Pianist (2002 film))* (2002). To prepare for the role, Brody withdrew for months, gave up his apartment and his car, broke up with his then-girlfriend, learned how to play [Chopin](Frédéric Chopin) on the piano; at tall, he lost , dropping him to . The role won him an [Award for Best Actor](Academy)(Academy Award for Best Actor), making him, at age twenty nine, the youngest actor ever to win the award, and, to date, the only winner under the age of thirty. He also won a [Award](César)(César Award) for his performance.
Brody appeared on *[Night Live](Saturday)(Saturday Night Live)* on May 10, 2003, his first TV work. During this appearance, he controversially gave an introduction for Jamaican [reggae](reggae) musical guest [Paul](Sean)(Sean Paul), while wearing faux [dreadlocks](dreadlocks) and using a [accent](Jamaican)(Jamaican English). It was reported at the time that he had improvised the bit, causing him to be [from *Saturday Night Live*](banned)(List of Saturday Night Live incidents#Banned performers), however it was later revealed it was part of the dress rehearsal too.[SNL](https://faroutmagazine.co.uk/reason-adrien-brody-banned-from-snl/) Other TV appearances include NBC's *[Today Show](The)(Today (NBC program))*, and on MTV's ''[Punk'd](Punk'd)* after being tricked by [Kutcher](Ashton)(Ashton Kutcher).
After *The Pianist*, Brody appeared in four very different films. In *[Dummy](Dummy (2002 film))* (released in 2003, but originally shot in 2000, just prior to his work in *The Pianist*), he portrayed Steven Schoichet, a socially awkward aspiring ventriloquist in pursuit of a love interest (his employment counsellor). He learned ventriloquism and puppetry for the role (under the tutelage of actor/ventriloquist Alan Semok) convincingly enough to perform all of the voice stunts and puppet manipulation live on set in real time, with no subsequent post dubbing. He played Noah Percy, a mentally disabled young man, in the film *[Village](The)(The Village (2004 film))*, by [Night Shyamalan](M.)(M. Night Shyamalan), shell-shocked war veteran Jack Starks in *[Jacket](The)(The Jacket)*, writer [Driscoll](Jack)(Jack Driscoll (character)) in the 2005 *[Kong](King)(King Kong (2005 film))* remake, and father-to-be Peter Whitman in *[Darjeeling Limited](The)(The Darjeeling Limited)* by [Anderson](Wes)(Wes Anderson). *King Kong'' was both a critical and box office success—it grossed $550 million worldwide, and is Brody's most successful film to date, financially. He reprised his role voicing Driscoll in the [game adaptation](video)(Peter Jackson's King Kong) of the film. Additionally, Brody played a detective in *[Hollywoodland](Hollywoodland)*. He has also appeared in [Coke](Diet)(Diet Coke) and [Schweppes](Schweppes) commercials, as well as [Amos](Tori)(Tori Amos)' music video for "[Sorta Fairytale](A)(A Sorta Fairytale)".
On January 5, 2006, Brody confirmed speculation that he was interested in playing the role of [Joker](The)(The Joker (The Dark Knight)) in 2008's *[Dark Knight](The)(The Dark Knight)*. and also met with director [Nolan](Christopher)(Christopher Nolan). However, Nolan and [Bros.](Warner)(Warner Bros.) decided instead to cast [Ledger](Heath)(Heath Ledger) in the role. He was also in talks with [Paramount](Paramount Pictures) to play [Spock](Spock) in [J. Abrams](J.)(J. J. Abrams)' *[Trek](Star)(Star Trek (film))*, but it ultimately went to [Quinto](Zachary)(Zachary Quinto). In 2009, he starred in *[Splice](Splice (film))*, a science-fiction film written and directed by [Natali](Vincenzo)(Vincenzo Natali). Originally a Sundance film, *Splice* was adopted by Dark Castle Entertainment and distributed by Warner Bros. In 2010, he played the star role of Royce in *[Predators](Predators (film))* (a sequel to the original *[Predator](Predator (film))*), directed by [Antal](Nimród)(Nimród Antal) and produced by [Rodriguez](Robert)(Robert Rodriguez).
[[File:Adrien Brody 2011 Shankbone.JPG|thumb|upright|Brody at the [Tribeca Film Festival](2011)(2011 Tribeca Film Festival)]]
In 2011, Brody starred in a [Artois](Stella)(Stella Artois) beer ad called "Crying Jean" that premiered right after half-time of [Bowl XLV](Super)(Super Bowl XLV) as part of Stella's "She Is a Thing of Beauty" campaign. He appeared in [Allen](Woody)(Woody Allen)'s 2011 Academy Award-winning comedy, *[in Paris](Midnight)(Midnight in Paris)* as [Dalí](Salvador)(Salvador Dalí). On January 16, 2012, Brody made his debut as a [model](runway)(runway (fashion)) for [Prada](Prada) Men Fall/Winter 2012 show.
In 2014, Brody collaborated again with Wes Anderson in the [Award](Academy)(Academy Awards)-winning *[Grand Budapest Hotel](The)(The Grand Budapest Hotel)*, where he played Dmitri. He received an [Award](Emmy)(Emmy Award) nomination for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Miniseries or in a Movie for portraying the title character in *[Houdini](Houdini (miniseries))* a [History](History (American TV network)) miniseries. The same year Brody was cast as the title role of [Tamahori](Lee)(Lee Tamahori)'s action epic *Emperor,* about a young woman seeking revenge for the execution of her father by [Roman Emperor](Holy)(Holy Roman Emperor) [V](Charles)(Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor), opposite [Cookson](Sophie)(Sophie Cookson). The movie was finished and screened at Cannes in 2017 but its release has been by legal challenges.
In 2015, he starred as [Tiberius](Tiberius) in the [Chinese](China) film *[Blade](Dragon)(Dragon Blade (film))*, which grossed $54.8 million in its opening week in China. He also received the Cinema Vanguard award at the [Diego Film Festival](San)(San Diego Film Festival) the same year.
In 2017, it was announced that he would join the cast of the fourth season of the BBC crime drama *[Blinders](Peaky)(Peaky Blinders (TV series))*. On August 4, 2017, he received the Leopard Club Award at the [Festival](Locarno)(Locarno Festival). The Leopard Club Award pays homage to a major film personality whose work has made a lasting impact on the collective imagination.
In 2019, Brody left Paradigm to sign with CAA [Artists Agency](Creative)(Creative Artists Agency).
In 2021, he received the Vanguard Award at [Savannah Film Festival](SCAD's)(Savannah College of Art and_Design#Savannah Film_Festival).
## Personal life
In 1992, Brody was seriously hurt in a motorcycle accident in which he flew over a car and crashed head-first into a crosswalk. He spent months recuperating. He has broken his nose three times doing stunts, including during the filming of *[of Sam](Summer)(Summer of Sam)*.
Brody began dating Spanish actress and model [Pataky](Elsa)(Elsa Pataky) in 2006. For Pataky's 31st birthday in July 2007, Brody purchased for her a 19th-century farm in Central New York state that was remodeled to look like a castle. Brody and Pataky were featured at their New York home in a 35-page spread for *[HELLO!](Hello! (magazine))* magazine in October 2008. The pair broke up in 2009.
In 2009, Brody signed a petition which called for the release of [Polanski](Roman)(Roman Polanski), during his arrest in Switzerland for his [charge for drugging and raping a 13-year-old girl](1977)(Roman Polanski sexual abuse case).
In 2010, Brody sued makers of the film *[Giallo](Giallo (2009 film))*, alleging they failed to pay his full salary.
In February 2020, it was reported that he was in a relationship with English fashion designer and actress [Chapman](Georgina)(Georgina Chapman).
## Filmography
### Film
### Television
### Video games
### Music videos
## Awards and nominations
## References
## External links
*
*
}}
[births](Category:1973)(Category:1973 births)
[people](Category:Living)(Category:Living people)
[American male actors](Category:20th-century)(Category:20th-century American male actors)
[American male actors](Category:21st-century)(Category:21st-century American male actors)
[male film actors](Category:American)(Category:American male film actors)
[male television actors](Category:American)(Category:American male television actors)
[male video game actors](Category:American)(Category:American male video game actors)
[male voice actors](Category:American)(Category:American male voice actors)
[male child actors](Category:American)(Category:American male child actors)
[people of Hungarian descent](Category:American)(Category:American people of Hungarian descent)
[people of Czech-Jewish descent](Category:American)(Category:American people of Czech-Jewish descent)
[people of Polish-Jewish descent](Category:American)(Category:American people of Polish-Jewish descent)
[narrators](Category:Audiobook)(Category:Audiobook narrators)
[Actor Academy Award winners](Category:Best)(Category:Best Actor Academy Award winners)
[Actor César Award winners](Category:Best)(Category:Best Actor César Award winners)
[actors from New York City](Category:Male)(Category:Male actors from New York City)
[from Woodhaven, Queens](Category:People)(Category:People from Woodhaven, Queens)
[expatriates in England](Category:American)(Category:American expatriates in England)
[Academy of Dramatic Arts alumni](Category:American)(Category:American Academy of Dramatic Arts alumni)
[College, City University of New York alumni](Category:Queens)(Category:Queens College, City University of New York alumni)
[Brook University alumni](Category:Stony)(Category:Stony Brook University alumni)
[H. LaGuardia High School alumni](Category:Fiorello)(Category:Fiorello H. LaGuardia High School alumni)
[actors](Category:Method)(Category:Method actors)
|
Ben Foster _footballer
|
ben_foster__footballer
|
# Ben Foster (footballer)
*Revision ID: 1159731354 | Timestamp: 2023-06-12T05:48:01Z*
---
| birth_date =
| birth_place = [Spa](Leamington)(Leamington Spa), England
| height =
| position = [Goalkeeper](Goalkeeper (association football))
| currentclub = [Wrexham](Wrexham A.F.C.)
| clubnumber = 12
| youthyears1 = –2000 |youthclubs1 = [Club Warwick](Racing)(Racing Club Warwick F.C.)
| years1 = 2000–2001 |clubs1 = [Club Warwick](Racing)(Racing Club Warwick F.C.) |caps1 = |goals1 =
| years2 = 2001–2005 |clubs2 = [City](Stoke)(Stoke City F.C.) |caps2 = 0 |goals2 = 0
| years3 = 2002 |clubs3 = → [City](Bristol)(Bristol City F.C.) (loan) |caps3 = 0 |goals3 = 0
| years4 = 2002–2003 |clubs4 = → [Town](Tiverton)(Tiverton Town F.C.) (loan) |caps4 = 16 |goals4 = 0
| years5 = 2004 |clubs5 = → [Rangers](Stafford)(Stafford Rangers F.C.) (loan) |caps5 = 1 |goals5 = 0
| years6 = 2004 |clubs6 = → [Harriers](Kidderminster)(Kidderminster Harriers F.C.) (loan) |caps6 = 2 |goals6 = 0
| years7 = 2005 |clubs7 = → [Wrexham](Wrexham A.F.C.) (loan) |caps7 = 17 |goals7 = 0
| years8 = 2005–2010 |clubs8 = [United](Manchester)(Manchester United F.C.) |caps8 = 12 |goals8 = 0
| years9 = 2005–2006 |clubs9 = → [Watford](Watford F.C.) (loan) |caps9 = 44 |goals9 = 0
| years10 = 2006–2007 |clubs10 = → [Watford](Watford F.C.) (loan) |caps10 = 29 |goals10 = 0
| years11 = 2010–2012 |clubs11 = [City](Birmingham)(Birmingham City F.C.) |caps11 = 38 |goals11 = 0
| years12 = 2011–2012 |clubs12 = → [Bromwich Albion](West)(West Bromwich Albion F.C.) (loan) |caps12 = 37 |goals12 = 0
| years13 = 2012–2018 |clubs13 = [Bromwich Albion](West)(West Bromwich Albion F.C.) |caps13 = 172 |goals13 = 0
| years14 = 2018–2022 |clubs14 = [Watford](Watford F.C.) |caps14 = 125 |goals14 = 0
| years15 = 2023– |clubs15 = [Wrexham](Wrexham A.F.C.) |caps15 = 8 |goals15 = 0
| nationalyears1 = 2007–2014 |nationalteam1 = [England](England national football team) |nationalcaps1 = 8 |nationalgoals1 = 0
| club-update = 22:10, 29 April 2023 (UTC)
}}
**Ben Anthony Foster** (born 3 April 1983) is an English professional [footballer](Association football) who plays as a [goalkeeper](Goalkeeper (association football)) for club [Wrexham](Wrexham A.F.C.). He also runs a successful [YouTube](YouTube) channel, "The Cycling GK", and The Fozcast podcast.
Foster began his professional career in 2001 with [City](Stoke)(Stoke City F.C.), having joined from [Club Warwick](Racing)(Racing Club Warwick F.C.). However, he never made an appearance for Stoke, and spent time on loan with [City](Bristol)(Bristol City F.C.), [Town](Tiverton)(Tiverton Town F.C.), [Rangers](Stafford)(Stafford Rangers F.C.), [Harriers](Kidderminster)(Kidderminster Harriers F.C.) and Wrexham. He switched permanently to [United](Manchester)(Manchester United F.C.) in July 2005, but again struggled to break into the first team, and spent two successive seasons on loan to Watford from August 2005 until the end of the [season](2006–07)(2006–07 Watford F.C. season).
Having played just 23 times for Manchester United (although he also played in the [Cup](League)(EFL Cup)-winning teams of [2009](2009 Football League Cup final) and [2010](2010 Football League Cup final)), Foster switched to [City](Birmingham)(Birmingham City F.C.) in May 2010. An ever-present in the league for Birmingham, he was also part of the Birmingham team that won the [League Cup](2011)(2011 Football League Cup final); he made a total of 43 appearances in that season. Following Birmingham's relegation to the [Championship](EFL Championship) at the end of the season, he was loaned to West Bromwich Albion, and moved there permanently in June 2012. He returned to Watford in July 2018. He announced his retirement from football in September 2022, but returned to Wrexham in March 2023.
Foster made his international debut for [England](England national football team) in February 2007 against [Spain](Spain national football team). Although he announced his retirement from international football in May 2011, he returned in February 2013, and was selected in England's squad for the [FIFA World Cup](2014)(2014 FIFA World Cup).
## Club career
### Stoke City
Foster was born in [Spa](Leamington)(Leamington Spa), Warwickshire. He started his football career as a youngster at [Club Warwick](Racing)(Racing Club Warwick F.C.) of the [League Division One West](Southern)(Southern Football League). He became their first-choice goalkeeper in December 2000, and was also training as an apprentice chef at [Rouge](Café)(Café Rouge) in [Spa](Leamington)(Leamington Spa).
In April 2001 Foster turned professional with [Division](Second)(Football League Second Division) club [City](Stoke)(Stoke City F.C.) after being spotted by scout [Dobson](Colin)(Colin Dobson). He signed a one-year contract with an option for a further two years; the "five-figure" fee was undisclosed, and RC Warwick would benefit from the inclusion of a sell-on clause. During his time at Stoke, He had [loan](Loan (sports)) spells at [City](Bristol)(Bristol City F.C.), [Town](Tiverton)(Tiverton Town F.C.), [Rangers](Stafford)(Stafford Rangers F.C.), [Harriers](Kidderminster)(Kidderminster Harriers F.C.) and [Wrexham](Wrexham A.F.C.). He sustained a [ligament](cruciate)(Anterior cruciate ligament) injury in June 2003 while playing tennis with his brother, which sidelined him for a period of six months. After his recovery, He was awarded the number 14 shirt and received his maiden call up to the Potters' first team for a [Division](First)(Football League First Division) match versus [Wimbledon](Wimbledon F.C.) on 17 January 2004. He remained on the bench for the 1–0 victory and was an unused substitute on a further six occasions during the remainder of the [season](2003–04)(2003–04 Stoke City F.C. season). He was called into the first team squad for four matches during the [season](2004–05)(2004–05 Stoke City F.C. season).
### Manchester United
While playing for Wrexham on loan from Stoke, Foster was spotted by [United](Manchester)(Manchester United F.C.) manager [Ferguson](Alex)(Alex Ferguson), who was watching Foster's teammate and his son, [Darren](Darren Ferguson), in the [Football League Trophy Final](2005)(2005 Football League Trophy Final). United had been struggling for several years to replace former goalkeeper [Schmeichel](Peter)(Peter Schmeichel), and Ferguson decided to move for the young Foster, making a bid of £1 million for the player. Stoke agreed a deal with United on 15 July 2005, and the transfer was completed on 19 July.
### Watford
[[File:Ben Foster.jpg|thumb|upright|Foster training with [Watford](Watford F.C.) in 2007]]
Not ready for first team action, Foster was sent on a season-long loan to [Watford](Watford F.C.) on 1 August 2005, with the expectation of a second loan the season after. Watford manager [Boothroyd](Aidy)(Aidy Boothroyd) claimed that "he's better than current Manchester United goalkeeper [van der Sar](Edwin)(Edwin van der Sar)" and claimed Foster would be "the best goalkeeper in the world". Manchester United manager Ferguson suggested that Foster would succeed Van der Sar as first-choice keeper at United and eventually replace [Robinson](Paul)(Paul Robinson (footballer, born 1979)) as "England's next goalkeeper". Foster helped Watford reach the [League](Premier)(Premier League) by beating [United](Leeds)(Leeds United F.C.) 3–0 in the [play-off final](Championship)(2006 Football League Championship play-off final).
He re-signed for Watford on a second season-long loan on 10 August 2006 after Manchester United secured the services of [international](Poland)(Poland national football team) goalkeeper [Kuszczak](Tomasz)(Tomasz Kuszczak) on loan from [Bromwich Albion](West)(West Bromwich Albion F.C.). Foster's performances during Watford's Premier League campaign earnt him the club's [of the Season](Player)(Watford F.C. Player of the Season) award. Aidy Boothroyd expressed his desire to keep Foster at Watford for a third season on a number of occasions during the 2006–07 season, but his hopes were dashed in January 2007 when Alex Ferguson announced his intention to bring Foster back to [Trafford](Old)(Old Trafford) at the end of the season.
### Return to Manchester United
In June 2007, it was announced that Foster would undergo surgery on a cruciate ligament injury in his right knee, forcing him to miss the start of the 2007–08 season. He returned to light training towards the end of 2007, setting a February 2008 target for his return.{{cite web |first=Steve |last=Bartram |title=Foster eyes February return |url=http://www.manutd.com/default.sps?pagegid={B4CEE8FA-9A47-47BC-B069-3F7A2F35DB70}&newsid=505469 |publisher=Manchester United F.C. |date=8 November 2007 |access-date=8 November 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071110123243/http://www.manutd.com/default.sps?pagegid=%7BB4CEE8FA-9A47-47BC-B069-3F7A2F35DB70%7D&newsid=505469 |archive-date=10 November 2007 |url-status=dead}} He made a comeback in a reserve match against [Middlesbrough](Middlesbrough F.C.) on 6 March 2008,{{cite web |first=Steve |last=Bartram |title=Foster set for Reds comeback |url=http://www.manutd.com/default.sps?pagegid={B4CEE8FA-9A47-47BC-B069-3F7A2F35DB70}&newsid=538655 |publisher=Manchester United F.C. |date=6 March 2008 |access-date=7 November 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090202130330/http://www.manutd.com/default.sps?pagegid=%7BB4CEE8FA-9A47-47BC-B069-3F7A2F35DB70%7D&newsid=538655 |archive-date=2 February 2009 |url-status=dead}} before making his debut for the Manchester United first team on 15 March 2008. With Edwin van der Sar injured and Tomasz Kuszczak suspended for a red card against [Portsmouth](Portsmouth F.C.) in the FA Cup sixth round the previous Saturday, Alex Ferguson had to shelve plans to ship Foster out on loan again, and the young goalkeeper was started for the away match against [County](Derby)(Derby County F.C.). United won the match 1–0, with Foster making two crucial saves en route to keeping a clean sheet.{{cite web |first=Steve |last=Bartram |title=Report: Derby 0 United 1 |url=http://www.manutd.com/default.sps?pagegid={B4CEE8FA-9A47-47BC-B069-3F7A2F35DB70}&newsid=541058 |publisher=Manchester United F.C. |date=15 March 2008 |access-date=15 March 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170408091616/http://www.manutd.com/default.sps?pagegid=%7BB4CEE8FA-9A47-47BC-B069-3F7A2F35DB70%7D&newsid=541058 |archive-date=8 April 2017 |url-status=dead}} Although he was impressed with Foster's performance in the match against Derby,{{cite web |first=Steve |last=Bartram |title=Foster's bow impresses Boss |url=http://www.manutd.com/default.sps?pagegid={B4CEE8FA-9A47-47BC-B069-3F7A2F35DB70}&newsid=541360 |publisher=Manchester United F.C. |date=17 March 2008 |access-date=7 November 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090201185608/http://www.manutd.com/default.sps?pagegid=%7BB4CEE8FA-9A47-47BC-B069-3F7A2F35DB70%7D&newsid=541360 |archive-date=1 February 2009 |url-status=dead}} Ferguson did not start him for the following match against [Wanderers](Bolton)(Bolton Wanderers F.C.), opting for the returning Kuszczak.
After being selected as a substitute for Manchester United's opening match of the [Champions League](2008–09)(2008–09 UEFA Champions League) against [Villarreal](Villarreal CF) on 17 September 2008, Foster then played for the reserves against [Rovers](Blackburn)(Blackburn Rovers F.C.) the following day. During the match, he fell awkwardly and suffered a twisted ankle, putting him out of contention for six to eight weeks. Fortunately for Foster, his recovery time was quicker than was first estimated and he returned to reserve team action on 14 October 2008, playing the full 90 minutes in a 2–1 win over [Athletic reserves](Oldham)(Oldham Athletic A.F.C.).{{cite web |first=Ben |last=Hibbs |title=Foster given Reserves return |url=http://www.manutd.com/default.sps?pagegid={B4CEE8FA-9A47-47BC-B069-3F7A2F35DB70}&newsid=6620426 |publisher=Manchester United F.C. |date=14 October 2008 |access-date=7 November 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081018163001/http://www.manutd.com/default.sps?pagegid=%7BB4CEE8FA%2D9A47%2D47BC%2DB069%2D3F7A2F35DB70%7D&newsid=6620426 |archive-date=18 October 2008 |url-status=dead}} Foster then made his first [League](Champions)(UEFA Champions League) appearance – his second for the Manchester United first team – on 5 November 2008, in a 1–1 away draw to [Celtic](Celtic F.C.).
Foster was originally selected in Manchester United's squad for the [FIFA Club World Cup](2008)(2008 FIFA Club World Cup), but after suffering a broken finger in training the day before the squad was due to depart for Japan, he was replaced by [Amos](Ben)(Ben Amos).{{cite web |first=Steve |last=Bartram |title=Gamba book United date |url=http://www.manutd.com/default.sps?pagegid={F9E570E6-407E-44BC-800F-4A3110258114}&newsid=6624039 |publisher=Manchester United F.C. |date=14 December 2008 |access-date=14 December 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171102180521/http://www.manutd.com/default.sps?pagegid=%7BF9E570E6-407E-44BC-800F-4A3110258114%7D&newsid=6624039 |archive-date=2 November 2017 |url-status=dead}} On 1 March 2009, Alex Ferguson named Foster in goal for the [League Cup final](2009)(2009 Football League Cup final) at Wembley Stadium. After keeping a clean sheet in normal time, Foster then made a save from Tottenham's [O'Hara](Jamie)(Jamie O'Hara (footballer)) in the consequent penalty shoot-out. This, combined with a miss from [Bentley](David)(David Bentley), gave United a 4–1 win in the shootout and the 2009 League Cup title. After the match, Foster was given the [Hardaker Trophy](Alan)(Alan Hardaker Trophy) for his man of the match performance.
It was revealed after the match that Foster had used an [iPod](iPod) to help with his preparations in the penalty shootout, prompting discussion about the use of technology in the match.
Foster was rewarded for his performance by being made United's second-choice goalkeeper for the remainder of the season, starting three more matches when Alex Ferguson chose to rest Edwin van der Sar ahead of important matches. However, he had been attempting to play with a ruptured ligament in his right thumb, which became aggravated, necessitating surgery which ruled him out of United's title run-in, the [League final](Champions)(2009 UEFA Champions League final) against [Barcelona](FC Barcelona) and [England](England national football team)'s [World Cup qualifiers](2010)(2010 FIFA World Cup qualification – UEFA Group 6) in June.{{cite web |first=Ben |last=Hibbs |title=Injury blow for Foster |url=http://www.manutd.com/default.sps?pagegid={F9E570E6-407E-44BC-800F-4A3110258114}&newsid=6632752 |publisher=Manchester United F.C. |date=18 May 2009 |access-date=18 May 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090521113726/http://www.manutd.com/default.sps?pagegid=%7BF9E570E6-407E-44BC-800F-4A3110258114%7D&newsid=6632752 |archive-date=21 May 2009 |url-status=dead}} Following speculation that United were in the market for a new goalkeeper to replace the soon-to-retire Edwin van der Sar, Foster signed a new four-year contract with the club. Alex Ferguson commented that Manchester United "genuinely see him [Foster] as a successor to Edwin van der Sar".{{cite web |first=Ben |last=Hibbs |title=Foster pens new Reds deal |url=http://www.manutd.com/default.sps?pagegid={F9E570E6-407E-44BC-800F-4A3110258114}&newsid=6635838 |publisher=Manchester United F.C. |date=7 July 2009 |access-date=7 July 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090904001322/http://www.manutd.com/default.sps?pagegid=%7BF9E570E6-407E-44BC-800F-4A3110258114%7D&newsid=6635838 |archive-date=4 September 2009 |url-status=dead}}
With Van der Sar injured for the first two months of the 2009–10 season, Foster was given the opportunity to nail down the number one shirt in the [FA Community Shield](2009)(2009 FA Community Shield) defeat to [Chelsea](Chelsea F.C.), where his mistakes led to two Chelsea goals and made no saves in the penalty shootout. Foster continued to play in the League, starting with the opening day victory over [City](Birmingham)(Birmingham City F.C.). In wins against [Arsenal](Arsenal F.C.) and [City](Manchester)(Manchester City F.C.), Foster received heavy criticism for errors that led to opposition goals. Manager Alex Ferguson stated that he believes in Foster's abilities and potential;{{cite web |first1=Ben |last1=Hibbs |first2=Gemma |last2=Thompson |title=Foster to start at Stoke |url=http://www.manutd.com/default.sps?pagegid={F9E570E6-407E-44BC-800F-4A3110258114}&newsid=6640319 |publisher=Manchester United F.C. |date=25 September 2009 |access-date=13 March 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100124222029/http://www.manutd.com/default.sps?pagegid=%7BF9E570E6-407E-44BC-800F-4A3110258114%7D&newsid=6640319 |archive-date=24 January 2010 |url-status=dead}} however, eight days later, Foster was again criticised for a mistake which led to a Sunderland goal in a 2–2 draw, and left out of the England squad the next day with bruised ribs. However, following [Green](Robert)(Robert Green)'s red card in the match against [Ukraine](Ukraine national football team) and consequent suspension, Foster was given the all-clear by doctors and recalled to the England squad for the match against [Belarus](Belarus national football team) on 14 October. Foster played only twice more in 2009 for Manchester United after the Sunderland match: a League Cup win against Championship team [Barnsley](Barnsley F.C.), and a Champions League tie versus [Beşiktaş](Beşiktaş J.K.), with Manchester United's progress from the group already secured. He was displaced from the first team in Van der Sar's absence by Tomasz Kuszczak, and on occasion, reserve goalkeeper Ben Amos took Foster's place on the substitutes bench. Foster started his first match for three months against West Ham in February 2010, keeping a clean sheet in a 3–0 victory.
### Birmingham City
[[File:Ben Foster cropped.jpg|thumb|upright|Foster playing for [City](Birmingham)(Birmingham City F.C.) in 2010]]
After accepting that in order to play regularly he needed to leave Manchester, whether on loan or permanently, Foster signed a three-year contract with Premier League club Birmingham City on 19 May 2010. The fee was not disclosed, though media speculation suggested an initial fee of £4 million, potentially rising to £6 million with add-ons. The club were seeking a replacement for Foster's fellow England international goalkeeper [Hart](Joe)(Joe Hart), who had returned to Manchester City after a successful 2009–10 season on loan at Birmingham. Foster made his Birmingham debut on the opening day of the 2010–11 season in a 2–2 draw away to [Sunderland](Sunderland A.F.C.). On his home debut the following week against Blackburn Rovers, he saved a penalty from [Gamst Pedersen](Morten)(Morten Gamst Pedersen) as Birmingham won the match 2–1.
Criticised for an error in England's 2–1 defeat to [France](France national football team), Foster produced a [man-of-the-match](man-of-the-match) performance on his return to League duty on 20 November as Birmingham beat reigning champions Chelsea 1–0. Though Chelsea had 32 shots at goal, Foster made a series of excellent saves, including one described by [Sport](BBC)(BBC Sport) as "staggering" to deny [Drogba](Didier)(Didier Drogba)'s "fierce close-range downward header". He made a "horrendous blunder" in the televised League Cup semi-final, allowing a soft shot from [Cole](Carlton)(Carlton Cole) to slip underneath him, which gave [Ham United](West)(West Ham United F.C.) a 2–1 lead after the first leg. Birmingham still reached [final](the)(2011 Football League Cup final), and Foster's display earned him the Alan Hardaker Trophy for the second time in three years, as his team defeated Arsenal 2–1 to claim their first major trophy in 48 years. They were relegated to the Championship on the final day of the season. Because of his "series of inspirational performances", Foster was named Birmingham's Player of the Season and Players' Player of the Season for [2010–11](2010–11 Birmingham City F.C. season).
### West Bromwich Albion
[[File:Foster wba.jpg|thumb|left|150px|Foster at his presentation as a [Bromwich Albion](West)(West Bromwich Albion F.C.) player in 2011]]
Foster joined Premier League club West Bromwich Albion on 29 July 2011, changing places with Albion goalkeeper [Myhill](Boaz)(Boaz Myhill), both players signing a loan deal for the whole of the 2011–12 season. Foster played in 37 of their 38 league matches, only missing the final match of the season with a minor groin strain. He kept 10 league clean sheets, equalling West Brom's Premier League clean sheets record, as the club finished in 10th place, their highest league finish in 30 years. At the end of the season, Foster was given the supporters' player of the year and the players' player of the year awards.
On 29 June 2012, Foster signed permanently with West Brom for an undisclosed fee, widely reported to be £4 million. He signed a three-year contract with an option for a further two years in the club's favour. Foster continued to perform impressively in his second season with the club, keeping 7 clean sheets in 30 league matches, and helping to guide West Brom to their record high Premier League position of 8th for the [season](2012–13)(2012–13 Premier League). A highlight of that season was saving a [Gerrard](Steven)(Steven Gerrard) penalty against [Liverpool](Liverpool F.C.) at [Anfield](Anfield). The score was 0–0 at the time and West Brom went on to win 2–0. Despite missing 4 months of the following season through injury, Foster went on to win both fans player, and player's player of the year awards for the second time in three years after a series of impressive performances throughout the [season](2013–14)(2013–14 West Bromwich Albion F.C. season). Foster's impressive form for the club saw him called up to the 2014 England World Cup squad, becoming the first West Bromwich Albion player to represent England in a world cup squad since [Astle](Jeff)(Jeff Astle) in 1970.
After an impressive 2016–17 season, Foster was nominated for the Football Writers' Association Footballer of the Year award. He was also the West Brom supporters' club player of the season.
### Return to Watford
After West Brom's relegation to the Championship, Foster re-signed for Premier League club Watford on 5 July 2018 on a two-year contract, with the option of an additional year, for an undisclosed fee. He immediately overtook Brazilian teammate [Gomes](Heurelho)(Heurelho Gomes) to the Watford number one shirt and remained Watford's first-choice goalkeeper after their relegation from the Premier League in 2020. Foster signed a further two year contract with Watford in June 2020. On 16 May 2022, Foster revealed he would be leaving the club at the end of his contract in June.
### Return to Wrexham
On 15 September 2022, Foster announced his retirement from football at the age of 39 after turning down a contract offer from [United](Newcastle)(Newcastle United F.C.). On 23 March 2023, he came out of retirement to sign a short-term contract with [League](National)(National League (division)) club Wrexham following an injury to [Lainton](Rob)(Rob Lainton). He made his debut two days later in a 3–0 home win over [City](York)(York City F.C.). On 10 April, he saved a penalty in stoppage time to secure a 3–2 win over [County](Notts)(Notts County F.C.), which helped his club to go three points clear of Notts County in the National League title race. On 22 April, Wrexham secured promotion to [League Two](EFL)(EFL League Two) and were confirmed as champions of the [League](National)(National League (division)) after a 3-1 win over Boreham Wood.
On 9 June 2023, it was announced that Foster had signed a new one-year contract with Wrexham. Ben Foster signs new one-year contract with Wrexham AFC |url=https://www.wrexhamafc.co.uk/news/2023/june/signed--ben-foster-signs-new-one-year-contract-with-wrexham-afc/ |access-date=2023-06-11 |website=www.wrexhamafc.co.uk |language=en-gb}}
## International career
On 26 May 2006, Foster was named on the stand-by list for England's [World Cup](2006)(2006 FIFA World Cup) squad, because of Robert Green's injury in a "B" international against Belarus. After Foster re-signed on loan for Watford, he was called up to [McClaren](Steve)(Steve McClaren)'s first England squad as one of three goalkeepers for the friendly against [Greece](Greece national football team). Since his first call-up but prior to his injury, Foster was named in every England squad, and made his England debut in the 1–0 defeat against [Spain](Spain national football team) on 7 February 2007.
After not playing for England for two years and never being called to the first team, he was finally selected by [Capello](Fabio)(Fabio Capello) after his performance during the League Cup Final and earned his second cap as a second-half substitute in a 4–0 victory over [Slovakia](Slovakia national football team). Inconsistent performances in Manchester United's first fixtures of the [season](2009–10)(2009–10 Manchester United F.C. season), as well as bruised ribs, meant that Foster was left out of Capello's initial squad for their final two World Cup qualifiers. However, after Robert Green was sent off in the match against [Ukraine](Ukraine national football team) on 10 October, Foster was recalled in his place for the following match against [Belarus](Belarus national football team). It had been expected that [James](David)(David James (footballer, born 1970)) would take Green's place in the starting line-up, but James was injured in the warm-up and Foster was given his third England cap instead. England won the match 3–0, with Foster making a one-handed save from [Amelyanchuk](Syarhey)(Syarhey Amelyanchuk) in the 63rd minute. Foster won his fourth cap against [Brazil](Brazil national football team), where he played the whole match in a 1–0 loss on 14 November 2009, the friendly match was played in Qatar, with forward [Nilmar](Nilmar) scoring the only goal of the match from a header in the 47th minute. He was overlooked for England's [World Cup](2010)(2010 FIFA World Cup) squad, Joe Hart being preferred for the third goalkeeping spot.
Foster stated in a 2020 interview that he found Capello difficult to work with, not only as a manager but also as a person. Foster had been training with England for a friendly match when his pregnant wife went into labour. Capello initially refused to allow Foster to leave for his child's birth, before reluctantly allowing it only after Foster pleaded with him. Three hours after his child's birth, Capello called Foster and urged him to return to the training camp immediately, promising Foster that he would play the second half of the upcoming match. Ultimately, Foster was not brought on in the second half and played no role in the match; Capello offered no acknowledgement or explanation to Foster. Shortly after, in May 2011, Foster announced that he would be making himself unavailable for international selection for an indefinite period. He intended to "prolong [his] club career for as long as possible" by allowing his body "a proper rest period between games" to reduce "niggling" injuries. It was not until February 2013 - after Capello had been succeeded by [Hodgson](Roy)(Roy Hodgson) - that he made himself available for selection again. In the next international break, he was called up to the England squad for World Cup qualifiers against San Marino and Montenegro. On 29 May 2013 Foster represented England in a friendly fixture against the [of Ireland](Republic)(Republic of Ireland national football team).
Foster was selected in the final 23 for England's [World Cup](2014)(2014 FIFA World Cup) squad, and played in the 2–2 draw with [Ecuador](Ecuador national football team) in preparation for the tournament. With England unable to advance to the last 16, he played the whole 90 minutes of the last group match against [Rica](Costa)(Costa Rica national football team), and kept a [sheet](clean)(clean sheet) in the 0–0 draw in [Horizonte](Belo)(Belo Horizonte).
## YouTube
Foster has a verified YouTube channel called "Ben Foster - The Cycling GK", which he started in 2020 during the UK's COVID-19 lockdown. He posts cycling videos and matchday vlogs, including [GoPro](GoPro) footage of the games in the back of his goal. , the channel has amassed over 1.43 million subscribers and over 138 million views. He also has a podcast called "Fozcast - The Ben Foster Podcast", which he hosts with Tom Ochoa.
## Personal life
Foster attended [Leamington School](North)(North Leamington School) in [Spa](Leamington)(Leamington Spa), [Warwickshire](Warwickshire).
Foster lives with his wife and two children in a house he helped design on a 30-acre farm in [Henley-in-Arden](Henley-in-Arden), [Warwickshire](Warwickshire). He is an enthusiastic cyclist.
In March 2022, Foster was fined £2,250 and banned from driving for six months after he was caught driving at on the [M40](M40 motorway), an offence he committed in April 2021.
## Career statistics
### Club
### International
## Honours
**Wrexham**
*[League Trophy](Football)(Football League Trophy): [2004–05](2004–05 Football League Trophy)
*[League](National)(National League (division)): [2022–23](2022–23 National League#National League)
**Watford**
*[League Championship play-offs](Football)(Football League Championship play-offs): [2006](2006 Football League play-offs#Championship)
*[Cup](FA)(FA Cup) runner-up: [2018–19](2018–19 FA Cup)
**Manchester United**
*[League Cup](Football)(Football League Cup): [2008–09](2008–09 Football League Cup), [2009–10](2009–10 Football League Cup)
**Birmingham City**
*Football League Cup: [2010–11](2010–11 Football League Cup)
**Individual**
*[Player of the Season](Watford)(Watford F.C. Player of the Season): [2006–07](2006–07 Watford F.C. season)
*[Hardaker Trophy](Alan)(Alan Hardaker Trophy): [2009](2009 Football League Cup final), [2011](2011 Football League Cup final)
*[City](Birmingham)(Birmingham City F.C.) Player of the Season: [2010–11](2010–11 Birmingham City F.C. season)
*Birmingham City Players' Player of the Season: 2010–11
*[Bromwich Albion](West)(West Bromwich Albion F.C.) Supporters' Player of the Season: [2011–12](2011–12 West Bromwich Albion F.C. season), [2013–14](2013–14 West Bromwich Albion F.C. season), [2016–17](2016–17 West Bromwich Albion F.C. season), [2017–18](2017–18 West Bromwich Albion F.C. season)
*West Bromwich Albion Players' Player of the Season: 2011–12, 2013–14
*London Football Awards Goalkeeper of the Year: 2019
## References
## External links
*[Profile](https://www.wrexhamafc.co.uk/teams/first-team/goalkeeper/ben-foster/) at the Wrexham A.F.C. website
}}
[births](Category:1983)(Category:1983 births)
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[association football goalkeepers](Category:Men's)(Category:Men's association football goalkeepers)
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[F.C. players](Category:Watford)(Category:Watford F.C. players)
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Todd Rundgren
|
todd_rundgren
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# Todd Rundgren
*Revision ID: 1159308968 | Timestamp: 2023-06-09T14:51:37Z*
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**Todd Harry Rundgren** (born June 22, 1948) is an American musician, singer, songwriter, and record producer who has performed a diverse range of styles as a solo artist and as a member of the band [Utopia](Utopia (band)). He is known for his sophisticated and often unorthodox music, his occasionally lavish stage shows, and his later experiments with [art](interactive)(interactive art). He also produced music videos and was an early adopter and promoter of various computer technologies, such as using the Internet as a means of [distribution](music)(digital distribution) in the late 1990s.
A native of Philadelphia, Rundgren began his professional career in the mid-1960s, forming the [psychedelic](psychedelic music) band [Nazz](Nazz) in 1967. Two years later, he left Nazz to pursue a solo career and immediately scored his first US [40](top)(top 40) hit with "[Gotta Get You a Woman](We)(We Gotta Get You a Woman)" (1970). His best-known songs include "[It's Me](Hello)(Hello It's Me)" and "[Saw the Light](I)(I Saw the Light (Todd Rundgren song))" from *[Something/Anything?](Something/Anything?)* (1972), which get frequent air time on [rock](classic)(classic rock) radio stations, the 1978 "[We Still Be Friends](Can)(Can We Still Be Friends)", and the 1983 single "[the Drum All Day](Bang)(Bang the Drum All Day)", which is featured in many sports arenas, commercials, and movie trailers. Although lesser known, "[I Just Tell You](Couldn't)(Couldn't I Just Tell You)" (1972) was influential to many artists in the [pop](power)(power pop) genre. His 1973 album *[Wizard, a True Star](A)(A Wizard, a True Star)* remains an influence on later generations of [music](bedroom)(bedroom music)ians.
Rundgren is considered a pioneer in the fields of [music](electronic)(electronic music), [rock](progressive)(progressive rock), music videos, computer software, and Internet music delivery. He organized the first [television](interactive)(interactive television) concert in 1978, designed the first color [tablet](graphics)(graphics tablet) in 1980, and created the first interactive album, *[World Order](No)(No World Order)*, in 1994. Additionally, he was one of the first acts to be prominent as both an artist and producer. His notable production credits include [Badfinger](Badfinger)'s *[Up](Straight)(Straight Up (Badfinger album))* (1971), [Funk Railroad](Grand)(Grand Funk Railroad)'s ''[an American Band](We're)(We're an American Band)'' (1973), the [York Dolls](New)(New York Dolls)' *[York Dolls](New)(New York Dolls (album))* (1973), [Loaf](Meat)(Meat Loaf)'s *[Out of Hell](Bat)(Bat Out of Hell)* (1977), and [XTC](XTC)'s *[Skylarking](Skylarking)* (1986). He was inducted into the [and Roll Hall of Fame](Rock)(Rock and Roll Hall of Fame) in 2021.
## Early influences and Nazz
[[File:From-upper-darby-1.jpg|thumb|upright=1|Rundgren's hometown, [Darby, Pennsylvania](Upper)(Upper Darby Township, Delaware County, Pennsylvania), in 2007]]
Todd Harry Rundgren was born in [Philadelphia](Philadelphia) on June 22, 1948, the son of Ruth (née Fleck; April 29, 1922 – April 6, 2016) and Harry W. Rundgren (1917–1996). His father was of Swedish descent and his mother was of Austrian and German descent. He grew up in the bordering town of [Darby Township, Pennsylvania](Upper)(Upper Darby Township, Delaware County, Pennsylvania) and taught himself how to play guitar with little help. As a child, Rundgren was fascinated by his parents' small record collection, which consisted of [tunes](show)(show tunes) and [symphonic](symphonic) pieces, and especially by the operettas of [and Sullivan](Gilbert)(Gilbert and Sullivan). Later, he grew infatuated with the music of [Beatles](the)(the Beatles), [Rolling Stones](the)(the Rolling Stones), [Ventures](the)(the Ventures), and [Yardbirds](the)(the Yardbirds), as well as the [soul](Philadelphia)(Philadelphia soul) of [& Huff](Gamble)(Gamble & Huff), [Delfonics](the)(the Delfonics), and [O'Jays](the)(the O'Jays). At the age of 17, he formed his first band, Money, with then-best friend and roommate Randy Reed and Reed's younger brother.
After graduating from [Darby High School](Upper)(Upper Darby High School) in 1966, Rundgren moved to Philadelphia and began his career in Woody's Truck Stop, a blues rock group in the style of [Butterfield Blues Band](Paul)(Paul Butterfield). Rundgren stayed with the band for eight months, and in the process, they became the most popular group in Philadelphia. He and bassist [Van Osten](Carson)(Carson Van Osten) left before they released the eponymous first album to form the rock band [Nazz](Nazz) in 1967. By then, Rundgren had lost interest in the blues and wanted to pursue a recording career with original songs in the style of newer records by the Beatles and [Who](the)(the Who). As a member of the Nazz, he learned his craft as a songwriter and vocal arranger, and was determined to equal the artistry of the Beatles.
In 1968, after recording four demo discs, the Nazz were signed by [Records](Atlantic)(Atlantic Records) subsidiary Screen Gems Columbia (SGC). They were flown to Los Angeles to produce their first album at ID Sound studio. Rundgren had no prior production experience and remembered that the producer, [Traut](Bill)(Bill Traut), "just whipped through the mixes in a day or two ... So I got it into my head, 'Well, he's gone now, so why don't we just mix it again, more like the way we want it?' Our engineer didn't mind if we went and just started diddling around on the board ... It was pretty much trial and error." He took an experimental approach to the recordings, employing techniques such as [varispeed](varispeed) and [flanging](flanging), and despite having no formal training, scored music charts for string and horn arrangements. Engineer [Lowe](James)(James Lowe (musician)), who Rundgren recruited for his involvement with arranger [Dyke Parks](Van)(Van Dyke Parks), believed that Rundgren had become the de facto leader of Nazz, and that a producer's credit was wrongfully withheld from him.
Nazz gained minor recognition with their debut single, July 1968's "Open My Eyes" backed with "[It's Me](Hello)(Hello It's Me)", both songs penned by Rundgren. They subsequently released three albums: *[Nazz](Nazz (album))* (October 1968), *[Nazz](Nazz)(Nazz Nazz)* (April 1969), and *[III](Nazz)(Nazz III)* (1971).Sanctuary Records, liner notes for reissues of Nazz and Nazz Nazz/Nazz 3: The Fungo Bat Sessions (2006) In March 1968, New York singer-songwriter [Nyro](Laura)(Laura Nyro) released her second album, *[and the Thirteenth Confession](Eli)(Eli and the Thirteenth Confession)*. When Rundgren heard the record, he was struck by "all the [seventh chord](major)(major seventh chord)s and variations on [augmented](augmented chord) and [chord](suspended)(suspended chord)s", and it had an immediate impact on his songwriting, especially as he began to compose more on piano. He elaborated:
}}
The rest of the band struggled to accommodate his changing tastes, and tensions between all the band members had begun to build up in the interval between recording their first and second albums as a result of their shared living quarters. Tensions further increased during the recording of Nazz's second album, as the other members bridled at the formerly unassuming Rundgren asserting complete control of the sessions as the producer. By the time *Nazz Nazz* was released, Rundgren and Van Osten had both left the Nazz, so the track selection was done without any input from them. *Nazz III*, which included leftover tracks from the *Nazz Nazz* sessions, was likewise released without Rundgren's involvement.
## Production beginnings
[[File:The Band (1969).png|thumb|upright=1|One of Rundgren's first gigs as a producer was engineering and mixing for [Band](the)(the Band) (pictured in 1969)]]
After departing Nazz, the 21-year-old Rundgren briefly considered working as a computer programmer, and then decided that his calling was as a producer. He moved to New York in the summer of 1969 and involved himself with the clubs of [Village](Greenwich)(Greenwich Village), particularly [Paul's Scene](Steve)(Steve Paul's Scene), and met a number of Manhattan musicians and fashion designers. Michael Friedman, formerly the assistant of Nazz manager John Kurland, offered Rundgren a job as staff engineer and producer under [Grossman](Albert)(Albert Grossman), which Rundgren accepted. Grossman, known for his management of [rock](folk)(folk rock) acts, had just founded [Records](Ampex)(Ampex Records), a joint business venture with the tape company of the same name, and built [Studios](Bearsville)(Bearsville Studios), near Woodstock. Bearsville soon became its own record imprint. Grossman promised to Rundgren that he would become the "highest-paid producer in the world", which later came true.
Rundgren said he was initially relegated to "various old folk artists that they had who needed an upgrade: people like [& Sylvia](Ian)(Ian & Sylvia), [Cotton](James)(James Cotton), and other artists in Albert's stable." Shortly after producing the [1969 album](eponymous)(Great Speckled Bird (album)) by [Speckled Bird](Great)(Great Speckled Bird (band)), he was promoted as Bearsville's house engineer. Accompanied by [Robertson](Robbie)(Robbie Robertson) and [Helm](Levon)(Levon Helm) of [Band](the)(the Band), he traveled to Canada to record [Winchester](Jesse)(Jesse Winchester)'s eponymous 1970 debut album. Immediately afterward, he said, "the Band asked me to engineer their *[Fright](Stage)(Stage Fright (album))* sessions. I think *Jesse Winchester* was a kind of run-through for that, because I was pretty quick to get the sounds and they liked that." Released in August 1970, *Stage Fright* reached number 5 on the *Billboard* 200, the highest chart showing the Band had to that point. Rundgren was dubbed Bearsville's "boy wonder".
His work for the Band was followed by a second album for Winchester (which was then shelved for two years) and the album *Taking Care of Business* by the [Cotton Blues Band](James)(James Cotton Blues Band) (1970). This project resulted in Rundgren meeting Cotton's keyboard player ["Moogy" Klingman](Mark)(Mark Klingman), who in turn introduced Rundgren to keyboard player [Schuckett](Ralph)(Ralph Schuckett), both of whom worked extensively with Rundgren over the next few years. Rundgren was to produce [Joplin](Janis)(Janis Joplin)'s third and ultimately final album, *[Pearl](Pearl (Janis Joplin album))* (1971), but plans fell through, as the two artists could not get along with each other.
## Solo career
### 1970–1984: Bearsville era
#### *Runt* and *Ballad of Todd Rundgren*
[[Todd Rundgren (5732526157).jpg|thumb|upright=1|Rundgren in 1978](File:1978)]
Following a period where he thought he would never return to being a performing artist, Rundgren approached Grossman with the idea of what would become his debut solo record, *[Runt](Runt (album))*. Although his general attitude for any project was to "make the record [I] wanted to make and then hope the label can find a way to promote it", Rundgren ensured that any loss to Grossman would be minimal: "I didn't get an actual advance for *Runt*. I just asked for a recording budget to pay the studio costs. ... I had no idea how much money I even had in the bank. If I needed cash, I would show up at the accountants and they would just give me hundreds or thousands of dollars."
Released in mid-1970, *Runt* was not originally credited to Rundgren due to his anxieties about starting a full-fledged solo career, and instead bore the moniker "Runt". The album featured a bright sound and songs inspired by Laura Nyro. It was recorded with the 17-year-old bassist [Fox Sales](Tony)(Tony Fox Sales) and his 14-year-old brother [Sales](Hunt)(Hunt Sales) on drums. *Nazz* engineer James Lowe returned for the sessions and recalled that Rundgren seemed "more able to really lead a group. If you go back and listen to it, it's very sophisticated material, especially for a guy so young." Lead single "[Gotta Get You a Woman](We)(We Gotta Get You a Woman)" reached number 20 on the *Billboard* charts. As he prepared a follow-up LP, he produced *[Halfnelson](Halfnelson (album))*, the debut album by the band that would become [Sparks](Sparks (band)). Members [Ron](Ron Mael) and [Mael](Russell)(Russell Mael) later credited Rundgren with launching Sparks' career.
Rundgren's industry reputation grew substantially as a result of his success with *Runt*, and for the first time in his life, he began using recreational drugs. Initially this was limited to [marijuana](marijuana (drug)). He said that the drug gave him "a whole different sensibility about time and space and order" that influenced the writing for his second album, *[The Ballad of Todd Rundgren](Runt.)(Runt. The Ballad of Todd Rundgren)*. The material was mostly piano ballads and still largely based on Nyro's template, but a more conscious effort by Rundgren was made to refine his music and choice of subject matter, and to distinguish himself from his influences. Released June 1971, *The Ballad of Todd Rundgren* bore two singles, "Be Nice to Me" and "A Long Time, a Long Way To Go", neither of which repeated the success of "We Gotta Get You a Woman". While initial reviews of *Ballad* were mixed, it came to be regarded as one of the greatest singer-songwriter albums of the era.
#### *Something/Anything?*
In late 1971, Rundgren was recruited to finish [Badfinger](Badfinger)'s third album *[Up](Straight)(Straight Up (Badfinger album))*, a project [Harrison](George)(George Harrison) had abandoned to organize the [for Bangladesh](Concert)(Concert for Bangladesh), in London. The album was a hit and its two singles were similarly successful, although Rundgren was not credited for the first ("[After Day](Day)(Day After Day (Badfinger song))") and thus did not receive production royalties for that single. Rundgren said that the song "didn't sound much like what [had](Harrison) done" and speculated that the credit to Harrison "may or may not have been something purposeful, just some by-product of a general Beatle hubris".}} The *Straight Up* sessions lasted two weeks in September, after which Rundgren returned to Los Angeles to work on his third solo album, originally planned as a single LP.
As with *Ballad*, much of the newer material was written or conceived under the influence of marijuana. However, by this time, he had also begun experimenting with [Ritalin](Ritalin). He recalled, "my songwriting process had become almost too second-nature. I was writing songs formulaically, almost without thinking, knocking [out](them), reflexively, in about 20 minutes." The use of Ritalin also helped him focus on the process as he worked up to 12 hours a day to beat the three-week deadline. To keep up the pace, he installed an eight-track recorder, mixer, and synthesizers into his living room so that he could continue recording after leaving the studio. For the first time in his career, Rundgren recorded every part by himself, including bass, drums, and vocals. About "an album and a half" was completed this way. He then decided to stretch the project into a double LP and quickly recorded the last few tracks with musicians, live in the studio.
*[Something/Anything?](Something/Anything?)*, the first album officially issued under the name "Todd Rundgren", was released in February 1972, shortly after Bearsville had signed a long-term distribution deal with [Bros. Records](Warner)(Warner Bros. Records). The album included many songs that would become his best-known. Included among straightforward pop songs are extended [jams](jam (music)) and studio banter, such as the spoken-word track "Intro", in which he teaches the listener about [flaws](recording)(lo-fi music) for an [hunt](egg)(egg hunt)-type game he calls "Sounds of the Studio". Magazine ads depicted a smiling Rundgren daring the reader to "ignore me". The album peaked at number 29 on the *Billboard* 200 and was certified [gold](Music recording sales certification) in three years. Lead single "[Saw the Light](I)(I Saw the Light (Todd Rundgren song))" peaked at number 16 on the *Billboard* Hot 100. "Hello It's Me", which followed late in 1973, reached number 5.
According to music critic [Larkin](Colin)(Colin Larkin (writer)), *Something/Anything?* has since been "rightly regarded as one of the landmark releases of the early 70s". "Couldn't I Just Tell You" was influential to artists in the [pop](power)(power pop) genre. Music journalist [Lester](Paul)(Paul Lester) called the recording a "masterclass in [compression](compression (audio))" and said that Rundgren "staked his claim to powerpop immortality [and] set the whole ball rolling". Musician [Miller](Scott)(Scott Miller (pop musician))'s 2010 book *[What Happened?](Music:)(Music: What Happened?)* calls the song "likely the greatest power pop recording ever made," with lyrics "somehow both desperate and lighthearted at the same time," and a guitar solo having "truly amazing dexterity and inflection". In 2003, *Something/Anything?* was ranked number 173 on *[Stone](Rolling)(Rolling Stone)* magazine's list of the [Greatest Albums of All Time"]("500)(Rolling Stone's 500 Greatest Albums of All Time).
#### *A Wizard, a True Star*, *Todd*, and Utopia
[[File:Todd Rundgren 1978 (cropped).jpg|thumb|upright=1|Rundgren performing with [Utopia](Utopia (band)) in 1978]]
[[File:New York Dolls - TopPop 1973 04.png|thumb|upright=1|[York Dolls](New)(New York Dolls), whose [debut album](1973)(The New York Dolls (album)) was produced by Rundgren]]
Subsequent albums, beginning with *[Wizard, a True Star](A)(A Wizard, a True Star)* and the spin-off group [Utopia](Utopia (band)), saw a dramatic shift away from straightforward three-minute pop. After the success of *Something/Anything?*, Rundgren felt uncomfortable that he was being increasingly tagged as "the male [King](Carole)(Carole King)". "With all due respect to Carole King," he said, "It wasn't what I was hoping to create as a musical legacy for myself." Now relocated back to New York and experimenting with a host of [drug](psychedelic)(psychedelic drug)s, he began to think that the writing on *Something/Anything?* was largely formulaic and borne from laziness, and sought to create a "more eclectic and more experimental" follow-up album. }} His music tastes also started to lean toward the [rock](progressive)(progressive rock) of [Zappa](Frank)(Frank Zappa), [Yes](Yes (band)), and the [Orchestra](Mahavishnu)(Mahavishnu Orchestra). In 2017, while giving a commencement speech at the [College of Music](Berklee)(Berklee College of Music), he described the record as:
The sound and structure of *Wizard* was heavily informed by Rundgren's hallucinogenic experiences. It was envisioned as a hallucinogenic-inspired "flight plan" with all the tracks seguing seamlessly into each other, starting with a "chaotic" mood and ending with a medley of his favorite soul songs. He said: "With drugs I could suddenly abstract my thought processes in a certain way, and I wanted to see if I could put them on a record. A lot of people recognized it as the dynamics of a psychedelic trip—it was almost like painting with your head." Rundgren and Moogy Klingman established a professional recording studio, Secret Sound, to accommodate the *Wizard* sessions. The studio was designed to Rundgren's specifications and was created so that he could freely indulge in sound experimentation without having to worry about hourly studio costs, although he maintained that the album still felt "kind of rushed through because the studio wasn't finished". Some of the other influences on the album included musical theater, [jazz](jazz), and [funk](funk).
*A Wizard, a True Star* was released in March 1973. At Rundgren's behest, no singles were issued from the album, as he wanted the tracks to be heard in the context of the LP. Its release coincided with the success of the "Hello It's Me" single, which gave Rundgren a reputation as a ballad singer, in marked contrast to the content on *Wizard*. Although critical reception to the album was mixed, *Wizard* became highly influential to musicians in the ensuing decades. In 2003, music journalist [Hoskyns](Barney)(Barney Hoskyns) called the record "the greatest album of all time ... a dizzying, intoxicating rollercoaster ride of emotions and genre mutations [that] still sounds more bravely futuristic than any ostensibly cutting-edge electro-pop being made in the 21st Century." In 2018, *Pitchfork*s Sam Sodsky wrote that the "fingerprints" of *Wizard* remained "evident on [auteurs](bedroom)(bedroom music) to this day".
In the weeks following the album's release, Rundgren produced [Funk Railroad](Grand)(Grand Funk Railroad)'s ''[an American Band](We're)(We're an American Band)'' and the [York Dolls](New)(New York Dolls)' [debut album](self-titled)(The New York Dolls (album)), which were among the most significant LPs of the year. The former album reached number two on the US charts, while the latter became a seminal forerunner of [rock](punk)(punk rock), although Rundgren never became known as a "punk producer". Rundgren also prepared a technologically ambitious stage show with a band later to be known as Utopia Mark I, consisting of Tony Sales, Hunt Sales, keyboardist Dave Mason, and synthesizer specialist Jean-Yves "M Frog" Labat. The tour began in April and was cancelled after only a couple weeks on the road.
Once Rundgren was finished with his production duties, he began formulating plans for an improved configuration of Utopia, but first returned to Secret Sound to record the more synthesizer-heavy double album *[Todd](Todd (album))*, which was more material drawing on his hallucinogenic experiences. This time, he had also formed a fascination with religion and spirituality, reading books by authors such as [Blavatsky](Madame)(Madame Blavatsky), [Steiner](Rudolf)(Rudolf Steiner), and [Krishnamurti](Jiddu)(Jiddu Krishnamurti). Originally scheduled for release in December 1973, *Todd* was delayed to the next February due to a vinyl shortage caused by the [oil crisis](1973)(1973 oil crisis).
During the making of *Todd*, Rundgren took note of the "[jazz](fusion)(fusion jazz) sensibility" between session musicians [Ellman](Kevin)(Kevin Ellman) (drums) and John Siegler (bass). Rundgren chose them, along with Klingman and keyboardist Ralph Shuckett, to be the new configuration of Utopia. This line-up performed their first show at [Park](Central)(Central Park) on August 25, 1973, sharing the bill with [Brecker Brothers](the)(the Brecker Brothers) and [& Oates](Hall)(Hall & Oates).}} Utopia played more shows throughout November and December, performing material from *Something/Anything?* and *Wizard* after a solo opening set by Rundgren on piano playing along to a pre-recorded track. On December 7, Rundgren appeared by himself on *[Midnight Special](The)(The Midnight Special (TV series))* performing "Hello It's Me" while dressed in jarringly flamboyant glam attire to the chagrin of some of his bandmates and Bearsville executive Paul Fishkin, who recalled that Rundgren looked "like a fucking drag queen".
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Utopia embarked on their first successful tour between March and April 1974, after which Rundgren produced [People](Hello)(Hello People)'s *The Handsome Devils* and Hall & Oates' *[Babies](War)(War Babies (Hall & Oates album))*. The band's debut record came in the form of the LP titled ''[Rundgren's Utopia](Todd)(Todd Rundgren's Utopia (album))'' (November 1974). It marked Rundgren's first full-fledged venture into the progressive rock genre. Utopia released several more albums between 1975 and 1985. Although they gradually rebranded toward a [rock-pop](pop rock) sound, ''Todd Rundgren's Utopia'' remained their highest album chart showing at number 34. Keyboardist [Powell](Roger)(Roger Powell (musician)) recalled that Bearsville wished Utopia would have "just gone away", however, "Todd's contract called for a certain number of albums over a certain number of years, so he decided that every other album would be a solo album and the next one a Utopia album."
#### *Initiation*, *Faithful*, and *Hermit of Mink Hollow*
[[File:Todd-utopia-atlanta-77.jpg|thumb|upright=1|Utopia on their *[Ra](Ra (Utopia album))* tour at the [Theatre](Fox)(Fox Theatre (Atlanta, Georgia)) in [Atlanta](Atlanta) in 1977. Rundgren is pictured on second-right.]]
[[File:WMMS Todd Rundgren Simulcast - 1978 print ad.jpg|thumb|upright=1|1978 print ad for Rundgren's simulcast concert at the [Ballroom](Agora)(Agora Ballroom) in [Cleveland](Cleveland)]]
*A Wizard, a True Star* included "Rock N Roll Pussy", a song aimed at former Beatle [Lennon](John)(John Lennon). In 1974, Rundgren and Lennon were embroiled in a minor feud over comments Rundgren made in the February edition of *[Maker](Melody)(Melody Maker)* magazine. In the article, he accused Lennon of striking a waitress at [Troubadour](the)(Troubadour (West Hollywood, California)) in Hollywood and called him a "fucking idiot" proselytizing revolution and "acting like an ass". In September, the magazine published Lennon's response, in which he denied the charges and referred to the musician as "Turd Runtgreen": "I have never claimed to be a revolutionary. But I am allowed to sing about anything I want! Right?" Later, Rundgren said, "John and I realized we were being used and I got a phone call from him one day and we just said: 'Let's drop this now.'"
*[Initiation](Initiation (Todd Rundgren album))* (1975) showed more experimentation with synthesisers, and displayed the musical influence of the avant-garde [fusion](jazz)(jazz fusion) of contemporary acts such as the [Orchestra](Mahavishnu)(Mahavishnu Orchestra) and [Zappa](Frank)(Frank Zappa). Once again the original LP issue saw Rundgren pushing the medium to its physical limits, with the side-long suite "A Treatise on Cosmic Fire" clocking in at over 35 minutes.
Released in May 1976, *[Faithful](Faithful (Todd Rundgren album))* saw Rundgren celebrating his tenth year as a professional musician. The album featured one side of original songs and one side of covers of significant songs from 1966, including the Yardbirds' "[Ten Years Time Ago](Happenings)(Happenings Ten Years Time Ago)", [Beach Boys](the)(the Beach Boys)' "[Vibrations](Good)(Good Vibrations)", and two Lennon-penned Beatles songs. The arrangements of the covers were intended to sound as close to the originals as possible, and Rundgren's original songs were written as a reflection of his 1960s influences. He cited the song "The Verb 'To Love'" as the point in which he made the conscious decision to stop writing superficial love songs and "seek out all other kinds of subject matter to write about". Despite the lack of sales and promotion for *Faithful*, lead single "Good Vibrations" received regular airplay on American radio.
Following the completion of *Faithful*, Rundgren spent two months on an eastern spiritual retreat, visiting Iran, Afghanistan, India, Nepal, Sri Lanka, Bali, Thailand, Japan, and Hawaii. He also opened Utopia Sound Studios in [Hill, New York](Lake)(Lake Hill, New York), just outside of Woodstock, and bought a home nearby, as well as an adjoining property to be taken over as accommodation for artists who used the studio. The Lake Hill complex on Mink Hollow Road remained Rundgren's base for the next six years. In the interim until his next solo effort, he recorded three albums with Utopia. The first, *[Jets](Disco)(Disco Jets)*, was a tongue-in-cheek collection of instrumental [disco](disco) tracks left unreleased until 2001. *[Ra](Ra (Utopia album))* (February 1977) was a concept album based on Egyptian mythology, which prefaced a lavish tour involving an extravagant stage set with a giant pyramid and [Sphynx](Sphynx) head. *[Wrong Planet](Oops!)(Oops! Wrong Planet)* (September 1977), recorded immediately after the tour, signaled the start of a more pop-oriented direction for the group.
By late 1977, Rundgren was in the midst of separating from then-girlfriend [Buell](Bebe)(Bebe Buell) and their infant daughter [Tyler](Liv)(Liv Tyler). Rundgren recalled leaving his home in New York City and sequestering himself at Mink Hollow, "after I discovered that I didn't want to cohabit any longer with Bebe, in any sense of the word ... A fortunate by-product of being so out of everything all the time and always being the odd man out ... is that you have plenty of time for self-examination." He intended the songs on his next solo album to be performed on piano with minimal arrangements, apart from the bass, drums and voices. In that sense, he stated that the songwriting process appeared to be "fairly conventional".
*[of Mink Hollow](Hermit)(Hermit of Mink Hollow)* was released in May 1978. Popularly viewed as his most immediately accessible work since *Something/Anything?*, it received more public attention and radio airplay than most of Rundgren's efforts since *A Wizard, a True Star* and was heralded as a "return to form" after the string of prog records with Utopia. In the US, the LP peaked at number 36, while single "[We Still Be Friends](Can)(Can We Still Be Friends)" reached number 29. The song became Rundgren's most-covered, with versions by [Palmer](Robert)(Robert Palmer (singer)), [Stewart](Rod)(Rod Stewart), [Blunstone](Colin)(Colin Blunstone), and [Moore](Mandy)(Mandy Moore). To promote the work, Rundgren undertook an American tour playing at smaller venues including [Bottom Line](The)(The Bottom Line (venue)) in New York and [Roxy](The)(Roxy Theatre (West Hollywood)) in Los Angeles. These shows resulted in the double live album *[to the Bars](Back)(Back to the Bars)*, which featured a mixture of material from his solo work and Utopia, performed with backing musicians including Utopia, [Davis](Spencer)(Spencer Davis), [Hall](Daryl)(Daryl Hall) and [Oates](John)(John Oates) and [Nicks](Stevie)(Stevie Nicks).
In 1980, Utopia recorded a Beatles parody album in the form of *[the Music](Deface)(Deface the Music)*. It included "Everybody Else Is Wrong", another song perceived to have been aimed at Lennon. Later that year, Lennon was killed by [David Chapman](Mark)(Mark David Chapman), an obsessive Rundgren fan who was incensed by Lennon's remarks on religion. When he was apprehended, Chapman was wearing a promotional T-shirt for *Hermit of Mink Hollow* and had left a copy of *Runt. The Ballad of Todd Rundgren* in his hotel room. Rundgren was not aware of the connections until "way after the fact". When asked about the *Melody Maker* feud, Chapman stated he was not aware of the musicians' interactions in the press until years after they occurred.
#### *Healing* and *Tortured Artist Effect*
The year 1981 saw the album-long concept work *[Healing](Healing (Todd Rundgren album))*. His music video for the song "Time Heals" was among the first videos aired on [MTV](MTV), and a video he produced for [RCA](RCA), accompanied by [Holst](Gustav)(Gustav Holst)'s *[Planets](The)(The Planets)*, was used as a demo for their videodisc players. Rundgren's experience with computer graphics dates back to 1981, when he developed one of the first computer paint programs, dubbed the Utopia Graphics System; it ran on an [II](Apple)(Apple II) with Apple's digitizer tablet. He is also the co-developer of the computer [screensaver](screensaver) system [Flowfazer](Flowfazer).
Rundgren's Mink Hollow home was burglarized on August 13, 1980. He and his girlfriend (who was pregnant at the time) were tied up while the house was ransacked by a group of armed men. According to Rundgren's account, the men erroneously assumed that he possessed a large quantity of cocaine. Although the family was unharmed, the men stole some valuable items, including a custom-made [Alembic](Alembic Inc) bass guitar.}}
The [wave](new)(New wave music)-tinged *[Ever Popular Tortured Artist Effect](The)(The Ever Popular Tortured Artist Effect)* (1982) included a cover of the [Faces](Small)(Small Faces)' hit "[Soldier](Tin)(Tin Soldier (song))". "[The Drum All Day](Bang)(Bang The Drum All Day)", an album single, was a minor chart hit. It later became more prominent and was adopted as an unofficial theme by several professional sports franchises, notably the [Bay Packers](Green)(Green Bay Packers). Disc Jockey Geno Michellini of KLOS in Los Angeles used "Bang The Drum All Day" as an unofficial kick-off to the weekend on Friday afternoons. "Bang The Drum All Day" was also featured in a [Cruise](Carnival)(Carnival Cruise Line) television advertising campaign. It is now considered one of Rundgren's most popular songs.}} *Tortured Artist* marked the end of Rundgren's tenure with Bearsville Records.
### 1980s–1990s: *A Cappella*, *Nearly Human*, and *2nd Wind*
Rundgren signed with [Bros. Records](Warner)(Warner Bros. Records), who issued his next album, *[Cappella](A)(A Cappella (Todd Rundgren album))* (1985), which was recorded using Rundgren's multi-tracked voice, accompanied by arrangements constructed entirely from programmed vocal samples. Rundgren scored four episodes of the popular children's television show ''[Playhouse](Pee-wee's)(Pee-wee's Playhouse)'' in 1986.
*[Human](Nearly)(Nearly Human)* (1989) and *[Wind](2nd)(2nd Wind)* (1991) were both recorded live—the former in the studio, the latter in a theater before a live audience, who were instructed to remain silent. Each song on these albums was recorded as a complete single take with no later [overdubbing](overdubbing). Both albums marked, in part, a return to his [soul](Philly)(Philadelphia soul) roots. *2nd Wind* also included several excerpts from Rundgren's musical *[Against It](Up)(Up Against It)*, which was adapted from the screenplay (originally titled "Prick Up Your Ears"), that British playwright [Orton](Joe)(Joe Orton) had originally offered to [Beatles](the)(the Beatles) for their never-made follow-up to *[Help!](Help! (film))*.
Rundgren was an early adopter of the [NewTek](NewTek) [Toaster](Video)(Video Toaster) and made several videos with it. The first, for "Change Myself" from *2nd Wind*, was widely distributed as a demo reel for the Toaster. Later, he set up a company to produce 3D animation using the Toaster; this company's first demo, "Theology" (a look at religious architecture through the ages featuring music by former Utopia bandmate Roger Powell) also became a widely circulated item among Toaster users.
### 1990s–2000s: TR-I, PatroNet, and *Liars*
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The mid-1990s saw Rundgren recording under the pseudonym TR-i ("Todd Rundgren interactive") for two albums. The first of these, 1993's *[World Order](No)(No World Order)*, consisted of hundreds of seconds-long snippets of music, that could be combined in various ways to suit the listener. Initially targeted for the [CD-i](Philips)(Philips CD-i) platform, *No World Order* featured interactive controls for tempo, mood, and other parameters, along with pre-programmed mixes by Rundgren himself, [Clearmountain](Bob)(Bob Clearmountain), [Was](Don)(Don Was) and [Harrison](Jerry)(Jerry Harrison). The disc was also released for [PC](IBM PC compatible) and [Macintosh](Apple Macintosh) and in two versions on standard [CD](audio)(Compact disc), the continuous mix disc *No World Order* and, later, the more song-oriented *[World Order Lite](No)(No World Order Lite)*. The music itself was quite a departure from Rundgren's previous work, with a dance/[techno](Techno music) feel and much [rapping](rapping) by Rundgren. The follow-up, *[Individualist](The)(The Individualist)* (1995), featured interactive video content, that could be viewed or in one case, played; it was a simple video game along with the music, which was more rock-oriented than *No World Order*.
Rundgren returned to recording under his own name for *[a Twist...](With)(With a Twist...)* (1997), an album of [bossa-nova](Bossa nova) covers of his older material. His PatroNet work, which trickled out to subscribers over more than a year, was released in 2000 as *[Long Year](One)(One Long Year)*. In 2004, Rundgren released *[Liars](Liars (Todd Rundgren album))*, a concept album about "paucity of truth", that features a mixture of his older and newer sounds.
As the Internet gained mass acceptance, Rundgren, along with longtime manager Eric Gardner and Apple digital music exec Kelli Richards, started PatroNet, which offered fans (patrons) access to his works-in-progress and new unreleased tracks in exchange for a subscription fee, cutting out record labels. The songs from Rundgren's first PatroNet run were later released as the album *[Long Year](One)(One Long Year)*. Since then, Rundgren has severed his connections with major record labels and continues to offer new music direct to subscribers via his website, although he also continues to record and release CDs through independent labels. As of 2022, the PatroNet.com website was not active.
### 2000s–2010s
[[File:Tony Levin & Todd Rundgren (2006).jpg|thumb|upright=1|Rundgren and [Levin](Tony)(Tony Levin) in [Toronto](Toronto), September 2006]]
[[File:Todd Rundgren (48981278786).jpg|thumb|upright=1|Rundgren (right) at the [of Congress](Library)(Library of Congress) in 2019]]
In the aftermath of the [11 attacks](September)(September 11 attacks), Rundgren created the score for the film *A Face to a Name*, directed by [Sloan](Douglas)(Douglas Sloan (filmmaker)). The film depicted numerous photographs of missing New Yorkers that were displayed on Bellevue Hospital's 'wall of prayers' following the attacks. The film was part of a special screening at the [Film Festival](Woodstock)(Woodstock Film Festival) in 2002.
In late 2005, the [Boston](Boston)-based band [Cars](the)(the Cars) were planning to re-form despite bassist [Orr](Benjamin)(Benjamin Orr)'s death and lack of interest on the part of former lead singer [Ocasek](Ric)(Ric Ocasek). Rumors followed that Rundgren had joined [Easton](Elliot)(Elliot Easton) and [Hawkes](Greg)(Greg Hawkes) in rehearsals for a possible new Cars lineup. Initial speculation pointed to [New Cars](the)(the New Cars) being fleshed out with [Burke](Clem)(Clem Burke) of [Blondie](Blondie (band)) and [Alexakis](Art)(Art Alexakis) of [Everclear](Everclear (band)). Eventually the group completed their lineup with former Rundgren bassist Kasim Sulton and studio drummer [Prince](Prairie)(Prairie Prince) of [Tubes](the)(the Tubes), who had played on [XTC](XTC)'s Rundgren-produced *[Skylarking](Skylarking)* and who has recorded and toured with Rundgren.
In early 2006, the new lineup played a few private shows for industry professionals, played live on *[Tonight Show with Jay Leno](The)(The Tonight Show with Jay Leno)* and made other media appearances before commencing a 2006 summer tour with the re-formed [Blondie](Blondie (band)). Rundgren referred to the project as "an opportunity ... for me to pay my bills, play to a larger audience, work with musicians I know and like, and ideally have some fun for a year." The New Cars' first single, "Not Tonight", was released on March 20, 2006. A live album/greatest hits collection, ''[New Cars: It's Alive](The)(It's Alive! (album))*, was released in June 2006. The album includes classic Cars songs (and two Rundgren hits) recorded live plus three new studio tracks ("Not Tonight", "Warm", and "More")
In April 2011, *[Rundgren's Johnson](Todd)(Todd Rundgren's Johnson)*, a collection of Robert Johnson covers, which had been recorded more than a year earlier, was released. In another 2011, an album of covers, *[(re)Production]((re)Production)'', features Rundgren performing tracks he had previously produced for other acts, including [Funk Railroad](Grand)(Grand Funk Railroad)'s "[Like a Man](Walk)(Walk Like a Man (Grand Funk Railroad song))" and [XTC](XTC)'s "Dear God".
In 2017, Rundgren released *[Knight](White)(White Knight (Todd Rundgren album))*, which features collaborations with [Reznor](Trent)(Trent Reznor), [Robyn](Robyn), [Hall](Daryl)(Daryl Hall), [Walsh](Joe)(Joe Walsh) and [Fagen](Donald)(Donald Fagen).
In December 2018, Cleopatra Press published his self-penned memoir, *The Individualist: Digressions, Dreams, and Dissertations*. The book contains 181 chapters, each one page long, and each consisting of three paragraphs. He said that "I realized that I have to do this or somebody else will do it. I'm getting to the point where I could at some point not be able to do it myself, and then someone else would do it and I wouldn't be happy with the result." Its coverage ends at Rundgren's 50th birthday in 1998, which was the same time he began writing the book. Since then, he said, "my life has been a lot more boring ... I'm not doing as much record production as I used to, so interesting tales that go along with those projects don't exist anymore." On October 21, 2019, he stopped by the [of Congress](Library)(Library of Congress) and signed a braille copy—which was produced for him by a fan and [Library Service for the Blind and Print Disabled](National)(National Library Service for the Blind and Print Disabled) patron who is blind. Library of Congress|access-date=February 4, 2020}}
Rundgren toured in late 2019 with [Dolenz](Micky)(Micky Dolenz), [Scheff](Jason)(Jason Scheff), [Cross](Christopher)(Christopher Cross) and [Molland](Joey)(Joey Molland) of [Badfinger](Badfinger) in celebration of the Beatles' [Album](White)(White Album) on the "It Was Fifty Years Ago Today – A Tribute to the Beatles' White Album".
### 2020s
Rundgren collaborated with [Weezer](Weezer) frontman [Cuomo](Rivers)(Rivers Cuomo) in 2020, releasing the single "Down With The Ship". In December, he released his English translation of the 1978 song "[Flappie](Flappie)", originally by Dutch comedian [van 't Hek](Youp)(Youp van 't Hek). That April, he reunited with [Sparks](Sparks (band)) 50 years after producing their debut album, releasing a single "Your Fandango".
## Style and recognition
### As a solo artist
Writing for [AllMusic](AllMusic), music critic [Thomas Erlewine](Stephen)(Stephen Thomas Erlewine) recognizes Rundgren thus:
}}
As a solo artist from 1972 to 1978, Rundgren scored four US Top 40 singles on the *Billboard* Hot 100, including one Top 10 hit with "Hello, It's Me", and three US Top 40 albums on the *Billboard* 200. He is one of the first acts to be prominent both as an artist and as a producer. and he was also influential in the fields of power pop, [lo-fi](lo-fi music), [overdubbing](overdubbing), and [music](experimental)(experimental music). Rundgren performed in an eclectic variety of styles, so much so that his singles often contrasted with other tracks from the LPs from which they derived, which curtailed his mass appeal. Of his early incorporation of digital technology, he said "I wasn't the first to start recording digitally, because it was so expensive. But once the technology came down to where I could afford it, then I went digital." Rundgren said that adapting his sound to meet commercial expectations was also never an issue for him since he already made "so much money from production", a rare luxury for an artist.
### As a producer
|width = 25%
}}
Comparisons are sometimes drawn between Rundgren and producer/artists Brian Wilson and [Eno](Brian)(Brian Eno). Biographer [Myers](Paul)(Paul Myers (musician)) attributes the recording studio to be Rundgren's "[instrument](ultimate)(recording studio as an instrument)". Rundgren acknowledged that, in the case of his own records, he does not think "as a producer", but uses the studio to "assist in creating a performance". His recording processes continued in the same tradition as multitrack recording innovator [Paul](Les)(Les Paul) as well as the studio experiments of the Beatles and the Beach Boys.
According to biographer Myers, Rundgren himself came to inspire "a generation of self-contained geniuses like [Prince](Prince (musician)) ... Ironically, some of his innovations would come to liberate the recording artist in such a way as to lessen the perceived value, or need, for a record producer at all."}} Rundgren's influence is also cited to [& Oates](Hall)(Hall & Oates), [Björk](Björk) and [Punk](Daft)(Daft Punk). *Slate* writer Marc Weingarten identified *A Cappella* as the precedent for Björk's "all vocals, all the time" experiment *[Medúlla](Medúlla)* (2004) and said that, overall, "The two [artists] share more common ground than their fans might think."
Rundgren's production work for other artists were largely one-off affairs. Exceptions were [Funk Railroad](Grand)(Grand Funk Railroad), [New York Dolls](the)(the New York Dolls), [Tubes](the)(the Tubes), [People](Hello)(Hello People), and [Pursuit of Happiness](the)(the Pursuit of Happiness (band)). He described his typical function as being a "'songcraft' agitator". In cases where the act's songs were unfinished, he would complete them and decline a writer's credit. Some of his collaborators frequently characterize him as a "genius", but also "sarcastic" and "aloof". Conversely, Ev Olcutt of [Rods](12)(12 Rods) remembered that on *[Anxieties](Separation)(Separation Anxieties)* from the same year, "All he would do was press the 'record' button and go back to doing crossword puzzles. Some of those songs are good, but Todd Rundgren did the absolute worst job possible with that record." Waymon Boone, frontman of the band Splender, recounted the time when Todd produced their album "Halfway Down the Sky" in 1999 on the Rundgren Radio Show in a 2010 interview. Boone went on to say that working with Rundgren was a nightmare, and that he would constantly leave early, not give any feedback during recordings, and once they'd run through a song, he'd tell them it was "fine" and would want them to move onto the next song. Boone even recounted at one point having to restrain himself from punching Rundgren in the face.
}} His most notorious production was for [XTC](XTC)'s 1986 album *[Skylarking](Skylarking)*, known for the creative tensions and disagreements that arose during its sessions. The album is sometimes regarded as both the pinnacle of Rundgren's production career and of the career of XTC. He commented that, in spite of the turmoil surrounding its making, the record "ultimately ... sounds like we were having a great time doing it. And at times we *were* having a good time." All three members expressed admiration for the end product.
### The Fool guitar
[[File:The Fool guitar body (replica), HRC San Antonio.jpg|thumb|upright=1|Throughout his live performances in the 1970s and 1980s, Rundgren often sported [Fool](The)(The Fool (guitar)) guitar originally owned by [Clapton](Eric)(Eric Clapton) and given to Rundgren by [Lomax](Jackie)(Jackie Lomax).]]
During the mid-to-late 1970s, Rundgren regularly played the eye-catching [psychedelic](psychedelic art) [SG](Gibson)(Gibson SG) (known variously as "Sunny" or "[Fool](The)(The Fool (guitar))"), which [Clapton](Eric)(Eric Clapton) had played in [Cream](Cream (band)). After he had stopped using it ca. 1968, Clapton gave the guitar to [Harrison](George)(George Harrison), who subsequently 'loaned' it to British singer [Lomax](Jackie)(Jackie Lomax). In 1972, after meeting at a recording session, Lomax sold the guitar to Rundgren for $500 with an option to buy it back, which he never took up. Rundgren played it extensively during the early years of Utopia before retiring the instrument for a short time in the mid to late 1970s, which in that time he had the guitar restored having a lacquer finish applied to protect the paint and replaced the tailpiece and bridge to stabilize tuning, bringing the guitar back out on tour during the 1980 [the Music](Deface)(Deface the Music) tour and using it on and off throughout the 1980s until 1993 when he permanently retired the guitar, eventually auctioning it off in 1999; he now uses a reproduction given to him in 1988 by a Japanese fan.
## Personal life
Rundgren began a relationship with model [Buell](Bebe)(Bebe Buell) in 1972. During a break in their relationship, Buell had a brief relationship with [Tyler](Steven)(Steven Tyler), which resulted in an unplanned pregnancy. Buell gave birth to [Tyler](Liv)(Liv Tyler) on July 1, 1977. Buell initially claimed that Todd Rundgren was the biological father and named the child Liv Rundgren. Shortly after Liv's birth, Rundgren and Buell ended their romantic relationship, but Rundgren remained committed to Liv. At age eleven, Liv learned that her biological father was [Tyler](Steven)(Steven Tyler). According to Liv Tyler "...Todd basically decided when I was born that I needed a father so he signed my birth certificate. He knew that there was a chance that I might not be his, but…" He paid to put her through private school, and she visited him several times a year. As of 2012, Tyler maintains a close relationship with Rundgren. "I'm so grateful to him, I have so much love for him. You know, when he holds me it feels like Daddy. And he's very protective and strong." Buell's stated reason for claiming that Rundgren was Liv's father was that Tyler was too heavily addicted to drugs at the time of Liv's birth.
Rundgren had a long-term relationship with Karen Darvin, with whom he had two sons, Rex (born 1980) and Randy (born 1985). Rex was a minor league baseball player ([infielder](infielder)) for nine seasons. Darvin had previously been with [Springsteen](Bruce)(Bruce Springsteen) in a relationship that ended in 1977.
Rundgren married Michele Gray in 1998. Gray had been a dancer with [Tubes](the)(the Tubes) and had performed with Rundgren as a backup singer on the tour for his album *[Human](Nearly)(Nearly Human)* which led to a number of appearances on the [Letterman Show](David)(David Letterman Show) as one of ''The World's Most Dangerous Backup Singers''. Together, they have a son, named Rebop.
In the book *A Wizard, a True Star*, it is stated that he diagnosed himself with [disorder](attention-deficit)(attention-deficit disorder).
## Awards and honors
* 1984: Grammy Award nomination for Best Music Video – "Videosyncracy"[Todd Rungren](https://web.archive.org/web/20200925035847/https://www.grammy.com/grammys/artists/todd-rungren/13822) Grammy Awards
* 1995: Berkeley Lifetime Achievement Award from the Popular Culture Society at [Berkeley](UC)(UC Berkeley).
* 2017: Honorary doctorate from [College of Music](Berklee)(Berklee College of Music), where he delivered the commencement address, and an honorary doctorate from [University](DePauw)(DePauw University).
* 2018: Nominated for the [and Roll Hall of Fame](Rock)(Rock and Roll Hall of Fame)'s class of 2019. Since becoming eligible in 1995, he has often been asked about his absence from the Hall of Fame. A 2018 poll conducted by the institution, which is not factored in the final vote, placed Rundgren as the third-most deserving nominee on the ballot.}} In 2016, Rundgren told an interviewer: "It doesn't have the same cachet as a [Peace Prize](Nobel)(Nobel Peace Prize) or some historical foundation. If I told you about how they actually determine who gets into the Hall of Fame, you'd think that I was bullshitting you, because I've been told what's involved. ... It's just as corrupt as anything else, and that's why I don't care."
* 2021: Inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame.
## Discography
**Solo albums**
* *[Runt](Runt (album))* (1970)
* *[The Ballad of Todd Rundgren](Runt.)(Runt. The Ballad of Todd Rundgren)* (1971)
* *[Something/Anything?](Something/Anything?)* (1972)
* *[Wizard, a True Star](A)(A Wizard, a True Star)* (1973)
* *[Todd](Todd (album))* (1974)
* *[Initiation](Initiation (Todd Rundgren album))* (1975)
* *[Faithful](Faithful (Todd Rundgren album))* (1976)
* *[of Mink Hollow](Hermit)(Hermit of Mink Hollow)* (1978)
* *[Healing](Healing (Todd Rundgren album))* (1981)
* *[Ever Popular Tortured Artist Effect](The)(The Ever Popular Tortured Artist Effect)* (1982)
* *[Cappella](A)(A Cappella (Todd Rundgren album))* (1985)
* *[Human](Nearly)(Nearly Human)* (1989)
* *[Wind](2nd)(2nd Wind)* (1991)
* *[World Order](No)(No World Order)* (1993)
* *[Individualist](The)(The Individualist)* (1995)
* *[a Twist...](With)(With a Twist...)* (1997)
* *[Long Year](One)(One Long Year)* (2000)
* *[Liars](Liars (Todd Rundgren album))* (2004)
* *[Arena](Arena (Todd Rundgren album))* (2008)
* ''[Rundgren's Johnson](Todd)(Todd Rundgren's Johnson)* (2011)
* *[(re)Production]((re)Production)* (2011)
* *[State](State (Todd Rundgren album))* (2013)
* *[Global](Global (Todd Rundgren album))* (2015)
* *[Knight](White)(White Knight (album))* (2017)
* *[Force](Space)(Space Force (album))'' (2022)
**Nazz**
* *[Nazz](Nazz (album))* (1968)
* *[Nazz](Nazz)(Nazz Nazz)* (1969)
* *[III](Nazz)(Nazz III)* (1971)
**Utopia**
* ''[Rundgren's Utopia](Todd)(Todd Rundgren's Utopia (album))* (1974)
* [Live](Another)(Another Live) (1975)
* *[Ra](Ra (Utopia album))* (1977)
* *[Wrong Planet](Oops!)(Oops! Wrong Planet)* (1977)
* *[in Utopia](Adventures)(Adventures in Utopia)* (1979)
* *[the Music](Deface)(Deface the Music)* (1980)
* *[to the Right](Swing)(Swing to the Right)* (1982)
* *[Utopia](Utopia (Utopia album))* (1982)
* *[Oblivion](Oblivion (Utopia album))* (1984)
* *[POV](POV (album))* (1985)
**Other albums**
* *[Against It!](Up)(Up Against It!)* (1997)
* *Somewhere/Anywhere* (1998)
* *[Jets](Disco)(Disco Jets)* (2001)
* *[Alive!](It's)(It's Alive! (The New Cars album))* (2006)
* *[Runddans](Runddans)* (2015)
**Selected productions**
* *[Up](Straight)(Straight Up (Badfinger album))* (1971) – [Badfinger](Badfinger)
* *[Halfnelson](Halfnelson (album))* (1971) – [Halfnelson/Sparks](Sparks (band))
* *[York Dolls](New)(New York Dolls (album))* (1973) – [York Dolls](New)(New York Dolls)
* *[an American Band](We're)(We're an American Band)* (1973) – [Funk Railroad](Grand)(Grand Funk Railroad)
* *[On](Shinin')(Shinin' On)* (1974) – [Funk Railroad](Grand)(Grand Funk Railroad)
* *[Babies](War)(War Babies (Hall & Oates album))* (1974) – [& Oates](Hall)(Hall & Oates)
* *[Out of Hell](Bat)(Bat Out of Hell)* (1977) – [Loaf](Meat)(Meat Loaf)
* *[Control](Remote)(Remote Control (The Tubes album))* (1979) – [Tubes](The)(The Tubes)
* *[Now](Forever)(Forever Now (The Psychedelic Furs album))* (1982) – [Psychedelic Furs](The)(The Psychedelic Furs)
* *[Position Please](Next)(Next Position Please)* (1983) – [Trick](Cheap)(Cheap Trick)
* *[Bomb](Love)(Love Bomb (The Tubes album))* (1985) – [Tubes](The)(The Tubes)
* *[Skylarking](Skylarking)* (1986) – [XTC](XTC)
* *[of Ordinary Men](Dreams)(Dreams of Ordinary Men)* (1986) – [Dragon](Dragon (band))
* *[New America](The)(The New America)* (2000) – [Religion](Bad)(Bad Religion)
* *[Anxieties](Separation)(Separation Anxieties)* (2000) – [Rods](12)(12 Rods)
* *[I Sez So](Cause)(Cause I Sez So)'' (2009) – [York Dolls](New)(New York Dolls)
## Notes
## References
### Sources
*
## External links
*
*
*
*
*
* [Ubben Lecture at DePauw University](http://www.depauw.edu/news-media/latest-news/details/23334) (April 8, 2009)
* [Todd Rundgren Interview](https://www.namm.org/library/oral-history/todd-rundgren) [Oral History Program](NAMM)(NAMM Oral History Program)
* [Todd Rundgren Radio](http://www.toddrundgrenradio.com/)
[ ](Category:Todd Rundgren)
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|
Benedict Arnold
|
benedict_arnold
|
# Benedict Arnold
*Revision ID: 1160152977 | Timestamp: 2023-06-14T18:21:10Z*
---
|birth_place = [Norwich](Norwich, Connecticut), [Connecticut](Connecticut Colony)
|death_date =
|death_place = London, England
|placeofburial = [Mary's Church, Battersea](St)(St Mary's Church, Battersea)
|placeofburial_coordinates =
|allegiance =
|branch =
|serviceyears =
|rank =
|commands =
| battles =
* [and Indian War](French)(French and Indian War)
* [War](Revolutionary)(American Revolutionary War) (American service)
** [of Fort Ticonderoga](Capture)(Capture of Fort Ticonderoga)
** [Expedition](Quebec)(Benedict Arnold's expedition to Quebec)
** [of Quebec](Battle)(Battle of Quebec (1775))
** [of The Cedars](Battle)(Battle of The Cedars)
** [of Valcour Island](Battle)(Battle of Valcour Island)
** [of Ridgefield](Battle)(Battle of Ridgefield)
** [of Fort Stanwix](Siege)(Siege of Fort Stanwix)
** [of Saratoga](Battles)(Battles of Saratoga)
* Revolutionary War (British service)
** [of Richmond](Raid)(Raid of Richmond)
** [of Blandford](Battle)(Battle of Blandford)
** [of Groton Heights](Battle)(Battle of Groton Heights)
|memorials = [Monument](Boot)(Boot Monument)
|spouse = |}}
|children = 8
|relations = |[Arnold](William)(William Arnold (settler)) }}
|otherwork = [Apothecary](Apothecary), merchant
|signature = Benedict Arnold Signature.svg
}}
[[File:Benedict Arnold Groton.jpg|thumb|300px|Dedication plaque on [Monument](Groton)(Groton Monument) in [Connecticut](Groton,)(Groton, Connecticut) to victims of Arnold's slaughter following the [of Groton Heights](Battle)(Battle of Groton Heights):]]
**Benedict Arnold** ([(1994)](Brandt)(#Brandt), p. 4June 14, 1801) was an American-born military officer who served during the [Revolutionary War](American)(American Revolutionary War). He fought with distinction for the American [Army](Continental)(Continental Army) and rose to the rank of major general before defecting to the British in 1780. General [Washington](George)(George Washington) had given him his fullest trust and had placed him in command of [Point](West)(Fort Clinton (West Point)) in New York. Arnold was planning to surrender the fort to British forces, but the plot was discovered in September 1780, whereupon he fled to the British lines. In the later part of the war, Arnold was commissioned as a brigadier general in the British Army and placed in command of the [Legion](American)(American Legion (Great Britain)). He led the British army in battle against the soldiers whom he had once commanded, after which his name became synonymous with treason and betrayal in the United States.[(2008)](Rogets)(#Rogets)
Arnold was born in [Connecticut](Connecticut Colony). He was a merchant operating ships in the Atlantic when the war began. He joined the growing American army outside of Boston and distinguished himself by acts that demonstrated intelligence and bravery: In 1775, he [Fort Ticonderoga](captured)(capture of Fort Ticonderoga). In 1776, he deployed defensive and delay tactics at the [of Valcour Island](Battle)(Battle of Valcour Island) in [Champlain](Lake)(Lake Champlain) that gave American forces time to prepare New York's defenses. His performance in the [of Ridgefield](Battle)(Battle of Ridgefield) in Connecticut prompted his promotion to major general. He performed operations that provided the Americans with relief during the [of Fort Stanwix](Siege)(Siege of Fort Stanwix), and key actions during the pivotal 1777 [of Saratoga](Battles)(Battles of Saratoga) in which he sustained leg injuries that put him out of combat for several years.
Arnold repeatedly claimed that he was being passed over for promotion by the [Congress](Continental)(Continental Congress), and that other officers were being given credit for some of his accomplishments.[(1997)](Martin)(#martin) Some in his military and political circles charged him with corruption and other bad acts. After formal inquiries, he was usually acquitted, but Congress investigated his finances and determined that he was indebted to Congress and that he had borrowed money heavily to maintain a lavish lifestyle.
Arnold mingled with [Loyalist](Loyalist (American Revolution)) sympathizers in Philadelphia and married into the Loyalist family of [Shippen](Peggy)(Peggy Shippen). She was a close friend of British major [André](John)(John André) and kept in contact with him when he became head of the British espionage system in New York. Many historians see her as having facilitated Arnold's plans to switch sides; he opened secret negotiations with André, and she relayed their messages to each other. The British promised £20,000, or about US$210.}} for the capture of West Point, a major American stronghold. Washington greatly admired Arnold and gave him command of that fort in July 1780. His scheme was to surrender the fort to the British, but it was exposed in September 1780 when American militiamen captured André carrying papers which revealed the plot. Arnold escaped; André was hanged.
Arnold received a commission as a brigadier general in the British Army, an annual pension of £360, and a lump sum of over £6,000. He led British forces in the [of Richmond](Raid)(Raid of Richmond) and nearby areas, and they burned much of [London, Connecticut](New)(New London, Connecticut) to the ground and slaughtered surrendering forces after the [of Groton Heights](Battle)(Battle of Groton Heights)—just a few miles downriver from the town where he had grown up. In the winter of 1782, he and Peggy moved to London, England. He was well received by King George III and the [Tories](Tories (political faction)) but frowned upon by the [Whigs](Whig (British political faction)) and most Army officers. In 1787, he moved to Canada to run a merchant business with his sons Richard and Henry. He was extremely unpopular there and returned to London permanently in 1791, where he died ten years later.
## Early life
Benedict Arnold was born a British subject, the second of six children of his father Benedict Arnold III (1683–1761) and [Waterman King](Hannah)(Hannah Waterman King) in [Norwich](Norwich, Connecticut), [Connecticut](Connecticut Colony), on January 14, 1741.[(2007)](Murphy)(#Murphy), pp. 5, 8 Arnold was the fourth surviving member of his family named after his great-grandfather [Arnold I](Benedict)(Benedict Arnold (governor)), an early governor of the [of Rhode Island](Colony)(Colony of Rhode Island); his grandfather (Benedict Arnold II) and father, as well as an older brother who died in infancy, were also named for the colonial governor. Only he and his sister Hannah survived to adulthood; his other siblings died from [fever](yellow)(yellow fever) in childhood.[(1994)](Brandt)(#Brandt), pp. 5–6 His siblings were, in order of birth: Benedict (1738–1739), Hannah (1742–1803), Mary (1745–1753), Absolom (1747–1750), and Elizabeth (1749–1755). Through his maternal grandmother, Arnold was a descendant of [Lothropp](John)(John Lothropp), an ancestor of six presidents.[(1984)](Price)(#Price), pp. 38–39
Arnold's father was a successful businessman, and the family moved in the upper levels of Norwich society. He was enrolled in a private school in nearby [Connecticut](Canterbury,)(Canterbury, Connecticut), when he was 10, with the expectation that he would eventually attend [College](Yale)(Yale University). However, the deaths of his siblings two years later may have contributed to a decline in the family fortunes, since his father took up drinking. By the time that he was 14, there was no money for private education. His father's alcoholism and ill health kept him from training Arnold in the family mercantile business, but his mother's family connections secured an apprenticeship for him with her cousins Daniel and Joshua Lathrop, who operated a successful apothecary and general merchandise trade in Norwich.[(1994)](Brandt)(#Brandt), p. 6 His apprenticeship with the Lathrops lasted seven years.[(1994)](Brandt)(#Brandt), p. 7
Arnold was very close to his mother, who died in 1759. His father's alcoholism worsened after her death, and the youth took on the responsibility of supporting his father and younger sister. His father was arrested on several occasions for public drunkenness, was refused communion by his church, and died in 1761.
## French and Indian War
In 1755, Arnold was attracted by the sound of a drummer and attempted to enlist in the provincial militia for service in the [and Indian War](French)(French and Indian War), but his mother refused permission.[(1953)](Flexner)(#Flexner), p. 7 In 1757 when he was 16, he did enlist in the Connecticut militia, which marched off toward [New York](Albany,)(Albany, New York), and [George](Lake)(Lake George (lake), New York). The French had [Fort William Henry](besieged)(Siege of Fort William Henry) in northeastern New York, and their Indian allies had committed atrocities after their victory. Word of the siege's disastrous outcome led the company to turn around, and Arnold served for only 13 days.[(1953)](Flexner)(#Flexner), p. 8 A commonly accepted story that he deserted from militia service in 1758[(1990)](Randall)(#Randall), p. 32 is based on uncertain documentary evidence.[(2007)](Murphy)(#Murphy), p. 18
## Colonial merchant
Arnold established himself in business in 1762 as a pharmacist and bookseller in [Haven, Connecticut](New)(New Haven, Connecticut), with the help of the Lathrops.[(1994)](Brandt)(#Brandt), p. 8 He was hardworking and successful, and was able to rapidly expand his business. In 1763, he repaid money that he had borrowed from the Lathrops,[(1994)](Brandt)(#Brandt), p. 10 repurchased the family homestead that his father had sold when deeply in debt, and re-sold it a year later for a substantial profit. In 1764, he formed a partnership with Adam Babcock, another young New Haven merchant. They bought three trading ships, using the profits from the sale of his homestead, and established a lucrative West Indies trade.
During this time, Arnold brought his sister Hannah to New Haven and established her in his apothecary to manage the business in his absence. He traveled extensively in the course of his business throughout New England and from [Quebec](Province of Quebec (1763–1791)) to the West Indies, often in command of one of his own ships.[(1953)](Flexner)(#Flexner), p. 13 On one of his voyages, he fought a duel in [Honduras](Honduras) with a British sea captain who had called him a "damned Yankee, destitute of good manners or those of a gentleman".[(2007)](Murphy)(#Murphy), p. 38[(1995)](Roth)(#Roth), p. 75 The captain was wounded in the first exchange of gunfire, and he apologized when Arnold threatened to aim to kill on the second.[(1953)](Flexner)(#Flexner), p. 17 However, it is unknown whether this encounter actually happened or not.
[[File:Repeal of the Stamp Act.jpg|thumb|right|A 1766 political cartoon on the repeal of the [Act](Stamp)(Stamp Act 1765)|alt=A procession of men, depicting various members of the British Parliament at the time, accompany then-Prime Minister Grenville as he carries a small coffin representing the Stamp Act near a waterfront scene with a sailing ship, cranes, bales of goods, and wharf warehouses in the background]]
The [Act](Sugar)(Sugar Act) of 1764 and the [Act of 1765](Stamp)(Stamp Act 1765) severely curtailed mercantile trade in the colonies.[(1990)](Randall)(#Randall), p. 46 The Stamp Act prompted Arnold to join the chorus of voices in opposition, and also led to his joining the [of Liberty](Sons)(Sons of Liberty), a secret organization which advocated resistance to those and other restrictive Parliamentary measures.[(1990)](Randall)(#Randall), p. 49 Arnold initially took no part in any public demonstrations but, like many merchants, continued to do business openly in defiance of the Parliamentary Acts, which legally amounted to smuggling. He also faced financial ruin, falling £16,000 in debt with creditors spreading rumors of his insolvency, to the point where he took legal action against them.[(1990)](Randall)(#Randall), pp. 52–53 On the night of January 28, 1767, he and members of his crew roughed up a man suspected of attempting to inform authorities of Arnold's smuggling. He was convicted of disorderly conduct and fined the relatively small amount of 50 shillings; publicity of the case and widespread sympathy for his views probably contributed to the light sentence.[(1990)](Randall)(#Randall), pp. 56–60
On February 22, 1767, Arnold married Margaret Mansfield, daughter of Samuel Mansfield, the sheriff of New Haven and a fellow member in the local [Lodge](Masonic)(Freemasonry). Their son Benedict was born the following year[(1994)](Brandt)(#Brandt), p. 14 and was followed by brothers Richard in 1769 and Henry in 1772.[(1990)](Randall)(#Randall), p. 62 Margaret died on June 19, 1775, while Arnold was at [Ticonderoga](Fort)(Fort Ticonderoga) following its capture.[(1994)](Brandt)(#Brandt), p. 38 She is buried in the crypt of the [Church on New Haven Green](Center)(New Haven Green#On the Green). The household was dominated by Arnold's sister Hannah, even while Margaret was alive. Arnold benefited from his relationship with Mansfield, who became a partner in his business and used his position as sheriff to shield him from creditors.[(1990)](Randall)(#Randall), p. 64
Arnold was in the West Indies when the [Massacre](Boston)(Boston Massacre) took place on March 5, 1770. He wrote that he was "very much shocked" and wondered "good God, are the Americans all asleep and tamely giving up their liberties, or are they all turned philosophers, that they don't take immediate vengeance on such miscreants?"[(1990)](Randall)(#Randall), p. 68
## Revolutionary War (American service)
### Siege of Boston and Fort Ticonderoga
Arnold began the war as a captain in the Connecticut militia, a position to which he was elected in March 1775. His company marched northeast the following month to assist in the [of Boston](siege)(siege of Boston) that followed the [of Lexington and Concord](Battles)(Battles of Lexington and Concord). He proposed an action to the Massachusetts [of Safety](Committee)(Committee of Safety (American Revolution)) to seize Fort Ticonderoga in upstate New York, which he knew was poorly defended. They issued him a colonel's commission on May 3, 1775, and he immediately rode off to [Castleton](Castleton, Vermont) in the disputed [Hampshire Grants](New)(New Hampshire Grants) ([Vermont](Vermont)) in time to participate with [Allen](Ethan)(Ethan Allen) and his men in the [of Fort Ticonderoga](capture)(capture of Fort Ticonderoga). He followed up that action with a bold raid on [Saint-Jean](Fort)(Fort Saint-Jean (Quebec)) on the [River](Richelieu)(Richelieu River) north of [Champlain](Lake)(Lake Champlain). A Connecticut militia force arrived at Ticonderoga in June; Arnold had a dispute with its commander over control of the fort, and resigned his Massachusetts commission. He was on his way home from Ticonderoga when he learned that his wife had died earlier in June.[(1990)](Randall)(#Randall), pp. 78–132
[[File:General-Sir-Guy-Carleton 2.jpg|thumb|right|upright|Quebec Governor [Carleton](Guy)(Guy Carleton, 1st Baron Dorchester) opposed Arnold at Quebec and Valcour Island.|alt=A half-height oil portrait of Carleton. He faces front, wearing a red coat and vest over a ruffled white shirt. His hair is white, and is apparently pulled back.]]
### Quebec Expedition
The [Continental Congress](Second)(Second Continental Congress) authorized an [of Quebec](invasion)(invasion of Canada (1775)), in part on the urging of Arnold—but he was passed over for command of the expedition. He then went to [Massachusetts](Cambridge,)(Cambridge, Massachusetts), and suggested to [Washington](George)(George Washington) a second expedition to attack [City](Quebec)(Quebec City) via a wilderness route through [Maine](Maine). He received a colonel's commission in the Continental Army for [expedition](this)(Arnold's expedition to Quebec) and left Cambridge in September 1775 with 1,100 men. He arrived before Quebec City in November, after a difficult passage in which 300 men turned back and another 200 died en route. He and his men were joined by [Montgomery](Richard)(Richard Montgomery)'s small army and participated in the December 31 [on Quebec City](assault)(Battle of Quebec (1775)) in which Montgomery was killed and Arnold's leg was shattered. His chaplain Rev. [Spring](Samuel)(Samuel Spring) carried him to the makeshift hospital at the Hôtel Dieu. Arnold was promoted to brigadier general for his role in reaching Quebec, and he maintained an ineffectual siege of the city until he was replaced by Major General [Wooster](David)(David Wooster) in April 1776.[(1990)](Randall)(#Randall), pp. 131–228
Arnold then traveled to Montreal where he served as military commander of the city until forced to retreat by an advancing British army that had arrived at Quebec in May. He presided over the rear of the Continental Army during its retreat from Saint-Jean, where he was reported by [Wilkinson](James)(James Wilkinson) to be the last person to leave before the British arrived. He then directed the construction of a fleet to defend Lake Champlain, which was overmatched and defeated in the October 1776 [of Valcour Island](Battle)(Battle of Valcour Island). However, his actions at Saint-Jean and Valcour Island played a notable role in delaying the British advance against Ticonderoga until 1777.[(1990)](Randall)(#Randall), pp. 228–320
During these actions, Arnold made a number of friends and a larger number of enemies within the army power structure and in Congress. He had established a decent relationship with George Washington, as well as [Schuyler](Philip)(Philip Schuyler) and [Gates](Horatio)(Horatio Gates), both of whom had command of the army's Northern Department during 1775 and 1776.[(1990)](Randall)(#Randall), pp. 318–323 However, an acrimonious dispute with [Hazen](Moses)(Moses Hazen), commander of the [Canadian Regiment](2nd)(2nd Canadian Regiment), boiled into Hazen's court martial at Ticonderoga during the summer of 1776. Only action by Arnold's superior at Ticonderoga prevented his own arrest on countercharges leveled by Hazen.[(1990)](Randall)(#Randall), pp. 262–264 He also had disagreements with [Brown](John)(John Brown of Pittsfield) and [Easton](James)(James Easton (American Revolutionary War)), two lower-level officers with political connections that resulted in ongoing suggestions of improprieties on his part. Brown was particularly vicious, publishing a handbill which claimed of Arnold, "Money is this man's God, and to get enough of it he would sacrifice his country".[(1848)](Howe)(#Howe), pp. 4–6
### Rhode Island and Philadelphia
[[File:HoratioGatesByStuart.jpeg|thumb|right|General [Gates](Horatio)(Horatio Gates) led the forces at Saratoga; portrait by [Stuart](Gilbert)(Gilbert Stuart), 1793–94.|alt=A three-quarters length oil portrait of Gates against a neutral dark background. He is wearing a general's uniform, blue jacket with gold facing and gold epaulets. He is holding a sword in one hand and a paper in the other. His hair is white and has been tied back.]]
General Washington assigned Arnold to the defense of [Island](Rhode)(Colony of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations) following the British seizure of [Newport](Newport, Rhode Island) in December 1776, where the militia were too poorly equipped to even consider an attack on the British.[(1990)](Randall)(#Randall), pp. 323–325 He took the opportunity to visit his children while near his home in New Haven, and he spent much of the winter socializing in Boston, where he unsuccessfully courted a young belle named Betsy Deblois.[(1990)](Randall)(#Randall), pp. 324–327 In February 1777, he learned that he had been passed over by Congress for promotion to major general. Washington refused his offer to resign, and wrote to members of Congress in an attempt to correct this, noting that "two or three other very good officers" might be lost if they persisted in making politically motivated promotions.[(1994)](Brandt)(#Brandt), p. 118
Arnold was on his way to [Philadelphia](Philadelphia) to discuss his future when he was alerted that a British force was marching toward a supply depot in [Connecticut](Danbury,)(Danbury, Connecticut). He organized the militia response, along with David Wooster and Connecticut militia General [Selleck Silliman](Gold)(Gold Selleck Silliman). He led a small contingent of militia attempting to stop or slow the British return to the coast in the [of Ridgefield](Battle)(Battle of Ridgefield), and was again wounded in his left leg.
He then continued on to Philadelphia where he met with members of Congress about his rank. His action at Ridgefield, coupled with the death of Wooster due to wounds sustained in the action, resulted in his promotion to major general, although his seniority was not restored over those who had been promoted before him.[(1990)](Randall)(#Randall), pp. 332–334 Amid negotiations over that issue, Arnold wrote out a letter of resignation on July 11, the same day that word arrived in Philadelphia that [Ticonderoga had fallen](Fort)(Siege of Fort Ticonderoga (1777)) to the British. Washington refused his resignation and ordered him north to assist with the defense there.[(1990)](Randall)(#Randall), pp. 339–342
### Saratoga Campaign
Arnold arrived in Schuyler's camp at [Edward, New York](Fort)(Fort Edward (village), New York), on July 24. On August 13, Schuyler dispatched him with a force of 900 to relieve the [of Fort Stanwix](siege)(siege of Fort Stanwix), where he succeeded in a ruse to lift the siege. He sent an Indian messenger into the camp of British Brigadier General [St. Leger](Barry)(Barry St. Leger) with news that the approaching force was much larger and closer than it actually was; this convinced St. Leger's Indian allies to abandon him, forcing him to give up the effort.[(1997)](Martin)(#martin), pp. 364–367
Arnold returned to the Hudson where General Gates had taken over command of the American army, which had retreated to a camp south of [Stillwater](Stillwater (village), New York).[(1990)](Randall)(#Randall), pp. 346–348 He then distinguished himself in both [of Saratoga](Battles)(Battles of Saratoga), even though General Gates removed him from field command after the first battle, following a series of escalating disagreements and disputes that culminated in a shouting match.[(1990)](Randall)(#Randall), p. 360 During the fighting in the second battle, Arnold disobeyed Gates' orders and took to the battlefield to lead attacks on the British defenses. He was again severely wounded in the left leg late in the fighting. Arnold said that it would have been better had it been in the chest instead of the leg.[(1990)](Randall)(#Randall), pp. 350–368 Burgoyne surrendered ten days after the second battle on October 17, 1777. Congress restored Arnold's command seniority in response to his valor at Saratoga.[(1990)](Randall)(#Randall), p. 372 However, he interpreted the manner in which they did so as an act of sympathy for his wounds, and not an apology or recognition that they were righting a wrong.[(2006)](Palmer)(#Palmer), p. 256
[[File:Benedict Arnold oath of allegiance.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Arnold's [of Allegiance](Oath)(Oath of Allegiance), May 30, 1778]]
Arnold spent several months recovering from his injuries. He had his leg crudely set, rather than allowing it to be amputated, leaving it shorter than the right. He returned to the army at [Forge, Pennsylvania](Valley)(Valley Forge, Pennsylvania), in May 1778 to the applause of men who had served under him at Saratoga.[(1994)](Brandt)(#Brandt), pp. 141–146 There he participated in the first recorded [of Allegiance](Oath)(Oath of Allegiance), along with many other soldiers, as a sign of loyalty to the United States.[(1994)](Brandt)(#Brandt), p. 147
### Residence in Philadelphia
The British withdrew from Philadelphia in June 1778, and Washington appointed Arnold military commander of the city.[(1994)](Brandt)(#Brandt), p. 146 Historian John Shy states:
:Washington then made one of the worst decisions of his career, appointing Arnold as military governor of the rich, politically divided city. No one could have been less qualified for the position. Arnold had amply demonstrated his tendency to become embroiled in disputes, as well as his lack of political sense. Above all, he needed tact, patience, and fairness in dealing with a people deeply marked by months of enemy occupation.
Arnold began planning to capitalize financially on the change in power in Philadelphia, even before the Americans reoccupied their city. He engaged in a variety of business deals designed to profit from war-related supply movements and benefiting from the protection of his authority.[(1994)](Brandt)(#Brandt), pp. 148–149 Such schemes were not uncommon among American officers, but Arnold's schemes were sometimes frustrated by powerful local politicians such as [Reed](Joseph)(Joseph Reed (politician)), who eventually amassed enough evidence to publicly air charges against him. Arnold demanded a court martial to clear the charges, writing to Washington in May 1779: "Having become a cripple in the service of my country, I little expected to meet ungrateful returns".[(1997)](Martin)(#martin), p. 428
[[File:PhiladelphiaPresidentsHouse.jpg|thumb|right|250px|[House](President's)(President's House (Philadelphia)) in [Philadelphia](Philadelphia), where Arnold made his headquarters while he was military commander of Philadelphia; it served as the presidential mansion of George Washington and [Adams](John)(John Adams) from 1790 to 1800.]]
Arnold lived extravagantly in Philadelphia and was a prominent figure on the social scene. During the summer of 1778, he met [Shippen](Peggy)(Peggy Shippen), the 18-year-old daughter of Judge [Shippen (III)](Edward)(Edward Shippen (III)), a Loyalist sympathizer who had done business with the British while they occupied the city;[(1990)](Randall)(#Randall), p. 420 Peggy had been courted by British Major [André](John)(John André) during the British occupation of Philadelphia.[Shippen biography](Edward)(#UPennEShippen) She married Arnold on April 8, 1779.[(1990)](Randall)(#Randall), p. 448 Shippen and her circle of friends had found methods of staying in contact with paramours across the battle lines, despite military bans on communication with the enemy.[(1990)](Randall)(#Randall), p. 455 Some of this communication was effected through the services of Joseph Stansbury, a Philadelphia merchant.[(1990)](Randall)(#Randall), p. 456
## Plotting to change sides
Historians have identified many possible factors contributing to Arnold's treason, while some debate their relative importance. According to [D. Wetherell](W.)(W. D. Wetherell), he was:
}}
Wetherell says that the shortest explanation for his treason is that he "married the wrong person".
[[File:Sirhenryclinton2.jpg|thumb|right|upright|[Sir Henry Clinton](General)(Henry Clinton (1730–1795))]]
Arnold had been badly wounded twice in battle and had lost his business in Connecticut, which made him profoundly bitter. He grew resentful of several rival and younger generals who had been promoted ahead of him and given honors which he thought he deserved. Especially galling was a long feud with the civil authorities in Philadelphia which led to his court-martial. He was also convicted of two minor charges of using his authority to make a profit. General Washington gave him a light reprimand, but it merely heightened Arnold's sense of betrayal; nonetheless, he had already opened negotiations with the British before his court martial even began. He later said in his own defense that he was loyal to his true beliefs, yet he lied at the same time by insisting that Peggy was totally innocent and ignorant of his plans.Nathaniel Philbrick, *Valiant Ambition: George Washington, Benedict Arnold, and the Fate of the American Revolution* (2016) pp. 321–26.Michael Dolan, "Hero and Villain" *American History* (2016) 51#3 pp. 12–13.
Arnold had an extremely ambitious and jealous personality. He knew that he was distrusted and disliked by senior military officers on both sides. Washington was one of the few who genuinely liked and admired him, but Arnold thought that Washington had betrayed him.
As early as 1778, there were signs that Arnold was unhappy with his situation and pessimistic about the country's future. On November 10, 1778, General [Greene](Nathanael)(Nathanael Greene) wrote to General [Cadwalader](John)(John Cadwalader (general)), "I am told General Arnold is become very unpopular among you oweing to his associateing too much with the Tories."[(1983)](Showman)(#Showman), p. 3:57 A few days later, Arnold wrote to Greene and lamented over the "deplorable" and "horrid" situation of the country at that particular moment, citing the depreciating currency, disaffection of the army, and internal fighting in Congress, while predicting "impending ruin" if things did not change soon.[(1983)](Showman)(#Showman), p. 3:58 Biographer [Philbrick](Nathaniel)(Nathaniel Philbrick) argues:
Early in May 1779, Arnold met with Philadelphia merchant Joseph Stansbury who then "went secretly to New York with a tender of [Arnold's] services to Sir Henry Clinton".[(1990)](Randall)(#Randall), pp. 456–457 Stansbury ignored instructions from Arnold to involve no one else in the plot, and he crossed the British lines and went to see [Odell](Jonathan)(Jonathan Odell) in New York. Odell was a Loyalist working with [Franklin](William)(William Franklin), the last colonial governor of [Jersey](New)(Province of New Jersey) and the son of [Franklin](Benjamin)(Benjamin Franklin). On May 9, Franklin introduced Stansbury to Major André, who had just been named the British spy chief.[(1990)](Randall)(#Randall), p. 457 This was the beginning of a secret correspondence between Arnold and André, sometimes using his wife Peggy as a willing intermediary, which culminated more than a year later with Arnold's change of sides.
### Secret communications
[[File:ArnoldCipherLetter.jpeg|thumb|One of Arnold's coded letters. [lines](Cipher)(Arnold Cipher) by Arnold are interspersed with lines by his wife, Peggy.]]
André conferred with Clinton, who gave him broad authority to pursue Arnold's offer. André then drafted instructions to Stansbury and Arnold.[(1990)](Randall)(#Randall), p. 463 This initial letter opened a discussion on the types of assistance and intelligence that Arnold might provide, and included instructions for how to communicate in the future. Letters were to be passed through the women's circle that Peggy Arnold was a part of, but only Peggy would be aware that some letters contained instructions that were to be passed on to André, written in both [code](Arnold Cipher) *and* [ink](invisible)(invisible ink), using Stansbury as the courier.[(1990)](Randall)(#Randall), p. 464
By July 1779, Arnold was providing the British with troop locations and strengths, as well as the locations of supply depots, all the while negotiating over compensation. At first, he asked for indemnification of his losses and £10,000, an amount that the Continental Congress had given [Lee](Charles)(Charles Lee (general)) for his services in the Continental Army.[(1990)](Randall)(#Randall), p. 474 Clinton was pursuing a campaign to gain control of the Hudson River Valley, and was interested in plans and information on the defenses of [Point](West)(West Point, New York) and other defenses on the Hudson River. He also began to insist on a face-to-face meeting, and suggested to Arnold that he pursue another high-level command.[(1990)](Randall)(#Randall), p. 476 By October 1779, the negotiations had ground to a halt.[(1990)](Randall)(#Randall), p. 477 Furthermore, revolutionary mobs were scouring Philadelphia for Loyalists, and Arnold and the Shippen family were being threatened. Arnold was rebuffed by Congress and by local authorities in requests for security details for himself and his in-laws.[(1990)](Randall)(#Randall), pp. 482–483
### Court martial
[[American annual of photography (1911) (14596787487).jpg|thumb|right|The Norris Tavern, in Morristown, New Jersey, where the trial took place](File:The)]
Arnold's court martial on charges of profiteering began meeting on June 1, 1779, but it was delayed until December 1779 by Clinton's capture of [Point, New York](Stony)(Stony Point, New York), throwing the army into a flurry of activity to react.[(1994)](Brandt)(#Brandt), pp. 181–182 Several members on the panel of judges were ill-disposed toward Arnold over actions and disputes earlier in the war, yet Arnold was cleared of all but two minor charges on January 26, 1780.[(1990)](Randall)(#Randall), pp. 486–492 Arnold worked over the next few months to publicize this fact; however, Washington published a formal rebuke of his behavior in early April, just one week after he had congratulated Arnold on the birth of his son Edward Shippen Arnold on March 19:[(1990)](Randall)(#Randall), pp. 492–494
[[File:John andre loc.jpg|thumb|right|Major [André](John)(John André) was British General [Clinton](Henry)(Henry Clinton (1730–1795))'s spy chief; he was captured and hanged for his role in the plot.|alt=A black and white full length portrait of André. He wears a uniform, dark jacket over white pants and shirt, with dark boots, and a three-cornered hat. His right hand holds a sword upright by his side, and his left arm is extending, pointing forward.]]
Shortly after Washington's rebuke, a Congressional inquiry into Arnold's expenditures concluded that he had failed to account fully for his expenditures incurred during the Quebec invasion, and that he owed the Congress some £1,000, largely because he was unable to document them.[(1990)](Randall)(#Randall), p. 497 Many of these documents had been lost during the retreat from Quebec. Angry and frustrated, Arnold resigned his military command of Philadelphia in late April.[(1990)](Randall)(#Randall), pp. 497–499
### Offer to surrender West Point
Early in April, Philip Schuyler had approached Arnold with the possibility of giving him the command at West Point. Discussions had not borne fruit between Schuyler and Washington by early June. Arnold reopened the secret channels with the British, informing them of Schuyler's proposals and including Schuyler's assessment of conditions at West Point. He also provided information on a proposed French-American invasion of Quebec that was to go up the [River](Connecticut)(Connecticut River) (Arnold did not know that this proposed invasion was a ruse intended to divert British resources). On June 16, Arnold inspected West Point while on his way home to Connecticut to take care of personal business, and he sent a highly detailed report through the secret channel.[(1990)](Randall)(#Randall), pp. 503–504 When he reached Connecticut, Arnold arranged to sell his home there and began transferring assets to London through intermediaries in New York. By early July, he was back in Philadelphia, where he wrote another secret message to Clinton on July 7 which implied that his appointment to West Point was assured and that he might even provide a "drawing of the works ... by which you might take [Point](West) without loss".[(1990)](Randall)(#Randall), pp. 506–507
André returned victorious from the [of Charleston](Siege)(Siege of Charleston) on June 18, and both he and Clinton were immediately caught up in this news. Clinton was concerned that Washington's army and the French fleet would join in Rhode Island, and he again fixed on West Point as a strategic point to capture. André had spies and informers keeping track of Arnold to verify his movements. Excited by the prospects, Clinton informed his superiors of his intelligence coup, but failed to respond to Arnold's July 7 letter.[(1990)](Randall)(#Randall), pp. 505–508
Arnold next wrote a series of letters to Clinton, even before he might have expected a response to the July 7 letter. In a July 11 letter, he complained that the British did not appear to trust him, and threatened to break off negotiations unless progress was made. On July 12, he wrote again, making explicit the offer to surrender West Point, although his price rose to £20,000 (in addition to indemnification for his losses), with a £1,000 down payment to be delivered with the response. These letters were delivered by Samuel Wallis, another Philadelphia businessman who spied for the British, rather than by Stansbury.[(1990)](Randall)(#Randall), pp. 508–509
### Command at West Point
[[File:Appletons' Arnold Benedict - Beverley Robinson house.jpg|right|thumb|Col. [Robinson](Beverley)(Beverley Robinson)'s house, Arnold's headquarters at West Point]]
On August 3, 1780, Arnold obtained command of West Point. On August 15, he received a coded letter from André with Clinton's final offer: £20,000 and no indemnification for his losses. Neither side knew for some days that the other was in agreement with that offer, due to difficulties in getting the messages across the lines. Arnold's letters continued to detail Washington's troop movements and provide information about French reinforcements that were being organized. On August 25, Peggy finally delivered to him Clinton's agreement to the terms.[(1990)](Randall)(#Randall), pp. 511–512
Arnold's command at West Point also gave him authority over the entire American-controlled Hudson River, from Albany down to the British lines outside New York City. While en route to West Point, Arnold renewed an acquaintance with [Hett Smith](Joshua)(Joshua Hett Smith), who had spied for both sides and who owned a house near the western bank of the Hudson about 15 miles south of West Point.[(1990)](Randall)(#Randall), pp. 517–518
Once Arnold established himself at West Point, he began systematically weakening its defenses and military strength. Needed repairs were never ordered on the [across the Hudson](chain)(Hudson River Chain). Troops were liberally distributed within Arnold's command area (but only minimally at West Point itself) or furnished to Washington on request. He also peppered Washington with complaints about the lack of supplies, writing, "Everything is wanting." At the same time, he tried to drain West Point's supplies so that a siege would be more likely to succeed. His subordinates, some long-time associates, grumbled about Arnold's unnecessary distribution of supplies and eventually concluded that he was selling them on the black market for personal gain.[(1990)](Randall)(#Randall), pp. 522–523
[[File:WestPoint1780.jpg|thumb|right|A French map of [Point](West)(West Point) in 1780]]
On August 30, Arnold sent a letter accepting Clinton's terms and proposing a meeting to André through yet another intermediary: William Heron, a member of the Connecticut Assembly whom he thought he could trust. In an ironic twist, Heron went into New York unaware of the significance of the letter and offered his own services to the British as a spy. He then took the letter back to Connecticut, suspicious of Arnold's actions, where he delivered it to the head of the Connecticut militia. General Parsons laid it aside, seeing a letter written as a coded business discussion. Four days later, Arnold sent a ciphered letter with similar content into New York through the services of the wife of a prisoner of war.[(1990)](Randall)(#Randall), pp. 524–526 Eventually, a meeting was set for September 11 near Dobbs Ferry. This meeting was thwarted when British gunboats in the river fired on his boat, not being informed of his impending arrival.[(1990)](Randall)(#Randall), p. 533
### Plot exposed
Arnold and André finally met on September 21 at the [Hett Smith House](Joshua)(Joshua Hett Smith House). On the morning of September 22, from their position at Teller's Point, two American rebels, ["Jack" Peterson](John)(Jack Peterson Memorial) and Moses Sherwood, under the command of Col. [Livingston](James)(James Livingston (American Revolution)) fired on [*Vulture*](HMS)(HMS Vulture (1776)), the ship that was intended to carry André back to New York. This action did little damage besides giving the captain, Andrew Sutherland, a splinter in his nose—but the splinter prompted the *Vulture* to retreat, forcing André to return to New York overland. Arnold wrote out passes for André so that he would be able to pass through the lines, and he also gave him plans for West Point.[(1852)](Lossing)(#Lossing), pp. 151–156
André was captured near [New York](Tarrytown,)(Tarrytown, New York), on Saturday, September 23, by three Westchester militiamen. They found the papers exposing the plot to capture West Point and passed them on to their superiors,[(1852)](Lossing)(#Lossing), pp. 187–189 but André convinced the unsuspecting Colonel [Jameson](John)(John Jameson (soldier)), to whom he was delivered, to send him back to Arnold at West Point—but he never reached West Point. Major [Tallmadge](Benjamin)(Benjamin Tallmadge) was a member of the Continental Army's [Ring](Culper)(Culper Ring), a network of spies established under Washington's orders, and he insisted that Jameson order the prisoner to be intercepted and brought back. Jameson reluctantly recalled the lieutenant who had been delivering André into Arnold's custody, but he then sent the same lieutenant as a messenger to notify Arnold of André's arrest.
Arnold learned of André's capture the morning of September 24 while waiting for Washington, with whom he was going to have breakfast at his headquarters in British Col. [Robinson](Beverley)(Beverley Robinson)'s former summer house on the east bank of the Hudson.[(1994)](Brandt)(#Brandt), p. 220 Upon receiving Jameson's message, however, he learned that Jameson had sent Washington the papers which André was carrying. Arnold immediately hastened to the shore and ordered bargemen to row him downriver to where HMS *Vulture* was anchored, fleeing on it to New York City.[(1852)](Lossing)(#Lossing), p. 159 From the ship, he wrote a letter to Washington[to Washington, September 25, 1780](Arnold)(#ArnoldToGW) requesting that Peggy be given safe passage to her family in Philadelphia—which Washington granted.
Washington remained calm when he was presented with evidence of Arnold's treason. He did, however, investigate its extent, and suggested that he was willing to exchange André for Arnold during negotiations with Clinton concerning André's fate. Clinton refused this suggestion; after a military tribunal, André was hanged at [New York](Tappan,)(Tappan, New York), on October 2. Washington also infiltrated men into New York City in an attempt to capture Arnold. This plan very nearly succeeded, but Arnold changed living quarters prior to sailing for Virginia in December and thus avoided capture.[(1852)](Lossing)(#Lossing), pp. 160, 197–210 He justified his actions in an open letter titled "[the Inhabitants of America](To)(To the Inhabitants of America)", published in newspapers in October 1780.[(2006)](Carso)(#Carso), p. 153 He also wrote in the letter to Washington requesting safe passage for Peggy: "Love to my country actuates my present conduct, however it may appear inconsistent to the world, who very seldom judge right of any man's actions."
## Revolutionary War (British service)
### Raids in Virginia and Connecticut colonies
The British gave Arnold a brigadier general's commission with an annual income of several hundred pounds, but they paid him only £6,315 plus an annual pension of £360 for his defection because his plot had failed.[Fahey](#Fahey) In December 1780, he led a force of 1,600 troops into Virginia under orders from Clinton, where he [Richmond](captured)(Raid on Richmond) by surprise and then went on a rampage through Virginia, destroying supply houses, foundries, and mills.[(1990)](Randall)(#Randall), pp. 582–583 This activity brought out Virginia's militia led by Colonel [Mathews](Sampson)(Sampson Mathews), and Arnold eventually retreated to [Portsmouth](Portsmouth, Virginia) to be reinforced or to evacuate.
The pursuing American army included the [de Lafayette](Marquis)(Gilbert du Motier, Marquis de Lafayette), who was under orders from Washington to hang Arnold summarily if he was captured. British reinforcements arrived in late March led by [Phillips](William)(William Phillips (British Army officer)) who served under Burgoyne at Saratoga. Phillips led further raids across Virginia, including a defeat of [von Steuben](Baron)(Friedrich Wilhelm von Steuben) at [Petersburg](Battle of Blandford), but he died of fever on May 12, 1781. Arnold commanded the army only until May 20, when [Cornwallis](Lord)(Charles Cornwallis, 1st Marquess Cornwallis) arrived with the southern army and took over. One colonel wrote to Clinton concerning Arnold: "There are many officers who must wish some other general in command."[(1990)](Randall)(#Randall) Cornwallis ignored Arnold's advice to locate a permanent base away from the coast, advice that might have averted his [at Yorktown](surrender)(Siege of Yorktown).
On his return to New York in June, Arnold made a variety of proposals for attacks on economic targets to force the Americans to end the war. Clinton was uninterested in most of his aggressive ideas, but finally authorized him to raid the port of [London, Connecticut](New)(New London, Connecticut). He led a force of more than 1,700 men which burned most of New London to the ground on September 4, causing damage estimated at $500,000.[(1990)](Randall)(#Randall), pp. 585–591 They also attacked and captured [Griswold](Fort)(Fort Griswold) across the river in [Connecticut](Groton,)(Groton, Connecticut), slaughtering the Americans after they surrendered following the [of Groton Heights](Battle)(Battle of Groton Heights)—and all these deeds were done just a few miles down the Thames River from Norwich, where Arnold grew up. However, British casualties were high; nearly one quarter of the force was killed or wounded, and Clinton declared that he could ill afford any more such victories.[(1990)](Randall)(#Randall), p. 589
### British surrender and exile in England
Even before Cornwallis's surrender in October, Arnold had requested permission from Clinton to go to England to give [George Germain](Lord)(George Germain, 1st Viscount Sackville) his thoughts on the war in person.[(1994)](Brandt)(#Brandt), p. 252 He renewed that request when he learned of the surrender, which Clinton then granted. On December 8, 1781, Arnold and his family left New York for England.[(1994)](Brandt)(#Brandt), p. 253
In London, Arnold aligned himself with the [Tories](British Tory Party), advising Germain and King George III to renew the fight against the Americans. In the House of Commons, [Burke](Edmund)(Edmund Burke) expressed the hope that the government would not put Arnold "at the head of a part of a British army" lest "the sentiments of true honour, which every British officer [holds] dearer than life, should be afflicted". The anti-war [Whigs](British Whig Party) had gained the upper hand in Parliament, and Germain was forced to resign, with the government of [North](Lord)(Frederick North, Lord North) falling not long after.[(1994)](Brandt)(#Brandt), p. 255
Arnold then applied to accompany [Carleton](General)(Guy Carleton, 1st Baron Dorchester), who was going to New York to replace Clinton as commander-in-chief, but the request went nowhere. Other attempts all failed to gain positions within the government or the [East India Company](British)(British East India Company) over the next few years, and he was forced to subsist on the reduced pay of non-wartime service.[(1994)](Brandt)(#Brandt), pp. 257–259 His reputation also came under criticism in the British press, especially when compared to Major André who was celebrated for his patriotism. One critic said that he was a "mean mercenary, who, having adopted a cause for the sake of plunder, quits it when convicted of that charge". [Johnstone](George)(George Johnstone (Royal Navy officer)) turned him down for a position in the East India Company and explained: "Although I am satisfied with the purity of your conduct, the generality do not think so. While this is the case, no power in this country could suddenly place you in the situation you aim at under the East India Company."[(1994)](Brandt)(#Brandt), p. 257
## New businesses, new controversies
[[File:James Maitland, 8th Earl of Lauderdale by Thomas Gainsborough.jpg|thumb|right|upright|[Maitland, 8th Earl of Lauderdale](James)(James Maitland, 8th Earl of Lauderdale), fought a duel with Arnold. Portrait by [Gainsborough](Thomas)(Thomas Gainsborough).]]
In 1785, Arnold and his son Richard moved to [John, New Brunswick](Saint)(Saint John, New Brunswick), where they speculated in land and established a business doing trade with the West Indies. Arnold purchased large tracts of land in the [Maugerville](Maugerville, New Brunswick) area, and acquired city lots in Saint John and [Fredericton](Fredericton, New Brunswick).[(1990)](Randall)(#Randall), pp. 599–600 Delivery of his first ship the *Lord Sheffield* was accompanied by accusations from the builder that Arnold had cheated him; Arnold claimed that he had merely deducted the contractually agreed amount when the ship was delivered late.[(1994)](Brandt)(#Brandt), p. 261 After her first voyage, Arnold returned to London in 1786 to bring his family to Saint John. While there, he disentangled himself from a lawsuit over an unpaid debt that Peggy had been fighting while he was away, paying £900 to settle a £12,000 loan that he had taken while living in Philadelphia.[(1994)](Brandt)(#Brandt), p. 262 The family moved to Saint John in 1787, where Arnold created an uproar with a series of bad business deals and petty lawsuits. The most serious of these was a slander suit which he won against a former business partner; and following this, townspeople burned him in effigy in front of his house, as Peggy and the children watched.[(1994)](Brandt)(#Brandt), p. 263 The family left Saint John to return to London in December 1791.[(1994)](Brandt)(#Brandt), p. 264
In July 1792, Arnold fought a bloodless [duel](duel) with the [of Lauderdale](Earl)(James Maitland, 8th Earl of Lauderdale) after the Earl impugned his honor in the [of Lords](House)(House of Lords). With the outbreak of the [Revolution](French)(French Revolution), Arnold outfitted a [privateer](privateer), while continuing to do business in the West Indies, even though the hostilities increased the risk. He was imprisoned by French authorities on [Guadeloupe](Guadeloupe) amid accusations of spying for the British, and narrowly eluded hanging by escaping to [blockading British fleet](the)(Invasion of Guadeloupe (1794)) after bribing his guards. He helped organize militia forces on British-held islands, receiving praise from the landowners for his efforts on their behalf. He hoped that this work would earn him wider respect and a new command; instead, it earned him and his sons a land-grant of in [Canada](Upper)(Upper Canada),[(1990)](Randall)(#Randall), pp. 609–610 near present-day [Ontario](Renfrew,)(Renfrew, Ontario).[(2001)](Wilson)(#Wilson), p. 223
## Death and funeral
In January 1801, Arnold's health began to decline. He had suffered from [gout](gout) since 1775,[(1994)](Brandt)(#Brandt), p. 42 and the condition attacked his unwounded leg to the point where he was unable to go to sea. The other leg ached constantly, and he walked only with a cane. His physicians diagnosed him as having [dropsy](edema), and a visit to the countryside only temporarily improved his condition. He died after four days of [delirium](delirium) on June 14, 1801, at the age of 60.[(1967)](Lomask)(#Lomask) Legend has it that, when he was on his deathbed, he said, "Let me die in this old uniform in which I fought my battles. May God forgive me for ever having put on another,"[(1915)](Johnson)(#Johnson) but this story may be apocryphal. Arnold was buried at [Mary's Church](St.)(St. Mary's Church, Battersea) in [Battersea](Battersea), England. As a result of a clerical error in the parish records, his remains were removed to an unmarked mass grave during church renovations a century later.[(1990)](Randall)(#Randall), pp. 612–613 His funeral procession boasted "seven mourning coaches and four state carriages"; the funeral was without military honors.[(1990)](Randall)(#Randall), p. 613
Arnold left a small estate, reduced in size by his debts, which Peggy undertook to clear. Among his bequests were considerable gifts to one John Sage, perhaps an illegitimate son or grandson.
## Legacy
Benedict Arnold's name became synonymous with "traitor" soon after his betrayal became public, and biblical themes were often invoked. [Franklin](Benjamin)(Benjamin Franklin) wrote that "[Judas](Judas Iscariot) sold only one man, Arnold three millions", and [Scammell](Alexander)(Alexander Scammell) described his actions as "black as hell".[(2006)](Carso)(#Carso), p. 154 In Arnold's home town of Norwich, Connecticut, someone scrawled "the traitor" next to his record of birth at city hall, and all of his family's gravestones have been destroyed except his mother's.
Arnold was aware of his reputation in his home country, and French statesman [Talleyrand](Charles Maurice de Talleyrand-Périgord) described meeting him in [Cornwall](Falmouth,)(Falmouth, Cornwall) in 1794:
}}
Talleyrand continued, "I must confess that I felt much pity for him, for which political puritans will perhaps blame me, but with which I do not reproach myself, for I witnessed his agony".
[[File:JeffersonDavisBenedictArnoldTreasonCartoon1865.jpg|thumb|upright=1.1|An 1865 political cartoon depicting Benedict Arnold and [Davis](Jefferson)(Jefferson Davis) in hell]]
Early biographers attempted to describe Arnold's entire life in terms of treacherous or morally questionable behavior. The first major biography of his life was *The Life and Treason of Benedict Arnold*, published in 1832 by historian [Sparks](Jared)(Jared Sparks); it was particularly harsh in showing how Arnold's treacherous character was formed out of childhood experiences. George Canning Hill authored a series of moralistic biographies in the mid-19th century and began his 1865 biography of Arnold: "Benedict, the Traitor, was born…".[(1865)](Hill)(#Hill), p. 10 Social historian Brian Carso notes that, as the 19th century progressed, the story of Arnold's betrayal was portrayed with near-mythical proportions as a part of the national history. It was invoked again as sectional conflicts increased in the years before the [Civil War](American)(American Civil War). [Irving](Washington)(Washington Irving) used it as part of an argument against dismemberment of the union in his 1857 *Life of George Washington*, pointing out that the unity of New England and the southern states which led to independence was made possible in part by holding West Point.[(2006)](Carso)(#Carso), pp. 168–170 [Davis](Jefferson)(Jefferson Davis) and other southern secessionist leaders were unfavorably compared to Arnold, implicitly and explicitly likening the idea of secession to treason. ''[Weekly](Harper's)(Harper's Weekly)'' published an article in 1861 describing Confederate leaders as "a few men directing this colossal treason, by whose side Benedict Arnold shines white as a saint".[(2006)](Carso)(#Carso), p. 201
Fictional invocations of Benedict Arnold's name carry strongly negative overtones.Julie Courtwright, "Whom Can We Trust Now? The Portrayal of Benedict Arnold in American History" *Fairmont Folio: Journal of History* (Wichita State University) v. 2 (1998) [online](http://journals.wichita.edu/index.php/ff/article/viewFile/35/42) A moralistic children's tale entitled "The Cruel Boy" was widely circulated in the 19th century. It described a boy who stole eggs from birds' nests, pulled wings off insects, and engaged in other sorts of wanton cruelty, who then grew up to become a traitor to his country. The boy is not identified until the end of the story, when his place of birth is given as Norwich, Connecticut, and his name is given as Benedict Arnold.[(2006)](Carso)(#Carso), pp. 157–159 However, not all depictions of Arnold were so negative. Some theatrical treatments of the 19th century explored his duplicity, seeking to understand rather than demonize it.[(2006)](Carso)(#Carso), pp. 170–171
Canadian historians have treated Arnold as a relatively minor figure. His difficult time in New Brunswick led historians to summarize it as full of "controversy, resentment, and legal entanglements" and to conclude that he was disliked by both Americans and Loyalists living there.[(2001)](Wilson)(#Wilson), pp. xiii–xv Historian Barry Wilson points out that Arnold's descendants established deep roots in Canada, becoming leading settlers in Upper Canada and [Saskatchewan](Saskatchewan).[(2001)](Wilson)(#Wilson), p. xvi His descendants are spread across Canada, most of all those of John Sage, who adopted the Arnold surname.[(2001)](Wilson)(#Wilson), pp. 230–236
## Honors
[[File:Arnold-boot.jpg|thumb|left|130px|[Monument](Boot)(Boot Monument)]]
The [Monument](Boot)(Boot Monument) at [National Historical Park](Saratoga)(Saratoga National Historical Park) pays tribute to Arnold but does not mention his name. It was donated by Civil War General [Watts DePeyster](John)(John Watts DePeyster), and its inscription reads: "In memory of the most brilliant soldier of the Continental army, who was desperately wounded on this spot, winning for his countrymen the decisive battle of the American Revolution, and for himself the rank of Major General."[National Historical Park – Tour Stop 7](Saratoga)(#NPSBoot) The [monument at Saratoga](victory)(Saratoga Battle Monument) has four niches, three of which are occupied by statues of Generals Gates, Schuyler, and Morgan. The fourth niche is pointedly empty.
There are plaques on the grounds of the [States Military Academy](United)(United States Military Academy) at West Point, New York, commemorating all of the generals who served in the Revolution. One plaque bears only a rank and a date but no name: "major general… born 1740".[(2006)](Carso)(#Carso), p. 155 Historical markers in [Massachusetts](Danvers,)(Danvers, Massachusetts), and [MA](Newburyport,)(Newburyport, MA) commemorate Arnold's 1775 expedition to Quebec. There are also historical markers bearing his name at Wyman Lake Rest Area on US-201 north of [Maine](Moscow,)(Moscow, Maine), on the western bank of Lake Champlain, New York, and two in [Maine](Skowhegan,)(Skowhegan, Maine).
The house where Arnold lived at 62 [Place](Gloucester)(Gloucester Place) in central London bears a plaque describing him as an "American Patriot".[and Green Plaques](Blue)(#PortmanPlaques) He was buried at [Mary's Church, Battersea](St)(St Mary's Church, Battersea), England which has a commemorative stained glass window. The faculty club at the [of New Brunswick](University)(University of New Brunswick), [Fredericton](Fredericton, New Brunswick), has a Benedict Arnold Room in which letters written by Arnold hang on the walls.
## Marriages and children
[[File:Peggy Shippen and daughter.jpg|thumb|140px|[Shippen Arnold](Peggy)(Peggy Shippen) and daughter Sophia by [Gardner](Daniel)(Daniel Gardner), 1787]]
Arnold had three sons with Margaret Mansfield:[(1990)](Randall)(#Randall), p. 610[New England Register 1880](The)(#NEReg), pp. 196–197
* Benedict Arnold (1768–1795) (Captain, British Army in Jamaica)
* Richard Arnold (1769–1847) (Lieutenant, [Legion](American)(American Legion (Great Britain)) cavalry)
* Henry Arnold (1772–1826) (Lieutenant, American Legion cavalry)
He had five children with Peggy Shippen:
* Edward Shippen Arnold (1780–1813) (Lieutenant, British Army in India; see [Army](Bengal)(Bengal Army))
* James Robertson Arnold (1781–1854) (Lieutenant General, Royal Engineers)
* George Arnold (1787–1828) (Lieutenant Colonel, 2nd (or 7th) Bengal Cavalry)
* Sophia Matilda Arnold (1785–1828)
* William Fitch Arnold (1794–1846) (Captain, [Queen's Royal Lancers](9th)(9th Queen's Royal Lancers))
## Published works
*
*
## In popular culture
* *Benedict Arnold*, a 1909 short film directed by J. Stuart Blackton and played by Charles Kent.
* *[Arnold: A Question of Honor](Benedict)(Benedict Arnold: A Question of Honor)*, a 2003 TV film directed by [Salomon](Mikael)(Mikael Salomon), with [Quinn](Aidan)(Aidan Quinn) as Arnold
* *[Washington](Washington (miniseries))*, 2020 miniseries in which Ciarán Owens portrays Arnold
* Benedict Arnold, played by [Yeoman](Owain)(Owain Yeoman), is a major character in the TV series ''[Washington's Spies](Turn:)(Turn: Washington's Spies)*
* Benedict Arnold, voiced by [Samberg](Andy)(Andy Samberg), as the primary antagonist and werewolf in the animated action parody *[The Motion Picture](America:)(America: The Motion Picture)''
* The episode *Benedict Arnold Slipped Here* from TV series *[She Wrote](Murder,)(Murder, She Wrote)*.
* Benedict Arnold, voiced by [Bradley Baker](Dee)(Dee Bradley Baker), as the minor antagonist in the episode "Twistory" from the TV series *[Fairly OddParents](The)(The Fairly OddParents)*.
* Benedict Arnold, played by [Macht](Stephen)(Stephen Macht), is a major character in the 1984 miniseries *[Washington](George)(George Washington (miniseries))*.
* Benedict Arnold, played by Curtis Caravaggio, is a one-time character in the episode "The Capture of Benedict Arnold" in the 2016-18 TV series *[Timeless](Timeless (TV series))*.
* Benedict Arnold, voiced by [Meskimen](Jim)(Jim Meskimen), appeared only in 2 episodes from the 2010-13 TV series *[Mad](Mad (TV series))*.
* *Benedict Arnold: Hero Betrayed*, a 2021 TV documentary film directed by Chris Stearns and played by Peter O'Meara.
* [History](Drunk)(List of Drunk History episodes) Season 2 Episode 8 as retold by [McGathy](Erin)(Erin McGathy) featuring [Parnell](Chris)(Chris Parnell) as Benedict Arnold, [Waters](Derek)(Derek Waters) as John André, and [Rider](Wynona)(Winona Ryder) as Peggy Shippen.
* The final episode of the first season of [Scooby-Doo Show](The)(The Scooby-Doo Show), ''The Spirits of '76'', features the ghosts of Arnold, [André](Major)(Major André) and ensign William Demont as the villains' disguises.
## See also
* [of Freemasons](List)(List of Freemasons (A–D))
* [of people from Connecticut](List)(List of people from Connecticut)
## Notes
## References
## Bibliography
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
* Shy, John. "Arnold, Benedict," *[National Biography](American)(American National Biography)* (1999) [short scholarly biography](https://doi.org/10.1093/anb/9780198606697.article.0200008)
* This book includes a reprint of Arnold's diary of his march.
*
* This book is about Arnold's time in Canada both before and after his treachery.
*
*
*
*
*
*
## Further reading
* ; Very old and outdated
* Burt, Daniel S. ''The Biography Book: A Reader's Guide To Nonfiction, Fictional, and Film Biographies of More Than 500 of the Most Fascinating Individuals of all Time* (2001) pp. 12–13; annotates 26 books and 2 films.
* Case, Stephen and Mark Jacob. *Treacherous Beauty: Peggy Shippen, The Woman Behind Benedict Arnold's Plot To Betray America* (2012), popular biography
* Courtwright, Julie. "Whom Can We Trust Now? The Portrayal of Benedict Arnold in American History" *Fairmont Folio: Journal of History* (Wichita State University) v. 2 (1998) [online](http://journals.wichita.edu/index.php/ff/article/viewFile/35/42)
* ; studies numerous biographies and textbooks to trace American memory of him over the centuries
* Palmer, Dave Richard. *George Washington and Benedict Arnold: A Tale of Two Patriots* (2014); Popular dual biography.
* Philbrick, Nathaniel. *Valiant Ambition: George Washington, Benedict Arnold, and the Fate of the American Revolution* (2016).
* , a novel.
* [links to primary sources about Benedict Arnold before and after his treason](https://cnu.libguides.com/pspeopleamericanrevolution/benedictarnold)
* [Stuart, Nancy](Rubin)(Nancy Rubin Stuart). *Defiant brides: the untold story of two revolutionary-era women and the radical men they married*, Boston : Beacon Press, 2013.
* Shy, John. "Arnold, Benedict (1741–1801)" *Oxford Dictionary of National Biography'' [Arnold, Benedict (1741–1801), army officer | Oxford Dictionary of National Biography](https://doi.org/10.1093/ref:odnb/675)
* ; The first major history, now entirely outdated
* ["Spy Letters of the American Revolution"](http://clements.umich.edu/exhibits/online/spies/index-people.html) includes Arnold's 1779–80 letters to Clinton and André, proposing treason; from the Clements Library]
* ; Old and outdated
* Van Doren, Carl. *Secret History of the American Revolution: An Account of the Conspiracies of Benedict Arnold and Numerous Others Drawn from the Secret Service Papers of the British Headquarters in North America now for the first time examined and made public* (1941) [online free](https://archive.org/details/secrethistoryofa00vand)
* Wallace, Willard M. "Benedict Arnold: Traitorous Patriot." in George Athan Billias, ed., ''George Washington's Generals* (1964): 163–193.
* Wallace, Willard M. *Traitorous Hero The Life & Fortunes of Benedict Arnold* (1954).
## External links
* [Benedict Arnold : Hero Betrayed](https://www.imdb.com/title/tt12687608/)
* [Benedict Arnold](http://www.americanrevolution.org/tbios.html#anchor600591) at AmericanRevolution.org
* [Benedict Arnold](https://www.britannica.com/biography/Benedict-Arnold) at *[Britannica](Encyclopædia)(Encyclopædia Britannica)''
*
* [Benedict Arnold](https://www.mountvernon.org/george-washington/the-revolutionary-war/george-washington-benedict-arnold/benedict-arnold/) at [Washington's Mount Vernon](George)(Mount Vernon)
* [Benedict Arnold's Portraits](https://www.varsitytutors.com/earlyamerica/lives-early-america/benedict-arnolds-portraits) at varsitytutors.com
*
[ ](Category:Benedict Arnold)
[births](Category:1741)(Category:1741 births)
[deaths](Category:1801)(Category:1801 deaths)
[American non-fiction writers](Category:18th-century)(Category:18th-century American non-fiction writers)
[booksellers](Category:American)(Category:American booksellers)
[defectors](Category:American)(Category:American defectors)
[expatriates in the United Kingdom](Category:American)(Category:American expatriates in the United Kingdom)
[Freemasons](Category:American)(Category:American Freemasons)
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[Category:Apothecaries](Category:Apothecaries)
[Benedict](Category:Arnold family)
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[Army personnel of the American Revolutionary War](Category:British)(Category:British Army personnel of the American Revolutionary War)
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[military intelligence informants](Category:British)(Category:British military intelligence informants)
[people of the French Revolutionary Wars](Category:British)(Category:British people of the French Revolutionary Wars)
[privateers](Category:British)(Category:British privateers)
[spies during the American Revolution](Category:British)(Category:British spies during the American Revolution)
[in England](Category:Burials)(Category:Burials in England)
[from New Haven, Connecticut](Category:Businesspeople)(Category:Businesspeople from New Haven, Connecticut)
[American merchants](Category:Colonial)(Category:Colonial American merchants)
[militiamen in the American Revolution](Category:Connecticut)(Category:Connecticut militiamen in the American Revolution)
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[Army officers from Connecticut](Category:Continental)(Category:Continental Army officers from Connecticut)
[Army personnel who were court-martialed](Category:Continental)(Category:Continental Army personnel who were court-martialed)
[from edema](Category:Deaths)(Category:Deaths from edema)
[personnel from Norwich, Connecticut](Category:Military)(Category:Military personnel from Norwich, Connecticut)
[of colonial Connecticut](Category:People)(Category:People of colonial Connecticut)
[of Connecticut in the French and Indian War](Category:People)(Category:People of Connecticut in the French and Indian War)
[in history](Category:Traitors)(Category:Traitors in history)
[from Connecticut](Category:Writers)(Category:Writers from Connecticut)
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Trademark symbol
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trademark_symbol
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# Trademark symbol
*Revision ID: 1151011201 | Timestamp: 2023-04-21T10:54:15Z*
---
(HTML )
|see also=
|different from =
}}
The **trademark symbol** is a [symbol](symbol) to indicate that the preceding mark is a [trademark](trademark), specifically an [trademark](unregistered)(unregistered trademark). It complements the [trademark symbol](registered)(registered trademark symbol) which is reserved for trademarks registered with an appropriate government agency.
In Canada, an equivalent symbol, (U+1F16A) is used in [Quebec](Quebec). Canada also has an [mark](Official)(Official mark) symbol, , to indicate that a name or design used by Canadian public authorities is protected. Some German publications, especially dictionaries, also use a grapheme, (U+1F12E), which is informative and independent of the actual protection status of the name.
## Use
Use of the trademark symbol indicates an assertion that a word, image, or other sign is a trademark; it does not indicate registration or impart enhanced protections. Registered trademarks are indicated using the [trademark symbol](registered)(registered trademark symbol), , and in some jurisdictions it is unlawful or illegal to use the registered trademark symbol with a mark that has not been registered.
The [mark symbol](service)(service mark symbol), , is used to indicate the assertion of a [mark](service)(service mark) (a trademark for the provision of services). The service mark symbol is less commonly used than the trademark sign, especially outside the United States.
## Keyboard entry
* [Windows](Microsoft Windows): (on the numeric keypad)
** [international](US)(US international) keyboard setting:
* [macOS](macOS): (or or or on certain layouts)
* [Linux](Linux) (and similar):
* [ChromeOS](ChromeOS) (and Linux):
** [Extended](UK)(QWERTY#Chrome OS) keyboard: . (AltGr and *)
* [HTML](HTML): or
* [LaTeX](LaTeX):
## Non-standard substitutions
The letters and are sometimes seen paired in an attempt to emulate the trademark symbol. Methods include
* , the letters in normal form, enclosed in parentheses
* }}, the letters written in [caps](small)(small caps), on the [baseline](baseline (typography))
* , the letters written as [superscript](superscript)s, as in mathematical [exponentiation](exponentiation)
* , using symbols from the [Extensions](Phonetic)(Phonetic Extensions) block in [Unicode](Unicode)
## See also
* [law](Trademark)(Trademark law)
** [trademark law](Australian)(Australian trademark law)
** [trademark law](Canadian)(Canadian trademark law)
**[trademark law](China)(Trademark law of the People's Republic of China)
** [Kingdom trademark law](United)(United Kingdom trademark law)
** [States trademark law](United)(United States trademark law)
** [trademark law](Indian)(Indian trademark law)
## References
[States trademark law](Category:United)(Category:United States trademark law)
[Category:Punctuation](Category:Punctuation)
[symbols](Category:Typographical)(Category:Typographical symbols)
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Lisdexamfetamine
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lisdexamfetamine
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# Lisdexamfetamine
*Revision ID: 1159872802 | Timestamp: 2023-06-13T02:18:44Z*
---
| MedlinePlus = a607047
| licence_EU = yes
| DailyMedID = Lisdexamfetamine
| licence_US = Lisdexamfetamine
| pregnancy_AU = B3
| pregnancy_AU_comment =
| pregnancy_category =
| dependency_liability = Moderate
| addiction_liability = Moderate
| routes_of_administration = [mouth](By)(Oral administration)
| ATC_prefix = N06
| ATC_suffix = BA12
| legal_AU = S8
| legal_AU_comment =
| legal_BR = Class A3
| legal_CA = Schedule I
| legal_DE = Anlage III
| legal_UK = Class B
| legal_US = Schedule II
| legal_US_comment =
| legal_EU = Rx-only
| legal_EU_comment =
| legal_status = Rx-only
| bioavailability = [Oral](Oral administration): 96.4%
| protein_bound = 20% (as active [amphetamine](amphetamine))
| metabolism = [Hydrolysis](Hydrolysis) by enzymes in [blood cell](red)(red blood cell)s initially, subsequent metabolism follows
| metabolites = [Dextroamphetamine](Dextroamphetamine) (and its metabolites) and [L-lysine](lysine)
| elimination_half-life = Lisdexamfetamine: Dextroamphetamine: 10–12 h
| excretion = Kidney: ~2%
| onset = [Oral](Oral administration):
| duration_of_action = 10–12 hours
| index2_label = as salt
| CAS_number_Ref =
| CAS_number = 608137-32-2
| PubChem = 11597698
| IUPHAR_ligand = 7213
| DrugBank_Ref =
| DrugBank = DB01255
| ChemSpiderID_Ref =
| ChemSpiderID = 9772458
| UNII_Ref =
| UNII = H645GUL8KJ
| KEGG = D08130
| KEGG2 = D04747
| ChEMBL_Ref =
| ChEMBL = 1201222
| C = 15
| H = 25
| N = 3
| O = 1
| SMILES = O=C(N[C@H](Cc1ccccc1)C)[C@@H](N)CCCCN
| StdInChI_Ref =
| StdInChI = 1S/C15H25N3O/c1-12(11-13-7-3-2-4-8-13)18-15(19)14(17)9-5-6-10-16/h2-4,7-8,12,14H,5-6,9-11,16-17H2,1H3,(H,18,19)/t12-,14-/m0/s1
| StdInChIKey_Ref =
| StdInChIKey = VOBHXZCDAVEXEY-JSGCOSHPSA-N
}}
**Lisdexamfetamine**, sold under the brand name **Vyvanse** among others, is a [stimulant](stimulant) medication that is mainly used to treat [deficit hyperactivity disorder](attention)(attention deficit hyperactivity disorder) (ADHD) in people over the age of five as well as moderate-to-severe [eating disorder](binge)(binge eating disorder) in adults. Lisdexamfetamine is taken [mouth](by)(by mouth). Its effects generally begin within two hours and last for up to 14 hours. In the United Kingdom, it is usually less preferred than [methylphenidate](methylphenidate) for the treatment of children.
Common side effects of lisdexamfetamine include [of appetite](loss)(Anorexia (symptom)), [anxiety](anxiety), [diarrhea](diarrhea), [sleeping](trouble)(insomnia), [irritability](irritability), and [nausea](nausea). Rare but serious side effects include [mania](mania), [cardiac death](sudden)(sudden cardiac death) in those with [heart problems](underlying)(cardiovascular disease), and [psychosis](stimulant psychosis). It has a high potential for [abuse](substance)(substance abuse) per the [Enforcement Administration ](Drug)(Drug Enforcement Administration ) (DEA). [syndrome](Serotonin)(Serotonin syndrome) may occur if used with certain other medications. Its use during [pregnancy](pregnancy) may result in harm to the baby and use during [breastfeeding](breastfeeding) is not recommended by the manufacturer.
Lisdexamfetamine is an inactive [prodrug](prodrug) that works after being converted by [KDM1A](KDM1A) into [dextroamphetamine](dextroamphetamine), a [nervous system](central)(central nervous system) (CNS) [stimulant](stimulant). Chemically, lisdexamfetamine is [of](composed)(codrug) the [acid](amino)(amino acid) [L-lysine](Lysine), [to](attached)(covalently bonded) dextroamphetamine.
Lisdexamfetamine was approved for medical use in the United States in 2007. In 2020, it was the 85th most commonly prescribed medication in the United States, with more than 8million prescriptions. It is a [B controlled substance](Class)(Controlled Drug in the United Kingdom#Schedule 2 - CD) in the United Kingdom and a [II controlled substance](Schedule)(Schedule II controlled substance) in the United States.
## Uses
### Medical
[[Vyvanse capsules.JPG|thumb|30mg Vyvanse capsules](File:30mg)]
Lisdexamfetamine is used primarily as a treatment for [deficit hyperactivity disorder](attention)(attention deficit hyperactivity disorder) (ADHD) and [eating disorder](binge)(binge eating disorder); it has similar uses as those of other pharmaceutical amphetamines. Individuals over the age of 65 were not commonly tested in clinical trials of lisdexamfetamine for ADHD.
}}
### Enhancing performance
}}
### Available forms
Lisdexamfetamine is available as the [dimesylate](mesylate) [salt](salt (chemistry)) in the form of both [oral](oral administration) [capsule](capsule (pharmacy))s and chewable [tablet](tablet (pharmacy))s. The capsules are available in doses of 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, and 70 mg, while the chewable tablets are available in doses of 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, and 60 mg. These amounts of lisdexamfetamine dimesylate are equivalent to 5.8, 11.6, 17.3, 23.1, 28.9, 34.7, and 40.5 mg lisdexamfetamine free-base, respectively. A dose of 50 mg of lisdexamfetamine dimesylate is approximately [equimolar](equimolar) to a 20 mg dose of [sulfate](dextroamphetamine)(dextroamphetamine sulfate) or to 15 mg dextroamphetamine free-base in terms of the amount of [dextroamphetamine](dextroamphetamine) contained. Lisdexamfetamine capsules can be swallowed intact, or they can be opened and mixed into water, yogurt, or applesauce and consumed in that manner.
## Contraindications
Pharmaceutical lisdexamfetamine is [contraindicated](contraindication) in patients with [hypersensitivity](hypersensitivity) to amphetamine products or any of the formulation's [ingredients](inactive)(inactive ingredients). It is also contraindicated in patients who have used a [oxidase inhibitor](monoamine)(monoamine oxidase inhibitor) (MAOI) within the last 14 days. Amphetamine products are contraindicated by the [States Food and Drug Administration](United)(United States Food and Drug Administration) (USFDA) in people with a history of [abuse](drug)(drug abuse), [disease](heart)(heart disease), or severe [agitation](Irritability) or anxiety, or in those currently experiencing [arteriosclerosis](arteriosclerosis), [glaucoma](glaucoma), [hyperthyroidism](hyperthyroidism), or severe [hypertension](hypertension). However, a [Europe](Europe)an [statement](consensus)(medical consensus) on adult ADHD noted that stimulants do not worsen substance misuse in adults with ADHD and comorbid [use disorder](substance)(substance use disorder) and should not be avoided in these individuals. In any case, the statement noted that immediate-release stimulants should be avoided in those with both ADHD and substance use disorder and that slower-release stimulant formulations like [methylphenidate](methylphenidate) (Concerta) and lisdexamfetamine should be preferred due to their lower misuse potential. Prescribing information approved by the Australian [Goods Administration](Therapeutic)(Therapeutic Goods Administration) further contraindicates [anorexia](anorexia nervosa).
## Adverse effects
Products containing lisdexamfetamine have a comparable [safety](drug)(drug safety) profile to those containing [amphetamine](amphetamine). The major [effect](side)(side effect)s of lisdexamfetamine in short-term [trial](clinical)(clinical trial)s (≥5% incidence) have included [appetite](decreased)(decreased appetite), [insomnia](insomnia), [mouth](dry)(dry mouth), [loss](weight)(weight loss), [irritability](irritability), [abdominal pain](upper)(upper abdominal pain), [nausea](nausea), [vomiting](vomiting), [diarrhea](diarrhea), [constipation](constipation), [heart rate](increased)(increased heart rate), [anxiety](anxiety), [dizziness](dizziness), and [jittery](feeling)(feeling jittery). Rates of side effects may vary in adults, adolescents, and children. Rare but serious side effects of lisdexamfetamine may include [mania](mania), [cardiac death](sudden)(sudden cardiac death) in those with [heart problems](underlying)(cardiovascular disease), [psychosis](stimulant)(stimulant psychosis), and [syndrome](serotonin)(serotonin syndrome).
## Interactions
* Acidifying agents: Drugs that acidify the urine, such as [acid](ascorbic)(ascorbic acid), increase urinary excretion of dextroamphetamine, thus decreasing the [half-life](half-life) of dextroamphetamine in the body.
* Alkalinizing agents: Drugs that alkalinize the urine, such as [bicarbonate](sodium)(sodium bicarbonate), decrease urinary excretion of dextroamphetamine, thus increasing the half-life of dextroamphetamine in the body.
* [inhibitor](CYP2D6)(CYP2D6 inhibitor)s: [Hydroxylation](Hydroxylation) via the [P450](cytochrome)(cytochrome P450) enzyme [CYP2D6](CYP2D6) is the major pathway of [metabolism](metabolism) of dextroamphetamine. Potent CYP2D6 inhibitors, such as [paroxetine](paroxetine), [fluoxetine](fluoxetine), [bupropion](bupropion), and [duloxetine](duloxetine), among others, may inhibit the metabolism of dextroamphetamine and thereby increase exposure to it. Studies characterizing this potential interaction are currently lacking. Concomitant use of lisdexamfetamine with CYP2D6 inhibitors may increase the risk of [syndrome](serotonin)(serotonin syndrome) due to greater drug exposure according to the FDA label for lisdexamfetamine.
* [oxidase inhibitor](Monoamine)(Monoamine oxidase inhibitor)s: Concomitant use of MAOIs and central nervous system stimulants such as lisdexamfetamine can cause a hypertensive crisis.
## Pharmacology
}}
### Mechanism of action
Lisdexamfetamine is an [prodrug](inactive)(inactive prodrug) that is converted in the body to dextroamphetamine, a pharmacologically active compound which is responsible for the drug's activity. After oral ingestion, lisdexamfetamine is broken down by enzymes in red blood cells to form [L-lysine](lysine), a naturally occurring essential amino acid, and dextroamphetamine. The conversion of lisdexamfetamine to dextroamphetamine is not affected by gastrointestinal [pH](pH) and is unlikely to be affected by alterations in normal gastrointestinal transit times.
The [isomers](optical)(enantiomers) of [amphetamine](amphetamine), i.e., [dextroamphetamine](dextroamphetamine) and [levoamphetamine](levoamphetamine), are [agonist](TAAR1)(TAAR1 agonist)s and [monoamine transporter 2](vesicular)(vesicular monoamine transporter 2) inhibitors that can enter [monoamine](monoamine) neurons; this allows them to release monoamine [neurotransmitter](neurotransmitter)s ([dopamine](dopamine), [norepinephrine](norepinephrine), and [serotonin](serotonin), among others) from their [sites](storage)(synaptic vesicles) in the [neuron](presynaptic)(presynaptic neuron), as well as prevent the [of these neurotransmitters](reuptake)(reuptake) from the [cleft](synaptic)(synaptic cleft).
Lisdexamfetamine was developed with the goal of providing a long duration of effect that is consistent throughout the day, with reduced potential for abuse. The attachment of the amino acid lysine slows down the relative amount of dextroamphetamine available to the blood stream. Because no free dextroamphetamine is present in lisdexamfetamine capsules, dextroamphetamine does not become available through mechanical manipulation, such as crushing or simple extraction. A relatively sophisticated biochemical process is needed to produce dextroamphetamine from lisdexamfetamine. As opposed to [Adderall](Adderall), which contains roughly equal parts of racemic amphetamine and dextroamphetamine salts, lisdexamfetamine is a single-[enantiomer](enantiomer) dextroamphetamine formula. Studies conducted show that lisdexamfetamine dimesylate may have less abuse potential than dextroamphetamine and an abuse profile similar to [diethylpropion](diethylpropion) at dosages that are FDA-approved for treatment of [ADHD](attention deficit hyperactivity disorder), but still has a high abuse potential when this dosage is exceeded by over 100%.
### Pharmacokinetics
[[File:Dextroamphetamine concentration-time curves after oral administration of equimolar doses of dextroamphetamine and lisdexamfetamine in adults.png|thumb|right|400px|Dextroamphetamine concentrations after oral administration of a single equimolar dose of dextroamphetamine sulfate immediate-release (IR) (40 mg; equivalent to 30 mg dextroamphetamine free-base) and lisdexamfetamine dimesylate (100 mg) in healthy adults. [Cmax](Cmax (pharmacology)), [t1/2](elimination half-life), and [AUC∞](Area under the curve (pharmacokinetics)) were all similar between the two drugs, while [tlag](tlag (pharmacokinetics)) (1.5 hours vs. 0.8 hours) and [tmax](Tmax (pharmacology)) (4.6 hours vs. 3.3 hours) were longer for lisdexamfetamine than with dextroamphetamine.]]
}}
## Chemistry
Lisdexamfetamine is a [amphetamine](substituted)(substituted amphetamine) with an [amide](amide) linkage formed by the [condensation](condensation reaction) of [dextroamphetamine](dextroamphetamine) with the [group](carboxylate)(carboxylic acid) of the [amino acid](essential)(essential amino acid) [L-lysine](Lysine). The reaction occurs with retention of [stereochemistry](stereochemistry), so the product lisdexamfetamine exists as a single [stereoisomer](stereoisomer). There are many possible names for lisdexamfetamine based on [nomenclature](IUPAC)(IUPAC nomenclature), but it is usually named as or . The condensation reaction occurs with loss of water:
:[[dextroamphetamine|(*S*)-]] + [[lysine|(*S*)-]] → (*S*,*S*)- +
[Amine](Amine) [group](functional)(functional group)s are vulnerable to oxidation in air and so pharmaceuticals containing them are usually formulated as [salts](salt (chemistry)) where this [moiety](moiety (chemistry)) has been [protonated](protonated). This increases stability, water solubility, and, by converting a [compound](molecular)(molecular compound) to an [compound](ionic)(ionic compound), increases the melting point and thereby ensures a solid product. In the case of lisdexamfetamine, this is achieved by reacting with two equivalents of [acid](methanesulfonic)(methanesulfonic acid) to produce the di[mesylate](mesylate) salt, a [water-soluble](water-soluble) (792 mg mL−1) powder with a white to off-white color.
: + 2 [[acid|](methanesulfonic)] →
### Comparison to other formulations
Lisdexamfetamine dimesylate is one marketed formulation delivering dextroamphetamine. The following table compares the drug to other amphetamine pharmaceuticals.
## History
Lisdexamfetamine was [developed](drug development) by New River Pharmaceuticals, who were bought by [Pharmaceuticals](Takeda)(Takeda Pharmaceuticals) through its acquisition of [Pharmaceuticals](Shire)(Shire Pharmaceuticals), shortly before it began being marketed. It was developed with the intention of creating a longer-lasting and less-easily abused version of dextroamphetamine, as the requirement of conversion into dextroamphetamine via enzymes in the [blood cells](red)(red blood cells) delays its onset of action, regardless of the route of administration.
On 23 April 2008, the FDA approved lisdexamfetamine for treatment of ADHD in adults. On 4 August 2009, [Canada](Health)(Health Canada) approved the marketing of 30 mg and 50 mg capsules of lisdexamfetamine for prescription use.
In January 2015, lisdexamfetamine was approved by the US [and Drug Administration](Food)(Food and Drug Administration) for treatment of [eating disorder](binge)(binge eating disorder) in adults.
The US [and Drug Administration](Food)(Food and Drug Administration) gave tentative approval to [formulation](generic)(generic drug)s of lisdexamfetamine in 2015. The expiration date for [protection](patent)(patent protection) of lisdexamfetamine in the US was 24 February 2023. The Canadian patent expires 20 years from the filing date of 1 June 2004.
Production quotas for 2016 in the United States were 29,750 kg.
## Society and culture
### Names
[[Adult capsules 50mg and 70mg laid on the packaging (German)](Image:Elvanse.jpg|thumb|Elvanse)]
*Lisdexamfetamine* is the [Nonproprietary Name](International)(International Nonproprietary Name) (INN) and is a contraction of [L-lysine](lysine)-[dextroamphetamine](dextroamphetamine).
As of November 2020, lisdexamfetamine is sold under the following brand names: Aduvanz, Elvanse, Juneve, Lisdexamfetamine Dimesylate, Samexid, Tyvense, Venvanse, and Vyvanse.
## Research
### Depression
Some clinical trials that used lisdexamfetamine as an [therapy](add-on)(adjunct therapy) with a [serotonin reuptake inhibitor](selective)(selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor) (SSRI) or [reuptake inhibitor](serotonin-norepinephrine)(serotonin-norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor) (SNRI) for [depression](treatment-resistant)(treatment-resistant depression) indicated that this is no more effective than the use of an SSRI or SNRI alone. Other studies indicated that psychostimulants potentiated antidepressants, and were under-prescribed for treatment resistant depression. In those studies, patients showed significant improvement in energy, mood, and psychomotor activity. Clinical guidelines advise caution in the use of stimulants for depression and advise them only as [second-](second-line therapy) or [third-line](third-line therapy) adjunctive agents.
In February 2014, Shire announced that two late-stage [trial](clinical)(clinical trial)s had found that Vyvanse was not an effective treatment for depression, and development for this indication was discontinued. A 2018 [meta-analysis](meta-analysis) of [controlled trial](randomized)(randomized controlled trial)s of lisdexamfetamine for antidepressant augmentation in people with [depressive disorder](major)(major depressive disorder)—the first to be conducted—found that lisdexamfetamine was not significantly better than placebo in improving [Depression Rating Scale](Montgomery–Åsberg)(Montgomery–Åsberg Depression Rating Scale) scores, [rate](response)(response rate (medicine))s, or [rate](remission)(remission rate)s. However, there was indication of a small effect in improving depressive symptoms that approached trend-level significance. Lisdexamfetamine was well-tolerated in the meta-analysis. The quantity of evidence was limited, with only four trials included. In a subsequent 2022 [meta-analysis](network)(network meta-analysis), lisdexamfetamine was significantly effective as an antidepressant augmentation for treatment-resistant depression.
Although lisdexamfetamine has shown limited effectiveness in the treatment of depression in clinical trials, a [II](phase)(Phases of clinical research#Phase II) [study](clinical)(clinical study) found that the addition of lisdexamfetamine to an antidepressant improved [dysfunction](executive)(executive dysfunction) in people with mild major depressive disorder but persisting executive dysfunction.
While development of lisdexamfetamine for major depressive disorder and [depression](bipolar)(bipolar depression) was discontinued, the drug remains in phase II clinical trials for treatment of "[disorder](mood)(mood disorder)s" as of October 2021.
## Explanatory notes
## Reference notes
## References
[Category:Amphetamine](Category:Amphetamine)
[Category:Anorectics](Category:Anorectics)
[Category:Aphrodisiacs](Category:Aphrodisiacs)
[Category:Codrugs](Category:Codrugs)
[acting on the cardiovascular system](Category:Drugs)(Category:Drugs acting on the cardiovascular system)
[acting on the nervous system](Category:Drugs)(Category:Drugs acting on the nervous system)
[aids](Category:Ergogenic)(Category:Ergogenic aids)
[Category:Euphoriants](Category:Euphoriants)
[amino acid reuptake inhibitors](Category:Excitatory)(Category:Excitatory amino acid reuptake inhibitors)
[Category:Nootropics](Category:Nootropics)
[releasing agents](Category:Norepinephrine-dopamine)(Category:Norepinephrine-dopamine releasing agents)
[Category:Phenethylamines](Category:Phenethylamines)
[Category:Stimulants](Category:Stimulants)
[amphetamines](Category:Substituted)(Category:Substituted amphetamines)
[agonists](Category:TAAR1)(Category:TAAR1 agonists)
[Pharmaceutical Company brands](Category:Takeda)(Category:Takeda Pharmaceutical Company brands)
[deficit hyperactivity disorder management](Category:Attention)(Category:Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder management)
[inhibitors](Category:VMAT)(Category:VMAT inhibitors)
[medicine articles ready to translate](Category:Wikipedia)(Category:Wikipedia medicine articles ready to translate)
[Anti-Doping Agency prohibited substances](Category:World)(Category:World Anti-Doping Agency prohibited substances)
|
Schutzstaffel
|
schutzstaffel
|
# Schutzstaffel
*Revision ID: 1158405485 | Timestamp: 2023-06-03T21:54:25Z*
---
Clockwise from top left:
| formed = 4 April 1925
| preceding1 = *[Sturmabteilung](Sturmabteilung)* (SA)
| preceding2 = *[Stabswache](1st SS Division Leibstandarte SS Adolf Hitler)*
| dissolved = 8 May 1945
| jurisdiction = [Germany](Nazi Germany) and [Europe](Occupied)(German-occupied Europe)
| headquarters = [Prinz-Albrecht-Straße](Niederkirchnerstraße), [Berlin](Berlin)
| coordinates =
| employees = 800,000 ( 1944)
| minister_type = [Reichsführer](Reichsführer-SS)
| minister1_name = [Himmler](Heinrich)(Heinrich Himmler) (longest serving)[Schreck](Julius)(Julius Schreck) (first)[Hanke](Karl)(Karl Hanke) (last)
| agency_type = [Paramilitary](Paramilitary)
| parent_agency = [Party](Nazi)(Nazi Party)*Sturmabteilung* (until July 1934)
| child1_agency = *[SS](Allgemeine)(Allgemeine SS)*
| child2_agency = *[Waffen-SS](Waffen-SS)*
| child3_agency = *[SS-Totenkopfverbände](SS-Totenkopfverbände)* (SS-TV)
| child4_agency = *[Sicherheitspolizei](Sicherheitspolizei)* (SiPo; until 1939, when folded into the [RSHA](RSHA))
| child5_agency = *[Sicherheitsdienst](Sicherheitsdienst)* (SD)
| child6_agency = *[Ordnungspolizei](Ordnungspolizei)* (Orpo)
}}
The ***Schutzstaffel*** (**SS**; also stylized as ***ᛋᛋ*** with [runes](Armanen)(Esoteric insignia of the Schutzstaffel); ; "Protection Squadron") was a major [paramilitary](paramilitary) organization under [Hitler](Adolf)(Adolf Hitler) and the [Party](Nazi)(Nazi Party) in [Germany](Nazi)(Nazi Germany), and later throughout [Europe](German-occupied)(German-occupied Europe) during [War II](World)(World War II).
It began with a small guard unit known as the *Saal-Schutz* ("Hall Security") made up of party volunteers to provide security for party meetings in [Munich](Munich). In 1925, [Himmler](Heinrich)(Heinrich Himmler) joined the unit, which had by then been reformed and given its final name. Under his direction (1929–1945) it grew from a small paramilitary formation during the [Republic](Weimar)(Weimar Republic) to one of the most powerful organizations in Nazi Germany. From the time of the Nazi Party's rise to power until the regime's collapse in 1945, the SS was the foremost agency of security, [surveillance](mass)(mass surveillance), and [terrorism](state)(state terrorism) within Germany and German-occupied Europe.
The two main constituent groups were the *[SS](Allgemeine)(Allgemeine SS)* (General SS) and *[Waffen-SS](Waffen-SS)* (Armed SS). The *Allgemeine SS* was responsible for enforcing the [policy of Nazi Germany](racial)(racial policy of Nazi Germany) and general policing, whereas the *Waffen-SS* consisted of the combat units of the SS, with a sworn allegiance to Hitler. A third component of the SS, the *[SS-Totenkopfverbände](SS-Totenkopfverbände)* (*SS-TV*; "[Head](Death's)(Totenkopf) Units"), ran the [camps](concentration)(Nazi concentration camps) and [camp](extermination)(extermination camp)s. Additional subdivisions of the SS included the [Gestapo](Gestapo) and the *[Sicherheitsdienst](Sicherheitsdienst)* (SD) organizations. They were tasked with the detection of actual or potential enemies of the Nazi state, the neutralization of any opposition, policing the German people for their commitment to [ideology](Nazi)(Nazi ideology), and providing domestic and foreign intelligence.
The SS was the organization most responsible for the genocidal murder of [estimated 5.5 to 6 million Jews and millions of other victims](an)(Holocaust victims) during [Holocaust](the)(the Holocaust). Members of all of its branches committed [crime](war)(war crime)s and [against humanity](crimes)(crimes against humanity) during World War II (1939–45). The SS was also involved in commercial enterprises and [concentration camp inmates as slave labor](exploited)(Forced labour under German rule during World War II). After Nazi Germany's defeat, the SS and the Nazi Party were judged by the [Military Tribunal](International)(International Military Tribunal) at Nuremberg to be criminal organizations. [Kaltenbrunner](Ernst)(Ernst Kaltenbrunner), the highest-ranking surviving SS main department chief, was found guilty of crimes against humanity at the [trials](Nuremberg)(Nuremberg trials) and hanged in 1946.
## Origins
### Forerunner of the SS
[[File:Bundesarchiv Bild 119-1486, Hitler-Putsch, München, Marienplatz.jpg|thumb|upright=1.35|[Party](Nazi)(Nazi Party) supporters and stormtroopers in Munich during the [Hall Putsch](Beer)(Beer Hall Putsch), 1923]]
By 1923, the [Party](Nazi)(Nazi Party) led by [Hitler](Adolf)(Adolf Hitler) had created a small volunteer guard unit known as the *Saal-Schutz* (Hall Security) to provide security at their meetings in [Munich](Munich). The same year, Hitler ordered the formation of a small bodyguard unit dedicated to his personal service. He wished it to be separate from the "suspect mass" of the party, including the paramilitary *[Sturmabteilung](Sturmabteilung)* ("Storm Battalion"; SA), which he did not trust. The new formation was designated the *Stabswache* (Staff Guard). Originally the unit was composed of eight men, commanded by [Schreck](Julius)(Julius Schreck) and [Berchtold](Joseph)(Joseph Berchtold), and was modeled after the [Naval Brigade](Erhardt)(Erhardt Naval Brigade), a *[Freikorps](Freikorps)* of the time. The unit was renamed [*Stoßtrupp*](Stoßtrupp-Hitler) (Shock Troops) in May 1923.
The *Stoßtrupp* was abolished after the failed 1923 [Hall Putsch](Beer)(Beer Hall Putsch), an attempt by the Nazi Party to seize power in Munich. In 1925, Hitler ordered Schreck to organize a new bodyguard unit, the *Schutzkommando* (Protection Command). It was tasked with providing personal protection for Hitler at party functions and events. That same year, the *Schutzkommando* was expanded to a national organization and renamed successively the *Sturmstaffel* (Storm Squadron), and finally the *Schutzstaffel* (Protection Squad; SS). Officially, the SS marked its foundation on 9 November 1925 (the second anniversary of the Beer Hall Putsch). The new SS protected party leaders throughout Germany. Hitler's personal SS protection unit was later enlarged to include combat units.
### Early commanders
Schreck, a founding member of the SA and a close confidant of Hitler, became the first SS chief in March 1925. On 15 April 1926, Joseph Berchtold succeeded him as chief of the SS. Berchtold changed the title of the office to *Reichsführer-SS* (Reich Leader-SS). Berchtold was considered more dynamic than his predecessor but became increasingly frustrated by the authority the SA had over the SS. This led to him transferring leadership of the SS to his deputy, [Heiden](Erhard)(Erhard Heiden), on 1 March 1927. Under Heiden's leadership, a stricter code of discipline was enforced than would have been tolerated in the SA.
Between 1925 and 1929, the SS was considered to be a small *Gruppe* (battalion) of the SA. Except in the Munich area, the SS was unable to maintain any momentum in its membership numbers, which declined from 1,000 to 280 as the SA continued its rapid growth. As Heiden attempted to keep the SS from dissolving, [Himmler](Heinrich)(Heinrich Himmler) became his deputy in September 1927. Himmler displayed good organizational abilities compared to Heiden. The SS established [number](a)(List of Gauleiters) of [*Gau*](Gau (territory))s (regions or provinces). The SS-Gaue consisted of *SS-Gau Berlin*, *SS-Gau Berlin Brandenburg*, *SS-Gau Franken*, *SS-Gau Niederbayern*, *SS-Gau Rheinland-Süd*, and *SS-Gau Sachsen*.
### Himmler appointed
[[File: Bundesarchiv Bild 146-1969-054-53A, Nürnberg, Reichsparteitag.jpg|thumb|upright=1.35|[Himmler](Heinrich)(Heinrich Himmler) (with glasses, to the left of [Hitler](Adolf)(Adolf Hitler)) was an early supporter of the Nazi Party.]]
With Hitler's approval, Himmler assumed the position of *Reichsführer-SS* in January 1929. There are differing accounts of the reason for Heiden's dismissal from his position as head of the SS. The party announced that it was for "family reasons." Under Himmler, the SS expanded and gained a larger foothold. He considered the SS an elite, ideologically driven National Socialist organization, a "conflation of [knights](Teutonic)(Teutonic knights), the [Jesuits](Jesuits), and [Samurai](Japanese)(Japanese Samurai)". His ultimate aim was to turn the SS into the most powerful organization in Germany and the most influential branch of the party. He expanded the SS to 3,000 members in his first year as its leader.
In 1929, the *[SS-Hauptamt](SS-Hauptamt)* (main SS office) was expanded and reorganized into five main offices dealing with general administration, personnel, finance, security, and race matters. At the same time, the SS-Gaue were divided into three *SS-Oberführerbereiche* areas, namely the *SS-Oberführerbereich Ost*, *SS-Oberführerbereich West*, and *SS-Oberführerbereich Süd*. The lower levels of the SS remained largely unchanged. Although officially still considered a sub-organization of the SA and answerable to the *[Stabschef](Stabschef)* (SA Chief of Staff), it was also during this time that Himmler began to establish the independence of the SS from the SA. The SS grew in size and power due to its exclusive loyalty to Hitler, as opposed to the SA, which was seen as semi-independent and a threat to Hitler's hegemony over the party, mainly because they demanded a "second revolution" beyond the one that brought the Nazi Party to power. By the end of 1933, the membership of the SS reached 209,000. Under Himmler's leadership, the SS continued to gather greater power as more and more state and party functions were assigned to its jurisdiction. Over time the SS became answerable only to Hitler, a development typical of the organizational structure of the entire Nazi regime, where legal norms were replaced by actions undertaken under the *[Führerprinzip](Führerprinzip)* (leader principle), where Hitler's will was considered to be above the law.
In the latter half of 1934, Himmler oversaw the creation of *[SS-Junkerschule](SS-Junkerschule)*, institutions where SS officer candidates received leadership training, political and ideological indoctrination, and military instruction. The training stressed ruthlessness and toughness as part of the SS value system, which helped foster a sense of superiority among the men and taught them self-confidence. The first schools were established at [Tölz](Bad)(Bad Tölz) and [Braunschweig](Braunschweig), with additional schools opening at [Klagenfurt](Klagenfurt) and [Prague](Prague) during the war.
### Ideology
The SS was regarded as the Nazi Party's elite unit. In keeping with the [policy of Nazi Germany](racial)(racial policy of Nazi Germany), in the early days all SS officer candidates had to provide proof of [ancestry](Aryan)(Aryan race#Nazism) back to 1750 and for other ranks to 1800. Once the war started and it became more difficult to confirm ancestry, the regulation was amended to just proving the candidate's grandparents were Aryan, as spelled out in the [Laws](Nuremberg)(Nuremberg Laws). Other requirements were complete obedience to the Führer and a commitment to the German people and nation. Himmler also tried to institute physical criteria based on appearance and height, but these requirements were only loosely enforced, and over half the SS men did not meet the criteria. Inducements such as higher salaries and larger homes were provided to members of the SS since they were expected to produce more children than the average German family as part of their commitment to Nazi Party doctrine.
[[File:Gruft der Wewelsburg (10573265394).jpg|thumb|upright=1.35|The crypt at [Wewelsburg](Wewelsburg) was repurposed by Himmler as a place to memorialize dead SS members. Artwork commemorating the Holocaust now hangs on the walls.]]
Commitment to SS ideology was emphasized throughout the recruitment, membership process, and training. Members of the SS were indoctrinated in the racial policy of Nazi Germany and were taught that it was necessary to remove from Germany people deemed by that policy as inferior. [Esoteric](Esoteric) rituals and the awarding of regalia and insignia for milestones in the SS man's career suffused SS members even further with Nazi ideology. Members were expected to renounce their Christian faith, and Christmas was replaced with a [celebration](solstice)(Christmas in Nazi Germany). Church weddings were replaced with SS *Ehewein*, a pagan ceremony invented by Himmler. These pseudo-religious rites and ceremonies often took place near SS-dedicated monuments or in special SS-designated places. In 1933, Himmler bought [Wewelsburg](Wewelsburg), a castle in [Westphalia](Westphalia). He initially intended it to be used as an SS training center, but its role came to include hosting SS dinners and neo-pagan rituals.
In 1936, Himmler wrote in the pamphlet "The SS as an Anti-Bolshevist Fighting Organization":
}}
The SS ideology included the application of brutality and terror as a solution to military and political problems. The SS stressed total loyalty and obedience to orders unto death. Hitler used this as a powerful tool to further his aims and those of the Nazi Party. The SS was entrusted with the commission of atrocities, illegal activities, and war crimes. Himmler once wrote that an SS man "hesitates not for a single instant, but executes unquestioningly ..." any *Führer-Befehl* (Führer order). Their official motto was *"[Ehre heißt Treue](Meine)(Meine Ehre heißt Treue)"* (My Honour is Loyalty).
As part of its race-centric functions during World War II, the SS oversaw the isolation and displacement of [Jews](Jews) from the populations of the conquered territories, seizing their assets and deporting them to [camps](concentration)(Nazi concentration camps) and [ghettos](Ghettos#Jewish ghettos), where they were used as [labor](slave)(slave labor) or immediately killed. Chosen to implement the [Solution](Final)(Final Solution) ordered by Hitler, the SS were the main group responsible for the institutional murder and [democide](democide) of more than 20 million people during [Holocaust](the)(the Holocaust), including approximately 5.2 million to 6 million Jews and 10.5 million [Slavs](Slavs). A significant number of victims were members of other racial or ethnic groups such as the 258,000 [Romani](Romani people). The SS was involved in murdering people viewed as threats to [hygiene](race)(Nazi eugenics) or Nazi ideology, including the mentally or physically handicapped, homosexuals, and political dissidents. Members of trade unions and those perceived to be affiliated with groups that opposed the regime (religious, political, social, and otherwise), or those whose views were contradictory to the goals of the Nazi Party government, were rounded up in large numbers; these included clergy of all faiths, [Witnesses](Jehovah's)(Jehovah's Witnesses), [Freemasons](Freemasonry), [Communists](Communism), and [Club](Rotary)(Rotary International) members. According to the judgments rendered at the [trials](Nuremberg)(Nuremberg trials), as well as many [crime](war)(war crime)s investigations and trials conducted since then, the SS was responsible for the majority of Nazi war crimes. In particular, it was the primary organization that carried out the Holocaust.
## Pre-war Germany
After Hitler and the Nazi Party came to power on 30 January 1933, the SS was considered a state organization and a branch of the government. Law enforcement gradually became the purview of the SS, and many SS organizations became [facto](de)(de facto) government agencies.
[[File: HimmlerAndHeydrich 1938.jpeg|thumb|upright=1.0|[Heydrich](Reinhard)(Reinhard Heydrich) (right) was Himmler's protégé and a leading SS figure until his assassination in 1942.]]
The SS established a [state](police)(police state) within Nazi Germany, using the secret state police and security forces under Himmler's control to suppress resistance to Hitler. In his role as [President of Prussia](Minister)(Minister President of Prussia), [Göring](Hermann)(Hermann Göring) had in 1933 created a Prussian [police](secret)(secret police) force, the *Geheime Staatspolizei* or [Gestapo](Gestapo), and appointed [Diels](Rudolf)(Rudolf Diels) as its head. Concerned that Diels was not ruthless enough to use the Gestapo effectively to counteract the power of the SA, Göring handed over its control to Himmler on 20 April 1934. Also on that date, in a departure from long-standing German practice that law enforcement was a state and local matter, Hitler appointed Himmler chief of all German police outside Prussia. Himmler named his deputy and protégé [Heydrich](Reinhard)(Reinhard Heydrich) chief of the Gestapo on 22 April 1934. Heydrich also continued as head of the *[Sicherheitsdienst](Sicherheitsdienst)* (SD; security service).
The Gestapo's transfer to Himmler was a prelude to the [of the Long Knives](Night)(Night of the Long Knives), in which most of the SA leadership were arrested and subsequently executed. The SS and Gestapo carried out most of the murders. On 20 July 1934, Hitler detached the SS from the SA, which was no longer an influential force after the purge. The SS became an elite corps of the Nazi Party, answerable only to Hitler. Himmler's title of *Reichsführer-SS* now became his actual rank – and the highest rank in the SS, equivalent to the rank of [marshal](field)(Generalfeldmarschall) in the army (his previous rank was *[Obergruppenführer](Obergruppenführer)*). As Himmler's position and authority grew, so in effect did his rank.
On 17 June 1936, all police forces throughout Germany were united under the purview of Himmler and the SS. Himmler and Heydrich thus became two of the most powerful men in the country's administration. Police and intelligence forces brought under their administrative control included the SD, Gestapo, *[Kriminalpolizei](Kriminalpolizei)* (Kripo; criminal investigative police), and *[Ordnungspolizei](Ordnungspolizei)* (Orpo; regular uniformed police). In his capacity as police chief, Himmler was nominally subordinate to Interior Minister [Frick](Wilhelm)(Wilhelm Frick). In practice, since the SS answered only to Hitler, the de facto merger of the SS and the police made the police independent of Frick's control. In September 1939, the security and police agencies, including the *[Sicherheitspolizei](Sicherheitspolizei)* (SiPo; security police) and SD (but not the Orpo), were consolidated into the [Security Main Office](Reich)(Reich Security Main Office) (RSHA), headed by Heydrich. This further increased the collective authority of the SS.
During *[Kristallnacht](Kristallnacht)* (9–10 November 1938), SS security services clandestinely coordinated violence against Jews as the SS, Gestapo, SD, Kripo, SiPo, and regular police did what they could to ensure that while Jewish synagogues and community centers were destroyed, Jewish-owned businesses and housing remained intact so that they could later be seized. In the end, thousands of Jewish businesses, homes, and graveyards were vandalized and looted, particularly by members of the SA. Some 500 to 1,000 synagogues were destroyed, mostly by arson. On 11 November, Heydrich reported a death toll of 36 people, but later assessments put the number of deaths at up to two thousand. On Hitler's orders, around 30,000 Jewish men were arrested and sent to concentration camps by 16 November. As many as 2,500 of these people died in the following months. It was at this point that the SS state began in earnest its campaign of terror against political and religious opponents, who they imprisoned without trial or judicial oversight for the sake of "security, re-education, or prevention".
In September 1939, the authority of the SS expanded further when the senior SS officer in each military district also became its chief of police. Most of these [and police leader](SS)(SS and police leader)s held the rank of SS-*[Gruppenführer](Gruppenführer)* or above and answered directly to Himmler in all SS matters within their district. Their role was to police the population and oversee the activities of the SS men within their district. By declaring an emergency, they could bypass the district administrative offices for the SS, SD, SiPo, *[SS-Totenkopfverbände](SS-Totenkopfverbände)* (SS-TV; concentration camp guards), and Orpo, thereby gaining direct operational control of these groups.
### Hitler's personal bodyguards
[[File:Bundesarchiv Bild 183-H15390, Berlin, Kaserne der LSSAH, Vergatterung.jpg|thumb|upright=1.15|Troop inspection of the *[SS Adolf Hitler](Leibstandarte)(1st SS Panzer Division Leibstandarte SS Adolf Hitler)* in Berlin, 1938]]
As the SS grew in size and importance, so too did Hitler's personal protection forces. Three main SS groups were assigned to protect Hitler. In 1933, his larger personal bodyguard unit (previously the [SS-Standarte](1st)(1st SS-Standarte)) was called to Berlin to replace the Army Chancellery Guard, assigned to protect the [of Germany](Chancellor)(Chancellor of Germany). [Dietrich](Sepp)(Sepp Dietrich) commanded the new unit, previously known as SS-Stabswache Berlin; the name was changed to *SS-Sonderkommando Berlin*. In November 1933, the name was changed to *Leibstandarte Adolf Hitler*. In April 1934, Himmler modified the name to *[SS Adolf Hitler](Leibstandarte)(Leibstandarte SS Adolf Hitler)* (LSSAH). The LSSAH guarded Hitler's private residences and offices, providing an outer ring of protection for the Führer and his visitors. LSSAH men manned sentry posts at the entrances to the old [Chancellery](Reich)(Reich Chancellery) and the new Reich Chancellery. The number of LSSAH guards was increased during special events. At the [Berghof](Berghof (residence)), Hitler's residence in the [Obersalzberg](Obersalzberg), a large contingent of the LSSAH patrolled an extensive cordoned security zone.
From 1941 forward, the *Leibstandarte* became four distinct entities, the Waffen-SS division (unconnected to Hitler's protection but a formation of the Waffen-SS), the Berlin Chancellory Guard, the SS security regiment assigned to the Obersalzberg, and a Munich-based bodyguard unit which protected Hitler when he visited his apartment and the [House](Brown)(Brown House, Munich) Nazi Party headquarters in Munich. Although the unit was nominally under Himmler, Dietrich was the real commander and handled day-to-day administration.
Two other SS units composed the inner ring of Hitler's protection. The *[des Führers](SS-Begleitkommando)(SS-Begleitkommando des Führers)* (Escort Command of the Führer), formed in February 1932, served as Hitler's protection escort while he was traveling. This unit consisted of eight men who served around the clock protecting Hitler in shifts. Later the *SS-Begleitkommando* was expanded and became known as the *Führerbegleitkommando* (Führer Escort Command; FBK). It continued under separate command and remained responsible for Hitler's protection. The *[Schutzkommando](Führer)(Führer Schutzkommando)* (Führer Protection Command; FSK) was a protection unit founded by Himmler in March 1933. Originally it was charged with protecting Hitler only while he was inside the borders of [Bavaria](Bavaria). In early 1934, they replaced the *SS-Begleitkommando* for Hitler's protection throughout Germany. The FSK was renamed the *[Reichssicherheitsdienst](Reichssicherheitsdienst)* (Reich Security Service; RSD) in August 1935. [Rattenhuber](Johann)(Johann Rattenhuber), chief of the RSD, for the most part, took his orders directly from Hitler. The current FBK chief acted as his deputy. Wherever Hitler was in residence, members of the RSD and FBK would be present. RSD men patrolled the grounds and FBK men provided close security protection inside. The RSD and FBK worked together for security and personal protection during Hitler's trips and public events, but they operated as two groups and used separate vehicles. By March 1938, both units wore the standard field grey uniform of the SS. The RSD uniform had the SD diamond on the lower left sleeve.
### Concentration camps founded
[[File:Bundesarchiv Bild 183-H26996, KZ Dachau, Verbrennungsofen.jpg|thumb|upright=1.15|Crematorium at [concentration camp](Dachau)(Dachau concentration camp), May 1945 (photo taken after liberation)]]
The SS was closely associated with Nazi Germany's concentration camp system. On 26 June 1933, Himmler appointed SS-*[Oberführer](Oberführer)* [Eicke](Theodor)(Theodor Eicke) as [commandant](commandant) of [concentration camp](Dachau)(Dachau concentration camp), one of the first [concentration camps](Nazi)(Nazi concentration camps). It was created to consolidate the many small camps that had been set up by various police agencies and the Nazi Party to house political prisoners. The organizational structure Eicke instituted at Dachau stood as the model for all later concentration camps. After 1934, Eicke was named commander of the *SS-Totenkopfverbände* (SS-TV), the SS formation responsible for running the concentration camps under the authority of the SS and Himmler. Known as the "Death's Head Units", the SS-TV was first organized as several battalions, each based at one of Germany's major concentration camps. Leadership at the camps was divided into five departments: commander and adjutant, political affairs division, protective custody, administration, and medical personnel. By 1935, Himmler secured Hitler's approval and the finances necessary to establish and operate additional camps. Six concentration camps }} housing 21,400 inmates (mostly political prisoners) existed at the start of the war in September 1939. By the end of the war, hundreds of camps of varying size and function had been created, holding nearly 715,000 people, most of whom were targeted by the regime because of their race. The concentration camp population rose in tandem with the defeats suffered by the Nazi regime; the worse the catastrophe seemed, the greater the fear of subversion, prompting the SS to intensify their repression and terror.
## SS in World War II
By the outbreak of World War II, the SS had consolidated into its final form, which comprised three main organizations: the *Allgemeine SS*, *SS-Totenkopfverbände*, and the [Waffen-SS](Waffen-SS), which was founded in 1934 as the *[SS-Verfügungstruppe](SS-Verfügungstruppe)* (SS-VT) and renamed in 1940. The Waffen-SS evolved into a second German army alongside the [Wehrmacht](Wehrmacht) and operated in tandem with them, especially with the *[Heer](German Army (Wehrmacht))* (German Army). However, it never obtained total "independence of command", nor was it ever a "serious rival" to the German Army. Members were never able to join the ranks of the German High Command and it was dependent on the army for heavy weaponry and equipment. Although SS ranks generally had equivalents in the other services, the SS rank system did not copy the terms and ranks used by the Wehrmacht's branches. Instead, it used the ranks established by the post-World War I *Freikorps* and the SA. This was primarily done to emphasize the SS as being independent of the Wehrmacht.
### Invasion of Poland
[[File:Bundesarchiv Bild 101I-380-0069-33, Polen, Verhaftung von Juden, Transport.jpg|thumb|upright=1.15|Polish Jews arrested by the *[Sicherheitsdienst](Sicherheitsdienst)* (SD) and police, September 1939]]
In the September 1939 [of Poland](invasion)(invasion of Poland), the LSSAH and SS-VT fought as separate mobile infantry regiments. The LSSAH became notorious for torching villages without military justification. Members of the LSSAH committed atrocities in numerous towns, including the murder of 50 Polish Jews in [Błonie](Błonie) and the massacre of 200 civilians, including children, who were machine-gunned in [Złoczew](Złoczew). Shootings also took place in [Bolesławiec](Bolesławiec), [Torzeniec](Torzeniec), [Goworowo](Goworowo), [Mława](Mława), and [Włocławek](Włocławek). Some senior members of the Wehrmacht were not convinced the units were fully prepared for combat. Its units took unnecessary risks and had a higher casualty rate than the army. *[Generaloberst](Generaloberst)* [von Bock](Fedor)(Fedor von Bock) was quite critical; following an April 1940 visit of the *SS-Totenkopf* division, he found their battle training was "insufficient". Hitler thought the criticism was typical of the army's "outmoded conception of chivalry." In its defense, the SS insisted that its armed formations had been hampered by having to fight piecemeal and were improperly equipped by the army.
After the invasion, Hitler entrusted the SS with extermination actions codenamed [Tannenberg](Operation)(Operation Tannenberg) and [AB-Aktion](German AB-Aktion in Poland) to remove potential leaders who could form a resistance to German occupation. The murders were committed by *[Einsatzgruppen](Einsatzgruppen)* (task forces; deployment groups), assisted by local paramilitary groups. Men for the *Einsatzgruppen* units were drawn from the SS, the SD, and the police. Some 65,000 Polish civilians, including [activist](activist)s, [intelligentsia](intelligentsia), scholars, teachers, actors, former officers, and others, were killed by the end of 1939. When the army leadership registered complaints about the brutality being meted out by the *Einsatzgruppen*, Heydrich informed them that he was acting "in accordance with the special order of the Führer." The first systematic mass shooting of Jews by the *Einsatzgruppen* took place on 6 September 1939 during the attack on [Kraków](Kraków).
[[File:Bundesarchiv Bild 146-1968-034-19A, Exekution von polnischen Geiseln.jpg|thumb|upright=1.15|Execution of civilians by *[Einsatzgruppen](Einsatzgruppen)* in [Kórnik](Kórnik), Poland, 1939]]
Satisfied with their performance in Poland, Hitler allowed further expansion of the armed SS formations but insisted new units remain under the operational control of the army. While the *SS-Leibstandarte* remained an independent regiment functioning as Hitler's personal bodyguards, the other regiments—*SS-Deutschland*, *SS-Germania,* and *SS-Der Führer*—were combined to form the *[SS-Verfügungs-Division](2nd SS Panzer Division Das Reich)*. A second SS division, the *SS-Totenkopf*, was formed from SS-TV concentration camp guards, and a third, the [*SS-Polizei*](4th SS Polizei Panzergrenadier Division), was created from police volunteers. The SS gained control over its own recruitment, logistics, and supply systems for its armed formations at this time. The SS, Gestapo, and SD were in charge of the provisional military administration in Poland until the appointment of [Frank](Hans)(Hans Frank) as Governor-General on 26 October 1939.
### Battle of France
On 10 May 1940, Hitler launched the [of France](Battle)(Battle of France), a major offensive against France and the [Countries](Low)(Low Countries). The SS supplied two of the 89 divisions employed. The LSSAH and elements of the SS-VT participated in the ground invasion of the [of the Netherlands](Battle)(Battle of the Netherlands). Simultaneously, airborne troops were dropped to capture key Dutch airfields, bridges, and railways. In the five-day campaign, the LSSAH linked up with army units and airborne troops after several clashes with Dutch defenders.
[[File:Bundesarchiv Bild 101III-Weill-059-04, Metz, Heinrich Himmler neben Panzer.jpg|thumb|upright=1.15|Himmler inspecting a of the [SS Panzer Division Leibstandarte SS Adolf Hitler](1st)(1st SS Panzer Division Leibstandarte SS Adolf Hitler) in [Metz](Metz), France, September 1940]]
SS troops did not take part in the thrust through the [Ardennes](Ardennes) and the river [Meuse](Meuse). Instead, the *SS-Totenkopf* was summoned from the army reserve to fight in support of *[Generalmajor](Generalmajor)* [Rommel](Erwin)(Erwin Rommel)'s [Panzer Division](7th)(7th Panzer Division (Wehrmacht)) as they advanced toward the [Channel](English)(English Channel). On 21 May, the British launched an armored counterattack against the flanks of the 7th Panzer Division and *SS-Totenkopf*. The Germans then trapped the British and French troops in a huge pocket at [Dunkirk](Dunkirk). On 27 May, 4 Company, *SS-Totenkopf* perpetrated the [Paradis massacre](Le)(Le Paradis massacre), where 97 men of the 2nd Battalion, [Norfolk Regiment](Royal)(Royal Norfolk Regiment) were machine-gunned after surrendering, with survivors finished off with [bayonet](bayonet)s. Two men survived. By 28 May the *SS-Leibstandarte* had taken [Wormhout](Wormhout), from Dunkirk. There, soldiers of the 2nd Battalion were responsible for the [massacre](Wormhoudt)(Wormhoudt massacre), where 80 British and French soldiers were murdered after they surrendered. According to historian Charles Sydnor, the "fanatical recklessness in the assault, suicidal defense against enemy attacks, and savage atrocities committed in the face of frustrated objectives" exhibited by the *SS-Totenkopf* division during the invasion were typical of the SS troops as a whole.
At the close of the campaign, Hitler expressed his pleasure with the performance of the *SS-Leibstandarte*, telling them: "Henceforth it will be an honor for you, who bear my name, to lead every German attack." The SS-VT was renamed the Waffen-SS in a speech made by Hitler in July 1940. Hitler then authorized the enlistment of "people perceived to be of related stock", as Himmler put it, to expand the ranks. Danes, Dutch, Norwegians, Swedes, and Finns volunteered to fight in the Waffen-SS under the command of German officers. They were brought together to form the new division *[SS-Wiking](5th SS Panzer Division Wiking)*. In January 1941, the *SS-Verfügungs* Division was renamed *SS-Reich* Division (Motorized), and was renamed as the *[SS Panzer Division Das Reich](2nd)(2nd SS Panzer Division Das Reich)* when it was reorganized as a *[Panzergrenadier](Panzergrenadier)* division in 1942.
### Campaign in the Balkans
In April 1941, the German Army [Yugoslavia](invaded)(Invasion of Yugoslavia) and [Greece](Battle of Greece). The LSSAH and *Das Reich* were attached to separate army [corps](Panzer)(Panzer corps). [Klingenberg](Fritz)(Fritz Klingenberg), a company commander in the *Das Reich*, led his men across Yugoslavia to the capital, [Belgrade](Belgrade), where a small group in the vanguard accepted the surrender of the city on 13 April. A few days later Yugoslavia surrendered. SS police units immediately began taking hostages and carrying out reprisals, a practice that became common. In some cases, they were joined by the Wehrmacht. Similar to Poland, the war policies of the Nazis in the Balkans resulted in brutal occupation and racist mass murder. Serbia became the second country (after [Estonia](Estonia)) declared *[Judenfrei](Judenfrei)* (free of Jews).
In Greece, the Wehrmacht and Waffen-SS encountered resistance from the [Expeditionary Force](British)(British Expeditionary Force (World War II)) (BEF) and [Army](Greek)(Hellenic Army). The fighting was intensified by the mountainous terrain, with its heavily defended narrow passes. The LSSAH was at the forefront of the German push. The BEF evacuated by sea to [Crete](Crete), but had to flee again in late May when the Germans arrived. Like Yugoslavia, the conquest of Greece brought its Jews into danger, as the Nazis immediately took a variety of measures against them. Initially confined in ghettos, most were transported to [concentration camp](Auschwitz)(Auschwitz concentration camp) in March 1943, where they were killed in the [chamber](gas)(gas chamber)s on arrival. Of Greece's 80,000 Jews, only 20 percent survived the war.
## War in the east
On 22 June 1941, Hitler launched [Barbarossa](Operation)(Operation Barbarossa), the invasion of the [Union](Soviet)(Soviet Union). The expanding war and the need to control occupied territories provided the conditions for Himmler to further consolidate the police and military organs of the SS. Rapid acquisition of vast territories in the East placed considerable strain on the SS police organizations as they struggled to adjust to the changing security challenges.
The 1st and 2nd SS Infantry Brigades, which had been formed from surplus concentration camp guards of the SS-TV, and the [Cavalry Brigade](SS)(SS Cavalry Brigade) moved into the Soviet Union behind the advancing armies. At first, they fought [partisans](Soviet)(Soviet partisans), but by the autumn of 1941, they left the anti-partisan role to other units and actively took part in the Holocaust. While assisting the *Einsatzgruppen*, they formed firing parties that participated in the liquidation of the Jewish population of the Soviet Union.
On 31 July 1941, Göring gave Heydrich written authorization to ensure the cooperation of administrative leaders of various government departments to undertake [genocide](genocide) of the Jews in territories under German control. Heydrich was instrumental in carrying out these exterminations, as the Gestapo was ready to organize deportations in the West and his *Einsatzgruppen* were already conducting extensive murder operations in the East. On 20 January 1942, Heydrich chaired a meeting, called the [Conference](Wannsee)(Wannsee Conference), to discuss the implementation of the plan.
During battles in the Soviet Union in 1941 and 1942, the Waffen-SS suffered enormous casualties. The LSSAH and *Das Reich* lost over half their troops to illness and combat casualties. In need of recruits, Himmler began to accept soldiers that did not fit the original SS racial profile. In early 1942, *SS-Leibstandarte*, *SS-Totenkopf*, and *SS-Das Reich* were withdrawn to the West to refit and were converted to *Panzergrenadier* divisions. The SS-Panzer Corps returned to the Soviet Union in 1943 and participated in the [Battle of Kharkov](Third)(Third Battle of Kharkov) in February and March.
### The Holocaust
[[File:Einsatzgruppen murder Jews in Ivanhorod, Ukraine, 1942.jpg|link=Ivanhorod Einsatzgruppen photograph, 1942|thumb|upright=1.15|Murder of Jews by *[Einsatzgruppen](Einsatzgruppen)* in [Ivanhorod](Ivanhorod), Ukraine, 1942]]
The SS was built on a culture of violence, which was exhibited in its most extreme form by the mass murder of civilians and prisoners of war on the [Front](Eastern)(Eastern Front (World War II)). Augmented by personnel from the Kripo, [Orpo](Ordnungspolizei) (Order Police), and Waffen-SS, the *Einsatzgruppen* reached a total strength of 3,000 men. *Einsatzgruppen* A, B, and C were attached to [Groups North](Army)(Army Group North), [Centre](Army Group Centre), and [South](Army Group South); *Einsatzgruppe* D was assigned to the [Army](11th)(11th Army (Wehrmacht)). The *Einsatzgruppe* for Special Purposes operated in eastern Poland starting in July 1941. The historian [Rhodes](Richard)(Richard Rhodes) describes them as being "outside the bounds of morality"; they were "judge, jury and executioner all in one", with the authority to kill anyone at their discretion. Following Operation Barbarossa, these *Einsatzgruppen* units, together with the Waffen-SS and Order Police as well as with assistance from the Wehrmacht, engaged in the mass murder of the Jewish population in occupied eastern Poland and the Soviet Union. The greatest extent of *Einsatzgruppen* action occurred in 1941 and 1942 in Ukraine and Russia. Before the invasion there were five million registered Jews throughout the Soviet Union, with three million of those residing in the territories occupied by the Germans; by the time the war ended, over two million of these had been murdered.
The extermination activities of the *Einsatzgruppen* generally followed a standard procedure, with the *Einsatzgruppen* chief contacting the nearest Wehrmacht unit commander to inform him of the impending action; this was done so they could coordinate and control access to the execution grounds. Initially, the victims were shot, but this method proved impracticable for an operation of this scale. Also, after Himmler observed the shooting of 100 Jews at [Minsk](Minsk) in August 1941, he grew concerned about the impact such actions were having on the mental health of his SS men. He decided that alternate methods of murder should be found, which led to the introduction of [van](gas)(Nazi gas van)s. However, these were not popular with the men, because removing the dead bodies from the van and burying them was a horrible ordeal. Prisoners or auxiliaries were often assigned to do this task so as to spare the SS men the trauma.
### Anti-partisan operations
In response to the army's difficulties in dealing with Soviet partisans, Hitler decided in July 1942 to transfer anti-partisan operations to the police. This placed the matter under Himmler's purview. As Hitler had ordered on 8 July 1941 that all Jews were to be regarded as partisans, the term "anti-partisan operations" was used as a euphemism for the murder of Jews as well as actual combat against resistance elements. In July 1942 Himmler ordered that the term "partisan" should no longer be used; instead resisters to Nazi rule would be described as "bandits".
Himmler set the SS and SD to work on developing additional anti-partisan tactics and launched a [propaganda](Propaganda in Nazi Germany) campaign. Sometime in June 1943, Himmler issued the *[Bandenbekämpfung](Bandenbekämpfung)* (bandit fighting) order, simultaneously announcing the existence of the *Bandenkampfverbände* (bandit fighting formations), with SS-*Obergruppenführer* [von dem Bach-Zelewski](Erich)(Erich von dem Bach-Zelewski) as its chief. Employing troops primarily from the SS police and Waffen-SS, the *Bandenkampfverbände* had four principal operational components: propaganda, centralized control and coordination of security operations, training of troops, and battle operations. Once the Wehrmacht had secured territorial objectives, the *Bandenkampfverbände* first secured communications facilities, roads, railways, and waterways. Thereafter, they secured rural communities and economic installations such as factories and administrative buildings. An additional priority was securing agricultural and forestry resources. The SS oversaw the collection of the harvest, which was deemed critical to strategic operations. Any Jews in the area were rounded up and killed. Communists and people of Asiatic descent were killed presumptively under the assumption that they were Soviet agents.
### Death camps
[[File:May 1944 - Jews from Carpathian Ruthenia arrive at Auschwitz-Birkenau.jpg|thumb|upright=1.15|Jews from [Ruthenia](Carpathian)(Carpathian Ruthenia) arriving at [concentration camp](Auschwitz)(Auschwitz concentration camp), 1944]]
After the start of the war, Himmler intensified the activity of the SS within Germany and in Nazi-occupied Europe. Increasing numbers of Jews and German citizens deemed politically suspect or social outsiders were arrested. As the Nazi regime became more oppressive, the concentration camp system grew in size and lethal operation, and grew in scope as the economic ambitions of the SS intensified.
Intensification of the killing operations took place in late 1941 when the SS began construction of stationary gassing facilities to replace the use of *Einsatzgruppen* for mass murders. Victims at these new [camp](extermination)(extermination camp)s were killed with the use of carbon monoxide gas from automobile engines. During [Reinhard](Operation)(Operation Reinhard), run by officers from the *Totenkopfverbände*, who were sworn to secrecy, three extermination camps were built in occupied Poland: [Bełżec](Bełżec extermination camp) (operational by March 1942), [Sobibór](Sobibór extermination camp) (operational by May 1942), and [Treblinka](Treblinka) (operational by July 1942), with squads of [men](Trawniki)(Trawniki men) (Eastern European collaborators) overseeing hundreds of *[Sonderkommando](Sonderkommando)* prisoners, who were forced to work in the gas chambers and crematoria before being murdered themselves. On Himmler's orders, by early 1942 the concentration camp at Auschwitz was greatly expanded to include the addition of gas chambers, where victims were killed using the pesticide [B](Zyklon)(Zyklon B).
For administrative reasons, all concentration camp guards and administrative staff became full members of the Waffen-SS in 1942. The concentration camps were placed under the command of the *SS-Wirtschafts-Verwaltungshauptamt* ([Main Economic and Administrative Office](SS)(SS Main Economic and Administrative Office); WVHA) under [Pohl](Oswald)(Oswald Pohl). [Glücks](Richard)(Richard Glücks) served as the [of Concentration Camps](Inspector)(Inspector of Concentration Camps), which in 1942 became office "D" under the WVHA. Exploitation and extermination became a balancing act as the military situation deteriorated. The labor needs of the war economy, especially for skilled workers, meant that some Jews escaped the genocide. On 30 October 1942, due to severe labor shortages in Germany, Himmler ordered that large numbers of able-bodied people in Nazi-occupied Soviet territories be taken prisoner and sent to Germany as [labor](forced)(forced labor).
By 1944, the SS-TV had been organized into three divisions: staff of the concentration camps in Germany and Austria, in the occupied territories, and of the extermination camps in Poland. By 1944, it became standard practice to rotate SS members in and out of the camps, partly based on manpower needs, but also to provide easier assignments to wounded Waffen-SS members. This rotation of personnel meant that nearly the entire SS knew what was going on inside the concentration camps, making the entire organization liable for war crimes and [against humanity](crimes)(crimes against humanity).
## Business empire
In 1934, Himmler founded the first SS business venture, Nordland-Verlag, a publishing house that released propaganda material and SS training manuals. Thereafter, he purchased [Porcelain](Allach)(Allach (porcelain)), which then began to produce SS memorabilia. Because of the labor shortage and a desire for financial gain, the SS started exploiting concentration camp inmates as slave labor. Most of the SS businesses lost money until Himmler placed them under the administration of Pohl's *Verwaltung und Wirtschaftshauptamt Hauptamt* (Administration and Business office; VuWHA) in 1939. Even then, most of the enterprises were poorly run and did not fare well, as SS men were not selected for their business experience, and the workers were starving. In July 1940 Pohl established the *[Wirtschaftsbetriebe GmbH](Deutsche)(Deutsche Wirtschaftsbetriebe)* (German Businesses Ltd; DWB), an umbrella corporation under which he took over administration of all SS business concerns. Eventually, the SS founded nearly 200 holding companies for their businesses.
[[File:Bundesarchiv Bild 192-269, KZ Mauthausen, Häftlinge im Steinbruch.jpg|thumb|left|upright|[through labor](Extermination)(Extermination through labor). At [concentration camp](Mauthausen-Gusen)(Mauthausen-Gusen concentration camp), inmates were forced to carry heavy granite blocks out of the quarry on the "Stairs of Death".]]
In May 1941 the VuWHA founded the *Deutsche Ausrüstungswerke* GmbH (German Equipment Works; DAW), which was created to integrate the SS business enterprises with the burgeoning concentration camp system. Himmler subsequently established four major new concentration camps in 1941: [Auschwitz](Auschwitz concentration camp), [Gross-Rosen](Gross-Rosen concentration camp), [Natzweiler-Struthof](Natzweiler-Struthof), and [Neuengamme](Neuengamme concentration camp). Each had at least one factory or quarry nearby where the inmates were forced to work. Himmler took a particular interest in providing laborers for [Farben](IG)(IG Farben), which was constructing a synthetic rubber factory at [III–Monowitz](Auschwitz)(Monowitz concentration camp). The plant was almost ready to commence production when it was overrun by Soviet troops in 1945. The life expectancy of inmates at Monowitz averaged about three months. This was typical of the camps, as inmates were underfed and lived under disastrously bad living conditions. Their workload was intentionally made impossibly high, under the policy of [through labor](extermination)(extermination through labor).
In 1942, Himmler consolidated all of the offices for which Pohl was responsible into one, creating the SS Main Economic and Administrative Office (*Wirtschafts- und Verwaltungshauptamt*; WVHA). The entire concentration camp system was placed under the authority of the WVHA. The SS owned Sudetenquell GmbH, a mineral water producer in [Sudetenland](Sudetenland). By 1944, the SS had purchased 75 percent of the mineral water producers in Germany and were intending to acquire a monopoly. Several concentration camps produced building materials such as stone, bricks, and cement for the SS-owned *[Erd- und Steinwerke](Deutsche)(Deutsche Erd- und Steinwerke)* (German Earth And Stone Works; DEST). In the occupied Eastern territories, the SS acquired a monopoly in brick production by seizing all 300 extant brickworks. The DWB also founded the *Ost-Deutsche Baustoffwerke* (East German Building Supply Works; GmbH or ODBS) and *Deutsche Edelmöbel* GmbH (German Noble Furniture). These operated in factories the SS had confiscated from Jews and Poles.
The SS owned experimental farms, bakeries, meat packing plants, leather works, clothing and uniform factories, and small arms factories. Under the direction of the WVHA, the SS sold camp labor to various factories at a rate of three to six *[Reichsmark](Reichsmark)s* per prisoner per day. The SS confiscated and sold the property of concentration camp inmates, confiscated their investment portfolios and their cash, and profited from their dead bodies by [their hair to make felt](selling)(August Frank memorandum) and melting down their dental work to obtain gold from the fillings. The total value of assets looted from the victims of [Reinhard](Operation)(Operation Reinhard) alone (not including Auschwitz) was listed by [Globocnik](Odilo)(Odilo Globocnik) as 178,745,960.59 [Reichsmark](Reichsmark)s. Items seized included of gold worth 843,802.75 RM, as well as of silver, of platinum, 249,771.50 American dollars, 130 diamond solitaires, 2,511.87 carats of brilliants, 13,458.62 carats of diamonds, and 114 kg of pearls. According to Nazi legislation, Jewish property belonged to the state, but many SS camp commandants and guards stole items such as diamonds or currency for personal gain or took seized foodstuffs and liquor to sell on the black market.
## Military reversals
On 5 July 1943, the Germans launched the [of Kursk](Battle)(Battle of Kursk), an offensive designed to eliminate the [Kursk](Kursk) salient. The Waffen-SS by this time had been expanded to 12 divisions, and most took part in the battle. Due to stiff Soviet resistance, Hitler halted the attack by the evening of 12 July. On 17 July he called off the operation and ordered a withdrawal. Thereafter, the Germans were forced onto the defensive as the [Army](Red)(Red Army) began the liberation of Western Russia. The losses incurred by the Waffen-SS and the Wehrmacht during the Battle of Kursk occurred nearly simultaneously with the [assault into Italy](Allied)(Italian Campaign (World War II)), opening a two-front war for Germany.
### Normandy landings
[[File:Bundesarchiv Bild 101I-263-1580-05, Atlantikwall, Soldaten der Legion "Freies Indien".jpg|thumb|right|Troops of the [Legion](Indian)(Indian Legion) of the Waffen-SS guarding the [Wall](Atlantic)(Atlantic Wall) in [Bordeaux](Bordeaux), France, 21 March 1944]]
Alarmed by the raids on [Nazaire](St)(St Nazaire Raid) and [Dieppe](Dieppe Raid) in 1942, Hitler had ordered the construction of fortifications he called the [Wall](Atlantic)(Atlantic Wall) all along the Atlantic coast, from Spain to Norway, to protect against an expected Allied invasion. Concrete gun emplacements were constructed at strategic points along the coast, and wooden stakes, metal tripods, mines, and large anti-tank obstacles were placed on the beaches to delay the approach of landing craft and impede the movement of tanks. In addition to several static infantry divisions, eleven panzer and *Panzergrenadier* divisions were deployed nearby. Four of these formations were Waffen-SS divisions. In addition, the *SS-Das Reich* was located in [France](Southern)(Southern France), the LSSAH was in Belgium refitting after fighting in the Soviet Union, and the newly formed panzer division *[SS-Hitlerjugend](12th SS Panzer Division Hitlerjugend)*, consisting of 17- and 18-year-old [Youth](Hitler)(Hitler Youth) members supported by combat veterans and experienced [NCO](Non-commissioned officer)s, was stationed west of Paris. The creation of the *SS-Hitlerjugend* was a sign of Hitler's desperation for more troops, especially ones with unquestioning obedience.
The [landings](Normandy)(Normandy landings) took place beginning on 6 June 1944. [Panzer Division](21st)(21st Panzer Division (Wehrmacht)) under *Generalmajor* [Feuchtinger](Edgar)(Edgar Feuchtinger), positioned south of [Caen](Caen), was the only panzer division close to the beaches. The division included 146 tanks and 50 [gun](assault)(assault gun)s, plus supporting infantry and artillery. At 02:00, *Generalleutnant* Wilhelm Richter, commander of the [Static Infantry Division](716th)(716th Static Infantry Division (Wehrmacht)), ordered 21st Panzer Division into position to counter-attack. However, as the division was part of the armored reserve, Feuchtinger was obliged to seek clearance from [OKW](OKW) before he could commit his formation. Feuchtinger did not receive orders until nearly 09:00, but in the meantime, on his own initiative he put together a battle group (including tanks) to fight the British forces east of the [Orne](Orne (river)). *SS-Hitlerjugend* began to deploy in the afternoon of 6 June, with its units undertaking defensive actions the following day. They also took part in the [for Caen](Battle)(Battle for Caen) (June–August 1944). On 7–8 and 17 June, members of the *SS-Hitlerjugend* shot and killed twenty Canadian prisoners of war in the [Abbey massacre](Ardenne)(Ardenne Abbey massacre).
The Allies continued to make progress in the liberation of France, and on 4 August Hitler ordered a counter-offensive ([Lüttich](Operation)(Operation Lüttich)) from [Vire](Vire) towards [Avranches](Avranches). The operation included LSSAH, *Das Reich*, [2nd](2nd Panzer Division (Wehrmacht)), and [Panzer Divisions](116th)(116th Panzer Division (Wehrmacht)), with support from infantry and elements of the [SS Panzergrenadier Division *Götz von Berlichingen*](17th)(17th SS Panzergrenadier Division Götz von Berlichingen) under [SS-*Oberstgruppenführer*](SS-Oberst-Gruppenführer) [Hausser](Paul)(Paul Hausser). These forces were to mount an offensive near [Mortain](Mortain) and drive west through Avranches to the coast. The Allied forces were prepared for this offensive, and an air assault on the combined German units proved devastating. On 21 August, 50,000 German troops, including most of the LSSAH, were encircled by the Allies in the [Pocket](Falaise)(Falaise Pocket). Remnants of the LSSAH which escaped were withdrawn to Germany for refitting. [was liberated](Paris)(Liberation of Paris) on 25 August, and the last of the German forces withdrew over the [Seine](Seine) by the end of August, ending the Normandy campaign.
### Battle for Germany
Waffen-SS units that had survived the summer campaigns were withdrawn from the front line to refit. Two of them, the [SS](9th)(9th SS Panzer Division Hohenstaufen) and [SS Panzer Divisions](10th)(10th SS Panzer Division Frundsberg), did so in the [Arnhem](Arnhem) region of Holland in early September 1944. Coincidentally, on 17 September, the Allies launched in the same area [Market Garden](Operation)(Operation Market Garden), a combined airborne and land operation designed to seize control of the lower [Rhine](Rhine). The 9th and 10th Panzers were among the units that repulsed the attack.
[[Bundesarchiv Bild 183-J28510, Ardennenoffensive, deutsche Infanterie geht im Wald vor..jpg|thumb|upright|German infantry traveling on foot in the Ardennes, December 1944](File:)]
In December 1944, Hitler launched the Ardennes Offensive, also known as the [of the Bulge](Battle)(Battle of the Bulge), a significant counterattack against the western Allies through the Ardennes with the aim of reaching [Antwerp](Antwerp) while encircling the Allied armies in the area. The offensive began with an artillery barrage shortly before dawn on 16 December. Spearheading the attack were two panzer armies composed largely of Waffen-SS divisions. The battlegroups found advancing through the forests and wooded hills of the Ardennes difficult in the winter weather, but they initially made good progress in the northern sector. They soon encountered strong resistance from the US [2nd](2nd Infantry Division (United States)) and [Infantry Divisions](99th)(99th Infantry Division (United States)). By 23 December, the weather improved enough for Allied air forces to attack the German forces and their supply columns, causing fuel shortages. In increasingly difficult conditions, the German advance slowed and was stopped. Hitler's failed offensive cost 700 tanks and most of their remaining mobile forces in the west, as well as most of their irreplaceable reserves of manpower and materiel.
During the battle, SS-*Obersturmbannführer* [Peiper](Joachim)(Joachim Peiper) left a path of destruction, which included Waffen-SS soldiers under his command murdering American [POW](POW)s and unarmed Belgian civilians in the [massacre](Malmedy)(Malmedy massacre). Captured SS soldiers who were part of *Kampfgruppe Peiper* were tried during the [massacre trial](Malmedy)(Malmedy massacre trial) following the war for this massacre and several others in the area. Many of the perpetrators were sentenced to hang, but the sentences were commuted. Peiper was imprisoned for eleven years for his role in the murders.
[[File: Bodies of U.S. officers and soldiers slained by the Nazis after capture near Malmedy, Belgium. - NARA - 196544.jpg|thumb|upright|left|American POWs murdered by SS forces led by [Peiper](Joachim)(Joachim Peiper) in the [massacre](Malmedy)(Malmedy massacre) during the [of the Bulge](Battle)(Battle of the Bulge), December 1944]]
In the east, the Red Army resumed its offensive on 12 January 1945. German forces were outnumbered twenty to one in aircraft, eleven to one in infantry, and seven to one in tanks on the Eastern Front. By the end of the month, the Red Army had made bridgeheads across the [Oder](Oder), the last geographic obstacle before Berlin. The western Allies continued to advance as well, but not as rapidly as the Red Army. The Panzer Corps conducted a successful defensive operation on 17–24 February at the [Hron](Hron) River, stalling the Allied advance towards Vienna. The [1st](I SS Panzer Corps) and [SS Panzer Corps](2nd)(II SS Panzer Corps) made their way towards Austria but were slowed by damaged railways.
Budapest fell on 13 February. Hitler ordered Dietrich's [Panzer Army](6th)(6th Panzer Army) to move into Hungary to protect the [Nagykanizsa](Nagykanizsa) oilfields and refineries, which he deemed the most strategically valuable fuel reserves on the Eastern Front. *Frühlingserwachsen* ([Spring Awakening](Operation)(Operation Spring Awakening)), the final German offensive in the east, took place in early March. German forces attacked near Lake Balaton, with 6th Panzer Army advancing north towards Budapest and 2nd Panzer Army moving east and south. Dietrich's forces at first made good progress, but as they drew near the Danube, the combination of muddy terrain and strong Soviet resistance brought them to a halt. By 16 March the battle was lost. Enraged by the defeat, Hitler ordered the Waffen-SS units involved to remove their [title](cuff)(cuff title)s as a mark of disgrace. Dietrich refused to carry out the order.
By this time, on both the Eastern and Western Front, the activities of the SS were becoming clear to the Allies, as the concentration and extermination camps were being overrun. Allied troops were filled with disbelief and repugnance at the evidence of Nazi brutality in the camps.
On 9 April 1945 [Königsberg](Königsberg) fell to the Red Army, and on 13 April Dietrich's SS unit was forced out of Vienna. The [of Berlin](Battle)(Battle of Berlin) began at 03:30 on 16 April with a massive artillery barrage. Within the week, fighting was taking place inside the city. Among the many elements defending Berlin were French, Latvian, and Scandinavian Waffen-SS troops. Hitler, now living in the *[Führerbunker](Führerbunker)* under the Reich Chancellery, still hoped that his remaining SS soldiers could rescue the capital. In spite of the hopelessness of the situation, members of the SS patrolling the city continued to shoot or hang soldiers and civilians for what they considered to be acts of cowardice or defeatism. The Berlin garrison surrendered on 2 May, two days after [committed suicide](Hitler)(Death of Adolf Hitler). As members of SS expected little mercy from the Red Army, they attempted to move westward to surrender to the western Allies instead.
## SS units and branches
### Reich Security Main Office
Heydrich held the title of *Chef der Sicherheitspolizei und des SD* (Chief of the Security Police and SD) until 27 September 1939, when he became chief of the newly established [Security Main Office](Reich)(Reich Security Main Office) (RSHA). From that point forward, the RSHA was in charge of SS security services. It had under its command the SD, Kripo, and Gestapo, as well as several offices to handle finance, administration, and supply. [Müller](Heinrich)(Heinrich Müller (Gestapo)), who had been chief of operations for the Gestapo, was appointed Gestapo chief at this time. [Nebe](Arthur)(Arthur Nebe) was chief of the Kripo, and the two branches of SD were commanded by a series of SS officers, including [Ohlendorf](Otto)(Otto Ohlendorf) and [Schellenberg](Walter)(Walter Schellenberg). The SD was considered an elite branch of the SS, and its members were better educated and typically more ambitious than those within the ranks of the *Allgemeine* SS. Members of the SD were specially trained in criminology, intelligence, and counter-intelligence. They also gained a reputation for ruthlessness and unwavering commitment to Nazi ideology.
Heydrich was attacked in Prague on 27 May 1942 by a British-trained team of Czech and Slovak soldiers who had been sent by the [government-in-exile](Czechoslovak)(Czechoslovak government-in-exile) to assassinate him in [Anthropoid](Operation)(Operation Anthropoid). He died from his injuries a week later. }} Himmler ran the RSHA personally until 30 January 1943, when Heydrich's positions were taken over by [Kaltenbrunner](Ernst)(Ernst Kaltenbrunner).
### *SS-Sonderkommandos*
Beginning in 1938 and throughout World War II, the SS enacted a procedure where offices and units of the SS could form smaller sub-units, known as *SS-Sonderkommandos*, to carry out special tasks, including large-scale murder operations. The use of *SS-Sonderkommandos* was widespread. According to former *SS [Sturmbannführer](Sturmbannführer)* [Höttl](Wilhelm)(Wilhelm Höttl), not even the SS leadership knew how many *SS-Sonderkommandos* were constantly being formed, disbanded, and reformed for various tasks, especially on the Eastern Front.
An *SS-Sonderkommando* unit led by SS-*Sturmbannführer* [Lange](Herbert)(Herbert Lange) murdered 1,201 psychiatric patients at the [Tiegenhof](Tiegenhof) psychiatric hospital in the [City of Danzig](Free)(Free City of Danzig), 1,100 patients in [Owińska](Owińska), 2,750 patients at [Kościan](Kościan), and 1,558 patients at [Działdowo](Działdowo), as well as hundreds of Poles at [VII](Fort)(Fort VII), where the mobile gas van and gassing bunker were developed. In 1941–42, *SS-Sonderkommando Lange* set up and managed the first extermination camp, at [Chełmno](Chełmno extermination camp), where 152,000 Jews were killed using gas vans.
After the [of Stalingrad](Battle)(Battle of Stalingrad) ended in February 1943, Himmler realized that Germany would likely lose the war, and ordered the formation of [Sonderkommando* 1005](*)(Sonderaktion 1005), a special task force under SS-*[Standartenführer](Standartenführer)* [Blobel](Paul)(Paul Blobel). The unit's assignment was to visit mass graves on the Eastern Front to exhume bodies and burn them in an attempt to cover up the genocide. The task remained unfinished at the end of the war, and many mass graves remain unmarked and unexcavated.
The *Eichmann Sonderkommando* was a task force headed by [Eichmann](Adolf)(Adolf Eichmann) that arrived in Budapest on 19 March 1944, the same day that [forces invaded Hungary](Axis)(Operation Margarethe). Their task was to take a direct role in the deportation of Hungarian Jews to Auschwitz. The *SS-Sonderkommandos* enlisted the aid of [antisemitic](antisemitic) elements from the Hungarian gendarmerie and pro-German administrators from within the Hungarian Interior Ministry. Round-ups began on 16 April, and from 14 May, four trains of 3,000 Jews per day left Hungary and traveled to the camp at Auschwitz II-Birkenau, arriving along a newly built spur line that terminated a few hundred meters from the gas chambers. Between 10 and 25 percent of the people on each train were chosen as forced laborers; the rest were killed within hours of arrival. Under international pressure, the Hungarian government halted deportations on 6 July 1944, by which time over 437,000 of Hungary's 725,000 Jews had been murdered.
### *Einsatzgruppen*
[[File:Bundesarchiv Bild 183-A0706-0018-030, Ukraine, ermordete Familie.jpg|thumb|SS murders in [Zboriv](Zboriv), 1941; a teenage boy is brought to view his dead family before being shot himself]]
The *[Einsatzgruppen](Einsatzgruppen)* had its origins in the ad hoc *Einsatzkommando* formed by Heydrich following the *[Anschluss](Anschluss)* in Austria in March 1938. Two units of *Einsatzgruppen* were stationed in the [Sudetenland](Sudetenland) in October 1938. When military action turned out not to be necessary because of the [Agreement](Munich)(Munich Agreement), the *Einsatzgruppen* were assigned to confiscate government papers and police documents. They secured government buildings, questioned senior civil servants, and arrested as many as 10,000 Czech communists and German citizens. The *Einsatzgruppen* also followed Wehrmacht troops and killed potential partisans. Similar groups were used in 1939 for the [of Czechoslovakia](occupation)(German occupation of Czechoslovakia).
Hitler felt that the planned extermination of the Jews was too difficult and important to be entrusted to the military. In 1941 the *Einsatzgruppen* were sent into the Soviet Union to begin large-scale genocide of Jews, [people](Romani)(Romani people), and communists. Historian [Hilberg](Raul)(Raul Hilberg) estimates that between 1941 and 1945 the *Einsatzgruppen* and related agencies killed more than two million people, including 1.3 million Jews. The largest mass shooting perpetrated by the *Einsatzgruppen* was at [Yar](Babi)(Babi Yar) outside [Kiev](Kiev), where 33,771 Jews were killed in a single operation on 29–30 September 1941. In the [massacre](Rumbula)(Rumbula massacre) (November–December 1941), 25,000 victims from the [ghetto](Riga)(Riga ghetto) were killed. Another mass shooting early in 1942 claimed the lives of over 10,000 Jews in [Kharkov](Kharkov).
The last *Einsatzgruppen* were disbanded in mid-1944 (although some continued to exist on paper until 1945) due to the German retreat on both fronts and the consequent inability to continue extermination activities. Former *Einsatzgruppen* members were either assigned duties in the Waffen-SS or concentration camps. Twenty-four *Einsatzgruppen* commanders were tried for war crimes following the war.
### SS Court Main Office
The [Court Main Office](SS)(SS Court Main Office) (*Hauptamt SS-Gericht*) was an internal legal system for conducting investigations, trials, and punishment of the SS and police. It had more than 600 lawyers on staff in the main offices in Berlin and Munich. Proceedings were conducted at 38 regional SS courts throughout Germany. It was the only authority authorized to try SS personnel, except for SS members who were on active duty in the Wehrmacht (in such cases, the SS member in question was tried by a standard military tribunal). Its creation placed the SS beyond the reach of civilian legal authority. Himmler personally intervened as he saw fit regarding convictions and punishment. The historian [Dietrich Bracher](Karl)(Karl Dietrich Bracher) describes this court system as one factor in the creation of the Nazi totalitarian police state, as it removed objective legal procedures, rendering citizens defenseless against the "summary justice of the SS terror."
### SS Cavalry
Shortly after Hitler seized power in 1933, most horse riding associations were taken over by the SA and SS. Members received combat training to serve in the *Reiter-SS* (SS Cavalry Corps). The first SS cavalry regiment, designated *SS-Totenkopf Reitstandarte 1*, was formed in September 1939. Commanded by then SS-*Standartenführer* [Fegelein](Hermann)(Hermann Fegelein), the unit was assigned to Poland, where they took part in the extermination of Polish intelligentsia. Additional squadrons were added in May 1940, for a total of fourteen.
The unit was split into two regiments in December 1939, with Fegelein in charge of both. By March 1941 their strength was 3,500 men. In July 1941, they were assigned to the [swamps punitive operation](Pripyat)(Pripyat swamps (punitive operation)), tasked with rounding up and exterminating Jews and partisans. The two regiments were amalgamated into the [Cavalry Brigade](SS)(SS Cavalry Brigade) on 31 July, twelve days after the operation started. Fegelein's final report, dated 18 September 1941, states that they killed 14,178 Jews, 1,001 partisans, and 699 Red Army soldiers, with 830 prisoners taken. The historian Henning Pieper estimates the actual number of Jews killed was closer to 23,700. The SS Cavalry Brigade took serious losses in November 1941 in the [of Moscow](Battle)(Battle of Moscow), with casualties of up to 60 percent in some squadrons. Fegelein was appointed as commander of the [SS Cavalry Division *Florian Geyer*](8th)(8th SS Cavalry Division Florian Geyer) on 20 April 1943. This unit saw service in the Soviet Union in attacks on partisans and civilians. In addition, SS Cavalry regiments served in Croatia and Hungary.
### SS Medical Corps
[[File: Selection Birkenau ramp.jpg|thumb|[Jew](Hungarian)(Hungarian Jew)s on the *Judenrampe* (Jewish ramp) after disembarking from the [trains](transport)(Holocaust train). Photo from the [Album](Auschwitz)(Auschwitz Album), May 1944]]
The SS Medical Corps were initially known as the *Sanitätsstaffel* (sanitary units). After 1931, the SS formed the headquarters office *Amt* V as the central office for SS medical units. An SS medical academy was established in Berlin in 1938 to train Waffen-SS physicians. SS medical personnel did not often provide actual medical care; their primary responsibility was medicalized genocide. At Auschwitz, about three-quarters of new arrivals, including almost all children, women with small children, all the elderly, and all those who appeared on brief and superficial inspection by an SS doctor not to be completely fit were killed within hours of arrival. In their role as *Desinfektoren* (disinfectors), SS doctors also made selections among existing prisoners as to their fitness to work and supervised the murder of those deemed unfit. Inmates in deteriorating health were examined by SS doctors, who decided whether or not they would be able to recover in less than two weeks. Those too ill or injured to recover in that time frame were killed.
At Auschwitz, the actual delivery of gas to the victims was always handled by the SS, on the order of the supervising SS doctor. Many of the SS doctors also conducted inhumane medical experiments on camp prisoners. The most infamous SS doctor, [Mengele](Josef)(Josef Mengele), served as a medical officer at Auschwitz under the command of [Wirths](Eduard)(Eduard Wirths) of the camp's medical corps. Mengele undertook selections even when he was not assigned to do so in the hope of finding subjects for his experiments. He was particularly interested in locating sets of twins. In contrast to most of the doctors, who viewed undertaking selections as one of their most stressful and horrible duties, Mengele undertook the task with a flamboyant air, often smiling or whistling a tune. After the war, many SS doctors were charged with war crimes for their inhumane medical experiments and for their role in gas chamber selections.
### Other SS units
#### *Ahnenerbe*
The *[Ahnenerbe](Ahnenerbe)* (Ancestral Heritage Organization) was founded in 1935 by Himmler and became part of the SS in 1939. It was an umbrella agency for more than fifty organizations tasked with studying German racial identity and ancient Germanic traditions and language. The agency sponsored archaeological expeditions in Germany, Scandinavia, the Middle East, Tibet, and elsewhere to search for evidence of Aryan roots, influence, and superiority. Further planned expeditions were postponed indefinitely at the start of the war.
#### *SS-Frauenkorps*
The *SS-Frauenkorps* was an auxiliary reporting and clerical unit, which included the *SS-Helferinnenkorps* (Women Helper Corps), made up of female volunteers. Members were assigned as administrative staff and supply personnel and served in command positions and as guards at women's concentration camps. While female concentration and extermination camp guards were civilian employees of the SS, the *SS-Helferinnen* who completed training at the *Reichsschule für SS-Helferinnen* in Oberehnheim (Alsace) were members of the Waffen-SS. Like their male equivalents in the SS, females participated in atrocities against Jews, Poles, and others.
In 1942, Himmler set up the *Reichsschule für SS Helferinnen* (Reich school for SS helpers) in [Oberehnheim](Oberehnheim) to train women in communications so that they could free up men for combat roles. Himmler also intended to replace all female civilian employees in his service with *SS-Helferinnen* members, as they were selected and trained according to Nazi ideology. The school was closed on 22 November 1944 due to the Allied advance.
#### *SS-Mannschaften*
The *SS-Mannschaften* (Auxiliary-SS) were not considered regular SS members, but were conscripted from other branches of the German military, the Nazi Party, the SA, and the *[Volkssturm](Volkssturm)* for service in concentration camps and extermination camps.
## Foreign legions and volunteers
Beginning in 1940, Himmler opened up Waffen-SS recruiting to ethnic Germans that were not German citizens. In March 1941, the SS Main Office established the *Germanische Leitstelle* (Germanic Guidance Office) to establish Waffen-SS recruiting offices in Nazi-occupied Europe. The majority of the resulting foreign Waffen-SS units wore a distinctive national collar patch and preceded their SS rank titles with the prefix *Waffen* instead of SS. Volunteers from Scandinavian countries filled the ranks of two divisions, the *SS-Wiking* and *[SS-Nordland](11th SS Volunteer Panzergrenadier Division Nordland)*. Swiss German speakers joined in substantial numbers. Belgian Flemings joined Dutchmen to form the *[SS-Nederland](23rd SS Volunteer Panzer Grenadier Division Nederland)* legion, and their Walloon compatriots joined the *[SS-Wallonien](Walloon Legion)*. By the end of 1943 about a quarter of the SS were ethnic Germans from across Europe, and by June 1944, half the Waffen-SS were foreign nationals.
[[File: Bundesarchiv Bild 146-1980-036-05, Amin al Husseini bei bosnischen SS-Freiwilligen.jpg|thumb|[Mufti of Jerusalem](Grand)(Grand Mufti of Jerusalem) [al-Husseini](Amin)(Amin al-Husseini) greeting Bosnian Waffen-SS volunteers before their departure to the Eastern Front, 1943]]
Additional Waffen-SS units were added from the [Ukrainians](Ukrainian collaborationism with the Axis powers), [Albanians](21st Waffen Mountain Division of the SS Skanderbeg) from [Kosovo](Kosovo), Serbians, Croatians, [Caucasians, Cossack](Turkic,)(Turkic, Caucasian, Cossack, and Crimean collaborationism with the Axis powers), and Tatars. The Ukrainians and Tatars, who had suffered persecution under [Stalin](Stalin), were likely motivated primarily by opposition to the Soviet government rather than ideological agreement with the SS. The exiled Grand Mufti of Jerusalem [al-Husseini](Amin)(Amin al-Husseini) was made an SS-*Gruppenführer* by Himmler in May 1943. He subsequently used antisemitism and anti-Serb racism to recruit a Waffen-SS division of [Muslims](Bosnian)(Bosnian Muslims), the *[SS-Handschar](13th Waffen Mountain Division of the SS Handschar (1st Croatian))*. The year-long Soviet [of the Baltic states](occupation)(occupation of the Baltic states) at the beginning of World War II resulted in volunteers for [Latvia](Latvia)n and [Estonia](Estonia)n Waffen-SS units. The [Legion](Estonian)(Estonian Legion) had 1,280 volunteers under training by the end of 1942. Approximately 25,000 men served in the Estonian SS division, with thousands more conscripted into Police Front battalions and border guard units. Most of the Estonians were fighting primarily to regain their independence and as many as 15,000 of them died fighting alongside the Germans. In early 1944, Himmler even contacted Pohl to suggest releasing Muslim prisoners from concentration camps to supplement his SS troops.
The [Legion](Indian)(Indian Legion) was a Wehrmacht unit formed in August 1942 chiefly from disaffected Indian soldiers of the [Indian Army](British)(British Indian Army) captured in the [African Campaign](North)(North African Campaign). In August 1944 it was transferred to the auspices of the Waffen-SS as the *Indische Freiwilligen-Legion der Waffen-SS*. There was also a French volunteer division, *[SS-Charlemagne](33rd Waffen Grenadier Division of the SS Charlemagne (1st French))*, which was formed in 1944 mainly from the remnants of the [of French Volunteers Against Bolshevism](Legion)(Legion of French Volunteers Against Bolshevism) and French *Sturmbrigade*.
## Ranks and uniforms
The SS established its own symbolism, rituals, customs, ranks, and uniforms to set itself apart from other organizations. Before 1929, the SS wore the same brown uniform as the SA, with the addition of a black tie and a black cap with a *[Totenkopf](Totenkopf)* (death's head) skull and bones symbol, moving to an all-black uniform in 1932. In 1935, the SS combat formations adopted a service uniform in field grey for everyday wear. The SS also developed its own field uniforms, which included reversible smocks and helmet covers printed with [camouflage](camouflage) patterns. Uniforms were manufactured in hundreds of licensed factories, with some workers being prisoners of war performing forced labor. Many were produced in concentration camps.
Hitler and the Nazi Party understood the power of emblems and insignia to influence public opinion. The stylized lightning bolt logo of the SS was chosen in 1932. The logo is a pair of runes from a set of 18 [runes](Armanen)(Armanen runes) created by [von List](Guido)(Guido von List) in 1906. It is similar to the ancient [Sowilō](Sowilō) rune, which symbolizes the sun, but was renamed as "Sig" (victory) in List's iconography. The *Totenkopf* symbolized the wearer's willingness to fight unto the death, and also served to frighten the enemy.
## SS membership estimates 1925–1945
After 1933 a career in the SS became increasingly attractive to Germany's social elite, who began joining the movement in great numbers, usually motivated by political opportunism. By 1938 about one-third of the SS leadership were members of the [middle class](upper)(upper middle class). The trend reversed after the first Soviet counter-offensive of 1942.
:
## SS offices
By 1942 all activities of the SS were managed through twelve main offices.
*[Staff Reichsführer-SS](Personal)(Personal Staff Reichsführer-SS)
*[Main Office](SS)(SS Main Office) (SS-HA)
**[SS-Führungshauptamt](SS Führungshauptamt)* (SS Main Operational Office; SS-FHA)
*[Security Main Office](Reich)(Reich Security Main Office) (RSHA)
*[Main Economic and Administrative Office](SS)(SS Main Economic and Administrative Office) (WVHA)
**[Hauptamt](Ordnungspolizei)(Ordnungspolizei#Organization)* (Main Office of the Order Police)
*[Court Main Office](SS)(SS Court Main Office)
*[Race and Settlement Main Office](SS)(SS Race and Settlement Main Office) (RuSHA)
*[Personnel Main Office](SS)(SS Personnel Main Office)
**[Volksdeutsche Mittelstelle](Hauptamt)(Hauptamt Volksdeutsche Mittelstelle)* (Racial German Assistance Main Office; VOMI)
*[Education Office](SS)(SS Education Office)
*Main Office of the [Commissioner for the Consolidation of German Nationhood](Reich)(Reich Commissioner for the Consolidation of German Nationhood) (RKFDV)
## Austrian SS
[[File: Bundesarchiv Bild 183-45534-0005, Kz Mauthausen, Besuch Heinrich Himmler, Franz Ziereis.jpg|thumb|upright=1.15|[Kaltenbrunner](Ernst)(Ernst Kaltenbrunner), [Himmler](Heinrich)(Heinrich Himmler), [Eigruber](August)(August Eigruber), and other SS officials visiting Mauthausen concentration camp, 1941]]
The term "Austrian SS" is often used to describe that portion of the SS membership from Austria, but it was never a recognized branch of the SS. In contrast to SS members from other countries, who were grouped into either the Germanic-SS or the Foreign Legions of the Waffen-SS, Austrian SS members were regular SS personnel. It was technically under the command of the SS in Germany but often acted independently concerning Austrian affairs. The Austrian SS was founded in 1930 and by 1934 was acting as a covert force to bring about the *[Anschluss](Anschluss)* with Germany, which occurred in March 1938. Early Austrian SS leaders were Kaltenbrunner and [Seyss-Inquart](Arthur)(Arthur Seyss-Inquart). Austrian SS members served in every branch of the SS. Austrians constituted 8 percent of the Third Reich's population and 13 percent of the SS; 40 percent of the staff and 75 percent of commanders at death camps were Austrian.
After the *Anschluss*, the Austrian SS was folded into *[Donau](SS-Oberabschnitt)(SS-Oberabschnitt Donau)*. The third regiment of the *SS-Verfügungstruppe* (*Der Führer*) and the fourth *Totenkopf* regiment (*Ostmark*) were recruited in Austria shortly thereafter. On Heydrich's orders, mass arrests of potential enemies of the Reich began immediately after the *Anschluss*. [Mauthausen](Mauthausen-Gusen concentration camp) was the first concentration camp opened in Austria following the *Anschluss*. Before the invasion of the Soviet Union, Mauthausen was the harshest of the camps in the Greater German Reich.
The [Metropole](Hotel)(Hotel Metropole, Vienna) was transformed into Gestapo headquarters in Vienna in April 1938. With a staff of 900 (80 percent of whom were recruited from the Austrian police), it was the largest Gestapo office outside Berlin. An estimated 50,000 people were interrogated or tortured there. The Gestapo in Vienna was headed by [Josef Huber](Franz)(Franz Josef Huber), who also served as chief of the [Agency for Jewish Emigration in Vienna](Central)(Central Agency for Jewish Emigration in Vienna). Although its de facto leaders were [Eichmann](Adolf)(Adolf Eichmann) and later [Brunner](Alois)(Alois Brunner), Huber was nevertheless responsible for the mass deportation of Austrian Jews.
## Post-war activity and aftermath
Following Nazi Germany's collapse, the SS ceased to exist. Numerous members of the SS, many of them still committed Nazis, remained at large in Germany and across Europe. On 21 May 1945, the British captured Himmler, who was in disguise and using a false passport. At an internment camp near [Lüneburg](Lüneburg), he committed suicide by biting down on a cyanide capsule. Several other leading members of the SS fled, but some were quickly captured. Kaltenbrunner, chief of the RSHA and the highest-ranking surviving SS main department chief upon Himmler's suicide, was captured and arrested in the [Alps](Bavarian)(Bavarian Alps). He was among the 22 defendants put on trial at the [Military Tribunal](International)(International Military Tribunal) in 1945–46.
Some SS members were subject to [execution](summary)(summary execution), torture, and beatings at the hands of freed prisoners, displaced persons, or Allied soldiers. American soldiers of the 157th Regiment, who entered the concentration camp at Dachau in April 1945 and saw the human deprivation and cruelty committed by the SS, [some of the remaining SS camp guards](shot)(Dachau liberation reprisals). On 15 April 1945, British troops entered Bergen-Belsen. They placed the SS guards on starvation rations, made them work without breaks, forced them to deal with the remaining corpses, and stabbed them with bayonets or struck them with their rifle butts if they slowed their pace. Some members of the [Army Counter Intelligence Corps](US)(US Army Counter Intelligence Corps) delivered captured SS camp guards to displaced person camps, where they knew they would be subject to summary execution.
### International Military Tribunal at Nuremberg
[[Dead ernstkaltenbrunner.jpg|thumb|upright=1.15|The body of Ernst Kaltenbrunner after his execution on 16 October 1946](File:)]
The Allies commenced legal proceedings against captured Nazis, establishing the International Military Tribunal at Nuremberg in 1945. The first [crimes](war)(war crimes) trial of 24 prominent figures such as [Göring](Hermann)(Hermann Göring), [Speer](Albert)(Albert Speer), [von Ribbentrop](Joachim)(Joachim von Ribbentrop), [Rosenberg](Alfred)(Alfred Rosenberg), [Frank](Hans)(Hans Frank), and Kaltenbrunner took place beginning in November 1945. They were accused of four counts: conspiracy, waging a war of aggression, war crimes, and crimes against humanity in violation of international law. Twelve received the death penalty, including Kaltenbrunner, who was convicted of crimes against humanity and executed on 16 October 1946. The former commandant at Auschwitz, [Höss](Rudolf)(Rudolf Höss), who testified on behalf of Kaltenbrunner and others, was tried and executed in 1947.
Additional SS trials and convictions followed. Many defendants attempted to exculpate themselves using the excuse that they were merely following [orders](superior)(superior orders), which they had to obey unconditionally as part of their [oath](sworn)(SS oath) and duty. The courts did not find this to be a legitimate defense. A trial of 40 SS officers and guards from Auschwitz took place in Kraków in November 1947. Most were found guilty, and 23 received the death penalty. In addition to those tried by the Western allies, an estimated 37,000 members of the SS were tried and convicted in Soviet courts. Sentences included hangings and long terms of hard labor. [Cywiński](Piotr)(Piotr Cywiński), the director of the Auschwitz-Birkenau Museum, estimates that of the 70,000 members of the SS involved in crimes in concentration camps, only about 1,650 to 1,700 were tried after the war. The International Military Tribunal declared the SS a criminal organization in 1946.
### Escapes
[[File:WP Eichmann Passport.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|[Cross](Red)(International Committee of the Red Cross) passport under the name of "Ricardo Klement" that [Eichmann](Adolf)(Adolf Eichmann) used to enter Argentina in 1950]]
After the war, many former Nazis fled to South America, especially to Argentina, where they were welcomed by [Perón](Juan)(Juan Perón)'s regime. In the 1950s, former Dachau inmate Lothar Hermann discovered that [Aires](Buenos)(Buenos Aires) resident Ricardo Klement was, in fact, Adolf Eichmann, who had in 1948 obtained false identification and a landing permit for Argentina through an organization directed by Bishop [Hudal](Alois)(Alois Hudal), an Austrian cleric with Nazi sympathies, then residing in Italy. Eichmann was captured in Buenos Aires on 11 May 1960 by [Mossad](Mossad), the Israeli intelligence agency. At his trial in Jerusalem in 1961, he was found guilty and sentenced to death by hanging. Eichmann was quoted as having stated, "I will jump into my grave laughing because the fact that I have the death of five million Jews [Reich enemies, as he later claimed to have said](or) on my conscience gives me extraordinary satisfaction." [Stangl](Franz)(Franz Stangl), the commandant of Treblinka, also escaped to South America with the assistance of Hudal's network. He was deported to Germany in 1967 and was sentenced to life in prison in 1970. He died in 1971.
Mengele, worried that his capture would mean a death sentence, fled Germany on 17 April 1949. Assisted by a network of former SS members, he traveled to [Genoa](Genoa), where he obtained a passport under the alias "Helmut Gregor" from the [Committee of the Red Cross](International)(International Committee of the Red Cross). He sailed to Argentina in July. Aware that he was still a wanted man, he moved to Paraguay in 1958 and Brazil in 1960. In both instances he was assisted by former [Luftwaffe](Luftwaffe) pilot [Rudel](Hans-Ulrich)(Hans-Ulrich Rudel). Mengele suffered a stroke while swimming and drowned in 1979.
Thousands of Nazis, including former SS members such as Trawniki guard [Reimer](Jakob)(Jakob Reimer) and Circassian collaborator [Soobzokov](Tscherim)(Tscherim Soobzokov), fled to the United States under the guise of refugees, sometimes using forged documents. Other SS men, such as Soobzokov, SD officer [Höttl](Wilhelm)(Wilhelm Höttl), Eichmann aide [von Bolschwing](Otto)(Otto von Bolschwing), and accused war criminal [Saevecke](Theodor)(Theo Saevecke), were employed by American intelligence agencies against the Soviets. As [CIA](Central Intelligence Agency) officer Harry Rositzke noted, "It was a visceral business of using any bastard so long as he was anti-Communist ... The eagerness or desire to enlist collaborators means that sure, you didn't look at their credentials too closely." Similarly, the Soviets used SS personnel after the war; Operation Theo, for instance, disseminated "subversive rumours" in Allied-occupied Germany.
[Wiesenthal](Simon)(Simon Wiesenthal) and others have speculated about the existence of a Nazi fugitive network code-named [ODESSA](ODESSA) (an acronym for *Organisation der ehemaligen SS-Angehörigen*, Organization of former SS members) that allegedly helped war criminals find refuge in [America](Latin)(Latin America). British writer [Sereny](Gitta)(Gitta Sereny), who conducted interviews with SS men, considers the story untrue and attributes the escapes to postwar chaos and Hudal's Vatican-based network. While the existence of ODESSA remains unproven, Sereny notes that "there certainly were various kinds of Nazi aid organizations after the war — it would have been astonishing if there hadn't been."
## See also
*[SS](Germanic)(Germanic SS)
*[of Nazi Germany](Glossary)(Glossary of Nazi Germany)
*[HIAG](HIAG)
*[of SS personnel](List)(List of SS personnel)
*[of Waffen-SS divisions](List)(List of Waffen-SS divisions)
*[of the clean Wehrmacht](Myth)(Myth of the clean Wehrmacht)
## Informational notes
## Citations
## Bibliography
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*[Judgment of Nuremberg Trials on the SS](https://avalon.law.yale.edu/imt/judorg.asp#ss)
*[SS](https://encyclopedia.ushmm.org/content/en/article/ss) at the [States Holocaust Memorial Museum](United)(United States Holocaust Memorial Museum)
*[Testimonies concerning SS crimes in occupied Poland in "Chronicles of Terror" testimony database](https://www.chroniclesofterror.pl/dlibra/results?action=AdvancedSearchAction&type=-3&search_attid1=66&search_value1=SS)
}}
[ ](Category:Nazi SS)
[establishments in Germany](Category:1925)(Category:1925 establishments in Germany)
[disestablishments in Germany](Category:1945)(Category:1945 disestablishments in Germany)
[in Germany](Category:Antisemitism)(Category:Antisemitism in Germany)
[Himmler](Category:Heinrich)(Category:Heinrich Himmler)
[terrorism](Category:Far-right)(Category:Far-right terrorism)
[terrorism](Category:Nazi)(Category:Nazi terrorism)
[wings of fascist parties](Category:Military)(Category:Military wings of fascist parties)
[Party organizations](Category:Nazi)(Category:Nazi Party organizations)
[terrorist organizations](Category:Nazi)(Category:Nazi terrorist organizations)
[disestablished in 1945](Category:Organizations)(Category:Organizations disestablished in 1945)
[established in 1925](Category:Organizations)(Category:Organizations established in 1925)
[Holocaust in Germany](Category:The)(Category:The Holocaust in Germany)
[Holocaust](Category:The)(Category:The Holocaust)
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Five Families
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five_families
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# Five Families
*Revision ID: 1155563406 | Timestamp: 2023-05-18T18:33:21Z*
---
The **Five Families** refer to five [ Italian American Mafia](American Mafia) [ crime families](Crime family) that operate in [York City](New)(New York City). In 1931, the five families were [ organized](Organized crime) by [Maranzano](Salvatore)(Salvatore Maranzano) following his victory in the [War](Castellammarese)(Castellammarese War).
Maranzano reorganized the Italian American gangs in New York City into the Maranzano, Profaci, Mangano, Luciano, and Gagliano families, which are now known as the [Bonanno](Bonanno crime family), [Colombo](Colombo crime family), [Gambino](Gambino crime family), [Genovese](Genovese crime family), and [Lucchese](Lucchese crime family) families. Each family had a demarcated territory and an organizationally structured hierarchy and reported to the same overarching governing entity. Initially, Maranzano intended each family's boss to report to him as the *[dei capi](capo)(capo dei capi)* ("boss of all the bosses").
However, this led to his assassination that September, and that role was abolished for [Commission](The)(The Commission (mafia)), a ruling committee established by [Luciano](Lucky)(Lucky Luciano) to oversee all Mafia activities in the United States and to mediate conflicts between families. It consisted of the bosses of the Five Families as well as the bosses of the [Outfit](Chicago)(Chicago Outfit) and the [crime family](Buffalo)(Buffalo crime family). In 1963, [Valachi](Joseph)(Joseph Valachi) publicly disclosed the existence of New York City's Five Families at the [hearings](Valachi)(Valachi hearings). Since then, a few other crime families have been able to become powerful or notable enough to rise to a level comparable to that of the Five Families, holding or sharing the unofficial designation of [Family](Sixth)(Sixth Family).
## History
### Leading up to the Five Families
In the 1920s, [Mafia](American Mafia) operations in the U.S. were controlled by ["Joe The Boss" Masseria](Giuseppe)(Joe Masseria), whose faction consisted mainly of gangsters from [Sicily](Sicily) and the [Calabria](Calabria) and [Campania](Campania) regions of [Italy](Southern)(Southern Italy). Masseria's faction included ["Lucky" Luciano](Charles)(Charlie Luciano), ["Mad Hatter" Anastasia](Albert)(Albert Anastasia), [Genovese](Vito)(Vito Genovese), [Mineo](Alfred)(Alfred Mineo), [Moretti](Willie)(Willie Moretti), [Adonis](Joe)(Joe Adonis), and [Costello](Frank)(Frank Costello). However, powerful Sicilian *mafioso* [Don](Don (honorific)) [Cascio Ferro](Vito)(Vito Cascio Ferro) decided to make a bid for control of Mafia operations. From his base in [del Golfo](Castellammare)(Castellammare del Golfo), he sent [Maranzano](Salvatore)(Salvatore Maranzano) to seize control. The Castellammarese faction in the U.S. included ["Joe Bananas" Bonanno](Joseph)(Joseph Bonanno), ["The Undertaker" Magaddino](Stefano)(Stefano Magaddino), [Profaci](Joseph)(Joseph Profaci), and [Aiello](Joe)(Joe Aiello).Sifakis, (2005). pp. 56–57 As it became more and more evident that the two factions would clash for leadership of the Mafia, they each sought to recruit more followers to support them.
Outwardly, the Castellammarese War was between the forces of Masseria and Maranzano.Critchley, (2008). p. 165 Underneath, however, there was also a generational conflict between the old guard Sicilian leadership known as the "[Pete](Mustache)(Mustache Pete)s" for their long mustaches and old-world ways, such as refusing to do business with non-Italians and the "Young Turks", a younger and more diverse Italian group who were more forward-thinking and willing to work more with non-Italians. This approach led his followers to question whether Masseria was even capable of making the Mafia prosper in modern times. Led by Luciano, the aim of this group was to end the war as soon as possible in order to resume their businesses, because they viewed the conflict as unnecessary. Luciano's objective was to modernize the mob and do away with unnecessary orthodox norms. This was a vision that enabled him to attract followers, who had seen the inadequacies of Masseria's traditionalist leadership. Therefore, both factions were fluid, with many mobsters switching sides or killing their own allies during the war.Sifakis, (2005). p. 323 Tensions between the Maranzano and Masseria factions were evident as far back as 1928, with one side frequently [hijacking](Truck hijacking) the other's alcohol trucks (alcohol production was then illegal in the United States due to [Prohibition](Volstead Act)).
In early 1931, Luciano made the decision to take out Masseria. The war had been going poorly for Masseria, and Luciano saw an opportunity to switch allegiance. In a secret deal with Maranzano, Luciano agreed to engineer Masseria's death in return for receiving Masseria's [racket](racket (crime))s and becoming Maranzano's second-in-command. [Adonis](Joe)(Joe Adonis) had joined the Masseria faction and when Masseria heard about Luciano's betrayal, he approached Adonis about killing Luciano. However, Adonis instead warned Luciano about the murder plot. On April 15, 1931, Masseria was killed at Nuova Villa Tammaro, a [Island](Coney)(Coney Island) restaurant in [Brooklyn](Brooklyn). While they played cards, Luciano allegedly excused himself to the bathroom, with the gunmen reportedly being Anastasia, Genovese, Adonis, and ["Bugsy" Siegel](Benjamin)(Bugsy Siegel); ["The Artichoke King" Terranova](Ciro)(Ciro Terranova) drove the getaway car, but legend has it that he was too shaken up to drive away and had to be shoved out of the driver's seat by Siegel.Sifakis, (2005). pp. 87–88 With Maranzano's blessing, Luciano took over Masseria's gang and became Maranzano's lieutenant, ending the Castellammarese War.
### The Five Families' formation
With Masseria gone, Maranzano reorganized the Italian American gangs in New York City into the Five Families headed by Luciano, [Profaci](Joe Profaci), [Gagliano](Tommy Gagliano), [Mangano](Vincent Mangano), and himself. Maranzano called a meeting of crime bosses in [Falls, New York](Wappingers)(Wappingers Falls, New York), where he declared himself *[di tutti i capi](capo)(capo di tutti i capi)* ("boss of all bosses"). Maranzano also whittled down the rival families' rackets in favor of his own. Luciano appeared to accept these changes, but was merely biding his time before removing Maranzano.Sifakis Although Maranzano was slightly more forward-thinking than Masseria, Luciano had come to believe that Maranzano was even more greedy and hidebound than Masseria had been.
By September 1931, Maranzano realized Luciano was a threat, and hired ["Mad Dog" Coll](Vincent)(Vincent Coll), an Irish gangster, to kill him. However, Lucchese alerted Luciano that he was marked for death. On September 10, 1931, Maranzano ordered Luciano, Genovese, and Costello to come to his office at the [Park Avenue](230)(Helmsley Building) in [Manhattan](Manhattan). Convinced that Maranzano planned to murder them, Luciano decided to act first. He sent to Maranzano's office four Jewish gangsters whose faces were unknown to Maranzano's people. They had been secured with the aid of [mobsters](Jewish)(Jewish-American organized crime) [Lansky](Meyer)(Meyer Lansky) and [Siegel](Bugsy)(Bugsy Siegel).Buchanan, Edna (1998-12-07). "Lucky Luciano: Criminal Mastermind". *Time*, December 7, 1998. Originally retrieved from http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,989779,00.html. Disguised as government agents, two of the gangsters disarmed Maranzano's bodyguards. The other two, aided by Lucchese, who was there to point Maranzano out, stabbed the boss multiple times before shooting him.["Genovese family saga"](https://web.archive.org/web/20080911231857/http://www.trutv.com/library/crime/gangsters_outlaws/family_epics/genovese1/2.html). *Crime Library*."The Genovese Family," *Crime Library*, [*Crime Library*](http://www.crimelibrary.com/gangsters_outlaws/family_epics/genovese1/2.html) This assassination was the first of what would later be fabled as the "Night of the [Vespers](Sicilian)(Sicilian Vespers)".
### The Commission's formation
After Maranzano's murder in 1931, Luciano called a meeting in [Chicago](Chicago).Critchley, *The Origin of Organized Crime in America: The New York City Mafia, 1891-1931*, p. 232Humbert S. Nelli *The business of crime: Italians and syndicate crime in the United States* [ (pp. 206–208)](https://archive.org/details/businessofcrimei00nell/page/207) Although there would have been few objections had Luciano declared himself *capo di tutti i capi,* he abolished the title, believing the position created trouble among the families and would make himself a target for another ambitious challenger. Luciano's goals with the [Commission](The Commission (mafia)) were to quietly maintain his own power over all the families, and to prevent future [gang](gang) wars; the bosses approved the idea of the Commission.[Jerry](Capeci,)(Jerry Capeci). ''The complete idiot's guide to the Mafia'' ["The Mafia's Commission" (pp. 31–46)](https://books.google.com/books?id=GhfExAeLSBAC&q=commission&pg=PA43) The Commission would consist of a "[of directors](board)(board of directors)" to oversee all Mafia activities in the United States and serve to mediate conflicts between families.
The Commission consisted of seven family bosses: the leaders of New York's Five Families: ["Lucky" Luciano](Charlie)(Charlie Luciano), [Mangano](Vincent)(Vincent Mangano), [Gagliano](Tommy)(Tommy Gagliano), [Bonanno](Joseph)(Joseph Bonanno), and [Profaci](Joe)(Joe Profaci); [Outfit](Chicago)(Chicago Outfit) boss [Capone](Al)(Al Capone); and [family](Buffalo)(Buffalo crime family) boss [Magaddino](Stefano)(Stefano Magaddino). Charlie Luciano was appointed [chairman](chairman) of the Commission. The Commission agreed to hold meetings every five years or when they needed to discuss family problems.
### The Fall of the Mafia
The Mafia's run of power was relatively short (even though they are still active, albeit less powerful). The peak of the Mafia in the United States was during the 1940s, and the 1950s, until the year 1970 when the [Act](RICO)(Racketeer Influenced and Corrupt Organizations Act) was enacted. United States [1970] Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Racketeer-Influenced-and-Corrupt-Organizations-Act |access-date=2022-11-29 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}} The specific reason for the RICO Act was to stop the mafia and [crime](organized)(organized crime) as a whole. The act was effective, and led to a large portion of the members who were arrested turning into informants. American Mafia History |url=https://mafiahistory.us/maf-info.html |access-date=2022-11-29 |website=mafiahistory.us}} This effect compounded over time.
## Original and current Five Families bosses
In 1963, [Valachi](Joseph)(Joseph Valachi) publicly disclosed the existence of New York City's Five Families at the [hearings](Valachi)(Valachi hearings). According to Valachi, the original bosses of the Five Families were [Luciano](Charles)(Charles Luciano), [Gagliano](Tommaso)(Tommy Gagliano), [Profaci](Joseph)(Joseph Profaci), [Maranzano](Salvatore)(Salvatore Maranzano) and [Mangano](Vincent)(Vincent Mangano). At the time of his testimony in 1963, Valachi revealed that the current bosses of the Five Families were [Lucchese](Tommy)(Tommy Lucchese), [Genovese](Vito)(Vito Genovese), [Colombo](Joseph)(Joseph Colombo), [Gambino](Carlo)(Carlo Gambino), and [Bonanno](Joe)(Joseph Bonanno). These have since been the names most commonly used to refer to the New York Five Families, despite years of overturn and changing bosses in each.
## Territories
The crime families historically operated throughout the [York Metropolitan area](New)(New York metropolitan area), but mainly within [York City](New)(New York City). In the state of [York](New)(New York (state)), the gangs have increased their criminal [racket](racket (crime))s on [Island](Long)(Long Island) ([Nassau](Nassau County, New York) and [Suffolk](Suffolk County, New York)) and the counties of [Westchester](Westchester County, New York), [Rockland](Rockland County, New York), and [Albany](Albany County, New York). They also maintain a strong presence in the state of [Jersey](New)(New Jersey). The Five Families are also active in [Florida](South)(South Florida metropolitan area), [Connecticut](Connecticut), [Vegas](Las)(Las Vegas Valley), and [Massachusetts](Massachusetts).
* The **[crime family](Bonanno)(Bonanno crime family)** operates mainly in [Queens, Staten Island, and Long Island](Brooklyn,)(Boroughs of New York City). The family also maintains influence in Manhattan, The Bronx, Westchester County, New Jersey, California, and Florida, and have ties to the [crime family](Rizzuto)(Rizzuto crime family) in [Quebec](Quebec).
** The Bath Avenue Crew operated in the [Bensonhurst](Bensonhurst) section of Brooklyn, New York.
* The **[crime family](Colombo)(Colombo crime family)** operates mainly in Brooklyn, Queens, and Long Island. The family also maintains influence in Staten Island, Manhattan, The Bronx, New Jersey, and Florida.
* The **[crime family](Gambino)(Gambino crime family)** operates mainly in Brooklyn, Queens, Manhattan, Staten Island, and Long Island. The family also maintains influence in The Bronx, New Jersey, Westchester County, Connecticut, Florida, and [Angeles](Los)(Los Angeles).
** [Ozone Park Boys](The)(The Ozone Park Boys) operate in Queens and Long Island.
** The Staten Island Boys operate mainly in [Island](Staten)(Staten Island) under few other sub-groups.
*** The Rossville Boys
*** Great Kills Crew
*** North Staten Island
* The **[crime family](Genovese)(Genovese crime family)** operates mainly in [Manhattan](Manhattan), The Bronx, [Brooklyn](Brooklyn), and [Jersey](New)(New Jersey). The family also maintains influence in Queens, Staten Island, Long Island, Westchester County, Rockland County, [Connecticut](Connecticut), [Massachusetts](Massachusetts), and [Florida](Florida).
** [Street Crew](116th)(116th Street Crew) operates in Upper Manhattan and The Bronx.
** [Village Crew](Greenwich)(Greenwich Village Crew) operates in Greenwich Village in Lower Manhattan.
** [crime family New Jersey faction](Genovese)(Genovese crime family New Jersey faction) operates throughout the state of New Jersey.
* The **[crime family](Lucchese)(Lucchese crime family)** operates mainly in The Bronx, Manhattan, Brooklyn, and New Jersey. The family also maintains influence in Queens, Long Island, Staten Island, Westchester County, and Florida.
** [Crew](Cutaia)(The Vario Crew) operates in Brooklyn, Queens, and Long Island.
** [crime family New Jersey faction](Lucchese)(Lucchese crime family New Jersey faction) operates throughout [Jersey](New)(New Jersey).
** [Tanglewood Boys](The)(The Tanglewood Boys) was a "recruitment gang" that operated in Westchester County, The Bronx, and Manhattan.
## Mafia boss succession
[[File:Joseph Bonanno.jpg|thumb|Mugshot of ["Joe Bananas" Bonanno](Joseph)(Joseph Bonanno), who was boss from 1931 to 1968]]
### Maranzano/Bonanno family
*1909–1912 – [DiGaetano](Sebastiano)(Sebastiano DiGaetano)
*1912–1930 – [Schirò](Nicolo)(Nicolo Schiro) – fled
*1930–1931 – [Maranzano](Salvatore)(Salvatore Maranzano) – murdered on September 10, 1931Raab, Selwyn. ''The Five Families: The Rise, Decline & Resurgence of America's Most Powerful Mafia Empire*. New York: St. Martins Press, 2005.
*1931–1968 – ["Joe Bananas" Bonanno](Joseph)(Joseph Bonanno) – on October 21, 1964, Bonanno disappeared; forcibly replaced as boss by the commission;The Mafia Encyclopedia By Carl Sifakis [pg.28–29](https://books.google.com/books?id=jgCpxTpPCPcC&dq=Paul+Sciacca&pg=PA29) crime family split into two factions; in May 1966, Bonanno reappeared after two years; officially retires after a heart attack in 1968
***Disputed* 1964–1966 – ["Gasparino" DiGregorio](Gaspar)(Gaspar DiGregorio) – installed when Bonanno disappeared and later forcibly replaced by the Commission
***Acting* 1966–1968 – [Sciacca](Paul)(Paul Sciacca)The Mafia Made Easy: The Anatomy and Culture of La Cosa Nostra by Peter J. Devico [(pg. 173)](https://books.google.com/books?id=vyIXw1oq56YC&q=Evola) – for the DiGregorio faction
*1968–1971 – [Sciacca](Paul)(Paul Sciacca) – imprisoned
*1971–1973 – ["Joe Diamonds" Evola](Natale)(Natale Evola) – died on August 28, 1973
*1973–1991 – ["Rusty" Rastelli](Phillip)(Philip Rastelli) – imprisoned 1975–1984 and 1986–1991
***Acting (unofficial)''Raab, pp. 203–205 1974–1979 – ["Cigar" Galante](Carmine)(Carmine Galante) – murdered on July 12, 1979
***Acting* 1979–1983 – Salvatore "Sally Fruits" Farrugia – appointed by the CommissionDonnie Brasco: My Undercover Life in the Mafia By Joseph D. Pistone [read](https://books.google.com/books?id=BcPAL4rXbcgC&dq=Salvatore+%22Sally+Fruits%22+Farrugia&pg=PT264)
***Acting* 1987–1991 – ["Old Man" Spero](Anthony)(Anthony Spero) – sentenced to life imprisonment in 2002, died in 2008
*1991–2004 – ["Big Joey" Massino](Joseph)(Joseph Massino) – imprisoned January 2003, became government informant in October 2004
***Acting* 1991–1993 – Anthony "Old Man" Spero
***Acting* 2003–2004 – Anthony "Tony Green" Urso – imprisoned January 2004
*2004–2011 – ["Vinny Gorgeous" Basciano](Vincent)(Vincent Basciano) – imprisoned November 2004, in July 2007 received a life sentence
***Acting* 2004–2006 – ["the Nose" Mancuso](Michael)(Michael Mancuso) – imprisoned February 2006
***Acting* 2006–2009 – ["Sal the Iron Worker" Montagna](Salvatore)(Salvatore Montagna) – deported to Canada in April 2009,["Canadian officials aware of imminent return to Montreal of alleged Mafia boss"](http://mafiatoday.com/bonanno-family/canadian-officials-aware-of-imminent-return-to-montreal-of-alleged-mafia-boss/) Mafia Today April 20, 2009 shot and killed in November 2011
***Acting* 2010–2012 – ["Vinny T.V." Badalamenti](Vincent)(Vincent Badalamenti) – imprisoned in January 2012
*2013–present – ["the Nose" Mancuso](Michael)(Michael Mancuso) – released from prison March 12, 2019
***Acting* 2013–2014 – Thomas "Tommy D" DiFiore – arrested on January 23, 2014
***Acting* 2014–2015 – John "Johnny Skyway" Palazzolo – arrested on March 27, 2015, for violating parole
***Acting* 2015–2019 – Joseph "Joe C" Cammarano Jr. – indicted on racketeering and extortion charges on January 12, 2018, acquitted March 13, 2019[Francesco Cali, Reputed Gambino Crime Boss, Shot and Killed on Staten Island](https://www.nytimes.com/2019/03/13/briefing/frank-cali-gambino-shot.html) , *The New York Times*, March 13, 2019
[[Colombo's March 6, 1970 mugshot](File:Josephcolombo.jpg|thumb|Joseph)]
### Profaci/Colombo family
* 1928–1962 – [Profaci](Joseph)(Joe Profaci)DeVico, Peter J. *The Mafia Made Easy: The Anatomy and Culture of La Cosa Nostra* [(pg. 174)](https://books.google.com/books?id=vyIXw1oq56YC&q=profaci) [Publishing](Tate)(Tate Publishing & Enterprises), 2007. – died of natural causes
* 1962–1963 – [Magliocco](Joseph)(Joseph Magliocco) – forced to retire by Mafia Commission
* 1963–1973 – [Colombo](Joseph)(Joseph Colombo) – paralyzed by assassination attempt
***Acting* 1971–1972 – Joseph YacovelliMachi, Mario [American Mafia.com](http://www.americanmafia.com/Cities/New_York.html) *New York* – fled, after the murder of Joe Gallo
***Acting* 1972–1973 – ["Vincent" Aloi](Vincenzo)(Vincenzo Aloi)MafiaNJ.com *La Cosa Nostra State of New Jersey Commission of Investigation 1989 Report.* [pg.17](https://books.google.com/books?id=ay26SKSQBgQC&dq=Vincent+Aloi%2C+Thomas+DiBella%2C+and+Joseph+Brancato&pg=PA17) – imprisoned
***Acting* 1973 – Joseph "Joey" Brancato – imprisoned
* 1973–2019 – ["Junior" Persico](Carmine)(Carmine Persico) – imprisoned 1973–1979,Staff (January 6, 1981) ["The City; Persico Trial Put Off On Bribery Charges"](https://www.nytimes.com/1981/01/06/nyregion/the-city-persico-trial-put-off-on-bribery-charges.html?sq=The+City%3B+Persico+Trial+Put+Off+On+Bribery+Charges&scp=1&st=cse) *[New York Times](The)(The New York Times)* 1981–1984,Fried, Joseph P. (November 10, 1981) ["Persico Rank Rankles as he is Given 5 Years"](https://www.nytimes.com/1981/11/10/nyregion/persico-rank-rankles-as-he-is-given-5-years.html?scp=5&sq=Carmine%20%20Persico%20five%20years&st=cse) *[New York Times](The)(The New York Times)* 1985–2019,Maas, Peter (1997) ''[Sammy the Bull Gravano's Story of Life in the Mafia](Underboss:)(Underboss: Sammy the Bull Gravano's Story of Life in the Mafia)* HarperCollins. pp.191-92 died on March 7, 2019
***Acting* 1973–1979 – [DiBella](Thomas)(Thomas DiBella) – stepped down, became consigliere
***Acting'' 1981–1983 – Alphonse "Allie Boy" Persico – Carmine Persico's brother; fugitive 1980–1987, imprisonedStaff (September 13, 1989) ["Alphonse Persico, 61, Is Dead; Leader of Colombo Crime Family"](https://www.nytimes.com/1989/09/13/obituaries/alphonse-persico-61-is-dead-leader-of-colombo-crime-family.html?scp=1&sq=Alphonse%20Persico&st=cse) . *[New York Times](The)(The New York Times)*Buder, Leonard (December 19, 1987) ["Colombo Figure Given 25 Years On '80 Charges"](https://www.nytimes.com/1987/12/19/nyregion/colombo-figure-given-25-years-on-80-charges.html?sq=Colombo+Figure+Given+25+Years+On+%2780+Charges&scp=1&st=cse) *[New York Times](The)(The New York Times)*
***Acting* 1983–1984 – ["Jerry Lang" Langella](Gennaro)(Gennaro Langella) – imprisoned
***Acting* 1985–1987 – Anthony "Scappy" ScarpatiMaas, Peter (1997) ''[Sammy the Bull Gravano's Story of Life in the Mafia](Underboss:)(Underboss: Sammy the Bull Gravano's Story of Life in the Mafia)*. HarperCollins. p.155 – imprisoned
***Acting* 1987–1991 – ["Vic" Orena](Vittorio)(Victor Orena)Raab (2006), pp.332-33 – imprisoned sentenced to lifeRaab, Selwyn (December 10, 1991) ["Even to the 5 Families, the Fighting Colombos Have Been Black Sheep"](https://www.nytimes.com/1991/12/10/nyregion/even-to-the-5-families-the-fighting-colombos-have-been-black-sheep.html?scp=2&sq=Carmine%20Persico&st=cse) *[New York Times](The)(The New York Times)*
***Acting* 1991–1993 – *Vacant* – disputed leadership during the third war
***Acting* 1994–1996 – Andrew "Andy Mush" RussoCapeci (2001), pp.386-88[United States District Judge John F. Keenan Case 1:97-cv-08591-JFK](http://protect.theinfo.org/pacer/ecf.nysd/12711212514.pdf) (May 22, 2006) – imprisoned March 1997
***Acting'' 1996–2019 – ["Little Allie Boy" Persico](Alphonse)(Alphonse Persico) – Carmine Persico's son; imprisoned sentenced to life 2009[Colombo Organized Crime Family Acting Boss Alphonse T. Persico and Administration Member John J. Deross Sentenced to Life Imprisonment for the Murder of William "Wild Bill" Cutolo and Related Witness Tampering](https://www.fbi.gov/newyork/press-releases/2009/nyfo02709.htm) (February 27, 2009)
* 2019–2022 – Andrew "Andy Mush" Russo – indicted on September 14, 2021. Died on April 18, 2022.
### Mangano/Gambino family
[[Gotti.jpg|thumb|right|John Gotti just after his arrest in 1990. Gotti was the boss of the Gambino Crime Family from 1985 to 2002.](File:John)]
* 1900s–1910 – ["the Wolf" Lupo](Ignazio)(Ignazio Lupo) – imprisoned in 1910.
* 1910–1928 – ["Toto" D'Aquila](Salvatore)(Salvatore D'Aquila) – took over the Brooklyn Camorra in 1916 and merged with Al Mineo's gang forming the largest family in New York. He was killed on orders of boss [Masseria](Joe)(Joe Masseria) in 1928.*Crime: Computer Viruses to Twin Towers* by H. Thomas Milhorn [(pg.218)](https://books.google.com/books?id=Ipvh76CryVoC&dq=salvatore+d%27aquila&pg=PA218) }}
* 1928–1930 – ["Alfred" Mineo](Manfredi)(Manfredi Mineo) – killed in [War](Castellammarese)(Castellammarese War) in 1930.
* 1930–1931 – [Scalice](Frank)(Frank Scalice) – demoted after murder of boss of all bosses [Maranzano](Salvatore)(Salvatore Maranzano).
* 1931–1951 – [Mangano](Vincent)(Vincent Mangano) – disappeared in April 1951, allegedly killed on orders of underboss Albert Anastasia.
* 1951–1957 – [Anastasia](Albert)(Albert Anastasia) – murdered in October 1957 on orders of Carlo Gambino.
* 1957–1976 – [Gambino](Carlo)(Carlo Gambino) – died of natural causes in 1976.
** *Acting* 1964–1976 – Paul Castellano – acting boss for Gambino, became official boss after his death.
* 1976–1985 – [Castellano](Paul)(Paul Castellano) – murdered in December 1985 on orders of capo John Gotti.
* 1985–2002 – [Gotti](John)(John Gotti) – imprisoned in 1990, died in 2002.
** *Acting* 1993–1999 – [A. Gotti](John)(John A. Gotti) – imprisoned in 1999, later retired.
** *Acting* 1999–2002 – Peter Gotti – promoted to official boss.
* 2002–2011 – [Gotti](Peter)(Peter Gotti) – imprisoned in 2002, died in 2021.
** *Acting* 2002–2005 – [Squitieri](Arnold)(Arnold Squitieri)
** *Acting* 2005–2008 – [D'Amico](John)(Jackie D'Amico)
* 2011–present – ["Italian Dom" Cefalù](Domenico)(Domenico Cefalù)
***Acting* 2015–2019 – [Cali](Frank)(Frank Cali) – [murder](murder)ed in March 2019.[Staten Island mobster takes Gambino leadership: report](http://m.nydailynews.com/new-york/nyc-crime/staten-island-mobster-takes-gambino-leadership-report-article-1.2332886) , New York Daily News, August 21, 2015
** *Front boss* 2019–present – [Mannino](Lorenzo)(Lorenzo Mannino)
[[Bellomo.jpg|thumb|Mugshot of "Liborio Salvatore Bellomo" who is believed to be the current boss of the Genovese crime family](File:Liborio)]
### Luciano/Genovese family
* 1890s–1909 – ["the Clutch Hand" Morello](Giuseppe)(Giuseppe Morello) – imprisoned
* 1910–1916 – ["Nick Morello" Terranova](Nicholas)(Nicholas Morello) – murdered on September 7, 1916
* 1916–1920 – ["Vincent" Terranova](Vincenzo)(Vincenzo Terranova) – stepped down becoming underboss
* 1920–1922 – ["the Clutch Hand" Morello](Giuseppe)(Giuseppe Morello) – stepped down becoming underboss to Masseria
* 1922–1931 – ["Joe the Boss" Masseria](Giuseppe)(Giuseppe Masseria) – murdered on April 15, 1931
* 1931–1946 – ["Lucky" Luciano](Charles)(Lucky Luciano) – imprisoned in 1936, deported to Italy in 1946
** *Acting* 1936–1937 – [Genovese](Vito)(Vito Genovese) – fled to Italy in 1937 to avoid murder charge
** *Acting* 1937–1946 – ["the Prime Minister" Costello](Frank)(Frank Costello) – became official boss after Luciano's deportation
* 1946–1957 – ["the Prime Minister" Costello](Frank)(Frank Costello) – resigned in 1957 after [Genovese](Vito Genovese) [-Gigante](Vincent Gigante) assassination attempt
* 1957–1969 – ["Don Vito" Genovese](Vito)(Vito Genovese) – imprisoned in 1959, died in prison in 1969
** *Acting* 1959–1962 – ["Tony Bender" Strollo](Anthony)(Anthony "Tony Bender" Strollo) – disappeared in 1962
** *Acting* 1962–1965 – ["Tommy Ryan" Eboli](Thomas)(Thomas Eboli) – became front boss
** *Acting* 1965–1969 – ["Benny Squint" Lombardo](Philip)(Philip Lombardo) – became the official boss
* 1969–1981 – ["Benny Squint" Lombardo](Philip)(Philip Lombardo) – retired in 1981, died of natural causes in 1987
* 1981–2005 – ["Chin" Gigante](Vincent)(Vincent Gigante) – imprisoned in 1997, died in prison on December 19, 2005
** *Acting* 1989–1996 – ["Barney" Bellomo](Liborio)(Liborio Bellomo) – promoted to street boss
** *Acting* 1997–1998 – ["Quiet Dom" Cirillo](Dominick)(Dominick Cirillo) – suffered heart attack and resigned
** *Acting* 1998–2005 – ["Matty the Horse" Ianniello](Matthew)(Matthew Ianniello) – resigned when indicted in July 2005
***Acting* 2005–2008 – ["Danny the Lion" Leo](Daniel)(Daniel Leo (mobster))"[Charges against mob boss show Mafia alive and well in New York](http://news.scotsman.com/organisedcrime/Charges-against-mob-boss-show.3290872.jp)", June 1, 2007 – imprisoned 2008–2013
* 2010–present – ["Barney" Bellomo](Liborio)(Liborio Bellomo)
[[File:Tommy Lucchese 1958 by the Associated Press.jpg|thumb|[Lucchese](Tommy)(Tommy Lucchese) was boss from 1951 to 1967]]
### Gagliano/Lucchese family
*1922–1930: ["Tommy" Reina](Gaetano)(Gaetano Reina):DeVico, Peter J. *The Mafia Made Easy: The Anatomy and Culture of La Cosa Nostra.* [(pg. 175)](https://books.google.com/books?id=vyIXw1oq56YC&q=Gagliano) [Publishing](Tate)(Tate Publishing & Enterprises), 2007. murdered on February 26, 1930
*1930: ["Joseph" Pinzolo](Bonaventura)(Joseph Pinzolo): murdered on September 5, 1930
*1930–1951: ["Tommy" Gagliano](Tommaso)(Tommy Gagliano): retired in 1951, died on February 16, 1953
*1951–1967: ["Tommy Brown" Lucchese](Gaetano)(Tommy Lucchese): died on July 13, 1967["White-Collar Mafioso: Tommy Lucchese (1899–1967)"](http://www.onewal.com/a010/f_tommylucchese.html) By Thomas Hunt Onewal.com["Tommy Lucchese Biography"](http://www.biography.com/articles/Tommy-Lucchese-328760) Bio websiteHarrell, G.T. ''For Members Only: The Story of the Mob's Secret Judge.* Arthur House Publishing, 2009 (pg 99-101)
***Acting* 1966–1967: [Tramunti](Carmine)(Carmine Tramunti): stepped down
***Acting* 1967: ["Eddie" Coco](Ettore)(Ettore Coco): stepped down
*1967–1973: ["Mr. Gribbs" Tramunti](Carmine)(Carmine Tramunti): imprisoned in October 1973
*1973–1986: ["Tony Ducks" Corallo](Anthony)(Anthony Corallo): indicted on February 15, 1985, convicted on November 19, 1986, in the [Commission Trial](Mafia)(Mafia Commission Trial) and sentenced on January 13, 1987 to 100 years in prison.
*1986–present: ["Vic" Amuso](Vittorio)(Victor Amuso):Philip Carlo. *Gaspipe: Confessions of a Mafia Boss* [(pg.296)](https://books.google.com/books?id=yrcsp_w8MeAC&dq=Vic+Amuso+made+boss&pg=PA296) arrested in 1991, received a [sentence](life)(life imprisonment) in January 1993Carlo, Philip *Gaspipe: Confessions of a Mafia Boss* [p. 246](https://books.google.com/books?id=yrcsp_w8MeAC&q=Amuso+life+sentence&pg=PA224)
***Acting'' 1990–1991: ["Little Al" D'Arco](Alphonse)(Alphonse D'Arco): demoted, became a member of a *ruling panel*["Declaration of Alphonse D'Arco](http://www.laborers.org/DARCO.html) by Allan N. Taffet
***Acting* 1995–1998: ["Little Joe" DeFede](Joseph)(Joseph DeFede): imprisoned in 1998
***Acting* 1998–2000: ["Wonderboy" Crea](Steven)(Steven Crea): imprisoned on September 6, 2000["Construction Indictments"](http://www.ipsn.org/ny_%20indictments_press_release.htm) District Attorney New York County Press release September 6, 2000
***Acting* 2000–2003: ["Louie Bagels" Daidone](Louis)(Louis Daidone): imprisoned March 2003, received life sentence in January 2004
***Acting* 2009–2017: ["Matt" Madonna](Matthew)(Matthew Madonna): indicted 2007 and 2009; imprisoned 2015–present; indicted 2017
***Acting* 2017–present: ["Big Mike" DeSantis](Michael)(List of Lucchese crime family mobsters#Michael DeSantis)
## References
## Further reading
*
}}
[ ](Category:Five Families)
[established in 1931](Category:Organizations)(Category:Organizations established in 1931)
[establishments in New York City](Category:1931)(Category:1931 establishments in New York City)
[based in New York City](Category:Organizations)(Category:Organizations based in New York City)
[crime families](Category:Italian-American)(Category:Italian-American crime families)
[in New York City](Category:Gangs)(Category:Gangs in New York City)
[culture in New York City](Category:Italian-American)(Category:Italian-American culture in New York City)
|
Jerry Brown
|
jerry_brown
|
# Jerry Brown
*Revision ID: 1156752184 | Timestamp: 2023-05-24T12:34:05Z*
---
| term_start = January 3, 2011
| term_end = January 7, 2019
| predecessor = [Schwarzenegger](Arnold)(Arnold Schwarzenegger)
| successor = [Newsom](Gavin)(Gavin Newsom)
| 1blankname1 = Lieutenant
| 1namedata1 =
| term_start1 = January 6, 1975
| term_end1 = January 3, 1983
| predecessor1 = [Reagan](Ronald)(Ronald Reagan)
| successor1 = [Deukmejian](George)(George Deukmejian)
| office2 = 31st [General of California](Attorney)(Attorney General of California)
| governor2 = Arnold Schwarzenegger
| term_start2 = January 8, 2007
| term_end2 = January 3, 2011
| predecessor2 = [Lockyer](Bill)(Bill Lockyer)
| successor2 = [Harris](Kamala)(Kamala Harris)
| office3 = 47th [of Oakland](Mayor)(List of mayors of Oakland, California)
| term_start3 = January 4, 1999
| term_end3 = January 8, 2007
| predecessor3 = [Harris](Elihu)(Elihu Harris)
| successor3 = [Dellums](Ron)(Ron Dellums)
| office5 = Chairman of the [Democratic Party](California)(California Democratic Party)
| term_start5 = February 11, 1989
| term_end5 = March 3, 1991
| predecessor5 = Peter D. Kelly III
| successor5 = [Angelides](Phil)(Phil Angelides)
| office4 = 23rd [of State of California](Secretary)(Secretary of State of California)
| governor4 = Ronald Reagan
| term_start4 = January 4, 1971
| term_end4 = January 6, 1975
| predecessor4 = [M. Jordan](Frank)(Frank M. Jordan)
| successor4 = [Fong Eu](March)(March Fong Eu)
| parents = [Brown](Pat)(Pat Brown)[Layne Brown](Bernice)(Bernice Layne Brown)
| birth_name = Edmund Gerald Brown Jr.
| birth_date =
| birth_place = [Francisco](San)(San Francisco), [California](California), U.S.
| death_date =
| death_place =
| party = [Democratic](Democratic Party (United States))
| spouse =
| relatives = [Brown](Kathleen)(Kathleen Brown) (sister)
| residence = [County, California](Colusa)(Colusa County, California), U.S.
| education = [Clara University](Santa)(Santa Clara University)
[of California, Berkeley](University)(University of California, Berkeley) ([BA](Bachelor of Arts))[University](Yale)(Yale University) ([LLB](Bachelor of Laws))
| signature = Signature of California Edmund G. (Jerry) Brown.png
}}
**Edmund Gerald Brown Jr.** (born April 7, 1938) is an American lawyer, author, and politician who served as the 34th and 39th [of California](governor)(governor of California) from 1975 to 1983 and 2011 to 2019. A member of the [Party](Democratic)(Democratic Party (United States)), he was elected [of State of California](Secretary)(Secretary of State of California) in 1970; Brown later served as Mayor of [Oakland](Oakland, California) from 1999 to 2007 and [General of California](Attorney)(Attorney General of California) from 2007 to 2011. He was both the oldest and sixth-youngest governor of California due to the 28-year gap between his second and third terms. Upon completing his fourth term in office, Brown became the fourth [governor in U.S. history](longest-serving)(List of longest-serving governors of U.S. states), serving 16 years and 5 days in office.
Born in [Francisco](San)(San Francisco), he is the son of [Layne Brown](Bernice)(Bernice Layne Brown) and [Brown](Pat)(Pat Brown), who was the 32nd Governor of California (1959–1967). After graduating from the [of California, Berkeley](University)(University of California, Berkeley) and [University](Yale)(Yale University), he practiced law and began his political career as a member of the [Angeles Community College District](Los)(Los Angeles Community College District) Board of Trustees (1969–1971). He was elected to serve as the 23rd Secretary of State of California from 1971 to 1975. At 36, Brown was elected to his first term as governor in [1974](1974 California gubernatorial election), making him the youngest California Governor in 111 years. In [1978](1978 California gubernatorial election), he won his second term. During his governorship, Brown ran unsuccessfully as a candidate for the Democratic presidential nomination in [1976](1976 Democratic Party presidential primaries) and [1980](1980 Democratic Party presidential primaries). He declined to pursue a third term as governor in [1982](1982 California gubernatorial election), instead making an unsuccessful run for the [States Senate](United)(United States Senate) that [year](same)(1982 United States Senate election in California), losing to San Diego Mayor and future Governor [Wilson](Pete)(Pete Wilson).
After traveling abroad, he returned to California and served as the sixth Chairman of the [Democratic Party](California)(California Democratic Party) (1989–1991), attempting to run for U.S. president once more in [1992](1992 Democratic Party presidential primaries) but losing the Democratic primary to [Clinton](Bill)(Bill Clinton). He then moved to Oakland, where he hosted a [radio](talk)(talk radio) show; Brown soon returned to public life, serving as [of Oakland](Mayor)(List of mayors of Oakland, California) (1999–2007) and [General of California](Attorney)(Attorney General of California) (2007–2011). He ran for his third and fourth terms as governor in [2010](2010 California gubernatorial election) and [2014](2014 California gubernatorial election), his eligibility to do so having stemmed from California's constitutional [clause](grandfather)(grandfather clause). On October 7, 2013, he became the longest-serving governor in the [of California](history)(history of California), surpassing [Warren](Earl)(Earl Warren).
## Early life, education, and private career
Brown was born in [Francisco](San)(San Francisco), California, the only son of four children born to [Attorney of San Francisco](District)(San Francisco District Attorney's Office) and later Governor of California, [Gerald "Pat" Brown](Edmund)(Pat Brown) Sr., and his wife, [Layne](Bernice)(Bernice Layne Brown). Brown's father was of half Irish and half German descent. His great-grandfather August Schuckman, a German immigrant, settled in California in 1852 during the [Gold Rush](California)(California Gold Rush).
Brown was a member of the [Cadet Corps](California)(California Cadet Corps) at [Ignatius High School](St.)(St. Ignatius College Preparatory), where he graduated in 1955. Riverside Preparatory School|url=http://www.riversideprep.net/cadet-corps/cadets-attend-governors-inauguration/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160104201801/http://www.riversideprep.net/cadet-corps/cadets-attend-governors-inauguration/|url-status=dead|archive-date=January 4, 2016 |website=www.riversideprep.net|access-date=December 28, 2015}} In 1955, Brown entered [Clara University](Santa)(Santa Clara University) for a year and left to attend [Heart Novitiate](Sacred)(Testarossa Winery#Sacred Heart Novitiate), a [Jesuit](Society of Jesus) novice house in [Gatos](Los)(Los Gatos, California), intent on becoming a [Catholic](Roman Catholicism in the United States) [priest](priest). "A story appeared in the *New York Times* on May 16, 1976, reporting that Brown 'now admits he is no longer a practicing Roman Catholic.' The *Times* story prompted a member of the staff of *The Monitor*, the newspaper of the archdiocese of San Francisco, to query Brown, whose answer was, "I was born a Catholic. I was raised a Catholic. I am a Catholic." Brown resided at the novitiate from August 1956 to January 1960 before enrolling at the [of California, Berkeley](University)(University of California, Berkeley), where he graduated with a [of Arts](Bachelor)(Bachelor of Arts) in Classics in 1961. With his tuition paid for by the [Lurie](Louis)(Louis Lurie) Foundation, including a $675 scholarship in 1963, Brown went on to [Law School](Yale)(Yale Law School) and graduated with a [of Laws](Bachelor)(Bachelor of Laws) in 1964. After law school, Brown worked as a [clerk](law)(law clerk) for [Supreme Court](California)(Supreme Court of California) Justice [Tobriner](Mathew)(Mathew Tobriner).
Returning to California, Brown took the state [bar](bar (law)) exam and passed on his second attempt. He then settled in [Angeles](Los)(Los Angeles) and joined the [firm](law)(law firm) of Tuttle & Taylor. In 1969, Brown ran for the newly created Los Angeles Community College Board of Trustees, which oversaw [college](community)(community college)s in the city; he placed first in a field of 124 and served until 1971.
## California Secretary of State (1971–1975)
In 1970, Brown was elected [Secretary of State](California)(California Secretary of State). Brown argued before the [Supreme Court](California)(California Supreme Court) and won cases against [Oil of California](Standard)(Chevron Corporation), [Telephone and Telegraph](International)(ITT Corporation), [Oil](Gulf)(Gulf Oil), and [Mobil](ExxonMobil) for election law violations. In addition, he forced legislators to comply with campaign disclosure laws. Brown also drafted and helped to pass the California Political Reform Act of 1974, Proposition 9, passed by 70% of California's voters in June 1974. Among other provisions, it established the [Fair Political Practices Commission](California)(California Fair Political Practices Commission).
## 34th Governor of California (1975–1983)
### First term
[[candidate Jerry Brown speaking at political rally, 1974.jpg|thumb|Brown speaking with supporters in 1974.](File:Gubernatorial)]
In 1974, Brown ran in a highly contested Democratic primary for Governor of California against [of the California Assembly](Speaker)(Speaker of the California Assembly) [Moretti](Bob)(Bob Moretti), San Francisco Mayor [L. Alioto](Joseph)(Joseph L. Alioto), Representative [R. Waldie](Jerome)(Jerome R. Waldie), and others. Brown won the primary with the name recognition of his father, Pat Brown, whom many people admired for his progressive administration. In the General Election on November 5, 1974, Brown was elected Governor of California over California State Controller [I. Flournoy](Houston)(Houston I. Flournoy); Republicans ascribed the loss to anti-Republican feelings from [Watergate](Watergate), the election being held only ninety days after President [Nixon](Richard)(Richard Nixon) resigned from office. Brown succeeded Republican Governor [Reagan](Ronald)(Ronald Reagan), who retired after two terms.
[[File:Jerry Brown 1974 Plymouth Satellite.jpg|thumb|Jerry Brown selected two frugal 1974 Plymouth Satellites from the state motor pool for his use in Northern California and Southern California. This is one of them, on display at the [Automobile Museum](California)(California Automobile Museum).]]
After taking office, Brown gained a reputation as a [conservative](fiscal)(fiscal conservatism). *[American Conservative](The)(The American Conservative)* later noted he was "much more of a fiscal conservative than [Reagan](Governor)(Ronald Reagan)". His fiscal restraint resulted in one of the biggest budget surpluses in state history, roughly $5 billion. For his personal life, Brown refused many of the privileges and perks of the office, forgoing the newly constructed 20,000 square-foot governor's residence in the suburb of [Carmichael](Carmichael, California) and instead renting a $275-per-month apartment at 1228 N Street, adjacent to Capitol Park in downtown Sacramento. Rather than riding as a passenger in a chauffeured [limousine](limousine) as previous governors had done, Brown walked to work and drove in a [Satellite](Plymouth)(Plymouth Satellite) [sedan](Sedan (car)). When [Davis](Gray)(Gray Davis), who was chief of staff to Governor Brown, suggested that a hole in the rug in the governor's office be fixed, Brown responded: “That hole will save the state at least $500 million, because legislators cannot come down and pound on my desk demanding lots of money for their pet programs while looking at a hole in my rug!”
As governor, Brown held a strong interest in [issues](environmental)(environmental issues). He appointed [Baldwin](J.)(J. Baldwin) to work in the newly created California Office of Appropriate Technology, [Van der Ryn](Sim)(Sim Van der Ryn) as State Architect, [Brand](Stewart)(Stewart Brand) as Special Advisor, [Bryson](John)(John Bryson) as chairman of the California State Water Board. Brown also reorganized the [Arts Council](California)(California Arts Council), boosting its funding by 1300 percent and appointing artists to the council, and appointed more women and minorities to office than any other previous California governor. In 1977, he sponsored the "first-ever tax incentive for rooftop solar", among many environmental initiatives. In 1975, Brown obtained the repeal of the "[allowance](depletion)(Depletion (accounting))", a tax break for the state's oil industry, despite the efforts of [lobbyist](lobbyist) [Shell](Joe)(Joe Shell), a former intraparty rival to [M. Nixon](Richard)(Richard M. Nixon).The decisive vote against the allowance was cast in the [State Senate](California)(California State Senate) by the usually pro-business Republican Senator [S. Stevens](Robert)(Robert S. Stevens (judge)). Shell claimed that Stevens had promised him that he would support keeping the allowance: "He had shaken my hand and told me he was with me." Brown later rewarded Stevens with a judicial appointment, but Stevens was driven from the bench for making salacious telephone calls.
In 1975, Brown opposed Vietnamese immigration to California, saying that the state had enough poor people. He added, “There is something a little strange about saying ‘Let's bring in 500,000 more people’ when we can't take care of the 1 million (Californians) out of work.”
Brown strongly opposed the [penalty](death)(death penalty) and vetoed it as governor, which the legislature overrode in 1977. He also appointed judges who opposed capital punishment. One of these appointments, [Bird](Rose)(Rose Bird) as the Chief Justice of the [Supreme Court](California)(Supreme Court of California), was voted out in 1987 after a strong campaign financed by business interests upset by her "pro-labor" and "pro-free speech" rulings. The death penalty was only "a trumped-up excuse" to use against her, even though the Bird Court consistently upheld the constitutionality of the death penalty. In 1960, he lobbied his father, then governor, to spare the life of [Chessman](Caryl)(Caryl Chessman) and reportedly won a 60-day stay for him.
Brown was both in favor of a [Budget Amendment](Balanced)(Balanced Budget Amendment) and opposed to [13](Proposition)(California Proposition 13 (1978)), the latter of which would decrease property taxes and greatly reduce revenue to cities and counties. When Proposition 13 passed in June 1978, he heavily cut state spending, and along with the Legislature, spent much of the $5 billion surplus to meet the proposition's requirements and help offset the revenue losses which made cities, counties, and schools more dependent on the state. His actions in response to the proposition earned him praise from Proposition 13 author [Jarvis](Howard)(Howard Jarvis) who went as far as to make a television commercial for Brown just before his successful [bid in 1978](re-election)(California gubernatorial election, 1978). The controversial proposition immediately cut tax revenues and required a two-thirds [supermajority](supermajority) to raise taxes. Max Neiman, a professor at the [of Governmental Studies](Institute)(Institute of Governmental Studies) at University of California, Berkeley, credited Brown for "bailing out local government and school districts", but felt it was harmful "because it made it easier for people to believe that Proposition 13 wasn't harmful". In an interview in 2014, Brown indicated that a "war chest" would have helped his campaign for an alternative to Proposition 13.
### 1976 presidential election
[[File:JerryBrown.png|thumb|left|Brown at the [Democratic National Convention](1976)(1976 Democratic National Convention) in [York City](New)(New York City)]]
[[File:Democratic Convention in New York City, July 14, 1976. Cesar Chavez at podium, nominating Gov. Brown (cropped1).jpg|right|thumb|[Chavez](Cesar)(Cesar Chavez) nominating Brown at the 1976 Democratic National Convention]]
Brown began his first campaign for the Democratic nomination for president on March 16, 1976, late in the primary season and over a year after some candidates had started campaigning. Brown declared: "The country is rich, but not so rich as we have been led to believe. The choice to do one thing may preclude another. In short, we are entering an era of limits."
Brown's name began appearing on primary ballots in May and he won in [Maryland](Maryland), [Nevada](Nevada), and his home state of California.View archival news footage of Brown's campaign speech in [Square, San Francisco](Union)(Union Square, San Francisco) on May 25, 1976: . He missed the deadline in [Oregon](Oregon), but he ran as a write-in candidate and finished in third behind [Carter](Jimmy)(Jimmy Carter) and Senator [Church](Frank)(Frank Church) of [Idaho](Idaho). Brown is often credited with winning the [Jersey](New)(New Jersey) and [Island](Rhode)(Rhode Island) primaries, but in reality, uncommitted slates of delegates that Brown advocated in those states finished first. With support from [Louisiana](Louisiana) Governor [Edwards](Edwin)(Edwin Edwards), Brown won a majority of delegates at the Louisiana delegate selection convention; thus, Louisiana was the only southern state to not support Southerners Carter or Alabama Governor [Wallace](George)(George Wallace). Despite this success, he was unable to stall Carter's momentum, and his rival was nominated on the first ballot at the [Democratic National Convention](1976)(1976 Democratic National Convention). Brown finished third with roughly 300 delegate votes, narrowly behind Congressman [Udall](Morris)(Morris Udall) and Carter.
### Second term
[[Jerry Brown speaking before crowd at re-election rally on UCLA campus, 1978.jpg|thumb|Brown speaking at a re-election rally in 1978.](File:Governor)]
Brown won re-election in 1978 against Republican state Attorney General [J. Younger](Evelle)(Evelle J. Younger). Brown appointed the first [gay](openly)(openly gay) judge in the United States when he named [Lachs](Stephen)(Stephen Lachs) to serve on the [Angeles County Superior Court](Los)(Los Angeles County Superior Court) in 1979. In 1981, he also appointed the first openly [lesbian](lesbian) judge in the United States, [C. Morgan](Mary)(Mary C. Morgan), to the San Francisco Municipal Court.Jim Schroeder, *Twenty-five years of courtroom trauma* *[Advocate](The)(The Advocate (LGBT magazine))* (August 23, 1994). Brown completed his second term having appointed a total of five gay judges, including [Schrader](Rand)(Rand Schrader) and [Krieger](Jerold)(Jerold Krieger).Tracy Wilkinson, [Municipal Court Judge Faces Challenge of AIDS – Disease](http://www.aegis.org/news/lt/1991/LT911129.html) , *[Angeles Times](Los)(Los Angeles Times)* (November 25, 1991).Myrna Oliver, [Judge Jerold Krieger, 58; Activist Helped Open Gay-Lesbian Temple](https://articles.latimes.com/2002/feb/20/local/me-krieger20) , *[Angeles Times](Los)(Los Angeles Times)* (February 20, 2002). Through his first term as governor, Brown had not appointed any openly gay people to any position, but he cited the failed 1978 [Initiative](Briggs)(Briggs Initiative), which sought to ban homosexuals from working in California's public schools, for his increased support of [rights](gay)(gay rights). The Governor also signed AB 489, The [Adult Sex Act](Consenting)(Consenting Adult Sex Bill), which decriminalized homosexual behavior between adults, adding to this reputation. He also signed AB 607, which banned homosexuals from receiving civil marriage licenses, in 1977.
[[Brown in 1978 crop.jpg|thumb|left|Brown in 1978.](File:Jerry)]
Brown championed the [Canal](Peripheral)(Peripheral Canal) project to transport water from near Sacramento around the [Joaquin Delta](Sacramento-San)(Sacramento–San Joaquin River Delta) into the Central Valley Project and export it to southern California. It was submitted to the voters for approval as a ballot proposition in 1982, but was turned down.
In 1981, Brown, who had established a reputation as a strong environmentalist, was confronted with a serious [medfly](medfly) infestation in the [Francisco Bay Area](San)(San Francisco Bay Area). The state's agricultural industry advised him, and the US Department of Agriculture's Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service ([APHIS](APHIS)), to authorize airborne spraying of the region. Initially, in accordance with his environmental protection stance, he chose to authorize ground-level spraying only. Unfortunately, the infestation spread as the medfly reproductive cycle out-paced the spraying. After more than a month, millions of dollars of crops had been destroyed, and billions of dollars more were threatened. Governor Brown then authorized a massive response to the infestation. Fleets of helicopters sprayed [malathion](malathion) at night, and the [National Guard](California)(California National Guard) set up highway checkpoints and collected many tons of local fruit; in the final stage of the campaign, entomologists released millions of [male medflies](sterile)(sterile insect technique) in an attempt to disrupt the insects' reproductive cycle.
Ultimately, the infestation was eradicated, but both the Governor's delay and the scale of the action have remained controversial ever since. Some people claimed that malathion was toxic to humans, as well as insects. In response to such concerns, Brown's chief of staff, [T. Collins](B.)(B. T. Collins), staged a news conference during which he publicly drank a glass of malathion. Many people complained that, while the malathion may not have been very toxic to humans, the aerosol spray containing it was corrosive to car paint.
Brown proposed the establishment of a state space academy and the purchasing of a [satellite](satellite) that would be launched into orbit to provide emergency communications for the state—a proposal similar to one that was indeed eventually adopted. In 1979, an out-of-state columnist, [Royko](Mike)(Mike Royko), at the *[Sun-Times](Chicago)(Chicago Sun-Times)*, picked up on the nickname from Brown's [girlfriend](girlfriend) at the time, [Ronstadt](Linda)(Linda Ronstadt), who was quoted in a 1978 *[Stone](Rolling)(Rolling Stone)* magazine interview humorously calling him "Moonbeam". [Alternate Link](http://search.proquest.com/docview/158869485/) via [ProQuest](ProQuest). A year later, Royko expressed his regret for publicizing the nickname, [Alternate Link](http://search.proquest.com/docview/162909754/) via [ProQuest](ProQuest). and in 1991 Royko disavowed it entirely, proclaiming Brown to be just as serious as any other politician.
Some notable figures were given priority correspondence access to him in either advisory or personal roles. These included [Farm Workers of America](United)(United Farm Workers of America) founder [Chavez](Cesar)(Cesar Chavez), [Hewlett-Packard](Hewlett-Packard) co-founder [Packard](David)(David Packard), labor leader [Henning](Jack)(Jack Henning), and [Manatt](Charles)(Charles Manatt), then-Chairman of the California State Democratic Party. Mail was routed as [VIP](VIP) to be delivered directly to the governor. However, it is unclear as to exactly how long this may have occurred.
In 1978, San Francisco [band](punk)(punk band) the [Kennedys](Dead)(Dead Kennedys)' first single, "[über alles](California)(California über alles)", from the album [Fruit for Rotting Vegetables](Fresh)(Fresh Fruit for Rotting Vegetables), was released; it was performed from the perspective of then-governor Brown painting a picture of a [hippie](hippie)-[fascist](fascist) state, satirizing what they considered his mandating of liberal ideas in a fascist manner, commenting on what lyricist [Biafra](Jello)(Jello Biafra) saw as the corrosive nature of power. The imaginary Brown had become President Brown presiding over secret police and gas chambers. Biafra later said in an interview with *[Nardwuar](Nardwuar)* that he now feels differently about Brown; as it turned out, Brown was not as bad as Biafra thought he would be, and subsequent songs have been written about other politicians deemed worse.
Brown chose not to run for a third term in 1982, and instead ran for the [States Senate](United)(United States Senate), but lost to [Diego Mayor](San)(Mayor of San Diego) [Wilson](Pete)(Pete Wilson). He was succeeded as governor by [Deukmejian](George)(George Deukmejian), then state attorney general, on January 3, 1983.
### 1980 presidential election
[[Brown 1980.jpg|thumb|left|Brown in 1980.|140px](File:Jerry)]
In 1980, Brown challenged Carter for renomination. The press had anticipated his candidacy ever since he won re-election as governor in 1978 over the Republican [Younger](Evelle)(Evelle Younger) by 1.3 million votes, the largest margin in California history. But Brown had trouble gaining traction in both fundraising and polling for the presidential nomination. This was widely believed to be because of the more prominent candidate Senator [Kennedy](Ted)(Ted Kennedy) of [Massachusetts](Massachusetts). Brown's 1980 platform, which he declared to be the natural result of combining [Fuller](Buckminster)(Buckminster Fuller)'s visions of the future and [F. Schumacher](E.)(E. F. Schumacher)'s theory of "[economics](Buddhist)(Buddhist economics)", was much expanded from 1976. His "era of limits" slogan was replaced by a promise to, in his words, "Protect the Earth, serve the people, and explore the universe".
Three main planks of his platform were a call for a [convention](constitutional)(constitutional convention (political meeting)) to ratify the [Budget Amendment](Balanced)(Balanced Budget Amendment); a promise to increase funds for the [program](space)(space program) as a "first step in bringing us toward a solar-powered space [to provide solar energy](satellite)(space-based solar power) for this planet"; and, in the wake of the 1979 [Mile Island accident](Three)(Three Mile Island accident), opposition to [power](nuclear)(nuclear power). On the subject of the [energy crisis](1979)(1979 energy crisis), Brown decried the "[bargain](Faustian)(deal with the Devil)" that he claimed Carter had entered into with the [industry](oil)(oil industry), and declared that he would greatly increase federal funding of research into [power](solar)(solar power). He endorsed the idea of mandatory non-military [service](national)(national service) for the nation's youth. He suggested that the [Department](Defense)(United States Defense Department) cut back on support troops while beefing up the number of combat troops.
Brown opposed Kennedy's call for [universal](universal health care) [health insurance](national)(national health insurance) and opposed Carter's call for an employer mandate to provide catastrophic private health insurance labeling it socialist. As an alternative, he suggested a program of tax credits for those who do not smoke or otherwise damage their health, saying: "Those who abuse their bodies should not abuse the rest of us by taking our tax dollars." Brown also called for expanding the use of [acupuncture](acupuncture) and [midwifery](midwifery).
As Brown's campaign began to attract more members of what some more conservative commentators described as "the fringe", including activists like [Fonda](Jane)(Jane Fonda), [Hayden](Tom)(Tom Hayden), and [Jackson](Jesse)(Jesse Jackson), his polling numbers began to suffer. Brown received only 10 percent of the vote in the [Hampshire primary](New)(New Hampshire primary), and he was soon forced to announce that his decision to remain in the race would depend on a good showing in the [Wisconsin](Wisconsin) primary. Although he had polled well there throughout the primary season, an attempt to film a live speech in [Madison](Madison, Wisconsin), the state's capital, into a [effects](special)(special effects)-filled, 30-minute commercial (produced and directed by [Ford Coppola](Francis)(Francis Ford Coppola)) was disastrous.
## Senate defeat and public life
In 1982, Brown chose not to seek a third term as governor; instead, he ran for the [States Senate](United)(United States Senate) for the seat being vacated by Republican [Hayakawa](S.I.)(S.I. Hayakawa). He was defeated by Republican San Diego Mayor [Wilson](Pete)(Pete Wilson) by a margin of 52% to 47%. After his Senate defeat, Brown was left with few political options. Republican [Deukmejian](George)(George Deukmejian), a Brown critic, narrowly won the governorship in 1982, succeeding Brown, and was re-elected overwhelmingly in 1986. After his Senate defeat in 1982, many considered Brown's political career to be over.
Brown traveled to Japan to study [Buddhism](Buddhism), studying with Christian/Zen practitioner [Enomiya-Lassalle](Hugo)(Hugo Enomiya-Lassalle) under [Koun-roshi](Yamada)(Yamada Koun). In an interview, he explained, "Since politics is based on illusions, zazen definitely provides new insights for a politician. I then come back into the world of California and politics, with critical distance from some of my more comfortable assumptions." He also visited [Teresa](Mother)(Mother Teresa) in [India](Calcutta,)(Kolkata), where he ministered to the sick in one of her [hospices](Hospice care). He explained, "Politics is a power struggle to get to the top of the heap. Calcutta and Mother Teresa are about working with those who are at the bottom of the heap. And to see them as no different from yourself, and their needs as important as your needs. And you're there to serve them, and doing that you are attaining as great a state of being as you can."
Upon his return from abroad in 1988, Brown announced that he would stand as a candidate to become [chairman](chairman) of the [Democratic Party](California)(California Democratic Party), and won against investment banker [Westly](Steve)(Steve Westly). Although Brown greatly expanded the party's donor base and enlarged its coffers, with a focus on [grassroots](grassroots) organizing and [out the vote](get)(get out the vote) drives, he was criticized for not spending enough money on TV ads, which was felt to have contributed to Democratic losses in several close races in 1990, such as [Feinstein](Dianne)(Dianne Feinstein)'s attempt to become the [female governor of California](first)(1990 California gubernatorial election). In early 1991, Brown abruptly resigned his post and announced that he would run for the Senate seat held by the retiring [Cranston](Alan)(Alan Cranston). Although Brown consistently led in the polls for both the nomination and the general election, he abandoned the campaign, deciding instead to run for the presidency for the third time.
## 1992 presidential election
When Brown announced his intention to run for president against President [H. W. Bush](George)(George H. W. Bush), many in the media and his own party dismissed his campaign as having little chance of gaining significant support. Ignoring them, Brown embarked on a [grassroots](grassroots democracy) campaign to, in his own words, "take back America from the confederacy of [corruption](political corruption), [career](career)ism, and campaign [consulting](consultant) in Washington". In his [speech](stump)(Stump speech (politics)), first used while officially announcing his candidacy on the steps of [Hall](Independence)(Independence Hall (United States)) in [Pennsylvania](Philadelphia,)(Philadelphia, Pennsylvania), Brown told listeners that he would be accepting [contributions](campaign)(campaign finance) from individuals only and that he would not accept more than $100. Continuing with his populist [reform](reform movement) theme, he assailed what he dubbed "the [bipartisan](bipartisanship) Incumbent Party in Washington" and called for [limit](term)(term limit)s for members of [Congress](Congress of the United States). Citing various recent scandals on [Hill](Capitol)(Capitol Hill), particularly the recent [banking scandal](House)(House banking scandal) and the large congressional pay-raises from 1990, he promised to put an end to Congress being a "[Stop-and-Shop](convenience store) for the moneyed [interest](special)(special interest)s".
As Brown campaigned in various primary states, he would eventually expand his platform beyond a policy of strict [finance reform](campaign)(Campaign finance reform in the United States). Although he focused on a variety of issues throughout the campaign, he highlighted his endorsement of [wage](living)(living wage) laws and opposition to [trade](free)(free trade) agreements such as [NAFTA](North American Free Trade Agreement); he mostly concentrated on his tax policy, which had been created specifically for him by [Laffer](Arthur)(Arthur Laffer), the famous supporter of [economics](supply-side)(supply-side economics) who created the [curve](Laffer)(Laffer curve). This plan, which called for the replacement of the [income tax](progressive)(progressive tax) with a [tax](flat)(flat tax) and a [added tax](value)(value added tax), both at a fixed 13-percent rate, was decried by his opponents as regressive. Nevertheless, it was endorsed by *[New York Times](The)(The New York Times)*, *[New Republic](The)(The New Republic)*, and *[Forbes](Forbes)*, and its raising of taxes on [corporation](corporation)s and elimination of various loopholes which tended to favor the very wealthy proved to be popular with voters. Various [poll](opinion)(opinion poll)s taken at the time found that as many as three-quarters of all Americans believed the current tax code to be unfairly biased toward the wealthy. [Walker](Jesse)(Jesse Walker) wrote in *[American Conservative](The)(The American Conservative)* that he "seemed to be the most left-wing and right-wing man in the field ... [calling] for term limits, a flat tax, reforming social security, and the abolition of the [of Education](Department)(United States Department of Education)".[Jesse](Walker,)(Jesse Walker) (November 1, 2009) [Five Faces of Jerry Brown](http://www.amconmag.com/article/2009/nov/01/00012/) , *[American Conservative](The)(The American Conservative)* Brown scored surprising wins in Connecticut and Colorado and seemed poised to overtake Clinton.
Due to his limited budget, Brown began to use a mixture of [media](alternative)(alternative media) and unusual fundraising techniques. Unable to pay for actual commercials, he frequently used [television](cable)(cable television) and [radio](talk)(talk radio) interviews as a form of free media to get his message to voters. In order to raise funds, he purchased a [telephone number](toll-free)(toll-free telephone number), which adorned all of his campaign stances. During the campaign, Brown's repetition of this number combined with the moralistic language used, led some to describe him as a "political [televangelist](televangelism)" with an "anti-politics gospel"."Brown Enters Race as Leader Against 'Corrupt Politics'", Associated Press, October 22, 1991. Page A3.
Despite poor showings in the [caucus](Iowa)(Iowa caucus) (1.6%) and the [Hampshire primary](New)(New Hampshire Democratic primary, 1992) (8%), Brown soon managed to win narrow victories in [Maine](Maine), [Colorado](Colorado), [Nevada](Nevada), and [Vermont](Vermont), but he continued to be considered a small threat for much of the campaign. It was not until shortly after [Tuesday](Super)(Super Tuesday), when the field had been narrowed to Brown, former Senator [Tsongas](Paul)(Paul Tsongas) of Massachusetts, and front-runner then-Governor [Clinton](Bill)(Bill Clinton) of [Arkansas](Arkansas), that Brown began to emerge as a major contender in the eyes of the press. On March 17, Brown forced Tsongas from the race when he received a strong third-place showing in the [Illinois](Illinois) primary and then defeated the senator for second place in the [Michigan](Michigan) primary by a wide margin. Exactly one week later, he cemented his position as a major threat to Clinton when he eked out a narrow win in the bitterly fought [Connecticut](Connecticut) primary. As the press focused on the primaries in [York](New)(New York (state)) and [Wisconsin](Wisconsin), which were both to be held on the same day, Brown, who had taken the lead in polls in both states, made a [gaffe](gaffe): He announced to an audience of various leaders of New York City's [Jew](Jew)ish community that, if nominated, he would consider the Reverend [Jackson](Jesse)(Jesse Jackson) as a vice-presidential candidate. Jackson, who had made a pair of [anti-semitic](anti-Semitism) comments about Jews in general, and New York City's Jews in particular, while running for president in 1984, was still mistrusted within the Jewish community. Jackson also had ties to [Farrakhan](Louis)(Louis Farrakhan), infamous for his own anti-semitic statements, and with [Arafat](Yasir)(Yasir Arafat), the chairman of the [Liberation Organization](Palestine)(Palestine Liberation Organization). Brown's polling numbers suffered. On April 7, he lost narrowly to Bill Clinton in Wisconsin (37%–34%), and dramatically in New York (41%–26%).
Although Brown continued to campaign in a number of states, he won no further primaries. Despite being overwhelmingly outspent, Brown won upset victories in seven states and his "votes won to the money raised ratio" was by far the best of any candidate in the race. He still had a sizable number of delegates, and a big win in his home state of California would deprive Clinton of sufficient support to win the Democratic nomination, possibly bringing about a [convention](brokered)(brokered convention). After nearly a month of intense campaigning and multiple debates between the two candidates, Clinton managed to defeat Brown in this final primary by a margin of 48% to 41%. Although Brown did not win the nomination, he was able to boast of one accomplishment: at the following month's [National Convention](Democratic)(1992 Democratic National Convention), he received the votes of 596 delegates on the first ballot, more than any other candidate but Clinton. He spoke at the convention, and to the national viewing audience, yet without endorsing Clinton, through the device of seconding his own nomination. There was animosity between the Brown and Clinton campaigns, and Brown was the first political figure to criticize Bill Clinton over what became known as the [controversy](Whitewater)(Whitewater controversy).
## Move to Oakland
After his 1992 presidential bid, Brown had moved from the [Heights](Pacific)(Pacific Heights, San Francisco) neighborhood of [Francisco](San)(San Francisco) to the [London District](Jack)(Jack London District, Oakland, California) neighborhood of [California](Oakland,)(Oakland, California), an "overwhelmingly minority city of 400,000". He constructed a multi-million dollar work-live complex, serving both as his residence and as a workspace. Among other features, it included a broadcast studio and a 400-seat auditorium.
Brown launched a national [radio](talk)(talk radio) show from his Oakland complex, which he would continue to produce until October 1997.
In 1995, with Brown's political career at a low point, in the motion picture [*Jade*](Jade (film)), the fictional Governor of California tells an assistant district attorney to drop a case, "unless you want as much of a future in this state as Jerry Brown". The assistant DA responds, "Who's Jerry Brown?"
In Oakland, Brown became involved as an activist in local political matters, including bay-front development and campaign finance reform. In 1996, Brown unsuccessfully urged Oakland mayor [Harris](Elihu)(Elihu Harris) to appoint him to a seat on the Oakland Port Commission.
## Mayor of Oakland (1999–2007)
[[File:Brown, Feinstein, Newsome.JPG|thumb|right|Mayor Jerry Brown (left) with U.S. Senator [Feinstein](Dianne)(Dianne Feinstein) (middle) and San Francisco Mayor [Newsom](Gavin)(Gavin Newsom) (right) in 2007]]
After Oakland mayor Elihu Harris decided against seeking reelection, Brown ran in the city's [mayoral election](1998)(1998 Oakland mayoral election) as an independent "having left the Democratic Party, blasting what he called the 'deeply corrupted' [system](two-party)(two-party system)". He won with 59% of the vote in a field of ten candidates.
Prior to taking office, Brown campaigned to get the approval of the electorate to convert Oakland's [mayor" political structure]("weak)(Mayor-council government), which structured the mayor as chairman of the city council and official greeter, to a "[mayor](strong)(strong mayor)" structure, where the mayor would act as chief executive over the nonpolitical and thus the various city departments, and break tie votes on the Oakland City Council. In November 1998, Oakland's electorate voted by a landslide margin of 3 to 1 in support of Measure X, which would shift the city government to the strong mayor model for a period of 6 years. A referendum permanently extending Measure X later passed in 2004, after failing to pass in 2002, thus making permanent the city's shift to the strong mayor model of governance.
The political left had hoped for some of the more progressive politics from Brown's earlier governorship, but found Brown, as mayor, to be "more pragmatic than progressive, more interested in downtown redevelopment and economic growth than political ideology". As mayor, he invited the [Marine Corps](U.S.)(U.S. Marine Corps) to use Oakland harbor lands for mock military exercises as part of [Urban Warrior](Operation)(Operation Urban Warrior).
The city was rapidly losing residents and businesses, and Brown is credited with starting the revitalization of the city using his connections and experience to lessen the economic downturn while attracting $1 billion of investments, including refurbishing the [Theatre](Fox)(Fox Theater (Oakland)), the [of Oakland](Port)(Port of Oakland), and [London Square](Jack)(Jack London Square). The downtown district was losing retailers, restaurateurs and residential developers, and Brown sought to attract thousands of new residents with [income](disposable)(disposable income) to revitalize the area. Brown continued his predecessor Elihu Harris's public policy of supporting downtown housing development in the area defined as the [Business District](Central)(Central Business District) in Oakland's 1998 General Plan. Since Brown worked toward the stated goal of bringing an additional 10,000 residents to [Oakland](Downtown)(Downtown Oakland, Oakland, California), his plan was known as the "[Plan](10k)(10k Plan)". It has resulted in redevelopment projects in the [London District](Jack)(Jack London District, Oakland, California), where Brown himself had earlier purchased and later sold an industrial warehouse which he used as a personal residence, and in the [Apartments District](Lakeside)(Lakeside Apartments District, Oakland, California) near [Merritt](Lake)(Lake Merritt). The [plan](10K)(10K Plan) has touched the historic [Oakland](Old)(Old Oakland) district, the [Chinatown](Chinatown, Oakland, California) district, the [Uptown](Uptown Oakland) district, and [Downtown](Downtown Oakland). Brown surpassed the stated goal of attracting 10,000 residents according to city records, and built more [housing](affordable)(affordable housing) than previous mayoral administrations.
Brown had campaigned on fixing Oakland's schools, but "bureaucratic battles" dampened his efforts. He concedes he never had control of the schools, and his reform efforts were "largely a bust". He focused instead on the creation of two [school](charter)(charter school)s, the [School for the Arts](Oakland)(Oakland School for the Arts) and the [Military Institute](Oakland)(Oakland Military Institute). Defending his support of a military charter school in Oakland, Brown once told KQED reporter Stephen Talbot, "I believe that had I been sent to the military academy, as my mother and father threatened, I would have been president a long time ago."Archived at [Ghostarchive](https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211211/ZAfltGwzgpI) and the [Wayback Machine](https://web.archive.org/web/20140727222808/http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZAfltGwzgpI):
Brown sponsored nearly two dozen crime initiatives to reduce the crime rate, although crime decreased by 13 percent overall, the city still suffered a "57 percent spike in homicides his final year in office, to 148 overall".
Brown's largely successful first term as mayor of Oakland was documented in a one-hour KQED documentary, "The Celebrity and the City" (2001) that evaluated his record in dealing with his four stated goals: reducing crime, improving education, attracting 10,000 new residents to a resurgent downtown, and encouraging the arts.
Brown was reelected as mayor [2002](in)(2002 Oakland mayoral election).
## Attorney General of California (2007–2011)
[[in 2009](File:JerryBrownByPhilKonstantin.jpg|150px|left|thumb|Brown)]
In 2004, Brown expressed interest to be a candidate for the Democratic nomination for [General of California](Attorney)(Attorney General of California) in the 2006 election, and in May 2004, he formally filed to run. He defeated his Democratic primary opponent, Los Angeles City Attorney [Delgadillo](Rocky)(Rocky Delgadillo), 63% to 37%. In the general election, Brown defeated Republican State Senator [Poochigian](Charles)(Charles Poochigian) 56.3% to 38.2%, one of the largest margins of victory in any statewide California race. In the final weeks leading up to Election Day, Brown's eligibility to run for attorney general was challenged in what Brown called a "political stunt by a Republican office seeker" ([Costa County](Contra)(Contra Costa County) Republican Central Committee chairman and state GOP vice-chair candidate Tom Del Beccaro). Plaintiffs claimed Brown did not meet eligibility according to California Government Code §12503, "No person shall be eligible to the office of Attorney General unless he shall have been admitted to practice before the Supreme Court of the state for a period of at least five years immediately preceding his election or appointment to such office." Legal analysts called the lawsuit frivolous because Brown was admitted to practice law in the State of California on June 14, 1965, and had been so admitted to practice ever since. Although ineligible to practice law because of his voluntary inactive status in the [Bar of California](State)(State Bar of California) from January 1, 1997, to May 1, 2003, he was nevertheless still admitted to practice. Because of this distinction the case was eventually thrown out.
### Death penalty
As attorney general, Brown represented the state in fighting death-penalty appeals and stated that he would follow the law, regardless of his personal beliefs against [punishment](capital)(capital punishment). Capital punishment by [injection](lethal)(lethal injection) was halted in California by federal judge [D. Fogel](Jeremy)(Jeremy D. Fogel) until new facilities and procedures were put into place. Brown moved to resume capital punishment in 2010 with the execution of [Greenwood Brown](Albert)(Albert Greenwood Brown) after the lifting of a statewide [moratorium](moratorium (law)) by a California court. Brown's Democratic campaign, which pledged to "enforce the laws" of California, denied any connection between the case and the gubernatorial election. Prosecutor [Pacheco](Rod)(Rod Pacheco), who supported Republican opponent Meg Whitman, said that it would be unfair to accuse Brown of using the execution for political gain as they never discussed the case.
### Mortgage fraud lawsuit
In June 2008, Brown filed a fraud lawsuit claiming mortgage lender [Financial](Countrywide)(Countrywide Financial) engaged in "unfair and deceptive" practices to get homeowners to apply for risky mortgages far beyond their means. Brown accused the lender of breaking the state's laws against [advertising](false)(false advertising) and unfair business practices. The lawsuit also claimed the defendant misled many consumers by misinforming them about the workings of certain mortgages such as adjustable-rate mortgages, [loan](interest-only)(interest-only loan)s, low-documentation loans and home-equity loans while telling borrowers they would be able to [refinance](refinance) before the interest rate on their loans adjusted. The suit was settled in October 2008 after [of America](Bank)(Bank of America) acquired Countrywide. The settlement involved the modifying of troubled 'predatory loans' up to $8.4 billion.
### Proposition 8
[8](Proposition)(California Proposition 8 (2008)), a contentious voter-approved amendment to the state constitution that banned [marriage](same-sex)(same-sex marriage) was upheld in May 2009 by the California Supreme Court. In August 2010, the [District Court for the Northern District of California](U.S.)(United States District Court for the Northern District of California) ruled that Proposition 8 violated the [Process](Due)(Due Process Clause) and the [Protection](Equal)(Equal Protection) clauses of the [Amendment to the United States Constitution](Fourteenth)(Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution). Brown and then Republican Governor [Schwarzenegger](Arnold)(Arnold Schwarzenegger) both declined to appeal the ruling. The state appeals court declined to order the governor or Attorney-General Brown to defend the proposition.
## 39th Governor of California (2011–2019)
### Third term
[[File:Jerry Brown rally G.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Brown at a campaign rally in [Sacramento](Sacramento) two days before the election in 2010]]
Brown announced his candidacy for governor on March 2, 2010. First indicating his interest in early 2008, Brown formed an exploratory committee in order to seek a third term as governor in 2010, following the expiration of Governor [Schwarzenegger](Arnold)(Arnold Schwarzenegger)'s term.The fact that he has served two terms already does not affect him because [140](Proposition)(List of California ballot propositions 1990–1999) does not apply to those who had served as public officials before the law passed in 1990, as provided in Article 20, Section 7 of the [Constitution](California)(California Constitution).[Term limits](http://www.leginfo.ca.gov/.const/.article_20)
Brown's Republican opponent in the election was former [eBay](eBay) president [Whitman](Meg)(Meg Whitman). Brown was endorsed by the *[Angeles Times](Los)(Los Angeles Times),*[Jerry Brown for governor](https://www.latimes.com/news/opinion/editorials/la-ed-governor-20101003,0,913011.story) , editorial, *[Angeles Times](Los)(Los Angeles Times)*, October 3, 2010 *[Sacramento Bee](The)(The Sacramento Bee),*[Endorsements: Jerry Brown best pick for governor](http://www.sacbee.com/2010/10/03/3073192/jerry-brown-best-pick-for-governor.html) , editorial, *[Sacramento Bee](The)(The Sacramento Bee)*, October 3, 2010 the *[Francisco Chronicle](San)(San Francisco Chronicle),* the *[Jose Mercury News](San)(San Jose Mercury News),* and the [Employees International Union](Service)(Service Employees International Union).
Both Whitman and Brown were criticized for [campaigning](negative)(negative campaigning) during the election. During their final debate at the 2010 [Conference](Women's)(Women's Conference) a week before the election, moderator [Lauer](Matt)(Matt Lauer) asked both candidates to pull attack ads for the rest of the election, which elicited loud cheers from the audience.[Whitman, Brown In The Hot Seat Over Negative Ads](https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=130852376) by Ina Jaffe. Brown agreed and picked one ad each of his and Whitman's that he thought, if Whitman would agree, should be the only ones run, but Whitman, who had been loudly cheered earlier as the prospective first woman governor of the state, was booed when she stated that she would keep "the ads that talk about where Gov. Brown stands on the issues".[Brown, Whitman Challenged to Pull Negative Ads in California Governor Race](https://www.pbs.org/newshour/rundown/2010/10/the-morning-line-negative-ads-put-front-and-center-in-race-for-california-governor.html) *PBS Newshour*, David Chalian and Terrance Burlij, October 27, 2010.
The *Los Angeles Times* reported that nearly $250 million was spent on the Governor's race. At least two spending records were broken during the campaign. Whitman broke personal spending records by spending $140 million of her own money on the campaign,["How Jerry Brown got back in the governor's saddle"](http://news.blogs.cnn.com/2010/11/03/how-jerry-brown-got-back-in-the-governors-saddle/?hpt=C1), Ashley Fantz, CNN, November 3, 2010. Fetched from URL on November 3, 2010. and independent expenditures exceeded $31.7 million, with almost $25 million of that spent in support of Brown. Despite being significantly outspent by Whitman, Brown won the gubernatorial race 53.8% to Whitman's 40.9%.
Brown was sworn in for his third term as governor on January 3, 2011, succeeding Republican [Schwarzenegger](Arnold)(Arnold Schwarzenegger) who had been term-limited. Brown was working on a budget that would shift many government programs from the state to the local level, a reversal of trends from his first tenure as governor.Jesse McKinley. "The New York Times".01/10/2011. "". January 16, 2011.
On June 28, 2012, Brown signed a budget that made deep cuts to social services with the assumption that voters would pass $8 billion in tax increases in November 2012 to close California's $15.7-billion budget deficit. Brown stated: "We need budget cuts. We need the continued growth of the economy for a long period of time. We're suffering from the mortgage meltdown that killed 600,000 jobs in the construction industry. ... We're recovering from a national recession slowly—over 300,000 jobs [gained] since the recession. We've got a million to go. That needs to continue, but that depends not only on Barack Obama and the Congress and the Federal Reserve, but also on [Chancellor Angela](German) Merkel, China, the European Union, and the self-organizing quality of the world economy."
In September 2012, Brown signed legislation sponsored by California State Senator [Lieu](Ted)(Ted Lieu) that prohibits protesters at funerals within 300 feet, with convicted violators punishable with fines and jail time; the legislation was in response to protests conducted by the [Baptist Church](Westboro)(Westboro Baptist Church).
[[File:Barack Obama speaks with farmers about California drought, 2014.jpg|thumb|Brown and President [Obama](Barack)(Barack Obama) discussing the [in California](drought)(2011–2017 California drought) with farmers, 2014]]
In the November 2012 general elections, voters approved Brown's proposed tax increases in the form of [30](Proposition)(California Proposition 30 (2012)). Prop 30 raised the state personal income tax increase over seven years for California residents with an annual income over US$250,000 and increased in the state sales tax by 0.25 percent over four years. It allowed the state to avoid nearly $6 billion in cuts to public education.
In 2013, Brown proposed a large, $25 billion Bay Delta Conservation Plan (later renamed the [Water Fix and Eco Restore](California)(California Water Fix and Eco Restore) project) to build two large, four-story tall, long tunnels to carry fresh water from the [River](Sacramento)(Sacramento River) under the [Joaquin Delta](Sacramento-San)(Sacramento-San Joaquin Delta) toward the intake stations for the [Water Project](State)(State Water Project) and the [Valley Project](Central)(Central Valley Project). Unlike his earlier Peripheral Canal project, the two tunnels are to be funded by the agencies and users receiving benefit from the project and do not require voter approval.
In July 2014, Brown traveled to Mexico to hold meetings with Mexican President [Peña Nieto](Enrique)(Enrique Peña Nieto) and other Central American leaders about the ongoing [immigration crisis](children's)(children's immigration crisis).
On September 16, 2014, Gov. Brown signed a [package of groundwater legislation](historic)(Sustainable Groundwater Management Act). The plan will regulate local agencies and also implement management plans to achieve water sustainability within 20 years.
### Fourth term
[[File:Secretary Zinke meeting with Governor Brown 2811 (33632762780).jpg|thumb|Brown meeting with U.S. Secretary of the Interior [Zinke](Ryan)(Ryan Zinke) in April 2017]]
Brown announced his bid for re-election on February 27, 2014. On June 3, he came first in the primary election by over 1.5 million votes. He received 54.3% of the vote and advanced to the general election with Republican [Kashkari](Neel)(Neel Kashkari), who took 19.38% of the vote.
There was only one gubernatorial debate. When asked to schedule another, Brown declined. During the debate in Sacramento on September 4, 2014, Kashkari accused Brown of failing to improve California's business climate. His leading example was the [Motors](Tesla)(Tesla Motors) factory investment, creating 6,500 manufacturing jobs, going to Nevada rather than California. Brown responded that the cash payment upfront required by the investment would have been unfair to California taxpayers. A range of issues were debated, including recent legislation for a [on plastic bags](ban)(Phase-out of lightweight plastic bags#California) at grocery stores that Brown promised to sign and Kashkari thought unimportant.
Brown said that if he were elected to a fourth and final term, he would continue transferring power to local authorities, particularly over education and criminal justice policy, and would resist fellow Democrats' "gold rush for new programs and spending".
In the general election, Brown was re-elected by 3,645,835 votes (59.2%) to Kashkari's 2,511,722 (40.8%). His stated goals for his unprecedented fourth term in office were to construct the [High-Speed Rail](California)(California High-Speed Rail), to create [to shore up the state's water system](tunnels)(Bay Delta Conservation Plan) and to curb carbon dioxide emissions. He still had $20 million in campaign funds to advance his ballot measures in case the legislature didn't support his plans.
In October 2015, Brown signed off the [End of Life Option Act](California)(California End of Life Option Act) allowing residents of California who fulfilled strict criteria to exercise the [to die](right)(right to die) by accessing [aid in dying](medical)(Euthanasia). During the sign off he took the unusual step of adding a personal message indicating his dilemma regarding the consideration of the ethical issues involved and stating that he felt unable to deny the right of choice to others.
On December 18, 2015, Brown moved into the Historic Governor's Mansion, now part of [Mansion State Historic Park](Governor's)(Governor's Mansion State Historic Park).
In 2016, Brown vetoed a bill to exempt [hygiene products](feminine)(feminine hygiene products) from state sales taxes, at the same time that he vetoed other bills which would also have exempted diapers, saying that collectively, these exemptions would have reduced state revenues by $300 million annually, and stated “As I said last year, tax breaks are the same as new spending – they both cost the general fund money.”
In the 2018–2019 budget plan that Brown released on January 10, 2018, the Governor proposed spending $120 million to establish California's first fully online community college by fall 2019.
Legislative accomplishments in Brown's final term include passing [Sanctuary Law SB 54](California)(California Senate Bill 54 (2017)), which prevents police from complying with most requests by the [Immigration and Customs Enforcement](U.S.)(U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement) (ICE) to hold illegal immigrants for deportation; [Senate Bill 32](California)(California Senate Bill 32), which requires the state to reduce [gas emissions](greenhouse)(greenhouse gas emissions) to 40% below 1990 levels by 2030, extending the state's cap and trade system (which had originally been outlined by the [Warming Solutions Act of 2006](Global)(Global Warming Solutions Act of 2006)) to achieve this goal; and passing the [Repair and Accountability Act](Road)(Road Repair and Accountability Act). Brown has opposed the [6](Proposition)(California Proposition 6 (2018)) ballot measure to repeal the Road Repair and Accountability Act, and endorsed [Newsom](Gavin)(Gavin Newsom) to succeed him.
Brown has been criticized for his links to the oil and gas industry, notably for contributions from, and his family ties to, [Energy](Sempra)(Sempra Energy).
By September 2018, Brown had granted more than 1,100 pardons since returning to office in 2011; more pardons than any California governor in recent history. Brown commuted more than 82 sentences, the highest number since at least the 1940s.
## Electoral history
## Personal life
[[File:California Governor Jerry Brown (8577347663).jpg|thumbnail|Brown and wife [Gust](Anne)(Anne Gust) in 2013]]
A bachelor as governor and mayor, Brown attracted attention for dating famous women, the most notable of whom was singer [Ronstadt](Linda)(Linda Ronstadt). [Alternate Link](http://search.proquest.com/docview/158843725/) via [ProQuest](ProQuest). [Alternate Link](http://search.proquest.com/docview/158893272/) via [ProQuest](ProQuest). [Alternate Link](http://search.proquest.com/docview/158863960/) via [ProQuest](ProQuest). [Alternate Link](http://search.proquest.com/docview/158817018/) via [ProQuest](ProQuest). In March 2005, Brown announced his engagement to his girlfriend since 1990, [Gust](Anne)(Anne Gust Brown), former chief administrative officer for [Gap](The)(Gap (clothing retailer)). They were married on June 18, 2005, in a ceremony officiated by Senator [Feinstein](Dianne)(Dianne Feinstein) in the Rotunda Building in downtown Oakland. They had a second, religious ceremony later in the day in the [Catholic Church](Roman)(Roman Catholic Church) in San Francisco where Brown's parents had been married. Brown and Gust lived in the Oakland Hills in a home purchased for $1.8 million.Young, Samantha (June 22, 2010) ["Jerry Brown House, Worth $1.8 Million, Doesn't Fit California Governor Candidate's Tale Of Frugality"](https://www.huffingtonpost.com/2010/06/22/jerry-brown-house-worth-1_n_620523.html) , *The Huffington Post*. Retrieved September 13, 2010. , they live on a ranch in [County](Colusa)(Colusa County, California).
[[Jerry Brown DIG14394-011.jpg|thumbnail|Brown at the LBJ Presidential Library in 2018](File:Governor)]
Beginning in 1995, Brown hosted a daily call-in talk show on the local [Radio](Pacifica)(Pacifica Radio) station, [KPFA](KPFA)-FM, in [Berkeley](Berkeley, California) broadcast to major U.S. markets. Both the radio program and Brown's political action organization, based in [Oakland](Oakland, California), were called *We the People*. His programs, usually featuring invited guests, generally explored alternative views on a wide range of social and political issues, from education and health care to spirituality and the death penalty.
The official [portrait of Jerry Brown](gubernatorial)(gubernatorial portrait of Jerry Brown), commemorating his first period as Governor of California, was painted by [Bachardy](Don)(Don Bachardy) and unveiled in 1984. The painting has long been controversial due to its departure from the traditional norms of portraiture.
Brown has a long-term friendship with his aide Jacques Barzaghi, whom he met in the early 1970s and put on his payroll. Author Roger Rapaport wrote in his 1982 Brown biography *California Dreaming: The Political Odyssey of Pat & Jerry Brown*, "This combination clerk, chauffeur, fashion consultant, decorator, and trusted friend had no discernible powers. Yet, late at night, after everyone had gone home to their families and TV consoles, it was Jacques who lingered in the Secretary (of state's) office." Barzaghi and his sixth spouse Aisha lived with Brown in the warehouse in Jack London Square; Barzaghi was brought into Oakland city government upon Brown's election as mayor, where Barzaghi first acted as the mayor's armed bodyguard. Barzaghi left Brown's staff in July 2004, six days after police had responded to his residence over a complaint of domestic violence, and later moved to Morocco and then Normandy. Barzaghi died in 2021.
In April 2011, Brown had surgery to remove a [carcinoma](basal-cell)(basal-cell carcinoma) from the right side of his nose. In December 2012, media outlets reported that Brown was being treated for early stage (the precise stage and grade was not stated) localized [cancer](prostate)(prostate cancer) with a very good prognosis.
In 2011, Jerry and Anne Gust Brown acquired a [Welsh corgi](Pembroke)(Pembroke Welsh corgi), [Brown](Sutter)(Sutter Brown), dubbed the "first dog" of California.Judy Lin, [California gov's newest ally? A 'fur ball' with charm](http://www.recordnet.com/article/20110218/A_NEWS/110219885) , Associated Press (February 18, 2011). Sutter was frequently seen in the company of the governor, accompanying him to political events and softening the governor's cerebral image.Nick Miller, [How Sutter Brown saved California](https://www.newsreview.com/sacramento/how-sutter-brown-saved-california/content?oid=11581260) , *Sacramento News & Review*, September 26, 2013. In 2015, the couple obtained a second dog, Colusa "Lucy" Brown, a Pembroke Welsh corgi/[collie](border)(border collie) [mix](Mixed-breed dog).David Siders, [California's 'first dog' falls critically ill](http://www.politico.com/states/california/story/2016/10/californias-first-dog-falls-critically-ill-106267) , *Politico* (October 11, 2016). Sutter had emergency surgery in October 2016 to remove cancerous tissue. Sutter died in December 2016 from [cancer](cancer) at the age of 13.
In 2019, Brown was appointed to be a visiting professor at [Berkeley](UC Berkeley).
Brown's accent has been described as reminiscent of the "[Brogue](Mission)(California English#Mission brogue (San Francisco))", particularly with his [non-rhoticity](Rhoticity in English).
## References
## Further reading
* Bollens, John C. and G. Robert Williams. *Jerry Brown: In a Plain Brown Wrapper* (Pacific Palisades, California: Palisades Publishers, 1978).
* Brown, Jerry. *Thoughts* (San Francisco: City Lights Books, 1976)
* Brown, Jerry. *Dialogues* (Berkeley, California: Berkeley Hills Books, 1998).
*
* Lorenz, J. D. *Jerry Brown: The Man on the White Horse* (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co, 1978).
* McDonald, Heather. ["Jerry Brown's No-Nonsense New Age for Oakland"](https://web.archive.org/web/20080827074841/http://www.city-journal.org/html/9_4_a2.html), *[Journal](City)(City Journal (New York))*, Vol. 9, No. 4, Autumn 1999.
* McFadden, Chuck and Joe Barrett. *Trailblazer: A Biography of Jerry Brown* (2013) scholarly biography
* Newton, Jim. *Man of Tomorrow: The Relentless Life of Jerry Brown* (2020) 448pp [excerpt](https://www.amazon.com/Man-Tomorrow-Relentless-Jerry-Brown/dp/0316392464/)
* Pack, Robert. *Jerry Brown, The Philosopher-Prince* (New York: Stein and Day, 1978).
* Pawel, Miriam. *[The Browns of California: The Family Dynasty That Transformed a State and Shaped a Nation](https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1019973627)* (New York: Bloomsbury Publishing, 2018).
* Rapoport, Roger. *California Dreaming: The Political Odyssey of Pat & Jerry Brown* (Berkeley, CA: Nolo Press, 1982)
*
* Rarick, Ethan. "The Brown Dynasty." in *Modern American Political Dynasties: A Study of Power, Family, and Political Influence* ed by Kathleen Gronnerud and Scott J. Spitzer. (2018): 211–30.
*
## External links
*
*
* [Jerry Brown](http://www.ontheissues.org/Jerry_Brown.htm) at [the Issues](On)(On the Issues)
*
* [Jerry Brown at the American Geophysical Union (AGU) on December 14, 2016](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kWSgncpqWtE&t=104)
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Ur
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# Ur
*Revision ID: 1159516212 | Timestamp: 2023-06-10T20:54:22Z*
---
, or }} ([Sumerian](Sumerian language)) ([Akkadian](Akkadian language)) ([Arabic](Arabic language))
|alternate_name =
|image = Ziggurat of UrInbound1427286134917083377.jpg
|image_size = 325px
|alt =
|caption = [of Ur](Ziggurat)(Ziggurat of Ur)
|map_type = Iraq#Near East#West Asia
|relief = yes
|map_alt =
|map_size =
|map_dot_label = Ur
|coordinates =
|location = [Tell](Tell (archaeology)) el-Muqayyar, [Qar Governorate](Dhi)(Dhi Qar Governorate), [Iraq](Iraq)
|region = [Mesopotamia](Mesopotamia), [East](Middle)(Middle East)
|type = Settlement
|part_of =
|length =
|width =
|area =
|height =
|builder =
|material =
|built = c. 3800 BC
|abandoned = after 500 BC
|epochs = [period](Ubaid)(Ubaid period) to [Age](Iron)(Iron Age)
|cultures = [Sumer](Sumer)ian
|dependency_of =
|occupants =
|event =
|excavations = 1853–1854, 1922–1934
|archaeologists = [George Taylor](John)(John George Taylor), [Leonard Woolley](Charles)(Leonard Woolley)
|condition =
|ownership =
|management =
|public_access =
|website =
|notes =
| Buffer_zone =
}}
}}
**Ur** (; [Sumerian](Sumerian language): , , or ) and Urim5 = ŠEŠ.AB
(), where ŠEŠ=URI3
([*The Electronic Text Corpus of Sumerian Literature*](http://etcsl.orinst.ox.ac.uk/cgi-bin/etcsl.cgi?searchword=l=urim2%20t=SN&charenc=gcirc).)|group=note}} *Urim*;S. N. Kramer, "The Sumerians, Their History, Culture, and Character", University of Chicago Press, pages 28 and 298, 1963 *Uru*;I. E. S. Edwards, et al, ["The Cambridge Ancient History: Prolegomena & Prehistory"](https://books.google.com/books?id=HRwo6dBekUQC&pg=PA149), vol. 1, part 1, pp. 149, Dec 2, 1970 ; ) was an important [Sumer](Sumer)ian [city-state](city-state) in ancient [Mesopotamia](Mesopotamia), located at the site of modern Tell el-Muqayyar () in south [Iraq](Iraq)'s [Qar Governorate](Dhi)(Dhi Qar Governorate) in Mesopotamia.Tell el-Muqayyar: in [Arabic](Arabic language) *[Tell](Tell (archaeology))* means 'mound' or 'hill' and *Muqayyar* means 'built of [bitumen](bitumen)'. Muqayyar is variously transcribed as Mugheir, Mughair, Moghair, etc. Although Ur was once a coastal [city](city) near the mouth of the [Euphrates](Euphrates) on the [Gulf](Persian)(Persian Gulf), the coastline has shifted and the city is now well inland, on the south bank of the [Euphrates](Euphrates), from [Nasiriyah](Nasiriyah) in modern-day [Iraq](Iraq).Erich Ebeling, Bruno Meissner, Dietz Otto Edzard, "Meek – Mythologie. Reallexikon der Assyriologie", [p. 360](https://books.google.com/books?id=O1yFrzi-MgYC&pg=RA2-PA360), 1997 The city dates from the [period](Ubaid)(Ubaid period) circa 3800 BC, and is recorded in [history](written)(recorded history) as a city-state from the 26th century BC, its first recorded king being [Mesannepada](Mesannepada).
The city's patron deity was [Nanna](Sin (mythology)) (in [Akkadian](Akkadian language), [Sin](Sin (mythology))), the Sumerian and [Akkadian](Akkadian Empire) [god](moon)(Lunar deity), and the name of the city is in origin derived from the god's name, UNUGKI, literally "the abode (UNUG) of Nanna". The site is marked by the partially restored ruins of the [of Ur](Ziggurat)(Ziggurat of Ur), which contained the shrine of Nanna, excavated in the 1930s. The temple was built in the 21st century BC ([chronology](short)(short chronology)), during the reign of [Ur-Nammu](Ur-Nammu) and was reconstructed in the 6th century BC by [Nabonidus](Nabonidus), the last king of [Babylon](Babylon). The ruins cover an area of northwest to southeast by northeast to southwest and rise up to about above the present plain level.
## Layout
[[File:Umma2350.svg|thumb|upright=1.4|left|Sumer and Elam c. 2350 BC. Ur was located close to the coastline near the mouth of the [Euphrates](Euphrates).]]
The city, said to have been [planned](urban planning) by [Ur-Nammu](Ur-Nammu), was apparently divided into neighbourhoods, with merchants living in one quarter, artisans in another. There were streets both wide and narrow, and open spaces for gatherings. Many structures for [resource management](water)(water resource management) and [control](flood)(flood control) are in evidence. Houses were constructed from [mudbrick](mudbrick)s and mud plaster. In major buildings, the masonry was strengthened with [bitumen](bitumen) and reeds. For the most part, foundations are all that remain today. People were often buried (separately and alone; sometimes with jewellery, pots, and weapons) in chambers or shafts beneath the house floors.
[[File:Urimki inscription.jpg|thumb|upright|The name for "Country of Ur" on a seal of King [Ur-Nammu](Ur-Nammu)]]
Ur was surrounded by sloping ramparts high and about wide, bordered in some places by a brick wall. Elsewhere, buildings were integrated into the ramparts. The Euphrates River complemented these fortifications on the city's western side.
## Society and culture
Archaeological discoveries have shown unequivocally that Ur was a major [Sumer](Sumer)ian urban center on the Mesopotamian plain. Especially the discovery of the Royal Tombs has confirmed its splendour. These tombs, which date to the Early Dynastic IIIa period (approximately in the 25th or 24th century BC), contained an immense treasure of luxury items made of precious metals and semi-precious stones imported from long distances ([Iran](Ancient)(Ancient Iran), [Afghanistan](Afghanistan), [India](India), [Minor](Asia)(Asia Minor), the [Levant](Levant) and the [Gulf](Persian)(Persian Gulf)). This wealth, unparalleled up to then, is a testimony of Ur's economic importance during the Early [Age](Bronze)(Bronze Age).
Archaeological study of the region has contributed greatly to our understanding of the landscape and long-distance interactions during these ancient times. Ur was a major port on the Persian Gulf, which extended much farther inland than today, and the city controlled much of the trade into Mesopotamia. [to Ur](Imports)(Imports to Ur) came from many parts of the world: [metal](precious)(precious metal)s such as gold and silver, and [stones](semi-precious)(Gemstone), namely [lazuli](lapis)(lapis lazuli) and [carnelian](carnelian).
It is thought that Ur had a stratified social system including slaves (captured foreigners), farmers, artisans, doctors, scribes, and priests. High-ranking priests apparently enjoyed great luxury and splendid mansions. Tens of thousands of [cuneiform](cuneiform) texts have been recovered from temples, the palace, and individual houses, recording contracts, inventories, and court documents, evidence of the city's complex economic and legal systems.
Excavation in the old city of Ur in 1929 revealed the [of Ur](Lyres)(Lyres of Ur), instruments similar to the modern harp but in the shape of a bull and with eleven strings.
## History
### Prehistory
When Ur was founded, the Persian Gulf's water level was two-and-a-half metres higher than today. Ur is therefore thought to have had marshy surroundings; irrigation would have been unnecessary, and the city's evident canal system was likely used for transportation. Fish, birds, tubers, and reeds might have supported Ur economically without the need for an [revolution](agricultural)(Neolithic Revolution) sometimes hypothesized as a prerequisite to urbanization.Jennifer R. Pournelle, "[KLM to CORONA: A Bird's Eye View of Cultural Ecology and Early Mesopotamian Urbanization](https://www.researchgate.net/publication/257139948_From_KLM_to_Corona_A_Bird%27s_Eye_View_of_Cultural_Ecology_and_Early_Mesopotamian_Urbanization)"; in *Settlement and Society: Essays Dedicated to Robert McCormick Adams* ed. Elizabeth C. Stone; Cotsen Institute of Archaeology, UCLA, and Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago, 2007.Crawford 2015, p. 5.
Archaeologists have discovered the evidence of an early occupation at Ur during the [period](Ubaid)(Ubaid period) (c. 6500 to 3800 BC). These early levels were sealed off with a sterile deposit of soil that was interpreted by excavators of the 1920s as evidence for the [Flood](Great)(Flood myth) of the [of Genesis](Book)(Book of Genesis) and [of Gilgamesh](Epic)(Epic of Gilgamesh). It is now understood that the South Mesopotamian plain was exposed to regular floods from the [Euphrates](Euphrates) and the [Tigris](Tigris) rivers, with heavy [erosion](erosion) from water and wind, which may have given rise to the Mesopotamian and derivative Biblical Great Flood stories.Georges Roux – Ancient Iraq
### Bronze Age
There are various main sources informing scholars about the importance of Ur during the Early Bronze Age. [Proto-cuneiform](Proto-cuneiform) tablets from the Early Dynastic period, c. 2900 BC, have been recovered.Lecompte, Camille. "Observations on Diplomatics, Tablet Layout and Cultural Evolution of the Early Third Millennium: The Archaic Texts from Ur". Materiality of Writing in Early Mesopotamia, edited by Thomas E. Balke and Christina Tsouparopoulou, Berlin, Boston: De Gruyter, pp. 133-164, 2016Denise Schmandt-Besserat, "An Archaic Recording System and the Origin of Writing." Syro Mesopotamian Studies, vol. 1, no. 1, pp. 1–32, 1977 The [Dynasty of Ur](First)(First Dynasty of Ur) seems to have had great wealth and power, as shown by the lavish remains of the [Cemetery at Ur](Royal)(Royal Cemetery at Ur). The [King List](Sumerian)(Sumerian King List) provides a tentative political history of ancient [Sumer](Sumer) and mentions, among others, several rulers of Ur. [Mesannepada](Mesannepada) is the first king mentioned in the Sumerian King List, and appears to have lived in the 26th century BC. That Ur was an important urban centre already then seems to be indicated by a type of [seal](cylinder)(cylinder seal) called the City Seals. These seals contain a set of [Proto-Cuneiform](Proto-Cuneiform) signs which appear to be writings or symbols of the name of city-states in ancient Mesopotamia. Many of these seals have been found in Ur, and the name of Ur is prominent on them.Matthews, R.J. (1993). *Cities, Seals and Writing: Archaic Seal Impressions from Jemdet Nasr and Ur*, Berlin. Ur came under the control of the [Semitic](Semitic languages)-speaking [Empire](Akkadian)(Akkadian Empire) founded by [the Great](Sargon)(Sargon of Akkad) between the 24th and 22nd centuries BC. This was a period when the [Semitic-speaking](ancient Semitic-speaking peoples) Akkadians (later known as Assyrians and Babylonians), who had entered Mesopotamia in approximately 3500 BC, gained ascendancy over the [Sumer](Sumer)ians, and indeed much of the ancient [East](Near)(Near East).
File:Map of Ur III.svg|Empire of the Third Dynasty of Ur. West is at top, north at right.
File:Meskalamdug helmet British Museum electrotype copy original is in the Iraq Museum, Bagdad.jpg|Gold helmet of King of Ur I [Meskalamdug](Meskalamdug), c. 2600–2500 BC
File:Mesopotamian female deity seating on a chair, Old-Babylonian fired clay plaque from Ur, Iraq.jpg|Mesopotamian female deity seated on a chair, Old-Babylonian fired clay plaque from Ur
#### Ur III
[[in 2000 BC.svg|thumb|270px|Map of the world around 2000 BC showing the Third Dynasty of Ur](File:World)]
After a short period of chaos following the fall of the Akkadian Empire the third Ur dynasty was established when the king [Ur-Nammu](Ur-Nammu) came to power, ruling between c. 2047 BC and 2030 BC. During his rule, temples, including the [of Ur](Ziggurat)(Ziggurat of Ur), were built, and agriculture was improved through [irrigation](irrigation). His code of laws, the *[of Ur-Nammu](Code)(Code of Ur-Nammu)* (a fragment was identified in [Istanbul](Istanbul) in 1952) is one of the oldest such documents known, preceding the [of Hammurabi](Code)(Code of Hammurabi) by 300 years. He and his successor [Shulgi](Shulgi) were both deified during their reigns, and after his death he continued as a hero-figure: one of the surviving works of Sumerian literature describes the death of Ur-Nammu and his journey to the underworld.Amélie Kuhrt (1995). *The Ancient Near East: C.3000-330 B.C.* Routledge. .
Ur-Nammu was succeeded by [Shulgi](Shulgi), the greatest king of the Third Dynasty of Ur, who solidified the hegemony of Ur and reformed the empire into a highly centralized bureaucratic state. Shulgi ruled for a long time (at least 42 years) and deified himself halfway through his rule.
The Ur empire continued through the reigns of three more kings with [Semitic](Semitic languages) [Akkadian](Akkadian language) names, [Amar-Sin](Amar-Sin), [Shu-Sin](Shu-Sin), and [Ibbi-Sin](Ibbi-Sin). It fell around 1940 BC to the [Elam](Elam)ites in the 24th [year](regnal)(regnal year) of Ibbi-Sin, an event commemorated by the [for Ur](Lament)(Lament for Ur).Ur III Period (2112–2004 BC) by Douglas Frayne, University of Toronto Press, 1997,
According to one estimate, Ur was the largest city in the world from c. 2030 to 1980 BC. Its population was approximately 65,000 (or 0.1 per cent share of global population then).
The city of Ur lost its political power after the demise of the Third Dynasty of Ur. Nevertheless, its important position which kept on providing access to the Persian Gulf ensured the ongoing economic importance of the city during the second millennium BC. The city came to be ruled by the first dynasty ([Amorite](Amorite)) of [Babylon](Babylon) which rose to prominence in southern Mesopotamia in the 19th century BC. After the fall of [Hammurabi](Hammurabi)'s short lived Babylonian Empire, it later became a part of the native [Dynasty](Sealand)(Sealand Dynasty) for several centuries. It then came under the control of the [Kassites](Kassites) in the 16th century BC, and sporadically under the control of the [Assyrian Empire](Middle)(Middle Assyrian Empire) between the 14th and 11th centuries BC.Brinkman, John Anthony. "Ur:" The Kassite Period and the Period of the Assyrian Kings"." (1969): 310–348
### Iron Age
The city, along with the rest of southern Mesopotamia and much of the [East](Near)(Near East), [Minor](Asia)(Asia Minor), [Africa](North)(North Africa) and southern [Caucasus](Caucasus), fell to the north Mesopotamian [Empire](Neo-Assyrian)(Neo-Assyrian Empire) from the 10th to late 7th centuries BC. From the end of the 7th century BC Ur was ruled by the so-called [Chaldean](Neo-Babylonian Empire) Dynasty of [Babylon](Babylon). In the 6th century BC there was new construction in Ur under the rule of [II](Nebuchadnezzar)(Nebuchadnezzar II) of Babylon. The last Babylonian king, [Nabonidus](Nabonidus) (who was Assyrian-born and not a Chaldean), improved the ziggurat. However, the city started to decline from around 530 BC after Babylonia fell to the [Persia](Persia)n [Empire](Achaemenid)(Achaemenid Empire), and was no longer inhabited by the early 5th century BC. The demise of Ur was perhaps owing to drought, changing river patterns, and the silting of the outlet to the [Gulf](Persian)(Persian Gulf).
## Identification with the Biblical Ur
[[house in Ur Iraq.jpg|thumb|"Abraham's House" in Ur, photographed in 2016](File:20160105-Abraham)]
Ur is possibly the city of [Kasdim](Ur)(Ur of the Chaldees) mentioned in the [of Genesis](Book)(Book of Genesis) as the birthplace of the [Hebrew](Hebrews) and [Muslim](Muslim) patriarch [Abraham](Abraham) ([Ibrahim](Abraham in Islam) in Arabic), traditionally believed to have lived some time in the 2nd millennium BC. There are however conflicting traditions and scholarly opinions identifying Ur Kasdim with the sites of [Şanlıurfa](Urfa), [Urkesh](Urkesh), [Urartu](Urartu) or [Kutha](Kutha).
The biblical Ur is mentioned four times in the [Torah](Torah) or [Bible](Hebrew)(Hebrew Bible), with the distinction "of the Kasdim/Kasdin"—traditionally rendered in English as "Ur of the Chaldees". The [Chaldea](Chaldea)ns had settled in the vicinity by around 850 BC, but were not extant anywhere in Mesopotamia during the 2nd millennium BC period when Abraham is traditionally held to have lived. The Chaldean dynasty did not rule Babylonia (and thus become the rulers of Ur) until the late 7th century BC, and held power only until the mid 6th century BC. The name is found in [11:28](Genesis)(s:Bible (American Standard)/Genesis#11:28), [11:31](Genesis)(s:Bible (American Standard)/Genesis#11:31), and [15:7](Genesis)(s:Bible (American Standard)/Genesis#15:7). In [9:7](Nehemiah)(s:Bible (American Standard)/Nehemiah#9:7), a single passage mentioning Ur is a paraphrase of *Genesis.*
In March 2021, [Francis](Pope)(Pope Francis) visited Ur during his [through Iraq](journey)(2021 visit by Pope Francis to Iraq).
## Archaeology
In 1625, the site was visited by [Della Valle](Pietro)(Pietro Della Valle), who recorded the presence of ancient bricks stamped with strange symbols, cemented together with [bitumen](bitumen), as well as inscribed pieces of black marble that appeared to be [seals](seal (device)). European archaeologists did not identify Tell el-Muqayyar as the site of Ur until [Rawlinson](Henry)(Sir Henry Rawlinson, 1st Baronet) successfully deciphered some bricks from that location, brought to England by [Loftus](William)(William Loftus (archaeologist)) in 1849.Crawford 2015, p. 3.
The site was first excavated in 1853 and 1854, on behalf of the [Museum](British)(British Museum) and with instructions from the [Office](Foreign)(Foreign Office), by [George Taylor](John)(John George Taylor), British [consul](vice)(vice consul) at [Basra](Basra) from 1851 to 1859.J.E. Taylor, "[Notes on the Ruins of Muqeyer](https://archive.org/details/jstor-25228658)", *Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland*, vol. 15, pp. 260–276, 1855.JE Taylor, "[Notes on Abu Shahrein and Tel-el-Lahm](https://archive.org/details/jstor-25228662)", *Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland*, vol. 15, pp. 404–415, 1855. [the relevant publications he is erroneously listed as J. E. Taylor](In).E. Sollberger, "Mr. Taylor in Chaldaea", *Anatolian Studies*, vol. 22, pp. 129–139, 1972. Taylor uncovered the [of Ur](Ziggurat)(Ziggurat of Ur) and a structure with an arch later identified as part of the "Gate of Judgment".Crawford 2015, p. 4.
In the four corners of the ziggurat's top stage, Taylor found clay cylinders bearing an inscription of [Nabonidus](Nabonidus) (*Nabuna`id*), the last king of Babylon ([539 BC](530s BC)), closing with a prayer for his son Belshar-uzur (Bel-ŝarra-Uzur), the [Belshazzar](Belshazzar) of the [of Daniel](Book)(Book of Daniel). Evidence was found of prior restorations of the ziggurat by [Ishme-Dagan](Ishme-Dagan) of Isin and [Shu-Sin](Shu-Sin) of Ur, and by [Kurigalzu](Kurigalzu), a [Kassite](Kassites) king of Babylon in the 14th century BC. [Nebuchadnezzar](Nebuchadnezzar) also claims to have rebuilt the temple.
Taylor further excavated an interesting Babylonian building, not far from the temple, part of an ancient Babylonian [necropolis](necropolis). All about the city he found abundant remains of burials of later periods. Apparently, in later times, owing to its sanctity, Ur became a favorite place of [sepulchre](sepulchre)s, so that even after it had ceased to be inhabited, it continued to be used as a necropolis. Typical of the era, his excavations destroyed information and exposed the [tell](Tell (archaeology)). Natives used the now loosened, 4,000-year-old bricks and tile for construction for the next 75 years, while the site lay unexplored, the British Museum having decided to prioritize archaeology in [Assyria](Assyria).
After Taylor's time, the site was visited by numerous travellers, almost all of whom have found ancient Babylonian remains, inscribed stones and the like, lying upon the surface. The site was considered rich in remains, and relatively easy to explore. After some soundings were made in 1918 by [Campbell Thompson](Reginald)(Reginald Campbell Thompson), [R. Hall](H.)(Henry Hall (Egyptologist)) worked the site for one season for the British Museum in 1919, laying the groundwork for more extensive efforts to follow.H. R. Hall, "The Excavations of 1919 at Ur, el-'Obeid, and Eridu, and the History of Early Babylonia", *Man*, Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland, Vol. 25, pp. 1–7, 1925.H. R. Hall, "Ur and Eridu: The British Museum Excavations of 1919", *Journal of Egyptian Archaeology*, vol. 9, no. 3/4, pp. 177–195, 1923.
[[from the Air.jpg|thumb|275px|left|Aerial photograph of Ur in 1927](File:Ur)]
Excavations from 1922 to 1934 were funded by the [Museum](British)(British Museum) and the [of Pennsylvania](University)(University of Pennsylvania) and led by the [archaeologist](archaeologist) Sir [Leonard Woolley](Charles)(Charles Leonard Woolley).Leonard Woolley, *Ur: The First Phases*, Penguin, 1946.Leonard Woolley, ''Excavations at Ur: A Record of Twelve Years' Work*, Apollo, 1965, .Leonard Woolley and P. R. S. Moorey, *Ur of the Chaldees: A Revised and Updated Edition of Sir Leonard Woolley's Excavations at Ur'', [University Press](Cornell)(Cornell University Press), 1982, . A total of about 1,850 burials were uncovered, including 16 that were described as "[tombs](royal)(Royal Cemetery at Ur)" containing many valuable artifacts, including the [of Ur](Standard)(Standard of Ur). Most of the royal tombs were dated to about 2600 BC. The finds included the unlooted tomb of a queen thought to be Queen [Puabi](Puabi)Queen Puabi is also written Pu-Abi and formerly transcribed as Shub-ab.—the name is known from a cylinder [seal](seal (device)) found in the tomb, although there were two other different and unnamed seals found in the tomb. Many other people had been buried with her, in a form of human sacrifice. Near the [ziggurat](ziggurat) were uncovered the temple E-nun-mah and buildings E-dub-lal-mah (built for a king), E-gi-par (residence of the high priestess) and E-hur-sag (a temple building).
Outside the temple area, many houses used in everyday life were found. Excavations were also made below the royal tombs layer: a layer of [alluvial](alluvial) clay covered the remains of earlier habitation, including [pottery](pottery) from the [period](Ubaid)(Ubaid period), the first stage of settlement in southern Mesopotamia. Woolley later wrote many articles and books about the discoveries. One of Woolley's assistants on the site was the British [archaeologist](archaeologist) [Mallowan](Max)(Max Mallowan).
The discoveries at the site reached the headlines in mainstream media in the world with the discoveries of the Royal Tombs. As a result, the ruins of the ancient city attracted many visitors. One of these visitors was the already famous [Christie](Agatha)(Agatha Christie), who as a result of this visit ended up marrying Max Mallowan. During this time the site was accessible from the [railway](Baghdad–Basra)(Baghdad railway), from a stop called "Ur Junction".Crawford 2015. p. 5. "It used to be close to the Basra to Baghdad railway, part of the proposed Berlin to Basra line that was never completed. It was possible to get off the train from Baghdad at the grandly named Ur Junction, where a branch line turned off to Nasariyah, and drive a mere two miles across the desert to the site itself, but the station was closed sometime after the Second World War, leaving a long, hot journey in a four-wheeled vehicle as the only option."
In 2009, an agreement was reached for a joint University of Pennsylvania and Iraqi team to resume archaeological work at the site of Ur.[Radio Free Europe / Radio Liberty – Free Media in Unfree Societies](http://www.rferl.org/content/American_Archeologists_To_Excavate_In_Iraq/1604648.html) U.S. Archaeologists To Excavate In Iraq Excavations began in 2015 under the direction of Elizabeth C Stone and Paul Zimansky of the [University of New York](State)(State University of New York). The first excavation season was primarily to re-excavate Woolley's work in an Old Babylonian housing area with two new trenches for confirmation. Among other finds a cylinder seal, a cuneiform tablet, and balance pan weights were found. A similar though smaller dig was made in a Neo-Babylonian housing area.
Stone, Elizabeth C; Zimansky, Paul, Archaeology Returns to Ur: A New Dialog with Old Houses, Near Eastern Archaeology; Chicago, vol. 79, iss. 4, pp. 246–259 Dec 2016Grant Frame, Joshua Jeffers and Holly Pittman ed., "Ur in the Twenty-First Century CE", "Proceedings of the 62nd Rencontre Assyriologique Internationale at Philadelphia, July 11–15, 2016", Penn State University Press, 2021
### The Royal Tomb Excavation
When the Royal Tombs at Ur were discovered, their size was unknown. Excavators started digging two trenches in the middle of the desert to see if they could find anything that would allow them to keep digging. They split into two teams – A and team B. Both teams spent the first few months digging a trench and found evidence of burial grounds by collecting small pieces of golden jewelry and pottery. This was called the "gold trench". After the first season of digging finished, Woolley returned to England. In Autumn, Woolley returned and started the second season. By the end of the second season, he had uncovered a courtyard surrounded by many rooms. In their third season of digging archaeologists had uncovered their biggest find yet, a building that was believed to have been constructed by order of the king, and a second building thought to be where the high priestess lived. As the fourth and fifth season came to a close, they had discovered so many items that most of their time was now spent recording the objects they found instead of actually digging objects.Hauptmann, Andreas, Klein, Sabine, Paoletti, Paola, Zettler, Richard L. and Jansen, Moritz. "Types of Gold, Types of Silver: The Composition of Precious Metal Artifacts Found in the Royal Tombs of Ur, Mesopotamia" Zeitschrift für Assyriologie und vorderasiatische Archäologie, vol. 108, no. 1, 2018, pp. 100–131 Items included gold jewelry, clay pots and stones. One of the most significant objects was the [of Ur](Standard)(Standard of Ur). By the end of their sixth season they had excavated 1850 burial sites and deemed 17 of them to be "Royal Tombs". Some clay sealings and cuneiform tablet fragment were found in an underlying layer.Benati, Giacomo and Lecompte, Camille. "From Field Cards to Cuneiform Archives: Two Inscribed Artifacts from Archaic Ur and Their Archaeological Context" Zeitschrift für Assyriologie und vorderasiatische Archäologie, vol. 106, no. 1, 2016, pp. 1–15
Woolley finished his work excavating the Royal Tombs in 1934, uncovering a series of burials. Many servants were killed and buried with the royals, who he believed went to their deaths willingly. Computerized tomography scans on some of the surviving skulls have showed signs that they were killed by blows to the head that could be from the spiked end of a copper axe, which showed Woolley's initial theory of mass suicide via poison to be incorrect.
Inside [Puabi's](Puabi) tomb there was a chest in the middle of the room. Underneath that chest was a hole in the ground that led to what was called the "King's Grave": PG-789. It was believed to be the king's grave because it was buried next to the queen. In this grave, there were 63 attendants who were all equipped with copper helmets and swords. It is thought to be his army buried with him. Another large room was uncovered, PG-1237, called the "Great death pit". This large room had 74 bodies, 68 of which were women. There were only two artifacts in the tomb, both of which were [Lyres](Lyres of Ur).
[[File:Reconstructed sumerian headgear necklaces british museum.JPG|left|thumb|Reconstructed Sumerian headgear and necklaces found in the tomb of [Puabi](Puabi) in the "Royal tombs" of Ur]]
Most of the treasures excavated at Ur are in the British Museum, the [of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology](University)(University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology) and the [Museum](Baghdad)(Baghdad Museum). At the Penn Museum the exhibition "Iraq's Ancient Past", which includes many of the most famous pieces from the Royal Tombs, opened to visitors in late Spring 2011. Previously, the Penn Museum had sent many of its best pieces from Ur on tour in an exhibition called "Treasures From the Royal Tombs of Ur." It traveled to eight American museums, including those in Cleveland, Washington and Dallas, ending the tour at the Detroit Institute of Art in May 2011.
Samples from two stratigraphic layers in the royal cemetery area, from before the royal burials, have been radiocarbon dated. The ED Ia layer dated to c. 2900 BC and the ED Ic layer to c. 2679 BC.Camille Lecompte, and Giacomo Benati, "Nonadministrative Documents from Archaic Ur and from Early Dynastic I–II Mesopotamia: A New Textual and Archaeological Analysis", Journal of Cuneiform Studies, vol. 69, pp. 3–31, 2017Wencel, M. M., "Radiocarbon Dating of Early Dynastic Mesopotamia: Results, Limitations, and Prospects", Radiocarbon 59, pp. 635–45, 2017
### Archaeological remains
[[File:Operation Iraqi Freedom DVIDS284466.jpg|thumb|275px|U.S. soldiers ascend the reconstructed [of Ur](Ziggurat)(Ziggurat of Ur) in May 2010]]
Though some of the areas that were cleared during modern excavations have sanded over again, the [Ziggurat](Great)(Ziggurat of Ur) is fully cleared and stands as the best-preserved and most visible landmark at the site."Soldiers visit historical ruins of Ur", Nov 18, 2009, by 13th Sustainment Command Expeditionary Public Affairs, web: [Army-595](http://www.army.mil/-news/2009/11/18/30595-soldiers-visit-historical-ruins-of-ur/). The famous Royal tombs, also called the Neo-[Sumerian](Sumerian architecture) Mausolea, located about south-east of the Great Ziggurat in the corner of the wall that surrounds the city, are nearly totally cleared. Parts of the tomb area appear to be in need of structural consolidation or stabilization.
There are [cuneiform](Cuneiform script) (Sumerian writing) on many walls, some entirely covered in script stamped into the mud-bricks. The text is sometimes difficult to read, but it covers most surfaces. Modern [graffiti](graffiti) has also found its way to the graves, usually in the form of names made with coloured pens (sometimes they are carved). The Great Ziggurat itself has far more graffiti, mostly lightly carved into the bricks. The graves are completely empty. A small number of the tombs are accessible. Most of them have been cordoned off. The whole site is covered with pottery debris, to the extent that it is virtually impossible to set foot anywhere without stepping on some. Some have colours and paintings on them. Some of the "mountains" of broken pottery are debris that has been removed from excavations. Pottery debris and human remains form many of the walls of the royal tombs area. In May 2009, the [States Army](United)(United States Army) returned the Ur site to the Iraqi authorities, who hope to develop it as a tourist destination.
### Preservation
[[File:Wall_plaque_showing_libation_scene_from_Ur,_Iraq,_2500_BCE._British_Museum.jpg|thumb|Wall plaque from Ur, 2500 BC; the [Museum](British)(British Museum)]]
Since 2009, the [organization](non-profit)(non-profit organization) [Heritage Fund](Global)(Global Heritage Fund) (GHF) has been working to protect and preserve Ur against the problems of erosion, neglect, inappropriate restoration, war and conflict. GHF's stated goal for the project is to create an informed and scientifically grounded Master Plan to guide the long-term conservation and management of the site, and to serve as a model for the stewardship of other sites.[Ur perservation project at the Global Heritage Fund](http://globalheritagefund.org/images/uploads/projects/ur_2pager.pdf)
Since 2013, the institution for Development Cooperation of the Italian Ministry of Foreign Affairs DGCS[Italian Ministry of Foreign Affairs DGCS Ur funding](http://openaid.aics.gov.it/it/iati-activities?q=ur) and the SBAH, the State Board of Antiquities and Heritage of the Iraqi Ministry of Tourism and Antiquities, have started a cooperation project for "The Conservation and Maintenance of Archaeological site of UR". In the framework of this cooperation agreement, the executive plan, with detailed drawings, is in progress for the maintenance of the Dublamah Temple (design concluded, works starting), the Royal Tombs—Mausolea 3rd Dynasty (in progress)—and the Ziqqurat (in progress). The first updated survey in 2013 has produced a new aerial map derived by the flight of a UAV ([aerial vehicle](unmanned)(unmanned aerial vehicle)) operated in March 2014. This is the first high-resolution map, derived from more than 100 aerial photograms, with an accuracy of 20 cm or less. A preview of the ORTHO-PHOTOMAP of Archaeological Site of UR is available online.
## Tal Abu Tbeirah
Since 2012, a joint team of Italian and Iraqi archaeologists led by Franco D'Agostino have been excavating at Tal Abu Tbeirah, located 15 kilometers east of Ur and 7 kilometers south of Nasariyah (30° 98′
43.93′′ E, 46° 26′ 97.35′′ N).Franco D'Agostino et al, ABU TBEIRAH. PRELIMINARY REPORT OF THE FIRST CAMPAIGN (JANUARY–MARCH 2012), Rivista degli studi orientali, Nuova Serie, vol. 84, Fasc. 1/4, pp. 17–34, 2011Franco D'Agostino et al, Abu Tbeirah. Preliminary report of the second campaign (October–December 2012), Rivista degli studi orientali, vol. 86(1), pp. 69–91, 2013Franco D'Agostino et al, Abu Theirah, Nasiriyah (Southern Iraq): Preliminary report on the 2013 excavation campaign, ISIMU 13, pp. 209–221, 2011Licia Romano and Franco D'Agostino, Abu Tbeirah Excavations I. Area 1: Last Phase and Building A – Phase 1, Sapienza Università Editrice, Jun 7, 2019 [https://iris.uniroma1.it/bitstream/11573/1284138/3/Romano_Area-1_2019.pdf]D’Agostino, F., Romano, L., "Seven excavation campaigns at Abu
Tbeirah.", In: Otto, A., Herles, M., Kaniuth, K., Korn, L., Heidenreich, A.
(Eds.), Proceedings of the 11th International Congress on the Archaeology
of the Ancient Near East: vol. 2: Field Reports, Islamic Archaeology.
Harrassowitz Verlag, Wiesbaden, Germany, pp. 69–80, 2020
The site, about 45 hectares in area divided into four sectors by an ancient channel, appears to have been a harbor and trading center associated with Ur in the later half of the 3rd Millennium BC.[Archaeologists Glance Into Fox Burrow in Iraq, Find 4,000-year-old Sumerian Port](https://www.haaretz.com/archaeology/MAGAZINE-archaeologists-peek-into-fox-burrow-find-4-000-year-old-sumerian-port-1.5936818)D’Agostino, F., Romano, L., "The Harbor of Abu Tbeirah and the Southern Mesopotamian Landscape in the 3rd Mill. BC: Preliminary Considerations, RSO 91: 33-45, 2018 The site was a medium sized city in the Early Dynastic period but shrank down to a small area in the northeast sector in the Ur III and Old Babylonian periods.[https://www.cambridge.org/core/services/aop-cambridge-core/content/view/FE5F0F666EEF1BEC71C3C5AC58999322/S0033589422000229a.pdf/the-paleoenvironment-and-depositional-context-of-the-sumerian-site-of-abu-tbeirah-nasiriyah-southern-mesopotamia-iraq.pdf]Forti, Luca, et al. "The paleoenvironment and depositional context of the Sumerian site of Abu Tbeirah (Nasiriyah, southern Mesopotamia, Iraq)." Quaternary Research, pp. 1-19, 2022Cereda, S., Romano, L., "Peering into the dusty corners: micro-debris
analysis and use of space at the site of Abu Tbeirah (Nasiriyah, Iraq).",
Iraq 80, pp. 79–111, 2018 Among the finds was a large perforated [wheel](potter's)(potter's wheel) and two bricks inscribed with the name of Ur III king [Amar-Sin](Amar-Sin).Romano, Licia. "A Fragment of a Potter’s Wheel from Abu Tbeirah" Zeitschrift für Assyriologie und vorderasiatische Archäologie, vol. 105, no. 2, 2015, pp. 220–234.D’Agostino, F., Romano, L., "Two new inscribed bricks from Abu Tbeirah (southern Iraq).", In: Arkhipov, I., Kogan, L., Koslova, N. (Eds.), The Third Millennium. Studies in Early Mesopotamia and Syria in Honor
of Walter Sommerfeld and Manfred Krebernik. Series: Cuneiform Monographs, vol. 50. Brill, Leiden, Boston, pp. 259–269, 2020 Also found was a c. 2500 BC tomb. Finds included bronze vessel, toiletries and carnelian beads.[Italian Dig in Iraq Discovers Bronze Age “Tomb of the Prince” – BibblicalArchaeology – March 27, 2012](https://www.biblicalarchaeology.org/daily/news/italian-dig-in-iraq-discovers-bronze-age-tomb-of-the-prince/)
## See also
* [of the Kings of Ur](Correspondence)(Correspondence of the Kings of Ur)
* [of Iraq](History)(History of Iraq)
** [of Sumer](History)(History of Sumer)
* [of cities of the ancient Near East](List)(List of cities of the ancient Near East)
* [of Ur](Lyres)(Lyres of Ur)
* [in a Thicket](Ram)(Ram in a Thicket)
* [Game of Ur](Royal)(Royal Game of Ur)
* [chronology](Short)(Short chronology)
## Notes
## References
## Further reading
*Black, J. and Spada, G., "Texts from Ur: Kept in the Iraq Museum and the British Museum.", Nisaba 19, Messina: Dipartimento di Scienze dell’Antichitá 2008
*[Harriet](Crawford,)(Harriet Crawford). *Ur: The City of the Moon God.* London: Bloomsbury, 2015.
*D’Agostino, F., Pomponio, F., and Laurito, R., "Neo-Sumerian Texts from Ur in the British Museum.", Nisaba 5, Messina: Dipartimento di Scienze dell’Antichitá, 2004
*[J. Gadd](C.)(C. J. Gadd). *History and monuments of Ur, Chatto & Windus*, 1929 (Dutton 1980 reprint: ).
*P. R. S. Morrey. "Where Did They Bury the Kings of the IIIrd Dynasty of Ur?", *Iraq*, vol. 46, no. 1, pp. 1–18, 1984.
*[P.R.S. Morrey. ”What Do We Know About the People Buried in the Royal Cemetery?”](https://www.penn.museum/sites/expedition/what-do-we-know-about-the-people-buried-in-the-royal-cemetery/), *Expedition Magazine*, Penn Museum, vol. 20, iss. 1, pp. 24–40, 1977
*[Oates](J.)(Joan Oates), "Ur and Eridu: The Prehistory", *Iraq*, vol. 22, pp. 32–50, 1960.
*Pardo Mata, Pilar, "Ur, ciudad de los sumerios". Cuenca: Alderaban, 2006. .
*Susan Pollock, “Chronology of the Royal Cemetery of Ur”, *Iraq*, vol. 47, pp. 129–158, British Institute for the Study of Iraq, 1985
*Susan Pollock, “Of Priestesses, Princes and Poor Relations: The Dead in the Royal Cemetery of Ur”, *Cambridge Archaeological Journal*, vol. 1, iss. 2, 1991
*Licia Romano and Franco D'Agostino, "Abu Tbeirah Excavations I. Area 1: Last Phase and Building A – Phase 1", Sapienza Università Editrice, Jun 7, 2019,
* [https://archive.org/download/ur-excavations-iii.-archaic-seal-impressions/Ur%20Excavations%20III.%20Archaic%20seal-impressions.pdf] Leon Legrain, "Ur Excavations III: Archaic seal-impressions", Publications of the Joint Expedition of the British Museum and of the University Museum, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, to Mesopotamia : Ur excavations, Oxford University Press, 1936
* Wencel, M. M., "New radiocarbon dates from southern Mesopotamia (Fara and Ur)", Iraq, 80, pp. 251–261, 2018
* [https://archive.org/download/ur-excavations-ii.-the-royal-cemetery-plates/Ur%20Excavations%20II.%20The%20Royal%20Cemetery%2C%20Plates.pdf][Leonard](Woolley,)(Leonard Woolley), "Ur Excavations II. The Royal Cemetery", Plates, Publications of the Joint Expedition of the British Museum and of the University Museum, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, to Mesopotamia : Ur excavations, Oxford University Press, 1927
** [*Ur excavations IV: The Early Periods*](https://web.archive.org/web/20100408175328/http://www.etana.org/coretexts/20262.pdf), Oxford University Press, 1927.
** *[Ur Excavations V: The Ziggurat and Its Surroundings](https://web.archive.org/web/20100408180538/http://www.etana.org/coretexts/20261.pdf)*, Oxford University Press, 1927.
** with M.E.L. Mallowan (ed. [C. Mitchell](T.)(Terence Mitchell)): *[Ur Excavations VII: The Old Babylonian Period](https://web.archive.org/web/20100408182514/http://www.etana.org/coretexts/20259.pdf)*, Oxford University Press, 1927
** (ed. [C. Mitchell](T.)(Terence Mitchell)), *[Ur Excavations VIII: The Kassite Period](https://web.archive.org/web/20100408184041/http://www.etana.org/coretexts/20258.pdf)*, Oxford University Press, 1927
** with M.E.L. Mallowan (ed. [C. Mitchell](T.)(Terence Mitchell)),: *[Ur Excavations IX: The Neo-Babylonian and Persian Periods](https://web.archive.org/web/20100408180226/http://www.etana.org/coretexts/20239.pdf)*, [University Press](Oxford)(Oxford University Press), 1927
** *[Ur of the Chaldees: A record of seven years of excavation](https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.175502)*. Ernest Benn Limited, 1920.
ABU TBEIRAH
*[https://www.mdpi.com/2076-3263/9/2/74/pdf]Festa, Giulia, et al., "Sumerian pottery technology studied through neutron diffraction and chemometrics at Abu Tbeirah (Iraq)", Geosciences 9.2, pp. 74, 2019
*[https://www.cambridge.org/core/services/aop-cambridge-core/content/view/FE5F0F666EEF1BEC71C3C5AC58999322/S0033589422000229a.pdf/the-paleoenvironment-and-depositional-context-of-the-sumerian-site-of-abu-tbeirah-nasiriyah-southern-mesopotamia-iraq.pdf]Forti, Luca, et al., "The paleoenvironment and depositional context of the Sumerian site of Abu Tbeirah (Nasiriyah, southern Mesopotamia, Iraq)", Quaternary Research 110, pp. 165–183, 2022
*Romano, Licia, "Paso Doble: Note on an Early Old Babylonian Seal Found at Abu Tbeirah", Revue d’assyriologie et d’archéologie orientale 115.1, pp. 41–50, 2021
## External links
*[City of the Moon New Excavations at Ur – Penn Museum – 2017](https://www.penn.museum/sites/expedition/city-of-the-moon/)
*[An exploration of the Royal Tombs of Ur, with a comprehensive selection of high-resolution photographs detailing the treasures found in the tombs](http://sumerianshakespeare.com/117701/index.html)
*[Explore some of the Royal Tombs](http://www.mesopotamia.co.uk/tombs/explore/exp_set.html), Mesopotamia website from the [Museum](British)(British Museum)
*[Treasures from the Royal Tombs of Ur](http://www.museum.upenn.edu/new/exhibits/ur/index.shtml)
*[British Museum and Penn Museum Ur site – has field reports](http://www.ur-online.org/)
*[*Jewish Encyclopedia*:](http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=40&letter=U) Ur
*[Woolley’s Ur Revisited, Richard L. Zettler, BAR 10:05, September/October 1984.](https://web.archive.org/web/20090326004326/http://cojs.org/cojswiki/Woolley%E2%80%99s_Ur_Revisited%2C_Richard_L._Zettler%2C_BAR_10:05%2C_Sep/Oct_1984.)
*[Ur Excavations of the University of Pennsylvania Museum](http://www.sas.upenn.edu/aamw/resources/fieldwork/#Ur%20%28Iraq%29)
*[At Ur, Ritual Deaths That Were Anything but Serene](https://www.nytimes.com/2009/10/27/science/27ur.html) on *[New York Times](The)(The New York Times)*
*[Web site for new Iraqi/Italian dig](http://www.abutbeirah.com/blog/)
[ ](Category:Ur)
[cities](Category:Sumerian)(Category:Sumerian cities)
[sites in Iraq](Category:Archaeological)(Category:Archaeological sites in Iraq)
[Qar Governorate](Category:Dhi)(Category:Dhi Qar Governorate)
[populated places in Iraq](Category:Former)(Category:Former populated places in Iraq)
[Category:Levant](Category:Levant)
[BC establishments](Category:4th-millennium)(Category:4th-millennium BC establishments)
[places established in the 4th millennium BC](Category:Populated)(Category:Populated places established in the 4th millennium BC)
[period](Category:Ubaid)(Category:Ubaid period)
[Category:City-states](Category:City-states)
|
Louis XV
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louis_xv
|
# Louis XV
*Revision ID: 1159914406 | Timestamp: 2023-06-13T09:49:29Z*
---
| alt = Portrait of King Louis XV
| succession = [of France](King)(List of French monarchs)
| moretext = ([more...](Style of the French sovereign))
| reign = 1 September 1715 – 10 May 1774
| cor-type = France
| coronation = 25 October 1722[Cathedral](Reims)(Reims Cathedral)
| predecessor = [XIV](Louis)(Louis XIV)
| successor = [XVI](Louis)(Louis XVI)
| regent = [II, Duke of Orléans](Philippe)(Philippe II, Duke of Orléans) (1715–1723)
| reg-type1 =
| regent1 = |bullets=on|[Dubois](Guillaume)(Guillaume Dubois)(1715–1723)
| [Henri I, Prince of Condé](Louis)(Louis Henri, Duke of Bourbon)(1723–1726)
| [de Fleury](André-Hercule)(André-Hercule de Fleury)(1726–1743)
| [Duke of Choiseul](The)(Étienne François, duc de Choiseul)(1758–1770)}}
| birth_date =
| birth_place = [of Versailles](Palace)(Palace of Versailles), [France](Kingdom of France)
| death_date =
| death_place = Palace of Versailles, France
| burial_date = 12 May 1774
| burial_place = [Basilica](Royal)(Basilica of Saint Denis), Saint Denis, France
| spouse =
| issue-link = #Issue
| issue-pipe = among others...
| issue =
| house = [Bourbon](House of Bourbon)
| father = [Duke of Burgundy](Louis,)(Louis, Duke of Burgundy)
| mother = [Adélaïde of Savoy](Marie)(Marie Adélaïde of Savoy)
| religion = [Catholicism](Catholicism)
| signature = SignatureLouisXV.svg
}}
**Louis XV** (15 February 1710 – 10 May 1774), known as **Louis the Beloved** (),Cornette, (2008), p. 121. was [of France](King)(King of France) from 1 September 1715 until his death in 1774. He succeeded his great-grandfather [XIV](Louis)(Louis XIV) at the age of five. Until he reached maturity (then defined as his 13th birthday) in 1723, the kingdom was ruled by his grand-uncle [II, Duke of Orléans](Philippe)(Philippe II, Duke of Orléans), as [of France](Regent)(Régence). [Fleury](Cardinal)(André-Hercule de Fleury) was chief minister from 1726 until his death in 1743, at which time the king took sole control of the kingdom.
His reign of almost 59 years (from 1715 to 1774) was the second longest in the history of France, exceeded only by his predecessor, Louis XIV, who had ruled for 72 years (from 1643 to 1715).Guéganic (2008), p. 13. In 1748, Louis returned the [Netherlands](Austrian)(Austrian Netherlands), won at the [of Fontenoy](Battle)(Battle of Fontenoy) of 1745. He ceded [France](New)(New France) in North America to Great Britain and Spain at the conclusion of the disastrous [Years' War](Seven)(Seven Years' War) in 1763. He incorporated the territories of the [of Lorraine](Duchy)(Duchy of Lorraine) and the [Republic](Corsican)(Corsican Republic) into the Kingdom of France. Historians generally criticize his reign, citing how reports of his corruption embarrassed the monarchy, while his wars drained the treasury and produced little gain. A minority of scholars dispute this view, arguing that it is the result of revolutionary propaganda. His grandson and successor [XVI](Louis)(Louis XVI) inherited a large kingdom in need of financial and political reform which would ultimately lead to the [Revolution](French)(French Revolution) of 1789.
## Early life and the Regency (1710–1723)
[[File:Louis XIV of France and his family attributed to Nicolas de Largillière.jpg|thumb|The infant Louis with his [governess](Madame de Ventadour), [grandfather](Louis, Grand Dauphin), [great-grandfather](Louis XIV) and [father](Louis, Duke of Burgundy), and the busts of [IV](Henry)(Henry IV of France) and [XIII](Louis)(Louis XIII) in the background. Madame de Ventadour holds her charge's reins. The portrait, painted for her, commemorates her part in saving the dynasty.]]
Louis XV was the great-grandson of [XIV](Louis)(Louis XIV) and the third son of the [of Burgundy](Duke)(Louis, Duke of Burgundy) (1682–1712), and his wife [Adélaïde of Savoy](Marie)(Marie Adélaïde of Savoy), who was the eldest daughter of [Amadeus II, Duke of Savoy](Victor)(Victor Amadeus II of Sardinia). He was born in the [of Versailles](Palace)(Palace of Versailles) on 15 February 1710 and was immediately styled the Duke of Anjou. At this time, the possibility of the Duke of Anjou becoming the next king seemed rather remote as Louis XIV's eldest son and heir, Louis's paternal grandfather Louis *[Grand Dauphin](Le)(Le Grand Dauphin)*, was expected to assume the throne upon the old king's death. Next in line to the throne behind the Grand Dauphin was his eldest son- Louis's father *Le Petit Dauphin* and then Louis's elder brother, a child named Louis Duke of Brittany. Disease, however, steered the line of succession forward three generations and sideways: on 14 April 1711 the Grand Dauphin, died of [smallpox](smallpox),Guéganic (2008), p. 14. and less than a year later, on 12 February 1712 the future king's mother, Marie Adélaïde, who had been stricken with [measles](measles), died, followed six days later by Louis's father, her devoted husband who would not leave her side during her illness. With the death of both the *Grand* and *Petit* dauphins, Louis's elder brother immediately became [of France](Dauphin)(Dauphin of France), but just over two weeks further still, on 7 March, it was found that both the elder Louis and the younger Louis had also contracted measles. The two brothers were treated in the traditional way, with [bloodletting](bloodletting). On the night of 8–9 March, the new Dauphin, age five, died from the combination of the disease and the treatment. The governess of Louis, [de Ventadour](Madame)(Madame de Ventadour), forbade the doctors to bleed the two year old Duke of Anjou by hiding him in a palace closet where she cared for him alone; where he survived despite being very ill.Bluche (2003), pp. 15–17. When Louis XIV himself finally died on 1 September 1715, Louis, at the age of five, trembling and crying and against all probability, inherited the throne as Louis XV.Guéganic (2008), p. 14.
According to Charles V's royal ordinance of 1374 the Kingdom of France must be governed by a regent until a given king had reached the age of 13.Adams (2014), p. 16. The title of regent was customarily assigned to an under-aged king's nearest adult living relative, often his mother or an uncle. But as Louis's mother had been struck down by disease, and as his only uncle had already been enthroned as King of Spain, the job fell to his great-uncle [II, Duke of Orléans](Philippe)(Philippe II, Duke of Orléans). However Louis XIV had distrusted Philippe, who was a renowned soldier but was regarded by the late King as an atheist and libertine. The King referred privately to Philippe as a *Fanfaron des crimes* ("braggart of crimes").Guéganic (2008), p. 14. Louis XIV had desired for France to be ruled by his favorite but illegitimate son, the [of Maine](Duke)(Louis-Auguste de Bourbon, duc du Maine) (illegitimate son of Louis XIV and [de Montespan](Madame)(Madame de Montespan)), who was in the council and who, because of a dramatic change in the laws of succession instituted by Louis XIV, and, as his oldest surviving male descendant, could now legally become king if the legitimate direct line of succession became extinguished. In August 1714, shortly before his own death, the King rewrote his will to restrict the powers of the regent; it stipulated that the nation was to be governed by a Regency Council made up of fourteen members until the new king reached the age of majority. Philippe, nephew of Louis XIV, was named president of this Council, but other members included the Duke of Maine and at least seven of his well-known allies. According to the will, all decisions were to be made by majority vote, meaning that the president could always be outvoted by Maine's party and effectively allowing Maine to rule France for the next eight years.
Philippe saw the trap. The [of Paris](Parlement)(Parlement of Paris), an assembly of French nobles among whom Philippe had many friends, was the only judicial body in France with the authority to have this portion of the deceased King's will annulled, and immediately after the King's death Philippe approached the Parlement requesting that they do just this.Antoine (1989), p. 33–37. In exchange for their support he agreed to restore to the Parlement its *droit de remontrance* (right of remonstrance) – the right to challenge a king's decisions – which had been removed by Louis XIV. The *droit de remontrance* would impair the monarchy's functioning and marked the beginning of a conflict between the Parlement and King which contributed to the [Revolution](French)(French Revolution) in 1789.Antoine (1989), pp. 33–37. In the mean time, however, the will was annulled and Philippe was installed as Regent with full powers to act in the name of the King in all matters.
[[File:Louis Hersent - Peter I of Russia and Louis XV of France.jpg|Tsar [the Great](Peter)(Peter the Great) of Russia picks up the young King (1717), painted around 1838|thumb]]
On 9 September 1715, Philippe had the young King transported away from the court in Versailles to Paris, where the Regent had his own residence in the [Royal](Palais)(Palais Royal). On 12 September, the King performed his first official act, opening the first *[de justice](lit)(lit de justice)* of his reign at the Palais Royal. From September 1715 until January 1716 he lived in the [de Vincennes](Château)(Château de Vincennes), before moving to the [Palace](Tuileries)(Tuileries Palace). In February 1717, when he had reached the age of seven, the King was taken away in tears from his beloved governess Madame Ventadour and placed in the care of [de Villeroy](François)(François de Neufville, duc de Villeroi), the 73-year-old Duke and *Maréchal de France*, named as his governor in Louis XIV's will of August 1714. Villeroy instructed the young King in court etiquette, taught him how to review a regiment, and how to receive royal visitors. His guests included the Russian Tsar [the Great](Peter)(Peter the Great) in 1717; at their first meeting and contrary to ordinary protocol between such great rulers, the two-meter-tall Tsar greeted Louis by picking him up under the arms and giving him a kiss. Louis also learned the skills of horseback riding and hunting, which became great passions.Bluche (2003), pp. 26–28. In 1720, following the example of Louis XIV, Villeroy had the young Louis dance in public in two ballets-- once at the Tuileries Palace on 24 February 1720, and then again in *The Ballet des Elements* on 31 December 1721.Bluche (2003), p. 226. The shy Louis was terrified of these performances, and never danced in another ballet.Antoine (1989), pp. 64–65.
The King's tutor was the Abbé [de Fleury](André-Hercule)(André-Hercule de Fleury), the bishop of Fréjus (and later to become Cardinal de Fleury), who saw that he was instructed in Latin, Italian, history and geography, astronomy, mathematics and drawing, and cartography. The King had charmed the visiting Russian Tsar in 1717 by identifying the major rivers, cities and geographic features of Russia. In his later life the King retained his passion for science and geography; he created departments in physics (1769) and mechanics (1773) at the [de France](Collège)(Collège de France),Herbermann (1913), p. 103. and he sponsored the first complete and accurate map of France, the Cartes de Cassini.Guéganic (2008), p. 20. Besides his academic studies, he received a practical education in government. Beginning in 1720 he attended the regular meetings of the Regency Council.
[[duc d'Orléans, Régent, et son fils le duc de Chartres - Versailles MV 5456.jpg|Louis with the regent, Philippe of Orléans (1718)|thumb|left](File:Philippe,)]
One economic crisis disrupted the Regency; the Scottish economist and banker [Law](John)(John Law (economist)) was named controller-general of finances. In May 1716, he opened the *Banque Générale Privée* ("General Private Bank"), which soon became the Banque Royal. It was mostly funded by the government, and was one of the earliest banks to issue paper money, which he promised could be exchanged for gold.Backhouse (1994), p. 118. He also persuaded wealthy Parisians to invest in the [Company](Mississippi)(Mississippi Company), a scheme for the colonization of the French territory of Louisiana. The stock of the company first soared and then collapsed in 1720, taking the bank with it. Law fled France, and wealthy Parisians became reluctant to make further investments or trust any currency but gold.Bluche (2003), pp. 223–226.
In 1719, France, [alliance](in)(Triple Alliance (1717)) with Britain and the [Republic](Dutch)(Dutch Republic), declared war on Spain. Spain was defeated on both land and sea, and quickly sought peace. A Franco-Spanish treaty was signed on 27 March 1721. The two governments proposed to unite their royal families by marrying Louis to [Victoria of Spain](Mariana)(Mariana Victoria of Spain), the seven-year-old daughter of [V of Spain](Philip)(Philip V of Spain), who was himself a grandson of Louis XIV. The marriage contract was signed on 25 November, and the future bride came to France and took up residence in the Louvre. However, after the death of the Regent, in 1725, the new Prime Minister decided she was too young to have children soon enough, and she was sent back to Spain.Bluche (2003), pp. 223–226. During the rest of the Regency, France was at peace, and in 1720, the Regent decreed an official silence on religious conflicts.Bluche (2003), p. 226. [Montesquieu](Montesquieu) and [Voltaire](Voltaire) published their first works, and the [of Enlightenment](Age)(Age of Enlightenment) in France quietly began.Guéganic (2008), pp. 16–17.
## Government of the Duke of Bourbon (1723–1726)
[[de Louis XV.jpg|Coronation of Louis XV at Reims Cathedral (1722)|thumb](File:Sacre)]
On 15 June 1722, as Louis approached his thirteenth birthday, the year of his majority, he left Paris and moved back to Versailles, where he had happy memories of his childhood, but where he was far from the reach of public opinion. On 25 October, Louis was crowned King at the [of Reims](Cathedral)(Cathedral of Reims).Bluche (2003), p. 36. On 15 February 1723, the king's majority was declared by the Parlement of Paris, officially ending the regency. Philippe continued to manage the government, and took the title of Prime Minister in August 1723, but while visiting his mistress, far from the court and medical care, he died in December of the same year. Following the advice of his preceptor Fleury, Louis XV appointed his cousin [Henri, Duke of Bourbon](Louis)(Louis Henri, Duke of Bourbon), to replace the late Duke of Orléans as prime minister.
### Marriage and children
[[File:Carle Van Loo - Marie Leszczinska, reine de France (1703-1768) - Google Art Project.jpg|thumb|220px|upright|Queen Marie, by [Van Loo](Carle)(Carle Van Loo) (1747)]]
One of the first priorities of the Duke of Bourbon was to find a bride for the King, to assure the continuity of the monarchy, and especially to prevent the succession to the throne of the Orléans branch of the family, the rivals of his branch.Guéganic (2008), p. 68. A list of 99 princesses was prepared, among them being [Anne of Great Britain](Princess)(Anne, Princess Royal and Princess of Orange), [of Portugal](Barbara)(Barbara of Portugal), [Charlotte Amalie of Denmark](Princess)(Princess Charlotte Amalie of Denmark), [Therese of Lorraine](Elisabeth)(Elisabeth Therese of Lorraine), [d'Este](Enrichetta)(Enrichetta d'Este) and the Duke's own sisters [Louise de Bourbon](Henriette)(Henriette Louise de Bourbon) and [Alexandrine de Bourbon](Élisabeth)(Élisabeth Alexandrine de Bourbon).de Goncourt (1906).In the end, the 21-year-old [Leszczyńska](Marie)(Marie Leszczyńska), daughter of [I](Stanislaus)(Stanislaus I of Poland), the deposed king of Poland, was chosen.
The marriage was celebrated in September 1725 when the king was 15 and Marie was 22. Louis was said to have fallen in love with Marie instantly, and [consummated](consummation) his marriage to her seven times on their wedding night.HRH Princess Michael of Kent (2005), p. 60. From 1727 to 1737, Marie gave Louis XV ten children: eight girls and two boys. Of the boys, only the elder, the Dauphin [Louis](Louis, Dauphin of France (1729–1765)) (1729–1765), survived childhood. While he did not live to rule, his birth as the awaited heir was welcomed with celebration in all spheres of French society. (The Dauphin Louis would go on to marry [Josephina of Saxony](Maria)(Maria Josepha of Saxony, Dauphine of France) in 1747, who gave birth to the next three Kings of France: [XVI](Louis)(Louis XVI), [XVIII](Louis)(Louis XVIII), and [X](Charles)(Charles X)).Guéganic (2008), p. 68. Louis XV's second son, the [of Anjou](Duke)(Philippe, Duke of Anjou), was born in 1730 and died in 1733. Of the daughters only the two oldest daughters, who were fraternal twins, were raised at Versailles; the others were sent away to be raised at the [of Fontevrault](Abbey)(Abbey of Fontevrault).
Marie was a pious and timid Queen who spent most of her time secluded with her own courtiers. She was a musician, read extensively, and played social games with her courtiers. After 1737, she did not share her bed with the King. She was deeply upset by the death of her son the Dauphin in 1765, and died on 24 June 1768.Guéganic (2008), p. 68.
### *Unigenitus*, Jansenism and religious conflict
One of the first serious conflicts that disturbed the early reign of Louis XV was a battle within the Catholic Church over a [Bull](Papal)(Papal Bull) called *[Unigenitus](Unigenitus)*. The Bull was requested by Louis XIV of [Clement XI](Pope)(Pope Clement XI) and granted on 8 September 1713. It was a fierce condemnation of [Jansenism](Jansenism), a Catholic doctrine based largely on the teachings of [Augustine](Saint)(Saint Augustine). Jansenism had attracted many important followers in France, including the philosopher [Pascal](Blaise)(Blaise Pascal), the poet [Racine](Louis Racine), aristocrats including [de Sévigné](Madame)(Madame de Sévigné) and Madame de Lafayette. The faculty of the Sorbonne, then primarily a theological college and a center of Jansenism, demanded clarification from the government. The Jansenists were allied with the Gallicans, theologians who wanted the Catholic Church in France to be distinctly French. The opposition to *Unigenitus* was particularly strong among the members of the [de Paris](Parlement)(Parlement de Paris), the assembly of the nobles. Despite the protests, on 24 March 1730 Cardinal Fleury persuaded the King to issue a decree that *Unigenitus* was the law of France as well as that of the Church.
The government and church imposed repressive measures. On 27 April 1732, the Archbishop of Paris threatened to excommunicate any member of the Church who read the Jansenist journal, *Nouvelles Ecclésiastiques*. The *Parlement* was strictly forbidden to discuss religious questions, preventing them from opposing the *Unigenitus* bull. Priests who did not accept *Unigenitus* were denied the authority to administer last rites to the dying.Bluche (2003), pp. 56–58. A new tax, the *cinquantième*, was levied against religious figures who had previously been exempted from taxation. Jansenists and Protestants were threatened with prison and banishment.Bluche (2003), pp. 39–47. As a result of these repressive acts, religious dissent remained an issue throughout the King's reign.
Tension grew between the Duke of Bourbon and Cardinal de Fleury over the King's favor. The Duke's rigid and cold personality did not appeal to the young King, who turned to his old tutor for advice on how to run the affairs of state. When the King insisted that Fleury was to be included in all meetings between himself and the Duke of Bourbon, the Duke was infuriated and began to undermine Fleury's position at court. When the King became aware of the Duke's intrigue, he abruptly dismissed him and replaced him with Fleury.Bluche (2003), pp. 53–55.
## Rule with Cardinal de Fleury (1726–1743)
### Finances and control of dissent
[[File:Cardinal de Fleury by Rigaud.jpg|thumb|Cardinal de Fleury by [Rigaud](Hyacinthe)(Hyacinthe Rigaud)]]
From 1726 until his death in 1743, Fleury effectively ruled France with the king's assent. Fleury dictated the choices to be made, and encouraged the king's indecision and flattered his pride. He forbade the king to discuss politics with the Queen. In order to save on court expenses, he sent the youngest four daughters of the king to be educated at the Abbey of Fontevrault. On the surface it was the most peaceful and prosperous period of the reign of Louis XV, but it was built upon a growing volcano of opposition, particularly from the noble members of the Parlements, who saw their privileges and power reduced. Fleury made the Papal doctrine *Unigenitus* part of French law and forbade any debate in Parlement, which caused the silent opposition to grow. He also downplayed the importance of the French Navy, which would prove be a fatal mistake in future conflicts.Bluche (2003), pp. 53-55/
Fleury showed the King the virtues of a stable government; he kept the same Minister of War, Bauyn d'Angervilliers, and controller of the currency, [Orry](Philibert)(Philibert Orry), for twelve years, and his minister of foreign affairs, [Louis Chauvelin](Germain)(Germain Louis Chauvelin), for ten years. His minister of the Navy and household of the King, the Conte de Maurepas, was in office the entire period. In all he had just thirteen ministers over the course of nineteen years, while the King, in his last thirty-one years, employed forty-three.Bluche (2003), p. 57.
Louis's [of Finances](Controller-General)(Controller-General of Finances) Michel Robert Le Peletier des Forts (1726–1730), stabilized the French currency, though he was expelled for enriching himself in 1730. His successor, [Orry](Philibert)(Philibert Orry), substantially reduced the debt caused by the War of the Spanish Succession, and simplified and made more fair the tax system, though he still had to depend upon the unpopular *dixieme*, or tax of the tenth of the revenue of every citizen. Orry managed, in the last two years of Fleury's government, to balance the royal budget, an accomplishment never again repeated during the rest of the reign.Bluche (2003), pp. 57–58.
Fleury's government expanded commerce, both within France and with the rest of the world. Transportation and shipping were improved with the completion of the Saint-Quentin canal (linking the [Oise](Oise River) and [Somme](Somme River) rivers) in 1738, which was later extended to the [River](Escaut)(Escaut River) and the [Countries](Low)(Low Countries), and the systematic building of a national road network. By the middle of the 18th century, France had the most modern and extensive road network in the world. The Council of Commerce stimulated trade, and French foreign maritime trade increased from 80 to 308 million *[livres](livre tournois)* between 1716 and 1748.Olivier Bernier (1984), p. 63.
The Government continued its policy of religious repression, aimed at the Jansenists and the so-called "Gallicans" in Parlements of nobles. After the dismissal of 139 members of provincial parlements for opposing the official government and papal doctrine of *Unigenitus*, the Parlement of Paris had to register the *Unigenitus* papal bull and was forbidden to hear religious cases in the future.Rogister (1998), p. 135.
### Foreign relations – New alliances; the War of the Polish Succession
[[Louis XV of France by Hyacinthe Rigaud.jpg|thumb|Louis XV in coronation robes (1730)](File:King)]
In the first years of his governance, Fleury and his foreign minister [Louis Chauvelin](Germain)(Germain Louis Chauvelin) sought to maintain the peace by maintaining the French alliance with Great Britain, despite their colonial rivalry in North America and the [Indies](West)(West Indies). They also rebuilt the alliance with Spain, which had been shaken by the anger of the Spanish King when Louis refused to marry the Spanish *infanta*. The birth of the king's male heir in 1729 dispelled the risks of a succession crisis in France. However, new powers were emerging on the European stage, particularly Russia under Peter the Great and his successor, [Catherine](Catherine I of Russia). The [monarchy](Habsburg)(Habsburg monarchy) under [VI](Charles)(Charles VI, Holy Roman Emperor) was assembling a scattered but impressive empire as far as Serbia in southeastern Europe with territories taken from the [Empire](Ottoman)(Ottoman Empire), and from Spain, acquiring the [Netherlands](Austrian)(Austrian Netherlands), Milan and the [of Naples](Kingdom)(Kingdom of Naples).Antoine (1989), pp. 254–255.
A new coalition against France began to assemble in eastern Europe, sealed by a defensive treaty signed on 6 August 1726 between Prussia, Russia and Austria. In 1732 the coalition came into direct conflict with France over the succession to the [throne](Polish)(Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth). The [of Poland](King)(List of Polish monarchs) and [of Saxony](Elector)(Electorate of Saxony), [II](Augustus)(Augustus II the Strong), was dying, and the favoured candidate to succeed him was [I Leszczyński](Stanislaus)(Stanislaus I Leszczyński), the father of the Queen of France. In the same year Russia, Prussia and Austria signed a secret agreement to exclude Stanislaus from the throne, and put forward another candidate, [III](Augustus)(Augustus III of Poland), son of the deceased Polish king. The death of Augustus on 1 February 1733, with two heirs claiming the throne, sparked the [of the Polish Succession](War)(War of the Polish Succession). Stanislaus traveled to [Warsaw](Warsaw), where he was elected and crowned on 12 September. Empress [of Russia](Anna)(Anna of Russia) immediately marched her regiments into Poland to support her candidate. Stanislaus was forced to flee to the fortified port of [Danzig](Gdańsk), while on 5 October Augustus III was crowned in Warsaw.Antoine (1989), pp. 289–90.
[[File:Stanisław Leszczyński par Girardet.PNG|[I Leszczyński](Stanislaus)(Stanislaus I Leszczyński), father-in-law of Louis XV and briefly King of Poland|thumb|left]]
Cardinal Fleury responded with a carefully orchestrated campaign of diplomacy. He first won assurances from Britain and Holland that they would not interfere in the war, while lining up alliances with Spain and [Emmanuel III of Sardinia](Charles)(Charles Emmanuel III of Sardinia) in exchange for pieces of the [monarchy](Habsburg)(Habsburg monarchy). On 10 October 1733, Louis formally declared war against Austria. A French army occupied the [of Lorraine](Duchy)(Duchy of Lorraine), while another crossed the Alps and captured Milan on 3 November, handing it over to the King of Sardinia.Antoine (1989), pp. 290–91. Fleury was less energetic in his actions to restore the Polish throne to Stanislaus, who was blockaded by the Russian navy and army in Danzig. Instead of sending the largest part of the French fleet from its station off [Copenhagen](Copenhagen) to Danzig, he ordered it to return to Brest and sent only a small squadron with two thousand soldiers, which after a fierce action was sunk by the Russians. On 3 July Stanislaus was forced to flee again, in disguise, to Prussia, where he became the guest of King [William I of Prussia](Frederick)(Frederick William I of Prussia) in the castle of [Königsberg](Königsberg).
To bring the war to an end, Fleury and Charles VI negotiated an ingenious diplomatic solution. [III, Duke of Lorraine](Francis)(Francis III, Duke of Lorraine), left Lorraine for Vienna, where he married [Theresa](Maria)(Maria Theresa), the heir presumptive to the Habsburg thrones. The vacant throne of Lorraine was to be occupied by Stanislaus, who abandoned his claim to the Polish throne. Upon the death of Stanislaus, the Duchy of Lorraine and Bar would become part of France. Francis, as the future emperor, would be compensated for the loss of Lorraine by the granting of the [Duchy of Tuscany](Grand)(Grand Duchy of Tuscany). The King of Sardinia would be compensated with certain territories in Lombardy. The marriage of Francis of Lorraine and Maria Theresa took place in 1736, and the other exchanges took place in turn. With the death of Stanislaus in 1766, Lorraine and the neighboring [of Bar](Duchy)(Duchy of Bar) became part of France.Antoine (1989), pp. 294-295-90.Black (2013), p. 1726ff.
In September 1739, Fleury scored another diplomatic success. France's mediation in the war between the [Roman Empire](Holy)(Holy Roman Empire) and the [Empire](Ottoman)(Ottoman Empire) led to the [of Belgrade](Treaty)(Treaty of Belgrade) (September 1739), which favoured the Ottoman Empire, beneficiary of a [alliance](Franco-Ottoman)(Franco-Ottoman alliance) against the Habsburgs since the early 16th century. As a result, the Ottoman Empire in 1740 renewed the French [capitulations](Capitulations of the Ottoman Empire), which marked the supremacy of French trade in the Middle East. With these successes, Louis XV's prestige reached its highest point. In 1740 Frederick William I of Prussia declared "Since the [of Vienna](Treaty)(Treaty of Vienna (1738)) France is the arbiter of Europe."Antoine (1989), p. 301.
### War of the Austrian Succession
On 29 October 1740, a courier brought the news to the King, who was hunting in Fontainebleau, that the Emperor Charles VI was dead, and his daughter Maria Theresa was set to succeed him. After two days of reflection, Louis declared, "In these circumstances, I don't want to get involved at all. I will remain with my hands in my pockets, unless of course they want to elect a Protestant emperor."Antoine (1989), p. 301. This attitude did not please France's allies, who saw an opportunity to take parts of the Habsburg empire, or Louis's generals, who for a century had won glory fighting Austria. The King in Prussia had died on 31 May and was succeeded by his son [the Great](Frederick)(Frederick the Great), a military genius with ambitions to expand Prussia's borders. The Elector [Albert](Charles)(Charles VII, Holy Roman Emperor) of Bavaria, supported by Frederick, challenged the succession of Maria Theresa, and on 17 December 1740 Frederick invaded the Austrian province of [Silesia](Silesia). The elderly Cardinal Fleury had too little energy left to oppose this war.
Fleury sent his highest ranking general, [Louis Auguste Fouquet, duc de Belle-Isle](Charles)(Charles Louis Auguste Fouquet, duc de Belle-Isle), the Maréchal de Belle-Isle, the grandson of [Fouquet](Nicolas)(Nicolas Fouquet), the famous disgraced controller of finances of Louis XIV, as his ambassador to the Diet of Frankfurt, with instructions to avoid a war by supporting the candidacy of the Elector of Bavaria to the Austrian throne. Instead, the Maréchal, who detested the Austrians, made an agreement to join with the Prussians against Austria, and the war began.Bluche (2003), p. 77. French and Bavarian armies quickly captured [Linz](Linz) and laid siege to [Prague](Prague). On 10 April 1741 Frederick won a major victory over the Austrians at the [of Mollwitz](Battle)(Battle of Mollwitz). On 18 May, Fleury assembled a new alliance combining France, Prussia, Spain and Bavaria, later joined by Poland and Sardinia. However, in 1742, the balance of the war shifted against France. The German-born British King, [II](George)(George II of Great Britain), who was also the Elector of Hanover, joined the war on the side of Austria and personally took charge of his soldiers fighting the French in Germany. Maria Theresa's Hungarian army recaptured Linz and marched into Bavaria as far as Munich. In June, Frederick of Prussia withdrew from the alliance with France, after gaining the [of Silesia](Duchies)(Duchies of Silesia) from the Austrians. Belleville had to abandon Prague, with a loss of eight thousand men. For seven years, France was engaged in a costly war with constantly shifting alliances. Orry, the superintendent of French finance, was forced to reinstate the highly unpopular *dixieme* tax to fund the war. Cardinal de Fleury did not live to see the end of the conflict; he died on 29 January 1743, and thereafter Louis ruled alone.Bluche (2003), pp. 233–235.
[[File:Battle of Lauffeldt.jpg|Louis XV and [de Saxe](Maurice)(Maurice de Saxe) at the [of Lauffeldt](Battle)(Battle of Lauffeldt) (2 July 1747)|thumb]]
The war in Germany was not going well; the French and Bavarian forces were faced with the combined armies of Austria, Saxony, Holland, Sardinia and Hanover. The army of the [of Noailles](Duke)(Adrien Maurice de Noailles) was defeated by a force of British, Hessian and Hanover soldiers led by George II at the [of Dettingen](Battle)(Battle of Dettingen), and in September French forces were compelled to abandon Germany.Bluche (2003), p. 78.
In 1744, the Austrian Netherlands became the primary battlefield of the war, and the French position began to improve. Frederick the Great decided to rejoin the war on the French side. Louis XV left Versailles to lead his armies in the Netherlands in person, and French field command was given to the German-born Maréchal [de Saxe](Maurice)(Maurice de Saxe), a highly competent general. At the [of Fontenoy](Battle)(Battle of Fontenoy) on 11 May 1745, Louis, accompanied by his young son the Dauphin, came under fire for the first time and witnessed a French victory over combined British, Dutch and Austrian forces. When the Dauphin became excited at the sight of so many dead enemy soldiers, the King told him, "You see what a victory costs. The blood of our enemies is still the blood of men. The true glory is to spare it."Antoine (1989), p. 387. Saxe went on to win further victories at [Rocoux](Battle of Rocoux) (1746) and [Lauffeld](Battle of Lauffeld) (1747). In 1746 French forces [and occupied Brussels](besieged)(Siege of Brussels), which Louis entered in triumph. The King gave de Saxe the [de Chambord](Chateau)(Chateau de Chambord) in the [Valley](Loire)(Loire Valley) as a reward for his victories.
## Personal government (1743–1757)
[[File:Louis XV ;Carle van Loo.jpg|thumb|Louis XV, portrait by [de La Tour](Maurice-Quentin)(Maurice-Quentin de La Tour) (1748)]]
[[File:Jean-Baptiste de Machault d'Arnouville.jpg|Finance minister [Baptiste de Machault D'Arnouville](Jean)(Jean Baptiste de Machault D'Arnouville), who attempted to reform the French tax system|thumb]]
After Fleury's death in January 1743, his war minister, the Duke of Noailles, showed the King a letter that Louis XIV had written to his grandson, [V of Spain](Philip)(Philip V of Spain); it counseled: "Don't allow yourself to be governed; be the master. Never have a favorite or a prime minister. Listen, consult your Council, but decide yourself. God, who made you King, will give you all the guidance you need, as long as you have good intentions."Antoine (1989), p. 354. Louis followed this advice and decided to govern without a prime minister. Two of his ministers took the most prominent positions in his government; the finance minister, [Baptiste de Machault D'Arnouville](Jean)(Jean Baptiste de Machault D'Arnouville), and the minister of the armies, [d'Argenson](Comte)(Marc-Pierre de Voyer de Paulmy d'Argenson).
With the end of the war, Louis decided to take the opportunity to reduce the debt and modernize the system of taxation of the Kingdom. The package of reforms was put together by his finance minister D'Arnouville and was approved by the King and presented in two decrees issued in May 1749. The first measure was an issue of bonds, paying five percent interest, to pay off the 36 million *livres* of debt caused by the cost of the war. This new measure was an immediate success. The second measure was the abolition of the *dixième*, a tax of ten percent of revenue, which had been created to finance the war, and its replacement by the *vingtième*, a tax of five percent on net revenue, which, unlike the *dixième*, taxed the income of all French citizens, including for the first time the income from the property of the clergy and the nobility.Antoine (1989), pp. 617–621.
While the new tax was supported by many, including [Voltaire](Voltaire), it met immediate and fierce resistance from both the nobility and the church. When on 5 May 1749 it was presented for formal registration to the *Parlement* of Paris, the assembly composed of high nobles and wealthy Parisians who had purchased seats, it was rejected by a vote of one hundred and six to forty nine; the majority asked for more time to consider the project. The King responded by demanding immediate registration, which the *Parlement* reluctantly granted on 19 May.Antoine (1989), p. 621. Resistance to the new measures grew with the church and in the provinces, which had their own *parlements*. While the *Parlements* of Burgundy, Provence and Artois bowed to the King's demands, [Brittany](Brittany) and [Languedoc](Languedoc) refused. The royal government closed down the *Parlement* of Brittany, ordered the members of the *Parlement* of [Languedoc](Languedoc) to return to their estates and parishes, and took direct control of the Provence.Antoine (1989), pp. 617–621.
Within Paris, the battle between the King and *Parlement* was fought over the status of the *Hôpital Général*, a semi-religious organization which operated six different hospitals and shelters in Paris, with a staff of some five thousand persons. Many of the hospital staff and officials were Jansenists, while the board of directors of the hospital included many prominent members of the *Parlement of Paris*. In 1749, the King decided to purge the hospital of Jansenists and corruption, appointed a new "Supérieure" against the will of the administrators, who resigned, then appointed four temporary administrators, and asked the First President of the Parlement of Paris, [Nicolas Charles Augustin de Maupeou](René)(René Nicolas Charles Augustin de Maupeou), to implement his decree for the reorganization of the hospital. De Maupeou refused to carry out the decree without the authorization of the Parlement, and the Parlement, without taking any action, went on vacation. On 20 November, when the Parlement returned, the King again summoned de Maupeou for an audience and again demanded action without delay. This time the *Parlement* members met but refused to discuss the Hospital. On 28 January 1752, the King instructed the Grand Council to change the administration of the Hospital without the approval of the *Parlement*. Voltaire, describing the affair, wrote, "Never before has such a small affair caused such a great emotion of the spirit." It was the first overt disobedience of the legislature against the King, and one of the first signs that the Parlement believed it, not the King, was the legitimate source of laws in the nation.Antoine (1989), p. 638.
The King's original plans to tax the church also ran into difficulty. A royal decree ordered all the clergy to submit a declaration of their revenue by 17 February 1751, but that day passed without any declarations given. Instead it became known that the King had quietly issued a new decree in December 1750, canceling the tax and relying again, entirely, on the "[gratuit](don)(don gratuit)", the voluntary donation by the church of 1,500,000 livres. Under the new decree, instead of a tax, the church would each year collect a comparable sum and donate it freely to the government. His support for the church came both from the teachings of his tutor, Cardinal Fleury, and his gratitude to Archbishop de Beaumont, who defended him against the attacks of the Jansenists and the criticisms of the Parlement, and the Archbishop's tolerance of the King's own personal life and mistresses.Antoine (1989), pp. 640–641.
[[File:Europe 1748-1766 en.png|thumb|250px|Europe in the years after the [of Aix-la-Chapelle](Treaty)(Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle (1748)) in 1748]]
Despite the French victories, the war dragged on both in the Netherlands and in Italy, where Maréchal Belle-Isle was besieging the Austrians in Genoa. By the summer of 1747 France occupied the entire [Netherlands](Austrian)(Austrian Netherlands) (modern-day Belgium).Antoine (1989), pp. 387. In March 1748, Louis proposed a conference in [Aix-la-Chapelle](Aachen) to bring the war to an end. The process was advanced by the [of Maastricht](capture)(Siege of Maastricht (1748)) by the Maréchal de Saxe on 10 April 1748. Britain, pressed by the threat of a French invasion of the rest of the Netherlands, urged a quick settlement, despite objections from Austria and Sardinia. The Treaty was quickly negotiated and signed by all the parties in September and October 1748. Louis was also eager for a quick settlement, because the naval war with Britain was extremely costly to French maritime trade. The proposition of Louis was surprisingly generous; in the [of Aix-la-Chapelle](Treaty)(Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle (1748)), Louis offered to return all of the territories he had conquered in the Netherlands to the Austrians, Maastricht to the Dutch, Nice and Savoy to the Sardinians, and [Madras](Madras) in India to the English. The Austrians would give the [of Parma](Duchy)(Duchy of Parma) and some other territory to the Spanish [Infante](Infante of Spain), [Philip](Philip, Duke of Parma), while Britain would return to France [Louisbourg](Louisbourg) and the island of [Breton](Cape)(Cape Breton). France also agreed to expel the Stuart pretender [Edward Stuart](Charles)(Charles Edward Stuart) from its territory.Antoine (1989), pp. 400–403.
The end of the war had caused celebration in Paris, but the publication of the details of the treaty on 14 January 1749 caused dismay and anger. The Stuart pretender Charles Edward Stuart refused to leave Paris and was acclaimed by the Parisians. He was finally arrested on 10 December 1748, and transported by force to Switzerland. The French military commanders, including de Saxe, were furious about giving up the Austrian Netherlands. The King's defense of his action was practical: he did not want the Netherlands to be a permanent source of contention between France and other powers; he also felt that France had already reached its proper borders, and it was better to cultivate its prosperity rather than make it larger. His basis was also religious; he had been taught by Fleury that the Seventh Commandment forbade taking the property of others by fraud or violence. Louis often cited a Latin maxim declaring, "if anyone who asks by what means he can best defend a kingdom, the answer is, by never wishing to augment it." He also received support from Voltaire, who wrote, "It seems better, and even more useful for the court of France to think about the happiness of its allies, rather than to be given two or three Flemish towns which would have been the eternal object of jealousy."Antoine (1989), p. 401. The King did not have the communication skills to explain his decision to the French public, and did not see any need to do so. The news that the king had restored the Southern Netherlands to Austria was met with disbelief and bitterness. The French obtained so little of what they had fought for that they adopted the expressions *Bête comme la paix* ("Stupid as the peace") and *Travailler pour le roi de Prusse* ("To work for the king of Prussia", i.e. working for nothing).de Castries (1979), p. 216.
### First mistresses
[[File:Portrait of a Lady, said to be Louise Julie de Nesle, Comtesse de Mailly by Alexis Grimou.jpg|upright|thumb|175px|Purported portrait of [Julie de Mailly](Louise)(Louise Julie de Mailly), by [Grimou](Alexis)(Alexis Grimou)]]
[[Image:Pauline Félicité de Mailly-Nesle.jpg|thumb|175px|[Félicité de Mailly-Nesle](Pauline)(Pauline Félicité de Mailly-Nesle), marquise de Vintimille, by [Nattier](Jean-Marc)(Jean-Marc Nattier)]]
[[Image:Marie-Anne de Mailly-Nesle.jpg|thumb|175px|[Anne de Mailly-Nesle](Marie)(Marie Anne de Mailly-Nesle) by [Nattier](Jean-Marc)(Jean-Marc Nattier)]]
#### The de Mailly-Nesle sisters
Louis had been very much in love with the Queen, and they were inseparable in the early years of his reign, but as his family grew, and the Queen was constantly pregnant or exhausted by her maternities, he began to look elsewhere. He first became attached to one of the ladies of the Queen's court, [Julie de Mailly](Louise)(Louise Julie de Mailly), who was the same age as he and from an ancient noble family. Without courtship or ceremony, he made her his mistress, and raised her to the rank of Duchess. The [of Luynes](Duke)(Charles Philippe d'Albert de Luynes) commented on the King's behavior: "The King loves women, and yet there is absolutely no gallantry in his spirit."Antoine (1993), p. 485. In 1738, after the Queen lost an unborn child, her doctors forbade her to have relations with the King for a time. The King was offended by her refusal and thereafter never shared her bed. Acknowledging that he was committing adultery, Louis refused thereafter to go to confession and to take the sacrament. The Cardinal de Fleury tried to persuade him to confess and to give up his mistress, but without success.
In 1738, the King turned his attentions to the sister of Louise Julie, [Félicité de Mailly](Pauline)(Pauline Félicité de Mailly-Nesle). Pauline-Félicité became pregnant in 1740, allegedly by the King, and subsequently died during childbirth. (The illegitimate son of the King and Pauline Félicité came to be known as ["Demi-Louis"](Charles de Vintimille) due to his visual resemblance to his father who took care of his financial needs but gave him little attention.)"But the king chose that the child should be baptized as the son of M. de Vintimille, and it was so done by his express order. The Archbishop of Paris and the Marquis du Luc, uncle and father of M. de Yintimille came, as good politicians, to see the mother and acknowledge the child":R.-L. de Voyer de Paulmy d'Argenson, *Journal and Memoirs*, by E. J. B. Rathery. with an introduction by C.-A. Sainte-Beuve. trad. K. Prescott Wormerly, Boston 1902, 1., p. 284. Pauline-Félicité's death caused the King to go into mourning and for a time he turned to religion for consolation.Antoine (1993), p. 485. When the King finally recovered his spirits, Louise Julie introduced the King to her youngest sister, [Anne de Mailly](Marie)(Marie Anne de Mailly). The King was immediately attracted to Marie Anne, however she insisted that he expel her older sister from the Court before she would become his mistress. The King gave in, and on 4 October 1742, Marie Anne was named a Lady of the Court of the Queen, and a month later the King ordered her older sister to leave the Court and to live in Paris. The King made his new mistress the Duchess of Châteauroux. The King's relationships with the sisters became a subject of gossip in the court and in Paris, where a popular comic poem was recited, ending: "Choosing an entire family – is that being unfaithful, or constant?"Antoine (1993), p. 490.
In June 1744, the King left Versailles in order to take personal command of his armies fighting in the War of the Austrian Succession. This otherwise popular move was marred by the King's indiscreet decision to bring along Marie Anne. When Marie Anne visited the King in [Metz](Metz) in August 1744 she was accompanied by her sister [Adélaïde de Mailly](Diane)(Diane Adélaïde de Mailly-Nesle). While an amiable companion, Marie Anne did not consider her simple sister to be much of a rival, however it was rumored at the time that one of the methods by which Marie Anne kept the interest of the king was to periodically offer him a [à trois](ménage)(ménage à trois) with Diane Adélaïde.Herman, Eleanor (2005). *Sex With Kings* p. 116 These widespread rumors made the sisters' visit to the King in Metz a national scandal and during their notorious visit the King suddenly fell gravely ill. Death appeared imminent, yet the King's chaplain refused him [absolution](absolution) unless he renounced his mistress, which he did.Latour (1927). Marie Anne left The Court and after the King recovered he made a triumphal entry into Paris. On 25 November, Minister Maurepas was obliged to recall Marie Anne to Versailles, but she soon fell sick with convulsive pains and died on 8 December 1744. Following her death the King consoled himself with Diane Adélaïde until he met [de Pompadour](Madame)(Madame de Pompadour) in 1745.
The King's adultery confession, which was distributed publicly, embarrassed him and tarnished the prestige of the monarchy. Although Louis XV's recovery earned him the epithet "well-beloved" from a public relieved by his survival, the events at Metz diminished his standing. The military successes of the War of the Austrian Succession inclined the French public to overlook Louis' adulteries, but after 1748, in the wake of the anger over the terms of the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, pamphlets against the king's mistresses were widely distributed and read.
### Second mistress
#### Madame de Pompadour
[[Marquise de Pompadour 1756 detail.jpg|thumb|right|Madame de Pompadour](File:Boucher)]
[Poisson](Jeanne-Antoinette)(Madame de Pompadour), better known as Madame de Pompadour, was the most famous and influential of the mistresses of Louis XV. She was the illegitimate daughter of a Paris *[fermier-general](Ferme générale)*, and was married to a banker, [Guillaume Lenormant d'Étoiles](Charles)(Charles Guillaume Le Normant d'Étiolles). She was noticed by the King following one of his hunts, and formally met him at a [ball](costume)(costume ball) celebrating [carnival](carnival) in 1745. By July, she was the King's mistress and was formally given the title of the Marquise de Pompadour. For the next twenty years, she was the King's confidante and advisor, helping him choose or demote ministers. Her opinions led to the downfall of some very competent ministers, including [d'Aurnouville](Machault)(Jean-Baptiste de Machault d'Arnouville) and the [d'Argenson](Marquis)(René Louis de Voyer de Paulmy d'Argenson), and to the promotion of a number of incompetent military commanders. Her most successful choice was the promotion of the [de Choiseul](Duke)(Étienne François, duc de Choiseul), who became one of the King's most effective ministers. She ceased to be sexually active with the King in 1750, but remained his closest advisor and [mistress](titular)(Maîtresse-en-titre). She was promoted to Duchess in 1752, and Dame of the Queen's Palace in 1756, and was an important patron of music and the arts, as well as religious establishments. She remained close to the King until her death in 1764. He was devastated, and remained in seclusion for several weeks after she died.Guéganic (2008), p. 66.
### Debut of the Seven Years' War
The peace achieved by Louis with the [of Aix-la-Chapelle](Treaty)(Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle (1748)) lasted only seven years. At the end of August 1755, [Therese](Marie)(Marie-Therese of Austria), the Empress of Austria, discreetly wrote a letter to Louis XV, which was passed by the Austrian ambassador in Paris to Madame de Pompadour for delivery to the King. She proposed a secret alliance between Austria and France, to meet the threats of the growing power of Prussia, which was still formally an ally of France, and Britain.Bluche (2003), p. 100.
[[File:Nouvelle-France map-en.svg|thumb|left|300px|Map of [France](New)(New France) (blue color) in 1750, before the [and Indian War](French)(French and Indian War) (1754 to 1763), that was part of the Seven Years' War.]]
In the New World, conflict had already begun between Britain and France. The French colonies were at an enormous demographic disadvantage; there were less than 70,000 French colonists spread over a territory from the [Lawrence River](St.)(St. Lawrence River) to the [Lakes](Great)(Great Lakes) extending down the Ohio and Mississippi River valleys down to [Louisiana](Louisiana (New France)) (named for Louis's grandfather, Louis XIV); compared with 300,000 in the British colonies. To defend its territories, France had constructed [Duquesne](Fort)(Fort Duquesne) to defend their frontier against the indigenous Americans; Britain sent the young [Washington](George)(George Washington) with a small force to construct his own fortification, [Necessity](Fort)(Fort Necessity), nearby. In 1754, after the killing of French envoy, [Coulon de Jumonville](Joseph)(Joseph Coulon de Jumonville), the French sent reinforcements and compelled Washington and his men to withdraw.Bluche (2003), pp. 104–105.
The undeclared [and Indian War](French)(French and Indian War) followed, with Britain treating the French colonies as an enemy. In 1755, the British seized 300 French merchant ships. In January 1756, Louis sent an ultimatum to London, which was rejected by the British government. A few months later, on 16 January 1756, [the Great](Frederick)(Frederick the Great) of Prussia signed the [of Westminster](Treaty)(Anglo-Prussian alliance (1756)#Treaty), allying himself with Britain. Louis responded immediately on 1 May 1756 by sealing a formal defensive treaty with Austria, the first [of Versailles](Treaty)(Treaty of Versailles (1756)), offering to defend Austria in case of a Prussian attack. This was a complete reversal of France's historic conflict with Austria, which had been underway for nearly two hundred years, and it was shocking to many in the French Court.Bluche (2003), p. 101–102.
Louis declared war on Great Britain on 9 June 1756, and success seemed certain. A French fleet in the Mediterranean defeated the British at the [of Minorca of 1756](Battle)(Battle of Minorca (1756)), and captured that island. The French army greatly outnumbered the British and Prussians on the continent. The French army won the surrender of the British forces of the [of Cumberland](Duke)(Prince William, Duke of Cumberland) in the [of Klosterzeven](Convention)(Convention of Klosterzeven). Another French army invaded [Saxony](Saxony) and [Hanover](Hanover), the ancestral home of King George II. However, the best French commander, [de Saxe](Maurice)(Maurice de Saxe), had died two years after the [of the Austrian Succession](War)(War of the Austrian Succession), and the new French commanders, [Prince of Soubise](Charles,)(Charles, Prince of Soubise), [Duke D'Estrees](the)(Louis Charles César Le Tellier) and the [de Broglie](Duke)(Victor-François, 2nd duc de Broglie) detested each other, and were rarely willing to cooperate.Bluche (2003), p. 109.
[[File:Schlacht bei Roßbach.jpg|[the Great](Frederick)(Frederick the Great) defeats the French army at the [of Rossbach](Battle)(Battle of Rossbach) (5 November 1755)|thumb]]
In August Frederick of Prussia made a lightning strike into Saxony and on 5 November 1757, though outnumbered by the French nearly two to one, decisively defeated the army of the Prince de Soubise at the [of Rossbach](Battle)(Battle of Rossbach). The new British Prime Minister, [Pitt](William)(William Pitt, 1st Earl of Chatham), named a new commander, [Ferdinand of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel](Duke)(Duke Ferdinand of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel), and the French armies were gradually pushed back to the Rhine, and defeated again at the [of Krefeld](Battle)(Battle of Krefeld) on 23 June. Thereafter, Britain and Prussia held the upper hand, tying down the French army in the German states along the Rhine.Bluche (2003), p. 110.
[[File:Quibcardinaux2.jpg|left|The British victory at the [of Quiberon Bay](Battle)(Battle of Quiberon Bay) (20 November 1759) ended Louis's hopes of invading England|thumb]]
British naval supremacy prevented France from reinforcing its colonies overseas, and British naval squadrons raided the French coast at [Cancale](Cancale) and [Havre](Le)(Le Havre) and landed on the Ile d'Aix and Le Havre. In 1759 the British seized [Martinique](Martinique) and [Guadeloupe](Guadeloupe) in the West Indies, and captured [Louis](Port)(Port Louis) and [Quebec](Quebec). A series of naval defeats forced Louis to abandon plans for [of Britain](invasion)(Planned French Invasion of Britain (1759)). In India, the French colony at [Pondicherry](Pondicherry) was surrounded by the British, and surrendered the following year. On 8 September 1760, [Montreal](Montreal) surrendered, bringing to an end French rule in Canada. Martinique fell to the British in 1762.Bluche (2003), p. 244.
### Assassination attempt
[[File:Robert-damiens.jpg|thumb|right|150px|Robert-François Damiens, by [Gabriel](Ange-Jacques)(Ange-Jacques Gabriel) (1757)]]
On 5 January 1757, as the King was getting into his carriage in the courtyard of the [Trianon](Grand)(Grand Trianon) Versailles, a demented man, [Damiens](Robert-François)(Robert-François Damiens), pushed through the King's guards and attacked the King, stabbing him in the side with a small knife. The King's guards seized Damiens, and the King ordered them to hold him but not harm him. The King walked up the steps to his rooms at the Trianon, where he found he was bleeding profusely. He summoned his doctor and a priest, and then fainted.Antoine (1986), pp. 712–713. Louis was saved from greater harm by the thickness of the winter clothing he was wearing. When the news reached Paris, anxious crowds gathered in the streets. The Pope, the Empress of Austria, and King George II, with whom France was at war, sent messages hoping for his swift recovery. Damiens was tortured to see if he had accomplices, and was tried before the [of Paris](Parlement)(Parlement), which had been the most vocal critic of the King. The Parlement demonstrated its loyalty to the King by sentencing Damiens to the most severe possible penalty. On 28–29 March 1757 Damiens was executed on the [de Grève](Place)(Place de Grève) in Paris by drawing and quartering, following which his body was burned on a bonfire. The house where he was born was burned down, his father, wife and daughter were banished from France, and his brothers and sisters were required to change their name.Antoine (1997), pp. 718–721.Jones (2002), p. 230. The King recovered physically very quickly, but the attack had a depressive effect on his spirits. One of his chief courtiers, Duford de Cheverny, wrote afterwards: "it was easy to see that when members of the court congratulated him on his recovery, he replied, 'yes, the body is going well', but touched his head and said, 'but this goes badly, and this is impossible to heal.'" After the assassination attempt, the King invited his heir, the Dauphin, to attend all of the Royal Council meetings, and quietly closed down the château at Versailles where he had met with his short-term mistresses."Antoine (1997), pp. 718–721.
### Rebellion of the Parlements
The *Parlements* were assemblies of nobles in Paris and older regions of France, whose members served as magistrates and judged civil cases. Their members included both hereditary nobles and wealthy citizens who had purchased their seats. Several of the Parlements, such as those of Rouen and Provence, had been in existence for centuries, and saw themselves as the legitimate governments in their provinces. As Louis reorganized the government and appointed his own [intendants](Intendant (government official)) in the provinces, the authority and prestige of the Parlements decreased, and the price of the seats dropped. In [Franche-Comté](Franche-Comté), [Bordelaise](Bordelaise) and [Rouen](Rouen), the Parlements refused to follow the decrees of the royal intendants. When the intendants attempted to assert their authority and collect taxes from all classes, the Parlements went on strike, refusing to proceed with the judgment of civil cases. The civil justice system came to a halt. In 1761, the provincial *Parlement* of Normandy in Rouen wrote a protest to the King, explaining that the King had the exclusive power to tax, but the Parlement had the exclusive right to collect the money. The King rejected the explanation and overruled the *Parlement*, banished some of his most provocative Parlement members to their estates. For the rest of his reign, the Parlements swore allegiance to the King, but took every opportunity to resist his new taxes and the King's authority. This was one of the seeds of resistance to the King's authority that was to turn into a Revolution less than thirty years later.Bluche (2003)
### Achievements and dismissal of the government
The Comte d'Argenson served as the Minister of War from 1743 until 1747. He was an advocate of the continuation of the absolute monarchy in the style of Louis XIV. He was responsible for creating the first school for engineers in France at Mézières (1749–50); thanks to the trained engineers, France had the finest system of roads and bridges in Europe. He also established the military academy, the [Militaire](École)(École Militaire), and, following the model of the Prussians, established military training camps and exercises, and helped rebuild French military power.Guéganic (2008), pp. 44–45.
Machaud D'Arnouville was brought into the government with the sponsorship of d'Argenson, but the two men gradually became rivals and enemies. D'Arnouville was the Controller of Finances from 1745 to 1754, then Minister of Navy from 1754 to 1757. He was the creator of the unpopular "Vingtieme" tax (1749), which taxed all citizens, including the nobility, at the same rate, and also freed the prices of grain (1754), which initially greatly increased agricultural production. The fluctuation of grain prices would eventually become a factor in the French Revolution.Guéganic (2008), p. 45.
On 1 February 1757, the King abruptly dismissed both d'Arnouville and d'Argenson, and exiled them to their estates. The King held them responsible for not preventing the assassination attempt, and their government displeased Madame de Pompadour.
## Government of the Duke de Choiseul (1758–1770)
[[File:Étienne-François de Choiseul.jpg|thumb|[de Choiseul](Étienne-François)(Étienne-François de Choiseul)]]
Louis named the Duke de Choiseul as his minister of foreign affairs on 3 December 1758, following the recommendation of Madame de Pompadour. In 1763, he became Minister of War, giving the role of minister of foreign affairs to his cousin, the [de Praslin](Duc)(César Gabriel de Choiseul). A few months later, he also became the Minister of the Navy, and became the most influential and powerful member of the government. In the council and circles of government, he was the leader of the *philosophe* faction, which included Madame de Pompadour, which sought to appease the Parlements and the Jansenists. On the diplomatic front, he negotiated a [Pact"]("Family)(Pacte de Famille) with the Bourbon monarch of Spain (1761); negotiated the [of Paris](Treaty)(Treaty of Paris (1761)) in 1761, and completed the integration of [Lorraine](Lorraine) into France (1766) upon the death of the King's father-in-law [I Leszczyński](Stanislaus)(Stanislaus I Leszczyński), Duke of Lorraine. He incorporated [Corsica](Corsica) into France (1768), and negotiated the marriage of his grandson, the future Louis XVI with [Antoinette](Marie)(Marie Antoinette) (1770).
His most notable accomplishment was the modernization of the French military, based on the lessons learned during the Seven Years' War. Under Choiseul, the government, rather than the officers, took the responsibility of training, giving uniforms, and training soldiers. The artillery was standardized, and new tactics, based on the Prussian model, were adopted and taught. The Navy in 1763 had been reduced to just 47 vessels and twenty frigates, three times smaller than the British Royal Navy fleet. He launched a major shipbuilding program to construct eighty vessels and forty-five new frigates, which would allow the French fleet, combined with the allied Spanish fleet, to outnumber the Royal Navy.Guéganic (2008), p. 40.
### Suppression of the Jesuits (1764)
[[XV in 1763|thumb|left](File:LouisXV-1.jpg|Louis)]
In 1764, at the urging of the Parlement, Madame de Pompadour and his foreign minister, the Duc de Chosieul, Louis decided upon the [of Jesuit Order](Suppression)(Suppression of the Society of Jesus) in France. The Jesuits in France numbered 3,500; they had 150 establishments in France, including 85 colleges, which were considered the best in France; their graduates included [Voltaire](Voltaire) and [Diderot](Diderot). The Confessor of the King, by a tradition dating back to Henry IV, was a Jesuit. Agitation against the Jesuits began in 1760 in the provincial Parlements, where the Gallicans, supporters of a specifically French version of Catholicism, were strong. The complaint against the Jesuits was that they were independent of the authority of the King and the hierarchy of the church in France. The Jesuits had already been expelled from Portugal and its colony of Brazil in 1759, because of conflicts with the government and church hierarchy there.Bluche (2003), pp. 123–125.
In France, the Parlements had taken the lead in attacking the Jesuits. On 12 February 1762, the Parlement of Rouen declared the Jesuits outside the law, forbid them to hold public positions or to teach, and demanded that they take an oath repudiating their beliefs. Between April and September 1762, the Parlements of Rennes, Bordeaux, Paris and Metz joined in the condemnation, followed in 1763 by Aix, Toulouse, Pau, Dijon and Grenoble. By the end of the year only the Parlements of Besançon, [Douai](Douai), and the governments of Colmar, Flanders, Alsace and Franche-Comté, plus the Duchy of Lorraine, run by the Queen's father, the former King Stanislaus, permitted the Jesuits to function.Antoine (1989), p. 788.
The campaign against the Jesuits divided the royal household; his son the Dauphin, his daughters and the Queen supported the Jesuits, while Madame de Pompadour, whose influence in the court was criticized by the Jesuits, wanted them gone. The indecisive King declared two years later that he had made the decision against his own feelings. The Jesuits departed, and were welcomed in Prussia and in Russia. The departure of the Jesuits weakened the church in France, and especially weakened the authority of the King, who, like a constitutional monarch, acted on behalf of the Parlements against his own beliefs.Viguerie (1995).
### Resistance from Parlements
Under the government of Choiseul, the Parlements of several French provinces continued to swear obedience to the King, while refusing to obey his *intendents* or to accept his new taxes. The Parlement of [Franche-Comté](Franche-Comté) in Besançon refused to collect the *vingtieme* tax imposed by the King to finance the war, claiming that only the Parlement could impose taxes. The King's government immediately dismissed the leaders of the Parlement and confined them to their residences. The Parlement of [Normandy](Normandy) immediately supported that of Besançon; it wrote a remonstrance to the King on 5 July 1760, declaring that the Parlements represented all classes: "One King, one law, one Parlement; the law of the kingdom is a sacred pact of your alliance with the French nation; it is a kind of contract which destines the King to reign and the people to obey. In truth, no one except God can compel you to obey this sacred pact… but we can ask you, with respect, with submission… to keep your promises." This was too much for the King. He responded on 31 January 1761 that the Parlement's complaint "contained principles so false and so contrary to my authority and with expressions so indecent, particularly in connection with my Chancellor who only explained to you my wishes… that I send your letter back to you."Antoine (1989), p. 758. The Parlement members of Besançon remained in exile.
The Parlement of Bordeaux went even further in its resistance to the royal government; in 1757 it brought accusations of corruption against the members of the government of the city of [Bergerac](Bergerac, Dordogne), named by the Royal Council of the King. When the Royal Council blocked the pursuits of the Parlement, the Parlement wrote a protest to the King, declaring, "Sire, your Parlement cannot recognize any intermediate power between it and your person; no, your Council has over the Parlement no authority, superiority, or jurisdiction."Antoine (1989), p. 758.
### Finances and the brief ministry of Silhouette
The prolonged war drained the treasury of the Kingdom; France paid not only for its own army, but subsidized the armies of its allies; in 1759 France paid 19 million livres to its allies, an amount which Choiseul reduced by one-third in 1761.Antoine (1989), p. 790. His new finance minister, [de Silhouette](Étienne)(Étienne de Silhouette) imposed new taxes aimed at the wealthy; taxes on horses, carriages, silk, paintings, coffee and furs, and other luxury goods. The new taxes were extremely unpopular with the aristocracy and wealthy; Silhouette was dismissed after eight months, and his name became the common expression for paper cutouts made from a shadow, which, like his ministry, lasted only a moment.Antoine (1989), p. 791. The King announced that he was giving his silver service to the mint, to be melted down and made into money.Antoine (1989), p. 791.
The new Controller of Finances, [Bertin](Henri)(Henri Bertin), a protege of Madame de Pompadour named on 23 November 1759, reduced the luxury taxes of his predecessor, and instead proposed a broadening of the tax base to include those classes which had long been excluded, and a new survey of the wealth of the nobility. Once again the Parliaments rebelled. When the Lieutenant General of Normandy appeared before the Parliament to register the decree, it refused to register or collect the new taxes. The same scene was reproduced in the other Parlements. Once again the King yielded to Madame de Pomapdour and her allies; the new decrees were withdrawn, Bertin was moved to a different position, the tax rolls were not enlarged, and no new taxes were collected; the debt remained.Antoine (1989), pp. 799–801
### Diplomacy – end of the Seven Years' War
The war with Great Britain continued, despite the death of King [II](George)(George II of Great Britain) on 25 October 1760; the British Prime Minister [Pitt](William)(William Pitt, 1st Earl of Chatham) rejected French proposals for suggestions for negotiations. On 15 August 1761, France, Spain, Naples and Parma, all ruled by monarchs of the Bourbon family, signed the first "Family Pact" with a system of reciprocal guarantees of support if one or the other were attacked. At the same time, they signed a secret treaty with [III of Spain](Charles)(Charles III of Spain) engaging Spain to declare war on Great Britain if the war was not over by May 1762. Learning of this pact, William Pitt wanted to declare an immediate war on Spain, but the new British King, George III, rejected the idea. The military forces of Frederick the Great in Prussia had been nearly exhausted in the long war against the combined forces of Austria and Russia; but Frederick was saved by the sudden death of the Tsarina Elizabeth in 1762, and her replacement by [III of Russia](Peter)(Peter III of Russia), a fervent admirer of the Prussian King.
Choiseul had taken over direction of the French navy as well as the army in October 1761, and he pressed for an offensive to bring the war to a successful end. He persuaded the Parlements and the chambers of commerce of the major French cities to sponsor the construction of warships, and rebuilt the French Navy. The French army launched a new offensive against the Prussians and Spain, as promised by its agreement with France, launched an [in Portugal](invasion)(Fantastic War), an ally of Britain. However, once again the French initiatives were not enough. The French offensive in Hesse-Kassel was defeated by the Prussians, the Spanish army in Portugal made little progress, and the British took the opportunity to land on [Martinique](Martinique) and to invade Spain's colony [Cuba](Cuba). Choiseul decided it was time to end the war. The preliminary negotiations opened at the [of Fontainebleau](Palace)(Palace of Fontainebleau) on 3 November 1762, and ended hostilities between Great Britain, France and Spain. The final treaty was signed in Paris on 10 February 1763. As a result of the War, France gave up its minor possessions in the West Indies; [Galante](Marie)(Marie Galante), [Tobago](Tobago) and La Desiderade, but received back [Guadeloupe](Guadeloupe), [Martinique](Martinique), and [Lucia](Santa)(Saint Lucia), which, because of their sugar plantations, were considered of more value than all of its territories in Canada; France kept only the Iles of [Pierre and Miquelon](Saint)(Saint Pierre and Miquelon). The valley of the Ohio, and the territories along the west bank of the Mississippi River were ceded to Spain. Louis formally ratified the treaty on 23 February, on the same day that his statue was unveiled on the Place Louis XV (today the [de la Concorde](Place)(Place de la Concorde))Antoine (1989), pp 808–809.
### Deaths of mistress, son and wife
[[Drouais - Madame de Pompadour - WGA6694.jpg|Madame de Pompadour by François-Hubert Drouais (1763–64)|thumb](File:François-Hubert)]
The winter of 1763–64 was particularly harsh; Madame de Pompadour contracted pneumonia, and died on 15 April. The King was deeply affected, but, strictly observing court protocol, he did not attend her funeral, because she was too far below his rank, and, though mourning, carried on court business as usual. Maneuvering immediately began within the court to replace Madame de Pompadour; a leading candidate was [Duchess of Gramont](the)(Béatrix de Choiseul-Stainville), the sister of Choiseul, but the King showed no interest in a new mistress, and in February 1765 he closed down the Parc-aux-Cerfs, where he had previously met his *petites maitresses*.Antoine (1989), p. 824.
The resistance of the Parlements to the King's authority continued. The Parlements of the provinces began to quarrel with the Parlement of Paris over which more truly represented the nation. In March 1764, the Parlement of [Navarre](Kingdom of Navarre#Independent Navarre north of the Pyrenees) in [Pau](Pau, Pyrénées-Atlantiques), the smallest province, refused to accept the taxation authority of the Grand Council of the King. This time the King took action, arresting and replacing the President and leading officers of the Parlement, and replacing them with officers loyal to the King. The Parlements of Toulouse, Besançon and Rouen protested, but the King persisted. In 1765 the Parlement of Brittany in Rennes denied the authority of the King's officers to impose taxes without its permission, and went on strike. The King summoned the Parlement to Versailles, where he had his lecture read to them. This had little effect; when the King had his decree to the Parlement posted on the walls of Rennes, the Parlement ordered that the posters with the King's proclamation be taken down. The King issued letters of cachet that forbade the Parlement members to leave Rennes, but the judicial system remained on strike.Antoine (1989), p. 824.
The end of 1765 brought another personal tragedy; his son and heir Louis contracted [tuberculosis](tuberculosis). He travelled with the King to the Palace of Fontainebleau. The King distracted himself by secluding himself with the astronomer [Cassini de Thury](César-François)(César-François Cassini de Thury) and making astronomic calculations, while the doctors tried, without success, to treat his son. The Dauphin died on 20 December 1765. The succession was assured, since the Dauphin had a son, the future Louis XVI, who was of age to rule, but the death put him into a deep depression. He drafted his own will, writing: "If I made errors, it was not from a lack of will, but from a lack of talents, and for not having been supported as I wished to have been, particularly in matters of religion."Antoine (1989), p. 842.
The Queen, who was deeply affected by the death of the Dauphin in 1765, followed by the death of her father in 1766 and, finally, that of her daughter-in-law, died on 24 June 1768.Guéganic (2008), p. 62.
### "Flagellation" of the Parlement
In January 1766, while the King was still mourning the death of the Dauphin, the Parlement of Brittany issued another rejection of the King's authority to collect taxes. When he ignored it, both the Parlement of Rennes and the Parlement of Rouen wrote him again, complaining that he was ignoring "the oath that you took to the nation when accepting the crown." When this part of the letter was read to the King, he interrupted the reading and declared that this accusation was false; he had taken an oath to God alone, not to the nation. On 3 March 1766, with only a few hours notice, he traveled in person from Versailles to the meeting of the Parlement of Paris at the [de la Cité](Palais)(Palais de la Cité) and appeared before the members. In his message, read to them by one of his ministers, he declared, "It is in my person alone that sovereign power resides...To me alone belongs the legislative power, without dependence and without sharing...The public order emanates entirely from me...Confusion and anarchy are taking the place of legitimate order, and the scandalous spectacle of a contradictory rivaling my sovereign power reduces me to the sad necessity to use all the power that I received from God to preserve my peoples from the sad consequences of these enterprises."Bluche (2003), p. 169. The speech, immediately termed "the flagellation", was published in official press, and circulated to all levels of government. It became his political testament. The conflict between the Parlements and King was muted for a time, but not resolved.Antoine (1989), p. 853.
### Third mistress
#### Madame du Barry
[[File:madame du barry.jpg|[du Barry](Madame)(Madame du Barry), by [Drouais](François-Hubert)(François-Hubert Drouais) ()|thumb]]
After the death of the Madame de Pompadour, several women in the court sought to replace her, including [Duchess of Gramont](the)(Béatrix de Choiseul-Stainville), the sister of the Duke of Choiseul, the King's chief minister. However, the King's favor turned to [Bécu, the comtesse du Barry](Jeanne)(Madame du Barry). She was thirty-three years younger than the King. She was the illegitimate daughter of Anne Bécu, a seamstress.Haslip (1992). She was raised by the Dames de Sacre-Coeur, and had various jobs as a shop assistant and designer of dresses before she became the mistress of Jean du Barry, the brother of a count. She began to hold a salon, which attracted writers and aristocrats. Since Jean du Barry was already married, to give her legitimacy he arranged for her to become engaged to his brother, Comte Guillaume du Barry, a retired soldier. They were married on 1 September 1768, and then, without consummating the marriage, Guillaume retired to his home in Languedoc.Antoine (1989), pp. 886–887. Through her acquaintances with the nobility, she was invited to Versailles, where the King saw her and was immediately attracted to her. He invited her to [Fontainebleau](Palace of Fontainebleau), and then asked her to live in the Palace of Versailles. Her appearance at the Court scandalized the Duke de Choiseul, but pleased the enemies of the Duke within the Court.
For du Barry to be presented at Court, she had to be formally presented by a member of the nobility. The elderly Contesse de Béarn was persuaded to make the presentation for a large fee, and she was presented on 22 April 1769. None of the ladies of the Court attended, and Choiseul himself, to show his displeasure, hosted a large reception the following day, which all the Court, except du Barry, attended.Antoine (1989), pp. 886–887.
The King soon installed her in the Palace of Versailles, and in 1771 gave her the new Pavillon de Louveciennes. Choiseul sowed a strong dislike for du Barry, as did [Antoinette](Marie)(Marie Antoinette), who arrived in Versailles and married the Dauphin on 16 May 1770. She described the Comtesse as "the most stupid and impertinent creature imaginable". However, the King kept du Barry close to him until the final days before his death, when he sent her away before he made confession. The presence of du Barry at the court scandalized the high members of the aristocracy. Outside the Court, the opponents of the King in the Parlements used her presence to ridicule and attack the King. She was the target of dozens of scandalous pamphlets accusing her of every possible immoral act.Antoine (1989), pp. 886–887. Decades later, during the [of Terror](Reign)(Reign of Terror) of the French Revolution, the Comtesse was targeted by the [Jacobins](Jacobins) as a symbol of the hated old regime; she was guillotined on 8 December 1793.Guéganic (2008), p. 62.
### France enlarged: Lorraine and Corsica
The borders of France were enlarged for the last time before the Revolution by two additions; the Duchy of [Lorraine](Lorraine), ruled by the King's father-in-law, Stanislaus, reverted to France after his death, and was officially joined to the kingdom 27–28 March 1766. The acquisition of Corsica was more complicated. The island formally belonged to the [of Genoa](Republic)(Republic of Genoa), but an independent [of Corsica](Republic)(Republic of Corsica) had been proclaimed in 1755 by [Paoli](Pasquale)(Pasquale Paoli), and the rebels controlled most of the island. The Republic of Genoa did not have the military forces to conquer the island, and permitted Louis to send French troops to occupy the ports and major cities, to keep the island from falling into British hands. When the war ended, the island was formally granted to France by [of Versailles](Treaty)(Treaty of Versailles (1768)) on 19 May 1768. Louis sent the army to subdue the Corsican rebels; the army on the island eventually numbered twenty-seven thousand soldiers. In May 1769 the Corsican rebels were defeated at the [of Ponte Novu](Battle)(Battle of Ponte Novu), and Paoli took refuge in England. In 1770 the island formally became a Province of France.Bluche (2003), pp. 249.
### Commerce, agriculture and the "Starvation Pact" rumor
[[File:Quesnay Portrait.jpg|[Quesnay](François)(François Quesnay), physician and free-market economist|thumb]]
Two men had an enormous influence on the economic policies of the King. [Quesnay](François)(François Quesnay) was the best-known economist in France. He was the King's doctor, and treated Madame de Pompadour, but was also a celebrated economic theorist, whose collected writings, "Tableau Économique" (1758), were avidly read by the King and his Court: Louis referred to him as "my thinker." His students included the [de Mirabeau](Marquis)(Victor de Riqueti, marquis de Mirabeau) and [Smith](Adam)(Adam Smith). He was a critic of government regulation, and coined the term "bureaucracy" (literally, "A government of desks"). The other was his disciple, the Minister of the Commerce of the King, [Claude Marie Vincent de Gournay](Jacques)(Jacques Claude Marie Vincent de Gournay). The two men advocated removing as many restrictions as possible from the economy, to encourage greater production and trade. De Gournay's famous expression, *laissez faire, laissez passer* ("it be done, let it pass") was later adopted as the slogan of [whole school of free market economics](a)(Laissez-faire).Antoine (1989), p. 867.
De Gournay and Quesnay proposed in particular the liberalization of agricultural markets, which were strictly controlled, to encourage greater production, competition and lower prices. Following the doctrines of Quesnay and de Gournay, Louis's controller of finances, [Bertin](Henri)(Henri Léonard Jean Baptiste Bertin), created a new Society of Agriculture and an Agricultural Committee within the government, comparable to those existing to support commerce. In May 1763, Bertin issued a decree permitting the tax-free circulation of grain. In August 1764, Bertin permitted the export of grain from twenty-seven French ports, later expanded to thirty-six. At the same time he established a large zone around Paris, where grain was reserved exclusively for feeding the Parisians, and established a cap on the grain price, which, if it was passed, would cause the exports to cease.Antoine (1989), p. 868.
The policy of freeing grain prices was effective in good years, and resulted in increased trade and lower prices, but during years with poor harvests; 1766, 1767 and 1768, prices went up. Most of the Parlements, in regions which produced grain, supported the policy, but others, including Paris and Rouen, were highly critical. In those cities rumors began to circulate of a mythical "Starvation Pact", a supposed plot by the government to deliberately starve and eliminate the poor. These rumors eventually became one of the factors that provoked the French Revolution.Antoine (1989), pp. 867-869.
### Preparations for a new war with Great Britain
The Duc de Choiseul devoted all of his considerable energy and talents to preparing a new war against Britain. In 1764, in a former Jesuit school he had closed, he created a new military preparatory school, to prepare students for the recently founded Military Academy. In 1769 he raised the Naval school to the level of a royal academy, to train officers for his new fleet. In the same year he established a military engineering school. He provided the army with hundreds of new cannon, which would be used with great success decades later during the French Revolution and by Napoleon. Using the Prussian army as a model, he reformed French military doctrine, making the state and not the officers responsible for training and equipping soldiers. A large part of the French Navy had been sunk or captured by the British in the Seven Years' War. In addition to the existing naval arsenals in Toulon, Brest and Rochefort, he opened two more in Marseille (1762) and Lorient (1764). The arsenals began building new ships; by 1772 the Navy had sixty-six ships of the line, thirty-five frigates, and twenty-one new corvettes.Antoine (1989), p. 868. He and his allies in the government began planning for an invasion of England, and his government looked for new ways to challenge Great Britain. When the Duc de Broglie learned that the British were planning to tax the citizens of the British colonies in America, he wrote to the King: "It will be very curious to know what the result will be, and if their execution doesn't result in a Revolution in those states."Antoine (1989), p. 885.
Choiseul combined his military preparations for war with a diplomatic alliance, the [de Famille](Pacte)(Pacte de Famille) or Pact of the Family, which united with other countries ruled by Kings of the Bourbon dynasty; Spain, ruled by Louis's cousin [III of Spain](Charles)(Charles III of Spain), the [Naples](Kingdom of Naples) and [Tuscany](Grand Duchy of Tuscany). Choiseul was so entirely focused on Great Britain as his future enemy that he almost entirely neglected the rest of Europe. He had no accredited Ambassadors in Poland, Prussia or Russia during most of the period, and stood by while Russia imposed its own candidate for King of Poland, and when Turkey and Russia went to war in 1768–70.Antoine (1989), pp. 873–874.
### Dismissal of Choiseul
A new conflict between Great Britain and Spain over the remote [Islands](Falkland)(Falklands Crisis (1770)) in 1770 brought about Choiseul's downfall. The British had established a settlement in the islands, which were also claimed by Spain. In early 1770 the Spanish governor of Buenos Aires sent five warships full of troops to the islands, ordering the British to leave. The British prepared to depart. When the news reached London, the British government demanded that the Spanish leave. Both sides began to prepare for war.
The possibility of a new war came just as France was undergoing a new confrontation between the King's government and the Parlement of Brittany, which once again refused to recognize the power of the King's government to impose taxes. The King wrote immediately to his cousin, the King of Spain, who wrote back that Spain did not want a war. Louis replied, "Gentleness and patience have guided me to the present, but my parlements, pushing to limit, have forgotten themselves to the point of disputing the sovereign authority that we possess only from the will of God. I am resolved to make myself obeyed by all available means..." On 24 December, the King sent a short note to Choiseul dismissing him from his post and ordering him to return to his home in [Chanteloup](Château de Chanteloup) and to remain there. A similar note went to his cousin. Choiseul asked for two days to manage his affairs, but the King refused. Explaining the decision later to the Duke de Broglie, the King wrote, "The principles of the Choiseuls are too contrary to religion, and therefore to royal authority."Antoine (1989), p. 925.
## Government of Maupeou and the Triumvirate (1770–1774)
[[File:René-Augustin de Maupeou.PNG|[de Maupeou](René)(René Nicolas Charles Augustin de Maupeou), the Chancellor and last head of government under Louis XV|thumb]]
The King passed the leadership of the government to a triumvirate of three conservative ministers, led by his Chancellor, [de Maupeou](René)(René de Maupeou), who had been President of the Parlement from 1763 to 1768. Maupeou and two other conservative ministers, [Terray](Abbot)(Joseph Marie Terray) for finance and the [d'Aiguillon](Duc)(Emmanuel-Armand de Richelieu, duc d'Aiguillon) for foreign affairs and war, took charge of the government. They became known as "The Triumvirate".
### Suppression of the Parlements
The first priority of Maupeou was to bring the unruly Parlements under control, and to continue with his program for the modernization of the state. Most of the members of the Parlement of Paris were on a virtual strike, refusing to render justice or approve the King's decrees. On 21 January 1771, royal agents and musketeers arrived at the homes of each of the Parlement members, informing them that their positions were confiscated and ordering them to leave Paris and return to their home provinces, and not to leave them.Antoine (1989), pp. 930–931. This was followed in February by an even more radical measure: the regional Parlements were replaced as the high courts of civil justice by six new regional high councils, to judge serious criminal and civil cases. Another decree announced the abolition of the high fees demanded by the Parlements for resolving civil cases, which were the source of their members' income; civil justice was to be rendered without charge. The powers of the Parlement of Paris alone were largely unchanged. Without the provincial parliaments, the government was able enact new laws and taxes without opposition. However, after the King's death, the nobility demanded and received the restoration of the regional parlements.Antoine (1989), pp. 931–934.
### Finances
Abbot Terray was nominally a priest, though his government career was entirely secular, and his personal life was considered scandalous. He was an efficient and relentless tax collector; he opened a school to train tax inspectors, and worked to see that taxes were imposed and collected with the same precision and vigor in all regions, without interference from the local nobility. When he first took his position, the state had a budget deficit of 60 million livres, and a long-term debt of 100 million livres. By 1774, revenues had been increased by 60 million livres and the debt reduced to 20 million livres. He also reimposed the regulation of the price of grain, which had been freed in 1763 and 1764; these controls were an issue which would disturb the government and provoke agitation until the French Revolution.Antoine (1989), pp. 948–949.
### Foreign affairs
The foreign affairs post had been left vacant by Choiseul, who acted as his own foreign minister. Following the dismissal of Choiseul, the King encouraged his cousin and ally [III of Spain](Charles)(Charles III of Spain) to settle the crisis over the [Islands](Falkland)(Falkland Islands) with the aim of avoiding a war. Due to Choiseul's sole focus on a war with Britain, he had completely ignored the rest of Europe. France did not even have an ambassador in Vienna, and Russia and Prussia divided up an old French ally, Poland, without protest from France. Another ally of France, Sweden, also risked being divided between Russia and Prussia upon the death of its King in 1771. The Prince Royal, [III of Sweden](Gustav)(Gustav III of Sweden), was staying in Paris at the time. He had a long meeting with Louis XV, who promised to support him. With French funding, and assistance from Louis's personal secret intelligence service, the *[du Roi](Secret)(Secret du Roi)*, Gustave III returned to Stockholm. On 19 August 1772, at his command, the Swedish royal guard imprisoned the Swedish Senate, and two days later he was proclaimed King by the Diet. Russia and Prussia, occupied with the division of Poland, protested but did not intervene.Antoine (1989), pp. 954–955.
### Last years in Versailles
[[File:François-Hubert Drouais - Louis XV - 1773.jpg|Louis XV a year before his death (1773) by [Drouais](François-Hubert)(François-Hubert Drouais)|thumb]]
In the last years of his reign, the court of Versailles was a theater of manners. Marie Antoinette, a resident since her marriage, had difficulty disguising her dislike for the King's mistress, Madame du Barry. The King constructed a set of luxurious rooms for Madame du Barry on the floor above his offices; Madame du Barry also reigned in the [Trianon](Petit)(Petit Trianon), which the King had built for [de Pompadour](Madame)(Madame de Pompadour), and in the Pavillon de Louveciennes, also built for Madame de Pompadour. The Court was divided between those who welcomed Madame du Barry, and those of the older aristocracy, such as the Duc de Choiseul plus Marie Antoinette, who scorned her.Antoine (1989), pp. 962–963. The King continued his grand construction projects, including the opera theater of the [of Versailles](Palace)(Palace of Versailles), completed for the celebration of the wedding of the Dauphin and Marie Antoinette, and the new Place Louis XV (now [de la Concorde](Place)(Place de la Concorde)) in Paris, whose centerpiece was an equestrian statue of the King, modeled after that of Louis XIV on the [Vendôme](Place)(Place Vendôme).
### Death
On 26 April 1774, the King left for the Petit Trianon with Madame du Barry and several nobles from his entourage, and reported that he felt ill. He participated in the hunt the next day, but rode in his carriage instead of on horseback. That evening he was still feeling ill, and sent for the Court physician, Le Mariniére. At the surgeon's insistence, the King was brought back to the Palace of Versailles for treatment, along with Madame du Barry and the others. The King was attended by six physicians, six surgeons, each of whom took his pulse and gave his diagnosis. He was bled three times by the surgeons, without effect. When some red eruptions appeared on his skin, the doctors first diagnosed *petite variole*, or smallpox, which caused optimism, since the patient and doctors both believed he had already had the illness. The members of the family, particularly the Dauphin and Marie Antoinette, were asked to leave, since they had not already had the illness, and had no immunity. Madame du Barry remained with him. As the hours passed, the red eruptions of the disease grew worse, and the doctors began to fear for his life. On the morning of 1 May, the Archbishop of Paris arrived, but was kept out of the King's room to avoid alarming him. The King remained conscious and cheerful. However, on 3 May, he studied the eruptions on his hands, summoned the Archbishop, and announced, "I have the petite variole."Antoine (1989), p. 986. The Archbishop instructed him to prepare for the final rites. That night, the King summoned Madame du Barry, informed her of the diagnosis, and said, "We cannot recommence the scandal of Metz. If I had known what I know now, you would not have been admitted. I owe it to God and to my people. Therefore, you have to leave tomorrow."Antoine (1989), p. 986. On 7 May, he summoned his confessor and was given the final rites. The illness continued its course; one visitor on 9 May, the [de Croy](Duc)(Emmanuel de Croÿ-Solre), said the King's face resembled, with the darkening of the eruptions of the smallpox, "a mask of bronze". Louis died at 3:15 in the morning on 10 May 1774.Antoine (1989), p. 986.
## Personality
Several of his contemporaries who worked closely with him tried to describe the personality of Louis XV. The Duke de Croy wrote: "He had a memory, presence, and justness of spirit that was unique. He was gentle, an excellent father, and the most honest individual in the world. He was well informed in the sciences...but with a modesty which, with him, was almost a vice. He always saw more correctly than others, but he always believed he was wrong.... He had the greatest bravery, but a bravery that was too modest. He never dared to decide for himself, but always, out of modesty, turned for advice to others, even when he saw more accurately than they did...Louis XIV had been too proud, but Louis XV was not proud enough. Other than his excessive modesty, his great and sole vice was women; He believed that only his mistresses loved him enough to tell him the truth. For that reason he allowed them to lead him, which contributed to his failure with finance, which was the worse aspect of his reign."Bluche (2003), p. 136.
Others, like d'Argenson, his Minister of War commented on his extreme shyness and timidity; his inability to make conversation with others. The Duke of Luynes remarked that he often seemed to want to speak, but "his timidity stopped him and the expressions did not come; one felt that he wanted to say something obliging, but he often ended by simply asking a frivolous question."Antoine (1989), pp. 427–428.
Another characteristic remarked by contemporaries was his penchant for secrecy. "No one was a greater expert at dissimulation than the King", wrote d'Argenson. "He worked from morning to night to dissimulate; he did not say a word, make a gesture or demarche except to hide what he really wanted."Antoine (1989), p. 429.
"He was the most excellent of men", wrote another contemporary, Duffort de Cheverny, "but, in defiance of himself, he spoke about the affairs of state as if someone else was governing."Bluche (2003), p. 201.
## Legends: "After us the deluge" and the Parc-aux-Cerfs
The most famous remark attributed to Louis XV (or sometimes to Madame de Pompadour) is [nous, le déluge*](*Après)(Après nous le déluge) ("After us, the deluge"). It is commonly explained as his indifference to financial excesses, and a prediction of the French Revolution to come. The remark is usually taken out of its original context. It was made in 1757, a year which saw the crushing defeat of the French army by the Prussians at the [of Rossbach](Battle)(Battle of Rossbach) and the assassination attempt on the King. The "Deluge" the King referred to was not a revolution, but the arrival of [Comet](Halley's)(Halley's Comet), which was predicted to pass by the earth in 1757, and which was commonly blamed for having caused the flood described in the Bible, with predictions of a new deluge when it returned. The King was a proficient amateur astronomer, who collaborated with the best French astronomers. Biographer Michel Antoine wrote that the King's remark "was a manner of evoking, with his scientific culture and a good dose of black humor, this sinister year beginning with the assassination attempt by Damiens and ending with the Prussian victory". Halley's Comet finally passed the earth in April 1759, and caused enormous public attention and anxiety, but no floods.Antoine (1989), pp. 740–741.
Another popular legend concerned the [Maison-aux-Cerfs](Parc-aux-Cerfs), the house in Versailles where, when he was no longer having sexual relations with Madame de Pompadour, he sometimes slept with his *petites maitresses*, young women recruited for that purpose. Popular legends at the time described it as a kind of [harem](harem), organized by Madame de Pompadour, where a group of women were kidnapped and kept for the King's pleasure. The legend circulated widely in pamphlets with lurid illustrations, and made its way into some later biographies of the King. In reality it had only one occupant at a time, for brief periods. Madame de Pompadour herself accepted it as a preferable alternative to a rival at court, as she stated: "It is his heart I want! All these little girls with no education will not take it from me. I would not be so calm if I saw some pretty woman of the court or the capital trying to conquer it."Algrant, (2002), p. 159. In February 1765, after the death of Madame de Pompadour, it was closed.Antoine (1989), p. 824.
## Patron of architecture and arts
[[File:Petit Trianon.JPG|thumb|right|250px|The [Trianon](Petit)(Petit Trianon) by [Gabriel](Ange-Jacques)(Ange-Jacques Gabriel) (1764)]]
Louis was a major patron of architecture; he spent more money on buildings over the course of his reign than Louis XIV. His major architectural projects were the work of his favorite court architect, [Gabriel](Ange-Jacques)(Ange-Jacques Gabriel). They included the [Militaire](Ecole)(Ecole Militaire) (1751–1770); the Place Louis XV (now [de la Concorde](Place)(Place de la Concorde) (1763–83); the [Trianon](Petit)(Petit Trianon) at Versailles (1762–64), and the opera theater of the Palace of Versailles. Louis began construction of the Church of Saint-Geneviève, now the [Pantheon](Pantheon (Paris)) (1758–90). He also constructed monumental squares and surrounding buildings in the centers of [Nancy](Nancy, France), [Bordeaux](Bordeaux), and [Rennes](Rennes). His workshops produced fine furniture, porcelain, tapestries and other goods in the [XV Style](Louis)(Louis XV Style) which were exported to all the capital cities of Europe.Guéganic (2008), pp. 74–75.
The King, the Queen and her daughters were major patrons of music. The queen and her children played the [clavecin](clavecin), under the instruction of [Couperin](François)(François Couperin). The young [Mozart](Mozart) came to Paris and wrote two sonatas for clavecin and violin which he dedicated to Madame Victoire, the King's daughter.Bluche (2003), p. 126. [Leclair](Jean-Marie)(Jean-Marie Leclair) was appointed Director of the Music of the Chapel and the Apartments in 1733, Leclair resigned in 1736 following a dispute with another royal appointee [Guignon](Jean-Pierre)(Jean-Pierre Guignon). The most important musical figure of the reign was [Philippe Rameau](Jean)(Jean Philippe Rameau), who was the court composer through the 1740s and 1750s, and wrote more than thirty operas for Louis and his court.Guéganic (2008), pp. 78–79. The King himself, like his grandfather Louis XIV, was taught to dance ballet but danced only once in public, in 1725.
Louis XV, guided largely by [de Pompadour](Madame)(Madame de Pompadour), was the most important art patron of the period. He commissioned [Boucher](François)(François Boucher) to paint pastoral scenes for his apartments in Versailles, and gave him the title of First Painter of the King in 1765. Other artists patronized by the King included [Oudry](Jean-Baptiste)(Jean-Baptiste Oudry), [Quentin de la Tour](Maurice)(Maurice Quentin de la Tour), [Marc Nattier](Jean)(Jean Marc Nattier), and the sculptor [Bouchardon](Edme)(Edme Bouchardon). Bouchardon created the monumental statue of Louis XV on horseback which was the centerpiece of Place Louis XV until it was pulled down during the Revolution.Guéganic (2008), pp. 74–75.
## King and the Enlightenment
[[de Nicolas de Largillière, portrait de Voltaire, détail (musée Carnavalet) -002.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Voltaire (1724–25)](File:Atelier)]
The French philosophical movement later called the [Enlightenment](Age of Enlightenment) began and gathered force during the reign of Louis XV; in 1746 [Diderot](Diderot) published his *Pensées philosophiques*, followed in 1749 by his *Lettres sur les Aveugles* and the first volume of the *Encyclopédie*, in 1751. [Montesquieu](Montesquieu) published ''De l'esprit des Lois*, in 1748. [Voltaire](Voltaire) published *le Siecle de Louis XIV* and *l'Essai sur les moeurs et l'esprit des nations*, in 1756. [Rousseau](Rousseau) became known in 1750 by the publication of *Discours sur les sciences et les arts*, followed in 1755 by *Discours sur les origins et les fondaments de l'inégalité*. These were accompanied by new works on economics, finance, and commerce by [elder Mirabeau](the)(Victor de Riqueti, marquis de Mirabeau), [Quesnay](François)(François Quesnay) and other scientific thinkers which undermined all of the standard assumptions of royal government, economics and fiscal policy.Antoine (1989) pp. 567–568.
The censors of Louis XV at first permitted these publications; the first volume of the *Encyclopédie* received official permission because the government censors believed it was purely a collection of scientific articles. The project soon included a multitude of authors, including Rousseau, and had four thousand subscribers. Only later did the government and King himself take notice, after the church attacked the *Encylopédie* for questioning official church doctrines. The King personally removed Diderot from the list of those nominated for the Académie française, and in 1759 the *Encyclopédie* was formally banned.
Rousseau had a resounding success in 1756 with his opera *Devin du Village*, and was invited to Versailles to meet the King, but he refused. Instead, he wrote the *Contrat Social* calling for a new system based upon political and economic equality, published in 1762. Increasingly solitary and unstable, he wandered from province to province, before returning to Paris, where he died in solitude in 1778. His ideas, composed during the reign of Louis XV, were adopted by the revolutionaries who overthrew Louis XVI in 1789.Guéganic (2008), p. 84.
In the 1740s Voltaire was welcomed to the court as a playwright and poet, but his low rank as the son of a notary and the fact his father was also a Jansenist soon displeased the King and the Queen, and he was finally forced to depart Versailles. He went to Berlin, where he became a counselor to Frederick the Great, before living in Geneva and Savoy, far from Paris. On one issue in particular Voltaire took the side of Louis XV; when the King suppressed the *parlements'' of nobles, demanded that all classes be taxed equally, and removed the charges which plaintiffs had to pay in order to have their cases heard. He wrote: "Parlements of the King! You are charged with rendering justice to the people! Render justice upon yourselves!...There is in the entire world no judicial court which has ever tried to share the power of the sovereign." However, the King's lack of further reforms in his last years disappointed Voltaire. When the King died, Voltaire wrote of his reign, "Fifty-six years, consumed with fatigues and wanderings."Bluche (2003), p. 180.
## Legacy and historical judgements
[[File:French architects and sculptors of the XVIIIth century (1900) (14578206667).jpg|thumb|upright|Design by [Bouchardon](Edmé)(Edmé Bouchardon) for statue of the King on Place Louis XV]]
For much of his lifetime Louis XV was celebrated as a national hero. [Bouchardon](Edmé)(Edmé Bouchardon)'s equestrian statue of Louis was originally conceived to commemorate the monarch's victorious role in the War of the Austrian Succession. He portrayed the king as peacemaker. It was not unveiled until 1763, following France's defeat in the Seven Years' War. Designed as a symbol of loyalty to the king, Bouchardon's work was used by the Crown for a public relations event staged to restore public confidence in a monarchy in decline. It used art as propaganda on a grand scale. This statue was located on the *[Louis XV](Place)(Place de la Concorde)* and was torn down during the [Revolution](French Revolution).
French culture and influence were at their height in the first half of the eighteenth century, but most scholars agree that Louis XV's decisions damaged the power of France, weakened the treasury, discredited the absolute monarchy, and made it more vulnerable to distrust and destruction. Scholars point to the French Revolution, which broke out 15 years after his death.[Shennan](J. H. Shennan) (1995), pp. 44–45. Norman Davies characterized Louis XV's reign as "one of debilitating stagnation", characterized by lost wars, endless clashes between the Court and the [Parlement](Parlement)s, and religious feuds.Davies (1996), pp. 627–628. Jerome Blum described him as "a perpetual adolescent called to do a man's job."Blum (1970) et al, p. 454.
The view of many historians is that Louis was unequal to the high expectations of his subjects. Robert Harris wrote in 1987 that, "Historians have depicted this ruler as one of the weakest of the Bourbons, a do-nothing king who left affairs of state to ministers while indulging in his hobbies of hunting and womanizing."Robert D. Harris, "Review", *American Historical Review*, (1987) 92#2, p. 426, Harris added that ministers rose and fell according to his mistresses' opinions, seriously undermining the prestige of the monarchy.
Trends in 20th century French historiography, especially the [School](Annales)(Annales School), have deprecated biography and ignored the King. English historian William Doyle wrote:
Some scholars have ignored the king's own actions and turned instead to his image in the mind of the public. [Le Roy Ladurie](Emmanuel)(Emmanuel Le Roy Ladurie), the leader of the [School](Annales)(Annales School), noted that the king was handsome, athletic, intelligent and an excellent hunter, but that he disappointed the people. He did not keep up the practice of Mass and performing his religious obligations to the people. Le Roy Ladurie wrote that the people felt he had reduced the sacred nature of the monarchy, and thereby diminished himself.Le Roy Ladurie (1998), pp. 320–323.
According to Kenneth N. Jassie and Jeffrey Merrick, contemporary songs, poems, and public declarations typically portrayed a king as "master", unblemished "Christian", and benevolent provider ("baker"). Young Louis' failings were attributed to inexperience and manipulation by his handlers. Jassie and Merrick argued in 1994 that the king's troubles mounted steadily, and the people blamed and ridiculed his debauchery. The king ignored the famines and crises of the nation. The people reviled the king in popular protest, and finally celebrated his death. The monarchy survived—for a while—but Louis XV left his successor with a damaging legacy of popular discontent.Kenneth N. Jassie and Jeffrey Merrick, "We Don't Have a King: Popular Protest and the Image of the Illegitimate King in the Reign of Louis XV", *Consortium on Revolutionary Europe 1750–1850: Proceedings* 1994 23: 211–219.
Some sermons on his death in 1774 praised the monarch and went out of their way to excuse his faults. Jeffrey Merrick wrote in 1986, "But those ecclesiastics who not only raised their eyebrows over the sins of the Beloved but also expressed doubts about his policies reflected the corporate attitude of the First Estate more accurately." They prayed the new king would restore morality at court and better serve the will of God.Jeffrey Merrick, "Politics in the Pulpit: Ecclesiastical Discourse on the Death of Louis XV", *History of European Ideas* 1986 7(2): 149–160.
The financial strain imposed by the wars and excesses of the royal court, and the consequent dissatisfaction with the monarchy, contributed to the national unrest that culminated in the French Revolution of 1789. The historian [Jones](Colin)(Colin Jones (historian)) argued in 2011 that Louis XV left France with serious financial difficulties: "The military disasters of the Seven Years' War led to acute state financial crisis.".Colin Jones, "The Other Cheek", *History Today* (Nov 2011), 61#11 pp. 18–24. Ultimately, he wrote, Louis XV failed to overcome these fiscal problems, mainly because he was incapable of pulling together conflicting parties and interests in his entourage. Although aware of the forces of anti-monarchism threatening his family's rule, he did not do anything to stop them.Jones (2002) p, 124, 132–33, 147.
A few scholars have defended Louis, arguing that his highly negative reputation was based on propaganda meant to justify the French Revolution. Olivier Bernier in his 1984 biography argued that Louis was both popular and a leader in reforming France. During his 59-year reign, France was never threatened by conquest as no foreign army crossed its borders (though some of its overseas colonies were lost). He was known popularly as *Le Bien-aimé* (the well-beloved). Many of his subjects prayed for his recovery during his serious illness in Metz in 1744. His dismissal of the Parlement of Paris and his chief minister, Choiseul, in 1771, were attempts to wrest control of government from those Louis considered corrupt. He changed the tax code to try to balance the national budget. Bernier argued that these acts would have avoided the French Revolution, but his successor, Louis XVI, reversed his policies.Bernier (1984), pp. 218–252. Guy Chaussinand-Nogaret wrote that Louis XV's tarnished reputation was created fifteen years after his death, to justify the French Revolution, and that the nobility during his reign were competent.Chaussinard-Nogaret, Guy. *The French Nobility in the Eighteenth Century: From Feudalism to Enlightenment*, Cambridge, England. Cambridge University Press, 1985.
[H. Gombrich](E.)(E. H. Gombrich) wrote in 1935, "Louis XV and Louis XVI, the Sun King's [XIV](Louis) successors, were incompetent, and content merely to imitate their great predecessor's outward show of power. The pomp and magnificence remained....Finance ministers soon became expert swindlers, cheating and extorting on a grand scale. The peasants worked till they dropped and citizens were forced to pay huge taxes."
Jeffrey Merrick wrote in 1986 that Louis XV's weak and ineffective rule accelerated the general decline that culminated in the French Revolution in 1789. The king was a notorious womaniser; the monarch's virility was supposed to be another way in which his power was manifested. Nevertheless, Merrick wrote, popular faith in the monarchy was shaken by the scandals of Louis’ private life and by the end of his life he had become despised.Jeffrey Merrick, "Politics in the Pulpit: Ecclesiastical Discourse on the Death of Louis XV", *History of European Ideas* 1986, 7(2): 149–160.
Many historians agreed that in terms of culture and art, France reached a high point under Louis XV. However, he was blamed for the many diplomatic, military and economic reverses. His reign was marked by ministerial instability, while his "prestige was ruined by military failure and colonial losses", concluded Jean-Denis Lepage.
## Arms
|year_adopted = 1715–1774
|crest = The [crown of France](Royal)(French Crown Jewels)
|torse =
|helm = An opened gold helmet, with blue and gold mantling.
|escutcheon = *Azure, three fleurs-de-lis Or (for France) impaling Gules on a chain in cross saltire and orle Or an emerald Proper (for Navarre)*.
|supporters = The two supporters are two angels, acting as [herald](herald)s for the two realms. The dexter angel carries a standard with the arms of France, and wearing a [tabard](tabard) with the same arms. The sinister angel also carries a standard and wears a tabard, but that of Navarre. Both are standing on puffs of cloud.
|compartment =
|motto = The motto is written in gold on a blue ribbon: **[SAINT DENIS](MONTJOIE)(Montjoie Saint Denis!)** the war cry of France, [Denis](Saint)(Basilica of St Denis) was also the abbey where the [oriflamme](oriflamme) was kept.
|orders = The escutcheons are surrounded first by the chain of the [of Saint Michael](Order)(Order of Saint Michael) and by the chain of the [of the Holy Spirit](Order)(Order of the Holy Spirit), both were known as the *ordres du roi*.
|other_elements = Above all is a *pavilion armoyé* with the Royal crown. From it, is a royal blue mantle with a semis of fleurs-de-lis Or, lined on the inside with ermine.
|banner = Royal standard of the king
|symbolism =
|previous_versions =
}}
## Issue
*[Élisabeth](Louise)(Princess Louise-Elisabeth of France) (14 August 1727 – 6 December 1759), Duchess of Parma, had issue
*[Henriette](Anne)(Princess Henriette-Anne of France) (14 August 1727 – 10 February 1752)
*[Marie-Louise](Princess Louise of France) (28 July 1728 – 19 February 1733)
*[Dauphin of France](Louis,)(Louis, Dauphin of France (1729–1765)) (4 September 1729 – 20 December 1765), married to [Maria Teresa Rafaela of Spain](Infanta)(Infanta Maria Teresa Rafaela of Spain) and had issue, then married to [Marie-Josèphe of Saxony](Duchess)(Duchess Marie-Josèphe of Saxony) and had issue including [XVI](Louis)(Louis XVI)
*[of France, Duke of Anjou](Philippe)(Philippe, Duke of Anjou) (30 August 1730 – 17 April 1733)
*[Adélaïde](Marie)(Princess Marie Adélaïde of France) (23 March 1732 – 27 February 1800)
*[Louise Marie Thérèse](Victoire)(Princess Victoire of France) (11 May 1733 – 7 June 1799)
*[Philippine Élisabeth Justine](Sophie)(Sophie-Philippine of France) (27 July 1734 – 3 March 1782)
*[Thérèse Félicité](Marie)(Princess Thérèse of France) (16 May 1736 – 28 September 1744)
*[Marie](Louise)(Princess Louise-Marie of France) (15 July 1737 – 23 December 1787)
### Illegitimate issue
Louis XV had several illegitimate children, although the exact number is unknown. Historiography suggest the following as possible issue of the King:
*With [Félicité de Mailly](Pauline)(Pauline Félicité de Mailly) (1712 – 9 September 1741), by marriage *marquise de Vintimille*. She died after giving birth to a son:
**[Emmanuel Marie Magdelon de Vintimille](Charles)(Charles de Vintimille) (Versailles, 2 September 1741 – Saint-Germain-en-Laye, 24 February 1814), *marquis du Luc*. Recognized by his mother's husband, although was highly probable that his biological father was Louis XV, especially in adulthood, when he was called *Demi-Louis* ("Small Louis") for his exceptional resemblance with the King. He was appointed *[de camp](Maréchal)(Maréchal de camp)* and Governor of [Porquerolles](Porquerolles). Married to Adélaïde de Castellane on 26 November 1764, he fathered three children.
*With Jeanne Perray:
**[Florimond de Norville](Amélie)(Amélie Florimond de Norville) (Saint-Eustache, Paris, 11 January 1753 – 27 September 1790). Registered one day after her birth (12 January 1753) as a daughter of a certain bourgeois from Paris, called *Louis Florimond de Norville*, a non-existent person; the paternity of the King is suggested by later evidence.In front of the notary Mr. Arnoult, on 12 January 1772 was granted to Amélie de Norville a pension of 2,000 livres. *Aux Archives nationales, études XIV, 408, et XXXV, 728*. In her marriage contract dated 30 June 1780 was accorded a pension of 3,000 livres from the Royal Treasure to Amélie and her future children. After the Bourbon Restoration, this decision was confirmed on 4 December 1815. *Courcelles, Histoires généalogiques des Pairs de France, vol. 5, p. 52*. Married to Ange de Faure (1739–1824) on 1 June 1780, with whom she had two children.
*With [O'Murphy](Marie-Louise)(Marie-Louise O'Murphy) (21 October 1737 – 11 December 1814), an Irish adventuress:
**Agathe Louise de Saint-Antoine de Saint-André (Paris, 20 May 1754 – Paris, 6 September 1774). The first illegitimate child of the King whose parentage was certain, but she was never officially recognized; in fact, she was registered as a daughter of a *Louis de Saint-André, Old official of infantry and Louise-Marie de Berhini, resident of Saint-Antoine street*, non-existent persons. In November 1773 she received from the King her letters of Official Recognition of Nobility (which enabled her to marry a nobleman), and funds of 223,000 livres. One month later, on 27 December 1773, she married René Jean de La Tour-du-Pin, marquis de la Charce, and died after only nine months of marriage as a consequence of a miscarriage.[*Les enfants naturels de Louis XV – 02. Agathe-Louise de Saint-Antoine de Saint-André* in: histoire-et-secrets.com](http://www.histoire-et-secrets.com/articles.php?lng=fr&pg=1225) [9 March 2013](retrieved).
**Marguerite Victoire Le Normant de Flaghac (Riom, Puy-de-Dôme, 5 January 1768 – 25 January 1830).[Paris, État civil reconstitué, vue 13/51.](http://archives.paris.fr/arkotheque/visionneuse/visionneuse.php?arko=YTo2OntzOjQ6ImRhdGUiO3M6MTA6IjIwMjAtMTAtMzEiO3M6MTA6InR5cGVfZm9uZHMiO3M6MTE6ImFya29fc2VyaWVsIjtzOjQ6InJlZjEiO2k6NTtzOjQ6InJlZjIiO2k6MzY4MzY7czoxNjoidmlzaW9ubmV1c2VfaHRtbCI7YjoxO3M6MjE6InZpc2lvbm5ldXNlX2h0bWxfbW9kZSI7czo0OiJwcm9kIjt9#uielem_move=0%2C0&uielem_islocked=0&uielem_zoom=31&uielem_brightness=0&uielem_contrast=0&uielem_isinverted=0&uielem_rotate=F) Officially recognized by her mother's second husband, she was probably also an illegitimate child of the King.Pascal (2006), pp. 191–203. This theory is supported by three facts: 1. The King gave Marie-Louise O'Murphy the sum of 350,000 livres between 1771–1772 (Marguerite, then a three-years-old child, surpassed the dangerous first year of infancy, and Louis XV probably wanted to protect the mother of his child), 2. When Marguerite married in 1786 all the royal family was present and signed the marriage contract, and 3. After the Bourbon Restoration, King Charles X gave Marguerite an "annual indemnity" of 2,000 francs from his own treasure and a further payment of 3,000 francs from the [List](Civil)(Civil List). Married firstly on 24 February 1786 to Jean-Didier Mesnard, comte de Chousy, with whom she had two children; after her divorce following the incarceration of her husband in 1793, she then married Constant Lenormant d'Étiolles (a son of the husband of [de Pompadour](Madame)(Madame de Pompadour)) in November 1794, with whom she had another child.
*With [de Châlus](Françoise)(Françoise de Châlus) (24 February 1734 – 7 July 1821), by marriage Duchesse de Narbonne-Lara:Both children are officially recognized by their mother's husband, although it is alleged that the King himself was the real father. The coevals attribute the paternity of both children to Louis XV for, according to documents from the Military Archive, Françoise de Châlus' husband had been wounded in the [of the Austrian Succession](War)(War of the Austrian Succession) (1747) becoming from that moment unable to have any offspring. The [baptism](baptism) record of Louis, Comte de Narbonne-Lara is another indication of that paternity: "*On 25 of August 1755, received the baptism at the Chapel of the King, from the Very High and Very Powerful Lord, Monseigneur [de La Roche-Aymon](Charles-Antoine)(Charles-Antoine de La Roche-Aymon), [of Narbonne](Archbishop-Primate)(Archbishop of Narbonne), [President](President (legislature)) of the [States-Generals](Estates General (France)) of the [Province](Province) of [Languedoc](Languedoc), [Commander](Commander#Military and chivalric orders) of the [of the Holy Spirit](Order)(Order of the Holy Spirit). The [Godfather](wiktionary:godfather) was the Most High and Most powerful [Louis Auguste of France, Duke of Berry](Prince)(Louis XVI), and the [Godmother](wiktionary:godmother) the Most High and Most Powerful Princess Madame [Adélaïde of France](Marie)(Princess Marie Adélaïde of France).*" His wife had become the King's [mistress](Mistress (lover)). Not only was it noted that he was named Louis but also his contemporaries remarked on the similarities between the young Louis and the King.
**Philippe Louis Marie Innocent Christophe Juste de Narbonne-Lara (Parma, 28 December 1750 – Paris, 10 May 1834), Duc de Narbonne-Lara. Captain of the Dragons Regiment of the Queen, Colonel of the Regiment of Forez and Field Marshal in 1790. Married on 3 February 1771 to Antoinette-Françoise-Claudine de La Roche-Aymon. No issue.
**[Marie Jacques Amalric de Narbonne-Lara](Louis)(Louis, comte de Narbonne-Lara) ([Colorno](Colorno), 23 August 1755 – [Torgau](Torgau), 17 November 1813), called Comte de Narbonne-Lara. Colonel of the Army and Honorary Chamberlain of Princess Madame Marie Adélaïde of France. In 1786 he was appointed a commander of an infantry regiment and remained in that post until the eve of the French Revolution and later served under [Napoleon](Napoleon). Married on 16 April 1782 to Marie Adélaïde de Montholon, with whom he had two daughters. He also fathered two other children out of wedlock.
*With [Catherine Haynault](Marguerite)(Marguerite Catherine Haynault) (11 September 1736 – 17 March 1823):
**Agnès Louise de Montreuil (Saint-Sulpice, Paris, 20 May 1760 – Montmelas, 2 September 1837). Registered as a daughter of a certain *Louis de Montreuil, old Official of cavalry*, a non-existent person, the paternity of the King is supported by other evidence.In August 1774 King [XVI](Louis)(Louis XVI) granted her letters of Official Recognition of Nobility, and previously Louis XV secured for her capital of 223,000 livres and reported an annual revenue of 24,300 livres. In addition, Louis XVI personally signed her marriage contract. Married on 9 December 1778 to Gaspard d'Arod de Montmelas (brother-in-law of her own mother), with whom she had four children.
**Anne Louise de La Réale (Saint-Paul, Paris, 17 November 1762 – Saint-Germain-en-Laye, 30 April 1831). Registered as a daughter of *Antoine Louis de la Réale, old Captain of cavalry*, a non-existent person, the paternity of the King is supported by further evidence.In August 1774 King Louis XVI granted her letters of Official Recognition of Nobility, identical to her sister. She also received from Louis XV capital of 223,000 livres and reported annual revenue of 24,300 livres. In addition, at the age of fifteen (1777), she received the further amount of 12,000 livres as a renewed pension. Married on 28 August 1780 to René Guillaume Paul Gabriel Etienne de Geslin, Comte de Geslin, with whom she had six children.
*With [Madeleine d'Estaing](Lucie)(Lucie Madeleine d'Estaing) (10 May 1743 – 7 April 1826), a half-sister of the [d'Estaing](Admiral)(Charles Hector, comte d'Estaing):Both children were registered as daughters of *Louis Auguste, Old Official, and citizen Lucie*, both non-existent persons. In August 1774 Agnès and Aphrodite received from Louis XVI their letters of recognition of nobility (*demoiselles issue de la plus ancienne noblesse de France*) and following the stipulations leave by Louis XV, each of them obtained a capital of 223,000 livres and a reported annual revenue of 24,300 livres.
**Agnès Lucie Auguste (Paris, 14 April 1761 – Boysseulh, 4 July 1822). Married on 5 December 1777 to Charles de Boysseulh, vicomte de Boysseuilh, with whom she had three children.
**Aphrodite Lucie Auguste (Versailles, 8 March 1763 – Artonne (Puy-de-Dôme), 22 February 1819). Married on 21 December 1784 to Jules de Boysseulh (her step-brother; son of the first marriage of her mother's husband), with whom she had one daughter.
*With [Coppier de Romans](Anne)(Anne Coppier de Romans) (19 June 1737 – 27 December 1808), Baroness de Meilly-Coulonge:
**Louis Aimé of Bourbon (Passy, Paris, 13 January 1762 – Rome, 28 February 1787), called the *Abbot of Bourbon*; he was the only one of the illegitimate children of Louis XV who was officially recognized.Evelyne Lever: *Le crépuscule des rois – chronique 1757–1789*, Fayard 2013, p. 68. Abbot of Saint Vincent de Metz, French Ambassador in Rome from 1785. He died of [smallpox](smallpox).
*With [Louise Tiercelin de La Colleterie](Jeanne)(Jeanne Louise Tiercelin de La Colleterie) (26 November 1746 – 5 July 1779), called *Madame de Bonneval*:
**Benoît Louis Le Duc (7 February 1764 – 1837). Registered as a son of *Louis Le Duc, old cavalry official and lady Julie de la Colleterie*, both non-existent persons; his royal parentage was supported by later evidence.Louis XV secured for him capital of 223,000 livres who reported an annual revenue of 24,300 livres. In August 1774 Louis XVI signed a letter of Official Recognition of Nobility for him (identical to the other illegitimate children of Louis XV). In 1785 (when he took the Holy Orders) he received a dispensation from the Pope because of his illegitimate origin. After the Bourbon Restoration, Louis XVIII accorded him a pension of 6,000 francs from the Civil List, which was augmented to 20,000 francs in May 1821. [X](Charles)(Charles X) (with whom he had an extraordinary physical resemblance) not only maintained his pensions but also paid his exorbitant gambling debts. In 1830 he solicited King Louis-Philippe I to secure his pensions, which the King granted.
*With [Thérèse Françoise Boisselet](Marie)(Marie Thérèse Françoise Boisselet) (1731 – 1800):
** (23 January 1769 – 21 November 1821). Officially recognized by her mother's husband, [Claude Cadet de Gassicourt](Louis)(:fr:Louis Claude Cadet de Gassicourt) as his own; this story, recorded by Charles Louis' personal friend, Baron [Thiébault](Paul)(Paul Thiébault) in his *Memoirs*,*Mémoires du general-baron Thiebault* (in French). Réédition de Fernand Calmettes, 1895, p. 371. was challenged by later historiography, but later reasserted by modern works.
## Ancestry
|boxstyle_1=background-color: #fcc;
|boxstyle_2=background-color: #fb9;
|boxstyle_3=background-color: #ffc;
|boxstyle_4=background-color: #bfc;
|1= 1. **Louis XV of France**
|2= 2. [Duke of Burgundy](Louis,)(Louis, Duke of Burgundy)
|3= 3. [Adélaïde of Savoy](Marie)(Marie Adélaïde of Savoy)
|4= 4. [Dauphin of France](Louis,)(Louis, Grand Dauphin)
|5= 5. [Anna Victoria of Bavaria](Maria)(Maria Anna Victoria of Bavaria)
|6= 6. [Amadeus II of Sardinia](Victor)(Victor Amadeus II of Sardinia)
|7= 7. [Marie of Orléans](Anne)(Anne Marie of Orléans)
|8= 8. [XIV of France](Louis)(Louis XIV of France)
|9= 9. [Theresa of Austria](Maria)(Maria Theresa of Spain)
|10= 10. [Maria, Elector of Bavaria](Ferdinand)(Ferdinand Maria, Elector of Bavaria)
|11= 11. [Adelaide of Savoy](Henriette)(Henriette Adelaide of Savoy)
|12= 12. [Emmanuel II, Duke of Savoy](Charles)(Charles Emmanuel II, Duke of Savoy)
|13= 13. [Jeanne Baptiste of Savoy](Marie)(Marie Jeanne Baptiste of Savoy)
|14= 14. [I, Duke of Orléans](Philippe)(Philippe I, Duke of Orléans)
|15= 15. [of England](Henrietta)(Henrietta of England)
}}
### Portrayal in film
## See also
* [XV Style](Louis)(Louis XV Style)
* [XV furniture](Louis)(Louis XV furniture)
* [Rocaille](Rocaille)
* [of French monarchs](List)(List of French monarchs)
* [of Huguenots under Louis XV](Persecution)(Persecution of Huguenots under Louis XV)
* [of Navarre](Kingdom)(Kingdom of Navarre#Independent Navarre north of the Pyrenees)
* [leg](Cabriole)(Cabriole leg)
* [François, Duc de Choiseul](Étienne)(Étienne François, Duc de Choiseul)
* [of the Jesuits](Suppression)(Suppression of the Jesuits)
* [heel](Louis)(Heel (shoe)), a shoe heel shape named after Louis XV.
* [de France](Mesdames)(Mesdames de France)
* [of France](Outline)(Outline of France)
* [of famous big game hunters](List)(List of famous big game hunters)
## Notes and citations
## Additional references
#Duke of Saint-Simon, *Mémoires*, Book 12, Chapter 15. [http://rouvroy.medusis.com/docs/1215.html?qid=sdx_q6]
#Marquis [de Dangeau](Philippe)(Philippe de Dangeau), *Journal*; 1856–60, Paris; XVI, 136; in Olivier Bernier, *Louis the Beloved, The Life of Louis XV*: 1984, Garden City, New York: Doubleday and Company. p. 3.
#The scene is described in Olivier Bernier, *Louis the Beloved, The Life of Louis XV'': 1984, Garden City, New York: Doubleday and Company. p. 17.
## Bibliography
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*
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* Second Edition.
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### Further reading
* Engels, Jens Ivo. "Denigrer, Esperer, Assumer La Realite. Le Roi de France perçu par ses Sujets, 1680–1750" [Hoping, Taking on Reality: the French King as Perceived by His Subjects, 1680–1750"]("Disparaging,). ''Revue D'histoire Moderne et Contemporaine* 2003 50(3): 96–126, in French
* Gooch, G.P. *Louis XV* (1976), scholarly biography
* Justus, Kevin Lane. "A Fractured Mirror: The Royal Portraiture of Louis XV and the Search for a Successful Image through Architecture, or, Versailles Is the Thing in Which We Will Catch the Character of the King." PhD dissertation U. of North Carolina, Chapel Hill 2002. 417 pp. DAI 2003 63(11): 3766-A. DA3070864 Fulltext: [Dissertations & Theses](ProQuest)(ProQuest Dissertations & Theses)
* [James Breck](Perkins,)(James Breck Perkins). *France under Louis XV* (2 vol 1897) [online vol 1](https://www.questia.com/read/95943782); [online vol 2](https://www.questia.com/read/92007973)
* Treasure, Geoffrey. *The Making of Modern Europe, 1648–1780* (3rd ed. 2003). pp 297–331. [online](https://archive.org/details/makingofmoderneu0000trea/page/n7/mode/2up)
* Woodbridge, John D. *Revolt in Prerevolutionary France: The Prince de Conti's Conspiracy against Louis XV* (1995). 242 pp.
* [Scholarly bibliography by Colin Jones (2002)](https://web.archive.org/web/20110725101858/http://webspace.qmul.ac.uk/cdhjones/documents/gn_pdf.pdf)
### Mistresses
* Jones, Colin. *Madame de Pompadour: Images of a Mistress.* London: National Gallery Publ., 2002. 176 pp.
* [Evelyne](Lever,)(Évelyne Lever). *Madame de Pompadour.* (2002). 320 pp.
* [Nancy](Mitford,)(Nancy Mitford). *Madame de Pompadour* (1954) 312pp.
### Primary sources
* Du Barry, Jeanne Vaubernier, Jeanne Baecu. *Memoirs of the Comtesse Du Barry: With Minute Details of Her Entire Career as Favorite of Louis XV'' (1903) [online edition](https://www.questia.com/read/54745415); also
|-
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[ ](Category:Louis XV)
[births](Category:1710)(Category:1710 births)
[deaths](Category:1774)(Category:1774 deaths)
[kings of France](Category:18th-century)(Category:18th-century kings of France)
[Princes of Andorra](Category:18th-century)(Category:18th-century Princes of Andorra)
[Régime](Category:Ancien)(Category:Ancien Régime)
[of France](Category:Dauphins)(Category:Dauphins of France)
[of France (Bourbon)](Category:Princes)(Category:Princes of France (Bourbon))
[child monarchs](Category:Modern)(Category:Modern child monarchs)
[of Anjou](Category:Dukes)(Category:Dukes of Anjou)
[people of Portuguese descent](Category:French)(Category:French people of Portuguese descent)
[of the Golden Fleece of Spain](Category:Knights)(Category:Knights of the Golden Fleece of Spain)
[of Andorra](Category:Princes)(Category:Princes of Andorra)
[from Versailles](Category:People)(Category:People from Versailles)
[of the Regency of Philippe d'Orléans](Category:People)(Category:People of the Regency of Philippe d'Orléans)
[disease deaths in France](Category:Infectious)(Category:Infectious disease deaths in France)
[from smallpox](Category:Deaths)(Category:Deaths from smallpox)
[at the Basilica of Saint-Denis](Category:Burials)(Category:Burials at the Basilica of Saint-Denis)
[survivors](Category:Stabbing)(Category:Stabbing survivors)
[titular monarchs](Category:Navarrese)(Category:Navarrese titular monarchs)
[articles containing unlinked shortened footnotes](Category:Wikipedia)(Category:Wikipedia articles containing unlinked shortened footnotes)
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Apple M1
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apple_m1
|
# Apple M1
*Revision ID: 1159568503 | Timestamp: 2023-06-11T05:06:32Z*
---
**M1 Pro:** APL1103**M1 Max:** APL1105**M1 Ultra:** APL1W06
| microarch = "Firestorm" and "Icestorm"
| size-from = [nm](5)(5 nm process)
| designfirm = [Inc.](Apple)(Apple Inc.)
| manuf1 = [TSMC](TSMC)
| arch = [ARMv8.5-A](AArch64#ARMv8.5-A)
| gpu = Apple-designed integrated graphics
**M1:** 7- or 8-core GPU
**M1 Pro:** 14- or 16-core GPU
**M1 Max:** 24- or 32-core GPU
**M1 Ultra:** 48- or 64-core GPU
| transistors = **M1:** 16 billion**M1 Pro:** 33.7 billion**M1 Max:** 57 billion**M1 Ultra:** 114 billion
| numcores = **M1:** 8 (4× high-performance + 4× high-efficiency)**M1 Pro:** 8 or 10 (6× or 8× high-performance + 2× high-efficiency)**M1 Max:** 10 (8× high-performance + 2× high-efficiency)**M1 Ultra:** 20 (16× high-performance + 4× high-efficiency)
| application = **M1:** Desktop ([Mini](Mac)(Mac Mini), [iMac](iMac)), notebook ([MacBook](MacBook) family), tablet ([Pro](iPad)(iPad Pro) and [Air](iPad)(iPad Air (5th generation)))
**M1 Pro:** Notebook ([Pro](MacBook)(MacBook Pro))
**M1 Max:** Notebook ([Pro](MacBook)(MacBook Pro)), desktop ([Studio](Mac)(Mac Studio))
**M1 Ultra:** Desktop ([Studio](Mac)(Mac Studio))
| clock = 3.2 GHz
|l1cache = 192+128 KB per core (performance cores)
128+64 KB per core (efficient cores)
| l2cache = **Performance Cores****M1:** 12 MB**M1 Pro and M1 Max:** 24 MB**M1 Ultra:** 48 MB**Efficiency Cores****M1, M1 Pro, M1 Max:** 4 MB**M1 Ultra:** 8 MB
|predecessor = [Core](Intel)(Intel Core) and [T2](Apple)(Apple T2) chip (Mac) [A12X](Apple)(Apple A12X) (Apple A12Z, iPad Pro) [A14](Apple)(Apple A14) (iPad Air)
| variant = [A14](Apple)(Apple A14)
| llcache = **M1:** 8 MB**M1 Pro:** 24 MB**M1 Max:** 48 MB**M1 Ultra:** 96 MB
| successor = [M2](Apple)(Apple M2)}}
**Apple M1** is a series of [ARM](ARM architecture family)-based [systems-on-a-chip](system-on-a-chip) (SoCs) [by Apple Inc.](designed)(Apple silicon) as a [processing unit](central)(central processing unit) (CPU) and [processing unit](graphics)(graphics processing unit) (GPU) for its [Mac](Mac (computer)) [desktops](desktop computer) and [notebooks](Laptop), and the [Pro](iPad)(iPad Pro) and [Air](iPad)(iPad Air (5th generation)) [tablets](Tablet computer). The M1 chip initiated Apple's third [change](Mac transition to Apple silicon) to the [set architecture](instruction)(instruction set architecture) used by Macintosh computers, switching from [Intel](Intel) to [silicon](Apple)(Apple silicon) 14 years after they were [from PowerPC to Intel](switched)(Mac transition to Intel processors), and 26 years after the transition from the original [68000 series](Motorola)(Motorola 68000 series) to [PowerPC](PowerPC). At the time of introduction in 2020, Apple said that the M1 had the world's fastest CPU core "in low power silicon" and the world's best CPU [per watt](performance)(performance per watt). Its successor, [M2](Apple)(Apple M2), was announced on June 6, 2022 at [WWDC](WWDC).
The original M1 chip was introduced in November 2020, and was followed by the professional-focused **M1 Pro** and **M1 Max** chips in October 2021. The M1 Max is a higher-powered version of the M1 Pro, with more [GPU](GPU) cores and [bandwidth](memory)(memory bandwidth) and a larger [size](die)(Die (integrated circuit)). Apple introduced the **M1 Ultra** in 2022, combining two M1 Max chips in one package. These chips differ largely in size and the number of functional units: for example, while the original M1 has about 16 billion [transistor](transistor)s, the M1 Ultra has 114 billion.
Apple's [macOS](macOS) and [iPadOS](iPadOS) [system](operating)(operating system)s both run on the M1. Initial support for the M1 SoC in the [Linux](Linux) kernel was released in version 5.13 on June 27, 2021. The initial versions of the M1 chips contain an architectural defect that permits sandboxed applications to exchange data, violating the security model, an issue that has been described as "mostly harmless".
## Design
### CPU
The M1 has four high-performance "Firestorm" and four energy-efficient "Icestorm" [cores](Multi-core processor), first seen on the [Bionic](A14)(Apple A14). It has a [hybrid](Heterogeneous computing#Heterogeneous CPU topology) configuration similar to [DynamIQ](ARM)(ARM DynamIQ) and Intel's [Lakefield](Tremont (microarchitecture)#Mobile processors (Lakefield)), [Lake](Alder)(Alder Lake (microprocessor)) and [Lake](Raptor)(Raptor Lake (microprocessor)) processors. This combination allows power-use optimizations not possible with previous [architecture](Apple–Intel)(Apple–Intel architecture) devices. Apple claims the energy-efficient cores use one-tenth the power of the high-performance ones. The high-performance cores have an unusually large 192 KB of L1 [cache](instruction)(CPU Cache) and 128 KB of L1 data cache and share a 12 MB L2 cache; the energy-efficient cores have a 128 KB L1 instruction cache, 64 KB L1 data cache, and a shared 4 MB L2 cache. The SoC also has a 8MB System Level Cache shared by the GPU.
#### M1 Pro and M1 Max
The M1 Pro and M1 Max use the same [big.LITTLE](ARM)(ARM big.LITTLE) design as the M1, with eight high-performance "Firestorm" (six in the [lower-binned](Product binning#Semiconductor manufacturing) variants of the M1 Pro) and two energy-efficient "Icestorm" [cores](Multi-core processor), providing a total of ten cores (eight in the lower-binned variants of the M1 Pro). The high-performance cores are clocked at 3228 MHz, and the high-efficiency cores are clocked at 2064 MHz. The eight high-performance cores are split into two clusters. Each high-performance cluster shares 12 MB of L2 cache. The two high-efficiency cores share 4 MB of L2 cache. The M1 Pro and M1 Max have 24 MB and 48 MB respectively of system level cache (SLC).
#### M1 Ultra
The M1 Ultra combines two M1 Max chips in one package for a total of 20 CPU cores and 96 MB system level cache (SLC).
### GPU
The M1 integrates an Apple designed eight-core (seven in some base models) graphics processing unit (GPU). Each GPU core is split into 16 Execution Units, which each contain eight [Logic Unit](Arithmetic)(Arithmetic Logic Unit)s (ALUs). In total, the M1 GPU contains up to 128 [unit](Execution)(Execution unit)s or 1024 ALUs, which Apple says can execute up to 24,576 threads simultaneously and which have a maximum floating point (FP32) performance of 2.6 [TFLOPs](TFLOPS).
The M1 Pro integrates a 16-core (14 in some base models) graphics processing unit (GPU), while the M1 Max integrates a 32-core (24 in some base models) GPU. In total, the M1 Max GPU contains up to 512 [unit](execution)(execution unit)s or 4096 ALUs, which have a maximum floating point (FP32) performance of 10.4 [TFLOPs](TFLOPS).
The M1 Ultra features a 48- or 64-core GPU with up to 8192 ALUs and 21 TFLOPs of FP32 performance.
### Memory
The M1 uses a 128-bit [SDRAM](LPDDR4X)(LPDDR#LP-DDR4X) The Tech Chap – YouTube|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2lK0ySxQyrs|access-date=2020-11-14|website=www.youtube.com|archive-date=2020-11-13|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201113185628/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2lK0ySxQyrs|url-status=live}} in a [memory](unified)(Glossary of computer graphics#unified memory) configuration shared by all the components of the processor. The SoC and RAM chips are mounted together in a [system-in-a-package](System in a package) design. 8 GB and 16 GB configurations are available.
The M1 Pro has 256-bit [LPDDR](LPDDR)5 SDRAM memory, and the M1 Max has 512-bit LPDDR5 SDRAM memory. While the M1 SoC has 66.67GB/s memory bandwidth, the M1 Pro has 200GB/s bandwidth and the M1 Max has a 400GB/s bandwidth. The M1 Pro comes in memory configurations of 16 GB and 32 GB, and the M1 Max comes in configurations of 32 GB and 64 GB.
The M1 Ultra doubles the specs of the M1 Max for a 1024-bit or 1-kilobit memory bus with 800GB/s bandwidth in a 64 GB or 128 GB configuration.
### Other features
The M1 contains dedicated [network hardware](neural)(AI accelerator) in a 16-core Neural Engine, capable of executing 11 trillion operations per second. Other components include an [signal processor](image)(Image processor), a [PCIe](PCIe) storage controller, a [USB4](USB4) controller that includes [3](Thunderbolt)(Thunderbolt 3) support, and a [Enclave](Secure)(IOS#Secure Enclave). The M1 Pro, Max and Ultra support [4](Thunderbolt)(Thunderbolt 4).
The M1 has video codec encoding support for [HEVC](High Efficiency Video Coding) and [H.264](Advanced Video Coding). It has decoding support for HEVC, H.264, and [ProRes](Apple ProRes). The M1 Pro, M1 Max, and M1 Ultra have a media engine which has hardware-accelerated H.264, HEVC, ProRes, and ProRes RAW. This media engine includes a video decode engine (the M1 Ultra has two), a video encode engine (the M1 Max has two and the M1 Ultra has four), and a ProRes encode and decode engine (again the M1 Max has two and the M1 Ultra has four).
The M1 Max supports High Power Mode on the 16-inch MacBook Pro for intensive tasks. The M1 Pro supports two 6K displays at 60Hz over Thunderbolt, while the M1 Max supports a third 6K display over Thunderbolt and a [4K](4K resolution) monitor over [2.0](HDMI)(HDMI). All parameters of the M1 Max processors are doubled in M1 Ultra processors, as they are essentially two M1 Max processors operating in parallel; they are in a single package (in size being bigger than [AM4](Socket)(Socket AM4) [Ryzen](AMD)(Ryzen) processor) and seen as one processor in macOS.
## Performance and efficiency
The M1 recorded competitive performance and efficiency in popular benchmarks ([Geekbench](Geekbench) 5, [Cinebench](Cinebench) R23).
The 2020 M1-equipped [Mini](Mac)(Mac Mini) draws 7 watts when idle and 39 watts at maximum load, compared with 20 watts idle and 122 watts maximum load for the 2018 6-core Intel i7 Mac mini. The energy efficiency of the M1 increases battery life of M1-based MacBooks by 50% compared to previous Intel-based MacBooks.
At release, the MacBook Air (M1, 2020) and MacBook Pro (M1, 2020) were praised by critics for their CPU performance and battery life, particularly compared to previous MacBooks.
## Products that use the Apple M1 series
### M1
* [Air (M1, 2020)](MacBook)(MacBook Air (M1, 2020)) – base model has 7-core GPU
* [Mini (M1, 2020)](Mac)(Mac Mini#Fifth generation (Apple silicon))
* [Pro (13-inch, M1, 2020)](MacBook)(MacBook Pro#Fourth generation (Touch Bar with Apple silicon))
* [iMac](IMac (Apple silicon)) (24-inch, M1, 2021) – base model has 7-core GPU
* [Pro (11-inch, 3rd generation)](iPad)(iPad Pro (5th generation)) (2021)
* [Pro (12.9-inch, 5th generation)](iPad)(iPad Pro (5th generation)) (2021)
* [Air (5th generation)](iPad)(iPad Air (5th generation)) (2022)
### M1 Pro
* [Pro (14-inch and 16-inch, 2021)](MacBook)(MacBook Pro (Apple silicon))
### M1 Max
* MacBook Pro (14-inch and 16-inch, 2021)
* [Studio](Mac)(Mac Studio) (2022)
### M1 Ultra
* Mac Studio (2022)
## Problems
### USB power delivery bricking
After its release, some users who charged M1 devices through USB-C hubs reported [bricking](Brick (electronics)) their device. The devices that are reported to cause this issue were third-party USB-C hubs and non-Thunderbolt docks (excluding Apple's own dongle). Apple handled this issue by replacing the logic board and by telling its customers not to charge through those hubs. [Big Sur](macOS)(macOS Big Sur) 11.2.2 includes a fix to prevent 2019 or later MacBook Pro models and 2020 or later MacBook Air models from being damaged by certain third-party USB-C hubs and docks.
### Security vulnerabilities
#### M1racles
A flaw in M1 processors, given the name "M1racles", was announced in May 2021. Two sandboxed applications can exchange data without the system's knowledge by using an unintentionally writable [register](processor)(processor register) as a [channel](covert)(covert channel), violating the security model and constituting a minor vulnerability. It was discovered by [Martin](Hector)(Hector Martin (hacker)), founder of the [Linux](Asahi)(Asahi Linux) project for Linux on Apple Silicon.
#### Augury
In May 2022 a flaw termed "Augury" was announced involving the Data-Memory Dependent [Prefetcher](Cache prefetching) (DMP) in M1 chips, discovered by researchers at [Aviv University](Tel)(Tel Aviv University), the [of Illinois Urbana-Champaign](University)(University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign), and the [of Washington](University)(University of Washington). It was not considered a substantial security risk at the time.
#### Pacman
In June 2022, [MIT](Massachusetts Institute of Technology) researchers announced they had found a [execution](speculative)(speculative execution) vulnerability in M1 chips which they called "Pacman" after pointer authentication codes (PAC). Apple said they did not believe this posed a serious threat to users.
## Variants
The table below shows the various SoCs based on the "Firestorm" and "Icestorm" microarchitectures.
## Gallery
## See also
* [2](Rosetta)(Rosetta 2)
* [2 binary](Universal)(Universal 2 binary)
* [of Mac models grouped by CPU type](List)(List of Mac models grouped by CPU type)
## References
## External links
*
[introductions in 2020](Category:Computer-related)(Category:Computer-related introductions in 2020)
[silicon](Category:Apple)(Category:Apple silicon)
|
Shrek
|
shrek
|
# Shrek
*Revision ID: 1159531107 | Timestamp: 2023-06-10T23:01:47Z*
---
| producer =
| writer =
| screenplay =
| based_on =
| narrator =
| starring =
| music =
| editing = Sim Evan-Jones
| production_companies =
* [PDI/DreamWorks](PDI/DreamWorks)
}}
| distributor = [Pictures](DreamWorks)(DreamWorks Pictures)
| released = }}
| runtime = 90 minutes
| country = United States
| language = English
| budget = $60 million
| gross = $491.8 million
}}
***Shrek*** is a 2001 American [computer-animated](Computer animation) [fantasy](Fantasy film) [film](comedy)(comedy film) loosely based on the 1990 children's picture book [the same name](of)(Shrek!) by [Steig](William)(William Steig). Directed by [Adamson](Andrew)(Andrew Adamson) and [Jenson](Vicky)(Vicky Jenson) (in their feature directorial debuts) and written by [Elliott](Ted)(Ted Elliott (screenwriter)), [Rossio](Terry)(Terry Rossio), [Stillman](Joe)(Joe Stillman), and [S. H. Schulman](Roger)(Roger S. H. Schulman), it is the first installment in the [film series](*Shrek*)(Shrek (franchise)). The film stars [Myers](Mike)(Mike Myers), [Murphy](Eddie)(Eddie Murphy), [Diaz](Cameron)(Cameron Diaz), and [Lithgow](John)(John Lithgow). In the film, an embittered [ogre](ogre) named [Shrek](Shrek (character)) (Myers) finds his home in the swamp overrun by fairy tale creatures banished by the obsessive ruler [Farquaad](Lord)(Lord Farquaad) (Lithgow). With the help of [Donkey](Donkey (Shrek)) (Murphy), Shrek makes a pact with Farquaad to rescue [Fiona](Princess)(Princess Fiona) (Diaz) in exchange for regaining control of his swamp.
After purchasing rights to Steig's book in 1991, [Spielberg](Steven)(Steven Spielberg) sought to produce a [traditionally-animated](traditionally-animated) film adaptation, but [H. Williams](John)(John H. Williams (film producer)) convinced him to bring the project to the newly founded [DreamWorks](DreamWorks Pictures) in 1994. [Katzenberg](Jeffrey)(Jeffrey Katzenberg), along with Williams and [Warner](Aron)(Aron Warner), began development on *Shrek* in 1995, immediately following the studio's purchase of the rights from Spielberg. [Farley](Chris)(Chris Farley) was cast as the voice for the title character, recording most of the required dialogue, but died in 1997 before his work on the film was finished; Myers was hired to replace him, and gave Shrek his [accent](Scottish)(Scottish accent). The film was initially intended to be created using [capture](motion)(motion capture), but after poor test results, the studio hired [Data Images](Pacific)(Pacific Data Images) to complete the final computer animation. *Shrek* [parodies](parody film) other [tale](fairy)(fairy tale) adaptations, primarily [Disney films](animated)(Walt Disney Animation Studios).
*Shrek* premiered at the [Village Theatre](Mann)(Fox Theater, Westwood Village) In [Westwood](Westwood, Los Angeles), and was later shown at the [Cannes Film Festival](2001)(2001 Cannes Film Festival), where it competed for the [d'Or](Palme)(Palme d'Or), making it the first animated film since Disney's *[Pan](Peter)(Peter Pan (1953 film))* (1953) to be chosen to do so. The film was theatrically released by [Pictures](DreamWorks)(DreamWorks Pictures) in the United States on May 18, 2001, and grossed over $491 million worldwide, becoming the [highest-grossing film of 2001](fourth)(2001 in film#Highest-grossing films). It was widely praised by critics for its animation, voice performances, soundtrack, writing and humor, which they noted catered to both adults and children. *Shrek* was nominated for the [Award](Academy)(Academy Award) for [Adapted Screenplay](Best)(Academy Award for Best Adapted Screenplay) and won for [Animated Feature](Best)(Academy Award for Best Animated Feature). It earned six nominations at the [Academy of Film and Television Arts](British)(British Academy of Film and Television Arts) (BAFTA), winning for [Adapted Screenplay](Best)(BAFTA Award for Best Adapted Screenplay).
The film's success helped establish [Animation](DreamWorks)(DreamWorks Animation) as a competitor to [Pixar](Pixar) in feature film computer animation. Three sequels have been released—*[2](Shrek)(Shrek 2)* (2004), *[the Third](Shrek)(Shrek the Third)* (2007), and *[Forever After](Shrek)(Shrek Forever After)* (2010)—along with two spin-off films—[in Boots*](*Puss)(Puss in Boots (2011 film)) (2011) and *[in Boots: The Last Wish](Puss)(Puss in Boots: The Last Wish)* (2022)—and other productions in the *Shrek* franchise. It is also regarded as one of the most influential animated films of the 2000s. The United States [of Congress](Library)(Library of Congress) selected *Shrek* for preservation in the [Film Registry](National)(National Film Registry) in 2020.
## Plot
[Shrek](Shrek (character)) is an anti-social and highly-territorial [ogre](ogre) who loves the solitude of his swamp. His life is interrupted after the dwarfish [Farquaad](Lord)(Lord Farquaad) of Duloc exiles a vast number of fairy-tale creatures, who inadvertently end up in the swamp. Angered by the intrusion, Shrek decides to visit Farquaad and demand they be moved elsewhere. He reluctantly allows the talkative [Donkey](Donkey (Shrek)), who was exiled as well, to tag along and guide him to Duloc.
Meanwhile, Farquaad is presented with the [Mirror](Magic)(Magic Mirror (Snow White)), who tells him that he must marry a princess in order to become king. Farquaad chooses [Fiona](Princess)(Princess Fiona), who is imprisoned in a castle guarded by [Dragon](Dragon (Shrek)). Unwilling to rescue Fiona himself, he organizes a tournament in which the winner will receive the "privilege" of performing the task on his behalf. When Shrek and Donkey arrive at Duloc, Farquaad announces that whoever kills the ogre will be crowned the victor; however, Shrek and Donkey defeat Farquaad's knights with relative ease. Amused, Farquaad proclaims them champions, and agrees to relocate the fairy-tale creatures if Shrek rescues Fiona.
Shrek and Donkey travel to the castle and are attacked by Dragon. Shrek locates Fiona, who is appalled by his lack of [romanticism](romanticism); they flee the castle after rescuing Donkey. When Shrek removes his helmet and reveals he is an ogre, Fiona stubbornly refuses to go to Duloc, demanding Farquaad arrive in person to save her; Shrek carries her against her will. That night, after setting up camp and with Fiona alone in a cave, Shrek confides with Donkey about his frustration with being feared and rejected by others over his appearance. Fiona overhears this and decides to be kind to Shrek. The next day, the three are harassed by [Hood](Robin)(Robin Hood) and his band of Merry Men, with Fiona dispatching them easily using martial arts. Shrek becomes impressed with Fiona, and they begin to fall in love.
When the trio nears Duloc, Fiona takes shelter in a windmill for the evening. Donkey later enters alone and discovers that Fiona has transformed into an ogre. She explains she has been cursed since childhood, forced to transform into an ogre every night, and changing back at sunrise. She tells Donkey that only "true love's kiss" will break the spell and change her to "love's true form". Meanwhile, Shrek is about to confess his feelings to Fiona, when he overhears Fiona referring to herself as an "ugly beast". Believing that she is talking about him, Shrek angrily leaves and returns the next morning with Farquaad. Confused and hurt by Shrek's abrupt hostility, Fiona accepts Farquaad's marriage proposal and requests they be married before nightfall.
Shrek abandons Donkey and returns to his now-vacated swamp. He quickly realizes that despite his privacy, he feels miserable and misses Fiona. Donkey returns to the swamp and confronts Shrek, explaining that the "ugly beast" Fiona was referring to was someone else, and urges him to express his feelings to Fiona before she marries. The two reconcile and quickly travel to Duloc by riding Dragon, who Donkey has befriended. Shrek interrupts the wedding just before the ceremony completes, and tells Fiona that Farquaad is only marrying her to become king. The sun sets as Fiona transforms into an ogre in front of everyone, causing Shrek to understand what he overheard. Outraged and disgusted, Farquaad orders Shrek executed and Fiona detained. The two are saved when Dragon, alongside Donkey, break in and devour Farquaad. Shrek and Fiona profess their love and share a kiss. Though Fiona's curse is broken, this permanently makes her an ogre against her expectations, though Shrek reassures her that he still finds her beautiful. They marry in the swamp with fairy-tale creatures in attendance, then leave for their honeymoon.
## Voice cast
* [Myers](Mike)(Mike Myers) as:
**[Shrek](Shrek (character))
**One of the [Blind Mice](Three)(Three Blind Mice (Shrek))
* [Murphy](Eddie)(Eddie Murphy) as [Donkey](Donkey (Shrek))
* [Diaz](Cameron)(Cameron Diaz) as [Fiona](Princess)(Princess Fiona)
* [Lithgow](John)(John Lithgow) as [Farquaad](Lord)(Lord Farquaad)
* [Cassel](Vincent)(Vincent Cassel) as "Monsieur" Robin Hood
* [Vernon](Conrad)(Conrad Vernon) as [Man](Gingerbread)(Gingerbread Man (Shrek))
* [Miller](Chris)(Chris Miller (animator)) as:
**Magic Mirror
**Geppetto
* [Cameron](Cody)(Cody Cameron) as:
**[Pinocchio](Pinocchio (Shrek))
**[Three Little Pigs](The)(The Three Little Pigs (Shrek))
* [J. Smith](Simon)(Simon J. Smith) as Blind Mouse
* [Knights](Christopher)(Christopher Knights) as:
**Thelonius
**One of the Three Blind Mice
* [Warner](Aron)(Aron Warner) as Big Bad Wolf
* [Cummings](Jim)(Jim Cummings) as Captain of the Guards
* [Freeman](Kathleen)(Kathleen Freeman) as Old Woman ([Donkey](Donkey (Shrek))'s ex-owner) This was Freeman's last film role before her death.
* [Adamson](Andrew)(Andrew Adamson) as Duloc Mascot (a man dressed in a suit that looks like Lord Farquaad)
* Bobby Block as Baby Bear from the Three Bears
* Michael Galasso as Peter Pan
## Production
### Development
At the time [Pictures](DreamWorks)(DreamWorks Pictures) was founded, producer [H. Williams](John)(John H. Williams (film producer)) got hold of the book from his children and when he brought it to DreamWorks, it caught [Katzenberg](Jeffrey)(Jeffrey Katzenberg)'s attention and the studio decided to make it into a film. Recounting the inspiration of making the film, Williams said: }}
After buying the rights to the film, Katzenberg quickly put it in active development in November 1995. [Spielberg](Steven)(Steven Spielberg) had thought about making a traditionally animated film adaptation of the book before, when he bought the rights to the book in 1991 before the founding of DreamWorks, where [Murray](Bill)(Bill Murray) would play Shrek and [Martin](Steve)(Steve Martin) would play Donkey. In the beginning of production, co-director [Adamson](Andrew)(Andrew Adamson) refused to be intimidated by Katzenberg and had an argument with him about how much the film should appeal to adults. Katzenberg wanted both audiences, but he deemed some of Adamson's ideas, such as adding sexual jokes and [N' Roses](Guns)(Guns N' Roses) music to the soundtrack, to be too outrageous. Adamson and [Asbury](Kelly)(Kelly Asbury) joined in 1997 to co-direct the film. However, Asbury left a year later for work on the 2002 film *[Stallion of the Cimarron](Spirit:)(Spirit: Stallion of the Cimarron)*, and was replaced with story artist [Jenson](Vicky)(Vicky Jenson), although Asbury would later co-direct [sequel](the)(Shrek 2). Both Adamson and Jenson decided to work on the film in half, so the crew could at least know whom to go to with specific detail questions about the film's sequences; "We both ended up doing a lot of everything," Adamson said. "We're both kinda control freaks, and we both wanted to do everything."
Some early sketches of Shrek's house were done between 1996 and 1997 using [Photoshop](Adobe Photoshop), with the sketches showing Shrek first living in a garbage dump near a human village called Wart Creek. It was also thought one time that he lived with his parents and kept rotting fish in his bedroom. Donkey was modeled after Pericles (born 1994; also known as Perry), a real miniature donkey from Barron Park in [Alto, California](Palo)(Palo Alto, California). [Hui](Raman)(Raman Hui), supervising animator of *Shrek*, stated that Fiona "wasn't based on any real person" and he did many different sketches for her. He had done over 100 sculptures of Fiona before the directors chose the final design. In early development, the art directors visited [Castle](Hearst)(Hearst Castle), [upon Avon](Stratford)(Stratford upon Avon), and [Dordogne](Dordogne) for inspiration. Art Director Douglas Rogers visited a magnolia plantation in [South Carolina](Charleston,)(Charleston, South Carolina), for inspiration of Shrek's swamp. Planned characters not used in the film include [Goldilocks](Goldilocks) and [Beauty](Sleeping)(Sleeping Beauty).
During production, animators who failed while working on other projects, such as *[Prince of Egypt](The)(The Prince of Egypt)*, were often sent to work on *Shrek*. The reassignment was known as being "Shreked" and being sent to "the [Gulag](Gulag)".
### Casting
[Cage](Nicolas)(Nicolas Cage) was initially offered the role of Shrek but he turned it down because he did not want to look like an ogre. In 2013, Cage explained furthermore: "When you're drawn, in a way it says more about how children are going to see you than anything else, and I so care about that."
[[File:Mike Myers David Shankbone 2010 NYC.jpg|thumb|upright|[Myers](Mike)(Mike Myers) was re-cast as Shrek after [Farley](Chris)(Chris Farley)'s death.]]
[Farley](Chris)(Chris Farley) was initially hired to voice Shrek, and he had recorded nearly all of the dialogue for the character, but died before completing the project. A story reel featuring a sample of Farley's recorded dialogue was leaked to the public in August 2015. DreamWorks then re-cast the voice role to [Myers](Mike)(Mike Myers), who insisted on a complete script rewrite, to leave no traces of Farley's version of Shrek. According to Myers, he wanted to voice the character "for two reasons: I wanted the opportunity to work with Jeffrey Katzenberg; and [book is](the) a great story about accepting yourself for who you are."
After Myers had completed providing the voice for the character over the course of 1999 and the film was well into production, a rough cut of the movie was shown to him in February 2000. Myers asked to re-record all of his lines with a [accent](Scottish)(Scottish English phonology), similar to that his mother used when she told him bedtime stories and also used for his roles in other films, such as *[I Married an Axe Murderer](So)(So I Married an Axe Murderer)* and *[Powers: The Spy Who Shagged Me](Austin)(Austin Powers: The Spy Who Shagged Me)*. According to the DVD commentary, he had also tried using a [of the Hill People](Lothar)(Recurring Saturday Night Live characters and sketches introduced 1988–89#Lothar of the Hill People) accent and a Canadian accent.Shrek. DVD Commentary, 2001. After hearing the alternative, Katzenberg agreed to redo scenes in the film, saying, "It was so good we took $4M worth of animation out and did it again." Myers disputed the cost, saying "it didn't cost the studio 'millions of dollars'," as rumored. "What it meant is instead of me going in for ten sessions, I went in for twenty sessions. I got paid the same." Because of Myers voicing the character, more ideas began to come. There were clearer story points, fresher gags and comedy bits. "I got a letter from Spielberg thanking me so much for caring about the character," Myers said. "And he said the Scottish accent had improved the movie."
Another person planned to voice a character in the film was [Garofalo](Janeane)(Janeane Garofalo), who was set to star alongside Farley as Princess Fiona. However, she was fired from the project for unexplained reasons. Years later, Garofalo stated "I was never told why [was fired](I). I assume because I sound like a man sometimes? I don't know why. Nobody told me ... But, you know, the movie didn't do anything, so who cares?"
### Animation
*Shrek* was originally set up to be a live-action/CG animation hybrid with background plate miniature sets and the main characters composited into the scene as motion-captured computer graphics, using an ExpertVision Hires Falcon 10 camera system to capture and apply realistic human movement to the characters. A sizable crew was hired to run a test, and after a year and a half of R & D, the test was finally screened in May 1997. The results were not satisfactory, with Katzenberg stating "It looked terrible, it didn't work, it wasn't funny, and we didn't like it." The studio then turned to its production partners at [Data Images](Pacific)(Pacific Data Images) (PDI), who began production with the studio in 1998 and helped *Shrek* get to its final, computer-animated look. At this time, *[Antz](Antz)* was still in production at the studio and effects supervisor Ken Bielenberg was asked by [Warner](Aron)(Aron Warner) "to start development for *Shrek*". Similar to previous PDI films, PDI used its own proprietary software (like the Fluid Animation System) for its animated movies. For some elements, however, it also took advantage of some of the powerhouse animation software on the market. This is particularly true with [Maya](Autodesk Maya), which PDI used for most of its dynamic cloth animation and for the hair of Fiona and Farquaad.
"We did a lot of work on character and set-up, and then kept changing the set up while we were doing the animation," Hui noted. "In *Antz*, we had a facial system that gave us all the facial muscles under the skin. In *Shrek*, we applied that to whole body. So, if you pay attention to Shrek when he talks, you see that when he opens his jaw, he forms a double chin, because we have the fat and the muscles underneath. That kind of detail took us a long time to get right." One of the most difficult parts of creating the film was making Donkey's fur flow smoothly so that it did not look like that of a [Pet](Chia)(Chia Pet). This fell into the hands of the surfacing animators, who used flow controls within a complex shader to provide the fur with many attributes (ability to change directions, lie flat, swirl, etc.). It was then the job of the visual effects group, led by Ken Bielenberg, to make the fur react to environment conditions. Once the technology was mastered, it could be applied to many aspects of the movie, including grass, moss, beards, eyebrows, and even threads on Shrek's tunic. Making human hair realistic was different from Donkey's fur, requiring a separate rendering system and much attention from the [lighting](lighting) and [effects](visual)(visual effects) teams.
*Shrek* has 31 sequences, with 1,288 total shots. Aron Warner said that the creators "envisioned a magical environment that you could immerse yourself into". Shrek includes 36 separate in-film locations to make the world of the film, which DreamWorks claimed was more than any previous computer-animated feature. In-film locations were finalized and, as demonstrated by past DreamWorks animated movies, color and mood was of the utmost importance. The animation was completed in 2000.
### Music
*Shrek* is the third DreamWorks animated film (and the only film in the [series](*Shrek*)(Shrek (franchise))) to have [Gregson-Williams](Harry)(Harry Gregson-Williams) team up with [Powell](John)(John Powell (composer)) to compose the score following *[Antz](Antz)* (1998) and *[Run](Chicken)(Chicken Run)* (2000). Powell was left out to compose scores for later Shrek films with Gregson-Williams due to a conflict. The score was recorded at [Road Studios](Abbey)(Abbey Road Studios) by Nick Wollage and Slamm Andrews, with the latter mixing it at Media Ventures and Patricia Sullivan-Fourstar handling mastering.
*Shrek* introduced a new element to give the film a unique feel. The film used [music](pop)(pop music) and other [Oldies](Oldies) to make the story more forward. Covers of songs like "[the Road Again](On)(On the Road Again (Willie Nelson song))" and "[a Little Tenderness](Try)(Try a Little Tenderness)" were integrated in the film's score. The band [Mouth](Smash)(Smash Mouth)'s song "[Star](All)(All Star (song))" gained massive popularity due to its usage in the film's opening credits. As the film was about to be completed, Katzenberg suggested to the filmmakers to redo the film's ending to "go out with a big laugh"; instead of ending the film with just a storybook closing over Shrek and Fiona as they ride off into the sunset, they decided to add a song "[a Believer](I'm)(I'm a Believer)" covered by Smash Mouth and show all the fairytale creatures in the film.
Although [Wainwright](Rufus)(Rufus Wainwright)'s version of the song ["Hallelujah"](Hallelujah (Leonard Cohen song)) appeared in the soundtrack album, it was [Cale](John)(John Cale)'s version that appeared in the film; in a radio interview, Rufus Wainwright suggested that his version of "Hallelujah" did not appear in the film due to the "glass ceiling" he was hitting because of his sexuality. An alternative explanation is that, although the filmmakers wanted Cale's version for the film, licensing issues prevented its use in the soundtrack album, because Wainwright was an artist for [DreamWorks](DreamWorks Records) but Cale was not.
## Cultural references
In many places the film references classic movies, predominantly those by [Disney](Walt Disney Animation Studios). When [Bell](Tinker)(Tinker Bell) falls on Donkey and he says "I can fly" and people around including the [Little Pigs](Three)(Three Little Pigs) say "He can fly, he can fly"; this is a reference to Disney's *[Pan](Peter)(Peter Pan (1953 film))*. Another scene that references Disney media is one in which Donkey says, while flying, "You might have seen a house fly, maybe even a super fly, but I bet you ain't never seen a Donkey fly!". This scene is a reference to the Disney film *[Dumbo](Dumbo)*. The scene where Fiona is singing to the blue bird is a reference to *[White and the Seven Dwarfs](Snow)(Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs (1937 film))*. The transformation scene at the end of the film references Disney's *[and the Beast](Beauty)(Beauty and the Beast (1991 film))*.
When Shrek crosses the bridge to the Castle and says, "That'll do, Donkey, that'll do", this is a reference to the movie *[Babe](Babe (film))*. The scene where Princess Fiona is fighting the [Men](Merry)(Merry Men) is a lengthy reference to the film *[Matrix](The)(The Matrix)*. At the end of the film, the Gingerbread Man at the end with a crutch (and one leg) says "God bless us, everyone" which is a reference to Tiny Tim in *[Christmas Carol](A)(A Christmas Carol)*.
In the scene where the Magic Mirror gives [Farquaad](Lord)(Lord Farquaad) the option to marry three princesses, it parodies popular American television show *[Dating Game](The)(The Dating Game)* featuring: [Cinderella](Cinderella) and [White](Snow)(Snow White). In addition, Lord Farquaad's theme park style kingdom Duloc heavily mimics [Disneyland](Disneyland), even in so far as parodying the famous "[a Small World](It's)(It's a Small World)" musical ride in the scene with the singing puppets. It has been suggested that Lord Farquaad himself is an unflattering parody of then-Disney CEO [Eisner](Michael)(Michael Eisner), whom producer Katzenberg reportedly dislikes.
## Release
### Marketing
In 2000, [IMAX](IMAX) released *[CyberWorld](CyberWorld)* onto its branded large-screen theaters. It was a compilation film that featured stereoscopic conversions of various animated shorts and sequences, including the bar sequence in *[Antz](Antz)*. DreamWorks was so impressed by the technology used for the sequence's "stereoscopic translation", that the studio and IMAX decided to plan a big-screen 3D version of *Shrek*. The film would have been re-released during the Christmas season of 2001, or the following summer, after its conventional 2D release. The re-release would have also included new sequences and an alternate ending. Plans for this was dropped due to "creative changes" instituted by DreamWorks and resulted in a loss of $1.18 million, down from IMAX's profit of $3.24 million.
[Disney](Radio)(Radio Disney) was told not to allow any ads for the film to air on the station, stating, "Due to recent initiatives with [Walt Disney Company](The)(The Walt Disney Company), we are being asked not to align ourselves promotionally with this new release *Shrek*. Stations may accept spot dollars only in individual markets." The restriction was later relaxed to allow ads for the film's soundtrack album onto the network.
On May 7, 2001, [King](Burger)(Burger King) began promotions for the film, giving out a selection of nine exclusive Candy Caddies based on the *Shrek* characters, in Big Kids Meal and Kids Meal orders. [cream](Ice)(Ice cream) chain [Baskin-Robbins](Baskin-Robbins) also ran an 8-week promotion of the film, selling products such as Shrek's Hot Sludge Sundae, a combination of [Oreo](Oreo) Cookies 'n Cream ice cream, [fudge](hot)(hot fudge), crushed chocolate cookies, [cream](whipped)(whipped cream) and squiggly [worms](gummy)(gummy worms), and Shrek Freeze Frame Cake, featuring an image of Shrek and Donkey framed by [sunflowers](sunflowers). This was to support the film's DVD/VHS release.[Baskin-Robbins in big Shrek's promotion at thefreelibrary.com](https://www.thefreelibrary.com/Baskin-Robbins+in+big+Shrek%27s+promotion.-a080598528) .
### Home media
*Shrek* was released by DreamWorks Home Entertainment on [VHS](VHS) and [DVD](DVD) on November 2, 2001. It surpassed *[Wars: Episode I – The Phantom Menace](Star)(Star Wars: Episode I – The Phantom Menace)*s record for becoming the fastest-selling DVD ever, selling 2.5 million copies within the first three days of release. Another 4.5 million copies were sold on VHS in the same timespan, making it the biggest opening weekend in retail video since *[Lion King](The)(The Lion King)* in 1995. Both releases included *[in the Swamp Karaoke Dance Party](Shrek)(Shrek in the Swamp Karaoke Dance Party)*, a 3-minute musical short film, that takes up right after *Shrek*s ending, with film's characters performing a medley of modern pop songs.
Coincidentally, the film was released on video the same day that Pixar's *[Inc.](Monsters,)(Monsters, Inc.)* hit theaters. Since videos were traditionally released on Tuesdays, Disney's executives did not receive this well, saying that the move "seemed like an underhanded attempt to siphon off some of their film's steam". DreamWorks responded that it "simply shifted the release to a Friday to make it more of an event and predicted that it and other studios would do so more frequently with important films." *Monsters, Inc.* earned that weekend more than $62 million, breaking the record for an animated film, while *Shrek*s video release made more than $100 million, and eventually became the biggest selling DVD at the time with over 5.5 million sales. This broke the record previously held by *[Gladiator](Gladiator (2000 film))*, another DreamWorks film. *Shrek* generated more than $420 million in revenue for DreamWorks on DVD and VHS, and has sold more than 21 million copies of the 23 million shipped by January 2002. Worldwide, more than 10 million *Shrek* DVDs have been sold by that point.
A 3D version of the film was released on [3D](Blu-ray)(Blu-ray 3D) by [Home Entertainment](Paramount)(Paramount Home Entertainment) on December 1, 2010, along with its sequels, and a regular 2D [Blu-ray](Blu-ray) boxset of the series was released six days later.
In commemoration of the film's 20th anniversary, an [HD Blu-ray](Ultra)(Ultra HD Blu-ray) edition was released on May 11, 2021, by [Pictures Home Entertainment](Universal)(Universal Pictures Home Entertainment).
## Reception and legacy
### Box office
*Shrek* opened on around 6,000 screens across 3,587 theaters; eleven of them showed the film digitally. This was the first time that DreamWorks had shown one of its films digitally. The film earned $11.6 million on its first day and $42.3 million on its opening weekend, topping the box office for the weekend and averaging $11,805 from 3,587 theaters. In its [weekend](second)(Second weekend in box office performance#Second weekend increase), due to the Memorial Day Weekend holiday, the film gained 0.3 percent to $42.5 million and $55.2 million over the four-day weekend, resulting in an overall 30 percent gain. Despite this, the film finished in second place behind *[Harbor](Pearl)(Pearl Harbor (film))* and had an average of $15,240 from expanding to 3,623 sites. In its third weekend, the film retreated 34 percent to $28.2 million for a $7,695 average from expanding to 3,661 theaters. By mid-June 2001, *Shrek* became the top-grossing movie of the year domestically, defeating *[Mummy Returns](The)(The Mummy Returns)*. The film closed on December 6, 2001, after grossing $267.7 million domestically, along with $216.7 million overseas, for a worldwide total of $484.4 million. Produced on a $60 million budget, the film was a huge box office smash and is the [highest-grossing film of 2001](fourth)(2001 in film#Highest-grossing films).
*Shrek* became the highest-grossing animated film ever to be released in [Australia](Australia), passing the mark set by *[Lion King](The)(The Lion King)* in 1994. In the [Kingdom](United)(United Kingdom), *Shrek* regained the top spot at the British box office after being beaten out the previous week by *[Croft: Tomb Raider](Lara)(Lara Croft: Tomb Raider)*, earning a $20.3 million since its opening in the UK.
### Critical response
*Shrek* has an approval rating of based on professional reviews on the [aggregator](review)(review aggregator) website [Tomatoes](Rotten)(Rotten Tomatoes), with an average rating of . Its critical consensus reads, "While simultaneously embracing and subverting fairy tales, the irreverent *Shrek* also manages to tweak Disney's nose, provide a moral message to children, and offer viewers a funny, fast-paced ride." |type=m |title=Shrek |access-date=}} [Metacritic](Metacritic) (which uses a weighted average) assigned *Shrek* a score of 84 out of 100 based on 34 critics, indicating "universal acclaim". Audiences polled by [CinemaScore](CinemaScore) gave the film an average grade of "A" on an A+ to F scale.
[[Murphy by David Shankbone.jpg|thumb|Eddie Murphy was particularly praised by reviewers for his performance and role as Donkey.](File:Eddie)]
[Ebert](Roger)(Roger Ebert) praised the film, giving it four stars out of a possible four and describing it as "jolly and wicked, filled with sly in-jokes and yet somehow possessing a heart". *[Today](USA)(USA Today)*s Susan Wloszczyna praised [Murphy](Eddie)(Eddie Murphy)'s performance, stating it "gives the comic performance of his career, aided by sensational digital artistry, as he brays for the slightly neurotic motormouth". [Schickel](Richard)(Richard Schickel) of *[Time](Time (magazine))* also enjoyed Murphy's role, stating "No one has ever made a funnier jackass of himself than Murphy." Peter Rainer of *[York](New)(New York (magazine))* magazine liked the script, also stating "The animation, directed by Andrew Adamson and Vicky Jenson, is often on the same wriggly, giggly level as the script, although the more "human" characters, such as Princess Fiona and Lord Farquaad, are less interesting than the animals and creatures—a common pitfall in animated films of all types." [Travers](Peter)(Peter Travers) of *[Stone](Rolling)(Rolling Stone)* wrote "*Shrek* is a world-class charmer that could even seduce the Academy when it hands out the first official animation Oscar next year." James Berardinelli of *[ReelViews](ReelViews)* gave the film three and a half stars out of four, saying "*Shrek* is not a guilty pleasure for sophisticated movie-goers; it is, purely and simply, a pleasure." Kenneth Turan of the *[Angeles Times](Los)(Los Angeles Times)* wrote "The witty, fractured fairy tale *Shrek* has a solid base of clever writing." Lisa Schwarzbaum of *[Weekly](Entertainment)(Entertainment Weekly)* gave the film an A−, saying "A kind of palace coup, a shout of defiance, and a coming of age for DreamWorks." Jay Boyar of the *[Sentinel](Orlando)(Orlando Sentinel)* wrote "It's a pleasure to be able to report that the movie both captures and expands upon the book's playful spirit of deconstruction."
Steven Rosen of *[Denver Post](The)(The Denver Post)* wrote "DreamWorks Pictures again proves a name to trust for imaginative, funny animated movies that delight kids and adults equally." Susan Stark of *[Detroit News](The)(The Detroit News)* gave the film four out of four stars, saying "Swift, sweet, irreverent, rangy and as spirited in the writing and voice work as it is splendid in design." Jami Bernard of the *[York Daily News](New)(New York Daily News)* gave the film four out of four stars, saying "The brilliance of the voice work, script, direction and animation all serve to make *Shrek* an adorable, infectious work of true sophistication." Rene Rodriguez gave the film three out of four stars, calling it "a gleefully fractured fairy tale that never becomes cynical or crass". Elvis Mitchell of *[New York Times](The)(The New York Times)* gave the film four out of five stars, saying "Beating up on the irritatingly dainty Disney trademarks is nothing new; it's just that it has rarely been done with the demolition-derby zest of *Shrek*." [Steig](William)(William Steig), the author of the original book, and his wife Jeanne Steig also enjoyed the film, stating "We all went sort of expecting to hate it, thinking, 'What has Hollywood done to it?' But we loved it. We were afraid it would be too sickeningly cute and, instead, Bill just thought they did a wonderful, witty job of it."
John Anderson of *[Newsday](Newsday)* wrote "The kind of movie that will entertain everyone of every age and probably for ages to come." Jay Carr of *[Boston Globe](The)(The Boston Globe)* wrote "In an era when much on film seems old, *Shrek* seems new and fresh and clever." Stephen Hunter of *[Washington Post](The)(The Washington Post)* gave the film five out of five stars, saying "Despite all its high-tech weirdness, it is really that most perdurable of human constructions, a tale told well and true." Joe Baltake of *[Sacramento Bee](The)(The Sacramento Bee)* wrote that it "isn't so much a fractured spoof of everything Disney, but actually a Monty Python flick for kids – kids of all ages". Andrew Sarris of *[New York Observer](The)(The New York Observer)* wrote "What gives *Shrek* its special artistic distinction is its witty and knowingly sassy dialogue, delivered by vocally charismatic performers whose voices remind us of their stellar screen personae in live-action movies." Lisa Alspector of the *[Reader](Chicago)(Chicago Reader)* wrote "This romantic fantasy complicates the roles of beauty and beast, making it hard to guess what form a sensitive resolution will take." Joe Morgenstern of *[Wall Street Journal](The)(The Wall Street Journal)* wrote "The charms of *Shrek*, which is based on the children's book by William Steig, go far beyond in-jokes for adults." John Zebrowski of *[Seattle Times](The)(The Seattle Times)* gave the film three out of four stars, saying "The movie is helped immensely by its cast, who carry it through some of the early, sluggish scenes. But this is Murphy's movie. Donkey gets most of the good lines, and Murphy hits every one."
A mixed review came from Mark Caro of the *[Tribune](Chicago)(Chicago Tribune)*, who gave the film two and a half stars out of four and compared it to *[Story 2](Toy)(Toy Story 2)*, which he said "had a higher in-jokes/laughs ratio without straining to demonstrate its hipness or to evoke heartfelt emotions". On the more negative side, Michael Atkinson of *[Village Voice](The)(The Village Voice)* said he was "desperately avoiding the risk of even a half-second of boredom", and said "the movie is wall-to-window-to-door noise, babbling, and jokes (the first minute sees the first fart gag), and demographically it's a hard-sell shotgun spray." Christy Lemire of the *[Press](Associated)(Associated Press)* described *Shrek* as a "90-minute onslaught of in-jokes", and said while it "strives to have a heart" with "a message about beauty coming from within", "somehow [message](the) rings hollow". Anthony Lane of *[New Yorker](The)(The New Yorker)* said, despite the film "cunning the rendering of surfaces, there's still something flat and charmless in the digital look, and most of the pleasure rises not from the main romance but from the quick, incidental gags."
### Accolades
At the [Academy Awards](74th)(74th Academy Awards), *Shrek* won the first ever [Award for Best Animated Feature](Academy)(Academy Award for Best Animated Feature), beating *[Inc.](Monsters,)(Monsters, Inc.)* and *[Neutron: Boy Genius](Jimmy)(Jimmy Neutron: Boy Genius)*. It was also the first animated film to be nominated for [Adapted Screenplay](Best)(Academy Award for Best Adapted Screenplay).Oscars.org |access-date=December 16, 2020 |archive-date=October 1, 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141001074138/https://www.oscars.org/awards/academyawards/legacy/ceremony/74th-winners.html |url-status=live }} *[Weekly](Entertainment)(Entertainment Weekly)* put it on its end-of-the-decade, "best-of" list, saying, "Prince Charming? So last millennium. This decade, fairy-tale fans – and Princess Fiona – fell for a fat and flatulent Ogre. Now, that's progress." It was also nominated for The Golden Globe Award for Best Motion Picture – Musical or Comedy.
*Shrek* was also nominated for 6 [Award](BAFTA)(BAFTA Award)s, including the [Award for Best Film](BAFTA)(BAFTA Award for Best Film). Eddie Murphy became the first actor to ever receive a BAFTA nomination for a voice-over performance. The film was also nominated for Best Visual Effects, Best Sound, Best Film Music, and won the [Award for Best Adapted Screenplay](BAFTA)(BAFTA Award for Best Adapted Screenplay). *Shrek* was nominated for a dozen [Award](Annie)(Annie Award)s from [ASIFA-Hollywood](ASIFA-Hollywood), and won eight Annies including [Animated Feature](Best)(Annie Award for Best Animated Feature) and [Individual Achievement for Directing in an Animated Feature Production](Outstanding)(Annie Award for Directing in a Feature Production).
In June 2008, the [Film Institute](American)(American Film Institute) revealed its "[top Ten](Ten)(AFI's 10 Top 10)"; the best ten films in ten "classic" American film genres—after polling over 1,500 people from the creative community *Shrek* was acknowledged as the eighth best film in the animated genre, and the only non-Disney·[Pixar](Pixar) film in the Top 10. *Shrek* was also ranked second in a [4](Channel)(Channel 4) poll of the "100 Greatest Family Films", losing out on the top spot to *[the Extra-Terrestrial](E.T.)(E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial)*. In 2005, *Shrek* came sixth in Channel 4's 100 Greatest Cartoons poll behind *[Simpsons](The)(The Simpsons)*, *[and Jerry](Tom)(Tom and Jerry)*, *[Park](South)(South Park)*, *[Story](Toy)(Toy Story)* and *[Guy](Family)(Family Guy)*. In November 2009, the character, Lord Farquaad, was listed No. 14 in [UK](IGN)(IGN UK)'s "Top 15 Fantasy Villains". In 2006, it was ranked third on [Bravo](Bravo (U.S. TV channel))'s 100 funniest films list. The film's title character was awarded his own star on the [Walk of Fame](Hollywood)(Hollywood Walk of Fame) in May 2010.
[Film Institute](American)(American Film Institute) recognition:
* [100 Years...100 Heroes & Villains](AFI's)(AFI's 100 Years...100 Heroes & Villains):
** Shrek – Nominated Hero
* [100 Years...100 Songs](AFI's)(AFI's 100 Years...100 Songs):
** I'm a Believer – Nominated
* [100 Years...100 Movies (10th Anniversary Edition)](AFI's)(AFI's 100 Years...100 Movies (10th Anniversary Edition)) – Nominated
* [10 Top 10](AFI's)(AFI's 10 Top 10) – No. 8 Animated film
### Festivals
*Shrek* premiered at the [Cannes Film Festival](2001)(2001 Cannes Film Festival), where it competed for the [d'Or](Palme)(Palme d'Or), making it the first animated film since Disney's *[Pan](Peter)(Peter Pan (1953 film))* (1953) to be chosen to do so.
### Cultural impact
Previous films and TV shows, such as *[Fairy Tales](Fractured)(Fractured Fairy Tales)* and *[Princess Bride](The)(The Princess Bride (film))*, have parodied the traditional fairy tale. *Shrek* had a significant impact that influenced a later generation of mainstream animated films, receiving recognition for being one of the most influential from the 2000s. Particularly after *Shrek 2*, animated films began to incorporate more [culture](pop)(popular culture) references and end-film musical numbers. Such elements can be seen in films like *[Robots](Robots (2005 film))*, *[Little](Chicken)(Chicken Little (2005 film))* and *[Doogal](Doogal)*. It also inspired a number of computer animated films which also spoofed fairy tales, or other related story genres, often including adult-oriented humor, most of which were not nearly as successful as *Shrek*, such as ''[N'Ever After](Happily)(Happily N'Ever After)*, *[Igor](Igor (film))*, *[Hoodwinked!](Hoodwinked!)*, *[Enchanted](Enchanted (film))*, *[Transylvania](Hotel)(Hotel Transylvania)*, and *[Magic Control Agency](Secret)(Secret Magic Control Agency)* In 2020, the United States [of Congress](Library)(Library of Congress) selected *Shrek* to be preserved in the [Film Registry](National)(National Film Registry) for being "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant".
## Other media
Several [game](video)(video game) adaptations of the film have been published on various [console](game)(Video game console) platforms, including *[Shrek](Shrek (video game))* (2001), *[Hassle at the Castle](Shrek:)(Shrek: Hassle at the Castle)* (2002), *[Extra Large](Shrek:)(Shrek: Extra Large)* (2002), *[Super Party](Shrek:)(Shrek: Super Party)* (2002) and *[SuperSlam](Shrek)(Shrek SuperSlam)* (2005). Shrek was also included as a bonus unlockable character in the video game *[Hawk's Underground 2](Tony)(Tony Hawk's Underground 2)'' (2004).
In 2003, [Horse Comics](Dark)(Dark Horse Comics) released a three-issue mini-series [book](comic)(comic book) adaptation of *Shrek* which was written by Mark Evanier, and the issues were later compiled into a [paperback](trade)(trade paperback (comics)).
A [musical](musical theatre) version, based on the film, with music by [Tesori](Jeanine)(Jeanine Tesori) and a book and lyrics by [Lindsay-Abaire](David)(David Lindsay-Abaire), opened on [Broadway](Broadway theatre) on December 14, 2008, and closed January 3, 2010, running for a total of 441 performances. It starred [d'Arcy James](Brian)(Brian d'Arcy James) in the title role, [Foster](Sutton)(Sutton Foster) as Princess Fiona, [Sieber](Christopher)(Christopher Sieber) as Lord Farquaad, [Breaker](Daniel)(Daniel Breaker) as Donkey, and [Tartaglia](John)(John Tartaglia) as Pinocchio. The Broadway production was recorded and released on [DVD](DVD), [Blu-ray](Blu-ray) and digital media.Cerasaro, Pat (July 19, 2013) [SHREK: THE MUSICAL Now Available For Pre-Order](https://web.archive.org/web/20131212174029/http://www.broadwayworld.com/article/SHREK-THE-MUSICAL-Now-Available-For-Pre-Order-20130719). *Broadway World*. Retrieved July 19, 2013Gans, Andrew (July 20, 2013) [Filmed Version of Broadway's Shrek Will Be Available in October](https://web.archive.org/web/20131211180202/http://playbill.com/news/article/180314-Filmed-Version-of-Broadways-Shrek-Will-Be-Available-in-October). *Playbill*,com. Retrieved July 20, 2013Cerasaro, Pat (July 25, 2013) [SHREK: THE MUSICAL DVD/Blu Now Available For Pre-Order](https://web.archive.org/web/20131212173723/http://www.broadwayworld.com/article/SHREK-THE-MUSICAL-DVDBlu-Now-Available-For-Pre-Order-20130725). *Broadway World*. Retrieved July 26, 2013 A North American Tour opened July 25, 2010, in [Chicago](Chicago (band)). A [London](London) production opened in the [End](West)(West End theatre) on June 7, 2011. The musical received many [Award](Tony)(Tony Award) nominations and won the 2009 [Award for Best Costume Design](Tony)(Tony Award for Best Costume Design). It received five [Olivier Award](Laurence)(Laurence Olivier Award) nominations including [New Musical](Best)(Laurence Olivier Award for Best New Musical).
A [shot-for-shot](shot-for-shot) fan remake titled *[Retold](Shrek)(Shrek Retold)* was released through 3GI Industries on November 29, 2018. The project was a collaboration of 200 filmmakers and mixes live action, hand drawn animation, Flash animation, CGI and various other art forms to recreate the film. The film is available on [YouTube](YouTube) for free.
## Sequels and spin-offs
Three sequels were released over the years – the Oscar-nominated *[2](Shrek)(Shrek 2)* in 2004, *[the Third](Shrek)(Shrek the Third)* in 2007, and *[Forever After](Shrek)(Shrek Forever After)* in 2010. *Shrek 2* was the only one to receive similar acclaim from critics, though all three sequels were commercially successful. *[the Halls](Shrek)(Shrek the Halls)* (2007) and *[Shrekless](Scared)(Scared Shrekless)* (2010) were released as holiday-themed short films. A spin-off prequel film entitled *[in Boots](Puss)(Puss in Boots (2011 film)),* centered on the titular character's life before his debut in *Shrek 2*, was released in 2011, while a sequel, titled *[in Boots: The Last Wish](Puss)(Puss in Boots: The Last Wish)* and set after the events of *Shrek Forever After*, was released in 2022. A fifth feature film was originally planned during the development of *Shrek Forever After*, but the idea was later abandoned by DreamWorks Animation CEO Jeffrey Katzenberg. Leading up to NBCUniversal's planned acquisition of DreamWorks Animation in 2016, it was announced that a fifth Shrek film would be released in 2019. On November 6, 2018, *[Variety](Variety (magazine))* reported that [Meledandri](Chris)(Chris Meledandri) had been tasked to reboot both Shrek and Puss in Boots, with the original cast potentially returning to reprise their roles. While cast members reported that a script was completed for a fifth Shrek film, development stalled and future plans have yet to be officially announced.
## See also
*[fandom](*Shrek*)(Shrek fandom)
## References
}}
## Bibliography
*
*
## External links
*
* at DreamWorks
*
*
}}
[adventure comedy films](Category:2000s)(Category:2000s adventure comedy films)
[American animated films](Category:2000s)(Category:2000s American animated films)
[English-language films](Category:2000s)(Category:2000s English-language films)
[fantasy adventure films](Category:2000s)(Category:2000s fantasy adventure films)
[fantasy comedy films](Category:2000s)(Category:2000s fantasy comedy films)
[parody films](Category:2000s)(Category:2000s parody films)
[comedy films](Category:2001)(Category:2001 comedy films)
[computer-animated films](Category:2001)(Category:2001 computer-animated films)
[fantasy films](Category:2001)(Category:2001 fantasy films)
[films](Category:2001)(Category:2001 films)
[buddy comedy films](Category:American)(Category:American buddy comedy films)
[adventure comedy films](Category:American)(Category:American adventure comedy films)
[computer-animated films](Category:American)(Category:American computer-animated films)
[fantasy comedy films](Category:American)(Category:American fantasy comedy films)
[parody films](Category:American)(Category:American parody films)
[buddy films](Category:Animated)(Category:Animated buddy films)
[films about animals](Category:Animated)(Category:Animated films about animals)
[films based on children's books](Category:Animated)(Category:Animated films based on children's books)
[Animated Feature Academy Award winners](Category:Best)(Category:Best Animated Feature Academy Award winners)
[Animated Feature Annie Award winners](Category:Best)(Category:Best Animated Feature Annie Award winners)
[Animated Feature Broadcast Film Critics Association Award winners](Category:Best)(Category:Best Animated Feature Broadcast Film Critics Association Award winners)
[Grimm](Category:Brothers)(Category:Brothers Grimm)
[in animated film](Category:Ogres)(Category:Ogres in animated film)
[Animation animated films](Category:DreamWorks)(Category:DreamWorks Animation animated films)
[Pictures films](Category:DreamWorks)(Category:DreamWorks Pictures films)
[tale parody films](Category:Fairy)(Category:Fairy tale parody films)
[about curses](Category:Films)(Category:Films about curses)
[about royalty](Category:Films)(Category:Films about royalty)
[about weddings](Category:Films)(Category:Films about weddings)
[about witchcraft](Category:Films)(Category:Films about witchcraft)
[about shapeshifting](Category:Films)(Category:Films about shapeshifting)
[directed by Andrew Adamson](Category:Films)(Category:Films directed by Andrew Adamson)
[directed by Vicky Jenson](Category:Films)(Category:Films directed by Vicky Jenson)
[produced by Aron Warner](Category:Films)(Category:Films produced by Aron Warner)
[produced by John H. Williams](Category:Films)(Category:Films produced by John H. Williams)
[produced by Jeffrey Katzenberg](Category:Films)(Category:Films produced by Jeffrey Katzenberg)
[scored by Harry Gregson-Williams](Category:Films)(Category:Films scored by Harry Gregson-Williams)
[scored by John Powell](Category:Films)(Category:Films scored by John Powell)
[set in the Middle Ages](Category:Films)(Category:Films set in the Middle Ages)
[set in swamps](Category:Films)(Category:Films set in swamps)
[whose writer won the Best Adapted Screenplay BAFTA Award](Category:Films)(Category:Films whose writer won the Best Adapted Screenplay BAFTA Award)
[adapted into plays](Category:Films)(Category:Films adapted into plays)
[adapted into comics](Category:Films)(Category:Films adapted into comics)
[with screenplays by Joe Stillman](Category:Films)(Category:Films with screenplays by Joe Stillman)
[with screenplays by Ted Elliott](Category:Films)(Category:Films with screenplays by Ted Elliott)
[with screenplays by Terry Rossio](Category:Films)(Category:Films with screenplays by Terry Rossio)
[memes](Category:Internet)(Category:Internet memes)
[(franchise) films](Category:Shrek)(Category:Shrek (franchise) films)
[films about dragons](Category:Animated)(Category:Animated films about dragons)
[parodies](Category:Disney)(Category:Disney parodies)
[re-releases](Category:3D)(Category:3D re-releases)
[directorial debut films](Category:2001)(Category:2001 directorial debut films)
[States National Film Registry films](Category:United)(Category:United States National Film Registry films)
[animated feature films](Category:American)(Category:American animated feature films)
|
List of Black Ink Crew episodes
|
list_of_black_ink_crew_episodes
|
# List of Black Ink Crew episodes
*Revision ID: 1159857279 | Timestamp: 2023-06-13T00:00:50Z*
---
*[Ink Crew](Black)(Black Ink Crew)* is an American [television](reality)(reality television) series that began airing on January 7, 2013, and airs on [VH1](VH1). It chronicles the daily operations and staff drama at an African American-owned and operated [shop](tattoo)(tattoo shop) in the [Harlem](Harlem) neighborhood of [York City](New)(New York City).
## Series overview
| end1 =
| color2 = #F4A460
| link2 = List of Black Ink Crew episodes#Season 2 (2013–14)
| episodes2 = 18
| start2 =
| end2 =
| color3 = #50A6C2
| link3 = List of Black Ink Crew episodes#Season 3 (2015)
| episodes3 = 21
| start3 =
| end3 =
| color4 = #00FF00
| link4 = List of Black Ink Crew episodes#Season 4 (2016)
| episodes4 = 12
| start4 =
| end4 =
| color5 = #000000
| link5 = List of Black Ink Crew episodes#Season 5 (2017)
| episodes5 = 19
| start5 =
| end5 =
| color6 = #353839
| link6 = List of Black Ink Crew episodes#Season 6 (2017–18)
| episodes6 = 21
| start6 =
| end6 =
| color7 = #ffcfa3
| link7 = List of Black Ink Crew episodes#Season 7 (2018–19)
| episodes7 = 22
| start7 =
| end7 =
| color8 = #B50000
| link8 = List of Black Ink Crew episodes#Season 8 (2019–20)
| episodes8 = 26
| start8 =
| end8 =
| color9A = #575757
| episodes9 = 22
| link9 = List of Black Ink Crew episodes#Season 9 (2021–22)
| episodes9A = 10
| start9A =
| end9A =
| color9B = #575757
| episodes9B = 12
| start9B =
| end9B =
| color10A = #380B61
| episodes10 = 20
| link10 = List of Black Ink Crew episodes#Season 10 (2022–23)
| episodes10A = 10
| start10A =
| end10A =
| color10B = #380B61
| episodes10B = 10
| start10B =
| end10B =
}}
## Episodes
### Season 1 (2013)
### Season 2 (2013–14)
### Season 3 (2015)
### Season 4 (2016)
### Season 5 (2017)
### Season 6 (2017–18)
### Season 7 (2018–19)
### Season 8 (2019–20)
### Season 9 (2021–22)
|Viewers =
|ShortSummary =
|LineColor = 575757
}}
|Viewers =
|ShortSummary =
|LineColor = 575757
}}
|Viewers =
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|Viewers =
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|LineColor = 575757
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|Viewers =
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|LineColor = 575757
}}
|Viewers =
|ShortSummary =
|LineColor = 575757
}}
|Viewers =
|ShortSummary =
|LineColor = 575757
}}
|Viewers =
|ShortSummary =
|LineColor = 575757
}}
|Viewers =
|ShortSummary =
|LineColor = 575757
}}
|Viewers =
|ShortSummary =
|LineColor = 575757
}}
|Viewers = 0.42
|ShortSummary =
|LineColor = 575757
}}
|Viewers = 0.39
|ShortSummary =
|LineColor = 575757
}}
|Viewers = 0.32
|ShortSummary =
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}}
|Viewers = 0.31
|ShortSummary =
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}}
|Viewers = 0.29
|ShortSummary =
|LineColor = 575757
}}
|Viewers = 0.28
|ShortSummary =
|LineColor = 575757
}}
|Viewers = 0.30
|LineColor = 575757
}}
|Viewers = 0.34
|LineColor = 575757
}}
|Viewers = 0.30
|LineColor = 575757
}}
|Viewers = 0.31
|LineColor = 575757
}}
|Viewers = 0.29
|LineColor = 575757
}}
|Viewers = 0.29
|LineColor = 575757
}}
}}
### Season 10 (2022–23)
|airdate=20 |airdateR= |country=U.S. |viewers=14 |episodes=
|Viewers = 0.27
|ShortSummary =
|LineColor = 380B61
}}
|Viewers = 0.24
|ShortSummary =
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}}
|Viewers = 0.23
|ShortSummary =
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|Viewers = 0.28
|ShortSummary =
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}}
|Viewers = 0.20
|ShortSummary =
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|Viewers = 0.18
|ShortSummary =
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|Viewers =
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}}
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}}
|Viewers =
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}}
|Viewers =
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|Viewers = 0.22
|ShortSummary =
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|Viewers = 0.17
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|Viewers = 0.21
|ShortSummary =
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}}
|Viewers =
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}}
|Viewers =
|ShortSummary =
|LineColor = 380B61
}}
}}
## References
## External links
*
[Ink Crew episodes](Black)(Category:Lists of American reality television series episodes)
|
Chrysler
|
chrysler
|
# Chrysler
*Revision ID: 1159186024 | Timestamp: 2023-06-08T20:01:26Z*
---
| type = [Subsidiary](Subsidiary)
| industry = [Automotive](Automotive industry)
| founded =
| founder = [P. Chrysler](Walter)(Walter Chrysler)
| hq_location = [Chrysler Drive](1000)(Chrysler World Headquarters and Technology Center)
| hq_location_city = [Hills](Auburn)(Auburn Hills, Michigan), [Detroit](Metro)(Metro Detroit), [Michigan](Michigan)
| hq_location_country = United States
| num_locations = See [of Stellantis North America factories](List)(List of Stellantis North America factories)
| area_served = North America
| key_people =
| products =
| predecessor =
| num_employees = c. 90,000
| num_employees_year = 2019
| brands =
| parent = [Stellantis](Stellantis)
| website =
| footnotes =
}}
**Stellantis North America**, officially **FCA US, LLC** and formerly **Chrysler** ( ), is one of the "[Three](Big)(Big Three (automobile manufacturers))" [manufacturer](automobile)(automobile manufacturer)s in the United States, headquartered in [Hills, Michigan](Auburn)(Auburn Hills, Michigan). It is the American subsidiary of the multinational automotive company [Stellantis](Stellantis). In addition to the Chrysler brand, Stellantis North America sells vehicles worldwide under the [Dodge](Dodge), [Jeep](Jeep), and [Ram](Ram Trucks) nameplates. It also includes [Mopar](Mopar), its automotive parts and accessories division, and [SRT](Street & Racing Technology), its performance automobile division.
The original Chrysler Corporation was founded in 1925 by [Chrysler](Walter)(Walter Chrysler) from the remains of the [Motor Company](Maxwell)(Maxwell Motor Company). It was acquired by [Daimler-Benz](Daimler AG), which in 1998, renamed itself DaimlerChrysler. After Daimler divested Chrysler in 2007, the company operated as Chrysler LLC (2007–2009), and Chrysler Group LLC (2009–2014) before being acquired by [S.p.A.](Fiat)(Fiat S.p.A.) and becoming a subsidiary of the newly formed [Chrysler Automobiles](Fiat)(Fiat Chrysler Automobiles) ("FCA") in 2014. Chrysler in 2021 is a subsidiary of [Stellantis](Stellantis), the company formed from the merger between FCA and [Group](PSA)(PSA Group) (Peugeot Société Anonyme) in 2021.
After founding the company, Walter Chrysler used the [Motors](General)(General Motors) [diversification and hierarchy](brand)(Market segmentation) strategy that he had become familiar with when he worked in the [Buick](Buick) division at General Motors. He then acquired [Trucks](Fargo)(Fargo Trucks) and the [Brothers Company](Dodge)(Dodge), and created the [Plymouth](Plymouth (automobile)) and [DeSoto](DeSoto (automobile)) brands in 1928. Facing postwar declines in market share, productivity, and profitability, as GM and Ford were growing, Chrysler borrowed $250 million in 1954 from [Insurance](Prudential)(Prudential Financial) to pay for expansion and updated car designs.[New York Times](http://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1954/03/02/83747978.html?pageNumber=33) 1954
Chrysler expanded into Europe by taking control of French, British, and Spanish auto companies in the 1960s; [Europe](Chrysler)(Chrysler Europe) was sold in 1978 to [Peugeot Citroën](PSA)(Groupe PSA#History) for $1 billion. The company struggled to adapt to changing markets, increased U.S. import competition, and safety and [regulation](environmental)(environmental regulation) in the 1970s. It began an engineering partnership with [Motors](Mitsubishi)(Mitsubishi Motors), and began selling Mitsubishi vehicles branded as Dodge and Plymouth in North America. On the verge of bankruptcy in the late 1970s, it was saved by $1.5 billion in loan guarantees from the U.S. government. New CEO [Iacocca](Lee)(Lee Iacocca) was credited with returning the company to profitability in the 1980s. In 1985, [Motors](Diamond-Star)(Diamond-Star Motors) was created, further expanding the Chrysler-Mitsubishi relationship. In 1987, Chrysler acquired [Motors Corporation](American)(American Motors Corporation) (AMC), which brought the profitable Jeep brand under the Chrysler umbrella. In 1998, Chrysler merged with German automaker [Daimler-Benz](Daimler-Benz) to form [AG](DaimlerChrysler)(DaimlerChrysler AG); the merger proved contentious with investors. As a result, Chrysler was sold to [Capital Management](Cerberus)(Cerberus Capital Management) and renamed Chrysler LLC in 2007.
Like the other Big Three automobile manufacturers, Chrysler was impacted by the [industry crisis of 2008–2010](automotive)(automotive industry crisis of 2008–2010). The company remained in business through a combination of negotiations with creditors, filing for [11 bankruptcy reorganization](Chapter)(Chrysler Chapter 11 reorganization) on April 30, 2009, and participating in a bailout from the U.S. government through the [Asset Relief Program](Troubled)(Troubled Asset Relief Program). On June 10, 2009, Chrysler emerged from the bankruptcy proceedings with the [Auto Workers](United)(United Auto Workers) pension fund, [S.p.A.](Fiat)(Fiat S.p.A.), and the U.S. and Canadian governments as principal owners. The bankruptcy resulted in Chrysler defaulting on over $4 billion in debts. In May 2011, Chrysler finished repaying its obligations to the U.S. government five years early, although the cost to the American taxpayer was $1.3 billion.
Over the next few years, Fiat S.p.A. gradually acquired the other parties shares. In January 2014, Fiat acquired the rest of Chrysler from the United Auto Workers retiree health trust, making Chrysler Group a subsidiary of Fiat S.p.A. In May 2014, Fiat Chrysler Automobiles was established by merging Fiat S.p.A. into the company. Chrysler Group LLC remained a subsidiary until December 15, 2014, when it was renamed FCA US LLC, to reflect the Fiat-Chrysler merger.
## History
### 1925–1998: Chrysler Corporation
The Chrysler company was founded by Walter Chrysler on June 6, 1925, when the [Motor Company](Maxwell)(Maxwell Motor Company) (est. 1904) was re-organized into the Chrysler Corporation. The [was headquartered](company)(Highland Park Chrysler Plant) in the Detroit enclave of [Park](Highland)(Highland Park, Michigan), where it remained until completing the move to its present Auburn Hills location in 1996.
Chrysler had arrived at the ailing Maxwell-[Chalmers](Chalmers Automobile) company in the early 1920s, hired to overhaul the company's troubled operations (after a similar rescue job at the [Willys](Willys)-Overland car company). In late 1923, production of the Chalmers automobile was ended.
[[File:Chrysler Building, NY.jpg|thumb|170px|The [Deco](Art)(Art Deco) [Building](Chrysler)(Chrysler Building) in New York City was the company headquarters from 1930 until the mid-1950s.]]
In January 1924, Walter Chrysler launched the well-received Chrysler automobile. The [Six](Chrysler)(Chrysler Six) was designed to provide customers with an advanced, well-engineered car, at an affordable price. Elements of this car are traceable to a [prototype](prototype) which had been under development at Willys during Chrysler's tenure The original 1924 Chrysler included a carburetor air filter, high compression engine, full pressure lubrication, and an oil filter, features absent from most autos at the time. Among the innovations in its early years were the first practical mass-produced four-wheel hydraulic brakes, a system nearly completely engineered by Chrysler with patents assigned to [Lockheed](Lockheed Corporation), and rubber engine mounts, called "[Power](Floating)(Floating Power)" to reduce vibration. Chrysler also developed a wheel with a ridged [rim](Rim (wheel)), designed to keep a deflated tire from flying off the wheel. This wheel was eventually adopted by the auto industry worldwide.
The Maxwell brand was dropped after the 1925 model year, with the new, lower-priced four-cylinder Chryslers introduced for the 1926 year being [badge-engineered](badge-engineering) Maxwells. The advanced engineering and testing that went into Chrysler Corporation cars helped to push the company to the second-place position in U.S. sales by 1936, which it held until 1949.
In 1928, the Chrysler Corporation began dividing its vehicle offerings by price class and function. The [Plymouth](Plymouth (automobile)) brand was introduced at the low-priced end of the market (created essentially by once again reworking and rebadging the Chrysler Series 50 four-cylinder model). At the same time, the [DeSoto](DeSoto (automobile)) brand was introduced in the medium-price field. Also in 1928, Chrysler bought the Dodge Brothers automobile and truck company and continued the successful Dodge line of automobiles and Fargo range of trucks. By the mid-1930s, the DeSoto and Dodge divisions would trade places in the corporate hierarchy.
[[Imperial car-1955.JPG|thumb|left|1955 Imperial car model, in its first year as a separate make, apart from Chrysler, shown on display at January 1955 Chicago Auto Show](File:Chrysler)]
The [Imperial](Imperial (automobile)) name had been used since 1926 but was never a separate make, just the top-of-the-line Chrysler. However, in 1955, the company decided to offer it as its own make/brand and division to better compete with its rivals, Lincoln and Cadillac. This addition changed the company's traditional four-make lineup to five (in order of price from bottom to top): Plymouth, Dodge, DeSoto, Chrysler, and the now-separate Imperial.
In 1954, Chrysler was the exclusive provider of its Hemi engine in the [Vega](Facel)(Facel Vega), a Paris coachbuilder that offered their own line of hand-built luxury performance cars, with the [PowerFlite](PowerFlite) and [TorqueFlite](TorqueFlite) transmissions offered. The [Vega Excellence](Facel)(Facel Vega Excellence) was a four-door hardtop with rear-hinged [door](coach)(coach door)s that listed for US$12,800 ($}} in dollars ).
[[File:Chrysler Imperial all transistor car radio audio sound news clip.oga|thumb|1955 Chrysler – [Philco](Philco) all-transistor car radio – "Breaking News" radio broadcast announcement]]
On April 28, 1955, Chrysler and [Philco](Philco) announced the development and production of the World's First All-Transistor car radio. The all-transistor car radio, Mopar model 914HR, developed and produced by Chrysler and Philco, was a $150 option on the 1956 [automobile](Imperial)(Imperial automobile) models. Philco began manufacturing this radio in the fall of 1955 at its Sandusky Ohio plant.
On September 28, 1957, Chrysler announced the first production electronic fuel injection (EFI), as an option on some of its new 1958 car models (Chrysler 300D, Dodge D500, DeSoto Adventurer, Plymouth Fury). The first attempt to use this system was by American Motors on the 1957 [Rebel](Rambler)(Rambler Rebel). [Corporation](Bendix)(Bendix Corporation)'s Electrojector used a transistor computer brain modulator box, but teething problems on [car](pre-production)(pre-production car)s meant very few cars were made. The EFI system in the Rambler ran fine in warm weather, but suffered hard starting in cooler temperatures and AMC decided not to use this EFI system, on its 1957 Rambler Rebel production cars that were sold to the public. Chrysler also used the Bendix "Electrojector" fuel injection system and only around 35 vehicles were built with this option, on its 1958 production-built car models. Owners of EFI Chryslers were so dissatisfied that all but one were retrofitted with carburetors (while that one has been completely restored, with original EFI electronic problems resolved).
The [Valiant](Plymouth Valiant) was also introduced for the 1960 model year as a distinct brand. In the U.S. market, Valiant was made a model in the Plymouth line for 1961 and the DeSoto make was discontinued in 1961. With those exceptions per applicable year and market, Chrysler's range from lowest to highest price from the 1940s through the 1970s was Valiant, Plymouth, Dodge, DeSoto, Chrysler, and Imperial.
From 1963 through 1969, Chrysler increased its existing stakes to take full control of the French [Simca](Simca), British [Rootes](Rootes Group), and Spanish [Barreiros](Barreiros (manufacturer)) companies, merging them into [Europe](Chrysler)(Chrysler Europe) in 1967. In the 1970s, an engineering partnership was established with [Motors](Mitsubishi)(Mitsubishi Motors), and Chrysler began selling Mitsubishi vehicles branded as Dodge and Plymouth in North America.
Chrysler struggled to adapt to the changing environment of the 1970s. When consumer tastes shifted to smaller cars in the early 1970s, particularly after the [oil crisis](1973)(1973 oil crisis), Chrysler could not meet the demand, although their compact models on the "A" body platform, the [Dart](Dodge)(Dodge Dart) and [Valiant](Plymouth)(Plymouth Valiant), had proven economy and reliability and sold very well. Additional burdens came from increased US import competition, and tougher government regulation of car safety, fuel economy, and emissions. As the smallest of the Big 3 US automakers, Chrysler lacked the financial resources to meet all of these challenges. In 1976, with the demise of the reliable Dart/Valiant, quality control declined. Their replacements, the [Aspen](Dodge)(Dodge Aspen) and [Volare](Plymouth)(Plymouth Volare), were comfortable and had good roadability, but owners soon experienced major reliability problems which crept into other models as well. Engines failed and/or did not run well, and premature rust plagued bodies. In 1978, [Iacocca](Lee)(Lee Iacocca) was brought in to turn the company around, and in 1979 Iacocca sought US government help. Congress later passed the *Loan Guarantee Act* providing $1.5 billion in loan guarantees. The *Loan Guarantee Act* required that Chrysler also obtain $2 billion in concessions or aid from sources outside the federal government, which included interest rate reductions for $650 million of the savings, asset sales of $300 million, local and state tax concessions of $250 million, and wage reductions of about $590 million along with a $50 million stock offering. $180 million was to come from concessions from dealers and suppliers. Also in 1978, Iacocca offloaded the ailing European operation to [Peugeot Citroën](PSA)(Groupe PSA) for a nominal $1, taking with it the group's substantial losses and debts which had been dragging the rest of the business down.
After a period of plant closures and salary cuts agreed to by both management and the auto unions, the loans were repaid with interest in 1983. In November 1983, the [Caravan/Plymouth Voyager](Dodge)(Chrysler minivans (S)) was introduced, establishing the [minivan](minivan) as a major category, and initiating Chrysler's return to stability. American company |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |language=en|access-date=2018-12-05}}
In 1985, [Motors](Diamond-Star)(Diamond-Star Motors) was created, further expanding the Chrysler-Mitsubishi relationship. In 1987, Chrysler acquired American Motors Corporation (AMC), which brought the profitable Jeep brand under the Chrysler umbrella.
[[File:ChryslerHQ-highres-colored.jpg|thumb|150px|Aerial view of the [World Headquarters and Technology Center](Chrysler)(Chrysler World Headquarters and Technology Center) in [Hills, Michigan](Auburn)(Auburn Hills, Michigan), completed in 1996. Photo was taken in 2002.]]
In 1985, Chrysler entered an agreement with AMC to produce [M platform](Chrysler)(Chrysler M platform) rear-drive, as well as [Omni](Dodge)(Dodge Omni)s front wheel drive cars, in AMC's [Wisconsin](Kenosha,)(Kenosha, Wisconsin), plant. In 1987, Chrysler acquired the 47% ownership of AMC that was held by [Renault](Renault). The remaining outstanding shares of AMC were bought on the [NYSE](New York Stock Exchange) by August 5, 1987, making the deal valued somewhere between US$1.7 billion and US$2 billion, depending on how costs were counted. Chrysler CEO [Iacocca](Lee)(Lee Iacocca) wanted the Jeep brand, particularly the [Grand Cherokee (ZJ)](Jeep)(Jeep Grand Cherokee (ZJ)) that was under development, the new world-class manufacturing plant in [Ontario](Bramalea,)(Bramalea, Ontario), and AMC's engineering and management talent that became critical for Chrysler's future success. Chrysler established the [division](Jeep/Eagle)(Jeep-Eagle) as a "specialty" arm to market products distinctly different from the [K-car-based](Chrysler K platform) products with the [Eagle](Eagle (automobile)) cars targeting import buyers. Former AMC [dealers](Car dealership) sold [Jeep](Jeep) vehicles and various new Eagle models, as well as Chrysler products, strengthening the automaker's retail distribution system.
[Eurostar](Eurostar Automobilwerk), a joint venture between Chrysler and [Steyr-Daimler-Puch](Steyr-Daimler-Puch), began producing the [Voyager](Chrysler)(Chrysler Voyager) in Austria for European markets in 1992.
### 1998–2007: DaimlerChrysler
In 1998, Chrysler and its subsidiaries entered into a partnership dubbed a "merger of equals" with German-based [Daimler-Benz](Daimler-Benz) AG, creating the combined entity [AG](DaimlerChrysler)(DaimlerChrysler AG). To the surprise of many stockholders, Daimler acquired Chrysler in a stock swap before Chrysler CEO [Eaton](Bob)(Robert James Eaton) retired. Under DaimlerChrysler, the company was named DaimlerChrysler Motors Company LLC, with its U.S. operations generally called "DCX". The Eagle brand was retired soon after Chrysler's merger with Daimler-Benz in 1998 Jeep became a stand-alone division, and efforts were made to merge the Chrysler and Jeep brands as one sales unit. In 2001, the Plymouth brand was also discontinued.
Eurostar also built the [PT Cruiser](Chrysler)(Chrysler PT Cruiser) in 2001 and 2002. The Austrian venture was sold to [International](Magna)(Magna International) in 2002 and became [Steyr](Magna)(Magna Steyr). The Voyager continued in production until 2007, whereas the [300C](Chrysler)(Chrysler 300C), [Grand Cherokee](Jeep)(Jeep Grand Cherokee), and [Commander](Jeep)(Jeep Commander) were also built at the plant from 2005 until 2010.
On May 14, 2007, DaimlerChrysler announced the sale of 80.1% of Chrysler Group to American [equity](private)(private equity) firm [Capital Management](Cerberus)(Cerberus Capital Management), L.P., thereafter known as Chrysler LLC, although Daimler (renamed as [AG](Daimler)(Daimler AG)) continued to hold a 19.9% stake.
### 2007–2014: Effects of Great Recession
The economic collapse during the [crisis of 2007–2008](Financial)(Financial crisis of 2007–2008) pushed the company to the brink. On April 30, 2009, the automaker filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy protection to be able to operate as a going concern, while renegotiating its debt structure and other obligations, which resulted in the corporation defaulting on over $4 billion in secured debts. The U.S. government described the company's action as a "prepackaged surgical bankruptcy".
On June 10, 2009, substantially all of Chrysler's assets were sold to "New Chrysler", organized as Chrysler Group LLC. The federal government provided support for the deal with US$8 billion in financing at nearly 21%. Under CEO [Marchionne](Sergio)(Sergio Marchionne), "World Class Manufacturing" or WCM, a system of thorough manufacturing quality, was introduced and several products were re-launched with quality and luxury. The Ram, Jeep, Dodge, SRT, and Chrysler divisions were separated to focus on their own identity and brand, and 11 major model refreshes occurred in 21 months. The PT Cruiser, Nitro, Liberty and Caliber models (created during DCX) were discontinued. On May 24, 2011, Chrysler repaid its $7.6 billion loans to the United States and Canadian governments. The US Treasury, through the [Asset Relief Program](Troubled)(Troubled Asset Relief Program) (TARP), invested $12.5 billion in Chrysler and recovered $11.2 billion when the company shares were sold in May 2011, resulting in a $1.3 billion loss. On July 21, 2011, Fiat bought the Chrysler shares held by the US Treasury. The purchase made Chrysler foreign-owned again, this time as the luxury division. The [300](Chrysler)(Chrysler 300) was badged Lancia Thema in some European markets (with additional engine options), giving Lancia a much-needed replacement for its flagship.
### 2014–2021: Fiat Chrysler Automobiles
On January 21, 2014, Fiat bought the remaining shares of Chrysler owned by the [VEBA](Voluntary Employee Beneficiary Association) worth $3.65 billion. Several days later, the intended reorganization of Fiat and Chrysler under a new holding company, [Chrysler Automobiles](Fiat)(Fiat Chrysler Automobiles), together with a new FCA logo were announced. The most challenging launch for this new company came immediately in January 2014 with a completely redesigned [200](Chrysler)(Chrysler 200). The vehicle's creation is from the completely integrated company, FCA, executing from a global compact-wide platform."motor week"
On December 16, 2014, Chrysler Group LLC announced a name change to FCA US LLC.
----Note that the title of the piece changed to "Chrysler name fades in FCA era" over time.
On January 12, 2017, FCA shares traded at the New York Stock Exchange lost value after the [EPA](United States Environmental Protection Agency) accused FCA US of using emissions cheating software to evade diesel-emissions tests, however the company countered the accusations, and the chairman and CEO [Marchionne](Sergio)(Sergio Marchionne) sternly rejected them. The following day, shares rose as investors played down the effect of the accusations. Analysts gave estimates of potential fines from several hundred million dollars to $4 billion, although the likelihood of a hefty fine was low. [Senior](Seniority in the United States Senate) [States Senator](United)(United States Senate) [Nelson](Bill)(Bill Nelson (politician)) urged the [FTC](Federal Trade Commission) to look into possible deceptive marketing of the company's diesel-powered SUVs. Shares dropped 2.2% after the announcement. FCA US would in 2022, plead guilty to a criminal charge of conspiring to defraud the US, to wire fraud, and to violate the Clean Air Act.
On July 21, 2018, Sergio Marchionne stepped down as chairman and CEO for health reasons, and was replaced by John Elkann and Michael Manley, respectively.
As a result of ending domestic production of more fuel-efficient passenger automobiles such as the Dodge Dart and Chrysler 200 sedans, FCA US elected to pay $77 million in fines for violating the anti-backsliding provision of [economy standards](fuel)(Corporate average fuel economy) set under the [Independence and Security Act of 2007](Energy)(Energy Independence and Security Act of 2007) for its model year 2016 fleet. It was again fined for the 2017 model year for not meeting the minimum domestic passenger car standard. FCA described the $79 million civil penalty as "not expected to have a material impact on its business."
As part of a January 2019 settlement, Fiat Chrysler was to recall and repair approximately 100,000 automobiles equipped with a 3.0-liter V6 [EcoDiesel](EcoDiesel) engine having a prohibited [device](defeat)(defeat device), pay $311 million in total civil penalties to US regulators and [CARB](CARB), pay $72.5 million for state civil penalties, implement corporate governance reforms, and pay $33.5 million to mitigate excess pollution. The company was also to pay affected consumers up to $280 million and offer extended warranties on such vehicles worth $105 million. The total value of the settlement was about $800 million, though FCA did not admit liability, and it did not resolve an ongoing criminal investigation.
### Logo evolution
Emblems used by the Chrysler Corporation through the years:[Chrysler logo history](https://logos-world.net/chrysler-logo/) on Logos-World.net
First chrysler logo 1925.png|1925–1955
Chrysler_Corporation_Logo_(1955_-_1962).svg|1955–1962
Chrysler_logo_1962.png|1962–1998
DaimlerChrysler wordmark.svg|1998–2007
Chrysler Group logo.svg|2007–2014
Fiat_Chrysler_Automobiles_logo.svg|2014–2021
Stellantis.svg|2021–present
;Notes
## Corporate governance
[[File:DimeBuildingDetroit.jpg|thumb|upright|[House](Chrysler)(Chrysler House) landmark executive offices in the [Financial District](Detroit)(Detroit Financial District)]]
, management positions of Stellantis North America include:
### Board of directors
* Mark Stewart, COO
* Michael J. Keegan, Chief Audit, Sustainability, and Compliance Officer
* Richard Palmer, CFO
### Management team
* Jeffrey Kommor: head of US sales
* Lottie Holland: head of diversity, inclusion, and engagement, FCA - North America
* Bruno Cattori: president and CEO, FCA Mexico, S.A. de C.V.
* Mark Champine: head of quality, FCA - North America
* Mark Chernoby: chief technical compliance officer, Stellantis N.V.
* Martin Horneck: head of purchasing and supply chain management, FCA - North America
* Mamatha Chamarthi: chief information officer, FCA - North America and Asia Pacific
* Marissa Hunter: head of marketing
* Philip Langley: head of network development, FCA - North America
* Ralph Gilles: head of design
* Michael Resha: head of manufacturing, FCA - North America
* Roger "Shane" Karr: head of external affairs, FCA - North America
* Michael J. Keegan: chief audit; sustainability and compliance officer
* Timothy Kuniskis: brand chief executive officer, Dodge and, Ram Trucks
* Christine Feuell: brand chief executive officer, Chrysler
* Jim Morisson: head of Jeep brand, FCA - North America
* João Laranjo: chief financial officer, FCA - North America
* Michael Bly: head of global propulsion systems, Stellantis N.V.
* Jeffrey P. Lux: head of transmission powertrain, FCA - North America
* Chris Pardi: general counsel and corporate secretary, FCA - North America
* Barbara J. Pilarski: head of business development, FCA - North America
* Mark Stewart: chief operating officer
* Scott Thiele: head of portfolio planning, FCA - North America; head of global long-range plan coordination
* Joseph Veltri: head of investor relations
* Rob Wichman: ad interim head of product development, FCA - North America
* Larry Dominique: senior vice president, Alfa Romeo - North America
* Christopher G. Fields: vice president, U.S. employee relations
## Sales and marketing
### United States sales
Chrysler is the smallest of the "Big Three" U.S. automakers (Stellantis North America, [Motor Company](Ford)(Ford Motor Company), and [Motors](General)(General Motors)). In 2020, FCA US sold just over 1.8 million vehicles.
### Global sales
Chrysler was the world's 11th largest vehicle manufacturer as ranked by OICA in 2012. Total Chrysler vehicle production was about 2.37 million that year.
### Marketing
#### Lifetime powertrain warranty
In 2007, Chrysler began to offer vehicle lifetime powertrain warranty for the first registered owner or retail lessee. The deal covered owner or lessee in U.S., Puerto Rico, and the Virgin Islands, for 2009 model year vehicles, and 2006, 2007, and 2008 model year vehicles purchased on or after July 26, 2007. Covered vehicles excluded SRT models, Diesel vehicles, Sprinter models, Ram Chassis Cab, Hybrid System components (including transmission), and certain fleet vehicles. The warranty is non-transferable. After Chrysler's restructuring, the warranty program was replaced by five-year/100,000 mile transferable warranty for 2010 or later vehicles.
#### "Let's Refuel America"
In 2008, as a response to customer feedback citing the prospect of rising gas prices as a top concern, Chrysler launched the "Let's Refuel America" incentive campaign, which guaranteed new-car buyers a gasoline price of $2.99 for three years. With the U.S. purchase of eligible Chrysler, Jeep, and Dodge vehicles, customers could enroll in the program and receive a gas card that immediately lowers their gas price to $2.99 a gallon, and keeps it there for the three years.
#### Lancia co-branding
Chrysler plans for [Lancia](Lancia) to codevelop products, with some vehicles being shared. Olivier Francois, Lancia's CEO, was appointed to the [Chrysler](Chrysler (division)) division in October 2009. Francois plans to reestablish the Chrysler brand as an upscale brand.
#### Ram trucks
In October 2009, Dodge's car and truck lines were separated, with the name "Dodge" being used for cars, minivans, and crossovers and "Ram" for light- and medium-duty trucks and other commercial-use vehicles.
#### "Imported From Detroit"
In 2011, Chrysler unveiled their "Imported From Detroit" campaign with ads featuring Detroit rapper [Eminem](Eminem), [of which](one)(Born of Fire) aired during the Super Bowl. The campaign highlighted the rejuvenation of the entire product lineup, which included the new, redesigned, and repackaged 2011 model year 200 sedans and 200 convertibles, the Chrysler 300 sedan, and the Chrysler Town & Country minivan. As part of the campaign, Chrysler sold a line of clothing items featuring the [to Joe Louis](Monument)(Monument to Joe Louis), with proceeds being funneled to Detroit-area charities, including the Boys and Girls Clubs of Southeast Michigan, Habitat for Humanity Detroit and the Marshall Mathers Foundation.
In March 2011, Chrysler Group LLC filed a lawsuit against Moda Group LLC (owner of Pure Detroit clothing retailer) for copying and selling merchandise with the "Imported from Detroit" slogan. Chrysler claimed it had notified defendant of its pending trademark application February 14, but the defendant argued Chrysler had not secured a trademark for the "Imported From Detroit" phrase. On June 18, 2011, U.S. District Judge Arthur Tarnow ruled that Chrysler's request did not show that it would suffer irreparable harm or that it had a strong likelihood of winning its case. Therefore, Pure Detroit's owner, Detroit retailer Moda Group LLC, can continue selling its "Imported from Detroit" products. Tarnow also noted that Chrysler does not have a trademark on "Imported from Detroit" and rejected the automaker's argument that trademark law is not applicable to the case. In March 2012, Chrysler Group LLC and Pure Detroit agreed to a March 27 mediation to try to settle the lawsuit over the clothing company's use of "Imported from Detroit" slogan. Pure Detroit stated that Chrysler has made false claims about the origins of three vehicles - Chrysler 200, Chrysler 300 and Chrysler Town & Country - none of which are built in Detroit. Pure Detroit also said that Chrysler's Imported From Detroit merchandise is not being made in Detroit. In 2012 Chrysler and Pure Detroit came to an undisclosed settlement.
Chrysler's [North Assembly](Jefferson)(Jefferson North Assembly), which makes the Jeep Grand Cherokee and Dodge Durango, is the only car manufacturing plant of any company remaining entirely in Detroit (General Motors operates a plant that is partly in Detroit and partly in Hamtramck).
In 2011, Eminem settled a lawsuit against [Audi](Audi) alleging the defendant had ripped off the Chrysler 300 Super Bowl commercial in the [A6](Audi)(Audi A6) Avant ad.
#### "Halftime in America"
Again in 2012, Chrysler advertised during the [Bowl](Super)(Super Bowl). Its two-minute February 5, 2012 [Bowl XLVI](Super)(Super Bowl XLVI) advertisement was titled "Halftime in America". The ad drew criticism from several leading U.S. [conservatives](Conservatism in the United States), who suggested that its messaging implied that President [Obama](Barack)(Barack Obama) deserved a second term and, as such, was political payback for Obama's support for the federal bailout of the company. Asked about the criticism in a *[Minutes](60)(60 Minutes)* interview with [Kroft](Steve)(Steve Kroft), Sergio Marchionne responded "just to rectify the record I paid back the loans at 19.7% Interest. I don't think I committed to do to a commercial on top of that" and characterized the [Republican](Republican Party (United States)) reaction as "unnecessary and out of place".
#### America's Import
In 2014, Chrysler started using a new slogan, "America's Import" in ads introducing their all-new 2015 Chrysler 200, targeting foreign automakers from Germany to Japan with such ads (German performance and Japanese quality), and at the ending of selected ads, the advertisement will say, "We Built This", indicating being built in America, instead of overseas.
#### Slogans
* *Engineered to the Power of Cars* (1998–2001)
* *Drive = Love* (2002–2004)
* *Inspiration comes standard* (2004–2007)
* *Engineered Beautifully* (2007–mid 2010)
* *Imported From Detroit* (2011–2014)
* ''America's Import'' (2014–2016)
## Product line
### Chrysler Uconnect
First introduced as MyGig, Chrysler Uconnect is a system that brings interactive ability to the in-car radio and telemetric-like controls to car settings. As of mid-2015, it was installed in hundreds of thousands of Fiat Chrysler vehicles. It connects to the Internet via the mobile network of [AT&T](AT&T), providing the car with its own IP address. Internet connectivity using any Chrysler, Dodge, Jeep or Ram vehicle, via a Wi-Fi "hot-spot", is also available via [Web](Uconnect)(Chrysler Uconnect Web). According to Chrysler LLC, the hotspot range extends approximately from the vehicle in all directions, and combines both Wi-Fi and [3G](Sprint's)(Sprint Corporation) cellular connectivity. Uconnect is available on several current and was available on several discontinued Chrysler models including the current Dodge Dart, [300](Chrysler)(Chrysler 300), [Aspen](Chrysler Aspen), [Sebring](Chrysler Sebring), [and Country](Town)(Chrysler Town and Country), [Avenger](Dodge)(Dodge Avenger), [Caliber](Dodge Caliber), [Caravan](Grand)(Dodge Caravan), [Challenger](Dodge Challenger), [Charger](Dodge Charger (LX)), [Journey](Dodge Journey), [Nitro](Dodge Nitro), and [Ram](Dodge Ram).
In July 2015, IT security researchers announced a severe security flaw assumed to affect every Chrysler vehicle with Uconnect produced from late 2013 to early 2015. It allows hackers to gain access to the car over the Internet, and in the case of a [Cherokee](Jeep)(Jeep Cherokee (KL)) was demonstrated to enable an attacker to take control not just of the radio, A/C, and windshield wipers, but also of the car's steering, brakes and [transmission](Transmission (mechanics)). Chrysler published a [patch](Patch (computing)) that car owners can download and install via a USB stick, or have a car dealer install for them.
## Brands
Current and former brands of Stellantis North America:
### Current
### Former
;Notes
### Brand predecessors
#### Maxwell-Chalmers
* [Maxwell](Maxwell Motor Company) (1904–1926), US: New Models renamed Chrysler and Plymouth.
* [Chalmers](Chalmers Automobile) (1908–1923):US High-end Luxury Cars, Merged with Maxwell 1922.
#### United States Motor Company
(1908–1913): Reorganized and folded into Maxwell.
* [Brush](Brush Motor Car Company) (1907–1913)
* [Dayton](Stoddard-Dayton) (1905–1913)
* [Alden-Sampson](Sampson (automobile)) (1910–1913)
* [Columbia](Columbia (automobile brand)) (1899–1910)
* [Riker](Riker Electric Vehicle Company) (1897–1907)
*[Vehicle Company](Electric)(Electric Vehicle Company) (1899–1907)
* [Argo](Argo (automobile))
* [Hackett](Hackett (automobile))
* Lorraine
* Detroit
* [Thomas](Thomas-Detroit (automobile)) (1906–1908)
* Sampson (1903-1913)
* Stoddard
* [Courier](Courier Car Co) (1909-1913)
* Providence
* Gray Marine Motor Company
#### The Chrysler Corporation
* [Brothers](Graham)(Graham-Paige#Graham Brothers) (1916–1929), Trucks- (acquired by [Dodge Brothers Company](The)(Dodge) in 1925 with the passenger car division split to form Graham-Paige): folded into Dodge brand after Chrysler's ownership.
* [Fargo](Fargo Trucks) (1913-1935) US, (1920–1972) Canada-Trucks and Vans, Replaced by Plymouth Trucks in the US in 1937 and folded into the Dodge Division after 1972 in Canada.
#### [Group](Rootes)(Rootes Group)
(1913-1971), UK: Minority interest purchased by Chrysler in 1964, progressively taking controlling interest in 1967, renamed Chrysler Europe in 1971.
* [Sunbeam](Sunbeam Motor Car Company) (1901–1976), UK
* [Humber](Humber Limited) (1898–1976), UK
* [Singer](Singer (car)) (1905–1970), UK
* [Commer](Commer) (1905–1979), UK
* [Hillman](Hillman) (1907–1976), UK
* [Karrier](Karrier) (1908–1977), UK
* [Talbot](Talbot (automobile)) (1903–1958; 1979–1994), UK
* [Simca](Simca) (1934–1977), France
* [Barreiros](Barreiros (manufacturer)) (1959–1978), Spain
#### [Motors Corporation](American)(American Motors Corporation)
(1954–1988), US: Purchased by Chrysler and renamed Jeep-Eagle Division.
* AMC (Brand), (1967-1987) US: rebranded Eagle.
* [Hudson](Hudson Motor Car Company) (1909–1957), US
** [Aerocar](Aerocar (1905 automobile)) (1905-1908) US, Brand discontinued and Reorganized into Hudson Motors.
** [Essex](Essex (automobile)) (1918–1933), US: Folded into the main Hudson line.
** [Terraplane](Terraplane) (1932–1938), US
* [Nash](Nash Motors) (1917–1957), US
** [Jeffery](Jeffery (automobile)) (1903-1917), US: Line Dissolved and Renamed Nash in 1915.
** [LaFayette](LaFayette Motors) (1919–1940) US: Folded into Nash
** [Ajax](Ajax (Nash Motors)) (1925–1926), US
** [Mitchell](Mitchell (automobile)) (1903-1923), US purchased and renamed Ajax.
* [Rambler](Rambler (automobile)) (1900–1914 ; 1950–1969), US
* [Metropolitan](Nash Metropolitan) (1959–1962), US
* [General](AM)(AM General) US 1970–1983. The former contract division of AMC
#### [Motors Corporation](Kaiser)(Kaiser-Frazer)
* Kaiser (1946–1955)Entry level(Renamed Willys-Kaiser Motors, then to Kaiser-Jeep Corporation) Purchased by AMC in 1970.
* [Frazer](Frazer (automobile)) (1946–1951)US- Entry level Luxury, Discontinued models incorporated in Kaiser Line.
#### [Graham-Paige](Graham-Paige)
(1927–1947), Mid-priced cars - Purchased by [Kaiser](Henry)(Henry J. Kaiser) and reorganized into Kaiser-Frazer Motors.
* [Paige-Detroit](Paige automobile) (1908-1928)
** [Jewett](Jewett (automobile)) (1922-1926)
#### [Motors](Willys-Overland)(Willys-Overland Motors)
(1912-1963) US. Acquired by [Motors](Kaiser)(Kaiser Motors), later [Jeep](Kaiser)(Kaiser Jeep), then by AMC in 1970
* [Willys](Willys Motor Company) (1908–1955) US. Withdrawn from the US market in 1955. Used as a Jeep Wrangler trim level.
** [Overland](Overland Automobile) (1903-1926) US. Acquired by Willys Motors in 1912. Has been used as a Jeep trim level since 2002.
** [Russell](Russell Motor Car Company) (1904-1916) Canada
** [Curtiss](Curtiss Aeroplane and Motor Company) (1917-1920)US, Sold to [M. Keys](Clement)(Clement Melville Keys) and merged with [Aeronautical](Wright)(Wright Aeronautical).
** [Stearns-Knight](Stearns-Knight) (1898-1929) US, purchased by Willys in 1925.
## Chrysler brand
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The **Chrysler** [brand](brand) has mostly been Chrysler's premium brand competing with brands such as [Cadillac](Cadillac), [Packard](Packard), [Cord](Cord automobile) and [Lincoln](Lincoln Motor Company). After the corporation decided to spin [Imperial](Imperial (automobile)) off as a separate brand in 1955 to better compete with Cadillac and Lincoln, Chrysler became the corporation's number two brand, but still offered luxury and near-luxury products. After the Imperial brand was dropped in 1983, Chrysler once again became the top brand.
### Early history
The first Chrysler cars were introduced on January 5, 1924, at the New York Automobile Show — one year before Chrysler Corporation itself was created. These cars, launched by [Motors](Maxwell)(Maxwell Motor Car), had a new high-compression six-cylinder, a seven-bearing crankshaft, [carburetor](carburetor) air cleaner, replaceable oil filter, and four-wheel hydraulic brakes. Features like this had never been offered in a medium-priced car before, and the 32,000 first-year record sales proved the popularity of this model.
In 1926, Chrysler Introduces the [70](Chrysler)(Chrysler 70) named for its ability to hit 70 mph. In 1927, Chrysler had four models the Chrysler 50, 60, 70, and [Imperial](Chrysler Imperial) 80. Chrysler was in fourth place in sales with 192,082 units delivered. In 1928 Chrysler invested $23 million to expand its plants.
### 1930s
In 1930, Chrysler began wiring the Chrysler Model 70 and 77 for radios. Chrysler also became the first car to offer the downdraft carburetor on its models. With the new carburetor, Chrysler also received a new cam-driven fuel pump. For the 1931 model, Chrysler received new radiator grilles, a new [8 engine](inline)(Chrysler Spitfire engine), and automatic spark control. The 1932 Chryslers introduced the Floating Power rubber engine mounts which eliminated further vibrations from the chassis. A vacuum-controlled automatic clutch, [Oilite](Oilite) bearings and the first universal joints with roller bearings were also added. In 1933 Chrysler models received a host of new improvements including a new three-speed manual transmission that used helical gears- for silent use. Chrysler engines received new alloy valve seats for better reliability, along with new spring shackles which improved lubrication. In 1934 the Chrysler 6 introduced an independent front coil spring suspension and received vent windows that rolled down with the side glass. Chrysler also introduced its revolutionary Chrysler Airflow, which included a welded Unibody, a wind-tunnel-designed aerodynamic body for a better power to power ratio, and better handling. In 1935 Chrysler introduced the Plymouth-based [Airstream](Chrysler)(Chrysler Airstream) Six which gave customers an economical modern alternative to the radically styled Airflows. The Airflow received an updated front hood and grille for 1935. For 1936, the Chrysler Airflow received an enlarged luggage compartment, a new roof, and a new adjustable front seat. The Airstream Six and Eight of the previous year were renamed the [Six](Chrysler)(Chrysler Six) and Deluxe Eight. The Automatic overdrive was optional to both cars. For 1937 the Airflow cars were mostly discontinued besides the C-17 Airflow, which received a final facelift. Only 4600 C-17 [Airflow](Chrysler Airflow)s were built for 1937. The Chrysler Six and Chrysler Eight were respectively renamed the [Royal](Chrysler Royal) and Imperial and gained isolated rubber body mounts to remove road vibrations. In 1938 the Chrysler Royal received the new 95 HP Gold Seal Inline 6. In 1939 Chrysler unveiled *Superfinish* a process in which all major chassis components subject to wear were finished to a mirror-like surface. Other features new to Chrysler were push-button door locks and rotary-type door latches.
### 1940s
For 1940 Chrysler introduced sealed beam headlights on its cars which in turn improved night visibility by 50%. Mid-year in 1940 Chrysler introduced the Highlander as a special edition featuring popular features and Scottish plaid interior. The luxury sport model, called the [Saratoga](Chrysler Saratoga) was also added to the [Yorker](New)(Chrysler New Yorker) range as the [Imperial](Chrysler Imperial) became the exclusive limousine model. In 1941 Chrysler introduces the [Drive](Fluid)(Fluid Drive) semi-automatic transmission. 1942 Chryslers were redesigned with a wrap-a-round chrome grille and concealed running boards for this abbreviated model year, civilian production stopped by February 1942. For 1946 Chrysler redesigned the 1942 cars and reintroduced the [& Country](Town)(Chrysler Town & Country (1941–1988)). In 1949, Chrysler came out with the first all-new redesign in almost a decade. In 1949 Chrysler moved the ignition to key only instead of having a key and push-button, they also reintroduced the nine-passenger station wagon body style to the line.
### 1950s
For 1950 Chrysler updated the overly conservative 1949 models by lowering cars slightly, updating the grille to appear more simple, replacing the chrome fin tail lamps with flush units, and removing the third brake light from the trunk lid. Also in 1950, Chrysler introduced disc brakes on the Imperial, the new Chrysler Newport hardtop, power windows, and the padded safety dash. Chrysler introduced their first overhead-valve, high-compression V8 engine in 1951, Displacing 331 cubic inches, it was rated at 180 bhp, 20 more horsepower than the new-for-1949 Cadillac V8. It was unique as the only American V8 engine designed with hemispherical combustion chambers. After successfully winning Mexican Road Races, the engine was upgraded to 250 bhp by 1955. Although Chrysler didn't build a small sporty car (such as the [Corvette](Chevrolet)(Chevrolet Corvette) and the [Thunderbird](Ford)(Ford Thunderbird)), they decided to build a unique sporting car based on the New Yorker hardtop coupe, that featured a 300-bhp "Hemi" V8. To add to the car's uniqueness, the car was given a grille from the [Imperial](Chrysler Imperial), and side trim from the less-adorned Windsor. A [PowerFlite](PowerFlite) 2-speed automatic transmission was the only available gearbox. It was marketed as the [300](Chrysler)(Chrysler 300 letter series), emphasizing the engine's horsepower, continuing a luxury sport approach introduced earlier with the [Saratoga](Chrysler)(Chrysler Saratoga).
A 1955 restyle by newly hired [Exner](Virgil)(Virgil Exner) saw a dramatic rise in Chrysler sales, which rose even more in 1957, when the entire line was dramatically restyled a second time with a sloping front end and high-flying tailfins at the rear. Although well received at first, it soon became apparent that quality control was compromised to get the new cars to market on an accelerated schedule. In 1957 all Chrysler products were installed with Torsion-Aire front suspension, which was a [bar suspension](Torsion)(Torsion bar suspension) only for the front wheels that followed two years after Packard installed Torsion-Level suspension on both the front and rear wheels.
Sales of all Chrysler models plummeted in 1958 and 1959 despite improvements in quality. Throughout the mid-and late-1950s, Chryslers were available in top-line New Yorker, mid-line Saratoga, and base Windsor series. Exner's designs for the Chrysler brand in the early 1960s were overblown versions of the late 1950s, which were unhelpful in sales. Exner left his post by 1962, leaving [Engel](Elwood)(Elwood Engel), a recent transfer from Ford Motor Co, in charge of Chrysler styling.
### 1960s
Although early 1960s Chrysler cars reflected Virgil Exner's exaggerated styling, Elwood Engel's influence was evident as early as 1963, when a restyled, trimmer, boxier Chrysler was introduced. The Desoto lines along with the [Windsor](Chrysler Windsor) and [Saratoga](Chrysler Saratoga) series were replaced with the [Newport](Chrysler Newport), while [Yorker](New)(Chrysler New Yorker) continued as the luxury model, while [Imperial](Imperial (automobile)) continued to be the top-of-the-line brand. The [300](Chrysler)(Chrysler 300 letter series), officially part of the New Yorker product line, continued in production as a high-performance coupe through 1965, adding a different letter of the alphabet for each year of production, starting with the 300-B of 1956, through the 300-L of 1965. 1962 saw a "non-letter" 300 which was lower in price but was equipped with downgraded standard equipment. The '65 Chryslers were again dramatically restyled, with a thoroughly modern unit body and larger engines up to 440 cubic inches. They were squared off and slab-sided, with optional glass-covered headlamps that retracted when the headlights were turned on and a swept-back roofline for 2-door hardtop models. Chryslers through the 1960s were well-built, quality cars with innovative features such as unit bodies and front torsion bar suspension, and in 1963 [Hope](Bob)(Bob Hope) was a spokesperson of [Chrysler Theatre](The)(Bob Hope Presents the Chrysler Theatre), the same year the [Turbine Car](Chrysler)(Chrysler Turbine Car) was introduced.
### 1970s
The [Cordoba](Chrysler Cordoba) was introduced by Chrysler for the 1975 model year as an upscale personal luxury car that replaced the 300, competing with the [Cutlass](Oldsmobile)(Oldsmobile Cutlass), [Regal](Buick)(Buick Regal), and [Cougar](Mercury)(Mercury Cougar#Third generation (1974–1976)). The Cordoba was originally intended to be a Plymouth—the names [Mirada](Dodge Mirada), [Premier](Eagle Premier), [Sebring](Chrysler Sebring), and Grand Era were associated with the project; all except Grand Era would be used on later Chrysler, Dodge, and Eagle vehicles, though only the [Mirada](Dodge)(Dodge Mirada) would be related to the Cordoba. However, losses from the newly introduced full-size C-body models due to the [oil crisis](1973)(1973 oil crisis), along with the investment in the Turbine Car that didn't produce a product to sell encouraged Chrysler executives to seek higher profits by marketing the model under the more upscale Chrysler brand.
The car was a success, with over 150,000 examples sold in 1975, a sales year that was otherwise dismal for the company. For the 1976 model year, sales increased slightly to 165,000. The mildly revised 1977 version also sold well, with just under 140,000 cars. The success of using the Chrysler nameplate strategy is contrasted to sales of its similar and somewhat cheaper corporate cousin, the [Charger](Dodge)(Dodge Charger (B-body)) SE.Interiors were more luxurious than the Dodge Charger SE and much more than the top-line standard intermediates (Plymouth Fury, Dodge Coronet) with a velour cloth notchback bench seat and folding armrest standard. Optionally available were bucket seats upholstered in [leather](Corinthian)(Corinthian leather) with a center armrest and cushion, or at extra cost, a center console with floor shifter and storage compartment.
In 1977, Chrysler brought out a new mid-size line of cars called [LeBaron](Chrysler LeBaron) (a name previously used for an Imperial model) which included a coupe, sedan, and station wagon.
### 1980s
For 1982, the LeBaron moved to the [drive](front-wheel)(front-wheel drive) [K platform](Chrysler)(Chrysler K platform), where it was the upscale brand's lowest-priced offering. It was initially available in just [sedan](sedan (car)) and [coupe](coupe) versions. In early 1982, it was released in a [convertible](convertible (car)) version, bringing to the market the first factory-built open-topped domestic vehicle since the 1976 [Eldorado](Cadillac)(Cadillac Eldorado). A station wagon version called the **Town and Country** was added as well. A special Town and Country convertible was also made from 1983 until 1986 in limited quantities (1,105 total), which like the wagon featured simulated wood paneling that made it resemble the original 1940s [and Country](Town)(Chrysler Town and Country (pre-1990)). This model was part of the well-equipped Mark Cross option package for the latter years.
In 1982 the R-body line was discontinued and the New Yorker nameplate transferred to the smaller M-body line. Up to this point, the Chrysler M-body entry had been sold as LeBaron, but that name was moved to a new K-car-based FWD line (refer to the [LeBaron](Chrysler)(Chrysler LeBaron) article for information on the 1977-81 M-bodies). Following the nameplate swap, the M-body line was consolidated and simplified. 360 V8 engines were gone, as were coupes and station wagons (the K-car LeBaron's coupe and wagon replaced them). The Fifth Avenue option was still available as a $1,244 option package. It was adapted from the earlier LeBaron's package, with a distinctive vinyl roof, electroluminescent opera lamps, and a rear fascia adapted from the Dodge Diplomat. Interiors featured button-tufted, pillow-soft seats covered in either "Kimberley velvet" or "[leather](Corinthian)(Corinthian leather)", choices that would continue unchanged throughout the car's run. In addition, the carpet was thicker than that offered in the base New Yorker, [Diplomat](Dodge Diplomat) and [Fury/Caravelle Salon](Gran)(Plymouth Gran Fury), and the interior had more chrome trim.
1983 was the last year for Chrysler's Cordoba coupe. Also in 1983, Chrysler introduced a new front-wheel-drive New Yorker model based on a stretched K-Car platform. Additionally, a less expensive, less equipped version of the new New Yorker was sold as the [E-Class](Chrysler)(Chrysler E-Class) in 1983 and 1984. More upscale stretched K-Car models were also sold as [Executive](Chrysler)(Chrysler Executive) sedans and limousines.
For 1984, the New Yorker Fifth Avenue was now simply called Fifth Avenue, setting the name that would continue for six successful years. All Fifth Avenues from 1984 until 1989 were powered by a V8 engine, with either a two-barrel [carburetor](carburetor) making (in all states except California) or a four-barrel rated at (in [California](California)), mated to Chrysler's well-known [Torqueflite](Torqueflite) three-speed [transmission](automatic)(automatic transmission). Fifth Avenue production was moved from [Ontario](Windsor,)(Windsor, Ontario), to [Louis, Missouri](St.)(St. Louis, Missouri). Beginning in late 1986 through the 1989 model year, they were manufactured at the [Motors](American)(American Motors) plant in [Wisconsin](Kenosha,)(Kenosha, Wisconsin) (purchased by Chrysler in 1987). The Fifth Avenue also far outsold its [Diplomat](Dodge)(Dodge Diplomat) and [Gran Fury](Plymouth)(Plymouth Gran Fury) siblings, with a much greater proportion of sales going to private customers, despite its higher price tag. Production peaked at 118,000 cars for 1986 and the Fifth Avenue stood out in a by-now K-car dominated lineup as Chrysler's lone concession to traditional RWD American sedans.
Chrysler introduced a new mid-size four-door hatchback model for 1985 under the [GTS](LeBaron)(Chrysler LeBaron GTS) nameplate. It was sold alongside the mid-size LeBaron sedan, coupe, convertible, and station wagon. The LeBaron coupe and convertible were redesigned for 1987. Unlike previous LeBarons, this new coupe and convertible had unique styling instead of being just two-door versions of the sedan. The new design featured [headlamps](hidden)(hidden headlamps) (through 1992) and full-width taillights.
The New Yorker was redesigned for the 1988 model year and now included a standard V6 engine. This generation New Yorker also saw the return of hidden headlamps which had not been available on the New Yorker since the 1981 [R-body](Chrysler R platform) version. In 1989, Chrysler brought out the [by Maserati](TC)(Chrysler TC by Maserati) luxury roadster as a more affordable alternative to Cadillac's Allante. It was a joint venture model between Chrysler and Maserati.
### 1990s
[[Chrysler New Yorker Fifth Avenue](File:ChryslerNewYorker.jpg|thumb|1992–1993)]
Chrysler re-introduced the Town & Country nameplate in the calendar year 1989 as a luxury [variant](rebadged)(badge engineering) of the [Grand Caravan](Dodge)(Dodge Grand Caravan)/[Grand Voyager](Plymouth)(Plymouth Grand Voyager) [minivan](minivan) for the 1990 model year and continued to sell this incarnation of the [Town & Country](Chrysler)(Chrysler Town & Country) until the end of the 2016 model year when [Chrysler](Chrysler (division)) reintroduced the Pacifica nameplate for their minivan in the calendar year 2016 for the 2017 model year run. 1990 saw the previous relationship between New Yorker and Fifth Avenue return, as the Fifth Avenue became a model of the New Yorker. There was some substantive difference, however, as the New Yorker Fifth Avenue used a [longer chassis](slightly)(Chrysler Y platform) than the standard car. The new New Yorker Fifth Avenue's larger interior volume classified it as a full-size model this time; despite having smaller exterior dimensions than the first generation. For 1990, Chrysler's new 3.3L V6 engine was the standard and only choice, teamed with the company's A-604 four-speed electronic automatic transaxle. Beginning in 1991, a larger 3.8L V6 became optional. It delivered the same 147 horsepower as the 3.3, but had more torque.
The New Yorker Fifth Avenue's famous seats, long noted for their button-tufted appearance and sofa-like comfort, continued to be offered with the customer's choice of velour or leather, with the former "Corinthian leather" replaced by that of the Mark Cross company. Leather-equipped cars bore the Mark Cross logo on the seats and, externally, on an emblem attached to the brushed aluminum band ahead of the rear door opera windows. In this form, the New Yorker Fifth Avenue resembled the newly revived [Imperial](Chrysler)(Chrysler Imperial#1990–1993), although some much-needed distinction was provided between the cars when the New Yorker Fifth Avenue (along with its New Yorker Salon linemate) received restyled, rounded-off front and rear ends for the 1992 model year, while the Imperial continued in its original crisply-lined form.
[[1992.png|thumb|1992 Chrysler Imperial](File:Imperial)]
[[Imperial rear.jpg|thumb|The 1990s Chrysler Imperial featured full-width taillights.](File:Chrysler)]
The early 1990s saw a revival of the Imperial as a high-end sedan in Chrysler's lineup. Unlike the 1955–1983 Imperial, this car was a model of Chrysler, not its own marque. Based on the [platform](Y)(Chrysler Y platform), it represented the top [full-size](full-size) model in Chrysler's lineup; below it was the similar [Yorker Fifth Avenue](New)(Chrysler Fifth Avenue), and below that was the shorter wheelbase [Yorker](New)(Chrysler New Yorker). The reintroduction of the Imperial was two years after the [Continental](Lincoln)(Lincoln Continental#Eighth generation (1988–1994)) was changed to a front-wheel-drive sedan with a V6 engine. Other domestic competitors in this segment included the [Sedan de Ville](Cadillac)(Cadillac Sedan de Ville)/[Fleetwood](Cadillac Fleetwood), [98](Oldsmobile)(Oldsmobile 98), and [Electra](Buick)(Buick Electra)/[Avenue](Park)(Buick Park Avenue). Though closely related, the Imperial differed from the New Yorker Fifth Avenue in many ways. The Imperial's nose was more wedge-shaped, while the New Yorker Fifth Avenue's had a sharper, more angular profile (the New Yorker Fifth Avenue was later restyled with a more rounded front end). The rears of the two cars also differed. Like the front, the New Yorker Fifth Avenue's rear came to stiffer angles while the Imperial's rear-end came to more rounded edges. Also found on the Imperial were full-width taillights which were similar to those of the Chrysler TC, as well as the early 1980s Imperial coupe, while the New Yorker Fifth Avenue came with smaller vertical taillights.
Initially, the 1990 Imperial was powered by the 3.3L *[EGA](Chrysler 3.3 engine#3.3)* [engine](V6)(V6 engine), which was rated at of torque. For 1991, the 3.3L V6 was replaced by the larger 3.8L *[EGH](Chrysler 3.3 engine#OHV)* V6. Although horsepower only increased to , with the new larger 3.8L V6 torque increased to at 2750 rpm. A four-speed [transmission](automatic)(automatic transmission) was standard with both engines.
Also new for 1990 was a redesigned LeBaron sedan which offered a standard V6 engine. Later models would also be available with 4 cylinder engines.
The Town & Country minivan was restyled for 1991 in conjunction with the restyling of the Dodge and Plymouth minivan models. 1991 would also be the last year for the TC by Maserati, leaving the LeBaron as the brand's sole coupe and convertible options.
[[Concorde LX silver rear cz.jpg|thumb|First generation featured full-width taillamp design.](File:Chrysler)]
The first generation of the [Concorde](Chrysler)(Chrysler Concorde) debuted at the 1992 [American International Auto Show](North)(North American International Auto Show) in [Detroit](Detroit) as a 1993 model. It debuted as a single, well-equipped model with a base price of US$18,341. Out of all the LH sedans, the first generation Concorde was most closely related to the [Vision](Eagle)(Eagle Vision). The Concorde was given a more traditional image than the Vision. The two shared nearly all sheet metal in common with the main differences limited to their grilles, rear fascias, bodyside moldings, and wheel choices. The Concorde featured a modern take on Chrysler's signature waterfall grille. It was split into six sections divided by body-colored strips with the [Pentastar](Chrysler)(History of Chrysler#Logos) logo on the center strip. The Concorde's rear fascia was highlighted by a full-width and full-height [lightbar](lightbar) between the taillights, giving the appearance that the taillights stretched across the entire trunk. In keeping with its upscale position, Concorde's body side moldings incorporated bright chrome (later golden colored) work not found on its Dodge or Eagle siblings. On Concordes with gray lower body paint color, the gray came all the way up to the chrome beltline; on Visions, the gray lower body paint area was smaller and much more subtle. Wheel styles, which included available aluminum wheels with a Spiralcast design, were also unique to the Chrysler LH sedans (Concorde, LHS, New Yorker); Dodge and Eagle had their own different wheel styles.
Introduced in May 1993 for the 1994 model year, the Chrysler LHS was the top-of-the-line model for the division, as well as the most expensive of the [LH platform](Chrysler)(Chrysler LH platform) cars. All the LH-series models shared a wheelbase and were developed using Chrysler's new computer drafting system. The car was differentiated from the division's [Yorker](New)(Chrysler New Yorker) sedan by its bucket leather seats (the New Yorker had a bench seat) and standard features such as alloy wheels that were options on the New Yorker. Further differences between the Chrysler LHS and its New Yorker counterpart were a floor console and shifter, five-passenger seating, lack of chrome trim, an upgraded interior and a sportier image. The New Yorker was dropped after the 1996 model year in favor of a six-passenger option on the LHS. The LHS received a minor face change in 1995 when the corporate-wide Pentastar emblem was replaced with the revived Chrysler brand emblem. Standard features of the LHS included a 3.5L EGE 24-valve V6 engine, body-colored grille, side mirrors and trim, traction control, aluminum wheels, integrated fog lights, 8-way power-adjustable front seats, premium sound systems with amplifiers, and automatic temperature control. Unlike the New Yorker, leather seats were standard.
[[New Yorker LH.jpg|thumb|1994–1996 Chrysler New Yorker](File:Chrysler)]
The final generation of the New Yorker continued with front-wheel drive on an elongated version of the new [LH platform](Chrysler)(Chrysler LH platform) and was released in May 1993 along with the nearly identical Chrysler LHS as an early 1994 model, eight months after the original LH cars: the Chrysler Concorde, [Intrepid](Dodge)(Dodge Intrepid), and Eagle Vision, were introduced. The New Yorker came standard with the 3.5L *[EGE](Chrysler SOHC V6 engine#3.5)* which produced . Chrysler gave the New Yorker a more "traditional American" luxury image, and the LHS a more European performance image (as was done with the [Vision](Eagle)(Eagle Vision)). Little separated New Yorker from LHS in appearance, with New Yorker's chrome hood trim, body-color cladding, standard chrome wheel covers, and 15-inch wheels, column shifter, and front bench seat, being the only noticeable differences. An option provided for 16-inch wheels and a firmer suspension type ("touring suspension"). This option eliminated the technical differences between New Yorker and LHS. LHS came with almost all of New Yorker's optional features as standard equipment and featured the firmer tuned suspension, to go with its more European image.
During the 1994 model run, various changes were made to the New Yorker. On the outside, New Yorker was switched to new accent-color body cladding, whereas LHS received body-color cladding. This change aligned New Yorker with the Chrysler Concorde which also had accent-color cladding. Instead of standard 15-inch and optional 16-inch wheels, for the sake of enhanced stability 16-inch wheels became standard and the 15-inch versions were dropped. Likewise, the touring suspension option available on early 1994 New Yorker models was discontinued, leaving only "ride-tuned" suspension.
In 1995, the Chrysler Sebring was introduced as a coupe, replacing the LeBaron coupe, and the new [platform](JA)(Chrysler JA platform) [Cirrus](Chrysler)(Chrysler Cirrus) replaced the outgoing LeBaron sedan. A year later, a convertible version of the Sebring went on the market and replaced the LeBaron convertible. In 1999, Chrysler introduced the new LH platform [300M](Chrysler 300M) sedan alongside a redesigned LHS. The 300M was originally designed to be the next-generation Eagle Vision but since the Eagle brand had been discontinued in 1998, it instead became a Chrysler sedan.
### 2000s
In 2000, the [Voyager](Chrysler Voyager) and Grand Voyager minivans were repositioned as Chrysler models due to the phasing out of the Plymouth brand. In 2001, a sedan was added to the Sebring model line and served as a replacement for the discontinued Cirrus. That same year, the Chrysler brand added a retro-styled [Cruiser](PT)(Chrysler PT Cruiser) as well as the [Prowler](Chrysler Prowler) roadster which had previously been a Plymouth model. By 2004, all Chrysler brand minivans were now sold under the Town & Country nameplate.
The 2000s also saw the Chrysler brand move into the fast-growing crossover/SUV segment with the introduction of the [Pacifica](Chrysler)(Chrysler Pacifica (crossover)) crossover in 2004, and the [Aspen](Chrysler)(Chrysler Aspen) SUV in 2007. The Pacifica would be discontinued in 2008 (the nameplate would return on a new minivan model in 2017) and the Aspen would be discontinued in 2009.
Between 2004 and 2008, Chrysler offered a two-seat coupe and convertible model called [Crossfire](Chrysler Crossfire). This was in addition to Chrysler's five-seat Sebring coupe (through 2005) and four-seat convertible being sold at the time.
In 2005, Chrysler introduced the [platform](LX)(Chrysler LX platform) [300](Chrysler)(Chrysler 300) sedan which replaced both the 300M and Concorde. It was the brand's first rear-wheel-drive sedan since the discontinuation of the Chrysler Fifth Avenue in 1989. It was also the first time a Chrysler sedan was available with a V8 engine since 1989.
### 2010s
Following FCA's acquisition of Chrysler, FCA set a long-term goal of reviving the Chrysler brand as a full luxury brand to compete again with Cadillac and other luxury brands. The company announced in October 2009 that future plans for Chrysler brand vehicles include closer cooperation and shared development between Chrysler and [Lancia](Lancia), an upscale Italian automaker within the Fiat Group. In 2011, the brand's winged emblem was modified, eliminating the historic blue ribbon center which dated from the 1930s, replacing it with a blue-backed "Chrysler" nameplate. Also that year, the Chrysler 300 was restyled and the Sebring was rebranded as the [200](Chrysler)(Chrysler 200). In May 2014, FCA announced it would make the brand a mainstream brand with premium features. A redesigned Chrysler 200 was introduced for 2015 as a sedan only, but would be discontinued in 2017 as FCA shifted focus more towards SUVs and minivans. For 2017, the [Pacifica](Chrysler)(Chrysler Pacifica (minivan)) nameplate returned on a new minivan, replacing the long-running Town & Country.
In 2010, Fiat Auto was planning to sell seven of its vehicles in the U.S. by 2014, while Fiat-controlled Chrysler Group was to supply nine models to sell under Fiat brands in the European market, according to a five-year plan rolled out on April 21, 2010, in [Turin](Turin), Italy, by Fiat and Chrysler CEO [Marchionne](Sergio)(Sergio Marchionne). At least five of the Fiat Auto models were expected to be marketed in the U.S. under its [Romeo](Alfa)(Alfa Romeo) brand. Showing the level of integration envisioned, a product introduction timeline envisaged Chrysler-built compact and full-size SUVs going on sale in 2012 and 2014, respectively, in both European and North American markets.
During this time, Chrysler's quality and customer satisfaction ratings had been below average according to Consumer Reports and J.D. Power since the late 1990s. Chrysler did have a few quality successes during this period. Strategic Vision named Chrysler an overall winner in 2015, for strong customer appeal, and with the rise in quality of all cars the difference between high and low "problem-counting" ratings are relatively small.
### 2020s
The low-end *L* and *LX* models were separated from the Pacifica line and sold under the Voyager nameplate starting with the 2020 model year. Additionally, a fleet-only Voyager *LXi* version was added.
The brand's current lineup consists of the [300](Chrysler)(Chrysler 300), [Pacifica](Chrysler)(Chrysler Pacifica (minivan)) and [Voyager](Chrysler)(Chrysler Voyager).
## Environmental initiatives
Chrysler produced an experimental [electric](Battery electric vehicle) vehicle in 1979, the company developed [ETV-1](Chrysler)(Chrysler ETV-1) electric prototype in cooperation with [Department of Energy](U.S.)(U.S. Department of Energy).
In 1992, Chrysler developed the [EPIC](Dodge)(Dodge EPIC) concept minivan. In 1993, Chrysler began to sell a limited-production electric minivan called the [TEVan](Chrysler TEVan); however, only 56 were produced. In 1997, a second generation, called the EPIC, was released. It was discontinued after 1999.
Chrysler once owned the [Electric Motorcars](Global)(Global Electric Motorcars) company, building low-speed [electric vehicles](neighborhood)(neighborhood electric vehicles), but sold GEM to [Industries](Polaris)(Polaris Industries) in 2011.
In September 2007, Chrysler established [ENVI](Envi (Automobile)), an in-house organization focused on [vehicles](electric-drive)(electric vehicle) and related technologies which was disbanded by late 2009. In August 2009, Chrysler took US$70 million in grants from the U.S. [of Energy](Department)(United States Department of Energy) to develop a test fleet of 220 [hybrid](hybrid vehicle) pickup trucks and minivans.
The first hybrid models, the [Aspen](Chrysler)(Chrysler Aspen) hybrid and the [Durango](Dodge)(Dodge Durango) hybrid, were discontinued a few months after production in 2008, sharing their GM-designed hybrid technology with GM, Daimler and BMW.
Chrysler is on the Advisory Council of the [Research Center](PHEV)(PHEV Research Center), and undertook a government sponsored demonstration project with Ram and minivan vehicles.
In 2012, FCA CEO Sergio Marchionne said that Chrysler and Fiat both plan to focus primarily on alternative fuels, such as [natural gas](compressed)(compressed natural gas) and [Diesel](Diesel fuel), instead of hybrid and electric drivetrains for their consumer products.
Fiat Chrysler bought a total of 8.2 million megagrams of U.S. [gas emission](greenhouse)(greenhouse gas emissions) credits from competitors including [Toyota](Toyota), [Honda](Honda), [Tesla](Tesla, Inc.) and [Nissan](Nissan) for the 2010, 2011, 2013, and 2014 model years. It had the worst fleet average fuel economy among major manufacturers selling in the US from model years 2012–2021.
## Chrysler Defense
The dedicated tank building division of Chrysler, this division was founded as the Chrysler Tank division in 1940, originally with the intention of providing another production line for the [Medium Tank](M2)(M2 Medium Tank), so that the U.S. Army could more rapidly build up its inventory of the type. Its first plant was the [Arsenal Tank Plant](Detroit)(Detroit Arsenal (Warren, Michigan)). When the M2A1 was unexpectedly declared obsolete in August of the same year, plans were altered (though not without considerable difficulty) to produce the [Grant](M3)(M3 Lee#Development) instead, primarily for the British as part of the United States under the counter support for Great Britain against Nazi Germany (the U.S. not yet being formally in the war), with the balance of the revised order going to the U.S. Army as the *Lee*. After December 1941 and the United States' entry into the war against the Axis powers, the Tank division rapidly expanded, with new facilities such as the [Arsenal Proving Ground](Tank)(Packard Proving Grounds) at (then) [Michigan](Utica,)(Utica, Michigan). It also quickly widened the range of products it was developing and producing, including the [Sherman tank](M4)(M4 Sherman#U.S. design prototype) and the [A57 multibank](Chrysler)(Chrysler A57 multibank) tank engine.
## Special programs
During World War II, essentially all of Chrysler's facilities were devoted to building military vehicles (the [Jeep](Jeep) brand came later, after Chrysler acquired [Motors Corporation](American)(American Motors Corporation)). They were also designing V12 and V16 hemi-engines producing for airplanes, but they did not make it into production as [jets](jet engine) were developed and were seen as the future for air travel. During the 1950s [War](Cold)(Cold War) period, Chrysler [air raid sirens](made)(Chrysler air raid siren) powered by its Hemi V-8 engines.
### Radar antennas
When the [Laboratory](Radiation)(Radiation Laboratory) at [MIT](Massachusetts Institute of Technology) was established in 1941 to develop [radar](microwave)(microwave radar)s, one of the first projects resulted in the [SCR-584](SCR-584), the most widely recognized radar system of the war era. This system included a [antenna](parabolic)(parabolic antenna) six feet in diameter that was mechanically aimed in a helical pattern (round and round as well as up and down).
One of Chrysler's most significant contributions to the war effort was in radar technology. For the final production design of this antenna and its highly complex drive mechanism, the Army's [Corps Laboratories](Signal)(Signal Corps Laboratories) turned to Chrysler's Central Engineering Office. There, the parabola was changed from aluminum to steel, allowing production to form using standard automotive presses. To keep weight down, 6,000 equally spaced holes were drilled in the face (this had no effect on the radiation pattern). The drive mechanism was completely redesigned, using technology derived from Chrysler's research in automotive gears and differentials. The changes resulted in improved performance, reduced weight, and easier maintenance. A large portion of the Dodge plant was used in building 1,500 of the SCR-584 antennas as well as the vans used in the systems.
### Aircraft
* [VZ-6](Chrysler)(Chrysler VZ-6)
### Missiles
In April 1950, the U.S. Army established the Ordnance Guided Missile Center (OGMC) at [Arsenal](Redstone)(Redstone Arsenal), adjacent to [Alabama](Huntsville,)(Huntsville, Alabama). To form OGMC, over 1,000 civilian and military personnel were transferred from [Bliss, Texas](Fort)(Fort Bliss, Texas). Included was a group of German scientists and engineers led by [von Braun](Wernher)(Wernher von Braun); this group had been brought to America under [Paperclip](Project)(Project Paperclip). OGMC designed the Army's first [ballistic missile](short-range)(short-range ballistic missile), the [Redstone](PGM-11)(PGM-11 Redstone), based on the WWII German [V-2](V-2) missile. Chrysler established the Missile Division to serve as the Redstone prime contractor, setting up an engineering operation in Huntsville and for production obtaining use from the U.S. Navy of a large plant in [Heights, Michigan](Sterling)(Sterling Heights, Michigan). The Redstone was in active service from 1958 until 1964; it was also the first missile to test-launch a live [weapon](nuclear)(nuclear weapon), first detonated in a 1958 test in the South Pacific.Bullard, John W.; "History Of The Redstone Missile System," Historical Monograph Project Number: AMC 23 M. Historical Division, Army Missile Command
Working together, the Missile Division and von Braun's team greatly increased the capability of the Redstone, resulting in the [Jupiter](PGM-19)(PGM-19 Jupiter), a [ballistic missile](medium-range)(medium-range ballistic missile). In May 1959, a Jupiter missile launched two small monkeys into space in a [cone](nose)(nose cone); this was America's first successful flight and recovery of live space payloads. Responsibility for deploying Jupiter missiles was transferred from the Army to the Air Force; armed with [warheads](nuclear)(nuclear warheads), they were first deployed in [Italy](Italy) and [Turkey](Turkey) during the early 1960s.
### Space boosters
In July 1959, [NASA](NASA) chose the [missile](Redstone)(Redstone missile) as the basis for the [Launch Vehicle](Mercury-Redstone)(Mercury-Redstone Launch Vehicle) to be used for suborbital test flights of the [Mercury](Project)(Project Mercury) spacecraft. Three uncrewed MRLV launch attempts were made between November 1960 and March 1961, two of which were successful. The MRLV successfully launched the chimpanzee [Ham](Ham (chimpanzee)), and astronauts [Shepard](Alan)(Alan Shepard) and [Grissom](Gus)(Gus Grissom) on three suborbital flights in January, May, and July 1961, respectively.
America's more ambitious crewed space travel plans included the design of the [series](Saturn)(Saturn (rocket family)) of heavy-lift launch vehicles by a team headed by [von Braun](Wernher)(Wernher von Braun). Chrysler's Huntsville operation, then designated the Space Division, became [Space Flight Center](Marshall)(Marshall Space Flight Center)'s prime contractor for the first stage of the [I](Saturn)(Saturn I) and [IB](Saturn)(Saturn IB) versions. The design was based on a cluster of Redstone and [Jupiter](PGM-19 Jupiter) fuel tanks and Chrysler built it for the [program](Apollo)(Apollo program) in the [Assembly Facility](Michoud)(Michoud Assembly Facility) in East New Orleans, one of the largest manufacturing plants in the world. Between October 1961 and July 1975, NASA used ten Saturn Is and nine Saturn IBs for suborbital and orbital flights, all of which were successful; Chrysler missiles and boosters never suffered a launch failure. The division was also a subcontractor which modified one of the [launcher platform](mobile)(mobile launcher platform)s for use with the Saturn IB rockets using Saturn V infrastructure.
## See also
* [Breer](Carl)(Carl Breer)
* [Building](Chrysler)(Chrysler Building)
* [World Headquarters and Technology Center](Chrysler)(Chrysler World Headquarters and Technology Center)
* [Hemi engine](Chrysler)(Chrysler Hemi engine)
* [Proving Grounds](Chrysler)(Chrysler Proving Grounds)
*
* [of Chrysler](History)(History of Chrysler)
* [Iacocca](Lee)(Lee Iacocca)
* [of automobile manufacturers of the United States](List)(List of automobile manufacturers of the United States)
* [of Chrysler engines](List)(List of Chrysler engines)
* [of Chrysler factories](List)(List of Chrysler factories)
* [of Chrysler platforms](List)(List of Chrysler platforms)
* [of Chrysler vehicles](List)(List of Chrysler vehicles)
* [Mopar](Mopar)
* [Ray Skelton](Owen)(Owen Ray Skelton)
* [Sink](Virginia)(Virginia Sink)
* [Seida](Seida)
* [Three Musketeers (Studebaker engineers)](The)(The Three Musketeers (Studebaker engineers))
* [P. Chrysler Museum](Walter)(Walter P. Chrysler Museum)
* [Automobiles](Maxwell-Chalmers)(Maxwell-Chalmers Automobiles)
* [States Motor Company](United)(United States Motor Company)
* [Motors Corporation](American)(American Motors Corporation)
### Countries
* [Australia](Chrysler)(Chrysler Australia)
* Chrysler Fevre Argentina - sold to [Volkswagen](Volkswagen) in 1980
* [Canada](FCA)(FCA Canada)
* Chrysler Kamyon Turkey - sold to the ASKAM in 2003.
## References
## Further reading
*
*
*
* Goolsbee, Austan D., and Alan B. Krueger. "A retrospective look at rescuing and restructuring General Motors and Chrysler." *Journal of Economic Perspectives* 29.2 (2015): 3-24. [online](https://pubs.aeaweb.org/doi/pdfplus/10.1257/jep.29.2.3)
*
## External links
*
* [Chrysler Scientific Labs and Test Services](http://www.chryslertestservices.com/)
* [Chrysler SEC Filings](http://www.secdatabase.com/CIK/1513153/Company-Name/CHRYSLER-GROUP-LLC)
* [American Engineering Record](Historic)(Historic American Engineering Record) (HAER) documentation, filed under 12200 East Jefferson Avenue, Detroit, Wayne County, MI:
**
**
**
* ["Chrysler; Once Upon A Time and Now,"](https://americanarchive.org/catalog/cpb-aacip-240-322bw4pc) [Public Television](Detroit)(Detroit Public Television), The Walter J. Brown Media Archives & [Awards Collection](Peabody)(Peabody Award) at the [of Georgia](University)(University of Georgia), [Archive of Public Broadcasting](American)(American Archive of Public Broadcasting)
}}
[ ](Category:Chrysler)
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[motor vehicle manufacturers](Category:Luxury)(Category:Luxury motor vehicle manufacturers)
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|
List of presidents of the United States by age
|
list_of_presidents_of_the_united_states_by_age
|
# List of presidents of the United States by age
*Revision ID: 1160152252 | Timestamp: 2023-06-14T18:16:04Z*
---
In this **list of presidents of the United States by age**, the first table charts the age of each [of the United States](president)(president of the United States) at the time of [inauguration](presidential)(United States presidential inauguration) (first inauguration if elected to multiple and consecutive terms), upon leaving office, and at the time of death. Where the president is still living, their lifespan and post-presidency timespan are calculated up to .
## Age of presidents
[[distribution graph United States Presidents.png|thumb|300x300px|Age of presidents when assuming office](File:Age)]
The [median](median) age at inauguration of incoming U.S. presidents is 55 years. The specific years and days median is 55 years and 104.5 days, which falls midway between how old [G. Harding](Warren)(Warren G. Harding) was in 1921 and [B. Johnson](Lyndon)(Lyndon B. Johnson) was in 1963.
The youngest person to become U.S. president was [Roosevelt](Theodore)(Theodore Roosevelt), who, at age 42, [to the office](succeeded)(United States presidential line of succession) after the [of William McKinley](assassination)(assassination of William McKinley). The youngest at the time of his [election](United States presidential election) to the office was [F. Kennedy](John)(John F. Kennedy), at age 43. The oldest person elected president was [Biden](Joe)(Joe Biden), the nation's current president, at age 77. Biden celebrated a birthday between Election Day and Inauguration Day making him 78 when sworn into office.
[Assassinated](Assassination of John F. Kennedy) at age 46, John F. Kennedy was the youngest president at the end of his tenure, and his lifespan was the shortest of any president. At age 50, Theodore Roosevelt was the youngest person to become a former president. The oldest president at the end of his tenure was [Reagan](Ronald)(Ronald Reagan) at 77; this distinction will eventually fall upon Joe Biden, who is currently .
[K. Polk](James)(James K. Polk) had the shortest retirement of any president, dying months after leaving office at age 53 (the youngest president to die of natural causes). [Carter](Jimmy)(Jimmy Carter)'s retirement, now years, is the longest in American presidential history. At age , Carter is also the oldest living president and the nation's longest-lived president.The youngest living president is [Obama](Barack)(Barack Obama), age .
## Presidential age-related data
### Notes
## Graphical representation
This is a [graphical](Bar chart) lifespan timeline of the presidents of the United States. They are listed in order of office, with Grover Cleveland listed in the order of his first presidency.
ImageSize = width:$width height:$height
PlotArea = right:10 left:1 bottom:80 top:60
Period = from:$start till:$end
TimeAxis = orientation:horizontal
Legend = orientation:vertical position:bottom columns:1
Colors =
id:bg value:white
id:lightline value:rgb(0.8, 0.8, 0.8)
id:lighttext value:rgb(0.5, 0.5, 0.5)
id:LIFESPAN value:rgb(0.88, 0.90, 0.70) Legend: Lifespan
id:POTUS_NONP value:rgb(0.7, 0.7, 0.7) Legend: Nonpartisan
id:POTUS_FED value:rgb(0.85, 0.52, 0.38) Legend: Federalist
id:POTUS_DEMREP value:rgb(0, 0.5, 0) Legend: Democratic-Republican
id:POTUS_NATREP value:rgb(0.99, 0.9, 0.69) Legend: National_Republican
id:POTUS_WHIG value:rgb(0.84, 0.74, 0.34) Legend: Whig
id:POTUS_DEM value:rgb(0.2, 0.2, 1) Legend: Democratic
id:POTUS_REP value:rgb(1, 0.2, 0.2) Legend: Republican
id:POTUS_UNION value:rgb(0.7, 0.13, 0.13) Legend: National_Union
id:NAME value:rgb(0.15, 0.13, 0.05)
id:TODAY value:green
BackgroundColors = canvas:bg
ScaleMinor = gridcolor:lightline unit:year increment:2 start:$start
ScaleMajor = gridcolor:lighttext unit:year increment:10 start:1740
LineData=
at:$now color:TODAY width:0.1
PlotData=
bar:1 width:18
color:LIFESPAN align:center fontsize:M
from:1732 till:1789 shift:(-0,$dy) textcolor:NAME text:[Washington](George)(George Washington)
color:POTUS_NONP
from:1789 till:1797
color:LIFESPAN
from:1797 till:1799
bar:2 width:18
color:LIFESPAN align:center fontsize:M
from:1735 till:1797 shift:(-0,$dy) textcolor:NAME text:[Adams](John)(John Adams)
color:POTUS_FED
from:1797 till:1801
color:LIFESPAN
from:1801 till:1826
bar:3 width:18
color:LIFESPAN align:center fontsize:M
from:1743 till:1801 shift:(-0,$dy) textcolor:NAME text:[Jefferson](Thomas)(Thomas Jefferson)
color:POTUS_DEMREP
from:1801 till:1809
color:LIFESPAN
from:1809 till:1826
bar:4 width:18
color:LIFESPAN align:center fontsize:M
from:1751 till:1809 shift:(-0,$dy) textcolor:NAME text:[Madison](James)(James Madison)
color:POTUS_DEMREP
from:1809 till:1817
color:LIFESPAN
from:1817 till:1836
bar:5 width:18
color:LIFESPAN align:center fontsize:M
from:1758 till:1817 shift:(-0,$dy) textcolor:NAME text:[Monroe](James)(James Monroe)
color:POTUS_DEMREP
from:1817 till:1825
color:LIFESPAN
from:1825 till:1831
bar:6 width:18
color:LIFESPAN align:center fontsize:M
from:1767 till:1825 shift:(-0,$dy) textcolor:NAME text:[Quincy Adams](John)(John Quincy Adams)
color:POTUS_DEMREP
from:1825 till:1825.4
color:POTUS_NATREP
from:1825.4 till:1829
color:LIFESPAN
from:1829 till:1848
bar:7 width:18
color:LIFESPAN align:center fontsize:M
from:1767 till:1829 shift:(-0,$dy) textcolor:NAME text:[Jackson](Andrew)(Andrew Jackson)
color:POTUS_DEM
from:1829 till:1837
color:LIFESPAN
from:1837 till:1845
bar:8 width:18
color:LIFESPAN align:center fontsize:M
from:1782 till:1837 shift:(-0,$dy) textcolor:NAME text:[Van Buren](Martin)(Martin Van Buren)
color:POTUS_DEM
from:1837 till:1841
color:LIFESPAN
from:1841 till:1862
bar:9 width:18
color:LIFESPAN align:center fontsize:M
from:1773 till:1841 shift:(-0,$dy) textcolor:NAME text:[Henry Harrison](William)(William Henry Harrison)
color:POTUS_WHIG
from:1841 till:1841.4
bar:10 width:18
color:LIFESPAN align:center fontsize:M
from:1790 till:1841.4 shift:(-0,$dy) textcolor:NAME text:[Tyler](John)(John Tyler)
color:POTUS_WHIG
from:1841.4 till:1841.8
color:POTUS_NONP
from:1841.8 till:1845
color:LIFESPAN
from:1845 till:1862
bar:11 width:18
color:LIFESPAN align:center fontsize:M
from:1795 till:1845 shift:(-0,$dy) textcolor:NAME text:[K. Polk](James)(James K. Polk)
color:POTUS_DEM
from:1845 till:1849
color:LIFESPAN
from:1849 till:1849
bar:12 width:18
color:LIFESPAN align:center fontsize:M
from:1784 till:1849 shift:(-0,$dy) textcolor:NAME text:[Taylor](Zachary)(Zachary Taylor)
color:POTUS_WHIG
from:1849 till:1850
bar:13 width:18
color:LIFESPAN align:center fontsize:M
from:1800 till:1850 shift:(-0,$dy) textcolor:NAME text:[Fillmore](Millard)(Millard Fillmore)
color:POTUS_WHIG
from:1850 till:1853
color:LIFESPAN
from:1853 till:1874
bar:14 width:18
color:LIFESPAN align:center fontsize:M
from:1804 till:1853 shift:(-0,$dy) textcolor:NAME text:[Pierce](Franklin)(Franklin Pierce)
color:POTUS_DEM
from:1853 till:1857
color:LIFESPAN
from:1857 till:1869
bar:15 width:18
color:LIFESPAN align:center fontsize:M
from:1791 till:1857 shift:(-0,$dy) textcolor:NAME text:[Buchanan](James)(James Buchanan)
color:POTUS_DEM
from:1857 till:1861
color:LIFESPAN
from:1861 till:1868
bar:16 width:18
color:LIFESPAN align:center fontsize:M
from:1809 till:1861 shift:(-0,$dy) textcolor:NAME text:[Lincoln](Abraham)(Abraham Lincoln)
color:POTUS_REP
from:1861 till:1864
color:POTUS_UNION
from:1864 till:1865
bar:17 width:18
color:LIFESPAN align:center fontsize:M
from:1808 till:1865 shift:(-0,$dy) textcolor:NAME text:[Johnson](Andrew)(Andrew Johnson)
color:POTUS_UNION
from:1865 till:1868
color:POTUS_DEM
from:1868 till:1869
color:LIFESPAN
from:1869 till:1875
bar:18 width:18
color:LIFESPAN align:center fontsize:M
from:1822 till:1869 shift:(-0,$dy) textcolor:NAME text:[S. Grant](Ulysses)(Ulysses S. Grant)
color:POTUS_REP
from:1869 till:1877
color:LIFESPAN
from:1877 till:1885
bar:19 width:18
color:LIFESPAN align:center fontsize:M
from:1822 till:1877 shift:(-0,$dy) textcolor:NAME text:[B. Hayes](Rutherford)(Rutherford B. Hayes)
color:POTUS_REP
from:1877 till:1881
color:LIFESPAN
from:1881 till:1893
bar:20 width:18
color:LIFESPAN align:center fontsize:M
from:1831 till:1881 shift:(-0,$dy) textcolor:NAME text:[A. Garfield](James)(James A. Garfield)
color:POTUS_REP
from:1881 till:1881.4
bar:21 width:18
color:LIFESPAN align:center fontsize:M
from:1830 till:1881.4 shift:(-0,$dy) textcolor:NAME text:[A. Arthur](Chester)(Chester A. Arthur)
color:POTUS_REP
from:1881.4 till:1885
color:LIFESPAN
from:1885 till:1886
bar:22 width:18
color:LIFESPAN align:center fontsize:M
from:1837 till:1885 shift:(-0,$dy) textcolor:NAME text:[Cleveland](Grover)(Grover Cleveland)
color:POTUS_DEM
from:1885 till:1889
color:LIFESPAN
from:1889 till:1893
color:POTUS_DEM
from:1893 till:1897
color:LIFESPAN
from:1897 till:1908
bar:23 width:18
color:LIFESPAN align:center fontsize:M
from:1833 till:1889 shift:(-0,$dy) textcolor:NAME text:[Harrison](Benjamin)(Benjamin Harrison)
color:POTUS_REP
from:1889 till:1893
color:LIFESPAN
from:1893 till:1901
bar:24 width:18
color:LIFESPAN align:center fontsize:M
from:1843 till:1897 shift:(-0,$dy) textcolor:NAME text:[McKinley](William)(William McKinley)
color:POTUS_REP
from:1897 till:1901
bar:25 width:18
color:LIFESPAN align:center fontsize:M
from:1858 till:1901 shift:(-0,$dy) textcolor:NAME text:[Roosevelt](Theodore)(Theodore Roosevelt)
color:POTUS_REP
from:1901 till:1909
color:LIFESPAN
from:1909 till:1919
bar:26 width:18
color:LIFESPAN align:center fontsize:M
from:1857 till:1909 shift:(-0,$dy) textcolor:NAME text:[Howard Taft](William)(William Howard Taft)
color:POTUS_REP
from:1909 till:1913
color:LIFESPAN
from:1913 till:1930
bar:27 width:18
color:LIFESPAN align:center fontsize:M
from:1856 till:1913 shift:(-0,$dy) textcolor:NAME text:[Wilson](Woodrow)(Woodrow Wilson)
color:POTUS_DEM
from:1913 till:1921
color:LIFESPAN
from:1921 till:1924
bar:28 width:18
color:LIFESPAN align:center fontsize:M
from:1865 till:1921 shift:(-0,$dy) textcolor:NAME text:[G. Harding](Warren)(Warren G. Harding)
color:POTUS_REP
from:1921 till:1923
bar:29 width:18
color:LIFESPAN align:center fontsize:M
from:1872 till:1923 shift:(-0,$dy) textcolor:NAME text:[Coolidge](Calvin)(Calvin Coolidge)
color:POTUS_REP
from:1923 till:1929
color:LIFESPAN
from:1929 till:1933
bar:30 width:18
color:LIFESPAN align:center fontsize:M
from:1874 till:1929 shift:(-0,$dy) textcolor:NAME text:[Hoover](Herbert)(Herbert Hoover)
color:POTUS_REP
from:1929 till:1933
color:LIFESPAN
from:1933 till:1964
bar:31 width:18
color:LIFESPAN align:center fontsize:M
from:1882 till:1933 shift:(-0,$dy) textcolor:NAME text:[D. Roosevelt](Franklin)(Franklin D. Roosevelt)
color:POTUS_DEM
from:1933 till:1945
bar:32 width:18
color:LIFESPAN align:center fontsize:M
from:1884 till:1945 shift:(-0,$dy) textcolor:NAME text:[S. Truman](Harry)(Harry S. Truman)
color:POTUS_DEM
from:1945 till:1953
color:LIFESPAN
from:1953 till:1972
bar:33 width:18
color:LIFESPAN align:center fontsize:M
from:1890 till:1953 shift:(-0,$dy) textcolor:NAME text:[D. Eisenhower](Dwight)(Dwight D. Eisenhower)
color:POTUS_REP
from:1953 till:1961
color:LIFESPAN
from:1961 till:1969
bar:34 width:18
color:LIFESPAN align:center fontsize:M
from:1917 till:1961 shift:(-0,$dy) textcolor:NAME text:[F. Kennedy](John)(John F. Kennedy)
color:POTUS_DEM
from:1961 till:1963
bar:35 width:18
color:LIFESPAN align:center fontsize:M
from:1908 till:1963 shift:(-0,$dy) textcolor:NAME text:[B. Johnson](Lyndon)(Lyndon B. Johnson)
color:POTUS_DEM
from:1963 till:1969
color:LIFESPAN
from:1969 till:1973
bar:36 width:18
color:LIFESPAN align:center fontsize:M
from:1913 till:1969 shift:(-0,$dy) textcolor:NAME text:[Nixon](Richard)(Richard Nixon)
color:POTUS_REP
from:1969 till:1974
color:LIFESPAN
from:1974 till:1994
bar:37 width:18
color:LIFESPAN align:center fontsize:M
from:1913 till:1974 shift:(-0,$dy) textcolor:NAME text:[Ford](Gerald)(Gerald Ford)
color:POTUS_REP
from:1974 till:1977
color:LIFESPAN
from:1977 till:2006
bar:38 width:18
color:LIFESPAN align:center fontsize:M
from:1924 till:1977 shift:(-0,$dy) textcolor:NAME text:[Carter](Jimmy)(Jimmy Carter)
color:POTUS_DEM
from:1977 till:1981
color:LIFESPAN
from:1981 till:$now
bar:39 width:18
color:LIFESPAN align:center fontsize:M
from:1911 till:1981 shift:(-0,$dy) textcolor:NAME text:[Reagan](Ronald)(Ronald Reagan)
color:POTUS_REP
from:1981 till:1989
color:LIFESPAN
from:1989 till:2004
bar:40 width:18
color:LIFESPAN align:center fontsize:M
from:1924 till:1989 shift:(-0,$dy) textcolor:NAME text:[H. W. Bush](George)(George H. W. Bush)
color:POTUS_REP
from:1989 till:1993
color:LIFESPAN
from:1993 till:2018
bar:41 width:18
color:LIFESPAN align:center fontsize:M
from:1946 till:1993 shift:(-0,$dy) textcolor:NAME text:[Clinton](Bill)(Bill Clinton)
color:POTUS_DEM
from:1993 till:2001
color:LIFESPAN
from:2001 till:$now
bar:42 width:18
color:LIFESPAN align:center fontsize:M
from:1946 till:2001 shift:(-0,$dy) textcolor:NAME text:[W. Bush](George)(George W. Bush)
color:POTUS_REP
from:2001 till:2009
color:LIFESPAN
from:2009 till:$now
bar:43 width:18
color:LIFESPAN align:center fontsize:M
from:1961 till:2009 shift:(-0,$dy) textcolor:NAME text:[Obama](Barack)(Barack Obama)
color:POTUS_DEM
from:2009 till:2017
color:LIFESPAN
from:2017 till:$now
bar:44 width:18
color:LIFESPAN align:center fontsize:M
from:1946 till:2017 shift:(-0,$dy) textcolor:NAME text:[Trump](Donald)(Donald Trump)
color:POTUS_REP
from:2017 till:2021
color:LIFESPAN
from:2021 till:$now
bar:45 width:18
color:LIFESPAN align:center fontsize:M
from:1942 till:2021 shift:(-0,$dy) textcolor:NAME text:[Biden](Joe)(Joe Biden)
color:POTUS_DEM
from:2021 till:$now
TextData =
fontsize:M
textcolor:green
pos:($warning,30)
text:Updated /
TextData =
pos:(340,$height)
fontsize:L
textcolor:black
text:"Lifespan of each United States president"
}}
The following chart shows presidents by their age (living presidents in green), with the years of their presidency in blue. The vertical blue line at 35 years indicates the minimum age to be president.
bar:Reagan color:pre from:0 till: 69.96
bar:Reagan color:pres from:69.96 till: 77.96
bar:Reagan color:post from:77.96 till: 93.33
bar:G. H. W. Bush color:pre from:0 till: 64.61
bar:G. H. W. Bush color:pres from:64.61 till: 68.61
bar:G. H. W. Bush color:post from:68.61 till: 94.47
bar:Clinton color:alive from:0 till: 46.42
bar:Clinton color:pres from:46.42 till: 54.42
bar:Clinton color:alive from:54.42 till:
bar:G. W. Bush color:alive from:0 till: 54.54
bar:G. W. Bush color:pres from:54.54 till: 62.54
bar:G. W. Bush color:alive from:62.54 till:
bar:Obama color:alive from:0 till: 47.46
bar:Obama color:pres from:47.46 till: 55.46
bar:Obama color:alive from:55.46 till:
bar:Trump color:alive from:0 till: 70.6
bar:Trump color:pres from:70.6 till: 74.6
bar:Trump color:alive from:74.6 till:
bar:Biden color:alive from:0 till: 78.17
bar:Biden color:pres from:78.17 till:
LineData=
layer:front
at:35 width:1 color:darkblue #Minimum age to be President
}}
## References
## Sources
* Frank Freidel and Hugh S. Sidey, ["The Presidents of the United States"](https://www.whitehouse.gov/about-the-white-house/presidents/). The [House](White)(White House).
* Robert S. Summers, ["POTUS: Presidents of the United States"](https://web.archive.org/web/20050810015819/http://www.ipl.org/div/potus/). [Public Library](Internet)(Internet Public Library).
[States, Presidents](United)(Category:Lists of political office-holders by age)
[Age](Category:Lists relating to the United States presidency)
[States presidents and death](Category:United)(Category:United States presidents and death)
|
Ben Foster _actor
|
ben_foster__actor
|
# Ben Foster (actor)
*Revision ID: 1159929221 | Timestamp: 2023-06-13T12:19:23Z*
---
| birth_place = [Massachusetts](Boston,)(Boston), U.S.
| occupation = Actor
| nationality =
| years_active = 1995–present
| spouse =
| children = 2
| relatives = [Foster](Jon)(Jon Foster) (brother)
}}
**Benjamin A. Foster** (born October 29, 1980) is an American actor. He has had roles in films including *[Punisher](The)(The Punisher (2004 film))* (2004), *[The Last Stand](X-Men:)(X-Men: The Last Stand)* and *[Dog](Alpha)(Alpha Dog)* (both 2006), *[Messenger](The)(The Messenger (2009 film))* and *[Pandorum](Pandorum)* (both 2009), *[Mechanic](The)(The Mechanic (2011 film))* (2011), *[Contraband](Contraband (2012 film))* (2012), [Your Darlings*](*Kill)(Kill Your Darlings (2013 film)) and *[Survivor](Lone)(Lone Survivor)* (both 2013), *[Program](The)(The Program (2015 film))* (2015), and *[No Trace](Leave)(Leave No Trace (film))* (2018). He was nominated for a [Award](Saturn)(Saturn Award) and a [Award](Satellite)(Satellite Award) for his role in *[to Yuma](3:10)(3:10 to Yuma (2007 film))* (2007) and won an [Spirit Award](Independent)(Independent Spirit Award) for portraying Tanner Howard in *[or High Water](Hell)(Hell or High Water (film))* (2016). He also acted as Russell Corwin in *[Feet Under](Six)(Six Feet Under (TV series))* (2003–2005). He had a recurring role portraying a high school student named Eli on the Judd Apatow show, *[and Geeks](Freaks)(Freaks and Geeks)* (2000), which ran for one season.
## Early life
Benjamin A. Foster was born in [Boston](Boston) on October 29, 1980, the son of restaurant owners Steven Foster and Gillian Kirwan. He has described his parents as "free-spirited, [Vietnam](Vietnam)-protesting hippies". He has a younger brother, [Jon](Jon Foster), who is also an actor. Foster and his family relocated to [Fairfield](Fairfield, Iowa), Iowa when their Boston home was broken into by robbers while they were present.
Foster was raised [Jewish](Judaism), and had a [Mitzvah](Bar)(Bar and Bat Mitzvah) ceremony. His paternal grandparents were Celia (Segal) and Abraham Foster, who was a prominent judge and politician in Boston; their families emigrated from the [Empire](Russian)(Russian Empire). As a youth he attended [Arts Camp](Interlochen)(Interlochen Center for the Arts) and studied theatre there.
## Career
[[File:Ben Foster (22618765614).jpg|left|thumb|Foster at the [Film Festival](Toronto)(Toronto Film Festival) in 2015]]
Foster began working as an actor when he was 16 years old. In 1996 and 1997, he starred in the [Channel](Disney)(Disney Channel) television series *[Forward](Flash)(Flash Forward)*.
In 2001, he acted in the film *[Over It](Get)(Get Over It (film))*. Foster also had a recurring role as [Corwin](Russell)(List of Six Feet Under characters#Russell Corwin) (22 episodes) in the HBO original series, *[Feet Under](Six)(Six Feet Under (TV series))*. After appearing in the films *[11:14](11:14)* and *[Punisher](The)(The Punisher (2004 film))*, Foster appeared in *[Hostage](Hostage (2005 film))* with [Willis](Bruce)(Bruce Willis), [Pollak](Kevin)(Kevin Pollak), and [Horn](Michelle)(Michelle Horn). In 2006, Foster appeared in *[The Last Stand](X-Men:)(X-Men: The Last Stand)* as the comic-book hero [/ Warren Worthington III](Angel)(Warren Worthington III). In the crime thriller *[Dog](Alpha)(Alpha Dog)*, he played the character Jake Mazursky and added [glaucoma](glaucoma) drops to his eyes to simulate the appearance of a drug addict in the film. In 2007, he played cold-blooded killer and outlaw [Prince](Charlie)(Charlie Prince) in the [film](Western)(Western film) *[to Yuma](3:10)(3:10 to Yuma (2007 film))*. In February 2013, he was cast to replace [LaBeouf](Shia)(Shia LaBeouf) in the Broadway play *[Orphans](Orphans (Lyle Kessler play))* as his first theater performance. In May 2014, it was announced that he would star opposite [Anderson](Gillian)(Gillian Anderson) and [Kirby](Vanessa)(Vanessa Kirby) in [Andrews](Benedict)(Benedict Andrews)' new production of *[Streetcar Named Desire](A)(A Streetcar Named Desire (play))* at the [Vic](Young)(Young Vic) in London. The same production closed on September 19, 2014 and transferred to [York](New)(New York City) in 2016, opening at St. Ann's Warehouse in [Brooklyn](Brooklyn).
Foster played [Armstrong](Lance)(Lance Armstrong) in the biopic *[Program](The)(The Program (2015 film))*, and co-starred in the fantasy adventure *[Warcraft](Warcraft (film))*, released in June 2016.
Also in 2016, Foster appeared in *[or High Water](Hell)(Hell or High Water (film))* as the dangerous Tanner Howard, opposite [Pine](Chris)(Chris Pine) and [Bridges](Jeff)(Jeff Bridges). Foster was acclaimed for his roles and has received numerous awards nominations.
Foster has often received praise from critics for his "intense" and "unhinged" performances in numerous films. Film critic [Zoller Seitz](Matt)(Matt Zoller Seitz) described Foster in 2016 as "one of those actors who makes even a bad film worth seeing. Sometimes he suggests the film you'd rather be watching."
## Personal life
Foster was in a relationship with German actress [Traue](Antje)(Antje Traue), his co-star in the movie *[Pandorum](Pandorum)*. Traue revealed in an interview that she had moved to [Angeles](Los)(Los Angeles) and lived with Foster until their relationship ended around 2010. Foster began a relationship with actress [Wright](Robin)(Robin Wright) in early 2012. They became engaged in early 2014, but called off their engagement on November 12, 2014. Foster and Wright reconciled in early 2015; however, on August 29, 2015, they announced they were ending their second engagement.
In October 2016, Foster announced his engagement to actress [Prepon](Laura)(Laura Prepon). Prepon gave birth to their first child, a daughter, Ella, in August 2017. Foster and Prepon married in June 2018. Their son was born in February 2020.
After filming of the movie *[Here](Here (2011 film))* ended, five members of the cast and crew got tattooed with the letters T.I.A., which stand for This Is Armenia.
Foster practices [meditation](transcendental)(Transcendental Meditation).
## Acting credits
### Film
### Television
### Stage
## References
## External links
*
}}
[births](Category:1980)(Category:1980 births)
[American male actors](Category:20th-century)(Category:20th-century American male actors)
[American male actors](Category:21st-century)(Category:21st-century American male actors)
[male child actors](Category:American)(Category:American male child actors)
[male film actors](Category:American)(Category:American male film actors)
[male television actors](Category:American)(Category:American male television actors)
[people of Russian-Jewish descent](Category:American)(Category:American people of Russian-Jewish descent)
[people of Scottish descent](Category:American)(Category:American people of Scottish descent)
[Spirit Award for Best Supporting Male winners](Category:Independent)(Category:Independent Spirit Award for Best Supporting Male winners)
[American male actors](Category:Jewish)(Category:Jewish American male actors)
[people](Category:Living)(Category:Living people)
[actors from Boston](Category:Male)(Category:Male actors from Boston)
[actors from Iowa](Category:Male)(Category:Male actors from Iowa)
[from Fairfield, Iowa](Category:People)(Category:People from Fairfield, Iowa)
[American Jews](Category:21st-century)(Category:21st-century American Jews)
|
Burkina Faso
|
burkina_faso
|
# Burkina Faso
*Revision ID: 1159818412 | Timestamp: 2023-06-12T18:46:48Z*
---
| common_name = Burkina Faso
| image_flag = Flag of Burkina Faso.svg
| image_coat = Coat of arms of Burkina Faso.svg
| national_motto = ("Unity–Progress–Justice")
| national_anthem = ("One Single Night" / "Hymn of Victory")}}
| image_map =
| map_caption =
| image_map2 =
| capital = [Ouagadougou](Ouagadougou)
| coordinates =
| largest_city = capital
| official_languages = [French](French language)
|national_languages =
| ethnic_groups =
| ethnic_groups_year = 2010 est.
| ethnic_groups_ref =
| religion =
| religion_year = 2019 Census
| religion_ref =
| demonym = Burkinabè
| government_type = [Unitary](Unitary state) [republic](republic) under a [junta](military)(military junta)
| leader_title1 = [President](Interim)(List of heads of state of Burkina Faso) and [President](MPSR)(Patriotic Movement for Safeguard and Restoration)
| leader_name1 = [Traoré](Ibrahim)(Ibrahim Traoré)
| leader_title2 = [Minister](Prime)(List of prime ministers of Burkina Faso)
| leader_name2 = [Joachim Kyélem de Tambèla](Apollinaire)(Apollinaire Joachim Kyélem de Tambèla)
| legislature = [Legislative Assembly](Transitional)(National Assembly of Burkina Faso)
| sovereignty_type = [History](History of Burkina Faso)
| established_event1 = [of Upper Volta](Republic)(Republic of Upper Volta) proclaimed
| established_date1 = 11 December 1958
| established_event2 = Independence from France
| established_date2 = 5 August 1960
| established_event3 = [Upper Voltan coup d'état](1966)(1966 Upper Voltan coup d'état)
| established_date3 = 3 January 1966
| established_event4 = [Burkina Faso uprising](2014)(2014 Burkina Faso uprising)
| established_date4 = 28 October – 3 November 2014
| established_event5 = [2022 Burkinabè coup d'état](Jan.)(January 2022 Burkina Faso coup d'état)
| established_date5 = 23–24 January 2022
| established_event6 = [2022 Burkinabè coup d'état](Sep.)(September 2022 Burkina Faso coup d'état)
| established_date6 = 30 September 2022
| area_km2 = 274,200
| area_rank = 74th
| area_sq_mi = 105,869
| percent_water = 0.146%
| population_estimate = 21,935,389
| population_census = 20,505,155
| population_estimate_year = 2022
| population_estimate_rank = 59th
| population_census_year = 2019
| population_density_km2 = 64
| population_density_sq_mi = 163,63
| GDP_PPP = $58.8
billion
| GDP_PPP_year = 2022
| GDP_PPP_rank = 114th
| GDP_PPP_per_capita = $2,656
| GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 171th
| GDP_nominal = $18.2 billion
| GDP_nominal_rank = 124th
| GDP_nominal_year = 2022
| GDP_nominal_per_capita = $825
| GDP_nominal_per_capita_rank = 180th
| Gini = 38.9
| Gini_year = 2020
| Gini_change = steady
| Gini_ref =
| Gini_rank =
| HDI = 0.449
| HDI_year = 2021
| HDI_change = decrease
| HDI_ref =
| HDI_rank = 184th
| currency = [African CFA franc](West)(West African CFA franc)CFA Franc BCEAO. Codes: XOF / 952 [ISO 4217 currency names and code elements](http://www.currency-iso.org/dam/downloads/table_a1.xml) . ISO.
| currency_code = XOF
| utc_offset =
| time_zone = [GMT](GMT)
| date_format = dd/mm/yyyy
| drives_on = right
| calling_code = [+226](+226)
| iso3166code = BF
| cctld = [.bf](.bf)
| footnotes =
| today =
}}
**Burkina Faso** (, ; Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary at OxfordLearnersDictionaries.com|website=www.oxfordlearnersdictionaries.com|access-date=20 November 2017}} , ) is a [country](landlocked)(landlocked country) in [Africa](West)(West Africa) with an area of , bordered by [Mali](Mali) to the northwest, [Niger](Niger) to the northeast, [Benin](Benin) to the southeast, [Togo](Togo) and [Ghana](Ghana) to the south, and the [Coast](Ivory)(Ivory Coast) to the southwest. As of 2021, the country had an estimated population of 20,321,378. Previously called [of Upper Volta](Republic)(Republic of Upper Volta) (1958–1984), it was [renamed](Geographical renaming) Burkina Faso by [President](President of Burkina Faso) [Sankara](Thomas)(Thomas Sankara). Its citizens are known as *Burkinabès* ( ), and its [capital](Capital city) and largest city is [Ouagadougou](Ouagadougou). Its name is often translated into English as the "Land of Honest Men".
The largest [group](ethnic)(ethnic group) in Burkina Faso is the [people](Mossi)(Mossi people), who settled the area in the 11th and 13th centuries. They established powerful kingdoms such as the Ouagadougou, Tenkodogo, and Yatenga. In 1896, it was [colonize](colonize)d by the [French](French colonial empire) as part of [West Africa](French)(French West Africa); in 1958, Upper Volta became a [colony](self-governing)(self-governing colony) within the [Community](French)(French Community). In 1960, it gained full independence with [Yaméogo](Maurice)(Maurice Yaméogo) as [president](List of heads of state of Burkina Faso). Throughout the decades post independence, the country was subject to instability, [droughts](Sahel drought), famines and corruption. Various coups have also taken place in the country, in [1966](1966 Upper Voltan coup d'état), [1980](1980 Upper Voltan coup d'état), [1982](1982 Upper Voltan coup d'état), [1983](1983 Upper Voltan coup d'état), [1987](1987 Burkina Faso coup d'état), and twice in 2022, in [January](January 2022 Burkina Faso coup d'état) and in [September](September 2022 Burkina Faso coup d'état), as well as [attempt in 1989](an)(1989 Burkina Faso coup d'état attempt) and another in [2015](2015 Burkina Faso coup d'état).
[Sankara](Thomas)(Thomas Sankara) served as the country's president from 1982 until he was killed in the 1987 coup led by [Compaoré](Blaise)(Blaise Compaoré), who became president and ruled the country until [removal on 31 October 2014](his)(2014 Burkinabè uprising). Sankara had conducted an ambitious [socioeconomic](socioeconomic) programme which included a nationwide [literacy](literacy) campaign, [redistribution](land)(land redistribution) to [peasant](peasant)s, railway and road construction, and the outlawing of [genital mutilation](female)(female genital mutilation), [marriage](forced)(forced marriage)s, and [polygamy](polygamy).
Burkina Faso has been severely affected by the rise of [terrorism in the Sahel](Islamist)(Islamist terrorism in the Sahel) since the mid-2010s. Several [militia](militia)s, partly allied with the [State](Islamic)(Islamic State) (IS) or [al-Qaeda](al-Qaeda), [in Burkina Faso](operate)(Jihadist insurgency in Burkina Faso) and across the border in [Mali](Mali) and [Niger](Niger). More than one million of the country's 21 million inhabitants are [displaced person](internally)(internally displaced person)s. [Faso's military](Burkina)(Burkina Faso Armed Forces) seized power in a [d'état on 23–24 January 2022](coup)(January 2022 Burkina Faso coup d'état), overthrowing President [Marc Kaboré](Roch)(Roch Marc Christian Kaboré). On 31 January, the military junta restored the constitution and appointed [Sandaogo Damiba](Paul-Henri)(Paul-Henri Sandaogo Damiba) as interim president, who was himself overthrown in a [coup on 30 September](second)(September 2022 Burkina Faso coup d'état) and replaced by military captain [Traoré](Ibrahim)(Ibrahim Traoré).
Burkina Faso is one of the [developed countries](least)(least developed countries), with a GDP of $16.226 billion. Approximately 63.8 percent of its population practices [Islam](Islam in Burkina Faso), while 26.3 percent practice Christianity. The country's official language of government and business is [French](French language). There are 60 indigenous languages officially recognized by the Burkinabè government, with the most common language, [Mooré](Mossi language), spoken by over half the population. The country has a strong culture and is geographically biodiverse, with plentiful reserves of [gold](gold), [manganese](manganese), [copper](copper) and [limestone](limestone). [art](Burkinabè)(Art of Burkina Faso) has a rich and long history, and is globally renowned for its orthodox style.Roy, Christopher D. "Countries of Africa: Burkina Faso," Art and Life in Africa, The country is governed as a [republic](semi-presidential)(semi-presidential system) with executive, legislative and judicial powers. Burkina Faso is a member of the [Nations](United)(United Nations), [Francophonie](La)(La Francophonie) and the [of Islamic Cooperation](Organisation)(Organisation of Islamic Cooperation). It is currently suspended from [ECOWAS](ECOWAS) and the [Union](African)(African Union).
## Etymology
Formerly the Republic of Upper Volta, the country was renamed "Burkina Faso" on 4 August 1984 by then-President Thomas Sankara. The words "Burkina" and "Faso" stem from different languages spoken in the country: "Burkina" comes from [Mossi](Mossi language) and means "upright", showing how the people are proud of their integrity, while "Faso" comes from the [language](Dioula)(Dioula language) (as written in [N'Ko](N'Ko script): *faso*) and means "fatherland" (literally, "father's house"). The "-bè" suffix added onto "Burkina" to form the demonym "Burkinabè" comes from the [language](Fula)(Fula language) and means "women or men". The CIA summarizes the etymology as "land of the honest (incorruptible) men".
The French colony of Upper Volta was named for its location on the upper courses of the [River](Volta)(Volta River) (the [Black](Black Volta), [Red](Red Volta) and [Volta](White)(White Volta)).
## History
### Early history
The northwestern part of present-day Burkina Faso was populated by [hunter-gatherer](hunter-gatherer)s from 14,000 BCE to 5000 BCE. Their tools, including [scrapers](scraper (archaeology)), [chisel](chisel)s and [arrowhead](arrowhead)s, were discovered in 1973 through [excavations](archaeological)(Excavation (archaeology)). Agricultural settlements were established between 3600 and 2600 BCE. The [culture](Bura)(Bura culture) was an [Iron-Age](Iron Age) [civilization](civilization) centred in the southwest portion of modern-day Niger and in the southeast part of contemporary Burkina Faso.UNESCO World Heritage Centre. ["Site archéologique de Bura"](https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/5045/). UNESCO. [industry](Iron)(Iron industry), in [smelting](smelting) and [forging](forging) for tools and weapons, had developed in [Africa](Sub-Saharan)(Sub-Saharan Africa) by 1200 BCE. To date, the oldest evidence of iron smelting found in Burkina Faso dates from 800 to 700 BC and form part of the [Ferrous Metallurgy](Ancient)(Ancient Ferrous Metallurgy Sites of Burkina Faso) World Heritage Site. From the 3rd to the 13th centuries CE, the [Age](Iron)(Iron Age) [culture](Bura)(Bura culture) existed in the territory of present-day southeastern Burkina Faso and southwestern Niger. Various ethnic groups of present-day Burkina Faso, such as the [Mossi](Mossi people), [Fula](Fula people) and [Dioula](Dyula people), arrived in successive waves between the 8th and 15th centuries. From the 11th century, the Mossi people established [separate kingdoms](several)(Mossi Kingdoms).
[[de l'Oèst en 1875-es.svg|thumb|upright=1.6|West Africa circa 1875](File:Africa)]
### 8th century to 18th century
There is debate about the exact dates when Burkina Faso's many ethnic groups arrived to the area. The [Proto-Mossi](Moosei people) arrived in the far Eastern part of what is today Burkina Faso sometime between the 8th and 11th centuries,[Rupley](#Rupley), p. 27 the [Samo](Samo language (Burkina)) arrived around the 15th century,[Rupley](#Rupley), p. 28 the [Dogon](Dogon people) lived in Burkina Faso's north and northwest regions until sometime in the 15th or 16th centuries and many of the other ethnic groups that make up the country's population arrived in the region during this time.
[[File:MossiCavalry.jpg|thumb|The cavalry of the [Kingdoms](Mossi)(Mossi Kingdoms) were experts at raiding deep into enemy territory, even against the formidable [Empire](Mali)(Mali Empire).]]
[[File:Pg381 Des hommes sur les toits s'opposent.jpg|thumb|Armed men prevent the French explorer [Binger](Louis-Gustave)(Louis-Gustave Binger) from entering Sia (Bobo-Dioulasso) during his stay in April 1892.]]
During the [Ages](Middle)(Middle Ages), the Mossi established several separate kingdoms including those of Tenkodogo, Yatenga, Zandoma, and Ouagadougou."Encyclopedia of the Nations." History. Advameg, Inc., n.d. Web. 8 October 2014. Sometime between 1328 and 1338 Mossi warriors raided [Timbuktu](Timbuktu) but the Mossi were defeated by [Ali](Sonni)(Sonni Ali) of [Songhai](Songhai Empire) at the Battle of Kobi in Mali in 1483.[Rupley](#Rupley), p. xxvioi
During the early 16th century the Songhai conducted many slave raids into what is today Burkina Faso. During the 18th century the Gwiriko Empire was established at [Dioulasso](Bobo)(Bobo Dioulasso) and ethnic groups such as the Dyan, Lobi, and Birifor settled along the [Volta](Black)(Black Volta).[Rupley](#Rupley), p. xxvix
### From colony to independence (1890s–1958)
Starting in the early 1890s during the European [for Africa](Scramble)(Scramble for Africa), a series of European military officers made attempts to claim parts of what is today Burkina Faso. At times these [colonialists](Colonialism) and their armies fought the local peoples; at times they forged alliances with them and made treaties. The colonialist officers and their home governments also made treaties among themselves. The territory of Burkina Faso was invaded by [France](French Third Republic), becoming a [protectorate](French)(French colonial empire) in 1896.[Rupley](#Rupley), pp. 30–33
[[File:French West Africa 1913 map.png|thumb|[West Africa](French)(French West Africa) c. 1913]]
The eastern and western regions, where a standoff against the forces of the powerful ruler [Ture](Samori)(Samori Ture) complicated the situation, came under French occupation in 1897. By 1898, the majority of the territory corresponding to Burkina Faso was nominally conquered; however, French control of many parts remained uncertain.
The [Convention of 14 June 1898](Franco-British)(Anglo-French Convention of 1898) created the country's modern borders. In the French territory, a war of conquest against local communities and political powers continued for about five years. In 1904, the largely pacified territories of the [basin](Volta)(Volta River) were integrated into the [Senegal and Niger](Upper)(Upper Senegal and Niger) colony of [West Africa](French)(French West Africa) as part of the reorganization of the French West African colonial empire. The colony had its capital in [Bamako](Bamako).
The language of colonial administration and schooling became French. The public education system started from humble origins. Advanced education was provided for many years during the colonial period in Dakar.
The indigenous population was highly discriminated against. For example, African children were not allowed to ride bicycles or pick fruit from trees, "privileges" reserved for the children of colonists. Violating these regulations could land parents in jail.Figures de la révolution africaine, de Kenyatta à Sankara, La Découverte, 2014, pp. 271–288.
[Draftees](Conscription) from the territory participated in the European fronts of [War I](World)(World War I) in the battalions of the [Rifles](Senegalese)(Tirailleurs sénégalais). Between 1915 and 1916, the districts in the western part of what is now Burkina Faso and the bordering eastern fringe of Mali became the stage of one of the most important armed oppositions to colonial government: the [War](Volta-Bani)(Volta-Bani War).Mahir Saul and Patrick Royer, *West African Challenge to Empire*, 2001
The French government finally suppressed the movement but only after suffering defeats. It also had to organize its largest expeditionary force of its colonial history to send into the country to suppress the insurrection. Armed opposition wracked the Sahelian north when the [Tuareg](Tuareg people) and allied groups of the Dori region ended their truce with the government.
[[File:Mittelholzer-ouagadougou.jpg|thumb|The capital, [Ouagadougou](Ouagadougou), in 1930]]
[Upper Volta](French)(French Upper Volta) was established on 1 March 1919. The French feared a recurrence of armed uprising and had related economic considerations. To bolster its administration, the colonial government separated the present territory of Burkina Faso from Upper Senegal and Niger.
The new colony was named *Haute Volta* for its location on the upper courses of the [River](Volta)(Volta River) (the [Black](Black Volta), [Red](Red Volta) and [Volta](White)(White Volta)), and François Charles Alexis Édouard Hesling became its first [governor](List of governors of Upper Volta). Hesling initiated an ambitious road-making program to improve infrastructure and promoted the growth of cotton for export. The cotton policy – based on [coercion](coercion) – failed, and revenue generated by the colony stagnated. The colony was dismantled on 5 September 1932, being split between the French colonies of [Coast](Ivory)(Ivory Coast), [Sudan](French)(French Sudan) and [Niger](Niger). Ivory Coast received the largest share, which contained most of the population as well as the cities of Ouagadougou and Bobo-Dioulasso.
France reversed this change during the period of intense anti-colonial agitation that followed the end of [War II](World)(World War II). On 4 September 1947, it revived the colony of Upper Volta, with its previous boundaries, as a part of the [Union](French)(French Union). The French designated its colonies as departments of [France](metropolitan)(metropolitan France) on the European continent.
On 11 December 1958 the colony achieved [self-government](Self-governance) as the [of Upper Volta](Republic)(Republic of Upper Volta); it joined the Franco-African Community. A revision in the organization of French Overseas Territories had begun with the passage of the Basic Law (Loi Cadre) of 23 July 1956. This act was followed by reorganization measures approved by the French parliament early in 1957 to ensure a large degree of self-government for individual territories. Upper Volta became an autonomous republic in the French community on 11 December 1958. Full independence from France was received in 1960.
### Upper Volta (1958–1984)
[[File:Maurice Yaméogo and Louis Jacquinot exchanging instruments of ratification for the independence of the Upper Volta.jpg|thumb|[Yaméogo](Maurice)(Maurice Yaméogo), the first president of Upper Volta, examines documents pertaining to the ratification of the country's independence in 1960]]
The Republic of Upper Volta () was established on 11 December 1958 as a [colony](self-governing)(self-governing colony) within the [Community](French)(French Community). The name *Upper Volta* related to the nation's location along the upper reaches of the [River](Volta)(Volta River). The river's three [tributaries](Tributary) are called the [Black](Black Volta), [White](White Volta) and [Volta](Red)(Red Volta). These were expressed in the three colors of the [national flag](former)(Flag of Upper Volta).
Before attaining autonomy, it had been French Upper Volta and part of the French Union. On 5 August 1960, it attained full independence from [France](French Fourth Republic). The first president, [Yaméogo](Maurice)(Maurice Yaméogo), was the leader of the [Democratic Union](Voltaic)(Voltaic Democratic Union) (UDV). The 1960 constitution provided for election by [suffrage](universal)(universal suffrage) of a president and a national assembly for five-year terms. Soon after coming to power, Yaméogo banned all political parties other than the UDV. The government lasted until 1966. After much unrest, including mass demonstrations and strikes by students, labor unions, and civil servants, the military intervened.
#### Lamizana's rule and multiple coups
The [military coup](1966)(1966 Upper Voltan coup d'état) deposed Yaméogo, suspended the constitution, dissolved the National Assembly, and placed Lt. Col. [Lamizana](Sangoulé)(Sangoulé Lamizana) at the head of a government of senior army officers. The army remained in power for four years. On 14 June 1976, the Voltans ratified a new constitution that established a four-year transition period toward complete civilian rule. Lamizana remained in power throughout the 1970s as president of military or mixed civil-military governments. Lamizana's rule coincided with the beginning of the [drought](Sahel)(Sahel drought) and famine which had a devastating impact on Upper Volta and neighboring countries. After conflict over the 1976 constitution, a new constitution was written and approved in 1977. Lamizana was re-elected by open elections in 1978.
Lamizana's government faced problems with the country's traditionally powerful trade unions, and on 25 November 1980, Col. [Zerbo](Saye)(Saye Zerbo) overthrew President Lamizana in a [coup](bloodless)(1980 Upper Voltan coup d'état). Colonel Zerbo established the Military Committee of Recovery for National Progress as the supreme governmental authority, thus eradicating the 1977 constitution.
Colonel Zerbo also encountered resistance from trade unions and was overthrown two years later by Maj. Dr. [Ouédraogo](Jean-Baptiste)(Jean-Baptiste Ouédraogo) and the Council of Popular Salvation (CSP) in the [Upper Voltan coup d'état](1982)(1982 Upper Voltan coup d'état). The CSP continued to ban political parties and organizations, yet promised a transition to civilian rule and a new constitution.
#### 1983 coup d'état
Infighting developed between the right and left factions of the CSP. The leader of the leftists, Capt. [Sankara](Thomas)(Thomas Sankara), was appointed prime minister in January 1983, but was subsequently arrested. Efforts to free him, directed by Capt. [Compaoré](Blaise)(Blaise Compaoré), resulted in a military coup d'état on 4 August 1983.
The coup brought Sankara to power and his government began to implement a series of revolutionary programs which included mass-vaccinations, infrastructure improvements, the expansion of women's rights, encouragement of domestic agricultural consumption, and anti-desertification projects.*[Sankara: the Upright Man](Thomas)(Thomas Sankara: the Upright Man)* by *[Newsreel](California)(California Newsreel)*
### Burkina Faso (since 1984)
| established = 4 August 1983
| capital = [Ouagadougou](Ouagadougou)
| national_languages = [Mòoré](Mòoré language) [Fula](Fula language)[Dioula](Dioula language)
| official_languages = [French](French language)
| national_motto =
| national_anthem = }}
| date_event2 = 15 October 1987
| event2 = 1987 Burkinabè coup d'état
| date_event1 = 25 December 1985
| event1 = [Strip War](Agacher)(Agacher Strip War)
| year_leader1 = 1983–1987
| government_type = [Unitary](Unitary state) [Marxist-Leninist](Marxist-Leninist) [one-party](one-party) [state](socialist)(socialist state) under a [junta](military)(military junta)
| leader1 = [Sankara](Thomas)(Thomas Sankara)
| title_leader = [President](President of Burkina Faso)
| event_start = 1983 Burkinabè coup d'état
| area_km2 = 274,200
| year_end = 1987
| year_start = 1983
| conventional_long_name = Republic of Upper Volta *République de Haute-Volta*}}Burkina Faso }}
| common_name = Burkina Faso
| currency_code = XOF
| currency = [African CFA franc](West)(West African CFA franc)
| image_coat = Coat of arms of Burkina Faso 1984-1991.svg
| image_flag = Flag of Upper Volta.svg
| today =
| HDI_year =
| HDI =
| GDP_PPP_year = 1986
| GDP_PPP = $2.036 billion
| area_rank =
| legislature =
| image_flag2 = Flag of Burkina Faso.svg
}}
On 2 August 1984, on President Sankara's initiative, the country's name changed from "Upper Volta" to "Burkina Faso", or *land of the honest men*; (the literal translation is *land of the upright men*.)
[More (Language of the Mossi Tribe) Phrase Book](https://www.wdl.org/en/item/635/) – "Burkina Faso is a former French colony, which became the independent state of Upper Volta in 1960. In 1984 the country adopted its present name, meaning 'Land of Incorruptible People.'"
Kingfisher Geography Encyclopedia. . Page 170The name is an [amalgam](Amalgamation (linguistics)) of [More](More language) *burkina* ("honest", "upright", or "incorruptible men") and [Jula](Dioula language) *faso* ("homeland"; literally "father's house"). The "-be" suffix in the name for the people – Burkinabe – comes from the Fula plural suffix for people, *-ɓe*. The presidential decree was confirmed by the National Assembly on 4 August. The demonym for people of Burkina Faso, "Burkinabè", includes expatriates or descendants of people of Burkinabè origin.
Sankara's government comprised the National Council for the Revolution (CNR – ), with Sankara as its president, and established popular [for the Defense of the Revolution](Committees)(Committees for the Defense of the Revolution (Burkina Faso)) (CDRs). The [of the Revolution](Pioneers)(Pioneers of the Revolution) youth programme was also established.
Sankara launched an ambitious socioeconomic programme for change, one of the largest ever undertaken on the African continent. His foreign policies centred on [anti-imperialism](anti-imperialism), with his government rejecting all [aid](foreign)(foreign aid), pushing for [debt](odious)(odious debt) reduction, nationalising all land and mineral wealth and averting the power and influence of the [Monetary Fund](International)(International Monetary Fund) (IMF) and [Bank](World)(World Bank). His domestic policies included a nationwide literacy campaign, land redistribution to peasants, railway and road construction and the outlawing of [genital mutilation](female)(female genital mutilation), [marriage](forced)(forced marriage)s and [polygamy](polygamy).
Sankara pushed for agrarian self-sufficiency and promoted public health by vaccinating 2,500,000 children against [meningitis](meningitis), [fever](yellow)(yellow fever), and [measles](measles). His national agenda also included planting over 10,000,000 trees to halt the growing [desertification](desertification) of the [Sahel](Sahel). Sankara called on every village to build a medical dispensary and had over 350 communities build schools with their own labour.
In the 1980s, when ecological awareness was still very low, Thomas Sankara was one of the few African leaders to consider environmental protection a priority. He engaged in three major battles: against bush fires "which will be considered as crimes and will be punished as such"; against cattle roaming "which infringes on the rights of peoples because unattended animals destroy nature"; and against the anarchic cutting of firewood "whose profession will have to be organized and regulated". As part of a development program involving a large part of the population, ten million trees were planted in Burkina Faso in fifteen months during the revolution. To face the advancing desert and recurrent droughts, Thomas Sankara also proposed the planting of wooded strips of about fifty kilometers, crossing the country from east to west. He then thought of extending this vegetation belt to other countries. Cereal production, close to 1.1 billion tons before 1983, was predicted to rise to 1.6 billion tons in 1987. Jean Ziegler, former UN special rapporteur for the right to food, said that the country "had become food self-sufficient."
#### 1987 coup d'état
On 15 October 1987, Sankara, along with twelve other officials, was assassinated in a coup d'état organized by Blaise Compaoré, Sankara's former colleague, who would go on to serve as Burkina Faso's president from October 1987 until October 2014. After the coup and although Sankara was known to be dead, some CDRs mounted an armed resistance to the [army](Army of Burkina Faso) for several days. A majority of Burkinabè citizens hold that [foreign ministry](France's)(Ministry for Europe and Foreign Affairs (France)), the Quai d'Orsay, was behind Compaoré in organizing the coup. There is some evidence for France's support of the coup.
Compaoré gave as one of the reasons for the coup the deterioration in relations with neighbouring countries. Compaoré argued that Sankara had jeopardised foreign relations with the former colonial power (France) and with neighbouring [Coast](Ivory)(Ivory Coast). Following the coup Compaoré immediately reversed the nationalizations, overturned nearly all of Sankara's policies, returned the country back into the IMF fold, and ultimately spurned most of Sankara's legacy. Following an alleged [in 1989](coup-attempt)(1989 Burkinabè coup d'état attempt), Compaoré introduced limited democratic reforms in 1990. Under the new (1991) [constitution](Constitution of Burkina Faso), Compaoré was [re-elected](1991 Burkinabè presidential election) without opposition in December 1991. In 1998 Compaoré won [election](1998 Burkinabè presidential election) in a landslide. In 2004, 13 people were tried for plotting a coup against President Compaoré and the coup's alleged mastermind was sentenced to life imprisonment."Burkina Faso Profile." Burkina Faso Profile. BBC NEWS AFRICA, 21 March 2014. Web. 24 September 2014. , Burkina Faso remained one of the [countries](least-developed)(Least developed country) in the world.
Compaoré's government played the role of negotiator in several West-African disputes, including the [Ivorian crisis](2010–11)(2010–11 Ivorian crisis), the Inter-Togolese Dialogue (2007), and the [Malian Crisis](2012)(2012 Malian coup d'état).
Between February and April 2011, the death of a schoolboy provoked [protests](2011 Burkinabè protests) throughout the country, coupled with a military mutiny and a magistrates' strike.
#### October 2014 protests
Starting on 28 October 2014 protesters began to march and demonstrate in Ouagadougou against President Blaise Compaoré, who appeared ready to amend the constitution and extend his 27-year rule. On 30 October some protesters set fire to the parliament building and took over the national TV headquarters. [International Airport](Ouagadougou)(Ouagadougou Airport) closed and MPs suspended the vote on changing the constitution (the change would have allowed Compaoré to stand for re-election in 2015). Later in the day, the military dissolved all government institutions and imposed a [curfew](curfew).
On 31 October 2014, President Compaoré, facing mounting pressure, resigned after 27 years in office.Herve, Taoko and Cowelloct, Alan (31 October 2014) [Burkina Faso's President Resigns, and General Takes Reins](https://www.nytimes.com/2014/11/01/world/africa/burkina-faso-unrest-blaise-compaore.html?_r=0). *The New York Times*. [Col. Isaac Zida](Lt.)(Yacouba Isaac Zida) said that he would lead the country during its transitional period before the planned [presidential election](2015)(Burkinabè presidential election, 2015), but there were concerns over his close ties to the former president. In November 2014 opposition parties, [civil-society](civil society) groups and religious leaders adopted a plan for a transitional authority to guide Burkina Faso to elections. Under the plan [Kafando](Michel)(Michel Kafando) became the transitional [of Burkina Faso](President)(President of Burkina Faso) and Lt. Col. Zida became the acting Prime Minister and Defense Minister.
#### 2015 coup d'état
On 16 September 2015, the [of Presidential Security](Regiment)(Regiment of Presidential Security) (RSP) seized the country's president and prime minister and then declared the [Council for Democracy](National)(National Council for Democracy) the new national government. However, on 22 September 2015, the coup leader, [Diendéré](Gilbert)(Gilbert Diendéré), apologized and promised to restore civilian government. On 23 September 2015 the prime minister and interim president were restored to power.
#### November 2015 election
General elections took place in Burkina Faso on 29 November 2015. [Marc Christian Kaboré](Roch)(Roch Marc Christian Kaboré) won the election in the first round with 53.5% of the vote, defeating businessman [Diabré](Zéphirin)(Zéphirin Diabré), who took 29.7%. Kaboré was sworn in as president on 29 December 2015.
#### November 2020 election
In 2020 general election, President Roch Marc Christian Kaboré was re-elected. However, his party Mouvement du people MPP, failed to reach absolute parliamentary majority. It secured 56 seats out of a total of 127. The Congress for Democracy and Progress (CDP), the party of former President Blaise Compaoré, was distant second with 20 seats.
#### Terrorist attacks
In February 2016 a terrorist attack occurred at the Splendid Hotel and Capuccino café-bar in the centre of Ouagadougou: 30 people died. [in the Islamic Maghreb](Al-Qaeda)(Al-Qaeda in the Islamic Maghreb) (AQIM) and [Al-Mourabitoun](Al-Mourabitoun (militant group)), two groups which until then had mostly operated in neighbouring [Mali](Mali), claimed responsibility for the attack. Since then, similar groups have carried out numerous attacks in the northern and eastern parts of the country. One terrorist attack occurred on the evening of Friday, 11 October 2019, on a mosque in the village of Salmossi near the border with Mali, leaving 16 people dead and two injured.
On 8 July 2020, the United States raised concerns after a [Rights Watch](Human)(Human Rights Watch) report revealed mass graves with at least 180 bodies, which were found in northern Burkina Faso where soldiers were fighting jihadists.
On 4 June 2021, the Associated Press reported that according to the government of Burkina Faso, gunmen killed at least 100 people in Solhan village in northern Burkina Faso near the Niger border. A local market and several homes were also burned down. A government spokesman blamed jihadists. This was the deadliest attack recorded in Burkina Faso since the West African country was overrun by jihadists linked to al-Qaida and the Islamic State about five years ago, said Heni Nsaibia, senior researcher at the Armed Conflict Location & Event Data Project.Portland Press Herald, 5 June 2021
Christians in Burkina Faso have been specifically targeted in a number of occasions. Catholic priest Joël Yougbaré was abducted in 2019 and as of November 2022 had not been heard of again, and American sister Suellen Tennyson was kidnapped in April 2022, and released in August. After a series of other attacks on Christian targets, a Burkinabé priest told Aid to the Church in Need that direct persecution of Christians was increasing in the country.
#### 2022 coups d'état
In a successful coup on 24 January 2022, mutinying soldiers arrested and deposed President [Marc Christian Kaboré](Roch)(Roch Marc Christian Kaboré) following gunfire. The [Movement for Safeguard and Restoration](Patriotic)(Patriotic Movement for Safeguard and Restoration) (MPSR) supported by the military declared itself to be in power, Lesen Sie zeit.de mit Werbung oder im PUR-Abo. Sie haben die Wahl.|url=https://www.zeit.de/zustimmung?url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.zeit.de%2Fpolitik%2Fausland%2F2022-01%2Fburkina-faso-militaerputsch-machtuebernahme-soldaten-praesident-kabore|access-date=25 January 2022|website=www.zeit.de}} led by Lieutenant Colonel [Sandaogo Damiba](Paul-Henri)(Paul-Henri Sandaogo Damiba). On 31 January, the military junta restored the constitution and appointed Damiba interim president. In the aftermath of the coup, [ECOWAS](Economic Community of West African States) and the [Union](African)(African Union) suspended Burkina Faso's membership. On 10 February, the Constitutional Council declared Damiba president of Burkina Faso. He was sworn in as President on 16 February. On 1 March 2022, the junta approved a charter allowing a military-led transition of 3 years. The charter provides for the transition process to be followed by the holding of elections. [Kaboré](President)(Roch Marc Christian Kaboré), who had been detained since the military junta took power, was released on 6 April 2022.
On 30 September, Damiba was ousted in a military coup led by Capt. [Traoré](Ibrahim)(Ibrahim Traoré). This came eight months after Damiba seized power. The rationale given by Traore for the coup d'état was the purported inability of Paul-Henri Sandaogo Damiba to deal with an Islamist insurgency. Damiba resigned and left the country. On 6 October 2022, Captain Ibrahim Traore was officially appointed as president of Burkina Faso. [Joachim Kyélem de Tambèla](Apollinaire)(Apollinaire Joachim Kyélem de Tambèla) was appointed interim Prime Minister on 21 October 2022.
#### 2023 mobilisation
On 13 April 2023, authorities in Burkina Faso declared a mobilisation in order to give the nation all means necessary to combat terrorism and create a "legal framework for all the actions to be taken" against the insurgents in recapturing 40 percent of the national territory from Islamist insurgents.
## Government
[[Compaoré 2014 White House.png|thumb|upright|President Blaise Compaoré ruled Burkina Faso from a coup d'état in 1987 until he lost power in 2014.](File:Blaise)]
[[File:Assemblee Nationale Burkina Faso.jpg|thumb|The [Assembly](National)(National Assembly of Burkina Faso) building in downtown [Ouagadougou](Ouagadougou)]]
With French help, Blaise Compaoré seized power in a coup d'état in 1987. He overthrew his long-time friend and ally [Sankara](Thomas)(Thomas Sankara), who was killed in the coup.
The [constitution](Constitution of Burkina Faso) of 2 June 1991 established a [government](semi-presidential)(Semi-presidential system): its parliament could be dissolved by the [of the Republic](President)(List of heads of state of Burkina Faso), who was to be [elected](Elections in Burkina Faso) for a term of seven years. In 2000, the constitution was amended to reduce the presidential term to five years and set term limits to two, preventing successive re-election. The amendment took effect during the 2005 elections. If passed beforehand, it would have prevented Compaoré from being reelected.
Other presidential candidates challenged the election results. But in October 2005, the constitutional council ruled that, because Compaoré was the sitting president in 2000, the amendment would not apply to him until the end of his second term in office. This cleared the way for his candidacy in [2005 election](the)(Burkina Faso presidential elections, 2005). On 13 November 2005, Compaoré was reelected in a landslide, because of a divided political opposition.
In the [presidential election](2010)(2010 Burkinabé presidential election), President Compaoré was re-elected. Only 1.6 million Burkinabè voted, out of a total population 10 times that size.
The [Burkinabè protests](2011)(2011 Burkinabè protests) were a series of popular protests that called for the resignation of Compaoré, democratic reforms, higher wages for troops and public servants and economic freedom. As a result, governors were replaced and wages for public servants were raised.
The parliament consisted of [chamber](one)(unicameralism) known as the [Assembly](National)(National Assembly (Burkina Faso)), which had 111 seats with members elected to serve five-year terms. There was also a constitutional chamber, composed of ten members, and an economic and social council whose roles were purely consultative. The 1991 constitution created a [bicameral](bicameralism) parliament, but the upper house (Chamber of Representatives) was abolished in 2002.
The Compaoré administration had worked to [power](decentralize)(Decentralization#Government decentralization) by devolving some of its powers to regions and municipal authorities. But the widespread distrust of politicians and lack of political involvement by many residents complicated this process. Critics described this as a hybrid decentralisation.
[freedom](Political)(Political freedom)s are severely restricted in Burkina Faso. [rights organizations](Human)(Political freedom) had criticised the Compaoré administration for numerous acts of state-sponsored violence against journalists and other politically active members of society.
In mid-September 2015 the Kafando government, along with the rest of the post-October 2014 political order, was [overthrown](temporarily)(2015 Burkinabe coup d'état) in a coup attempt by the [of Presidential Security](Regiment)(Regiment of Presidential Security) (RSP). They installed Gilbert Diendéré as chairman of the new [Council for Democracy](National)(National Council for Democracy). On 23 September 2015, the prime minister and interim president were restored to power. The [elections](national)(Burkinabè general election, 2015) were subsequently rescheduled for 29 November.
Kaboré won the election in the first round of voting, receiving 53.5% of the vote against 29.7% for the second place candidate, [Diabré](Zephirin)(Zephirin Diabré).Mathieu Bonkoungou and Nadoun Coulibaly, ["Kabore wins Burkina Faso presidential election"](https://news.yahoo.com/kabore-wins-burkina-faso-presidential-vote-electoral-commission-003634457.html), Reuters, 1 December 2015. He was sworn in as president on 29 December 2015. The [BBC](BBC) described the president as a "French-educated banker ... [who] sees himself as a social democrat, and has pledged to reduce youth unemployment, improve education and healthcare, and make health provision for children under six free of charge".
The prime minister is head of government and is appointed by the president with the approval of the National Assembly. He is responsible for recommending a cabinet for appointment by the president. Paul Kaba Thieba was appointed PM in early 2016.
According to a World Bank Report in late 2018, the political climate was stable; the government was facing "social discontent marked by major strikes and protests, organized by unions in several economic sectors, to demand salary increases and social benefits .... and increasingly frequent jihadist attacks". In the [Burkinabè general election](2020)(2020 Burkinabè general election), Kaboré and the MPP were reelected with 57.7% of the vote.
### Constitution
In 2015, Kaboré promised to revise the 1991 constitution. The revision was completed in 2018. One condition prevents any individual from serving as president for more than ten years either consecutively or intermittently and provides a method for impeaching a president. A referendum on the constitution for the Fifth Republic was scheduled for 24 March 2019.
Certain rights are also enshrined in the revised wording: access to drinking water, access to decent housing and a recognition of the right to civil disobedience, for example. The referendum was required because the opposition parties in Parliament refused to sanction the proposed text.
### Foreign relations
Burkina Faso is a member of the [Sahel](G5)(G5 Sahel), [of Sahel–Saharan States](Community)(Community of Sahel–Saharan States), [Francophonie](La)(La Francophonie), [of Islamic Cooperation](Organisation)(Organisation of Islamic Cooperation), and United Nations. It is currently suspended from [ECOWAS](ECOWAS) and the [Union](African)(African Union).
### Military
The [army](Army of Burkina Faso) consists of some 6,000 men in voluntary service, augmented by a part-time national People's Militia composed of civilians between 25 and 35 years of age who are trained in both military and civil duties. According to ''Jane's Sentinel Country Risk Assessment'', Burkina Faso's Army is undermanned for its force structure and poorly equipped, but has wheeled light-armour vehicles, and may have developed useful combat expertise through interventions in Liberia and elsewhere in Africa.
In terms of training and equipment, the regular Army is believed to be neglected in relation to the élite Regiment of Presidential Security ( – RSP). Reports have emerged in recent years of disputes over pay and conditions.''[Jane's Sentinel Security Assessment – West Africa](https://web.archive.org/web/20100827071950/http://www.janes.com/articles/Janes-Sentinel-Security-Assessment-West-Africa/Army-Burkina-Faso.html)'', 15 April 2009 There is an air force with some 19 operational aircraft, but no navy, as the country is landlocked. Military expenses constitute approximately 1.2% of the nation's GDP.
In April 2011, there was an [mutiny](army)(2011 Burkina Faso mutiny); the president named new chiefs of staff, and a curfew was imposed in [Ouagadougou](Ouagadougou).
### Law enforcement
Burkina Faso employs numerous police and security forces, generally modeled after organizations used by [police](French)(French police). France continues to provide significant support and training to police forces. The *Gendarmerie Nationale* is organized along military lines, with most police services delivered at the brigade level. The [Gendarmerie](Gendarmerie) operates under the authority of the Minister of Defence, and its members are employed chiefly in the rural areas and along borders.Das, Dilip K. and Palmiotto, Michael J. (2005) *World Police Encyclopedia*, Routledge, . pp. 139–141
There is a municipal police force controlled by the [of Territorial Administration](Ministry)(Ministry of Territorial Administration); a national police force controlled by the Ministry of Security; and an autonomous [of Presidential Security](Regiment)(Regiment of Presidential Security) (*Régiment de la Sécurité Présidentielle*, or RSP), a 'palace guard' devoted to the protection of the President of the Republic. Both the gendarmerie and the national police are subdivided into both administrative and judicial police functions; the former are detailed to protect public order and provide security, the latter are charged with criminal investigations.
All foreigners and citizens are required to carry photo ID passports, or other forms of identification or risk a fine, and police spot identity checks are commonplace for persons traveling by auto, [bush-taxi](Share taxi), or bus.U.S. Dept. of State, [Burkina Faso: Country Specific Information](https://web.archive.org/web/20131114034455/http://travel.state.gov/travel/cis_pa_tw/cis/cis_1075.html)Foreign and Commonwealth Office, . Government of the United Kingdom
### Administrative divisions
The country is divided into [regions](13 administrative)(Regions of Burkina Faso). These regions encompass [45 provinces](Provinces of Burkina Faso) and [301 departments](Departments of Burkina Faso). Each region is administered by a governor.
## Geography
[[sat.png|thumb|Satellite image of Burkina Faso](File:Burkina)]
[[Faso Map.jpg|upright=1.5|thumb|Map of Burkina Faso](File:Burkina)]
Burkina Faso lies mostly between latitudes [9°](9th parallel north) and [15° N](15th parallel north) (a small area is north of 15°), and longitudes [6° W](6th meridian west) and [3° E](3rd meridian east).
It is made up of two major types of countryside. The larger part of the country is covered by a [peneplain](peneplain), which forms a gently undulating landscape with, in some areas, a few isolated hills, the last vestiges of a [Precambrian](Precambrian) [massif](massif). The southwest of the country, on the other hand, forms a [sandstone](sandstone) massif, where the highest peak, [Ténakourou](Ténakourou), is found at an elevation of . The massif is bordered by sheer cliffs up to high. The average altitude of Burkina Faso is and the difference between the highest and lowest terrain is no greater than . Burkina Faso is therefore a relatively flat country.
The country owes its former name of Upper Volta to three rivers which cross it: the [Volta](Black)(Black Volta) (or *Mouhoun*), the [Volta](White)(White Volta) (*Nakambé*) and the [Volta](Red)(Red Volta) (*Nazinon*). The Black Volta is one of the country's only two rivers which flow year-round, the other being the [Komoé](Komoé River), which flows to the southwest. The basin of the [River](Niger)(Niger River) also [drains](drainage basin) 27% of the country's surface.
The Niger's [tributaries](tributary) – the Béli, Gorouol, Goudébo, and Dargol – are [streams](seasonal)(Torrent (stream)) and flow for only four to six months a year. They still can flood and overflow, however. The country also contains numerous lakes – the principal ones are Tingrela, [Bam](Lake Bam), and Dem. The country contains large ponds, as well, such as Oursi, Béli, Yomboli, and Markoye. [shortages](Water)(Drought) are often a problem, especially in the north of the country.
[[File:WP 35, SDr9776.JPG|right|thumb|[Savanna](Savanna)h near the [Department](Gbomblora)(Gbomblora Department), on the road from [Gaoua](Gaoua) to [Batié](Batié, Burkina Faso)]]
Burkina Faso lies within two terrestrial ecoregions: [Acacia savanna](Sahelian)(Sahelian Acacia savanna) and [Sudanian savanna](West)(West Sudanian savanna).
### Climate
[[File:Koppen-Geiger Map BFA present.svg|thumb|Map of [climate classification](Köppen)(Köppen climate classification)]]
Burkina Faso has a primarily tropical climate with two very distinct seasons. In the rainy season, the country receives between of rainfall; in the dry season, the [harmattan](harmattan) – a hot dry wind from the Sahara – blows. The rainy season lasts approximately four months, May/June to September, and is shorter in the north of the country. Three climatic zones can be defined: the Sahel, the Sudan-Sahel, and the Sudan-Guinea. The [Sahel](Sahel) in the north typically receives less than of rainfall per year and has high temperatures, .
A relatively dry [savanna](tropical)(tropical savanna), the Sahel extends beyond the borders of Burkina Faso, from the [of Africa](Horn)(Horn of Africa) to the Atlantic Ocean, and borders the [Sahara](Sahara) to its north and the fertile region of the [Sudan](Sudan (region)) to the south. Situated between 11° 3′ and 13° 5′ north [latitude](latitude), the Sudan-Sahel region is a transitional zone with regards to rainfall and temperature. Further to the south, the Sudan-Guinea zone receives more than of rain each year and has cooler average temperatures.
[[of a dam (Dourtenga, 2008).jpg|thumb|Damage caused by the Dourtenga floods in 2007](File:Wreckage)]
Geographic and environmental causes can also play a significant role in contributing to Burkina Faso's food insecurity. As the country is situated in the [Sahel](Sahel) region, Burkina Faso experiences some of the most radical climatic variation in the world, ranging from severe flooding to extreme drought. The unpredictable climatic shock that Burkina Faso citizens often face results in strong difficulties in being able to rely on and accumulate wealth through agricultural means.
Burkina Faso's climate also renders its crops vulnerable to insect attacks, including attacks from [locust](locust)s and [crickets](Cricket (insect)), which destroy crops and further inhibit food production. Not only is most of the population of Burkina Faso dependent on agriculture as a source of income, but they also rely on the agricultural sector for food that will directly feed the household. Due to the vulnerability of agriculture, more and more families are having to look for other sources of non-farm income, and often have to travel outside of their regional zone to find work.
### Natural resources
[Faso's natural resources](Burkina)(Natural resources of Burkina Faso) include gold, [manganese](manganese), [limestone](limestone), [marble](marble), [phosphate](phosphate)s, [pumice](pumice), and [salt](Salt mining).
### Wildlife
Burkina Faso has a larger number of [elephant](elephant)s than many countries in West Africa. Lions, leopards and buffalo can also be found here, including the dwarf or red buffalo, a smaller reddish-brown animal which looks like a fierce kind of short-legged cow. Other large predators live in Burkina Faso, such as the cheetah, the caracal or African lynx, the spotted hyena and the African wild dog, one of the continent's most endangered species.. our-africa.org
Burkina Faso's [and flora](fauna)(Wildlife in Burkina Faso) are protected in four national parks:
* The [National Park](W)(W National Park) in the east which passes Burkina Faso, Benin, and Niger
* The Arly Wildlife Reserve (Arly National Park in the east)
* The Léraba-Comoé Classified Forest and Partial Reserve of Wildlife in the west
* The [aux Hippopotames](Mare)(Mare aux Hippopotames) in the west
and several reserves: see [of national parks in Africa](List)(List of national parks in Africa) and [reserves of Burkina Faso](Nature)(Nature reserves of Burkina Faso).
## Economy
[[Faso Product Exports (2019).svg|upright=1.3|thumb|right|A proportional representation of Burkina Faso exports, 2019](File:Burkina)]
[[per capita development of Burkina Faso.svg|thumb|GDP per capita in Burkina Faso, since 1950](File:GDP)]
The value of Burkina Faso's exports fell from $2.77 billion in 2011 to $754 million in 2012. Agriculture represents 32% of its gross domestic product and occupies 80% of the working population. It consists mostly of rearing livestock. Especially in the south and southwest, the people grow crops of [sorghum](sorghum), [millet](pearl)(pearl millet), maize (corn), peanuts, rice and cotton, with surpluses to be sold. A large part of the economic activity of the country is funded by international aid, despite having gold ores in abundance.
The top five export commodities in 2017 were, in order of importance: gems and precious metals, US$1.9 billion (78.5% of total exports), cotton, $198.7 million (8.3%), ores, slag, ash, $137.6 million (5.8%), fruits, nuts: $76.6 million (3.2%) and oil seeds: $59.5 million (2.5%).
A December 2018 report from the World Bank indicates that in 2017, economic growth increased to 6.4% in 2017 (vs. 5.9% in 2016) primarily due to gold production and increased investment in infrastructure. The increase in consumption linked to growth of the wage bill also supported economic growth. Inflation remained low, 0.4% that year but the public deficit grew to 7.7% of GDP (vs. 3.5% in 2016). The government was continuing to get financial aid and loans to finance the debt. To finance the public deficit, the Government combined concessional aid and borrowing on the regional market. The World Bank said that the economic outlook remained favorable in the short and medium term, although that could be negatively impacted. Risks included high oil prices (imports), lower prices of gold and cotton (exports) as well as terrorist threat and labour strikes.
Burkina Faso is part of the [African Monetary and Economic Union](West)(West African Monetary and Economic Union) (UMEOA) and has adopted the [franc](CFA)(West African CFA franc). This is issued by the [Bank of the West African States](Central)(Central Bank of the West African States) (BCEAO), situated in [Dakar](Dakar), Senegal. The BCEAO manages the monetary and reserve policy of the member states, and provides regulation and oversight of financial sector and banking activity. A legal framework regarding licensing, bank activities, organizational and capital requirements, inspections and sanctions (all applicable to all countries of the Union) is in place, having been reformed significantly in 1999. [Microfinance](Microfinance) institutions are governed by a separate law, which regulates microfinance activities in all WAEMU countries. The insurance sector is regulated through the Inter-African Conference on Insurance Markets (CIMA)., MFW4A
[[Mill in Burkina Faso.jpg|thumb|Processing facilities at the Essakane Mine in Burkina Faso](File:Essakane)]
In 2018, tourism was almost non-existent in large parts of the country. The U.S. government (and others) warn their citizens not to travel into large parts of Burkina Faso: "The northern Sahel border region shared with Mali and Niger due to crime and terrorism. The provinces of Kmoandjari, Tapoa, Kompienga, and Gourma in East Region due to crime and terrorism".
The 2018 CIA World Factbook provides this updated summary. "Burkina Faso is a poor, landlocked country that depends on adequate rainfall. Irregular patterns of rainfall, poor soil, and the lack of adequate communications and other infrastructure contribute to the economy's vulnerability to external shocks. About 80% of the population is engaged in subsistence farming and cotton is the main cash crop. The country has few natural resources and a weak industrial base. Cotton and gold are Burkina Faso's key exports ...The country has seen an upswing in gold exploration, production, and exports.
While the end of the political crisis has allowed Burkina Faso's economy to resume positive growth, the country's fragile security situation could put these gains at risk. Political insecurity in neighboring Mali, unreliable energy supplies, and poor transportation links pose long-term challenges." The report also highlights the 2018–2020 International Monetary Fund program, including the government's plan to "reduce the budget deficit and preserve critical spending on social services and priority public investments".
A 2018 report by the African Development Bank Group discussed a macroeconomic evolution: "higher investment and continued spending on social services and security that will add to the budget deficit". This group's prediction for 2018 indicated that the budget deficit would be reduced to 4.8% of GDP in 2018 and to 2.9% in 2019. Public debt associated with the National Economic and Social Development Plan was estimated at 36.9% of GDP in 2017.
Burkina Faso is a member of the [for the Harmonization of Business Law in Africa](Organization)(Organization for the Harmonization of Business Law in Africa) (OHADA). The country also belongs to the United Nations, International Monetary Fund, World Bank, and World Trade Organization.
### Mining
There is mining of [copper](copper), [iron](iron), [manganese](manganese), [gold](gold), [cassiterite](cassiterite) (tin ore), and phosphates.. Inadev.org. Retrieved 5 April 2014. These operations provide employment and generate international aid. Gold production increased 32% in 2011 at six gold mine sites, making Burkina Faso the fourth-largest gold producer in Africa, after South Africa, Mali and Ghana.
A 2018 report indicated that the country expected record 55 tonnes of gold in that year, a two-thirds increase over 2013. According to Oumarou Idani, there is a more important issue. "We have to diversify production. We mostly only produce gold, but we have huge potential in manganese, zinc, lead, copper, nickel and limestone".
## Food insecurity
According to the [Hunger Index](Global)(Global Hunger Index), a multidimensional tool used to measure and track a country's hunger levels, IFPRI|url = http://www.ifpri.org/topic/global-hunger-index|website = ifpri.org|access-date = 20 November 2015}} Burkina Faso ranked 65 out of 78 countries in 2013. It is estimated that there are currently over 1.5 million children who are at risk of food insecurity in Burkina Faso, with around 350,000 children who are in need of emergency medical assistance. However, only about a third of these children will actually receive adequate medical attention. Only 11.4 percent of children under the age of two receive the daily recommended number of meals. Stunted growth as a result of food insecurity is a severe problem in Burkina Faso, affecting at least a third of the population from 2008 to 2012. Additionally, stunted children, on average, tend to complete less school than children with normal growth development, further contributing to the low levels of education of the Burkina Faso population.
The [Commission](European)(European Commission) expects that approximately 500,000 children under age 5 in Burkina Faso will suffer from acute malnutrition in 2015, including around 149,000 who will suffer from its most life-threatening form. Rates of micronutrient deficiencies are also high. According to the [and Health Survey](Demographic)(Demographic and Health Surveys) (DHS 2010), 49 percent of women and 88 percent of children under the age of five suffer from anemia. Forty percent of infant deaths can be attributed to [malnutrition](malnutrition), and in turn, these infant mortality rates have decreased Burkina Faso's total work force by 13.6 percent, demonstrating how food security affects more aspects of life beyond health.
These high rates of food insecurity and the accompanying effects are even more prevalent in rural populations compared to urban ones, as access to health services in rural areas is much more limited and awareness and education of children's nutritional needs is lower.
An October 2018 report by [USAid](USAid) stated that droughts and floods remained problematic, and that "violence and insecurity are disrupting markets, trade and livelihoods activities in some of Burkina Faso's northern and eastern areas". The report estimated that over 954,300 people needed food security support, and that, according to [UNICEF](UNICEF), an "estimated 187,200 children under 5 years of age will experience severe acute malnutrition". Agencies providing assistance at the time included USAID's Office of Food for Peace (FFP) working with the UN [Food Programme](World)(World Food Programme), the NGO [Intermón](Oxfam)(Oxfam Intermón) and [ACDI/VOCA](ACDI/VOCA).
### Approaches to improving food security
#### World Food Programme
The United Nations' [Food Programme](World)(World Food Programme) has worked on programs that are geared towards increasing food security in Burkina Faso.
The Protracted Relief and Recovery Operation 200509 (PRRO) was formed to respond to the high levels of malnutrition in Burkina Faso, following the food and nutrition crisis in 2012. WFP United Nations World Food Programme – Fighting Hunger Worldwide|url = https://www.wfp.org/countries/burkina-faso/overview|website = wfp.org|access-date = 19 October 2015|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150910072256/http://www.wfp.org/countries/burkina-faso/overview|archive-date = 10 September 2015}} The efforts of this project are mostly geared towards the treatment and prevention of malnutrition and include take home rations for the caretakers of those children who are being treated for malnutrition. Additionally, the activities of this operation contribute to families' abilities to withstand future food crises. Better nutrition among the two most vulnerable groups, young children and pregnant women, prepares them to be able to respond better in times when food security is compromised, such as in droughts.
The Country Programme (CP) has two parts: food and nutritional assistance to people with HIV/AIDS, and a school feeding program for all primary schools in the Sahel region. The HIV/AIDS nutrition program aims to better the nutritional recovery of those who are living with HIV/AIDS and to protect at-risk children and orphans from malnutrition and food security. As part of the school feeding component, the Country Programme's goals are to increase enrollment and attendance in schools in the Sahel region, where enrollment rates are below the national average. Furthermore, the program aims at improving gender parity rates in these schools, by providing girls with high attendance in the last two years of primary school with take-home rations of cereals as an incentive to households, encouraging them to send their girls to school.
The WFP concluded the formation of a subsequently approved plan in August 2018 "to support the Government's vision of 'a democratic, unified and united nation, transforming the structure of its economy and achieving a strong and inclusive growth through patterns of sustainable consumption and production.' It will take important steps in WFP's new strategic direction for strengthened national and local capacities to enable the Government and communities to own, manage, and implement food and nutrition security programmes by 2030".
#### World Bank
The [Bank](World)(World Bank Group) was established in 1944, and comprises five institutions whose shared goals are to end extreme poverty by 2030 and to promote shared prosperity by fostering income growth of the lower forty percent of every country. One of the main projects the World Bank is working on to reduce food insecurity in Burkina Faso is the Agricultural Productivity and Food Security Project. The World Bank |url = http://www.worldbank.org/projects/P114236/agricultural-productivity-food-security-project?lang=en |publisher = World Bank |access-date = 2 November 2015}} According to the World Bank, the objective of this project is to "improve the capacity of poor producers to increase food production and to ensure improved availability of food products in rural markets." The Agricultural Productivity and Food Security Project has three main parts. Its first component is to work towards the improvement of food production, including financing grants and providing 'voucher for work' programs for households who cannot pay their contribution in cash. The project's next component involves improving the ability of food products, particularly in rural areas. This includes supporting the marketing of food products, and aims to strengthen the capabilities of stakeholders to control the variability of food products and supplies at local and national levels. Lastly, the third component of this project focuses on institutional development and capacity building. Its goal is to reinforce the capacities of service providers and institutions who are specifically involved in project implementation. The project's activities aim to build capacities of service providers, strengthen the capacity of food producer organizations, strengthen agricultural input supply delivery methods, and manage and evaluate project activities.
The December 2018 report by the World Bank indicated that the poverty rate fell slightly between 2009 and 2014, from 46% to a still high 40.1%. The report provided this updated summary of the country's development challenges: "Burkina Faso remains vulnerable to climatic shocks related to changes in rainfall patterns and to fluctuations in the prices of its export commodities on world markets. Its economic and social development will, to some extent, be contingent on political stability in the country and the subregion, its openness to international trade, and export diversification".
## Infrastructure and services
### Water
[[File:Grand marché de Koudougou.jpg|thumb|The *Grand marché* in [Koudougou](Koudougou), Burkina Faso]]
While [services](Tertiary sector of the economy) remain underdeveloped, the National Office for Water and Sanitation (ONEA), a [state-owned](state-owned) [company](utility)(utility company) run along commercial lines, is emerging as one of the best-performing utility companies in Africa.Peter Newborne 2011. [''Pipes and People: Progress in Water Supply in Burkina Faso's Cities''](https://web.archive.org/web/20120526073427/http://www.odi.org.uk/work/regions-countries/details.asp?id=222&title=burkina-faso), London: [Development Institute](Overseas)(Overseas Development Institute) High levels of autonomy and a skilled and dedicated management have driven ONEA's ability to improve production of and access to clean water.
Since 2000, nearly 2 million more people have access to water in the four principal urban centres in the country; the company has kept the quality of [infrastructure](Water infrastructure) high (less than 18% of the water is lost through leaks – one of the lowest in [Africa](sub-Saharan)(sub-Saharan Africa)), improved financial reporting, and increased its annual revenue by an average of 12% (well above inflation). Challenges remain, including difficulties among some customers in paying for services, with the need to rely on international aid to expand its infrastructure. The state-owned, commercially run venture has helped the nation reach its [Development Goal](Millennium)(Millennium Development Goal) (MDG) targets in water-related areas, and has grown as a viable company.
However, access to drinking water has improved over the last 28 years. According to UNICEF, access to drinking water has increased from 39 to 76% in rural areas between 1990 and 2015. In this same time span, access to drinking water increased from 75 to 97% in urban areas.
### Electricity
A 33-megawatt solar power plant in Zagtouli, near Ouagadougou, came online in late November 2017. At the time of its construction, it was the largest solar power facility in West Africa.
### Other
The growth rate in Burkina Faso is high although it continues to be plagued by corruption and incursions from terrorist groups from Mali and Niger.
### Transport
[[File:Sudanese Style Railway Station Bobo Dioulasso Burkina Faso.jpg|thumb|The railway station in [Dioulasso](Bobo)(Bobo Dioulasso) was built during the colonial era and remains in operation.]]
Transport in Burkina Faso is limited by relatively underdeveloped infrastructure.
As of June 2014 the main international airport, [Airport](Ouagadougou)(Ouagadougou Airport), had regularly scheduled flights to many destinations in West Africa as well as Paris, [Brussels](Brussels) and [Istanbul](Istanbul). The other international airport, [Dioulasso Airport](Bobo)(Bobo Dioulasso Airport), has flights to Ouagadougou and [Abidjan](Port Bouet Airport).
[transport in Burkina Faso](Rail)(Rail transport in Burkina Faso) consists of a single line which runs from [Kaya](Kaya, Burkina Faso) to [Abidjan](Abidjan) in Ivory Coast via [Ouagadougou](Ouagadougou), [Koudougou](Koudougou), Bobo Dioulasso and [Banfora](Banfora). *Sitarail* operates a passenger train three times a week along the route.European Rail Timetable, Summer 2014 Edition
There are 15,000 kilometres of roads in Burkina Faso, of which 2,500 kilometres are paved.
## Science and technology
In 2009, Burkina Faso spent 0.20% of GDP on research and development (R&D), one of the lowest ratios in West Africa. There were 48 researchers (in full-time equivalents) per million inhabitants in 2010, which is more than twice the average for sub-Saharan Africa (20 per million population in 2013) and higher than the ratio for [Ghana](Ghana) and [Nigeria](Nigeria) (39). It is, however, much lower than the ratio for [Senegal](Senegal) (361 per million inhabitants). In Burkina Faso in 2010, 46% of researchers were working in the health sector, 16% in engineering, 13% in natural sciences, 9% in agricultural sciences, 7% in the humanities and 4% in social sciences. Burkina Faso was ranked 115th in the [Innovation Index](Global)(Global Innovation Index) in 2021, up from 118th in 2020.
In January 2011, the government created the Ministry of Scientific Research and Innovation. Up until then, management of science, technology and innovation had fallen under the Department of Secondary and Higher Education and Scientific Research. Within this ministry, the Directorate General for Research and Sector Statistics is responsible for planning. A separate body, the Directorate General of Scientific Research, Technology and Innovation, co-ordinates research. This is a departure from the pattern in many other West African countries where a single body fulfils both functions. The move signals the government's intention to make science and technology a development priority.
In 2012, Burkina Faso adopted a *National Policy for Scientific and Technical Research*, the strategic objectives of which are to develop R&D and the application and commercialization of research results. The policy also makes provisions for strengthening the ministry's strategic and operational capacities. One of the key priorities is to improve food security and self-sufficiency by boosting capacity in agricultural and environmental sciences. The creation of a centre of excellence in 2014 at the International Institute of Water and Environmental Engineering in Ouagadougou within the World Bank project provides essential funding for capacity-building in these priority areas.
A dual priority is to promote innovative, effective and accessible health systems. The government wishes to develop, in parallel, applied sciences and technology and social and human sciences. To complement the national research policy, the government has prepared a *National Strategy to Popularize Technologies, Inventions and Innovations* (2012) and a *National Innovation Strategy* (2014). Other policies also incorporate science and technology, such as that on *Secondary and Higher Education and Scientific Research* (2010), the *National Policy on Food and Nutrition Security* (2014) and the *National Programme for the Rural Sector* (2011).
In 2013, Burkina Faso passed the Science, Technology and Innovation Act establishing three mechanisms for financing research and innovation, a clear indication of high-level commitment. These mechanisms are the National Fund for Education and Research, the National Fund for Research and Innovation for Development and the Forum of Scientific Research and Technological Innovation.
## Demographics
[[File:Ouagadougou (3839513403).jpg|thumb|upright|A Burkinabè [Tuareg](Tuareg people) man in [Ouagadougou](Ouagadougou)]]
Burkina Faso is an ethnically integrated, secular state where most people are concentrated in the south and centre, where their density sometimes exceeds . Hundreds of thousands of Burkinabè migrate regularly to Ivory Coast and Ghana, mainly for seasonal agricultural work. These flows of workers are affected by external events; the September 2002 coup attempt in Ivory Coast and the ensuing fighting meant that hundreds of thousands of Burkinabè returned to Burkina Faso. The regional economy suffered when they were unable to work.
In 2015, most of the population belonged to "one of two West African ethnic cultural groups: the Voltaic and the Mandé. Voltaic Mossi make up about 50% of the population and are descended from warriors who moved to the area from Ghana around 1100, establishing an empire that lasted over 800 years".
The [fertility rate](total)(total fertility rate) of Burkina Faso is 5.93 children born per woman (2014 estimates), the sixth highest in the world.
In 2009 the [Department of State](U.S.)(U.S. Department of State)'s *Trafficking in Persons Report* reported that [slavery](Slavery in modern Africa) in Burkina Faso continued to exist and that Burkinabè children were often the victims. Slavery in the [Sahel](Sahel) states in general, is an entrenched institution with a long history that dates back to the [slave trade](trans-Saharan)(trans-Saharan slave trade).["West Africa slavery still widespread](http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/7693397.stm)". BBC News. 27 October 2008. In 2018, an estimated 82,000 people in the country were living under "modern slavery" according to the Global Slavery Index.
| list_by_pop =
| div_name = Region
| div_link =
| city_1 = Ouagadougou
| div_1 = Centre Region (Burkina Faso)Centre
| pop_1 = 1,475,223
| img_1 = LAICO QUAGA 2000 HOTEL.2 - panoramio.jpg
| city_2 = Bobo-Dioulasso
| div_2 = Hauts-Bassins
| pop_2 = 489,967
| img_2 = Bobo-Dioulasso Mosque.jpg
| city_3 = Koudougou
| div_3 = Centre-Ouest
| pop_3 = 88,184
| img_3 = Marché de koudougou.jpg
| city_4 = Banfora
| div_4 = Cascades RegionCascades
| pop_4 = 75,917
| img_4 = Maarten van der Bent Banfora.jpg
| city_5 = Ouahigouya
| div_5 = Nord Region (Burkina Faso)Nord
| pop_5 = 73,153
| city_6 = Pouytenga
| div_6 = Centre-Est
| pop_6 = 60,618
| city_7 = Kaya, Burkina FasoKaya
| div_7 = Centre-Nord
| pop_7 = 54,365
| city_8 = Tenkodogo
| div_8 = Centre-Est RegionCentre-Est
| pop_8 = 44,491
| city_9 = Fada N'gourma
| div_9 = Est Region (Burkina Faso)Est
| pop_9 = 41,785
| city_10 = Houndé
| div_10 = Hauts-Bassins
| pop_10 = 39,458
}}
### Ethnic groups
Burkina Faso's 17.3 million people belong to two major West African ethnic cultural groups: the [Voltaic](Gur languages) and the [Mandé](Mandé peoples) (whose common language is [Dioula](Dioula language)). The Voltaic [Mossi](Mossi people) make up about one-half of the population. The Mossi claim descent from warriors who migrated to present-day Burkina Faso from [Ghana](northern)(Northern Region (Ghana)) around 1100 AD. They established an empire that lasted more than 800 years. Predominantly farmers, the Mossi kingdom is led by the *[Naba](Mogho)(Mogho Naba),* whose court is in Ouagadougou.
### Languages
}}
Burkina Faso is a [multilingual](multilingual) country. The [language](official)(official language) is [French](French language), which was introduced during the colonial period. French is the principal language of administrative, political and judicial institutions, public services, and the press. It is the only language for laws, administration and courts. Altogether, an estimated 69 languages are spoken in the country,[Lewis, M. Paul (ed.), 2009. Ethnologue: Languages of the World, 16th edition. Dallas, Tex.: SIL International.](http://www.ethnologue.com/show_country.asp?name=BF) (Page on "Languages of Burkina Faso.") of which about 60 languages are [indigenous](indigenous language). The Mooré language is the most spoken language in Burkina Faso, spoken by about half the population, mainly in the central region around the capital, Ouagadougou.
According to the 2006 Census, the languages spoken natively in Burkina Faso were [Mooré](Mossi language) by 40.5% of the population, [Fula](Fula language) by 29.3%, [Gourmanché](Gourmanché language) by 6.1%, [Bambara](Bambara language) by 4.9%, [Bissa](Bissa language) by 3.2%, [Bwamu](Bwamu language) by 2.1%, [Dagara](Dagara language) by 2%, [San](San language) by 1.9%, [Lobiri](Lobiri language) with 1.8%, [Lyélé](Lyélé language) with 1.7%, [Bobo](Bobo language) and [Sénoufo](Sénoufo language) with 1.4% each, [Nuni](Nuni language) by 1.2%, [Dafing](Dafing language) by 1.1%, [Tamasheq](Tamasheq language) by 1%, [Kassem](Kasena language) by 0.7%, [Gouin](Gouin language) by 0.4%, [Dogon](Dogon language), [Songhai](Songhai language), and [Gourounsi](Gourounsi language) by 0.3% each, Ko, [Koussassé](Koussassé language), [Sembla](Sembla language), and [Siamou](Siamou language) by 0.1% each, other national languages by 5%, other African languages by 0.2%, French (the official language) by 1.3%, and other non-indigenous languages by 0.1%.
In the west, [languages](Mandé)(Mande languages) are widely spoken, the most predominant being [Dioula](Dioula language) (also known as Jula or Dyula), others including [Bobo](Bobo language), [Samo](Samo language (Burkina)), and [Marka](Marka language). [Fula](Fula language) is widespread, particularly in the north. [Gourmanché](Gourmanché language) is spoken in the east, while [Bissa](Bissa language) is spoken in the south.
### Health
In 2016, the average life expectancy was estimated at 60 for males and 61 for females. In 2018, the under-five mortality rate and the infant mortality rate was 76 per 1000 live births. In 2014, the median age of its inhabitants was 17 and the estimated population growth rate was 3.05%.[Burkina Faso](https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/burkina-faso/). *The World Factbook*
In 2011, health expenditures was 6.5% of GDP; the maternal mortality ratio was estimated at 300 deaths per 100000 live births and the physician density at 0.05 per 1000 population in 2010. In 2012, it was estimated that the adult HIV [prevalence](prevalence) rate (ages 15–49) was 1.0%.[UN AIDS: HIV/AIDS – adult prevalence rate](http://www.unaids.org/en/regionscountries/countries/burkinafaso/). Retrieved 25 July 2014. According to the 2011 UNAIDS Report, HIV prevalence is declining among pregnant women who attend antenatal clinics. According to a 2005 World Health Organization report, an estimated 72.5% of Burkina Faso's girls and women have had [genital mutilation](female)(female genital mutilation), administered according to traditional rituals.[Female genital mutilation and other harmful practices](https://swap.stanford.edu/20091018142724/http://www.who.int/reproductivehealth/topics/fgm/prevalence/en/index.html), WHI.int
Central government spending on health was 3% in 2001. , studies estimated there were as few as 10 physicians per 100,000 people. In addition, there were 41 nurses and 13 midwives per 100,000 people. [and Health Surveys](Demographic)(Demographic and Health Surveys) has completed three surveys in Burkina Faso since 1993, and had another in 2009.[Burkina Faso DHS Surveys](https://web.archive.org/web/20110816011006/http://www.measuredhs.com/countries/country_main.cfm?ctry_id=50&c=Burkina%20Faso), measuredhs.com
A [fever](Dengue)(Dengue fever) outbreak in 2016 killed 20 patients. Cases of the disease were reported from all 12 districts of Ouagadougou.
### Religion
[[File:Cathedrale_Ouagadougou.jpg|thumb|left|[of the Immaculate Conception of Ouagadougou](Cathedral)(Ouagadougou Cathedral)]]
The [of Burkina Faso](government)(government of Burkina Faso)'s 2019 census reported that 63.8% of the population practice Islam, and that the majority of this group belong to the [Sunni](Sunni) branch,[International Religious Freedom Report 2010: Burkina Faso](https://2009-2017.state.gov/j/drl/rls/irf/2010/148665.htm). United States [of Democracy, Human Rights and Labor](Bureau)(Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights and Labor) (17 November 2010). *This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the [domain](public)(public domain).* while a small minority adheres to [Islam](Shia)(Shia Islam).[Mapping the Global Muslim Population. Estimate Range of Shia by Country](http://www.pewforum.org/files/2009/10/Shiarange.pdf) . Pew Forum, 2010 A significant number of Sunni Muslims identify with the [Tijaniyah](Tijaniyah) [Sufi](Sufi) order.
The 2019 census also found that 26.3% of the population are Christians (20.1% being Roman Catholics and 6.2% members of Protestant denominations) and 9.0% follow [indigenous beliefs](traditional)(African traditional religion) such as the [religion](Dogon)(Dogon religion), 0.2% have other religions, and 0.7% have none.
[Animists](Animism) are the largest religious group in the country's [Sud-Ouest](Sud-Ouest Region (Burkina Faso)) region, forming 48.1% of its total population.
### Education
[[File:Gando-School-Burkina-Faso.JPG|thumb|The [Gando](Gando, Burkina Faso) primary school. Its architect, [Francis Kéré](Diébédo)(Diébédo Francis Kéré), received the [Khan Award for Architecture](Aga)(Aga Khan Award for Architecture) in 2004.]]
Education in Burkina Faso is divided into primary, secondary and higher education. High school costs approximately CFA 25,000 (US$50) per year, which is far above the means of most Burkinabè families. Boys receive preference in schooling; as such, girls' education and literacy rates are far lower than their male counterparts. An increase in girls' schooling has been observed because of the government's policy of making school cheaper for girls and granting them more scholarships.
To proceed from primary to middle school, middle to high school or high school to college, national exams must be passed. Institutions of higher education include the [of Ouagadougou](University)(University of Ouagadougou), [Polytechnic University of Bobo-Dioulasso](The)(The Polytechnic University of Bobo-Dioulasso), and the [of Koudougou](University)(University of Koudougou), which is also a teacher training institution. There are some small private colleges in the capital city of [Ouagadougou](Ouagadougou) but these are affordable to only a small portion of the population.
There is also the [School of Ouagadougou](International)(International School of Ouagadougou) (ISO), an American-based private school located in Ouagadougou.
The 2008 UN Development Program Report ranked Burkina Faso as the country with the lowest level of literacy in the world, despite a concerted effort to double its literacy rate from 12.8% in 1990 to 25.3% in 2008.. Palgrave Macmillan. 2007.
## Culture
[[TROPENMUSEUM Een Nunuma of Winiama maskerdanser TMnr 20031569.jpg|thumb|A masked Winiama dancer, c. 1970](File:COLLECTIE)]
[in Burkina Faso](Literature)(Literature in Burkina Faso) is based on the [tradition](oral)(oral tradition), which remains important. In 1934, during French occupation, Dim-Dolobsom Ouedraogo published his *Maximes, pensées et devinettes mossi* (*Maximes, Thoughts and Riddles of the Mossi*), a record of the oral history of the [people](Mossi)(Mossi people).
The oral tradition continued to have an influence on Burkinabè writers in the post-independence Burkina Faso of the 1960s, such as [Boni](Nazi)(Nazi Boni) and Roger Nikiema. The 1960s saw a growth in the number of playwrights being published. Since the 1970s, literature has developed in Burkina Faso with many more writers being published.
The [of Burkina Faso](theatre)(theatre of Burkina Faso) combines traditional Burkinabè performance with the colonial influences and post-colonial efforts to educate rural people to produce a distinctive national theatre. Traditional ritual ceremonies of the many ethnic groups in Burkina Faso have long involved dancing with [mask](mask)s. Western-style theatre became common during colonial times, heavily influenced by [theatre](French)(French theatre). With independence came a new style of theatre inspired by [theatre](forum)(Theatre of the Oppressed) aimed at educating and entertaining Burkina Faso's rural people.
[[slameuse.jpg|thumb|Malika Outtara, poet](File:Malika)]
[poetry](Slam)(Poetry slam) is increasing in popularity in the country, in part due to the efforts of slam poet [Outtara](Malika)(Malika Ouattara). She uses her skills to raise awareness around issues such as blood donation, albinism and the impact of COVID-19.
### Arts and crafts
[[File:Burkina faso artisan painted gourds.jpg|thumb|Artisan garland of decorative painted [gourd](gourd)s in [Ouagadougou](Ouagadougou)]]
In addition to several rich traditional artistic heritages among the peoples, there is a large artist community in Burkina Faso, especially in [Ouagadougou](Ouagadougou). Much of the crafts produced are for the country's growing tourist industry.
Burkina Faso also hosts the International Art and Craft Fair, Ouagadougou. It is better known by its French name as [SIAO](SIAO), ''Le Salon International de l' Artisanat de Ouagadougou'', and is one of the most important African handicraft fairs.
### Cuisine
[[File:Fufu.jpg|thumb|A plate of [fufu](fufu) (right) accompanied with [soup](peanut)(peanut soup)]]
Typical of West African cuisine, Burkina Faso's cuisine is based on [food](staple)(staple food)s of [sorghum](sorghum), [millet](millet), rice, maize, peanuts, potatoes, [bean](bean)s, [yam](yam (vegetable))s and [okra](okra). The most common sources of animal protein are chicken, chicken eggs and freshwater fish. A typical Burkinabè beverage is Banji or Palm Wine, which is fermented [sap](palm)(Palm wine); and Zoom-kom, or "grain water" purportedly the national drink of Burkina Faso. Zoom-kom is milky-looking and whitish, having a water and cereal base, best drunk with ice cubes. In the more rural regions, in the outskirts of Burkina, you would find Dolo, which is drink made from fermented millet.
### Cinema
The [of Burkina Faso](cinema)(cinema of Burkina Faso) is an important part of West African and African film industry.Spaas, Lieve (2000) "Burkina Faso," in *The Francophone Film: A Struggle for Identity,* pp. 232–246. Manchester: Manchester University Press, . Burkina's contribution to [cinema](African)(African cinema) started with the establishment of the film festival [FESPACO](FESPACO) (Festival Panafricain du Cinéma et de la Télévision de Ouagadougou), which was launched as a film week in 1969. Many of the nation's filmmakers are known internationally and have won international prizes.
For many years the headquarters of the Federation of Panafrican Filmmakers (FEPACI) was in Ouagadougou, rescued in 1983 from a period of moribund inactivity by the enthusiastic support and funding of President Sankara. (In 2006 the Secretariat of FEPACI moved to South Africa, but the headquarters of the organization is still in Ouagadougou.) Among the best known directors from Burkina Faso are [Kaboré](Gaston)(Gaston Kaboré), [Ouedraogo](Idrissa)(Idrissa Ouedraogo) and [Kouyate](Dani)(Dani Kouyate).Turégano, Teresa Hoefert (2005) *African Cinema and Europe: Close-Up on Burkina Faso*, Florence: European Press Academic, . Burkina produces popular television series such as *Les Bobodiouf*. Internationally known filmmakers such as Ouedraogo, Kabore, Yameogo, and Kouyate make popular television series.
### Sports
[[File:Burkina team.png|thumb|right|[Faso national football team](Burkina)(Burkina Faso national football team) in white during a match]]
Sport in Burkina Faso is widespread and includes soccer, basketball, cycling, rugby union, handball, tennis, boxing and martial arts. Soccer is the most popular sport in Burkina Faso, played both professionally, and informally in towns and villages across the country. The national team is nicknamed "Les Etalons" ("the Stallions") in reference to the legendary horse of Princess [Yennenga](Yennenga).
In 1998, Burkina Faso hosted the [Cup of Nations](Africa)(Africa Cup of Nations) for which the Omnisport Stadium in Bobo-Dioulasso was built. Burkina Faso qualified for the [African Cup of Nations](2013)(2013 Africa Cup of Nations) in South Africa and reached the final, but then lost to Nigeria 0–1. The country has never qualified for a [World Cup](FIFA)(FIFA World Cup).
Basketball is another sport which enjoys much popularity for both men and women. The country's [national team](men's)(Burkina Faso national basketball team) had its most successful year in 2013 when it qualified for the [AfroBasket](AfroBasket), the continent's prime basketball event.
At the [Summer Olympics](2020)(2020 Summer Olympics), the athlete [Fabrice Zango](Hugues)(Hugues Fabrice Zango) won Burkina Faso's first Olympic medal, winning bronze in the [triple jump](men's)(Athletics at the 2020 Summer Olympics – Men's triple jump). Cricket is also picking up in Burkina Faso with Cricket Burkina Faso running a 10 club league.
### Music
The **music of [Faso](Burkina)(Burkina Faso)** includes the [music](folk)(folk music) of 60 different [groups](ethnic)(Ethnic group). The [people](Mossi)(Mossi people), centrally located around the capital, [Ouagadougou](Ouagadougou), account for 40% of the population while, to the south, [Gurunsi](Gurunsi people), [Gurma](Gurma people), [Dagaaba](Dagaaba people) and [Lobi](Lobi people) populations, speaking [languages](Gur)(Gur languages) closely related to the [language](Mossi)(Mossi language), extend into the coastal states. In the north and east the [Fulani](Fulani) of the [Sahel](Sahel) preponderate, while in the south and west the [languages](Mande)(Mande languages) are common; [Samo](Samo language (Burkina)), [Bissa](Bissa people), [Bobo](Bobo people), [Senufo](Senufo people) and [Marka](Marka people). Burkinabé traditional music has continued to thrive and musical output remains quite diverse. Popular music is mostly in French: Burkina Faso has yet to produce a major pan-African success.
### Media
[[File:Burkina Faso media 2010.jpg|thumb|A cameraman in [Ouagadougou](Ouagadougou), Burkina Faso in 2010]]
The nation's principal media outlet is its state-sponsored combined television and radio service, *Radiodiffusion-Télévision Burkina* (RTB). *RTB* broadcasts on two [medium-wave](medium-wave) ([AM](Amplitude modulation)) and several [FM](Frequency modulation) frequencies. Besides RTB, there are privately owned sports, cultural, music, and religious FM radio stations. *RTB* maintains a worldwide short-wave news broadcast (*Radio Nationale Burkina*) in the French language from the capital at Ouagadougou using a 100 kW transmitter on 4.815 and 5.030 MHz.Radio Station World, *[Burkina Faso: Governmental Broadcasting Agencies](http://radiostationworld.com/locations/burkina_faso/)*
Attempts to develop an independent press and media in Burkina Faso have been intermittent. In 1998, investigative journalist [Zongo](Norbert)(Norbert Zongo), his brother Ernest, his driver, and another man were assassinated by unknown assailants, and the bodies burned. The crime was never solved.Committee to Protect Journalists, [*Burkina Faso*](http://www.cpj.org/africa/burkina-faso/) However, an independent Commission of Inquiry later concluded that Norbert Zongo was killed for political reasons because of his investigative work into the death of David Ouedraogo, a chauffeur who worked for François Compaoré, President Blaise Compaoré's brother.Reporters Sans Frontieres, ''[What's Happening About The Inquiry Into Norbert Zongo's Death?](http://en.rsf.org/predator-what-s-happening-about-the-inquiry-into-norbert-zongo-s-death,2485.html) *Reporters Sans Frontieres, *[Outrageous Denial Of Justice](http://www.ifex.org/burkina_faso/2006/07/21/outrageous_denial_of_justice_in/)'' 21 July 2006
In January 1999, François Compaoré was charged with the murder of David Ouedraogo, who had died as a result of torture in January 1998. The charges were later dropped by a military tribunal after an appeal. In August 2000, five members of the President's personal security guard detail (*Régiment de la Sécurité Présidentielle*, or RSP) were charged with the murder of Ouedraogo. RSP members Marcel Kafando, Edmond Koama, and Ousseini Yaro, investigated as suspects in the Norbert Zongo assassination, were convicted in the Ouedraogo case and sentenced to lengthy prison terms.
Since the death of Norbert Zongo, several protests regarding the Zongo investigation and treatment of journalists have been prevented or dispersed by government police and security forces. In April 2007, popular radio reggae host [Sama](Karim)(Sams'K Le Jah), whose programs feature reggae songs interspersed with critical commentary on alleged government injustice and corruption, received several death threats.IFEX, *[Radio Station Temporarily Pulls Programme After Host Receives Death Threats](http://www.ifex.org/burkina_faso/2007/04/30/radio_station_temporarily_pulls/)*, 26 April 2007
Sama's personal car was later burned outside the private radio station *Ouaga FM* by unknown vandals.FreeMuse.org, *[Death threat against Reggae Radio Host](http://freemuse.org/archives/928) *, 3 May 2007 In response, the [to Protect Journalists](Committee)(Committee to Protect Journalists) (CPJ) wrote to President Compaoré to request his government investigate the sending of e-mailed death threats to journalists and radio commentators in Burkina Faso who were critical of the government. In December 2008, police in Ouagadougou questioned leaders of a protest march that called for a renewed investigation into the unsolved Zongo assassination. Among the marchers was Jean-Claude Meda, the president of the Association of Journalists of Burkina Faso.Keita, Mohamed, *[Burkina Faso Police Question Zongo Protesters](http://cpj.org/blog/2008/12/burkina-faso-police-question-zongo-protesters.php#more)*, Committee to Protect Journalists, 15 December 2008
### Cultural festivals and events
Every two years, Ouagadougou hosts the [Film and Television Festival of Ouagadougou](Panafrican)(Panafrican Film and Television Festival of Ouagadougou) (FESPACO), the largest African cinema festival on the continent (February, odd years).
Held every two years since 1988, the [Art and Craft Fair, Ouagadougou](International)(International Art and Craft Fair, Ouagadougou) (SIAO), is one of Africa's most important trade shows for art and handicrafts (late October-early November, even years).
Also every two years, the [de sculpture sur granit de Laongo](Symposium)(Symposium de sculpture sur granit de Laongo) takes place on a site located about from [Ouagadougou](Ouagadougou), in the province of [Oubritenga](Oubritenga).
The [Culture Week of Burkina Faso](National)(National Culture Week of Burkina Faso), better known by its French name La Semaine Nationale de la culture (SNC), is one of the most important cultural activities of Burkina Faso. It is a biennial event which takes place every two years in Bobo Dioulasso, the second-largest city in the country.
The [International des Masques et des Arts](Festival)(Festival International des Masques et des Arts) (FESTIMA), celebrating [masks](traditional)(Traditional African masks), is held every two years in [Dédougou](Dédougou).
## See also
* [of Burkina Faso-related articles](Index)(Index of Burkina Faso-related articles)
* [of Burkina Faso](Outline)(Outline of Burkina Faso)
## References
## Bibliography
*
## Further reading
* Engberg-Perderson, Lars, *Endangering Development: Politics, Projects, and Environment in Burkina Faso* (Praeger Publishers, 2003).
* Englebert, Pierre, *Burkina Faso: Unsteady Statehood in West Africa* (Perseus, 1999).
* Howorth, Chris, *Rebuilding the Local Landscape: Environmental Management in Burkina Faso* (Ashgate, 1999).
* McFarland, Daniel Miles and Rupley, Lawrence A, *Historical Dictionary of Burkina Faso* (Scarecrow Press, 1998).
* Manson, Katrina and Knight, James, *Burkina Faso* (Bradt Travel Guides, 2011).
* Roy, Christopher D and Wheelock, Thomas G B, *Land of the Flying Masks: Art and Culture in Burkina Faso: The Thomas G.B. Wheelock Collection* (Prestel Publishing, 2007).
* Sankara, Thomas, *Thomas Sankara Speaks: The Burkina Faso Revolution 1983–1987* (Pathfinder Press, 2007).
* Sankara, Thomas, ''We are the Heirs of the World's Revolutions: Speeches from the Burkina Faso Revolution 1983–1987* (Pathfinder Press, 2007).
## External links
* [Premier Ministère](https://web.archive.org/web/20100915153509/http://www.gouvernement.gov.bf/), official government portal.
* [Burkina Faso](https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/burkina-faso/). *[World Factbook](The)(The World Factbook)*. [Intelligence Agency](Central)(Central Intelligence Agency).
* [LeFaso.net](https://web.archive.org/web/20080507010159/http://www.lefaso.net/), a news information site.
* [Burkina Faso](https://web.archive.org/web/20080821140152/http://ucblibraries.colorado.edu/govpubs/for/burkinafaso.htm) from *UCB Libraries GovPubs''.
*
* [Burkina Faso profile](https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-13072774) from the [News](BBC)(BBC News).
*
* [News headline links](http://allafrica.com/burkinafaso/) from [AllAfrica.com](AllAfrica.com).
* [Overseas Development Institute](https://web.archive.org/web/20120526073427/http://www.odi.org.uk/work/regions-countries/details.asp?id=222&title=burkina-faso)
* [Country profile](http://www.newint.org/columns/country/2011/07/01/burkina-faso-profile/) at [Internationalist](New)(New Internationalist).
* [Key Development Forecasts for Burkina Faso](http://www.ifs.du.edu/ifs/frm_CountryProfile.aspx?Country=BF) from [Futures](International)(International Futures).
### Trade
* [World Bank 2011 Trade Summary for Burkiana Faso](http://wits.worldbank.org/CountryProfile/Country/BFA/Year/2011/Summary)
}}
[ ](Category:Burkina Faso)
[French colonies](Category:Former)(Category:Former French colonies)
[countries and territories](Category:French-speaking)(Category:French-speaking countries and territories)
[Community of West African States](Category:Economic)(Category:Economic Community of West African States)
[West Africa](Category:French)(Category:French West Africa)
[countries](Category:Landlocked)(Category:Landlocked countries)
[developed countries](Category:Least)(Category:Least developed countries)
[states of the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie](Category:Member)(Category:Member states of the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie)
[states of the African Union](Category:Member)(Category:Member states of the African Union)
[states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation](Category:Member)(Category:Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation)
[states of the United Nations](Category:Member)(Category:Member states of the United Nations)
[and territories established in 1960](Category:States)(Category:States and territories established in 1960)
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|
Order of the British Empire
|
order_of_the_british_empire
|
# Order of the British Empire
*Revision ID: 1159501577 | Timestamp: 2023-06-10T18:45:37Z*
---
|status = Currently constituted
|head_title = Sovereign
|head = [III](Charles)(Charles III)
|head2_title = Grand Master
|head2 = Vacant
|grades =
|former_grades =
|first_induction =
|last_induction =
|total =
|recipients =
|individual =
|higher = [Victorian Order](Royal)(Royal Victorian Order)
|lower = Varies, depending on rank
|image2 = [90px](File:Order of the British Empire (Military) Ribbon.svg)Military ribbon
|caption2 = [90px](File:Order of the British Empire (Civil) Ribbon.svg)Civil ribbon
}}
The **Most Excellent Order of the British Empire** is a British [of chivalry](order)(order of chivalry), rewarding contributions to the arts and sciences, work with charitable and welfare organisations, and public service outside the [service](civil)(civil service). It was established on 4 June 1917 by [George V](King)(King George V) and comprises five classes across both civil and military divisions, the most senior two of which make the recipient either a [knight](Orders, decorations, and medals of the United Kingdom#Modern honours) if male or [dame](dame (title)) if female. There is also the related [Empire Medal](British)(British Empire Medal), whose recipients are affiliated with, but not members of, the order.
Recommendations for appointments to the Order of the British Empire were originally made on the nomination of the United Kingdom, the self-governing [Dominion](Dominion)s of the Empire (later Commonwealth) and the [of India](Viceroy)(Viceroy of India). Nominations continue today from Commonwealth countries that participate in recommending British honours. Most Commonwealth countries ceased recommendations for appointments to the Order of the British Empire when they created their own honours.
## Current classes
The five classes of appointment to the Order are, from highest grade to lowest grade:
# [Grand Cross](Knight)(Grand Cross) or Dame Grand Cross of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire (GBE)
# [Commander](Knight)(Knight Commander) or Dame Commander of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire (KBE or DBE)
# Commander of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire (CBE)
# Officer of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire (OBE)
# Member of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire (MBE)
## Styles and honorary knighthoods
The senior two ranks of Knight or Dame Grand Cross, and Knight or Dame Commander, entitle their members to use the title of *Sir* for men and *Dame* for women before their forename. Most members are citizens of the United Kingdom or the Commonwealth realms that use the Imperial system of honours and awards.
Honorary knighthoods are appointed to citizens of nations where the monarch is not [of state](head)(head of state), and may permit use of post-nominal letters but not the title of *Sir* or *Dame*. Occasionally, honorary appointees are, incorrectly, referred to as *Sir* or *Dame*. Honorary appointees who later become a citizen of a Commonwealth realm can convert their appointment from honorary to substantive, then enjoy all privileges of membership of the order, including use of the title of *Sir* and *Dame* for the senior two ranks of the Order. An example is Irish broadcaster [Wogan](Terry)(Terry Wogan), who was appointed an honorary Knight Commander of the Order in 2005, and on successful application for British citizenship, held alongside his Irish citizenship, was made a substantive member and subsequently styled as Sir Terry Wogan.
## History
[[(civil division) as awarded in 1918](File:MBE-Cobh-Heritage-Centre-2012.JPG|thumb|upright=0.6|MBE)]
[[File:Ster Orde van het Britse Rijk.jpg|thumb|[Cross](Grand)(Knight Grand Cross) Star of the Order of the British Empire]]
[[Cpt Masterman 05-02-2010.jpg|thumb|Close-up of an MBE from 1945 showing the "For God and the Empire"](File:Mbe)]
[George V](King)(George V) founded the order to fill gaps in the [honours system](British)(Orders, decorations, and medals of the United Kingdom):
* The orders of the [Garter](Order of the Garter), [Thistle](Order of the Thistle), and of [Patrick](St)(Order of St Patrick) honoured royals, peers, statesmen and eminent military commanders;
* The [of the Bath](Order)(Order of the Bath) honoured senior military officers and civil servants;
* The [of St Michael and St George](Order)(Order of St Michael and St George) honoured diplomats and colonial officials;
* The [of the Star of India](Order)(Order of the Star of India) and the [of the Indian Empire](Order)(Order of the Indian Empire) honoured Indian rulers and British and Indian officials of the [Indian Empire](British)(British Indian Empire); and
* The [Victorian Order](Royal)(Royal Victorian Order), in the personal gift of the monarch, honoured those who had personally served the royal family.
In particular, George V wished to create an order to honour the many thousands of those who had served in a variety of non-combat roles during the [World War](First)(First World War). When first established, the Order had only one division. However, in 1918, soon after its foundation, it was formally divided into Military and [Civil](Civil service) Divisions. The Order's motto is *For God and the Empire*.
At the foundation of the order, the Medal of the Order of the British Empire was instituted, to serve as a lower award granting recipients affiliation but not membership. In 1922, this was renamed the [Empire Medal](British)(British Empire Medal) (BEM). It stopped being awarded by the United Kingdom as part of the [reforms](1993)(Orders, decorations, and medals of the United Kingdom#Reform) to the honours system, but was again awarded beginning in 2012, starting with 293 BEMs awarded for [Elizabeth II's Diamond Jubilee](Queen)(Diamond Jubilee of Elizabeth II). In addition, the BEM is awarded by the [Islands](Cook)(Cook Islands) and by some other [Commonwealth](Commonwealth of Nations) nations. In 2004, a report entitled *A Matter of Honour: Reforming Our Honours System* by a [Commons](House of Commons of the United Kingdom) committee recommended phasing out the Order of the British Empire, as its title was "now considered to be unacceptable, being thought to embody values that are no longer shared by many of the country's population".
## Composition
The [sovereign](British)(British sovereign) is the supreme head of the order and appoints all other officers of the order (by convention, on the advice of the governments of the United Kingdom and some [realm](Commonwealth)(Commonwealth realm)s). The second senior-most officer is the [Master](Grand)(Grand Master (order)), of whom there have been three: [Prince of Wales](Edward,)(Edward VIII) (1917–1936); [Mary](Queen)(Mary of Teck) (1936–1953); and [Philip, Duke of Edinburgh](Prince)(Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh) (1953–2021).
The order is limited to 300 Knights and Dames Grand Cross, 845 Knights and Dames Commander, and 8,960 Commanders. There are no limits applied to the total number of members of the fourth and fifth classes, but no more than 858 officers and 1,464 members may be appointed per year. Foreign appointees, as honorary members, do not contribute to the numbers restricted to the order as full members do. Although the Order of the British Empire has by far the highest number of members of the British orders of chivalry, with over 100,000 living members worldwide, there are fewer appointments to knighthoods than in other orders.
Though men can be knighted separately from an order of chivalry ([Bachelor](Knight)(Knight Bachelor)), women cannot, and so the rank of Knight/Dame Commander of the Order is the lowest rank of damehood, and second-lowest of knighthood (above Knights Bachelor). Because of this, an appointment as Dame Commander is made in circumstances in which a man would be created a Knight Bachelor. For example, by convention, female judges of the [Court of Justice](High)(High Court of Justice) are created Dames Commander after appointment, while male judges become Knights Bachelor.
From time to time, individuals are appointed to a higher grade within the Order, thereby ceasing usage of the junior post-nominal letters.
### Officers
In addition to the Sovereign and the [Master](Grand)(Grand Master (order)), the order has six further officers: The [of Arms](King)(King of Arms of the Order of the British Empire) is not a member of the [of Arms](College)(College of Arms), as are many other [heraldic](heraldry) officers. The [Usher of the Purple Rod](Lady)(Lady Usher of the Purple Rod) does not – unlike the [of the Garter](Order)(Order of the Garter) equivalent, the [Usher of the Black Rod](Lady)(Black Rod) – perform any duties related to the [of Lords](House)(House of Lords).
* **Prelate**: [of London](Bishop)(Bishop of London), the Rt Hon. & Rt Rev. Dame [Mullally](Sarah)(Sarah Mullally)
* **Dean**: [of St Paul's](Dean)(List of Deans of St Paul's) (), the Very Rev. [Tremlett](Andrew)(Andrew Tremlett)
* **Secretary**: [Secretary of the Central Chancery of the Orders of Knighthood](The)(Central Chancery of the Orders of Knighthood), Lt-Col Stephen Segrave
* **Registrar**: [Secretary of the Cabinet and Head of the Home Civil Service](The)(Cabinet Secretary (United Kingdom)), [Case](Simon)(Simon Case)
* **King of Arms**: Lt-Gen Sir [Fulton](Robert)(Robert Fulton (Royal Marines officer))
* **Lady Usher of the Purple Rod**: Dame [Fawcett](Amelia)(Amelia Fawcett)
## Gallantry
[[of the British Empire for gallantry, oak leaves ribbon emblem.jpg|145px|thumb|right|OBE silver oak-leaf emblem for gallantry](File:Order)]
Although initially intended to recognise meritorious service, the order began to also be awarded for gallantry. There were an increased number of cases in the [World War](Second)(Second World War) for service personnel and civilians including the merchant navy, police, emergency services and civil defence, mostly MBEs but with a small number of OBEs and CBEs. Such awards were for gallantry that did not reach the standard of the [Medal](George)(George Medal), but, as an order, were listed before it on the Order of Wear. Awards for meritorious service usually appear without a citation but there were often citations for gallantry awards, some detailed and graphic. From 14 January 1958, these awards were designated Commander, Officer or Member of the Order of the British Empire for Gallantry.
Any individual made a member of the order for gallantry after 14 January 1958 wears an emblem of two crossed silver oak leaves on the same ribbon as the badge, with a miniature version on the ribbon bar when worn alone. When the ribbon only is worn the emblem is worn in miniature. It could not be awarded [posthumously](posthumous award), and was replaced in 1974 with the [Gallantry Medal](Queen's)(Queen's Gallantry Medal) (QGM). If recipients of the Order of the British Empire for Gallantry received promotion within the order, whether for gallantry or otherwise, they continued to wear also the insignia of the lower grade with the oak leaves. However, they used only the post-nominal letters of the higher grade.
## Vestments and accoutrements
Members of the order wear elaborate vestments on important occasions (such as quadrennial services and [coronations](coronation of the British monarch)), which vary by rank (the designs underwent major changes in 1937):
* The *mantle*, worn by only Knights and Dames Grand Cross, was originally made of yellow satin lined with blue silk, but is now made of rose pink satin lined with pearl-grey silk. On the left side is a representation of the star (see below).
* The *collar*, also worn by only Knights and Dames Grand Cross, is made of gold. It consists of six medallions depicting the Royal Arms, alternating with six medallions depicting the Royal and Imperial Cypher of George V (*GRI*, which stands for "**"). The medallions are linked with gold cables depicting lions and crowns.
GBE mantle.jpg|Mantle worn by Knights and Dames Grand Cross (GBE)
GBE star.jpg|Close-up of the Star on the mantle
File:Collar and star of the Order of the British Empire.jpg|Collar and Star of a Knight or Dame Grand Cross of the Order
On certain "[day](collar)(collar day)s" designated by the Sovereign, members attending formal events may wear the order's collar over their military uniform, formal day dress, or evening wear. When collars are worn (either on collar days or on formal occasions such as coronations), the badge is suspended from the collar. Collars are returned upon the death of their owners, but other insignia may be retained.
On less important occasions, simpler insignia are used:
* The *star* is an eight-pointed silver star used by only Knights and Dames Grand Cross and Knights and Dames Commander. It is worn pinned to the left breast. Varying in size depending on class, it bears a crimson ring with the motto of the order inscribed. Within the ring, a figure of [Britannia](Britannia) was originally shown. Since 1937, however, the effigies of George V and Mary of Teck have been shown instead.
* The *badge* is the only insignia used by all members of the order. Until 1937, it was suspended on a purple ribbon, with a red central stripe for the military division; since then, the ribbon has been rose-pink with pearl-grey edges, with the addition of a pearl-grey central stripe for the military division. Knights and Dames Grand Cross wear it on a riband or sash, passing from the right shoulder to the left hip. Knights Commander and male commanders wear the badge from a ribbon around the neck; male officers and members wear the badge from a ribbon on the left chest; all females other than Dames Grand Cross wear it from a bow on the left shoulder. The badge is in the form of a *cross [patonce](wikt:patonce)* (having the arms growing broader and floriated toward the end), the obverse of which bears the same field as the star (that is, either Britannia or [V](George)(George V) and [Mary](Queen)(Mary of Teck)); the reverse bears George V's Royal and Imperial Cypher. Both are within a ring bearing the motto of the Order. The size of the badges varies according to rank: the higher classes have slightly larger badges. The badges of Knights and Dames Grand Cross, Knights and Dames Commander, and commanders are enamelled with pale blue crosses and crimson rings; those of officers are plain gold; those of members are plain silver.
* The *British Empire Medal* is made of silver. On the obverse is an image of Britannia surrounded by the motto, with the words "For Meritorious Service" at the bottom; on the reverse is George V's Imperial and Royal Cypher, with the words "Instituted by King George V" at the bottom. The name of the recipient is engraved on the rim. This medal is nicknamed "the Gong", and comes in both a full-sized and miniature versions – the latter for formal white-tie and informal black-tie occasions.
* A [pin](lapel)(Award pin) for everyday wear was first announced at the end of December 2006, and is available to recipients of all levels of the order, as well as to holders of the [Empire Medal](British)(British Empire Medal). The pin design is not unique to any level. The pin features the badge of the order, enclosed in a circle of ribbon of its colours of pink and grey. Lapel pins must be purchased separately by a member of the order. The creation of such a pin was recommended in [Hayden Phillips](Sir)(Sir Hayden Phillips)' review of the honours system in 2004.
File:Order of the British Empire Insignia.jpg|Insignia
File:MBE for Aviva Ben Raphael (5528384137).jpg|Badge as awarded to a female MBE
## Chapel
[[File:St-Pauls-Cathedral London Crypta Chapel-Order-Of-The-British-Empire-01.jpg|thumb|Chapel of the Order in the [crypt](crypt) of [Paul's Cathedral](St)(St Paul's Cathedral) (photographed in 2013). The banners are those of the *Sovereign* (right) and of the *Grand Master* (left) of the Order as they were then in office.]]
The Chapel of the Order of the British Empire is located in [Paul's Cathedral](St)(St Paul's Cathedral). It occupies the far eastern end of the cathedral crypt and was dedicated in 1960. The only heraldic banners normally on display in the chapel are those of the *Sovereign of the Order of the British Empire* and of the *Grand Master of the Order of the British Empire*. Rather than using this Chapel, the Order now holds its great services upstairs in the nave of the cathedral. In addition to the Chapel of the Order of the British Empire, St Paul's Cathedral also houses the Chapel of [Most Distinguished Order of St Michael and St George](The)(Order of St Michael and St George). Religious services for the whole Order are held every four years; new Knights and Dames Grand Cross are installed at these services.
## Precedence and privileges
[[File:Order of the British Empire - Non Arms.svg|thumb|Knights, Dames and Commanders of the [Order](OBE) may display its [circlet](circlet) around (and suspend its [Badge](Heraldic badge) below) their [of arms](coat)(coat of arms).]]
Knights Grand Cross and Knights Commander prefix *Sir*, and Dames Grand Cross and Dames Commander prefix *Dame*, to their forenames. Wives of Knights may prefix *Lady* to their surnames, but no equivalent privilege exists for husbands of Knights or spouses of Dames. Such forms are not used by peers and princes, except when the names of the former are written out in their fullest forms. Male clergy of the [of England](Church)(Church of England) or the [of Scotland](Church)(Church of Scotland) do not use the title *Sir* as they do not receive the [accolade](accolade) (they are not dubbed "knight" with a sword), although they do append the [letters](post-nominal)(post-nominal letters): dames do not receive the accolade, and therefore female clergy are free to use the title *Dame*.
Knights and Dames Grand Cross use the post-nominal GBE; Knights Commander, KBE; Dames Commander, DBE; Commanders, CBE; Officers, OBE; and Members, MBE. The post-nominal for the British Empire Medal is BEM.
Members of all classes of the order are assigned positions in the [of precedence](order)(Orders of precedence in the United Kingdom). Wives of male members of all classes also feature on the order of precedence, as do sons, daughters and daughters-in-law of Knights Grand Cross and Knights Commander; relatives of Ladies of the Order, however, are not assigned any special precedence. As a general rule, individuals can derive precedence from their fathers or husbands, but not from their mothers or wives.
Knights and Dames Grand Cross are also entitled to be granted [supporters](heraldic)(Supporters (heraldry)). They may, furthermore, encircle their arms with a depiction of the [circlet](circlet) (a circle bearing the motto) and the collar; the former is shown either outside or on top of the latter. Knights and Dames Commander and Commanders may display the circlet, but not the collar, surrounding their arms. The badge is depicted suspended from the collar or circlet.*Statutes* 1995, article 34.
## Current Knights and Dames Grand Cross
* **Sovereign**: [Charles III](King)(Charles III)
* **Grand Master**: Vacant
### Knights and Dames Grand Cross
Military ranks listed denotes the awarded being in the military division.
### Honorary
## Recommendations by Commonwealth countries
[[awarding the Order of the British Empire (2020).svg|thumb|Countries making recommendations to the Order of the British Empire (2020)](File:Countries)]
Since the Second World War, several [realm](Commonwealth)(Commonwealth realm)s have established their own national system of honours and awards and have created their own unique orders, decorations and medals.
Recommendations for appointments to the Order of the British Empire continue to be made by some Commonwealth realms. In 2019, [and Barbuda](Antigua)(Antigua and Barbuda), [Bahamas](Bahamas), [Barbados](Barbados), [Belize](Belize), [Grenada](Grenada), [New Guinea](Papua)(Papua New Guinea), [Christopher and Nevis](Saint)(Saint Christopher and Nevis), [Lucia](Saint)(Saint Lucia), [Vincent and the Grenadines](Saint)(Saint Vincent and the Grenadines), the [Islands](Solomon)(Solomon Islands), and [Tuvalu](Tuvalu), as well as the [Zealand](New)(New Zealand) associated state of the [Islands](Cook)(Cook Islands) all included Order of the British Empire awards in their New Year's or Queen's Birthday honours lists.[New Year and Birthday Honours](https://www.thegazette.co.uk/awards-and-accreditation/content/100138|Commonwealth). The Gazette, Retrieved 19 May 2020. Canada seldom made recommendations for appointments to the Order of the British Empire except for the Second World War and Korea but continued to recommend gallantry awards for both military and civilians until the creation of the [of Canada](Order)(Order of Canada).However, there were awards of the related British Empire Medal for Gallantry, whose recipients are affiliated with, but not members of the Order of the British Empire, after the creation of the Order of Canada. see Although the [of Australia](Commonwealth)(Australian Commonwealth) recommendations ended with the creation of the [of Australia](Order)(Order of Australia), [state](Australian)(Australian State) governments continued to recommend the Order of the British Empire until the 1989 Queen's Birthday Honours, nearly 15 years later.*London Gazette* 51778, Sat, 17 June 1989, p. 45 The New Zealand Government ceased to recommend the Order in 1996, upon the establishment of the [Zealand Order of Merit](New)(New Zealand Order of Merit), but the Government of the Cook Islands continues to do so.[New Zealand Royal Honours System: History](https://dpmc.govt.nz/our-programmes/new-zealand-royal-honours/new-zealand-royal-honours-system/history|The), Department of the Prime Minister and Cabinet, Retrieved on 19 May 2020
## Criticism
In 2003, *The Sunday Times* published a list of the people who had rejected the Order of the British Empire, including [Bowie](David)(David Bowie), [Cleese](John)(John Cleese), [Lawson](Nigella)(Nigella Lawson), [Howarth](Elgar)(Elgar Howarth), [S. Lowry](L.)(L. S. Lowry), [Melly](George)(George Melly), and [G. Ballard](J.)(J. G. Ballard). In addition, Ballard voiced his opposition to the honours system, calling it "a preposterous charade".
The order has attracted some criticism for its naming having connection with the idea of the now-extinct [Empire](British)(British Empire).[A reformed Honours system](https://publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm200304/cmselect/cmpubadm/212/21209.htm), Select Committee on Public Administration, 7 July 2004, Retrieved 13 May 2012 [Zephaniah](Benjamin)(Benjamin Zephaniah), a British poet of [Jamaican](British Jamaicans) and [Barbadian](Barbadian British) descent, publicly rejected appointment as an Officer in 2003 because, he asserted, it reminded him of "thousands of years of brutality". He also said that "it reminds me of how my foremothers were raped and my forefathers brutalised".
In 2004, a [of Commons](House)(House of Commons of the United Kingdom) [Committee](Select)(Select committee (United Kingdom)) recommended changing the name of the award to the *Order of British Excellence*, and changing the rank of *Commander* to *Companion*; as the former was said to have a "militaristic ring".["Honours system outdated, say MPs"](http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk_politics/3888581.stm), BBC News, 13 July 2004, Retrieved 28 February 2007
A notable person to decline the offer of membership was the author [S. Lewis](C.)(C. S. Lewis) (1898–1963), who had been named on the last list of honours by [VI](George)(George VI) in December 1951. Despite being a [monarchist](monarchist), he declined so as to avoid association with any political issues.
In 2019, [Oliver](John)(John Oliver) turned down an offer of an OBE, which would have been part of the [New Year's Honours](Queen's)(Crown Honours Lists) list.
[Beatles](The)(The Beatles) were appointed Members in 1965: [Lennon](John)(John Lennon) justified the comparative merits of his investiture by comparing military membership in the Order: "Lots of people who complained about us receiving the MBE [status] received theirs for heroism in the war – for killing people ... We received ours for entertaining other people. I'd say we deserve ours more". Lennon later returned his MBE insignia on 25 November 1969, as part of his ongoing peace protests. Other criticism centres on the view that many recipients of the Order are being rewarded with honours for simply doing their jobs; critics say that the Civil Service and Judiciary receive far more orders and honours than leaders of other professions.
[Peng](Chin)(Chin Peng), a veteran guerrilla fighter of the [Peoples' Anti-Japanese Army](Malayan)(Malayan Peoples' Anti-Japanese Army), was appointed as an Officer for his role in fighting against the [occupation of Malaya](Japanese)(Japanese occupation of Malaya) during [War II](World)(World War II), in close co-operation with the British commando [136](Force)(Force 136#Malayan Communist Party). Several years after WWII, his OBE membership was withdrawn by the British government (and became undesirable to Chin Peng himself) when the Communist leader headed his party's guerrilla insurgency against the British Empire during the [Emergency](Malayan)(Malayan Emergency).[Dead or Alive](http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,806357,00.html) *[Time](Time (magazine))*, 12 May 1952
## See also
* [decorations, and medals of the United Kingdom](Orders,)(Orders, decorations, and medals of the United Kingdom) – the British honours system
* [of Knights Grand Cross of the Order of the British Empire](List)(List of Knights Grand Cross of the Order of the British Empire)
* [of Dames Grand Cross of the Order of the British Empire](List)(List of Dames Grand Cross of the Order of the British Empire)
* [of honorary British knights and dames](List)(List of honorary British knights and dames)
* [Kingdom order of precedence](United)(United Kingdom order of precedence)
* [Committee](Honours)(Honours Committee)
## Notes
## References
## Further reading
*
*
*
*
## External links
* [Order of the British Empire](https://www.royal.uk/queen-and-honours) – official website of the British Monarchy
* [The Honours system](https://www.gov.uk/honours) – UK Government
* [Queen's Birthday and New Year honours](https://www.TheGazette.co.uk/honours-lists) – *[London Gazette](The)(The London Gazette)*, lists recipients of honours
* ["The Most Excellent Order of the British Empire" (2002)](https://web.archive.org/web/20040420141242/http://www.cam.ac.uk/societies/cuhags/orderofc/brit_emp.htm) – [University Heraldic and Genealogical Society](Cambridge)(Cambridge University Heraldic and Genealogical Society)
* ["Order of Precedence in England and Wales", Velde, F. R. (2003)](http://heraldica.org/topics/britain/order_precedence.htm) – Heraldica.org
* [Search recommendations for the Order of the British Empire on the UK National Archives' website](http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/help-with-your-research/research-guides/recommendations-military-honours-awards-1935-1990/)
* [The Chapel of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire – OBE Chapel Exterior detail](http://ianmcgrawphotos.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2010/08/st_pauls_wedding_london_ianmcgrawphotos_2010_146.jpg) – JPEG image, IanMcGrawPhotos.co.uk
[ ](Category:Order of the British Empire)
[Empire, Order of the](British)(Category:Orders of chivalry of the United Kingdom)
[establishments in the United Kingdom](Category:1917)(Category:1917 establishments in the United Kingdom)
[established in 1917](Category:Awards)(Category:Awards established in 1917)
[honours system](Category:British)(Category:British honours system)
[Empire, Order of the](British)(Category:Orders of chivalry awarded to heads of state, consorts and sovereign family members)
[V](Category:George)(Category:George V)
|
List of common misconceptions
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list_of_common_misconceptions
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# List of common misconceptions
*Revision ID: 1160100509 | Timestamp: 2023-06-14T12:15:35Z*
---
Each entry on this **list of common misconceptions** is worded as a correction; the misconceptions themselves are implied rather than stated. These entries are concise summaries of the main subject articles, which can be consulted for more detail.
A common misconception is a viewpoint or [factoid](factoid) that is often accepted as true but which is actually false. They generally arise from [wisdom](conventional)(conventional wisdom) (such as [wives' tale](old)(old wives' tale)s), [stereotypes](stereotypes), [superstition](superstition)s, [fallacies](Fallacy), a misunderstanding of science, or the popularization of [pseudoscience](pseudoscience). Some common misconceptions are also considered to be [legend](urban)(urban legend)s, and they are often involved in [panic](moral)(moral panic)s.
## Arts and culture
### Business
* [tender laws](Legal)(Legal Tender Act) in the United States do not state that a private business, a person, or an organization must accept cash for payment, though it must be regarded as valid payment for debts when tendered to a creditor.
a.
b.
c.
[[File:Adi dassler young.jpg|thumb|upright|A photo of [Dassler](Adolf)(Adolf Dassler), the namesake for [Adidas](Adidas) ()]]
* [Adidas](Adidas) is not an acronym for "All day I dream about sports", "All day I dream about soccer", or "[day I dream about sex](All)(A.D.I.D.A.S. (Korn song))". The company was named after its founder ["Adi" Dassler](Adolf)(Adolf Dassler) in 1949. The [backronym](backronym)s were jokes published in 1978 and 1981.
* The common image of [Claus](Santa)(Santa Claus) (Father Christmas) as a jolly old man in red robes was not created by [Coca-Cola Company](The)(The Coca-Cola Company) as an advertising gimmick. Santa Claus had already taken this form in American popular culture and advertising by the late 19th century, long before Coca-Cola used his image in the 1930s.
a.
b.
c.
d. [Claus on the 1902 cover of Puck magazine](Santa)(:File:Santa1902PuckCover.jpg)
e. [Claus on the 1904 cover of Puck magazine](Santa)(:File:Santa1904PuckCover.jpg)
f. [Claus on the 1905 cover of Puck magazine](Santa)(:File:Santa1905PuckCover.jpg)
g.
* The [Nova](Chevrolet)(Chevrolet Nova) sold very well in [America](Latin)(Latin America)n markets; [Motors](General)(General Motors) did not need to rename the car. While *no va* does mean "it doesn't go" in Spanish, *nova* was easily understood to mean "new".
* [Netflix](Netflix) was not founded after its co-founder [Hastings](Reed)(Reed Hastings) was charged a $40 late fee by [Blockbuster](Blockbuster LLC). Hastings made the story up to summarize Netflix's value proposition, and Netflix's founders were actually inspired by [Amazon](Amazon (company)).
a.
b.
c.
d.
* [PepsiCo](PepsiCo) never owned the "6th most powerful navy" in the world after a deal with the [Union](Soviet)(Soviet Union). In a 1989 deal, millions of dollars worth of [Pepsi](Pepsi) were bartered for 20 decommissioned warships which were immediately sold for scrap.
### Food and cooking
* [Searing](Searing) does not seal moisture in [meat](meat); in fact, it causes it to lose some moisture. Meat is seared to [brown](Browning (partial cooking)) it, to affect its color, flavor, and texture.
a.
b. "The Searing Question".
* [Twinkie](Twinkie)s, an American snack cake generally considered to be "[food](junk)(junk food)", have a [life](shelf)(shelf life) of around 45 days, despite the common claim (usually facetious) that they remain edible for decades.
Twinkies, with only [acid](sorbic)(sorbic acid) as an added preservative, normally remain on a store shelf for 7 to 10 days.The myth implies that the "artificial" ingredients in Twinkies makes them immune to decay.
a.
b.
* With the exception of some [perishables](perishable food), properly stored foods can safely be eaten past their "expiration" dates.
a. *See*
b.
c. The vast majority of [date](expiration)(expiration date)s in the United States are regulated by state governments and refer to food quality, not safety; the "use by" date represents the last day the manufacturer warrants the quality of their product.
* Seeds are not the spicy part of [pepper](chili)(chili pepper)s. In fact, seeds contain a low amount of [capsaicin](capsaicin), one of several compounds which induce the [sensation (pungency)](hot)(Pungency) in mammals. The highest concentration of capsaicin is located in the [tissue](placental)(Placentation#In plants) (the [pith](pith)) to which the seeds are attached.
* [meat](Turkey)(Turkey as food) is not particularly high in [tryptophan](tryptophan), and does [cause more drowsiness](not)(postprandial somnolence#Turkey and tryptophan) than other foods.Rachel C. Vreeman, Aaron E. Carroll, "Medical Myths", *[British Medical Journal](The)(The British Medical Journal)* (now called *The BMJ*) **335**:1288 (December 20, 2007), [Drowsiness](Somnolence) after holiday meals such as [dinner](Thanksgiving)(Thanksgiving dinner) generally comes from overeating.
* [Banana](Banana)-flavored candy was not intended to mimic the taste of [formerly popular variety of banana](a)(Gros Michel banana). The reason banana candy tastes different from bananas is that it is mainly flavored with only one of the many flavors a banana has, [acetate](isoamyl)(isoamyl acetate).
#### Food history
[[File:fortune cookie broken 20040628 223252 1.jpg|thumb|[cookie](Fortune)(Fortune cookie)s are associated with [cuisine](Chinese)(Chinese cuisine), but were actually invented in Japan, and are almost never eaten in China, where they are seen as American.]]
* [cookie](Fortune)(Fortune cookie)s are not found in [cuisine](Chinese)(Chinese cuisine), despite their ubiquity in [restaurants in the United States](Chinese)(American Chinese cuisine) and other [Western](Western world) countries. They were invented in Japan and introduced to the US by the Japanese. In China, they are considered American, and are rare.
* [Hydrox](Hydrox) is not a knock-off of [Oreos](Oreos). Hydrox, invented in 1908, predates Oreos by four years and outsold it until the [1950s](1950s), when Oreos raised prices and the name "Hydrox" becoming increasingly unappealing due to sounding like a laundry detergent brand.
* [Washington Carver](George)(George Washington Carver) was not the inventor of [butter](peanut)(peanut butter). Peanut butter was used by the [Aztecs](Aztecs) and [Incan](Incan)s as early as the 15th century, and the first peanut butter-related patent was filed by [Harvey Kellogg](John)(John Harvey Kellogg) in 1895. Carver did compile hundreds of uses for [peanut](peanut)s, [soybean](soybean)s, [pecan](pecan)s, and [potato](sweet)(sweet potato)es to promote his system of [rotation](crop)(crop rotation). An opinion piece by [F. Buckley Jr.](William)(William F. Buckley Jr.) may have been the source of the misconception.
* [chip](Potato)(Potato chip)s were not invented by a frustrated [Speck](George)(George Speck) in response to a customer, sometimes given as [Vanderbilt](Cornelius)(Cornelius Vanderbilt), complaining that his [fries](French)(French fries) were too thick and not salty enough. Recipes for potato chips existed in cookbooks as early as 1817. The misconception was popularized by a 1973 advertising campaign by the St. Regis Paper Company.
* [Spice](Spice)s were not used in the Middle Ages to mask the flavor of rotting meat before refrigeration. Spices were an expensive luxury item; those who could afford them could afford good meat, and there are no contemporaneous documents calling for spices to disguise the taste of bad meat.
a. Paul Freedman, "Food Histories of the Middle Ages", in Kyri W. Claflin, Peter Scholliers, *Writing Food History: A Global Perspective*, , p. 24
b.
c.
d.
* [tartare](Steak)(Steak tartare) was not invented by [Mongol](Mongols) warriors who tenderized meat under their saddles.
The dish originated in the early 20th century, in Europe, as a variation on the German-American [steak](Hamburg)(Hamburg steak).Albert Jack, ''What Caesar Did for My Salad: Not to Mention the Earl's Sandwich, Pavlova's Meringue and Other Curious Stories Behind Our Favourite Food*, 2010, , p. 141 [at Google Books](https://books.google.com/books?id=uCzTNVCS45AC&pg=PT141)
* [cream](Whipped)(Whipped cream) was not invented by [Vatel](François)(François Vatel) at the [de Chantilly](Château)(Château de Chantilly) in 1671; the recipe is attested at least a century earlier in Italy, but the name *crème chantilly* only in the 19th century.
a. Maryann Tebben, *Sauces: A Global History'', 2014, , chapter 5
b.
* [de' Medici](Catherine)(Catherine de' Medici#Culinary legend) and her entourage did not introduce Italian foods to the French royal court and thus create French [cuisine](haute)(haute cuisine).
a.
b.
c. Summarizing
#### Microwave ovens
* [oven](Microwave)(Microwave oven)s are not tuned to any specific [frequency](resonance)(Resonance) for [molecules](water)(Properties of water) in the food, but rather produce a broad spectrum of frequencies, cooking food via [heating](dielectric)(dielectric heating) of polar molecules, including water. Several absorption peaks for water lie within the microwave range, and while it is true that these peaks are caused by [of molecular energy levels](quantization)(particle in a box) corresponding to a single frequency, water absorbs radiation across the entire microwave spectrum.
* Microwave ovens do not cook food from the inside out. 2.45 GHz microwaves can only penetrate approximately into most foods. The inside portions of thicker foods are mainly heated by heat conducted from the outer portions.
a.
b.
* Microwave ovens do not cause cancer, as [microwave](microwave) radiation is non-ionizing and therefore does not have the cancer risks associated with [radiation](ionizing)(ionizing radiation) such as [X-ray](X-ray)s. No studies have found that microwave radiation causes cancer, even with exposure levels far greater than normal radiation leakage.
a.
b.
* Microwaving food does not reduce its [value](nutritive)(Nutrition) and may preserve it better than other cooking processes due to shorter cooking times.
### Film and television
* [Reagan](Ronald)(Ronald Reagan) was never seriously considered for the role of Rick Blaine in the 1942 film classic *[Casablanca](Casablanca (film))*, eventually played by [Bogart](Humphrey)(Humphrey Bogart). This belief came from an early studio press release announcing the film's production that used his name to generate interest in the film, but, by the time it had come out, [Bros.](Warner)(Warner Brothers) knew that Reagan was unavailable for any roles in the foreseeable future since he was no longer able to defer his entry into military service.
Studio records show that producer [B. Wallis](Hal)(Hal B. Wallis) had always wanted Bogart for the part.
a.
b.
* Although it is considered the first modern [film](zombie)(zombie film), [A. Romero](George)(George A. Romero)'s *[of the Living Dead](Night)(Night of the Living Dead)* did not identify the undead as [zombie](zombie)s. Instead they were referred to as "[ghoul](ghoul)s". However, the undead were explicitly called "zombies" in the 1978 sequel *[of the Dead](Dawn)(Dawn of the Dead (1978 film))*.
* [Disney Studios](Walt)(Walt Disney Animation Studios)' *[White and the Seven Dwarfs](Snow)(Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs (1937 film))* was not the first [film](animated)(animated film) to be feature-length. *[Apóstol](El)(El Apóstol)*, a [lost](Lost film) 1917 [Argentine](Cinema of Argentina) silent film that used [animation](cutout)(cutout animation), is considered the first. The confusion comes from *Snow White* being the first animated feature-length film to use [cel](cel) [animation](Traditional animation), which is what most animated films were made with following its release, and from *El Apóstol*'s screenings being limited to select theaters in [Aires](Buenos)(Buenos Aires).
### Language
* The [of coronal fricatives in Spanish](pronunciation)(Phonological history of Spanish coronal fricatives) did not arise through imitation of a [lisping](lisping) king. Only one Spanish king, [of Castile](Peter)(Peter of Castile), is documented as having a lisp, and the current pronunciation originated two centuries after his death.
* [language](Sign)(Sign language)s are not the same worldwide. Aside from the [pidgin](pidgin) [Sign](International)(International Sign), each country generally has its own native sign language, and some have more than one.
a.
b.
c.
* [Eskimo](Eskimo)s do not have a [number of words representing snow](disproportionate)(Eskimo words for snow) in [languages](their)(Eskimo–Aleut languages). The myth comes from a misconstruction of [Boas](Franz)(Franz Boas)' original statement noting that Eskimos had a variety of words for various snow-related concepts; Boas noted that the same was true to a lesser extent for English (see, for example, "[blizzard](blizzard)," "flurry" and "squall").
a. [Geoffrey K. Pullum's explanation](http://itre.cis.upenn.edu/~myl/languagelog/archives/000405.html) in [Log](Language)(Language Log): ''The list of snow-referring roots to stick [suffixes] on isn't that long [the Eskimoan language group](in): *qani*- for a snowflake, *apu*- for snow considered as stuff lying on the ground and covering things up, a root meaning "slush", a root meaning "blizzard", a root meaning "drift", and a few others—very roughly the same number of roots as in English. Nonetheless, the number of distinct words you can derive from them is not 50, or 150, or 1500, or a million, but simply unbounded. Only stamina sets a limit.*
b. The seven most common English words for snow are *snow*, *hail*, *sleet*, *ice*, *icicle*, *slush*, and *snowflake*. English also has the related word *glacier* and the four common skiing terms *pack*, *powder*, *crud*, and *crust'', so one can say that at least 12 distinct words for snow exist in English. However, Eskimo languages do have many more [word](root)(root word)s for "snow" than does English.Krupnik, Igor et al. (2010) "Franz Boas and Inuktitut terminology for ice and snow: from the emergence of the field to the 'Great Eskimo Vocabulary Hoax'". in Krupnik et al. (2010). *SIKU: Knowing our Ice: Documenting Inuit Sea-Ice knowledge and Use*. New York, NY: Springer. pp.385–410.[David Robson, New Scientist 2896, December 18 2012, *Are there really 50 Eskimo words for snow?*](https://www.newscientist.com/article/mg21628962.800-are-there-really-50-eskimo-words-for-snow.html), "Yet Igor Krupnik, an anthropologist at the Smithsonian Arctic Studies Center in Washington DC believes that Boas was careful to include only words representing meaningful distinctions. Taking the same care with their own work, Krupnik and others have now charted the vocabulary of about 10 Inuit and Yupik dialects and conclude that there are indeed many more words for snow than in English (SIKU: Knowing Our Ice, 2010). Central Siberian Yupik has 40 such terms, whereas the Inuit dialect spoken in Nunavik, Quebec, has at least 53, including matsaaruti, wet snow that can be used to ice a sleigh's runners, and pukak, for the crystalline powder snow that looks like salt. For many of these dialects, the vocabulary associated with sea ice is even richer."
* The [people](Hopi)(Hopi) do in fact [a concept of time](have)(Hopi time controversy), and the [language](Hopi)(Hopi language) does have ways of expressing temporal concepts, though they are organized differently from those in Western languages.
* The [word for "crisis"](Chinese)(Chinese word for "crisis") (危机) is not composed of the symbols for "danger" and "opportunity"; the first does represent danger, but the second instead means "[point](inflection)(inflection point)" (the original meaning of the word "crisis").
a. ["The Straight Dope: Is the Chinese word for "crisis" a combination of "danger" and "opportunity"?"](http://www.straightdope.com/columns/read/2363/is-the-chinese-word-for-crisis-a-combination-of-danger-and-opportunity)
b. The myth was perpetuated mainly by a campaign speech from [F. Kennedy](John)(John F. Kennedy).
* The word "[gringo](gringo)" did not originate during the [War](Mexican–American)(Mexican–American War) (1846–1848), the [War of Independence](Venezuelan)(Venezuelan War of Independence) (1811–1823), the [Revolution](Mexican)(Mexican Revolution) (1910–1920), or from the [Old West](American)(American Old West) (1865–1890) as a corruption of the English lyrics "green grow" in either "[Grow the Lilacs](Green)(Green Grow the Lilacs)" (Irish folk song) or "[Grow the Rushes, O](Green)(Green Grow the Rushes, O)" (English folk song), as sung by [soldiers](US)(United States Army) or [cowboy](cowboy)s;
nor did it originate during any of these times as a corruption of "Green, go home!", in reference to either the green uniforms of American troops or the color of the [dollar](U.S.)(U.S. dollar). The word originally simply meant "foreigner", and is probably a [corruption](corruption (linguistics)) of the Spanish word *griego* for "Greek" (along the lines of the idiom "It's [to me](Greek)(Greek to me)").
#### English language
* *[Irregardless](Irregardless)* is a word.
"*Irregardless* originated in dialectal American speech in the early 20th century... The most frequently repeated remark about it is that "there is no such word." There is such a word, however." Merriam Webster Dictionary [Nonstandard](Nonstandard dialect), [slang](slang), or [colloquial](Colloquialism) terms used by English speakers are sometimes alleged not to be real words, despite appearing in numerous dictionaries. All words in English became accepted by being commonly used for a certain period of time; thus, there are many vernacular words currently not accepted as part of the [language](standard)(standard language), or regarded as inappropriate in formal speech or writing, but the idea that they are not words is a misconception. Other examples of words that are sometimes alleged not to be words include *burglarize*, *licit'', and *funnest* which appear in numerous dictionaries as English words.funnest:
[http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/funnest]; [https://web.archive.org/web/20120721022555/http://oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/fun]; [https://wordfind.com/word/funnest/]; [http://www.allwords.com/word-funnest.html]; [http://www.lexic.us/definition-of/funnest]
* [American Vernacular English](African)(African American Vernacular English) speakers do not simply ["is" with "be"](replace)(Habitual be) across all tenses, with no added meaning. In fact, AAVE speakers use "be" to mark a habitual [aspect](grammatical)(grammatical aspect) not explicitly distinguished in Standard English.
a. }}
b.
c.
* "[420](420 (cannabis culture))" did not originate from the Los Angeles [police](police code) or [code](penal)(criminal code) for [marijuana](marijuana) use. [Penal Code](California)(California Penal Code) section 420 prohibits the obstruction of access to public land.
The use of "420" started in 1971 at [Rafael High School](San)(San Rafael High School), where a group of students would go to smoke at 4:20 pm.
* The word *crap* did not originate as a [back-formation](back-formation) of British plumber [Crapper](Thomas)(Thomas Crapper)'s [aptronym](aptronym)ous surname, nor does his name originate from the word *crap*.
The surname "Crapper" is a variant of "Cropper", which originally referred to someone who harvested crops.
a.
b. The word *crap* ultimately comes from [Latin](Medieval)(Medieval Latin) *crappa*.
* The use of the word *[faggot](faggot)* as a pejorative for homosexual men was not derived from the [burning](Burning at the stake) of homosexuals at the stake with [bundle of sticks](a)(Faggot (unit)). Homosexuality was never punished with immolation in either England or its colonies. The actual etymology is unknown; it may come from an insult for unpleasant old women, or from British slang for [student that does errands for their superior](a)(Fagging).
* The word *[fuck](fuck)* did not originate in the Middle Ages as an [acronym](acronym) for either "[fornicating](fornication) under consent of king" or "for unlawful carnal knowledge", either as a sign posted above [adulterers](Adultery#Criminal penalties) in the [stocks](stocks), or as a sign on houses visible from the road during the [Death](Black)(Black Death). Nor did it originate as a corruption of "pluck yew" (an idiom falsely attributed to the English for drawing a [longbow](longbow)).
a.
b. It is most likely derived from [Dutch](Middle)(Middle Dutch) or other [languages](Germanic)(Germanic languages), where it either meant "to thrust" or "to copulate with" (*fokken* in Middle Dutch), "to copulate" (*fukka* in Norwegian), or "to strike, push, copulate" or "penis" (*focka* and *fock* respectively in Swedish). Either way, these variations would have been derived from the [Indo-European](Indo-European languages) root word *-peuk*, meaning "to prick".
* The expression "[of thumb](rule)(rule of thumb)" did not originate from an English law allowing a man to beat his wife with a stick no thicker than his thumb, and there is no evidence that such a law ever existed. The false etymology has been broadly reported in media including *[Time](Time (magazine))* magazine (1983), *[Washington Post](The)(The Washington Post)* (1989) and *[CNN](CNN)* (1993). The expression originates from the seventeenth century from various [trades](Craft) where quantities were measured by comparison to the width or length of a thumb.
* The word *the* was never pronounced or spelled "ye" in [Old](Old English) or [English](Middle)(Middle English). The confusion, seen in the [stock phrase](common)(common stock) "[olde](ye)(ye olde)", derives from the use of the character [thorn](Thorn (letter)) (þ), which in Middle English represented the sound now represented in Modern English by "th". Early [press](printing)(printing press)es often lacked [types](Sort (typesetting)) for the letter þ, meaning that "þͤ" ([English the.svg](File:Middle)(File:Middle English the.svg)) and "þe" were substituted with the visually similar "yͤ" and "ye", respectively.
* The [anti-Italian](anti-Italian) slur *[wop](wop)* did not originate from an acronym for "without papers" or "without passport";
a.
b. it is actually derived from the term *[guappo](guappo)* (roughly meaning *[thug](Thuggee)* or "dandy"), from Spanish *guapo*.
[[along with a modern Santa Claus, used on a Christmas postcard (1910)](File:PostcardIBringYouAMerryXmas1910.jpg|thumb|upright|"Xmas",)]
* *[Xmas](Xmas)* did not originate as a secular plan to "take the Christ out of Christmas". *X* represents the Greek letter [chi](Chi (letter)), the first letter of Χριστός (*Christós*), "Christ" in Greek, as found in [chi-rho symbol ΧΡ](the)(Chi Rho) since the 4th century. In English, "X" was first used as a [abbreviation](scribal)(scribal abbreviation) for "Christ" in 1100; "X'temmas" is attested in 1551, and "Xmas" in 1721.*[English Dictionary](Oxford)(Oxford English Dictionary)*, *s.v.* "[X](https://www.oed.com/view/Entry/230945)" (1921 edition) and "[Xmas](https://www.oed.com/view/Entry/231032)" (Third Edition, 2020)
### Law, crime, and military
* It is rarely necessary to wait 24 hours before filing a [person](missing)(missing person) report. When there is evidence of violence or of an unusual absence, it is important to start an investigation promptly.
a.
b. c. The UK government advises "You do not have to wait 24 hours before contacting the police."
[Criminology](Criminology) experts say the first 72 hours in a missing person investigation are the most critical.
* [Twinkies](Twinkies) were not [to be the cause](claimed)(Twinkie defense) of San Francisco mayor [Moscone](George)(George Moscone)'s and supervisor [Milk](Harvey)(Harvey Milk)'s murders. In the trial of [White](Dan)(Dan White), the defense successfully argued White's [capacity](diminished)(diminished capacity) as a result of severe depression. While eating Twinkies was cited as evidence of this depression, it was never claimed to be the cause of the murders.
* The [Armed Forces](US)(United States Armed Forces) have generally forbidden military enlistment as a form of [adjudication](deferred)(deferred adjudication) (that is, an option for convicts to avoid jail time) since the 1980s. [Navy](US)(United States Navy) protocols discourage the practice, while the other four branches have specific regulations against it.
a.
b.
* The United States does not require police officers to identify themselves as police in the case of a sting or other undercover work, and police officers may lie when engaged in such work.
Claiming [entrapment](entrapment) as a defense instead focuses on whether the defendant was induced by undue pressure (such as threats) or deception from law enforcement to commit crimes they would not have otherwise committed.
*Sloane* (1990) 49 A Crim R 270. See also [provocateur](agent)(agent provocateur)
[[crime rates by gender 1973-2003.png|thumb|Violent crime rates in the United States declined significantly between 1994 and 2003.](File:Violent)]
* [in the United States](Crime)(Crime in the United States) decreased between 1993 and 2017. The violent crime rate fell 49% in that period, and the number of gun homicides had decreased during that same time period.
* The [Amendment to the United States Constitution](First)(First Amendment to the United States Constitution) generally prevents only government restrictions on the freedoms of [religion](Freedom of religion in the United States), [speech](Freedom of speech in the United States), [press](Freedom of the press in the United States), [assembly](Freedom of assembly), or [petition](Right to petition in the United States), not restrictions imposed by private individuals or businesses
unless they are [on behalf of the government](acting)(state actor).
Other laws may restrict the ability of private businesses and individuals to restrict the speech of others.
* It is not illegal in the US to ["fire" in a crowded theater](shout)(Shouting fire in a crowded theater). Although this is often given as an example of speech that is not protected by the First Amendment, it is not now nor has it ever been the law of the land. The phrase originates from Justice [Wendell Holmes, Jr.](Oliver)(Oliver Wendell Holmes, Jr.)'s [opinion](legal opinion) in the [States Supreme Court](United)(United States Supreme Court) case *[v. United States](Schenck)(Schenck v. United States)* in 1919, which held that the defendant's speech in opposition to the [draft](conscription) during [War I](World)(World War I) was not protected [speech](free)(freedom of speech). However, that case was not about shouting "fire" and it was later [overturned](Judicial review in the United States) by *[v. Ohio](Brandenburg)(Brandenburg v. Ohio)* in 1969.
* Neither the [Mafia](Italian-American Mafia) nor other criminal organizations regularly use or have used [shoes](cement)(cement shoes) to drown their victims. There are only two documented cases of this method being used in murders: one in 1964 and one in 2016 (although, in the former, [victim](the)(Ernest Rupolo) had concrete blocks tied to his legs rather than being enclosed in cement). The [Army](French)(French Army) did use cement shoes on Algerians killed in [flights](death)(death flights) during the [War](Algerian)(Algerian War).
* In the United States, a [defendant](defendant) may not have their case dismissed simply because they were not read their [rights](Miranda)(Miranda warning) at the time of their arrest. Miranda warnings cover the rights of a person when they are taken into custody and then [interrogated](custodial interrogation) by law enforcement.*Miranda v. Arizona*, 384 U.S. 436 (1966)Imwinkelried and Blinka, *Criminal Evidentiary Foundations*, 2d ed. (Lexis 2007) at 620. If a person is not given a Miranda warning before the interrogation is conducted, statements made by them during the interrogation may not be admissible in a trial. The prosecution may still present other forms of evidence, or statements made during interrogations where the defendant *was* read their Miranda rights, to get a conviction.
* Chewing [gum](Chewing gum) is not punishable by [caning](caning) in [Singapore](Singapore). Although importing and selling chewing gum [been illegal in Singapore](has)(Chewing gum sales ban in Singapore) since 1992, and [punishment](corporal)(Caning in Singapore) still being an applicable penalty for certain offenses in the country, the two facts are unrelated; chewing gum-related offenses have always been only subject to [fines](Fine (penalty)), and the possession or consumption of chewing gum itself is not illegal.a. b. c.
* Employees of the international police organization [Interpol](Interpol) cannot conduct investigations, arrest criminals or use [passport](fake)(fake passport)s. They only provide support for international communication between [enforcement agencies](law)(Law enforcement agency) of [state](sovereign)(sovereign state)s.
* [outline](Chalk)(Chalk outline)s in crime scenes are rare in modern investigations, despite being a popular [trope](Trope (literature)) in fiction.
### Literature
* Many [quotation](quotation)s are incorrect or attributed to people who never uttered them, and quotations from obscure or unknown authors are often attributed to more famous figures. Commonly misquoted individuals include [Twain](Mark)(Mark Twain), [Einstein](Albert)(Albert Einstein), [Hitler](Adolf)(Adolf Hitler), [Churchill](Winston)(Winston Churchill), [Lincoln](Abraham)(Abraham Lincoln), [Shakespeare](William)(William Shakespeare), [Confucius](Confucius), [Tzu](Sun)(Sun Tzu), and the [Buddha](Buddha).
* [Shelley](Mary)(Mary Shelley)'s 1818 novel *[Frankenstein](Frankenstein)* is named after the fictional scientist [Frankenstein](Victor)(Victor Frankenstein), who created the sapient creature in the novel, not the creature itself, which is never named and is called [monster](Frankenstein's)(Frankenstein's monster). However, as later adaptations started to refer to the monster itself as Frankenstein, this usage became well-established, and some no longer regard it as erroneous.
* [Hemingway](Ernest)(Ernest Hemingway) did not author the [fiction](flash)(flash fiction) story "[sale: baby shoes, never worn](For)(For sale: baby shoes, never worn)". The story existed as early as 1906, and it was not attributed to him until decades after he died.
### Music
#### Classical music
* The [interval](musical)(Interval (music)) [tritone](tritone) was never thought to summon [devil](the)(Satan), was not banned by the [Church](Catholic)(Catholic Church), and was not associated with [devil](devil)s during the Middle Ages or Renaissance. Early [music](medieval)(medieval music) used the tritone in [chant](Gregorian)(Gregorian chant) for certain [mode](Mode (music))s. [of Arezzo](Guido)(Guido of Arezzo) () was the first theorist to discourage the interval, while [rock](Rock music) musicians popularized this myth to justify their use of the tritone.
* [did not die from poisoning](Mozart)(Death of Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart), and was not poisoned by his colleague [Salieri](Antonio)(Antonio Salieri) or anyone else. The false rumor originated soon after Salieri's death and was dramatized in [Pushkin](Alexander)(Alexander Pushkin)'s play *[and Salieri](Mozart)(Mozart and Salieri (play))* (1832), and later in the 1979 *[Amadeus](Amadeus (play))* play by [Shaffer](Peter)(Peter Shaffer) and the subsequent 1984 film *[Amadeus](Amadeus (film))*.
* The [in G major](minuet)(minuet in G major, BWV Anh. 114) by [Petzold](Christian)(Christian Petzold (composer)) is commonly attributed to [Sebastian Bach](Johann)(Johann Sebastian Bach), although the piece was identified in the 1970s as a [movement](Movement (music)) from a [harpsichord](harpsichord) [suite](Suite (music)) by Petzold. The misconception stems from *[for Anna Magdalena Bach](Notebook)(Notebook for Anna Magdalena Bach)*, a book of [music](sheet)(sheet music) by various composers (mostly Bach) in which the [minuet](minuet) is found.
a.
b.
c.
d. Compositions that are doubtful as works of Bach are cataloged as "[Anh.](BWV)(BWV Anh.)", short for "[Bach-Werke-Verzeichnis](Bach-Werke-Verzeichnis) Anhang" ("Bach works catalogue annex"); the minuet is assigned to BWV Anh. 114.
* [to Mozart](Listening)(Mozart effect) or classical music does not enhance intelligence (or [IQ](IQ)). A study from 1993 reported a short-term improvement in [reasoning](spatial)(Spatial visualization ability)., p. 611 defines the term as "Slight and transient improvement in spational[sic] reasoning skills detected in normal subjects as a result of exposure to the music of Mozart, specifically his sonata for two pianos (K448)." However, the weight of subsequent evidence supports either a null effect or short-term effects related to increases in mood and arousal, with mixed results published after the initial report in *[Nature](Nature (journal))*.
* The "[Waltz](Minute)(Minute Waltz)" takes, on average, two [minute](minute)s to play as originally written. Its name comes from the adjective *[minute](wikt:minute#Adjective)*, meaning "small", and not the noun [the same](spelled)(heteronym (linguistics)).
#### Popular music
* "[Edelweiss](Edelweiss (song))" is not the [anthem](national)(national anthem) of [Austria](Austria), but an original composition created for the 1959 musical *[Sound of Music](The)(The Sound of Music)*.November 7, 2006. BBC. The Austrian national anthem is "[der Berge, Land am Strome](Land)(Land der Berge, Land am Strome)" ("Land of the Mountains, Land on the River [[Danube](Danube)]"). The [edelweiss](edelweiss) is also a national symbol of Austria.
* The Beatles were not the first to experiment with sounds processed through a [speaker](Leslie)(Leslie speaker).
* [Monkees](The)(The Monkees) did not outsell the Beatles' and [Rolling Stones](the)(the Rolling Stones)' combined record sales in 1967. [Nesmith](Michael)(Michael Nesmith) originated the claim in a 1977 interview as a prank.
* The Rolling Stones were not performing "[for the Devil](Sympathy)(Sympathy for the Devil)" at the 1969 [Free Concert](Altamont)(Altamont Free Concert) when [Hunter](Meredith)(Killing of Meredith Hunter) was stabbed to death by a member of the local [Angels](Hells)(Hells Angels) chapter that was serving as security. While the incident began while the band was performing the song, prompting a brief interruption before the Stones finished it, the actual stabbing occurred later as the band was performing "[My Thumb](Under)(Under My Thumb)".
a.
b. The misconception arose from mistaken reporting in *[Stone](Rolling)(Rolling Stone)*.
* [album](Concept)(Concept album)s did not begin with rock music in the 1960s. The format had already been employed by singers such as [Sinatra](Frank)(Frank Sinatra) in the 1940s and 1950s.
* [Collins](Phil)(Phil Collins) did not write his 1981 hit "[the Air Tonight](In)(In the Air Tonight)" about witnessing someone drowning and then confronting the person in the audience who let it happen. According to Collins himself, it was about his emotions when divorcing from his first wife.
### Religion
#### Buddhism
* The [Buddha](historical)(Gautama Buddha) is not known to have been fat. The chubby monk known as the "fat Buddha" or "laughing Buddha" in the West is a 10th-century Chinese Buddhist folk hero by the name of [Budai](Budai).
#### Christianity
* Despite numerous uncertainties regarding the [of Jesus](life)(Chronology of Jesus), most modern scholars agree that Jesus [historically](existed)(historicity of Jesus), and that he was [baptized](Baptism) and [crucified](Crucifixion). [A. Burridge](Richard)(Richard A. Burridge) states: "There are those who argue that Jesus is a figment of the Church's imagination, that there never was a Jesus at all. I have to say that I do not know any respectable critical scholar who says that any more". [M. Price](Robert)(Robert M. Price) does not believe that Jesus existed, but agrees that this perspective runs against the views of the majority of scholars. [D. G. Dunn](James)(James Dunn (theologian)) calls the theories of Jesus' non-existence "a thoroughly dead thesis". [Grant](Michael)(Michael Grant (author)) (a [classicist](classicist)) wrote in 1977, "In recent years, 'no serious scholar has ventured to postulate the non historicity of Jesus' or at any rate very few, and they have not succeeded in disposing of the much stronger, indeed very abundant, evidence to the contrary". [E. Van Voorst](Robert)(Robert E. Van Voorst) states that biblical scholars and classical historians regard theories of non-existence of Jesus as effectively refuted. Writing on *[Daily Beast](The)(The Daily Beast)*, [Moss](Candida)(Candida Moss) and Joel Baden state that "there is nigh universal consensus among biblical scholars – the authentic ones, at least – that Jesus was, in fact, a real guy".}} Beyond that, mainstream scholars have no consensus about the [historicity](historicity) of the other major details of the [gospel](gospel) stories, or on the extent to which the [epistles](Pauline)(Pauline epistles) and the gospels replaced the historical human Jesus with a religious narrative of a supernatural [of faith](Christ)(Christology).
a. : "Contrary to previous times, virtually everyone in the field today acknowledges that Jesus was considered by his contemporaries to be an exorcist and a worker of miracles. However, when it comes to historical assessment of the miracles tradition itself, the consensus quickly shatters. Some, following in the footsteps of Bultmann, embrace an explicit methodological naturalism such that the very idea of a miracle is ruled out a priori. Others defend the logical possibility of miracle at the theoretical level, but, in practice, retain a functional methodological naturalism, maintaining that we could never be in possession of the type and/or amount of evidence that would justify a historical judgment in favor of the occurrence of a miracle. Still others, suspicious that an uncompromising methodological naturalism most likely reflects an unwarranted metaphysical naturalism, find such a priori skepticism unwarranted and either remain open to, or even explicitly defend, the historicity of miracles within the Jesus tradition."
b. "By the end of the first century Christianity had lost sight of the real Jesus and of the original meaning of his message. Paul, John and their churches replaced him by the otherworldy Christ of faith."
c. : "The problem with the historical Jesus for Schweitzer was that he was in fact all too historical. That is, Jesus was so firmly rooted in his own time and place, that he does not translate to modern idiom. The Jesus proclaimed by preachers and theologians today had no existence. That particular Jesus is (or those particular Jesuses are) a myth. But there was a historical Jesus, who was very much a man of his time."
d. : "As I have repeatedly emphasized, different scholars come to radically different conclusions about how to understand the life of the historical Jesus...Nearly all critical scholars agree at least on those points about the historical Jesus. But there is obviously a lot more to say, and that is where scholarly disagreements loom large - disagreements not over whether Jesus existed but over what kind of Jewish teacher and preacher he was."
e. : "No single picture of Jesus has convinced all, or even most, scholars; all methods and their combinations find their critics as well as their advocates."
f. : "The historical Jesus has gotten lost behind the stained glass curtain of the Christ of dogma".
g. : "All this suggests that the relationship between Christian faith and historical research is to be seen as an ongoing critical dialogue about Jesus and his significance. There is no pre-established harmony between the two sides, and the hope for an eventual consensus is in current circumstances utopian. But neither is this a purely negative relationship of absolute antagonism or indifference. The dialogue may at least serve to clarify why it is that for some Jesus is one of the prophets, whereas for others he is the Christ. Each side in the dialogue remains an unresolved problem to the other—and, as such, an opportunity to learn something new." There is scant scientific or historical evidence to support the supernatural phenomena described in the Bible;Mark Allan Powell, *Jesus as a Figure in History: How Modern Historians View the Man from Galilee* (Westminster John Knox Press, 1998), p. 22.[Bart D.](Ehrman,)(Bart D. Ehrman) [Interrupted](Jesus,)(Jesus, Interrupted), HarperCollins, 2009. p. 175: "We would call a miracle an event that violates the way nature always, or almost always, works ... By now I hope you can see the unavoidable problem historians have with miracles. Historians can establish only what probably happened in the past, but miracles, by their very nature, are always the least probable explanation for what happened" however, the [that Jesus did not exist at all](theory)(Christ myth theory): "Originally known as the 'Christ Myth theory,' this school of thought has more recently adopted the moniker 'Jesus Myth theory' or 'mythicism'."}} is rejected by mainstream scholars of antiquity,
a. : "[Jesus mythicism](Per) Given the fringe status of these theories, the vast majority have remained unnoticed and unaddressed within scholarly circles."
b. Patrick Gray (2016), *Varieties of Religious Invention*, chapter 5, *Jesus, Paul, and the birth of Christianity*, Oxford University Press, p.114: "That Jesus did in fact walk the face of the earth in the first century is no longer seriously doubted even by those who believe that very little about his life or death can be known with any certainty. [4:](Note) Although it remains a fringe phenomenon, familiarity with the Christ myth theory has become much more widespread among the general public with the advent of the Internet."
c. [Hurtado](Larry)(Larry Hurtado) (December 2, 2017), [*Why the "Mythical Jesus" Claim Has No Traction with Scholars*](https://larryhurtado.wordpress.com/2017/12/02/why-the-mythical-jesus-claim-has-no-traction-with-scholars/): "The "mythical Jesus" view doesn't have any traction among the overwhelming number of scholars working in these fields, whether they be declared Christians, Jewish, atheists, or undeclared as to their personal stance. Advocates of the "mythical Jesus" may dismiss this statement, but it ought to count for something if, after some 250 years of critical investigation of the historical figure of Jesus and of Christian Origins, and the due consideration of "mythical Jesus" claims over the last century or more, this spectrum of scholars have judged them unpersuasive (to put it mildly)."
d. [Grant](Michael)(Michael Grant (author)) (2004), ''Jesus: An Historian's Review of the Gospels'', p.200: "In recent years, 'no serious scholar has ventured to postulate the non-historicity of Jesus' or at any rate very few, and they have not succeeded in disposing of the much stronger, indeed very abundant, evidence to the contrary."
e. Bart Ehrman (2012), *Did Jesus Exist?*, p.20: "It is fair to say that mythicists as a group, and as individuals, are not taken seriously by the vast majority of scholars in the fields of New Testament, early Christianity, ancient history, and theology. This is widely recognized, to their chagrin, by mythicists themselves."
f. Raphael Lataster (2019), *Questioning the Historicity of Jesus: Why a Philosophical Analysis Elucidates the Historical Discourse*, BRILL, p. 1: "One common criticism is that we are on the fringes of scholarship."
g. [M. Price](Robert)(Robert M. Price), *The Pre-Nicene New Testament: Fifty-Four Formative Texts* (Salt Lake City: Signature Books, 2006) p. 1179: "New Testament criticism treated the Christ Myth Theory with universal disdain." Price, a Christian atheist who denies the existence of Jesus, agrees that this perspective runs against the views of the majority of scholars; Robert M. Price "Jesus at the Vanishing Point" in *The Historical Jesus: Five Views* edited by James K. Beilby & Paul Rhodes Eddy, 2009 InterVarsity, p. 6.
and mythicist views are widely criticized.
a.
b.
c.
* [Jesus](Jesus) was most likely not [born](date of birth of Jesus) on December 25, when [birth](his)(nativity of Jesus) is traditionally celebrated as [Christmas](Christmas). It is more likely that his birth was in either the season of [spring](spring (season)) or perhaps [summer](summer). Also, although the [Era](Common)(Common Era) ostensibly counts the years since his birth,
it is unlikely that he was born in either AD 1 or 1 BC, as such a numbering system would imply. Modern historians estimate a date closer to between 6 BC and 4 BC.
* The [Bible](Bible) does not say that exactly three [magi](Biblical Magi) came to visit the baby Jesus, nor that they were kings, or rode on camels, or that their names were [Caspar](Caspar (magus)), [Melchior](Melchior (magus)), and [Balthazar](Balthazar (magus)), nor what color their skin was. Three magi are inferred because three gifts are described, but the Bible says only that there was more than one magus; still, [depictions of the nativity](artistic)(Nativity of Jesus in art) have almost always depicted three magi since the 3rd century.
Though they are often depicted as being present for Jesus' birth, the Bible specifies only an upper limit of two years for the interval between the birth and the visit., as cited by Schiller, Gertud, *Iconography of Christian Art, Vol. I*, p. 96, 1971 (English trans from German), Lund Humphries, London, The association of magi with kings—a connection vehemently opposed by [Calvin](John)(John Calvin) as a "ridiculous contrivance" Quote from Commentary on Matthew 2:1–6—comes from attempts to tie Old Testament prophecies such as [72](Psalm)(Psalm 72) and chapter 60 of the [of Isaiah](Book)(Book of Isaiah), to the magi; most accounts describe the magi as being astrologers or magicians.Longenecker, Dwight (2014). ["We Three Kings" Who were the Magi?](https://www.catholiceducation.org/en/controversy/common-misconceptions/we-three-kings-who-were-the-magi.html) *Catholic Education Resource Center*. Retrieved November 16, 2021.Ashby, Chad. "[Magi, Wise Men, or Kings? It's Complicated](http://www.christianitytoday.com/history/holidays/christmas/magi-wise-men-or-kings-its-complicated.html)." *Christianity Today*, December 16, 2016.
[[File:R%C3%A9gnier_Penitent_Mary_Magdalene.jpg|thumb|upright|No Biblical or historical evidence supports [Magdalene](Mary)(Mary Magdalene) having been a prostitute.]]
* The idea that [Magdalene](Mary)(Mary Magdalene) was a prostitute before she met Jesus is not found in the Bible or in any of the other earliest Christian writings. It has been a disputed doctrine in several theological traditions whether Mary Magdalene, [of Bethany](Mary)(Mary of Bethany) (who [Jesus' feet](anoints)(Anointing of Jesus) in ), and the unnamed "sinful woman" who anoints Jesus' feet in were the same woman.
* [the Apostle](Paul)(Paul the Apostle) did not change his name from Saul. He was born a Jew, with Roman citizenship inherited from his father, and thus carried both a Hebrew and a Greco-Roman name from birth, as mentioned by [Luke](Luke the Evangelist) in : "...Saul, who also is called Paul...".
a.
b.
* The [Catholic](Roman)(Catholic Church) [dogma](dogma) of the [Conception](Immaculate)(Immaculate Conception) is unrelated to the Christian doctrine that [Mary](Mary, mother of Jesus) [conceived](Fertilisation) and [birth to Jesus while remaining a virgin](gave)(Virgin birth of Jesus). The Immaculate Conception is the belief that *Mary* was free of [sin](original)(original sin) from the moment of her own conception. A less common mistake is to think that the Immaculate Conception means that Mary herself was conceived without sexual intercourse.
[Hopko, Thomas. *The Winter Pascha* Chapter 9, Antiochian Orthodox Christian Archdiocese of North America](http://ww1.antiochian.org/node/18597)
* Roman Catholic [dogma](dogma) does not say that the pope is either [sinless](Impeccability#Impeccability and the Pope) or always infallible.
a.
b. Catholic dogma since 1870 does state that a dogmatic teaching contained in [revelation](divine)(divine revelation) that is [promulgated](promulgation) by the pope (deliberately, and under certain very specific circumstances; generally called *[cathedra](ex)(ex cathedra)*) is free from error, although official invocation of [infallibility is rare](papal)(Papal infallibility#Instances of infallible declarations). Most theologians state that [canonization](canonization)s meet the requisites.
Otherwise, even when speaking in his official capacity, dogma does not hold that he is always free from error.
* [Peter's Basilica](St.)(St. Peter's Basilica) is not the [church](mother)(mother church) of [Catholicism](Roman)(Catholic Church), nor is it the official seat of the [Pope](Pope). These equivalent distinctions belong to the [of Saint John Lateran](Archbasilica)(Archbasilica of Saint John Lateran), which is located in Rome outside of [City](Vatican)(Vatican City) but over which the Vatican has extraterritorial jurisdiction. This also means that St. Peter's is not a [cathedral](cathedral) in the literal sense of that word. St. Peter's is, however, used as the principal church for many papal functions.
* Members of [Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints](the)(the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints) (LDS Church) [longer practice polygamy](no)(Mormonism and polygamy).
a.
b.
c.
d. However, a widower may be "sealed" to another wife, and is considered a polygamist in the hereafter.
Currently, the LDS Church [excommunicate](excommunicate)s any members who practice "living" polygamy within the organization.
Some [fundamentalist](Mormon)(Mormon fundamentalist) [sects](List of sects in the Latter Day Saint movement#Additional churches claiming lineage through Brigham Young and/or founded in the U.S. Intermountain West) do practice polygamy.
a.
b.
* [Augustine](Saint)(Augustine of Hippo) did not say "God created hell for inquisitive people". He actually said: "I do *not* give the answer that someone is said to have given (evading by a joke the force of the objection), 'He was preparing hell for those who pry into such deep subjects.' ... I do not answer in this way. I would rather respond, 'I do not know,' concerning what I do not know than say something for which a man inquiring about such profound matters is laughed at, while the one giving a false answer is praised." So Augustine is saying that he would not say this and that he does not know the answer to the question.
* The [Council of Nicaea](First)(First Council of Nicaea) did not establish the books of the Bible. The Old Testament had likely already been [established](Development of the Hebrew Bible canon) by Hebrew scribes before Christ. The [development](development of the New Testament canon) of the New Testament canon was mostly completed in the third century before the Nicaea Council was convened in 325; it was finalized, along with the [deuterocanon](deuterocanon), at the [of Rome](Council)(Council of Rome) in 382.
#### Islam
* Most Muslim women do not wear a [burqa](burqa) (also transliterated as burka or burkha), which covers the body, head, and face, with a mesh grille to see through. Many Muslim women cover their hair and face (excluding the eyes) with a [niqāb](niqāb), or just their hair with a [hijab](hijab).
However, there are also Muslim women who wear neither face nor head coverings of any kind.
* A [fatwa](fatwa) is a non-binding legal opinion issued by an [scholar](Islamic)(Ulama) under [law](Islamic)(Sharia); it is therefore commonplace for fatwā from different authors to disagree. The misconception
a.
b. that it is a death sentence stems from a fatwā issued by Ayatollah [Khomeini](Ruhollah)(Ruhollah Khomeini) of Iran in 1989 where he said that the author [Rushdie](Salman)(Salman Rushdie) had earned a death sentence for [blasphemy](blasphemy).
* The word "[jihad](jihad)" does not always mean "[war](holy)(Religious war)"; literally, the word in Arabic means "struggle". While there is such a thing as "[bil saif](jihad)(Jihad#Warfare (Jihad bil Saif))", or jihad "by the sword",
many modern Islamic scholars usually say that it implies an effort or struggle of a spiritual kind.
a.
b.
* The [Quran](Quran) does not promise martyrs 72 virgins in heaven. It does mention that virgin female companions, [houri](houri), are given to all people, martyr or not, in heaven, but no number is specified. The source for the 72 virgins is a [hadith](hadith) in [al-Tirmidhi](Sunan)(Sunan al-Tirmidhi) by [Tirmidhi](Imam)(Imam Tirmidhi). Hadiths are sayings and acts of the prophet Muhammad as reported by others, not part of the Quran itself.Salahuddin Yusuf, *Riyadhus Salihin*, commentary on Nawawi, Chapter 372, Dar-us-Salam Publications (1999),
#### Judaism
[[File:Jan_Brueghel_de_Oude_en_Peter_Paul_Rubens_-_Het_aards_paradijs_met_de_zondeval_van_Adam_en_Eva.jpg|thumb|Often shown as an apple in art, the fruit in the [of Eden](Garden)(Garden of Eden) is not named in *[Genesis](Book of Genesis)*.]]
* The [fruit](forbidden)(forbidden fruit) mentioned in the [of Genesis](Book)(Book of Genesis) is never identified as an [apple](apple), as widely depicted in [art](Western)(Art of Europe). The original Hebrew texts mention only *tree* and *fruit*. Early Latin translations use the word *mali*, which can mean either "of evil" or "of apple". In early Germanic languages the word *apple* and its cognates usually simply meant "fruit". Jewish scholars have suggested that the fruit could have been [wheat](wheat), a grape, a fig, or an [etrog](etrog).
a. [Talmud](Babylonian)(Babylonian Talmud), [Berakhot](Berakhot (Talmud)), 40a
b.
* While [tattoo](tattoo)s are forbidden by the [of Leviticus](Book)(Book of Leviticus), Jews with tattoos are not [from being buried in a Jewish cemetery](barred)(Religious perspectives on tattooing#Judaism), just as violators of other prohibitions are not barred.
### Sports
* The name *[golf](golf)* is not an acronym for "Gentlemen Only, Ladies Forbidden".
It may have come from the Dutch word *kolf* or *kolve*, meaning "[club](Club (weapon))", or from the Scottish word *goulf* or *gowf* meaning "to strike or cuff".
* [was not invented](Baseball)(Origins of baseball) by [Doubleday](Abner)(Doubleday myth), nor did it originate in [New York](Cooperstown,)(Cooperstown, New York). It is believed to have evolved from other bat-and-ball games such as [cricket](cricket) and [rounders](rounders) and first [its modern form](took)(Knickerbocker Rules) in New York City.
a.
b.
[[File:Marcos black belt.jpg|thumb|150px|[Torregrosa](Marcos)(Marcos Torregrosa) wearing the [black belt](BJJ)(BJJ belt) with a red bar indicating first degree]]
* The [belt in martial arts](black)(black belt (martial arts)) does not necessarily indicate expert level or mastery. It was introduced for [judo](judo) in the 1880s to indicate competency at all of the basic techniques of the sport. Promotion beyond 1st [dan](dan (rank)) (the first black belt rank) varies among different martial arts. In judo and derived martial arts such as [jiu-jitsu](Brazilian)(Brazilian jiu-jitsu), holders of higher master ranks are awarded alternating red and white panels, and the highest grandmasters wear solid red belts.
Some other arts such as [taekwondo](taekwondo) use black belts with a number of gold bars to indicate the holder's [rank](dan)(dan (rank)).
* The use of [corner flags in English football](triangular)(triangular corner flags in English football) is not a privilege reserved for those teams that have won an [Cup](FA)(FA Cup) in the past
as depicted in a scene in the film *[Town](Twin)(Twin Town)*. The [Association](Football)(Football Association)'s rules are silent on the subject, and often the decision over what shape flag to use has been up to the individual club's groundskeepers.
* [India](India national football team) did not withdraw from the [FIFA World Cup](1950)(1950 FIFA World Cup) because their squad played barefoot, which was against [FIFA](FIFA) regulations.
In reality, India withdrew because the country's managing body, the [India Football Federation](All)(All India Football Federation) (AIFF), was insufficiently prepared for the team's participation and gave various reasons for withdrawing, including a lack of funding and prioritizing the [Olympics](Football at the Summer Olympics).
a.
b. The AIFF itself may have been the source of this myth.
### Video games
* There is no definitive proof that [video games cause people to become violent](violent)(Violence and video games#Scientific debate). Some studies have found no link between aggression and violent video games, and the popularity of gaming has coincided with a *decrease* in youth violence. The [panic](moral)(moral panic) surrounding video games in the 1980s through to the 2020s, alongside several studies and incidents of violence and legislation in many countries, likely contributed to proliferating this idea.
* The so-called "[Gandhi](Nuclear)(Nuclear Gandhi)" glitch, in which peaceful leader [Gandhi](Mahatma)(Mahatma Gandhi) would become unusually aggressive if [democracy](democracy) was adopted, did not exist in either the original *[Civilization](Civilization (video game))* game or *[II](Civilization)(Civilization II)*. The games' designer [Meier](Sid)(Sid Meier) attributed the origins of the rumor to both a [Tropes](TV)(TV Tropes) thread and a [Your Meme](Know)(Know Your Meme) entry, while [Reddit](Reddit) and a *[Kotaku](Kotaku)* article helped popularize it. |date=September 5, 2019 |language=ru |access-date=June 22, 2022 }} Gandhi's supposed behavior did appear in the 2010 *[V](Civilization)(Civilization V)* as a joke, and in 2016's *[VI](Civilization VI)* as a reference to the legend.
* The Japanese government did not pass a law banning [Enix](Square)(Square Enix) from releasing the *[Quest](Dragon)(Dragon Quest)* games on weekdays due to it causing too many schoolchildren to cut class. The only extent of the government's involvement was that the [Diet](National)(National Diet) held hearings over rises in muggings caused by the release of *[Quest III](Dragon)(Dragon Quest III)*. Series executive producer Yuu Miyake said that while [police](the)(Law enforcement in Japan) did complain to the company about the games' releases causing increases in truancies, the decision to change the release dates from Thursdays to Saturdays was on Square Enix's own volition. *[Quest X](Dragon)(Dragon Quest X)* was released on a Thursday, long after the decision had been put in place, further discrediting the claim.
* *[Invaders](Space)(Space Invaders)*' release in 1978 did not cause a shortage of [coin](¥100)(100 yen coin)s in [Japan](Japan). The shortage was actually due to the production of ¥100 coins being unusually low that year and [silver](silver) speculators hoarding or importing these coins *en masse* for their high [mix](silver)(Coinage metals). The game's designer [Nishikado](Tomohiro)(Tomohiro Nishikado) has also repeatedly expressed skepticism over the claim. This claim originated from both an advertising campaign by [Taito](Taito) and an erroneous 1980 article in *[Scientist](New)(New Scientist)*, and has since been repeated in the *[Book of World Records](Guinness)(Guinness Book of World Records)*, *[Guardian](The)(The Guardian)*, and *[Ultimate History of Video Games](The)(The Ultimate History of Video Games)*.
## History
### Ancient
* The [of Egypt](Pyramids)(Egyptian pyramids) were not constructed with [labor](slave)(Slavery in ancient Egypt). Archaeological evidence shows that the laborers were a combination of skilled workers and poor farmers working in the off-season, the latter likely recruited for national service, with the participants paid in high-quality food and tax exemption status.
a.
b.
c.
The idea that slaves were used originated with the writings of [Greek](ancient)(Ancient Greece) historian [Herodotus](Herodotus), and the idea that [Israelite](Israelite) slaves were specifically used arose centuries after the pyramids were constructed.
[[File:Italy-3090 - Caesar Augustus of Prima Porta (5375512570).jpg|thumb|upright|Classical sculptures were originally painted colors.a.
b.
c. Pictured is a reconstruction of how the [of Prima Porta](Augustus)(Augustus of Prima Porta) may have originally been colored.]]
* [Greek](Ancient)(Ancient Greek sculpture) and [sculpture](Roman)(Roman sculpture)s were [painted with colors](originally)(Ancient Greek sculpture#Painting of sculpture); they appear white today only because the original pigments have deteriorated. Some well-preserved statues still bear traces of their original coloration.
* [Tutankhamun](Tutankhamun)'s tomb is not inscribed with a [on those who disturb it](curse)(Curse of the pharaohs). This was a media invention of 20th-century [journalists](tabloid)(tabloid journalism).
a. [Hamilton-Paterson](James)(James Hamilton-Paterson), Carol Andrews, *Mummies: Death and Life in Ancient Egypt*, p. 190, Collins for [Museum Publications](British)(British Museum Publications), 1978,
b. [Booth](Charlotte)(Charlotte Booth), *The Boy Behind the Mask*, p. xvi, Oneword, 2007,
c. Richard Cavendish, "Tutankhamun's Curse?", *History Today* **64**:3 ([3 March 2014](https://www.historytoday.com/archive/months-past/tutankhamuns-curse))
* The ancient Greeks did not use the word "[idiot](Idiot (Athenian democracy))" () to disparage people who did not take part in civic life or who did not vote. An was simply a private citizen as opposed to a government official. Later, the word came to mean any sort of non-expert or layman, then someone uneducated or ignorant, and much later to mean stupid or mentally deficient.
[[File:Jacques-Louis David - Oath of the Horatii - Google Art Project.jpg|thumb|The ancient Romans did not use the Roman salute, as depicted in the painting *[Oath of the Horatii](The)(Oath of the Horatii)* (1784).]]
* The [salute](Roman)(Roman salute), in which the arm is fully extended forwards or diagonally with palm down and fingers touching, was not used in ancient Rome. The gesture was first associated with ancient Rome in the 1784 painting *[Oath of the Horatii](The)(Oath of the Horatii)* by the French artist [David](Jacques-Louis)(Jacques-Louis David), which inspired later salutes, most notably the [salute](Nazi)(Nazi salute). p. 55 ''The raised arm, first stretched out as a symbol of righteous fervor-as the Horatii evince it-and later as a symbol of political allegiance and religious-political unity between a people and its leader, becomes an important part of the iconography of new societies. In addition to its specific contemporary use the gesture comes to express, in a fashion that appears timeless and even mystical, an appeal to a higher being and to a heroic ancient past that had served as a model for most of Western civilization for centuries, although often in ways not supported by historical fact. David's Oath of the Horatii provided the starting point for an arresting gesture that progressed from oath-taking to what will become known as the Roman salute.*
[[File:Amphitheatre-Toulouse 2.JPG|thumb|upright|A *[Vomitorium](Vomitorium)* in a Roman amphitheater in [Toulouse](Toulouse)]]
* [Vomiting](Vomiting) was not a regular part of [dining customs](Roman)(Ancient Roman cuisine#Table culture).
In [Rome](ancient)(ancient Rome), the architectural feature called a *[vomitorium](vomitorium)'' was the entranceway through which crowds entered and exited a stadium, not a special room used for purging food during meals.
* [Caesar](Julius)(Julius Caesar) was not born via [section](caesarean)(caesarean section). Such a procedure would have been fatal to the mother at the time, and Caesar's mother was still alive when Caesar was 45 years old."...could not survive the trauma of a Caesarean" *Oxford Classical Dictionary, Third Edition*, "Childbirth" The name "caesarean" probably comes from the Latin verb *[caedere](wikt:caedere)* 'to cut'.
* The death of the Greek philosopher [of Alexandria](Hypatia)(Hypatia) at the hands of a mob of Christian monks in 415 was mainly a result of her involvement in a bitter political feud between her close friend and student [Orestes](Orestes (prefect)), the Roman prefect of Alexandria, and the bishop [Cyril](Cyril of Alexandria), not her religious views.
a.
b. Her death also had nothing to do with the destruction of the [of Alexandria](Library)(Library of Alexandria), which had likely already ceased to exist centuries before Hypatia was born.
* [Aemilianus](Scipio)(Scipio Aemilianus) did not plow over the city of [Carthage](Carthage) and [it with salt](sow)(Salting the earth) after defeating it in the [Punic War](Third)(Third Punic War). An erroneous article in the 1930 edition of *[Ancient History](Cambridge)(Cambridge Ancient History)* was the source of this claim.
a. : "a tradition in Roman history well known to most students"
b.
c. : "this story... had already gained widespread currency"
d. : "the frequently repeated story"
### Middle Ages
* The Middle Ages were not "a time of [ignorance](ignorance), [barbarism](Barbarian) and [superstition](superstition)"; the [Church](Roman Catholic Church) did not place religious authority over personal experience and rational activity; and the term "[Ages](Dark)(Dark Ages (historiography))" is rejected by modern historians.
a.
b.
c.
d.
* While modern [expectancies](life)(life expectancy) are much higher than those in the Middle Ages and earlier, adults in the Middle Ages did not die in their 30s or 40s on average. That was the life expectancy *at birth*, which was skewed by high infant and adolescent mortality. The life expectancy among adults was much higher; a 21-year-old man in medieval England, for example, could expect to live to the age of 64.
* There is no evidence that [Viking](Viking) warriors wore [on their helmets](horns)(Horned helmet); this would have been impractical in battle.
* Vikings did not [out of the skulls of vanquished enemies](drink)(Vikings#Use of skulls as drinking vessels). This was based on a mistranslation of the [skald](skald)ic poetic use of *ór bjúgviðum hausa* (branches of skulls) to refer to [horn](drinking)(drinking horn)s.
E. W. Gordon, *Introduction to Old Norse* (2nd edition, Oxford 1962) pp. lxix–lxx.
* Vikings did not [Iceland](name)(Names of Iceland) "[Iceland](Iceland)" as a ploy to discourage others from settling it. [Naddodd](Naddodd) and [Vilgerðarson](Hrafna-Flóki)(Hrafna-Flóki Vilgerðarson) both saw snow and ice on the island when they traveled there, giving the island its name.
[Greenland](Greenland), on the other hand, was named in the hope that it would help attract settlers.a.
b. .
c.
* In the tale of [Canute and the tide](King)(King Canute and the tide), the king did not command the tide to reverse in a fit of delusional arrogance.
According to the story, his intent was to prove a point to members of his privy council that no man is all-powerful, and that all people must bend to forces beyond their control, such as the tides.
* [Polo](Marco)(Marco Polo) did not import [pasta](pasta) from China,
article *FAQs* section "Who "invented" pasta?"; "The story that it was Marco Polo who imported noodles to Italy and thereby gave birth to the country's pasta culture is the most pervasive myth in the history of Italian food." (Dickie 2008, p. 48). a misconception that originated with the *Macaroni Journal*, published by an association of food industries to promote the use of pasta in the United States.
S. Serventi, F. Sabban *La pasta. Storia e cultura di un cibo universale*, VII. Economica Laterza 2004. Marco Polo describes a food similar to "lasagna" in his *[Travels](The Travels of Marco Polo)*, but he uses a term with which he was already familiar.
* There is no evidence that [maidens](iron)(Iron maiden (torture)) were used for torture, or even yet invented, in the Middle Ages. Instead they were pieced together in the 18th century from several [artifacts](artifact (archaeology)) found in museums, arsenals and the like to create spectacular objects intended for commercial exhibition.
* [staircase](Spiral)(Spiral staircase)s in castles were not designed in a clockwise direction to hinder right-handed attackers.
While clockwise spiral staircases are more common in castles than anti-clockwise, they were even more common in medieval structures without a military role, such as religious buildings.
* The [armor](plate)(plate armor) of European soldiers did not stop soldiers from moving around or necessitate a crane to get them into a saddle. They would routinely fight on foot and could mount and dismount without help.
However, armor used in tournaments in the late Middle Ages was significantly heavier than that used in warfare,
which may have contributed to this misconception.
* Whether [belt](chastity)(chastity belt)s, devices designed to prevent women from having [intercourse](sexual)(sexual intercourse), were invented in [medieval](medieval) times is disputed by modern historians. Most existing chastity belts are now thought to be deliberate fakes or anti-masturbatory devices from the 19th and early 20th centuries.
[[File:Gossuin de Metz - L'image du monde - BNF Fr. 574 fo42 - miniature.jpg|thumb|upright|Medieval depiction of a [Earth](spherical)(spherical Earth)]]
* [European scholars](Medieval)(Medieval Europe) [not believe the Earth was flat](did)(Myth of the flat Earth). Scholars have known the [is spherical](Earth)(spherical Earth) since at least 500 BCE. This myth was created in the 17th century by Protestants to argue against Catholic teachings.
* Medieval cartographers did not regularly write "[be dragons](here)(here be dragons)" on their maps. The only maps from this era that have the phrase inscribed on them are the [Globe](Hunt-Lenox)(Hunt-Lenox Globe) and the [Egg Globe](Ostrich)(Ostrich Egg Globe), next to a coast in [Asia](Southeast)(Southeast Asia) for both of them. Maps instead were more likely to have "here are lions" inscribed. Maps in this period did occasionally have illustrations of mythical beasts like [dragons](dragons) and [serpents](sea)(sea serpents), as well as exotic animals like [elephant](elephant)s, on them.
a.
b.
c.
d.
* [Columbus](Christopher)(Christopher Columbus)' efforts to obtain support for [voyages](his)(Voyages of Christopher Columbus) were not hampered by belief in a [Earth](flat)(flat Earth), but by valid worries that the [Indies](East)(East Indies) were farther than he realized.
In fact, Columbus grossly underestimated the Earth's circumference because of two calculation errors. The myth that Columbus proved the Earth was round was propagated by authors like [Irving](Washington)(Washington Irving) in *[History of the Life and Voyages of Christopher Columbus](A)(A History of the Life and Voyages of Christopher Columbus)*.
* [Columbus](Christopher)(Christopher Columbus) was not the first European to visit the Americas:
a.
b. [Erikson](Leif)(Leif Erikson), and possibly other [Vikings](Vikings) before him, explored [Vinland](Vinland), which is presumably both [Newfoundland](Newfoundland (island)) and the [of Saint Lawrence](Gulf)(Gulf of Saint Lawrence) as far as northeastern [Brunswick](New)(New Brunswick). Ruins at [aux Meadows](L'Anse)(L'Anse aux Meadows) prove that at least one Norse settlement was built in Newfoundland, confirming a story in the [of Erik the Red](Saga)(Saga of Erik the Red). Further, Columbus never reached mainland North America, only [South America (1498–1500)](mainland)(Voyages of Christopher Columbus#Third voyage (1498–1500)) and various American islands.
* It is unlikely that the [Death](Black)(Black Death) in [Eurasia](Western)(Western Eurasia) and [Africa](North)(North Africa) was caused by rats. Instead, it is more likely it was caused by human parasites such as fleas and lice.
### Early modern
* The [Mexica](Mexica) people of the [Empire](Aztec)(Aztec Empire) did not mistake [Cortés](Hernán)(Hernán Cortés) and his landing party for gods during Cortés' [of the empire](conquest)(Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire). This notion came from Francisco López de Gómara, who never went to Mexico and concocted the myth while working for the retired Cortés in Spain years after the conquest.
Wills, Matthew (January 17, 2020). [The Mexica Didn't Believe the Conquistadors Were Gods](https://daily.jstor.org/the-mexica-didnt-believe-the-conquistadors-were-gods/). *JSTOR*. Retrieved January 19, 2020.
* The [settlers](early)(Pilgrim Fathers) of the [Colony](Plymouth)(Plymouth Colony) in North America usually did not wear all black, and their [capotain](capotain)s (hats) were shorter and rounder than the widely depicted tall hat with a buckle on it. Instead, their fashion was based on that of the late [era](Elizabethan)(Elizabethan era).
The traditional image was formed in the 19th century when buckles were a kind of emblem of [quaintness](wikt:quaint).
a.
b. (The [Puritan](Puritan)s, who also settled in Massachusetts near the same time, *did* frequently wear all black.)
* The familiar story that [Newton](Isaac)(Isaac Newton) was inspired to research the nature of [gravity](gravity) when an [fell on his head](apple)(Isaac Newton#Apple incident) is almost certainly apocryphal. All Newton himself ever said was that the idea came to him as he sat "in a contemplative mood" and "was occasioned by the fall of an apple".
* People accused of [witchcraft](witchcraft) were not [at the stake](burned)(Death by burning) during the [witch trials](Salem)(Salem witch trials). Of the accused, nineteen people convicted of witchcraft were executed by [hanging](hanging), at least five died in prison, and [man](one)(Giles Corey) was [to death by stones](pressed)(Crushing (execution)) while trying to extract a confession from him.
a.
b.
c.
[[File:Marie-Antoinette, 1775 - Musée Antoine Lécuyer.jpg|thumb|upright|alt=Portrait of Marie Antoinette|The phrase "[them eat cake](let)(let them eat cake)" is commonly misattributed to [Antoinette](Marie)(Marie Antoinette).]]
* [Antoinette](Marie)(Marie Antoinette) did not say "[them eat cake](let)(let them eat cake)" when she heard that the French peasantry were starving due to a shortage of bread. The phrase was first published in [Rousseau](Jean-Jacques Rousseau)'s *[Confessions](Confessions (Rousseau))*, written when Marie Antoinette was only nine years old and not attributed to her, just to "a great princess". It was first attributed to her in 1843.
* [Washington](George)(George Washington) did not have [teeth](wooden)(George Washington's teeth). His [dentures](dentures) were made of lead, gold, hippopotamus [ivory](ivory), the teeth of various animals, including horse and donkey teeth,
and human teeth, possibly bought from slaves or poor people.
[[File:Washington Teeth.jpg|thumb|[Washington’s dentures](George)(George Washington's teeth) on display at [Vernon](Mount)(Mount Vernon).]]
* The signing of the [States Declaration of Independence](United)(United States Declaration of Independence) did not occur on July 4, 1776. After the [Continental Congress](Second)(Second Continental Congress) voted to declare independence on July 2, the final language of the document was approved on July 4, and it was printed and distributed on July 4–5.
However, the actual signing occurred on August 2, 1776.
* [Franklin](Benjamin)(Benjamin Franklin) did not propose that the [turkey](wild)(wild turkey#Benjamin Franklin and the myth of U.S. national bird suggestion) be used as the [for the United States](symbol)(Great Seal of the United States) instead of the [eagle](bald)(bald eagle). While he did serve on a commission that tried to design a seal after the [of Independence](Declaration)(United States Declaration of Independence), his proposal was an image of [Moses](Moses). His objections to the eagle as a national symbol and preference for the turkey were stated in a 1784 letter to his daughter in response to the [of the Cincinnati](Society)(Society of the Cincinnati)'s use of the former; he never expressed that sentiment publicly.
a.
b.
* There was never a bill to make [German](German language) the [language of the United States](official)(official language of the United States) that was defeated by one vote in the [of Representatives](House)(United States House of Representatives), nor has one been proposed at the state level. In 1794, a petition from a group of German immigrants was put aside on a procedural vote of 42 to 41, that would have had the government publish some laws in German. This was the basis of the [legend](Muhlenberg)(Muhlenberg legend), named after the [of the House](Speaker)(Speaker of the United States House of Representatives) at the time, [Muhlenberg](Frederick)(Frederick Muhlenberg), who was of German descent and abstained from this vote.
a.
b.
c.
### Modern
[[File:Eastlake - Napoleon on the Bellerophon.jpg|thumb|left|upright|*[on the Bellerophon](Napoleon)(Napoleon on the Bellerophon)* by [Lock Eastlake](Charles)(Charles Lock Eastlake). Napoleon was taller than his nickname, *le Petit Caporal*, suggests.]]
* [Bonaparte](Napoleon)(Napoleon) was not especially short for a [Frenchman](French people) of his time. He was the height of an average French male in 1800, but short for an aristocrat or officer.
a.
b.
c. After his death in 1821, the French emperor's height was recorded as 5 feet 2 inches in [feet](*French*)(Mesures usuelles), which in English measurements is .
a.
b. There are competing explanations for why he was nicknamed *le Petit Caporal* (The Little Corporal), one possibility being that the moniker was used as a [of endearment](term)(term of endearment). Napoleon was often accompanied by his imperial guard, who were selected for their height, and this may have contributed to a perception that he was comparatively short.
* The nose of the [Sphinx of Giza](Great)(Great Sphinx of Giza) was not shot off by Napoleon's troops during the [campaign in Egypt](French)(French campaign in Egypt and Syria) (1798–1801); it has been missing since at least the 10th century.a.
b.
c.
* [de Mayo](Cinco)(Cinco de Mayo) is not [Independence Day](Mexico's)(Grito de Dolores), but the celebration of the Mexican Army's victory over the French in the [of Puebla](Battle)(Battle of Puebla) on May 5, 1862. Mexico's Declaration of Independence from Spain in 1810 is celebrated on September 16.
a.
b.
* [Victorian-era](Victorian era) doctors did not invent the [vibrator](vibrator (sex aid)) to cure female "hysteria" by triggering [orgasm](orgasm).
a.
b. c.
d.
e.
f.
g.
[[File:Albert_Einstein_as_a_child.jpg|thumb|[Einstein](Albert)(Albert Einstein), photographed at 14, did not fail mathematics at school.]]
* [Einstein](Albert)(Albert Einstein) did not fail mathematics classes in school. Einstein remarked, "I never failed in mathematics.... Before I was fifteen I had mastered [differential](differential calculus) and [calculus](integral)(integral calculus)."
a.
b. Einstein did, however, fail his first entrance exam into the [Federal Polytechnic School](Swiss)(ETH Zurich) (ETH) in 1895, when he was two years younger than his fellow students, but scored exceedingly well in the mathematics and science sections, and then passed on his second attempt.
* [Nobel](Alfred)(Alfred Nobel) did not omit [mathematics](mathematics) in the [Prize](Nobel)(Nobel Prize) due to a rivalry with mathematician [Mittag-Leffler](Gösta)(Gösta Mittag-Leffler), as there is little evidence the two ever met, nor was it because Nobel's spouse had an affair with a mathematician, as Nobel was never married. The more likely explanation is that Nobel believed mathematics was too [theoretical](Theory) to benefit humankind, as well as his personal lack of interest in the field.a. b. c. (See also: [Prize controversies](Nobel)(Nobel Prize controversies))
* The [Italian](Kingdom of Italy) dictator [Mussolini](Benito)(Benito Mussolini) did not "make the trains run on time". Much of the repair work had been performed before he and the [Party](Fascist)(National Fascist Party) came to power in 1922. Moreover, the Italian railways' supposed adherence to timetables was more propaganda than reality.
* The 1930 painting *[Gothic](American)(American Gothic)* depicts a father and adult daughter, not a husband and wife as is commonly believed.Fineman, Mia (June 8, 2005). "[The Most Famous Farm Couple in the World: Why American Gothic still fascinates](http://www.slate.com/articles/arts/art/2005/06/the_most_famous_farm_couple_in_the_world.html)". *[Slate](Slate (magazine))*.
* There is no evidence of [cavalry](Polish)(Polish cavalry) mounting a brave but futile charge against German [tank](tank)s using lances and sabers during the German [of Poland](invasion)(invasion of Poland) in 1939. This story may have originated from German propaganda efforts following the [at Krojanty](charge)(charge at Krojanty), in which a Polish cavalry brigade surprised German infantry in the open, and successfully charged and dispersed them, until being driven off by [cars](armored)(armoured car (military)). While Polish cavalry still carried the saber for such opportunities, they were trained to fight as highly mobile, dismounted cavalry ([dragoon](dragoon)s) and issued with light anti-tank weapons.
a.
b.
* During the [of Denmark](occupation)(occupation of Denmark) by the [Nazis](Nazi Germany) during World War II, King [X of Denmark](Christian)(Christian X of Denmark) did not thwart Nazi attempts to identify Jews by wearing a [star](yellow)(yellow badge) himself. Jews in Denmark were never forced to wear the Star of David. The [resistance](Danish)(Danish resistance movement) did [most Jews flee the country](help)(Rescue of the Danish Jews) before the end of the war.a.
b.
c.
* [Trotsky](Leon)(Leon Trotsky) was not killed with an [pick](ice)(ice pick) (a small, [awl](Bradawl)-like tool for chipping ice), but with an [*axe*](ice)(Ice axe) (a larger tool used for [mountaineering](mountaineering)).
* US President [F. Kennedy](John)(John F. Kennedy)'s words "" are [German](standard)(standard German) for "I am a Berliner (citizen of Berlin)."
a.
b. It is not true that by not leaving out the [article](indefinite)(indefinite article) "ein", he changed the meaning of the sentence from the intended "I am a citizen of Berlin" to "I am a [Berliner](Berliner (doughnut))", a Berliner being a type of German pastry, similar to a jelly doughnut, amusing Germans.a.
b. Furthermore, the pastry which [known by many names](is)(Berliner (doughnut)#Names) in Germany was not then nor is it now commonly called "Berliner" in the Berlin area.
* Although popularly known as the "red telephone", the [hotline](Moscow–Washington)(Moscow–Washington hotline) was never a telephone line, nor were red phones used. The first implementation of the hotline used [teletype](Teleprinter) equipment, which was replaced by [facsimile](Fax) (fax) machines in 1988. Since 2008, the hotline has been a secure computer link over which the two countries exchange [email](email).Paul E. Richardson, "The hot line (is a Hollywood myth)", in: *Russian Life*, September/October issue 2009, pp. 50–59. Moreover, the hotline links the [Kremlin](Moscow Kremlin) to the [Pentagon](The Pentagon), not the [House](White)(White House).
* The Irish Northern Aid Committee, better known as [NORAID](NORAID), based in the United States was routinely accused of being majorly responsible for the [financing](terrorism)(terrorism financing) of the [Irish Republican Army](Provisional)(Provisional Irish Republican Army) (IRA) in Northern Ireland and England during [Troubles](the)(the Troubles) (1969–1998). However, there is little to no evidence to support this, and much of the IRA's funding actually came from criminal and semi-legitimate activities in the Republic of Ireland and Northern Ireland throughout the conflict (see [finances in the Troubles](Paramilitary)(Paramilitary finances in the Troubles) for more info).
* Not all [skinhead](skinhead)s are [supremacists](white)(White power skinhead); many skinheads identify as left-wing or apolitical, and many oppose racism, such as the [Against Racial Prejudice](Skinheads)(Skinheads Against Racial Prejudice).
a.
b.
c.
The subculture originated from the 1950s British working class, whose members were influenced by both black and Jamaican music and subcultures, particularly the Jamaican [boy](rude)(rude boy) and [mods](Mod (subculture)) subcultures. As a result, many initial skinheads were either [black](Black British people) or [Indian](West)(British African-Caribbean people). The association between skinheads and white supremacy came about in the 1970s and 1980s as a result of far-right groups like the [Front](National)(National Front (UK)) and the [Movement](British)(British Movement) recruiting from the subculture to obtain grassroots support, some [bands](punk)(Punk rock) within the movement adopting Nazi imagery for shock value, and an incident in July 1981 when skinheads attending a concert in a predominantly [Asian](South)(British Asians) neighborhood in London rioted and attacked several Asian-owned stores.
* [Russia](Russia) does not explicitly have an independence day, nor is there a date that officially commemorates such an occasion. There have been many states that predate the current Russian Federation, and the public holiday of [Day](Russia)(Russia Day) only celebrates [establishment of present-day Russia](the)(Declaration of State Sovereignty of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic), which occurred on June 12, 1990. Both Russians and foreigners commonly refer to Russia Day as "Russia's Independence Day" since it reflects the break from the [Union](Soviet)(Soviet Union) that held dominion over Russia from 1922 to 1991.
a.
b.
#### United States
[[File:Emancipation Proclamation.PNG|thumb|300px|Areas covered by the [Proclamation](Emancipation)(Emancipation Proclamation) are in red, slave-holding areas not covered are in blue. [Thirteenth Amendment](The)(Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution) was the article that [abolished](Abolitionism) legal slavery in the United States nationwide, not the Emancipation Proclamation.]]
* The [Proclamation](Emancipation)(Emancipation Proclamation) did not free all [slaves](Slavery) in the United States, nor did it make slavery illegal in the United States; the Proclamation applied in the ten states that were still in [rebellion](American Civil War) in 1863, and thus did not cover the nearly 500,000 slaves in the slave-holding [states](border)(Border states (American Civil War)) ([Missouri](Missouri), [Kentucky](Kentucky), [Maryland](Maryland) or [Delaware](Delaware)) that had not [seceded](Secession). Various exemptions in the Proclamation for [Tennessee](Tennessee), [Virginia](Virginia), and [Louisiana](Louisiana) left an additional 300,000 slaves unemancipated. Such slaves were freed later by separate state and federal actions.Harrison (2001), *Lawfulness of the Reconstruction Amendments*, p. 390. (See also: [of slavery timeline](Abolition)(Abolition of slavery timeline))
* Likewise, June 19 or "[Juneteenth](Juneteenth)" is the anniversary of [announcement that the Union army would be enforcing the Emancipation Proclamation on June 19, 1865](the)(General Order No. 3), freeing slaves *in [Texas](Texas)*, not the United States at large. [Thirteenth Amendment](The)(Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution), ratified and proclaimed in December 1865, was the article that made slavery illegal in the United States nationwide.
* [Lincoln](Abraham)(Abraham Lincoln) did not write his [Address](Gettysburg)(Gettysburg Address) speech on the back of an envelope on his train ride to [Gettysburg](Gettysburg, Pennsylvania). The speech was substantially complete before Lincoln left Washington for Gettysburg.
* The [Purchase](Alaska)(Alaska Purchase) was generally viewed as positive or neutral in the United States, both among the public and the press. The opponents of the purchase who characterized it as "Seward's Folly", alluding to [H. Seward](William)(William H. Seward), the Secretary of State who negotiated it, represented a minority opinion at the time.
a.
b.
c. Howard I. Kushner, Seward's Folly'?: American Commerce in Russian America and the Alaska Purchase". *California Historical Quarterly* (1975): 4–26. .
d.
e.
* [hat](Cowboy)(Cowboy hat)s were not initially popular in the [American frontier](Western)(American frontier), with [or bowler hats](derby)(bowler hat) being the typical headgear of choice.
Heavy marketing of the [Stetson](John B. Stetson Company) "[of the Plains](Boss)(Boss of the Plains)" model in the years following the [Civil War](American)(American Civil War) was the primary driving force behind the cowboy hat's popularity, with its characteristic dented top not becoming standard until near the end of the 19th century.
Snyder, Jeffrey B. (1997) *Stetson Hats and the John B. Stetson Company 1865–1970*. p. 50
* The [Chicago Fire](Great)(Great Chicago Fire) of 1871 was not caused by [O'Leary](Mrs.)(Catherine O'Leary)'s cow kicking over a lantern. A newspaper reporter later admitted to having invented the story to make colorful [copy](Copy (written)).
* There is no evidence that [Remington](Frederic)(Frederic Remington), on assignment to [Cuba](Cuba) in 1897, telegraphed [Randolph Hearst](William)(William Randolph Hearst), "There will be no [war](Spanish–American War). I wish to return," and that Hearst responded, "Please remain. You furnish the pictures, and I'll furnish the war". The anecdote was originally included in a book by [Creelman](James)(James Creelman), and probably never happened.
a.
b.
* The electrocution of [the Elephant](Topsy)(Topsy the Elephant) was not an anti-[current](alternating)(alternating current) demonstration organized by [A. Edison](Thomas)(Thomas A. Edison) during the [of the currents](war)(war of the currents). Edison was never at [Park](Luna)(Luna Park), and the electrocution of Topsy took place ten years after the war of currents. This myth may stem from the fact that [recording of the event](the)(Electrocuting an Elephant) was produced by the [film company](Edison)(Edison Studios).
* Immigrants' last names were not Americanized (voluntarily, mistakenly, or otherwise) upon arrival at [Island](Ellis)(Ellis Island). Officials there kept no records other than checking ship manifests created at the point of origin, and there was simply no paperwork that would have let them recast surnames, let alone any law. At the time in New York, anyone could change the spelling of their name simply by using that new spelling. These names are often referred to as an "[Island Special](Ellis)(Ellis Island Special)".
* [Prohibition](Prohibition in the United States) did not make drinking alcohol illegal in the United States. The [Amendment](Eighteenth)(Eighteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution) and the subsequent [Act](Volstead)(Volstead Act) prohibited the production, sale, and transport of "intoxicating liquors" within the United States, but their possession and consumption were never outlawed. Definition, History, Eighteenth Amendment, & Repeal|url=https://www.britannica.com/event/Prohibition-United-States-history-1920-1933|access-date=2022-10-24|website=[britannica.com](britannica.com)|language=en}}
* Distraught stockbrokers did not [to their deaths](jump)(Suicide by jumping from height) after the [Street Crash of 1929](Wall)(Wall Street Crash of 1929). The source of this myth seems to be [Churchill](Winston)(Winston Churchill)'s account of a man jumping off the [Hotel](Savoy-Plaza)(Savoy-Plaza Hotel), just one floor below where Churchill was staying. In fact, he was a German tourist, and his fall was reported as accidental.
* There was no widespread outbreak of panic across the United States in response to [Welles](Orson)(Orson Welles)' 1938 [adaptation](radio)(The War of the Worlds (radio drama)) of [Wells](H.G.)(H.G. Wells)' *[War of the Worlds](The)(The War of the Worlds (novel))*. Only a very small share of the radio audience was listening to it, but newspapers played up isolated reports of incidents and increased emergency calls being [to discredit radio as a competitor for advertising](eager)(The Press-Radio War). Both Welles and CBS, which had initially reacted apologetically, later came to realize that the myth benefited them and actively embraced it in later years.
a.
b.
* American pilot [Arnold](Kenneth)(Kenneth Arnold) did not use the term *[saucer](flying)(flying saucer)* when describing a [UFO sighting](1947)(Kenneth Arnold UFO sighting) at [Rainier](Mount)(Mount Rainier), [Washington](Washington (state)). Kenneth frequently maintained he was misquoted, and *[East Oregonian](The)(The East Oregonian)*, the first newspaper to report on the incident, merely quoted him as saying the objects "flew like a saucer" and were "flat like a pie pan". The attribution may have come from a reporter at the [Press International](United)(United Press International) misinterpreting his descriptions, with newspapers and news agencies like the [Press](Associated)(Associated Press) subsequently using "flying saucers" in sensationalist headlines.
* U.S. Senator [Smathers](George)(George Smathers) never gave a speech to a rural audience describing his opponent, [Pepper](Claude)(Claude Pepper), as an "[extrovert](wikt:extrovert)" whose sister was a "[thespian](wikt:thespian)", in the apparent hope they would confuse them with similar-sounding words like "pervert" and "lesbian". Smathers offered US$10,000 to anyone who could prove he had made the speech; it was never claimed.
a.
b.
* [Parks](Rosa)(Rosa Parks) was not sitting in the front ("white") section of the bus during the event that made her famous and incited the [bus boycott](Montgomery)(Montgomery bus boycott). Rather, she was sitting in the front of the back ("colored") section of the bus, where African Americans were expected to sit, and rejected an order from the driver to vacate her seat in favor of a white passenger when the "white" section of the bus had become full.
* The [African-American](African-American) intellectual and activist [E. B. Du Bois](W.)(W. E. B. Du Bois) did not renounce his U.S. citizenship while living in [Ghana](Ghana) shortly before [death](his)(W.E.B. Du Bois#Death in Africa).
a.
b.
c. In early 1963, his membership in the [Party](Communist)(Communist Party of the United States) and support for the Soviet Union led the [State Department](U.S.)(U.S. State Department) not to renew his [passport](United States passport) while he was already in Ghana. After leaving the embassy, he stated his intention to renounce his citizenship in protest, but while he took Ghanaian citizenship, he never actually renounced his American citizenship.
* When [Genovese was murdered](Kitty)(Murder of Kitty Genovese) outside her apartment in 1964, there were not 37 neighbors standing idly by and watching who failed to call the police until after she was dead, as was initially reported to widespread public outrage that persisted for years and even [the basis of a theory in social psychology](became)(Bystander effect). In fact, witnesses only heard brief portions of the attack and did not realize what was occurring, and only six or seven actually saw anything. One witness who called the police said, "I didn't want to get involved", an attitude later attributed to all the neighbors.
* While it was praised by one architectural magazine before it was built as "the best high apartment of the year", the [Pruitt–Igoe](Pruitt–Igoe) [project](housing)(housing project) in [Louis, Missouri](St.)(St. Louis, Missouri), considered to epitomize the failures of [renewal](urban)(urban renewal) in American cities after it was demolished in the early 1970s, never won any awards for its design. The architectural firm that designed the buildings did win an award for an earlier St. Louis project, which may have been confused with Pruitt–Igoe.
* There is little contemporary documentary evidence for the notion that US Vietnam veterans were [upon by anti-war protesters](spat)(The Spitting Image) upon return to the United States. This belief was detailed in some biographical accounts and was later popularized by films such as *[Rambo](Rambo (franchise))*.Jerry Lembcke, *The Spitting Image: Myth, Memory and the Legacy of Vietnam*, 1998,
* Women [not burn their bras](did)(Miss America protest) outside the Miss America contest in 1969 as a protest in support of [liberation](women's)(women's liberation). They did symbolically throw bras in a trash can, along with other articles seen as emblematic of women's position in American society such as mops, make-up, and high-heeled shoes. The myth of bra burning came when a journalist hypothetically suggested that women may do so in the future, as men of the era burned their draft cards.
* Despite being the origin of the phrase "[the Kool-Aid](drinking)(drinking the Kool-Aid)", [Kool-Aid](Kool-Aid) was not used for the [cyanide](potassium)(potassium cyanide)-fruit punch mix ingested as part of the [massacre](Jonestown)(Jonestown massacre). A similar product, [Flavor-Aid](Flavor-Aid), was used instead.
## Science, technology, and mathematics
### Astronomy and spaceflight
* There is [scientific evidence that the motion of stars, planets, and other celestial bodies influences the fates of humans](no)(Astrology and science), and [astrology](astrology) has repeatedly been shown to have no [power](explanatory)(explanatory power) in predicting future events.
* Astronauts in orbit are [weightless](weightlessness) because they are in [fall](free)(free fall), not because they are so far away from the Earth that its gravitational pull is negligible. For example, on the [Space Station](International)(International Space Station) the [gravity](Earth's)(Gravity of Earth) is nearly 90% as strong as at the surface. Objects [in space](orbiting)(orbit) would not remain in orbit if not for the gravitational force, and [field](gravitational)(gravitational field)s extend even into the depths of [space](intergalactic)(intergalactic space).["The G's in the Machine"](https://science.nasa.gov/science-news/science-at-nasa/2003/24jan_micro-g/), NASA, see "Editor's note #2"
[[File:Back side of the Moon AS16-3021.jpg|thumb|right|The [side of the Moon](dark)(Far side of the Moon), photographed by [16](Apollo)(Apollo 16) in 1972, clearly illuminated by the Sun. It is much more [crater-ridden](Impact crater) than the [side of the Moon](near)(near side of the Moon).]]
* The [side of the Moon"]("dark)(Far side of the Moon) receives about the same amount of light from the [Sun](Sun) as does the [side of the Moon](near)(near side of the Moon). Describing the far side of the moon as "dark" does not mean that it never receives light, but rather that it had never been seen until humans [spacecraft](sent)(Luna 3) around the Moon, since the same side of the Moon always faces the Earth due to [locking](tidal)(tidal locking).
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
* [hole](Black)(Black hole)s have the same gravitational effects as any other equal mass in their place. They will draw objects nearby towards them, just as any other celestial body does, except at very close distances to the black hole; comparable to its [radius](Schwarzschild)(Schwarzschild radius).
If, for example, the Sun were replaced by a black hole of equal mass, the orbits of the planets would be essentially unaffected. A black hole *can* pull in a substantial inflow of surrounding matter, but only if the star from which it formed was already doing so.
[[File:Earth seasons seen as terminator motion.gif|thumb|The Earth's [equator](equator) does not line up with the [of the Earth's orbit](plane)(Orbital plane (astronomy)), meaning that for half of the year the [Hemisphere](Northern)(Northern Hemisphere) is tilted more towards the [Sun](Sun) and for the other half of the year the Northern Hemisphere is tilted more away from the Sun. This is the dominant cause of seasonal temperature variation, not the [of the Earth from the Sun in its orbit](distance)(Orbital eccentricity#Examples).]]
* [Season](Season)s are not caused by the [Earth](Earth) being [to the Sun in the summer than in the winter](closer)(Orbital eccentricity), but by the [of Earth's 23.4-degree axial tilt](effects)(Effect of Sun angle on climate). Each [hemisphere](Hemispheres of Earth) is [tilted](axial tilt) towards the Sun in its respective summer (July in the [Hemisphere](Northern)(Northern Hemisphere) and January in the [Hemisphere](Southern)(Southern Hemisphere)), resulting in longer days and more direct sunlight, with the opposite being true in the winter. Earth reaches [point in its orbit closest to the Sun](the)(Perihelion) in January, and it reaches [point farthest from the Sun](the)(Apsis) in July, so the [contribution of orbital eccentricity](slight)(Season#Elliptical Earth orbit) opposes the temperature trends of the seasons in the Northern Hemisphere. Orbital eccentricity can influence temperatures, but on Earth, this effect is small and is more than counteracted by other factors.
* When a meteor or spacecraft enters the atmosphere, [heat of entry](the)(Atmospheric entry#Real (equilibrium) gas model) is not primarily caused by friction, but by [compression of air](adiabatic)(Adiabatic heating) in front of the object.
* [balancing](Egg)(Egg balancing) is possible on every day of the year, not just the [equinox](vernal)(March equinox),
and there is no relationship between any astronomical phenomenon and the ability to balance an egg.
* The [Space Pen](Fisher)(Fisher Space Pen) was not commissioned by [NASA](NASA) at a cost of millions of dollars, while the Soviets used pencils. It was independently developed by Paul C. Fisher, founder of the Fisher Pen Company, with $1 million of his own funds.
["Fisher Space Pen – Our story"](https://www.spacepen.com/about-us.aspx) Retrieved on February 4, 2019 NASA tested and approved the pen for space use, then purchased 400 pens at $6 per pen.
["NASA – The Fisher Space Pen"](https://history.nasa.gov/spacepen.html) Retrieved on February 4, 2019 The Soviet Union subsequently also purchased the Space Pen for its [Soyuz](Soyuz (spacecraft)) spaceflights.
* [Tang](Tang (drink)), [Velcro](Velcro), and [Teflon](Teflon) were not [off from technology originally developed by NASA](spun)(NASA spinoff technologies) for spaceflight, though many other products (such as [foam](memory)(memory foam) and [blanket](space)(space blanket)s) were.
* The [Sun](Sun) is actually white rather than yellow. It is atmospheric scattering that causes the Sun to look yellow, orange, or red at sunrise and sunset.
[[File:Great Wall of China, Satellite image.jpeg|thumb|right|A satellite image of a section of the [Wall of China](Great)(Great Wall of China), running diagonally from lower left to upper right (not to be confused with the much more prominent river running from upper left to lower right). The region pictured is .]]
* The [Wall of China](Great)(Great Wall of China) is not, as is claimed, the only [object visible from space](human-made)(Artificial structures visible from space) or from the Moon. None of the [astronauts](Apollo)(List of Apollo astronauts) reported seeing *any* specific human-made object from the Moon, and even Earth-orbiting astronauts can see it only with magnification. City lights, however, are easily visible on the night side of Earth from orbit.
* The [Bang](Big)(Big Bang) model does not fully explain the [of the universe](origin)(origin of the universe). It does not describe how energy, time, and space were caused, but rather it describes the emergence of the present universe from an ultra-dense and high-temperature initial state. Archival site: "The Universe Forum's role as part of NASA's Education Support Network concluded in September, 2009."
### Biology
* [[File:Phylogenetic Tree of Prokaryota.png|thumb|Phylogenetic tree of the [Prokaryota](Prokaryota) showing some of the high-order divisions of life]] Biologists currently recognize more than twenty [of life](kingdoms)(Kingdom (biology)). Although it has traditionally been taught that there are three, four, five, six, or eight kingdoms of life, modern [molecular](Molecular biology) evidence shows that there are [large number of high-level divisions](a)(Three-domain system) in the [of life](tree)(Tree of life (biology)), and that kingdoms like [plant](plant)s and [animal](animal)s are not among [highest biological ranks](the)(Domain (biology)). Some taxonomists have moved away from using kingdoms altogether, since some traditional kingdoms are no longer seen as [groups](natural)(Clade).
#### Vertebrates
* Old [elephant](elephant)s near death do not leave their herd to go to an "[graveyard](elephants')(elephants' graveyard)" to die.
[[- Cristina Sánchez.jpg|thumb|The color of a red cape does not enrage a bull.](File:10)]
* Bulls are not enraged by the color red, used in capes by professional [matador](matador)s. Cattle are [dichromats](Dichromacy), so red does not stand out as a bright color. It is not the color of the cape, but the perceived threat by the matador that incites it to charge.
a.
b.
c.
* [Lemming](Lemming)s do not engage in mass suicidal dives off cliffs when migrating. The scenes of lemming suicides in the 1958 [Disney](Disney) documentary film *[Wilderness](White)(White Wilderness (film))*, which popularized this idea, were completely fabricated.
The misconception itself is much older, dating back to at least the late 19th century, though its exact origins are uncertain.
* Dogs do not sweat by [salivating](salivation).
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
g.
h. Dogs actually do have [gland](sweat)(sweat gland)s and not only on their tongues; they sweat mainly through their footpads. However, dogs do primarily regulate their body temperature through [panting](thermoregulation).
(See also: [[anatomy#Temperature regulation|Dog §Temperature}} regulation](Dog)])
* Dogs do not consistently age seven times as quickly as humans. [in dogs](Aging)(Aging in dogs) varies widely depending on the breed; certain breeds, such as [dog breeds](giant)(giant dog breeds) and [bulldog](English)(English bulldog)s, have much shorter lifespans than average. Most dogs age consistently across all breeds in the first year of life, reaching adolescence by one year old; smaller and medium-sized breeds begin to age more slowly in adulthood.
a. Spadafori, Gina (1996). *Dogs for Dummies*. IDG Books.
b. Siegal, Mordecai (Ed.; 1995). *UC Davis School of Veterinary Medicine Book of the Dogs*; Chapter 5, "Geriatrics", by Aldrich, Janet. Harper Collins. .
c.
* The [of the Moon](phases)(Lunar phase) have no effect on the [of wolves](vocalizations)(Wolf communication), and [wolves](Wolf) do not howl at the [moon](moon).}}, p. 59 Wolves howl to assemble the pack usually before and after hunts, to pass on an alarm particularly at a den site, to locate each other during a storm, while crossing unfamiliar territory, and to communicate across great distances.}}, p. 38
* There is no such thing as an "[alpha](alpha (ethology))" in a [wolf](wolf) pack. An early study that coined the term "alpha wolf" had only observed unrelated adult wolves living in captivity. In the wild, wolf packs operate like families: parents are in charge until the young grow up and start their own families, and younger wolves do not overthrow an "alpha" to become the new leader.
* [Bat](Bat)s are not blind. While about 70% of bat species, mainly in the [microbat](microbat) family, use [echolocation](animal echolocation) to navigate, all bat species have eyes and are capable of sight. In addition, almost all bats in the [or fruit bat family](megabat)(megabat) cannot echolocate and have excellent night vision.a.
b.
* Contrary to the [apologue](apologue) about the [frog](boiling)(boiling frog), [frog](frog)s die immediately when cast into boiling water, rather than leaping out; furthermore, frogs will attempt to escape cold water that is slowly heated past their [thermal maximum](critical)(critical thermal maximum).
* The [span](memory)(memory span) of [goldfish](goldfish) is much longer than just a few seconds. It is up to a few months long.
. [season, Episode 12](2004)(MythBusters (2004 season)#Episode 12 – "Sinking Titanic, Goldfish Memory, Trombone Explosion"). *[MythBusters](MythBusters)*. Discovery.com. February 22, 2004.
* [Shark](Shark)s can get [cancer](cancer). The misconception that sharks do not get cancer was spread by the 1992 book ''[Don't Get Cancer](Sharks)(Sharks Don't Get Cancer)'', which was used to sell extracts of shark [cartilage](cartilage) as cancer prevention treatments. Reports of [carcinoma](carcinoma)s in sharks exist, and current data do not support any conclusions about the incidence of tumors in sharks.
* [white shark](Great)(Great white shark)s do not mistake human [divers](underwater diving) for seals, nor other [pinniped](pinniped)s. When attacking pinnipeds, the shark surfaces quickly and attacks violently. In contrast, attacks on humans are slower and less violent: the shark charges at a normal pace, bites, and swims off. Great white sharks have efficient eyesight and [vision](color)(color vision); the bite is not predatory, but rather for identification of an unfamiliar object.
* [jaws](Snake)(Snake skeleton#Joints of the snake skull) cannot unhinge. The posterior end of the lower jaw bones contains a quadrate bone, allowing jaw extension. The anterior tips of the lower jaw bones are joined by a flexible ligament allowing them to bow outwards, increasing the mouth gape.
* [juice](Tomato)(Tomato juice) and [sauce](tomato)(tomato sauce) are ineffective at neutralizing the odor of a [skunk](skunk); it only appears to work due to [fatigue](olfactory)(olfactory fatigue).
[Is it true that tomato sauce will get rid of the smell of a skunk?](http://scienceline.org/2006/07/ask-cosier-skunk/). Scienceline. Retrieved on April 5, 2012. For dogs that get sprayed, [Humane Society of the United States](The)(The Humane Society of the United States) recommends using a mixture of dilute hydrogen peroxide (3%), baking soda, and dishwashing liquid.
* [Porcupine](Porcupine)s do not shoot their [quills](spine (zoology)). They can detach, and porcupines will deliberately back into attackers to impale them, but their quills do not project.
* [Mice](Mouse) do not have a special appetite for [cheese](cheese), and will eat it only for lack of better options; they actually favor sweet, sugary foods. The myth may have come from the fact that before refrigeration, cheese was usually stored outside and was therefore an easy food for mice to reach.
* There is no credible evidence that the [candiru](Candiru (fish)), a South American parasitic catfish, can swim up a human [urethra](urethra) if one urinates in the water in which it lives. The sole documented case of such an incident, written in 1997, has been heavily criticized upon peer review, and this phenomenon is now largely considered a myth.
* [Pacu](Pacu)s, South American fish related to [piranha](piranha)s, do not attack or feed on human [testicle](testicle)s. This myth originated from a misinterpreted joke in a 2013 report of a pacu being found in [Øresund](Øresund), the strait between [Sweden](Sweden) and [Denmark](Denmark), which claimed that the fish ate "[nuts](Nut (fruit))".
* [Piranha](Piranha)s do not eat only meat but are [omnivorous](Omnivore), and they only swim in schools to defend themselves from predators and not to attack. They very rarely attack humans, only when under stress and feeling threatened, and even then, bites typically only occur on hands and feet.
* The [hippopotamus](hippopotamus) does not produce pink milk. [acid](Hipposudoric)(Hipposudoric acid), a red pigment found in hippo skin secretions, does not affect the color of their milk, which is white or beige.
a. {{cite web|title=FACT CHECK: Is Hippopotamus Milk Pink?|url=https://www.snopes.com/fact-check/false-hippopotamus-milk-pink/|date=January 6, 2016|website=[Snopes](Snopes)|language=en-US}|access-date=February 16, 2022}}
b.
c.
* The [tree frog](Pacific)(Pacific tree frog) is the only [frog](frog) species that makes a "ribbit" sound. The misconception that all frogs, or at least all those found in North America, make this sound comes from its extensive use in Hollywood films.
* A human touching or handling eggs or baby birds will not cause the adult birds to abandon them. The same is generally true for other animals having their young touched by humans as well, with the possible exception of rabbits (as rabbits will sometimes abandon their nest after an event they perceive as traumatizing).
* [Rice](Rice) does not cause birds to die by inflating their stomachs until they burst. Birds do eat wild rice, though some species avoid it. This common misconception has often led to weddings using millet, confetti, or other materials to shower the newlyweds as they leave the ceremony, instead of the [of rice](throwing)(Wedding customs by country) that is traditional in some places.
* The bold, powerful cry commonly associated with the [eagle](bald)(bald eagle) in popular culture is actually that of a [hawk](red-tailed)(red-tailed hawk). Bald eagle vocalizations are much softer and chirpier, and bear far more resemblance to the calls of [gull](gull)s.Jessica Robinson, "[Bald Eagle: A Mighty Symbol, With A Not-So-Mighty Voice](https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=156187375)"; [NPR](NPR), July 2, 2012; accessed 2019.08.23.
* [Ostrich](Ostrich)es do not stick their heads in the sand to hide from enemies or to sleep.
This misconception's origins are uncertain but it was probably popularized by [the Elder](Pliny)(Pliny the Elder) (23–79 CE), who wrote that ostriches "imagine, when they have thrust their head and neck into a bush, that the whole of their body is concealed".
* A duck's quack actually does [echo](Duck's quack),
[1, Episode 8)]((Season)(MythBusters (2003 season)#Does a Duck's Quack Echo?). *[MythBusters](MythBusters)*. Discovery Channel. December 12, 2003. although the echo may be difficult to hear for humans under some circumstances.
Despite this, a British panel show compiling interesting facts has been given the name ''[Quacks Don't Echo](Duck)(Duck Quacks Don't Echo)''.
* 60 common [starling](starling)s were released in 1890 into New York's [Park](Central)(Central Park) by [Schieffelin](Eugene)(Eugene Schieffelin), but there is no evidence that he was trying to introduce every bird species mentioned in the works of [Shakespeare](William)(William Shakespeare) into North America. This claim has been traced to an essay in 1948 by naturalist [Way Teale](Edwin)(Edwin Way Teale), whose notes appear to indicate that it was speculation.
* The skin of a [chameleon](chameleon) is not adapted solely for [camouflage](camouflage) purposes, nor can a chameleon change its skin colour to match any background.
[Magazine](Wired)(Wired Magazine). April 11, 2014.
#### Invertebrates
* Not all [earthworm](earthworm)s become two worms when cut in half. Only a limited number of earthworm species
are capable of anterior [regeneration](Earthworm#Regeneration).
* [Houseflies](Housefly) have an average lifespan of 20 to 30 *days*, not 24 *hours*.
The misconception may arise from confusion with [mayflies](mayfly), which, in [species](some)(Dolania americana), have an adult lifespan of as little as 5 minutes.
* The daddy longlegs spider (*[Pholcidae](Pholcidae)*) is not the most [venom](venom)ous spider in the world; their fangs are capable of piercing human skin, but the tiny amount of venom they carry causes only a mild burning sensation for a few seconds.
. [Season, Episode 13)]((2004)(MythBusters (2004 season)#Episode 13 – "Buried in Concrete, Daddy Long-legs, Jet Taxi"). *[MythBusters](MythBusters)*. Discovery Channel. February 25, 2004. Other species such as [harvestmen](harvestmen), [flies](crane)(Crane fly), and male [mosquito](mosquito)es are also called *daddy longlegs* in some regional dialects, and can share the misconception of being highly venomous but unable to pierce the skin of humans.
* People do not swallow large numbers of [spiders](Cultural depictions of spiders) during sleep. A sleeping person makes noises that warn spiders of danger.
[[File:Mantis Tenodera aridifolia01.jpg|thumb|A female [mantis](Chinese)(Tenodera aridifolia) simultaneously [with and cannibalizing](copulating)(Sexual cannibalism) her mate; this does not occur every time mantises mate.]]
* Female [mantis](praying)(mantis)es do not always [the males during mating](eat)(Sexual cannibalism).
[[File:AD2009Aug08 Bombus pratorum.jpg|thumb|*[pratorum](Bombus)(Bombus pratorum)* over an *[Echinacea](Echinacea)* inflorescence; a widespread misconception holds that [should be incapable of flight](bumblebees)(Bumblebees can't fly).]]
* It is not true that [theory](aerodynamic)(Aerodynamics) predicts [bumblebees should not be able to fly](that)(Bumblebees can't fly); the physics of insect flight is quite well understood. The misconception appears to come from a calculation based on a fixed-wing aircraft mentioned in a 1934 book.
a. . *naturenet.net*. The Ranger's Blog.
b.
c.
* [Earwig](Earwig)s are not known to purposely climb into external ear canals, though there have been anecdotal reports of earwigs being found in the ear.
The name may be a reference to the appearance of the hindwings, which are unique and distinctive among insects, and resemble a human ear when unfolded.
* While certainly critical to the [pollination](pollination) of many plant species, [honey bees](European)(Western honey bee#Claims of human dependency) are not essential to human food production, despite claims that [their pollination](without)(colony collapse disorder), humanity would starve or die out "within four years".
a.
b. [A Devastating Look At Our World If Honeybees Disappeared](https://www.businessinsider.com.au/the-world-without-honeybees-2013-6#if-bees-dies-beekeepers-who-make-their-living-by-managing-bee-colonies-will-go-out-of-business-1): "A world without honeybees would also mean a world without fruits, vegetables, nuts, and seeds."
c. [What Would Happen if All the Bees Went Extinct?](https://tonic.vice.com/en_us/article/d7ezaq/what-would-happen-if-all-the-bees-died-tomorrow); "First, the easy part: "I've never seen anything definitively link the quote to Einstein," says Mark Dykes, the chief inspector for Texas Apiary Inspection Service. Quote checkers like this one, and this one agree. But debunking its message? That's more complicated."
d. [Would a World Without Bees Be a World Without Us?](https://www.nrdc.org/onearth/would-world-without-bees-be-world-without-us)
In fact, many important crops need no insect pollination at all. The ten most important crops, accounting for 60% of all human food energy, all fall into this category.
* [Tick](Tick)s do not jump or fall from trees onto their hosts. Instead, they lie in wait to grasp and climb onto any passing host or otherwise trace down hosts via, for example, [olfactory](olfactory) stimuli, the host's body heat, or [dioxide](carbon)(carbon dioxide) in the host's breath.
* Though they are often called "white ants", [termites](termites) are not [ants](ants), nor are they closely related to ants. Termites are actually [derived](highly)(Apomorphy and synapomorphy) [eusocial](Eusociality) [cockroach](cockroach)es.
* While [cockroach](cockroach)es have a much higher [radiation](radiation) resistance than [vertebrate](vertebrate)s, they are not immune to [poisoning](radiation)(Acute radiation syndrome), nor are they exceptionally radiation-resistant compared to other insects. Cockroaches [not be the only organisms capable of surviving](would)(Chernobyl Exclusion Zone#Radioactive contamination) in [environment contaminated](an)(Nuclear fallout effects on an ecosystem) with [fallout](nuclear)(nuclear fallout). Since not all cockroaches [molt](molt) at the same time, during which their dividing cells would be most vulnerable to radiation effects, many would be unaffected by an [burst of radiation](acute)(Nuclear weapon), although [lingering](Nuclear fallout) and more acute radiation would still be harmful. Cockroaches are not capable of surviving a direct [blast](nuclear)(Nuclear explosion).
* Applying urine to jellyfish stings does not relieve pain.One of the possible reasons that this myth became popular could be due to the fact that urine contains compounds like ammonia and urea. If used alone, these substances may be helpful for some stings. But your pee contains a lot of water. And all that water dilutes the ammonia and urea too much to be effective.What’s more, the sodium in your urine, together with the velocity of the urine stream could move the stingers around in the injury. This could trigger the stingers to release even more venom.}} A centuries-old [wives' tale](old)(old wives' tale), the idea may have been popularized by [episode](an)(The One with the Jellyfish) of *[Friends](Friends)*.
#### Plants
* [plant](Carnivorous)(Carnivorous plant)s do survive without food. Catching insects, however, supports their growth. Encyclopedia.com|url=https://www.encyclopedia.com/plants-and-animals/plants/plants/carnivorous-plants#:~:text=Carnivorous%20plants%20catch%20mostly%20insects,referred%20to%20as%20insectivorous%20plants.&text=However,%20only%20true%20carnivorous%20plants,can%20survive%20without%20catching%20prey.|access-date=May 25, 2021|website=www.encyclopedia.com}}
* [Poinsettias](Euphorbia pulcherrima#Toxicity claims) are not highly [toxic](Toxicity) to humans or cats. While it is true that they are mildly irritating to the skin or stomach, and may sometimes cause [diarrhea](diarrhea) and vomiting if eaten, they rarely cause serious medical problems.
a.
b.
c.
[[File:Helianthus annuus sunflower.jpg|thumbnail|[Sunflower](Sunflower)s with the [Sun](Sun) clearly visible *behind* them]]
* [Sunflower](Sunflower)s do not always point to the Sun. Flowering sunflowers face a fixed direction (often east) all day long, but do not necessarily face the Sun.
a. Popular botany book in 17th century England.
b.
c.
d. However, in an earlier developmental stage, before the appearance of flower heads, the immature buds *do* track the [Sun](Sun) (a phenomenon called [heliotropism](heliotropism)), and the fixed alignment of the mature flowers toward a certain direction is often the result.
* [Mushroom](Mushroom)s, [mold](mold)s, and other [fungi](Fungus) are not plants, despite [in their morphology and lifestyle](similarities)(Fungus#Characteristics). The historical classification of fungi as plants is defunct, and although they are still commonly included in botany curricula and textbooks, modern [evidence](molecular)(Molecular biology) shows that [are more closely related to animals than to plants](fungi)(Opisthokont).
#### Evolution and paleontology
* The word *[theory](theory)* in "the theory of [evolution](evolution)" does not imply scientific doubt regarding its validity; the concepts of *theory* and *hypothesis* have specific meanings in a scientific context. While *theory* in colloquial usage may denote a hunch or conjecture, a *[theory](scientific)(scientific theory)* is a set of principles that explains an *observable phenomenon* in [natural](naturalism (philosophy)) terms.
"Scientific fact and theory are not categorically separable",
and evolution is a theory in the same sense as [theory](germ)(germ theory) or the theory of [gravitation](gravitation).
* The theory of evolution does not attempt to explain the origin of life
or the origin and development of the universe. The theory of evolution deals primarily with changes in successive generations over time after life has already originated.
The scientific model concerned with the origin of the first organisms from organic or inorganic molecules is known as [abiogenesis](abiogenesis), and the prevailing theory for explaining the early development of the universe is the [Bang](Big)(Big Bang) model.
* Evolution is not a [from inferior to superior organisms](progression)(Great chain of being), and it also does not necessarily result in an [in complexity](increase)(evolution of complexity). Evolution through [selection](natural)(natural selection) only causes organisms to become more [fit](Fitness (biology)) for their environment. A population can evolve to become simpler or to have a smaller [genome](genome), and [atavistic](Atavism) ancestral genetic traits can reappear after having been lost through evolutionary change in previous generations. Biological [or de-evolution](devolution)(Devolution (biology)) is a [misnomer](misnomer), not only because it implies that organisms can only evolve backward or forward, but also because it implies that evolution may cause organisms to evolve in the "wrong" direction.
see also [devolution](biological)(biological devolution).
* The phrase "[of the fittest](survival)(survival of the fittest)" refers to [fitness](biological)(Fitness (biology)), not [fitness](physical)(physical fitness). Biological fitness is the [quantitative](Numerical data) measure of individual [success](reproductive)(reproductive success), e.g. the tendency of lineages containing individuals that produce more offspring [a particular environment](in)(Ecosystem) to persist and thrive in that environment. Further, while the related concepts of "survival of the fittest" and "[selection](natural)(natural selection)" are often used interchangeably, they are not the same: natural selection is not the only form of selection that determines biological fitness (see [selection](sexual)(sexual selection), [selection](fecundity)(fecundity selection), [selection](viability)(Natural selection#By life cycle stage), and [selection](artificial)(Artificial Selection)).Hartl, D. L. (1981) *A Primer of Population Genetics*
* [does not "plan" to improve an organism's fitness](Evolution)(Orthogenesis) to survive.
This misconception is encouraged as it is common shorthand for [to speak of a purpose](biologists)(Teleology in biology) as a concise form of expression (sometimes called the "metaphor of purpose"); it is less cumbersome to say "Dinosaurs may have evolved feathers for courtship" than "Feathers may have been selected for when they arose as they gave dinosaurs a selective advantage during courtship over their non-feathered rivals".
* [Mutation](Mutation)s are not entirely [random](Randomness), nor do they occur at the same frequency everywhere in the genome. Certain regions of an organism's genome will be more or less likely to undergo mutation depending on the presence of [repair mechanisms](DNA)(DNA repair) and other [bias](mutation)(mutation bias)es. For instance, in a study on *[thaliana](Arabidopsis)(Arabidopsis thaliana)*, biologically important regions of the plant's genome were found to be protected from mutations, and beneficial mutations were found to be more likely, i.e. mutation was "non-random in a way that benefits the plant".
* Although [word *dinosaur* can be used pejoratively](the)(Cultural depictions of dinosaurs#Public perception of dinosaurs) to describe something that is becoming obsolete due to failing to adapt to changing conditions, non-avian dinosaurs themselves did not go extinct due to an inability to adapt to environmental change [was initially theorized](as)(Timeline of Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event research). Moreover, not all dinosaurs are extinct (see below).
[[File:Pelagornis chilensis - skull.jpg|thumb|*[Pelagornis](Pelagornis)*. Non-[avian](bird) [dinosaur](dinosaur)s died out in the [extinction event](Cretaceous–Paleogene)(Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event), but some [dinosaurs](theropod)(theropod dinosaurs) survive to the present day.]]
* [Bird](Bird)s are [dinosaurs](theropod)(Theropoda), and consequently [dinosaur](dinosaur)s are not [extinct](Extinction). The word *dinosaur* is commonly used to refer only to non-avian dinosaurs, reflecting an outdated conception of the [ancestry](Phylogenetic tree) of avian dinosaurs, the birds. [evolutionary origin of birds was an open question in paleontology for over a century](The)(Origin of birds), but the modern scientific consensus is that [evolved](birds)(Evolution of birds) from small [theropods](feathered)(Origin of avian flight) in the [Jurassic](Jurassic). Not all dinosaur lineages were cut short at the end of the [Cretaceous](Cretaceous) during the [extinction event](Cretaceous–Paleogene)(Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event), and some avian theropods survive as part of the modern fauna.
[[File:When Dinosaurs Ruled the Earth (1970) trailer - Plesiosaurus 1.png|thumb|Despite [depictions](cultural)(cultural depictions of dinosaurs), [plesiosaurs](plesiosaurs) were not [dinosaur](dinosaur)s, nor did either plesiosaurs or non-avian dinosaurs [with humans](coexist)(Human-dinosaur coexistence).]]
* [Mosasaurs](Mosasaurs), [ichthyosaurs](ichthyosaurs), [plesiosaurs](plesiosaurs), and [other](Marine reptile#Extinct groups) aquatic [Mesozoic](Mesozoic) [diapsids](diapsids) were not [dinosaur](dinosaur)s. Despite their many [depictions](cultural)(cultural depictions of dinosaurs) as "swimming dinosaurs", mosasaurs were actually [lizards](Squamata), and ichthyosaurs and plesiosaurs were [more distantly related](even)(Sauropterygia) to dinosaurs. [some dinosaurs were or are semiaquatic](Though)(Semiaquatic), (*[Hesperornis](Hesperornis)*, *[Spinosaurus](Spinosaurus)*, [auks](auks), [penguins](penguins)), none are known to have been fully marine.
[[File:Dimetrodon8DB.jpg|thumb|right|*[Dimetrodon](Dimetrodon)*, the iconic [sail-backed](Neural spine sail) [synapsid](synapsid), was not a dinosaur, nor did it live at the same time as the dinosaurs.]]
* *[Dimetrodon](Dimetrodon)* is often mistakenly called a [dinosaur](dinosaur) or considered to be a contemporary of dinosaurs in popular culture, but it became extinct some 40 million years before the first appearance of dinosaurs. Being a [synapsid](synapsid), *Dimetrodon* is actually more closely related to [mammals](mammals) than to dinosaurs, birds, lizards, or other [diapsids](diapsids).
* [Pterosaurs](Pterosaurs) (sometimes referred to using the informal term [*pterodactyls*](Pterodactyl (disambiguation))) are often called "flying [dinosaur](dinosaur)s" by popular media and the general public, but while pterosaurs were [related to dinosaurs](closely)(Avemetatarsalia), dinosaurs are defined as the descendants of the [common ancestor](last)(last common ancestor) of the [Saurischia](Saurischia) and the [Ornithischia](Ornithischia), which excludes the pterosaurs.
* Humans and [avian](Bird) [dinosaurs](dinosaurs) currently [coexist](Human-dinosaur coexistence), but humans and non-avian dinosaurs did not coexist at any point. The last of the non-avian dinosaurs died million years ago in the course of the [extinction event](Cretaceous–Paleogene)(Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event), whereas the earliest members of the genus *[Homo](Homo)* (humans) evolved between 2.3 and 2.4 million years ago. This places a 63-million-year expanse of time between the last non-avian dinosaurs and the earliest humans. Humans did coexist with [mammoth](woolly)(woolly mammoth)s and [cat](saber-toothed)(saber-toothed cat)s: extinct mammals often erroneously depicted alongside non-avian dinosaurs.
* [fuels](Fossil)(Fossil fuels) do not originate from [dinosaur](dinosaurs) [fossil](fossil)s. [Petroleum](Petroleum) is formed when [algae](algae) and [zooplankton](zooplankton) die and sink in [conditions](anoxic)(Dead zone (ecology)) to be buried on the ocean floor without being [decomposed](Decomposition) by [bacteria](aerobic)(Aerobic organism), and only a tiny amount of the world's deposits of [coal](coal) [dinosaur fossils](contain)(Iguanodon#Bernissart mine discoveries and Dollo's new reconstruction); the vast majority of coal is [plant matter](fossilized)(Coal#Formation).
Cleal, C. J. & Thomas, B. A. (2005). "Palaeozoic tropical rainforests and their effect on global climates: is the past the key to the present?" *Geobiology*, *3*, p. 13-31.
* [Mammal](Mammal)s did not evolve from any modern group of [reptile](reptile)s; rather, mammals descend from a [Reptiliomorph](Reptiliomorpha), "reptile-like," ancestor. The term *reptile* is problematic, [its conventional usage unnaturally excludes birds and mammals](since)(Paraphyly), and the modern consensus is that the reptiles are not a [group](natural)(Monophyly). After the first [terrestrial](fully)(Amniote#Adaptation for terrestrial living) [tetrapod](tetrapod)s evolved, one of their lineages split into the [synapsids](synapsids) (the line leading to mammals) and the [diapsids](diapsids) (the line leading to [crocodiles](Crocodylomorpha), [and other dinosaurs](birds)(Dinosaur), [tuatara](Rhynchocephalia), [lizard](lizard)s, and [snake](snake)s). The synapsids and the diapsids diverged about 320 million years ago, in the mid-[Carboniferous](Carboniferous) period.
Only later, in the [Triassic](Triassic), did the modern diapsid groups (the [lepidosaurs](Lepidosauria) and the [archosaur](archosaur)s) emerge and diversify. The mammals themselves are the only survivors of the synapsid line.
[A.S.](Romer,)(Alfred Romer) & Parsons, T.S. (1977). *The Vertebrate Body*. 5th ed. Saunders, Philadelphia. (6th ed. 1985)
[[File:Aegyptopithecus NT.jpg|thumb|*[Aegyptopithecus](Aegyptopithecus)*, a prehistoric monkey predating the split between [and other Old World monkeys](apes)(Catarrhini) during the course of [evolution](human)(human evolution). *Aegyptopithecus* also postdates the division of the Old and [World monkey](New)(New World monkey)s, making it more closely related to humans than to all New World monkeys.]]
* [and other apes](Humans)(Ape) are [World monkeys](Old)(Catarrhini). The word *[monkey](monkey)* is often used colloquially to describe only those simians which possess tails, thus excluding [apes](Barbary)(Barbary macaque) and true apes, but this distinction is [invalid](taxonomically)(Paraphyly).
a.
b.
c.
d.
e. While apes were traditionally thought to be a [group](sister)(sister group) to monkeys, modern paleontological and [molecular](Molecular biology) evidence shows that apes are deeply nested within the monkey family tree. Old World monkeys like [baboon](baboon)s are more closely related to all apes than they are to all [World monkey](New)(New World monkey)s, and extinct Old World monkeys like *[Aegyptopithecus](Aegyptopithecus)* predate the split between apes and [other extant Old World monkeys](all)(Old World monkey).
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f. There is [concerted social and religious effort to deny evidence which connects humans to their simian ancestors](a)(Rejection of evolution by religious groups), but there is no way to [define](naturally)(Monophyly) the monkeys while excluding humans and other apes.
* Humans did not evolve from either of the living species of [chimpanzee](Pan (genus))s ([chimpanzee](common)(common chimpanzee)s and [bonobo](bonobo)s) or any other living species of apes.
Humans and chimpanzees did, however, evolve from a [ancestor](common)(Chimpanzee–human last common ancestor).
William H. Calvin, 2002. "A Brain for All Seasons: Human Evolution and Abrupt Climate Change." University of Chicago Press. Chicago. This [recent common ancestor](most)(most recent common ancestor) of living humans and chimpanzees would've lived between 5 and 8 million years ago. Extinct [apes](great)(Hominidae) such as *[Graecopithecus](Graecopithecus)* and *[tchadensis](Sahelanthropus)(Sahelanthropus tchadensis)* have been proposed as candidates for the chimpanzee–human last common ancestor (CHLCA), however, no fossil has yet conclusively been identified as the CHLCA.
* [Human](Human)s are [animal](animal)s, despite the fact that the word *animal* is colloquially used as an [antonym](Opposite (semantics)) for *human*.
### Chemistry and materials science
* [Glass](Glass) does not flow at [temperature](room)(room temperature) as a high-[viscosity](viscosity) [liquid](liquid). Although [shares some molecular properties with liquids](glass)(Amorphous solid), it is a [solid](solid) at room temperature and only begins to [flow](Plasticity (physics)) at [of degrees above room temperature](hundreds)(Glass transition). Old glass which is thicker at the bottom than at the top comes from the production process, not from slow flow; no such distortion is observed in other glass objects of similar or even greater age.
* Most [diamond](diamond)s are not formed from highly compressed [coal](coal). More than 99% of diamonds ever mined have [in the conditions of extreme heat and pressure](formed)(Metamorphism) about below the earth's surface. Coal is formed from prehistoric plants buried much closer to the surface, and is unlikely to migrate below through common geological processes. Most diamonds that have been dated are older than the [land plants](first)(Evolutionary history of plants#Colonization of land), and are therefore older than coal.
a.
b.
* Diamonds are not infinitely hard, and are subject to wear and scratching: although they are the hardest known material on the [Scale](Mohs)(Mohs scale of mineral hardness), they can be scratched by other diamonds
M. Seal, "The abrasion of diamond", *Proceedings of the Royal Society A* **248**:1254 (November 25, 1958) and worn down even by much softer materials, such as vinyl records.
Harold D. Weiler, "The wear and care of records and styli", 1954, [condensed text](https://service.shure.com/s/article/stylus-wear-and-record-wear?language=en_US)
* Neither [foil]("tin")(tin foil) nor [can]("tin")(tin can)s still use [tin](tin) as a primary material. [foil](Aluminum)(Aluminum foil) has replaced tin foil in almost all uses since the 20th century; tin cans now primarily use [steel](steel) or aluminum as their main metal.
* Although the core of a wooden [pencil](pencil) is commonly referred to as "lead", wooden pencils do not contain the [element lead](chemical)(lead), nor have they ever contained it; "black lead" was formerly a name of [graphite](graphite).
a.
b.
c.
d. The Weekend Historian|url = https://umeshmadan.wordpress.com/tag/graphite-pencils/|website = umeshmadan.wordpress.com|access-date = 5 October 2015|url-status = live|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20151007164114/https://umeshmadan.wordpress.com/tag/graphite-pencils/|archive-date = 7 October 2015|df = dmy-all}}
e.
f. *[English Dictionary](Oxford)(Oxford English Dictionary)*, 3rd ed., *s.v.* '[lead](https://www.oed.com/view/Entry/106584)' 3 and '[black lead](https://www.oed.com/view/Entry/19735)' 2a
### Computing and the Internet
* The [macOS](macOS) and [Linux](Linux) operating systems are not immune to [malware](malware) such as [horses](trojan)(Trojan horse (computing)) or [virus](computer)(computer virus)es.a.
b.
c. Specialized malware designed to attack those systems do exist. However, the vast majority of viruses are developed for [Windows](Microsoft)(Microsoft Windows).
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
* The [web](deep)(deep web) is not primarily full of [pornography](pornography), [drug trade](illegal)(illegal drug trade) websites, and stolen bank details. This information is primarily found in a small portion of the deep web known as the "[web](dark)(dark web)". Much of the deep web consists of academic libraries, databases, and anything that is not indexed by normal search engines.
a.
b.
c.
d.
* [browsing](Private)(Private browsing) (such as [Chrome](Google Chrome)'s "Incognito Mode") does not protect users from being [tracked](Web tracking) by websites, employers, governments, or one's [service provider](internet)(internet service provider) (ISP). Such entities can still use information such as [address](IP)(IP address)es and [accounts](user)(user accounts) to uniquely identify users. Private browsing also does not provide additional protection against viruses or malware.
* [a phone in rice](Submerging)(Phone repair with rice) after it has suffered from [damage](water)(water damage) has not been shown to be effective in repairing them. Even if submerging them in a [desiccant](desiccant) were more effective than leaving them to dry in open air, common desiccants such as silica gel or cat litter are better than [rice](rice).
### Economics
[[population living in extreme poverty, by world region (PovcalNet, World Bank (1987 to 2013)), OWID.svg|thumb|upright=1.35|Total population living in extreme poverty, by world region 1987 to 2015](File:Total)]
* The total number of people living in [extreme](extreme poverty) [poverty](absolute)(Poverty#Absolute poverty) globally, by the widely used metric of $1.00/day (in 1990 U.S. dollars) has decreased over the last several decades, but most people surveyed in several countries incorrectly think it has increased or stayed the same.
*
* and Why Things Are Better Than You Think |last2=Rönnlund |first2=Anna |last3=Rosling |first3=Ola |publisher=Flatiron Books |year=2018 |isbn=978-1-250-12381-7 |page=7}}
* However, this depends on the poverty line calculation used. For instance, if the metric used is instead one that prioritizes meeting a standard life expectancy that no longer significantly rises with additional consumption enabled by income, the number of individuals in poverty has risen by nearly 1 billion.
* [population growth](Human)(Population growth) is decreasing and the world population is expected to peak and then begin falling during the 21st century. Improvements in agricultural productivity and technology are expected to be able to meet anticipated increased demand for resources, making a global [overpopulation](human)(human overpopulation) scenario unlikely.
* [Monopolists](Monopoly) do not try to sell items for the highest possible [price](price), nor do they try to maximize profit per unit, but rather they try to maximize total profit.
* For any given [set](production)(production set), there is not a set amount of labor input (a "[of labor](lump)(lump of labour fallacy)") to produce that output. This fallacy is commonly seen in [Luddite](Luddite) and later, related movements as an argument either that automation causes permanent, structural unemployment, or that labor-limiting regulation can decrease unemployment. In fact, changes in capital allocation, efficiency, and [of learning](economies)(learning economy) can change the amount of labor input for a given set of production.
a.
b.
* [Income](Income) is not a direct factor in determining [score in the United States](credit)(credit score in the United States). Rather, credit score is impacted by the amount of unused available credit, which is in turn affected by income. Income is also considered when evaluating creditworthiness more generally.
* The US public vastly overestimates the amount spent on [aid](foreign)(United States foreign aid#Public opinion).
* In the US, an increase in [income](gross)(gross income) will never reduce one's post-tax earnings ([income](net)(net income)) due to putting one in a higher [bracket](tax)(tax bracket). The tax brackets only indicate the [tax rate](marginal)(marginal tax rate), as opposed to the *total* income tax rate; only the additional income earned in the higher tax bracket is taxed at the elevated rate. An increase in gross income can reduce one's net income in a [cliff](welfare)(welfare cliff), however, when benefits are suddenly withdrawn when passing a certain income threshold.
### Earth and environmental sciences
[[File:Common_Era_Temperature.svg|thumb|left|[surface temperature](Global)(Global surface temperature) reconstruction over the last 2000 years using proxy data from tree rings, corals, and ice cores in blue. Directly observed data is in red.]]
* Contemporary [warming](global)(global warming) is [by human activities](driven)(Human impact on the environment), despite claims that it is [occurring](not)(Climate change denial), [not have strong scientific consensus](does)(Global warming conspiracy theory), or that warming is [caused by non-human factors](mostly)(Global warming controversy). ([MSNBC single page version, archived 20 August 2007](https://web.archive.org/web/20070820002929/http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/20122975/site/newsweek/page/0/)) "If you think those who have long challenged the mainstream scientific findings about global warming recognize that the game is over, think again. ... outside Hollywood, Manhattan and other habitats of the chattering classes, the denial machine is running at full throttle—and continuing to shape both government policy and public opinion. Since the late 1980s, this well-coordinated, well-funded campaign by contrarian scientists, free-market think tanks and industry has created a paralyzing fog of doubt around climate change. Through advertisements, op-eds, lobbying and media attention, greenhouse doubters (they hate being called deniers) argued first that the world is not warming; measurements indicating otherwise are flawed, they said. Then they claimed that any warming is natural, not caused by human activities. Now they contend that the looming warming will be minuscule and harmless. 'They patterned what they did after the tobacco industry,' says former senator Tim Wirth." No scientific body of national or international standing disagrees with the decades-old, near-complete [consensus on climate change](scientific)(scientific consensus on climate change).a. b. c. Global warming is primarily a result of the increase in atmospheric [greenhouse-gas](greenhouse gas) concentrations (like [CO2](Carbon dioxide) and [methane](methane)) via the [burning](Industrial Revolution) of [fuel](fossil)(fossil fuel)s as well as other [activities](human)(Anthropogenic hazard) such as [deforestation](Deforestation and climate change), with secondary [change feedback](climate)(climate change feedback) mechanisms (such as the [of the polar ice increasing the Earth's absorption of sunlight](melting)(Ice–albedo feedback)) assisting to perpetuate the change.
[[File:Area of the ozone hole.jpg|thumb|[depletion](Ozone)(Ozone depletion) is not a cause of [warming](global)(global warming).]]
* [warming](Global)(Global warming) is not caused by the [in the ozone layer](hole)(Ozone depletion). Ozone depletion is a separate problem caused by [chlorofluorocarbon](chlorofluorocarbon)s (CFCs)Jacob, Daniel J. *Introduction to Atmospheric Chemistry*. pp. 177–87. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1999. which have been released into the atmosphere. However, CFCs are strong [gas](greenhouse)(greenhouse gas)es.
[[File:Cows and cooling towers, Cottam - geograph.org.uk - 450176.jpg|thumb|upright|Cooling towers from the now-decommissioned [power stations](Cottam)(Cottam power stations) in [England](England). The gases expelled by the towers are harmless water vapors from the cooling process.]]
* [tower](Cooling)(Cooling tower)s in [station](power)(power station)s and other facilities do not emit [smoke](smoke) or harmful fumes; they emit [vapor](water)(water vapor) and do not contribute to [change](climate)(climate change). Nuclear Information Center |language=en}}
* [power](Nuclear)(Nuclear power) is [of the safest sources of energy](one)(Nuclear power#Safety), resulting in orders of magnitude fewer deaths than conventional power sources per unit of energy produced. Extremely few people are killed or injured due to nuclear power on a yearly basis. Nuclear Information Center |language=en}} Argonne National Laboratory |url=https://www.anl.gov/article/10-myths-about-nuclear-energy |access-date=2023-04-23 |website=www.anl.gov |language=en}} (See also: [Radiophobia](Radiophobia))[[rates from energy production per TWh (including solar).svg|thumb|Death rates from air pollution and accidents related to energy production, measured in deaths in the past per terawatt hours (TWh)](File:Death)]
* [Lightning](Lightning) can, and often does, [strike](Lightning strike) the same place twice. Lightning in a thunderstorm is more likely to strike objects and spots that are more prominent or conductive. For instance, lightning strikes the [State Building](Empire)(Empire State Building) in [York City](New)(New York City) on average 23 times per year.
a.
b.
c.
d.
* [lightning](Heat)(Heat lightning) does not exist as a distinct phenomenon. What is mistaken for "heat lightning" is usually ordinary lightning from storms too distant to hear the associated [thunder](thunder).
* The [Caldera](Yellowstone)(Yellowstone Caldera) is [overdue](not)(Yellowstone Caldera#Volcanoes) for a [supervolcano](supervolcano) eruption.
* The [interior](Earth's)(Structure of Earth) is not molten rock. This misconception may originate from a misunderstanding based on the fact that the [mantle convects](Earth's)(mantle convection), and the incorrect assumption that only liquids and gases can convect. In fact, a solid with a large [number](Rayleigh)(Rayleigh number) can also convect, given enough time, which is what occurs in the solid mantle due to the very large thermal gradient across it. There are small pockets of [rock](molten)(Magma) in the upper mantle, but these make up a tiny fraction of the mantle's volume. The Earth's [core](outer)(Earth's outer core) *is* liquid, but it is liquid metal, not rock.
* The [rainforest](Amazon)(Amazon rainforest) does not provide 20% of Earth's oxygen. This is a misinterpretation of a 2010 study which found that approximately 34% of photosynthesis by terrestrial plants occurs in tropical rainforests (so the Amazon rainforest would account for approximately half of this). Due to respiration by the resident organisms, all ecosystems (including the Amazon rainforest) have a net output of oxygen of approximately zero. The oxygen currently present in the atmosphere was accumulated over billions of years.
### Geography
[[File:CapeHopeDetail.png|thumb|upright=1.35|Map of the [of Good Hope](Cape)(Cape of Good Hope) and [Agulhas](Cape)(Cape Agulhas), the southernmost point of Africa]]
* The [of Good Hope](Cape)(Cape of Good Hope) is not the southern tip of [Africa](Africa), which is actually [Agulhas](Cape)(Cape Agulhas), about to the [east-southeast](east-southeast).
* [River](River)s do not predominantly flow from north to south. Rivers flow downhill in all compass directions, often changing direction along their course. Indeed, many major rivers flow northward, including the [Nile](Nile), the [Yenisey](Yenisey), the [Ob](Ob (river)), the [Rhine](Rhine), the [Lena](Lena (river)), and the [Orinoco](Orinoco).
### Human body and health
[[File:Korean fans closeup.jpg|thumb|A widely held misconception in South Korea is that [electric fans on while asleep can be fatal](leaving)(Fan death).]]
* Sleeping in a closed room with an [fan](electric)(electric fan) running does not result in "[death](fan)(fan death)", as is widely believed in [Korea](South)(South Korea).
* Waking up a [sleepwalker](sleepwalking) does not harm them. Sleepwalkers may be confused or disoriented for a short time after awakening, but the health risks associated with sleepwalking are from injury or insomnia, not from being awakened.
a.
b.
* [Drowning](Drowning) is often inconspicuous to onlookers. In most cases, the [drowning response](instinctive)(instinctive drowning response) prevents the victim from waving or yelling (known as "aquatic distress"), which are therefore not dependable signs of trouble; indeed, most drowning victims undergoing the response do not show prior evidence of distress.
* Human [blood](blood) in [veins](veins) is not actually blue. Blood is red due to the presence of [hemoglobin](hemoglobin); deoxygenated blood (in veins) has a deep red color, and oxygenated blood (in [arteries](arteries)) has a light cherry-red color. Veins below the skin can appear blue or green due to [scattering](subsurface)(subsurface scattering) of light through the skin, and aspects of human color perception. Many medical diagrams also use blue to show veins, and red to show arteries, which contributes to this misconception.
a.
b.
* Exposure to a [vacuum](vacuum), or experiencing all but the most extreme [decompression](uncontrolled)(uncontrolled decompression), does not cause the body to explode or internal fluids to boil (although the fluids in the mouth and lungs will indeed boil at altitudes above the [limit](Armstrong)(Armstrong limit)); rather, it will lead to a loss of [consciousness](consciousness) once the body has depleted the supply of oxygen in the blood, followed by death from [hypoxia](hypoxia (medical)) within minutes.
a.
b.
* Exercise-induced [onset muscle soreness](delayed)(delayed onset muscle soreness) is not caused by [acid](lactic)(lactic acid) build-up. Muscular lactic acid levels return to normal levels within an hour after exercise; delayed onset muscle soreness is thought to be due to [microtrauma](microtrauma) from unaccustomed or strenuous exercise.
a.
b.
* [Stretching](Stretching) before or after exercise does not reduce [onset muscle soreness](delayed)(delayed onset muscle soreness).
* Swallowing [gasoline](gasoline) does not generally require special emergency treatment, as long as it goes into the stomach and not the lungs, and inducing [vomiting](vomiting) can make it worse.
a.
b.
* [Urine](Urine) is not [sterile](Sterilization (microbiology)), not even in the bladder.
* Sudden immersion into freezing water does not typically cause death by [hypothermia](hypothermia), but rather from the [shock response](cold)(cold shock response), which can cause [arrest](cardiac)(cardiac arrest), [attack](heart)(heart attack), or [hyperventilation](hyperventilation) leading to [drowning](drowning).
* [remains](Cremated)(Cremation) are not ashes in the usual sense. After the incineration is completed, the dry bone fragments are swept out of the retort and pulverized by a machine called a *cremulator* (essentially a high-capacity, high-speed [blender](blender)) to process them into "ashes" or "cremated remains".
* The [lung](lung)'s [alveoli](Pulmonary alveolus) are not tiny [balloon](balloon)s that expand and contract under [pressure](positive)(positive pressure) following the [equation](Young–Laplace)(Young–Laplace equation), as is taught in some physiology and medical textbooks. The tissue structure is more like a [sponge](sponge) with polygonal spaces that unfold and fold under negative pressure from the chest wall.
* Half of [heat](body)(body heat) is not lost through the head, and [the head is no more effective at preventing heat loss than covering any other portion of the body](covering)(Hypothermia). Heat is lost from the body in proportion to the amount of exposed skin. The head accounts for around 7–9% of the body's surface, and studies have shown that having one's head submerged in cold water only causes a person to lose 10% more heat overall. This myth likely comes from a flawed [States](United)(United States) military experiment in 1950, involving a prototype Arctic survival suit where the head was one of the few body parts left exposed. The misconception was further perpetuated by a 1970 military field manual that claimed "40–45%" of heat is lost through the head, based on the 1950 study.
* [Adrenochrome](Adrenochrome) is not harvested from living people and has no use as a recreational drug. [S. Thompson](Hunter)(Hunter S. Thompson) conceived a fictional drug of the same name in his book *[and Loathing in Las Vegas](Fear)(Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas)*, apparently as a metaphor and unaware that a real substance by that name existed; it is Thompson's fictional adrenochrome, and not the real chemical compound, that is the source of numerous conspiracy theories revolving around human trafficking to harvest the fictional drug.
* Men and women have the same number of [ribs](Rib cage#History): 24, or 12 pairs. The erroneous idea that women have one more rib than men may stem from the [creation story](biblical)(Genesis creation narrative) of [and Eve](Adam)(Adam and Eve).
* The use of [swab](cotton)(cotton swab)s (aka cotton buds or Q-Tips) in the ear canal has no associated medical benefits and poses definite medical risks.
a.
b.
c.
d.
* The idea that a precise number of stages of grief exist is not supported in peer-reviewed research or objective clinical observation, let alone the [stages of grief](five)(five stages of grief) model.
a.
b.
c.
d. The model was originally based on uncredited work and originally applied to the [ill](terminally)(terminally ill) instead of the grieving or bereaved.[Sherwin B.](Nuland,)(Sherwin B. Nuland) (6 September 2004). ["Appreciation: Dr. Elisabeth Kubler-Ross"](http://content.time.com/time/subscriber/article/0,33009,995057,00.html). *Time*.
* Although [bananas](bananas) contain naturally occurring [isotope](radioactive)(radioactive isotope)s, particularly [potassium-40](potassium-40) (40K), which emit [radiation](ionizing)(ionizing radiation) when undergoing [decay](radioactive)(radioactive decay), the levels of such radiation are far too low to induce [poisoning](radiation)(radiation poisoning), and bananas are not a radiation hazard. It would not be physically possible to eat enough bananas to cause radiation poisoning, as [radiation dose from bananas is non-cumulative](the)(Cumulative dose).
a.
b.
a. K in the body is constant.}}
b. U. S. Environmental Protection Agency (1999), [Federal Guidance Report 13](https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2015-05/documents/402-r-99-001.pdf), page 16: "For example, the ingestion coefficient risk for 40K would not be appropriate for an application to ingestion of 40K in conjunction with an elevated intake of natural potassium. This is because the biokinetic model for potassium used in this document represents the relatively slow removal of potassium (biological half-time 30 days) that is estimated to occur for typical intakes of potassium, whereas an elevated intake of potassium would result in excretion of a nearly equal mass of natural potassium, and hence of 40K, over a short period."
c. . Attributes the title statement to Geoff Meggitt, former UK Atomic Energy Authority. (See also: [equivalent dose](Banana)(Banana equivalent dose))
* [Radiation](Radiation) is not always dangerous. [is ubiquitous on Earth's surface](Radiation)(Background radiation), and humans are adapted to survive at normal Earth radiation levels. [is safely non-toxic at sufficiently low doses](Everything)(The dose makes the poison), even [poisons](deadly)(Mithridatism) and [forms of radiation](high-energy)(Ionizing radiation), and everything becomes [toxic](Toxicity) at sufficiently high [doses](Dose (biochemistry)), even [water](Water intoxication) and [oxygen](Oxygen toxicity). Indeed, [relationship between dose and toxicity is often non-linear](the)(Hormesis), and many substances that are toxic at high doses have neutral or positive health effects, or are biologically essential, at moderate or low doses. There is some evidence to suggest that this is true for ionizing radiation; normal levels of ionizing radiation may serve to stimulate and regulate the activity of [repair mechanisms.](DNA)(DNA repair)
a.
b.
c. [Nancy Trautmann: The Dose Makes the Poison--Or Does It?](http://www.actionbioscience.org/environment/trautmann.html), Bioscience 2005, American Institute of Biological Sciences
#### Disease and preventive healthcare
* The [cold](common)(Common cold#Weather) and the [flu](common)(common flu) are caused by [virus](virus)es, not cold temperature, although cold temperature may somewhat weaken the immune system, and someone already infected with a cold or influenza virus but showing no symptoms can become symptomatic after they are exposed to low temperatures. Viruses are more likely to spread during the winter for a variety of reasons such as dry air, less air circulation in homes, people spending more time indoors, and lower [D](vitamin)(vitamin D) levels in humans.
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
* [Antibiotics](Antibiotics) will not cure a cold; they treat bacterial diseases and are ineffectual against viruses. However, they are sometimes prescribed to prevent or treat [infections](secondary)(opportunistic infection).
* There is little to no evidence that any illnesses are curable through [oil](essential)(essential oil)s or [aromatherapy](aromatherapy). [oil](Fish)(Fish oil (medical use)) has not been shown to cure [dementia](dementia), though there is evidence to support the effectiveness of lemon oil as a way to reduce agitation in patients with dementia.
* In those with the [cold](common)(common cold), the color of the [sputum](sputum) or nasal secretion may vary from clear to yellow to green and does not indicate the class of agent causing the infection.
a.
b.
* [C](Vitamin)(Vitamin C) [not prevent or treat](does)(Vitamin C and the common cold) the [cold](common)(common cold), although it may have a protective effect during intense cold-weather exercise. If taken daily, it may slightly reduce the duration and severity of colds, but it has no effect if taken after the cold starts.
a.
b.
[[File:Bombina bombina 1 (Marek Szczepanek).jpg|thumb|The bumps on a toad are not [wart](wart)s and cannot cause warts on humans.]]
* Humans cannot catch warts from [toad](toad)s or other animals; the bumps on a toad are not warts.
a.
b. [Wart](Wart)s on human skin are caused by [papillomavirus](human)(human papillomavirus), which is unique to humans.
* Neither [one's knuckles](cracking)(cracking joints) nor exercising while in good health causes [osteoarthritis](osteoarthritis).
a.
b.
* In people with [eczema](eczema), bathing does not dry the skin as long as a moisturizer is applied soon after. If moisturizer is not applied after bathing, then the evaporation of water from the skin can result in dryness.
* There have never been any programs in the US that provide access to [dialysis](Kidney dialysis) machines in exchange for pull tabs on [can](beverage)(beverage can)s.
This rumor has existed since at least the 1970s, and usually cites the [Kidney Foundation](National)(National Kidney Foundation) as the organization offering the program. The Foundation itself has denied the rumor, noting that dialysis machines are primarily funded by [Medicare](Medicare (United States)).
* High dietary protein intake is not associated with [disease](kidney)(kidney disease) in healthy people. While significantly increased protein intake in the short-term is associated with changes in renal function, there is no evidence to suggest this effect persists in the long-term and results in kidney damage or disease.
* [horn](Rhinoceros)(Rhinoceros horn) in powdered form is not used as an [aphrodisiac](aphrodisiac) in [Chinese medicine](traditional)(traditional Chinese medicine) as *Cornu Rhinoceri Asiatici* (犀角, *xījiǎo*, "rhinoceros horn"). It is prescribed for fevers and convulsions,
Bensky, Dan; Clavey, Steven; Stoger, Erich and Gamble, Andrew (2004) *Chinese Herbal Medicine: Materia Medica*, 3rd Edition. Eastland Press. a treatment not supported by [medicine](evidence-based)(evidence-based medicine).
* [Leprosy](Leprosy) is not auto-degenerative as commonly supposed, meaning that it will not (on its own) cause body parts to be damaged or fall off. Leprosy causes rashes to form and may degrade cartilage and, if untreated, [tissue](inflame)(inflammation). In addition, leprosy is only mildly contagious, partly because 95% of those infected with the mycobacteria that causes leprosy do not develop the disease.
[Tzaraath](Tzaraath), a Biblical disease that disfigures the skin is often identified as leprosy, and may be the source of many myths about the disease.
a.
b. [Title at hebrewbooks.org, pp. 339-340.](http://hebrewbooks.org/20797)
* [Rust](Iron Oxide) does not cause [infection](tetanus)(tetanus). The *[tetani](Clostridium)(Clostridium tetani)* bacterium is generally found in dirty environments. Since the same conditions that harbor tetanus bacteria also promote rusting of metal, many people associate rust with tetanus. *C. tetani* requires [anoxic](hypoxia (environmental)) conditions to reproduce and these are found in the permeable layers of rust that form on oxygen-absorbing, unprotected ironwork.
* [Quarantine](Quarantine) has never been a standard procedure for those with [combined immunodeficiency](severe)(severe combined immunodeficiency), despite the condition's popular nickname ("bubble boy syndrome") and its portrayal in films. A [marrow transplant](bone)(bone marrow transplant) in the earliest months of life is the standard course of treatment. The exceptional case of [Vetter](David)(David Vetter), who indeed lived much of his life encased in a sterile environment because he would not receive a transplant until age 12 (the transplant, because of failure to detect [mononucleosis](Infectious mononucleosis), instead killed Vetter), was one of the primary inspirations for the "bubble boy" trope.
* [Colorado](Gunnison,)(Gunnison, Colorado), did not avoid the [flu pandemic](1918)(1918 flu pandemic) by using [sequestration](protective)(protective sequestration). The implementation of protective sequestration did prevent the virus from spreading outside a single household after a single carrier came into the town while it was in effect, but it was not sustainable and had to be lifted in February 1919. A month later, the flu killed five residents and infected dozens of others.
* Statements in [package insert](medication)(medication package insert)s listing the frequency of [effect](side)(side effect)s describe how often the effect occurs after taking a drug, but are not making any assertion that there is a causal connection between taking the drug and the occurrence of the side effect. In other words, what is being reported on is correlation, not necessarily causation.A randomized controlled exploratory survey |journal=PLOS ONE|volume=13|issue=9|page=e0203800|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0203800|issn=1932-6203|pmc=6136776|pmid=30212555|bibcode=2018PLoSO..1303800M|doi-access=free}}
* A [mouth](dog's)(Wound licking) is not cleaner than a human's mouth. A dog's mouth contains almost as much bacteria as a human mouth.
* There is no [peer-reviewed](peer-reviewed) scientific evidence that [healing](crystal)(crystal healing) has any effect beyond acting as a [placebo](placebo).Spellman, Frank R; Price-Bayer, Joni. (2010). *In Defense of Science: Why Scientific Literacy Matters*. The Scarecrow Press. p. 81. "There is no scientific evidence that crystal healing has any effect. It has been called a pseudoscience. Pleasant feelings or the apparent successes of crystal healing can be attributed to the placebo effect or cognitive bias—a believer wanting it to be true."Regal, Brian. (2009). *Pseudoscience: A Critical Encyclopedia*. Greenwood. p. 51.
* There is a [consensus](scientific)(scientific consensus)
a.
b.
c.
See also:
And contrast:
and that currently available food derived from [modified crops](genetically)(Genetically modified food) poses no greater risk to human health than conventional food.
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
g.
h.
#### Nutrition, food, and drink
* [Diet](Diet (nutrition)) has little influence on the body's [detoxification](detoxification), and there is no evidence that [diets](detoxification)(Detoxification (alternative medicine)) rid the body of toxins.
Compare:
a.
b.
Toxins are removed from the body by the liver and kidneys.
* Drinking milk or consuming other [products](dairy)(dairy products) does not increase [mucus](mucus) production.
a.
b. As a result, they do not need to be avoided by those with the flu or cold [congestion](Nasal congestion). However, milk and [saliva](saliva) in one's mouth mix to create a thick liquid that can briefly coat the mouth and throat. The sensation that lingers may be mistaken for increased [phlegm](phlegm).
* [eight glasses (2–3 liters) of water a day](Drinking)(Drinking water) is not needed to maintain health.a.
b.
c. The amount of water needed varies by person, weight, diet, activity level, clothing, and the ambient heat and humidity. Water does not actually need to be drunk in pure form, and can be derived from liquids such as juices, tea, milk, soups, etc., and from foods including fruits and vegetables.
* Drinking [coffee](coffee) and other [caffeinated](caffeine) beverages does not cause dehydration for regular drinkers, although it can for occasional drinkers.
a.
b.
c.
* [Sugar](Sugar) does not cause [hyperactivity](Sugar and hyperactivity) in children.
a.
b. [trials](Double-blind)(Double-blind test) have shown no difference in behavior between children given sugar-full or sugar-free diets, even in studies specifically looking at children with [deficit hyperactivity disorder](attention)(attention deficit hyperactivity disorder) or those considered sensitive to sugar.
A 2019 [meta-analysis](meta-analysis) found no positive effect of sugar consumption on [mood](mood (psychology)) but did find an association with lower alertness and increased fatigue within an hour of consumption, known as a [crash](sugar)(sugar crash).
* Eating [nuts](Nut (fruit)), [popcorn](popcorn), or [seed](seed)s does not increase the risk of [diverticulitis](diverticulitis).
These foods may actually have a protective effect.
* Eating less than an hour before swimming does not increase the risk of experiencing muscle [cramp](cramp)s or [drowning](drowning). One study shows a correlation between [consumption](alcohol)(alcohol consumption) and drowning, but not between eating and stomach cramps.
;
* [Vegan](Vegan nutrition) and [vegetarian](Vegetarian nutrition) diets can provide enough protein for adequate nutrition.a.
b. In fact, typical protein intakes of [vegetarians](ovo-lacto)(Ovo-lacto vegetarianism) meet or exceed requirements. It is the position of the American Dietetic Association that appropriately planned vegetarian diets are healthful. However, a vegan diet does require [supplementation](Dietary supplements) of [B12](vitamin)(vitamin B12), and [B12 deficiency](vitamin)(Vitamin B12 deficiency) occurs in up to 80% of vegans that do not supplement their diet. Consuming no animal products increases the risk of deficiencies of vitamins B12 and [D](Vitamin D), [calcium](Calcium in biology), [iron](Iron in biology), [fatty acid](omega-3)(omega-3 fatty acid)s, and sometimes [iodine](Iodine in biology). Vegans are also at risk of low [mineral density](bone)(bone mineral density) without supplementation for the aforementioned nutrients.
* [chewing gum](Swallowed)(Swallowed chewing gum) does not take seven years to digest. In fact, chewing gum is mostly indigestible, and passes through the digestive system at the same rate as other matter.
a.
b. [Claim: Chewing gum takes seven years to pass through the digestive system; FALSE](http://www.snopes.com/oldwives/chewgum.asp)
* [glutamate](Monosodium)(Monosodium glutamate) (MSG) does not trigger [migraine](migraine) headaches or other symptoms of so-called [restaurant syndrome](Chinese)(Glutamate flavoring), nor is there evidence that some individuals are especially sensitive to MSG. There is also little evidence it impacts body weight.
a. b.
* Spicy food or coffee do not have a significant effect on the development of [ulcers](peptic)(peptic ulcers).
* The [carotene](beta)(beta-Carotene) in [carrot](carrot)s does not enhance [vision](night)(night vision) beyond normal levels for people receiving an adequate amount, only in those with a [of vitamin A](deficiency)(Vitamin A deficiency). The belief that it does may have originated from [War II](World)(World War II) British [disinformation](disinformation) meant to explain the [Air Force](Royal)(Royal Air Force)'s improved success in night battles, which was actually due to [radar](radar) and the use of red lights on instrument panels.
* [Spinach](Spinach) is not a particularly good source of [iron](dietary)(Human iron metabolism). While it does contain more iron than many vegetables such as asparagus, Swiss chard, kale, or arugula, it contains only about one-third to one-fifth of the iron in lima beans, chickpeas, apricots, or wheat germ. Additionally, the [non-heme](Non-heme iron protein) iron found in spinach and other vegetables is not as readily absorbed as the [heme](heme) iron found in meats and fish.
* Most cases of [obesity](obesity) are not related to slower [metabolism](resting)(Basal metabolic rate). Resting metabolic rate does not vary much between people. Overweight people tend to underestimate the amount of food they eat, and underweight people tend to overestimate. In fact, overweight people tend to have faster metabolic rates due to the increased energy required by the larger body.
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
g.
h.
i.
* Eating normal amounts of [soy](soy) does not cause [hormonal](Hormone) [imbalance](Endocrine disease).a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
##### Alcoholic beverages
* [beverage](Alcoholic)(Alcoholic beverage)s do not make the entire body warmer.
a.
b.
c. Alcoholic drinks create the sensation of warmth because they cause blood vessels to dilate and stimulate nerve endings near the surface of the skin with an influx of warm blood. This can actually result in making the core body temperature lower, as it allows for easier heat exchange with a cold external environment.
* [Alcohol](Ethanol) does not necessarily kill brain cells. Alcohol can, however, lead *indirectly* to the death of brain cells in two ways. First, in chronic, heavy alcohol users whose brains have adapted to the effects of alcohol, abrupt ceasing following heavy use can cause [excitotoxicity](excitotoxicity) leading to cellular death in multiple areas of the brain.
Second, in alcoholics who get most of their daily calories from alcohol, a deficiency of [thiamine](thiamine) can produce [syndrome](Korsakoff's)(Korsakoff's syndrome), which is associated with serious brain damage.
* The order in which different types of alcoholic beverages are consumed ("Grape or grain but never the twain" and "Beer before liquor never sicker; liquor before beer in the clear") does not affect [intoxication](Alcohol intoxication#Mechanism) or create adverse side effects.
* [Absinthe](Absinthe) has no [hallucinogen](hallucinogen)ic properties, and is no more dangerous than any other alcoholic beverage of equivalent proof. This misconception stems from late-19th- and early-20th-century distillers who produced cheap knockoff versions of absinthe, which used [salts](copper)(List of copper salts) to recreate the distinct green color of true absinthe, and some also reportedly adulterated cheap absinthe with poisonous [trichloride](antimony)(antimony trichloride), reputed to enhance the [effect](louching)(Ouzo effect).
#### Sexuality and reproduction
* It is not possible to get [pregnant](pregnant) from [semen](semen) released in a [pool](swimming)(swimming pool) [penetration](without)(Non-penetrative sex). The [cells](sperm)(sperm cells) would be quickly killed by the [water](chlorinated)(Swimming pool sanitation) and would not survive long enough to reach the [vagina](vagina).a. b. c. d.
* A broken [hymen](hymen) is not a reliable indicator that a female has been [penetrated](vaginally)(Sexual intercourse), because the tearing of the hymen may have been the result of some other event,
and bleeding is not necessarily associated with the first vaginal sexual intercourse. Traditional virginity tests, such as the [test]("two-finger")(Virginity test), are widely considered to be [unscientific](Scientific method).
[A National Protocol for Sexual Assault Medical Forensic Examinations](http://www.ncjrs.gov/pdffiles1/ovw/206554.pdf) National Criminal Justice Reference Service (NCJRS). September 2004
* Hand size and foot size do not correlate with [penis size](human)(human penis size), but [length ratio](finger)(digit ratio) may.
* While pregnancies from sex between [cousins](first)(cousin marriage) do carry a slightly elevated risk of [defect](birth)(birth defect)s, this risk is often exaggerated. The risk is 5–6% (similar to that of a woman in her early 40s giving birth), compared with a baseline risk of 3–4%. The effects of [depression](inbreeding)(inbreeding depression), while still relatively small compared to other factors (and thus difficult to control for in a scientific experiment), become more noticeable if isolated and maintained for several generations.
a.
b.
* Having sex before a sporting event or contest is not physiologically detrimental to performance.
In fact it has been suggested that sex prior to sports activity can elevate male [testosterone](testosterone) levels, which could potentially enhance performance for male athletes.
* There is no definitive proof of the existence of the vaginal [G-spot](G-spot), and the general consensus is that no such spot exists on the female body.
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
* [Closeted](Closeted) or [homosexuality](latent)(latent homosexuality) is not correlated with [homophobia](internalized)(internalized homophobia). A 1996 study claiming a connection in men has not been verified by subsequent studies, including a 2013 study that found no correlation.
* The [cycle](menstrual)(menstrual cycle)s of women who live together do not [to synchronize](tend)(menstrual synchrony). A 1971 study made this claim, but subsequent research has not supported it.
#### Skin and hair
* [wrinkles](Water-induced)(Prune skin) are not caused by the skin absorbing water and swelling.
They are caused by the [nervous system](autonomic)(autonomic nervous system), which triggers localized [vasoconstriction](vasoconstriction) in response to wet skin, yielding a wrinkled appearance.
a.
b.
* A person's [hair](Human hair growth) and [fingernail](Nail (anatomy))s do not continue to grow after death. Rather, the skin dries and shrinks away from the bases of hairs and nails, giving the appearance of growth.
* [Shaving](Shaving) does not cause [hair](terminal)(terminal hair) to grow back thicker or darker. This belief is thought to be due to the fact that hair that has never been cut has a tapered end, so after cutting, the base of the hair is blunt and appears thicker and feels coarser. That short hairs are less flexible than longer hairs contributes to this effect.
a.
b.
c.
* Hair care products cannot actually "repair" [ends](split)(Trichoptilosis) and damaged hair. They can prevent damage from occurring in the first place, and they can also smooth down the cuticle in a glue-like fashion so that it appears repaired, and generally make hair appear in better condition.
* Pulling or cutting a [hair](grey)(Human hair color#Effects of aging on hair color) will not cause two grey hairs to grow in its place. It will only cause the one hair to grow back because only one hair can grow from each [follicle](Hair follicle).
* [MC1R](MC1R), the gene mostly responsible for red hair, is not [extinct](becoming)(red hair#Extinction hoax), nor will the [for blond hair](gene)(Disappearing blonde gene) do so, although both are [recessive](recessive gene) [allele](allele)s. Redheads and blonds may become rarer but will not die out unless everyone who carries those alleles dies without passing their hair color genes on to their children.
* [Acne](Acne) is mostly caused by genetics, and is not caused by a lack of hygiene or eating fatty foods, though certain medication or a [carbohydrate](carbohydrate)-rich diet may worsen it.
* [Dandruff](Dandruff) is not caused by poor hygiene, though infrequent hair-washing can make it more obvious. The exact causes of dandruff are uncertain, but they are believed to be mostly genetic and environmental factors.a. b. c.
### Inventions
* [Watt](James)(James Watt) did not invent the [engine](steam)(steam engine), nor were his ideas on steam engine power inspired by a [kettle](kettle) lid pressured open by steam. Watt improved upon the already commercially successful [atmospheric engine](Newcomen)(Newcomen atmospheric engine) (invented in 1712) in the 1760s and 1770s, making certain improvements critical to its future usage, particularly the external condenser, increasing its efficiency, and later the mechanism for transforming reciprocating motion into rotary motion; his new steam engine later gained huge fame as a result.
* Although the [guillotine](guillotine) was named after the French physician [Guillotin](Joseph-Ignace)(Joseph-Ignace Guillotin), he neither invented nor was executed with this device. He died peacefully in his own bed in 1814.
* [Crapper](Thomas)(Thomas Crapper) did not invent the [toilet](flush)(flush toilet).
A forerunner of the modern toilet was invented by the Elizabethan courtier [John Harington](Sir)(John Harington (writer)#Invention of the modern toilet) in the 16th century,
and in 1775 the Scottish mechanic [Cumming](Alexander)(Alexander Cumming) developed and patented a design for a toilet with an [S-trap](Trap (plumbing)) and flushing mechanism. Crapper, however, did much to increase the popularity of the flush toilet and introduced several innovations in the late 19th century, holding nine patents, including one for the floating [ballcock](ballcock).
The word *crap* is also not derived from his name (see the [phrases and languages](Words,)(#Language) section above).
* [Edison](Thomas)(Thomas Edison) did not invent the [bulb](light)(incandescent light bulb).
He did, however, develop the first *practical* light bulb in 1880 (employing a carbonized [bamboo](bamboo) filament), shortly prior to [Swan](Joseph)(Joseph Swan), who invented an even more efficient bulb in 1881 (which used a cellulose filament).
* [Ford](Henry)(Henry Ford) did not invent either the [automobile](Car) or the [line](assembly)(assembly line). He did improve the assembly line process substantially, sometimes through his own engineering but more often through sponsoring the work of his employees, and he was the main person behind the introduction of the [T](Model)(Ford Model T), regarded as the first *affordable* automobile.
a. , pp. 15–47.
b. [Benz](Karl)(Karl Benz) (co-founder of [Mercedes-Benz](Mercedes-Benz)) is credited with the invention of the first modern automobile,
and the assembly line has existed [history](throughout)(History of assembly lines).
* [Gore](Al)(Al Gore) never said that he had "invented" the Internet. What Gore actually said was, "During my service in the United States Congress, I took the initiative in creating the Internet", in reference to his political work towards developing the Internet for widespread public use.
a.
b. Gore was the original drafter of the [Performance Computing and Communication Act of 1991](High)(High Performance Computing and Communication Act of 1991), which provided significant funding for supercomputing centers, and this in turn led to upgrades of a major part of the already-existing early 1990s Internet backbone, the [NSFNet](NSFNet), and development of [Mosaic](NCSA)(NCSA Mosaic), the [browser](web browser) that popularized the [Wide Web](World)(World Wide Web). (See also: [Gore and information technology](Al)(Al Gore and information technology))
### Mathematics
[[File:Kapitolinischer Pythagoras adjusted.jpg|thumb|upright|alt=Marble bust of a man with a long, pointed beard, wearing a taenia, a kind of ancient Greek head covering in this case resembling a turban. The face is somewhat gaunt and has prominent, but thin, eyebrows, which seem halfway fixed into a scowl. The ends of his mustache are long a trail halfway down the length of his beard to about where the bottom of his chin would be if we could see it. None of the hair on his head is visible, since it is completely covered by the taenia.|Bust of [Pythagoras](Pythagoras) in the [Museums](Capitoline)(Capitoline Museums), [Rome](Rome). Classical historians dispute whether he ever made any mathematical discoveries.]]
* The Greek philosopher [Pythagoras](Pythagoras) was not the first to discover the equation expressed in the [theorem](Pythagorean)(Pythagorean theorem), as it was known and used by the [Babylonians](Babylonian mathematics) and [Indians](Indian mathematics) centuries before him. Pythagoras may have been [first to introduce it to the Greeks](the)(Multiple discovery), but the first record of it being [proven](mathematically)(mathematical proof) as a [theorem](theorem) is in [*Elements*](Euclid's)(Euclid's Elements) which was published some 200 years after Pythagoras.
* There is no evidence that the [Greeks](ancient)(ancient Greeks) deliberately designed the [Parthenon](Parthenon) to match the [ratio](golden)(golden ratio).
a.
b. "Two other beliefs about [golden ratio](the) are often mentioned in magazines and books: that the ancient Greeks believed it was the proportion of the rectangle the eye finds most pleasing and that they accordingly incorporated the rectangle in many of their buildings, including the famous Parthenon. These two equally persistent beliefs are likewise assuredly false and, in any case, are completely without any evidence." The Parthenon was completed in 438 BCE, more than a century before the first recorded mention of the ratio by [Euclid](Euclid). Similarly, [da Vinci](Leonardo)(Leonardo da Vinci)'s *[Man](Vitruvian)(Vitruvian Man)* makes no mention of the golden ratio in its text, although it describes many other proportions.
a.
b.
* The [decimal](repeating)(repeating decimal) commonly written as [0.999...](0.999...) represents exactly the same quantity as the number [one](1 (number)). Despite having the appearance of representing a smaller number, [0.999...](0.999...) is a symbol for the number [1](1 (number)) in exactly the same way that 0.333... is an equivalent notation for the number represented by the fraction .
a.
b.
c.
* The [*p*-value](p-value) is not the probability that the [hypothesis](null)(null hypothesis) is true, or the probability that the [hypothesis](alternative)(alternative hypothesis) is false; it is the probability of obtaining results at least as extreme as the results actually observed under the assumption that the null hypothesis was correct, which can indicate the incompatibility of results with the specific statistical model assumed in the null hypothesis. This misconception, and similar ones like it, contributes to the common [of *p*-values](misuse)(misuse of p-values) in education and research.
* If one were to flip a [coin](fair)(fair coin) five times and get heads each time, it would not be any more likely for a sixth flip to come up tails. Phrased another way, after a long and/or unlikely [streak](wiktionary:streak#:~:text=A continuous series of like events) of [independently](Independence (probability theory)) [random](random) events, the probability of the next event is not influenced by the preceding events. [often feel that the underrepresented outcome is more likely](Humans)(Gambler's fallacy), as if it is due to happen. Such thinking may be attributed to the mistaken belief that [gambling](gambling), or even chance itself, is a fair process that can correct itself in the event of streaks.a.
b.
c.
d.
e. Oppenheimer, D.M., & Monin, B. (2009). The retrospective gambler's fallacy: Unlikely events, constructing the past, and multiple universes. *Judgment and Decision Making, vol. 4, no. 5,* pp. 326-334
f.
g.
### Physics
[[transit-time NASA wrong1 en.svg|thumb|upright=1.35|An illustration of the (incorrect) equal-transit-time explanation of aerofoil lift](File:Equal)]
* The [force](lift)(Lift (force)) is not generated by the air taking the same time to travel above and below an aircraft's wing. (Java applet). This misconception, sometimes called the [transit-time fallacy](equal)(equal transit-time fallacy), is widespread among textbooks and non-technical reference books, and even appears in pilot training materials. In fact, the air moving over the top of an aerofoil generating lift is always moving much faster than the equal transit theory would imply, as described in the [incorrect](Equal transit-time fallacy) and [explanations](correct)(Lift (force)#Simplified physical explanations of lift on an airfoil) of lift force.
* Blowing over a curved piece of paper does not demonstrate [principle](Bernoulli's)(Bernoulli's principle#Misapplications of Bernoulli's principle in common classroom demonstrations). Although a common classroom experiment is often explained this way,a.
b. .
c. Bernoulli's principle only applies within a flow field, and the air above and below the paper is in different flow fields.
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f. The paper rises because the air follows the curve of the paper and a curved [streamline](Streamlines, streaklines, and pathlines) will develop pressure differences perpendicular to the airflow.a.
b.
c.
a.
b.
* The [effect](Coriolis)(Coriolis effect) does not cause water to consistently drain from basins in a clockwise/counter-clockwise direction depending on the hemisphere. The common myth often refers to the draining action of [toilets](flush)(flush toilets) and [bathtubs](bathtubs). In fact, rotation is determined by whatever minor rotation is initially present at the time the water starts to drain, as the magnitude of the coriolis acceleration is [small](negligibly)(rossby number) compared to the inertial acceleration of flow within a typical basin.
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
g.
h.
* Neither [forces](gyroscopic)(Bicycle and motorcycle dynamics#Gyroscopic effects) nor [trail](geometric)(Trail (steering)) are required for a rider to [balance](bicycle and motorcycle dynamics#Other hypotheses) a bicycle or for it to demonstrate [self-stability](Bicycle and motorcycle dynamics#Self-stability). Although gyroscopic forces and trail can be contributing factors, it [been demonstrated](has)(Two-mass-skate bicycle) that those factors are neither required nor sufficient by themselves.
* A [penny](penny) dropped from the [State Building](Empire)(Empire State Building) would not kill a person or crack the sidewalk. A penny is too light and has too much air resistance to acquire enough speed to do much damage since it reaches [velocity](terminal)(terminal velocity) after falling about 50 feet. Heavier or more aerodynamic objects could cause significant damage if dropped from that height.
* Using a [thermostat](programmable)(programmable thermostat)'s setback feature to limit heating or cooling in a temporarily unoccupied building does not waste as much energy as leaving the temperature constant. Using setback saves energy (5–15%) because [transfer](heat)(heat transfer) across the surface of the building is roughly proportional to the temperature difference between its inside and the outside.
* It is not possible for a person to completely submerge in [quicksand](quicksand), as commonly depicted in fiction,
although sand entrapment in the [nearshore](littoral zone) of a body of water can be a drowning hazard as the tide rises.
* [nonlocality](Quantum)(Quantum nonlocality) caused by [entanglement](quantum)(quantum entanglement) does not allow [communication](faster-than-light)(faster-than-light communication) or imply instant [at a distance](action)(action at a distance), despite its common characterization as "spooky action at a distance". Rather, it means that [experiments](certain)(Bell test) cannot be explained by [realism](local)(local realism).
* [slipperiness of ice](The)(Ice#Friction properties) is not due to [melting](pressure)(Pressure melting point). While it is true that increased pressure, such as that exerted by someone standing on a sheet of ice, will lower the [point](melting)(melting point) of ice, experiments show that the effect is too weak to account for the lowered friction. [scientists](Materials)(Materials science) still debate whether [or the heat of friction](premelting)(Premelting#Ice skating) is the dominant cause of ice's slipperiness.
a.
b.
c.
### Psychology and neuroscience
* A small number of young children have [memory](eidetic)(eidetic memory), where they can recall an object with high precision for a few minutes after it is no longer present. True photographic memory (the ability to remember endless images, particularly pages or numbers, with such a high degree of precision that the image mimics a photo) has never been demonstrated to exist in any individual. Many people have claimed to have a photographic memory, but those people have been shown to have high precision memories as a result of [devices](mnemonic)(mnemonic) rather than a natural capacity for detailed memory encoding. There are rare cases of individuals with [memory](exceptional)(exceptional memory), but none of them have a memory that mimics that of a camera.
* The phase of the Moon does not influence fertility, cause a fluctuation in crime, or affect the stock market. There is no correlation between the [cycle](lunar)(Lunar effect) and human biology or behavior. However, the increased amount of illumination during the full moon may account for increased epileptic episodes, motorcycle accidents, or sleep disorders.
a.
b.
c. . Reprinted in *The Hundredth Monkey – and other paradigms of the paranormal*, edited by [Frazier](Kendrick)(Kendrick Frazier), Prometheus Books. Revised and updated in *The Outer Edge: Classic Investigations of the Paranormal*, edited by [Nickell](Joe)(Joe Nickell), [Karr](Barry)(Barry Karr), and [Genoni](Tom)(Tom Genoni), 1996, [CSICOP](CSICOP).
d.
#### Mental disorders
* [do not cause autism](Vaccines)(Vaccines and autism). There have been no successful attempts to [reproduce](Reproducibility) the [research](fraudulent)(MMR vaccine controversy) by British ex-doctor [Wakefield](Andrew)(Andrew Wakefield). Wakefield's research was ultimately shown to have been manipulated.
* [Dyslexia](Dyslexia) is not defined or diagnosed as [writing](mirror)(mirror writing) or reading letters or words backwards. Mirror writing and reading letters or words backwards are behaviors seen in many children (dyslexic or not) as they learn to read and write. [Dyslexia](Dyslexia) is a neurodevelopmental disorder of people who have at least average intelligence and who have difficulty in reading and writing that is not otherwise explained by low intelligence.
* [Self-harm](Self-harm) is not generally an [attention-seeking](attention-seeking) behavior. People who engage in [self-harm](self-harm) are typically very self-conscious of their wounds and scars and feel guilty about their behavior, leading them to go to great lengths to conceal it from others. They may offer alternative explanations for their injuries, or conceal their scars with clothing.
* There is no evidence that a chemical imbalance or neurotransmitter deficiency is the sole factor in [depression](Major depressive disorder) and other mental disorders, but rather a combination of biological, psychological, and social factors. Ronald Pies |url=https://return.life/2022/03/17/the-myth-of-the-chemical-imbalance/ |access-date=June 1, 2022 |website=Return}}
* [Schizophrenia](Schizophrenia) is characterized by continuous or relapsing episodes of psychosis. Major symptoms include hallucinations (typically hearing voices), delusions, paranoia, and disorganized thinking. Other symptoms include social withdrawal, decreased emotional expression, and apathy.Diagnostic and Statistical Manual 5th edition. The term was coined from the Greek roots *schizein* and *phrēn*, "to split" and "mind", in reference to a "splitting of mental functions" seen in schizophrenia, not a splitting of the personality. It does not involve split or multiple personalities—a split or multiple personality is [identity disorder](dissociative)(dissociative identity disorder).
* Not all [pedophiles](pedophilia) commit [sexual abuse](child)(child sexual abuse), and using the psychiatric definition of the word *pedophile*, not all child sexual abuse is committed by pedophiles. Pedophilia is a [disorder](psychiatric)(psychiatric disorder) in which an adult or older adolescent experiences a primary or exclusive [attraction](sexual)(sexual attraction) to [prepubescent](prepubescent) children. Child sexual abuse, also called child molestation, is a form of [abuse](child)(child abuse) in which an adult or older adolescent uses a child for [stimulation](sexual)(sexual stimulation). In general usage, a pedophile is any adult who is [sexually](Human sexuality) attracted to or engages in sexual acts with a [child](child).a.
b.
c.
d.
#### Brain
* Broad generalizations are often made in popular psychology about certain brain functions being [lateralized](Lateralization of brain function), or more predominant in one hemisphere than the other. These claims are often inaccurate or overstated.
* The [brain](human)(human brain), particularly the prefrontal cortex, does not reach [maturity"]("full)(Neuroplasticity) at any particular age (e.g. 18, 21, or 25 years of age). Changes in structure and myelination of gray matter are recorded to continue with relative consistency all throughout adult life. Some mental abilities peak and begin to decline around high school graduation while others do not peak until much later (i.e. 40s or later).a. More modern research suggests that the prefrontal cortex region of the brain is changing in structure even well past the age of 30.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
g.
h. |doi=10.4102/sajce.v5i1.347 |doi-access=free }}
i.
j.
[[File:Gyrus Dentatus 40x.jpg|thumb|Golgi-stained [neuron](neuron)s in human [hippocampal](hippocampal) tissue. It is commonly believed that humans will not grow new brain cells, but research has shown that some neurons can reform in humans.]]
* Humans do not generate all of the brain cells they will ever have by the age of two years. Although this belief was held by medical experts until 1998, it is now understood that new [neuron](neuron)s can be created [infancy](after)(postnatal) in some parts of the brain into late adulthood.
* People do not use [10% of their brains](only)(Ten percent of the brain myth). While it is true that a small minority of [neuron](neuron)s in the brain are actively firing at any one time, a healthy human will normally use most of their brain over the course of a day, and the inactive neurons are important as well. The idea that activating 100% of the brain would allow someone to achieve their maximum potential and/or gain various psychic abilities is common in [and fiction](folklore)(Ten percent of the brain myth#In popular culture), but doing so in real life would likely result in a fatal [seizure](seizure). This misconception was attributed to late 19th century leading thinker [James](William)(William James), who apparently used the expression only metaphorically.
* Although [Gage](Phineas)(Phineas Gage)'s brain injuries, caused by a several-foot-long tamping rod driven completely through his skull, caused him to become temporarily disabled, fanciful descriptions of his "immoral behavior" in later life are without factual basis.
#### Senses
* Infants can and do [pain](feel)(Pain in babies).
[[File:Taste buds.svg|thumb|upright|An **incorrect** [of the tongue](map)(tongue map) showing zones that taste [bitter](Taste#Bitterness) (1), [sour](Taste#Sourness) (2), [salty](Taste#Saltiness) (3) and [sweet](Sweetness) (4). Actually, all zones can sense all tastes, and there is also the taste of [umami](umami) (not shown on picture).]]
* All different [taste](taste)s can be detected on all parts of the [tongue](tongue) by [bud](taste)(taste bud)s,
with slightly increased sensitivities in different locations depending on the person; the [map](tongue)(tongue map) showing the contrary is fallacious.
* There are not four [tastes](primary)(primary tastes), but five: in addition to [bitter](Taste#Bitterness), [sour](Taste#Sourness), [salty](Taste#Saltiness), and [sweet](Sweetness), humans have taste receptors for [umami](umami), which is a "savory" or "meaty" taste. Fat does interact with specific [receptors](Receptor (biochemistry)) in [bud cells](taste)(Taste bud), but whether it is a sixth primary taste remains inconclusive.
* Humans have more than the commonly cited five [sense](sense)s. The number of senses in various categorizations ranges from five to more than 20. In addition to [sight](visual perception), [smell](olfaction), [taste](taste), [touch](somatosensory system), and [hearing](hearing (sense)), which were the senses identified by [Aristotle](Aristotle), humans can sense [balance](Balance (ability)) and acceleration ([equilibrioception](equilibrioception)), pain ([nociception](nociception)), body and limb position ([proprioception](proprioception) or kinesthetic sense), and relative temperature ([thermoception](thermoception)). Other senses sometimes identified are the sense of time, [echolocation](Human echolocation), itching, pressure, hunger, thirst, fullness of the stomach, need to urinate, need to defecate, and blood [dioxide](carbon)(carbon dioxide) (CO2) levels.
* The human [of smell](sense)(sense of smell) is not weak or underdeveloped. Humans have similar senses of smell to other mammals, and are more sensitive to some odors than rodents and dogs.
### Transportation
* The [Triangle](Bermuda)(Bermuda Triangle) does not have any more [shipwreck](shipwreck)s or mysterious [disappearances](Missing person) than most other waterways.
a.
b.
c.
* Toilet waste is never intentionally jettisoned from an aircraft. All waste is collected in tanks and emptied into [waste vehicles](toilet)(Ground support equipment#Lavatory service vehicles).
[ice](Blue)(blue ice (aircraft)) is caused by accidental leakage from the waste tank. [train toilet](Passenger)(Passenger train toilet)s, on the other hand, have indeed historically flushed onto the tracks; modern trains in most developed countries usually have retention tanks on board and therefore do not dispose of waste in such a manner.
* [batteries](Automotive)(automotive battery) stored on a [concrete](concrete) floor do not discharge any faster than they would on other surfaces, in spite of worry among Americans that concrete harms batteries.Examples of car battery on concrete misconception in the US from 1983–2011:
a.
b.
c.
d.
e. Early batteries with porous, leaky cases may have been susceptible to moisture from floors, but for many years [car batteries](lead–acid)(Lead–acid battery) have had impermeable [polypropylene](polypropylene) cases.
While most modern automotive batteries are [sealed](VRLA battery), and do not leak battery acid when properly stored and maintained,
a.
b. the sulfuric acid in them can leak out and stain, etch, or corrode concrete floors if their cases crack or tip over or their vent-holes are breached by floods.a.
b.
## See also
* [and myths regarding the Titanic](Legends)(Legends and myths regarding the Titanic)
* [of cognitive biases](List)(List of cognitive biases)
* [of conspiracy theories](List)(List of conspiracy theories)
* [of fallacies](List)(List of fallacies)
* [of topics characterized as pseudoscience](List)(List of topics characterized as pseudoscience)
* [of urban legends](List)(List of urban legends)
* [of public relations](Outline)(Outline of public relations)
* *[Epidemica](Pseudodoxia)(Pseudodoxia Epidemica)*
* *[QI](QI)*
* [theories in science](Superseded)(Superseded theories in science)
* [Straight Dope](The)(The Straight Dope)
* [memory](False)(False memory)
## Notes
## References
b.
c.
a.
b.
c.
a.
b.
a.
b.
c.
d.
}}
## Sources
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
## Further reading
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
## External links
* [List of children's misconceptions about science](http://amasci.com/miscon/opphys.html)
* [Misconceptions taught by science textbooks](http://amasci.com/miscon/miscon4.html)
* [Bad Science](http://www.ems.psu.edu/~fraser/BadScience.html)
* [Bad Chemistry](https://web.archive.org/web/20191016223902/http://www.faculty.virginia.edu/lehmannlab/badchemistry.html)
* [Snopes – Urban Legend Reference](http://www.snopes.com/)
[ ](Category:Lists of common misconceptions)
[misconceptions](Common)(Category:Society-related lists)
[*](Category:Misconceptions)
|
List of forms of government
|
list_of_forms_of_government
|
# List of forms of government
*Revision ID: 1160260394 | Timestamp: 2023-06-15T10:56:45Z*
---
This article lists forms of [government](government) and [system](political)(political system)s, according to a series of different ways of categorizing them. The systems listed are not mutually exclusive, and often have overlapping definitions.
According to [Yale](Yale) professor [José Linz](Juan)(Juan José Linz) there are three main types of [systems](political)(political systems) today: [democracies](democracies),
[regimes](totalitarian)(totalitarian regimes) and, sitting between these two, [regimes](authoritarian)(authoritarian regimes) with [regimes](hybrid)(hybrid regimes). Another modern classification system includes [monarchies](monarchies) as a standalone entity or as a hybrid system of the main three. Scholars generally refer to a [dictatorship](dictatorship) as either a form of authoritarianism or totalitarianism.
The ancient Greek philosopher [Plato](Plato) discusses in the *[Republic](Republic (Plato))* five types of regimes: [aristocracy](aristocracy), [timocracy](timocracy), [oligarchy](oligarchy), democracy, and [tyranny](Tyrant).
## Basic form of governments
**Index of Forms of Government.**
## Forms of government by regional control
__NOTOC__
## Forms of government by power source
### Types of democracy
### Types of oligarchy
[Oligarchies](Oligarchy) are societies controlled and organised by a small *class* of privileged people, with no intervention from the most part of society; this small elite is defined as sharing some common trait.
*[jure](De)(De jure)* democratic governments with a *[facto](de)(de facto)* oligarchy are ruled by a small group of segregated, powerful or influential people who usually share similar interests or family relations. These people may spread power and elect candidates equally or not equally. An oligarchy is different from a true democracy because very few people are given the chance to change things. An oligarchy does not have to be hereditary or monarchic. An oligarchy does not have one clear ruler but several rulers.
Some historical examples of oligarchy are the [Republic](Roman)(Roman Republic), in which only males of the nobility could run for office and only wealthy males could vote, and the [democracy](Athenian)(Athenian democracy), which used [sortition](sortition) to elect candidates, almost always male, Greek, educated citizens holding a minimum of land, wealth and status. Some critics of [capitalism](capitalism) and/or [democracy](representative)(representative democracy) think of [United States and the United Kingdom as oligarchies](the)(Oligarchy#United States).
*Note: These categories are not exclusive.*
### Types of autocracy
[Autocracies](Autocracy) are ruled by a single entity with absolute power, whose decisions are subject to neither external legal restraints nor regular mechanisms of popular control (except perhaps for implicit threat). That entity may be an individual, as in a [dictatorship](dictatorship) or it may be a group, as in a [state](one-party)(one-party state). The word [despotism](despotism) means to "rule in the fashion of despots" and is often used to describe autocracy.
Historical examples of autocracy include the [Empire](Roman)(Roman Empire), [Korea](North)(North Korea), the [Emirate of Afghanistan](Islamic)(Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan), [Eritrea](Eritrea) and [Germany](Nazi)(Nazi Germany).
### Pejorative attributes
Regardless of the form of government, the actual governance may be influenced by sectors with [power](political)(Power (social and political)) which are not part of the formal government. These are terms that highlight certain actions of the governors, such as [corruption](corruption), [demagoguery](demagoguery), or [mongering](fear)(fear mongering) that may disrupt the intended way of working of the government if they are widespread enough.
### Other attributes
## Forms of government by power ideology
### Types of monarchy
Countries with [monarchy](monarchy) attributes are those where a family or group of families (rarely another type of group), called the [royalty](wikt:Special:Search/royalty), represents national identity, with power traditionally assigned to one of its individuals, called the monarch, who mostly rule kingdoms. The actual role of the monarch and other members of royalty varies from purely symbolical ([republic](crowned)(crowned republic)) to partial and restricted ([monarchy](constitutional)(constitutional monarchy)) to completely despotic ([monarchy](absolute)(absolute monarchy)). Traditionally and in most cases, the post of the monarch is [inherited](inheritance), but there are also [monarchies](elective)(elective monarchy) where the monarch is elected.
### Types of republic
Rule by a form of government in which the people, or some significant portion of them, have supreme control over the government and where offices of state are elected or chosen by elected people.[Montesquieu](Montesquieu), *[Spirit of the Laws](The)(The Spirit of the Laws)* (1748), Bk. II, ch. 1. A common simplified definition of a republic is a government where the head of state is not a monarch. [Montesquieu](Montesquieu) included both [democracies](democracy), where all the people have a share in rule, and [aristocracies](aristocracy) or [oligarchies](oligarchy), where only some of the people rule, as republican forms of government.Montesquieu, *Spirit of the Laws*, Bk. II, ch. 2–3.
*Note: These categories are not exclusive.*
## Forms of government by socio-economic attributes
### By socio-economic attributes
Many political systems can be described as socioeconomic ideologies. Experience with those movements in power and the strong ties they may have to particular forms of government can cause them to be considered as forms of government in themselves.
*Note: These categories are not exclusive.*
### Types of government by geo-cultural attributes
Governments can also be categorized based on their size and scope of influence:
## Forms of government by other attributes
### By significant constitutional attributes
Certain major characteristics are defining of certain types; others are historically associated with certain types of government.
* [control of the military](Civilian)(Civilian control of the military) vs. [stratocracy](stratocracy)
* [rule](Majority)(Majority rule) or [sovereignty](parliamentary)(parliamentary sovereignty) vs. [constitution](constitution) or [of rights](bill)(bill of rights) with [of powers](separation)(separation of powers) and [supermajority](supermajority) rules to prevent [of the majority](tyranny)(tyranny of the majority) and protect [rights](minority)(minority rights)
* [according to higher law](Rule)(Rule according to higher law) (unwritten ethical principles) vs. written [constitutionalism](constitutionalism)
* [of church and state](Separation)(Separation of church and state) or [church](free)(free church) vs. [religion](state)(state religion)
* [Totalitarianism](Totalitarianism) or [authoritarianism](authoritarianism) vs. [libertarianism](libertarianism)
### By approach to regional autonomy
This list focuses on differing approaches that political systems take to the distribution of [sovereignty](sovereignty), and the [autonomy](Autonomous entity) of regions within the state.
* Sovereignty located exclusively at the centre of political jurisdiction
** [Empire](Empire)
* Sovereignty located at the centre and in peripheral areas
** [monarchy](Federal)(Federal monarchy)
** [Hegemony](Hegemony)
* Diverging degrees of sovereignty
** [Alliance](Alliance)
** [federalism](Asymmetrical)(Asymmetrical federalism)
** [company](Chartered)(Chartered company)
** [state](Client)(Client state)
*** [state](Associated)(Associated state)
*** [territory](Dependent)(Dependent territory)
*** [Protectorate](Protectorate)
*** [state](Puppet)(Puppet state)
*** [state](Satellite)(Satellite state)
*** [state](Vassal)(Vassal state)
** [Colony](Colony)
*** [colony](Crown)(Crown colony)
** [Commonwealth](Commonwealth)
** *[separatum](Corpus)(Corpus separatum (disambiguation))*
** [Decentralisation](Decentralisation) and [devolution](devolution) (powers redistributed from central to regional or local governments)
** [Federacy](Federacy)
** [Mandate](League of Nations mandate)
** [frontier](Military)(Military Frontier)
** [zone](Neutral)(Neutral zone (territorial entity))
** [territories](Non-self-governing)(United Nations list of non-self-governing territories)
** [territory](Occupied)(Occupied territory)
** [government](Provisional)(Provisional government)
** [Thalassocracy](Thalassocracy)
** Unrecognized state
*** [in exile](Government)(Government in exile)
*** [Micronation](Micronation)
*** [movement](Separatist)(Separatist movement)
*** [with limited recognition](States)(List of states with limited recognition)
### Theoretical and speculative attributes
These have no conclusive historical or current examples outside of speculation and scholarly debate.
## See also
* [of countries by system of government](List)(List of countries by system of government)
* [of political ideologies](List)(List of political ideologies)
* [of political systems in France](List)(List of political systems in France)
* [Cybersyn](Project)(Project Cybersyn), a data fed group of secluded individuals in Chile in the 1970s that regulated aspects of public and private life using data feeds and technology having no interactivity with the citizens but using facts only to decide direction.
* [of territorial disputes](List)(List of territorial disputes)
* [mandate](Exclusive)(Exclusive mandate)
## References
## External links
* [The Phrontistery Word List: Types of Government and Leadership](http://phrontistery.info/govern.html)
* [Types of Governments from Historical Atlas of the 20th Century](http://users.erols.com/mwhite28/20c-govt.htm)
* [Other classifications examples from Historical Atlas of the 20th Century](http://users.erols.com/mwhite28/othergov.htm)
* [World Affairs: Types of Government](http://stutzfamily.com/mrstutz/WorldAffairs/typesofgovt.html)
* [CBBC Newsround: types of government](http://news.bbc.co.uk/cbbcnews/hi/find_out/guides/world/united_nations/types_of_government/)
}}
[of government](Forms)(Category:Government-related lists)
|
101st Airborne Division
|
101st_airborne_division
|
# 101st Airborne Division
*Revision ID: 1158635708 | Timestamp: 2023-06-05T08:31:52Z*
---
| country =
| allegiance =
| branch =
| size = [Division](Division (military)#United States)
| command_structure = [Airborne Corps](XVIII)(XVIII Airborne Corps)
| garrison = [Campbell](Fort)(Fort Campbell), [Kentucky](Kentucky)
| garrison_label = Headquarters
| nickname = "Screaming Eagles" ([designation](special)(special designation))
| patron =
| motto = *Rendezvous With Destiny*
| colors =
| colors_label = Beret color
| march =
| mascot = [eagle](Bald)(Bald eagle) ([Abe](Old)(Old Abe))
| equipment =
| equipment_label =
| battles = [War II](World)(World War II)
* [Overlord](Operation)(American airborne landings in Normandy)
* [Market Garden](Operation)(Operation Market Garden)
* [of the Bulge](Battle)(Battle of the Bulge)
* [Allied invasion of Germany](Western)(Western Allied invasion of Germany)
[War](Vietnam)(Vietnam War)[Gulf War](Persian)(Gulf War)
[War on Terrorism](Global)(War on Terror)
* [in Afghanistan](War)(War in Afghanistan (2001–14))
* [War](Iraq)(Iraq War)
* [Inherent Resolve](Operation)(Operation Inherent Resolve)
* [Civil War](Somali)(Somali Civil War (2009–present))
| anniversaries =
| decorations =
| battle_honours =
| battle_honours_label =
| disbanded =
| flying_hours =
| website =
| commander1 = [MG](Major general (United States)) [P. McGee](Joseph)(Joseph McGee (general))
| commander1_label = Commander
| commander2 = [CSM](Command Sergeant Major) Charles D. Walker
| commander2_label = Command Sergeant Major
| commander3 =
| commander3_label =
| commander4 =
| commander4_label =
| notable_commanders = [list of commanders](Complete)(List of commanders of 101st Airborne Division)
| identification_symbol = [[service identification badge of the 101st Airborne Division.png|100px|center](File:Combat)]
| identification_symbol_label = [service identification badge](Combat)(Combat service identification badge)
| identification_symbol_2 = [[of the United States Army 101st Airborne Division (Scorpion W2).png|100px|center](File:Patch)]
| identification_symbol_4 = [[of the United States Army 101st Airborne Division.svg|140px|center|border](File:Flag)]
| identification_symbol_2_label = Subdued [sleeve insignia](shoulder)(shoulder sleeve insignia) worn on OCP-ACU
| identification_symbol_3 = [[Airborne Division DUI.png|100px|center](File:101st)]
| identification_symbol_3_label = [unit insignia](Distinctive)(Distinctive unit insignia) of Headquarters and Headquarters Battalion
| identification_symbol_4_label = Division Flag
| aircraft_attack =
| aircraft_bomber =
| aircraft_electronic =
| aircraft_fighter =
| aircraft_helicopter =
| aircraft_helicopter_attack =
| aircraft_helicopter_cargo =
| aircraft_helicopter_multirole =
| aircraft_helicopter_observation =
| aircraft_helicopter_trainer =
| aircraft_helicopter_utility =
| aircraft_interceptor =
| aircraft_patrol =
| aircraft_recon =
| aircraft_trainer =
| aircraft_transport =
| aircraft_tanker =
| aircraft_helicopter_transport =
}}
The **101st Airborne Division (Air Assault)** ("Screaming Eagles") is a [infantry](light)(light infantry) [division](division (military)) of the [States Army](United)(United States Army) that specializes in [assault](air)(air assault) [operations](military operation). It can plan, coordinate, and execute multiple [battalion](battalion)-size air assault operations to seize terrain. These operations can be conducted by mobile teams covering large distances, fighting behind enemy lines, and working in austere environments with limited or degraded infrastructure.Russ & Susan Bryant, p.63. Its unique battlefield mobility and high level of training have kept it in the vanguard of U.S. land combat forces in recent conflicts: for example, [internal defense](foreign)(foreign internal defense) and [counterterrorism](counterterrorism) operations in [Iraq](Iraq), in [Afghanistan](Afghanistan) in 2015–2016, and in Syria, as part of [Inherent Resolve](Operation)(Operation Inherent Resolve) in 2018–2021.
Established in 1918, the 101st Division was first constituted as an airborne unit in 1942. During [War II](World)(World War II), it gained renown for its role in [Overlord](Operation)(Operation Overlord) (the [landings](D-Day)(Normandy landings) and [landings](airborne)(American airborne landings in Normandy) on 6 June 1944, in [Normandy](Normandy), [France](France)); [Market Garden](Operation)(Operation Market Garden); the liberation of the [Netherlands](Netherlands); and its action during the [of the Bulge](Battle)(Battle of the Bulge) around the city of [Bastogne](Bastogne), [Belgium](Belgium). During the [War](Vietnam)(Vietnam War), the 101st Airborne Division fought in several major campaigns and battles, including the [of Hamburger Hill](Battle)(Battle of Hamburger Hill) in May 1969. In mid-1968, the division was reorganized and redesignated as an [airmobile](airmobile) division; in 1974, as an air assault division. The titles reflect the division's shift from airplanes to helicopters as the primary method of delivering troops into combat.
At the height of the [on Terror](War)(War on Terror), the 101st Airborne Division (Air Assault) had over 200 aircraft. This shrank to just over 100 aircraft with the inactivation of the [Combat Aviation Brigade](159th)(159th Combat Aviation Brigade) in 2015, making it no different in configuration from the Army's other light infantry divisions. In 2019, media reports suggested the Army was working to restore the 101st's aviation capabilities so it can return to lifting an entire [brigade](brigade) in one air assault operation.
The 101st's headquarters is at [Campbell](Fort)(Fort Campbell), [Kentucky](Kentucky). Many current members of the 101st are graduates of the [Army Air Assault School](U.S.)(United States Army Air Assault School), which is co-located with the division. The school is known as one of the Army's most difficult courses; only about half of those who begin it graduate.
The Screaming Eagles was referred to as "the tip of the spear" by former [Secretary of Defense](U.S.)(U.S. Secretary of Defense), [Gates](Robert)(Robert Gates), and the most potent and tactically [mobile](Mobility (military)) of the U.S. Army's divisions by General [C. Meyer](Edward)(Edward C. Meyer), then [of Staff of the Army](Chief)(Chief of Staff of the United States Army).
## History
## World War I and the interwar period
The 101st Division headquarters was organized 2 November 1918 at [Shelby](Camp)(Camp Shelby), [Mississippi](Mississippi), having been constituted on 23 July in the [Army](National)(National Army (USA)). [War I](World)(World War I) ended nine days later, and the division was demobilized on 11 December 1918.
In 1921, the division headquarters was reconstituted in the [Reserves](Organized)(Organized Reserves), and organized on 10 September 1921, at [Milwaukee](Milwaukee), [Wisconsin](Wisconsin). It was at this time that the [Eagle" mascot]("Screaming)(Old Abe) became associated with the division, as a successor to the traditions of the Wisconsin volunteer regiments of the [Civil War](American)(American Civil War).
|date= 1939
|parent= 101st Division
|subordinate=
* Headquarters, 101st Division
* Headquarters, Special Troops, 101st Division
** Headquarters Company, 101st Division
** 101st Military Police Company
** 101st Signal Company
** 326th Ordnance Company (Medium)
** 101st Tank Company (Light)
* 201st Infantry Brigade
** 401st Infantry Regiment
** 402nd Infantry Regiment
* 202nd Infantry Brigade
** 403rd Infantry Regiment
** 404th Infantry Regiment
* 176th Field Artillery Brigade
** 326th Ammunition Train
** 376th Field Artillery Regiment
** 377th Field Artillery Regiment
** 572nd Field Artillery Regiment
* 326th Engineer Regiment
* 326th Medical Regiment
* 426th Quartermaster Regiment
}}
## World War II to the present day
[[File:Eisenhower d-day.jpg|thumb|[General](General (United States)) [D. Eisenhower](Dwight)(Dwight D. Eisenhower) speaking with [Lieutenant](1st)(First lieutenant) [C. Strobel](Wallace)(Wallace Strobel (United States Army officer)) and men of Company E, [Parachute Infantry Regiment](502nd)(502nd Infantry Regiment (United States)) on 5 June. The placard around Strobel's neck indicates he is the jumpmaster for chalk No. 23 of the 438th TCG.]]
On 30 July 1942, the [Ground Forces](Army)(Army Ground Forces) ordered the activation of two airborne divisions by 15 August 1942. The 82nd Division, an Organized Reserve division ordered into active military service in March 1942, was ordered to provide cadre to the 101st Division, the other division selected for the project, for all elements except parachute infantry. As part of the reorganization of the 101st Division as an airborne division, the unit was disbanded in the Organized Reserve on 15 August 1942 and reconstituted and reactivated in the [of the United States](Army)(Army of the United States). On 19 August 1942, its first commander, Major General [C. Lee](William)(William C. Lee), read out General Order Number 5:
The 101st Airborne Division, which was activated on 16 August 1942, at [Claiborne](Camp)(Camp Claiborne), [Louisiana](Louisiana), has no history, but it has a rendezvous with destiny.
Due to the nature of our armament, and the tactics in which we shall perfect ourselves, we shall be called upon to carry out operations of far-reaching military importance and we shall habitually go into action when the need is immediate and extreme. Let me call your attention to the fact that our badge is the great American eagle. This is a fitting emblem for a division that will crush its enemies by falling upon them like a thunderbolt from the skies.
The history we shall make, the record of high achievement we hope to write in the annals of the American Army and the American people, depends wholly and completely on the men of this division. Each individual, each officer and each enlisted man, must therefore regard himself as a necessary part of a complex and powerful instrument for the overcoming of the enemies of the nation. Each, in his own job, must realize that he is not only a means, but an indispensable means for obtaining the goal of victory. It is, therefore, not too much to say that the future itself, in whose molding we expect to have our share, is in the hands of the soldiers of the 101st Airborne Division.
### D-Day
[[applies war paint 111-SC-193551cropped.jpg|thumb|Private Ware applies last second war paint to Private Plaudo in England June 1944.](File:Paratrooper)]
The [pathfinders](Pathfinder (military)) of the 101st Airborne Division led the way on [D-Day](Normandy landings) in the night drop before the invasion. They left from [North Witham](RAF)(RAF North Witham), having trained there with the [Airborne Division](82nd)(82nd Airborne Division). These night drops caused a lot of trouble for the gliders. Many crashed and equipment and personnel were lost.
The 101st Airborne Division's objectives were to secure the four causeway exits behind [Beach](Utah)(Utah Beach) between [Saint-Martin-de-Varreville](Saint-Martin-de-Varreville) and [Pouppeville](Pouppeville) to ensure the exit route for the 4th Infantry Division from the beach later that morning. The other objectives included destroying a German coastal artillery battery at Saint-Martin-de-Varreville, capturing buildings nearby at [Mézières](Les Mézières, Manche) believed used as barracks and a command post for the artillery battery, capturing the [Douve](Douve) river lock at [Barquette](La)(La Barquette) (opposite [Carentan](Carentan)), capturing two footbridges spanning the Douve at La Porte opposite [Brévands](Brévands), destroying the highway bridges over the Douve at [Saint-Côme-du-Mont](Saint-Côme-du-Mont), and securing the Douve River valley. Their secondary mission was to protect the southern flank of [Corps](VII)(VII Corps (United States)). They destroyed two bridges along the Carentan highway and a railroad bridge just west of it. They gained control of La Barquette locks, and established a bridgehead over the Douve which was located north-east of Carentan.
In the process, units also disrupted German communications, established roadblocks to hamper the movement of German reinforcements, established a defensive line between the beachhead and [Valognes](Valognes), cleared the area of the drop zones to the unit boundary at Les Forges, and linked up with the 82nd Airborne Division.
#### Drop Zone Able
The paratroopers of the 101st Airborne Division jumped between 00:48 and 01:40 [Double Summer Time](British)(British Double Summer Time) of 6 June. The first wave, inbound to Drop Zone A (the northernmost), was not surprised by the cloud bank and maintained formation, but navigating errors and a lack of [signal](Eureka)(Rebecca/Eureka transponding radar) caused the first error. Although the 2nd Battalion, [Parachute Infantry Regiment](502nd)(502nd Infantry Regiment (United States)) was dropped as a compact unit, it jumped on the wrong drop zone, while its commander, Lt. Col. Steve A. Chappuis, came down virtually alone on the correct drop zone. Chappuis and his [stick](paratrooper) captured the coastal battery soon after assembling, and found that it had already been dismantled after an air raid.
Most of the remainder of the 502nd (70 of 80 sticks) dropped in a disorganized pattern around the impromptu drop zone set up by the pathfinders near the beach. The battalion commanders of the 1st and 3rd Battalions, Lt. Col. Patrick J. Cassidy (1/502) and Lt. Col. [G. Cole](Robert)(Robert G. Cole) (3/502), took charge of small groups and accomplished all of their D-Day missions. Cassidy's group took Saint Martin-de-Varreville by 06:30, sent a patrol under S/Sgt. [C. Summers](Harrison)(Harrison C. Summers) to seize the "XYZ" objective, a barracks at Mésières, and set up a thin line of defense from [Foucarville](Foucarville) to [Beuzeville](Beuzeville). Cole's group moved during the night from near [Sainte-Mère-Église](Sainte-Mère-Église) to the Varreville battery, then continued on and captured Exit 3 at 07:30. They held the position during the morning until relieved by troops moving inland from Utah Beach. Both commanders found Exit 4 covered by German artillery fire and Cassidy recommended to the [Infantry Division](4th)(U.S. 4th Infantry Division) that it not use the exit.
The division's parachute artillery did not fare nearly as well. Its drop was one of the worst of the operation, losing all but one howitzer and dropping all but two of 54 loads four to to the north, where most ultimately became casualties.
#### Drop Zone Charlie
The second wave, assigned to drop the [Parachute Infantry Regiment (PIR)](506th)(506th Infantry Regiment (United States)) on Drop Zone C west of [Marie-du-Mont](Sainte)(Sainte-Marie-du-Mont, Manche), was badly dispersed by the clouds, then subjected to intense antiaircraft fire for . Three of the 81 C-47s were lost before or during the jump. One, piloted by 1st Lt. Marvin F. Muir of the [Troop Carrier Group](439th)(439th Troop Carrier Group), caught fire. Muir held the aircraft steady while the stick jumped, then died when the plane crashed immediately afterward, for which he was awarded the [Service Cross](Distinguished)(Distinguished Service Cross (United States)). Despite the opposition, the 506th's 1st BattalionLt. Col. William L. Turner, Colorado. Col. Turner was killed in action the next day. (the original division reserve) was dropped accurately on DZ C, landing two-thirds of its sticks and regimental commander Col. [F. Sink](Robert)(Robert Sink) on or within a mile of the drop zone.
Most of the 2nd Battalion had jumped too far west, near Sainte-Mère-Église. They eventually assembled near Foucarville at the northern edge of the 101st Airborne's objective area. It fought its way to the hamlet of le Chemin near the Houdienville causeway by mid-afternoon, but found that the [Division](4th)(4th Infantry Division (United States)) had already seized the exit hours before. The 3rd Battalion of the [PIR](501st)(501st Parachute Infantry Regiment (United States)), led by Lt. Col. [J. Ewell](Julian)(Julian Ewell) (3/501), also assigned to jump onto DZ C, was more scattered, but took over the mission of securing the exits. An ad hoc [company](company (military unit))-sized team that included division commander Maj. Gen. [D. Taylor](Maxwell)(Maxwell D. Taylor) reached the Pouppeville exit at 06:00. After a six-hour house-clearing battle with elements of the German 1058th Grenadier Regiment, the group secured the exit shortly before 4th Division troops arrived to link up.
#### Drop Zone Dog
The third wave also encountered severe [flak](flak), losing six aircraft. The troop carriers still made an accurate drop, placing 94 of 132 sticks on or close to the drop zone, but part of the DZ was covered by pre-registered German machine gun and mortar fire that inflicted heavy casualties before many troops could get out of their chutes. Among the killed were two of the three battalion commanders and the executive officer of the 3/506th.Lt. Col. Robert C. Carroll (1/501), Lt. Col. Robert L. Wolverton (3/506th), and Major George S. Grant (3/506).
The surviving battalion commander, Lt. Col. Robert A. Ballard, gathered 250 troopers and advanced toward Saint Côme-du-Mont to complete his mission of destroying the highway bridges over the Douve. Less than half a mile from his objective at les Droueries he was stopped by elements of battalion III/1058 Grenadier-Rgt. Another group of 50 men, assembled by the regimental S-3, Major Richard J. Allen, attacked the same area from the east at Basse-Addeville but was also pinned down.
The commander of the 501st PIR, Col. Howard R. Johnson, collected 150 troops and captured the main objective, la Barquette lock, by 04:00. After establishing defensive positions, Col. Johnson went back to the DZ and assembled another 100 men, including Allen's group, to reinforce the bridgehead. Despite naval gunfire support from the cruiser , Ballard's battalion was unable to take Saint Côme-du-Mont or join Col. Johnson.Col. Johnson was killed in action in the Netherlands on 8 October 1944.
The S-3 officer of the 3rd Battalion 506th PIR, Capt. Charles G. Shettle, put together a [platoon](platoon) and achieved another objective by seizing two foot bridges near la Porte at 04:30 and crossed to the east bank. When their ammunition drew low after knocking out several machine gun emplacements, the small force withdrew to the west bank. It doubled in size overnight as stragglers came in and repulsed a German probe across the bridges.
### Other actions
Two other noteworthy actions took place near Sainte Marie-du-Mont by units of the 506th PIR, both of which involved the seizure and destruction of [batteries](Artillery battery) of [mm guns](105)(10.5 cm leFH 18) of the [III Battalion-191st Artillery Regiment](German)(91st Infantry Division (Wehrmacht)#Organization (June 1944)). During the morning, a small patrol of troopers from Company E 506th PIR under (then) 1st Lt. [D. Winters](Richard)(Richard D. Winters) overwhelmed a force 3–4 times its size and destroyed four guns at a farm called [Manor](Brécourt)(Brécourt Manor Assault), for which Winters was later awarded the Distinguished Service Cross and the assault troops given Silver and Bronze Stars. This was later documented in the book *[of Brothers](Band)(Band of Brothers (book))* and the [of the same name](miniseries)(Band of Brothers (miniseries)).
[[File:101st Airborne Division - WW2 01.jpg|thumb|101st Airborne troops posing with a captured [Nazi](Nazi) vehicle air identification sign two days after landing at Normandy.]]
Around noon, while reconnoitering the area by [jeep](jeep), Col. Sink received word that a second battery of four guns had been discovered at Holdy, a manor between his CP and Sainte Marie-du-Mont, and the defenders had a force of some 70 paratroopers pinned down. Capt. Lloyd E. Patch (Headquarters Company 1st/506th) and Capt. Knut H. Raudstein (Company C 506th PIR)Patch became acting commander of the 1st Battalion on 7 June, and later commanded the 3/506 as a lieutenant colonel. Both Patch and Raudstein were awarded the DSC. led an additional 70 troops to Holdy and enveloped the position. The combined force then continued on to seize Sainte Marie-du-Mont. A platoon of the 502nd PIR, left to hold the battery, destroyed three of the four guns before Col. Sink could send four jeeps to save them for the 101st's use.
At the end of D-Day, Gen. Taylor and his assistant division commander (ADC) Brig. Gen. [C. McAuliffe](Anthony)(Anthony C. McAuliffe) returned from their foray at Pouppeville. Taylor had control of approximately 2,500 of his 6,600 men, most of whom were in the vicinity of the 506th CP at Culoville, with the thin defense line west of Saint Germain-du-Varreville, or the division reserve at Blosville. Two [airlifts](glider)(Mission Chicago) had brought in scant reinforcements and had resulted in the death of his other ADC, Brig. Gen. [F. Pratt](Don)(Don F. Pratt), his neck broken on impact. The 327th Glider Infantry had come across Utah Beach but only its third battalion (1st Battalion 401st GIR) had reported in.
The 101st Airborne Division had accomplished its most important mission of securing the beach exits, but had a tenuous hold on positions near the Douve River, over which the Germans could still move armored units. The three groups clustered there had tenuous contact with each other but none with the rest of the division. A shortage of radio equipment caused by losses during the drops exacerbated his control problems. Taylor made destroying the Douve bridges the division's top priority and delegated the task to Sink, who issued orders for the 1st Battalion 401st Glider Infantry to lead three battalions south the next morning.
As the regular troops moved in from the coast and strengthened the paratrooper positions, many were relieved and sent to the rear to organize for the next big paratroop operation.
#### Operation Market Garden
[[Airborne inspecting broken glider in Holland army.mil-2007-09-12-112355.jpg|thumb|Men of the 101st Airborne Division inspect a broken glider, September 1944.](File:101st)]
On 17 September 1944, the 101st Airborne Division became part of [Airborne Corps](XVIII)(XVIII Airborne Corps), under [General](Major)(Major general (United States)) [Ridgway](Matthew)(Matthew Ridgway), part of the [Allied Airborne Army](First)(First Allied Airborne Army), commanded by [General](Lieutenant)(Lieutenant general (United States)) [H. Brereton](Lewis)(Lewis H. Brereton). The division took part in [Market Garden](Operation)(Operation Market Garden) (17–25 September 1944), an unsuccessful Allied military operation under [Marshal](Field)(Field marshal (United Kingdom)) [Montgomery](Bernard)(Bernard Montgomery), commander of the Anglo-Canadian [Army Group](21st)(21st Army Group), to capture Dutch bridges over the Rhine, it was fought in the Netherlands, and is the largest airborne operation of any war.
The plan, as outlined by Montgomery, required the seizure by airborne forces of several bridges on the [69](Highway)(A50 motorway (Netherlands)) across the Maas ([River](Meuse)(Meuse River)) and two arms of the [Rhine](Rhine) (the [Waal](Waal (river)) and the [Rhine](Lower)(Nederrijn)), as well as several smaller [canal](canal)s and [tributaries](tributary). Crossing these bridges would allow British armoured units to [outflank](flanking manoeuvre) the [Line](Siegfried)(Siegfried Line), advance into northern Germany, and encircle the [Ruhr](Ruhr Area), Germany's industrial heartland, thus ending the war. This meant the large-scale use of Allied [forces](airborne)(airborne forces), including both the 82nd and 101st Airborne Divisions, along with the [1st Airborne Division](British)(1st Airborne Division (United Kingdom)).
The operation was initially successful. Several bridges between [Eindhoven](Eindhoven) and [Nijmegen](Nijmegen) were captured by the 82nd and 101st. The 101st met little resistance and captured most of their initial objectives by the end of 17 September. However, the demolition of the division's primary objective, a bridge over the Wilhelmina Canal at [Son](Son en Breugel), delayed the capture of the main road bridge over the Maas until 20 September. Faced with the loss of the bridge at Son, the 101st unsuccessfully attempted to capture a similar bridge a few kilometers away at [Best](Best, Netherlands) but found the approach blocked. Other units continued moving to the south and eventually reached the northern end of Eindhoven.
At 06:00 on 18 September, the [Guards](Irish)(Irish Guards) of the [Guards Armoured Division](British)(Guards Armoured Division) resumed the advance while facing determined resistance from German infantry and tanks. Around noon the 101st Airborne were met by the lead reconnaissance units from [XXX Corps](British)(XXX Corps (United Kingdom)). At 16:00 radio contact alerted the main force that the Son bridge had been destroyed and requested that a replacement [bridge](Bailey)(Bailey bridge) be brought forward. By nightfall the Guards Armoured Division had established itself in the Eindhoven areaRandall, p. 33 however transport columns were jammed in the packed streets of the town and were subjected to German aerial bombardment during the night. XXX Corps engineers, supported by German prisoners of war, constructed a class 40 Bailey bridge within 10 hours across the Wilhelmina Canal. The longest sector of the highway secured by the 101st Airborne Division later became known as "Hell's Highway".
The 101st then came up to the Nijmegen salient and relieved the British [Wessex Division](43rd)(43rd (Wessex) Infantry Division) to defend against the [counter offensive](German)(Battle of the Nijmegen salient) in early October.
#### Battle of the Bulge
[[File:Bastogne resupply1944 sm.jpg|thumb|101st Airborne Division troops watch as [C-47s](C-47 Skytrain) drop supplies over Bastogne.]]
The Ardennes Offensive (16 December 1944 – 25 January 1945) was a major German offensive launched towards the end of World War II through the forested [Mountains region](Ardennes)(Ardennes) of Belgium. Germany's planned goal for these operations was to split the British and American Allied line in half, capturing [Antwerp](Antwerp), Belgium in the process, and then proceeding to [and destroy](encircle)(encirclement) the entire [21st Army Group](British)(British 21st Army Group) and all [U.S. Army Group](12th)(Twelfth United States Army Group) units north of the German advance, forcing the Western Allies to negotiate a [treaty](peace)(peace treaty) in the [Powers](Axis)(Axis powers of World War II)' favor as a result. In order to reach Antwerp before the Allies could regroup and bring their superior air power to bear, German mechanized forces had to seize all the major highways through eastern Belgium. Because all seven of the main roads in the Ardennes converged on the small town of [Bastogne](Bastogne), control of its crossroads was vital to the success or failure of the German attack.
Despite several notable signs in the weeks preceding the attack, the Ardennes Offensive achieved virtually complete surprise. By the end of the second day of battle, it became apparent that the [Infantry Division](28th)(28th Infantry Division (United States)) was near collapse. Maj. Gen. [H. Middleton](Troy)(Troy H. Middleton), commander of [Corps](VIII)(VIII Corps (United States)), ordered part of his armored reserve, Combat Command B of the [Armored Division](10th)(U.S. 10th Armored Division) to Bastogne.CCB consisted of the 3rd Tank Battalion, [Armored Infantry Battalion](20th)(54th Infantry Regiment (United States)), C Company 21st Tank Battalion, B Company [Armored Infantry Battalion](54th)(54th Infantry Regiment (United States)), C Company 609th Tank Destroyer Battalion, 420th Armored Field Artillery Battalion, and three companies of support troops. Meanwhile, Gen. [Eisenhower](Dwight D. Eisenhower) ordered forward the [SHAEF](SHAEF) reserve, composed of the 82nd and 101st Airborne, which were stationed at [Reims](Reims).
Both divisions were alerted on the evening of 17 December, and not having organic transport, began arranging trucks for movement forward, the weather conditions being unfit for a parachute drop. The 82nd, longer in reserve and thus better re-equipped, moved out first. The 101st left Camp Mourmelon on the afternoon of 18 December, with the order of march the division artillery, division trains, 501st PIR, [PIR](506th)(506th Infantry Regiment), 502nd PIR, and [Glider Infantry](327th)(327th Infantry Regiment (United States)). Much of the convoy was conducted at night in drizzle and sleet, using headlights despite threat of air attack to speed the movement, and at one point the combined column stretched from [Bouillon](Bouillon, Belgium), Belgium, back to Reims.
The 101st Airborne was routed to Bastogne, located away on a high [plateau](plateau), while the 82nd Airborne took up positions further north to block the critical advance of *[Peiper](Kampfgruppe)(Kampfgruppe Peiper)* toward Werbomont, Belgium. The [Tank Destroyer Battalion](705th)(705th Tank Destroyer Battalion), in reserve sixty miles to the north, was ordered to Bastogne to provide anti-tank support to the armorless 101st Airborne on the 18th and arrived late the next evening. The first elements of the [PIR](501st)(501st Infantry Regiment (United States)) entered the division assembly area four miles west of Bastogne shortly after midnight of 19 December, and by 09:00 the entire division had arrived.
By 21 December, the German forces had surrounded Bastogne, which was defended by both the 101st Airborne and [Command](Combat)(Combat Command) B of the 10th Armored Division. Conditions inside the perimeter were tough—most of the medical supplies and medical personnel had been captured on 19 December. CCB of the 10th Armored Division, severely weakened by losses in delaying the German advance, formed a mobile "fire brigade" of 40 light and medium tanks (including survivors of CCR of the [Armored Division](9th)(9th Armored Division (United States)), which had been destroyed while delaying the Germans, and eight replacement tanks found unassigned in Bastogne). Three artillery battalions, including the all-black [Field Artillery Battalion](969th)(969th Artillery Battalion (United States)), were commandeered by the 101st and formed a temporary artillery group. Each had 12 155 mm howitzers, providing the division with heavy firepower in all directions restricted only by its limited ammunition supply (By 22 December artillery ammunition was restricted to 10 rounds per gun per day.) The weather cleared the next day, however, and supplies (primarily ammunition) were dropped over four of the next five days.
[[File:McAuliffeBastogneChristmasLetter101Airborne.jpg|thumb|150px|A letter from General [McAuliffe](Anthony McAuliffe) on [Day](Christmas)(Christmas Day) to the 101st Airborne troops defending [Bastogne](Bastogne)]]
Despite several determined German attacks, the perimeter held. The German commander, Generalleutnant [Freiherr von Lüttwitz](Heinrich)(Heinrich Freiherr von Lüttwitz),Marshall, p.177. requested Bastogne's surrender. When [General](Brigadier General) [McAuliffe](Anthony)(Anthony McAuliffe), now acting commander of the 101st, was told, he commented : "Nuts!" After turning to other pressing issues, his staff reminded him that there should be a reply to the German demand. One officer (Harry W. O. Kinnard, then a lieutenant colonel) recommended that McAuliffe's reply should be "tough to beat". Thus, McAuliffe wrote on the paper delivered to the Germans: "NUTS!" That reply had to be explained, both to the Germans and to non-American Allies.* [Nuts](wikt:Nuts)* can mean several things in [English](American)(American English) slang. In this case, however, it signified rejection, and was explained to the Germans as meaning "Go to Hell!"
Both of the two panzer divisions of the XLVII Panzer Corps moved forward from Bastogne after 21 December, leaving only one panzergrenadier regiment of the [Panzer-Lehr-Division](Panzer-Lehr-Division) to assist the [Volksgrenadier Division](26th)(26th Volksgrenadier Division (Wehrmacht)) in attempting to capture the crossroads. The 26th VG received additional armor and panzergrenadier reinforcements on Christmas Eve to prepare for its final assault, to take place on Christmas Day. Because it lacked sufficient armor and troops and the 26th VG Division was near exhaustion, the XLVII Panzer Corps concentrated the assault on several individual locations on the west side of perimeter in sequence rather than launching one simultaneous attack on all sides. The assault, despite initial success by German tanks in penetrating the American line, was defeated and virtually all of the German tanks involved were destroyed. The next day, 26 December, the spearhead of [George S. Patton's](General)(George S. Patton) [Third Army](U.S.)(Third United States Army) relief force, the [Armored Division](4th)(4th Armored Division (United States)), broke through the German lines and opened a corridor to Bastogne, ending the siege. The division got the nickname "The Battered Bastards of the Bastion of Bastogne".
With the encirclement broken, the men of the 101st expected to be relieved, but were given orders to resume the offensive. The 506th attacked north and recaptured [Recogne](Recogne) on 9 January 1945, the Bois des Corbeaux (*Corbeaux Wood*), to the right of Easy Company, on 10 January, and Foy on 13 January. The 327th attacked towards Bourcy, northeast of Bastogne, on 13 January and encountered stubborn resistance. The 101st Airborne Division faced the elite of the German military which included such units as [SS Panzer Division Leibstandarte SS Adolf Hitler](1st)(1st SS Panzer Division Leibstandarte SS Adolf Hitler), [Führerbegleitbrigade](Führerbegleitbrigade), [SS Panzer Division Hitlerjugend](12th)(12th SS Panzer Division Hitlerjugend), and the [SS Panzer Division Hohenstaufen](9th)(9th SS Panzer Division Hohenstaufen).Bando, p.188. The 506th retook Noville on 15 January and Rachamps the next day. The 502nd reinforced the 327th, and the two regiments captured Bourcy on 17 January, pushing the Germans back to their point of advance on the day the division had arrived in Bastogne. The next day the 101st Airborne Division was relieved.
[[File:PZ IV Ardenne3.jpg|thumb|A Panzer IV of [Peiper](Kampfgruppe)(Kampfgruppe Peiper) of the [SS Panzer Division Leibstandarte SS Adolf Hitler](1st)(1st SS Panzer Division Leibstandarte SS Adolf Hitler). The 101st Airborne Division fought this elite [SS](Waffen)(Waffen SS) division when the 101st attacked towards Bourcy, northeast of Bastogne, on 13 January 1945.]]
#### Liberation of Kaufering
In April 1945, the 101st moved into the Rhineland and eventually reached the Bavarian Alps. As the 101st drove into Southern Germany they liberated Kaufering IV, one of the camps in the [complex](Kaufering)(Kaufering concentration camp). Kaufering IV had been designated as the sick camp where prisoners who could no longer work were sent. During the typhus epidemic of 1945 in Germany, Kaufering prisoners with typhus were sent there to die. Kaufering IV was located near the town of Hurlach, which the [Armored Division](12th)(12th Armored Division (United States)) occupied on 27 April, with the 101st arriving the next day. The soldiers found over 500 dead inmates and the Army ordered the local townspeople to bury the dead.
#### Composition
[[File:SUPPLY BY AIR 2.jpg|thumb|right|101st Airborne troops retrieving air dropped supplies during the [of Bastogne](siege)(Battle of Bastogne).]]
The division was composed of the following units:
* 327th Glider Infantry Regiment
* 401st Glider Infantry Regiment (disbanded 1 March 1945, 1st Battalion became the 3rd Battalion, 327th GIR, while the 2nd Battalion became the 3rd Battalion, [GIR](325th)(325th Glider Infantry Regiment), [Airborne Division](82nd)(82nd Airborne Division))
* 502nd Parachute Infantry Regiment
* 506th Parachute Infantry Regiment (attached 15 September 1943 to 1 March 1945, thereafter assigned)
* 81st Airborne Antiaircraft Artillery Battalion
* 326th Airborne Engineer Battalion
* 101st Parachute Maintenance Company (assigned 1 March 45)
* [Airborne Medical Company](326th)(326th Medical Battalion (United States))
* 101st Airborne Division Artillery
** [Glider Field Artillery Battalion](321st)(321st Field Artillery Regiment (United States)) (75 mm)
** [Parachute Field Artillery Battalion](377th)(377th Field Artillery Regiment (United States)) (75 mm)
** 463rd Parachute Field Artillery Battalion (75 mm) (assigned 1 March 1945)
** 907th Glider Field Artillery Battalion (75 mm)
* Special Troops (Headquarters activated 1 Mar 45)
** Headquarters Company, 101st Airborne Division
** 101st Airborne Signal Company
** 426th Airborne Quartermaster Company
** 801st Airborne Ordnance Company
** Reconnaissance Platoon (assigned 1 March 45)
** Military Police Platoon
** Band (assigned 1 March 45)
Attached paratrooper units:
* 501st Parachute Infantry Regiment (attached January 1944 – past 9 May 1945)
### Casualties
* **Total battle casualties:** 9,328Army Battle Casualties and Nonbattle Deaths, Final Report (Statistical and Accounting Branch, Office of the Adjutant General, 1 June 1953)
* **Killed in action:** 1,766
* **Wounded in action:** 6,388
* **Missing in action:** 207
* **Prisoner of war:** 967
#### Awards
During World War II the division and its members were awarded the following awards:
* [Unit Citation](Distinguished)(Distinguished Unit Citation)s: 13
* [of Honor](Medal)(Medal of Honor): 3
** Staff Sergeant [S. Jachman](Isadore)(Isadore S. Jachman)([KIA](Killed in action))
** Lieutenant Colonel [G. Cole](Robert)(Robert G. Cole)([KIA](Killed in action))
** Private First Class [E. Mann](Joe)(Joe E. Mann)([KIA](Killed in action))
* [Service Medal](Distinguished)(Distinguished Service Medal (U.S. Army)): 2
* [Star](Silver)(Silver Star): 456
* [of Merit](Legion)(Legion of Merit): 20
* [Medal](Soldier's)(Soldier's Medal): 4
* [Star Medal](Bronze)(Bronze Star Medal): 9,488
* [Medal](Air)(Air Medal): 48
#### Post-war
On 1 August 1945, the 501st PIR was moved to France, while the rest of the division was based around [am See](Zell)(Zell am See) and [Kaprun](Kaprun) in the Austrian Alps. Some units within the division began training for redeployment to the [Theatre of War](Pacific)(Pacific War), but the war ended before they were needed. The division was inactivated 30 November 1945. For their efforts during World War II, the 101st Airborne Division was awarded four campaign streamers and two Presidential Unit Citations.
#### Helmet insignia
The 101st was distinguished partly by its tactical helmet insignia. [suits](Card)(Suit (cards)) (diamonds, spades, hearts, and clubs) on each side of the helmet denoted the regiment to which a soldier belonged. The only exception was the 187th which was added to the division later. Divisional headquarters and support units were denoted by use of a square and divisional artillery by a circle. Tick marks at 3, 6, and 9 o'clock indicated to which battalion the individual belonged, while the tick mark at 12 o'clock indicated a headquarters or headquarters company assignment.
* These insignia were first seen in World War II, and can still be seen on 101st Division soldiers today.
** 327th: Clubs (♣) (Currently worn by the 1st Brigade Combat Team; depicted in 1949 film [Battleground](Battleground (film)))
** 501st: Diamonds (♦) (Currently 1st Battalion, 501st Infantry Regiment is part of the 2nd Brigade, 11th Airborne Division in Alaska.) (The diamond is currently used by both 1st Battalion, 501st Infantry Regiment and the 101st [Aviation Brigade](Combat)(Combat Aviation Brigade))
** 502nd: Hearts (♥) (Currently worn by the 2nd Brigade Combat Team)
** 506th: Spades (♠) (Formerly worn by 4th Brigade Combat Team before their deactivation in 2014; depicted in the mini-series *Band of Brothers*; currently worn by 1st and 2nd Battalion of the 506th Infantry Regiment)
** [187th](187th Infantry Regiment): [Torii](Torii) ([10px](File:Torii.svg)) (Currently worn by the 3rd Brigade Combat Team; not during World War II, when the 187th Infantry Regiment was part of the [Airborne Division](11th)(11th Airborne Division).)
### Postwar training and pentomic reactivation
The 101st Airborne was allotted to the Regular Army in June 1948 and reactivated as a training unit at [Breckenridge](Camp)(Morganfield, Kentucky#Camp Breckenridge), [Kentucky](Kentucky) the following July, only to be deactivated the next year. It was reactivated in 1950 following the outbreak of the Korean War, again to serve as a Training Center at Camp Breckenridge until inactivated in December 1953. During this time it included the [Airborne Infantry Regiment](53rd)(53rd Infantry Regiment (United States)).
It was reactivated again in May 1954 at [Jackson](Fort)(Fort Jackson (South Carolina)), [Carolina](South)(South Carolina) and in March 1956, the 101st was transferred, less personnel and equipment, to [Campbell](Fort)(Fort Campbell, Kentucky), Kentucky, to be reorganized as a combat division. Using the personnel and equipment of the 187th ARCT and the 508th ARCT, the 101st was reactivated as the first "[pentomic](pentomic)" division with five [groups](battle)(Battlegroup (army)) in place of its World War II structure that included regiments and battalions. The reorganization was in place by late April 1957 and the division's battle groups were:
* 2nd Airborne Battle Group, 187th Infantry
* 1st Airborne Battle Group, 327th Infantry
* 1st Airborne Battle Group, 501st Infantry
* 1st Airborne Battle Group, 502nd Infantry
* 1st Airborne Battle Group, 506th Infantry
Division artillery consisted of the following units:
* Battery D, 319th Artillery
* Battery E, 319th Artillery
* Battery A, 321st Artillery
* Battery B, 321st Artillery
* Battery C, 321st Artillery
* Battery A, 377th Artillery
Other supporting units were also assigned.
### Civil rights
The "[Rock Nine](Little)(Little Rock Nine)" were a group of African-American students who were enrolled in [Rock Central High School](Little)(Little Rock Central High School) in September 1957, as a result of the [Supreme Court](U.S.)(U.S. Supreme Court)'s ruling in the historic *[v. Board of Education](Brown)(Brown v. Board of Education)* case. Elements of the division's 1st Airborne Battle Group, 327th Infantry were ordered to [Rock](Little)(Little Rock, Arkansas) by President Eisenhower to escort the students into the formerly segregated school during the crisis. The division was under the command of Major General [Walker](Edwin)(Edwin Walker), who was committed to protecting the black students. The troops were deployed from September until Thanksgiving 1957, when [Force 153rd Infantry](Task)(153rd Infantry Regiment), (federalized [Army National Guard](Arkansas)(Arkansas Army National Guard)) which had also been on duty at the school since 24 September, assumed the responsibility.
### STRAC
In 1958 the US Army formed the [Army Corps](Strategic)(Strategic Army Corps) consisting of the 101st and 82nd Airborne Divisions and the 1st and 4th Infantry Divisions with a mission of rapid deployment on short notice.
### Vietnam War
[[Airborne Division - Vietnam 01.jpg|thumb|Men of the 1st Brigade, 101st Airborne Division, fire from old Viet Cong trenches.](File:101st)]
On 29 July 1965, the 1st Brigade deployed to [Corps](II)(II Corps (South Vietnam)), [Vietnam](South)(South Vietnam) with the following units:
* 1st Battalion, 327th Infantry
* 2nd Battalion, 327th Infantry
* 2nd Battalion, 502nd Infantry
* [Battalion, 320th Artillery](2nd)(2nd Battalion, 320th Field Artillery Regiment)
* [A, 2nd Squadron 17th Cavalry](Troop)(17th Cavalry Regiment)
* 101st Support Battalion (Provisional)
* Company A, 326th Engineer Battalion
* Company D, [Medical Battalion](326th)(326th Medical Battalion (United States))
* Company B, 501st Signal Battalion
* 20th Chemical Detachment
* 181st Military Intelligence Detachment
* 406th Army Security Agency Detachment
From 1965 to 1967, the 1st Brigade operated independently as sort of a fire brigade and earned the reputation as being called the "Nomads of Vietnam." They fought in every area of South Vietnam from the [Zone](Demilitarized)(Vietnamese Demilitarized Zone) up north all the way down the [Highlands](Central)(Central Highlands (Vietnam)). In May 1967 the 1st Brigade operated as part of [Force Oregon](Task)(Task Force Oregon).
Within the United States, the 101st, along with the 82nd Airborne Division, was sent in to quell the [Detroit riot](1967)(1967 Detroit riot).
The rest of the 101st was deployed to Vietnam in November 1967 and the 1st Brigade rejoined its parent division. The 101st was deployed in the northern [Corps](I)(I Corps (South Vietnam)) region, operating against the [Army of Vietnam](People's)(People's Army of Vietnam) (PAVN) infiltration routes through [Laos](Laos) and the [Shau Valley](A)(A Shau Valley) for most of the war. Notable among these were the [of Hamburger Hill](Battle)(Battle of Hamburger Hill) in 1969 and [Ripcord](Firebase)(FSB Ripcord) in 1970.
The 101st Airborne were called the "Chicken Men" by the North Vietnamese because of their insignia. Enemy commanders are said to have warned their men to avoid the Chicken Men at all costs because they were sure to lose any engagement with them.
#### Tiger Force
[Force](Tiger)(Tiger Force) was the nickname of a [reconnaissance patrol](long-range)(long-range reconnaissance patrol) unit of the 1st Battalion (Airborne), 327th Infantry Regiment, 1st Brigade (Separate), 101st Airborne Division, which fought in the [War](Vietnam)(Vietnam War).Sallah & Weiss, *Tiger Force*, pp. 22–23. The platoon-sized unit, approximately 45 [paratroopers](paratroopers), was founded by Colonel [Hackworth](David)(David Hackworth) in November 1965 to "outguerrilla the guerrillas".Sallah & Weiss, *Tiger Force*, pp. 13–14, 23, 224. Tiger Force (Recon) 1/327th was a highly decorated small unit in Vietnam, and paid for its reputation with heavy casualties. In October 1968, Tiger Force's parent battalion was awarded the [Unit Citation](Presidential)(Presidential Unit Citation (US)) by President [B. Johnson](Lyndon)(Lyndon B. Johnson), which included a mention of Tiger Force's service at [Tô](Đắk)(Đắk Tô) in June 1966.
The unit was accused of committing multiple war crimes.Sallah & Weiss, *Tiger Force*, pp. 335, 339–346, 350–352, 354–355, 359, 361–362, 367–369, 374–375, 376. Investigators concluded that many of the war crimes indeed took place.Sallah & Weiss, *Tiger Force*, p. 383. Despite this, the Army decided not to pursue any prosecutions.Sallah & Weiss, *Tiger Force*, p. 306. By the end of the war, Tiger Force had killed approximately 1,000 enemy soldiers.
#### Lam Son 719
In 1971, elements of the division supported [Lam Son 719](Operation)(Operation Lam Son 719), the South Vietnamese invasion of southern Laos, but only aviation units actually entered Laos.
The division began withdrawing from South Vietnam on 15 May 1971 with the departure of the 3rd Battalion, 506th Infantry. Most major units of the Division had redeployed by January 1972.
In the seven years that all or part of the division served in Vietnam it suffered 4,011 killed and 18,259 wounded in action.Sharpe & Dunstan, p.90. The division, during this time, participated in 12 separate campaigns and 17 of the division's Medal of Honor recipients are from this period of time – all this giving the 101st Airborne Division a combat record unmatched by any other division.
### Post-Vietnam
[[File:US Army 326th Brigade Engineering Battalion carimony-circa 1970s.png|thumb|150px|An officer with the 101st Airborne Division wearing dark-blue beret with 326th Engineer Battalion [Flash](Beret)(United States military beret flash) and Airmobile Badge, 1977]]
In 1968, the 101st took on the structure and equipment of an airmobile division. Following its return from Vietnam, the division was rebuilt with one brigade (3d) and supporting elements on jump status, using the assets of what had been the 173rd Airborne Brigade. The remaining two brigades and supporting units were organized as airmobile. With the exception of certain specialized units, such as the pathfinders and parachute riggers, in early 1974 the Army terminated jump status for the division. Concurrently the 101st introduced the Airmobile Badge (renamed later that year as the [Assault Badge](Air)(Air Assault Badge)), the design of which was based on the Glider Badge of World War II. Initially the badge was only authorized for wear while assigned to the division, but in 1978 the Army authorized it for service-wide wear. Soldiers continued to wear the garrison cap with glider patch, bloused boots, and the cloth wing oval behind their wings, as had division paratroopers before them. A [beret](blue)(blue beret) was authorized for the division in March or April 1974 and worn until revoked at the end of 1979.
The division also was authorized to wear a full color (white eagle) shoulder patch insignia instead of the subdued green eagle shoulder patch that was worn as a combat patch by soldiers who fought with the 101st in Vietnam. While serving with the 101st, it was also acceptable to wear a non-subdued patch as a combat patch, a distinction shared with the 1st and 5th Infantry divisions.
[[File:M60 101st Airborne Division Exercise 1972.jpg|thumb|A member of the 101st Airborne Division, armed with an [machine gun](M60)(M60 machine gun), participates in a field exercise in 1972. [rifle](M16A1)(M16 rifle) in background with each soldier wearing an [helmet](M1)(M1 helmet).]]
In the late 1970s, the division maintained one battalion on a rotating basis as the division ready force (DRF). The force was in place to respond to alerts for action anywhere in the world. After alert notification, troopers of the "hot" platoon/company, would be airborne, "wheels-up" within 30 minutes as the first responding unit. All other companies of the battalion would follow within one hour. Within 24 hours there would be one brigade deployed to the affected area, with the remainder of the division deploying as needed.
In September 1980, 1st Battalion, 502nd Infantry, 2nd Brigade, took part in [Bright Star](Operation)(Operation Bright Star) '80, an exercise deployment to Egypt. In 1984, the command group formed a full-time team, the "Screaming Eagles", Command Parachute Demonstration Team. However the team traces its history to the late 1950s, during the infancy of precision free fall.
On 12 December 1985, a civilian aircraft, [Air Flight 1285](Arrow)(Arrow Air Flight 1285), chartered to transport some of the division from peacekeeping duty with the [Force and Observers](Multinational)(Multinational Force and Observers) on the [Peninsula](Sinai)(Sinai Peninsula) to Kentucky, crashed just a short distance from [International Airport](Gander)(Gander International Airport), [Gander](Gander, Newfoundland and Labrador), [Newfoundland](Newfoundland (island)). All eight air crew members and 248 US servicemen died, most were from the 3d Battalion, 502d Infantry. [Transportation Accident Investigation and Safety Board](Canadian)(Canadian Transportation Accident Investigation and Safety Board) investigators were unable to determine the exact sequence of events which led to the accident, but determined that the probable cause of the crash was the aircraft's unexpectedly high drag and reduced lift condition, most likely due to [contamination](ice)(Atmospheric icing) on the wings' leading edges and upper surfaces, as well as underestimated onboard weight. A [report](minority)(Dissenting opinion) stated that the accident could have been caused by an onboard explosion of unknown origin prior to impact. At the time it was [most disastrous](17th)(List of accidents and disasters by death toll#Aviation) aviation accident in terms of fatalities. President Ronald Reagan and his wife Nancy traveled to Fort Campbell to comfort grieving family members.
On 8 March 1988, two U.S. Army Blackhawk helicopters assigned to the 101st Aviation Brigade collided while on a night training mission at Fort Campbell. All 17 soldiers aboard were killed. The dead included four helicopter crewmen and 13 members of the 502d Infantry Regiment. The Army's accident investigation attributed the crash to pilot error, aircraft design, and the limited field of view afforded pilots using night vision goggles (NVGs). Numerous improvements have been made in NVG technology since the accident occurred.
### Air assault operations
In 1974, the 101st Airborne was reorganized as an [assault](air)(air assault) division. The foundation of modern-day air assault operations was laid by the World War Two era German [Fallschirmjäger](Fallschirmjäger (World War II)), [Brandenburgers](Brandenburgers), and the [Air Landing Division](22nd)(22nd Air Landing Division (Wehrmacht)) glider borne paras.Ailsby, pp.18,19,91. In 1941 the U.S. Army quickly adopted this concept of offensive operations initially utilizing wooden gliders before the development of helicopters. Air Assault operations consist of highly mobile teams covering extensive distances and engaging enemy forces behind enemy lines and often by surprise, as they are usually masked by darkness.
The 101st Airborne had earned a place in the U.S. Army's [Battle](AirLand)(AirLand Battle) doctrine. This doctrine is based on belief that initiative, depth, agility, and synchronization successfully complete a mission. First all soldiers are encouraged to take the initiative to seize and exploit opportunities to gain advantages over the enemy. Second, commanders are urged to utilize the entire depth of the battlefield and strike at rear targets that support frontline enemy troops. Third, agility requires commanders to strike the enemy quickly where most vulnerable and to respond to the enemy's strengths. Fourth, synchronization calls for the commander to maximize available combined arms firepower for critical targets to achieve the greatest effect.
### Organization 1989
[[US Airborne Division 1989.png|upright=1.35|thumb|101st Airborne Division 1989 (click to enlarge)](File:101st)]
At the end of the [War](Cold)(Cold War) the division was organized as follows:
* **101st Airborne Division**, [Campbell](Fort)(Fort Campbell), Kentucky
** Headquarters & Headquarters Company
** **1st Brigade**
*** Headquarters & Headquarters Company
*** 1st Battalion, 327th Infantry
*** 2nd Battalion, 327th Infantry
*** 3rd Battalion, 327th Infantry
** **2nd Brigade**
*** Headquarters & Headquarters Company
*** 1st Battalion, 502nd Infantry
*** 2nd Battalion, 502nd Infantry
*** 3rd Battalion, 502nd Infantry
** **3rd Brigade**
*** Headquarters & Headquarters Company
*** 1st Battalion, 187th Infantry
*** 2nd Battalion, 187th Infantry
*** 3rd Battalion, 187th Infantry
** **[Brigade](Aviation)(Combat Aviation Brigade, 101st Airborne Division)**
*** Headquarters & Headquarters Company
*** 2d Squadron, [Cavalry](17th)(17th Cavalry Regiment (United States)) (Reconnaissance)
*** 1st Battalion, [Aviation](101st)(101st Aviation Regiment (United States)) (Attack)
*** 2d Battalion, 101st Aviation (Inactive between 16 November 1988 and 16 August 1991)
*** 3d Battalion, 101st Aviation (Attack)
*** 4th Battalion, 101st Aviation (Assault)
*** 5th Battalion, 101st Aviation (Assault)
*** 6th Battalion, 101st Aviation (General Support)
*** 7th Battalion, 101st Aviation (Medium Lift)
*** 9th Battalion, 101st Aviation (Assault - constituted 16 December 1989)
** **[Artillery](Division)(101st Airborne Division Artillery)**
*** Headquarters & Headquarters Battery
*** 1st Battalion, 320th Field Artillery (18 × [M102](M102 howitzer) 105mm towed howitzer)
*** 2d Battalion, 320th Field Artillery (18 × M102 105mm towed howitzer)
*** 3d Battalion, 320th Field Artillery (18 × M102 105mm towed howitzer)
*** Battery C, 5th Battalion, [Field Artillery](8th)(8th Field Artillery Regiment (United States)) (attached 18th Field Artillery Brigade [M198](M198 howitzer) 155mm towed howitzer unit)
** **[Support Command](Division)(82nd Sustainment Brigade)**
*** Headquarters & Headquarters Company
*** 326th Medical Battalion
*** 426th Supply & Transportation Battalion
*** 801st Maintenance Battalion
*** 8th Battalion, 101st Aviation (Maintenance)
** 2nd Battalion, [Air Defense Artillery](44th)(44th Air Defense Artillery Regiment)
** [Engineer Battalion](326th)(326th Engineer Battalion (United States))
** 501st Signal Battalion
** 311th Military Intelligence Battalion
** 101st Military Police Company
** 63rd Chemical Company
** 101st Airborne Division Band
### Gulf War
[[File:DesertStormMap v2.svg|upright=1.35|thumb|Ground operations during [Desert Storm](Operation)(Operation Desert Storm), with the 101st Airborne Division positioned at the left flank]]
On 17 January 1991, the 101st Aviation Regiment fired the first shots of the war when eight [AH-64](AH-64) helicopters successfully destroyed two Iraqi early warning radar sites. In February 1991, the 101st once again had its "Rendezvous with Destiny" in [Iraq](Gulf War) during the combat air assault into enemy territory. The 101st Airborne Division struck behind enemy lines. It was the deepest air assault operation in history.
Approximately 400 helicopters transported 2,000 soldiers into Iraq, where they destroyed Iraqi columns trying to flee westward and prevented the escape of Iraqi forces.Anderson, p.8. The Screaming Eagles would travel an additional into Iraq. By nightfall, the 101st had cut off Highway 8, which was a vital supply line running between Basra and the Iraqi forces. The 101st lost 16 soldiers in action during the 100-hour war and captured thousands of the enemy.
### Humanitarian aid
The division has supported humanitarian relief efforts in [Rwanda](Rwanda) and [Somalia](Somalia), then later supplied peacekeepers to [Haiti](Haiti) and [Bosnia](Bosnia and Herzegovina).
### Kosovo
From February through August 2000, 3rd Brigade 1/187 deployed to Kosovo for peacekeeping operations as part of Task Force Falcon in support of [Joint Guardian](Operation)(Operation Joint Guardian).
In August 2000, the 2nd Battalion, 327th Infantry Regiment, as well as some elements from the 502nd Infantry Regiment, helped secure the peace in Kosovo and support the October elections for the formation of the new Kosovo government. They were replaced in February 2001 with 2nd Battalion, 502nd Infantry Regiment along with 2nd Brigade HQ and elements of 3rd Battalion.
### Montana forest fires
In September and October 2000, the 3rd Battalion, 327th Infantry Regiment, helped fight fires on the [National Forest](Bitterroot)(Elk Bath) in Montana. Designated Task Force Battle Force and commanded by Lt. Col. Jon S. Lehr, the battalion fought fires throughout the surrounding areas of their Valley Complex near Darby, Montana.
### Operation Enduring Freedom
The 101st Airborne (Air Assault) Division brigade performed counterinsurgency operations within Afghanistan, consisting mostly of raids, ambushes and patrolling. The 101st also performed combat air assaults throughout the operation.
The 2nd Brigade, "Strike", built around the 502nd Infantry, was largely deployed to Kosovo on peacekeeping operations, with some elements of 3rd Battalion, 502nd, deploying after 9/11 as a security element in the U.S. [CENTCOM](United States Central Command) AOR with the Fort Campbell-based [Special Forces Group](5th)(5th Special Forces Group (United States)). They had been positioned in Jordan providing security for 5th SF Group's exercise prior to 9/11.
The division quickly deployed its 3rd Brigade, the 187th Infantry's *Rakkasans*, as the first conventional unit to fight as part of [Enduring Freedom](Operation)(War in Afghanistan (2001–present)).
After an intense period of combat in rugged Shoh-I-Khot Mountains of eastern [Afghanistan](Afghanistan) during [Anaconda](Operation)(Operation Anaconda) with elements of the [Mountain Division](10th)(10th Mountain Division (United States)), the *Rakkasans* redeployed to Fort Campbell only to find the 101st awaiting another deployment order. In 2008, the 101st 4th BCT Red and White "Currahee" including the 1st and the 2nd Battalions, 506th Infantry were deployed to Afghanistan. Elements of 1st Battalion, 506th Infantry Regiment participated in joint operations with [Army Special Forces](U.S.)(U.S. Army Special Forces) particularly in the Northern province of Kapisa in the outpost Forward Operating Base (FOB) Kutchsbach. Charlie Company, 2nd Battalion, 506th Infantry Regiment performed joint operations with 5th Special Forces Group and [Special Forces Group](20th)(20th Special Forces Group) in 2011. The 101st Combat Aviation Brigade deployed to Afghanistan as Task Force Destiny in early 2008 to Bagram Air Base. [Combat Aviation Brigade](159th)(159th Combat Aviation Brigade) deployed as Task Force Thunder for 12 months in early 2009, and again in early 2011.
In March 2010, the 101st Combat Aviation Brigade deployed again to Afghanistan as Task Force Destiny to Kandahar Airfield to be the aviation asset in southern Afghanistan.
### Operation Iraqi Freedom
[[File:Airborne and Special Forces Uday-Qusay raid, 2003.jpg|thumb|The 3rd Battalion, 327th Infantry Regiment alongside [Force 121](Task)(Task Force 121) at Uday and [Hussein](Qusay)(Qusay Hussein)'s hideout.]]
In 2003, Major General [H. Petraeus](David)(David H. Petraeus) ("Eagle 6") led the Screaming Eagles to war during the [invasion of Iraq](2003)(2003 invasion of Iraq) ([Iraqi Freedom](Operation)(Iraq War)). General Petraeus led the division into Iraq saying, "Guidons, Guidons. This is Eagle 6. The 101st Airborne Division's next Rendezvous with Destiny is North to Baghdad. Op-Ord Desert Eagle 2 is now in effect. Godspeed. Air Assault. Out."
The division was in [Corps](V)(U.S. V Corps), providing support to the [Infantry Division](3rd)(3rd Infantry Division (United States)) by clearing Iraqi strongpoints which that division had bypassed. 3rd Battalion, 187th Infantry (3rd Brigade) was attached to 3rd Infantry Division and was the main effort in clearing Saddam International Airport. The division then served as part of the occupation forces of Iraq, using the city of [Mosul](Mosul) as their primary base of operations. 1st and 2d Battalion, 327th Infantry Regiment (1st Brigade) oversaw the remote airfield [West](Qayarrah)(Qayarrah West) south of Mosul. The 502d Infantry Regiment (2d Brigade) and 3d Battalion, 327th Infantry Regiment were responsible for Mosul itself while the 187th Infantry Regiment (3d Brigade) controlled [Afar](Tal)(Tal Afar) just west of Mosul. The 101st Airborne also participated in the [of Karbala](Battle)(Battle of Karbala (2003)). The city had been bypassed during the advance on Baghdad, leaving American units to clear it in two days of street fighting against [irregular forces](Iraqi)(Saddam Fedayeen). The 101st Airborne was supported by the 2nd Battalion, [Armor Regiment](70th)(70th Armor Regiment) with Charlie Company, 1st Battalion, [Infantry Regiment](41st)(41st Infantry Regiment (United States)), [Armored Division](1st)(1st Armored Division (United States)). The 3d Battalion, [Infantry Regiment](502d)(502d Infantry Regiment), 101st Airborne Division was awarded a [Unit Award](Valorous)(Valorous Unit Award) for their combat performance.
On the afternoon of 22 July 2003, troops of the 101st Airborne 3/327th Infantry HQ and C-Company, aided by U.S. Special Forces killed Qusay Hussein, his 14-year-old son [Mustapha](Mustapha Hussein), and his older brother Uday, during a raid on a home in Mosul. After Task Force 121 members were wounded, the 3/327th Infantry surrounded and fired on the house with a [missile](TOW)(TOW missile), [19 Automatic Grenade Launcher](Mark)(Mk 19 grenade launcher), [50 Caliber Machine guns](M2)(M2 Browning) and small arms. After about four hours of battle (the whole operation lasted six hours), the soldiers entered the house and found four dead, including the two brothers and their bodyguard. There were reports that Qusay's 14-year-old son Mustapha was the fourth body found. Brig. Gen. [Helmick](Frank)(Frank Helmick), the assistant commander of 101st Airborne, commented that all occupants of the house died during the fierce gun battle before U.S. troops entered.
Once replaced by the first operational [Stryker](Stryker) Brigade, the 101st was withdrawn in early 2004 for rest and refit. As part of the Army's modular transformation, the existing infantry brigades, artillery brigade, and aviation brigades were transformed. The Army also activated the 4th [Combat Team](Brigade)(Brigade Combat Team), which includes the 1st and 2nd Battalions, 506th Infantry Regiment and subordinate units. Both battalions were part of the 101st in Vietnam but saw their colors inactivated during an Army-wide reflagging of combat battalions in the 1980s.
As of December 2007, 143 members of the division have died while on service in Iraq.
### Second deployment to Iraq
The division's second deployment to Iraq began in the late summer of 2005. The division headquarters replaced the [Infantry Division](42d)(42d Infantry Division (United States)), which had been directing security operations as the headquarters for Task Force Liberty. Renamed Task Force Band of Brothers, the 101st assumed responsibility on 1 November 2005 for four provinces in north central Iraq: Salah ad Din, As Sulymaniyah.
During the second deployment, 2d and 4th Brigades of the 101st Airborne Division were assigned to conduct security operations under the command of Task Force Baghdad, led initially by [Infantry Division](3d)(U.S. 3d Infantry Division), which was replaced by 4th Infantry Division. The 1st Battalion of the 506th Infantry (4th Brigade) was separated from the division and served with the Marines in Ramadi, in the Al Anbar province. 3d Brigade was assigned to [ad Din](Salah)(Salah ad Din Governorate) and [Bayji](Bayji) sectors and 1st Brigade was assigned to the overall [Kirkuk](Kirkuk) province which included [Hawijah](Hawijah).
Task Force Band of Brothers' primary mission during its second deployment to Iraq was the training of Iraqi security forces. When the 101st returned to Iraq, there were no Iraqi units capable of assuming the lead for operations against Iraqi and foreign terrorists. As the division concluded its tour, 33 battalions were in the lead for security in assigned areas, and two of four Iraq divisions in northern Iraq were commanding and controlling subordinate units.
Simultaneously with training Iraqi soldiers and their leaders, 101st soldiers conducted numerous security operations against [cells](terrorist)(clandestine cell system) operating in the division's assigned, six-province area of operations. [Swarmer](Operation)(Operation Swarmer) was the largest air assault operation conducted in Iraq since 22 April 2003. 1st Brigade conducted [Scorpion](Operation)(Operation Scorpion) with Iraqi units near Kirkuk.
Developing other aspects of Iraqi society also figured in 101st operations in Iraq. Division commander [General](Major)(Major General (United States)) [Turner](Thomas)(Thomas R. Turner II) hosted the first governors' conference for the six provinces in the division's area of operations, as well as the neighboring province of Erbil.
### Return to Afghanistan
While the 1st, 2nd and 3rd Brigade Combat Teams were deployed to Iraq 2007–2008, the division headquarters, 4th Brigade Combat Team, the 101st Sustainment Brigade, and the 101st Combat Aviation Brigade followed by the 159th Combat Aviation Brigade were deployed to Afghanistan for one-year tours falling within the 2007–09 window.
### 2010 Afghanistan
The Division Headquarters, [Combat Aviation Brigade](101st)(101st Combat Aviation Brigade), 1st Brigade Combat Team, 2d Brigade Combat Team, 3rd Brigade Combat Team, and 4th Brigade Combat Team, and the 101st Sustainment Brigade deployed to Afghanistan in 2010. This is the first time since returning from Iraq in 2006 where all four infantry brigades (plus one CAB, SUSBDE) have served in the same combat theater.
On 15 September 2010, the 101st Airborne began a major operation known as [Dragon Strike](Operation)(Operation Dragon Strike). The aim of the operation was to reclaim the strategic southern province of Kandahar, which was the birthplace of the Taliban movement. The area where the operation took place has been dubbed "The Heart of Darkness" by Coalition troops.
By the end of December 2010, the operation's main objectives had been accomplished. The majority of Taliban forces in Kandahar had withdrawn from the province, and much of their leadership was said to have been fractured.
As of 5 June 2011, 131 soldiers had been killed during this deployment, the highest death toll to the 101st Airborne in any single deployment since the Vietnam War.
### 2011 Afghanistan
[[File:BarawalaKalay.jpg|thumb|U.S. Army soldiers with 2nd Battalion, 327th Infantry Regiment, 101st Airborne Division, return fire during a firefight with Taliban forces in [Kalay Valley](Barawala)(Battle of Barawala Kalay Valley) in Kunar province, Afghanistan, 31 March 2011.]]
The 2nd Battalion, 327th Infantry Regiment conducted a major combat operation in Barawala Kalay Valley, Kunar Province, Afghanistan in late March–April 2011. It is known as the [of Barawala Kalay Valley](Battle)(Battle of Barawala Kalay Valley). It was an operation to close down the Taliban supply route through the Barawala Kalay Valley and to remove the forces of Taliban warlord [Ziaur Rahman](Qari)(Qari Ziaur Rahman) from the Barwala Kalay Valley. The 2nd Battalion, 327th Infantry Regiment would suffer 6 killed and 7 wounded during combat operations. It would inflict over 100 casualties on the Taliban and successfully close down the Taliban supply route. ABC News correspondent [Boettcher](Mike)(Mike Boettcher) was on scene and he called it the fiercest fighting he has ever seen in his 30 years of being in war zones.
Since the beginning of Operation Enduring Freedom 166 101st Airborne soldiers have died while serving in Iraq.
### Operation United Assistance
In 2014, the 101st Airborne Division Headquarters deployed to west Africa to help contain the spread of Ebola, as part of [United Assistance](Operation)(Operation United Assistance).
Earlier in April 2014, 4th Brigade Combat Team had been inactivated as part of the Army's 2020 BCT restructuring program.
### 5th Special Forces Group
In 2015, [Special Forces Group](5th)(5th Special Forces Group) held five training sessions with the 1st Brigade Combat Team, 101st Airborne Division. The classes covered communications and the operation of all-terrain vehicles. There was also a training session on the operation of TOW missiles. Prior to these sessions training between U.S. Special Forces and U.S. conventional forces had been uncommon.
### 2016 Iraq
The U.S. Army sent 500 soldiers from the 101st Airborne Division (Air Assault) to Iraq and Kuwait in early 2016 to advise and assist Iraqi Security Forces.
In the recent conflicts the 101st Airborne has been increasingly involved conducting [operations](special)(special operations) especially the training and development of other states' military and security forces and counter-terrorism operations. This is known in the special operations community as [internal defense](foreign)(foreign internal defense) and [counter-terrorism](counter-terrorism). It was announced 14 January 2016 that soldiers of the 101st Airborne would be assigned rotations in Iraq, to train members of the Iraqi ground forces in preparation for action against the Islamic State. [Secretary](Defense)(United States Secretary of Defense) [Carter](Ash)(Ash Carter) told the 101st Airborne that "The Iraqi and Peshmerga forces you will train, advise and assist have proven their determination, their resiliency, and increasingly, their capability. But they need you to continue building on that success, preparing them for the fight today and the long hard fight for their future. They need your skill. They need your experience."
In Spring 2016, 200 soldiers from 1st Battalion, 320th Field Artillery Regiment replaced a unit of the [MEU](26th)(26th Marine Expeditionary Unit) at [Bell](Firebase)(Firebase Bell); they used M777 155mm howitzers to provide support to Iraqi forces attacking IS-occupied villages between Makhmour and Mosul. 500 soldiers from the division's headquarters, including its commander Major General [J. Volesky](Gary)(Gary J. Volesky), and about 1,300 soldiers from 2nd Brigade Combat Team also deployed to Iraq in the Spring.
On 26 June 2016, it was announced that Iraq had successfully taken back full control of Fallujah from the [State of Iraq](Islamic)(Islamic State of Iraq) (ISIS). Iraqi ground troops have been under the direction of the 101st Airborne since early 2016. In summer 2016, *Stars and Stripes* reported that about 400 soldiers from 2nd Brigade Combat Team will deploy to Iraq as part of 11 July 2016 announcement by Defense Secretary Ash Carter of the presidential approved deployment of an additional 560 U.S. troops to Iraq to help establish and run a logistics hub at [Airfield West](Qayyarah)(Qayyarah Airfield West), about 40 miles south Mosul, to support Iraqi and coalition troops in the [of Mosul](Battle)(Battle of Mosul (2016)).
On 26 August 2016, an article from the website War is Boring shows a photo of a 101st Airborne Division [howitzer](M777)(M777 howitzer) crew conducting fire missions during an operation to support Iraqi forces at Kara Soar Base in Iraq on 7 August 2016. The article also confirms that American artillery has been supporting Iraqi forces during its campaign against ISIS.
[[File:101st-Airborne-Soldiers-build-elite-Iraqi-force-with-Ranger-Training-7-480x319.jpg|thumb|right|A trainer with Company A, 1st Battalion, 502nd Infantry Regiment, Task Force Strike, 101st Airborne Division, assists Iraqi army ranger students during a room clearing drill at [Taji](Camp)(Camp Taji), Iraq 18 July 2016.]]
On 31 August 2016, Clarksville Online reported U.S. soldiers from the 1st Battalion, 502nd Infantry Regiment, Task Force Strike, took charge of a Ranger training program for qualified volunteers from Iraqi security forces at [Taji](Camp)(Camp Taji), Iraq. The Ranger training program, led by Company A, 1–502nd, is designed to lay the foundation for an elite Iraqi unit.
On 21 September 2016, an article from *The Leaf-Chronicle* reported that Battery C, 1st Battalion, 320th Field Artillery Regiment, 2nd Brigade Combat Team, 101st Airborne Division had been successfully conducting artillery raids against the Islamic State in Iraq and the Levant. Battery C is said to have executed hundreds of missions and fired thousands of rounds in support of ISF operations since arriving in theatre in late May.
On 17 October 2016, an article from *The Leaf-Chronicle* stated that the 101st Airborne was leading a coalition of 19 nations to support the liberation of Mosul from ISIL. Under the direction of the 101st Iraqi forces have taken back a significant amount of geography from the control of ISIS. This included the liberation of [Hit](Hīt District), [Fallujah](Fallujah), and [Qayyarah](Qayyarah).
On 3 November 2016, it was reported that U.S. Army combat engineers were seen just west of the Great Zab River about halfway between the Kurdish city of Irbil and Mosul. They were searching for improvised bombs. They were wearing 101st Airborne Division patches. The soldiers said they were not allowed to talk to the media.
On 17 November 2016, sources reported that the 101st Airborne Division was headed home after a nine-month deployment to Iraq. Over the course of nine months, soldiers from the 101st Airborne helped train the Iraqi government's security forces. They taught marksmanship, basic battlefield medical care and ways to detect and disarm improvised explosive devices. The division helped authorize 6,900 strikes, meant to destroy ISIS hideouts and staging areas. The 101st Airborne played a significant role in the liberation of several Iraqi cities during this deployment.
### Operation Freedom's Sentinel
On 6 September 2016, the U.S. Army announced it will deploy about 1,400 soldiers from [Brigade Combat Team](3rd)(187th Infantry Regiment (United States)) to Afghanistan in fall 2016, in support of "Operation Freedom's Sentinel" – the U.S. counter-terrorism operation against the remnants of al-Qaeda, [ISIS–K](Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant – Khorasan Province) and other terror groups, as part of the [in Afghanistan (2001–2021)](War)(War in Afghanistan (2001–2021)). Senior leadership referred to the 3rd Brigade Combat Team as being exceptional. Brig. Gen. Scott Brower stated that the Rakkasans are trained, well-led, and prepared to accomplish any mission given to them. During this deployment three Soldiers from 1/187, 3rd Brigade Combat Team died as a result of an insider attack by an Afghan Soldier.
### Operation Inherent Resolve
In May 2016, the brigade, deployed to advise and assist, train and equip Iraqi security forces to fight the Islamic State of Iraq. The 2nd Brigade also conducted precision surface-to-surface fires and supported a multitude of intelligence and logistical operations for coalition and Iraqi forces. They also provided base security throughout more than 12 areas of operations. The Brigade also aided in the clearance of ISIS from Fallujah, the near elimination of suicide attacks in Baghdad, and the introduction of improved tactics that liberated more than 100 towns and villages. The 2nd Brigade also played a significant role in the liberation of Mosul.
### Somali Civil War (2009–present)
In mid-April 2017, it was reported that 40 soldiers from the 101st Airborne Division were deployed to Somalia on 2 April 2017 to improve the capabilities of the [Army](Somali)(Somali Army) in combating Islamist militants. [AFRICOM](AFRICOM) stated that the troops will focus on bolstering the Somali army's logistics capabilities; an AFRICOM spokesman said that "This mission is not associated with teaching counterextremism tactics" and that the Somali government requested the training.
### Operation Atlantic Resolve
In June 2022, Headquarters, 101st Airborne Division (Air Assault) and the 2nd Brigade Combat Team rotated in to the U.S. Army V Corps' mission to reinforce NATO’s eastern flank and engage in multinational exercises with partners across the European continent in order to reassure allies and deter further Russian aggression during its [of Ukraine](invasion)(2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine). The 101st soldiers deploying to [Kogălniceanu](Mihail)(Mihail Kogălniceanu International Airport) in June did not represent additional U.S. forces in Europe, but are taking the place of soldiers assigned to 82nd Airborne Division Headquarters and the 3rd Infantry Brigade Combat Team of the 82nd Airborne Division. In all, approximately 4700 soldiers from the 101st Airborne Division are scheduled to deploy to locations across Europe.
On 30 July 2022, the Headquarters, 101st Airborne Division and 2nd Brigade Combat Team uncased their colors and conducted an air assault demonstration at the [Air Base "Mihail Kogălniceanu"](57th)(57th Air Base "Mihail Kogălniceanu") together with the [Mechanized Brigade](9th)(9th Mechanized Brigade (Romania)) of the [Armed Forces](Romanian)(Romanian Armed Forces). The event was attended by Maj. Gen. [P. McGee](Joseph)(Joseph McGee (general)) and the [Minister of Romania](Prime)(Prime Minister of Romania), [Ciucă](Nicolae)(Nicolae Ciucă).
The 2nd Brigade Combat Team was replaced by the 1st Brigade Combat Team on 31 March 2023. During its 9 months of deployment, the 2nd Brigade conducted training exercises with multiple NATO partners and allies across the continent. On 5 April, the mission authority was transferred from the 101st Division to the 10th Mountain Division. The battle flag of the 101st was also decorated with the [Order of Faithful Service](National)(National Order of Faithful Service) during the ceremony.
## Honors
### Campaign participation credit
* [50px](File:World War I Victory Medal ribbon.svg) World War I (2nd and 3rd Brigades only):
# [Days Offensive](Hundred)(Hundred Days Offensive) (also known as the Battle of Saint-Quentin or the Second Battle of the Somme);
# [Offensive](Meuse-Argonne)(Meuse-Argonne Offensive);
# Picardy 1918
* [50px](File:European-African-Middle Eastern Campaign ribbon.svg) World War II (except 159th Aviation Brigade):
# [Normandy](Invasion of Normandy) (with arrowhead);
# Rhineland (with arrowhead);
# [Ardennes](Battle of the Bulge)-[Alsace](Operation Nordwind);
# Central Europe
* [50px](File:Vietnam Service Medal ribbon.svg) [War](Vietnam)(Vietnam War) (Except 159th Aviation Brigade):
# Defense (1st Brigade only);
# Counteroffensive (1st Brigade only);
# Counteroffensive, Phase II (1st Brigade only)
# Counteroffensive, Phase III;
# Tet Counteroffensive;
# Counteroffensive, Phase IV;
# Counteroffensive, Phase V;
# Counteroffensive, Phase VI;
# [Tet](Tet Offensive) 1969/Counteroffensive;
# Summer-Fall 1969;
# Winter-Spring 1970;
# Sanctuary Counteroffensive;
# Counteroffensive, Phase VII;
# Consolidation I;
# Consolidation II
* [50px](File:Southwest Asia Service Medal ribbon (1991-2016).svg) Southwest Asia (Except 159th Aviation Brigade):
# Defense of Saudi Arabia;
# Liberation and Defense of Kuwait
* [[Forces Expeditionary Medal ribbon.svg|border|50px](File:Armed)] Haiti
* [[Campaign Medal ribbon.svg|border|50px](File:Afghanistan)] Afghanistan
* [[Campaign Medal ribbon.svg|border|50px](File:Iraq)] Iraq
### Decorations
* [50px](File:United States Army and U.S. Air Force Presidential Unit Citation ribbon.svg) [Unit Citation](Presidential)(Presidential Unit Citation (United States)) (Army) for NORMANDY (Division and 1st Brigade only)
* [50px](File:United States Army and U.S. Air Force Presidential Unit Citation ribbon.svg)Presidential Unit Citation (Army) for BASTOGNE (Division and 1st Brigade only)
* [50px](File:United States Army and U.S. Air Force Presidential Unit Citation ribbon.svg)Presidential Unit Citation (Army) for DAK TO, VIETNAM 1966 (1st Brigade only)
* [50px](File:United States Army and U.S. Air Force Presidential Unit Citation ribbon.svg)Presidential Unit Citation (Army) for DONG AP BIA MOUNTAIN (3rd Brigade only)
* [50px](File:United States Army and U.S. Air Force Presidential Unit Citation ribbon.svg)Presidential Unit Citation (Army) for AFGHANISTAN 2010–2011 (2nd Brigade only)
* [50px](File:Joint Meritorious Unit Award ribbon.svg) [Meritorious Unit Commendation](Joint)(Joint Meritorious Unit Commendation) for Afghanistan 2008–2009 (5–101 AVN only)
* [50px](File:Joint Meritorious Unit Award ribbon.svg)Joint Meritorious Unit Award for Haiti Operation Uphold Democracy (101st MP CO only)
* [50px](File:Valorous Unit Award ribbon.svg) [Unit Award](Valorous)(Valorous Unit Award) for THUA THIEN PROVINCE (3rd Brigade and DIVARTY only)
* [50px](File:Valorous Unit Award ribbon.svg)Valorous Unit Award for TUY HOA (1st Brigade only)
* [50px](File:Valorous Unit Award ribbon.svg)Valorous Unit Award for AN NAJAF (1st Brigade only)
* [50px](File:Valorous Unit Award ribbon.svg)Valorous Unit Award for AFGHANISTAN 2010 (3rd Brigade only)
* [50px](File:Valorous Unit Award ribbon.svg)Valorous Unit Award for AFGHANISTAN 2010–2011 (2nd Brigade only)
* [50px](File:U.S. Navy Unit Commendation ribbon.svg)Navy/Marine Unit Commendation (Army) for Iraq 2005–2006 (4th Brigade only)
* [50px](File:Meritorious Unit Commendation ribbon.svg) [Unit Commendation](Meritorious)(Meritorious Unit Commendation) (Army) for VIETNAM 1965–1966 (1st Brigade only)
* [50px](File:Meritorious Unit Commendation ribbon.svg)Meritorious Unit Commendation (Army) for VIETNAM 1968 (3rd Brigade only)
* [50px](File:Meritorious Unit Commendation ribbon.svg)Meritorious Unit Commendation (Army) for SOUTHWEST ASIA (Except 159th Aviation Brigade)
* [50px](File:Meritorious Unit Commendation ribbon.svg)Meritorious Unit Commendation (Army) for Iraq 2003–2004 (Division)
* [50px](File:Meritorious Unit Commendation ribbon.svg)Meritorious Unit Commendation (Army) for IRAQ 2003–2004 (1st Brigade only)
* [50px](File:Meritorious Unit Commendation ribbon.svg)Meritorious Unit Commendation (Army) for IRAQ 2005–2006 (4th Brigade only)
* [50px](File:Croix de guerre 1939-1945 with palm (France) - ribbon bar.png)French [de Guerre](Croix)(Croix de Guerre) with Palm, World War II for NORMANDY (Division and 1st Brigade only)
* [50px](File:BEL Croix de Guerre 1944 ribbon.svg)Belgian [de guerre](Croix)(Croix de guerre (Belgium)) 1940 with Palm for BASTOGNE (Division and 1st Brigade only);
* Cited in the Order of the Day of the Belgian Army for action at BASTOGNE (Division and 1st Brigade only)
* Belgian [Fourragère](Fourragère) 1944 (Division and 1st Brigade Only)
* Cited in the Order of the Day of the Belgian Army for action in FRANCE AND BELGIUM (Division and 1st Brigade only)
* [50px](File:Gallantry Cross Unit Citation.png)Republic of Vietnam [of Gallantry](Cross)(Gallantry Cross (South Vietnam)) with Palm for VIETNAM 1966–1967 (1st Brigade only)
* [50px](File:Gallantry Cross Unit Citation.png)Republic of Vietnam Cross of Gallantry with Palm for VIETNAM 1968 (2d Brigade only)
* [50px](File:Gallantry Cross Unit Citation.png)Republic of Vietnam Cross of Gallantry with Palm for VIETNAM 1968–1969 (Except 159th Aviation Brigade)
* [50px](File:Gallantry Cross Unit Citation.png)Republic of Vietnam Cross of Gallantry with Palm for VIETNAM 1971 (Except 159th Aviation Brigade)
* [50px](File:Civil Action Unit Citation.png)Republic of Vietnam [Actions Honor Medal](Civil)(Civil Actions Medal), First Class for VIETNAM 1968–1970 (Except 159th Aviation Brigade)
* [50px](File:Civil Action Unit Citation.png)Republic of Vietnam Civil Actions Honor Medal, First Class for VIETNAM 1970 (DIVARTY only)
* [50px](File:Order of Faithful Service (Romania) - ribbon bar.gif)Romanian [Order of Faithful Service](National)(National Order of Faithful Service), Knight Rank, Military – Peacetime 2023 (Division)
## Notable members
* [Jason Abdo](Naser)(Naser Jason Abdo), convicted on charges related to an attempted attack on Ft. Hood soldiers while AWOL.
* [Austin](Ed)(Ed Austin), Florida politician and lawyer
* [K. Berry](Frank)(Frank K. Berry), chess administrator and FIDE arbiter
* [Beyrle](Joseph)(Joseph Beyrle), the only American soldier to have served with both the United States Army and the Soviet Army in World War II.
* [R. Block](John)(John Rusling Block), [of Agriculture](Secretary)(United States Secretary of Agriculture) under [Reagan](Ronald)(Ronald Reagan)
* [M. Burdett Jr.](Allen)(Allen M. Burdett Jr.) He served as the Assistant Division Commander from 1968 to 1969.
* [Burgett](Donald)(Donald Burgett), author of four books on his experiences as a paratrooper during World War II.
* [Chaves](Richard)(Richard Chaves), American actor born in 1951.
* [Clark](Blake)(Blake Clark), American actor
* [Isaack Clyde](Bryan)(2019 Dallas courthouse shooting#Perpetrator), attempted mass shooter.
* [G. Cole](Robert)(Robert G. Cole), World War II Medal of Honor recipient.
* [Cotton](Tom)(Tom Cotton), Arkansas politician, current junior U.S. Senator from Arkansas.
* [Couture](Randy)(Randy Couture), MMA fighter and coach.
* [Dailey](Fred)(Fred Dailey), Ohio politician
* [Esper](Mark)(Mark Esper), 27th [States Secretary of Defense](United)(United States Secretary of Defense)
* [Gibbons](Sam)(Sam Gibbons), Florida politician
* [Goodman](Eugene)(Eugene Goodman (police officer)), Capitol Police officer and acting Deputy Senate Sergeant at Arms.
* [Gunton](Bob)(Bob Gunton), actor
* [Hackworth](David)(David Hackworth), writer
* [Hendrix](Jimi)(Jimi Hendrix), musician
* [Kalsu](Bob)(Bob Kalsu), University of Oklahoma and Buffalo Bills guard. Killed in action FSB Ripchord South Vietnam, Bronze Star.
* [Lebowitz](Mike)(Mike Lebowitz), attorney, pioneer in field of [expression](military)(military expression), [law](military)(military law). He served in Iraq with Pathfinder Company of 101st Airborne Division.
* [C. Lee](William)(William C. Lee), General, World War II veteran, considered one of the most important influences behind the establishment of U.S. airborne troops
* [E. Mann](Joe)(Joe E. Mann), World War II Medal of Honor recipient
* [H. Matheson](Salve)(Salve H. Matheson), U.S. Army general (including command of 1st Brigade and later the Division)
* [C. McConville](James)(James C. McConville), General, 40th Chief of Staff of the Army, Commanding General of the 101st Airborne Division (Air Assault) from 2011 to 2014 and Combined Joint Task Force-101, Operation Enduring Freedom
* [Mercer](Tommy)(Tommy Mercer), professional wrestler, currently signed to TNA Wrestling under the name Crimson
* [Nibley](Hugh)(Hugh Nibley), scholar and an [apologist](Mormon studies#Apologetics) of [Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints](the)(the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints)
* [Otero-Barreto](Jorge)(Jorge Otero Barreto). He received 3 Silver Stars and 5 Purple Hearts in Vietnam.
* [H. Petraeus](David)(David H. Petraeus), General. He commanded 101st Airborne Division in 2003 during V Corp's drive to Baghdad and 3rd Battalion 187th Infantry Regiment "Iron Rakkasans" of the 101st Airborne Division from 1991 to 1993.
* [L. Powell](Colin)(Colin L. Powell), General, Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff 1989–1993. He commanded 2nd Brigade of the 101st Airborne Division in 1976.
* [H. Sabo Jr.](Leslie)(Leslie H. Sabo Jr.), [War](Vietnam)(Vietnam War) Medal of Honor recipient
* [F. Sackett](Joseph)(Joseph F. Sackett), radiologist and professor of neuroradiology, Company Commander, 326 Med Battalion
* [Sayles](Charlie)(Charlie Sayles), [blues](Chicago)(Chicago blues) harmonicist, singer and songwriter
* [Simpson](Louis)(Louis Simpson), poet who won the 1964 Pulitzer Prize for poetry with his collected works *At the End of the Open Road*
* [Sink](Robert)(Robert Sink). He commanded the 506th Parachute Infantry Regiment of the 101st Airborne Division. He was played by [Dye](Dale)(Dale Dye) in the mini-series *Band of Brothers*.
* [Warden](Jack)(Jack Warden), actor who served with the [Infantry](501st)(501st Infantry Regiment (United States)); in *[Kind of Woman](That)(That Kind of Woman)* Warden played a paratrooper from the [Airborne Division](82nd)(82nd Airborne Division).
* [Wheelwright](Ernie)(Ernie Wheelwright (running back)), American football player, actor and singer.*[Illustrated](Sports)(Sports Illustrated)*, Readers letter, 15 June 1970.
* [White](Dan)(Dan White), San Francisco supervisor who assassinated San Francisco Mayor [Moscone](George)(George Moscone) and Supervisor [Milk](Harvey)(Harvey Milk), on Monday, 27 November 1978.
* [White](Jesse)(Jesse White (politician)), Illinois politician
* [Winchell](Barry)(Barry Winchell), Kansas City soldier who was brutally murdered by two of his fellow soldiers. His story at [Campbell](Fort)(Fort Campbell) has become a landmark in the debate about the "[ask, don't tell](Don't)(Don't ask, don't tell)" policy.
* [Winters](Richard)(Richard D. Winters), Major, World War II veteran, portrayed by [Lewis](Damian)(Damian Lewis) in the TV series *Band of Brothers*.
## Division organization 2023
[[US Airborne Division - Organization 2023.png|thumb|500px|101st Airborne Division organization 2023.](File:101st)]
The 101st Airborne Division consists of a division headquarters and headquarters battalion, three infantry brigade combat teams, a division artillery, a combat aviation brigade, a sustainment brigade.
* [25px](File:Combat service identification badge of the 101st Airborne Division.png) **101st Airborne Division**, [Campbell](Fort)(Fort Campbell), [Kentucky](Kentucky)
** [30px](File:US Army 101st ABN Div Trimming.svg) [25px](File:101st Airborne Division DUI.png) Headquarters and Headquarters Battalion "Gladiators"
*** Headquarters and Headquarters Company
*** Operations Company
*** Intelligence and Sustainment Company
*** Division Signal Company
*** 101st Airborne Division Band "Pride of the Eagle"
** **1st [Combat Team](Brigade)(Infantry Brigade Combat Team)** (BCT) "Bastogne" (♣)
*** [30px](File:US Army 1st INF BCT-101st ABN Div Trimming.svg) [25px](File:101st Airborne Division DUI.png) [and Headquarters Company](Headquarters)(Headquarters and headquarters company (United States)) (HHC)
*** [30px](File:US Army 1st Sq-32nd Cav Reg.png) [25px](File:32 Arm Rgt DUI.svg) 1st Squadron, [Cavalry Regiment](32nd)(32nd Cavalry Regiment (United States)) "Bandits"
*** [30px](File:US Army 1st BN-327th Inf Reg Trimming.svg) [25px](File:327InfRegtDUI.jpg) 1st Battalion, 327th Infantry Regiment "Bulldogs"
*** [30px](File:US Army 2nd BN-327th Inf Reg Trimming.svg) [25px](File:327InfRegtDUI.jpg) 2nd Battalion, 327th Infantry Regiment "No Slack"
*** [30px](File:US Army 1st BN-506th INF Reg Oval.png) [25px](File:506 Inf Rgt DUI.jpg) 1st Battalion, 506th Infantry Regiment "Red Currahee"
*** [30px](File:US Army 326th Bde Eng Bn Trimming.svg) [25px](File:326 Eng Bn DUI.png) [Brigade Engineer Battalion](326th)(326th Engineer Battalion (United States)) (BEB) "Sapper Eagles"
*** [30px](File:US Army 426th Bde Support BN Trimming.png) [25px](File:US 426th BSB insignia.jpg) 426th Brigade Support Battalion (BSB) "Taskmasters"
** **2nd Brigade Combat Team** (BCT) "Strike" (♥)
*** [30px](File:US Army 2nd INF BCT-101st ABN Div Trimming.svg) [25px](File:101st Airborne Division DUI.png) Headquarters and Headquarters Company (HHC)
*** [30px](File:US Army 1st Sq-75th Cav Reg Oval.png) [25px](File:US 75th Cavalry Regiment insignia.jpg) [Squadron, 75th Cavalry Regiment](1st)(75th Cavalry Regiment (United States)) "Widowmakers"
*** [30px](File:US Army 1st BN-502nd Inf Reg Trimming.svg) [25px](File:502 Parachute Infantry Regiment DUI.PNG) 1st Battalion, 502nd Infantry Regiment "First Strike"
*** [30px](File:US Army 2nd BN-502nd Inf Reg Trimming.svg) [25px](File:502 Parachute Infantry Regiment DUI.PNG) 2nd Battalion, 502nd Infantry Regiment "Strike Force"
*** [30px](File:Background Trimming 1st Battalion 26th Infantry Regiment.jpg) [25px](File:26th INF DUI.svg) 1st Battalion, [Infantry Regiment](26th)(26th Infantry Regiment (United States)) "Blue Spaders"
*** [30px](File:US Army 39th Bde Engineer BN Trimming.png) [25px](File:39 Eng Bn DUI.jpg) 39th Brigade Engineer Battalion (BEB) "Raptor"
*** [30px](File:US Army 526th Bde Support BN Trimming.png) [25px](File:526 Spt Bn DUI.png) 526th Brigade Support Battalion (BSB) "Best by Performance"
** **3rd Brigade Combat Team** (BCT) "Rakkasan" ([12px](File:Torii.svg))
*** [30px](File:US Army 3rd INF BCT-101st ABN Div Trimming.svg) [25px](File:101st Airborne Division DUI.png) Headquarters and Headquarters Company (HHC)
*** [30px](File:US Army 1st Sq-33rd Cav Reg Oval.png) [25px](File:33rd Armor Regiment (insignia).jpg) 1st Squadron, [Cavalry Regiment](33rd)(33rd Armor Regiment (United States)) "War Rakkasans"
*** [30px](File:US Army 1st BN-187th Inf Reg Trimming.svg) [25px](File:187INF DUI.png) 1st Battalion, 187th Infantry Regiment "Leader Rakkasans"
*** [30px](File:US Army 3rd BN-187th Inf Reg Trimming.svg) [25px](File:187INF DUI.png) [Battalion, 187th Infantry Regiment](3rd)(3rd Battalion, 187th Infantry Regiment) "Iron Rakkasans"
*** [30px](File:US Army 2nd BN-506th INF Reg Oval.png) [25px](File:506 Inf Rgt DUI.jpg) 2nd Battalion, 506th Infantry Regiment "White Currahee"
*** [30px](File:US Army 21th Engineer BN Oval.png) [25px](File:21 Eng Bn DUI.jpg) 21st Brigade Engineer Battalion (BEB) "Rak Solid"
*** [30px](File:US Army 626th Bde Support BN Oval.png) [25px](File:Distinctive unit insignia of the 626th Support Battalion.png) 626th Brigade Support Battalion (BSB) "Assurgam"
** **[Airborne Division Artillery](101st)(101st Airborne Division Artillery)** (DIVARTY) "Guns of Glory" (•)
*** [30px](File:US Army 101st Airborne Division Artillery background trimming.svg) [25px](File:101st DIVARTY DUI.png) Headquarters and Headquarters Battery (HHB) "Headhunters"
*** [30px](File:US Army 1st BN-320th Field Arty Reg Trimming.svg) [25px](File:320FARegtDUI.jpg) [Battalion](1st)(1st Battalion, 320th Field Artillery Regiment), 320th Field Artillery Regiment (FAR) "Top Guns"
*** [30px](File:US Army 2nd Bn-32nd Arty Reg Trimming.svg) [25px](File:32 FA Rgt DUI.jpg) 2nd Battalion, [Field Artillery Regiment](32nd)(32nd Field Artillery Regiment (United States)) (FAR) "Proud Americans"
*** [30px](File:US Army 3rd BN-320th Field Arty Reg Trimming.svg) [25px](File:320FARegtDUI.jpg) [Battalion](3rd)(3rd Battalion, 320th Field Artillery Regiment), 320th Field Artillery Regiment (FAR) "Red Knights"
*** [25px](File:44ADARegtDUI.jpg) 2nd Battalion, [Air Defense Artillery Regiment](44th)(44th Air Defense Artillery Regiment (United States))
** **[Combat Aviation Brigade](101st)(101st Combat Aviation Brigade)** (CAB) "Wings of Destiny" (♦)
*** [30px](File:US Army 101st Aviation Bde Trimming.svg) [25px](File:101 Avn Rgt DUI.png) Headquarters and Headquarters Company, 101st Combat Aviation Brigade (HHC) "Hell Cats"
*** [30px](File:US Army 17th Cavalry Regiment Trimming.svg) [25px](File:17thCavRegtDUI.gif) 2nd Squadron (Attack/Reconnaissance), 17th Cavalry Regiment "Out Front" ([Apache](AH-64E)(AH-64 Apache))
*** [30px](File:US Army 101st Aviation Bde Trimming.svg) [25px](File:101 Avn Rgt DUI.png) 1st Battalion (Attack), 101st Aviation Regiment "Expect No Mercy" (AH-64E Apache)
*** [30px](File:US Army 101st Aviation Bde Trimming.svg) [25px](File:101 Avn Rgt DUI.png) 5th Battalion (Assault), 101st Aviation Regiment "Eagle Assault" ([Black Hawk](UH-60M)(UH-60 Black Hawk))
*** [30px](File:US Army 101st Aviation Bde Trimming.svg) [25px](File:101 Avn Rgt DUI.png) 6th Battalion (General Support), 101st Aviation Regiment "Shadow of the Eagle" ([Chinook](CH-47)(Boeing CH-47 Chinook) and UH-60 Black Hawk)
*** [30px](File:US Army 101st Aviation Bde Trimming.svg) [25px](File:101 Avn Rgt DUI.png) Company B, 101st Aviation Regiment ([Gray Eagle](MQ-1C)(General Atomics MQ-1C Gray Eagle))
*** [30px](File:US Army 101st Aviation Bde Trimming.svg) [25px](File:US 96th ASB emblem.png) 96th Aviation Support Battalion "Troubleshooters"
** **[Sustainment Brigade](101st)(101st Sustainment Brigade (United States))** "Life Liners"
*** [30px](File:US Army 101st Sustainment Brigade Background Trimming.svg) [25px](File:101st Sustainment Bde DUI.png) 101st Special Troops Battalion "Sustainers"
*** [30px](File:US Army 101st Sustainment Brigade Background Trimming.svg) [25px](File:129 Spt Bn DUI.png) 129th Division Sustainment Support Battalion "Drive the Wedge"
*** [25px](File:716MPBnDUI.jpg) [Military Police Battalion](716th)(716th Military Police Battalion) "Peacekeepers"
## See also
* [memorial](Gander)(Gander memorial)
* [of formations of the United States Army](List)(List of formations of the United States Army)
* *[Bridge Too Far](A)(A Bridge Too Far (film))*, a 1977 movie featuring the 101st Airborne.
* *[Private Ryan](Saving)(Saving Private Ryan)*, a 1998 movie whose title character is a soldier in the 101st Airborne division.
* *[of Brothers](Band)(Band of Brothers (miniseries))*, a 2001 miniseries about 101st Airborne Division in WW2.
* *[Am an American Soldier](I)(I Am an American Soldier)*, a 2007 documentary movie that followed C co, 3 BCT during its tour of duty in Iraq in 2006.
## Notes
## References
## Further reading
*
*
*
*
*
*
## External links
*
* [Website of Fort Campbell and the 101st Airborne Division (Air Assault)](https://web.archive.org/web/20160206210944/http://www.campbell.army.mil/Pages/Default.aspx/official) – [States Army](United)(United States Army) website
* [Army.mil/101stAirborne](https://www.army.mil/101stairborne)
* [101st Airborne Division Association](http://www.screamingeagle.org/)
* [STRIKE on The Military Channel's Warrior POV – Screaming Eagles in Afghanistan](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WbXiTm8wDwk) ([YouTube](YouTube))
[ ](Category:101st Airborne Division)
[divisions of the United States Army](Category:Airborne)(Category:Airborne divisions of the United States Army)
[units and formations established in 1942](Category:Military)(Category:Military units and formations established in 1942)
[establishments in the United States](Category:1942)(Category:1942 establishments in the United States)
[Airborne](Category:United States Army divisions during World War II)
[Airborne](Category:Divisions of the United States in Vietnam War)
|
Phil Knight
|
phil_knight
|
# Phil Knight
*Revision ID: 1157242188 | Timestamp: 2023-05-27T09:11:23Z*
---
| birth_place = [Oregon](Portland,)(Portland, Oregon), U.S.
| death_date =
| death_place =
| alma_mater =
| occupation = Businessman
| spouse =
| children = 2, including [Knight](Travis)(Travis Knight)
| parents =
| website =
}}
**Philip Hampson Knight** (born February 24, 1938) is an American billionaire [magnate](business)(business magnate) who is the co-founder and chairman *[emeritus](emeritus)* of [Inc.](Nike,)(Nike, Inc.) He was previously the chairman and CEO of the global [equipment](sports)(sports equipment) and [apparel](apparel) giant. In April 2023, Knight along with his family was ranked by *[Forbes](Forbes)* as the 24th richest person in the world with an estimated net worth of $47.7 billion. He is also the owner of the [motion](stop)(stop motion) film production company [Laika](Laika (company)). Knight is a graduate of the [of Oregon](University)(University of Oregon) and the [Graduate School of Business](Stanford)(Stanford Graduate School of Business). He was part of the track and field club under coach [Bowerman](Bill)(Bill Bowerman) at the University of Oregon with whom he would later co-found Nike.
Knight has donated hundreds of millions of dollars to each of his *alma maters*, as well as [Health & Science University](Oregon)(Oregon Health & Science University). He has donated over $2 billion to these three institutions.
## Early life
[[runners 1958 - Phil Knight second from right.jpg|thumb|Knight (second from right) running track in 1958](File:Track)]
Knight was born in [Oregon](Portland,)(Portland, Oregon), to [Knight](Bill)(William W. Knight (publisher)), a lawyer turned newspaper publisher, and his wife, Lota Cloy (née Hatfield) Knight.["Phil Knight".](http://www.answers.com/topic/phil-knight) Accessed May 13, 2012. He grew up in the Portland neighborhood of [Eastmoreland](Eastmoreland, Portland, Oregon), and attended [High School](Cleveland)(Cleveland High School (Portland, Oregon)). According to one source, "When his father refused to give him a summer job at his newspaper [the now defunct *[Journal](Oregon)(Oregon Journal)*], believing that his son should find work on his own," Knight "went to the rival *[Oregonian](The Oregonian)*, where he worked the morning shift tabulating sports scores and every morning ran home the full seven miles."Susan Hauser (4 May 1992). ["Must Be the Shoes"](http://www.people.com/people/archive/article/0,,20112607,00.html). *People*. Accessed 12 January 2018.
Knight continued his education at the [of Oregon](University)(University of Oregon) in [Eugene](Eugene, Oregon), where he ran for the famed Oregon track and field program, was a sports reporter for the *[Daily Emerald](Oregon)(Oregon Daily Emerald)* and was a member of [Gamma Delta](Phi)(Phi Gamma Delta) fraternity. Knight earned a business degree (B.B.A.) in 1959 in just three years. That same year, Knight also received his Army Reserve Commission and was a [Military Graduate*"]("*Distinguished)(Army Reserve Officers' Training Corps#Distinguished Military Graduate Award).
As a middle-distance runner at Oregon, his personal best was in 4 minutes, 13 seconds, and he won [letter](varsity)(varsity letter)s for his track performances in 1957, 1958, and 1959. In 1977, together with Bowerman and Geoff Hollister, Knight founded an American running team called [West](Athletics)(Athletics West).
## Career
### Early career
Before Blue Ribbon Sports—later Nike—flourished, Knight was a [CPA](Certified Public Accountant), first with [& Lybrand](Coopers)(Coopers & Lybrand), and then [Waterhouse](Price)(Price Waterhouse). Knight then became an accounting professor at [State University](Portland)(Portland State University).[Anne M. Peterson, "Nike's Phil Knight resigns as Coo," *Seattle Times*, November 19, 2021.](http://seattletimes.nwsource.com/html/businesstechnology/2002095212_nike19.html) Accessed May 13, 2022.
### Nike Inc.
Immediately after graduating from the University of Oregon, Knight enlisted in the Army and served one year on active duty and seven years in the [Reserve](Army)(United States Army Reserve). He next enrolled at [Graduate School of Business](Stanford)(Stanford Graduate School of Business), where, for his small business class, Knight produced a paper, "Can Japanese Sports Shoes Do to German Sports Shoes What Japanese Cameras Did to German Cameras?", that essentially foretold his eventual foray into selling running shoes. His ambition was to import high-quality and low-cost running shoes from Japan into the American market. He graduated with a master's degree in business administration from Stanford in 1962.
Knight set out on a trip around the world after graduation, during which he made a stop in [Japan](Kobe,)(Kobe, Japan), in November 1962. It was there that he discovered [brand](Tiger)(Onitsuka Tiger) running shoes, manufactured in Kobe by the Onitsuka Co., now known as [Asics](Asics). Impressed by the quality and low cost of the shoes, Knight called Mr. Onitsuka, who agreed to meet with him. By the end of the meeting, Knight had secured Tiger distribution rights for the western United States.
The first Tiger samples would take more than a year to be shipped to Knight; during that time he found a job as an accountant in Portland. When Knight finally received the shoe samples, he mailed two pairs to Bowerman at the University of Oregon, hoping to gain both a sale and an influential endorsement. To Knight's surprise, Bowerman not only ordered the Tiger shoes, but also offered to become a partner with Knight and provide product design ideas. The two men agreed to a partnership by handshake on January 25, 1964, the birth date of Blue Ribbon Sports, the company that would later become Nike.
Knight's first sales, were made out of a now storied green [Valiant](Plymouth)(Plymouth Valiant) automobile at track meets across the [Northwest](Pacific)(Pacific Northwest). By 1969, these early sales allowed Knight to leave his accountant job and work full-time for Blue Ribbon Sports.
Jeff Johnson, Nike's first employee, suggested calling the firm "Nike," named after the Greek [goddess of victory](winged)(Nike (mythology)), and Blue Ribbon Sports was subsequently renamed Nike in 1971.
Nike's "[swoosh](swoosh)" logo, now considered one of the most valuable logos in the world, was commissioned for $35 from graphic design student [Davidson](Carolyn)(Carolyn Davidson (graphic designer)) in 1971. According to Nike's website, Knight said at the time: "I don't love it, but it will grow on me." In September 1983, Davidson was given an undisclosed amount of Nike stock for her contribution to the company's brand. On the *[Oprah](Oprah Winfrey)* television program in April 2011, Knight claimed he gave Davidson "a few hundred shares" when the company went public.
At Nike, Knight developed personal relationships with some of the world's most recognizable athletes, including [Jordan](Michael)(Michael Jordan) and [Woods](Tiger)(Tiger Woods).
### Vinton Studios becomes Laika
Following mainstream success in the late 1990s, [Vinton](Will)(Will Vinton) Studios animation company sought external investors due to rapid growth. Knight assumed a 15 percent stake in the company in 1998, and his son [Travis](Travis Knight (animator))—who had graduated from Portland State following an unsuccessful attempt at a rap music career—went to work at the studio as an animator.
Citing mismanagement, Knight eventually purchased Will Vinton Studios and assumed control of the company's board with the cooperation of Nike executives. In late 2003, Knight appointed his son to the board and, after Vinton had stepped down—prior to leaving the company with a severance package—Knight rebranded the company [Laika](Laika (company)). He then invested $180 million into Laika, and the studio released its first feature film, *[Coraline](Coraline (film))*, in [motion](stop)(stop motion), in 2009. *Coraline* was a financial success and Travis Knight was then promoted into the roles of Laika CEO and president.
### Death of Matthew Knight
In May 2004, two years after Knight bought Vinton, his son Matthew, aged 34 years, traveled to [Salvador](El)(El Salvador) to film a fund-raising video for Christian Children of the World, a Portland [organization](nonprofit)(nonprofit organization). However, while scuba diving with his colleagues Vincenzo Iannuzzelli and Robert McDonell in [Ilopango](Lake)(Lake Ilopango), near [Salvador](San)(San Salvador), he died from a heart attack underwater due to an undetected congenital heart defect. Knight and Travis traveled to El Salvador to return Matthew's body to the US. Laika Studio's 2005 short film *Moongirl* was dedicated to Matthew's memory.
Knight resigned as Nike CEO on November 18, 2004, several months after Matthew's funeral but retained the position of chairman of the board. Knight's replacement was [Perez](William)(William Perez), former CEO of [Johnson & Son](S.C.)(S.C. Johnson & Son), Inc., who was eventually replaced by [Parker](Mark)(Mark Parker) in 2006.
In 2011, the [Knight Arena](Matthew)(Matthew Knight Arena) at the University of Oregon was named in his honor.
### Post-Nike CEO role
During the 2009–2010 period, Knight was the largest single contributor to the campaign to defeat [Ballot Measures 66 and 67](Oregon)(Oregon Ballot Measures 66 and 67 (2010)), which, once passed, increased income tax on some corporations and high-income individuals.
In June 2015, Knight and Nike announced that he would step down as the company's chairman, with president and CEO Mark Parker to succeed him. Knight's retirement from the Nike board took effect at the end of June 2016. In September 2017, Knight decided to come out of retirement to put black back in the UNC jerseys for the Phil Knight Classic in Portland, Oregon.
### Memoir
Knight's memoir, *[Dog](Shoe)(Shoe Dog (book))*, was released on April 26, 2016, by [& Schuster](Simon)(Simon & Schuster), was rated fifth on [New York Times Best Seller list](The)(The New York Times Best Seller list) for business books in July 2018, and details the building of the Nike brand, from importing Japanese shoes to being part of a federal investigation.
## Philanthropy
As of July 2021, Knight has a net worth of $60.8 billion. In 1990, Knight founded the Philip H. Knight Charitable Foundation Trust. As of 2016, according to *[Business Journal](Portland)(Portland Business Journal)*, "Knight is the most generous philanthropist in Oregon history. His lifetime gifts now approach $2 billion."[Kish, Matthew](https://www.bizjournals.com/portland/news/2016/12/28/as-philanthropy-ramps-up-phil-knight-gifts-112.html) *Portland Business Journal*: "As philanthropy ramps up, Phil Knight gifts $112 million in Nike stock", 28 December 2016.
### Stanford University
In 2006, Knight donated US$105 million to the [Graduate School of Business](Stanford)(Stanford Graduate School of Business), which, at the time, was the largest ever individual donation to a U.S. business school. The campus was named "The Knight Management Center," in honor of Knight's philanthropic service to the school.
In 2016, it was announced that Knight contributed $400 million to start the [Scholars](Knight-Hennessy)(Knight-Hennessy Scholars) graduate-level education program inspired by the [Scholarship](Rhodes)(Rhodes Scholarship). Graduates are charged to tackle global challenges, such as [change](climate)(climate change) and [poverty](poverty). The first class of 51 scholars from 21 countries was scheduled to arrive at Stanford in the fall of 2018.[FAQ for Knight-Hennessy Scholars](https://knight-hennessy.stanford.edu/faq) Stanford. Retrieved February 24, 2016
In May 2022, it was announced that Phil and Penny Knight gifted Stanford $75 million to establish the Phil and Penny Knight Initiative for Brain Resilience. The initiative will be housed at Stanford's Wu Tsai Neurosciences Institute and is set to study the cognitive decline and degenerative brain diseases such as Parkinson's and Alzheimer's.
### University of Oregon
As of 2023, Knight has donated over one billion dollars to the University of Oregon. It is believed that Knight made his first major contribution in the late-1980s. By 2000 Knight had already contributed over $50 million to UO.
#### UO Academics
Major gifts include funds supporting the renovation of the [Library](Knight)(Knight Library) and construction of the Knight Law Center. Contrary to press reports, which claim that Knight financed the whole library renovation project, Knight only financed a portion of the library's renovation. Knight also established endowed chairs across the campus. In the fall of 2016, it was announced that Knight will donate $500 million to UO for a new three-building laboratory and research science complex. This donation was part of a series of large higher-education gifts.
#### UO Athletic Department (Oregon Ducks)
Knight contributed towards the Moshofsky Center, which opened in 1998.
[[File:Autzen Stadium Exterior.jpg|thumb|Exterior of [Stadium](Autzen)(Autzen Stadium), [of Oregon](University)(University of Oregon) ]]
In August 2007, Knight announced that he and his wife would be donating US$100 million to found the UO Athletics Legacy Fund to help support all athletic programs at the university. In response, athletic director Pat Kilkenny said: "This extraordinary gift will set Oregon athletics on a course toward certain self sufficiency and create the flexibility and financial capacity for the university to move forward with the new athletic arena." At the time, the donation was the largest philanthropic gift in the history of the university.
The 2010 construction of the UO basketball team's [Knight Arena](Matthew)(Matthew Knight Arena) was the result of a partnership between Knight and former Oregon athletic director Pat Kilkenny. Although Knight didn't pay for the project directly, he established a $100 million "Athletic Legacy Fund." The fund supports the athletic department. Named after Knight's deceased son, the venue replaced the McArthur Court building and cost over US$200 million to build. The facility was built using bonds backed by the State of Oregon.
Knight was responsible for financing the UO's US$68 million 145,000 square-foot [football](gridiron)(gridiron football) facility that was officially opened in late July 2013. Knight's personal locker in the team's locker room displays the title "Uncle Phil", and other features include a gym with Brazilian hardwood floors, Apple [iPhone](iPhone) chargers in each of the player's lockers, various auditoriums and meeting rooms, a games room for the players that includes flat-screen televisions and [foosball](foosball) machines, and a cafeteria.
In November 2015, it was announced that Knight and his wife would be donating $19.2 million towards a new sports complex project at the University of Oregon. The plans for the 29,000 square foot complex was announced in September. Construction started in January 2016 and ended in September 2016. The sports complex was named the [Mariota](Marcus)(Marcus Mariota) Sports Performance Center and includes [capture](motion)(motion capture) systems, neurocognitive assessment tools, [dash](40-yard)(40-yard dash) track, and steam machines made by Nike to help athletes break into their footwear more quickly.
In 2021, Knight helped to fund the renovation of [Field](Hayward)(Hayward Field), a track and field stadium at the university. The project was estimated to cost $270 million, although Knight's total contribution remained private. The|date=2021-03-09|title=Phil Knight's University of Oregon donations push $1 billion mark with new Hayward field project|url=https://www.oregonlive.com/news/2021/03/knights-university-of-oregon-donations-push-1-billion-mark-with-new-hayward-field-project.html|access-date=2021-03-22|website=oregonlive|language=en}}
#### Controversy
Knight's contributions to the athletic department at UO have also led to controversy. In April 2000, student leaders began organizing an [anti-sweatshop](anti-sweatshop movement) and fair labor practices campaign, and called for Dave Frohnmayer, president of the school, to support the [Rights Consortium](Workers)(Workers Rights Consortium) (WRC). On April 4, 2000, students began a sit-in at Johnson Hall, the UO's administrative center. In early April, an open meeting of students further demanded that the organization [Labor Association](Fair)(Fair Labor Association) (FLA) would receive no consideration from the university, as it was perceived as a group founded, funded and backed by Nike and other corporations, and had also been criticized by worker rights advocates as an exercise in dishonest public relations.
University President [Frohnmayer](Dave)(Dave Frohnmayer) subsequently signed a one-year contract with the WRC; Knight then withdrew a US$30 million commitment toward the Autzen Stadium expansion project and offered no further donations to the university. In a public statement, Knight criticized the WRC for having unrealistic provisions and called it misguided, while praising the FLA for being "balanced" in its approach. In the face of ongoing conflict with students, Frohnmayer sided with Knight's assertion that the WRC was providing unbalanced representation, and in October 2000 the *[Weekly](Eugene)(Eugene Weekly)* reported Frohnmayer stating that:
On February 16, 2001, the [University System](Oregon)(Oregon University System) enacted a mandate that all institutions within the system choose business partners from a politically neutral standpoint, barring all universities in Oregon from joining either the WRC or the FLA. Following the dissolved relationship between the university and the WRC, Knight reinstated the donation and increased the amount to over US$50 million.
Also controversial was Knight's success in lobbying for former insurance executive Pat Kilkenny to be named as athletic director at the university. Kilkenny had neither a college degree nor any prior experience in athletics administration. He attended but did not graduate from UO, as he left the school with several [hours](credit)(credit hours) still owing. Prior to his appointment at UO, Kilkenny had been the chairman and chief executive officer of the [Diego](San)(San Diego)-based Arrowhead General Insurance Agency, and grew the business into a nationwide organization, with written premiums of nearly US$1 billion when he sold the company in 2006.
### Other projects
[[File:Phil Knight Hangar full side - Hillsboro, Oregon.JPG|thumb|left|Knight's personal [hangar](hangar) at [Airport](Hillsboro)(Hillsboro Airport).]]In October 2008, Knight and his wife pledged US$100 million to the OHSU Cancer Institute, the largest gift in the history of [Health & Science University](Oregon)(Oregon Health & Science University). In recognition, the university renamed the organization the "OHSU [Cancer Institute](Knight)(Knight Cancer Institute)."
In October 2010, Knight donated several million dollars to the [Gabel School](Catlin)(Catlin Gabel School) to establish a scholarship for incoming freshmen students.
[[File:Knight's Green.jpg|thumb|right|Knight's Green, a lawn named after Knight at [University](Marylhurst)(Marylhurst University) in [Oregon](Marylhurst,)(Marylhurst, Oregon).]]
On May 18, 2012, Knight contributed US$65,000 to a higher education [Action Committee (PAC)](Political)(Political Action Committee) formed by [Sportswear](Columbia)(Columbia Sportswear) CEO Tim Boyle. According to Boyle, the PAC will help facilitate an increase in the autonomy of schools in the [University System](Oregon)(Oregon University System).
On September 27, 2013, Knight announced to the audience at the OHSU Knight Cancer Institute's biennial gala, when he announced his intention to donate US$500 million for research if OHSU could match it over the subsequent two years. On June 25, 2015, OHSU met that $500 million goal, and Knight announced his upcoming $500 million donation, to bring the total to $1 billion raised.
Knight and wife Penny also donated to the Marylhurst Knights Opportunity Scholarship Program at [University](Marylhurst)(Marylhurst University), a private Roman Catholic university in [Oregon](Marylhurst,)(Marylhurst, Oregon); as a result, the university named a lawn on their campus "Knight's Green" in the family's honor.
In December 2016, Knight disclosed that he had donated $112 million in Nike stock to charity.
## Accolades
In 2000, Knight was inducted into the [Sports Hall of Fame](Oregon)(Oregon Sports Hall of Fame) for his Special Contribution to Sports in Oregon. At the time of his induction, he had contributed approximately US$230 million to UO, the majority of which was for athletics.
On February 24, 2012, Knight was announced as a 2012 inductee of the [Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame](Naismith)(Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame), as a [contributor](List of members of the Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame#Contributors). The Hall recognized him as the driving force behind Nike's huge financial support of U.S. basketball and its players. Knight was formally inducted on September 7, 2012.
In 1989, Knight received the Golden Plate Award of the [Academy of Achievement](American)(Academy of Achievement). For his "contributions to business, corporate and philanthropic leadership", Knight was elected to the 2015 [Academy of Arts and Sciences](American)(American Academy of Arts and Sciences) membership class.
In 2020, the university polled alumni and fans on social media, asking them which four UO alumni they would place on a notional Mount Rushmore for the university. Knight was one of the four final choices, along with [track](Ducks)(Oregon Ducks track and field) legend [Prefontaine](Steve)(Steve Prefontaine); current NFL player [Mariota](Marcus)(Marcus Mariota), the [2014](2014 NCAA Division I FBS football season) [Trophy](Heisman)(Heisman Trophy) winner; and [Ionescu](Sabrina)(Sabrina Ionescu), who had just completed an epic college basketball career for the [Ducks](Oregon Ducks women's basketball).
## Personal life
Knight met his wife, Penelope "Penny" Parks, while he was working at Portland State University and they were married on September 13, 1968.["Phil Knight: How He Empowers Others", The Woman's Conference.](https://web.archive.org/web/20100911181025/http://www.womensconference.org/phil-knight/) Accessed: May 13, 2012. They own a home in [Quinta, California](La)(La Quinta, California).
Knight's son, Matthew, died in a [diving accident](scuba)(Phil Knight#Death of Matthew Knight) in El Salvador in 2004. Another son of Knight's, [Knight](Travis)(Travis Knight), runs the [Laika](Laika (company)) [studio](animation)(List of animation studios). Phil Knight serves as chairman.
Knight lists Nike's headquarters in [Oregon](Beaverton,)(Beaverton, Oregon), as his home address on government records. He resides in a rural area outside [Oregon](Hillsboro,)(Hillsboro, Oregon) and owns a personal flight hangar along with two private jets at the [Airport](Hillsboro)(Hillsboro Airport).
## Politics
Knight is a registered [Republican](Republican Party (United States)) and a frequent contributor to Republican political candidates in Oregon. In [2010](2010 Oregon gubernatorial election), he donated $400,000 to [Dudley](Chris)(Chris Dudley), then the Republican nominee for [of Oregon](Governor)(Governor of Oregon).
Knight occasionally supports Democrats, however; in [1986](1986 Oregon gubernatorial election) he financed [Goldschmidt](Neil)(Neil Goldschmidt)'s successful campaign, and in [2014](2014 Oregon gubernatorial election), he donated $250,000 to the re-election campaign of Democrat [Kitzhaber](John)(John Kitzhaber).
He donated $3.5 million to Republican [Buehler](Knute)(Knute Buehler) during the [Oregon gubernatorial election](2018)(2018 Oregon gubernatorial election). Regarding this donation, Knight criticized the unfunded [Public Employees Retirement System](Oregon)(Oregon Public Employees Retirement System) and the general fiscal state of Oregon, implying Democratic governor [Brown](Kate)(Kate Brown) was at fault.
Knight was once again a major donor during the [Oregon gubernatorial election](2022)(2022 Oregon gubernatorial election). He gave $3.75 million to independent candidate [Johnson](Betsy)(Betsy Johnson) until September 2022. After Johnson's support declined in the polls, he switched to backing Republican [Drazan](Christine)(Christine Drazan), writing her a $1 million check on October 6 of that year. He made a second donation to the Drazan campaign later in October. Also in 2022, Knight donated $2 million to a [action committee](political)(political action committee) seeking to elect Republican state legislators in Oregon. In April 2023, Knight contributed $2 million more to the same conservative PAC. The |date=2023-05-04 |title=Nike co-founder Phil Knight contributes $2 million more to help elect Republicans to Oregon Legislature |url=https://www.oregonlive.com/politics/2023/05/nike-co-founder-phil-knight-contributes-2-million-to-help-elect-republicans-to-oregon-legislature.html |access-date=2023-05-05 |website=oregonlive |language=en}}
While Knight is generally reluctant to give interviews, he spoke with the *[York Times](New)(New York Times)* in October 2022 regarding his support for Republican candidates. He argued Oregon's government had drifted too far to the left and described himself as "more conservative than Nike," responding to criticism of him backing an anti-abortion candidate which apparently contrasted with the company's image of supporting progressive social justice causes. Nike itself donated $75,000 to Drazan and Johnson's Democratic opponent, [Kotek](Tina)(Tina Kotek), the eventual winner of the election.
## See also
[of Knight endowed chairs and professorships](List)(List of Knight endowed chairs and professorships)[H. Knight Chairs and Professorships](Philip)(Philip H. Knight Chairs and Professorships)
## References
## Further reading
* Deford, Frank. 1993. Nike has sponsored Hamza "The Truth" Day, all league linebacker from Wilson High School. pp. 52–72
* Knight, Phil. 2009. "When Things Don't Go Right: What Nike Learned In China," *Playboy*, February 2009, 56(2), pp. 26, 111
* Strasser, J.B., and Laurie Becklund. 1993. *Swoosh: The Unauthorized Story of Nike and the Men Who Played There*. HarperBusiness.
* Teitel, Emma. 2012. "Nike's Strange Moral Universe" Maclean's, February 13, 2012
## External links
* [Nike, Inc. official website](http://nikeinc.com)
* [*Forbes* Phil Knight profile page](https://www.forbes.com/profile/phil-knight)
[births](Category:1938)(Category:1938 births)
[people](Category:Living)(Category:Living people)
[from Portland, Oregon](Category:Businesspeople)(Category:Businesspeople from Portland, Oregon)
[chief executives of manufacturing companies](Category:American)(Category:American chief executives of manufacturing companies)
[chief executives of fashion industry companies](Category:American)(Category:American chief executives of fashion industry companies)
[High School (Portland, Oregon) alumni](Category:Cleveland)(Category:Cleveland High School (Portland, Oregon) alumni)
[(company) people](Category:Laika)(Category:Laika (company) people)
[Inc. people](Category:Nike,)(Category:Nike, Inc. people)
[company founders](Category:Retail)(Category:Retail company founders)
[University alumni](Category:Stanford)(Category:Stanford University alumni)
[of Oregon alumni](Category:University)(Category:University of Oregon alumni)
[from Oregon](Category:Philanthropists)(Category:Philanthropists from Oregon)
[memoirists](Category:American)(Category:American memoirists)
[company founders](Category:American)(Category:American company founders)
[from La Quinta, California](Category:People)(Category:People from La Quinta, California)
[Institution people](Category:Brookings)(Category:Brookings Institution people)
[American businesspeople](Category:21st-century)(Category:21st-century American businesspeople)
[billionaires](Category:American)(Category:American billionaires)
[Ducks men's track and field athletes](Category:Oregon)(Category:Oregon Ducks men's track and field athletes)
[Republicans](Category:Oregon)(Category:Oregon Republicans)
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Lightning
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lightning
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# Lightning
*Revision ID: 1159957649 | Timestamp: 2023-06-13T16:18:12Z*
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[[File:Port and lighthouse overnight storm with lightning in Port-la-Nouvelle.jpg|300px|thumb|right|Strokes of cloud-to-ground lightning strike the ocean off of [Port-la-Nouvelle](Port-la-Nouvelle) in southern [France](France).]]
[[Trumbull County Ohio.ogv|thumb|High-speed, slow-motion lightning video captured at 6,200 frames per second](File:Lightning)]
**Lightning** is a [phenomenon](natural)(natural phenomenon) formed by the occurrence of **lightning bolts**, which are [discharge](electrostatic)(electrostatic discharge)s through the [atmosphere](atmosphere) between two [charged](electrically)(electric charge) regions, either both in the atmosphere or with one in the atmosphere and on the [ground](land), temporarily neutralizing these in an almost instantaneous release of an average of one [gigajoule](Joule) of [energy](energy). This discharge may produce a wide range of [radiation](electromagnetic)(electromagnetic radiation), from heat created by the rapid movement of [electron](electron)s, to brilliant flashes of [light](visible)(visible light) in the form of [radiation](black-body)(black-body radiation). Lightning causes [thunder](thunder), a sound from the [wave](shock)(shock wave) which develops as gases in the vicinity of the discharge experience a sudden increase in pressure. Lightning occurs commonly during [thunderstorm](thunderstorm)s as well as other types of energetic [weather](weather) systems, but [lightning](volcanic)(volcanic lightning) can also occur during volcanic eruptions. Lightning is an [electrical](atmospheric)(Atmospheric electricity) phenomenon and contributes to the [atmospheric electrical circuit](global)(global atmospheric electrical circuit).
The three main kinds of lightning are distinguished by where they occur: either inside a single [thundercloud](Cumulonimbus cloud) (intra-cloud), between two [cloud](cloud)s (cloud-to-cloud), or between a cloud and the ground (cloud-to-ground), in which case it is referred to as a [strike](lightning)(lightning strike). Many other observational variants are recognized, including "[lightning](heat)(heat lightning)", which can be seen from a great distance but not heard; [lightning](dry)(Dry thunderstorm), which can cause [fires](forest)(Wildfire); and [lightning](ball)(ball lightning), which is rarely observed scientifically.
Humans have [lightning](deified)(Lightning in religion) for millennia. [Idiomatic](Idiomatic) expressions derived from lightning, such as the English expression "bolt from the blue", are common across languages. At all times people have been fascinated by the sight and difference of lightning. The fear of lightning is called *[astraphobia](astraphobia)*.
The first known photograph of lightning is from 1847, by [Martin Easterly](Thomas)(Thomas Martin Easterly). The first surviving photograph is from 1882, by [Nicholson Jennings](William)(William Nicholson Jennings), a photographer who spent half his life capturing pictures of lightning and proving its diversity.
## Electrification
[[Understanding Lightning - Figure 1 - Cloud Charging Area.gif|thumb|(Figure 1) The main charging area in a thunderstorm occurs in the central part of the storm where the air is moving upward rapidly (updraft) and temperatures range from .](File:)]
The details of the charging process are still being studied by scientists, but there is general agreement on some of the basic concepts of thunderstorm electrification. Electrification can be by the [effect](triboelectric)(triboelectric effect) as a result of ion transfer between colliding bodies. Uncharged, colliding water-drops can become charged because of charge transfer between them (as aqueous ions) in an electric field as would exist in a thunder cloud. The main charging area in a thunderstorm occurs in the central part of the storm where air is moving upward rapidly (updraft) and temperatures range from ; see Figure 1. In that area, the combination of temperature and rapid upward air movement produces a mixture of super-cooled cloud droplets (small water droplets below freezing), small ice crystals, and [graupel](graupel) (soft hail). The updraft carries the [super-cooled](Supercooling) cloud droplets and very small ice crystals upward. At the same time, the graupel, which is considerably larger and denser, tends to fall or be suspended in the rising air.
[[animation 3a.gif|thumb|left|(Figure 2) When the rising ice crystals collide with graupel, the ice crystals become positively charged and the graupel becomes negatively charged.](File:Graupel)]
The differences in the movement of the precipitation cause collisions to occur. When the rising ice crystals collide with graupel, the ice crystals become positively charged and the graupel becomes negatively charged; see Figure 2. The updraft carries the positively charged ice crystals upward toward the top of the storm cloud. The larger and denser graupel is either suspended in the middle of the thunderstorm cloud or falls toward the lower part of the storm.
[[cloud animation 4a.gif|thumb|The upper part of the thunderstorm cloud becomes positively charged while the middle to the lower part of the thunderstorm cloud becomes negatively charged.](File:Charged)]
The result is that the upper part of the thunderstorm cloud becomes positively charged while the middle to lower part of the thunderstorm cloud becomes negatively charged.
The upward motions within the storm and winds at higher levels in the atmosphere tend to cause the small ice crystals (and positive charge) in the upper part of the thunderstorm cloud to spread out horizontally some distance from the thunderstorm cloud base. This part of the thunderstorm cloud is called the anvil. While this is the main charging process for the thunderstorm cloud, some of these charges can be redistributed by air movements within the storm (updrafts and downdrafts). In addition, there is a small but important positive charge buildup near the bottom of the thunderstorm cloud due to the precipitation and warmer temperatures.
The induced separation of charge in pure liquid water has been known since the 1840s as has the electrification of pure liquid water by the tribo-electric effect.Francis, G. W., "Electrostatic Experiments" Oleg D. Jefimenko, Editor, Electret Scientific Company, Star City, 2005
[Thomson](William)(William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin) (Lord Kelvin) demonstrated that charge separation in water occurs in the usual electric fields at the earth's surface and developed a continuous electric field measuring device using that knowledge.
The physical separation of charge into different regions using liquid water was demonstrated by Kelvin with the [water dropper](Kelvin)(Kelvin water dropper). The most likely charge-carrying species were considered to be the aqueous hydrogen ion and the aqueous hydroxide ion.
The electrical charging of solid water ice has also been considered. The charged species were again considered to be the hydrogen ion and the hydroxide ion.
An electron is not stable in liquid water with respect to a hydroxide ion plus dissolved hydrogen for the time scales involved in thunder storms.Buxton, G. V., Greenstock, C. L., Helman, W. P. and Ross, A. B. "Critical Review of rate constants for reactions of hydrated electrons, hydrogen atoms and hydroxyl radicals (OH/O in aqueous solution." J. Phys. Chem. Ref. Data 17, 513–886 (1988).
The charge carrier in lightning is mainly electrons in a plasma. The process of going from charge as ions (positive hydrogen ion and negative hydroxide ion) associated with liquid water or solid water to charge as electrons associated with lightning must involve some form of electro-chemistry, that is, the oxidation and/or the reduction of chemical species. As [hydroxide](hydroxide) functions as a base and [dioxide](carbon)(carbon dioxide) is an acidic gas, it is possible that charged water clouds in which the negative charge is in the form of the aqueous hydroxide ion, interact with atmospheric carbon dioxide to form aqueous carbonate ions and aqueous hydrogen carbonate ions.
## General considerations
[[File:LightningCNP.ogg|thumb|left|Four-second video of a lightning strike, Island in the Sky, [National Park](Canyonlands)(Canyonlands National Park), [Utah](Utah), United States.]]
The typical cloud-to-ground lightning flash culminates in the formation of an electrically conducting [plasma](plasma (physics)) channel through the air in excess of tall, from within the cloud to the ground's surface. The actual discharge is the final stage of a very complex process.[(1986)](Uman)(#Uman) p. 81. At its peak, a typical [thunderstorm](thunderstorm) produces three or more *strikes* to the Earth per minute.[(1986)](Uman)(#Uman) p. 55. Lightning primarily occurs when warm air is mixed with colder air masses, resulting in atmospheric disturbances necessary for polarizing the atmosphere. However, it can also occur during [storm](dust)(dust storm)s, [fires](forest)(forest fires), [tornado](tornado)es, [eruptions](volcanic)(volcano), and even in the cold of winter, where the lightning is known as [thundersnow](thundersnow).[New Lightning Type Found Over Volcano?](http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2010/02/100203-volcanoes-lightning/) . News.nationalgeographic.com (February 2010). Retrieved on June 23, 2012. [Hurricanes](tropical cyclone) typically generate some lightning, mainly in the rainbands as much as from the center.Pardo-Rodriguez, Lumari (Summer 2009) [Lightning Activity in Atlantic Tropical Cyclones: Using the Long-Range Lightning Detection Network (LLDN)](http://nldr.library.ucar.edu/repository/assets/soars/SOARS-000-000-000-193.pdf) . MA Climate and Society, Columbia University Significant Opportunities in Atmospheric Research and Science Program.[Hurricane Lightning](https://science.nasa.gov/science-news/science-at-nasa/2006/09jan_electrichurricanes/) , NASA, January 9, 2006.[The Promise of Long-Range Lightning Detection in Better Understanding, Nowcasting, and Forecasting of Maritime Storms](http://www.unidata.ucar.edu/committees/polcom/2009spring/statusreports/BusingerS09.pdf) . Long Range Lightning Detection Network
## Distribution, frequency and extent
[[Global Lightning Frequency.png|thumb|upright=1.5|Data from space-based sensors reveal the uneven distribution of worldwide lightning strikes. Units: flashes/km2/yr.
Data obtained from April 1995 to February 2003 from NASA's Optical Transient Detector and from January 1998 to February 2003 from NASA's Lightning Imaging Sensor.](File:)]
Lightning is not distributed evenly around Earth, as shown in the map.
On Earth, the lightning frequency is approximately 44 (± 5) times per second, or nearly 1.4 [billion](1,000,000,000 (number)) flashes per year and the median duration is 0.52 seconds made up from a number of much shorter flashes (strokes) of around 60 to 70 [microsecond](microsecond)s.
Many factors affect the frequency, distribution, strength and physical properties of a typical lightning flash in a particular region of the world. These factors include ground elevation, [latitude](latitude), [wind](prevailing)(prevailing wind) currents, [humidity](relative)(relative humidity), and proximity to warm and cold bodies of water. To a certain degree, the proportions of intra-cloud, cloud-to-cloud, and cloud-to-ground lightning may also vary by [season](season) in [latitudes](middle)(middle latitudes).
Because human beings are terrestrial and most of their possessions are on the Earth where lightning can damage or destroy them, cloud-to-ground (CG) lightning is the most studied and best understood of the three types, even though in-cloud (IC) and cloud-to-cloud (CC) are more common types of lightning. Lightning's relative unpredictability limits a complete explanation of how or why it occurs, even after hundreds of years of scientific investigation.
About 70% of lightning occurs over land in the [tropics](tropics) where [convection](atmospheric)(atmospheric convection) is the greatest.
This occurs from both the mixture of warmer and colder [mass](air)(air mass)es, as well as differences in moisture concentrations, and it generally happens at the [between them](boundaries)(Weather front). The flow of warm ocean currents past drier land masses, such as the [Stream](Gulf)(Gulf stream), partially explains the elevated frequency of lightning in the [United States](Southeast)(Southeast United States). Because large bodies of water lack the topographic variation that would result in atmospheric mixing, lightning is notably less frequent over the world's oceans than over land. The [North](north pole) and [Poles](South)(south pole) are limited in their coverage of thunderstorms and therefore result in areas with the least lightning.
In general, CG lightning flashes account for only 25% of all total lightning flashes worldwide. Since the base of a thunderstorm is usually negatively charged, this is where most CG lightning originates. This region is typically at the elevation where [freezing](freezing level) occurs within the cloud. Freezing, combined with collisions between ice and water, appears to be a critical part of the initial charge development and separation process. During wind-driven collisions, ice crystals tend to develop a positive charge, while a heavier, slushy mixture of ice and water (called [graupel](graupel)) develops a negative charge. Updrafts within a storm cloud separate the lighter ice crystals from the heavier graupel, causing the top region of the cloud to accumulate a positive [charge](space)(space charge) while the lower level accumulates a negative space charge.
[[File:2013-08-07 04-23-26-foudre-belfort.jpg|thumb|Lightning in [Belfort](Belfort), France]]
Because the concentrated charge within the cloud must exceed the insulating properties of air, and this increases proportionally to the distance between the cloud and the ground, the proportion of CG strikes (versus CC or IC discharges) becomes greater when the cloud is closer to the ground. In the tropics, where the freezing level is generally higher in the atmosphere, only 10% of lightning flashes are CG. At the latitude of Norway (around 60° North latitude), where the freezing elevation is lower, 50% of lightning is CG.[(1986)](Uman)(#Uman) Ch. 8, p. 68.
Lightning is usually produced by [cumulonimbus](cumulonimbus) clouds, which have bases that are typically above the ground and tops up to in height.
The place on Earth where lightning occurs most often is over [Maracaibo](Lake)(Lake Maracaibo), wherein the [lightning](Catatumbo)(Catatumbo lightning) phenomenon produces 250 bolts of lightning a day. This activity occurs on average, 297 days a year.Fischetti, M. (2016) [Lightning Hotspots](https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/the-world-s-top-lightning-hotspot-is-lake-maracaibo-in-venezuela/), Scientific American 314: 76 (May 2016) The second most lightning density is near the village of [Kifuka](Kifuka) in the mountains of the eastern [Republic of the Congo](Democratic)(Democratic Republic of the Congo), where the [elevation](elevation) is around . On average, this region receives . Other lightning hotspots include [Singapore](Singapore) and [Alley](Lightning)(Lightning Alley) in Central [Florida](Florida).
[[of 477 miles.png|thumb|right|The 477 mile megaflash from Texas to Louisiana.](File:Megaflash)]
According to the United Nations' [WMO](World Meteorological Organization), on April 29, 2020, a bolt 768 km (477.2 mi) long was observed in the southern U.S.—sixty km (37 mi) longer than the previous distance record (southern Brazil, October 31, 2018). A single flash in Uruguay and northern Argentina on June 18, 2020, lasted for 17.1 seconds—0.37 seconds longer than the previous record (March 4, 2019, also in northern Argentina).
## Necessary conditions
[[of a thunderstorm](File:Thunder.ogg|thumb|left|Sound)]
In order for an [discharge](electrostatic)(electrostatic discharge) to occur, two preconditions are necessary: first, a sufficiently high [difference](potential)(potential difference) between two regions of space must exist, and second, a high-resistance medium must obstruct the free, unimpeded equalization of the opposite charges. The atmosphere provides the electrical insulation, or barrier, that prevents free equalization between charged regions of opposite polarity.
It is well understood that during a thunderstorm there is charge separation and aggregation in certain regions of the cloud; however, the exact processes by which this occurs are not fully understood.
### Electrical field generation
[[of lightning from an airplane flying above a system.](File:LightningAboveCloudsView.JPG|thumb|View)]
As a [thundercloud](Cumulonimbus cloud) moves over the surface of the Earth, an equal [charge](electric)(electric charge), but of opposite polarity, is [induced](Electrostatic induction) on the Earth's surface underneath the cloud. The induced positive surface charge, when measured against a fixed point, will be small as the thundercloud approaches, increasing as the center of the storm arrives and dropping as the thundercloud passes. The referential value of the induced surface charge could be roughly represented as a bell curve.
The oppositely charged regions create an [field](electric)(electric field) within the air between them. This electric field varies in relation to the strength of the surface charge on the base of the thundercloud – the greater the accumulated charge, the higher the electrical field.
## Flashes and strikes
[[File:CN Tower struck by lightning-Edit(Taxi).jpg|thumb|upright|Certain prominent structures often attract frequent lightning strikes. The [Tower](CN)(CN Tower) in [Toronto](Toronto) is struck many times every summer.]]
The best-studied and understood form of lightning is cloud to ground (CG) lightning. Although more common, intra-cloud (IC) and cloud-to-cloud (CC) flashes are very difficult to study given there are no "physical" points to monitor inside the clouds. Also, given the very low probability of lightning striking the same point repeatedly and consistently, scientific inquiry is difficult even in areas of high CG frequency. [[File: Desert Electric.jpg|thumb|A lightning strike from cloud to ground in the [Desert](Mojave)(Mojave Desert), California]]
[[Florescent cloud blanket.jpg|thumb|An intra-cloud flash. A lightning flash within the cloud illuminates the entire cloud.](File:)]
### Lightning leaders
[[Lightning formation.gif|thumb|A downward leader travels towards earth, branching as it goes.](File:)]
[[strike caused by the connection of two leaders, positive shown in blue and negative in red](File:Leaderlightnig.gif|thumbnail|Lightning)]
In a process not well understood, a bidirectional channel of [ionized](ionized) air, called a "[leader](leader (spark))", is initiated between oppositely-charged regions in a thundercloud. Leaders are electrically conductive channels of ionized gas that propagate through, or are otherwise attracted to, regions with a charge opposite of that of the leader tip. The negative end of the bidirectional leader fills a positive charge region, also called a well, inside the cloud while the positive end fills a negative charge well. Leaders often split, forming branches in a tree-like pattern.Ultraslow-motion video of stepped leader propagation: [ztresearch.com](http://www.ztresearch.com/) In addition, negative and some positive leaders travel in a discontinuous fashion, in a process called "stepping". The resulting jerky movement of the leaders can be readily observed in slow-motion videos of lightning flashes.
It is possible for one end of the leader to fill the oppositely-charged well entirely while the other end is still active. When this happens, the leader end which filled the well may propagate outside of the thundercloud and result in either a cloud-to-air flash or a cloud-to-ground flash. In a typical cloud-to-ground flash, a bidirectional leader initiates between the main negative and lower positive charge regions in a thundercloud. The weaker positive charge region is filled quickly by the negative leader which then propagates toward the inductively-charged ground.
The positively and negatively charged leaders proceed in opposite directions, positive upwards within the cloud and [negative](Electric charge) towards the earth. Both ionic channels proceed, in their respective directions, in a number of successive spurts. Each leader "pools" ions at the leading tips, shooting out one or more new leaders, momentarily pooling again to concentrate charged ions, then shooting out another leader. The negative leader continues to propagate and split as it heads downward, often speeding up as it gets closer to the Earth's surface.
About 90% of ionic channel lengths between "pools" are approximately in length.Goulde, R.H. (1977) "The lightning conductor", pp. 545–576 in *Lightning Protection*, R.H. Golde, Ed., *Lightning, Vol. 2*, Academic Press. The establishment of the ionic channel takes a comparatively long amount of time (hundreds of [millisecond](millisecond)s) in comparison to the resulting discharge, which occurs within a few dozen microseconds. The [current](electric)(electric current) needed to establish the channel, measured in the tens or hundreds of [ampere](ampere)s, is dwarfed by subsequent currents during the actual discharge.
Initiation of the lightning leader is not well understood. The electric field strength within the thundercloud is not typically large enough to initiate this process by itself. Many hypotheses have been proposed. One hypothesis postulates that showers of relativistic electrons are created by [rays](cosmic)(cosmic rays) and are then accelerated to higher velocities via a process called [breakdown](runaway)(runaway breakdown). As these relativistic electrons collide and ionize neutral air molecules, they initiate leader formation. Another hypothesis involves locally enhanced electric fields being formed near elongated water droplets or ice crystals. [theory](Percolation)(Percolation theory), especially for the case of biased percolation, describes random connectivity phenomena, which produce an evolution of connected structures similar to that of lightning strikes. A streamer avalanche model has recently been favored by observational data taken by LOFAR during storms.
### Upward streamers
[[streamer from pool cover.jpg| thumb|220x124px | right | Upwards streamer emanating from the top of a pool cover](File:Upwards)]
When a stepped leader approaches the ground, the presence of opposite charges on the ground enhances the strength of the [field](electric)(electric field). The electric field is strongest on grounded objects whose tops are closest to the base of the thundercloud, such as trees and tall buildings. If the electric field is strong enough, a positively charged ionic channel, called a positive or upward [streamer](Streamer discharge), can develop from these points. This was first theorized by Heinz Kasemir.Kasemir, H. W. (1950) "Qualitative Übersicht über Potential-, Feld- und Ladungsverhaltnisse Bei einer Blitzentladung in der Gewitterwolke" (Qualitative survey of the potential, field and charge conditions during a lightning discharge in the thunderstorm cloud) in *Das Gewitter* (The Thunderstorm), H. Israel, ed., Leipzig, Germany: [Verlagsgesellschaft](Akademische)(Akademische Verlagsgesellschaft).Ruhnke, Lothar H. (June 7, 2007) [Death notice: Heinz Wolfram Kasemir](https://archive.today/2011.06.11-231459/http://www.physicstoday.org/obits/notice_157.shtml). physicstoday.org
As negatively charged leaders approach, increasing the localized electric field strength, grounded objects already experiencing [discharge](corona)(corona discharge) will [a threshold](exceed)(Corona breakdown) and form upward streamers.
### Attachment
Once a downward leader connects to an available upward leader, a process referred to as attachment, a low-resistance path is formed and discharge may occur. Photographs have been taken in which unattached streamers are clearly visible. The unattached downward leaders are also visible in branched lightning, none of which are connected to the earth, although it may appear they are. High-speed videos can show the attachment process in progress.
### Discharge
#### Return stroke
[[File:Lightnings sequence 2 animation-wcag.gif|thumb|High-speed photography showing different parts of a lightning flash during the discharge process as seen in [Toulouse](Toulouse), France.]]
Once a conductive channel bridges the air gap between the negative charge excess in the cloud and the positive surface charge excess below, there is a large drop in resistance across the lightning channel. Electrons accelerate rapidly as a result in a zone beginning at the point of attachment, which expands across the entire leader network at up to one third of the speed of light. This is the "return stroke" and it is the most [luminous](Luminous intensity) and noticeable part of the lightning discharge.
A large electric charge flows along the plasma channel, from the cloud to the ground, neutralising the positive ground charge as electrons flow away from the strike point to the surrounding area. This huge surge of current creates large radial voltage differences along the surface of the ground. Called step potentials, they are responsible for more injuries and deaths in groups of people or of other animals than the strike itself.Deamer, Kacey (August 30, 2016) [More Than 300 Reindeer Killed By Lightning: Here's Why](https://www.livescience.com/55916-why-reindeer-killed-by-lightning.html). *Live Science* Electricity takes every path available to it.
Such step potentials will often flow through one leg and out another, electrocuting an unlucky human or animal standing near the point where the lightning strikes.
The electric current of the return stroke averages 30 kiloamperes for a typical negative CG flash, often referred to as "negative CG" lightning. In some cases, a ground-to-cloud (GC) lightning flash may originate from a positively charged region on the ground below a storm. These discharges normally originate from the tops of very tall structures, such as communications antennas. The rate at which the return stroke current travels has been found to be around 100,000 km/s (one-third of the speed of light).
The massive flow of electric current occurring during the return stroke combined with the rate at which it occurs (measured in microseconds) rapidly [superheats](superheating) the completed leader channel, forming a highly electrically conductive plasma channel. The core temperature of the plasma during the return stroke may exceed 50,000 K, causing it to radiate with a brilliant, blue-white color. Once the electric current stops flowing, the channel cools and dissipates over tens or hundreds of milliseconds, often disappearing as fragmented patches of glowing gas. The nearly instantaneous heating during the return stroke causes the air to expand explosively, producing a powerful [wave](shock)(shock wave) which is heard as [thunder](#Thunder).
#### Re-strike
High-speed videos (examined frame-by-frame) show that most negative CG lightning flashes are made up of 3 or 4 individual strokes, though there may be as many as 30.[(1986)](Uman)(#Uman) Ch. 5, p. 41.
Each re-strike is separated by a relatively large amount of time, typically 40 to 50 milliseconds, as other charged regions in the cloud are discharged in subsequent strokes. Re-strikes often cause a noticeable "[light](strobe)(strobe light)" effect.[(1986)](Uman)(#Uman) pp. 103–110.
To understand why multiple return strokes utilize the same lightning channel, one needs to understand the behavior of positive leaders, which a typical ground flash effectively becomes following the negative leader's connection with the ground. Positive leaders decay more rapidly than negative leaders do. For reasons not well understood, bidirectional leaders tend to initiate on the tips of the decayed positive leaders in which the negative end attempts to re-ionize the leader network. These leaders, also called *recoil leaders*, usually decay shortly after their formation. When they do manage to make contact with a conductive portion of the main leader network, a return stroke-like process occurs and a *dart leader* travels across all or a portion of the length of the original leader. The dart leaders making connections with the ground are what cause a majority of subsequent return strokes.
Each successive stroke is preceded by intermediate dart leader strokes that have a faster rise time but lower amplitude than the initial return stroke. Each subsequent stroke usually re-uses the discharge channel taken by the previous one, but the channel may be offset from its previous position as wind displaces the hot channel.[(1986)](Uman)(#Uman) Ch. 9, p. 78.
Since recoil and dart leader processes do not occur on negative leaders, subsequent return strokes very seldom utilize the same channel on positive ground flashes which are explained later in the article.
#### Transient currents during flash
The electric current within a typical negative CG lightning discharge rises very quickly to its peak value in 1–10 microseconds, then decays more slowly over 50–200 microseconds. The transient nature of the current within a lightning flash results in several phenomena that need to be addressed in the effective protection of ground-based structures. Rapidly changing currents tend to travel on the surface of a conductor, in what is called the [effect](skin)(skin effect), unlike direct currents, which "flow-through" the entire conductor like water through a hose. Hence, conductors used in the protection of facilities tend to be multi-stranded, with small wires woven together. This increases the total bundle [area](surface)(surface area) in inverse proportion to the individual strand radius, for a fixed total [area](cross-sectional)(Cross section (geometry)).
The rapidly changing currents also create [pulses (EMPs)](electromagnetic)(Electromagnetic pulse) that radiate outward from the ionic channel. This is a characteristic of all electrical discharges. The radiated pulses rapidly weaken as their distance from the origin increases. However, if they pass over conductive elements such as power lines, communication lines, or metallic pipes, they may induce a current which travels outward to its termination. The surge current is inversely related to the surge impedance: the higher in impedance, the lower the current. This is the [surge](Voltage spike) that, more often than not, results in the destruction of delicate [electronics](electronics), [appliance](electrical)(electrical appliance)s, or [motor](electric)(electric motor)s. Devices known as [protectors (SPD) or transient voltage surge suppressors (TVSS)](surge)(Surge protector) attached in parallel with these lines can detect the lightning flash's transient irregular current, and, through alteration of its physical properties, route the spike to an attached [ground](earthing)(Electrical ground), thereby protecting the equipment from damage.
## Types
Three primary types of lightning are defined by the "starting" and "ending" points of a flash channel.
* *Intra-cloud* (IC) or *in-cloud* lightning occurs within a single thundercloud unit.
* *Cloud-to-cloud* (CC) or *inter-cloud* lightning starts and ends between two different "functional" thundercloud units.
* *Cloud-to-ground* (CG) lightning primarily originates in the thundercloud and terminates on an Earth surface, but may also occur in the reverse direction, that is ground to cloud.
There are variations of each type, such as "positive" versus "negative" CG flashes, that have different physical characteristics common to each which can be measured. Different [name](common)(common name)s used to describe a particular lightning event may be attributed to the same or to different events.
### Cloud to ground (CG)
[[strikes mountain top.jpg|thumb|right|Cloud-to-ground lightning](File:Lightning)]
*Cloud-to-ground* (CG) lightning is a lightning discharge between a thundercloud and the ground. It is initiated by a stepped leader moving down from the cloud, which is met by a streamer moving up from the ground.
CG is the least common, but best understood of all types of lightning. It is easier to study scientifically because it terminates on a physical object, namely the Earth, and lends itself to being measured by instruments on the ground. Of the three primary types of lightning, it poses the greatest threat to life and property since it terminates on the Earth or "strikes".
The overall discharge, termed a flash, is composed of a number of processes such as preliminary breakdown, stepped leaders, connecting leaders, return strokes, dart leaders, and subsequent return strokes.V. Cooray, Mechanism of the Lightning Flash, in The Lightning Flash, 2nd ed., V. Cooray (Ed.), The Institution of Engineering and Technology, London, United Kingdom, 2014, pp. 119–229 The conductivity of the electrical ground, be it soil, fresh water, or salt water, may affect the lightning discharge rate and thus visible characteristics.
#### Positive and negative lightning
Cloud-to-ground (CG) lightning is either positive or negative, as defined by the direction of the [electric current](conventional)(Conventional current flow) between cloud and ground. Most CG lightning is negative, meaning that a negative charge is transferred to ground and electrons travel downward along the lightning channel (conventionally the current flows from the ground to the cloud). The reverse happens in a positive CG flash, where electrons travel upward along the lightning channel and a positive charge is transferred to the ground (conventionally the current flows from the cloud to the ground). Positive lightning is less common than negative lightning, and on average makes up less than 5% of all lightning strikes.
[[File: Anvil-to-ground lightning.jpg|thumb|A *bolt from the blue* lightning strike which appears to initiate from the clear, but the turbulent sky above the [cloud](anvil)(anvil cloud) and drive a bolt of plasma through the cloud directly to the ground. They are commonly referred to as positive flashes, despite the fact that they are usually negative in polarity.]]
There are six different mechanisms theorized to result in the formation of positive lightning.
* Vertical wind shear displacing the upper positive charge region of a thundercloud, exposing it to the ground below.
* The loss of lower charge regions in the dissipating stage of a thunderstorm, leaving the primary positive charge region.
* A complex arrangement of charge regions in a thundercloud, effectively resulting in an *inverted dipole* or *inverted tripole* in which the main negative charge region is above the main positive charge region instead of beneath it.
* An unusually large lower positive charge region in the thundercloud.
* Cutoff of an extended negative leader from its origin which creates a new bidirectional leader in which the positive end strikes the ground, commonly seen in anvil-crawler spider flashes.
* The initiation of a downward positive branch from an IC lightning flash.
Contrary to popular belief, positive lightning flashes do *not* necessarily originate from the anvil or the upper positive charge region and strike a rain-free area outside of the thunderstorm. This belief is based on the outdated idea that lightning leaders are unipolar and originate from their respective charge region.
Positive lightning strikes tend to be much more intense than their negative counterparts. An average bolt of [negative](Electrical polarity) lightning carries an electric current of 30,000 [ampere](ampere)s (30 kA), and transfers 15 C ([coulomb](coulomb)s) of [charge](electric)(electric charge) and 1 [gigajoule](joule) of [energy](energy). Large bolts of positive lightning can carry up to 120 kA and 350 C.Hasbrouck, Richard. [Mitigating Lightning Hazards](https://www.llnl.gov/str/pdfs/05_96.1.pdf) , Science & Technology Review May 1996. Retrieved on April 26, 2009. The average positive ground flash has roughly double the peak current of a typical negative flash, and can produce peak currents up to 400 kA and charges of several hundred coulombs.V.A. Rakov, M.A. Uman, Positive and bipolar lightning discharges to ground, in: Light. Phys. Eff., Cambridge University Press, 2003: pp. 214–240 Furthermore, positive ground flashes with high peak currents are commonly followed by long continuing currents, a correlation not seen in negative ground flashes.
As a result of their greater power, positive lightning strikes are considerably more dangerous than negative strikes. Positive lightning produces both higher peak currents and longer continuing currents, making them capable of heating surfaces to much higher levels which increases the likelihood of a fire being ignited. The long distances positive lightning can propagate through clear air explains why they are known as "bolts from the blue", giving no warning to observers.
Despite the popular misconception that these are positive lightning strikes due to them seemingly originating from the positive charge region, observations have shown that these are in fact negative flashes. They begin as IC flashes within the cloud, the negative leader then exits the cloud from the positive charge region before propagating through clear air and striking the ground some distance away.
Positive lightning has also been shown to trigger the occurrence of upward lightning flashes from the tops of tall structures and is largely responsible for the initiation of [sprites](Upper-atmospheric lightning#Sprites) several tens of km above ground level. Positive lightning tends to occur more frequently in [storm](winter)(winter storm)s, as with [thundersnow](thundersnow), during intense [tornado](tornado)es and in the dissipation stage of a [thunderstorm](thunderstorm). Huge quantities of [low frequency](extremely)(extremely low frequency) (ELF) and [low frequency](very)(very low frequency) (VLF) [wave](radio)(radio wave)s are also generated.
### Cloud to cloud (CC) and intra-cloud (IC)
Lightning discharges may occur between areas of cloud without contacting the ground. When it occurs between two separate clouds, it is known as *cloud-to-cloud* (CC) or *inter-cloud* lightning; when it occurs between areas of differing [potential](electric)(electric potential) within a single cloud, it is known as *intra-cloud* (IC) lightning. IC lightning is the most frequently occurring type.
IC lightning most commonly occurs between the upper [anvil](cumulonimbus incus) portion and lower reaches of a given thunderstorm. This lightning can sometimes be observed at great distances at night as so-called "[lightning](sheet)(sheet lightning)". In such instances, the observer may see only a flash of light without hearing any thunder.
Another term used for cloud–cloud or cloud–cloud–ground lightning is "Anvil Crawler", due to the habit of charge, typically originating beneath or within the anvil and scrambling through the upper cloud layers of a thunderstorm, often generating dramatic multiple branch strokes. These are usually seen as a thunderstorm passes over the observer or begins to decay. The most vivid crawler behavior occurs in well developed thunderstorms that feature extensive rear anvil shearing.
File:Ligtning new delhi view 1.GIF|Branching of cloud to cloud lightning, [Delhi](New)(New Delhi), India.
File:Cloud to cloud lightning strike.jpg|Multiple paths of cloud-to-cloud lightning, [Creek](Swifts)(Swifts Creek, Victoria), Australia.
File:Baltic thunder.jpg|Intra-clouds lightning over the [Sea](Baltic)(Baltic Sea).
### Observational variations
[[Crawler over Lake Wright Patman south of Redwater, Texas..JPG|thumb|Anvil Crawler over Lake Wright Patman south of Redwater, Texas on the backside of a large area of rain associated with a cold-front](File:Anvil)]
* **Anvil crawler lightning**, sometimes called **spider lightning**, is created when leaders propagate through horizontally-extensive charge regions in mature thunderstorms, usually the stratiform regions of mesoscale convective systems. These discharges usually begin as IC discharges originating within the convective region; the negative leader end then propagates well into the aforementioned charge regions in the stratiform area. If the leader becomes too long, it may separate into multiple bidirectional leaders. When this happens, the positive end of the separated leader may strike the ground as a positive CG flash or crawl on the underside of the cloud, creating a spectacular display of lightning crawling across the sky. Ground flashes produced in this manner tend to transfer high amounts of charge, and this can trigger upward lightning flashes and upper-atmospheric lightning.
* **[lightning](Ball)(Ball lightning)** may be an [electrical](atmospheric)(atmospheric electricity) phenomenon, the physical nature of which is still [controversial](controversial). The term refers to reports of [luminous](luminosity), usually [spherical](spherical) objects which vary from pea-sized to several metres in diameter. It is sometimes associated with [thunderstorms](thunderstorms), but unlike lightning flashes, which last only a fraction of a second, ball lightning reportedly lasts many seconds. Ball lightning has been described by eyewitnesses but rarely recorded by [meteorologist](meteorologist)s. Scientific data on natural ball lightning is scarce owing to its infrequency and unpredictability. The presumption of its existence is based on reported public sightings, and has therefore produced somewhat inconsistent findings. Brett Porter, a wildlife ranger, reported taking a photo in Queensland, Australia in 1987.
* **Bead lightning**, also known by the terms pearl lightning, chain lightning, perlschnurblitz, éclair en chapelet and others, is the decaying stage of a lightning channel in which the [luminosity](luminosity) of the channel breaks up into segments. Nearly every lightning discharge will exhibit *beading* as the channel cools immediately after a return stroke, sometimes referred to as the lightning's 'bead-out' stage. 'Bead lightning' is more properly a stage of a normal lightning discharge rather than a type of lightning in itself. Beading of a lightning channel is usually a small-scale feature, and therefore is often only apparent when the observer/camera is close to the lightning.
[[File:Gigantic jet NOIRLab.jpg|thumb|Gigantic jet as seen from the summit of [Kea](Mauna)(Mauna Kea), Hawaii.]]
* **Clear-air lightning** describes lightning that occurs with no apparent cloud close enough to have produced it. In the U.S. and Canadian [Rockies](Rocky Mountains), a thunderstorm can be in an adjacent valley and not observable from the valley where the lightning bolt strikes, either visually or audibly. European and Asian mountainous areas experience similar events. Also in areas such as [sounds](Sound (geography)), large lakes or open plains, when the storm cell is on the near horizon (within ) there may be some distant activity, a strike can occur and as the storm is so far away, the strike is referred to as **a bolt from the blue**. These flashes usually begin as normal IC lightning flashes before the negative leader exits the cloud and strikes the ground a considerable distance away. Positive clear-air strikes can occur in highly sheared environments where the upper positive charge region becomes horizontally displaced from the precipitation area.
* **Cloud-to-air lightning** is a lightning flash in which one end of a bidirectional leader exits the cloud, but does not result in a ground flash. Such flashes can sometimes be thought of as failed ground flashes. [jets and gigantic jets](Blue)(Upper-atmospheric lightning#Jets) are a form of cloud-to-air or cloud-to-ionosphere lightning where a leader is launched from the top of a thunderstorm.
* **[flash](Crown)(Crown flash)** is a lightning flash accompanied by the brightening of the thunderhead crown followed by the emanation of aurora-like streamers into the clear atmosphere.
* **[lightning](Dry)(Dry lightning)** is lightning that occurs with no [precipitation](Precipitation (meteorology)) at the surface and is the most common natural cause of [wildfire](wildfire)s. [cloud](Pyrocumulus)(Pyrocumulus cloud)s produce lightning for the same reason that it is produced by cumulonimbus clouds. This term is mainly used in Australia, Canada, and the United States.
* **Forked lightning** is cloud-to-ground lightning that exhibits branching of its path.
* **[lightning](Heat)(Heat lightning)** is a lightning flash that appears to produce no discernible [thunder](#Thunder) because it occurs too far away for the thunder to be heard. The sound waves dissipate before they reach the observer.
* **Ribbon lightning** occurs in thunderstorms with high cross winds and multiple return strokes. The wind will blow each successive return stroke slightly to one side of the previous return stroke, causing a ribbon effect.
* **Rocket lightning** is a form of cloud discharge, generally horizontal and at cloud base, with a luminous channel appearing to advance through the air with visually resolvable speed, often intermittently.
* **Sheet lightning** is cloud-to-cloud lightning that exhibits a diffuse brightening of the surface of a cloud, caused by the actual discharge path being hidden or too far away. The lightning itself cannot be seen by the spectator, so it appears as only a flash, or a sheet of light. The lightning may be too far away to discern individual flashes.
* **Smooth channel lightning** is an informal term referring to a type of cloud-to-ground lightning strike that has no visible branching and appears like a line with smooth curves as opposed to the jagged appearance of most lightning channels. They are a form of positive lightning generally observed in or near the convective regions of severe thunderstorms in the north central United States. It is theorized that severe thunderstorms in this region obtain an "inverted tripole" charge structure in which the main positive charge region is located below the main negative charge region instead of above it, and as a result these thunderstorms generate predominantly positive cloud-to-ground lightning. The term "smooth channel lightning" is also sometimes attributed to upward ground-to-cloud lightning flashes, which are generally negative flashes initiated by upward positive leaders from tall structures.
* [[Lightning.jpg|thumb|upright|This CG was of very short duration, exhibited highly branched channels and was very bright indicating that it was staccato lightning near New Boston, Texas.](File:Staccoto)] **Staccato lightning** is a cloud-to-ground lightning (CG) strike which is a short-duration stroke that (often but not always) appears as a single very bright flash and often has considerable branching. These are often found in the visual vault area near the [mesocyclone](mesocyclone) of rotating thunderstorms and coincides with intensification of thunderstorm [updraft](updraft)s. A similar cloud-to-cloud strike consisting of a brief flash over a small area, appearing like a blip, also occurs in a similar area of rotating updrafts.
* **Superbolts** are rather loosely defined as strikes with a source energy of more than 100 gigajoule [GJ](100) (most lightning strikes come in at around 1 gigajoule [GJ](1)). Events of this magnitude occur about as frequently as one in 240 strikes. They are not categorically distinct from ordinary lightning strikes, and simply represent the uppermost edge of a continuum. Contrary to popular misconception, superbolts can be either positively or negatively charged, and the charge ratio is comparable to that of "ordinary" lightning.
* **Sympathetic lightning** is the tendency of lightning to be loosely coordinated across long distances. Discharges can appear in clusters when viewed from space.The term "sympathetic lightning" was coined by U.S. astronaut [Gibson](Edward)(Edward Gibson) (1936- ). See:
* Vonnegut, B. ; Vaughan, O. H., Jr. ; Brook, M. ; Krehbiel, P. (1984) "Mesoscale observations of lightning from Space Shuttle" NASA Technical Memorandum 86451. From p. 1: "Here is another description by Astronaut Gibson of lightning over the Andes, " … A few things which impressed me here: One is the fact that they [lightning strikes](i.e.,) could go off simultaneously or near simultaneously over a large distance — sympathetic lightning bolts, if you will, analogous to sympathetic flares on the sun. … "
* Reprinted in:
* **Upward lightning** or **ground-to-cloud lightning** is a lightning flash which originates from the top of a grounded object and propagates upward from this point. This type of lightning can be triggered by a preceding lightning flash, or it may initiate entirely on its own. The former is generally found in regions where spider lightning occurs, and may involve multiple grounded objects simultaneously. The latter usually occurs during the cold season and may be the dominant lightning type in thundersnow events.
## Effects
### Lightning strike
#### Effects on objects
[[Explosionsartiger Dampfdruck zwischen Stamm und Rinde vom Blitzeinschlag sprengte Birkenrinde weg.jpg|thumb|Explosive steam pressure between trunk and bark from lightning strike blew away birch bark](File:)]
[[File:Black walnut lightning strike.jpg|thumb|upright|Strike mark on trunk of an [Oklahoma](Oklahoma) [walnut](black)(black walnut)]]
Objects struck by lightning experience heat and magnetic forces of great magnitude. The heat created by lightning currents travelling through a tree may vaporize its sap, causing a steam explosion that bursts the trunk. As lightning travels through sandy soil, the soil surrounding the [channel](plasma)(plasma channel) may melt, forming tubular structures called [fulgurite](fulgurite)s.
#### Effects on buildings and vehicles
[[File:Lightning over Oradea Romania 3.jpg|thumb|upright|Strokes of cloud-to-ground lightning during a [thunderstorm](thunderstorm) in the town of [Oradea](Oradea).]]
Buildings or tall structures hit by lightning may be damaged as the lightning seeks unimpeded paths to the ground. By safely conducting a lightning strike to the ground, a lightning protection system, usually incorporating at least one [rod](lightning)(lightning rod), can greatly reduce the probability of severe property damage.
Aircraft are highly susceptible to being struck due to their metallic fuselages, but lightning strikes are generally not dangerous to them. Due to the conductive properties of [alloy](aluminium)(aluminium alloy), the fuselage acts as a [cage](Faraday)(Faraday cage). Present day aircraft are built to be safe from a lightning strike and passengers will generally not even know that it has happened.
#### Effects on animals
Although 90 percent of people struck by lightning survive, animalsincluding humansstruck by lightning may suffer [injury](severe)(Lightning injuries) due to internal organ and nervous system damage.
#### Other effects
Lightning serves an important role in the [cycle](nitrogen)(nitrogen cycle) by oxidizing diatomic nitrogen in the air into [nitrates](nitrates) which are deposited by rain and can fertilize the growth of plants and other organisms.Pickering, K.E., Bucsela, E., Allen, D, Cummings, K., Li, Y., MacGorman, D., Bruning, E. 2014. Estimates of Lightning NOx Production Per Flash from OMI NO2 and Lightning Observations. XV International Conference on Atmospheric Electricity, 15–20, June 2014.
### Thunder
Because the electrostatic discharge of terrestrial lightning superheats the air to plasma temperatures along the length of the discharge channel in a short duration, [theory](kinetic)(kinetic theory of gases) dictates gaseous molecules undergo a rapid increase in pressure and thus expand outward from the lightning creating a [wave](shock)(shock wave) audible as thunder. Since the sound waves propagate not from a single point source but along the length of the lightning's path, the sound origin's varying distances from the observer can generate a rolling or rumbling effect. Perception of the sonic characteristics is further complicated by factors such as the irregular and possibly branching geometry of the lightning channel, by [echoing](acoustic)(echo (phenomenon)) from terrain, and by the usually multiple-stroke characteristic of the lightning strike.
[travels](Light)(Speed of light) at about , and [sound](speed of sound) travels through air at about . An observer can approximate the distance to the strike by timing the interval between the visible lightning and the audible thunder it generates. A lightning flash preceding its thunder by one second would be approximately in distance; a delay of three seconds would indicate a distance of about (3 × 343 m). A flash preceding thunder by five seconds would indicate a distance of approximately (5 × 343 m). Consequently, a lightning strike observed at a very close distance will be accompanied by a sudden clap of thunder, with almost no perceptible time lapse, possibly accompanied by the smell of [ozone](ozone) (O3).
Lightning at a sufficient distance may be seen and not heard; there is data that a lightning storm can be seen at over whereas the thunder travels about . Anecdotally, there are many examples of people saying 'the storm was directly overhead or all-around and yet there was no thunder'. Since thunderclouds can be up to 20 km high, lightning occurring high up in the cloud may appear close but is actually too far away to produce noticeable thunder.
### Radio
Lightning discharges generate radio-frequency pulses which can be received thousands of kilometres from their source as radio atmospheric signals and whistlers.
### High-energy radiation
The production of [X-ray](X-ray)s by a bolt of lightning was predicted as early as 1925 by [Wilson](C.T.R.)(Charles Thomson Rees Wilson), but no evidence was found until 2001/2002,Newitz, A. (September 2007) "Educated Destruction 101", *Popular Science*, p. 61. when researchers at the [Mexico Institute of Mining and Technology](New)(New Mexico Institute of Mining and Technology) detected X-ray emissions from an induced lightning strike along a grounded wire trailed behind a rocket shot into a storm cloud. In the same year [of Florida](University)(University of Florida) and [Tech](Florida)(Florida Institute of Technology) researchers used an array of electric field and X-ray detectors at a lightning research facility in North Florida to confirm that natural lightning makes X-rays in large quantities during the propagation of stepped leaders. The cause of the X-ray emissions is still a matter for research, as the temperature of lightning is too low to account for the X-rays observed.[Scientists close in on source of X-rays in lightning](http://www.physorg.com/news135351802.html) , *Physorg.com*, July 15, 2008. Retrieved July 2008.
A number of observations by space-based telescopes have revealed even higher energy [ray](gamma)(gamma ray) emissions, the so-called [gamma-ray flash](terrestrial)(terrestrial gamma-ray flash)es (TGFs). These observations pose a challenge to current theories of lightning, especially with the recent discovery of the clear signatures of [antimatter](antimatter) produced in lightning.[Signature Of Antimatter Detected In Lightning – Science News](http://www.sciencenews.org/view/generic/id/49288/title/Signature_of_antimatter_detected_in_lightning) . Sciencenews.org (December 5, 2009). Retrieved on June 23, 2012. Recent research has shown that secondary species, produced by these TGFs, such as [electrons](electrons), [positrons](positrons), [neutrons](neutrons) or [protons](protons), can gain energies of up to several tens of MeV.
### Ozone and nitrogen oxides
The very high temperatures generated by lightning lead to significant local increases in [ozone](ozone) and [of nitrogen](oxides)(Nitrogen oxide). Each lightning flash in temperate and sub-tropical areas produces 7 kg of on average. In the [troposphere](troposphere) the effect of lightning can increase by 90% and ozone by 30%.
## Volcanic
[[1994.jpg|thumb|Volcanic material thrust high into the atmosphere can trigger lightning.](File:Rinjani)]
Volcanic activity produces lightning-friendly conditions in multiple ways. The enormous quantity of pulverized material and gases explosively ejected into the atmosphere creates a dense plume of particles. The ash density and constant motion within the volcanic plume produces charge by frictional interactions (triboelectrification), resulting in very powerful and very frequent flashes as the cloud attempts to neutralize itself. Due to the extensive solid material (ash) content, unlike the water rich charge generating zones of a normal thundercloud, it is often called a [thunderstorm](dirty)(dirty thunderstorm).
* Powerful and frequent flashes have been witnessed in the volcanic plume as far back as the 79 AD eruption of [Vesuvius](Vesuvius) by [The Younger](Pliny)(Pliny The Younger).
* Likewise, vapors and ash originating from vents on the volcano's flanks may produce more localized and smaller flashes upwards of 2.9 km long.
* Small, short duration [spark](Electric spark)s, recently documented near newly extruded magma, attest to the material being highly charged prior to even entering the atmosphere.Dell'Amore, Christine (February 3, 2010) [New Lightning Type Found Over Volcano?](http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2010/02/100203-volcanoes-lightning/?source=link_fb02102009) . [Geographic News](National)(National Geographic News).
If the volcanic ash plume rises to freezing temperatures, ice particles form and collide with ash particles to cause electrification. Lightning can be detected in any explosion but the causation of additional electrification from ice particles in ash can lead to a stronger electrical field and a higher rate of detectable lightning. Lightning is also used as a volcano monitoring tool for detecting hazardous eruptions.
## Fire lightning
Intense forest fires, such as those seen in the [Australian bushfire season](2019–20)(2019–20 Australian bushfire season), can create their own weather systems that can produce lightning and other weather phenomena. Intense heat from a fire causes air to rapidly rise within the smoke plume, causing the formation of [pyrocumulonimbus](pyrocumulonimbus) clouds. Cooler air is drawn in by this turbulent, rising air, helping to cool the plume. The rising plume is further cooled by the lower atmospheric pressure at high altitude, allowing the moisture in it to condense into cloud. Pyrocumulonimbus clouds form in an unstable atmosphere. These weather systems can produce dry lightning, [tornado](fire)(fire tornado)es, intense winds, and dirty hail.
## Extraterrestrial
Lightning has been observed within the [atmospheres](Celestial body atmosphere) of other [planet](planet)s, such as [Jupiter](Jupiter), [Saturn](Saturn), and probably [Uranus](Uranus) and [Neptune](Neptune). Lightning on Jupiter is far more energetic than on Earth, despite seeming to be generated via the same mechanism. Recently, a new type of lightning was detected on Jupiter, thought to originate from "mushballs" including ammonia.
Lightning on Venus has been a controversial subject after decades of study. During the Soviet [Venera](Venera) and U.S. [Pioneer](Pioneer program) missions of the 1970s and 1980s, signals suggesting lightning may be present in the upper atmosphere were detected. The short [Cassini–Huygens](Cassini–Huygens) mission fly-by of Venus in 1999 detected no signs of lightning, but radio pulses recorded by the spacecraft [Express](Venus)(Venus Express) (which began orbiting Venus in April 2006) may originate from lightning on Venus.
## Human-related phenomena
* Airplane contrails have also been observed to influence lightning to a small degree. The water vapor-dense contrails of airplanes may provide a lower resistance pathway through the atmosphere having some influence upon the establishment of an ionic pathway for a lightning flash to follow.[(1986)](Uman)(#Uman) Ch. 4, pp. 26–34.
* Rocket exhaust plumes provided a pathway for lightning when it was witnessed striking the [12 rocket](Apollo)(Apollo 12) shortly after takeoff.
* [explosions](Thermonuclear)(Thermonuclear weapon), by providing extra material for electrical conduction and a very turbulent localized atmosphere, have been seen triggering lightning flashes within the mushroom cloud. In addition, intense gamma radiation from large nuclear explosions may develop intensely charged regions in the surrounding air through [scattering](Compton)(Compton scattering). The intensely charged space charge regions create multiple clear-air lightning discharges shortly after the device detonates.
## Scientific study
The science of lightning is called *fulminology*.
### Properties
Thunder is heard as a rolling, gradually dissipating rumble because the sound from different portions of a long stroke arrives at slightly different times.[(1986)](Uman)(#Uman) pp. 103–110
When the local electric field exceeds the [strength](dielectric)(dielectric strength) of damp air (about 3 MV/m), electrical discharge results in a *strike*, often followed by commensurate discharges branching from the same path. Mechanisms that cause the charges to build up to lightning are still a matter of scientific investigation. A 2016 study confirmed dielectric breakdown is involved. Lightning may be caused by the circulation of warm moisture-filled air through [field](electric)(electric field)s.[(1986)](Uman)(#Uman) p. 61. Ice or water particles then accumulate charge as in a [de Graaff generator](Van)(Van de Graaff generator).[and Uman](Rakov)(#Rakov), p. 84.
Researchers at the University of Florida found that the final one-dimensional speeds of 10 flashes observed were between 1.0 and 1.4 m/s, with an average of 4.4 m/s.
### Detection and monitoring
[[Romàntic Can Papiol. Maig 2014 05.JPG|thumb|Lightning strike counter in a museum](File:Museu)]
The earliest detector invented to warn of the approach of a thunderstorm was the [bell](lightning)(lightning bell). [Franklin](Benjamin)(Benjamin Franklin) installed one such device in his house.The Franklin Institute. [Ben Franklin's Lightning Bells](http://sln.fi.edu/franklin/bells.html) . Retrieved December 14, 2008.Rimstar.org [Video demonstration of how Franklin's Bell worked](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fEqudsyIWzk) The detector was based on an electrostatic device called the 'electric chimes' invented by [Gordon](Andrew)(Andrew Gordon (Benedictine)) in 1742.
Lightning discharges generate a wide range of electromagnetic radiations, including radio-frequency pulses. The times at which a pulse from a given lightning discharge arrives at several receivers can be used to locate the source of the discharge with a precision on the order of metres. The United States federal government has constructed a nationwide grid of such lightning detectors, allowing lightning discharges to be tracked in real time throughout the continental U.S. NOAA page on how the U.S. national lightning detection system operates Real-time map of lightning discharges in U.S.
In addition, a private global detection system that consists of over 500 detection stations owned and operated by hobbyists/volunteers provides near real-time lightning maps at [blitzortung.org](http://blitzortung.org)
The [waveguide](Earth-ionosphere)(Earth-ionosphere waveguide) traps electromagnetic [VLF](VLF)- and [ELF](Extremely low frequency) waves. Electromagnetic pulses transmitted by lightning strikes propagate within that waveguide. The waveguide is dispersive, which means that their [velocity](group)(group velocity) depends on frequency. The difference of the group time delay of a lightning pulse at adjacent frequencies is proportional to the distance between transmitter and receiver. Together with direction-finding methods, this allows locating lightning strikes up to distances of 10,000 km from their origin. Moreover, the eigenfrequencies of the Earth-ionospheric waveguide, the [resonances](Schumann)(Schumann resonances)
at about 7.5 Hz, are used to determine the global thunderstorm activity.Volland, H. (ed) (1995) *Handbook of Atmospheric Electrodynamics*, CRC Press, Boca Raton, .
In addition to ground-based lightning detection, several instruments aboard satellites have been constructed to observe lightning distribution. These include the Optical Transient Detector (OTD), aboard the OrbView-1 satellite launched on April 3, 1995, and the subsequent Lightning Imaging Sensor (LIS) aboard [TRMM](TRMM) launched on November 28, 1997.
Starting in 2016, the [Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration](National)(National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration) launched Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellite–R Series (GOES-R) weather satellites outfitted with [Lightning Mapper](Geostationary)(Geostationary Lightning Mapper) (GLM) instruments which are near-infrared optical transient detectors that can detect the momentary changes in an optical scene, indicating the presence of lightning. The lighting detection data can be converted into a real-time map of lightning activity across the Western Hemisphere; this mapping technique has been implemented by the United States [Weather Service](National)(National Weather Service).
In 2022 [EUMETSAT](European Organisation for the Exploitation of Meteorological Satellites) plan to launch the Lightning Imager (MTG-I LI) on board [Third Generation](Meteosat)(Meteosat). This will complement NOAA's GLM. MTG-I LI will cover Europe and Africa and will include products on events, groups and flashes.
### Artificially triggered
* **Rocket-triggered** lightning can be "triggered" by launching [designed rockets](specially)(lightning rocket) trailing spools of wire into thunderstorms. The wire unwinds as the rocket ascends, creating an elevated ground that can attract descending leaders. If a leader attaches, the wire provides a low-resistance pathway for a lightning flash to occur. The wire is vaporized by the return current flow, creating a straight lightning plasma channel in its place. This method allows for scientific research of lightning to occur under a more controlled and predictable manner.
*: The International Center for Lightning Research and Testing (ICLRT) at Camp Blanding, Florida typically uses rocket triggered lightning in their research studies.
* **Laser-triggered**
*: Since the 1970s, researchers have attempted to trigger lightning strikes by means of infrared or ultraviolet lasers, which create a channel of ionized gas through which the lightning would be conducted to ground. Such triggering of lightning is intended to protect rocket launching pads, electric power facilities, and other sensitive targets.
*: In New Mexico, U.S., scientists tested a new [terawatt](terawatt) laser which provoked lightning. Scientists fired ultra-fast pulses from an extremely powerful laser thus sending several terawatts into the clouds to call down electrical discharges in storm clouds over the region. The laser beams sent from the laser make channels of ionized molecules known as *filaments*. Before the lightning strikes earth, the filaments lead electricity through the clouds, playing the role of lightning rods. Researchers generated filaments that lived a period too short to trigger a real lightning strike. Nevertheless, a boost in electrical activity within the clouds was registered. According to the French and German scientists who ran the experiment, the fast pulses sent from the laser will be able to provoke lightning strikes on demand. News report based on: Statistical analysis showed that their laser pulses indeed enhanced the electrical activity in the thundercloud where it was aimed—in effect they generated small local discharges located at the position of the [channel](plasma)(plasma channel)s. News report based on
### Physical manifestations
[[anomaly with archaeological hearths.jpg|thumb|upright|Lightning-induced remanent magnetization (LIRM) mapped during a magnetic field gradient survey of an archaeological site located in Wyoming, United States.](File:LIRM)]
#### Magnetism
The movement of electrical charges produces a magnetic field (see [electromagnetism](electromagnetism)). The intense currents of a lightning discharge create a fleeting but very strong magnetic field. Where the lightning current path passes through rock, soil, or metal these materials can become permanently magnetized. This effect is known as lightning-induced [remanent](Remanence) magnetism, or LIRM. These currents follow the least resistive path, often horizontally near the surfaceCox A. (1961). [Anomalous Remanent Magnetization of Basalt](http://pubs.usgs.gov/bul/1083e/report.pdf) . U.S. Geological Survey Bulletin 1038-E, pp. 131–160. but sometimes vertically, where faults, ore bodies, or ground water offers a less resistive path.Bevan B. (1995). ["Magnetic Surveys and Lightning"](https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Bruce-Bevan/publication/318826400_Magnetic_surveys_and_lightning/links/59807da84585156238facc4d/Magnetic-surveys-and-lightning.pdf). *Near Surface Views* (newsletter of the Near Surface Geophysics section of the Society of Exploration Geophysics). October 1995, pp. 7–8. One theory suggests that [lodestone](lodestone)s, natural magnets encountered in ancient times, were created in this manner.
Lightning-induced magnetic anomalies can be mapped in the ground,[Archaeo-Physics, LLC | Lightning-induced magnetic anomalies on archaeological sites](http://www.archaeophysics.com/pubs/LIRM.html) . Archaeophysics.com. Retrieved on June 23, 2012. and analysis of magnetized materials can confirm lightning was the source of the magnetization and provide an estimate of the peak current of the lightning discharge.
Research at the [of Innsbruck](University)(University of Innsbruck) has found that magnetic fields generated by plasma may induce hallucinations in subjects located within of a severe lightning storm.
### Solar wind and cosmic rays
Some high energy cosmic rays produced by supernovas as well as solar particles from the solar wind, enter the atmosphere and electrify the air, which may create pathways for lightning bolts.
### Lightning and climate change
Due to the low resolution of global climate models, accurately representing lightning in these climate models is difficult, largely due to their inability to simulate the convection and cloud ice imperative which are fundamental to lightning formation. Research from the Future Climate for Africa programme demonstrates that using a convection-permitting model over Africa can more accurately capture convective thunderstorms and the distribution of ice particles. This research indicates climate change may increase the total amount of lightning only slightly: the total number of lightning days per year decreases, while more cloud ice and stronger convection leads to more lightning strikes occurring on days when lightning does occur.
A study from the University of Washington looked at lightning activity in the Arctic from 2010 to 2020. The ratio of Arctic summertime strokes was compared to total global strokes and was observed to be increasing with time, indicating that the region is becoming more influenced by lightning. The fraction of strokes above 65 degrees north was found to be increasing linearly with the NOAA [temperature anomaly](global)(Instrumental temperature record) and grew by a factor of 3 as the anomaly increased from 0.65 to 0.95 °C
### Paleolightning
## In culture and religion
### Religion and mythology
[[File:Mikalojus Konstantinas Ciurlionis - LIGHTNING - 1909.jpg|thumb|Lightning by [Konstantinas Ciurlionis](Mikalojus)(Mikalojus Konstantinas Ciurlionis) (1909)]]
In many cultures, lightning has been viewed as part of a deity or a deity in and of itself. These include the [god](Greek)(Greek god) [Zeus](Zeus), the [Aztec](Aztec) god [Tlaloc](Tlaloc), the [Mayan](Maya religion) [K](God)(God K), [mythology](Slavic)(Slavic mythology)'s [Perun](Perun), the [Baltic](Baltic languages) [Pērkons](Pērkons)/[Perkūnas](Perkūnas), [Thor](Thor) in [mythology](Norse)(Norse mythology), [Ukko](Ukko) in [mythology](Finnish)(Finnish mythology), the [Hindu](Hindu) god [Indra](Indra), the [Yoruba](Yoruba religion) god [Sango](Shango), Illapa in [mythology](Inca)(Inca mythology) and the [Shinto](Shinto) god [Raijin](Raijin). In the traditional religion of the African [Bantu](Bantu peoples) tribes, lightning is a sign of the ire of the gods. Scriptures in [Judaism](Judaism), [Islam](Islam) and [Christianity](Christianity) also ascribe supernatural importance to [lightning](Thunderbolt). In [Christianity](Christianity), the [Coming](Second)(Second Coming) of [Jesus](Jesus) is compared to lightning.,
### In popular culture
The expression "Lightning never strikes twice (in the same place)" is similar to "Opportunity never knocks twice" in the vein of a "once in a lifetime" opportunity, *i.e.*, something that is generally considered improbable. Similarly, "A bolt from the blue" refers to something totally unexpected, and "A person being struck by lightning" is an imaginative or comedic metaphor for someone to experience a once in a lifetime, striking, sudden lightning-speed revelation, similar to an [epiphany](Epiphany (feeling)) or an [enlightenment](Enlightenment (spiritual)).
Although sometimes used figuratively as above, the idea that *lightning never strikes the same place twice* is a common myth. In fact, lightning can, and often does, strike the same place more than once. Lightning in a thunderstorm is more likely to strike objects and spots that are more prominent or conductive. For instance, lightning strikes the [State Building](Empire)(Empire State Building) in [York City](New)(New York City) on average 23 times per year.https://www.weather.gov/safety/lightning-myths "Fact: Lightning often strikes the same place repeatedly, especially if it's a tall, pointy, isolated object. The Empire State Building is hit an average of 23 times a year"
https://www.theweathernetwork.com/ca/news/article/can-lightning-strike-the-same-place-twice "Believe it or not, this long-held myth is far from the truth. While the odds of being struck by lightning are low, the chances of lightning striking the same place twice are high. Lightning can, and often will, hit the same spot multiple times"
In French and Italian, the expression for "Love at first sight" is *coup de foudre* and *colpo di fulmine*, respectively, which literally translated means "lightning strike". Some European languages have a separate word for lightning which strikes the ground (as opposed to lightning in general); often it is a [cognate](cognate) of the English word "rays". The name of Australia's most celebrated [thoroughbred](thoroughbred) horse, [Lap](Phar)(Phar Lap), derives from the shared [Zhuang](Standard Zhuang) and [Thai](Thai language) word for lightning.
### Political and military culture
[[File:Yli-ii.vaakuna.svg|thumb|upright=0.7|Two lightning bolts pictured in the former coat of arms of the [Yli-Ii](Yli-Ii) municipality]]
The bolt of lightning in [heraldry](heraldry) is called a [thunderbolt](thunderbolt) and is shown as a zigzag with non-pointed ends. This symbol usually represents power and speed.
Some political parties use lightning flashes as a symbol of power, such as the [Action Party](People's)(People's Action Party) in [Singapore](Singapore), the [Union of Fascists](British)(British Union of Fascists) during the 1930s, and the [States' Rights Party](National)(National States' Rights Party) in the United States during the 1950s.[Picture of John Kaspar of the National States Rights Party speaking in front of the party’s lightning bolt flag (the flag was red, white, and blue)](http://mauryk2.com/2010/11/06/john-kasper-the-national-states-rights-party-and-the-demise-of-the-old-south/) . Mauryk2.com (November 6, 2010). Retrieved on April 9, 2013. The [Schutzstaffel](Schutzstaffel), the [paramilitary](paramilitary) wing of the [Party](Nazi)(Nazi Party), used the [rune](Sig)(Sig (rune)) in their logo which symbolizes lightning. The German word [Blitzkrieg](Blitzkrieg), which means "lightning war", was a major offensive strategy of the German army during World War II.
The lightning bolt is a common insignia for [communications](military)(military communications) units throughout the world. A lightning bolt is also the [symbol for a signal asset](NATO)(NATO Military Symbols for Land Based Systems).
## Data of injuries and deaths
The deadliest single direct lightning strike occurred when 21 people died as they huddled for safety in a hut that was hit (1975, Zimbabwe).
The deadliest single indirect lightning strike was the [Dronka lightning strike](1994)(1994 Dronka lightning strike). 469 people died when lightning struck a set of oil tanks in 1994, causing burning oil to flood a town (1994, Dronka, Egypt).
In the United States an average of 23 people died from lightning per year from 2012 to 2021.
## See also
* [12](Apollo)(Apollo 12) – A Saturn V rocket that was struck by lightning shortly after liftoff.
* [lightning energy](Harvesting)(Harvesting lightning energy)
* [Keraunography](Keraunography)
* [Keraunomedicine](Keraunomedicine) – medical study of lightning casualties
* [figure](Lichtenberg)(Lichtenberg figure)
* [injury](Lightning)(Lightning injury)
* [system](Lightning-prediction)(Lightning-prediction system)
* [Sullivan](Roy)(Roy Sullivan) - Sullivan is recognized by [World Records](Guinness)(Guinness World Records) as the person struck by lightning more recorded times than any other human
* [Elmo's fire](St.)(St. Elmo's fire)
* [lightning](Upper-atmospheric)(Upper-atmospheric lightning)
* [satellites](Vela)(Vela (satellite)) – satellites which could record lightning *superbolts*
## References
*
*
*
*
* [and Uman](Rakov)(#Rakov), pp. 296–299.
}}
## Cited sources
*
*
## Further reading
* This is also available at
*
*
* [Sample](http://assets.cambridge.org/052158/3276/sample/0521583276WS.pdf), in .PDF form, consisting of the book through page 20.
*
## External links
*
* [World Wide Lightning Location Network](https://wwlln.net)
* [Feynman's lecture on lightning](https://feynmanlectures.caltech.edu/II_09.html#Ch9-S6)
[containing video clips](Category:Articles)(Category:Articles containing video clips)
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Tulsa, Oklahoma
|
tulsa,_oklahoma
|
# Tulsa, Oklahoma
*Revision ID: 1158115500 | Timestamp: 2023-06-02T02:12:01Z*
---
| image_flag = Flag of Tulsa, Oklahoma (2018).svg
| flag_link = Flag of Tulsa, Oklahoma
| image_seal = Seal of Tulsa, Oklahoma.svg
| nickname = "Oil Capital of the World", "Tulsey Town", "T-Town", "Green Country", "Buckle of the Bible Belt", "The 918"
| motto = "A New Kind Of Energy"
| pushpin_map = Oklahoma#USA#North America
| pushpin_relief = 1
| pushpin_mapsize = 290px
| pushpin_map_caption = Location within Oklahoma##Location within the United States##Location within North America
| image_map =
| map_caption = Interactive map of Tulsa
| coordinates =
| subdivision_type = Country
| subdivision_name = United States
| subdivision_type1 = [State](U.S. state)
| subdivision_type2 = [Counties](List of counties in Oklahoma)
| subdivision_name1 = [Oklahoma](Oklahoma)
| subdivision_name2 = [Osage](Osage County, Oklahoma), [Rogers](Rogers County, Oklahoma), [Tulsa](Tulsa County, Oklahoma), [Wagoner](Wagoner County, Oklahoma)
| established_title =
| established_date = 1830
| government_type = [Mayor-Council](mayor-council government)
| leader_title = [Mayor](List of mayors of Tulsa, Oklahoma)
| leader_name = [T. Bynum](G.)(G. T. Bynum)
| leader_party = [R](United States Republican Party)
| area_footnotes =
| area_total_sq_mi = 201.85
| area_total_km2 = 522.79
| area_land_sq_mi = 197.76
| area_land_km2 = 512.21
| area_water_sq_mi = 4.09
| area_water_km2 = 10.58
| elevation_m = 194
| elevation_ft = 722
| population_total = 413066
| population_as_of = [2020](2020 United States Census)
| population_footnotes =
| population_rank = [47th](List of United States cities by population) in the United States[2nd](List of municipalities in Oklahoma) in Oklahoma
| population_density_sq_mi = 2088.67
| population_density_km2 = 806.44
| population_urban = 722,810 ([60th](US:)(List of United States urban areas))
| population_density_urban_km2 = 824.9
| population_density_urban_sq_mi = 2,136.5
| population_metro_footnotes =
| population_metro = 1023988 ([54th](US:)(List of metropolitan statistical areas))
| population_demonym = Tulsan
| postal_code_type = [Code](ZIP)(ZIP Code)s
| postal_code =
|frame_style = border:none; padding: 0;
|list_style = text-align:center;display:none
|74101–74108, 74110, 74112, 74114–74117, 74119–74121, 74126, 74127–74137, 74141, 74145–74150, 74152–74153, 74155–74159, 74169–74172, 74182, 74186–74187, 74192–74193}}
| area_code = [539/918](area codes 539 and 918)
| website = [www.cityoftulsa.org](http://www.cityoftulsa.org/)
| footnotes =
| timezone = [CST](North American Central Time Zone)
| utc_offset = −6
| timezone_DST = [CDT](North American Central Time Zone)
| utc_offset_DST = −5
| blank_name = [code](FIPS)(Federal Information Processing Standard)
| blank_info = 40-75000
| blank1_name = [GNIS](Geographic Names Information System) feature ID
| blank1_info = 1100962
| unit_pref = Imperial
|pop_est_as_of =
|pop_est_footnotes =
|population_est =
}}
**Tulsa** () is the second-largest city in the [state](U.S. state) of [Oklahoma](Oklahoma) and [populous](47th-most)(List of United States cities by population) city in the United States. The population was 413,066 as of the [census](2020)(2020 United States census). It is the principal municipality of the [metropolitan area](Tulsa)(Tulsa Metropolitan Area), a region with 1,023,988 residents. The city serves as the [seat](county)(county seat) of [County](Tulsa)(Tulsa County, Oklahoma), the most densely populated county in Oklahoma, with [development](urban)(Urban Development) extending into [Osage](Osage County, Oklahoma), [Rogers](Rogers County, Oklahoma) and [Wagoner](Wagoner County, Oklahoma) counties.
Tulsa was settled between 1828 and 1836 by the Lochapoka Band of [Creek](Creek people) Native American tribe and most of Tulsa is still part of the territory of the [(Creek) Nation](Muscogee)(Muscogee (Creek) Nation).
Historically, a robust energy sector fueled Tulsa's economy; however, today the city has diversified and leading sectors include finance, aviation, telecommunications and technology. Two institutions of higher education within the city have sports teams at the [Division I](NCAA)(NCAA Division I) level: [Roberts University](Oral)(Oral Roberts University) and the [of Tulsa](University)(University of Tulsa). As well, the [of Oklahoma](University)(University of Oklahoma) has a secondary campus at the Tulsa Schusterman Center, and [State University](Oklahoma)(Oklahoma State University) has a secondary campus located in downtown Tulsa. For most of the 20th century, the city held the nickname "[Capital of the World](Oil)(Oil Capital of the World)" and played a major role as one of the most important hubs for the [oil industry](American)(Petroleum in the United States).
It is situated on the [River](Arkansas)(Arkansas River) between the [Hills](Osage)(Osage Hills) and the foothills of the [Mountains](Ozark)(Ozark Mountains) in northeast Oklahoma, a region of the state known as "[Country](Green)(Green Country)". Considered the cultural and arts center of Oklahoma, Tulsa houses two art museums, full-time professional opera and ballet companies, and one of the nation's largest concentrations of [deco](art)(art deco) architecture.
## History
[[File: Meadow Gold Neon Sign Route 66 Tulsa Oklahoma.jpg|thumb|right|The Meadow Gold sign has greeted [66](Route)(U.S. Route 66) travelers in Tulsa for decades.]]
The area where Tulsa now exists is considered [Territory](Indian)(Indian Territory), on the land of the [Kiikaapoi](Kiikaapoi) (Kickapoo), Wahzhazhe Ma zha (Osage), Muscogee (Creek), and Caddo tribes, among others, before it was first formally settled by the Lochapoka and Creek tribes in 1836. They established a small settlement under the [Council Oak Tree](Creek)(Creek Council Oak Tree) at the present-day intersection of Cheyenne Avenue and 18th Street. This area and this tree reminded Chief Tukabahchi and his small group of the [of Tears](Trail)(Trail of Tears) survivors of the bend in the river and their previous Creek Council Oak Tree back in the [Alabama](Tallassee,)(Tallassee, Alabama) area. They named their new settlement *Tallasi*, meaning "old town" in Creek, which later became "Tulsa". The area around Tulsa was also settled by members of the other so-called "[Civilized Tribes](Five)(Five Civilized Tribes)" who had been relocated to Oklahoma from the Southern United States. Most of modern Tulsa is located in the [Nation](Creek)(Muscogee (Creek) Nation), with parts located in the [Cherokee](Cherokee Nation) and [Nation](Osage)(Osage Nation)s.
Although Oklahoma was not yet a state during the [War](Civil)(American Civil War), the Tulsa area saw its share of fighting. The [of Chusto-Talasah](Battle)(Battle of Chusto-Talasah) took place on the north side of Tulsa and several battles and skirmishes took place in nearby counties. After the War, the tribes signed [treaties](Reconstruction)(Reconstruction Treaties) with the federal government that in some cases required substantial land concessions. In the years after the Civil War and around the turn of the century, the area along the Arkansas River that is now Tulsa was periodically home to or visited by a series of colorful outlaws, including the legendary [Bunch](Wild)(Wild Bunch), the [Gang](Dalton)(Dalton Gang), and [Britches](Little)(Little Britches (outlaw)).
In 2020, the [Court](Supreme)(Supreme Court of the United States) ruled that much of eastern Oklahoma, including much of Tulsa, falls in the category of Indian Country, reshaping much of the legal jurisdiction in the region. The Muscogee (Creek), [Cherokee](Cherokee), [Chickasaw](Chickasaw Nation), [Choctaw](Choctaw), and [Seminole](Seminole Nation of Oklahoma) tribal communities welcomed the decision as a long-fought for victory.
### Incorporation and "Oil Capital" prosperity
Around August 1, 1882, the town was almost centered at a location just north of the current Whittier Square, when a construction crew laying out the line of the [Louis-San Francisco Railroad](St.)(St. Louis-San Francisco Railroad) chose that spot for a sidetrack. However, an area merchant persuaded them to move the site further west into the Muscogee Nation, which had friendlier laws for white business owners. On January 18, 1898, Tulsa was officially incorporated and elected Edward Calkins as the city's first mayor.
Tulsa was still a micro town near the banks of the [River](Arkansas)(Arkansas River) in 1901 when its first oil well, named Sue Bland No. 1, was established. Much of the oil was discovered on land whose mineral rights were owned by members of the [Nation](Osage)(Osage Nation) under a system of headrights. By 1905, the discovery of the grand [Pool Oil Reserve](Glenn)(Glenn Pool Oil Reserve) (located approximately 15 miles south of downtown Tulsa and site of the present-day town of [Glenpool](Glenpool, Oklahoma)) prompted a rush of entrepreneurs to the area's growing number of oil fields; Tulsa's population swelled to over 140,000 between 1901 and 1930. Unlike the early settlers of Northeastern Oklahoma, who most frequently migrated from the [South](Southern United States) and [Texas](Texas), many of these new oil-driven settlers came to Tulsa from the commercial centers of the East Coast and lower Midwest. This migration distinguished the city's demographics from neighboring communities (Tulsa has larger and more prominent Catholic and Jewish populations than most Oklahoma cities) and is reflected in the designs of early Tulsa's upscale neighborhoods.
[[OK Map 1920.jpg|thumb|right|A map of Tulsa in 1920](File:Tulsa)]
Known as the "Oil Capital of the World" for most of the 20th century, the city's success in the energy industry prompted construction booms in the popular [Deco](Art)(Art Deco) style of the time. Profits from the oil industry continued through the [Depression](Great)(Great Depression), helping the city's economy fare better than most in the United States during the 1930s.
In 1923, [Harwelden](Harwelden Mansion) was built by oil baron E. P. Harwell and his wife Mary, and is an example of prosperity in Tulsa, Oklahoma in the 1920s.
### 1921 Race Massacre
In the early 20th century, Tulsa was home to the "[Wall Street](Black)(Greenwood, Tulsa#Black Wall Street)", one of the most prosperous Black communities in the United States at the time. Located in the [Greenwood](Greenwood, Tulsa, Oklahoma) neighborhood, it was the site of the [Race Massacre](Tulsa)(Tulsa race massacre), said to be "the single worst incident of [violence in American history](racial)(mass racial violence in the United States)", in which mobs of White Tulsans killed Black Tulsans, looted and robbed the Black community, and burned down homes and businesses. Sixteen hours of massacring on May 31 and June 1, 1921, ended only when National Guardsmen were brought in by the governor. An official report later claimed that 23 Black and 16 White citizens were killed, but other estimates suggest as many as 300 people died, most of them Black. Over 800 people were admitted to local hospitals with injuries, and an estimated 1,000 Black people were left homeless as 35 city blocks, composed of 1,256 residences, were destroyed by fire. Property damage was estimated at . Efforts to obtain reparations for survivors of the violence have been unsuccessful, but the events were re-examined by the city and state in the early 21st century, acknowledging the terrible actions that had taken place.
### 20th century
In 1925, Tulsa businessman [Avery](Cyrus)(Cyrus Avery), known as the "Father of [66](Route)(U.S. Route 66)," began his campaign to create a road linking [Chicago](Chicago) to [Angeles](Los)(Los Angeles) by establishing the [Highway 66 Association](U.S.)(U.S. Highway 66 Association) in Tulsa, earning the city the nickname the "Birthplace of Route 66". Once completed, U.S. Route 66 took an important role in Tulsa's development as the city served as a popular rest stop for travelers, who were greeted by Route 66 icons such as the Meadow Gold Sign and the [Whale of Catoosa](Blue)(Blue Whale of Catoosa). During this period, [Wills](Bob)(Bob Wills) and his group, [Texas Playboys](The)(The Texas Playboys), began their long performing stint at a small ballroom in downtown Tulsa. In 1935, [Ballroom](Cain's)(Cain's Ballroom) became the base for the group, which is largely credited for creating [Swing](Western)(Western swing) music. The venue continued to attract famous musicians through its history, and is still in operation today.
For the rest of the mid-20th century, the city had a master plan to construct parks, churches, museums, rose gardens, improved infrastructure, and increased national advertising. The [Dam](Spavinaw)(Spavinaw Water Project), built during this era to accommodate the city's water needs, was considered one of the largest public works projects of the era.
A national recession greatly affected the city's economy in 1982, as areas of Texas and Oklahoma heavily dependent on oil suffered the [in gas prices](freefall)(1980s oil glut) due to a glut, and a mass exodus of oil industries. Tulsa, heavily dependent on the oil industry, was one of the hardest-hit cities by the fall of oil prices. By 1992, the state's economy had fully recovered, but leaders worked to expand into sectors unrelated to oil and energy.
### 21st century
In 2003, the "[2025](Vision)(Vision 2025)" program was approved by voters, to enhance and revitalize Tulsa's infrastructure and tourism industry. The keystone project of the initiative, the [Center](BOK)(BOK Center), was designed to be a home for the city's minor league hockey and arena football teams, as well as a venue for major concerts and conventions. The multi-purpose arena, designed by famed architect [Pelli](Cesar)(Cesar Pelli), broke ground in 2005 and was opened on August 30, 2008.
In July 2020 the Supreme Court ruled in *[v. Oklahoma](McGirt)(McGirt v. Oklahoma)* that as it pertains to criminal law much of eastern Oklahoma, including Tulsa, remains as Native American lands. Specifically, prosecution of crimes by Native Americans on these lands falls into the jurisdiction of the [court](tribal)(tribal court)s and [judiciary](federal)(Federal judiciary of the United States) under the [Crimes Act](Major)(Major Crimes Act), rather than Oklahoma's courts.
## Geography
[[terrain.jpg|thumb|upright=1.5|Regional map](File:Tulsa)]
Tulsa is located in the northeastern corner of [Oklahoma](Oklahoma) between the edge of the [Plains](Great)(Great Plains) and the foot of the [Ozarks](Ozarks) in a generally forested region of rolling hills. The city touches the eastern extent of the [Timbers](Cross)(Cross Timbers), an [ecoregion](ecoregion) of [forest](forest) and [prairie](prairie) transitioning from the drier plains of the west to the wetter forests of the east. With a wetter climate than points westward, Tulsa serves as a gateway to "[Country](Green)(Green Country)", a popular and official designation for northeast Oklahoma that stems from the region's green vegetation and relatively large number of hills and lakes compared to central and western areas of Oklahoma, which lie largely in the drier [Plains](Great)(Great Plains) region of the Central United States. Located near the western edge of the [Interior Highlands](U.S.)(U.S. Interior Highlands), northeastern Oklahoma is the most topographically diverse part of the state, containing seven of Oklahoma's 11 eco-regions and more than half of its state parks. The region encompasses 30 lakes or reservoirs and borders the neighboring states of [Kansas](Kansas), [Missouri](Missouri), and [Arkansas](Arkansas). The [coordinates](geographic)(geographic coordinate system) of the city of Tulsa are (36.131294, −95.937332), with an elevation of above sea level.
### Topography
The city developed on both sides of the prominent [River](Arkansas)(Arkansas River), which flows in a wide, sandy-bottomed channel. Its flow through the Tulsa area is controlled by upstream [control reservoirs](flood)(Keystone Lake), but its width and depth can vary widely throughout the year, such as during periods of high rainfall or severe drought. A low-water dam was built to maintain a full channel at all times in the area adjacent to downtown Tulsa. This portion of the river was known as Zink Lake. However, the City of Tulsa allowed the dam to deteriorate and it no longer functions to retain the lake for which it was designed.
Heavily wooded and with abundant parks and water areas, the city has several prominent hills, such as "Shadow Mountain" and "[Mountain](Turkey)(Turkey Mountain Urban Wilderness Area)", which create varied terrain, especially in its southern portions. While its central and northern sections are generally flat to gently undulating, the [Hills](Osage)(Osage Hills) extension into the northwestern part of the city further varies the landscape. Holmes Peak, north of the city, is the tallest point in the [Metro area](Tulsa)(Tulsa metro area) at 1,360 ft (415 m) According to the [States Census Bureau](United)(United States Census Bureau), the city has a total area of , of which is land and (2.24%) is water.
### Cityscape
#### Architecture
[[File:Philtower-Building-Tulsa-Oklahoma.jpg|thumb|left|The [Philtower](Philtower), built in the late [Revival](Gothic)(Gothic Revival architecture) style, is surrounded by contemporary office buildings.]]
[[manhole cover.png|thumb|left|Manhole cover from Tulsa](File:Tulsa)]
A building boom in Tulsa in the early 20th century coincided with the rise of art deco architecture in the United States. Most commonly in the zigzag and [streamline](Streamline Moderne) styles, the city's art deco is dotted throughout its older neighborhoods, primarily in downtown and midtown. A collection of large art deco structures such as the [Tower](Mid-Continent)(Mid-Continent Tower), the [Avenue Methodist Church](Boston)(Boston Avenue Methodist Church), [Rogers High School](Will)(Will Rogers High School), and the [Philtower](Philtower), have attracted events promoting the preservation and architectural interest.
In addition, the city's early prosperity funded the construction of many elegant Craftsmen, Georgian, storybook, Tudor, Greek Revival, [Italianate](Italianate architecture), [revival](Spanish)(Spanish Revival), and colonial revival homes (many of which can be found in Tulsa's uptown and Midtown neighborhoods). Noted architects and firms working in Tulsa during this period include Charles Dilbeck, [Duncan Forsyth](John)(John Duncan Forsyth), and [Peters](Nelle)(Nelle Peters).
Growth in the twentieth century gave the city a larger base of contemporary architectural styles, including several buildings by famed Tulsa architects [Goff](Bruce)(Bruce Goff) and [Robinson](Adah)(Adah Robinson). The [School](Prairie)(Prairie School) was very influential in Tulsa: [Byrne](Barry)(Barry Byrne) designed Tulsa's Christ the King Church and, in 1927, [Lloyd Wright](Frank)(Frank Lloyd Wright)'s midtown Tulsa residential project [Westhope](Westhope) was completed. In particular, the middle of the 20th century brought a wealth of modern architecture to Tulsa. Tulsa's Mies-trained modernist [Lawton Jones](Robert)(Robert Lawton Jones) designed many buildings in the region, including the Tulsa International Airport. Other noted modernists working in Tulsa include the pioneering Texas architect [Ford](O'Neil)(O'Neil Ford) and [R. Koberling Jr.](Joseph)(Joseph R. Koberling Jr.), who had also been active during the art deco period. South, East, and Midtown Tulsa are home to a number of the ranch and Mid-Century Modern homes that reflect Tulsa's prosperous post-war period.
The [Tower](BOK)(BOK Tower), built during this period, is the second tallest building in Oklahoma and the surrounding states of Missouri, [Mexico](New)(New Mexico), [Arkansas](Arkansas), and Kansas. Tulsa also has the third-, and fourth-tallest buildings in the state, including the [Tower](Cityplex)(Cityplex Towers), which is located in South Tulsa across from Oral Roberts University, far from downtown. One of the area's unique architectural complexes, Oral Roberts University, is built in a [Futuristic](Post-Modern)(Futurist architecture) style, incorporating bright gold structures with sharp, jetting edges and clear geometric shapes. The [Center](BOK)(BOK Center), Tulsa's new arena, incorporates many of the city's most prominent themes, including Native American, art deco, and contemporary architectural styles. Intended to be an architectural icon, the building was designed by [Pelli](César)(César Pelli), the architect of the [Towers](Petronas)(Petronas Towers) in [Malaysia](Malaysia).
#### Neighborhoods
[Tulsa](Downtown)(Downtown Tulsa) is an area of approximately surrounded by an inner-dispersal loop created by Interstate 244, Highway 64, and Highway 75. The area serves as Tulsa's financial and business district, and is the focus of a large initiative to draw tourism, which includes plans to capitalize on the area's historic architecture. Much of Tulsa's convention space is located in downtown, such as the [Performing Arts Center](Tulsa)(Tulsa Performing Arts Center), the [Convention Center](Tulsa)(Tulsa Convention Center), and the [Center](BOK)(BOK Center). Prominent downtown sub-districts include the Blue Dome District, the Brady Arts district, the "Oil Capital Historic District", the Greenwood Historical District, [Park](Owen)(Owen Park) Historical Neighborhood, and the site of [Field](ONEOK)(ONEOK Field), a baseball stadium for the [Drillers](Tulsa)(Tulsa Drillers) opened in 2010.
[[File:Tulsa, Oklahoma.jpg|thumb|right|The [River](Arkansas)(Arkansas River) marks the division between West Tulsa and other regions of the city.]]
The city's historical residential core lies in an area known as Midtown, containing upscale neighborhoods built in the early 20th century with architecture ranging from art deco to [Revival](Greek)(Greek Revival). The University of Tulsa, the [Lake](Swan)(Swan Lake (Tulsa)) neighborhood, [Museum](Philbrook)(Philbrook Museum), and the upscale shopping districts of [Square](Utica)(Utica Square), Cherry Street, and Brookside are located in this region. A large portion of the city's southern half has developed since the 1970s, containing low-density housing and retail developments. This region, marked by secluded homes and suburban neighborhoods, contains one of the state's largest shopping malls, [Hills Mall](Woodland)(Woodland Hills Mall), as well as [Hills Country Club](Southern)(Southern Hills Country Club), and Oral Roberts University. East of Highway 169 and north of 61st street, a diverse racial makeup marks the eastern portions of the city, with large [Asian](Asian people) and [Mexican](Mexican people) communities and much of the city's manufacturing industry.
Areas of Tulsa west of the Arkansas River are called [Tulsa](West)(West Tulsa) and are marked by large parks, wilderness reserves, and large oil refineries. The northern tier of the city is home to [OSU-Tulsa](OSU-Tulsa), [Museum](Gilcrease)(Gilcrease Museum), [International Airport](Tulsa)(Tulsa International Airport), the [Zoo](Tulsa)(Tulsa Zoo), the [Air and Space Museum](Tulsa)(Tulsa Air and Space Museum), and the nation's third-largest municipal park, [Park](Mohawk)(Mohawk Park).
##### Walkability
In 2016, [Score](Walk)(Walk Score) ranked Tulsa the 34th "most walkable" out of 141 U.S. cities with a population greater than 200,000.
##### Bicycling
Tulsa has a number of cycling trails, and has installed protected bike lanes in parts of the downtown area. Additional efforts to expand this infrastructure have been included as part of the city's "GoPlan". Tulsa Transportation Resource Center |website=tulsatrc.org |language=en-US |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161028193310/http://tulsatrc.org/goplan/ |archive-date=October 28, 2016 |url-status=dead |access-date=May 4, 2017 }}
### Climate
Tulsa has a [temperate](temperate) climate of the [subtropical](humid)(humid subtropical) variety ([Köppen](Köppen climate classification) *Cfa*) with a yearly average temperature of and average precipitation of just under per year. Average monthly precipitation is lowest from December to February, and peaks dramatically in May, which averages of rainfall. Early June can still be wet, but late June through the end of August is frequently dry. On average, Tulsa experiences a secondary rainfall peak in September and early October. As is typical of temperate zones, weather patterns vary by season with occasional extremes in temperature and rainfall.
[[File:Lightning over Tulsa cropped.jpg|thumb|left|[Lightning](Lightning) over downtown Tulsa is common in the spring months.]]
Primarily in the spring and early summer months, the city is subjected to severe [thunderstorms](thunderstorms) containing large [hail](hail), damaging winds, and, occasionally, [tornadoes](tornadoes), providing the area with a disproportionate share of its annual rainfall. Severe weather is not limited to this season, however. For instance, on December 5, 1975, and on December 24, 1982, Tulsa experienced tornadoes. Due to [potential for major flooding events](its)(Flooding and flood control in Tulsa), the city has developed one of the most extensive flood control systems in the nation. A comprehensive flood management plan was developed in 1984 following a severe flood caused by a stalled [front](weather)(Surface weather analysis) that dropped of rain overnight, killing 14, injuring 288, and destroying 7,000 buildings totaling in damage. In the early 1990s and again in 2000, the [Emergency Management Agency](Federal)(Federal Emergency Management Agency) honored Tulsa as leading the nation in flood plain management.
Triple-digit temperatures (≥38 °C) are observed on average 11 days per year, sometimes exceeding from July to early September, usually accompanied by high humidity brought in by southerly winds; The highest recorded temperature was on August 10, 1936.Tulsa World. "[Tulsa's temperatures, water usage continue to soar](http://www.tulsaworld.com/news/article.aspx?subjectid=334&articleid=20110803_477_A1_CUTLIN322183)". Lack of air circulation due to heat and humidity during the summer months leads to higher concentrations of [ozone](ozone), prompting the city to release "Ozone Alerts", encouraging all parties to do their part in complying with the [Air Act](Clean)(Clean Air Act (United States)) and [States Environmental Protection Agency](United)(United States Environmental Protection Agency) standards. The autumn season is usually short, consisting of pleasant, sunny days followed by cool nights. Winter temperatures, while generally mild, dip below on 3 nights, and occasionally below , the most recent such occurrence being a reading on February 16, 2021. The 1981–2010 seasonal snowfall average is . The record for the highest seasonal snowfall is 26.1 inches (66.3 cm) set in the winter of 2010–2011. Only three winters on record have officially recorded trace amounts or no snowfall, the most recent being 1910–11. The lowest recorded temperature was on January 22, 1930.
|single line = Y
|Jan high F = 48.9
|Feb high F = 54.0
|Mar high F = 63.3
|Apr high F = 72.1
|May high F = 79.7
|Jun high F = 88.4
|Jul high F = 93.6
|Aug high F = 93.0
|Sep high F = 84.8
|Oct high F = 73.6
|Nov high F = 61.4
|Dec high F = 50.9
|year high F = 72.0
| Jan mean F = 38.5
| Feb mean F = 42.8
| Mar mean F = 52.0
| Apr mean F = 60.8
| May mean F = 69.6
| Jun mean F = 78.6
| Jul mean F = 83.4
| Aug mean F = 82.2
| Sep mean F = 73.8
| Oct mean F = 62.3
| Nov mean F = 50.4
| Dec mean F = 41.0
| year mean F = 61.3
|Jan low F = 28.0
|Feb low F = 31.7
|Mar low F = 40.7
|Apr low F = 49.5
|May low F = 59.5
|Jun low F = 68.7
|Jul low F = 73.1
|Aug low F = 71.5
|Sep low F = 62.8
|Oct low F = 50.9
|Nov low F = 39.4
|Dec low F = 31.1
|year low F = 50.6
| Jan avg record high F = 70.1
| Feb avg record high F = 74.9
| Mar avg record high F = 83.4
| Apr avg record high F = 86.8
| May avg record high F = 91.3
| Jun avg record high F = 95.4
| Jul avg record high F = 101.9
| Aug avg record high F = 102.2
| Sep avg record high F = 96.2
| Oct avg record high F = 88.2
| Nov avg record high F = 79.0
| Dec avg record high F = 70.1
| year avg record high F = 103.9
| Jan avg record low F = 10.4
| Feb avg record low F = 13.5
| Mar avg record low F = 22.9
| Apr avg record low F = 33.5
| May avg record low F = 44.8
| Jun avg record low F = 56.4
| Jul avg record low F = 63.4
| Aug avg record low F = 60.5
| Sep avg record low F = 46.0
| Oct avg record low F = 34.5
| Nov avg record low F = 23.4
| Dec avg record low F = 12.6
| year avg record low F = 4.6
|Jan record high F = 82
|Feb record high F = 90
|Mar record high F = 99
|Apr record high F = 102
|May record high F = 100
|Jun record high F = 108
|Jul record high F = 113
|Aug record high F = 115
|Sep record high F = 109
|Oct record high F = 98
|Nov record high F = 89
|Dec record high F = 80
|year record high F =115
|Jan record low F = −16
|Feb record low F = −15
|Mar record low F = −3
|Apr record low F = 22
|May record low F = 32
|Jun record low F = 49
|Jul record low F = 51
|Aug record low F = 48
|Sep record low F = 35
|Oct record low F = 15
|Nov record low F = 10
|Dec record low F = −8
|year record low F= −16
|precipitation colour = green
|Jan precipitation inch = 1.63
|Feb precipitation inch = 1.62
|Mar precipitation inch = 3.10
|Apr precipitation inch = 4.37
|May precipitation inch = 5.73
|Jun precipitation inch = 4.65
|Jul precipitation inch = 3.76
|Aug precipitation inch = 3.38
|Sep precipitation inch = 3.85
|Oct precipitation inch = 3.78
|Nov precipitation inch = 2.66
|Dec precipitation inch = 2.43
|year precipitation inch=
|Jan snow inch = 2.7
|Feb snow inch = 1.8
|Mar snow inch = 2.1
|Apr snow inch =trace
|May snow inch = 0
|Jun snow inch = 0
|Jul snow inch = 0
|Aug snow inch = 0
|Sep snow inch = 0
|Oct snow inch =trace
|Nov snow inch = 0.7
|Dec snow inch = 2.3
|year snow inch= 9.6
|unit precipitation days = 0.01 in
|unit snow days = 0.1 in
|Jan precipitation days = 6.1
|Feb precipitation days = 6.6
|Mar precipitation days = 8.7
|Apr precipitation days = 8.5
|May precipitation days = 10.5
|Jun precipitation days = 9.8
|Jul precipitation days = 6.4
|Aug precipitation days = 6.6
|Sep precipitation days = 8.0
|Oct precipitation days = 7.9
|Nov precipitation days = 6.8
|Dec precipitation days = 7.0
|year precipitation days =92.9
|Jan snow days = 1.9
|Feb snow days = 1.3
|Mar snow days = 0.6
|Apr snow days = 0
|May snow days = 0
|Jun snow days = 0
|Jul snow days = 0
|Aug snow days = 0
|Sep snow days = 0
|Oct snow days = 0
|Nov snow days = 0.2
|Dec snow days = 1.6
|year snow days =5.6
|Jan sun = 175.8 |Jan percentsun = 57
|Feb sun = 171.7 |Feb percentsun = 56
|Mar sun = 219.6 |Mar percentsun = 59
|Apr sun = 244.4 |Apr percentsun = 62
|May sun = 266.7 |May percentsun = 61
|Jun sun = 294.8 |Jun percentsun = 67
|Jul sun = 334.7 |Jul percentsun = 75
|Aug sun = 305.3 |Aug percentsun = 73
|Sep sun = 232.5 |Sep percentsun = 63
|Oct sun = 218.6 |Oct percentsun = 63
|Nov sun = 161.1 |Nov percentsun = 52
|Dec sun = 160.8 |Dec percentsun = 53
|year percentsun = 63
|Jan humidity = 66.7
|Feb humidity = 65.2
|Mar humidity = 61.6
|Apr humidity = 61.2
|May humidity = 69.1
|Jun humidity = 69.3
|Jul humidity = 63.6
|Aug humidity = 64.5
|Sep humidity = 70.1
|Oct humidity = 66.4
|Nov humidity = 67.4
|Dec humidity = 68.5
|year humidity =66.1
|source 1 = NOAA (relative humidity and sun 1961–1990)
}}
### August 6, 2017 tornado
An [EF2](EF2 tornado) tornado struck Tulsa early on the morning of Sunday, August 6, 2017. The funnel touched down just after 1 A.M. near 36th Street and Harvard Avenue, then travelled in an easterly direction for about six minutes. The heaviest property damage occurred along 41st Street between Yale Avenue and Sheridan Road. Two restaurants, [Friday's](TGI)(TGI Friday's) and [Whataburger](Whataburger), were particularly hard hit, with several people being sent to hospitals for treatment. The Whataburger was later bulldozed, and was rebuilt in 2019.
## Demographics
}}
[[and ethnicity 2010- Tulsa (5560454596).png|thumb|Map of racial distribution in Tulsa, 2010 U.S. Census. Each dot is 25 people: ](File:Race)]
According to the [census](2010)(2010 United States census), Tulsa had a population of 391,906 and the racial and ethnic composition was as follows: [American](White)(White American): 62.6% (57.9% [Whites](Non-Hispanic)(Non-Hispanic Whites)); [Black](Black-Americans), 15.6%; [or Latino](Hispanic)(Hispanic and Latino Americans) (of any race), 14.1% (11.5% [Mexican](Mexican American), 0.4% [Rican](Puerto)(Puerto Ricans in the United States), 0.3% [Guatemalan](Guatemalan American), 0.2% [Spanish](Spanish American), 0.2% [Honduran](Honduran American), 0.2% [Salvadoran](Salvadoran American)); some other race, 8.0%; [or more races](Two)(Multiracial American), 5.9%; [American](Native)(Native Americans in the United States), 5.3%; [American](Asian)(Asian American), 2.3% (0.5% [Hmong](Hmong American), 0.4% [Vietnamese](Vietnamese American), 0.3% [Chinese](Chinese American), 0.2% [Indian](Indian American), 0.2% [Korean](Korean American), 0.2% [Burmese](Burmese American)); and [Hawaiian and Other Pacific Islander](Native)(Pacific Islander American): 0.1%. In the [census](2020)(2020 United States census), its population increased to 413,066.[[File:Prayer Tower on the campus of Oral Roberts University.jpg|thumb|left|upright|Tulsa is sometimes considered the "[of the Bible Belt](buckle)(Bible Belt#Buckle)"; it is the home of [Roberts University](Oral)(Oral Roberts University) and the university's [Tower](Prayer)(Prayer Tower).]]
As of the [census](2010)(2010 United States Census), there were 391,906 people, 163,975 households, and 95,246 families residing in the city, with a population density of There were 185,127 housing units at an average density of . Of 163,975 households, 27% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 38.2% were married couples living together, 14.6% had a female householder with no husband present, and 41.9% were non-families. Of all households, 34.5% are made up of only one person, and 10% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.34 people and the average family size was 3.04.
In the city proper, the age distribution was 24.8% of the population under the age of 18, 10.9% from 18 to 24, 29.9% from 25 to 44, 21.5% from 45 to 64, and 12.9% who were 65 years of age or older, while the median age was 34 years. For every 100 females, there were 93.5 males, while for every 100 females over the age of 17 there were 90.4 males. In 2011, the median income for a household in the city was $40,268 and the median income for a family was $51,977. The per capita income for the city was $26,727. About 19.4% of the population were below the poverty line. Of the city's population over the age of 25, 29.8% holds a bachelor's degree or higher, and 86.5% have a high school diploma or [equivalent](General Educational Development).
### Metropolitan area
[[Metro.svg|thumb|right|The Tulsa MSA's location (red) in the state of Oklahoma with the Tulsa-Bartlesville CSA (pink)](File:Tulsa)]
The Tulsa [area](metropolitan)(Metropolitan Area), or the region immediately surrounding Tulsa with strong social and economic ties to the city, occupies a large portion of the state's northeastern quadrant. It is informally known as "[Country](Green)(Green Country)", a longstanding name adopted by the state's official tourism designation for all of northeastern Oklahoma (its usage concerning the Tulsa Metropolitan Area can be traced to the early part of the 20th century).
The [Census Bureau](U.S.)(United States Census Bureau) defines the sphere of the city's influence as the Tulsa [statistical area](metropolitan)(Metropolitan Statistical Area) (MSA), spanning seven counties: Tulsa, [Rogers](Rogers County, Oklahoma), Osage, Wagoner, [Okmulgee](Okmulgee County, Oklahoma), [Pawnee](Pawnee County, Oklahoma), and [Creek](Creek County, Oklahoma). The 2020 U.S. census shows the Tulsa MSA to have 1,015,331 residents The 2020 U.S. census shows the Tulsa-Muscogee-Bartlesville CSA to have 1,134,125 residents.
### Religion
Tulsa has a large conservative following, with the majority of Tulsans being Christians. The second-largest religion in Tulsa is Islam, followed by Buddhism and Judaism.
Tulsa is part of the Southern region demographers and commentators refer to as the "[Belt](Bible)(Bible Belt)," where Protestant and, in particular, [Baptist](Southern)(Southern Baptist) and other [evangelical](evangelical) Christian traditions are very prominent. In fact, Tulsa, home to [Roberts University](Oral)(Oral Roberts University), [Theological Seminary](Phillips)(Phillips Theological Seminary), and [Bible Training College](RHEMA)(RHEMA Bible Training Center) (in the suburb of [Arrow](Broken)(Broken Arrow, Oklahoma)), is sometimes called the "[of the Bible Belt](buckle)(Bible Belt#Buckle)". Beyond [Roberts](Oral)(Oral Roberts) and [E. Hagin](Kenneth)(Kenneth E. Hagin), a number of prominent Protestant Christians have lived or studied in Tulsa, including [Osteen](Joel)(Joel Osteen), [Pearson](Carlton)(Carlton Pearson), [Copeland](Kenneth)(Kenneth Copeland), [Joe Daugherty](Billy)(Billy Joe Daugherty), [Norful](Smokie)(Smokie Norful) and [James Hargis](Billy)(Billy James Hargis). [Grace Tucker](Mother)(Mother Grace Tucker) was an Evangelical pastor who ministered to Tulsa's poor and homeless for over fifty years. Tulsa is also home to a number of vibrant [Protestant](Mainline)(Mainline Protestant) congregations. Some of these congregations were founded during the oil boom of the early twentieth century and are noted for striking architecture, such as the art deco [Avenue Methodist Church](Boston)(Boston Avenue Methodist Church) and [Presbyterian Church of Tulsa](First)(First Presbyterian Church (Tulsa)). The metropolitan area has at least four religious radio stations ([KCFO](KCFO), [KNYD](KNYD), [KXOJ](KXOJ-FM), & [KPIM](KPIM-LP)), and at least two religious TV stations ([KWHB](KWHB) & [KGEB](KGEB)).
While the state of Oklahoma has fewer Roman Catholics than the national average, Tulsa has a higher percentage owing in large part to the influx of Eastern and Midwestern settlers during the oil boom. Tulsa's Catholic community is atypically prominent for a Southern city and includes Governor and U.S. Senator [F. Bartlett](Dewey)(Dewey F. Bartlett), Congressmen [R. Jones](James)(James R. Jones) and [A. Sullivan](John)(John A. Sullivan (Oklahoma politician)), Governor [Keating](Frank)(Frank Keating), U.S. Ambassador to the Holy See [Rooney](Francis)(Francis Rooney), and Mayors [F. Bartlett, Jr.](Dewey)(Dewey F. Bartlett, Jr.), [J. LaFortune](Robert)(Robert J. LaFortune), [LaFortune](Bill)(Bill LaFortune) and [T. Bynum](G.)(G. T. Bynum). [Family Cathedral](Holy)(Holy Family Cathedral in Tulsa) serves as the Cathedral for the Diocese of Tulsa.
Tulsa is also home to the largest Jewish community in Oklahoma, with active Reform, Conservative and Orthodox congregations. Tulsa's Jewish community includes [Kaiser](George)(George Kaiser) and [Schusterman](Lynn)(Lynn Schusterman). Tulsa's [Miller Museum of Jewish Art](Sherwin)(Sherwin Miller Museum of Jewish Art) offers the largest collection of Judaica in the South-Central and Southwestern United States.
Tulsa is also home to the progressive [Souls Unitarian Church](All)(All Souls Unitarian Church), reportedly the largest [Universalist](Unitarian)(Unitarian Universalist) congregation in the United States.Kimberly French, ["The gospel of inclusion: A black Pentecostal bishop embraces Universalism, befriends a Unitarian minister, and shakes up the largest congregation in the UUA."](http://www.uuworld.org/life/articles/145503.shtml) *UU World*, Fall 2009.["Biggest in the U.S.: That Now Describes The First Unitarian Society Of Madison, And In 15 Years It Has Doubled To 1,300 Members"](https://web.archive.org/web/20180909184906/https://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1-111662143.html), *[State Journal](Wisconsin)(Wisconsin State Journal)*, December 26, 2003.["A Brief History of the Southwestern Unitarian Universalist Conference"](http://swuuc.org/pages/about-us/our-history.php) at Southwestern Unitarian Universalist Conference website (retrieved July 17, 2009).
Chùa Tam Bào (Vietnamese: "Three Jewels Temple"), Oklahoma's only Buddhist temple, was established in east Tulsa in 1993 by Vietnamese refugees. A granite statue of Quan Âm (commonly known by her Chinese name, [Guanyin](Guanyin)) is located in the grounds. This Land Press - Made by You and Me|website=thislandpress.com|access-date=2020-01-01}}
## Economy
[[BOK Building.jpg|thumb|upright|The BOK Tower serves as the world headquarters for Williams Companies.](File:The)]
### Energy industry's legacy and resurgence
The [States Oil and Gas Association](United)(United States Oil and Gas Association) was founded in Tulsa on October 13, 1917. Over the city's history many large oil companies have been headquartered in the city, including Warren Petroleum (which merged with [Oil](Gulf)(Gulf Oil) in what was then the largest merger in the energy industry), [Oil](Skelly)(Skelly Oil), [Oil](Getty)(Getty Oil) and [CITGO](CITGO). In addition, [ConocoPhillips](ConocoPhillips) was headquartered in nearby [Bartlesville](Bartlesville). Industry consolidation and increased offshore drilling threatened Tulsa's status as an oil capital, but new drilling techniques and the rise of natural gas have buoyed the growth of the city's energy sector.
Today, Tulsa is again home to the headquarters of many international oil- and gas-related companies, including [Companies](Williams)(Williams Companies), [Gas](ONE)(ONE Gas), [Syntroleum](Syntroleum), [ONEOK](ONEOK), [Petroleum](Laredo)(Laredo Petroleum), Samson Resources, [& Payne](Helmerich)(Helmerich & Payne), [Midstream Partners](Magellan)(Magellan Midstream Partners), and Excel Energy.
### Diversification and emerging industries
Tulsa has diversified to capitalize on its status as a regional hub with substantial innovation assets. Products from Tulsa manufacturers account for about sixty percent of Oklahoma's exports, and in 2001, the city's total [product](gross)(GDP) was in the top one-third of metropolitan areas, states, and countries, with more than in total goods, growing at a rate of each year. In 2006, Forbes magazine rated Tulsa as second in the nation in income growth, and one of the best cities in the country to do business with. Usually among the lowest in the nation in terms of cost of doing business, the Tulsa Metropolitan Area in 2005 was rated among the five lowest metropolitan areas in the United States for that category.
Tulsa's primary employers are small and medium-sized businesses: there are 30 companies in Tulsa that employ more than 1,000 people locally, and small businesses make up more than 80% of the city's companies.
During a national recession from 2001 to 2003, the city lost 28,000 jobs. In response, a development initiative, [2025](Vision)(Vision 2025), promised to incite economic growth and recreate lost jobs. Projects spurred by the initiative promised urban revitalization, infrastructure improvement, tourism development, riverfront retail development, and further diversification of the economy. By 2007, employment levels had surpassed pre-recession heights and the city was in a significant economic development and investment surge. This economic improvement is also seen in Tulsa's housing trends which show an average of a 6% increase in rent in 2010. Since 2006, more than 28,000 jobs have been added to the city. The unemployment rate of Tulsa in August 2014 was 4.5%.
Though the oil industry has historically dominated Tulsa's economy, efforts in economic diversification have created a base in the sectors of [aerospace](aerospace), finance, technology, telecommunications, [tech](high)(high tech), and manufacturing. A number of substantial financial corporations are headquartered in Tulsa, the largest being the [Financial Corporation](BOK)(BOK Financial Corporation). Among these financial services firms are energy trading operations, asset management firms, investment funds, and a range of commercial banks. The national convenience store chain [QuikTrip](QuikTrip), fast-casual restaurant chain [Sidewalk Cafe](Camille's)(Camille's Sidewalk Cafe), and pizza chain [Mazzio's](Mazzio's) are all headquartered in Tulsa, as is Southern regional BBQ restaurant [Crib](Rib)(Rib Crib). Tulsa is also home to the [Brewing Company](Marshall)(Marshall Brewing Company).
Tulsa is also home to a burgeoning media industry, including [PennWell](PennWell), consumer review website [ConsumerAffairs](ConsumerAffairs), [Media Group](Stephens)(Stephens Media Group), *[Land Press](This)(This Land Press)*, Educational Development Corporation (the parent publisher of [Kane/Miller](Kane/Miller)), [America](GEB)(GEB America), Blooming Twig Books, and a full range of local media outlets, including *[World](Tulsa)(Tulsa World)* and local magazines, radio and television. Tulsa is also a hub for national construction and engineering companies including [Construction Company](Manhattan)(Manhattan Construction Company) and [Flintco](Flintco). A number of the [Nation Businesses](Cherokee)(Cherokee Nation Businesses) are also headquartered or have substantial operations in Tulsa.
Tulsa's aerospace industry is substantial and growing. An [Airlines](American)(American Airlines) maintenance base at Tulsa International Airport is the city's largest employer and the largest maintenance facility in the world, serving as the airline's global maintenance and engineering headquarters. American Airlines announced in February, 2020 that it will pour $550 million over seven years into its maintenance base, this being the largest single economic development investment in city history. The [Port of Catoosa](Tulsa)(Tulsa Ports) and the Tulsa International Airport house extensive transit-focused industrial parks. Tulsa is also home to a division of [Lufthansa](Lufthansa), the headquarters of [Air International](Omni)(Omni Air International), and the [College of Aeronautics and Technology](Spartan)(Spartan College of Aeronautics and Technology).
Tulsa is also part of the Oklahoma-South Kansas Unmanned Aerial Systems ([drone](Unmanned aerial vehicle)) industry cluster, a region which awarded funding by the U.S. [Business Administration](Small)(Small Business Administration) to build on its progress as a hub this emerging industry.
As the second largest metropolitan area in Oklahoma and a hub for the growing [Oklahoma](Northeastern)(Northeastern Oklahoma)-[Arkansas](Northwest)(Northwest Arkansas)-[Missouri](Southwestern)(Ozark Plateau) corridor, the city is also home to a number of the region's most sophisticated law, accounting, and medical practices. Its location in the center of the nation also makes it a hub for logistics businesses; the [International Airport](Tulsa)(Tulsa International Airport) (TUL) and the Tulsa Port of Catoosa, connect the region with international trade and transportation.
[Amazon](Amazon (company)) recently announced plans to build a more than 600,000-square-foot fulfillment center near Tulsa International Airport. The company will invest an estimated $130 million for this state-of-the-art facility, which will employ around 1,500 people with an annual payroll of roughly $50 million. Grow Metro Tulsa|website=www.growmetrotulsa.com|language=en|access-date=August 8, 2018}}
## Culture
Tulsa culture is influenced by the nearby [Southwest](Southwestern United States), [Midwest](Midwestern United States), and [Southern](Southern United States) cultural regions, as well as a historical Native American presence. These influences are expressed in the city's museums, cultural centers, performing arts venues, ethnic festivals, park systems, zoos, wildlife preserves, and large and growing collections of public sculptures, monuments, and artwork.
### Museums, archives and visual culture
Tulsa is home to several museums. Located in the former villa of [oil](petroleum) pioneer [Phillips](Waite)(Waite Phillips) in Midtown Tulsa, the [Museum of Art](Philbrook)(Philbrook Museum of Art) is considered one of the top 50 [art](fine)(fine art) museums in the United States and is one of only five to offer a combination of a historic home, formal gardens, and an art collection. The museum's expansive collection includes work by a diverse group of artists including [Picasso](Pablo)(Pablo Picasso), [Wyeth](Andrew)(Andrew Wyeth), [Bellini](Giovanni)(Giovanni Bellini), [di Pace Beccafumi](Domenico)(Domenico di Pace Beccafumi), [de Kooning](Willem)(Willem de Kooning), [Merritt Chase](William)(William Merritt Chase), [Rodin](Auguste)(Auguste Rodin) and [O'Keeffe](Georgia)(Georgia O'Keeffe). Philbrook also maintains a satellite campus in downtown Tulsa.
In the [Hills](Osage)(Osage Hills) of Northwest Tulsa, the [Museum](Gilcrease)(Gilcrease Museum) holds the world's largest, most comprehensive collection of art and artifacts of the American West. The museum includes the extensive collection of Native American oilman and famed art collector [Gilcrease](Thomas)(Thomas Gilcrease) with numerous works by [Remington](Frederic)(Frederic Remington), [Moran](Thomas)(Thomas Moran), [Bierstadt](Albert)(Albert Bierstadt) and [James Audubon](John)(John James Audubon) among the many displayed.
On the west bank of the Arkansas River in the suburb of [Jenks](Jenks, Oklahoma), the [Aquarium](Oklahoma)(Oklahoma Aquarium) is the state's only freestanding aquarium, containing over 200 exhibits, including a shark tank.
In addition, the city hosts a number of galleries, experimental art-spaces, smaller museums, and display spaces located throughout the city (clustered mostly in downtown, Brookside, and the Pearl District). Living Arts of Tulsa, in downtown Tulsa, is among the organizations dedicated to promoting and sustaining an active arts scene in the city.
#### Cultural and historical archives
Opened in April 2013, the [Guthrie Center](Woody)(Woody Guthrie Center) in the Tulsa Arts District is Tulsa's newest museum and archive. In addition to interactive state-of-the-art museum displays, the [Guthrie](Woody)(Woody Guthrie) Center also houses the Woody Guthrie Archives, containing thousands of Guthrie's personal items, sheet music, manuscripts, books, photos, periodicals, and other items associated with the iconic Oklahoma native. The archives of Guthrie protégé, singer-songwriter [Dylan](Bob)(Bob Dylan) will also be displayed in Tulsa when a new facility designed to showcase [Bob Dylan Archive](The)(The Bob Dylan Archive) is completed.
[Church Studio](The)(The Church Studio) is a recording studio and tourist attraction with an archive of more than 5,000 pieces. Constructed in 1915, the church was listed on the [Register of Historic Places](National)(National Register of Historic Places) due to the late musician [Russell](Leon)(Leon Russell), who turned the old church into a recording studio and office to [Records](Shelter)(Shelter Records) in 1972.
With remnants of the [Holocaust](Holocaust) and artifacts relevant to [Judaism](Judaism) in Oklahoma, the [Miller Museum of Jewish Art](Sherwin)(Sherwin Miller Museum of Jewish Art) preserves the largest collection of [Judaica](Judaism) in the Southwestern and South-Central United States. Other museums, such as the Tulsa Historical Society, the [Air and Space Museum & Planetarium](Tulsa)(Tulsa Air and Space Museum & Planetarium), the [Jazz Hall of Fame](Oklahoma)(Oklahoma Jazz Hall of Fame), and the Tulsa Geosciences Center, document histories of the region, while the [Cultural Center](Greenwood)(Greenwood Cultural Center) preserves the culture of the city's African American heritage, housing a collection of artifacts and photography that document the history of the [Wall Street](Black)(Greenwood District, Tulsa) before the [Race Riot](Tulsa)(Tulsa Race Riot) of 1921.
#### Public art
[[File:Woodward Park.jpg|thumb|left|upright|[Dallin](Cyrus)(Cyrus Dallin)'s [to the Great Spirit](Appeal)(Appeal to the Great Spirit) in [Park](Woodward)(Woodward Park (Tulsa))]]
Since 1969, public displays of artwork in Tulsa have been funded by one percent of its annual city budget. Each year, a sculpture from a local artist is installed along the Arkansas River trail system, while other sculptures stand at local parks, such as an enlarged version of [Dallin](Cyrus)(Cyrus Dallin)'s [to the Great Spirit](Appeal)(Appeal to the Great Spirit) sculpture at [Park](Woodward)(Woodward Park (Tulsa)). At the entrance to Oral Roberts University stands a large statue of praying hands, which, at high, is the largest bronze sculpture in the world. As a testament to the city's oil heritage, the [Driller](Golden)(Golden Driller) guards the front entrance to the Tulsa County Fairgrounds. Tulsa has a number of exhibits related to [Route 66](U.S.)(U.S. Route 66), including The Cyrus Avery Centennial Plaza, located next to the east entrance of the historic [Street Bridge](11th)(11th Street Bridge). The Plaza contains a giant sculpture weighing and costing $1.178 million["Sculpture dedicated to Cyrus Avery, the 'Father of Route 66'"](http://www.kjrh.com/news/local-news/sculpture-dedicated-to-cyrus-avery) , KJRH. November 9, 2012. Accessed July 6, 2015. called "East Meets West" of the Avery family riding west in a Model T Ford meeting an eastbound horse-drawn carriage.Barber, Brian (May 18, 2008), ["Cyrus Avery plaza's construction nearly finished"](http://www.tulsaworld.com/news/government/cyrus-avery-plaza-s-construction-nearly-finished/article_3456332a-f152-5fbf-b2ec-6c5bccd7eed6.html?mode=story), *Tulsa World*. Accessed July 6, 2015. In 2020, Avery Plaza Southwest is scheduled to open, at the west end of the bridge, and should include replicas of three neon signs from Tulsa-area Route 66 motels from the era, being the Will Rogers Motor Court. Tulsa Auto Court, and the Oil Capital Motel. Tulsa has also installed "Route 66 Rising," a sculpture on the road's eastern approach to town at East Admiral Place and Mingo Road.John Klein, “Landmark Rises on Route 66,” Tulsa World, November 27, 2018. In addition, Tulsa has constructed twenty-nine historical markers scattered along the route of the highway through Tulsa, containing tourist-oriented stories, historical photos, and a map showing the location of historical sites and the other markers. The markers are mostly along the highway's post-1932 alignment down 11th Street, with some along the road's 1926 path down Admiral Place.
[[File:Golden Driller.jpg|thumb|upright|The iconic Golden Driller, built in 1953 for the 1953 [Petroleum Exposition](International)(International Petroleum Exposition), now stands at the Tulsa County Fairgrounds.]]
The largest augmented reality mural in the world, "The Majestic", a work which adorns two sides of the Main Park Plaza at 410 S. Main downtown, was completed in October 2021. The $230,000 project was created by Los Angeles-based artists Ryan "Yanoe" Sarfati and Eric "Zoueh" Skotnes. The mural becomes animated when viewed through a smartphone camera.
### Performing arts, film and cultural venues
Tulsa contains several permanent dance, theater, and concert groups, including the [Ballet](Tulsa)(Tulsa Ballet), the [Opera](Tulsa)(Tulsa Opera), the [Symphony Orchestra](Tulsa)(Tulsa Symphony Orchestra), [Opera Oklahoma](Light)(Light Opera Oklahoma), [Symphony](Signature)(Tulsa Signature Symphony) at TCC, the [Youth Symphony](Tulsa)(Tulsa Youth Symphony), the [Theatre](Heller)(Heller Theatre), [Theatre Company](American)(American Theatre Company), which is a member of the Theatre Communications Group and Oklahoma's oldest resident professional theatre, and [Tulsa](Theatre)(Theatre Tulsa), the oldest continuously operating [theatre](community)(community theatre) company west of the [River](Mississippi)(Mississippi River). Tulsa also houses the Tulsa Spotlight Theater at [Studio](Riverside)(Riverside Studio), which shows the longest-running play in America ([Drunkard](The)(The Drunkard)) every Saturday night. Many of the world's best choreographers have worked with Tulsa Ballet including: [Massine](Leonide)(Leonide Massine), [Tudor](Antony)(Antony Tudor), [Robbins](Jerome)(Jerome Robbins), [Balanchine](George)(George Balanchine), [Taylor](Paul)(Paul Taylor (choreographer)), [Jooss](Kurt)(Kurt Jooss), [Duato](Nacho)(Nacho Duato) (ten works), [Caniparoli](Val)(Val Caniparoli) who is its resident choreographer (with seven works and four world premieres), [Welch](Stanton)(Stanton Welch), [Soon Hue](Young)(Young Soon Hue), [Cong](Ma)(Ma Cong), [Tharp](Twyla)(Twyla Tharp) and many others.
In April 2008, Tulsa Ballet completed an ambitious $17.3 million integrated campaign, which was celebrated at the opening of the brand new Studio K; an on-site, three hundred-seat performance space dedicated to the creation of new works.
Tulsa's music scene is also famous for the eponymous "[Sound](Tulsa)(Tulsa Sound)" which blends rockabilly, country, rock 'n' roll, and blues and has inspired local artists like [Cale](J.J.)(J.J. Cale) and [Russell](Leon)(Leon Russell) as well as international superstars like [Clapton](Eric)(Eric Clapton).
A number of concert venues, dance halls, and bars gave rise to the Tulsa Sound but [Ballroom](Cain's)(Cain's Ballroom) might be the best known. Cain's is considered the birthplace of Western Swing, housed the performance headquarters of [Wills](Bob)(Bob Wills) and the [Playboys](Texas)(Texas Playboys) during the 1930s. The centerpiece of the downtown Brady Arts District, the [Theater](Brady)(Brady Theater), is the largest of the city's five operating performing arts venues that are listed on the [Register of Historic Places](National)(National Register of Historic Places). Its design features extensive contributions by American architect [Goff](Bruce)(Bruce Goff). The Pearl District features [Church Studio](The)(The Church Studio).
Large performing arts complexes include the [Performing Arts Center](Tulsa)(Tulsa Performing Arts Center), which was designed by [Trade Center](World)(World Trade Center (1973–2001)) architect [Yamasaki](Minoru)(Minoru Yamasaki), the [Business Center](Cox)(Cox Business Center), the art deco [Square Pavilion](Expo)(Expo Square Pavilion), the [Center](Mabee)(Mabee Center), the Tulsa Performing Arts Center for Education, and the River Parks Amphitheater and Tulsa's largest venue, the BOK Center. Ten miles west of the city, an outdoor amphitheater called "Discoveryland!" holds the official title of the world performance headquarters for the musical *[Oklahoma!](Oklahoma!).*
The city's film community hosts annual festivals such as the Tulsa United Film Festival and Tulsa Overground Film and Music Festival.
### Outdoor attractions
[[river parks trail system traverses the banks of the Arkansas River.](File:Tommso.jpg|thumb|left|The)]
The city's zoo, the [Zoo](Tulsa)(Tulsa Zoo), was voted "America's Favorite Zoo" in 2005 by [Game Studios](Microsoft)(Microsoft Game Studios) in connection with a national promotion of its *[Tycoon 2](Zoo)(Zoo Tycoon 2)* computer game. The zoo encompasses a total of with over 2,600 animals representing 400 species. The zoo is located in Mohawk Park (the third largest municipal park in the United States) which also contains the Oxley Nature Center. [[River Parks Fountains.jpg|thumb|right|Tulsa's River Parks contain many monuments and attractions, such as these fountains.](File:Tulsa)]
The [State Fair](Tulsa)(Tulsa State Fair), operating in late September and early October, attracts over one million people during its 10-day run. A number of other cultural heritage festivals are held in the city throughout the year, including the Intertribal Indian Club Powwow of Champions in August; Scotfest, India Fest, Greek Festival, and Festival Viva Mexico in September; ShalomFest in October; Dia de Los Muertos Art Festival in November; and the Asian-American Festival in May. The annual Mayfest arts and crafts festival held downtown was estimated to have drawn more than 365,000 people in its four-day run in 2012. On a smaller scale, the city hosts block parties during a citywide "Block Party Day" each year, with festivals varying in size throughout city neighborhoods. Tulsa has one major amusement park attraction, Paradise Beach Waterpark (formerly Safari Joe's H2O Water Park, formerly Big Splash Water Park), featuring multi-story water slides and large wave pools. Until 2006, the city also hosted [Amusement Park](Bell's)(Bell's Amusement Park), which closed after Tulsa County officials declined to renew its lease agreement.
### Music
Western Swing, a musical genre with roots in [music](country)(country music), was made popular at Tulsa's Cain's Ballroom. [Tulsa Sound](The)(The Tulsa Sound), a variation of country, blues, [rockabilly](rockabilly), [rock](blues)(blues rock), [rock](swamp)(swamp rock) and ['n' roll](rock)(rock 'n' roll), was started and largely developed by local musicians [J. Cale](J.)(J. J. Cale) and [Russell](Leon)(Leon Russell)[Leon Russell](https://www.allmusic.com/artist/leon-russell-mn0000816387) Retrieved 22 November 2022 in the 1960s and 1970s. Musicians from Tulsa or who started their musical careers in Tulsa include [Bishop](Elvin)(Elvin Bishop),[Elvin Bishop](https://www.allmusic.com/artist/elvin-bishop-mn0000796736/biography) Retrieved 21 November 2022 [Keltner](Jim)(Jim Keltner), [Gates](David)(David Gates), [Twilley](Dwight)(Dwight Twilley), [Ed Davis](Jesse)(Jesse Ed Davis), [Brooks](Garth)(Garth Brooks), [Gap Band](The)(The Gap Band), [Vincent](St.)(St. Vincent (musician)), [Stacy](Clyde)(Clyde Stacy), [Terry](Flash)(Flash Terry), [Hanson](Hanson (band)), [Hardin](Gus)(Gus Hardin), [Carson](Jeff)(Jeff Carson), Billy Reynolds Eustis and the Tri-Lads, Marvin&Johnny, [Dunn](Ronnie)(Ronnie Dunn), [Oldaker](Jamie)(Jamie Oldaker), [Wills](Bob)(Bob Wills)(Texas), [Cook](David)(David Cook (singer)), [Broncho](Broncho (band)), [Sartorius](Jacob)(Jacob Sartorius), [Meade](Tyson)(Tyson Meade), [Moreland](John)(John Moreland), [Calvin Abney](John)(John Calvin Abney), The Damn Quails(folk group), Kristin Chenoweth(actress), [McPherson](JD)(JD McPherson), and [Wilderado](Wilderado). The heart of the [Sound](Tulsa)(Tulsa sound) can be found at [Church Studio.](The)(The Church Studios)
[AleXa](AleXa) a representative from Tulsa won [Song Contest](American)(American Song Contest)
## Cuisine
Tulsa restaurants and food trucks offer a number of cuisines, but several cuisines are particularly prominent in its culinary landscape because of its distinctive history.
### BBQ
Tulsa is known nationally for its barbecue offerings; its barbecue reflects its midpoint location "between pig country and cow country," that is, in the transition zone between the South and the West. The city's barbecue is also helped by its geography; the wood used in barbecuing is abundant in Northeastern Oklahoma (including [pecan](pecan), [oak](oak), [hickory](hickory), [mesquite](mesquite) and [maple](maple)). The region's ethnic diversity is felt, too: its BBQ traditions bear the influences of white, African-American and American Indian foodways.
Tulsa is also home to the nationally acclaimed premium smoker manufacturer Hasty-Bake Company. Some Tulsa based barbecue joints have expanded even beyond the state's borders, including Leon's Smoke Shack, [Crib](Rib)(Rib Crib) and [Sims Barbecue](Billy)(Billy Sims Barbecue). The prize-winning [Joe's](Oklahoma)(Oklahoma Joe's) was founded by Oklahoman Joe Davidson, who mastered his craft at Tulsa's T-Town BBQ Cook-Off.
Oklahoma barbecue is also unique in its emphasis on hickory-smoked baloney, nicknamed "Oklahoma tenderloin," and its fried okra.
### Lebanese steakhouses
Lebanese steakhouses were once numerous in the region stretching from [Oklahoma](Bristow,)(Bristow, Oklahoma) to Tulsa, but now mostly exist in the Tulsa region. These restaurants were founded by [Syrian](Syrian Americans) and [Lebanese](Lebanese Americans) families who immigrated to Oklahoma before statehood. Traditionally, many of these restaurants had live entertainment (including performers like [Fitzgerald](Ella)(Ella Fitzgerald) and the [Spots](Ink)(Ink Spots)) and featured Mediterranean dishes like [tabbouleh](tabbouleh), rice [pilaf](pilaf) and [hummus](hummus) alongside local favorites like smoked BBQ [bologna](Bologna sausage).
### Chili and Coney Island hot dogs
Oklahomans have been consuming chili since well before statehood, owing to the influence of [Mexican-American](Mexican-American) culture on the state. In 1910, iconic Tulsa restaurant Ike's Chili Parlor opened and Ivan "Ike" Johnson is purported to have acquired his recipe from a Hispanic-Texan named Alex Garcia.
Greek immigrants to Tulsa who came by way of [Brooklyn](Brooklyn), [Pennsylvania](Pennsylvania) and [Michigan](Michigan) brought with them the tradition of [Island-style hot dogs](Coney)(Coney Island hot dog) with chili on a bun. Today, a related group of [Greek-American](Greek-American) families operate Coney restaurants around the city, including [I-Lander](Coney)(Coney I-Lander) which opened in 1926 and was described by food writers [and Michael Stern](Jane)(Jane and Michael Stern) as perfectly delivering "the cheap-eats ecstasy that is the Coney's soul". Many of these restaurants sell Greek food, either year round or at Tulsa's annual Greek Holiday, sponsored by Holy Trinity Greek Orthodox Church (which dates to 1925).
### Southern "homestyle" food
By and large, Tulsa's traditional cuisine reflects the influence of Southern foodways, particularly "upland South and... Texas where many of Oklahoma's nineteenth-century population originated." The prominence of certain foods reflects the agricultural heritage of the surrounding regions. For instance, at the suggestion of experts at what is now [State University](Oklahoma)(Oklahoma State University), peanuts became a major crop in now eastern Oklahoma as a means for lessening the reliance on cotton cultivation. [steak](Chicken-fried)(Chicken-fried steak) is part of the state meal of Oklahoma and is the signature dish at a number of Tulsa restaurants.
### Wild onion dinner
The [onion dinner](wild)(wild onion dinner) is a festive gathering that originated with the [tribes](Southeastern)(Southeastern tribes) which call Eastern Oklahoma home. The meals often feature [onion](wild)(wild onion), [pork](pork), [frybread](frybread), [bread](corn)(corn bread), [salad](Poke)(Pokeweed) and a unique dish known as grape biscuits.Middleton, Nicole Marshall. ["Grape Dumplings Make Unique Dessert with American Indian Influence."](http://www.tulsaworld.com/scene/article.aspx?subjectid=39&articleid=20120314_39_D1_CUTLIN99137) *Tulsa World.* March 14, 2012. Retrieved March 15, 2012. The Tulsa Indian Women's Club has been holding annual Wild Onion Dinners since at least 1932.
### Baking and confectionery
Tulsa is home to the Oklahoma Sugar Arts Show, a premier sugar craft competition hosted by Tulsa-based [Network](Food)(Food Network) personality [Vincent](Kerry)(Kerry Vincent). Tulsa is also home to the nationally renowned Pancho Anaya Mexican bakery, recognized by [& Wine](Food)(Food & Wine) as one of America's 100 best bakeries. Tulsa is home to several national dessert companies: [Donuts](Daylight)(Daylight Donuts) was founded in Tulsa and remains headquartered there, as is the Bama Pie Company.
### Breweries
Brewing in Tulsa dates back to at least the late 1930s with the Ahrens Brewing Company and their Ranger Beer line. The Ahrens Brewing Company opened in May 1938. Tulsa's craft beer scene has boomed since legislation passed allowing for microbreweries to serve the public directly (Tulsa's first microbrewery in the post-World War II era was [Brewing Company](Marshall)(Marshall Brewing Company) in 2008).
## Sports
[[File:BOK Center faccade.JPG|thumb|right|The centerpiece of the Vision 2025 projects, the [Center](BOK)(BOK Center), opened in August 2008.]]
Tulsa supports a wide array of sports at the professional and collegiate levels. The city hosts two NCAA Division I colleges and multiple professional [league](minor)(minor league) sports teams in baseball, football, hockey, and soccer. In addition, Tulsa once had a [WNBA](WNBA) team, the [Shock](Tulsa)(Tulsa Shock) women's professional basketball team.
### Professional sports
Tulsa's [AA](Class)(Double-A (baseball)) [League](Texas)(Texas League) baseball team is called the [Drillers](Tulsa)(Tulsa Drillers); famous former Drillers include [Sosa](Sammy)(Sammy Sosa), [Holliday](Matt)(Matt Holliday), and [Rodríguez](Iván)(Iván Rodríguez).
In 2008, Tulsa funded $39.2 million to build a new ballpark in the Greenwood District near downtown for the Drillers. The ground breaking was held on December 19, 2008. ONEOK bought the naming rights for for the next 25 years. The first game at ONEOK Field was held on April 8, 2010. Country music star [McGraw](Tim)(Tim McGraw) threw out the first pitch.
The 19,199-seat [Center](BOK)(BOK Center) is the centerpiece of the Vision 2025 projects and was completed in August 2008; the BOK Center was in the top ten among indoor arenas worldwide in ticket sales for the first quarter of 2009 when it was the home for the city's [Shock](Tulsa)(Tulsa Shock) [WNBA](Women's National Basketball Association), [Talons arena football](Tulsa)(Tulsa Talons), and [Oilers ice hockey](Tulsa)(Tulsa Oilers) teams; as of 2022, the Oilers are the sole remaining tenant.
### College sports
Two Tulsa universities compete at the NCAA Division I level: the [of Tulsa](University)(University of Tulsa) Golden Hurricane, and the Oral Roberts University Golden Eagles. The University of Tulsa's [basketball program](men's)(Tulsa Golden Hurricane men's basketball) has reached the [Sixteen](Sweet)(NCAA Men's Division I Basketball Championship) three times, made an appearance in the [Eight](Elite)(Elite Eight) in [2000](2000 NCAA Men's Division I Basketball Tournament), won the [NIT](National Invitation Tournament) championship in [1981](1981 National Invitation Tournament) and [2001](2001 National Invitation Tournament), and won the inaugural [Basketball Invitational](College)(College Basketball Invitational) in [2008](2008 College Basketball Invitational). The [football team](Tulsa)(Tulsa Golden Hurricane football) has played in 16 [game](bowl)(bowl game)s, including the [Bowl](Sugar)(Sugar Bowl) (twice) and the [Bowl](Orange)(Orange Bowl). Oral Roberts University's [basketball team](men's)(Oral Roberts Golden Eagles men's basketball) reached the Elite Eight in [1974](1974 NCAA Men's Division I Basketball Tournament), the Sweet Sixteen in [2021](2021 NCAA Men's Division I Basketball Tournament), and won the [Conference](Mid-Continent)(The Summit League) title three straight years, from 2005 to 2007.
The University of Tulsa also boasts one of the nation's top tennis facilities, the [D. Case Tennis Center](Michael)(Michael D. Case Tennis Center), which hosted the 2004 and 2008 NCAA tennis championships. The Golden Hurricane Tennis program has a string of success, including men's Missouri Valley championships in 1995 and 1996, men's Conference USA championships in 2006, 2007, 2008, 2009, and 2011 and women's Conference USA championships in 2007, 2008, 2010, and 2011. In 2007, Tulsa's top-ranked player [Brugués-Davi](Arnau)(Arnau Brugués-Davi) ranked as high as #1 in the nation and a four time All-American, advanced to the quarterfinals of the singles competition at the [Men's Tennis Championship](NCAA)(NCAA Men's Tennis Championship), improving on his 2006 round of sixteen appearances.
### Golf
Tulsa is home to the famous [Hills Country Club](Southern)(Southern Hills Country Club), which is one of only two courses that have hosted seven [major championships](men's)(Men's major golf championships): three [Opens](U.S.)(U.S. Open (golf)) and four [Championship](PGA)(PGA Championship)s, the most recent in 2022. The course has held five amateur championships and from 2001 to 2008 the [LPGA](LPGA) had a regular tour stop, latterly known as the [Championship](SemGroup)(SemGroup Championship) at Cedar Ridge Country Club.
Tulsa also hosts two golf courses designed by famed golf course architect [Tillinghast](A.W.)(A.W. Tillinghast): the Oaks Country Club and Tulsa Country Club. The [Fazio](Tom)(Tom Fazio)-designed Golf Club of Oklahoma is located just outside of Tulsa.
### Professional soccer
Tulsa is home to [Tulsa](FC)(FC Tulsa), which competes in the [Championship](USL)(USL Championship).
From 1978 to 1984, the city hosted the [Roughnecks](Tulsa)(Tulsa Roughnecks (1978–1984)), who played in the now-defunct [American Soccer League](North)(North American Soccer League (1968–1984)) and won that league's championship in 1983.
### Professional football
In 1984, the city hosted the [Outlaws](Oklahoma)(Oklahoma Outlaws) of the now-defunct [States Football League](United)(United States Football League) for a single season.
### High school sports
At the secondary level, the Tulsa area is home to several high school athletic programs that are frequently ranked among the best nationally, particularly in football (e.g. Bixby High School, Broken Arrow High School, Owasso High School, Union High School, Booker T. Washington, and [High School](Jenks)(Jenks High School)).
### Running, biking and trails
The city's running and cycling communities support events such as the [Tough](Tulsa)(Tulsa Tough) cycling race, the Hurtland cyclocross, the Route 66 Marathon, and the [Run](Tulsa)(Tulsa Run), which features over 8000 participants annually. Another popular gambling draw, [racing](horse)(horse racing) events are housed by the [Meadows Race Track](Fair)(Fair Meadows Race Track) and [Rogers Downs](Will)(Will Rogers Downs) in nearby [Claremore](Claremore, Oklahoma).
[Francis Tulsa Tough Ride and Race](Saint)(Tulsa Tough) is a three-day cycling festival in Tulsa, Oklahoma. It features both non-competitive riding through scenic areas around the [Metropolitan Area](Tulsa)(Tulsa Metropolitan Area) and professional level races. It is held each year on Friday, Saturday, and Sunday, the second weekend in June. Just as popular as the biking itself is the weekend-long festivities at Crybaby Hill, for it is held in the Riverview District. River Parks Criterium Cry Baby Hill|url=https://www.tulsatough.com/river-parks-criterium|access-date=2020-10-01|website=Tulsa Tough|language=en}} The [Dome District](Blue)(Blue Dome) hosts its race on the first night and takes riders down East 2nd Street by Arnie's Bar, the Dilly Diner, and El Guapo's Mexican Cantina. The race has participants riding at fast speeds through crowded streets lined with cheering spectators, live music, and several vendors. Events include the Men's Cat 3, Women's Pro 1/2, Men's 1/2 and Men's Pro 1.
[[University of Tulsa football team competes at the NCAA Division I level.](File:OklahomaSooners-TulsaGoldenHurricane-2009-GJKinne-Throw.jpg|thumb|upright|The)]
### Motorsports
In [motorsport](motorsport)s, Tulsa annually hosts the [Bowl](Chili)(Chili Bowl (race)) indoor race at the [Expo Center](Tulsa)(Tulsa Expo Center). The race was initially sponsored by the Chili Bowl food company of Bob Berryhill. The race has since accommodated "over two hundred race rigs, bleachers for thousands of people and an ever-growing trade show". The Official Website for the Lucas Oil Chili Bowl Nationals presented by General Tire|url=https://www.chilibowl.com/about/|access-date=2020-10-01|website=www.chilibowl.com}}
## Parks
, the city of Tulsa manages 134 parks spread over .["2016 Annual Report – Tulsa Park and Recreation Department." 2016.](https://www.cityoftulsa.org/media/3310/tulsaparks-annual-report-020317.pdf) Accessed May 25, 2017. [Park](Woodward)(Woodward Park (Tulsa)), a tract located in midtown Tulsa, doubles as a [garden](botanical)(botanical garden), featuring the Tulsa Municipal Rose Garden, with more than 6,000 rose plants in 250 varieties, and the [Linnaeus](Carl Linnaeus) Teaching Gardens, which demonstrate the latest and most successful techniques for growing vegetables, annuals, perennials, woody plants and groundcovers.
Some Tulsa-area parks are run by Tulsa County Parks. These include the LaFortune Park in Midtown Tulsa, and the Chandler Park.
Some parks are under the Tulsa River Parks Authority. These include a series of linear parks that run adjacent to the Arkansas River for about from downtown to the Jenks bridge. Since 2007 a significant portion of the River Parks area has been renovated with new trails, landscaping, and playground equipment. The River Parks Turkey Mountain Urban Wilderness Area on the west side of the Arkansas River in south Tulsa is a area that contains over of dirt trails available for hiking, trail running, mountain biking and horseback riding. In addition, after years of planning, generous donations and input from the community, of central Tulsa was transformed into [Place](Gathering)(Gathering Place), a $465 million park that opened September 8, 2018. The project is spearheaded and largely funded by the [Kaiser](George)(George Kaiser) Family Foundation. With a $100 million endowment for maintenance and family programming from the George Kaiser Family Foundation alone, it one of the largest and most ambitious public parks ever created with private funds. The main attractions are the Chapman Adventure Playground, the Williams Lodge, a boathouse, splash playground, great lawn, outdoor sports courts, a skate park, a wetland pond and garden, and numerous trails among other locations. Tulsa's Gathering Place was named the Best New Attraction in the Nation in 2018 through the *USA Today* Readers’ Choice awards. Groundbreaking on the anchor project for phase two, Discovery Lab, occurred in February 2020. The $47 million, Discovery Lab is a hands-on museum also featuring classrooms, a café, grand plaza, and 300-seat amphitheater; it opened on January 24, 2022.
## Government
[[Technology Center.jpg|thumb|right|upright|The Tulsa City Hall serves as the base for most city government functions.](File:One)]
A [government](mayor-council)(mayor-council government) has been in place in Tulsa since 1989, when the city converted from a [commission government](city)(city commission government) deemed wasteful and less efficient. Since the change, Tulsa mayors have been given more power in accordance with a [mayoral system](strong)(Mayor–council government#Strong-mayor form) and have greater control of a more consolidated array of governmental branches. [voting](Plurality)(Plurality voting system) is used to elect mayors, who serve a term in office of four years. The present mayor of Tulsa is Republican [T. Bynum](G.)(G. T. Bynum), who won the 2016 mayoral election and took office on December 5, 2016. Another Tulsa political figure, [Inhofe](Jim)(Jim Inhofe), who represented Oklahoma in the [States Senate](United)(United States Senate) for 30 years, served as the mayor of Tulsa early in his political career.
A city councilor from each of the city's nine council districts is elected every two years, each serving a term of two years. Councilors are elected from their own respective districts based on a plurality voting system, and serve on the Tulsa City Council. As a whole, the council acts as the legislative body of the city government, which aims to pass laws, approve the city budget, and manage efficiency in the city government. In accordance with the mayor-council form of government, the Tulsa City Council and the office of the Mayor coordinate in city government operations. A third body of the government, the city auditor, is elected independently of the city council and mayor to ensure that the auditor can act in an objective manner. The auditor is elected for a term of two years. Phil Wood, a Democrat, held the position for 21 years before being defeated by Republican Preston Doerflinger in the 2009 election. The city serves as the seat of county government for Tulsa County, and lies mostly within [1st congressional district](Oklahoma's)(Oklahoma's 1st congressional district), with its far northwestern areas in southern Osage County in [3rd congressional district](Oklahoma's)(Oklahoma's 3rd congressional district). Municipal and state laws are enforced in Tulsa by the [Police Department](Tulsa)(Tulsa Police Department), an organization of 781 officers .
### Crime rate
Tulsa experienced elevated levels of gang violence in the late 1980s and early 1990s, when [cocaine](crack)(Crack Cocaine) flooded neighborhoods in North Tulsa. Tulsa gang problems became noticeable after an outbreak of gang-related crime between 1980 and 1983, which was traced to the Crips, a local gang which had been founded by two brothers whose family had recently moved to Oklahoma from [Compton](Compton, California). In 1986, gang graffiti started to show up on walls and drive-by shootings started occurring on late nights. In 1990 the city hit a record of 60 homicides, the highest since the 1981 peak. North Tulsa has the highest crime rate in the city, with public housing projects being the most heavily affected areas. On June 1, 2022, a [shooting](mass)(Warren Clinic shooting) occurred in a medical center, killing at least 4 people, including the perpetrator.
## Education
[[File:McFarlin-Library-University-Of-Tulsa.jpg|thumb|left|upright|The McFarlin Library serves the [of Tulsa](University)(University of Tulsa) campus.]]
### K–12 education
The [Church (PCUSA)](Presbyterian)(Presbyterian Church (U.S.A.)) established the Presbyterian Mission Day School, a one-story building at what would become the intersection of 4th Street and Boston Avenue in 1884. A second story was soon added to accommodate the number of children who were to attend. This school operated until 1889.Tulsa Preservation Commission Website. "Tulsa History – Education.(1880–1941)". Retrieved December 28, 2010. [http://www.tulsapreservationcommission.org/history/education/] When Tulsa incorporated in 1899, it took over the school, which became the first public school. James M. Hall and three other men bought the property with their own funds and held the title until the city could reimburse them.
Tulsa built its first two public schools in 1905. The construction of more schools began accelerating in 1906. In December 1907, control of the public schools passed from the city government to the Tulsa Board of Education.
**Tulsa High School** opened in 1906 on the same block formerly occupied by the Presbyterian mission school, which had been razed. The new school was a three-story cream colored brick building with a dome. The school was accredited by the North Central Association of Schools and Colleges in 1913. It proved too small by 1916, when Tulsa voters approved a bond issue to construct a new high school at Sixth Street and Cincinnati Avenue, which was renamed [High School](Central)(Central High School (Tulsa, Oklahoma)). The north half of this facility opened in 1917, while the south half opened in 1922. The building remained in this service until 1976, when it was replaced by a new building on West Edison Street. The old building was taken over by the Public Service Company of Oklahoma.
There are three primary public school districts in the city of Tulsa. [Public Schools](Tulsa)(Tulsa Public Schools), with nine high schools and over 41,000 students, is the second-largest school district in Oklahoma and includes [T. Washington High School](Booker)(Booker T. Washington High School (Tulsa, Oklahoma)), a [school](magnet)(magnet school) judged to be the 65th best high school in the United States by *[Newsweek](Newsweek)* magazine in 2008. Each with one upper high school, Jenks Public Schools, Union Public Schools and Broken Arrow Public Schools are the city's three other primary districts, covering the southern and far eastern portions of the city near the towns of Jenks and [Arrow](Broken)(Broken Arrow, Oklahoma). In 2006, there were more than 90,000 students attending Tulsa County's public schools.
A variety of independent and sectarian schools exist in Tulsa, also. Most, but not all, of the private schools have religious affiliations with various Christian, Jewish or Muslim denominations. The Catholic Diocese of Tulsa supports a system of parochial and diocesan schools, including [Kelley High School](Bishop)(Bishop Kelley High School), administered by the [(French Christian Brothers)](LaSallians)(Institute of the Brothers of the Christian Schools). Another Catholic high school, [Hall Preparatory School](Cascia)(Cascia Hall Preparatory School), is administered by [Augustinians](Augustinians). [Hall School](Holland)(Holland Hall School) is independent but historically affiliated with the [Church](Episcopal)(Episcopal Church in the United States of America). [Country Day School](Riverfield)(Riverfield Country Day School) is non-sectarian.
### Public libraries
The largest library system in the Tulsa Metropolitan Area, the [City-County Library](Tulsa)(Tulsa City-County Library), contains over volumes in 25 library facilities. The library is active in the community, holding events and programs at most branches, including free computer classes, children's storytimes, business and job assistance, and scholarly databases with information on a variety of topics. The [Library](McFarlin)(University of Tulsa#Campus) at the University of Tulsa is a [depository library](federal)(federal depository library program) holding over three million items. Founded in 1930, the library is known for its collection of Native American works and the original works of Irish author [Joyce](James)(James Joyce). The Tulsa City-County Library and the University of Tulsa's Law Library are also federal depository libraries, making Tulsa the only city in Oklahoma with more than two federal depository libraries. The Tulsa City County Library's Downtown branch was massively renovated and opened to the public on Saturday, October 1, 2016.
### Higher education
The first institute of higher education was established in Tulsa when Kendall College, a Presbyterian school, moved from [Muskogee](Muskogee, Oklahoma) to Tulsa in 1907. In 1920, the school merged with a proposed McFarlin College to become the [of Tulsa](University)(University of Tulsa) (abbreviated as TU). The McFarlin Library of TU was named for the principal donor of the proposed college, oilman [M. McFarlin](Robert)(Robert M. McFarlin).
[[Resource Center - Graduate Center on the campus of Oral Roberts University.jpg|thumb|right|The Graduate Center houses Oral Roberts University's graduate college.](File:Learning)]
Tulsa has 15 institutions of higher education, including two private universities: the University of Tulsa, a school founded in 1894, and [Roberts University](Oral)(Oral Roberts University), a school founded by evangelist [Roberts](Oral)(Oral Roberts) in 1963.
The [of Tulsa](University)(University of Tulsa) has an enrollment of 3,832 undergraduate and graduate students as of 2021. It is ranked 83rd among national doctoral universities in *[News & World Report](U.S.)(U.S. News & World Report)* 2009 edition of America's Best Colleges and among the best 123 Western Colleges by the *[Review](Princeton)(Princeton Review)* in 2007, which also ranks it in the top ten schools nationally for quality of life, overall happiness of students, and relationship with the community. In addition to doctoral and masters programs, TU is home to the [of Tulsa College of Law](University)(University of Tulsa College of Law) and the Collins College of Business. TU also manages the famous [Museum](Gilcrease)(Gilcrease Museum) in northwest Tulsa and hosts the Alexandre Hogue Gallery on its main campus. As of 2022, TU was ranked 137th in national universities by U.S. News & World Report.
Oral Roberts University, a [Christian](charismatic)(charismatic Christian) institution with an enrollment of 5,109 undergraduate and graduate students, was rated in 2007 by the Princeton Review one of the 123 best in the Western United States and among the West's top 50 Master's Universities by *U.S. News & World Report* in 2005.
Both of the state's flagship research universities have campuses in Tulsa:
* [State University](Oklahoma)(Oklahoma State University System) houses three campuses in the city, the [Center for Health Sciences](OSU)(Oklahoma State University - Center for Health Sciences), the OSU College of Osteopathic Medicine, and [– Tulsa](OSU)(Oklahoma State University - Tulsa), accommodating upper-level undergraduate and graduate courses. OSU-Tulsa has an advanced materials research facility and is home to the Oklahoma Center for Poets and Writers.
* The [of Oklahoma](University)(University of Oklahoma) operates what is known as the OU-Tulsa Schusterman Center, offering bachelors, master's, and doctoral degree programs in conjunction with the main campus in Norman and the OU Health Sciences Center in Oklahoma City. The OU-Tulsa Schusterman Center also houses the [School of Community Medicine](OU)(OU School of Community Medicine), the first medical school of its kind in the United States.
[State University](Rogers)(Rogers State University) in [Oklahoma](Claremore,)(Claremore, Oklahoma), is the Tulsa area's original public, undergraduate-focused, four-year university. [Community College](Tulsa)(Tulsa Community College) (TCC), the largest community college in Oklahoma, operates four campuses spread across the area as well as a conference center in Midtown, and has a partnership allowing students to complete four-year bachelor's degrees through OU-Tulsa, OSU-Tulsa, LU-Tulsa and NSU-Broken Arrow. Tulsa also has a Tulsa branch of [University](Langston)(Langston University), the only [black college or university](historically)(historically black colleges and universities) in the state, founded in 1897. Tulsa previously had a branch campus of [Gregory's University](St.)(St. Gregory's University), a Catholic university with its main campus in [Oklahoma](Shawnee,)(Shawnee, Oklahoma); however, that school went into bankruptcy in 2017.
The [School of Aeronautics](Spartan)(Spartan School of Aeronautics) enrolls 1,500 students at its flight programs near Tulsa International Airport and the city's [education](vocational)(vocational education) is headed by [Technology Center](Tulsa)(Tulsa Technology Center), the oldest and largest vocational technology institution in the state.
Among trade schools located in Tulsa are [Care College](Community)(Community Care College) (including branches Oklahoma Technical College and Clary Sage College), Holberton School Tulsa, and [Tech](Tulsa)(Tulsa Technology Center).
## Media and communications
[[File:Tulsa World Office.jpg|thumb|*[Tulsa World](The)(The Tulsa World)* operates primarily from its headquarters in downtown Tulsa.]]
### Print
Tulsa's leading newspaper is the daily *[World](Tulsa)(Tulsa World)*, the second-most widely circulated newspaper in Oklahoma with a Sunday circulation of 189,789.
*The Tulsa Voice* is an [Alt-Weekly](Alternative newspaper) newspaper covering entertainment and cultural events. Covering primarily economic events and stocks, the *Tulsa Business Journal* caters to Tulsa's business sector. Other publications include the *Oklahoma Indian Times*, the *Tulsa Daily Commerce and Legal News*, the *[Beacon](Tulsa)(Tulsa Beacon)*, *[Land Press](This)(This Land Press)*, and the *Tulsa Free Press*. The first black-owned newspaper was the *Tulsa Star*, which ceased publication when its office burned during the [race massacre](Tulsa)(Tulsa race massacre). It was succeeded by the *[Eagle](Oklahoma)(Oklahoma Eagle)*, which began publishing using the press salvaged from the *Star* office.
Until 1992, the *[Tribune](Tulsa)(Tulsa Tribune)* served as a daily afternoon newspaper competing with the *Tulsa World*. The paper was acquired by the *Tulsa World* that year. *[Tulsa Weekly](Urban)(Urban Tulsa Weekly)* served as the city's alt-weekly paper from 1991 until its closure in 2013.
### Television and radio
Tulsa is also served by television and radio broadcasting networks. All major U.S. television networks are represented in Tulsa through local [affiliates](network affiliate) in the [market area](designated)(media market) (a region covering a 22-county area serving the northeastern and east-central portions of Oklahoma, and far southeastern Kansas); these include [NBC](NBC) affiliate [KJRH-TV](KJRH-TV) (channel 2), [CBS](CBS) affiliate [KOTV-DT](KOTV-DT) (channel 6), [ABC](American Broadcasting Company) affiliate [KTUL](KTUL) (channel 8), [PBS](PBS) station KOED-TV (channel 11, a [satellite](Broadcast relay station#Satellite stations) of the state-run [OETA](Oklahoma Educational Television Authority) member network), [CW](The CW) affiliate [KQCW-DT](KQCW-DT) (channel 19), [Fox](Fox Broadcasting Company) affiliate [KOKI-TV](KOKI-TV) (channel 23), [MyNetworkTV](MyNetworkTV) affiliate [KMYT-TV](KMYT-TV) (channel 41), [Television](Ion)(Ion Television) [station](owned-and-operated)(owned-and-operated station) [KTPX-TV](KTPX-TV) (channel 44). The market is also home to several religious stations including [TBN](Trinity Broadcasting Network) owned-and-operated station [KDOR-TV](KDOR-TV) (channel 17), religious/secular [station](independent)(Independent station (North America)) [KWHB](KWHB) (channel 47), and Oral Roberts University-owned [KGEB](KGEB) (channel 53, which is distributed nationwide via satellite as [America](GEB)(GEB America)).
[television](Cable)(Cable television) service in the area is provided by [Communications](Cox)(Cox Communications), which acquired [Inc.](Tele-Communications)(Tele-Communications Inc.) (TCI)'s franchise rights to the area in a $2.85 billion deal (which also included the purchase of [Broadband](AT&T)(AT&T Broadband)'s Louisiana cable systems, minority ownership of TCA Cable TV systems in Texas, Louisiana and New Mexico, and TCI's Peak Cablevision systems in four other Oklahoma cities, and select markets in Arkansas, Utah and Nevada) in July 1999; Cox assumed control of TCI's Tulsa-area systems on March 15, 2000.
## Infrastructure
### Transportation
[[Tulsa Bus Stop.jpg|thumb|The Tulsa Transit bus network, operating from its Denver Avenue Station transit center in downtown, helps meet city infrastructure needs.](File:Downtown)]
Transportation in Tulsa is aided by [Transit](Tulsa)(Tulsa Transit)'s bus network of 97 vehicles and two primary airports, while the [Port of Catoosa](Tulsa)(Tulsa Port of Catoosa) provides transportation of goods and industry through international trade routes. Though internal transportation is largely dependent on automobiles, the city was ranked in 2005 among the five least expensive metropolitan areas for average price of gas at the pump.
#### Highways
Tulsa has an extensive highway system that connects many cities in the region such as Joplin, Missouri on the [Rogers Turnpike](Will)(Will Rogers Turnpike) and Oklahoma City on the [Turnpike](Turner)(Turner Turnpike). Most commuters use the highway system in Tulsa to get to and from work. Highways that run through Tulsa are [I-44](Interstate 44), [I-244](Interstate 244), [US-412](U.S. Route 412), [US-169](U.S. Route 169), [OK-66](Oklahoma State Highway 66), [US-64](U.S. Route 64), [US-75](U.S. Route 75), [OK-11](Oklahoma State Highway 11), [OK-51](Oklahoma State Highway 51), [Turnpike](Creek)(Creek Turnpike), and [Expressway](Gilcrease)(Gilcrease Expressway). In 2011, the [Department of Transportation](Oklahoma)(Oklahoma Department of Transportation) reported that Tulsa's busiest freeway was US-169 with about 121,500 vehicles daily between 51st and 61st Streets, and its second busiest freeway was OK-51 with about 104,200 vehicles between Memorial and I-44. Surrounding Downtown is the Inner Dispersal Loop (sometimes called the "I-D-L"), which connects Downtown with almost all the highways in Tulsa.
[[File:Tulsa, OK Greyhound Station entrance - 2023-3-17.jpg|thumb|Entrance to the [Greyhound](Greyhound Lines) bus station located near downtown]]
#### Buses
[Transit](Tulsa)(Metropolitan Tulsa Transit Authority), the city's [bus](transit)(transit bus) operator, runs 97 buses on 19 different routes across Tulsa and in surrounding suburbs such as [Arrow](Broken)(Broken Arrow, Oklahoma), [Springs](Sand)(Sand Springs, Oklahoma) and [Jenks](Jenks, Oklahoma). Tulsa Transit has two stations: the Memorial Midtown Station at 7952 E. 33rd St. in Midtown Tulsa, and the Denver Avenue Station at 319 S. Denver, across from the [Center](BOK)(BOK Center) in [Downtown](Downtown Tulsa). Most routes go through one or both of the stations, facilitating the commute to work and events in [Downtown](Downtown Tulsa) or Midtown. Buses stop at specific stops such as [Community College](Tulsa)(Tulsa Community College), [State University-Tulsa](Oklahoma)(Oklahoma State University-Tulsa), [Towers](CityPlex)(CityPlex Towers), Cox Communications, the various [facilities in Tulsa](medical)(medical facilities in Tulsa), and many shopping destinations, hotels, and schools. The bus schedules are periodically changed; votes are taken by Tulsa Transit to help decide the particulars of certain routes.[Route 117 and 118 Proposed Changes](http://tulsatransit.org/2013/06/route-117-and-118-proposed-changes/) . Tulsa Transit (June 3, 2013). Retrieved on August 17, 2013. Tulsa debuted its first [rapid transit](bus)(bus rapid transit) line, Aero on Peoria Avenue, in November 2019. The service has more frequent buses, upgraded stations, and faster travel times.
[bus service](Intercity)(Intercity bus service) is provided by both [Lines](Greyhound)(Greyhound Lines) and [Lines](Jefferson)(Jefferson Lines). The station for both is at 317 S. Detroit, five blocks from Tulsa Transit's Downtown bus terminal. As to private chartered bus companies, Red Carpet Charters a/k/a Red Carpet Trailways of Tulsa, is an independent member of the [Charter Bus Network](Trailways)(Trailways Transportation System).
#### Airports
[[ERJ 145 (American Eagle) at TUL.jpg|thumb|right|An American Eagle aircraft in new livery at Tulsa International Airport](File:Embraer)][International Airport](Tulsa)(Tulsa International Airport), which has service on thirteen commercial airlines (nine passenger and four cargo ones), serves more than three million travelers annually, with almost 80 departures every day. In 2007, the airport completed most of an expansion project, which included larger terminal sizes and the addition of restaurants and shops. In 2011, the airport opened the newly renovated Concourse B, complete with skylights, open gate holds, an average of 76 ways to charge a device per gate, and much more. Concourse A is under renovation. [L. Jones Jr. Airport](Richard)(Richard Lloyd Jones Jr. Airport), a/k/a Jones-Riverside Airport, a [aviation](general)(general aviation) airport in West Tulsa, saw 335,826 takeoffs and landings in 2008, making it the busiest airport in Oklahoma and the fifth-busiest general aviation airport in the nation. Its operations contribute over to the economy annually. The Tulsa Airports Improvement Trust also manages the [Regional Airport](Okmulgee)(Okmulgee Regional Airport) in [Oklahoma](Okmulgee,)(Okmulgee, Oklahoma), further to the south of Tulsa.Casey Smith, “Tulsa Airport board approves operation deal with Okmulgee Regional Airport,” Tulsa World, May 15, 2015.Larry Levy, “Contract awarded for airport control tower," Tulsa Business & Legal News, May 18, 2016.
#### Railways
[railways](Freight)(Rail freight transport) bisect the city in every direction; the state's chief freight rail transporter is [BNSF](BNSF), which operates the Cherokee Rail Yard in Tulsa, which includes a freight terminal, diesel shop and hump yard for railcar sorting. Other Class I transporters are [Pacific Railroad](Union)(Union Pacific Railroad), and [City Southern Railway](Kansas)(Kansas City Southern Railway) (via a short-line switch on the [Kansas and Oklahoma Railroad](South)(South Kansas and Oklahoma Railroad)).
[Union Depot](Tulsa)(Tulsa Union Depot) served [Frisco](Frisco Railway), [M-K-T](M-K-T) and [Fe](Santa)(Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railway) passenger trains until the 1960s. The Santa Fe continued at another station to 1971. There are no mass transit rail lines in Tulsa, but the prospect of passenger rail lines from [Tulsa](Downtown)(Downtown Tulsa) to the suburb of [Arrow](Broken)(Broken Arrow, Oklahoma) is being studied.
Long-distance passenger rail transportation today serves Tulsa only through [bus lines](Greyhound)(Greyhound Lines), which provide bus connections to nearby cities with [Amtrak](Amtrak) stations. [[of Catoosa 2007.jpg|thumb|The Tulsa Port of Catoosa](File:Port)] Beginning in February 2014, a limited number of test trips of the *[Flyer](Eastern)(Eastern Flyer)* were run, connecting the Tulsa and Oklahoma City metros via train on Sundays. The private passenger operation by the [Pacific](Iowa)(Iowa Pacific Holdings) was at one point scheduled for regular daily operations from May 2014, but never started; [Pacific](Iowa)(Iowa Pacific Holdings) later dropped out of the process. Due to contractual provisions of its 2014 purchase from the State of Oklahoma of the “Sooner Sub” trackage running from [Oklahoma](Sapulpa,)(Sapulpa, Oklahoma) near Tulsa to [City, Oklahoma](Del)(Del City, Oklahoma) near Oklahoma City, the [Central Railroad](Stillwater)(Stillwater Central Railroad) was obligated to start such a service by August 2019. On August 5, 2019, the Stillwater Central opted to instead default under the agreement and pay the contractual $2.8 million in penalties for not establishing the service.
Tulsa has two static displays of antique steam railroad [locomotives](locomotives) for free public viewing: the 1917 wood-burning [Forest](Dierks)(Dierks Forests) 207, a [Baldwin](Baldwin Locomotive Works) [2-6-2](2-6-2) Prairie-type located at the [State Fair](Tulsa)(Tulsa State Fair)grounds; and the 1942 oil-burning [Frisco](St. Louis-San Francisco Railway) [Meteor](Meteor (train)) [4500](St. Louis–San Francisco 4500), a [Baldwin](Baldwin Locomotive Works) [4-8-4](4-8-4) Northern-type at the [66 Historical Village](Route)(Route 66 Historical Village) at 3770 Southwest Blvd.
#### Port of Catoosa
At the head of the [Arkansas River Navigation System](McClellan-Kerr)(McClellan-Kerr Arkansas River Navigation System), the [Port of Catoosa](Tulsa)(Tulsa Port of Catoosa) is an inland port in the United States and connects [barge](barge) traffic from Tulsa to the [River](Mississippi)(Mississippi River) via the [River](Verdigris)(Verdigris River) and the [River](Arkansas)(Arkansas River). The facility is one of the largest riverports in the United States and contributes to one of the busiest waterways in the world via its course to the [of Mexico](Gulf)(Gulf of Mexico).
### Medical facilities
[[Children's Hospital at Saint Francis.jpg|thumb|right|In 2010 Saint Francis completed a new Children's Hospital.](File:The)]
The Saint Francis Health System owns several hospitals with a central location at Saint Francis Hospital in the southern part of the city. The facility contains 700 doctors and 918 beds, and with more than 7,000 employees, the network is the second-largest healthcare employer in the state. The health system also operates a heart hospital, which was named by [Electric](General)(General Electric) in 2004 one of the most advanced heart hospitals in the nation. St. John Medical Center, located in an 11-story midtown center, employs nearly 700 doctors. Other networks, such as Hillcrest Health System, operate a number of facilities of various sizes. Beginning in 2007, the city elected to renew a five-year contract with [EMSA](Emergency Medical Services Authority) for ambulance service after a period spent contemplating a switch to the [Fire Department](Tulsa)(Tulsa Fire Department) for the provision of such services.
## In popular culture
* Several films starring [Pack](Brat)(Brat Pack) actors were filmed in Tulsa in the early 1980s; among them were *[Tex](Tex (film))* (1982), *[Outsiders](The)(The Outsiders (film))* (1983), *[Fish](Rumble)(Rumble Fish)* (1983), *[Was Then... This Is Now](That)(That Was Then... This Is Now)* (1985) and *[Fandango](Fandango (1985 film))* (1985).Barth, Jack (1991). ''Roadside Hollywood: The Movie Lover's State-By-State Guide to Film Locations, Celebrity Hangouts, Celluloid Tourist Attractions, and More*. Contemporary Books. Page 134. .
* "Tampa to Tulsa" song by [Jayhawks](The)(The Jayhawks)
* Most of the [HBO](HBO) TV series *[Watchmen](Watchmen (TV series))* (2019) takes place in Tulsa.
* "[Four Hours from Tulsa](Twenty)(Twenty Four Hours from Tulsa)" song by [Pitney](Gene)(Gene Pitney)
* "[Time](Tulsa)(Tulsa Time)" song by [Williams](Don)(Don Williams)
* "Tulsa Jesus Freak" song by [Del Rey](Lana)(Lana Del Rey)
* *[King](Tulsa)(Tulsa King)'' TV series starring [Stallone](Sylvester)(Sylvester Stallone) (2022)
## Notable people
## Sister cities
[[File:Celle Partnerstadt Tulsa.jpg|thumb|150px|Coat of arms at sister city [Celle](Celle), granite artwork below signpost]]
In accordance with the Tulsa Global Alliance, which operates in conjunction with [Cities International](Sister)(Sister Cities International), an organization that began under President [Eisenhower](Dwight)(Dwight Eisenhower) in 1956, Tulsa has been given nine international [cities](sister)(town twinning) in an attempt to foster cross-cultural understanding:
*[Ploiești](Ploiești), Romania
*[Amiens](Amiens), France
*[Celle](Celle), Germany
*[Beihai](Beihai), China
*[Kaohsiung](Kaohsiung), Taiwan
*[Luis Potosí](San)(San Luis Potosí City), Mexico
*[Tiberias](Tiberias), Israel
*[Utsunomiya](Utsunomiya), Japan
*[Zelenograd](Zelenograd), Russia
## See also
* [(book)](*Tulsa*)(Tulsa (book))
* [(movie)](*Tulsa*)(Tulsa (movie))
* [of oil refineries](List)(List of oil refineries)
* [race massacre](Tulsa)(Tulsa race massacre)
* [*Tulsa*](USS)(USS Tulsa), 3 ships
## Notes
## References
## External links
* [Official website](http://www.cityoftulsa.org/)
* [Vision 2025](http://www.vision2025.info/)
}}
[ ](Category:Tulsa, Oklahoma)
[establishments in Indian Territory](Category:1836)(Category:1836 establishments in Indian Territory)
[in Oklahoma](Category:Cities)(Category:Cities in Oklahoma)
[in Osage County, Oklahoma](Category:Cities)(Category:Cities in Osage County, Oklahoma)
[in Rogers County, Oklahoma](Category:Cities)(Category:Cities in Rogers County, Oklahoma)
[in Tulsa County, Oklahoma](Category:Cities)(Category:Cities in Tulsa County, Oklahoma)
[in Wagoner County, Oklahoma](Category:Cities)(Category:Cities in Wagoner County, Oklahoma)
[seats in Oklahoma](Category:County)(Category:County seats in Oklahoma)
[port cities and towns of the United States](Category:Inland)(Category:Inland port cities and towns of the United States)
[places established in 1836](Category:Populated)(Category:Populated places established in 1836)
[populated places on the Arkansas River](Category:Oklahoma)(Category:Oklahoma populated places on the Arkansas River)
[metropolitan area](Category:Tulsa)(Category:Tulsa metropolitan area)
|
Mothman
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mothman
|
# Mothman
*Revision ID: 1160342368 | Timestamp: 2023-06-15T21:51:51Z*
---
In [Virginia folklore](West)(American folklore), the **Mothman** is a humanoid creature reportedly seen in the [Pleasant](Point)(Point Pleasant, West Virginia) area from November 15, 1966, to December 15, 1967. The first newspaper report was published in the *[Pleasant Register](Point)(Point Pleasant Register)*, dated November 16, 1966, titled "Couples See Man-Sized Bird ... Creature ... Something". The national press soon picked up the reports and helped spread the story across the United States. The source of the legend is believed to have originated from sightings of out-of-migration [crane](sandhill)(sandhill crane)s or [heron](heron)s.
The creature was introduced to a wider audience by [Barker](Gray)(Gray Barker) in 1970,*[Inquirer](Skeptical)(Skeptical Inquirer)*, Volume 33 (Pennsylvania State University, Committee for the Scientific Investigation of Claims of the Paranormal. 2009)Gray Barker, *The Silver Bridge* (Saucerian Books, 1970). Reprinted in 2008 entitled *The Silver Bridge: The Classic Mothman Tale* (BookSurge Publishing). and was later popularized by [Keel](John)(John Keel) in his 1975 book *[Mothman Prophecies](The)(The Mothman Prophecies)*,Keel, John A. *The Mothman Prophecies* (2007). (Originally published in 1975 by Saturday Review Press) claiming that there were [supernatural](supernatural) events related to the sightings, and a connection to the collapse of the [Bridge](Silver)(Silver Bridge). The book was later adapted into [2002 film](a)(The Mothman Prophecies (film)), starring [Gere](Richard)(Richard Gere).Meehan, Paul (2009). *Cinema of the Psychic Realm: A Critical Survey*, p. 130. McFarland & Company, Inc.
An annual festival in Point Pleasant is devoted to the Mothman legend.
## History
On November 15, 1966, two young couples from Point Pleasant—Roger and Linda Scarberry, and Steve and Mary Mallette—told police they had seen a large white creature whose eyes "glowed red", standing at the side of the road near "the [area](TNT)(McClintic Wildlife Management Area)", the site of a former [War II](World)(World War II) munitions plant. Linda Scarberry described it as a "slender, muscular man" about seven feet tall with white wings, and said that she was unable to discern its face due to the hypnotic effect of its eyes. Distressed, the witnesses drove away at speed, and said that the creature flew after their car, making a screeching sound. It pursued them as far as Point Pleasant city limits.
During the next few days, other people reported similar sightings, after local newspapers reported it. Two volunteer firemen who saw it said it was a "large bird with red eyes". Mason County Sheriff George Johnson commented that he believed the sightings were due to an unusually large [heron](heron) he termed a "shitepoke". Contractor Newell Partridge told Johnson that when he aimed a flashlight at a creature in a nearby field, its eyes glowed "like bicycle reflectors". Additionally, he blamed buzzing noises from his television set and the disappearance of his German Shepherd dog on the creature. Wildlife biologist Robert L. Smith at [Virginia University](West)(West Virginia University) told reporters that descriptions and sightings all fit the [crane](sandhill)(sandhill crane), a large American crane almost as tall as a man with a seven-foot wingspan featuring circles of reddish coloring around the eyes. The bird may have wandered out of its migration route, and therefore was unrecognized at first because it was not native to this region.
[[File:Batman063.jpg|thumb|[Batman](Batman) and his antagonist [Moth](Killer)(Killer Moth) are varyingly cited as influences for the term "Mothman"]]
Due to the popularity of the [TV series](*Batman*)(Batman (TV series)) at the time, the fictional [superhero](superhero) [Batman](Batman) and his [gallery](rogues)(List of Batman family enemies) were prominently featured in the public eye. While the villain [Moth](Killer)(Killer Moth) did not appear in the show, the [book](comic)(comic book) influence of both him and Batman is believed by some to have influenced the coinage of the name "Mothman" in the local newspapers.
Following the December 15, 1967 collapse of the [Bridge](Silver)(Silver Bridge) and the death of 46 people, the incident gave rise to the legend and connected the Mothman sightings to the bridge collapse.
According to [Georgian](Georgia (country)) newspaper *Svobodnaya Gruziya*, Russian [UFOlogists](ufology) claim that Mothman sightings in [Moscow](Moscow) foreshadowed the 1999 [apartment bombings](Russian)(Russian apartment bombings). ([English translation](https://translate.google.com/translate?hl=en&sl=auto&tl=en&u=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.x-libri.ru%2Felib%2Fsmi__653%2F00000001.htm) of the article.)
*[Mothman Prophecies*](*The)(The Mothman Prophecies (film))* (2002) is a major motion picture, loosely based on the 1975 [of the same name](book)(The Mothman Prophecies) by John Keel.
In 2016, [WCHS-TV](WCHS-TV) published a photo purported to be of Mothman taken by an anonymous man while driving on [Route 2](West Virginia Route 2) in [County](Mason)(Mason County, West Virginia). Science writer [A. Hill](Sharon)(Sharon A. Hill) proposed that the photo showed "a bird, perhaps an owl, carrying a frog or snake away" and wrote that "there is zero reason to suspect it is the Mothman as described in legend. There are too many far more reasonable explanations."
## Analysis
[Folklorist](Folklorist) [Harold Brunvand](Jan)(Jan Harold Brunvand) notes that Mothman has been widely covered in the popular press, some claiming sightings connected with UFOs, and others claiming that a military storage site was Mothman's "home". Brunvand notes that recountings of the 1966–67 Mothman reports usually state that at least 100 people saw Mothman with many more "afraid to report their sightings" but observed that written sources for such stories consisted of children's books or sensationalized or undocumented accounts that fail to quote identifiable persons. Brunvand found elements in common among many Mothman reports and much older folk tales, suggesting that something real may have triggered the scares and became woven with existing folklore. He also records anecdotal tales of Mothman supposedly attacking the roofs of parked cars occupied by teenagers.
Conversely, [Nickell](Joe)(Joe Nickell) says that a number of hoaxes followed the publicity generated by the original reports, such as a group of construction workers who tied flashlights to helium balloons. Nickell attributes the Mothman stories to sightings of [owl](barred)(barred owl)s, suggesting that the Mothman's "glowing eyes" were actually [effect](red-eye)(red-eye effect) caused from the reflection of light from flashlights or other bright light sources. [Radford](Benjamin)(Benjamin Radford) points out that the only report of glowing "red eyes," was secondhand, that of Shirley Hensley quoting her father. One of the prevailing hypotheses associated with the Mothman at the time of the original sightings was that it was a misidentified Sand Hill Crane, due primarily to the size of the bird as well as the "reddish flesh" around the crane's eyes. Daniel A. Reed examined the migration patterns and historically reported sightings of Sand Hill Cranes in the area of Point Pleasant and proposed that, in cases where eyeshine was not noted, it was statistically more likely that witnesses were seeing and misidentifying a Great Blue Heron instead.
According to [of Chicago](University)(University of Chicago) psychologist David A. Gallo, 55 sightings of Mothman in Chicago during 2017 published on the website of self-described [Fortean](Charles Fort) researcher Lon Strickler are "a selective sample". Gallo explains that "he's not sampling random people and asking if they saw the Mothmanhe's just counting the number of people that voluntarily came forward to report a sighting." According to Gallo, "people more likely to visit a paranormal-centric website like Strickler's might also be more inclined to believe in, and therefore witness the existence of, a 'Mothman'."
Some [pseudoscience](pseudoscience) adherents (such as [ufologist](ufologist)s, [paranormal](paranormal) authors, and [cryptozoologist](cryptozoologist)s) claim that Mothman was an [alien](alien (extraterrestrial)), a supernatural manifestation, or a previously unknown species of animal. In his 1975 book, Keel claimed that the Point Pleasant residents experienced [precognition](precognition)s including premonitions of the collapse of the Silver Bridge, [UFO](UFO) sightings, visits from inhuman or threatening [in black](men)(men in black), and other phenomena.[Jerome](Clark,)(Jerome Clark) (2000). *Extraordinary Encounters: An Encyclopedia of Extraterrestrials and Otherworldly Beings*. Santa Barbara, California: ABC-Clio, , pp. 178–179.
## Festival and statues
Point Pleasant held its first Annual Mothman Festival in 2002. The Mothman Festival began after brainstorming creative ways for people to visit Point Pleasant. The group organizing the event chose the Mothman to be the center of the festival due to its uniqueness, and as a way to celebrate its local legacy in the town.
According to the event organizer Jeff Wamsley, the average attendance for the Mothman Festival is an estimated 10–12 thousand people per year.
A 12-foot-tall metallic statue of the creature, created by artist and sculptor Bob Roach, was unveiled in 2003. The Mothman Museum and Research Center opened in 2005.[Mothman Statue](http://www.roadsideamerica.com/story/12036)Moran, Mark; Sceurman, Mark; Lake, Matt (2008). ''Weird U.S. The ODDyssey Continues – Your Travel Guide to America's Local Legends and Best Kept Secrets*, p. 260. New York: Sterling Publishing Co., Inc. The festival is held on the third weekend of every September, hosting guest speakers, vendor exhibits, pancake-eating contests, and hayride tours of locally notable areas.
## See also
* [experience](Apparitional)(Apparitional experience)
* [buzzard](Belled)(Belled buzzard)
* [Bogeyman](Bogeyman)
* [monster](Flatwoods)(Flatwoods monster)
* [(urban legend)](Goatman)(Goatman (urban legend))
* [Owlman](Owlman)
* *[Mothman of Point Pleasant](The)(The Mothman of Point Pleasant)* – a 2017 documentary film about Mothman
* [Popobawa](Popobawa)
* [Jack](Spring-heeled)(Spring-heeled Jack)
## References
## Further reading
* Bullard, Stephan, et al. *The Silver Bridge Disaster of 1967* (2012).
* Coleman, L. *Mothman and Other Curious Encounters*. (2002). )
* Colvin, Andrew *The Mothman's Photographer: The Work of an Artist Touched by the Prophecies of the Infamous Mothman* (2007).
** Colvin, Andrew *The Mothman's Photographer II: Meetings With Remarkable Witnesses Touched by Paranormal Phenomena, UFOs, and the Prophecies of West Virginia's Infamous Mothman* (2007).
* Fear, Brad *A Macabre Myth of a Moth-Man* (2008)
* Keel, John A. *The Eighth Tower* (1977).
* Myers, Bill. *Angel of Wrath: A Novel* (2009).
* Myres, Rau & Macklin *The Little Giant Book of True Ghost Stories*, pp. 166–170 (2001)
* Ressel, Steve. *Perverted Communion* (2010).
* Sergent, Jr., Donnie *Mothman: The Facts Behind the Legend* (2001)
* Schmidt, W.L. *Threads of Faithfulness* (2013)
* Wood, Jen A. *Point Pleasant'' (2013)
## External links
*
*
[in West Virginia](Category:1966)(Category:1966 in West Virginia)
[in West Virginia](Category:1967)(Category:1967 in West Virginia)
[in Virginia](Category:2016)(Category:2016 in Virginia)
[legendary creatures](Category:American)(Category:American legendary creatures)
[Category:Cryptozoology](Category:Cryptozoology)
[Category:Mothman](Category:Mothman)
[Pleasant, West Virginia](Category:Point)(Category:Point Pleasant, West Virginia)
[legends](Category:Supernatural)(Category:Supernatural legends)
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Mazda
|
mazda
|
# Mazda
*Revision ID: 1158211941 | Timestamp: 2023-06-02T16:53:54Z*
---
| foundation =
| founder = [Matsuda](Jujiro)(Jujiro Matsuda)
| location = 3-1 Shinchi, [Fuchū](Fuchū, Hiroshima (town)), [Hiroshima](Hiroshima Prefecture), Japan
| area_served = Worldwide
| key_people = Kiyotaka ShobudaAkira Marumoto
| industry = [Automotive](Automotive industry)
| num_employees = 46,398 (2016)
| owners = [Trustee Services Bank](Japan)(Japan Trustee Services Bank) (6.3%)[Motor Corporation](Toyota)(Toyota) (5%)[Master Trust Bank of Japan](The)(The Master Trust Bank of Japan) (4.7%)[Mitsui Banking Corporation](Sumitomo)(Sumitomo Mitsui Banking Corporation) (2.2%)
| products = [vehicle](Motor)(Motor vehicle)s, [engines](List of Mazda engines) (1,202,489 units, 2016)
| revenue = (FY 2016)
| operating_income = (FY 2016)
| net_income = (FY 2016)
| homepage =
}}
, also known as simply **Mazda**, is a [Japan](Japan)ese [multinational](Multinational corporation) company that produces [automobiles](Automotive industry) and [engine](engine)s. Its headquarters are located in [Fuchū](Fuchū, Hiroshima (town)), [Hiroshima](Hiroshima Prefecture), Japan."[Offices](http://www.mazda.com/profile/group/offices.html) ." Mazda. Retrieved on October 29, 2009. The company was founded on January 30, 1920 as Toyo Cork Kogyo Co., Ltd., a cork-making factory, by Jujiro Matsuda. It changed its name to Toyo Kogyo Co., Ltd. in 1927 and started producing vehicles in 1931. The name Mazda was derived from Ahura Mazda, the god of harmony, intelligence and wisdom in [Zoroastrianism](Zoroastrianism), as well as from the surname of the founder. Mazda is one of the largest automakers in Japan and the world. In 2015, it produced 1.5 million vehicles for global sales, of which nearly one million were made in Japan and the rest in various other countries. It ranked as the 15th-largest automaker by production volume globally in 2015. Mazda is known for its innovative technologies, such as the [engine](Wankel)(Wankel engine), the [SkyActiv](SkyActiv) platform, and the Kodo Design language. It also has a long history of motorsport involvement, winning the [Hours of Le Mans](24)(24 Hours of Le Mans) in 1991 with the rotary-powered [787B](Mazda)(Mazda 787B). Mazda has several alliances and partnerships with other automakers, such as [Toyota](Toyota), [Ford](Ford Motor Company), and [Hyundai](Hyundai Motor Group).
## History
### Creation
Mazda began as the Toyo Cork Kogyo Co., Ltd, as a [cork](cork (plug))-making factory founded in [Hiroshima](Hiroshima), Japan, 30 January 1920. Toyo Cork Kogyo renamed itself to Toyo Kogyo Co., Ltd. in 1927. In the late 1920s the company had to be saved from bankruptcy by Hiroshima Saving Bank and other business leaders in Hiroshima.Corporate Financing and Governance in Japan: The Road to the Future, page 153, By Takeo Hoshi, Anil Kashyap
In 1931, Toyo Kogyo moved from manufacturing machine tools to vehicles with the introduction of the [Mazda-Go](Mazda-Go) [rickshaw](auto)(auto rickshaw). The name *Mazda* came into existence with the production of the company's first three-wheeled trucks. Other candidates for a model name included *Sumera-Go*, *Tenshi-Go*, and more.
Officially, the company states:
}}
The company's website further notes that the name also derives from the name of the company's founder, [Matsuda](Jujiro)(Jujiro Matsuda). The alternative proposed names mean "god" (*Sumera*) and "angel" (*Tenshi*); both indicate Matsuda's strong interest in human faith.
The Mazda lettering was used in combination with the corporate emblem of [Motors](Mitsubishi)(Mitsubishi Motors), which was responsible for sales, to produce the Toyo Kogyo three-wheeled truck registered trademark.
Toyo Kogyo produced weapons for the Japanese military throughout the Second World War, most notably the series 30 through 35 [99 rifle](Type)(Type 99 rifle). The company formally adopted the Mazda name in 1984, though every automobile sold from the beginning bore that name. The [R360](Mazda)(Mazda R360) was introduced in 1960, followed by the [Carol](Mazda)(Mazda Carol) in 1962 and were sold at a specific retail dealership that sold passenger cars called "Mazda Auto Store" whereas commercial products were sold at "Mazda Store". As Mazda continued to offer passenger cars like the [Savanna](Mazda Savanna), [Familia](Mazda Familia), [Luce](Mazda Luce), [Cosmo](Mazda Cosmo) and [Capella](Mazda Capella), they were added to the "Mazda Auto Store" network only.
### Wankel engine adoption
[[File:Mazda cosmo sport.jpg|thumb|[Cosmo](Mazda)(Mazda Cosmo) Sport]]
[[file:1960 Mazda M badge.svg|thumb|left|Symbol and corporate mark as seen on most Mazda cars from the [R360](Mazda)(Mazda R360) until 1975]]
Beginning in the 1960s, Mazda was inspired by the [Ro 80](NSU)(NSU Ro 80) and decided to put a major engineering effort into development of the [rotary engine](Wankel)(Wankel engine) as a way of differentiating itself from other Japanese auto companies. The company formed a business relationship with German company [NSU](NSU Motorenwerke AG) and began with the limited-production [Sport](Cosmo)(Mazda Cosmo) of 1967, and continuing to the present day with the [Mazda Championship](Pro)(Pro Mazda Championship), Mazda has become the sole manufacturer of Wankel-type engines for the automotive market, mainly by way of attrition. (NSU and [Citroën](Citroën) both gave up on the design during the 1970s, and prototype Corvette efforts by [Motors](General)(General Motors) never made it to production.)
This effort to bring attention to itself apparently helped, as Mazda rapidly began to export its vehicles. Both [piston-powered](reciprocating engine) and rotary-powered models made their way around the world. The rotary models quickly became popular for their combination of good power and light weight when compared to piston-engined competitors that required heavier [V6](V6 engine) or [V8](V8 engine) engines to produce the same power. The [R100](Mazda R100) and the RX series ([RX-2](Mazda RX-2), [RX-3](Mazda RX-3), and [RX-4](Mazda RX-4)) led the company's export efforts.
During 1968, Mazda started formal operations in Canada (MazdaCanada) although Mazdas were seen in Canada as early as 1959. In 1970, Mazda formally entered the American market ([North American Operations](Mazda)(Mazda North American Operations)) and was very successful there, going so far as to create the [Rotary Pickup](Mazda)(Mazda Rotary Pickup) (based on the conventional piston-powered [B-Series](Mazda B-Series (International)) model) solely for North American buyers. To this day, Mazda remains the only automaker to have produced a Wankel-powered pickup truck. Additionally, it is also the only marque to have ever offered a rotary-powered bus (the Mazda Parkway, offered only in Japan) or station wagon (within the [RX-3](Mazda RX-3) and RX-4 lines for certain markets). After nine years of development, Mazda finally launched its new model in the U.S. in 1970.Asian Firms: History, Institutions and Management, page 24, By Frank B. Tipton
Mazda's rotary success continued until the onset of the [oil crisis](1973)(1973 oil crisis). As American buyers (as well as those in other nations) quickly turned to vehicles with better fuel efficiency, the relatively thirsty rotary-powered models began to fall out of favor. Combined with being the least-efficient automaker in Japan (in terms of productivity), inability to adjust to excess inventory and over-reliance on the U.S. market, the company suffered a huge loss in 1975.Corporate Financing and Governance in Japan: The Road to the Future, page 153 By Takeo Hoshi, Anil KashyapAsian Firms: History, Institutions and Management, page 24, By Frank B. Tipton An already heavily indebted Toyo Kogyo was on the verge of bankruptcy and was only saved through the intervention of Sumitomo keiretsu group, namely [Bank](Sumitomo)(Sumitomo Mitsui Banking Corporation), and the company's subcontractors and distributors.Between MITI and the Market: Japanese Industrial Policy for High Technology, page 139 By Daniel I. Okimoto However, the company had not totally turned its back on piston engines, as it continued to produce a variety of four-cylinder models throughout the 1970s. The smaller [Familia](Mazda Familia) line in particular became very important to Mazda's worldwide sales after 1973, as did the somewhat larger [Capella](Mazda Capella) series.
[[RX-7 (first generation)](File:Mazda-rx7-1st-generation01.jpg|thumb|Mazda)]
Mazda refocused its efforts and made the rotary engine a choice for the sporting motorist rather than a mainstream powerplant. Starting with the lightweight [RX-7](Mazda RX-7) in 1978 and continuing with the modern [RX-8](Mazda RX-8), Mazda has continued its dedication to this unique powerplant. This switch in focus also resulted in the development of another lightweight sports car, the piston-powered [MX-5 Miata](Mazda)(Mazda MX-5) (sold as the Eunos and later Mazda Roadster in Japan), inspired by the concept '[ittai](jinba)(jinba ittai)'. Introduced in 1989 to worldwide acclaim, the Roadster has been widely credited with reviving the concept of the small sports car after its decline in the late 1970s.
### Partnership with Ford
From 1974 to 2015, Mazda had a partnership with the [Motor Company](Ford)(Ford Motor Company), which acquired a 24.5% stake in 1979, upped to a 33.4% ownership of Mazda in May 1995. Under the administration of [Mulally](Alan)(Alan Mulally), Ford gradually divested its stake in Mazda from 2008 to 2015, with Ford holding 2.1% of Mazda stock as of 2014[Stock and Bond Information](http://www.mazda.com/investors/stockinfo/situation.html), Mazda, March 31, 2014 and severing most production as well as development ties.
[[File:2007 Mazda CX-9 -- NHTSA.jpg|thumb|From 2007 to 2015, Mazda used the [MZI Ford Cyclone Engine](3.5 L)(Ford Cyclone engine) in Mazda CX-9 models.]]
This partnership with Ford began owing to Mazda's financial difficulties during the 1960s. Starting in 1979 by expanding their 7 percent financial stake to 24.5%, Ford expanded an existing partnership with Mazda, resulting in various joint projects. The cooperation had begun in 1971 when the [B-Series](Mazda)(Mazda B-Series) spawned a Ford Courier variant for North America, a version which was later offered in other markets as well. Mazda's [Bongo](Mazda Bongo) and [Titan](Mazda Titan) cab-over trucks were sold with Ford badging in mainly Asia and the Pacific region beginning in 1976. These included large and small efforts in all areas of the automotive landscape, most notably in the realm of pickup trucks and smaller cars. Mazda began supplying manual transaxles to Ford in the spring of 1980. Mazda's [Familia](Mazda Familia) platform was used for Ford models like the [Laser](Ford Laser) and [Escort](Ford Escort (North America)) beginning in 1980, while the [Capella](Mazda Capella) architecture found its way into Ford's [Telstar](Ford Telstar) sedan and [Probe](Ford Probe) sports models.
During the 1980s, Ford-badged Mazda products replaced much of their own European-sourced lineup, especially in the Asia-Pacific markets, with the Laser replacing the [Escort](Ford Escort (Europe))["Family tree bears fruit"](https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=5OoxAAAAIBAJ&sjid=mJIDAAAAIBAJ&pg=3080%2C4077082), Christopher de Fraga,*[Age](The)(The Age)*, 1 June 1984, page 18 and the Telstar replacing the [Cortina](Ford Cortina).["Telstar should keep Ford on top"](https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=gi5VAAAAIBAJ&sjid=npQDAAAAIBAJ&pg=5279%2C6011618), Christopher de Fraga,*[Age](The)(The Age)*, June 14, 1983, page 18 In some cases, such as [Zealand](New)(New Zealand) and [Africa](South)(South Africa), these were assembled alongside their Mazda-badged equivalents, the Mazda 323 (Familia) and 626 (Capella).
Following the closure of its own assembly plant in New Zealand, Mazda established a joint venture with [New Zealand](Ford)(Ford New Zealand) known as Vehicle Assemblers of New Zealand (VANZ), while in South Africa, Ford's local subsidiary merged with [Motor Corporation](Sigma)(Sigma Motor Corporation), which already assembled Mazdas in the country, to form [Samcor](Samcor), although the sharing of models proved unpopular with both Ford and Mazda customers. In other markets such as Australia, however, the 323 and 626 were always fully imported, with only the Laser and Telstar assembled locally.[Australia Welcomes The 'new' Migrants](https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=5OoxAAAAIBAJ&sjid=mJIDAAAAIBAJ&pg=3080%2C4077082), *[Age](The)(The Age)*, June 16, 1986, page 43 In Japan, the Laser and Telstar were also sold alongside their Mazda-badged brethren, but the Festiva was not sold as a Mazda 121 on the Japanese market.
In North America, the Probe was built in a new Mazda company plant in [Rock, Michigan](Flat)(Flat Rock, Michigan), along with the mainstream 626 sedan and a companion [MX-6](Mazda)(Mazda MX-6) sports coupe. Ford also lent Mazda some of its capacity when needed: the [121](Mazda)(Mazda 121) sold in Europe and South Africa was, for a time, a variant of the [Fiesta](Ford)(Ford Fiesta) built in plants in Europe and South Africa. Mazda also made an effort in the past to sell some of Ford's cars in Japan, mainly through its Autorama dealer group.
| image2 = Mazda-logo-1992.jpg
| caption2 = Shortly after the release of the new symbol, the design was smoothed out to reduce its similarity to [Renault](Renault)'s. This is sometimes referred to as the "eternal flame" logo. It also represented the design of the [engine](rotary)(Wankel engine) that Mazda was famous for.
| image3 = Mazda logo with emblem.svg
| caption3 = The brand symbol, adopted in 1997, with the V-shape wings inside, standing for “growth” and “improvement” and Mazda logo in Mazda blue. A slightly modified version was introduced in 2015.
}}
Mazda also helped Ford develop the 1991 [Explorer](Ford Explorer), which Mazda sold as the 2-door only [Navajo](Mazda)(Mazda Navajo) from 1991 through 1994. However, Mazda's version was unsuccessful, while the Ford (available from the start as a 4-door or 2-door model) instantly became the best-selling sport-utility vehicle in the United States and kept that title for over a decade. Mazda has used Ford's [Ranger](Ford Ranger) pickup as the basis for its North American–market [B-Series](Mazda B-Series (North America)) trucks, starting in 1994 and continuing through 2010, when Mazda discontinued importing its B-Series trucks to North America, due to costs associated with the [tax](chicken)(chicken tax).
[[File:Eunos 800 001.JPG|thumb|[Millenia](Mazda)(Mazda Millenia)]]
Following its long-held fascination with alternative engine technology, Mazda introduced the first [cycle](Miller)(Miller cycle) engine for automotive use in the [Millenia](Mazda Millenia) luxury sedan of 1995. Though the Millenia (and its Miller-type V6 engine) were discontinued in 2002, the company has recently introduced a much smaller Miller-cycle four-cylinder engine for use in its [Demio](Mazda Demio) starting in 2008. As with its leadership in [technology](Wankel)(Wankel engine), Mazda remains (so far) the only automaker to have used a Miller-cycle engine in the automotive realm.
[[File:2017 Mazda3 Sport Diesel 2.2.jpg|thumb|[Mazda3](Mazda3)]]
Further financial difficulties at Mazda during the 1990s () caused Ford to increase its stake to a 33.4-percent [interest](controlling)(controlling interest) in May 1996. In June 1996, Henry Wallace was appointed president, and he set about restructuring Mazda and setting it on a new strategic direction. He laid out a new direction for the brand including the design of the present Mazda marque; he laid out a new product plan to achieve synergies with Ford, and he launched Mazda's digital innovation program to speed up the development of new products. At the same time, he started taking control of overseas distributors, rationalized dealerships and manufacturing facilities, and driving much-needed efficiencies and cost reductions in Mazda's operations. Much of his early work put Mazda back into profitability and laid the foundations for future success. Wallace was succeeded by James Miller in November 1997, followed in December 1999 by Ford executive [Fields](Mark)(Mark Fields (businessman)), who has been credited with expanding Mazda's new product lineup and leading the turnaround during the early 2000s. Ford's increased influence during the 1990s allowed Mazda to claim another distinction in history, having maintained the first foreign-born head of a Japanese car company, Henry Wallace.
### Divestment by Ford
[[File:2018 Mazda6 facelift.jpg|thumb|[Mazda6](Mazda6)]]
Amid the world financial crisis in the fall of 2008, reports emerged that Ford was contemplating a sale of its stake in Mazda as a way of [streamlining](Process optimization) its [asset](asset) base.[http://www.detnews.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=/20081011/AUTO01/810110432/1148/&source=nletter-business] *[BusinessWeek](BusinessWeek)* explained the alliance between Ford and Mazda has been a very successful one, with Mazda saving perhaps $90 million a year in development costs and Ford "several times" that, and that a sale of its stake in Mazda would be a desperate measure. On November 18, 2008, Ford announced that it would sell a 20% stake in Mazda, reducing its stake to 13.4%, thus surrendering control of the company, which it held since 1996. The following day, Mazda announced that, as part of the deal, it was buying back 6.8% of its shares from Ford for about US$185 million while the rest would be acquired by business partners of the company. It was also reported that Hisakazu Imaki would be stepping down as chief executive, to be replaced by [Yamanouchi](Takashi)(Takashi Yamanouchi). On November 18, 2010, Ford reduced its stake further to 3%, citing the reduction of ownership would allow greater flexibility to pursue growth in emerging markets, and [Mitsui Financial Group](Sumitomo)(Sumitomo Mitsui Financial Group) was believed to become its largest shareholder. Ford and Mazda remained strategic partners through joint ventures and exchanges of technological information.
[[File:Mazda MX-30.jpg|thumb|Mazda's first mass-produced electric car, the [MX-30](Mazda MX-30)]]
On September 30, 2015, when Ford's shares had sunk to a little over 2% due to [dilution](stock)(stock dilution), Ford sold its remaining shares in Mazda.
### Post-Ford efforts
In 2011, Mazda raised more than 150 billion yen (US$1.9 billion) in a record share sale to replenish capital, as it suffered its biggest annual loss in 11 years. Part of the proceeds were used to build an auto plant in [Salamanca](Salamanca, Guanajuato), [Mexico](Mexico). The Mexican plant was built jointly by the company and [Corporation](Sumitomo)(Sumitomo Corporation).
In May 2015, the company signed an agreement with [Toyota](Toyota) to form a "long-term partnership", that would, among others, see Mazda supply Toyota with fuel-efficient SkyActiv gasoline and diesel engine technology in exchange for hydrogen fuel cell systems.
== Marques ==
[[File:Mazda Japan Car dealership Saitama.jpg|thumb|left|Japanese Mazda dealership in [Japan](Saitama,)(Saitama, Saitama)]]
[[File:Japanese crest Igeta.svg|thumb|50px|The Mazda Motors square symbol is based on [Sumitomo](Sumitomo) [crest](family)(mon (crest)), which is an affiliated company of the [Group](Sumitomo)(Sumitomo Group). ]]
[[logo.gif|thumb|50px|Autozam logo](File:Autozam)]
Mazda tried using a number of different [marque](marque)s in the Japanese (and occasionally Australian) markets in the 1990s, including [Autozam](Autozam), [Eunos](Eunos cars), and [ɛ̃fini](ɛ̃fini). The motivation was brought on by market competition from other Japanese automakers efforts in offering vehicles at multiple Japanese dealership networks offered by [Toyota](Toyota dealerships (Japan)), [Nissan](Nissan Motor Company#Japan), and [Honda](Honda#Japan). Mazda's implementation of brand diversification reflected a Japanese engineering philosophy, called [engineering](Kansei)(Kansei engineering), which was used as an advertising slogan in North America.
One of the oddest sub-marques was [M2](M2 (Mazda)), used on three rare variants of the Eunos Roadster (the M2-1001, M2-1002 and M2-1028) and one of the Autozam AZ-1 (M2-1015). M2 even had its own avant-garde company headquarters, but was shut down after a very short period of operation.
In early 1992, Mazda planned to release a luxury marque, [Amati](Amati Cars), to challenge [Acura](Acura), [Infiniti](Infiniti), and [Lexus](Lexus) in North America, which was to begin selling in late 1993. The initial Amati range would have included the Amati 500 (which became the Eunos 800 in Japan and Australia, [Millenia](Mazda)(Mazda Millenia) in the U.S., and Mazda Xedos 9 in Europe), a rebadged version of the [Cosmo](Mazda)(Mazda Cosmo#Series JC .281990.E2.80.931996.29) and the [1000](Amati)(Amati 1000) (a rear-wheel drive V12 competitor to the [LS400](Lexus)(Lexus LS)). The Amati marque was eventually scrapped before any cars hit the market. It is perhaps just a curiosity, but "Amati" happens to be an anagram of "Miata".
In Europe, the [Xedos](Xedos) name was also associated with the Mazda [6](Xedos)(Xedos 6), the two models were in production from 1992 until 1997. The Xedos line was marketed under the Mazda marque, and used the Mazda badge from the corresponding years.
This diversification stressed the product development groups at Mazda past its limits. Instead of having a half-dozen variations on any given [platform](List of Mazda model codes), developers were asked to work on dozens of different models at the same time. Consumers were confused as well by the explosion of similar new models. This selective marketing experiment was ended in the mid-1990s due to economic conditions, largely attributed to the collapse of the [asset price bubble](Japanese)(Japanese asset price bubble) in 1991.
## Leadership
Traditionally, Mazda has always been led by an executive leader known as the President and CEO.
# [Matsuda](Jujiro)(Jujiro Matsuda) (1920–1951)
# Tsuneji Matsuda (1952–1970)
# Kouhei Matsuda (1970–1977)
# Yoshiki Yamasaki (1977–1984)
# [Yamamoto](Kenichi)(Kenichi Yamamoto (engineer)) (1984–1987)
# Masanori Furuta (1987–1991)
# Yoshihiro Wada (1991–1996)
# Henry Wallace (1996–1997); appointed by [Motor Company](Ford)(Ford Motor Company), and the first non-Japanese CEO of a Japanese automaker
# James E. Miller (1997–1999)
# [Fields](Mark)(Mark Fields (businessman)) (1999–2002)
# [Booth](Lewis)(Lewis Booth) (2002–2003)
# Hisakazu Imaki (2003–2008)
# [Yamanouchi](Takashi)(Takashi Yamanouchi) (2008–2013)
# Masamichi Kogai (2013–2018)
# Akira Marumoto (2018–2023)
# Masahiro Moro (since June 2023)
## Markets
, the United States is Mazda's biggest market, followed by China and Japan. Mazda's market share in the U.S. fell to a 10-year low of 1.7 percent in 2016. Mazda's brand loyalty was 39 percent in 2016, below the industry average of 53 percent. On October 24, 2022, Mazda decided to get rid of assets in Russia, with the company transferring a stake in a joint venture in Vladivostok to [JSC](Sollers)(Sollers JSC) for 1 euro.
## Environmental efforts
Mazda has conducted research in hydrogen-powered vehicles for several decades.Mazda has developed a [hybrid](hybrid electric vehicle) version of its [Premacy](Mazda Premacy) compact minivan using a version of its signature rotary engine that can run on hydrogen or gasoline named the [Premacy Hydrogen RE Hybrid](Mazda)(Mazda Premacy Hydrogen RE Hybrid). Despite plans to release it in 2008, as of 2010 the vehicle is in limited trials.
In 2010, [Toyota](Toyota) and Mazda announced a supply agreement for the hybrid technology used in Toyota's [Prius](Toyota Prius) model.
### Bio-car
Mazda is finding a host of alternative uses for a variety of materials and substances, ranging from plastic to milk, in its vehicles, as it aims to become more environmentally-friendly. Mazda introduced some of these innovations (bioplastic internal consoles and bio-fabric seats) in its [Mazda5](Mazda5) model at [EcoInnovasia](EcoInnovasia) 2008, at the [Sirikit National Convention Center](Queen)(Queen Sirikit National Convention Center) in [Bangkok](Bangkok). Up to 30% of the interior parts in the Mazda5 are made of non-biomaterial components, e.g. Poti (gobar of cows).
### SkyActiv technology
[SkyActiv](SkyActiv) technology is an umbrella name for a range of technologies used in certain new Mazda vehicles. These vehicles include the [Mazda2/Demio](Mazda Demio), [Mazda3/Axela](Mazda3), [Mazda6/Atenza](Mazda6), and [CX-5](Mazda CX-5). Together these technologies increase fuel economy to a level similar to a hybrid drivetrain. Engine output is increased and emission levels are reduced. These technologies include high compression ratio gasoline engines (13.0 to 1), reduced compression diesel engines (14.0 to 1) with new 2-stage [turbocharger](turbocharger) design, highly efficient automatic transmissions, lighter weight manual transmissions, lightweight body designs and [power steering](electric)(Electric power steering#Electric systems). It is also possible to combine these technologies with a hybrid drivetrain for even greater fuel economy.
## Motorsport
In the racing world, Mazda has had substantial success with both its signature Wankel-engine cars (in two-rotor, three-rotor, and four-rotor forms) as well as its piston-engine models. Mazda vehicles and engines compete in a wide variety of disciplines and series around the world. In 1991, Mazda became the first Japanese automaker to win the [Hours of Le Mans](24)(24 Hours of Le Mans) overall.
### International competition
Mazda's competition debut was on October 20, 1968, when two [Cosmo Sport 110S](Mazda)(Mazda Cosmo#Racing) coupes entered the 84-hour [de la Route](Marathon)(Marathon de la Route) ultra-endurance race at the [Nürburgring](Nürburgring), one finishing in fourth place and the other breaking an axle after 81 hours."The Rotary Club", Don Sherman, *[Magazine](Automobile)(Automobile Magazine)*, February 2008, pp 76–79 The next year, Mazda raced [Familia R100 M10A](Mazda)(Mazda R100#Racing) coupes. After winning the [Grand Prix](Singapore)(Singapore Grand Prix) in April 1969 and coming in fifth and sixth in the [24 Hours](Spa)(Spa 24 Hours) (beaten only by [911](Porsche)(Porsche 911)s), on October 19, 1969, Mazda again entered the 84 hour Nürburgring race with four Familias. Only one of these finished, taking fifth place.
The first racing victory by a Wankel-engined car in the United States was in 1973, when [Bedard](Pat)(Pat Bedard) won an [RS](IMSA)(International Motor Sports Association#IMSA RS) race at [Rock Park](Lime)(Lime Rock Park) in a [RX-2](Mazda)(Mazda RX-2).
In 1976, Ray Walle, owner of Z&W Mazda, drove a Cosmo ([RX-5](Mazda)(Mazda RX-5)) from the dealership in Princeton, New Jersey, to Daytona, won the Touring Class Under 2.5 Liters at the [Hours of Daytona](24)(24 Hours of Daytona), and drove the car back to New Jersey. The Cosmo placed 18th overall in a field of 72. The only modifications were racing brake pads, exhaust, and safety equipment.
After substantial successes by the [RX-2](Mazda)(Mazda RX-2) and [RX-3](Mazda)(Mazda RX-3), the [RX-7](Mazda)(Mazda RX-7) has won more [IMSA](International Motor Sports Association) races in its class than any other model of automobile, with its hundredth victory on September 2, 1990. Following that, the RX-7 won its class in the IMSA [Hours of Daytona](24)(24 Hours of Daytona) race ten years in a row, starting in 1982. The RX-7 won the IMSA Grand Touring Under Two Liter (GTU) championship each year from 1980 through 1987, inclusive.
[[File:Mazda 787B Otaru Synthesis Museum.jpg|right|thumb|The [787B](Mazda)(Mazda 787B), winner of the 1991 [Hours of Le Mans](24)(24 Hours of Le Mans) race]]
In 1991, a four-rotor [787B](Mazda)(Mazda 787B) (2622 cc actual, rated by [FIA](Fédération Internationale de l'Automobile) formula at 4708 cc) won the [Hours of Le Mans](24)(24 Hours of Le Mans) auto race outright. The 787B's triumph remains unparalleled, as it remains the only non-piston-engined car ever to win at Le Mans, and Mazda is the first Japanese marque to have won overall at Le Mans (though [Nissan](Nissan) had closed down its [Sportscar Championship](World)(World Sportscar Championship) programme and [Toyota](Toyota) had opted to take a sabbatical for most of 1991 in order to develop its 3.5-litre [TS010](Toyota TS010)). This led to a ban on rotary engines in the Le Mans race starting in 1992, which has since been rescinded. After the 1991 race, the winning engine was publicly dismantled for internal examination, which demonstrated that despite 24 hours of extremely hard use it had accumulated very little wear.
The Le Mans win in 1991 followed a decade of class wins from other Mazda prototypes, including the [757](Mazda 757) and [767](Mazda 767). The Sigma MC74 powered by a Mazda 12A engine was the first engine and team from outside Western Europe or the United States to finish the entire 24 hours of the Le Mans race, in 1974. Mazda is also the most reliable finisher at Le Mans (with the exception of [Honda](Honda), which has entered only three cars in only one year), with 67% of entries finishing. Mazda returned to prototype racing in 2005 with the introduction of the [Courage](Courage Compétition) C65 LMP2 car at the [Le Mans Series](American)(American Le Mans Series) race at [Atlanta](Road)(Road Atlanta). This prototype racer uses the Renesis Wankel from the RX-8.
Mazdas have also enjoyed substantial success in [Land Speed](World)(land speed record) competition, [SCCA](SCCA) competition, [racing](drag)(drag racing), [rally](pro)(rally racing) competition (the [Familia](Mazda Familia) appeared in the [WRC](World Rally Championship) several times during the late '80s and early '90s), the [Lap of America](One)(One Lap of America) race (winning SUV & truck in a MazdaSpeed5), and other venues. Wankel engines have been banned for some time from international [One](Formula)(Formula One) racing, as well as from United States [racing](midget)(midget car), after [Angelillo](Gene)(Gene Angelillo) won the [East Midget Racing Association](North)(North East Midget Racing Association) championship in 1985 with a car powered by a 13B engine, and again in 1986 in a car powered by a 12A engine.
### Spec series
The [Tires Atlantic Championship powered by Mazda](Cooper)(Atlantic Championship) is a North American [wheel](open)(open wheel) racing series. It is the top level of the MAZDASPEED ladder, a driver development program which rewards season winners of one level with automatic rides at the next level. Since 2006, the Atlantic Championship has been run exclusively with [Swift](Swift Engineering) 016.a chassis powered by Mazda-[Cosworth](Cosworth) MZR 2300 cc (2.3L) [DOHC](DOHC) [inline-4](inline-4) engines producing . The cars are capable of speeds in excess of .
[Mazda](Formula)(Formula Mazda) features open wheel race cars with Mazda engines, adaptable to both oval tracks and road courses, on several levels of competition. Since 1991, the professionally organized [Mazda Championship](Pro)(Pro Mazda Championship) has been the most popular format for sponsors, spectators, and upward bound drivers. It is the second-highest level on the aforementioned Mazdaspeed driver development ladder. Engines for the Star Mazda series are all built by one engine builder, certified to produce the prescribed power, and sealed to discourage tampering. They are in a relatively mild state of racing tune, so that they are extremely reliable and can go years between motor rebuilds.
[Miata](Spec)(Spec Miata) has become one of the most popular and most affordable road racing classes in North America. The Spec Miata (SM) class is intended to provide the opportunity to compete in low-cost, production-based cars with limited modifications, suitable for racing competition. The rules are intentionally designed to be more open than the Showroom Stock class but more restricted than the Improved Touring class.
[RX-7](Spec)(Spec RX-7) is also a popular club racing class primarily due to the availability of first-generation RX7 cars and the low startup cost.
## Sponsorships
[[head office 2008.JPG|thumb|Mazda's headquarters in Fuchū, Hiroshima](File:Mazda)]
Mazda is a major sponsor to several professional sports teams, including:
*Hometown teams:
**[Hiroshima](Sanfrecce)(Sanfrecce Hiroshima) ([League](J.)(J. League)): Originally known as Toyo Kogyo Soccer Club and founded in 1938, it was owned directly by Mazda until 1992 when Mazda reduced its share to professionalize the club for the new J. League.
**[Toyo Carp](Hiroshima)(Hiroshima Toyo Carp) ([Professional Baseball](Nippon)(Nippon Professional Baseball)): The "Toyo" part of the team's name is in honor of Mazda's part-ownership of the team since 1968 (when Mazda was still known as Toyo Kogyo). The Matsuda family, descended from the founder of Mazda, holds the majority share in team ownership.
*Teams abroad:
**[Melbourne Football Club](North)(North Melbourne Football Club) ([Football League](Australian)(Australian Football League))
**[Roma](AS)(AS Roma) ([A](Serie)(Serie A))
**[Fiorentina](ACF)(ACF Fiorentina) ([A](Serie)(Serie A))
**[Sigma Olomouc](SK)(SK Sigma Olomouc) ([First League](Czech)(Czech First League))
**[Ratchasima](Nakhon)(Nakhon Ratchasima F.C.) ([League 1](Thai)(Thai League 1))
The company also sponsors various [marathon](marathon) and [race](relay)(relay race) events in Japan, such as the [International Peace Marathon](Hiroshima)(Hiroshima International Peace Marathon) and the [Prefectural Ekiden Race](Hiroshima)(Hiroshima Prefectural Ekiden Race), along with numerous other sporting and charity endeavors in [Hiroshima](Hiroshima) and [Hofu](Hofu).[MAZDA:Basic Idea on Community and Social Contributions | With Communities and Society](http://www.mazda.com/csr/social/07-01.html) Mazda was also the league sponsor for the now-defunct [Rugby Championship](Australian)(Australian Rugby Championship).
Mazda maintained sponsorship of the [Seca](Laguna)(Mazda Raceway Laguna Seca) racing course in California from 2001 until February 2018, going so far as to use it for its own automotive testing purposes as well as the numerous racing events (including several Mazda-specific series) that it used to host, as well as for the 2003 launch of the [RX-8](Mazda)(Mazda RX-8). Since April 2018, the venue's primary corporate sponsor is [WeatherTech](WeatherTech).
Mazda also sponsors the [New York Flash](Western)(Western New York Flash), a professional women's soccer team that plays in the [WPA](Women's Professional Soccer) and has some of the best players in the world, including world player of the year.[Vieira da Silva](Marta)(Marta Vieira da Silva)
Mazda has been a sponsor of [Deportivo Universidad Católica](Club)(Club Deportivo Universidad Católica (sports club)#Branches)'s basketball team of the [Nacional de Básquetbol de Chile](Liga)(Liga Nacional de Básquetbol de Chile).[Universidad Católica presento cinco refuerzos para la Liga Nacional de Básquetbol 2016-2017](https://eldeportero.cl/universidad-catolica-presento-cinco-refuerzos-para-la-liga-nacional-de-basquetbol-2016-2017/) El Deportero, 30 September 2016. Accessed 8 April 2020.
## Marketing
Mazda's past advertising slogans included: "The more you look, the more you like" (1970s to early 1980s); "Experience Mazda" (mid-1980s); "An intense commitment to your total satisfaction, that's The Mazda Way" (late 1980s); "It Just Feels Right" along with advertising describing Mazda's use of [engineering](Kansei)(Kansei engineering) (1990–1995); "Passion for the road" (1996); "Get in. Be moved." (1997–2000). Another marketing slogan was "Sakes Alive!", for its truck line.
Since 2000, Mazda has used the phrase "Zoom-Zoom" to describe what it calls the "emotion of motion" that it claims is inherent in its cars. Extremely successful and long-lasting (when compared to other automotive marketing taglines), the Zoom-Zoom campaign has now spread around the world from its initial use in North America.
The Zoom-Zoom campaign has been accompanied by the "[Zoom-Zoom-Zoom](Zoom-Zoom-Zoom)" song in many television and radio advertisements. The original version, performed by Jibril Serapis Bey (used in commercials in Europe, Japan and South Africa), was recorded long before it became the official song for Mazda as part of a soundtrack to the movie *[The Strong](Only)(Only the Strong (film))* (released in 1993). The Serapis Bey version is a cover of a traditional [song](Capoeira)(Capoeira music), called "Capoeira Mata Um". In 2010, its current slogan is "Zoom Zoom Forever". The longer slogan (Used in TV ads) is "Zoom Zoom, Today, Tomorrow, Forever".
Early ads in the Zoom-Zoom campaign also featured a young boy (Micah Kanters) whispering the "Zoom-Zoom" tagline.
Since 2011, Mazda has still used the Zoom-Zoom tagline in another campaign called "What Do You Drive?". The punchline for this is "At Mazda, we believe because if it's not worth driving, it's not worth building. We build Mazdas. What do you drive?".
In 2015, Mazda had launched a new campaign under a new tagline, "Driving Matters", coinciding with the release of the redesigned MX-5. This campaign was meant to solidify Mazda's "Zoom Zoom" slogan. A 60-second long advertisement titled "A Driver's Life", coincided with the new tagline on the following week.
## See also
* [of Mazda engines](List)(List of Mazda engines)
* [of Mazda facilities](List)(List of Mazda facilities)
* [of Mazda model codes](List)(List of Mazda model codes)
* [of Mazda vehicles](List)(List of Mazda vehicles)
## References
## External links
*
[ ](Category:Mazda)
[Group](Category:Toyota)(Category:Toyota Group)
[manufacturers of Japan](Category:Car)(Category:Car manufacturers of Japan)
[manufacturers of Japan](Category:Truck)(Category:Truck manufacturers of Japan)
[based in Hiroshima Prefecture](Category:Companies)(Category:Companies based in Hiroshima Prefecture)
[companies established in 1920](Category:Japanese)(Category:Japanese companies established in 1920)
[manufacturing companies established in 1920](Category:Vehicle)(Category:Vehicle manufacturing companies established in 1920)
[initial public offerings](Category:1940s)(Category:1940s initial public offerings)
[listed on the Tokyo Stock Exchange](Category:Companies)(Category:Companies listed on the Tokyo Stock Exchange)
[companies headquartered in Japan](Category:Multinational)(Category:Multinational companies headquartered in Japan)
[brands](Category:Japanese)(Category:Japanese brands)
[Group](Category:Sumitomo)(Category:Sumitomo Group)
[brands](Category:Car)(Category:Car brands)
[motor vehicle manufacturers](Category:Luxury)(Category:Luxury motor vehicle manufacturers)
[vehicle engine manufacturers](Category:Motor)(Category:Motor vehicle engine manufacturers)
[manufacturers of Japan](Category:Engine)(Category:Engine manufacturers of Japan)
|
Electron _software framework
|
electron__software_framework
|
# Electron (software framework)
*Revision ID: 1160339209 | Timestamp: 2023-06-15T21:27:48Z*
---
| latest release version = v24.3.1
| latest release date = 17 May 2023
| latest preview version = v25.0.0-beta.8
| latest preview date = 23 May 2023
| programming language = [C++](C++), [JavaScript](JavaScript), [Objective-C++](Objective-C++) and [Objective-C](Objective-C)
| operating system = [Linux](Linux), [macOS](macOS) and [Windows](Windows)
| platform = [IA-32](IA-32), [x86-64](x86-64), [ARM](ARM architecture)
| license = [License](MIT)(MIT License)
| website =
}}
**Electron** (formerly known as **Atom Shell**) is a [and open-source](free)(Free and open-source software) [framework](software)(software framework) developed and maintained by [Foundation](OpenJS)(OpenJS Foundation). The framework is designed to create desktop applications using [technologies](web)(Web development) (mainly [HTML](HTML), [CSS](CSS) and [JavaScript](JavaScript), although other technologies such as front-end frameworks and [Assembly](Web)(Web Assembly) are possible) that are rendered using a version of the [browser engine](Chromium)(Chromium (web browser)) and a back end using the [Node.js](Node.js) runtime environment. It also uses various [APIs](API) to enable functionality such as native integration with Node.js services and an [communication](inter-process)(inter-process communication) module.
Electron was originally built for [Atom](Atom (text editor)) and is the main GUI framework behind several open-source projects including [Atom](Atom (text editor)), [Desktop](GitHub)(GitHub Desktop), [Table](Light)(Light Table (software)), [Studio Code](Visual)(Visual Studio Code), [WordPress](WordPress) Desktop and [Theia](Eclipse)(Eclipse Theia).
## Architecture
Electron applications include a "main" process and several "renderer" processes. The main process runs the logic for the application (e. g. menus, shell commands, lifecycle events), and can then launch multiple renderer processes by instantiating an instance of the class, which loads a window that appears on the screen by rendering [HTML](HTML) and [CSS](CSS).
Both the main and renderer processes can run with [Node.js](Node.js) integration if the field in the main process is set to .
Most of Electron's APIs are written in [C++](C++) or [Objective-C](Objective-C) and are exposed directly to the application code through [JavaScript](JavaScript) bindings. Electron Blog|website=electronjs.org|date=19 March 2019|access-date=2019-04-26|archive-date=26 April 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190426032159/https://electronjs.org/blog/from-native-to-js|url-status=live}}
## History
In September 2021, Electron moved to an eight-week release cycle between major versions to match the release cycle of [Chromium](Chromium (web browser)) Extended Stable and to comply with a new requirement from the [Store](Microsoft)(Microsoft Store) that requires browser-based apps to be within two major versions of the latest release of the browser engine.
Electron frequently releases new major versions along every other [Chromium](Chromium (web browser)) release. Electron |url=https://electronjs.org/docs/latest/tutorial/electron-timelines |access-date=2022-12-16 |website=electronjs.org |language=en |archive-date=16 December 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221216134548/https://www.electronjs.org/docs/latest/tutorial/electron-timelines |url-status=live }} The latest three stable version are supported by the Electron team.
## Reception
Desktop applications built with Electron include [Atom](Atom (text editor)), [balenaEtcher](Etcher (software)), [Theia](Eclipse)(Eclipse Theia), [Teams](Microsoft)(Microsoft Teams), [Slack](Slack (software)) and [Studio Code](Visual)(Visual Studio Code). [Browser](Brave)(Brave Browser) was based on Electron before it was rewritten to use Chromium directly.
The most common criticism of Electron is that it necessitates [bloat](software)(software bloat) when used for simple programs. As a result, [Larabel](Michael)(Michael Larabel) has referred to the framework as "notorious among most Linux desktop users for being resource heavy, not integrating well with most desktops, and generally being despised." Meanwhile, Joey Sneddon states that this tradeoff is sensible as Electron greatly lowers the cost of developing and maintaining cross-platform software.
Researchers have shown that Electron's large feature set can be hijacked by bad actors with write access to the source JavaScript files. This requires root access on *nix systems and isn't considered to be a vulnerability by the Electron developers. Those who are concerned that Electron is not always based on the newest version of Chromium have recommended [web application](progressive)(progressive web application)s as an alternative.
## See also
* [Cordova](Apache)(Apache Cordova)
* [Embedded Framework](Chromium)(Chromium Embedded Framework) (CEF)
* [Application](HTML)(HTML Application)
* [WebEngine](Qt)(Qt WebEngine)
* [XULRunner](XULRunner)
* [WebView](JavaFX)(JavaFX#WebView)
* [DotNetBrowser](DotNetBrowser)
* [web app](Progressive)(Progressive web app)
* [Node.js](Node.js)
## References
## External links
*
[software](Category:2013)(Category:2013 software)
[desktop-apps development](Category:Cross-platform)(Category:Cross-platform desktop-apps development)
[software](Category:Cross-platform)(Category:Cross-platform software)
[and open-source software](Category:Free)(Category:Free and open-source software)
[Category:GitHub](Category:GitHub)
[Chrome](Category:Google)(Category:Google Chrome)
[free software](Category:Microsoft)(Category:Microsoft free software)
[using the MIT license](Category:Software)(Category:Software using the MIT license)
|
Sukhoi Su-35
|
sukhoi_su-35
|
# Sukhoi Su-35
*Revision ID: 1160228739 | Timestamp: 2023-06-15T05:42:50Z*
---
The **Sukhoi Su-35** (-35; [reporting name](NATO)(NATO reporting name): **Flanker-E**) is the designation for two improved derivatives of the [Su-27](Sukhoi Su-27) air-defence fighter. They are single-seat, [twin-engine](twinjet), [supermaneuverable](Supermaneuverability) aircraft, designed by the [Design Bureau](Sukhoi)(Sukhoi Design Bureau) and built by [Sukhoi](Sukhoi).
The type was originally developed by the [Union](Soviet)(Soviet Union) from the Su-27 and was known as the **Su-27M**. It incorporated [canards](Canard (aeronautics)) and a multi-function radar giving it multi-role capabilities. The first prototype made its [flight](maiden)(maiden flight) in June 1988. Following the [of the Soviet Union](dissolution)(dissolution of the Soviet Union) Sukhoi re-designated it as the Su-35 to attract export orders. Fourteen aircraft were produced and used for tests and demonstrations; one example had [thrust-vectoring](Thrust vectoring) engines and was in turn redesignated the [Su-37](Sukhoi Su-37). A sole Su-35UB two-seat trainer was also built in the late 1990s that resembled the Su-30MK family.
In 2003, Sukhoi embarked on a second modernization of the Su-27 to serve as an interim aircraft awaiting the development of the [PAK FA](Sukhoi)(Sukhoi PAK FA) (Su-57) program. Also known as the Su-35, this version has a redesigned cockpit and weapons-control system and features thrust-vectoring engines in place of the canards. The type made its first flight in February 2008. Although it was designed for export, the [Air Force](Russian)(Russian Air Force) became the launch customer in 2009, with the production version designated Su-35S. China's [Liberation Army Air Force](People's)(People's Liberation Army Air Force) has also placed orders.
## Design and development
### Upgraded Su-27
The first aircraft design to receive the Su-35 designation had its origins in the early 1980s, at a time when the Su-27 was being introduced into service with the [Armed Forces](Soviet)(Soviet Armed Forces). The definitive production version of the Su-27, which had the factory code of T-10S, started mass ("serial") production with the [Aircraft Production Association](Komsomolsk-on-Amur)(Komsomolsk-on-Amur Aircraft Production Association) (KnAAPO) in 1983. The following year, this Su-27 version reached initial operational readiness with the [Air Defence Forces](Soviet)(Soviet Air Defence Forces). Having begun work on an upgraded Su-27 variant in 1982,Gordon 2007, p. 69. the Sukhoi Design Bureau was instructed in December 1983 by the [Council of Ministers](Soviet)(Soviet Council of Ministers) to use the Su-27 as the basis for the development of the Su-27M (T-10M).Andrews 2003, p. 39. Nikolay Nikitin would lead the design effort throughout much of the project's existence, under the oversight of [Director](General)(General Director) [Simonov](Mikhail)(Mikhail Simonov), who had been the chief designer of the Su-27Gordon 2007, pp. 58, 122. along with [Pogosyan](Mikhail)(Mikhail Pogosyan).
[[Su-35 (Su-27M).png|thumb|upright|left|Planform view of the Su-27M](File:Sukhoi)]
While sharing broadly the [wing-body](blended)(blended wing body) design of the Su-27, the Su-27M is visibly distinguished from the basic version by the addition of [canards](canard (aeronautics)), which are small lifting surfaces, ahead of the wings. First tested in 1985 using an experimental aircraft, the canards, in complement with the reshaped wing [extension](leading-edge)(leading-edge extension), redirected the airflow in such a way so as to eliminate [buffeting](buffeting) at high [of attack](angles)(angle of attack) and allowed the airframe to sustain 10-*g* manoeuvres (as opposed to 9 *g* on the Su-27) without additional structural reinforcement.Fink 1993, p. 45. More importantly, when working with the [relaxed-stability](Relaxed stability) design and the accompanying [fly-by-wire](fly-by-wire) [system](flight-control)(Aircraft flight control system), the aerodynamic layout improved the aircraft's manoeuvrability and enabled it to briefly fly with its nose past the vertical while maintaining forward momentum. Because of this, theoretically, during combat the pilot could pitch the Su-27M up 120 degrees in under two seconds and fire missiles at the target.Gordon 2007, pp. 122–123. Other notable visible changes compared to the T-10S design included taller [tails](vertical)(Vertical stabilizer), provisions for [refuelling](in-flight)(Aerial refueling) and the use of two-wheel nose undercarriage to support the heavier airframe.Williams 2002, p. 119.Gordon 2007, pp. 123, 127.
Besides the increase in manoeuvrability, another feature that distinguished the Su-27M from the original design was the new [system](weapons-control)(Fire-control system). The centrepiece of this system was the multi-function [Bars](N011)(Bars radar) (literally "Leopard") [phased-array](phased array) radar with [pulse-Doppler](pulse-Doppler radar) tracking that allowed it to [targets below the horizon](detect)(Look-down/shoot-down). First installed on the third prototype, the radar transformed the Su-27M from simply being an air-defence fighter into a multi-role aircraft capable of attacking ground targets.Gordon 2007, p. 124. Compared to the [Myech](N001)(Mech radar) ("Sword") radar of the Su-27, which could track 10 targets and only direct two missiles towards one target at a time, the new radar could track fifteen targets and direct missiles towards six of them simultaneously. The extra weight of the N011 radar at the front of the aircraft necessitated the addition of the canards; engineers would only later discover the aerodynamic advantages of these devices.Butowski 2004, p. 38.Gordon 2007, p. 69. In addition, an [N012](Phazotron N-012) self-defence radar was housed in the rearward-projecting tail boom, making the aircraft the first in the world to have such a radar. Other changes to the aircraft included the use of uprated turbofan engines, as well as the increased use of lightweight [composites](Composite material) and [alloy](aluminium-lithium)(aluminium-lithium alloy)s in the aircraft's structure.Gordon 2007, p. 123.
### Testing and demonstration
In 1987, Sukhoi started converting the first prototype (designated ) from a T-10S airframe at its experimental plant in Moscow. Although it had canards, the first prototype, like several subsequent aircraft, lacked the many physical alterations of the new design.Gordon 2007, pp. 126–127. It made its first flight after conversion on 28 June 1988, piloted by Oleg Tsoi, followed by the second prototype in January 1989.Gordon 2007, p. 128. Following the conversions of the two Su-27M prototypes, the actual production of the aircraft was transferred to the [Far East](country's)(Russian Far East) where it was carried out by KnAAPO. The third aircraft (), which was the first new-built Su-27M and first to be constructed by KnAAPO, made its first flight in April 1992. By then, the Soviet Union [disintegrated](had)(Dissolution of the Soviet Union), and the ensuing economic crisis in Russia throughout the 1990s meant that the original plan to mass-produce the aircraft between 1996 and 2005 was abandoned, with the aircraft to serve as experimental test-beds to validate the canards, the flight-control system and thrust-vectoring technology. In total, two prototypes, nine flying pre-production and three production aircraft were constructed by 1995; the production aircraft were delivered in 1996 to the [Air Force](Russian)(Russian Air Force) for weapons testing.
[[(12509727094).jpg|thumb|left|The ninth Su-27M in-flight](File:Su-35)]
By the time of the disintegration of the Soviet Union, Sukhoi had been demonstrating the Su-27M to senior defence and government officials. With its debut to a Western audience at the 1992 [Airshow](Farnborough)(Farnborough Airshow), the company redesignated the aircraft as Su-35.Gordon 2007, pp. 129–131. The aircraft subsequently made flying demonstrations overseas in an effort to attract export orders, starting in November 1993 with [Dubai](Dubai Airshow), where [Pugachev](Viktor)(Viktor Pugachev) flew it in a mock aerial engagement with an Su-30MK in front of spectators.Fink 1993, p. 44.Gordon 2007, pp. 134–135. The aircraft thereafter flew in [Berlin](ILA Berlin Air Show) and [Paris](Paris Air Show), and would be a regular feature at Moscow's [Air Show](MAKS)(MAKS Air Show). The Russian government cleared the aircraft for export during Sukhoi's unsuccessful sales campaign in South Korea during the late 1990s and early 2000s;*Flight International* 2001, p. 20. the company also marketed the aircraft to Brazil, China and the United Arab Emirates.
As the flight-test programme of the Su-27M proceeded, engineers discovered that the pilot failed to maintain active control of the aircraft during certain manoeuvres, such as the [Cobra](Pugachev's)(Pugachev's Cobra). The eleventh Su-27M () was therefore equipped with [thrust-vectoring](thrust-vectoring) engine nozzles in 1995, and the resultant [Su-37](Sukhoi Su-37) [demonstrator](technology)(Technology demonstration) made its first flight on 2 April 1996.Gordon 2007, pp. 142, 144.Velovich 1996, p. 16. It also tested the enhanced N011M radar, as did the twelfth developmental Su-27M.Andrews 2003, pp. 58. The Su-37's ability to maintain a high angle of attack while flying at close to zero [airspeed](airspeed) attracted considerable press attention.Novichkov 1996, p. 52. It later received different engines and updated fly-by-wire controls and cockpit systems for evaluation.
Apart from the single-seat design, a two-seat aircraft was also constructed. Working in cooperation with Sukhoi, KnAAPO's own engineers designed the Su-35UB so as to combine thrust-vectoring engines with features of the Su-27M. Modified from an [Su-30MKK](Su-30MKK) airframe, the aircraft made its first flight on 7 August 2000, and afterwards served as an avionics test-bed.Gordon 2007, pp. 172–173. While the original Su-27M never entered mass production due to a lack of funding,Barrie 1997, p. 8. Sukhoi refined the Su-27M's use of canards and the Su-37's thrust-vectoring technology and later applied them to the [Su-30MKI](Su-30MKI) two-seat fighter for the [Air Force](Indian)(Indian Air Force).Andrews 2003, p. 47. The tenth Su-27M (T10M-10) also served as a test-bed for the Saturn AL-41FS engine that is intended for the [Su-57](Sukhoi)(Sukhoi Su-57) (previously known under the acronym "PAK FA") jet fighter.Gordon 2007, p. 173.
### Modernization
[[Su-35S 07 RED PAS 2013 07.jpg|thumb|Thrust vectoring nozzle on a Sukhoi Su-35S](File:Sukhoi)]
With the need to update Russia's aging fleet of Su-27 aircraft, Sukhoi and KnAAPO in 2002 started integrating [cockpit](glass)(glass cockpit)s and improved weapons-control systems (to accommodate a greater variety of weapons) to existing air force aircraft. The Su-27SM, as the modified aircraft is called, made its first flight in December 2002.Fiszer 2004, pp. 52–53. The initial success of this project led Sukhoi in December 2003 to proceed with a follow-up modernization programme. Known internally as T-10BM, the programme was aimed at a more thorough redesign of the airframe to narrow the qualitative gap between Russian aircraft and foreign [aircraft](fourth-generation)(fourth-generation jet fighter). The resultant design, also designated Su-35, would serve as an interim solution pending the introduction of the Su-57 [fighter](fifth-generation)(fifth-generation jet fighter),Fiszer 2004, p. 53.Butowski 2007, pp. 34–35. many features of which the aircraft would incorporate. Additionally, the aircraft was to be a single-seat alternative to the two-seat [Su-30MK](Sukhoi Su-30) on the export market.
In many respects, the T-10BM design outwardly resembles the Su-27 more than the Su-27M. During tests of the thrust-vectoring engines and the Su-27M's aerodynamic layout, Sukhoi had concluded that the loss of manoeuvrability due to the removal of the canards – the design of which imposed a weight penalty on the airframe – could be compensated for by the addition of thrust-vectoring nozzles. Industry progress in the fields of avionics and radars have also reduced the weight and size of such components, which shifted the [of gravity](centre)(centre of gravity) of an aircraft rearward.Butowski 2004, p. 39. Therefore, designers removed the canards (and the dorsal [brake](air)(Air brake (aircraft))) found on the Su-27M; the size of the vertical tails, aft-cockpit hump and tail boom were also reduced. With such changes, as well as the increased use of aluminium and [alloy](titanium)(titanium alloy)s and composites, designers had reduced the empty weight of the aircraft,Kopp 2010, p. 9. while maintaining a similar [take-off weight](maximum)(maximum take-off weight) to the Su-27M.
[[File:MAKS Airshow 2013 (Ramenskoye Airport, Russia) (523-02).jpg|thumb|left|Su-35S cockpit layout: a [display](head-up)(head-up display), two multi-function liquid crystal displays, and a control stick with [HOTAS](HOTAS) controls]]
While the Su-27M design had the avionics to give the aircraft the nominal designation as a multi-role fighter, flight tests with the Russian Air Force revealed difficulties in efficiently deploying the aircraft's armament. According to *[Week & Space Technology](Aviation)(Aviation Week & Space Technology)*, air force pilots described weapons trials with the aircraft in [Akhtubinsk](Akhtubinsk (air base)) and [Lipetsk](Lipetsk (air base)) as a "negative experience", with a particular emphasis on the layout of the cockpit and its adverse impact on the workload of the single pilot. Designers, test pilots and avionics software specialists therefore worked together to redesign the cockpit and its attendant systems and improve the [interface](human-machine)(User interface). The information management system of aircraft's avionics suite had been changed so that it now has two digital computers which process information from the flight- and weapons-control systems. The information is then displayed on two multi-function liquid crystal displays, which replaced the smaller multi-function [tube](cathode-ray)(cathode-ray tube) displays found on the Su-27M. The pilot can also view critical flight information on the [display](head-up)(head-up display), and is equipped with [On Throttle-And-Stick](Hands)(HOTAS) (HOTAS) controls.
The Su-35 employs the [Irbis-E](N035)(Irbis-E) ("Snow Leopard") [electronically scanned array](passive)(passive electronically scanned array) (PESA) radar, which is a further development of the N011M radar that had been evaluated on Su-27M test-beds and constitutes the core of the Su-35's weapons-control system. It is capable of detecting an aerial target up to away, and can track thirty airborne targets and engage eight of them simultaneously; in addition, the multi-function radar is capable of providing high-resolution images of the ground using [aperture mode](synthetic)(Synthetic aperture radar).Gordon 2007, p. 175. The aircraft is equipped with an OLS-35 optoelectronic targeting system ahead of the cockpit to provide other forms of tracking including [search and track](infra-red)(infra-red search and track). For defences against enemy tracking, the Su-35 is equipped with the [Khibiny-M](L175M)(Khibiny (electronic countermeasures system)) [countermeasure](electronic)(electronic countermeasure) system, while engineers have applied [material](radar-absorbent)(radar-absorbent material)s to the engine inlets and front stages of the [compressor](engine)(Jet engine compressors) to halve the Su-35's frontal [cross-section](radar)(radar cross-section) and minimise the detection range of enemy radars.Sweetman 2004, p. 26. The multi-role Su-35 can deploy air-to-air missiles of up to range, and can carry the heavy [Oniks](P-800 Oniks) [anti-ship](anti-ship missile) [missile](cruise)(cruise missile), as well as the multitude of [weaponry](air-to-ground)(air-to-ground weaponry).Butowski 2007, p. 36.Gordon 2007, pp. 175–176.
The Su-35 is powered by a pair of [AL-41F1S](Saturn)(Saturn AL-31#117S) turbofan engines, formerly known as *izdeliye* (Product) 117S. A highly upgraded variant of the AL-31F, the AL-41F1S is related to the Su-57's [AL-41F1](Saturn)(Saturn AL-31#117) (*izdeliye* 117), differing primarily in the engine control system.Butowski 2004, pp. 39–40.Butowski *Air International* October 2019, p. 37. The engines are equipped with thrust-vectoring nozzles, which have their rotational axes canted at an angle; the nozzles operate in one plane for pitch, but the canting allows the aircraft to produce both [and yaw](roll)(Flight dynamics) by vectoring each engine nozzle differently; this configuration was first implemented on the [Su-30MKI](Sukhoi Su-30MKI) and is also used on the [Su-57](Sukhoi Su-57).Sweetman 2013, p. 44. The Su-35's thrust-vectoring system and integrated flight- and propulsion-control systems allow the aircraft to attain "[supermaneuverability](supermaneuverability)", enabling it to perform [post-stall](Post stall) manoeuvres at low speeds. This differs from Western air combat doctrine, which emphasises the maintenance of a fighter aircraft's [energy](kinetic)(kinetic energy).
The engine gives the Su-35 the limited ability to sustain [speed](supersonic)(supersonic speed) without the use of [afterburner](afterburner)s. According to Carlo Kopp of the [tank](think)(think tank) [Power Australia](Air)(Air Power Australia), such a "[supercruise](supercruise)" feature allows the Su-35 to engage an opponent at a greater speed and altitude and increases the range of its [missiles](long-range)(Beyond-visual-range missile) by 30–40 percent. He cites the aircraft's mature airframe and carefully balanced combination of advanced technology as allowing the Su-35 to achieve a favourable exchange rate against the [F-35](F-35) [fighter](stealth)(stealth fighter).Kopp 2010, p. 10. The [Department of Defense](US)(US Department of Defense) and [Martin](Lockheed)(Lockheed Martin) had refuted criticisms of the F-35, saying that it is 400 percent more effective in air-to-air combat than any aircraft other than the F-22.
### Testing and production
[[Su-35S (28333541172).jpg|thumb|A Russian Aerospace Forces Su-35S during a standard takeoff procedure.](File:Sukhoi)]
Following the completion of design work, KnAAPO constructed the first prototype, which was finished in mid-2007. The prototype, Su-35-1, was then transferred to the [Flight Research Institute](Gromov)(Gromov Flight Research Institute) at [Airfield](Zhukovsky)(Zhukovsky International Airport), in preparation for its maiden flight.Fomin 2008, p. 28. On 19 February 2008, Sergey Bogdan took the aircraft aloft for its 55-minute first flight from Zhukovsky. Bogdan later piloted the second prototype on its maiden flight on 2 October from KnAAPO's [Airport](Dzyomgi)(Dzyomgi Airport). The flight-test programme was expected to involve three flying prototypes, but on 26 April 2009, a day before its scheduled maiden flight, the fourth Su-35 (there's a static test aircraft) crashed during a taxi run at Dzyomgi Airport. The aircraft struck a barrier at the end of the runway and was destroyed by fire; the pilot ejected and sustained burn injuries. The cause of the accident was the failure of the engine management system, as a result of which the afterburner was not turned off.[Истребитель Су-35 разбился в Комсомольске-на-Амуре](http://www.aviaport.ru/digest/2009/04/27/171683.html) // aviaport.ru, 2009[Заявление пресс-службы компании «Сухой» в связи с аварией третьего лётного образца истребителя Су-35](http://www.aviaport.ru/digest/2009/04/27/171760.html) // aviaport.ru, 2009
The Su-35 project was aimed primarily at the export market.Butowski 2004, p. 40. During the early stages of the flight-test programme, Sukhoi estimated that there was such a market for 160 aircraft, with a particular emphasis on Latin America, Southeast Asia and the Middle East. Some of the candidate countries, such as Algeria, Malaysia, and India, were already operators of the Su-30MK family. As the aircraft was to be available for export starting in 2010,Gordon 2007, p. 111. the actual launch order for 48 Su-35S aircraft was placed by the [Defence Ministry](Russian)(Ministry of Defence (Russia)) at the 2009 MAKS Air Show (as part of a larger deal worth US$2.5 billion for 64 fighter aircraft). During the type's international debut at the 2013 Paris Air Show, Mikhail Pogosyan, General Director of Sukhoi's parent company [Aircraft Corporation](United)(United Aircraft Corporation), stated that there was an estimated demand for 200 aircraft, split evenly between the domestic and export markets.Su-35 Begins Global Journey. *Flight Daily News*. Sutton, UK. Reed Business Information. 20 June 2013. pp. 16–17. The head of Sukhoi's parent company, United Aircraft, is forecasting 200 sales of the type, split 50:50 between domestic and export. It was not until the end of 2015 when the first export contract was signed with China; by then, the Russian government had placed a follow-up order for 50 aircraft.
Apart from the launch order at the 2009 MAKS Air Show, the Russian government and the state-owned [VEB](Vnesheconombank) [bank](development)(National development bank) agreed to provide Sukhoi with capital for the aircraft's production. In November 2009, KnAAPO (which was renamed KnAAZ in 2013 after it became part of the Sukhoi Company) started manufacturing the first production aircraft, the general assembly of which was completed in October 2010; by then, pilots and engineers had successfully completed preliminary tests of the aircraft's systems. The first Su-35S took its maiden flight in May 2011, and would be delivered (along with other aircraft) to Akhtubinsk to start state joint tests with the Defence Ministry to prepare the aircraft for service. Because production of the Su-35S occurred alongside trials, some early-production aircraft were later modified as a result of such tests.Fomin 2014, p. 37. In December 2018, United Aircraft Corporation has reported 100th serial Su-35S was produced at the Komsomolsk-on-Amur Aircraft Plant.
## Operational history
### Russia
In 1996, three production Su-27Ms were delivered to the air force's [State Flight Test Centre named for V. P. Chkalov](929th)(929th State Flight Test Centre named for V. P. Chkalov) (GLITs) at , [Akhtubinsk](Akhtubinsk (air base)), to perform weapons trials.Gordon 2007, p. 366. In 2001, the air force decided to transfer several Su-27Ms to re-equip the [Knights](Russian)(Russian Knights) [aerobatics](aerobatics) [team](List of aerobatic teams), and so the team's pilots took familiarisation flights with the aircraft.Gordon 2007, pp. 365–366. The three production and two other pre-production Su-27Ms arrived at the team's [air base](Kubinka)(Kubinka (air base)) near Moscow in 2003. However, they were used as a source of spare parts for other aircraft in the demonstration fleet.Gordon 2007, pp. 137, 141.
[[Air Force Sukhoi Su-35 Belyakov.jpg|thumb|left|A Russian Air Force Sukhoi Su-35 performing at MAKS 2009 air show in Moscow](File:Russian)]
Initially, one static and three flyable prototypes (bort no. 901, 902, 904) were built between 2007 and 2009. The third one (bort no. 904) was later destroyed when it crashed into a barrier during its taxi runs.
The first contract for 48 production aircraft was signed at the 2009 [Air show](MAKS)(MAKS (air show)) in Moscow. In May 2011, Sukhoi delivered the first Su-35S to Akhtubinsk to conduct state joint tests with the Defence Ministry to prepare for operational service.Fomin 2012, p. 16. The first of two stages of the trials commenced in August 2011. By March 2012, the two prototypes and four production aircraft were conducting flights to test the type's technical characteristics, which were assessed by the end of that year to have generally complied with requirements. A batch of six production aircraft was handed over in December 2012. In February 2013, five of these at the [Flight Research Institute](Gromov)(Gromov Flight Research Institute) in Zhukovsky started the second stage of the trials, focusing on the Su-35's weapons and combat maneuverability.
Twelve production Su-35Ss were delivered in December 2013, followed by another twelve production aircraft in February 2014, ten of which were handed over to the 23rd Fighter Aviation Regiment stationed in the Far East with the remaining two tasked with carrying out the final phase of state joint tests. The handover marked its official entry into operational service. Several Su-35Ss were later transferred to Lipetsk to further develop combat tactics and to train service personnel.Fomin 2014, p. 36. The Russia's Su-35Ss are also permanently based at [air base](Besovets)(Petrozavodsk Airport) near the Finnish border, Su-35 Were Added to Karelian Air Regiment|publisher=Government of the Republic of Karelia|access-date=6 September 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170906153647/http://www.gov.karelia.ru/News/2016/12/1206_15_e.html|archive-date=6 September 2017}} and at [Uglovaya air base](Centralnaya)(Uglovoye (airfield)) near Vladivostok.
[[Su-35S bn15 2019-1.jpg|thumb|Sukhoi Su-35S taxiing with drogue parachute after landing during Aviadarts contest, 2019](File:Sukhoi)]
The introduction of the Su-35S into the service with the Russian Aerospace Forces is a part of the Russia's state armament programme for 2011–2020 that was formulated following the [with Georgia in 2008](war)(Russo-Georgian War) with an aim to significantly increase the number of modern military equipment in the Russian Armed Forces. The aircraft is delivered alongside the [Su-30M2](Sukhoi Su-30#Variants) and [Su-30SM](Sukhoi Su-30#Variants) and the heavier [Su-34](Sukhoi Su-34) [aircraft](strike)(strike aircraft).Pyadushkin 2010, p. 28. The first two are domestic variants of KnAAPO's Su-30MK2 and [Irkut](Irkut (company))'s Su-30MKI two-seat export aircraft. According to reports, the simultaneous acquisition of three fighter derivatives of the original Su-27 was to support the two aircraft manufacturers amidst a slump in export orders. The Su-30M2 serves as a trainer aircraft for the Su-35.
The Su-35S attained [operational capability](full)(full operational capability) (FOC) in late 2018.
In July 2020, the [Knights](Russian)(Russian Knights) aerobatic team received eight new Su-35Ss as an addition to its previously acquired Su-30SM aircraft.
The 185th Combat Training and Combat Application Center, also known as an [squadron](aggressor)(aggressor squadron) of the Russian Aerospace Forces, has received three new Su-35S on 9 September 2022.
#### 2015 Russian military intervention in Syria
[[multipurpose fighter.webm|thumb|A Russian Defence Ministry video of the Su-35S](File:Su-35S)]
In January 2016, Russia made the first combat deployment of the Su-35S when it sent four aircraft to Syria. This occurred following the increased tensions between Russia and Turkey as result of reported incursions by Russian aircraft into the Turkish airspace and the shooting down of a Russian [Su-24](Sukhoi Su-24) bomber by a Turkish [F-16](General Dynamics F-16 Fighting Falcon) fighter in November 2015.Butowski *Air International* October 2019, p. 39. The Su-35Ss deployed to Syria are to provide air cover for Su-30SMs flying [air patrol](combat)(combat air patrol)s as well as for other Russian aircraft when on bombing missions. Its combat deployment to Syria helped to find and subsequently resolve number of problems, for example with the aircraft avionics. Su-35s in Syria have been seen carrying unguided bombs, with Russian sources claiming that the Su-35 has carried out strikes against ground targets using guided weapons.
On 20 August 2019, two Russian Aerospace Forces Su-35Ss, operating from the Khmeimim Air Base, intercepted two [Air Force](Turkish)(Turkish Air Force) F-16s over the southern [Idlib](Idlib Governorate) and forced them to leave the Syrian airspace. Russian Su-35Ss again intercepted several Israeli aircraft over southern Syria on 10 September 2019 and prevented them from carrying out airstrikes. Another interception allegedly occurred on 19 September 2019, when two Russian Su-35Ss intercepted Israeli aircraft preparing to attack suburbs of [Damascus](Damascus). On 15 October 2019, a [F-16](Turkish)(General Dynamics F-16 Fighting Falcon) fighter was intercepted by Russian Su-35Ss and forced to retreat as it was attempting to bomb the [Democratic Forces](Syrian)(Syrian Democratic Forces)'s headquarters in [Manbij](Manbij). On 12 November 2019, Russian Su-35Ss intercepted an Israeli fighter during airstrikes on Damascus. On 7 December 2019, several Israeli aircraft were intercepted by Russian Su-35Ss and forced to retreat during an attempt to bomb the [Airbase](T-4)(Tiyas Military Airbase).
#### 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine
Russian Su-30SM and Su-35S fighters were used for air superiority missions during the war. At least 7 air-to-air victories were reported over Ukrainian jet aircraft and one over a Ukrainian Naval Aviation Mil Mi-14.
On 3 April 2022, a Russian Su-35S was shot down by [forces](Ukrainian)(Armed Forces of Ukraine), with the pilot ejecting and being captured; the pilot stated that his Su-35S was shot down near Izyum while battling Ukrainian air defenses. On 9 May, the Ukraine Defence Ministry confirmed that Colonel Ihor Bedzay, the deputy head of the Ukrainian Navy Aviation Office, was killed in action. His Mi-14PS was shot down by a Russian Su-35.
On 19 July, the Ukrainian Air Force command claimed that a Su-35 was shot down by Ukrainian air defences near [Kakhovka](Kakhovka), but at the time there were no photos confirming the loss. In early February 2023, photos of the crash site emerged, confirming the crashed plane was an Su-35S.
### China
During the early 1990s, sales arrangements for the Su-27M was discussed with China. In 1995, Sukhoi officials announced a co-production proposal contingent on Beijing's agreement to purchase 120 aircraft.Gill and Kim 1995, p. 60. However, the Russian Foreign Ministry allegedly blocked the sale of the [Su-27](Su-27)M and [Tu-22M](Tupolev)(Tupolev Tu-22M) bomber over concerns about the arrangements for Chinese production of the [derivatives](Su-27)(Shenyang J-11).Zhao 2004, p. 216.
In November 2015, China became the Su-35's first export customer when the Russian and Chinese governments signed a contract worth $2 billion to buy 24 aircraft for the [Liberation Army Air Force](People's)(People's Liberation Army Air Force). This deal drew international commentaries due to its significance. David Ochmanek of [Corporation](RAND)(RAND Corporation) called the deal "serves both countries", as Russia relied on foreign sales to maintain its military production capacity, while China sought to enhance its military capabilities through the advanced weapon platforms such as the Su-35. However, the low number of purchases also signified that the deal was symbolic in nature, as the two countries are still competing over influence in Central Asia, according to Moritz Rudolf of [Institute for China Studies](Mercator)(Mercator Institute for China Studies). Ben Moores of [IHS](IHS Markit) believed the Su-35 deal would be the last major order from China, as the Sino-Russian military cooperation saw "very little action or real substance. China doesn't need Russia as much as Russia needs China."
Chinese officials had reportedly first shown interest in the Su-35 in 2006, it was not until Zhuhai Airshow 2010 that Alexander Mikheyev of the [Rosoboronexport](Rosoboronexport), the Russian state agency responsible for the export and import of defence products, signified that Russia was ready to start talks with China over the Su-35. Russian officials publicly confirmed that talks had been going on in 2012, when a protocol agreement on the purchase was signed. There were subsequent reports of the two countries signing a contract and of imminent deliveries, but negotiations would not actually conclude until 2015.
Sales discussions were protracted due to intellectual property rights concerns. China had [engineered](reverse)(Reverse engineering) the Su-27SK and [Su-33](Su-33) to create the J-11B and [J-15](Shenyang J-15), respectively, there were fears of China copying the airframe and offer the copied design on the export market. At one stage, Rosoboronexport demanded that China issue a legally binding guarantee against copying. Chinese industry was reportedly interested in the [AL-41FS1](AL-41F1) engine and [Irbis-E](Irbis-E) radar.Pyadushkin 2014, p. 19. According to *[Diplomat](The)(The Diplomat)*, China held a specific interest in the Su-35's engine, and was already test-flying the [J-11D](J-11D), which reportedly has less range, payload, and maneuverability than the Su-35 but has an [electronically scanned array](active)(active electronically scanned array) radar instead of the less advanced PESA radar of the Su-35. Rosoboronexport insisted on China purchasing a minimum of 48 aircraft to offset risks of copying; after the Kremlin intervened in 2012, the minimum quantity was lowered to 24. Another problem was China's insistence that the Su-35 include Chinese-made components and avionics. The Kremlin again intervened and conceded to this demand, allowed the deal to proceed; it was viewed as a major concession since the sales of such components are reportedly lucrative. The contract did not include any [transfer](technology)(technology transfer).
The Chinese military received the first four aircraft in December 2016. Followed by the first delivery, the [Liberation Army](People's)(People's Liberation Army)'s website opined that with the [J-20's](Chengdu J-20) commissioning, Russia understood that the Su-35 would "lose its value on the Chinese market in the near future...we hope very much that Su-35 will be the last (combat) aircraft China imports." China has received a second batch of ten aircraft in 2017, and another ten in 2018. China: 24 The Su-35S entered service with PLAAF in April 2018, and are based in Guangdong province in southeast China. In June 2019, Russia offered China a second batch of Su-35s. According to *Asia Times*, Chinese source remarked further purchase of Su-35 is not feasible as Russian jet offers little value over the Chinese [J-16](Shenyang J-16), due to the latter having superior radar, avionics and other equipment.
On 20 September 2018, the U.S. imposed sanctions on China's [Development Department](Equipment)(Equipment Development Department of the Central Military Commission) and its director, [Shangfu](Li)(Li Shangfu), for engaging in ″significant transactions″ with Rosoboronexport, specifically naming China's purchase of ten Su-35s in 2017 as well as [S-400](S-400) surface-to-air missile system-related equipment in 2018.
### Potential operators
#### United Arab Emirates
In the mid-1990s, the United Arab Emirates evaluated the Su-27M, but later acquired the [2000](Mirage)(Mirage 2000) due to the country's close relationship with France. In February 2017, the country was to sign a preliminary agreement for the Su-35 purchase and also signed an agreement with [Rostec](Rostec), Russia's state-owned corporation responsible for the development of advanced industrial products, to develop a fifth-generation aircraft based on the [MiG-29](MiG-29).
#### India
India has been reluctant to order the [FGFA](Sukhoi/HAL)(Sukhoi/HAL FGFA) due to high cost, and it has been reported that India and Russia are studying an upgrade to the Su-35 with stealth technology (similar to the [Silent Eagle](F-15)(F-15 Silent Eagle)) as a more affordable alternative to the FGFA (Su-57). The aircraft is competing with 7 other aircraft in a fresh tender which is referred as MMRCA 2.0 in the Indian media, for the procurement of 114 multi-role combat aircraft.
#### Algeria
According to *[Kommersant](Kommersant)*, the Algerian military had requested a Su-35 for testing in February 2016; it was reported the country was satisfied with the fighter's flight characteristics and so Moscow is waiting for a formal application. On 27 December 2019, Algeria has reportedly signed a contract for 14 aircraft as part of large military deal that also includes purchase of Su-34 and Su-57 fighters. However, neither Russian nor Algerian governments ever confirmed that such deal exists.
#### Turkey
In July 2019, Russia offered the Su-35 to Turkey after it was [from the F-35 programme](removed)(Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II procurement#Removal from program) by [States](United)(United States) due to the [of S-400](purchase)(S-400 missile system#Turkey) missile system. CEO of Rostec [Chemezov](Sergey)(Sergey Chemezov), said, "If our Turkish colleagues express a desire, we are ready to work out the deliveries of Su-35 fighter jets". Previously in May 2019, Sergey Chemezov had said that Russia was ready to cooperate with Turkey on the export and local production of the [Su-57](Su-57).
#### Iran
Following the Russian purchase of Iranian [drone](suicide)(suicide drone)s during the [in Ukraine](invasion)(2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine), the Islamic Republic of Iran Air Force (IRIAF) is reportedly considering the procurement of the Sukhoi Su-35 in exchange for further delivery of ammunition, drones and ballistic missiles to the Russian Armed Forces, according to US officials. It was also reported that training of Iranian pilots has begun in spring 2022 and that the aircraft may be delivered in 2023. The deal may include 24 Su-35 jets originally built for Egypt, that have not been handed over so far. The deal was confirmed by Iranian state-owned media [news agency](Tasnim)(Tasnim news agency) on 28 December 2022 and on 15 January 2023 by an Iranian MP who said that supplies will begin in the spring and also said that Iran has ordered from Russia air defense and missile systems as well as helicopters.
#### Others
Following the deployment to Syria of several new Russian military systems, various countries had reportedly expressed interest in the Su-35. These countries included Algeria, Egypt, and Vietnam. Other countries that had also expressed interest in the aircraft include Kazakhstan, North Korea, and Pakistan although a Russian official denied that the country was in talks with the latter about the Su-35. Sudan has reportedly also expressed an interest in acquiring of the Su-35 fighters during the Sudanese president Omar Hassan al-Bashir's visitation of Moscow in November 2017.
### Failed bids
#### Brazil
In the mid-1990s, Brazilian and Russian authorities conducted talks on the possible acquisition of the Su-27M. In 2001, the Brazilian government launched the [F-X](F-X fighter program) tender, the objective of which was to procure at least 12 aircraft to replace the [Air Force](Brazilian)(Brazilian Air Force)'s ageing aircraft, primarily the [III](Mirage)(Mirage III)s.Rivers 2005, p. 18. Since the Brazilian government was also looking to develop the country's aerospace and defence industries, Sukhoi partnered with the Brazilian defence contractor [Avibras](Avibras) during the tender. The two companies submitted the Su-27M to the US$700-million tender, and included an [agreement](offset)(offset agreement) wherein the Brazilian industry would have participated in the manufacturing of certain aircraft equipment.Komarov 2002, p. 61. The tender was suspended in 2003 because of domestic political issues and then scrapped in 2005, pending the availability of new fighters. The Su-27M was preferred over the next favourite, the [2000BR](Mirage)(Dassault Mirage 2000); had the aircraft been purchased, it would have been the first heavy fighter delivered to Latin America.
With the tender relaunched in 2007 as the F-X2 competition, the [Defence Ministry](Brazilian)(Ministry of Defence (Brazil)) looked to purchase at least 36 aircraft – with a potential for 84 additional aircraft – to replace the country's [A-1Ms](AMX International AMX), [F-5BRs](Northrop F-5), and [IIIs](Mirage)(Dassault Mirage III). Among the participants were the [Super Hornet](F/A-18E/F)(F/A-18E/F Super Hornet), F-16BR, [Gripen](JAS)(JAS Gripen) NG, [Rafale](Dassault)(Dassault Rafale), [Typhoon](Eurofighter)(Eurofighter Typhoon) and the modernized Su-35. Although the Brazilian government eliminated the Su-35 in 2008, [Rosoboronexport](Rosoboronexport) subsequently offered to sell the country 120 aircraft with full technology transfer, as well as participation in the PAK FA programme. In December 2013, the Gripen NG light fighter was selected because of its low cost and the transfer of technology to the Brazilian industry.
#### Egypt
In March 2019, it was reported that [Egypt](Egypt) would procure "over two dozen" Su-35s from Russia in a deal valued about $US2 billion, finalized in late 2018. Deliveries were expected to begin as early as 2020 or 2021. Deputy head of the [Rosoboronexport](Rosoboronexport) Sergei Kornev denied the signing of any contract to supply Su-35s to Egypt. U.S. Secretary of State [Pompeo](Mike)(Mike Pompeo) warned Egypt against buying Su-35s, saying "if those systems were to be purchased, the [statute](CAATSA)(Countering America's Adversaries Through Sanctions Act) would require sanctions on the regime."
On 19 May 2020, Russia began Su-35 production for Egypt, and first five production aircraft took off from the [plant](KnAAZ)(Komsomolsk-on-Amur Aircraft Plant) on 28 July 2020. By June 2021, in total 17 aircraft were produced for Egypt. Egyptian newspaper Arabo reported on 5 January 2022, Egypt, Algeria and Indonesia announced that they would cancel their Su-35 orders with Russia. In March 2022, an agreement with the US to sell variants of [F-15E](F-15E Strike Eagle#F-15 Advanced Eagle variants)s to the [Air Force](Egyptian)(Egyptian Air Force) was announced which confirms that Egypt either abandoned or cancelled the Su-35 deal and the planes originally produced for Egypt will be delivered to Iran instead. A contract needs to be finalized after price and delivery date are determined.
#### Indonesia
In 2014, Russia offered the Su-35 to Indonesia to replace its ageing [Tiger II](F-5E)(Northrop F-5) fleet. The following year, the [Ministry of Defense](Indonesian)(Ministry of Defense (Indonesia)) selected the Su-35 ahead of the [Typhoon](Eurofighter)(Eurofighter Typhoon), [Rafale](Dassault)(Dassault Rafale), [F-16](F-16 Falcon), and [JAS 39 Gripen](Saab)(Saab JAS 39 Gripen); the Defense Ministry cited the [Air Force](Indonesian)(Indonesian Air Force)'s familiarity with the Su-27SK and Su-30MK2 as the reason for its selection. By 2017, negotiations between the two parties over the Su-35 had reached an advanced stage, with the Indonesian government later agreed in principle to conduct a barter trade of agricultural products for a reported eleven aircraft. In February 2018, Russia and Indonesia finalised a contract for 11 aircraft, worth $1.14 billion. The first delivery was expected in October 2018, but was delayed to 2019.
On 12 March 2020, [Bloomberg](Bloomberg L.P.) reported that Indonesia canceled the deal due to the [pressure](US)(Countering America's Adversaries Through Sanctions Act) and is instead looking to negotiate an order for [F-35](Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II)s. On 18 March 2020, Indonesia's Deputy Defense Minister Sakti Wahyu Trenggono confirmed that the government had not revoked the procurement despite facing unnamed "obstacles". On 8 July 2020, Russian Ambassador to Indonesia, Lyudmila Vorobieva stated that Indonesia's plan to buy 11 Su-35s from Russia is still continuing. In February 2021, the [of Staff of the Indonesian Air Force](Chief)(Chief of Staff of the Indonesian Air Force) [Chief Marshal](Air)(Air chief marshal) [Prasetyo](Fadjar)(Fadjar Prasetyo) unveiled plans to purchase new aircraft such as [F-15EX](Boeing F-15EX Eagle II) and [Rafale](Dassault)(Dassault Rafale) while not mentioning the current status of the Su-35 order. However On 22 December 2021 during a Press Tour and Media Gathering, Fadjar Prasetyo has confirmed that the Su-35 purchase will not go ahead. Regarding the planned purchase of the Sukhoi Su-35, Fadjar said it would be abandoned. In June 2023 during a Ministry of Defense press conference it was stated that the Su-35 program has been constrained by the threat of [CAATSA](Countering America's Adversaries Through Sanctions Act) and [OFAC](Office of Foreign Assets Control) sanctions list from the United States.
#### Others
In 1996, Russia submitted the Su-27M and Su-37 for South Korea's [programme](F-X)(F-X fighter program), which sought a 40-aircraft replacement for the [of Korea Air Force](Republic)(Republic of Korea Air Force)'s [F-4D/Es](McDonnell Douglas F-4 Phantom II), [RF-4Cs](List of McDonnell Douglas F-4 Phantom II variants) and F-5E/Fs. The two Russian designs competed against the [Rafale](Dassault)(Dassault Rafale), [Typhoon](Eurofighter)(Eurofighter Typhoon), and [Slam Eagle](F-15K)(F-15K).Sherman 2001, p. 22. Sukhoi proposed a design which featured a phased-grid radar and thrust-vectoring engines, and offered full technology transfer as well as final assembly in South Korea. The US$5 billion contract would have been partially financed through a debt-reduction deal on money Russia owed to South Korea.Joo and Kwak 2001, p. 205.Gethin 1998, p. 32. However, the Su-27M was eliminated early in the competition, which was won by the F-15K.
A country that had been reported to be a likely early export customer for the modernized Su-35 was Venezuela. The Venezuelan government of [Chávez](Hugo)(Hugo Chávez) in July 2006 placed an order for 24 Su-30MK2s to replace its fleet of F-16s that were subjected to a US [embargo](arms)(arms embargo).Mader 2007, p. 102. The aircraft were delivered to the [Air Force](Venezuelan)(Venezuelan Air Force) from 2006 to 2008. The country was expected to follow up with a second order for the same type, or make a purchase of the Su-35.Mader 2007, p. 103. Despite subsequent reports that the Venezuelan government were interested in the aircraft and had placed an order for the Su-35,
Libya was also expected to be an early export customer for 12 to 15 Su-35s along with other Russian weapons; however, the [war in Libya](civil)(Libyan Civil War (2011)) and the resulting [intervention](military)(2011 military intervention in Libya) cancelled such plans. Russia has also offered the modernized Su-35 to India, Malaysia, and Greece; no firm contracts have materialised, with the first two countries having been occupied with other fighter projects and unlikely to procure the modernized Su-35.
## Variants
;Su-27M/Su-35:Single-seat fighter design with a factory code of T-10M (*Modernizerovany*, "Upgraded"). The first two prototypes had a new forward fuselage, canards and updated fly-by-wire flight-control systems. Like three of KNAAPO's nine flying pre-production aircraft (T10M-5, T10M-6 and T10M-7), they were converted from Su-27 airframes.Andrews 2003, p. 57.Gordon 2007, p. 129. The third aircraft (T10M-3) was the first of seven pre-production aircraft to have the taller vertical tails, two-wheel nose undercarriage and in-flight refuel capability. The Su-27M was powered by AL-31FM turbofan engines. Two prototypes, nine pre-production and three production aircraft were constructed by 1995; two static-test aircraft was also constructed (T10M-0 and T10M-4).Gordon 2007, pp. 129, 591. The aircraft did not enter mass production.
[[File:Sukhoi Su-37 at Farnborough 1996 airshow.jpg|thumb|Sukhoi Su-37 at [1996 airshow](Farnborough)(Farnborough Airshow)]]
;[Su-37](Sukhoi Su-37):Technology demonstrator, converted from the eleventh developmental Su-27M (T10M-11). The Su-37 featured a digital fly-by-wire flight-control system, a [cockpit](glass)(glass cockpit), the N011M radar, and AL-31FP engines with thrust-vectoring nozzles.Gordon 2007, pp. 151, 154, 158. The aircraft was later fitted with standard-production AL-31F engines, and had its flight-control system and cockpit systems revised.Gordon 2007, pp. 170–171.
[[sole two-seat Su-35UB in 2001](File:Su-35UB.jpeg|thumb|The)]
;Su-35UB: Two-seat trainer designed and built by KnAAPO. The single aircraft (T-10UBM-1) featured the canards and taller vertical tails of the Su-27M and a forward fuselage similar to the Su-30MKK. The Su-35UB also shared the avionics suite of the Su-30MKK, although it had a different fly-by-wire flight-control system to accommodate the canards.Andrews 2003, p. 59. The aircraft was powered by AL-31FP engines with thrust-vectoring nozzles.Gordon 2007, p. 172. Although a training aircraft, the Su-35UB was designed to be fully combat-capable.
;Su-35BM: Single-seat fighter that is a major redesign of the original Su-27. The type features significant modifications to the airframe, including the removal of canards and dorsal air brake as found on the Su-27M. It features the updated N035 Irbis-E radar and a redesigned cockpit. The aircraft is powered by thrust-vectoring AL-41F1S turbofan engines that are capable of supercruise. Also known as T-10BM (*Bolshaya Modernizatsiya*, "Major Modernization"), Su-35BM is not the actual designation used by Sukhoi, who markets the aircraft as "Su-35".
;Su-35S: Designation of production T-10BM design for the Russian Aerospace Forces. According to *Aviation Week & Space Technology*, "S" stands for *Stroyevoy* ("Combatant"). NATO reporting name Flanker-M.
[[in Langkawi 2023.jpg|thumb|SU-35 " Russian Knights" in Langkawi 2023 for LIMA 2023](File:SU-35)]
## Operators
;
* [Liberation Army Air Force](People's)(People's Liberation Army Air Force) – 24 aircraft in inventory.
** 6th Aviation Brigade – Suixi air base, [Guangdong](Guangdong)
;
*[Revolutionary Guard Corps Aerospace Force](Islamic)(Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps Aerospace Force) or [Republic of Iran Air Force](Islamic)(Islamic Republic of Iran Air Force) – 24 on order
;
* [Aerospace Forces](Russian)(Russian Aerospace Forces) – 110 aircraft in inventory as of December 2022. The third order for 30 aircraft finalised in August 2020 is to increase the total number to 128.
** 23rd Fighter Aviation Regiment – [Airport](Dzyomgi)(Dzyomgi Airport), [Krai](Khabarovsk)(Khabarovsk Krai)
** 22nd Guards Fighter Aviation Regiment – [Uglovaya Air Base](Centralnaya)(Uglovoye (airfield)), [Krai](Primorsky)(Primorsky Krai)
** 159th Fighter Aviation Regiment – [Air Base](Besovets)(Petrozavodsk Airport), [of Karelia](Republic)(Republic of Karelia)
** 790th Fighter Aviation Regiment – [Khotilovo Air Base](Borisovsky)(Borisovsky Khotilovo (air base)), [Oblast](Tver)(Tver Oblast)
** [Centre for Combat Employment and Retraining of Personnel](4th)(4th Centre for Combat Employment and Retraining of Personnel) – [Air Base](Lipetsk)(Lipetsk (air base)), [Oblast](Lipetsk)(Lipetsk Oblast)
** 929th State Flight-Test Centre – [Air Base](Vladimirovka)(Vladimirovka (air base)), [Oblast](Astrakhan)(Astrakhan Oblast)
** [Air Base](Khmeimim)(Khmeimim Air Base), [Latakia](Latakia), [Syria](Syria)
## Notable accidents
The fourth Su-35BM prototype was destroyed in a high-speed taxi run on 26 April 2009 due to brake failure. The aircraft crashed into the barrier at the end of the runway and was destroyed. The pilot ejected and sustained burn injuries.
On 31 July 2021, a Su-35S fighter crashed after suffering an engine failure during a routine training mission in the Khabarovsk Territory in Russia, according to statement from the [Defence Ministry](Russian)(Ministry of Defence (Russia)). According to a preliminary investigation reported by the Russian newspaper Top War, the Su-35 suffered technical malfunctions in the environment control systems that indicate heating and cooling functions.
## Specifications (Su-35S)
[[File:Electronically Scanned Array IRBIS E.jpg|thumb|[Irbis-E](Irbis-E) radar for the modernized Su-35 at MAKS Airshow 2009]]
[[GSh-301 cannon LeBourget2013 2171.JPG|thumb|right|GSh-30-1 cannon in starboard wing root, Su-35, Paris Air Show 2013](File:Su-35)]
Jane's All The World's Aircraft 2013"Sukhoi Su-35", ''Jane's All the World's Aircraft''. Jane's Information Group. 6 February 2013.
|prime units?=met
|crew=1
|length m=21.9
|length note=
|span m=15.3
|span note=
|height m=5.9
|height note=
|wing area sqm=62
|wing area note=
|aspect ratio=
|airfoil=5%
|empty weight kg=19000
|empty weight note=Butowski *Air International* October 2019, p. 38.
|gross weight kg=25300
|gross weight note=with 50% internal fuel
|max takeoff weight kg=34500
|max takeoff weight note=
|fuel capacity= internal
|more general=
|eng1 number=2
|eng1 name=[AL-41F1S](Saturn)(Saturn AL-41F1S)
|eng1 type=[turbofan](afterburning)(afterburning turbofan) engines
|eng1 kn=86.3
|eng1 kn-ab=137.3
|more power=, in emergency power
|max speed kmh=2400
|max speed note= / M2.25 at altitude
:::: / M1.13 at sea level
|max speed mach=
|cruise speed kmh=1170
|cruise speed note= / M1.1+ supercruise at medium altitude
|stall speed kmh=
|stall speed note=
|never exceed speed kmh=
|never exceed speed note=
|minimum control speed kmh=
|minimum control speed note=
|range km=3600
|range note=at altitude
:::: at sea level
|combat range km=1600
|combat range note=approx
|ferry range km=4500
|ferry range note=with 2 external fuel tanks
|endurance=
|ceiling m=18000
|ceiling note=
|g limits=+9
|roll rate=
|climb rate ms=280
|climb rate note=+
|time to altitude=
|wing loading kg/m2=408
|wing loading note=With 50% fuel
:::: with full internal fuel
|fuel consumption kg/km=
|thrust/weight= 1.13 with 50% fuel
::::0.92 with full internal fuel
|more performance=
|guns=1 × internal [mm](30)(30 mm caliber) [GSh-30-1](Gryazev-Shipunov)(Gryazev-Shipunov GSh-30-1) [autocannon](autocannon) with 150 rounds
|hardpoints=12 hardpoints, consisting of 2 wingtip rails, and 10 wing and fuselage stations
|hardpoint capacity=8,000 kg (17,630 lb) of [ordnance](Aircraft ordnance)
|hardpoint rockets=
*** [S-25](S-25 rocket) air-ground rocket
*** [missile](Air-to-air)(Air-to-air missile)s:
**** 8 × [R-27](R-27 (air-to-air missile))ER/ET/EA
**** 6 × [R-73](R-73 (missile))E/M
**** 12 × [R-77](R-77)M/P/T/-1
**** 6 × [R-74](R-73 (missile)#Variants)
**** 2 x [R-37](R-37 (missile))
*** [missile](Air-to-surface)(Air-to-surface missile)s:
**** 6 × [Kh-29](Kh-29)L/TE
**** 3 × [3M-14AE](3M-54 Klub#Variants)
*** [missile](Anti-ship)(Anti-ship missile)s:
**** 3 × [3M-54AE1](3M-54 Klub#Variants)
**** 6 × [Kh-31](Kh-31)A/AD
**** [Kh-35](Kh-35)U
**** 5 × [Kh-59](Kh-59)MK
**** 1 × [Yakhont](P-800 Oniks)
*** [missile](Anti-radiation)(Anti-radiation missile)s:
**** 6 × [Kh-31](Kh-31)P/PD
**** 5 × [Kh-58](Kh-58)UShE
|hardpoint bombs=
*** 8 × [KAB-500KR](KAB-500KR) TV-guided bombs
*** 8 × [KAB-500L](KAB-500L) [bomb](laser-guided)(laser-guided bomb)s
*** 8 × [KAB-500OD](KAB-500OD) [bomb](guided)(guided bomb)s
*** 8 × [KAB-500S-E](KAB-500S-E) satellite-guided bombs
*** 3 × [KAB-1500KR](KAB-1500KR) TV-guided bombs
*** 3 × [KAB-1500L](KAB-1500L) laser-guided bombs
*** [GBU-500](GBU-500) laser-guided bomb
*** [GBU-500T](GBU-500T) TV-guided bomb
*** [GBU-1000](GBU-1000) laser-guided bomb
*** [GBU-1000T](GBU-1000T) TV-guided bomb
|avionics=
* [Irbis-E](Irbis-E) [electronically scanned array](passive)(passive electronically scanned array) [radar](radar)
* [OLS-35](OLS-35) [search and track](infra-red)(infra-red search and track) system
* [Khibiny-M](L175M)(Khibiny (electronic countermeasures system)) [countermeasure](electronic)(electronic countermeasure)s system
}}
## Notable appearances in media
## See also
## Footnotes
## References
## Bibliography
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*
*
*
*
*
*
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*
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## External links
*
*
[Su-35](Category:Sukhoi aircraft)
[Soviet fighter aircraft](Category:1980s)(Category:1980s Soviet fighter aircraft)
[aircraft](Category:Canard)(Category:Canard aircraft)
[Category:Twinjets](Category:Twinjets)
[aircraft](Category:Relaxed-stability)(Category:Relaxed-stability aircraft)
[Russian fighter aircraft](Category:2000s)(Category:2000s Russian fighter aircraft)
[aircraft](Category:Mid-wing)(Category:Mid-wing aircraft)
[first flown in 1988](Category:Aircraft)(Category:Aircraft first flown in 1988)
[jet fighter](Category:Fourth-generation)(Category:Fourth-generation jet fighter)
[aircraft](Category:Twin-tail)(Category:Twin-tail aircraft)
[jet fighters](Category:4.5-generation)(Category:4.5-generation jet fighters)
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Roger Enrico
|
roger_enrico
|
# Roger Enrico
*Revision ID: 1145626671 | Timestamp: 2023-03-20T03:46:21Z*
---
| birth_place = [Minnesota](Chisholm,)(Chisholm, Minnesota)
| death_date =
| death_place = [Islands](Cayman)(Cayman Islands)
| alma_mater = [College](Babson)(Babson College)
| occupation =
| years_active =
| known_for = CEO of PepsiCo; [Pepsi](Caffeine-Free)(Caffeine-Free Pepsi)
| notable_works =
}}
**Roger Anthony Enrico** (November 11, 1944 – June 1, 2016) was an American businessman who is best known for his lengthy service as [executive officer](chief)(chief executive officer) of [PepsiCo](PepsiCo).
## Early life
Enrico was born on November 11, 1944, to Italian immigrants in the [Range](Mesabi)(Mesabi Range) mining town of [Minnesota](Chisholm,)(Chisholm, Minnesota). He was awarded a scholarship to [College](Babson)(Babson College) where he studied business administration. Enrico enlisted in the [States Navy](United)(United States Navy) and served in [Vietnam](Vietnam War).
## Business career
Enrico started his business career with [Mills](General)(General Mills) as a [manager](brand)(Brand management) for [Wheaties](Wheaties). In 1971, he joined [PepsiCo](PepsiCo) to help market [Funyuns](Funyuns). He later served as brand manager for [Cheetos](Cheetos) and [Fritos](Fritos) before heading operations in [Japan](Japan) and [America](South)(South America). He was appointed [CEO](Chief executive officer) of the Pepsi division of PepsiCo in 1983 at the age of 38. That year he signed [Jackson](Michael)(Michael Jackson) to a multimillion-dollar marketing deal. [Richie](Lionel)(Lionel Richie) was later signed.
He was the Chairman of [PepsiCo](PepsiCo) from 1996 to 2001, and Chairman of [DreamWorks](DreamWorks Animation) Animation SKG Inc from 2004 to 2012. He was well known for his business rivalry with fellow businessman [Goizueta](Roberto)(Roberto Goizueta), CEO of [Coca-Cola](Coca-Cola) during his tenure as Pepsi's CEO.
He served on the board of directors of the [Geographic Society](National)(National Geographic Society), the [Defense Fund](Environmental)(Environmental Defense Fund), the [Electric Light Fund](Solar)(Solar Electric Light Fund), and the [Film Institute](American)(American Film Institute).
## Death
Enrico died June 1, 2016, aged 71, while snorkelling in the [Islands](Cayman)(Cayman Islands) where he had a home.
## References
[births](Category:1944)(Category:1944 births)
[deaths](Category:2016)(Category:2016 deaths)
[from Chisholm, Minnesota](Category:People)(Category:People from Chisholm, Minnesota)
[people](Category:PepsiCo)(Category:PepsiCo people)
[College alumni](Category:Babson)(Category:Babson College alumni)
[from Minnesota](Category:Businesspeople)(Category:Businesspeople from Minnesota)
[people of Italian descent](Category:American)(Category:American people of Italian descent)
[Animation people](Category:DreamWorks)(Category:DreamWorks Animation people)
[Mills people](Category:General)(Category:General Mills people)
[States Navy personnel of the Vietnam War](Category:United)(Category:United States Navy personnel of the Vietnam War)
|
Leah Remini
|
leah_remini
|
# Leah Remini
*Revision ID: 1157936345 | Timestamp: 2023-05-31T22:36:45Z*
---
| birth_place = New York City, U.S.
| occupation =
| spouse =
| children = 1
| website =
| years_active = 1988–present
}}
**Leah Marie Remini** (; born June 15, 1970) is an American actress. She starred as [Heffernan](Carrie)(Carrie Heffernan) on the [CBS](CBS) sitcom *[King of Queens](The)(The King of Queens)* (1998–2007) and as Vanessa Celluci in the CBS sitcom *[Can Wait](Kevin)(Kevin Can Wait)* (2017–2018), both alongside [James](Kevin)(Kevin James).
Remini coproduced and hosted the [A&E](A&E (TV channel)) documentary series *[Remini: Scientology and the Aftermath](Leah)(Leah Remini: Scientology and the Aftermath)* (2016–2019), for which she won two [Emmy Award](Primetime)(Primetime Emmy Award)s for [Hosted Nonfiction Series or Special](Outstanding)(Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Hosted Nonfiction Series or Special). She also cohosted the daytime talk show *[Talk](The)(The Talk (talk show))* (2010–2011). Remini's films include the comedy *[School](Old)(Old School (film))* (2003), the mystery comedy *[Handsome](Handsome (film))* (2017), and the romantic comedy *[Act](Second)(Second Act (film))* (2018).
After being a member of the [of Scientology](Church)(Church of Scientology) from childhood, Remini left the organization in 2013. Two years later, Remini released her book, *[Surviving Hollywood and Scientology](Troublemaker:)(Troublemaker: Surviving Hollywood and Scientology)*; the memoir became number one on the *New York Times* best-seller list. In 2016, she followed up with an Emmy Award-winning documentary television series on A&E, *Leah Remini: Scientology and the Aftermath*, where she created a platform for victims and survivors of Scientology.
Since July 2020, Remini has been the cohost of the podcast *Scientology: Fair Game*, alongside [Rinder](Mike)(Mike Rinder).
## Early life
Leah Marie Remini was born on June 15, 1970, in [Brooklyn](Brooklyn), New York City, to Vicki Marshall and George Remini, who owned an [asbestos](asbestos) removal company. Her mother is of [Jewish](Austrian)(History of the Jews in Austria) descent, while her father has Italian ancestry, rooted in [Sicily](Sicily). Remini was raised in [Bensonhurst](Bensonhurst, Brooklyn).
Remini was baptized [Catholic](Catholic Church) and raised in the faith during her early childhood. When Remini was eight years old, her mother joined the [of Scientology](Church)(Church of Scientology), and Remini was thereafter raised as a [Scientologist](Scientology).McNeil, Elizabeth (July 29, 2013). ["The *King of Queens* Star Leah Remini: Leaving Scientology"](http://www.people.com/people/archive/article/0,,20721538,00.html) . *[People](People (magazine))*, Vol. 80 No. 5. At 13 years old, Remini and sister Nicole were taken to join Scientology's Paramilitary organization called the [Organization](Sea)(Sea Organization), where they were forced to sign billion-year contracts and work for their room and board. Sea Org children do not live with their parents, are treated as adults, and work around the clock. Remini's mother decided to take her children out of the Sea Org and return to civilian Scientology life within the same year. Remini moved to Los Angeles, California, with her mother and sisters, where she spent the remainder of her teenage years working to pay off their debt to Scientology. This debt, known as a Freeloader Debt or Freeloader Bill, is a retroactive billing for any auditing received or any Scientology training received while in the Sea Org, and can run into tens of thousands or even hundreds of thousands of dollars. In addition, Remini and her family worked regular jobs to pay for continuing Scientology courses and services.
## Career
### Film and television
One of Remini's early television roles was on ''[the Boss?](Who's)(Who's the Boss?)* as Charlie Briscoe, which led to a spin-off series entitled *[Dolls](Living)(Living Dolls)'', in which Remini starred with [Berry](Halle)(Halle Berry). The show premiered in late 1989 and ran for twelve episodes.["Throwing a Curveball: Surprising Spin-Offs"](http://www.screenrush.co.uk/features/television/feature-18440035/?page=7). Screenrush; retrieved October 28, 2013.["Halle Berry's Journey From Miss USA Runner-Up To Oscar Winner"](http://www.accesshollywood.com/halle-berrys-journey-from-miss-usa-runner-up-to-oscar-winner_article_49368), *[Hollywood](Access)(Access Hollywood)*, June 16, 2011.
In 1991, Remini had a supporting role as Tina Bovasso on [ABC](American Broadcasting Company)'s sitcom *[Man in the Family](The)(The Man in the Family)*. She then had recurring roles on *[by the Bell](Saved)(Saved by the Bell)* playing Stacey Carosi, and on *[Shade](Evening)(Evening Shade)* as Taylor Newton's ([R. Ferguson](Jay)(Jay R. Ferguson)) girlfriend, Daisy. Remini then appeared in two more short-lived series, *[Time Out](First)(First Time Out)* (1995) and *[Up](Fired)(Fired Up (TV series))* (1997–98). In 1991 and 1993, she appeared on *[Cheers](Cheers)* as Serafina, the daughter of [Carla](Carla Tortelli) and Nick Tortelli ([Perlman](Rhea)(Rhea Perlman) and [Hedaya](Dan)(Dan Hedaya)). In 1994, Remini auditioned for the role of [Geller](Monica)(Monica Geller) on *[Friends](Friends)*, but the role went to [Cox](Courteney)(Courteney Cox). Remini later appeared in the 1995 *Friends* episode "[One with the Birth](The)(The One with the Birth)" in which she played a pregnant woman, Lydia, whose delivery is aided by Joey.
In 1998, Remini landed the role of [Heffernan](Carrie)(Carrie Heffernan) on the [CBS](CBS) sitcom *[King of Queens](The)(The King of Queens)*. The series was successful, and ran for nine seasons from September 21, 1998, to May 14, 2007. During her time on the show, she starred in [State](Quaker)(Quaker State)'s television commercials in 2000 and 2001. Television Commercial 2001 - YouTube |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qvD8FMeQxnQ |access-date=2022-05-14 |website=www.youtube.com}}
Remini had a supporting role in the comedy film *[School](Old)(Old School (film))* (2003). She also starred in her own reality show, *Inside Out: Leah Remini*, which was a documentary that aired on [VH1](VH1) about Remini's wedding. Following the success of the wedding special, VH1 documented the next phase of their lives with the birth of her daughter Sofia Bella. Remini has starred in nine-episode webisodes of *[the Motherhood](In)(In the Motherhood)*, along with [Handler](Chelsea)(Chelsea Handler) and [McCarthy](Jenny)(Jenny McCarthy), and made two guest appearances on Handler's talk show *[Lately](Chelsea)(Chelsea Lately)*.
On December 15, 2009, Remini appeared as Carrie Heffernan on *[Tonight](Lopez)(Lopez Tonight)* with [Lopez](George)(George Lopez) in an episode reuniting the cast of the *[Lopez](George)(George Lopez (TV series))* sitcom. Remini and [Robinson Peete](Holly)(Holly Robinson Peete) appeared on *[Young and the Restless](The)(The Young and the Restless)* on July 28, 2011.SoapOperaDigest. Comings & Goings; page 12. August 2, 2011 issue.
In October 2011, Remini signed a talent development deal at ABC and [Studios](ABC)(ABC Studios) that required the network and the studio to develop a comedy project for Remini to star in and produce.
Remini competed on [17](season)(Dancing with the Stars (U.S. season 17)) of *[with the Stars](Dancing)(Dancing with the Stars (U.S. TV series))*, in which she was partnered with professional dancer [Dovolani](Tony)(Tony Dovolani).Derschowitz, Jessica (September 4, 2013). ["Dancing with the Stars': Leah Remini, Valerie Harper"](https://www.cbsnews.com/8301-207_162-57601254/dancing-with-the-stars-leah-remini-valerie-harper-snooki-among-new-cast/). [News](CBS)(CBS News). The couple made it to the tenth week of competition and reached fifth place. Remini later returned in [19](season)(Dancing with the Stars (U.S. season 19)) as a guest co-host on week six. She returned as guest co-host on [21](season)(Dancing with the Stars (U.S. season 21)) during weeks six and seven.
In 2013, Remini joined the cast of the [Land](TV)(TV Land) comedy *[Exes](The)(The Exes)*, filling a recurring role starting in season three. Remini created, produced and starred in a reality television series titled ''[Remini: It's All Relative](Leah)(Leah Remini: It's All Relative)''. The show focuses on Remini's family life. It premiered on [TLC](TLC (TV network)) on July 10, 2014.Rice, Lynette (June 12, 2014). ["TLC to air Leah Remini reality show"](http://insidetv.ew.com/2014/06/12/tlc-leah-remini-reality-show/), *[Weekly](Entertainment)(Entertainment Weekly)*; accessed March 30, 2015.
In early 2017, Remini returned to acting and was announced as one of the leads in [NBC](NBC)'s sitcom *What About Barb?*, a gender-swapped version of the 1991 [Oz](Frank)(Frank Oz) comedy *[About Bob?](What)(What About Bob?)*. She portrayed Suzanne, a renowned psychotherapist and best-selling author. Ultimately, NBC passed on the project and it wasn't picked up to series. In March 2017, it was announced Remini would reunite with [James](Kevin)(Kevin James) on the season finale of *[Can Wait](Kevin)(Kevin Can Wait)*. In June 2017, it was announced Remini was upped to a series regular beginning with season two. In May 2018, the series was cancelled by the network after two seasons. In 2017, Remini co-starred in the comedy films *[Families](Mad)(Mad Families)*, *[Clapper](The)(The Clapper (film))*, and *[Handsome](Handsome (film))*. In 2018, she starred as Joan, opposite [Lopez](Jennifer)(Jennifer Lopez), in the romantic comedy film *[Act](Second)(Second Act (film))*.
In 2020 Remini & her production company, No, Seriously Productions signed a production deal with Critical Content. In June 2022, Remini was named a judge on the seventeenth season of [Fox](Fox Broadcasting Company)'s dance competition series *[You Think You Can Dance](So)(So You Think You Can Dance (American TV series))*, replacing [Morrison](Matthew)(Matthew Morrison).
Remini began 2021 as the host of the [Show Network](Game)(Game Show Network) original series *[Puzzler](People)(People Puzzler)*.
#### *The Talk*
Remini was a co-host in the first season of the CBS daytime talk show, *[Talk](The)(The Talk (talk show))*, which premiered October 18, 2010. The other co-hosts were [Chen](Julie)(Julie Chen), [Gilbert](Sara)(Sara Gilbert), [Robinson Peete](Holly)(Holly Robinson Peete), and [Osbourne](Sharon)(Sharon Osbourne). The show, similar to *[View](The)(The View (U.S. TV series))*, seeks to address motherhood and contemporary issues. In March 2012, a heavily publicized Twitter dispute ignited between Remini and [Osbourne](https://www.thethings.com/heres-why-fans-believe-sharon-osbourne-fired-the-talk-co-host-marie-osmond/) when Remini fired back at Osbourne, Osbourne making criticisms of Remini and Holly Robinson Peete on *[Howard Stern Show](The)(The Howard Stern Show)* in relation to their contracts not being renewed for *The Talk*. In response to questions from her Twitter followers, Remini tweeted:
Haters Gon' Hate. True. But, Haters have the balls to say they 'Hate' ... not call themselves your friend. She had us fired all the while calling me and Holly her friend. Heartbreaking. Yes. She had us fired she told Howard Stern. Explains why she never called us back.}}
In response, Osbourne tweeted, "I had absolutely nothing to do with her departure from the show and have no idea why she continues to take to Twitter to spread this false gossip." Remini tweeted a challenge to Osbourne to establish in a court of law what statements she (Remini) had made that were untrue.
Friction in relation to these matters resurfaced in the media in early 2021 when Osbourne was embroiled in a scandal over her remarks made on *The Talk* to [Underwood](Sheryl)(Sheryl Underwood) and ultimately terminated from the program over them. Both Peete and Remini took to social media to reproach Osbourne over her conduct in relation to the scandal, pointing out that they had been treated similarly by her, charging Osbourne with additional discriminatory behaviors as well. Osbourne responded with threats of defamation lawsuits against Peete and Remini, but ultimately did nothing.
## Personal life
Remini met actor Angelo Pagán at a [restaurant](Cuban)(Cuban cuisine) in 1996.Mentioned on the *Joe Rogan Experience* in February 2017 He has three sons from previous relationships. They were married on July 19, 2003. Their daughter Sofia was born on June 16, 2004, one day after Remini's 34th birthday. Remini and husband Angelo baptized their daughter as a Catholic.
### Scientology
Remini was a member of the Church of Scientology from the age of nine.["Leah Remini Subpoenaed to Testify in Harassment Suit Against Church of Scientology"](https://abcnews.go.com/Entertainment/leah-remini-subpoenaed-testify-harassment-suit-church-scientology/story?id=20467553), [News](ABC)(ABC News), October 4, 2013.
In July 2013, Remini left Scientology,Eggenberger, Nicole (September 10, 2013). ["Leah Remini Tells Ellen DeGeneres She 'Lost Friends"'After Leaving Scientology"](http://www.usmagazine.com/celebrity-news/news/leah-remini-tells-ellen-degeneres-she-lost-friends-after-leaving-scientology-2013109). *[Weekly](US)(US Weekly)*. owing to policies that forbid members from questioning the management of Church leader [Miscavige](David)(David Miscavige), which she believed was corrupt; the reported abuse of members of its [Org](Sea)(Sea Org) religious order; its policy of "[disconnection](Disconnection (Scientology))"; and its practice of branding those who have left the Church of their own accord as "[Person](Suppressive)(Suppressive Person)s" and the [Gaming](Fair)(Fair Game (Scientology)) tactics that [Scientology](Scientology controversies) has used for decades.
According to former high-ranking Sea Org member Mike Rinder, Remini's problems with Scientology began when she asked about the whereabouts of Miscavige's wife [Shelly](Michele Miscavige) at the 2006 wedding of [Cruise](Tom)(Tom Cruise) and [Holmes](Katie)(Katie Holmes), and was told by then-spokesman [Davis](Tommy)(Tommy Davis (Scientology)) that she did not "have the fucking rank" to do so. Remini then filed a "knowledge report" in which she asserted that Miscavige, Cruise, and other senior Scientology members engaged in behavior that was inconsistent with Church rules. She was subsequently "subjected to years of 'interrogations' and 'thought modification'" that led to her being [blackballed](blackballing) within Scientology. Fellow parishioners with whom Remini had been friends for decades wrote internal reports about her, resulting in a Church investigation into her family.Goodman, Jessica. ["Leah Remini Quits Scientology After 'Years Of Interrogations'"](https://www.huffingtonpost.com/2013/07/11/leah-remini-scientology_n_3579261.html), *The Huffington Post*, July 11, 2013; accessed March 30, 2015.Killoran, Ellen (July 11, 2013). ["Leah Remini Scientology Split 'A Huge Threat' To Controversial Church"](http://www.ibtimes.com/leah-remini-scientology-split-huge-threat-controversial-church-1342787). *[Business Times](International)(International Business Times)*.
During a September 9, 2013, appearance on *[Ellen DeGeneres Show](The)(The Ellen DeGeneres Show)*, Remini discussed her departure from Scientology and the loss of friends who are still in the Church who, according to Remini, are not permitted to have contact with her. Following her departure from Scientology, she publicly expressed her appreciation for those who supported her departure.Carlson, Erin (July 11, 2013). ["Leah Remini Leaves Scientology After Questioning David Miscavige's Leadership"](https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/news/leah-remini-leaves-scientology-questioning-583860). *[Hollywood Reporter](The)(The Hollywood Reporter)*.Marcesca, Rachel (July 12, 2013). ["Leah Remini speaks out after leaving the Church of Scientology, thanks fans for support"](http://www.nydailynews.com/entertainment/gossip/leah-remini-speaks-leaving-church-scientology-article-1.1397116). *Daily News* (New York). Remini's sister Nicole, who had earlier left Scientology herself,Lindstrom, Colleen (July 17, 2013). ["Scientology and the Remini Family: How it began"](http://www.mytalk1071.com/gossip/?var=Nicole_speaks_Part_2_Scientology_and_the_Reminis071713), mytalk1071.com; accessed March 30, 2015. revealed that the rest of their family left the Church along with Remini to avoid being split up by the disconnection policy.Traynor, Bradley (July 17, 2013). ["EXCLUSIVE: Leah Remini's Sister Nicole Talks!"](http://www.mytalk1071.com/gossip/?var=EXCLUSIVE071713), mytalk1071.com; accessed March 30, 2015. ["New Details on Why Leah Remini Left Scientology"](https://abcnews.go.com/GMA/video/leah-remini-scientology-kings-queens-actress-rebuked-miscaviges-19697521), abcnews.go.com, July 18, 2013. Writer and director [Haggis](Paul)(Paul Haggis), who had previously been the most famous person to publicly disavow Scientology, wrote an [letter](open)(open letter), published by *[Hollywood Reporter](The)(The Hollywood Reporter)*, thanking Remini for standing by him after he left Scientology and praised her "enormous amount of integrity and compassion".
In August 2013, it was disclosed that Remini had filed a missing person report with the [Angeles Police Department](Los)(Los Angeles Police Department) (LAPD) concerning Shelly Miscavige, the wife of Scientology leader David Miscavige, who has not been seen in public since 2007. After the report was filed, the LAPD looked into the matter, met and spoke with Shelly before closing the investigation, and stated Remini's report was "unfounded". Scientology said in a statement that the whole affair was simply harassment and a publicity stunt for Remini.Blankstein, Andrew. ["Scientology leader's wife located by LAPD after Leah Remini inquiry"](https://articles.latimes.com/2013/aug/09/local/la-me-ln-scientology-leaders-wife-found-lapd-closes-missing-persons-case-20130809), *Los Angeles Times*, August 9, 2013; accessed March 30, 2015.Harris, Dan. ["LAPD Dismisses Leah Remini's Missing Person Report on Wife of Scientology Leader"](https://abcnews.go.com/US/lapd-dismisses-leah-reminis-missing-person-report-wife/story?id=19912347). ABC News. August 9, 2013; accessed March 30, 2015.Finn, Natalie. ["Leah Remini Files Missing Person Report for Scientology Leader's Wife, Shelly Miscavige; Church Slams 'Harassment'"](http://www.eonline.com/news/447265/leah-remini-files-missing-person-report-for-scientology-leader-s-wife-shelly-miscavige-church-slams-harassment). [Online](E!)(E! Online). August 8, 2013. accessed March 30, 2015.
In October 2013, it was reported that Remini had been [subpoena](subpoena)ed to testify in a lawsuit in [County](Comal)(Comal County, Texas), Texas, against Scientology and David Miscavige, regarding acts of alleged harassment and surveillance against Monique Rathbun, who was married to ex-Scientology executive [Rathbun](Mark)(Mark Rathbun). Monique Rathbun's attorney, Ray Jeffery, said he wanted Remini, a former Scientologist, to give a [deposition](Deposition (law)) in the hopes she could testify that Miscavige has vast influence over the operations of the Church and had to have known about the alleged harassment.
Remini released her memoir *Troublemaker: Surviving Hollywood and Scientology* on November 3, 2015. In a 2015 interview with *[People](People (magazine))* magazine, Remini stated that she was embracing [Catholicism](Catholic Church) and found comfort in the religion's practices, contrasting her experiences with Scientology. Remini developed a series for [A&E](A&E Networks) focusing on ex-Scientologists speaking about their experiences, entitled *[Remini: Scientology and the Aftermath](Leah)(Leah Remini: Scientology and the Aftermath)*. The show premiered November 29, 2016. In a statement released by the network, Remini said:
}}
The documentary series received many awards in its three seasons: two Emmys, Reality Television Awards 2017 for hosting, 2018 NATPE Unscripted Breakthrough Awards for Best Innovation, 2019 Truth to Power Award, [USA](CHILD)(CHILD USA) 2019 Barbara Blaine Trailblazer Award, and two Gracie Awards presented by the Alliance for Women in Media Foundation (for On-Air Talent - Lifestyle and Entertainment and for Non-Fiction Entertainment).
### Catholicism
In 2015, Remini was interviewed by *[People](People (magazine))*, and her return to the [Church](Catholic)(Roman Catholicism ) following her departure from Scientology was discussed at length.
### Education
In May 2021, Remini was accepted into an [degree](associate)(associate degree) program in [arts](liberal)(Liberal arts education) at [York University](New)(New York University).
## Filmography
### Film
### Television
### Video games
## Bibliography
*
## Awards and nominations
## References
### Citations
### Sources
*
*
## External links
*
*
*
*[Leah Remini](http://www.bfi.org.uk/films-tv-people/4ce2bbd056489) at the [Film Institute](British)(British Film Institute)
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Napoleon Dynamite
|
napoleon_dynamite
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# Napoleon Dynamite
*Revision ID: 1159651668 | Timestamp: 2023-06-11T17:33:28Z*
---
| writer =
| based_on =
| starring =
| music = [Swihart](John)(John Swihart)
| cinematography = Munn Powell
| editing = Jeremy Coon
| studio =
| distributor =
| released =
| runtime = 95 minutes
| country = United States
| language = English
| budget = $400,000
| gross = $46.1 million
}}
***Napoleon Dynamite*** is a 2004 American [film](comedy)(comedy film) produced by [Coon](Jeremy)(Jeremy Coon), [Wyatt](Chris)(Chris Wyatt (producer)) and [Covel](Sean)(Sean C. Covel (producer)), written by [and Jerusha Hess](Jared)(Jared and Jerusha Hess) and directed by Jared Hess. The film stars [Heder](Jon)(Jon Heder) in the role of the titular character, a [nerd](nerd)y high-school student who deals with several dilemmas: befriending an immigrant who wants to be class president, awkwardly pursuing a romance with a fellow student, and living with his quirky family.
The film was Hess's first full-length movie and is partially adapted from his earlier short film, *[Peluca](Peluca)* (2002). *Napoleon Dynamite* was acquired at the [Film Festival](Sundance)(Sundance Film Festival) by [Searchlight Pictures](Fox)(Searchlight Pictures), who partnered up with [Films](MTV)(MTV Films) and [Pictures](Paramount)(Paramount Pictures) for the release. Filming was done at [High School](Preston)(Preston High School (Idaho)), and in different areas in [County, Idaho](Franklin)(Franklin County, Idaho), in the summer of 2003. It debuted at the Sundance Film Festival in January 2004. Most of the situations in the movie are loosely based on the life of Jared Hess. The film's total worldwide gross revenue was $46,122,713. The film has since developed a [following](cult)(cult following) and was voted at number 14 on [Bravo](Bravo (U.S. TV network))'s 100 funniest movies.
## Plot
Napoleon Dynamite is a socially awkward 16-year-old from [Idaho](Preston,)(Preston, Idaho), who lives with his grandmother, Carlinda Dynamite, and his older brother, Kipland Ronald "Kip" Dynamite. Napoleon daydreams his way through school, reluctantly dealing with various bullies who torment him.
Napoleon's grandmother is injured in a quad-bike accident and asks their Uncle Rico to look after the boys while she recovers. Rico, a middle-aged and flirtatious former high-school athlete who lives in a [van](conversion)(conversion van), treats Napoleon like a child. He takes advantage of the visit to team up with Kip in a [scheme](get-rich-quick)(get-rich-quick scheme) by selling items door-to-door. Kip wants money to pay for his internet girlfriend, LaFawnduh, to travel from Detroit to see him while Rico believes riches will help him get over his failed dreams of [NFL](National Football League) stardom and the recent breakup with his girlfriend.
Napoleon becomes friends with two students at his school: Deb, a shy girl who runs various small businesses to raise money for college, and Pedro, a bold yet calm transfer student from [Juarez](Ciudad Juárez, Chihuahua), Mexico. Preparations begin for the high school dance. Pedro asks Summer Wheatley, a popular and snobby girl, to be his dance partner, but is rebuffed. He then asks Deb, who gladly accepts. Pedro encourages an upset Napoleon to find a date for himself, and he picks a popular classmate, Trisha, from the school yearbook. As a gift, he draws an unintentionally bad picture of her and delivers it to Trisha's mother, who is one of Rico's customers. Rico tells embarrassing stories about Napoleon to evoke sympathy from Trisha's mother, who buys his wares and forces Trisha to reluctantly accept Napoleon's invitation. Trisha goes to the dance with Napoleon but soon abandons him, causing Pedro to let Deb dance with Napoleon.
Pedro decides to run for class president, pitting him against Summer. The two factions put up flyers and hand out trinkets to students to attract voters. To increase their respect by demonstrating "skills," Napoleon and Pedro enter a [Farmers of America](Future)(National FFA Organization) competition, grading milk and cow udders. They do well and win medals, but this does little for their popularity. Incidentally, Napoleon visits a [store](thrift)(Charity shop) and buys an instructional dance videotape called ''D-Qwon's Dance Grooves''.
Kip's girlfriend, LaFawnduh, arrives from [Detroit](Detroit) and gives him an urban makeover, outfitting him in [hip-hop](hip-hop) regalia. Seeing that he is learning to dance, LaFawnduh gives Napoleon a mixtape.
Rico's ongoing sales scheme causes friction with Napoleon as he continues to spread embarrassing rumors about Napoleon to prospective customers. Rico tries to sell Deb a breast-enhancement product, claiming it was Napoleon's suggestion, which causes her to break off their friendship. His scheme ends after his sales pitch to the wife of the town's martial arts instructor, Rex, goes awry: Rex assaults Rico after unexpectedly arriving during his demonstration of the breast-enhancement product.
Summer gives a speech before the student body on election day, and then presents a dance skit to "[than Life](Larger)(Larger than Life (song))" by the [Boys](Backstreet)(Backstreet Boys) with a school club. A despondent Pedro gives an unimpressive speech after discovering he is also required to perform a skit. To save Pedro's campaign, Napoleon gives the sound engineer LaFawnduh's mixtape and spontaneously performs an elaborate dance routine to "[Heat](Canned)(Canned Heat (song))" by [Jamiroquai](Jamiroquai). Proving himself to be a skilled dancer, Napoleon's routine receives a [ovation](standing)(standing ovation) from students, stunning Summer and her boyfriend, Don.
Pedro becomes the class president, Kip and LaFawnduh leave on a bus for Michigan, Rico reunites with his estranged girlfriend, Grandma returns from the hospital, and Napoleon and Deb reconcile and play [tetherball](tetherball).
In a post-credits scene set two months later, Kip and Lafawnduh get married, and Napoleon appears with a horse which the bride and groom ride out on.
## Cast
[[Dynamite cast by Gage Skidmore.jpg|right|thumb|350px|The cast of *Napoleon Dynamite* (from left to right: Majorino, Martin, Heder, Ruell, Ramirez, Gries, and Bader)](File:Napoleon)]
* [Heder](Jon)(Jon Heder) as Napoleon Dynamite
* [Ramirez](Efren)(Efren Ramirez) as Pedro Sánchez
* [Majorino](Tina)(Tina Majorino) as Deborah "Deb" Bradshaw
* [Ruell](Aaron)(Aaron Ruell) as Kipland Ronald "Kip" Dynamite
* [Gries](Jon)(Jon Gries) as Rico Dynamite
* [Duff](Haylie)(Haylie Duff) as Summer Wheatley
* [Kennard](Emily)(Emily Dunn (actress)) as Trisha Stevens
* [Avery](Shondrella)(Shondrella Avery) as LaFawnduh Lucas
* [Martin](Sandy)(Sandy Martin (actress)) as Grandma Carlinda Dynamite
* [Bader](Diedrich)(Diedrich Bader) as Rex
* Carmen Brady as Starla
* Trevor Snarr as Don
* [Dubin](Ellen)(Ellen Dubin) as Aunt Ilene
## Production
### Origin
[[house from Napoleon Dynamite.jpg|thumb|right|Pedro's house, located in Preston, Idaho.](File:Pedros)]
In 2002, [Young University](Brigham)(Brigham Young University) film students Jon Heder and Jared Hess collaborated on a class project; the result was a 9-minute short movie shot on black-and-white 16mm film entitled *[Peluca](Peluca)* about a nerdy high school student named Seth.
*Peluca* was shown at the 2003 [Film Festival](Slamdance)(Slamdance Film Festival) and was well received. [Coon](Jeremy)(Jeremy Coon) convinced Hess to drop out of school and adapt it into a feature-length film, and he helped him to find investors for the project. Hess sent the short film and the script to a variety of different casting directors, many of whom thought that the idea was "too weird or they just didn't like the character," Hess explained. One casting director suggested [Gyllenhaal](Jake)(Jake Gyllenhaal) over unknown actor Jon Heder for the lead role but Hess believed Heder was the only actor to play the part. [Lee](Jason)(Jason Lee (actor)) was offered the role of Uncle Rico while [Garrett](Brad)(Brad Garrett) auditioned for Rex and enjoyed the script, but decided not to commit. Heder was paid $1,000 for starring in the film, but successfully negotiated to receive more after the film became a runaway success.
### Filming and setting
Hess shot the film on location in Preston, in southeastern [Idaho](Idaho), located near the [Utah](Utah) border, in July 2003. Operating on a tight budget of $400,000, Hess cast many of his friends from school, including Heder and [Ruell](Aaron)(Aaron Ruell), and he relied on the generosity of Preston locals, who provided housing and food to crew members. Among the established actors in the cast was comedy veteran [Bader](Diedrich)(Diedrich Bader), who filmed his scenes as virile martial art instructor Rex in one day. He recalled in 2011 that *Napoleon Dynamite* "still to this day [is] one of the two top scripts I've ever read", alongside *[Space](Office)(Office Space)* (1999), one of his most-recognized roles. "It was very, very hot," Hess recalled in a *[Stone](Rolling)(Rolling Stone)* interview. "But it was so much fun being in this rural farm town making a movie. We shot it in 23 days, so we were moving very, very fast; I just didn't have a lot of film to be able to do a lot of takes. It was a bunch of friends getting together to make a movie. It was like, 'Are people going to get this? Is it working?'"
[[File:Preston High School - Preston, Idaho.jpg|right|thumb|210px|[High School](Preston)(Preston High School (Idaho)) was one of the filming locations for the movie.]]
Hess describes the film as being "so autobiographical". "I grew up in a family of six boys in Preston, Idaho, and the character of Napoleon was a hybrid of all the most nerdy and awkward parts of me and my brothers growing up. Jerusha really was like Deb growing up. Her mom made her a dress when she was going to a middle school dance and she said, 'I hadn't really developed yet, so my mom overcompensated and made some very large, fluffy shoulders.' Some guy dancing with her patted the sleeves and actually said, 'I like your sleeves ... they're real big,"' Hess said in an interview with *[Stone](Rolling)(Rolling Stone)*.
The film is set during the 2004–2005 school year, as shown on Napoleon's student ID card in the title sequence. The film contains several culturally retroactive elements harkening back to the 1980s or 1990s. For example, Deb wears a side [ponytail](ponytail) and Napoleon wears [Boot](Moon)(Moon Boot)s, both popular fashion trends of the 1980s. One scene is set at a school dance that plays only 1980s music such as [Alphaville](Alphaville (band))'s "[Young](Forever)(Forever Young (Alphaville song))," whereas an earlier scene features students performing a [language](sign)(American Sign Language) rendition of "[Rose](The)(The Rose (song))" (1980) sung by Bette Midler. Much of the technology in the film is also archaic; Napoleon uses a [VCR](VCR) and [Walkman](Walkman) [cassette](compact cassette) player, Kip connects to the Internet via a pay-per-minute [dial-up](Dial-up Internet access) connection and Uncle Rico drives a 1975 [Tradesman](Dodge)(Dodge Ram Van#Original B series). The song Napoleon Dynamite dances to at the end of the film—"Canned Heat" by Jamiroquai—came out in 1999.
### Opening sequence
The film was originally made without opening titles. Audiences at test screenings were confused about when the film was set. Eight months after the film was completed, the title sequence was filmed in cinematographer Munn Powell's basement. Ruell, who played Kip, suggested the idea of the title sequence. The sequence shows a pair of hands placing and removing several objects on a table. Objects like plates of food had the credits written in condiments, while other objects like a [Lemonheads](Lemonhead (candy)) box or a tube of [ChapStick](ChapStick) had the credits printed on them. Hess explains:
On the studio's reaction to the sequence, Hess adds:
### Dance scene
The Hesses wrote the climactic dance scene because they knew Heder liked to dance. "Jared's wife was like, 'Jon, I hear you're pretty good dancer. I've seen you boogie; it's pretty sweet,'" recalled Heder. "And I was like, 'Well, I like to dabble.' I liked to mess around sometimes in front of friends and dance. But I did take pride in it. I won't be modest. I wasn't great but I did like to mess around ... Cut to two years later: after we had shot the short, they were like, 'Okay we're going to have you dancing in the movie as the climax. This is going to make or break the film.'"
When it came to shooting the dance scene for the final film, the producers scheduled to film it towards the end of the film. When they finally got to the scene, they were running out of money and film. They only had one roll of film (approximately 10.5 minutes) left to shoot.
"It was a lot of pressure," Heder observed. "I was like, 'Oh, crap!' This isn't just a silly little scene. This is the moment where everything comes, and he's making the sacrifice for his friend. That's the whole theme of the movie. Everything leads up to this. Napoleon's been this loser. This has to be the moment where he lands a victory. He gets up there, and it's quiet: no reaction from the audience."
The dance was spontaneously improvised by Heder, with some choreography help from Tina Majorino, and additional moves taken from *[Night Fever](Saturday)(Saturday Night Fever)*, [Jackson](Michael)(Michael Jackson), and *[Train](Soul)(Soul Train)*. "They were like, 'No, Jon, just figure it out.' So I just winged it. I danced three times and they took the best pieces from each of those."
"When you're shooting in independent film, you don't know what you're going to get the rights to," Heder explained. "We thought Jamiroquai might be expensive. So we danced to three different songs. To that song and another Jamiroquai song, "[L](Little)(Little L)." We danced to Michael Jackson, something off of *[the Wall](Off)(Off the Wall)*. Just those three. And then we got the rights to Jamiroquai. And I think that was half our budget."
### Origin of the name "Napoleon Dynamite"
Upon the film's release, it was noted that the name "Napoleon Dynamite" had originally been used by musician [Costello](Elvis)(Elvis Costello), most visibly on his 1986 album *[& Chocolate](Blood)(Blood & Chocolate)*, although he had used the pseudonym on a single B-side as early as 1982. Filmmaker [Hess](Jared)(Jared and Jerusha Hess) states that he was not aware of Costello's use of the name until two days before the end of shooting, when he was informed by a teenage [extra](extra (actor)). He later said, "Had I known that name was used by anybody else prior to shooting the whole film, it definitely would have been changed ... I listen to [hip-hop](hip hop music), dude. It's a pretty embarrassing coincidence." Hess claims that "Napoleon Dynamite" was the name of a man he met around 2000 on the streets of [Illinois](Cicero,)(Cicero, Illinois), while doing [missionary](Mormon missionary) work for [Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints](the)(the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints).
Costello believes that Hess got the name from him, whether directly or indirectly. Costello said, "The guy just denies completely that I made the name up ... but I invented it. Maybe somebody told him the name and he truly feels that he came to it by chance. But it's two words that you're never going to hear together."
### Lawsuit against Fox Searchlight Pictures
On August 30, 2011, Napoleon Pictures filed a lawsuit against Fox Searchlight for $10 million for underreporting royalties and taking improper revenue deductions. In its term sheet, Fox agreed to pay 31.66% of net profits on home video. The lawsuit said that a 2008 audit revealed that Fox was only paying net royalties on home videos at a 9.66% rate, and there were underreported royalties and improper deductions.
Napoleon Pictures also alleged that Fox had breached the agreement in multiple other respects, including underreporting pay television license fees, failing to report electronic sell-through revenue, charging residuals on home video sales, as well as overcharging residuals on home video sales, deducting a number of costs and charges Fox had no right to deduct and/or for which there is no supporting documentation.
In May 2012, Fox went to trial after failing to win a [judgment](summary)(summary judgment) on the case. The trial began on June 19, 2012. On November 28, 2012, a 74-page decision sided with Fox on 9 of the 11 issues. Napoleon Pictures was awarded $150,000 based on Fox accounting irregularities.
## Release
*Napoleon Dynamite* premiered at the [Film Festival](Sundance)(Sundance Film Festival) on January 17, 2004, and was theatrically released on June 11, 2004, in the United States by [Searchlight Pictures](Fox)(Fox Searchlight Pictures), [Pictures](Paramount)(Paramount Pictures) and [Films](MTV)(MTV Films).
On June 9, 2014, the film was screened at [of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences](Academy)(Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences) in Los Angeles to celebrate its 10th anniversary. In addition, a bronze statue of Napoleon Dynamite, complete with tetherball, was placed at the 20th Century Fox studio lot.
### Home media
*Napoleon Dynamite* was released on VHS and DVD on December 21, 2004, by [Century Fox Home Entertainment](20th)(20th Century Fox Home Entertainment) in North America and by [Home Entertainment](Paramount)(Paramount Home Entertainment) in all other territories.
The "10th Anniversary Edition" [Blu-ray](Blu-ray) was released on June 2, 2014.
## Reception
### Box office
Despite a very [initial release](limited)(Limited release), *Napoleon Dynamite* was a commercial success. It was filmed on an estimated budget of a mere $400,000, and less than a year after its release, it had grossed $44,940,956.
It also spawned a slew of merchandise, from refrigerator magnets to T-shirts and Halloween costumes.
### Critical response
On the [aggregator](review)(review aggregator) website [Tomatoes](Rotten)(Rotten Tomatoes), 72% of 175 critics' reviews are positive, with an average rating of 6.40/10. The website's consensus reads, "A charming, quirky, and often funny comedy." [Metacritic](Metacritic), which uses a [average](weighted)(weighted average), assigned the film a score of 64 out of 100, based on 36 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews".
Peter Travers of *[Stone](Rolling)(Rolling Stone)* magazine complimented the film, saying, "Hess and his terrific cast – Heder is geek perfection – make their own kind of [deadpan](deadpan) hilarity. You'll laugh till it hurts. Sweet." The *[Science Monitor](Christian)(Christian Science Monitor)* called the film "a refreshing new take on the overused teen-comedy genre" and said that the film "may not make you laugh out loud – it's too sly and subtle for that – but it will have you smiling every minute, and often grinning widely at its weirded-out charm."
Michael Atkinson of *[Village Voice](The)(The Village Voice)* praised the film as "an epic, magisterially observed pastiche on all-American geekhood, flooring the competition with a petulant shove." In a mixed review, *[New York Times](The)(The New York Times)* praised Heder's performance and the "film's most interesting quality, which is its stubborn, confident, altogether weird individuality", while criticizing the film's resolution that comes "too easily." [Ebert](Roger)(Roger Ebert) of the *[Sun-Times](Chicago)(Chicago Sun-Times)* gave the film one-and-a-half stars, writing that he felt that "the movie makes no attempt to make [Napoleon] likable" and that it contained "a kind of studied stupidity that sometimes passes as humor". At the time, *[Weekly](Entertainment)(Entertainment Weekly)* critics gave it a grade C and C− respectively.Schwarzbaum, Lisa (June 18, 2004), "NAPOLEON DYNAMITE (Film)".* Entertainment Weekly*. (770):60-63 *[Weekly](Entertainment)(Entertainment Weekly)* later ranked Napoleon #88 on its 2010 list of The 100 Greatest Characters of the Last 20 Years, saying, "A high school misfit found a sweet spot, tapping into our inner dork." The film was on several year-end lists. *[Stone](Rolling)(Rolling Stone)* placed it at number 22 of the 25 Top DVDs of 2004.
### Awards
* Best Feature Film at the U.S. Comedy Arts Festival the same year. The film's budget was only $400,000. When the film rights were sold to a [distributor](major)(Distribution (business)), Fox Searchlight Pictures, Fox supplied additional funds for the [scene](post-credits)(post-credits scene).
* In 2005, the film – itself an MTV Films production – won three [Movie Awards](MTV)(MTV Movie Awards), for Breakthrough Male Performance, Best Musical Performance, and Best Movie. The film is #14 on [Bravo](Bravo (American TV channel))'s "100 Funniest Movies".
* It won the 2005 [Trailer Awards](Golden)(Golden Trailer Awards) for Best Comedy.
* It won the 2005 [Satellite Award](Golden)(Golden Satellite Award) for Best Original Score (John Swihart).
* Four awards at the [Choice Awards](Teen)(Teen Choice Awards). Choice Movie: Female Breakout Star for Haylie Duff, Choice Movie: Dance Scene, Choice Movie: Hissy Fit for Jon Heder, and Choice Movie: Comedy.
* The 2004 Film Discovery Jury Award for Best Feature
* April 2005, the Idaho Legislature approved a resolution commending the filmmakers for producing *Napoleon Dynamite*, specifically enumerating the benefits the movie has brought to Idaho, as well as for showcasing various aspects of Idaho's culture and economy.
## Soundtrack
## Future
### Possible sequel
After nearly two decades of rumors, it was reported in September 2020, that a sequel to *Napoleon Dynamite* was in discussion. Heder stated that he is interested in a darker take on the film's characters instead of rehashing the original film's plot:
Ramirez improvised a script for a sequel in which Pedro is married to Summer Wheatley, has five kids and owns a bakery. In the same hypothetical script, Kip has fulfilled his dream to become a cage fighter, while Rico has ventured into a new business that he believes will make him rich.
In January 2023, Heder stated that he believed a sequel was "inevitable" and reiterated his interest in displaying a darker tone for the sequel.
### Animated series
In April 2010, [Fox](Fox Broadcasting Company) announced that an animated series was in development, with the original cast reprising their roles. The series debuted on Sunday, January 15, 2012. Director Jared Hess, his co-screenwriter wife Jerusha, and [Scully](Mike)(Mike Scully) produced the show in association with [Century Fox Television](20th)(20th Century Fox Television). On May 14, 2012, it was announced that [Fox](Fox Broadcasting Company) had canceled the series after 6 episodes. The complete series was released on DVD on November 4, 2014, by Olive Films.
## Legacy
The term "The Napoleon Dynamite Problem" has been used to describe the phenomenon where "quirky" films such as *Napoleon Dynamite*, *[in Translation](Lost)(Lost in Translation (film))* and *[Heart Huckabees](I)(I Heart Huckabees)* prove difficult for researchers to create [algorithm](algorithm)s that are able to predict whether or not a particular viewer will like the film based on their ratings of previously viewed films.
For several years the city of Preston held a "Napoleon Dynamite Festival" in the summer. Many of the featured festival themes related to events occurring during the film. For example: [Tetherball](Tetherball) Tournament, [Tot](Tater)(Tater Tots) Eating Contest, [Boot](Moon)(Moon boot) Dance, Impersonation, Look-A-Like Contest, [Football](American football) Throwing Contest and more. Fifteen years after the film came out fans continue to visit Preston, primarily as a side trip as they make their way to [National Park](Yellowstone)(Yellowstone National Park).
The success of *Napoleon Dynamite* led to other films set in small towns, such as *[Miss Sunshine](Little)(Little Miss Sunshine)* and *[Juno](Juno (film))*, which would have similar critical, popular, and financial success.
## See also
* [Dynamite Festival](Napoleon)(Preston, Idaho#Festivities)
* *[Dynamite: The Game](Napoleon)(Napoleon Dynamite: The Game)*
## References
## External links
*
*
*
*
}}
[ ](Category:Napoleon Dynamite)
[buddy comedy films](Category:2000s)(Category:2000s buddy comedy films)
[coming-of-age comedy films](Category:2000s)(Category:2000s coming-of-age comedy films)
[English-language films](Category:2000s)(Category:2000s English-language films)
[teen comedy films](Category:2000s)(Category:2000s teen comedy films)
[comedy films](Category:2004)(Category:2004 comedy films)
[directorial debut films](Category:2004)(Category:2004 directorial debut films)
[films](Category:2004)(Category:2004 films)
[independent films](Category:2004)(Category:2004 independent films)
[buddy comedy films](Category:American)(Category:American buddy comedy films)
[coming-of-age comedy films](Category:American)(Category:American coming-of-age comedy films)
[high school films](Category:American)(Category:American high school films)
[independent films](Category:American)(Category:American independent films)
[teen comedy films](Category:American)(Category:American teen comedy films)
[based on short films](Category:Features)(Category:Features based on short films)
[about bullying](Category:Films)(Category:Films about bullying)
[about elections](Category:Films)(Category:Films about elections)
[adapted into television shows](Category:Films)(Category:Films adapted into television shows)
[directed by Jared Hess](Category:Films)(Category:Films directed by Jared Hess)
[scored by John Swihart](Category:Films)(Category:Films scored by John Swihart)
[set in 2004](Category:Films)(Category:Films set in 2004)
[set in Idaho](Category:Films)(Category:Films set in Idaho)
[shot in Idaho](Category:Films)(Category:Films shot in Idaho)
[Searchlight Pictures films](Category:Fox)(Category:Fox Searchlight Pictures films)
[culture](Category:Idaho)(Category:Idaho culture)
[Films films](Category:MTV)(Category:MTV Films films)
[Pictures films](Category:Paramount)(Category:Paramount Pictures films)
[Century Studios franchises](Category:20th)(Category:20th Century Studios franchises)
[American films](Category:2000s)(Category:2000s American films)
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Alicia Silverstone
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alicia_silverstone
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# Alicia Silverstone
*Revision ID: 1159688223 | Timestamp: 2023-06-11T22:47:06Z*
---
| birth_place = [Francisco, California](San)(San Francisco), U.S.
| occupation = Actress
| years_active = 1992–present
| spouse = }}
| children = 1
| website =
}}
**Alicia Silverstone** ( ; born October 4, 1976) is an American actress. She made her film debut in the thriller *[Crush](The)(The Crush (1993 film))* (1993), earning the 1994 [Movie Award for Best Breakthrough Performance](MTV)(MTV Movie Award for Best Breakthrough Performance), and gained further prominence as a [idol](teen)(teen idol) when she appeared in the music video for [Aerosmith](Aerosmith)'s "[Cryin'](Cryin')". She went on to star as [Horowitz](Cher)(Cher Horowitz) in the teen comedy film *[Clueless](Clueless)* (1995), which earned her a multi-million dollar deal with [Pictures](Columbia)(Columbia Pictures). In 1997, she starred in the superhero film *[& Robin](Batman)(Batman & Robin (film))*, playing [Batgirl](Batgirl).
Silverstone received a [Globe](Golden)(Golden Globe) nomination for [Actress – Television Series Musical or Comedy](Best)(Golden Globe Award for Best Actress – Television Series Musical or Comedy) for her role in the short-lived [NBC](NBC) series *[Match](Miss)(Miss Match)* (2003). She has continued to act in film and television and on stage.
A [vegan](veganism), Silverstone has endorsed [PETA](People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals) activities and published two cookbooks: *[Kind Diet](The)(The Kind Diet)* (2009) and *The Kind Mama* (2014).
## Early life
Silverstone was born in San Francisco, California, the daughter of Deirdre "Didi" Silverstone ([née](Given name#Name at birth) Radford), a Scottish former [Am](Pan)(Pan American World Airways) flight attendant; and Monty Silverstone, an English real estate agent.[Interview, Feb, 1994 by Graham Fuller](http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1285/is_n2_v24/ai_15129880+%22parents+are+english%22&gl=uk&ct=clnk&cd=20) She grew up in [California](Hillsborough,)(Hillsborough, California). Her father was born to a [Jewish](American Jews) family and her mother [converted](conversion to Judaism) to [Judaism](Conservative)(Conservative Judaism) before marriage. Silverstone had a [Mitzvah](Bat)(Bar and Bat Mitzvah) ceremony. She began modeling when she was six, and was subsequently cast in television commercials, the first being for [Pizza](Domino's)(Domino's Pizza). She attended [Middle School](Crocker)(Crocker Middle School), then [Mateo High School](San)(San Mateo High School).
## Career
### 1990s
Her first credited acting role was on *[Wonder Years](The)(The Wonder Years)* in 1992, in the episode "Road Test", as Kevin's high school "dream girl". Silverstone made her film debut when she obtained the leading role in the erotic thriller *[Crush](The)(The Crush (1993 film))*, playing a teenage girl who sets out to ruin an older man after he spurns her affections; she became [emancipated](legally)(emancipation of minors) at the age of 15 to work the hours required for the shooting schedule of the film. She won two awards at the [MTV Movie Awards](1994)(MTV Movie Awards 1994) for the role—Best Breakthrough Performance and Best Villain. Silverstone made some television films in her early career, including *[Song](Torch)(Torch Song (1993 film))*, *[and the Crazy](Cool)(Cool and the Crazy)*, and *[Dreams](Scattered)(Scattered Dreams)*.
After seeing her in *The Crush*, [Callner](Marty)(Marty Callner) decided Silverstone would be perfect for a role in a music video he was directing for Aerosmith, called "[Cryin'](Cryin'#Music video)"; she was subsequently cast in two more Aerosmith videos, "[Amazing](Amazing (Aerosmith song)#Video)" and "[Crazy](Crazy (Aerosmith song)#Music video)". These were hugely successful for both the band and Silverstone, making her a household name. After seeing Silverstone in the three videos, filmmaker [Heckerling](Amy)(Amy Heckerling) decided to cast her in the [coming-of-age](coming-of-age film) comedy *[Clueless](Clueless (film))*, in the role of Cher Horowitz, a sweet but spoiled girl living in [Hills](Beverly)(Beverly Hills). *Clueless* became a hit and critical darling during the summer of 1995, and as a result, Silverstone signed a deal with [Columbia](Columbia Pictures)-[TriStar](TriStar Pictures) valued between $8 and $10 million. As part of the package, she got a three-year [deal](first-look)(first-look deal) for her own production company, First Kiss Productions. Silverstone also won Best Female Performance and Most Desirable Female at the [MTV Movie Awards](1996)(MTV Movie Awards 1996), plus awards from [Entertainment Award](Blockbuster)(Blockbuster Entertainment Award), [Choice Awards](Kids')(Kids' Choice Awards), [Board of Review](National)(National Board of Review), and an [Comedy Award](American)(American Comedy Award) for her performance in the film.
Silverstone had three other film releases in 1995—*[Nouveau monde](Le)(Le Nouveau monde)*, *[Hideaway](Hideaway (1995 film))* and *[Babysitter](The)(The Babysitter (1995 film))*. The French drama about Americans *Le Nouveau monde* saw her play the love interest of a French boy. In the [adaptation of the novel](film)(Hideaway (novel)) by [Koontz](Dean)(Dean Koontz), *[Hideaway](Hideaway (1995 film))*, she took on the role of the daughter of a man who dies in a car accident and is revived two hours later, and the film *The Babysitter* was a [B](B film) [thriller](erotic)(erotic thriller) directed by [Ferland](Guy)(Guy Ferland) based on the eponymous short story by [Coover](Robert)(Robert Coover) in his 1969 collection *Pricksongs and Descants*.
In 1996, she starred in the direct-to-video thriller *[Crime](True)(True Crime (1996 film))* as a Catholic school student searching for a murderer of teenage girls. Her next role was Barbara Gordon/[Batgirl](Batgirl) in *[& Robin](Batman)(Batman & Robin (film))* (1997). Budgeted at $160 million, the film grossed a modest $238 million worldwide, and her turn as Batgirl received polarized reviews from critics, who also considered the film to be [of the worst films of all time](one)(list of films considered the worst). Silverstone won a [Award](Razzie)(Golden Raspberry Awards) for Worst Supporting Actress, but received a Blimp Award at the [Choice Awards](Kid's)(Kid's Choice Awards) for the role.
Also in 1997, the first film by Silverstone's production company, *[Baggage](Excess)(Excess Baggage (1997 film))*, was released. In the film, she plays a neglected young woman who stages her own kidnapping to get her father's attention, only to actually be kidnapped by a car thief. The film only grossed $14.5 million in North America, and received mediocre reviews from critics; [Ebert](Roger)(Roger Ebert) mentioned that she was "no better than OK" as he felt that she was miscast. Silverstone starred as the female lead in the romantic comedy *[from the Past](Blast)(Blast from the Past (film))* (1999), directed by [Wilson](Hugh)(Hugh Wilson (director)) and co-starring [Fraser](Brendan)(Brendan Fraser), [Walken](Christopher)(Christopher Walken), and [Spacek](Sissy)(Sissy Spacek). Critical response towards the film was mixed, while it made a modest $40 million globally. *[New York Post](The)(The New York Post)* noted in its review that Silverstone "proves wrong anyone who gave up on her because of her ill-fated turn in the awful *Batman and Robin.* She's quite believable as a tough chick who's seen enough of life to give up on romance."
### 2000s
In the 1990s, her public profile and film career saw significant growth. For the next decade, Silverstone stepped aside from the spotlight and opted to focus on smaller-scale films and theater. In ''[Labour's Lost](Love's)(Love's Labour's Lost (film))'' (2000), a film adaptation of [Shakespeare](William)(William Shakespeare)'s [play](Love's Labour's Lost), directed by [Branagh](Kenneth)(Kenneth Branagh), Silverstone played the Princess of France, a role which required her to sing and dance. While critical response was mixed, the film received a limited theatrical release. Film critic [Berardinelli](James)(James Berardinelli) felt that Silverstone, "while not completely at ease with all of her dialogue, is surprisingly credible" in her portrayal.
Silverstone executive produced and provided the voice of Sharon Spitz, the lead part, in the Canadian animated television *[Braceface](Braceface)*, from 2001 to 2003. During this period, she played the bassist of a rock band in the independent comedy *[Heresy](Global)(Global Heresy)* (2002), opposite [O'Toole](Peter)(Peter O'Toole) and [Plowright](Joan)(Joan Plowright), and made her [Broadway](Broadway (theatre)) debut alongside [Turner](Kathleen)(Kathleen Turner) and [Biggs](Jason)(Jason Biggs) in a stage version of *[Graduate](The)(The Graduate#Stage adaptation)*, which ran between 2002 and 2003 at the [Theatre](Plymouth)(Gerald Schoenfeld Theatre). Silverstone also starred as one of several disgruntled bank employees trying to rob the same bank in the small-scale comedy *[Scorched](Scorched (2003 film))* (2003), co-starring [Leigh Cook](Rachael)(Rachael Leigh Cook), [Harrelson](Woody)(Woody Harrelson), and [Cleese](John)(John Cleese).
Silverstone signed on to headline the 2003 NBC television series *[Match](Miss)(Miss Match)*, as Kate Fox, a Los Angeles matrimonial attorney who doubles as a high-end matchmaker. The show was cancelled after only 11 episodes had aired, and *[Variety](Variety (magazine))* in its review for the show, wrote: "It's a shame that she's stuck with such wafer-thin material here, because Silverstone is undoubtedly a fun, perky presence on the small screen." Nevertheless, she earned a [Globe Award](Golden)(Golden Globe Award) nomination for [Actress – Television Series Musical or Comedy](Best)(Golden Globe Award for Best Actress – Television Series Musical or Comedy).
[[at the 2006 Sanctuary Gala](File:Alicia_Silverstone.jpg|right|thumb|Silverstone)]
In 2004, Silverstone played a news reporter turned villainess in *[2: Monsters Unleashed](Scooby-Doo)(Scooby-Doo 2: Monsters Unleashed)*, opposite [Michelle Gellar](Sarah)(Sarah Michelle Gellar) and [Prinze, Jr.](Freddie)(Freddie Prinze, Jr.). Despite a negative critical response, the film grossed $181 million at the international box office.
In the comedy *[Shop](Beauty)(Beauty Shop)* (2005), a spinoff of the [film franchise](Barbershop)(BarberShop (film)), Silverstone appeared with [Latifah](Queen)(Queen Latifah), playing a naive and bubbly stylist of an Atlanta-area salon. The film was her final wide release of the decade in North America, where it grossed $37.2 million.
Her next film, the thriller *Silence Becomes You*, received a DVD release in 2005. Silverstone did a pilot episode in 2005 with [Fox](Fox Broadcasting Company) called *Queen B*, where she played a delusional former high school prom queen, but it was not picked up for production. In 2006, she starred in an [ABC](American Broadcasting Company) pilot called *Pink Collar* as a woman working in a law firm, but like *Queen B*, this pilot was not picked up to series.
Silverstone portrayed the close friend of a teenager turned secret agent in the action-spy film *[Stormbreaker](Stormbreaker (film))* (2006), directed by [Sax](Geoffrey)(Geoffrey Sax) and co-starring [Pettyfer](Alex)(Alex Pettyfer), [McGregor](Ewan)(Ewan McGregor) and [Rourke](Mickey)(Mickey Rourke). Despite a $40 million budget, the film made $23 million worldwide and was largely dismissed by critics. *[Today](USA)(USA Today)* described Silverstone as "simply ghastly" in her role, while *View London* remarked that there was "strong support" from the actress. She obtained the role of a single mother returning to her hometown after a lengthy absence in the made-for-[Hall of Fame](Hallmark)(Hallmark Hall of Fame) television film *[on Bay Street](Candles)(Candles on Bay Street)*, based on the book by Cathie Pelletier.
Silverstone continued her theatre work, next appearing in [Mamet](David)(David Mamet)'s *[Marriage](Boston)(Boston Marriage (play))* (2007), a play exploring the relationship between two upper-class women, where the actress played what was described by *[Angeles Times](Los)(Los Angeles Times)* as the "clueless and hyper-emotional Scottish maid" of one of them. The production was presented at the [Playhouse](Geffen)(Geffen Playhouse) theater in Los Angeles, with *[Variety](Variety (magazine))* writing that Silverstone "steals the show [her role](in). Her Scottish accent is good, her comic delivery is fresh, and she gets the maximum laugh value from each wobbly curtsey. Her character is the one thing in the show that Mamet gets absolutely right, although she is used a bit repetitively." In the same year, she starred as a secretary in the theater production *[Speed-the-Plow](Speed-the-Plow)*, a satire of Hollywood executives. The production, presented at Geffen Playhouse, was directed by Randall Arney and penned by David Mamet. *[Hollywood Reporter](The)(The Hollywood Reporter)* concluded the play was "fueled" by "a spectacular tour de force" from Silverstone.
In 2008, Silverstone filmed another unaired ABC pilot alongside [Mullally](Megan)(Megan Mullally) called ''Bad Mother's Handbook* and made a [appearance](cameo)(cameo appearance) in the action-comedy *[Thunder](Tropic)(Tropic Thunder)''. In 2009, she starred in the music video for [Thomas](Rob)(Rob Thomas (musician))'s single "[Diamonds](Her)(Her Diamonds)", and acted in [Margulies](Donald)(Donald Margulies)' production of *[Stands Still](Time)(Time Stands Still (play))*, set in [Brooklyn](Brooklyn) and revolving around the relationships of two couples. Like Silverstone's previous few stage projects, it ran at the Geffen Playhouse in Los Angeles. By the late 2000s, she ventured into writing, releasing her book *[Kind Diet](The)(The Kind Diet)*, a guide to [nutrition](vegan)(vegan nutrition), in 2009; she simultaneously launched its associated website *The Kind Life*. *The Kind Diet* topped the "Hardcover Advice & Misc." category of [New York Times* bestseller list](*The)(The New York Times Best Seller list).
### 2010s
Silverstone continued to focus on theater and independent productions throughout the 2010s, but acted considerably more than in the previous decade. In 2010, she reprised her role in the Broadway production of *Time Stands Still*, alongside [Linney](Laura)(Laura Linney). [Sullivan](Daniel)(Daniel J. Sullivan) directed the play, and described Silverstone as "a breath of fresh air" which had a general positive reception among critics. *[New York Times](The)(The New York Times)* felt that Silverstone "brings warmth, actorly intelligence, and delicate humor." She filmed a small segment in the independent comedy sequel *[Luxx](Elektra)(Elektra Luxx)* (2010), but her part was not included in the final cut of the film.
Silverstone obtained the role of the teacher of a Manhattan private-school senior in the teen romance drama *[Art of Getting By](The)(The Art of Getting By)* (2011), which premiered at the [Film Festival](Sundance)(Sundance Film Festival). The ensemble comedy *[Butter](Butter (2011 film))* (2011) saw her play the adoptive mother of a 12-year-old African American girl who enters a local [sculpturing](butter)(butter sculpture) competition in a small [Iowa](Iowa) town. The film screened on the film festival circuit and was distributed in a limited release. She reunited with *Clueless* director Amy Heckerling in the independent film *[Vamps](Vamps (2012 film))* (2012), playing one of two vampires who fall in love and face a choice that could jeopardize their immortality. She was offered the role after Heckerling came to see her in *Time Stands Still*. Despite a very limited release, *Variety* found the film to be "a refreshing change of pace [...] with an irresistible cast".
[[File:Alicia Silverstone, Festival of Books.jpg|thumb|Silverstone speaking at the 2010 [Angeles Times* Festival of Books](*Los)(Los Angeles Times Festival of Books)]]
Silverstone guest-starred in *[Hospital](Childrens)(Childrens Hospital)* (2011) and obtained a four-episode role in the first season of *[Suburgatory](Suburgatory)* (2012), reuniting with her *Clueless* castmate [Sisto](Jeremy)(Jeremy Sisto). In 2012, Silverstone returned to Broadway in the production of *[Performers](The)(The Performers (play))*, a comedic performance set at the Adult Film Award in [Vegas](Las)(Las Vegas). The play premiered in November at the [Theatre](Longacre)(Longacre Theatre), but was cancelled after 23 previews and seven regular performances due to the aftermath of [Sandy](Hurricane)(Hurricane Sandy).[The Washington Post](https://www.washingtonpost.com/entertainment/theater_dance/broadway-comedy-the-performers-starring-alicia-silverstone-goes-limp-and-will-close-sunday/2012/11/15/de0295da-2fa5-11e2-af17-67abba0676e2_story.html) In 2013, she filmed the television pilot *HR*, which was not picked up, and appeared in the Sundance comedy *[Backwards](Ass)(Ass Backwards)*, released for VOD and selected theaters. In 2014, Silverstone took on the role of a self-absorbed mother in the rural environment in the coming-of-age drama *[in Stardust](Angels)(Angels in Stardust)*, and her *Kind Life* follow-up book, *The Kind Mama*, was published.
In 2015, Silverstone starred in the New York production of *[Good Stock](Of)(Of Good Stock)*, a play revolving around a group of siblings who gather at their family home for a summer weekend. *[Weekly](Entertainment)(Entertainment Weekly)* remarked that she was "magnetic even as an engaged narcissist, ditzy" sister, however *[New York Times](The)(The New York Times)* felt that her role was "the most cartoonish of the characters and a thankless part for [Silverstone], who tips into comic shrillness here". She appeared in the romantic comedy *[Gets the Dog?](Who)(Who Gets the Dog? (2016 film))* (2016), opposite [Kwanten](Ryan)(Ryan Kwanten) portraying a divorcing couple fighting over custody of their beloved dog. The production went straight-to-DVD. Her next film appearance was in the independent biographical drama *[Cobra](King)(King Cobra (2016 film))* (2016), as the mother of gay film actor [Corrigan](Brent)(Brent Corrigan).
In 2016's *[Catfight](Catfight (film))*, Silverstone played the love interest of an outsider artist having a bitter lifetime rivalry with a wealthy housewife. The black comedy was released for VOD and selected theaters, to largely positive reviews. Silverstone starred in three 2017 films — *[of a Wimpy Kid: The Long Haul](Diary)(Diary of a Wimpy Kid: The Long Haul (film))*, *[Killing of a Sacred Deer](The)(The Killing of a Sacred Deer)*, and *[Tribes of Palos Verdes](The)(The Tribes of Palos Verdes)* — and filmed the television series *[Woman](American)(American Woman (2017 TV series))* in July of that year. On her busy workload, she remarked: "[T]hey were all happening at the same time. Everybody worked together. Yorgos [*Sacred Dee* director](the) helped us to push my date and *Diary of a Wimpy Kid* held the movie for a week or two for me". The comedy *The Long Haul*, the fourth film in the [of a Wimpy Kid* film series](*Diary)(Diary of a Wimpy Kid (film series)), saw her portray the clueless and loving mother of the [character](titular)(Greg Heffley), replacing Rachel Harris. The film was widely disliked and criticized by critics for the recasting of the main characters and its story development, and while *The Long Haul* made a modest $40.1 million worldwide, it emerged as Silverstone's most widely seen film since *Beauty Shop* (2005).
In the psychological thriller *[Killing of a Sacred Deer](The)(The Killing of a Sacred Deer)*, directed by [Lanthimos](Yorgos)(Yorgos Lanthimos) and co-starring [Farrell](Colin)(Colin Farrell) and [Kidman](Nicole)(Nicole Kidman), Silverstone took on the role of a widow and the mother of a mysterious boy who befriends his late father's cardiac surgeon. The film competed for the [d'Or](Palme)(Palme d'Or) at the [Cannes Film Festival](70th)(70th Cannes Film Festival) and was an arthouse success. Casting director Francine Maisler chose Silverstone after seeing her star in a previous play; her two-scene appearance was filmed in one day, and she remarked of the filming: "[I]t was just so wonderful. When you admire something so much, it's a little bit hard to imagine how you fit into it". In the independent [coming-of-age](coming-of-age) drama *The Tribes of Palos Verdes*, she reunited with her *Butter* co-star [Garner](Jennifer)(Jennifer Garner), playing a real-estate agent living in [Verdes](Palos)(Palos Verdes), an affluent, coastal suburb of Los Angeles. The film received a one-theater release by [IFC](IFC Films).
Silverstone appeared in the comedy *[Club](Book)(Book Club (film))* (2018), opposite [Keaton](Diane)(Diane Keaton), [Fonda](Jane)(Jane Fonda) and [Bergen](Candice)(Candice Bergen), playing the "domineering" daughter of a "skittish" widow reading *[Shades of Grey](Fifty)(Fifty Shades of Grey)*. The series [Woman*](*American)(American Woman (TV series)), starred Silverstone as a woman discovering her own brand of independence amid the rise of second-wave feminism in the 1970s. It aired for one season on the [Network](Paramount)(Paramount Network). To promote the series, she appeared on an episode of *[Sync Battle](Lip)(Lip Sync Battle)* with co-star [Suvari](Mena)(Mena Suvari). She appeared in the horror film *[Lodge](The)(The Lodge (film))*, which premiered at the 2019 [Film Festival](Sundance)(Sundance Film Festival).
### 2020s
In 2020, Silverstone appeared in the comedies *[Therapy](Bad)(Bad Therapy (film))*, *[of the Groom](Sister)(Sister of the Groom)* and *[Girl](Valley)(Valley Girl (2020 film))*, and also narrated the eco-superhero fantasy novel *CHENDELL: A Natural Warrior* and the [Audible](Audible (service)) podcast *Eat S-t Kenny Daniels.* She began starring in the [Netflix](Netflix) series *[Baby-Sitters Club](The)(The Baby-Sitters Club (2020 TV series))*.
In 2021, she appeared in the [Netflix](Netflix) series *[of the Universe: Revelation](Masters)(Masters of the Universe: Revelation)*.
Her upcoming roles include the crime drama *[Reptile](Reptile (film))* co-starring [del Toro](Benicio)(Benicio del Toro) and [Timberlake](Justin)(Justin Timberlake), as well as the [A24](A24) film *[Y2K](Y2K (upcoming film))*.
## Activism
Silverstone is an [rights](animal)(animal rights) and environmental activist. She became a vegan in 1998 after attending an animal rights meeting, saying, "I realized that I was the problem ... I was an animal lover who was eating animals." She has stated she struggled with childhood vegetarianism: "At eight years old it's hard to stick to your guns – and so through the years I was always starting and stopping trying to be a vegetarian." She has been criticised due to her [anti-vaccine](anti-vaccine) stance, promotion of [pseudoscientific](Pseudoscience) diet and lifestyle choices, and her hyperbolic claims regarding the medical and spiritual benefits of veganism.
In 2004, Silverstone was voted "Sexiest Female Vegetarian" by [PETA](People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals). In 2007, she appeared nude in a print advertisement and 30-second commercial for PETA championing vegetarianism; the TV spot was subsequently pulled from the [Houston](Houston), Texas market by [Cable](Comcast)(Comcast Cable). In 2016, she posed nude in one of the group's "I'd Rather Go Naked" anti-wool ads.Kate Samuelson, "Alicia Silverstone Got Naked for PETA to Stop You from Buying Wool", *[Fortune](http://fortune.com/2016/11/23/alicia-silverstone-peta-ad/),* November 23, 2016. She has set up a sanctuary for rescued pets in Los Angeles. In 2012, during the trial of Russian band [Riot](Pussy)(Pussy Riot), she wrote a letter to [Putin](Vladimir)(Vladimir Putin) asking that vegan meals be made available to all Russian prisoners.
Federal campaign contribution records list Silverstone contributing $500 to [Kucinich](Dennis)(Dennis Kucinich)'s [presidential campaign](2004)(2004 United States presidential election). She supported [Obama's presidential candidacy](Barack)(Barack Obama 2008 presidential campaign), and endorsed Senator [Sanders](Bernie)(Bernie Sanders) for president in the [U.S. presidential election](2016)(2016 United States presidential election).
In 2009, she appeared in "A Gaythering Storm", a [or Die](Funny)(Funny or Die) spoof Internet video parodying anti-same-sex marriage commercial "[Storm](Gathering)(Gathering Storm (advertisement))".
## Personal life
Silverstone has two older siblings: a half-sister from her father's previous marriage, Kezi Silverstone; and a brother, David Silverstone.
She married her longtime boyfriend, rock musician [Jarecki](Christopher)(Christopher Jarecki), in a beachfront ceremony at [Tahoe](Lake)(Lake Tahoe) on June 11, 2005. After meeting outside a theater in 1997, they dated for eight years prior to their marriage.Pener, Degan. "Alicia in Wonderland." *InStyle Home* spring 2007. They got engaged about a year before their marriage, and Jarecki presented Silverstone with an engagement ring that had belonged to his grandmother.
They lived in an [eco-friendly](eco-friendly) Los Angeles house, with [panels](solar)(Photovoltaic module) and an [organic](organic food) [garden](vegetable)(vegetable garden). Silverstone had bought the house, shared with a "menagerie of rescued dogs", in 1996.
On May 5, 2011, Silverstone gave birth to a son. In March 2012, she received media attention for uploading a video of herself feeding [chewed](premastication) food to her son from her own mouth.
Jarecki and Silverstone separated in February 2018. In May 2018 she filed for divorce, and it was finalized in November 2018.
## Filmography
### Film
### Television
### Music videos
## Stage credits
## Awards and nominations
She was awarded a *Heart Of Green Award* in 2009, which "recognizes individuals, organizations or companies who have helped green go mainstream." In 2010, she was awarded a *Voice Of Compassion Award* by the Physician's Committee For Responsible Medicine for "shining a spotlight on the powerful health benefits of a vegan diet." In 2021, she was nominated for the [Emmy Award for Outstanding Limited Performance in a Children's Program](Daytime)(Daytime Emmy Award for Outstanding Performer in Children's Programming)
## See also
* [of animal rights advocates](List)(List of animal rights advocates)
## References
## External links
* [The Kind Life with Alicia Silverstone](http://www.thekindlife.com/) Silverstone's website, an interactive extension of her book, *The Kind Diet*
*
*
*
}}
[births](Category:1976)(Category:1976 births)
[people](Category:Living)(Category:Living people)
[American actresses](Category:20th-century)(Category:20th-century American actresses)
[American actresses](Category:21st-century)(Category:21st-century American actresses)
[American Jews](Category:21st-century)(Category:21st-century American Jews)
[from San Francisco](Category:Actresses)(Category:Actresses from San Francisco)
[from California](Category:Activists)(Category:Activists from California)
[child actresses](Category:American)(Category:American child actresses)
[environmentalists](Category:American)(Category:American environmentalists)
[women environmentalists](Category:American)(Category:American women environmentalists)
[female models](Category:American)(Category:American female models)
[film actresses](Category:American)(Category:American film actresses)
[people of English-Jewish descent](Category:American)(Category:American people of English-Jewish descent)
[people of Scottish descent](Category:American)(Category:American people of Scottish descent)
[animal rights activists](Category:American)(Category:American animal rights activists)
[stage actresses](Category:American)(Category:American stage actresses)
[television actresses](Category:American)(Category:American television actresses)
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[veganism activists](Category:American)(Category:American veganism activists)
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[cookbook writers](Category:Vegan)(Category:Vegan cookbook writers)
[Mateo High School alumni](Category:San)(Category:San Mateo High School alumni)
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Seventh-day Adventist Church
|
seventh-day_adventist_church
|
# Seventh-day Adventist Church
*Revision ID: 1159382136 | Timestamp: 2023-06-10T00:05:16Z*
---
| leader_title = [President](List of Presidents of the General Conference of Seventh-day Adventists)
| leader_name = [N. C. Wilson](Ted)(Ted N. C. Wilson)
| founded_date =
| founded_place = [Creek](Battle)(Battle Creek, Michigan), [Michigan](Michigan), U.S.
| separated_from =
| branched_from = [Millerites](Millerism)
| separations =
| area = Worldwide
| hospitals = 229
| nursing_homes = 129
| aid = [Development and Relief Agency](Adventist)(Adventist Development and Relief Agency)
| congregations =
| members = 22,234,406
| ministers_type = [Pastor](Pastor)s
| ministers = 20,924
| primary_schools = 6,623
| secondary_schools = 2,640
| tertiary = 118
| other_names = Adventist church, SDA (informal)
| website =
}}
The **Seventh-day Adventist Church** is an [Adventist](Adventism) [Protestant](Protestantism) [denomination](Christian)(Christian denomination) which is distinguished by its observance of [Saturday](Saturday), the [day of the week](seventh)(Names of the days of the week#Numbered days of the week) in the Christian [(Gregorian)](Gregorian calendar) and the [calendar](Hebrew)(Hebrew calendar), as the [Sabbath](Sabbath), its emphasis on the imminent [Coming](Second)(Second Coming) (advent) of [Christ](Jesus)(Jesus Christ), and its [annihilationist](annihilationist) [soteriology](soteriology). The denomination grew out of the [movement](Millerite)(Millerism) in the United States during the mid-19th century and it was formally established in 1863. Among its co-founders was [G. White](Ellen)(Ellen G. White), whose extensive writings are still held in high regard by the church.Ronald L. Numbers, *Prophetess of health: a study of Ellen G. White* (3rd ed. 2008) pp. xxiii–xxiv
Much of the theology of the Seventh-day Adventist Church corresponds to common [Christian](evangelical)(Evangelicalism) teachings, such as the [Trinity](Trinity) and the [of Scripture](infallibility)(Biblical infallibility). Distinctive [post-tribulation](post-tribulation rapture) teachings include the [state of the dead](unconscious)(Christian mortalism) and the doctrine of an [judgment](investigative)(investigative judgment). The church places an emphasis on diet and health, including adhering to [Kosher](Kashrut) [food](kosher foods) laws, advocating [vegetarianism](vegetarianism), and its [holistic](holism) view of human nature—i.e. that the body, soul, and spirit form one inseparable entity. The Church holds the belief that "God created the universe, and in a recent six-day creation made the heavens and the earth, the sea, and all that is in them, and rested on the seventh day". [Marriage](marriage in Christianity) is defined as a lifelong union between a man and a woman. The [coming of Christ](second)(second coming of Christ) and [of the dead](resurrection)(resurrection of the dead#Christianity) are among official beliefs.[Seventh-day Adventist Church Fundamental Beliefs](http://www.adventist.org/beliefs/fundamental/index.html) Retrieved June 22, 2011.
The world church is governed by a [Conference of Seventh-day Adventists](General)(General Conference of Seventh-day Adventists), with smaller regions administered by divisions, unions, local conferences and local missions. The Seventh-day Adventist Church is currently "one of the fastest-growing and most widespread churches worldwide", with a worldwide baptized membership of over 21 million people, and 25 million adherents. , it was the twelfth-largest Protestant religious body in the world, and the sixth-largest highly international religious body. It is ethnically and culturally diverse, and maintains a [missionary](missionary) presence in over 215 countries and territories. The church operates over 7,500 [schools](Seventh-day Adventist education) including over 100 post-secondary institutions, numerous [hospitals](list of Seventh-day Adventist hospitals), and publishing houses worldwide, a [aid](humanitarian)(humanitarian aid) organization known as the [Development and Relief Agency](Adventist)(Adventist Development and Relief Agency) (ADRA) and tax-exempt businesses such as [Sanitarium](Sanitarium Health and Wellbeing Company) which fund the church's charitable and religious activities.
## History
The Seventh-day Adventist Church is the largest of several [Adventist](Adventism) groups which arose from the [Millerite](Millerism) movement of the 1840s in upstate [York](New)(New York (state)), a phase of the [Great Awakening](Second)(Second Great Awakening). [Miller](William)(William Miller (preacher)) predicted on the basis of Daniel 8:14–16 and the "[principle](day-year)(day-year principle)" that [Christ](Jesus)(Jesus Christ) would return to Earth between the spring of 1843 and the spring of 1844. In the summer of 1844, Millerites came to believe that Jesus would return on October 22, 1844, understood to be the biblical Day of Atonement for that year. Miller's failed prediction became known as the "[Disappointment](Great)(Great Disappointment)".
[Edson](Hiram)(Hiram Edson) and other Millerites came to believe that Miller's calculations were correct, but that his interpretation of Daniel 8:14 was flawed as he assumed Christ would come to cleanse the world. These Adventists came to the conviction that Daniel 8:14 foretold Christ's entrance into the most holy place of the heavenly sanctuary rather than his [Coming](Second)(Second Coming). Over the next few decades this understanding of a sanctuary in heaven developed into the doctrine of the [judgment](investigative)(investigative judgment), an [eschatological](eschatology) process that commenced in 1844, in which every person would be judged to verify their eligibility for [salvation](Salvation in Christianity) and God's justice will be confirmed before the universe. This group of Adventists continued to believe that Christ's second coming would continue to be imminent, however they resisted setting further dates for the event, citing Revelation 10:6, "that there should be time no longer."
### Development of Sabbatarianism
As the early Adventist movement consolidated its beliefs, the question of the biblical day of rest and worship was raised. The foremost proponent of [Sabbath](Sabbath in seventh-day churches)-keeping among early Adventists was [Bates](Joseph)(Joseph Bates (Adventist)). Bates was introduced to the Sabbath doctrine through a tract written by Millerite preacher [M. Preble](Thomas)(T. M. Preble), who in turn had been influenced by [Oakes Preston](Rachel)(Rachel Oakes Preston), a young [Day Baptist](Seventh)(Seventh Day Baptist). This message was gradually accepted and formed the topic of the first edition of the church publication *The Present Truth*, which appeared in July 1849.
### Organization and recognition
For about 20 years, the Adventist movement consisted of a small, loosely knit group of people who came from many churches and whose primary means of connection and interaction was through James White's periodical *The Advent Review and Sabbath Herald*. They embraced the doctrines of the Sabbath, the [sanctuary](heavenly)(heavenly sanctuary) interpretation of Daniel 8:14, [immortality](conditional)(Christian conditionalism), and the expectation of Christ's [premillennial](premillennialism) return. Among its most prominent figures were Joseph Bates, [White](James)(James Springer White), and [G. White](Ellen)(Ellen G. White). Ellen White came to occupy a particularly central role; her many visions and spiritual leadership convinced her fellow Adventists that she possessed the [gift](spiritual gift) of [prophecy](prophecy).
The church was formally established in [Creek, Michigan](Battle)(Battle Creek, Michigan), on May 21, 1863, with a membership of 3,500. The denominational headquarters were later moved from Battle Creek to [Park, Maryland](Takoma)(Takoma Park, Maryland), where they remained until 1989. The General Conference headquarters then moved to its current location in [Spring, Maryland](Silver)(Silver Spring, Maryland).
In the 1870s, the denomination turned to evangelism through missionary work and revivals, tripling its membership to 16,000 by 1880 and establishing a presence beyond [America](North)(North America) during the late 19th century. The denomination's rapid growth continued, with 75,000 members in 1901. By that time, the denomination operated two colleges, a medical school, a dozen academies, 27 hospitals, and 13 publishing houses. By 1945, the church estimated that it had 210,000 members in the US and Canada, along with 360,000 members who lived in other parts of the world; the church's budget was $29 million and the number of students who were enrolled in the church's schools was 140,000.
## Beliefs
[[File:Mozambique_baptism1.JPG|thumb|left|A pastor baptizes a young man in [Mozambique](Mozambique).]]
The church first published its beliefs and doctrines in Battle Creek, Michigan in 1872, as a brief statement which was titled "A Synopsis of our Faith". The church experienced challenges as it formed its core beliefs and doctrines especially as a number of the early Adventist leaders came from churches that held to some form of [Arianism](Arianism) (Ellen G. White was not one of them). This, along with some of the movement's other theological views, led conservative evangelical Protestants to regard it as a [cult](cult).Adventist historian George R. Knight notes several other leading evangelicals who considered Adventist doctrine to be [heterodox](heterodox); these included Donald Barnhouse (prior to 1950), Norman F. Douty, Herbert S. Bird, E. B. Jones, Louis B. Talbot and M. R. DeHaan. See See also and According to Adventist scholars, the teachings and writings of White, ultimately proved influential in shifting the church from largely semi-[Arian](Arianism) roots towards [Trinitarianism](Trinitarianism).Jerry A. Moon, [The Adventist Trinity Debate Part 1: Historical Overview](http://www.sdanet.org/atissue/trinity/moon/moon-trinity1.htm) and [The Adventist Trinity Debate Part 2: The Role of Ellen G. White](http://www.sdanet.org/atissue/trinity/moon/moon-trinity2.htm) . Copyright 2003 Andrews University Press. See also "[The Arian or Anti-Trinitarian Views Presented in Seventh-day Adventist Literature and the Ellen G. White Answer](http://www.sdanet.org/atissue/trinity/gane-thesis/index.htm) " by Erwin Roy Gane Adventists, for the most part, credit her with bringing the Seventh-day Adventist church into a more comprehensive awareness of the Godhead during the 1890s. The Adventist Church adopted [Trinitarian](Trinitarian) theology early in the 20th century and began to dialogue with other [Protestant](Protestant) groups toward the middle of the century, eventually gaining wide recognition as a Protestant church. *[Today](Christianity)(Christianity Today)* recognized the Seventh-day Adventist church as " the fifth-largest Christian communion worldwide" in its January 22, 2015 issue.
Although her husband claimed that her visions did not support the Trinitarian creed, her writings reveal a growing awareness on the "mystery of the GodHead". Adventists, for the most part, credit her with bringing the Seventh-day Adventist church into a more comprehensive awareness of the Godhead during the 1890s. After continued Bible study, and after a decades-long debate, the denomination eventually concluded that Scripture explicitly teaches the belief in the existence of a triune God, and it affirmed that biblical view in the [non-credal](non-credal) 28 Fundamental Beliefs.
However, mainstream scholars are still not convinced that Ellen White was a Nicene Trinitarian. But even this is an overstatement. Although not actively anti-Trinitarian, Ellen White always carefully avoided using the term "Trinity," and her husband stated categorically that her visions did not support the Trinitarian creed.}} In her writing, she mentions a ceremony in heaven where Jesus was recognized in front of the heavenly host, to be equal with the Father, which Satan disapproved of (as explained in her book *Spirit of Prophecy Vol.1*). It was an arrangement with which he had been happy, according to White, until a primordial ceremony formalized the supremacy of Jesus: "The Father then made known that it was ordained by himself that Christ, his Son, should be equal with himself." However, Satan believed that this decision had been taken without prior consultation, and he convened a meeting of the angels to air his grievances. A ruler had now been appointed over them, he said, and "he would no longer submit to this invasion of his rights and theirs."}}
The official teachings of the Seventh-day Adventist denomination are expressed in its 28 Fundamental Beliefs. This statement of beliefs was originally adopted by the [Conference](General)(General Conference of Seventh-day Adventists) in 1980, with an additional belief (number 11) being added in 2005. Almost all of the 28 Fundamental Beliefs are the same as other [evangelical](Evangelicalism) Protestant denominations. The Adventist beliefs that evangelicals consider [heterodoxy](heterodoxy) is worshiping [God](God) on [Saturday](Saturday), the gift of prophecy by Ellen G. White and the sanctuary doctrine.
The church believes God [Earth](created)(Genesis creation narrative) in [days](six)(Young Earth creationism) and rested on the seventh day Saturday. The Seventh-day Adventist Church believes in baptizing new members by [immersion](believer's baptism). It believes the Bible to be the [important book](most)(Sola scriptura). They believe when [human](human)s die, that they remain asleep until they are [back to life](brought)(Resurrection). [life](Eternal)(Eternal life (Christianity)) is given to people who accept [Jesus](Jesus) as their [Savior](Redeemer (Christianity)). The church believes that one receives [salvation](Salvation in Christianity) through only Jesus. It believes that the [judgment](investigative)(investigative judgment) will take place in [heaven](heaven) before Jesus returns to [earth](earth). The church believes in the [of John](Apocalypse)(Book of Revelation) will bring on the [Coming](Second)(Second Coming) of Jesus.
## Culture and practices
### Sabbath activities
Part of Friday might be spent in preparation for the Sabbath; for example, preparing meals and tidying homes. Adventists may gather for Friday evening worship to welcome in the Sabbath, a practice often known as [vespers](vespers).
#### Worship service
The major weekly worship service occurs on Saturday, typically commencing with [School](Sabbath)(Sabbath School) which is a structured time of [small-group](small group learning) bible study at church. Adventists make use of an officially produced "Sabbath School Lesson", which deals with a particular biblical text or doctrine every quarter.
After a brief break, the community joins together again for a church service that follows a typical evangelical format, with a [sermon](sermon) as a central feature. Corporate singing, Scripture readings, prayers and an offering, including [tithing](Tithe) (money collection), are other standard features. The instruments and forms of [music](worship)(worship music) vary greatly throughout the worldwide church.
#### Holy Communion
Adventist churches usually practice open [communion](Eucharist) four times a year. It commences with a [washing](foot)(Maundy (foot washing)) ceremony, known as the "Ordinance of Humility", based on the Gospel account of John 13. The Ordinance of Humility is meant to emulate Christ's washing of his disciples' feet at the [Supper](Last)(Last Supper) and to remind participants of the need to humbly serve one another. Participants segregate by gender to separate rooms to conduct this ritual, although some congregations allow married couples to perform the ordinance on each other and families are often encouraged to participate together. After its completion, participants return to the main sanctuary for consumption of the [Supper](Lord's)(Eucharist), which consists of [bread](unleavened)(unleavened bread) and unfermented grape juice.
### Health and diet
[[flakes package from 1906](File:CornFlakesPackage1906.jpg|thumb|left|Corn)]
[[File:San health food.jpg|thumb|right|upright=1.15|[Sanitarium](Sanitarium Health Food Company) products for sale]]
[[File:Main Dining Room, Battle Creek Sanitarium (2).jpg|thumb|The main dining room of the [Creek Sanitarium](Battle)(Battle Creek Sanitarium) founded in Michigan by Adventists and run by John Harvey Kellogg. The sanitarium only served vegetarian meals.]]
Since the 1860s when the church began, wholeness and health have been an emphasis of the Adventist church. Adventists are known for presenting a health message that advocates [vegetarianism](Christian vegetarianism) and expects adherence to the [kosher](Kashrut) laws, particularly the consumption of [foods](kosher)(kosher foods) described in [Leviticus](Book of Leviticus) 11, meaning abstinence from [pork](pork), [rabbit](rabbit), [shellfish](shellfish), and other animals proscribed as "[unclean](Unclean animal)". The church discourages its members from consuming [beverages](alcoholic)(Alcoholic drink), [tobacco](tobacco) or [drugs](illegal)(Prohibition of drugs) since the 1800s (compare [and alcohol](Christianity)(Christianity and alcohol)). In addition, some Adventists avoid refined foods, [sweeteners](Sugar substitute), and [caffeine](caffeine).
The pioneers of the Adventist Church had much to do with the common acceptance of [cereal](breakfast)(breakfast cereal)s and [alternative](meat)(meat alternative)s into the Western diet. [Harvey Kellogg](John)(John Harvey Kellogg) started the meat alternative movement by creating Protose at [Creek Sanitarium](Battle)(Battle Creek Sanitarium), which was later sold through mail order by Battle Creek Food Company. The Battle Creek Food Company mostly manufactured meat alternatives for the guests at Battle Creek Sanitarium. [Keith Kellogg](Will)(Will Keith Kellogg) and John Harvey Kellogg invented [flakes](corn)(corn flakes) at Battle Creek Sanitarium, by putting stale wheat berry between rollers and baking it. It was later served to the sanitarium guests. The Kellogg brothers also invented [flakes](bran)(bran flakes) and [Krispies](Rice)(Rice Krispies). Later in 1906, Will Keith Kellogg founded the [Creek Toasted Corn Flake Company](Battle)(Kellogg's) in Battle Creek, Michigan. Special Foods founded in [Ohio](Worthington,)(Worthington, Ohio), in 1939, manufactured nut meat substitutes. After World War II, it changed its name to Worthington Foods. Worthington Foods introduced two canned meat alternatives in 1949: Soyloin Steaks and Meatless Wieners. In 1960, it bought the rights to manufacture and market Battle Creek Foods Company products after John Harvey Kellogg died. In 1975, it released its frozen soy-based meatless foods nationwide. In both Australia and New Zealand, [Health and Wellbeing Company](Sanitarium)(Sanitarium Health and Wellbeing Company) owned by the church manufactures such brands as [Good](So)(So Good (soy beverage)), Up & Go and [Weet-Bix](Weet-Bix).
The [Health Studies](Adventist)(Adventist Health Studies) indicate that the average Adventist in [California](California) lives 4 to 10 years longer than the average Californian. The research concludes that Adventists live longer because they do not smoke or drink alcohol, have a day of rest every week, and maintain a healthy, low-fat [vegetarian](vegetarian) diet that is rich in nuts and beans. [Excerpt](http://www7.nationalgeographic.com/ngm/0511/feature1/index.html) . See also *National Geographic*, "[Sights & Sounds of Longevity](http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/ngm/0511/sights_n_sounds/index.html)" The [cohesiveness](group cohesiveness) of Adventists' social networks has also been put forward as an explanation for their extended lifespan. Dan Buettner named Loma Linda, California a "[Zone](Blue)(Blue zone)" of longevity, and attributes that to the large concentration of Seventh-day Adventists and their health practices. The 96,000 adults who participated in the Adventist Health Studies-2 from 2001-2007 were 30 to 112 years old, and lived in [Canada](Canada) and the [States](United)(United States). The study revealed 8% were [vegans](Veganism), 28% were [ovo](Ovo vegetarianism)/[lacto](Lacto vegetarianism)-[vegetarians](Lacto-ovo vegetarianism), 10% were [pesco-vegetarians](Pescetarianism), 6% semi-vegetarian and 48% non-vegetarian. 98.9% of the participants were non-smokers and 93.4% [from drinking alcohol](abstained)(Teetotalism). Adventist Health Study |url=https://adventisthealthstudy.org/studies/AHS-2 |access-date=January 5, 2021 |website=adventisthealthstudy.org}} Those who were vegetarian had a much lower risk of [obesity](obesity), [hypertension](hypertension), and [hyperglycemia](hyperglycemia). Adventists who were vegetarian had a lower risk of [cancer](breast)(breast cancer), [cancer](colorectal)(colorectal cancer), [heart disease](coronary)(Coronary artery disease), [cancer](lung)(lung cancer) and [cancer](prostate)(prostate cancer), compared to non-vegetarians. Those who were vegan had a lower [mass index](body)(body mass index), compared vegetarians and meat eaters.
Adventists' clean lifestyles were recognized by the [military](U.S.)(United States Army) in 1954 when 2,200 Adventists volunteered to serve as human test subjects in [Whitecoat](Operation)(Operation Whitecoat), a [biodefense](biodefense) medical research program whose stated purpose was to defend troops and civilians against [weapons](biological)(Biological warfare).
### Marriage
The Adventist definition of marriage is a lawfully binding lifelong commitment between a man and a woman. The Church Manual professes the belief that marriage originated as an institution from the biblical story of Adam and Eve and that their union should be used as the pattern for all other marriages.
Adventists hold that marriage is a divine institution established by God during the events of the Book of Genesis prior to the expulsion of Adam and Eve from Eden. They believe that God celebrated the union of Adam and Eve and that the concept of marriage was one of the first gifts of God to man, and that it is "one of the two institutions that, after the fall, Adam brought with him beyond the gates of Paradise."The Adventist Home, pp. 25, 26.
The Old and New Testament texts are interpreted by some Adventists to teach that [should submit to their husbands](wives)(Complementarianism) in marriage.
Adventists hold that [heterosexual](heterosexual) marriages are the only biblically ordained grounds for [intimacy](sexual)(sexual intimacy). Adventists do not perform [marriage](same-sex)(same-sex marriage)s, and individuals who are openly [homosexual](homosexual) cannot be ordained, but may hold church office and membership if they are not actively pursuing same-sex relationships. Current church policy states that openly homosexual (and "practicing") persons are to be welcomed into the church services and treated with the love and kindness afforded any human being.
### Ethics and sexuality
The Seventh-day Adventist Church opposes [abortion](abortion), believing it can have long-term negative effects on both the individuals involved and society as a whole. In an official statement on the "Biblical View of Unborn Life", the church declared that an unborn child is considered by God to be a living individual. However, there are circumstances where the mother's life is at risk Seventh-day Adventist hospitals will perform emergency abortions.
Adventists encourage [abstinence](sexual)(sexual abstinence) for both men and women before marriage. The church disapproves of extra-marital [cohabitation](cohabitation). Adventists oppose homosexual activities and relationships, citing the belief that scripture makes no accommodation for homosexuality.
The Adventist church has released official statements in relation to other ethical issues such as [euthanasia](euthanasia) (against active euthanasia but permissive of passive withdrawal of medical support to allow death to occur), [control](birth)(birth control) (in favor of it for married couples if used correctly, but against abortion as birth control and premarital sex in any case) and [cloning](human)(human cloning) (against it if the technology could result in defective births or abortions).
### Dress and entertainment
Adventists have traditionally held [conservative](socially)(social conservative) attitudes regarding dress and entertainment. These attitudes are reflected in one of the church's fundamental beliefs:
}}
Accordingly, Adventists are opposed to practices such as [piercing](body)(body piercing) and [tattoo](tattoo)s and refrain from the wearing of jewelry, including such items as earrings and bracelets. Some also oppose the displaying of wedding bands, although banning wedding bands is not the position of the General Conference. In 1986, the North American Division legalized [ring](wedding)(wedding ring)s. Before that it was a source of friction, since Adventists [overseas](Expatriate) wear wedding rings.
Conservative Adventists avoid certain recreational activities which are considered to be a negative spiritual influence, including dancing, rock music and secular theatre. However, [studies](major)(Valuegenesis) conducted from 1989 onwards found that a majority of North American church youth reject some of these standards.
On June 29, 2000, the General Conference of Seventh-day Adventists adopted a [resolution](resolution (law)) on [gambling](gambling). The church encourages its members not to gamble and it will not accept funding from it.
### Youth Ministry
Missionary work with children and youth begins with the Adventurer club. The Adventurer curriculum is for children aged between 4-9 and it is divided into 6 classes which are little lamb, early bird, sunbeam, builder and helping hand. Each class builds on the previous class. The curriculum is structured in way that will interest, challenge, and provide successful experiences for children. The curriculum is divided into 5 sections which are, Basic, My God, Myself, My Friends and My World which help children to meet the objectives of the curriculum. The objectives of the Adventurer Curriculum are: to develop a Christ-like character; to experience the joy and satisfaction of doing things well; to express their love for Jesus in a natural way; to learn good sportsmanship and strengthen their ability to get along with others; to discover their God-given abilities and to learn how to use them to benefit self and serve others; to discover God’s world; to improve their understanding of what makes families strong; to develop parental support for the training of children. The club engages in witnessing, community work so as to share the love of Jesus.
[Pathfinders](Pathfinders (Seventh-day Adventist)) is a club for 5th to 10th grade (up to 12th in Florida Conference) boys and girls. It is similar to and based partly on the [Scouting](Scouting) movement. Pathfinders exposes young people to such activities as camping, community service, personal mentorship, and skills-based education, and trains them for leadership in the church. Yearly "Camporees" are held in individual Conferences, where Pathfinders from the region gather and participate in events similar to Boy Scouts' Jamborees.
After a person enters 9th grade, they are eligible to join Teen Leadership Training within Pathfinders. In the 11th grade, typically after being a member of a club, they can become a Pathfinder or Adventurer staff member and begin the "Master Guide" program (similar to Scout Master) which develops leaders for both Adventurers and Pathfinders.*Adventist Manual*
## Organization
[[File:Loma Linda University Church 01.jpg|left|thumb|Loma Linda University Seventh-day Adventist Church in [Linda, California](Loma)(Loma Linda, California)]]
[[File:South_St._Paul_Hispanic_Seventh-day_Adventist_Church.jpg|thumb|South St. Paul Hispanic Seventh-day Adventist Church in [St. Paul, Minnesota](South)(South St. Paul, Minnesota)]]
[[File:Capitol_Hill_Seventh-day_Adventist_Church_02.JPG|left|thumb|Capitol Hill Seventh-day Adventist Church in [D.C.](Washington,)(Washington, D.C.)]]
[[File:Bethel_SDA_457_Grand_Av_2019_jeh.jpg|thumb|Bethel Seventh-day Adventist Church in [York City](New)(New York City)]]
### Structure and polity
The Seventh-day Adventist church is governed by a form of representation which resembles the [presbyterian](presbyterian polity) system of church organization. Four levels of organization exist within the world church.
# The local church is the foundation level of organizational structure and is the public face of the denomination. Every baptized Adventist is a member of a local church and has voting powers within that church.
# Directly above the local church is the "local conference". The local conference is an organization of churches within a state, province or territory (or part thereof) which appoints ministers, owns church land and organizes the distribution of tithes and payments to ministers.
# Above the local conference is the "union conference" which embodies a number of local conferences within a larger territory.
# The highest level of governance within the church structure is the [Conference](General)(General Conference of Seventh-day Adventists) which consists of 13 "Divisions", each assigned to various geographic locations. The General Conference is the church authority and has the final say in matters of conjecture and administrative issues. The General Conference is headed by the office of [President](List of presidents of the Seventh-day Adventist Church). The General Conference head office is in [Spring, Maryland](Silver)(Silver Spring, Maryland), [States](United)(United States).
Each organization is governed by a general "session" which occurs at certain intervals. This is usually when administrative decisions are made. The president of the General Conference, for instance, is elected at the [Conference Session](General)(General Conference Session) every five years. Delegates to a session are appointed by organizations at a lower level. For example, each local church appoints delegates to a conference session.
Tithes collected from church members are not used directly by the local churches, but are passed upwards to the local conferences which then distribute the finances toward various ministry needs. Employees are compensated "on the basis of the church remuneration policy and practice in effect in the location or country in which they reside".NORTH AMERICAN DIVISION OF SEVENTH-DAY ADVENTISTS: Remuneration Scale. January 1, 2018 Retrieved from [nadadventist.org](https://www.nadadventist.org/sites/default/files/inline-files/2018%20Remuneration%20book.pdf)
The Church Manual gives provisions for each level of government to create educational, healthcare, publishing, and other institutions that are seen within the call of the [Commission](Great)(Great Commission).
### Church officers and clergy
The ordained [clergy](clergy) of the Adventist church are known as [ministers](minister of religion) or [pastors](pastors). Ministers are neither elected nor employed by the local churches, but instead are appointed by the local Conferences, which assign them responsibility over a single church or group of churches. Ordination is a formal recognition bestowed upon pastors and elders after usually a number of years of service. In most parts of the world, women may not be given the title "ordained", although some are employed in ministry, and may be "commissioned" or "ordained-commissioned".See also [Adventist theology#Ordination of women](Seventh-day)(Seventh-day Adventist theology#Ordination of women). Laura L. Vance discusses gender issues in *Seventh-day Adventism in Crisis: Gender and Sectarian Change in an Emerging Religion*. [of Illinois Press](University)(University of Illinois Press), 1999. One review is by Douglas Morgan in *[Christian Century](The)(The Christian Century)*, September 22, 1999; [reprint](http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1058/is_25_116/ai_56183352/). Possibly see also *[a Sanctuary](Seeking)(Seeking a Sanctuary)*, chapter "Gender" However, beginning in 2012, some unions adopted policies of allowing member conferences to ordain without regard to gender.
A number of [lay](laity) offices exist within the local church, including the [ordained](ordination) positions of [elder](elder (religious)) and [deacon](deacon). Elders and deacons are appointed by the vote of a local church business meeting or elected committees. Elders serve a mainly administrative and pastoral role, but must also be capable of providing religious leadership (particularly in the absence of an ordained minister). The role of deacons is to assist in the smooth functioning of a local church and to maintain church property.
#### Ordination of women
In 1990, at their General Conference Session leaders of the Seventh-day Adventist Church prevented the [of women](ordination)(ordination of women). They voted 1,173 against and 377 in favor. Those who supported ordaining women were from [Europe](Europe) and [America](North)(North America), while those from [Africa](Africa), [Asia](Asia) and [America](South)(South America) were strongly against. Five years later, it turned down a request by the North American Division that its local conferences be allowed to ordain women.
On July 29, 2012, the Columbia Union Conference, which has its headquarters in [Maryland](Maryland) voted 80 percent in favor of ordaining women. On August 19, 2012, the Pacific Union Conference, which has its headquarters in [California](California) voted 79 percent to 21 percent in favor of ordaining women. The world leaders of the church were disappointed with the actions of the two conferences and considered their actions not in harmony with the world church. In 2012, there were 320 women pastors in the church, while in North America there are 120 women pastors and 4,100 male pastors. In 2013, the Southern California Conference voted for the first time a woman as president.
In July 8, 2015, leaders who represented the Seventh-day Adventist Church voted at their General Conference Session in [Antonio](San)(San Antonio), against the ordination of women becoming pastors. They voted 1,381 against and 977 in favor. Western Adventists who are against the ban say it is keeping them from functioning in this [culture](culture), while those who support the ban get their reason for opposing from the [bible](bible). Adventists in North America, Europe and a few other areas have been ordaining women as pastors. Women are banned from leading local conferences, they also can not create or close churches. [N. C. Wilson](Ted)(Ted N. C. Wilson) who was re-elected for a second five-year term as president voted no, while former president [Paulsen](Jan)(Jan Paulsen) voted yes.
On September 12, 2021, the Mid-America Union Conference was the third to ordain women in the North American Division. They voted 82 percent in favor and 12 percent against.
### Membership
[[Adventist Church membership.svg|200px|left|thumb|Seventh-day Adventist Church membership from 1863-2021](File:Seventh-day)]
}}
The Seventh-day Adventist Church is one of the world's fastest-growing organizations, primarily from membership increases in [nations](developing)(Developing country). Today much of the church membership reside outside of the United States, with large numbers in [Africa](Africa), [Asia](Asia) and [America](Latin)(Latin America). Every 30.33 seconds a new member is baptized into one of the 13 divisions of the Seventh-day Adventist Church.
In 2006, over 25 million people worshiped weekly in Seventh-day Adventist churches around the world.
In 2011, it was reported that the Seventh-day Adventist Church was the fastest-growing church in the United States. Released data showed the membership growing by 2.5% in North America, a rapid clip for this part of the world, where many Christian denominations are declining. On the church’s 150th anniversary in April 2013, there were over 17,000,000 members.
In 2013, it was reported that the church lost one in three members over a fifty year period. Every one hundred people the church gains, it loses forty-three members. The reason why people leave the church is because of [issues](marital)(Divorce) and [unemployment](unemployment). In 2015, the church was the most racially diverse denomination in the United States. The ratio was 37 percent [white](White people), 32 percent black, 15 percent [Hispanic](Hispanic), 8 percent [Asian](Asian people) and 8 percent another or mixed.
In 2017, the church had members in almost every country and territory in the world, except for [Brunei](Brunei), [Comoros](Comoros), [Djibouti](Djibouti), [Islands](Falkland)(Falkland Islands), [Iran](Iran), [Jersey](Jersey), [Maldives](Maldives), [Monaco](Monaco), [Somalia](Somalia) and [Tokelau](Tokelau). In 2019 the Seventh-day Adventist Church had 21,000,000 baptized members around the world.
In 2020, church officials reported the lowest membership increase in 16 years, due to the [pandemic](COVID-19)(COVID-19 pandemic). The Seventh-day Adventist Church added only 803,000 members, the last time membership dropped below 1 million was in 2004. In 2021, the Seventh-day Adventist Church had 1.2 million members worshiping in Canada and the United States.
## Adventist mission
Started in the late 19th century, Adventist mission work today reaches people in over 200 countries and territories. Adventist mission workers seek to preach the [gospel](gospel), promote health through hospitals and clinics, run development projects to improve living standards, and provide relief in times of calamity.
Missionary outreach of the Seventh-day Adventist Church is aimed not only at non-Christians but also at Christians from other denominations. Adventists believe that Christ has called his followers in the [Commission](Great)(Great Commission) to reach the whole world. Adventists are cautious, however, to ensure that [evangelism](evangelism) does not impede or intrude on the basic rights of the individual. [liberty](Religious)(Freedom of religion) is a stance that the Adventist Church supports and promotes.
### Education
[[File:Moran_Hall.jpg|thumb|left|Moran Hall at [University](Oakwood)(Oakwood University)]]
[[File:Spicer University Student Center Building.jpg|thumb|Student Center Building at [Adventist University](Spicer)(Spicer Adventist University)]]
Globally, the Adventist Church operates 7,598 schools, colleges and universities, with a total enrollment of more than 1,545,000 and a total teaching staff of approximately 80,000. It operates the second largest school system in the world, only larger is the Roman Catholic Church school system.
### Health
[[File:Loma Linda University Dennis and Carol Troesh Medical Campus.jpg|thumb|left|[Linda University Medical Center](Loma)(Loma Linda University Medical Center).]]
[[Adventist Hospital.](File:Tokyo_eisei_hospital.JPG|thumb|Tokyo)]
Their largest medical school and hospital in North America is [Linda University](Loma)(Loma Linda University) and [Linda University Medical Center](Loma)(Loma Linda University Medical Center). Throughout the world the Seventh-day Adventist Church, runs a wide network of hospitals, clinics, lifestyle centers, and sanitariums. These play a role in the church's health message and worldwide missions outreach.
AdventHealth is the largest not-for-profit Protestant [care](health)(health care) provider in the United States. It is sponsored by the Seventh-day Adventist Church and cares for over 5 million patients yearly.
### Humanitarian aid and the environment
For over 50 years, the church has been active in humanitarian aid through the work of the [Development and Relief Agency](Adventist)(Adventist Development and Relief Agency) (ADRA). ADRA works as a [non-sectarian](non-sectarian) relief agency in 125 countries and areas of the world. ADRA has been granted General Consultative Status by the [Nations Economic and Social Council](United)(United Nations Economic and Social Council). Worldwide, ADRA employs over 4,000 people to help provide relief in crises as well as development in situations of poverty.
The church embraces an official commitment to the protection and care of the environment[A Statement on the Environment](http://www.adventist.org/beliefs/statements/main_stat9.html) , 1995 and [Statement on Stewardship of the Environment](http://www.adventist.org/beliefs/statements/main_stat10.html) , 1996. See also fundamental beliefs No. 6, "Creation" and No. 21, "Stewardship". as well as taking action to avoid the dangers of [change](climate)(climate change):[The Dangers of Climate Change: A Statement to Governments of Industrialized Countries](http://www.adventist.org/beliefs/statements/main_stat8.html) , 1995 (Official statement)
"Seventh-day Adventism advocates a simple, wholesome lifestyle, where people do not step on the treadmill of unbridled over-consumption, accumulation of goods, and production of waste. A reformation of lifestyle is called for, based on respect for nature, restraint in the use of the world's resources, reevaluation of one's needs, and reaffirmation of the dignity of created life."[Statement on Stewardship of the Environment](http://www.adventist.org/beliefs/statements/main_stat10.html) , 1996
### Media
[[File:Hope-logo.jpg|thumb|right|upright=0.8|[Channel](Hope)(Hope Channel) logo]]
Adventists have long been proponents of media-based ministries. Traditional Adventist evangelistic efforts consisted of street missions and the distribution of tracts such as *The Present Truth*, which was published by [White](James)(James Springer White) as early as 1849. Until [N. Andrews](J.)(John Nevins Andrews) was sent to [Switzerland](Switzerland) in 1874, Adventist global efforts consisted entirely of the posting of tracts such as White's to various locations.
In the last century, these efforts have also made use of emerging media such as [radio](radio) and [television](television). The first of these was [M. S. Richards](H.)(H. M. S. Richards)' radio show *[of Prophecy](Voice)(Voice of Prophecy)*, which was initially broadcast in [Angeles](Los)(Los Angeles) in 1929. Since then, Adventists have been on the forefront of media evangelism; *[Is Written](It)(It Is Written)*, founded by [Vandeman](George)(George Vandeman), was the first religious program to air on color television in March 1965 and the first major Christian ministry to utilize satellite uplink technology. [Facts](Amazing)(Amazing Facts) was founded in 1965 by Joe Crews in [Baltimore](Baltimore) as a radio ministry. Amazing Facts broadcasts "Bible Answers Live" each Sunday where listeners phone or email Bible questions which are answered live. Today the *[Channel](Hope)(Hope Channel)*, the official television network of the church which launched in October 2003, operates 8+ international channels broadcasting 24 hours a day on cable, satellite, and the Web.
[World Radio](Adventist)(Adventist World Radio) was founded in 1971 and is the "radio mission arm" of the Seventh-day Adventist Church. It utilizes AM, FM, shortwave, satellite, podcasting, and the Internet, broadcasting in 77 major language groups of the world with a potential coverage of 80% of the world's population. AWR's headquarters is in Silver Spring, Maryland, with studios throughout the world. A large portion of the ministry's income is derived from membership gifts.
SDA evangelists such as Doug Batchelor, [Finley](Mark)(Mark Finley) and [Nelson](Dwight)(Dwight Nelson) have undertaken a number of international satellite-broadcast live evangelistic events, addressing audiences in up to 40 languages simultaneously.
In 2016, the Church released the film *Tell the World*.
### Publishing
[[and Herald (1868).jpg|240px|thumb|right|Review and Herald Publishing Association in 1868](File:Review)]
The Adventist Church owns and operates approximately 58 publishing companies around the world, in about 136 languages. The major number are in the Trans-European Division (TED), and Inter-European Division (EUD). However, the largest is the [Press Publishing Association](Pacific)(Pacific Press Publishing Association) (PPPA), located in Nampa, Idaho, USA. In 2014, the PPPA absorbed the great [and Herald Publishing Association](Review)(Review and Herald Publishing Association) (located in Hagerstown, Maryland, USA. Nonetheless the Review and Herald Publishing Association maintains part of its board, administrators, and personnel, that were relocated to Nampa. Adventist Review |url=https://adventistreview.org/2010-1518/2010-1518-36/ |access-date=2023-06-08 |website=adventistreview.org |language=en-US}}
The complete list can be found in this link: https://www.adventistpublishing.org/about-us/world-publishing-houses/
### Ecumenical activity
The Adventist Church generally opposes the [movement](ecumenical)(ecumenism), although it supports some of the other goals of [ecumenism](ecumenism). The [Conference](General)(General Conference of Seventh-day Adventists) has released an official statement concerning the Adventist position with respect to the ecumenical movement, which contains the following paragraph:
: Should Adventists cooperate ecumenically? Adventists should cooperate insofar as the authentic gospel is proclaimed and crying human needs are being met. The Seventh-day Adventist Church wants no entangling memberships and refuses any compromising relationships that might tend to water down her distinct witness. However, Adventists wish to be "conscientious cooperators". The ecumenical movement as an agency of cooperation has acceptable aspects; as an agency for the organic unity of churches, it is much more suspect.
While not being a member of the [Council of Churches](World)(World Council of Churches), the Adventist Church has participated in its assemblies in an observer capacity.
## Criticism
The Adventist Church has received criticism along several lines, including what some claim are [heterodox](heterodoxy) doctrines, and in relation to [G. White](Ellen)(Ellen G. White) and her status within the church, and in relation to alleged exclusivist issues.
### Doctrines
Critics such as evangelical [Hoekema](Anthony)(Anthony Hoekema) (who felt that Adventists were more in agreement with [Arminianism](Arminianism)) argue that some Adventist doctrines are [heterodox](heterodoxy). Several teachings which have come under scrutiny are the [annihilationist](annihilationism) view of [hell](hell), the [judgment](investigative)(investigative judgment) (and a related view of the [atonement](Atonement in Christianity)), and the Sabbath; in addition, Hoekema also claims that Adventist doctrine suffers from [legalism](Legalism (theology)).
While critics such as Hoekema have classified Adventism as a [sectarian](sectarian) group on the basis of its atypical doctrines, it has been accepted as more mainstream by Protestant evangelicals since its meetings and discussions with evangelicals in the 1950s.George R. Knight "A Search For Identity The Development of Seventh-Day Adventist Beliefs", Review and Herald Publishing Association, 2000, Pg 165 Notably, [Graham](Billy)(Billy Graham (evangelist)) invited Adventists to be part of his crusades after *[Eternity](Eternity (magazine))*, a conservative Christian magazine edited by [Barnhouse](Donald)(Donald Barnhouse), asserted in 1956 that Adventists are Christians, and also later stated, "They are sound on the great New Testament doctrines including grace and redemption through the vicarious offering of Jesus Christ 'once for all.[http://www.ministrymagazine.org/archive/1993/June/adventists-and-evangelicals-another-viewpoint] [Martin](Walter)(Walter Ralston Martin), who is considered by many to be the father of the [apologetics movement within evangelicalism](counter-cult)(Christian countercult movement), authored *The Truth About Seventh-day Adventists* (1960) which marked a turning point in the way Adventism was viewed:Donald Grey Barnhouse, "Are Seventh-day Adventists Christians?" Eternity, September 1956, 7. "it is perfectly possible to be a Seventh-day Adventist and be a true follower of Jesus Christ despite [heterodox](heterodox) concepts".Walter Martin, *Kingdom of the Cults* Off-site Link (Bethany House, Minneapolis, Minnesota), Updated edition 1997, p.517.
Later on, Martin planned to write a new book on Seventh-day Adventism, with the assistance of Kenneth R. Samples. Samples subsequently authored "From Controversy to Crisis: An Updated Assessment of Seventh-day Adventism", which upholds Martin's view "for that segment of Adventism which holds to the position stated in [QOD](QOD), and further expressed in the Evangelical Adventist movement of the last few decades." However, Samples also claimed that "Traditional Adventism" appeared "to be moving further away from a number of positions taken in QOD", and at least at Glacier View seemed to have "gained the support of many administrators and leaders".["From Controversy to Crisis: An Updated Assessment of Seventh-day Adventism](http://www.iclnet.org/pub/resources/text/cri/cri-jrnl/web/crj0005b.html) by Kenneth R. Samples, Christian Research Institute Journal Christian Research Journal, Summer 1988, Volume 11, Number 1
### Ellen G. White and her status
[[G. White (1899).jpg|thumb|right|200px|Ellen G. White in 1899](File:Ellen)]
[G. White](Ellen)(Ellen G. White)'s status as a modern-day [prophet](prophet) has also been criticized. In the *Questions on Doctrine* era, evangelicals expressed concern about Adventism's understanding of the relationship of White's writings to the inspired canon of Scripture. The Adventist fundamental beliefs maintain that "the Bible is the standard by which all teaching and experience must be tested".
A common criticism of Ellen White, widely popularized by [T. Rea](Walter)(Walter T. Rea), Ronald Numbers and others, is the claim of [plagiarism](plagiarism) from other authors.; An independent lawyer specializing in plagiarism, Vincent L. Ramik, was engaged to undertake a study of Ellen G. White's writings during the early 1980s, and concluded that they were "conclusively unplagiaristic".[The Ramik Report Memorandum of Law Literary Property Rights 1790–1915](http://www.whiteestate.org/issues/ramik.html) When the plagiarism charge ignited a significant debate during the late 1970s and early 1980s, the Adventist General Conference commissioned a major study by Dr. Fred Veltman. The ensuing project became known as the "Life of Christ' Research Project". Veltman examined fifteen, randomly selected chapters of [Desire of Ages](The)(The Desire of Ages) for evidence of literary dependence and concluded, "On an average we may say that 31.4 percent of the DA text is dependent to some extent on literary sources." The results are available at the General Conference Archives.[General Conference Archives](http://www.adventistarchives.org/documents.asp?CatID=13&ShowDateOrder=True&SortBy=1) of the Seventh-day Adventist Church Dr. Roger W. Coon, David J. Conklin, Dr. Denis Fortin, King and Morgan, and Morgan, among others, undertook the refutation of the accusations of plagiarism. At the conclusion of his report, Ramik states:
It is impossible to imagine that the intention of Ellen G. White, as reflected in her writings and the unquestionably prodigious efforts involved therein, was anything other than a sincerely motivated and unselfish effort to place the understandings of Biblical truths in a coherent form for all to see and comprehend. Most certainly, the nature and content of her writings had but one hope and intent, namely, the furthering of mankind's understanding of the word of God. Considering all factors necessary in reaching a just conclusion on this issue, it is submitted that the writings of Ellen G. White were conclusively unplagiaristic.[Also appears in *Review* article](http://www.whiteestate.org/issues/ramik.html)
### Exclusivism
Critics have alleged that certain Adventist beliefs and practices are exclusivist in nature and they point to the Adventist claim to be the "[church](remnant)(Remnant (Adventist))", and the traditional Protestant association of [Catholicism](Roman)(Roman Catholicism) with "[Babylon](Babylon (New Testament))".See also [on Doctrine](Questions)(Questions on Doctrine), chapters 20 and 21; and These attitudes are said to legitimize the [proselytising](proselytism) of Christians from other denominations. In response to such criticisms, Adventist theologians have stated that the doctrine of the remnant does not preclude the existence of genuine Christians in other denominations, but is concerned with institutions.
## Offshoots and schisms
Throughout the history of the denomination, there have been a number of groups that have left the church and formed their own movements.
Following [War I](World)(World War I), a group known as the [Day Adventist Reform Movement](Seventh)(Seventh Day Adventist Reform Movement) was formed as a result of the actions of [R. Conradi](L.)(L. R. Conradi) and certain [Europe](Europe)an church leaders during the war, who decided that it was acceptable for Adventists to take part in war. Those who were opposed to this stand and refused to participate in the war were declared "disfellowshipped" by their local Church leaders at the time. When the Church leaders from the General Conference came and admonished the local European leaders after the war to try to heal the damage, and bring the members together, it met with resistance from those who had suffered under those leaders. Their attempts at reconciliation failed after the war and the group became organized as a separate church at a conference that was held on July 14–20, 1925. The movement officially incorporated in 1949.
In 2005, in another attempt to examine and resolve what its German leaders had done, the mainstream church apologized for its failures during [War II](World)(World War II), stating that they deeply regret' any participation in or support of [Nazi](Nazism) activities during the war by the German and Austrian leadership of the church.""[Church Leaders Say 'We're Sorry': German and Austrian churches apologize for Holocaust actions](http://archives.adventistreview.org/article/92/archives/issue-2005-1540/adventist-news) " by Mark A. Kellner
In the [Union](Soviet)(Soviet Union) the same issues produced the group known as the [and Free Seventh-day Adventists](True)(True and Free Seventh-day Adventists). This also formed as the result of a [schism](schism) within the Seventh-day Adventist Church in [Europe](Europe) during [War I](World)(World War I) over the position its European church leaders took on having its members join the military or keep the [Sabbath](Sabbath). The group remains active today (2010) in the former republics of the Soviet Union.Sapiets, Marite "V. A. Shelkov and the true and free Adventists of the USSR", *Religion, State and Society*, Volume 8, Issue 3, 1980, pp. 201–217
Well-known but distant offshoots are the [Seventh-day Adventist](Davidian)(Davidian Seventh-day Adventist) organization and the [Davidian](Branch)(Branch Davidian)s, themselves a schism within the larger Davidian movement. The Davidians formed in 1929, following [Houteff](Victor)(Victor Houteff), after he came out with his book ''[Shepherd's Rod](The)(shepherd's rod)'', which was rejected as [heretical](Christian heresy). A succession dispute after Houteff's death in 1955 led to the formation of two groups, the original Davidians and the Branches. Later, another ex-Adventist, [Koresh](David)(David Koresh), led the Branch Davidians, until he died in the 1993 [siege](Waco siege), at the group's headquarters near [Texas](Waco,)(Waco, Texas).
A number of Adventists who apostatized, such as former minister [Rea](Walter)(Walter T. Rea), have become critics of the church's teachings and Ellen G. White.
## Cultural influence
[[File:Stamp_of_Russia_2001_No_692_Adventist_Church_in_Ryazan.jpg|thumb|Postage stamp of the Seventh-day Adventist Church in [Ryazan](Ryazan)]]
*[Ridge](Hacksaw)(Hacksaw Ridge)* depicts the life of Adventist [objector](conscientious)(conscientious objector) and [of Honor](Medal)(Medal of Honor) recipient [Doss](Desmond)(Desmond Doss). *[Road to Wellville](The)(The Road to Wellville (film))* is based on a novel about Seventh-day Adventist physician [Harvey Kellogg](John)(John Harvey Kellogg), director of the [Creek Sanitarium](Battle)(Battle Creek Sanitarium). *[Cry in the Dark](A)(Evil Angels (film))*, a film about the [of Azaria Chamberlain](death)(death of Azaria Chamberlain), features the prejudice her parents faced due to misconceptions about their religion. Many other forms of media include mentions of Seventh-day Adventism.
Many country postal services around the world have created [stamp](postage)(postage stamp)s honoring the Seventh-day Adventist Church, or an individual member. In 2020, [Post](Iraqi)(Iraqi Post) released a set of eight [stamp](commemorative)(commemorative stamp)s to honor the Christian churches in the country, the set included a photograph of the Baghdad Seventh-day Adventist Church.
## See also
* [of the largest Protestant denominations](List)(List of the largest Protestant denominations)
* [of Seventh-day Adventist freedom of religion in Canada](History)(History of Seventh-day Adventist freedom of religion in Canada)
* [of Seventh-day Adventists](List)(List of Seventh-day Adventists)
* [of Seventh-day Adventist periodicals](List)(List of Seventh-day Adventist periodicals)
* [in the Seventh-day Adventist Church](Prophecy)(Prophecy in the Seventh-day Adventist Church)
* [Union of Seventh-day Adventist Christian Churches](Italian)(Italian Union of Seventh-day Adventist Christian Churches)
* [Rest Advent Church](Sabbath)(Sabbath Rest Advent Church)
;By country
* [Union Conference of Seventh-day Adventists](Australian)(Australian Union Conference of Seventh-day Adventists)
* [Adventist Church in Brazil](Seventh-day)(Seventh-day Adventist Church in Brazil)
* [Adventist Church in Canada](Seventh-day)(Seventh-day Adventist Church in Canada)
* [Adventist Church in the People's Republic of China](Seventh-day)(Seventh-day Adventist Church in the People's Republic of China)
* [Adventist Church in Colombia](Seventh-day)(Seventh-day Adventist Church in Colombia)
* [Adventist Church in Ghana](Seventh-day)(Seventh-day Adventist Church in Ghana)
* [Adventist Church in India](Seventh-day)(Seventh-day Adventist Church in India)
* [Zealand Pacific Union Conference of Seventh-day Adventists](New)(New Zealand Pacific Union Conference of Seventh-day Adventists)
* [Adventist Church in Nigeria](Seventh-day)(Seventh-day Adventist Church in Nigeria)
* [Union Conference of Seventh-day Adventists](Romanian)(Romanian Union Conference of Seventh-day Adventists)
* [Adventist Church in Sweden](Seventh-day)(Seventh-day Adventist Church in Sweden)
* [Adventist Church in Thailand](Seventh-day)(Seventh-day Adventist Church in Thailand)
* [Adventist Church in Tonga](Seventh-day)(Seventh-day Adventist Church in Tonga)
* [Adventists in Turks and Caicos Islands](Seventh-day)(Seventh-day Adventists in Turks and Caicos Islands)
## Notes
}}
}}
## References
## Further reading
* Baker, Benjamin. 2005. *Crucial Moments: The 12 Most Important Events in Black Adventism*. Hagerstown, MD: Review and Herald.
* Bull, Malcolm and Keith Lockhart, *[a Sanctuary: Seventh-day Adventism and the American Dream](Seeking)(Seeking a Sanctuary)*. (2006, 2nd edn). Bloomington, Indiana: [University Press](Indiana)(Indiana University Press). A sociological study.
* Chaij, Fernando. *Fuerzas supriores que actuán en la vida humana: el hipnotismo y el espiritismo ante la ciencia y la religión [y] el problema de la sanidad y la felicidad*. Quinta ed. actualizada. Bogotá: Ediciones Interamericanas, 1976. 267 p. N.B.: Speculations about various occult phenomena, health, theology and Bible exegesis, all from a Seventh Day Adventist perspective. Without ISBN
* Edwards, Calvin W. and Gary Land. *Seeker After Light: A F Ballenger, Adventism, and American Christianity*. (2000). 240pp [online review](http://www.h-net.org/reviews/showrev.php?id=5313)
* Jetelina, Bedrich. "Seventh-day Adventists, Human Rights and Social Work," *Caritas et veritas*, Vol. 4, No. 1 (2014), pp. 22–32 [Caritas et veritas](http://www.caritasetveritas.cz/index-en.php?action=openfile&pkey=122)
*
* Land, Gary, *Historical Dictionary of the Seventh-Day Adventists* (Scarecrow Press, 2005).
* Morgan, Douglas. *Adventism and the American Republic: The Public Involvement of a Major Apocalyptic Movement*. (2001). 269 pp.
* Morgan, Douglas. "Adventism, Apocalyptic, and the Cause of Liberty," *Church History*, Vol. 63, No. 2 (Jun. 1994), pp. 235–249 [in JSTOR](https://www.jstor.org/stable/3168590)
* Neufield, Don F. ed. *Seventh-day Adventist Encyclopedia* (10 vol 1976), official publication
* Numbers, Ronald L. *Prophetess of health: a study of Ellen G. White* (3rd ed. 2008)
* Pearson, Michael. *Millennial Dreams and Moral Dilemmas: Seventh-day Adventism and Contemporary Ethics*. (1990, 1998) [excerpt and text search](https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0521091489), looks at issues of marriage, abortion, homosexuality
* Schwarz, Richard. *Light Bearers: A History of the Seventh-day Adventist Church* (3rd ed. 2000)
* Vance, Laura L. *Seventh-day Adventism Crisis: Gender and Sectarian Change in an Emerging Religion*. (1999). 261 pp.
* Van Dolson, Leo. *What about Life after Death?* Washington, D.C.: Review and Herald Publishing Association, 1978. 32 p.
* [*The Adventists*](http://www.theadventiststhefilm.com/), Documentary film by Martin Doblmeier
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Banana
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banana
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# Banana
*Revision ID: 1157858434 | Timestamp: 2023-05-31T11:48:12Z*
---
[[File:Bananavarieties.jpg|thumb|Fruits of four different [cultivars](banana)(List of banana cultivars)]]
A **banana** is an elongated, edible [fruit](fruit) – botanically a [berry](berry (botany)) – produced by several kinds of large [herbaceous](herbaceous) [plant](flowering)(flowering plant)s in the [genus](genus) *[Musa](Musa (genus))*. In some countries, [used for cooking](bananas)(Cooking banana) may be called "plantains", distinguishing them from **dessert bananas**. The fruit is variable in size, color, and firmness, but is usually elongated and curved, with soft flesh rich in [starch](starch) covered with a rind, which may be green, yellow, red, purple, or brown when ripe. The fruits grow upward in clusters near the top of the plant. Almost all modern edible seedless ([parthenocarp](Parthenocarpy)) bananas come from two wild species – *[acuminata](Musa)(Musa acuminata)* and *[balbisiana](Musa)(Musa balbisiana)*. The [names](scientific)(Binomial nomenclature) of most cultivated bananas are *Musa acuminata*, *Musa balbisiana*, and [× *paradisiaca*](*Musa*)(Musa × paradisiaca) for the hybrid *Musa acuminata* × *M. balbisiana*, depending on their [genomic](genome) constitution. The old scientific name for this hybrid, *Musa sapientum*, is no longer used.
*Musa* species are native to tropical [Indomalaya](Indomalaya) and [Australia](Australia (continent)), and are likely to have been first domesticated in [Guinea](New)(New Guinea). They are grown in 135 countries, primarily for their fruit, and to a lesser extent to make [fiber](fiber), [wine](banana)(banana wine), and [beer](banana)(banana beer), and as [plant](ornamental)(ornamental plant)s. The world's largest producers of bananas in 2017 were India and China, which together accounted for approximately 38% of total production.
Worldwide, there is no sharp distinction between "bananas" and "plantains". Especially in the Americas and Europe, "banana" usually refers to soft, sweet, dessert bananas, particularly those of the [group](Cavendish)(#Cavendish), which are the main exports from banana-growing countries. In the US, as of 2019, these bananas, by poundage, are the most consumed fresh fruit. By contrast, [cultivars](*Musa*)(List of banana cultivars) with firmer, starchier fruit are called "plantains". In other regions, such as [Asia](Southeast)(Southeast Asia), many more kinds of banana are grown and eaten, so the binary distinction is not as useful and is not made in local languages.
The term "banana" is also used as the common name for the plants that produce the fruit. This can extend to other members of the genus *Musa*, such as the [banana](scarlet)(Musa coccinea) (*Musa coccinea*), the [banana](pink)(Musa velutina) (*Musa velutina*), and the [banana](Fe'i)(Fe'i banana)s. It can also refer to members of the genus *[Ensete](Ensete)*, such as the [banana](snow)(Ensete glaucum) (*Ensete glaucum*) and the economically important [banana](false)(Ensete ventricosum) (*Ensete ventricosum*). Both genera are in the banana family, [Musaceae](Musaceae).
## Description
[[Banana Plant.jpg|thumb|upright|Young plant](File:Baby)]
The banana plant is the largest [herbaceous](herbaceous) flowering plant. All the above-ground parts of a banana plant grow from a structure usually called a "[corm](corm)". Plants are normally tall and fairly sturdy with a [tree](tree)like appearance, but what appears to be a trunk is actually a "false stem" or [pseudostem](pseudostem). Bananas grow in a wide variety of soils, as long as the soil is at least deep, has good drainage and is not compacted. Banana plants are among the fastest growing of all plants, with daily surface growth rates recorded of to .
The leaves of banana plants are composed of a stalk ([petiole](petiole (botany))) and a blade ([lamina](Leaf#General characteristics of leaves)). The base of the petiole widens to form a sheath; the tightly packed sheaths make up the pseudostem, which is all that supports the plant. The edges of the sheath meet when it is first produced, making it tubular. As new growth occurs in the centre of the pseudostem the edges are forced apart. Cultivated banana plants vary in height depending on the variety and growing conditions. Most are around tall, with a range from 'Dwarf Cavendish' plants at around to 'Gros Michel' at or more. Leaves are spirally arranged and may grow long and wide. They are easily torn by the wind, resulting in the familiar frond look. When a banana plant is mature, the corm stops producing new leaves and begins to form a flower spike or [inflorescence](inflorescence). A stem develops which grows up inside the pseudostem, carrying the immature inflorescence until eventually it emerges at the top. Each pseudostem normally produces a single inflorescence, also known as the "banana heart". (More are sometimes produced; an exceptional plant in the Philippines produced five.) After fruiting, the pseudostem dies, but offshoots will normally have developed from the base, so that the plant as a whole is [perennial](perennial). In the plantation system of cultivation, only one of the offshoots will be allowed to develop in order to maintain spacing. The inflorescence contains many [bract](bract)s (sometimes incorrectly referred to as petals) between rows of flowers. The female flowers (which can develop into fruit) appear in rows further up the stem (closer to the leaves) from the rows of male flowers. The ovary is [inferior](ovary (plants)), meaning that the tiny petals and other flower parts appear at the tip of the ovary.
The banana fruits develop from the banana heart, in a large hanging cluster, made up of tiers (called "hands"), with up to 20 fruit to a tier. The hanging cluster is known as a bunch, comprising 3–20 [tiers](wikt:tier#noun 2), or commercially as a "banana stem", and can weigh . Individual banana fruits (commonly known as a banana or "finger") average , of which approximately 75% is [water](water) and 25% dry matter (nutrient table, lower right).
The fruit has been described as a "leathery berry". There is a protective outer layer (a [peel](Peel (fruit)) or skin) with numerous long, thin strings (the [bundles](phloem)(Vascular bundle)), which run lengthwise between the skin and the [edible](Eating) inner portion. The inner part of the common yellow dessert variety can be split lengthwise into three sections that correspond to the inner portions of the three [carpel](carpel)s by manually deforming the unopened fruit. In cultivated varieties, the seeds are diminished nearly to non-existence; their remnants are tiny black specks in the interior of the fruit.
The end of the fruit opposite the stem contains a small tip distinct in texture, and often darker in color. Often misunderstood to be some type of seed or excretory vein, it is actually just the remnants from whence the banana fruit was a banana flower.
File:Banana corm.jpg|A banana corm, about across
File:Young Banana Sapling - Kerala - IMG 3447.jpg|Young banana plant
File:M. acuminata x balbisiana female flower detail.jpg|Female flowers have petals at the tip of the ovary
File:2018 06 TropicalIslands IMG 2170.jpg|Banana 'tree' showing fruit and [inflorescence](inflorescence)
File:Banana single rows.jpg|Single row planting of banana
File:M. acuminata x balbisiana.JPG|Banana inflorescence, partially opened
File:Banana three in Réunion.jpg|Wild banana with flowers and stem growing in reverse direction
File:Banana's DNA Strand.jpg|Extracted banana DNA strands
### Banana equivalent radiation dose
As with all living things on earth, potassium-containing bananas emit [radioactivity](radioactivity) at low levels occurring naturally from [potassium-40](potassium-40) (40K or K-40), which is one of several [of potassium](isotopes)(isotopes of potassium). The [equivalent dose](banana)(banana equivalent dose) of radiation was developed in 1995 as a simple teaching-tool to educate the public about the natural, small amount of K-40 radiation occurring in every human and in common foods.
The K-40 in a banana emits about 15 [becquerel](becquerel)s or 0.1 micro[sievert](sievert)s (units of radioactivity exposure), an amount that does not add to the total body radiation dose when a banana is consumed. By comparison, the normal radiation exposure of an average person over one day is 10 microsieverts, a [flight](commercial)(airliner) across the United States exposes a person to 40 microsieverts, and the total yearly radiation exposure from the K-40 sources in a person's body is about 390 microsieverts.
## Etymology
The word "banana" is thought to be of West African origin, possibly from the [Wolof](Wolof language) word , and passed into English via Spanish or Portuguese.
## Taxonomy
[[File:Nedravazhakola.jpg|right|thumb|The *Musa* 'Nendran' [cultivar](cultivar) grown widely in the Indian state of [Kerala](Kerala) is a member of the [cultivar group](AAB)(List of banana cultivars#AAB Group).]]
[[File:Banana trees, Mahamaya Lake (01).jpg|thumb|Banana plants, [Lake](Mahamaya)(Mahamaya Lake), Chittagong, Bangladesh]]
The genus *[Musa](Musa (genus))* was created by [Linnaeus](Carl)(Carl Linnaeus) in 1753. The name may be derived from [Musa](Antonius)(Antonius Musa), physician to the Emperor [Augustus](Augustus), or Linnaeus may have adapted the Arabic word for banana, *[mauz](wikt:موز)*. According to Roger Blench, the ultimate origin of *musa* is in the [Guinea languages](Trans–New)(Trans–New Guinea languages), whence they were borrowed into the [languages](Austronesian)(Austronesian languages) and across Asia, via the [languages](Dravidian)(Dravidian languages) of India, into Arabic as a *[Wanderwort](Wanderwort)*.
*Musa* is the type genus in the family [Musaceae](Musaceae). The [III system](APG)(APG III system) assigns Musaceae to the order [Zingiberales](Zingiberales), part of the [commelinid](commelinid) clade of the [monocotyledon](monocotyledon)ous flowering plants. Some 70 species of *Musa* were recognized by the [Checklist of Selected Plant Families](World)(World Checklist of Selected Plant Families) ; several produce edible fruit, while others are cultivated as ornamentals.
The classification of cultivated bananas has long been a problematic issue for taxonomists. Linnaeus originally placed bananas into two species based only on their uses as food: *Musa sapientum* for dessert bananas and *Musa paradisiaca* for [plantains](Plantain (true)). More species names were added, but this approach proved to be inadequate for the number of [cultivar](cultivar)s in the primary center of diversity of the genus, Southeast Asia. Many of these cultivars were given names that were later discovered to be [synonyms](Synonym (taxonomy)).
In a series of papers published from 1947 onwards, Ernest Cheesman showed that Linnaeus's *Musa sapientum* and *Musa paradisiaca* were cultivars and descendants of two wild seed-producing species, *[acuminata](Musa)(Musa acuminata)* and *[balbisiana](Musa)(Musa balbisiana)*, both first described by [Aloysius Colla](Luigi)(Luigi Aloysius Colla). Cheesman recommended the abolition of Linnaeus's species in favor of reclassifying bananas according to three morphologically distinct groups of cultivars – those primarily exhibiting the botanical characteristics of *Musa balbisiana*, those primarily exhibiting the botanical characteristics of *Musa acuminata*, and those with characteristics of both. Researchers Norman Simmonds and Ken Shepherd proposed a genome-based nomenclature system in 1955. This system eliminated almost all the difficulties and inconsistencies of the earlier classification of bananas based on assigning scientific names to cultivated varieties. Despite this, the original names are still recognized by some authorities, leading to confusion.
The accepted [names](scientific)(Botanical name) for most groups of cultivated bananas are *Musa acuminata* Colla and *Musa balbisiana* Colla for the ancestral species, and *Musa* × *paradisiaca* L. for the hybrid *M. acuminata* × *M. balbisiana*.
[Synonyms](Synonym (taxonomy)) of *M.* × *paradisiaca* include
* many subspecific and varietal names of *M.* × *paradisiaca*, including *M. p.* subsp. *sapientum* (L.) Kuntze
* *Musa* × *dacca* Horan.
* *Musa* × *sapidisiaca* K.C.Jacob, nom. superfl.
* *Musa* × *sapientum* L., and many of its varietal names, including *M.* × *sapientum* var. *paradisiaca* (L.) Baker, nom. illeg.
Generally, modern classifications of banana cultivars follow Simmonds and Shepherd's system. Cultivars are placed in groups based on the number of chromosomes they have and which species they are derived from. Thus the [banana](Latundan)(Latundan banana) is placed in the AAB Group, showing that it is a triploid derived from both *M. acuminata* (A) and *M. balbisiana* (B). For a list of the cultivars classified under this system, *see* "[of banana cultivars](List)(List of banana cultivars)".
In 2012, a team of scientists announced they had achieved a draft sequence of the genome of *[acuminata](M.)(Musa acuminata)*.
## Bananas and plantains
In regions such as North America and Europe, *Musa* fruits offered for sale can be divided into "bananas" and "plantains" ([banana](cooking)(cooking banana)), based on their intended use as food. Thus the banana producer and distributor [Chiquita](Chiquita Brands International) produces publicity material for the American market which says that "a plantain is not a banana". The stated differences are that plantains are more [starch](starch)y and less sweet; they are eaten cooked rather than raw; they have thicker skin, which may be green, yellow or black; and they can be used at any stage of ripeness. Linnaeus made the same distinction between plantains and bananas when first naming two "species" of *Musa*. Members of the "[subgroup](plantain)(Plantain (true))" of banana cultivars, most important as food in West Africa and Latin America, correspond to the Chiquita description, having long pointed fruit. They are described by Ploetz et al. as "true" plantains, distinct from other cooking bananas. The cooking bananas of East Africa belong to a different group, the [African Highland banana](East)(East African Highland banana)s, so would not qualify as "true" plantains on this definition.
[[File:Bananas white background DS.jpg|thumb|[Cavendish](Cavendish bananas) is the most common dessert banana sold]]
An alternative approach divides bananas into dessert bananas and cooking bananas, with plantains being one of the subgroups of cooking bananas. [Triploid](Polyploid) cultivars derived solely from *M. acuminata* are examples of "dessert bananas", whereas triploid cultivars derived from the hybrid between *M. acuminata* and *M. balbisiana* (in particular the plantain subgroup of the [Group](AAB)(List of banana cultivars#AAB Group)) are "plantains". Small farmers in Colombia grow a much wider range of cultivars than large commercial plantations. A study of these cultivars showed that they could be placed into at least three groups based on their characteristics: dessert bananas, non-plantain cooking bananas, and plantains, although there were overlaps between dessert and cooking bananas.
In Southeast Asia—the center of diversity for bananas, both wild and cultivated—the distinction between "bananas" and "plantains" does not work, according to Valmayor et al. Many bananas are used both raw and cooked. There are starchy cooking bananas which are smaller than those eaten raw. The range of colors, sizes and shapes is far wider than in those grown or sold in Africa, Europe or the Americas. Southeast Asian languages do not make the distinction between "bananas" and "plantains" that is made in English (and Spanish). Thus both [cultivars](Cavendish)(#Cavendish), the classic yellow dessert bananas, and [cultivars](Saba)(Saba banana), used mainly for cooking, are called *pisang* in Malaysia and Indonesia, *kluai* in Thailand and *chuối* in Vietnam. [banana](Fe'i)(Fe'i banana)s, grown and eaten in the islands of the Pacific, are derived from entirely different wild species than traditional bananas and plantains. Most Fe'i bananas are cooked, but [banana](Karat)(Karat banana)s, which are short and squat with bright red skins, very different from the usual yellow dessert bananas, are eaten raw.
In the Spanish market, the distinction is among , applied to the Cavendish cultivars produced in the Spanish [Islands](Canary)(Canary Islands) under the [geographical indication](protected)(protected geographical indication) , , applied to dessert imports from Africa and the Americas, and (literally, "male banana"), applied to imports that are to be cooked.
In summary, in commerce in Europe and the Americas (although not in small-scale cultivation), it is possible to distinguish between "bananas", which are eaten raw, and "plantains", which are cooked. In other regions of the world, particularly India, Southeast Asia and the islands of the Pacific, there are many more kinds of banana and the two-fold distinction is not useful and not made in local languages. Plantains are one of many kinds of cooking bananas, which are not always distinct from dessert bananas.
## Historical cultivation
### Early cultivation
[[File:Banana ancestors (Musa acuminata and Musa balbisiana) original range.png|thumb|Original [ranges](native)(Range (biology)) of the ancestors of modern edible bananas. *[acuminata](Musa)(Musa acuminata)* is shown in green and *[balbisiana](Musa)(Musa balbisiana)* in orange.]]
The earliest domestication of bananas (*[Musa](Musa (genus))* spp.) was from naturally occurring [parthenocarpic](parthenocarpic) (seedless) individuals of *[banksii](Musa)(Musa banksii)* in [Guinea](New)(New Guinea). These were cultivated by [Papuans](Papuans) before the arrival of [Austronesian-speakers](Austronesian peoples). Numerous [phytolith](phytolith)s of bananas have been recovered from the [Swamp](Kuk)(Kuk Swamp) archaeological site and dated to around 10,000 to 6,500 [BP](Before Present). [Foraging](Foraging) humans in this area began domestication in the late [Pleistocene](Pleistocene) using [transplantation](transplanting) and early [cultivation](tillage) methods. Various investigations including Denham *et al.*, 2003 determine that by the early to middle of the [Holocene](Holocene) the process was complete. From New Guinea, cultivated bananas spread westward into [Southeast Asia](Island)(Island Southeast Asia) through proximity (not migrations). They [hybrid](hybrid (biology))ized with other (possibly independently domesticated) [subspecies](subspecies) of *[acuminata](Musa)(Musa acuminata)* as well as *[balbisiana](M.)(Musa balbisiana)* in the Philippines, northern New Guinea, and possibly [Halmahera](Halmahera). These hybridization events produced the triploid [of bananas](cultivars)(List of banana cultivars) commonly grown today. From Island Southeast Asia, they became part of the staple domesticated crops of [peoples](Austronesian)(Austronesian peoples) and were spread during their voyages and [maritime trading routes](ancient)(Austronesian maritime trade network) into Oceania, [Africa](East)(East Africa), [Asia](South)(South Asia), and [Indochina](Indochina).
[[File:Inside a wild-type banana.jpg|thumb|Fruits of [wild-type](Wild type) bananas have numerous large, hard seeds.|alt=Photo of two cross-sectional halves of seed-filled fruit.]]
[[File:Chronological dispersal of Austronesian people across the Pacific (per Benton et al, 2012, adapted from Bellwood, 2011).png|thumb|Chronological dispersal of [peoples](Austronesian)(Austronesian peoples) across the [Indo-Pacific](Indo-Pacific)]]
These ancient introductions resulted in the banana subgroup now known as the [plantains]("true")(True plantains), which include the [African Highland bananas](East)(East African Highland bananas) and the [plantains](Pacific)(Pacific plantains) (the [Iholena](Iholena bananas) and [Maoli-Popo'ulu](Maoli-Popo'ulu bananas) subgroups). East African Highland bananas originated from banana populations introduced to Madagascar probably from the region between [Java](Java), [Borneo](Borneo), and [Guinea](New)(New Guinea); while Pacific plantains were introduced to the Pacific Islands from either eastern New Guinea or the [Archipelago](Bismarck)(Bismarck Archipelago).
[Phytolith](Phytolith) discoveries in Cameroon dating to the first millennium BCE triggered an as yet unresolved debate about the date of first cultivation in Africa. There is linguistic evidence that bananas were known in Madagascar around that time. The earliest prior evidence indicates that cultivation dates to no earlier than late 6th century CE. It is likely, however, that bananas were brought at least to Madagascar if not to the East African coast during the phase of [Malagasy](Malagasy people) colonization of the island from South East Asia c. 400 CE.
[Glucanase](Glucanase) and two other proteins specific to bananas were found in [calculus](dental)(dental calculus) from early [Age](Iron)(Iron Age) (12th century BCE) [Philistines](Philistines) in [Erani](Tel)(Tel Erani) in the southern [Levant](Levant).
Another wave of introductions later spread bananas to other parts of [Asia](tropical)(tropical Asia), particularly [Indochina](Indochina) and the [subcontinent](Indian)(Indian subcontinent). However, there is evidence that bananas were known to the [Valley civilisation](Indus)(Indus Valley civilisation) from phytoliths recovered from the [Diji](Kot)(Kot Diji) archaeological site in Pakistan (although they are absent in other contemporary sites in [Asia](South)(South Asia)). This may be a possible indication of very early dispersal of bananas by Austronesian traders by sea from as early as 2000 BCE. But this is still putative, as they may have come from local wild *Musa* species used for fiber or as ornamentals, not food.
Southeast Asia remains the region of [diversity](primary)(Center of diversity) of the banana. Areas of secondary diversity are found in Africa, indicating a long history of banana cultivation in these regions.
[[File:Bananas Muslim world.JPG|thumb|Actual and probable diffusion of bananas during the [Caliphates](Arab Agricultural Revolution) (700–1500 CE)|alt=Map stating that banana cultivation occurred in pre-Islamic times in India and Southeast Asia, during the 700–1500 CE "Islamic period" along the [River](Nile)(Nile River) and in [Mesopotamia](Mesopotamia) and [Palestine](Palestine (region)), and less-certainly in sub-Saharan Africa during that same period]]
The banana may also have been present in isolated locations elsewhere in the Middle East on the eve of [Islam](Islam). The [of Islam](spread)(spread of Islam) was followed by far-reaching diffusion. There are numerous references to it in Islamic texts (such as poems and [hadith](hadith)s) beginning in the 9th century. By the 10th century the banana appears in texts from [Palestine](Palestine (region)) and Egypt. From there it diffused into North Africa and [Iberia](Muslim)(Al-Andalus). An article on banana tree cultivation is included in [al-'Awwam](Ibn)(Ibn al-'Awwam)'s 12th-century agricultural work, *Book on Agriculture*. (pp. [368](https://archive.org/details/lelivredelagric00algoog/page/n472/mode/2up)-370 (Article XLVIII) During the medieval ages, bananas from [Granada](Granada) were considered among the best in the Arab world. In 650, Islamic conquerors brought the banana to Palestine. Today, banana consumption increases significantly in Islamic countries during [Ramadan](Ramadan), the month of daylight fasting.
Bananas were certainly grown in the Christian [of Cyprus](Kingdom)(Kingdom of Cyprus) by the late medieval period. Writing in 1458, the Italian traveller and writer [Capodilista](Gabriele)(Gabriele Capodilista) wrote favourably of the extensive farm produce of the estates at Episkopi, near modern-day [Limassol](Limassol), including the region's banana plantations.
[[File:Acta Eruditorum - III musa arabum pala plinii, 1734 – BEIC 13446956.jpg|thumb|Illustration of fruit and banana plant from *[Eruditorum](Acta)(Acta Eruditorum)*, 1734]]
Bananas (as well as [coconut](coconut)s) were encountered by European explorers during the [expedition](Magellan)(Magellan expedition) in 1521, in both [Guam](Guam) and the [Philippines](Philippines). Lacking a name for the fruit, the ship's historian [Pigafetta](Antonio)(Antonio Pigafetta) described them as "figs more than one [palm](Palm (unit)) long." Bananas were introduced to [America](South)(South America) by Portuguese sailors who brought the fruits from [Africa](West)(West Africa) in the 16th century. Southeast Asian banana cultivars, as well as [abaca](abaca) grown for fibers, were also introduced to [Spain](New)(New Spain) ([North](North America) and [Central](Central America) America) by the Spanish from the Philippines, via the [galleons](Manila)(Manila galleons).
Many [banana species](wild)(Musa (genus)#Species) as well as cultivars exist in extraordinary diversity in India, China, and [Asia](Southeast)(Southeast Asia).
### Plantation cultivation in the Caribbean, Central and South America
In the 15th and 16th centuries, Portuguese colonists started banana plantations in the Atlantic Islands, Brazil, and western Africa. North Americans began consuming bananas on a small scale at very high prices shortly after the Civil War, though it was only in the 1880s that the food became more widespread. As late as the [Era](Victorian)(Victorian Era), bananas were not widely known in Europe, although they were available. [Verne](Jules)(Jules Verne) introduces bananas to his readers with detailed descriptions in *[the World in Eighty Days](Around)(Around the World in Eighty Days)* (1872).
The earliest modern plantations originated in Jamaica and the related [Caribbean Zone](Western)(Western Caribbean Zone), including most of [America](Central)(Central America). It involved the combination of modern transportation networks of steamships and railroads with the development of refrigeration that allowed more time between harvesting and ripening. North American shippers like [Dow Baker](Lorenzo)(Lorenzo Dow Baker) and [Preston](Andrew)(Andrew Preston (businessman)), the founders of the [Fruit Company](Boston)(Boston Fruit Company) started this process in the 1870s, but railroad builders like [C. Keith](Minor)(Minor C. Keith) also participated, eventually culminating in the multi-national giant corporations like today's [Brands International](Chiquita)(Chiquita Brands International) and [Dole](Dole Food Company). These companies were [monopolistic](monopoly), [integrated](vertically)(vertically integrated) (meaning they controlled growing, processing, shipping and marketing) and usually used political manipulation to build [economies](enclave)(enclave economy) (economies that were internally self-sufficient, virtually tax exempt, and export-oriented that contribute very little to the host economy). Their political maneuvers, which gave rise to the term [republic](banana)(banana republic) for states such as Honduras and Guatemala, included working with local elites and their rivalries to influence politics or playing the international interests of the United States, especially during the [War](Cold)(Cold War), to keep the political climate favorable to their interests.
### Peasant cultivation for export in the Caribbean
The vast majority of the world's bananas today are cultivated for family consumption or for sale on local markets. India is the world leader in this sort of production, but many other Asian and African countries where climate and soil conditions allow cultivation also host large populations of banana growers who sell at least some of their crop.
Peasant sector banana growers produce for the world market in the Caribbean, however. The [Islands](Windward)(Windward Islands) are notable for the growing, largely of Cavendish bananas, for an international market, generally in Europe but also in North America. In the Caribbean, and especially in Dominica where this sort of cultivation is widespread, holdings are in the 1–2 acre range. In many cases the farmer earns additional money from other crops, from engaging in labor outside the farm, and from a share of the earnings of relatives living overseas.
Banana crops are vulnerable to destruction by high winds, such as tropical storms or [cyclone](cyclone)s.
## Modern cultivation
All widely cultivated bananas today descend from the two wild bananas *Musa acuminata* and *Musa balbisiana*. While the original wild bananas contained large seeds, [diploid](diploid) or [polyploid](polyploid) cultivars (some being [hybrids](Hybrid (biology))) with tiny seeds or [triploid](triploid) hybrids without seeds are preferred for human raw fruit consumption, as banana seeds are large and hard and spiky and liable to crack teeth. These are propagated [asexually](asexual reproduction) from offshoots. The plant is allowed to produce two shoots at a time; a larger one for immediate fruiting and a smaller "sucker" or "follower" to produce fruit in 6–8 months.
As a non-seasonal crop, bananas are available fresh year-round.
### Cavendish
[[File:Bananas.jpg|thumb|alt=Grocery store photo of several bunches of bananas|[bananas](Cavendish)(Cavendish bananas) are the main commercial banana cultivars sold in the world market.]]
In global commerce in 2009, by far the most important cultivars belonged to the triploid [AAA](List of banana cultivars#AAA Group) [group](cultivar group) of *Musa acuminata*, commonly referred to as Cavendish group bananas. They accounted for the majority of banana exports, despite only coming into existence in 1836. The cultivars [Cavendish](Dwarf)(Dwarf Cavendish) and [Nain](Grand)(Grand Nain) (Chiquita Banana) gained popularity in the 1950s after the previous mass-produced cultivar, [Michel](Gros)(Gros Michel banana) (also an AAA group cultivar), became commercially unviable due to [disease](Panama)(Panama disease), caused by the fungus *[oxysporum](Fusarium)(Fusarium oxysporum)* which attacks the roots of the banana plant. Cavendish cultivars are resistant to the Panama disease, but in 2013 there were fears that the [sigatoka](black)(black sigatoka) fungus would in turn make Cavendish bananas unviable.
Even though it is no longer viable for large scale cultivation, Gros Michel is not extinct and is still grown in areas where Panama disease is not found. Likewise, Dwarf Cavendish and Grand Nain are in no danger of extinction, but they may leave supermarket shelves if disease makes it impossible to supply the global market. It is unclear if any existing cultivar can replace Cavendish bananas, so various [hybridisation](Hybrid (biology)) and [engineering](genetic)(genetic engineering) programs are attempting to create a disease-resistant, mass-market banana. One such strain that has emerged is the Taiwanese Cavendish, also known as the Formosana.
### Ripening
[[File:Overripe banana 20211221 152406.jpg|thumb|*[solanacearum](Ralstonia)(Ralstonia solanacearum)* on an overripe banana]]
Export bananas are picked green, and ripen in special rooms upon arrival in the destination country. These rooms are air-tight and filled with [gas](ethylene)(Ethylene as a plant hormone) to induce ripening. The vivid yellow color consumers normally associate with supermarket bananas is, in fact, caused by the artificial ripening process. Flavor and texture are also affected by ripening temperature. Bananas are refrigerated to between during transport. At lower temperatures, ripening permanently stalls, and the bananas turn gray as cell walls break down. The skin of ripe bananas quickly blackens in the environment of a domestic [refrigerator](refrigerator), although the fruit inside remains unaffected.
[[File:Banana-fluorescence-081108.jpg|thumb|Ripened bananas (left, under [sunlight](sunlight)) fluoresce when exposed to [light](UV)(UV light).|alt=Two adjacent photos of bananas. The left is in sunlight; the right is under ultraviolet light.]]
Bananas can be ordered by the retailer "ungassed" (*i.e.* not treated with ethylene), and may show up at the supermarket fully green. (green bananas) that have not been gassed will never fully ripen before becoming rotten. Instead of fresh eating, these bananas can be used for cooking, as seen in Jamaican cuisine.
A 2008 study reported that ripe bananas [fluoresce](fluoresce) when exposed to [ultraviolet](ultraviolet) light. This property is attributed to the degradation of [chlorophyll](chlorophyll) leading to the accumulation of a fluorescent product in the skin of the fruit. The chlorophyll [product](breakdown)(breakdown product) is stabilized by a [propionate](propionate) [ester](ester) group. Banana-plant leaves also fluoresce in the same way. Green (under-ripe) bananas do not fluoresce. That paper suggested that this fluorescence could be put to use "for optical in vivo monitoring of ripening and over-ripening of bananas and other fruit".
### Storage and transport
Bananas must be transported over long distances from the tropics to world markets.|title=The World Banana Economy, 1985-2002|last=FAO)|first=Pedro Arias (Asesor da|date=2003|publisher=Food & Agriculture Org.|isbn=9789251050576|language=en}} To obtain maximum shelf life, harvest comes before the fruit is mature. The fruit requires careful handling, rapid transport to ports, cooling, and refrigerated shipping. The goal is to prevent the bananas from producing their natural ripening agent, ethylene. This technology allows storage and transport for 3–4 weeks at . On arrival, bananas are held at about and treated with a low concentration of ethylene. After a few days, the fruit begins to ripen and is distributed for final sale. Ripe bananas can be held for a few days at home. If bananas are too green, they can be put in a brown paper bag with an apple or tomato overnight to speed up the ripening process.
Carbon dioxide (which bananas produce) and ethylene absorbents extend fruit life even at high temperatures. This effect can be exploited by packing banana in a [polyethylene](polyethylene) bag and including an ethylene absorbent, e.g., [permanganate](potassium)(potassium permanganate), on an inert carrier. The bag is then sealed with a band or string. This treatment has been shown to more than double lifespans up to 3–4 weeks without the need for refrigeration.
### Sustainability
The excessive use of fertilizers often left in abandoned plantations contributes greatly to [eutrophication](eutrophication) in local streams and lakes, and harms aquatic life after algal blooms deprive fish of oxygen. It has been theorized that destruction of 60% of coral reefs along the coasts of Costa Rica is partially from sediments from banana plantations. Another issue is the deforestation associated with expanding banana production. As monocultures rapidly deplete soil nutrients plantations expand to areas with rich soils and cut down forests, which also affects soil erosion and degradation, and increases frequency of flooding. The World Wildlife Fund (WWF) stated that banana production produced more waste than any other agricultural sector, mostly from discarded banana plants, bags used to cover the bananas, strings to tie them, and containers for transport.
[sustainability standards](Voluntary)(Sustainability standards and certification) such as [Alliance](Rainforest)(Rainforest Alliance) and [Fairtrade](Fairtrade certification) are increasingly being used to address some of these issues. Bananas production certified by such sustainability standards experienced a 43% compound annual growth rate from 2008 to 2016, to represent 36% of banana exports.
## Breeding
[breeding](Mutation)(Mutation breeding) can be used in this crop. Jankowicz-Cieslak & Ingelbrecht 2022 provides [protocol](lab)(lab protocol)s from cutting knife to sequencer to computer code for screening mutants.
[Aneuploidy](Aneuploidy) is a source of significant variation in [allotriploid](allotriploid) varieties (the ABBs and AABs). For one example, it can be a source of TR4 resistance. Jankowicz-Cieslak & Ingelbrecht 2022 provides [protocol](lab)(lab protocol)s to screen for such aberrations and for possible resulting disease resistances.. Plant Breeding and Genetics Laboratory, [FAO/IAEA Centre of Nuclear Techniques in Food and Agriculture](Joint)(Joint FAO/IAEA Centre of Nuclear Techniques in Food and Agriculture), IAEA ([Atomic Energy Agency](International)(International Atomic Energy Agency)) FAO ([Nations Food and Agriculture Organization](United)(United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization))|doi=10.1007/978-3-662-64915-2|s2cid=249207968 |oclc=1323245754}} (See .)
## Production and export
In 2017, world production of bananas and plantains combined was 153 million tonnes, led by India and China with a combined total of 27% of global production. Other major producers were the Philippines, Colombia, Indonesia, Ecuador, and Brazil.
As reported for 2013, total world exports were 20 million tonnes of bananas and 859,000 tonnes of plantains. Ecuador and the Philippines were the leading exporters with 5.4 and 3.3 million tonnes, respectively, and the Dominican Republic was the leading exporter of plantains with 210,350 tonnes.
### Developing countries
Bananas and plantains constitute a major staple [crop](food)(agriculture) for millions of people in [countries](developing)(developing country). In many tropical countries, green (unripe) bananas used for [cooking](cooking) represent the main cultivars. Most producers are small-scale [farmer](farmer)s either for home consumption or local markets. Because bananas and plantains produce fruit year-round, they provide a valuable food source during the *hunger season* (when the food from one annual/semi-annual harvest has been consumed, and the next is still to come). Bananas and plantains are important for global [security](food)(food security).
## Pests, diseases, and natural disasters
[[File:BananasBlueBagStLucia.jpg|thumb|upright|Banana bunches are sometimes encased in plastic bags for protection. The bags may be coated with [pesticide](pesticide)s.|alt=Photo of bananas in blue plastic bag]]
Although in no danger of outright extinction, the most common edible banana cultivar Cavendish (extremely popular in Europe and the Americas) could become unviable for large-scale cultivation in the next 10–20 years. Its predecessor '[Michel](Gros)(Gros Michel)', discovered in the 1820s, suffered this fate. Like almost all bananas, Cavendish lacks genetic diversity, which makes it vulnerable to diseases, threatening both commercial cultivation and small-scale subsistence farming. Within the data gathered from the genes of hundreds of bananas, Botanist, Julie Sardos, of the Bioversity International research group, along with her colleagues found proof that at least several wild banana ancestors exist that are currently unknown to scientists, which could provide a means of defense against banana crop diseases.
Some commentators remarked that those variants which could replace what much of the world considers a "typical banana" are so different that most people would not consider them the same fruit, and blame the decline of the banana on [monogenetic](mendelian inheritance) cultivation driven by short-term commercial motives. Overall, [diseases](fungal)(fungal banana disease) are disproportionately important to [island developing states](small)(small island developing states).
[learning](Deep)(Deep learning) can be used in [classication](disease)(disease classication). Amara *et al.*, 2017 provides one such system.
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### Panama disease
[disease](Panama)(Panama disease) is caused by a [fusarium](fusarium) soil [fungus](fungus) (Race 1), which enters the plants through the roots and travels with water into the trunk and leaves, producing [gel](gel)s and gums that cut off the flow of water and nutrients, causing the plant to [wilt](wilting), and exposing the rest of the plant to lethal amounts of sunlight. Prior to 1960, almost all commercial banana production centered on "Gros Michel", which was highly susceptible. Cavendish was chosen as the replacement for Gros Michel because, among resistant cultivars, it produces the highest quality [fruit](fruit). However, more care is required for shipping the Cavendish, and its quality compared to Gros Michel is debated.
According to current sources, a deadly form of Panama disease is infecting Cavendish. All plants are genetically identical, which prevents evolution of disease resistance. Researchers are examining hundreds of wild varieties for resistance.
#### Tropical race 4
[Race 4](Tropical)(Tropical Race 4) (TR4), a reinvigorated strain of Panama disease, was first discovered in 1993. This virulent form of fusarium wilt destroyed Cavendish in several southeast Asian countries and spread to Australia and India. As the soil-based fungi can easily be carried on boots, clothing, or tools, the wilt spread to the Americas despite years of preventive efforts. Cavendish is highly susceptible to TR4, and over time, Cavendish is endangered for commercial production by this disease. The only known defense to TR4 is [resistance](genetic)(Plant disease resistance). This is conferred either by [RGA2](RGA2), a gene isolated from a TR4-resistant [diploid](diploid) banana, or by the [nematode](nematode)-derived Ced9. This is best achieved by [modification](genetic)(genetic modification), such as in the Dale banana disclosed in Dale *et al.*, 2017. Experts state the need to enrich banana [biodiversity](biodiversity) by producing diverse new banana varieties, not just having a focus on the Cavendish.
### Black sigatoka
[sigatoka](Black)(Black sigatoka) is a fungal leaf spot disease first observed in Fiji in 1963 or 1964. Black Sigatoka (also known as black leaf streak) has spread to banana plantations throughout the tropics from infected banana leaves that were used as packing material. It affects all main cultivars of bananas and plantains (including the Cavendish cultivars), impeding [photosynthesis](photosynthesis) by blackening parts of the leaves, eventually killing the entire leaf. Starved for energy, fruit production falls by 50% or more, and the bananas that do grow [ripen](ripening) prematurely, making them unsuitable for export. The fungus has shown ever-increasing resistance to treatment, with the current expense for treating exceeding US$1,000 per year. In addition to the expense, there is the question of how long intensive spraying can be environmentally justified.
### Banana bunchy top virus
[bunchy top virus](Banana)(Banana bunchy top virus) (BBTV) is a plant virus of the genus *Babuvirus*, family *Nanonviridae* affecting *Musa spp.* (including banana, abaca, plantain and ornamental bananas) and *Ensete spp.* in the family *Musaceae*.[Biological Information Infrastructure](National)(National Biological Information Infrastructure) (NBII) & IUCN/SSC [Species Specialist Group](Invasive)(Invasive Species Specialist Group). "[Banana Bunchy Top Virus](http://www.issg.org/database/species/ecology.asp?si=141) ." Global Invasive Species Database. N.p., July 6, 2005. Banana bunchy top disease (BBTD) symptoms include dark green streaks of variable length in leaf veins, midribs and petioles. Leaves become short and stunted as the disease progresses, becoming 'bunched' at the apex of the plant. Infected plants may produce no fruit or the bunch may not emerge from the pseudostem.Thomas, JE (ed). 2015. [MusaNet Technical Guidelines for the Safe Movement of *Musa* Germplasm](http://www.musalit.org/seeMore.php?id=15942) . 3rd edition. [MusaLit](MusaLit), [International](Bioversity)(Bioversity International), Rome The virus is transmitted by the banana aphid *[nigronervosa](Pentalonia)(Pentalonia nigronervosa)* and is widespread in SE Asia, Asia, the Philippines, Taiwan, Oceania and parts of Africa. There is no cure for BBTD, but it can be effectively controlled by the eradication of diseased plants and the use of virus-free planting material. No resistant cultivars have been found, but varietal differences in susceptibility have been reported. The commercially important Cavendish subgroup is severely affected.
### Banana bacterial wilt
[bacterial wilt](Banana)(Banana Xanthomonas wilt) (BBW) is a bacterial disease caused by *[campestris](Xanthomonas)(Xanthomonas campestris)* pv. *musacearum*. After being originally identified on a close relative of bananas, *[ventricosum](Ensete)(Ensete ventricosum)*, in Ethiopia in the 1960s, BBW occurred in Uganda in 2001 affecting all banana cultivars. Since then BBW has been diagnosed in Central and East Africa including the banana growing regions of Rwanda, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Tanzania, Kenya, Burundi, and Uganda.
## Conservation
Given the narrow range of [diversity](genetic)(genetic diversity) present in bananas and the many threats via [biotic](Biotic component) (pests and diseases) and [abiotic](Abiotic component) (such as [drought](drought)) stress, [conservation](Conservation biology) of the full spectrum of banana [resources](genetic)(plant genetic resources) is ongoing. Banana [germplasm](germplasm) is conserved in many national and regional [banks](gene)(gene banks), and at the world's largest banana collection, the International *Musa* Germplasm Transit Centre (ITC), managed by [International](Bioversity)(Bioversity International) and hosted at [Leuven](KU)(KU Leuven) in Belgium. *Musa* cultivars are usually seedless, and options for their long-term conservation are constrained by the vegetative nature of the plant's reproductive system. Consequently, they are conserved by three main methods: *[vivo](in)(in vivo)* (planted in field collections), *[vitro](in)(in vitro)* (as plantlets in test tubes within a controlled environment), and by [cryopreservation](cryopreservation) ([meristem](meristem)s conserved in [nitrogen](liquid)(liquid nitrogen) at −196 °C). At the [Foundation for Agricultural Research](Honduran)(Honduran Foundation for Agricultural Research) there were attempts to exploit the rare cases of seed production to create disease-resistant varieties; 30,000 commercial banana plants were hand-pollinated with pollen from wild fertile Asian fruit, producing 400 tonnes, which contained about fifteen seeds, of which four or five germinated." Further breeding with wild bananas yielded a new seedless variety resistant to both black Sigatoka and Panama disease.
Genes from wild banana species are conserved as [DNA](DNA) and as cryopreserved [pollen](pollen) and banana seeds from wild species are also conserved, although less commonly, as they are difficult to regenerate. In addition, bananas and their [wild relatives](crop)(crop wild relatives) are conserved *[situ](in)(in situ)* (in wild natural habitats where they evolved and continue to do so). Diversity is also conserved in farmers' fields where continuous cultivation, adaptation and improvement of cultivars is often carried out by small-scale farmers growing traditional local cultivars.
[[File:ITC cold room.jpg|thumb|The cold storage room for the banana collection at [International](Bioversity)(Bioversity International)'s Musa Germplasm Transit Centre]]
## Nutrition
Raw bananas (not including the peel) are 75% water, 23% [carbohydrates](carbohydrates), 1% [protein](protein), and contain negligible [fat](fat). A 100-gram reference serving supplies 89 [Calories](Calories), 31% of the US recommended [Value](Daily)(Daily Value) (DV) of [B6](vitamin)(Vitamin B6), and moderate amounts of [C](vitamin)(vitamin C), [manganese](manganese) and [fiber](dietary)(dietary fiber), with no other [micronutrient](micronutrient)s in significant content (see table).
Ripe dessert bananas are soft, bland, and easily digestible, making them ideal for those with gastrointestinal distress. Therefore, bananas are part of the [diet](BRAT)(BRAT diet).
### Potassium
Although bananas are commonly thought to contain exceptional [potassium](potassium) content, their actual potassium content is not high per typical food serving, having only 8% of the US recommended Daily Value for potassium (considered a low level of the DV, see nutrition table), and their potassium-content ranking among fruits, vegetables, legumes, and many other foods is relatively moderate. Foods with higher potassium content than raw dessert bananas (326 mg per 100 g) include ground [flaxseed](flaxseed) (793 mg per 100 g), dry-roasted [almond](almond)s (684 mg per 100 g), [butter](peanut)(peanut butter) (654 mg per 100 g), raw baby [spinach](spinach) (582 mg per 100 g), white button [mushroom](mushroom)s (393 mg per 100 g), and [grain](whole)(whole grain) [oat](oat)s (350 mg per 100 g). Raw yellow plantains contain 487 mg potassium per 100 g. Dehydrated dessert bananas (banana powder) contain 1490 mg potassium per 100 g.
### Allergen
Individuals with a [allergy](latex)(latex allergy) may experience a reaction to bananas.
## Uses
### Culinary
#### Fruit
Bananas are a staple [starch](starch) for many tropical populations. Depending upon cultivar and ripeness, the flesh can vary in taste from starchy to sweet, and texture from firm to mushy. Both the skin and inner part can be eaten raw or cooked. The primary component of the aroma of fresh bananas is [acetate](isoamyl)(isoamyl acetate) (also known as *banana oil*), which, along with several other compounds such as [acetate](butyl)(butyl acetate) and [acetate](isobutyl)(isobutyl acetate), is a significant contributor to banana flavor.
During the ripening process, bananas produce the gas [ethylene](Ethylene as a plant hormone), which acts as a [hormone](plant)(plant hormone) and indirectly affects the flavor. Among other things, ethylene stimulates the formation of [amylase](amylase), an [enzyme](enzyme) that breaks down starch into sugar, influencing the taste of bananas. The greener, less ripe bananas contain higher levels of starch and, consequently, have a "starchier" taste. On the other hand, yellow bananas taste sweeter due to higher sugar concentrations. Furthermore, ethylene signals the production of [pectinase](pectinase), an enzyme which breaks down the [pectin](pectin) between the cells of the banana, causing the banana to soften as it ripens.
In addition to being eaten raw, bananas are eaten deep fried, baked in their skin in a split [bamboo](bamboo), or steamed in [rice](glutinous)(glutinous rice) wrapped in a banana leaf. Bananas can be made into [preserves](fruit)(fruit preserves). Banana [pancake](pancake)s are popular among travelers in [Asia](South)(South Asia) and [Asia](Southeast)(Southeast Asia). This has elicited the expression *[Pancake Trail](Banana)(Banana Pancake Trail)* for those places in Asia that cater to these travelers. [chips](Banana)(Banana chips) are a snack produced from sliced dehydrated or fried banana or plantain, which have a dark brown color and an intense banana taste. Dried bananas are also ground to make [flour](banana)(banana flour). Extracting juice is difficult, because when a banana is compressed, it simply turns to pulp. Bananas feature prominently in [cuisine](Philippine)(Philippine cuisine), being part of traditional dishes and desserts like *[maruya](Maruya (Filipino cuisine))*, *[turón](Turón (food))*, and *[halo-halo](halo-halo)* or *saba con yelo*. Most of these dishes use the [Banana](Saba)(Saba Banana) or Cardaba banana cultivar. Bananas are also commonly used in cuisine in the South-Indian state of [Kerala](Kerala), where they are steamed (*puzhungiyathu*), made into curries, fried into chips, (*upperi*) or fried in batter (*pazhampori*). [goreng](Pisang)(Pisang goreng), bananas fried with batter similar to the Filipino *maruya* or Kerala *pazhampori*, is a popular dessert in Malaysia, Singapore, and Indonesia. A similar dish is known in the United Kingdom and United States as banana [fritter](fritter)s.
Plantains are used in various stews and curries or cooked, baked or mashed in much the same way as [potatoes](potatoes), such as the [pachadi](pazham)(pazham pachadi) dish prepared in [Kerala](Kerala).
అరటికాయ మరియు నిమ్మకాయ పులుసు కూర.jpg|Banana with Lemon curry made in a house in Vijayawada, Andhra Pradesh, India
Bananajf.jpg|*Kilawin na pusô ng saging*, a [dish](Filipino)(Cuisine of the Philippines) using banana flowers
Nacatamales in steamer.jpg|Nicaraguan [Nacatamal](Nacatamal)es, in banana leaves, ready to be steamed
Kaeng yuak.JPG|*Kaeng yuak* is a northern [curry](Thai)(Thai curry) made with the core of the banana plant.
Pisang goreng in a basket.jpg|*[goreng](Pisang)(Pisang goreng)* fried banana coated in batter, [snack in Indonesia](popular)(Indonesian cuisine)
YosriPengatPisang.jpg|Banana in sweet gravy, known as *pengat pisang* in Malaysia
#### Flower
[[- banana blossom.JPG|thumb|right|Banana blossom used for culinary purpose](File:118)]
Banana flowers (also called "banana hearts" or "banana blossoms") are used as a [vegetable](vegetable) in [Asian](South)(South Asian cuisine) and [Asian cuisine](Southeast)(Southeast Asian cuisine), either raw or steamed with dips or cooked in soups, curries and fried foods.[Fried banana flowers](http://www.dudaonline.com/southeast-asia/thailand/fried-banana-flowers/) . Duda Online (December 14, 2009). Retrieved on October 2, 2011. The flavor resembles that of [artichoke](artichoke). As with artichokes, both the fleshy part of the bracts and the heart are edible. See also the link on that page for Banana Flower Salad.
#### Leaves
[[leaf.jpg|thumb|Leaf of banana plant](File:Plantain)]
Banana leaves are large, flexible, and waterproof. While generally too tough to actually be eaten, they are often used as ecologically friendly disposable food containers or as "plates" in [Asia](South)(South Asia) and several [Asia](Southeast)(Southeast Asia)n countries. In [cuisine](Indonesian)(Indonesian cuisine), banana leaf is employed in cooking methods like [pepes](pepes) and [botok](botok); banana leaf packages containing food ingredients and spices are cooked in steam or in boiled water, or are grilled on charcoal. Certain types of tamales are wrapped in banana leaves instead of corn husks.
When used so for steaming or grilling, the banana leaves protect the food ingredients from burning and add a subtle sweet flavor. In [India](South)(South India), it is customary to serve traditional food on a banana leaf. In [Nadu](Tamil)(Tamil Nadu) (India), dried banana leaves are used as to pack food and to make cups to hold liquid food items.
#### Trunk
The tender core of the banana plant's trunk is also used in [Asian](South)(South Asian cuisine) and [Asian cuisine](Southeast)(Southeast Asian cuisine). Examples include the Burmese dish *[mohinga](mohinga)*, and the [Filipino](Filipino cuisine) dishes *[inubaran](inubaran)* and *[manok, kag ubad](kadyos,)(kadyos, manok, kag ubad)*.
### Fiber
#### Textiles
File:COLLECTIE TROPENMUSEUM Het verpakken van manilla-hennep (musa textilis) in balen op onderneming Kali Telepak Besoeki Oost-Java TMnr 10011535.jpg|The packaging of Manila hemp (Musa textilis) into bales at Kali Telepak, Besoeki, East Java
File:48-QWSTION-BANANATEX-LOOM-LAUSCHSICHT.jpg|Weaving looms processing Manila hemp fabric
File:QWSTION Flap tote small.jpg|An example of a modern [hemp](Manila)(Manila hemp) bag produced by the fashion company QWSTION
Banana fiber harvested from the pseudostems and leaves of the plant has been used for [textile](textile)s in Asia since at least the 13th century. Both fruit-bearing and fibrous varieties of the banana plant have been used.|language=en|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180327155254/https://books.google.com/books?id=ULyu8dNqS1sC&pg=PA188#v=onepage&q=banana%20textile|archive-date=March 27, 2018|year=2007}} In the Japanese system [Kijōka-bashōfu](Kijōka-bashōfu), leaves and shoots are cut from the plant periodically to ensure softness. Harvested shoots are first boiled in [lye](lye) to prepare fibers for [yarn](yarn)-making. These banana shoots produce fibers of varying degrees of softness, yielding yarns and textiles with differing qualities for specific uses. For example, the outermost fibers of the shoots are the coarsest, and are suitable for [tablecloth](tablecloth)s, while the softest innermost fibers are desirable for [kimono](kimono) and [kamishimo](hakama). This traditional Japanese cloth-making process requires many steps, all performed by hand.
In India, a banana fiber separator machine has been developed, which takes the agricultural waste of local banana harvests and extracts strands of the fiber.
#### Paper
Banana fiber is used in the production of banana paper. Banana paper is made from two different parts: the [bark](bark (botany)) of the banana plant, mainly used for artistic purposes, or from the fibers of the stem and non-usable fruits. The paper is either hand-made or by industrial process.
### Cultural roles
#### Arts
* The song "[We Have No Bananas](Yes!)(Yes! We Have No Bananas)" was written by [Silver](Frank)(Frank Silver) and [Cohn](Irving)(Irving Cohn) and originally released in 1923; for many decades, it was the best-selling [music](sheet)(sheet music) in history. Since then the song has been rerecorded several times and has been particularly popular during banana shortages.|url-status=live|archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20170223045222/https://books.google.com/books?id=MECLMrzcC9kC&lpg=PA132&pg=PA132#v=onepage&q=Yes!%20We%20Have%20No%20Bananas|archive-date =February 23, 2017|df =mdy-all}}|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170222190916/https://books.google.com/books?id=aAJ8pAwSkkUC&lpg=PA62&pg=PA60#v=onepage&q=Yes!%20We%20Have%20No%20Bananas%20shortage|archive-date=February 22, 2017}}
* A person slipping on a [peel](banana)(banana peel) has been a staple of [comedy](physical)(physical comedy) for generations. An American comedy recording from 1910 features a popular character of the time, "Uncle Josh", claiming to describe his own such incident:
:
* The poet [Bashō](Matsuo Bashō) is named after the Japanese word for a banana plant. The "bashō" planted in his garden by a grateful student became a source of inspiration to his poetry, as well as a symbol of his life and home.Matsuo Basho: the Master Haiku Poet, Kodansha Europe,
* The cover artwork for [debut album](the)(The Velvet Underground & Nico) of [Velvet Underground](The)(The Velvet Underground) features a banana made by [Warhol](Andy)(Andy Warhol). On the original vinyl LP version, the design allowed the listener to "peel" this banana to find a pink, peeled phallic banana on the inside.
* Italian artist [Cattelan](Maurizio)(Maurizio Cattelan) created a concept art piece titled *Comedian* involving taping a banana to a wall using silver duct tape. The piece was exhibited briefly at the Art Basel in Miami before being removed from the exhibition and eaten sans permission in another artistic stunt titled *Hungry Artist* by New York artist [Datuna](David)(David Datuna).
#### Religion and popular beliefs
[[File:XRF-Tani-.jpg|thumb|upright|*[Tani](Nang)(Nang Tani)*, the female [ghost](ghost) of Thai folklore that haunts banana plants]]
In India, bananas serve a prominent part in many festivals and occasions of [Hindu](Hindu)s. In South Indian weddings, particularly [weddings](Tamil)(Tamil culture), banana trees are tied in pairs to form an [arch](arch) as a blessing to the couple for a long-lasting, useful life.
In Thailand, it is believed that [certain type](a)(Musa balbisiana) of banana plant may be inhabited by a spirit, [Tani](Nang)(Nang Tani), a type of ghost related to trees and similar plants that manifests itself as a young woman. Often people tie a length of colored satin cloth around the pseudostem of the banana plants.
In [folklore](Malay)(Ethnic Malays), the ghost known as [Pontianak](Pontianak (folklore)) is associated with banana plants (*pokok pisang*), and its spirit is said to reside in them during the day.
#### Racist symbol
There is a long racist history of describing people of African descent as being more like monkeys than humans, and due to the assumption in popular culture that monkeys like bananas, bananas have been used in symbolic acts of [speech](hate)(hate speech).
Particularly in Europe, bananas have long been commonly thrown at black footballers by racist spectators. In April 2014, during a match at [Villarreal](Villarreal CF)'s stadium, [Madrigal](El)(Estadio de la Cerámica), [Alves](Dani)(Dani Alves) was targeted by Villareal supporter David Campaya Lleo, who threw a banana at him. Alves picked up the banana, peeled it and took a bite, and the meme went viral on social media in support of him. Racist taunts are an ongoing problem in football. Bananas were hung from [noose](noose)s around the campus of [University](American)(American University) in May 2017 after the student body elected its first black woman student government president.
"[Banana](Banana (slur))" is also a [slur](Pejorative) aimed at some Asian people, that are said to be "yellow on the outside, white on the inside". Used primarily by East or Southeast Asians for other East/Southeast Asians or [American](Asian)(Asian American)s who are perceived as assimilated into mainstream American culture.
#### Unicode
The [Unicode](Unicode) standard includes the [emoji](emoji) character .
### Other uses
[[File:LincolnNebraskaPoliceProjectileBananaForScale.jpg|thumb|A [gas](tear)(tear gas) canister with a banana for scale. This method of size comparison is an [meme](internet)(internet meme).]]
* In [culture](internet)(internet culture), bananas are sometimes included in images as a reference for the [size](size) of other objects in the image. This use, often accompanied with the text "banana for scale", became an [meme](internet)(internet meme).
* The large leaves may be used as [umbrella](umbrella)s.
* [peel](Banana)(Banana peel) may have capability to extract [metal](heavy)(Heavy metal (chemistry)) [contamination](contamination) from river water, similar to other [purification](Water purification) materials. In 2007, banana peel powder was tested as a means of filtration for [metals](heavy)(heavy metals) and [radionuclide](radionuclide)s occurring in water produced by the nuclear and [fertilizer](fertilizer) industries ([cadmium](cadmium) contaminant is naturally present in [ores](phosphates)(Phosphate#Production)). When added and thoroughly mixed for 40 minutes, the powder can remove roughly 65% of heavy metals, and this can be repeated.
* Waste bananas can be used to feed [livestock](livestock). Last updated on March 25, 2016, 10:36
## See also
* [plants and animals of Austronesia](Domesticated)(Domesticated plants and animals of Austronesia)
* [of banana dishes](List)(List of banana dishes)
* *[Brands Company v Commission of the European Communities](United)(United Brands Company v Commission of the European Communities)*
* [Bananera Nacional](Corporación)(Corporación Bananera Nacional)
## References
(Also at )
"Isoamyl acetate (9.6%) imparts the characteristic aroma typical of fresh bananas (13, 17−20), while butyl acetate (8.1%) and isobutyl acetate (1.4%) are considered to be character impact compounds of banana flavor."
. "The Horn and French group of plantain cultivars (AAB) are preferred for cooking purposes over ABB cooking bananas ... As a result the AAB plantains fetch a higher price than the ABB cooking bananas."
Search for "Musa",
}}
## Bibliography
*
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## Further reading
* [Lamb](Harriet)(Harriet Lamb), *Fighting the Banana Wars and Other Fairtrade Battles*,
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## External links
* [Kew plant profile: *Musa acuminata* (banana)](http://powo.science.kew.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:797527-1)
*
[ ](Category:Bananas)
[Category:Berries](Category:Berries)
[originating in Asia](Category:Fruits)(Category:Fruits originating in Asia)
[plants](Category:Fiber)(Category:Fiber plants)
[foods](Category:Staple)(Category:Staple foods)
[agriculture](Category:Tropical)(Category:Tropical agriculture)
[fruits](Category:Edible)(Category:Edible fruits)
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