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Same-sex marriage in the United States	same-sex_marriage_in_the_united_states	# Same-sex marriage in the United States Revision ID: 1160243717 \| Timestamp: 2023-06-15T08:22:38Z --- [[File:Jack Baker and Michael McConnell at home, Minneapolis, Minnesota LCCN2017648764 (cropped).jpg\|thumb\|[Baker and Michael McConnell](Jack)(Jack Baker and Michael McConnell) (r), the first same-sex couple ever legally married in the United States in 1971, at their Minneapolis home, 1970]] The availability of legally recognized same-sex marriage in the United States expanded from one state ([Massachusetts](Massachusetts)) in 2004 to all [states](fifty)(U.S. state) in 2015 through various court rulings, state legislation, and direct popular votes. States each have separate [law](marriage)(marriage law)s, which must adhere to rulings by the [Court of the United States](Supreme)(Supreme Court of the United States) that recognize [marriage](marriage) as a [right](fundamental)(Fundamental rights in the United States) guaranteed by both the [Process Clause](Due)(Due Process Clause) and the [Protection Clause](Equal)(Equal Protection Clause) of the [Amendment to the United States Constitution](Fourteenth)(Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution), as first established in the 1967 [landmark](List of landmark court decisions in the United States) [rights](civil)(civil rights) case of [v. Virginia](Loving)(Loving v. Virginia). Civil rights campaigning in support of marriage without distinction as to sex or sexual orientation began in the 1970s. In 1972, the now overturned [v. Nelson](Baker)(Baker v. Nelson) saw the [Court of the United States](Supreme)(Supreme Court of the United States) decline to become involved. The issue became prominent from around 1993, when the [Court of Hawaii](Supreme)(Supreme Court of Hawaii) ruled in [v. Lewin](Baehr)(Baehr v. Miike) that it was unconstitutional under the [of Hawaii](Constitution)(Constitution of Hawaii) for the state to abridge marriage on the basis of sex. That ruling led to federal and state actions to explicitly abridge marriage on the basis of sex in order to prevent the marriages of same-sex couples from being recognized by law, the most prominent of which was the 1996 federal [of Marriage Act](Defense)(Defense of Marriage Act) (DOMA). In 2003, the [Supreme Judicial Court](Massachusetts)(Massachusetts Supreme Judicial Court) ruled in [v. Department of Public Health](Goodridge)(Goodridge v. Department of Public Health) that it was unconstitutional under the [of Massachusetts](Constitution)(Constitution of Massachusetts) for the state to abridge marriage on the basis of sex. From 2004 through to 2015, as [tide of public opinion](the)(Public opinion of same-sex marriage in the United States) continued to move towards support of same-sex marriage, various state court rulings, state legislation, direct popular votes ([referendum](referendum)s and [initiative](initiative)s), and federal court rulings established same-sex marriage in thirty-six of the fifty states. The most prominent supporters of same-sex marriage are [rights](human)(human rights) and [rights](civil)(civil rights) organizations, while the most prominent opponents are religious groups, though some religious organizations support marriage equality. The first two decades of the 21st century saw same-sex marriage receive support from prominent figures in the [rights movement](civil)(civil rights movement), including [Scott King](Coretta)(Coretta Scott King), [Lewis](John)(John Lewis), [Bond](Julian)(Julian Bond), and [Loving](Mildred)(Mildred Loving). In May 2012, the [NAACP](NAACP), the leading African-American civil rights organization, declared its support for same-sex marriage and stated that it is a [right](civil)(civil right). In June 2013, the [Court of the United States](Supreme)(Supreme Court of the United States) struck down [DOMA](Defense of Marriage Act) for violating the [Amendment to the United States Constitution](Fifth)(Fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution) in the landmark civil rights case of [States v. Windsor](United)(United States v. Windsor), leading to federal recognition of same-sex marriage, with federal benefits for married couples connected to either the state of residence or the state in which the marriage was solemnized. In June 2015, the Supreme Court ruled in the landmark civil rights case of [v. Hodges](Obergefell)(Obergefell v. Hodges) that the [right](fundamental)(Fundamental rights in the United States) of same-sex couples to marry on the same terms and conditions as opposite-sex couples, with all the accompanying rights and responsibilities, is guaranteed by both the [Process Clause](Due)(Due Process Clause) and the [Protection Clause](Equal)(Equal Protection Clause) of the [Amendment to the United States Constitution](Fourteenth)(Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution). On December 13, 2022, DOMA was repealed and replaced by the [for Marriage Act](Respect)(Respect for Marriage Act), which recognizes and protects same-sex and interracial marriages under federal law and in interstate relations. Gallup found that [public support for same-sex marriage](nationwide)(Public opinion of same-sex marriage in the United States) reached 50% in 2011, 60% in 2015, and 70% in 2021. A [of nationwide data from January 1999 to December 2015](study)(#Adolescent attempted suicide) revealed that the establishment of same-sex marriage is associated with a significant reduction in the rate of attempted suicide among teens, with the effect being concentrated among teens of a minority sexual orientation, resulting in approximately 134,000 fewer teens attempting suicide each year in the United States. ## History [[in New Orleans, November 11, 2017.jpg\|thumb\|right\|300px\|A newlywed same-sex couple celebrate their marriage in the United States.](File:Wedding)] The history of same-sex marriage in the United States dates from the early 1970s, when the first lawsuits seeking legal recognition of same-sex relationships brought the question of [marriage rights](civil)(Rights and responsibilities of marriages in the United States) and benefits for same-sex couples to public attention, though they proved unsuccessful. The subject became increasingly prominent in U.S. politics following the 1993 [Supreme Court](Hawaii)(Supreme Court of Hawaii) decision in [v. Miike](Baehr)(Baehr v. Miike) that suggested the possibility that the state's prohibition might be unconstitutional. That decision was met by actions at both the federal and state level to restrict marriage to male-female couples, notably the enactment at the federal level of the [of Marriage Act](Defense)(Defense of Marriage Act) (DOMA). On May 17, 2004, [Massachusetts](Same-sex marriage in Massachusetts) became the first U.S. state and the sixth jurisdiction in the world to legalize same-sex marriage following the [Judicial Court](Supreme)(Massachusetts Supreme Judicial Court)'s decision in [v. Department of Public Health](Goodridge)(Goodridge v. Department of Public Health) six months earlier. Just as with the Hawaii decision, the legalization of same-sex marriage in Massachusetts provoked a reaction from opponents that resulted in further legal restrictions being written into state statutes and constitutions. The movement to obtain marriage rights for same-sex couples expanded steadily from that time until, in late 2014, lawsuits had been brought in every state that still denied marriage licenses to same-sex couples. By late 2014, same-sex marriage had become legal in states that contained more than 70% of the [States](United)(United States) population. In some jurisdictions, legalization came through the action of state courts or the enactment of state legislation. More frequently, it came as the result of the decisions of federal courts. On November 6, 2012, [Maine](Maine Question 1, 2012), [Maryland](Maryland Question 6), and [Washington](Washington Referendum 74) became the first states to legalize same-sex marriage through popular vote. Same-sex marriage had been legalized in the [of Columbia](District)(Same-sex marriage in the District of Columbia) and 21 [American tribal nations](Native)(Same-sex marriage in tribal nations in the United States) as well. The June 2013 decision of the [Supreme Court](U.S.)(U.S. Supreme Court) in [States v. Windsor](United)(United States v. Windsor) striking down the law barring federal recognition of same-sex marriage gave significant impetus to the progress of lawsuits that challenged state bans on same-sex marriage in federal court. Since that decision, with only a few exceptions, U.S. District Courts and Courts of Appeals have found state bans on same-sex marriage unconstitutional, as have several state courts. The exceptions have been a state court in Tennessee, U.S. district courts in Louisiana and Puerto Rico, and the [Court of Appeals for the Sixth Circuit](U.S.)(Same-sex marriage in the Sixth Circuit). The U.S. Supreme Court agreed to hear appeals from that [circuit's](Same-sex marriage by Circuit Court) decision. On June 26, 2015, the U.S. Supreme Court struck down all state bans on same-sex marriage, legalized it in all fifty states, and required states to honor out-of-state same-sex marriage licenses in the case [v. Hodges](Obergefell)(Obergefell v. Hodges). ## Legal issues [[File:Same-sex marriage in San Francisco City Hall 20080617.jpg\|thumb\|right\|The wedding of a same-sex couple being performed in [Francisco City Hall](San)(San Francisco City Hall) in June 2008.]] The legal issues surrounding [marriage](same-sex)(same-sex marriage) in the United States are determined by the nation's [federal](federalism) system of government, in which the [status](Status (law)) of a person, including marital status, is determined in large measure by the individual states. Prior to 1996, the [government](federal)(Federal government of the United States) did not define marriage; any marriage recognized by a [state](U.S. state) was recognized, even if that marriage was not recognized by one or more states, as was the case until 1967 with [marriage](interracial)(Interracial marriage in the United States), which some states [by statute](banned)(anti-miscegenation laws). Prior to 2004, [marriage](same-sex)(same-sex marriage) was not performed or recognized in any [jurisdiction](U.S.)(List of states and territories of the United States), but subsequently began to be performed and recognized by law in different jurisdictions through legislation, court rulings,Glenn Adams and David Crary, ["Maine voters reject gay-marriage law"](https://www.theguardian.com/world/feedarticle/8789627), November 4, 2009 tribal council rulings, and popular referendums. The Supreme Court's ruling in [v. Hodges](Obergefell)(Obergefell v. Hodges) ended all inter-state legal complications surrounding same-sex marriage, as it orders states to both perform the marriages of same-sex couples and to recognize the marriages of same-sex couples performed in other states. ### Federal law According to the [Accountability Office](Government)(Government Accountability Office) (GAO) in 2004, [federal rights and protections](1,138)(Rights and responsibilities of marriages in the United States) are conferred to U.S. citizens upon marriage; areas affected include [Security](Social)(Social Security (United States)) benefits, veterans' benefits, health insurance, [Medicaid](Medicaid), hospital visitation, estate taxes, retirement savings, pensions, [leave](family)(family leave), and immigration law. Since July 9, 2015, married same-sex couples throughout the United States have had equal access to all the federal benefits that married opposite-sex couples have. The [of Marriage Act](Defense)(Defense of Marriage Act) (DOMA) was enacted in 1996. DOMA's Section 2 says that no state needs to recognize the legal validity of a same-sex relationship even if recognized as marriage by another state. It purports to relieve a state of its reciprocal obligation to honor the laws of other states as required by the Constitution's [Faith and Credit Clause](Full)(Full Faith and Credit Clause). Even before DOMA, however, states sometimes refused to recognize a marriage from another jurisdiction if it was counter to its "strongly held public policies". Most lawsuits that sought to require a state to recognize a marriage established in another jurisdiction argue on the basis of [protection](equal)(Equal Protection Clause) and [process](due)(Due Process Clause), not the Full Faith and Credit Clause. and (2) the plaintiffs in [v. Caldwell](Robicheaux)(Robicheaux v. Caldwell), who sought Louisiana's recognition of their out-of-state marriages, argued only on the basis of equal protection and due process. One of the Louisiana statutes they challenged made clear the state's assertion of its right to deny recognition to the legal act of another state: "A purported marriage between persons of the same sex violates a strong public policy of the state of Louisiana". (emphasis added).}} DOMA's Section 3 defined marriage for the purposes of federal law as a union of one man and one woman.. It was challenged in the [courts](federal)(United States federal courts). On July 8, 2010, Judge [Tauro](Joseph)(Joseph Louis Tauro) of the [Court of Massachusetts](District)(United States District Court for the District of Massachusetts) held that the denial of federal rights and benefits to lawfully married Massachusetts same-sex couples is unconstitutional under the [Protection Clause](Equal)(Equal Protection Clause) of the [Constitution](U.S.)(United States Constitution). Beginning in 2010, eight federal courts found DOMA Section 3 unconstitutional in cases involving bankruptcy, public employee benefits, estate taxes, and immigration. On October 18, 2012, the [Circuit Court of Appeals](Second)(United States Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit) became the first court to hold sexual orientation to be a [classification](quasi-suspect)(suspect classification) and applied [scrutiny](intermediate)(intermediate scrutiny) to strike down Section 3 of DOMA as unconstitutional in [v. United States](Windsor)(Windsor v. United States). The U.S. Supreme Court ruled in Windsor on June 26, 2013, that Section 3 violated the Fifth Amendment. As a result of the Windsor decision, married same-sex couples—regardless of domicile—have federal tax benefits (including the ability to file joint federal income tax returns), military benefits, federal employment benefits, and immigration benefits. In February 2014, the [Department](Justice)(United States Department of Justice) expanded federal recognition of same-sex marriages to include bankruptcies, prison visits, survivor benefits and refusing to testify against a spouse. Likewise in June 2014, family [leave](medical)(medical leave) benefits under the Family Medical Leave Act 1975 were extended to married same-sex couples. With respect to [security](social)(social security) and veterans benefits, same-sex married couples are eligible for full benefits from the [Affairs](Veterans)(United States Department of Veterans Affairs) (VA) and the [Security Administration](Social)(Social Security Administration) (SSA). Prior to the Supreme Court's ruling in [v. Hodges](Obergefell)(Obergefell v. Hodges) on June 26, 2015, the VA and SSA could provide only limited benefits to married same-sex couples living in states where same-sex marriage was not legal. Effective March 27, 2015, the definition of spouse under the [and Medical Leave Act of 1993](Family)(Family and Medical Leave Act of 1993) includes employees in a same-sex marriage regardless of state of residence. Following the Obergefell decision, the Justice Department extended all federal marriage benefits to married same-sex couples nationwide. The [government](federal)(Federal government of the United States) recognizes the marriages of same-sex couples who married in certain states in which same-sex marriage was legal for brief periods between the time a court order allowed such couples to marry and that court order was stayed, including [Michigan](DeBoer v. Snyder). It also recognized marriages performed in [Utah](Kitchen v. Herbert) from December 20, 2013, to January 6, 2014, even while the state didn't. Under similar circumstances, it never took a position on [Indiana](Baskin v. Bogan) or [Wisconsin](Wolf v. Walker)'s marriages performed in brief periods, though it did recognize them once the respective states announced they would do so. It had not taken a position with respect to similar marriages in [Arkansas](Wright v. Arkansas) prior to the Obergefell decision legalizing and recognizing same-sex marriages in all fifty states.The [Marriage Defense Act](State)(State Marriage Defense Act) was proposed in Congress to force the federal government to follow individual state laws regarding same-sex marriage although it never passed either chamber. Opponents of same-sex marriage have worked to prevent individual states from recognizing same-sex unions by attempting to amend the United States Constitution to restrict marriage to heterosexual unions. In 2006, the [Marriage Amendment](Federal)(Federal Marriage Amendment), which would have prohibited states from recognizing same-sex marriages, was approved by the [Judiciary Committee](Senate)(United States Senate Committee on the Judiciary) on a party-line vote and was debated by the full [Senate](United States Senate), but was ultimately defeated in both houses of Congress. On April 2, 2014, the [House of Representatives](Alabama)(Alabama House of Representatives) adopted a resolution calling for a [convention](constitutional)(Convention to propose amendments to the United States Constitution) to propose an amendment to ban same-sex marriage nationwide. In 2022, Justice [Thomas](Clarence)(Clarence Thomas) named Obergefell v. Hodges as a case that should be revisited in his concurrence of ''[v. Jackson Women's Health Organization](Dobbs)(Dobbs v. Jackson Women's Health Organization), which had overturned [v. Wade](Roe)(Roe v. Wade)* and [Parenthood v. Casey](Planned)(Planned Parenthood v. Casey)'' on the basis that abortion protection was not a "deeply rooted" right in the Constitution. To prevent the loss of the right to same-sex marriage, the House of Representatives passed the [for Marriage Act](Respect)(Respect for Marriage Act) which would nullify DOMA and protect both same-sex and interracial marriages. In July, the bill passed 267–157, with 47 Republican representatives joining the Democrats. In December, the Senate passed the bill 61–36, and the House again voted 258–169 to pass it. President [Biden](Joe)(Joe Biden) signed it into law on December 13, 2022. ### State and territorial recognition Same-sex marriages are licensed in and recognized by all U.S. states and the [of Columbia](District)(Same-sex marriage in the District of Columbia), as well as all U.S. territories except [Samoa](American)(LGBT rights in American Samoa). However, under the [for Marriage Act](Respect)(Respect for Marriage Act), American Samoa must recognize all marriages between two people that were legally performed in another jurisdiction. On January 6, 2016, Alabama's Chief Justice, [Moore](Roy)(Roy Moore), issued a ruling forbidding state officials from issuing marriage licenses to same-sex couples. The ruling had no effect as all Alabama counties continued either issuing marriage licenses to all couples or not issuing licenses at all. In May 2016, Moore was charged with ethics violations by the state Judicial Inquiry Commission for the ruling, subsequently being suspended from the bench for the remainder of his term on September 30 of that year. #### Counties not issuing marriage licenses As of 2020, there are apparently no counties in the United States that do not (or would not) register the marriages of same-sex couple. Officials of one [Texas](Same-sex marriage in Texas) county, [Irion](Irion County, Texas), issued marriage licenses, but claimed they would refuse same-sex couples. Starting in 2017, they refused to comment on what they would do if a same-sex couple were to apply for license. However, as of March 2020, the Irion County clerk stated she would issue marriage licenses to same-sex couples and the form available on the office's website was not gender specific and stated no restrictions as to the genders of the applicants. * Officials in several [Alabama](Same-sex marriage in Alabama) counties initially stopped issuing any marriage licenses rather than issue them to same-sex couples. By 2017, the number of counties doing this to avoid issuing them to same-sex couples dropped to eight. This was in accordance with a state law, which was passed in 1961 to preserve racial segregation by making it optional for county clerks to issue marriage licenses. The [Legislature](Alabama)(Alabama Legislature) passed a bill replacing marriage licenses with marriage certificates in May 2019. These final eight counties resumed allowing couples to marry on August 29, 2019. * Several [Kentucky](Same-sex marriage in Kentucky) counties initially refused to marry same-sex couples. In response, Kentucky reformed its marriage license forms and removed the name of the county clerk from the licenses. As of June 2016, Chris Hartmann, director of the Kentucky-based Fairness Campaign, said that to his knowledge "there are no counties where marriage licenses are being denied" in his state. #### Parental rights Post-Obergefell, six states have, on occasion, attempted to deny same-sex couples full adoption rights to varying degrees. In [Arkansas](Arkansas), [Florida](Florida), [Indiana](Indiana), and [Wisconsin](Wisconsin), same-sex couples have been met with rejection when trying to get both parents' names listed on the birth certificate. In [v. E.L.](V.L.)(V.L. v. E.L.), Alabama's highest court attempted to void an adoption decree obtained by a same-sex couple in Georgia, but the U.S. Supreme Court reversed, restoring joint custody to the adoptive mother on March 7, 2016. [Mississippi](Mississippi) had once banned same-sex couples from adopting, but the law requiring this was ruled unconstitutional by the [States District Court for the Southern District of Mississippi](United)(United States District Court for the Southern District of Mississippi) on March 31, 2016. With that ruling, adoption by same-sex couples became legal in all fifty states. On June 26, 2017, the Supreme Court ruled by a 6–3 vote in the case of [v. Smith](Pavan)(Pavan v. Smith) that under their decision in Obergefell, same-sex couples must be treated equally to opposite-sex couples in the issuance of birth certificates. In December 2016, the Supreme Court of Arkansas upheld a state law only allowing opposite-sex couples to be automatically listed as parents on their children's birth certificates, while prohibiting same-sex couples from being allowed the same on an equal basis. The Supreme Court summarily reversed the Arkansas Supreme Court, finding that the disparity in treatment violated their decision in Obergefell.[Gay Couples Entitled to Equal Treatment on Birth Certificates, Justice Rule](https://www.nytimes.com/2017/06/26/us/politics/gay-couples-entitled-to-equal-treatment-on-birth-certificates-justices-rule.html) The New York Times, June 26, 2017 ### Tribal law The Supreme Court decision legalizing same-sex marriage in the states and territories did not legalize same-sex marriage in Native American tribal nations. In the United States, Congress (not the federal courts) has legal authority over Native reservations. Thus, unless Congress passes a law regarding same-sex marriage on such reservations, federally recognized Native American tribes have the legal right to form their own marriage laws. As of the time of the Obergefell ruling, [tribal nations](25)(Same-sex marriage in tribal nations in the United States) legally recognized same-sex marriage. Some tribes have passed legislation specifically addressing same-sex relationships and some specify that state law and jurisdiction govern tribal marriages. As of April 2022, same-sex marriage is legally recognized in at least 47 tribal nations. ### Local laws prior to Obergefell v. Hodges Prior to Obergefell, [marriage](same-sex)(same-sex marriage) was legal to at least some degree in thirty-eight states, one territory ([Guam](Same-sex marriage in Guam)) and the [of Columbia](District)(Same-sex marriage in the District of Columbia); of the states, [Missouri](Same-sex marriage in Missouri), [Kansas](Same-sex marriage in Kansas), and [Alabama](Same-sex marriage in Alabama) had restrictions. Until [States v. Windsor](United)(United States v. Windsor), it was only legal in 12 states and the [of Columbia](District)(District of Columbia). Beginning in July 2013, over forty federal and state courts cited Windsor to strike down state bans on the licensing or recognition of same-sex marriage. [Missouri](Same-sex marriage in Missouri) recognized same-sex marriages from out of state and same-sex marriages licensed by the [of St. Louis](City)(St. Louis) under two separate [court orders](state)(Same-sex marriage in Missouri); two other jurisdictions issued such licenses as well. In [Kansas](Same-sex marriage in Kansas), marriage licenses were available to same-sex couples in most counties, but the state did not recognize their validity. Some counties in [Alabama](Same-sex marriage in Alabama) issued marriage licenses to same-sex couples for three weeks until the [Supreme Court](state)(Supreme Court of Alabama) ordered probate judges to stop doing so. That court's ruling did not address the recognition of same-sex marriages already licensed in Alabama, but referred to them as "purported 'marriage licenses. In two additional states, same-sex marriages were previously legal between the time their bans were struck down and then [stayed](Stay of proceedings#United States). [Michigan](Same-sex marriage in Michigan) recognized the validity of more than 300 marriage licenses issued to same-sex couples and those marriages. [Arkansas](Same-sex marriage in Arkansas) recognized the more than 500 marriage licenses issued to same-sex couples there, and the [Government](Federal)(Federal government of the United States) had not taken a position on Arkansas's marriage licenses. Note: This table shows only states that licensed and recognized same-sex marriages or had legalized them, before Obergefell v. Hodges. It does not include states that recognized same-sex marriages from other jurisdictions but did not license them. ## Debate ### Support [[File:Garden State Equality May 2011 protest (5694200900).jpg\|300px\|thumb\|left\|2011 protest in [Jersey](New)(New Jersey) by [State Equality](Garden)(Garden State Equality) in support of same-sex marriage and against [deportation](deportation) of LGBT spouses.]] In the United States and Canada, professional organizations including the [Anthropological Association](American)(American Anthropological Association), the [Counseling Association](American)(American Counseling Association), the [Academy of Pediatrics](American)(American Academy of Pediatrics), the [Medical Association](American)(American Medical Association), the [Academy of Nursing](American)(American Academy of Nursing), the [Psychological Association](American)(American Psychological Association), the [Psychiatric Association](American)(American Psychiatric Association), the [Psychological Association](Canadian)(Canadian Psychological Association), the [Sociological Association](American)(American Sociological Association), the [Association of Social Workers](National)(National Association of Social Workers), the [Psychoanalytic Association](American)(American Psychoanalytic Association), the [Association for Marriage and Family Therapy](American)(American Association for Marriage and Family Therapy), and the [Academy of Family Physicians](American)(American Academy of Family Physicians) have stated that the scientific evidence supports the following conclusions: homosexuality is a natural and normal human sexuality, sexual orientation is not a choice, gay people form stable and committed relationships that are essentially equivalent to the relationships of heterosexuals, same-sex parents are no less capable than opposite-sex parents to raise children, no civilization or viable social order depends on restricting marriage to heterosexuals, and the children of same-sex couples fare just as well or even better than the children of opposite-sex couples. Prominent figures in the [rights movement](civil)(civil rights movement) have expressed their support for same-sex marriage. In 2004, [Scott King](Coretta)(Coretta Scott King), a leader of the civil rights movement and the widow of [Luther King Jr.](Martin)(Martin Luther King Jr.), expressed her support for same-sex marriage and publicly denounced attempts to define marriage as the "union of a man and a woman" as a form of "gay bashing". In 2007, [Loving](Mildred)(Mildred Loving), the joint plaintiff alongside her husband [Loving](Richard)(Richard Loving) in the [landmark](List of landmark court decisions in the United States) [rights](civil)(civil rights) case of [v. Virginia](Loving)(Loving v. Virginia) in 1967, in which the [Court of the United States](Supreme)(Supreme Court of the United States) struck down all state bans on [marriage](inter-racial)(Interracial marriage in the United States), issued a statement on the 40th anniversary of the ruling in which she expressed her support for same-sex marriage and described it as a [right](civil)(civil right) akin to inter-racial marriage, stating that "I believe all Americans, no matter their race, no matter their sex, no matter their sexual orientation, should have that same freedom to marry". In 2009, [Bond](Julian)(Julian Bond), a leader of the civil rights movement and a chairman of the [NAACP](NAACP), expressed his support for same-sex marriage and stated that "gay rights are civil rights". In 2015, [Lewis](John)(John Lewis), a leader of the civil rights movement and a chairman of the [SNCC](Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee), welcomed the outcome of the [landmark](List of landmark court decisions in the United States) [rights](civil)(civil rights) case of [v. Hodges](Obergefell)(Obergefell v. Hodges) in which the [Court of the United States](Supreme)(Supreme Court of the United States) struck down all state bans on same-sex marriage, stating that "races don't fall in love, genders don't fall in love—people fall in love". The [NAACP](NAACP), the leading African-American civil rights organization, has pledged its support for gay rights and same-sex marriage, stating that they "support marriage equality consistent with equal protection under the law provided under the Fourteenth Amendment of the United States Constitution", and has declared that same-sex marriage is a [right](civil)(civil right). The [Rights Campaign](Human)(Human Rights Campaign), the largest [rights](LGBT)(LGBT rights) organization in the United States, states that "many same-sex couples want the right to legally marry because they are in love — many, in fact, have spent the last 10, 20 or 50 years with that person — and they want to honor their relationship in the greatest way our society has to offer, by making a public commitment to stand together in good times and bad, through all the joys and challenges family life brings."[Human Rights Campaign website](http://www.hrc.org/resources/entry/answers-to-questions-about-marriage-equality) . Retrieved November 1, 2010. Journalist [Mathabane](Gail)(Mark Mathabane) likens prohibitions on same-sex marriage to past prohibitions on [marriage in the United States](interracial)(interracial marriage in the United States). Author [Espuelas](Fernando)(Fernando Espuelas) argues that same-sex marriage should be allowed because it recognizes the civil right of a minority. Historian [Cott](Nancy)(Nancy Cott) rejects alternatives to same-sex marriage (such as [union](civil)(civil union)s), reasoning that "there really is no comparison, because there is nothing that is like marriage except marriage."[Direct Examination of Nancy Cott](http://www.afer.org/wp-content/uploads/2010/01/Perry-Vol-1-1-11-10.pdf), p. 208. Perry v. Schwarzenegger, No. 09-2292 (N.D. Cal. January 11, 2010). Retrieved December 20, 2011. #### Role of social media Supporters of same-sex marriage successfully utilized [media](social)(social media) websites such as [Facebook](Facebook) to help achieve their aims.Switzer, Cody. [Inside the Human Rights Campaign's Social-Media Success](http://philanthropy.com/article/Inside-the-Human-Rights/138423/) Philanthropy. April 9, 2013. Retrieved April 14, 2013.Lipp, Murray. [The power of online activism and social media in the fight for LGBT equality](http://www.pinknews.co.uk/2013/01/29/comment-the-power-of-online-activism-social-media-in-the-fight-for-lgbt-equality/) Pink News. January 29, 2013. Accessed, April 14, 2013.Royal, Denis. [Facebook Page 'Gay Marriage USA' Pushes for Equality](http://southfloridagaynews.com/articles/facebook-page-gay-marriage-usa-pushes-for-equality/111659) South Florida Gay News. April 10, 2013. Retrieved April 14, 2013. Some have argued that the successful use of social media by [rights](LGBT)(LGBT rights) organizations played a key role in the defeat of religion-based opposition.Ferenstein, Gregory [How The Internet Is Erasing The Religious Right's Political Power](https://techcrunch.com/2013/03/21/how-the-internet-is-erasing-the-religious-rights-political-power/) Tech Crunch. March 21, 2013. Retrieved April 14, 2013. One of the largest scale uses of social media to mobilize support for same-sex marriage preceded and coincided with the arrival at the [Supreme Court](U.S.)(Supreme Court of the United States) of high-profile legal cases for [8](Proposition)(California Proposition 8 (2008)) and [DOMA](Defense of Marriage Act) in March 2013. The "red equal sign" project started by the [Rights Campaign](Human)(Human Rights Campaign) was an electronic campaign primarily based on Facebook that encouraged users to change their profile images to a red equal sign to express support for same-sex marriage.[HRC Logo Memes](http://www.hrc.org/blog/entry/slideshow-hrc-logo-memes) Retrieved April 14, 2013. At the time of the court hearings, an estimated 2.5 million Facebook users changed their profile images to a red equal sign.Kleinman, Alexis [How The Red Equal Sign Took Over Facebook, According To Facebook's Own Data](http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2013/03/29/red-equal-sign-facebook_n_2980489.html) [HuffPost](HuffPost). March 30, 2013. Retrieved April 14, 2013. ### Opposition Opposition to same-sex marriage is based on claims such as the beliefs that homosexuality is unnatural and abnormal, that the recognition of same-sex unions will promote homosexuality in society, and that children are better off when raised by opposite-sex couples. While some researchers question the definitiveness of the evidence, others assert that science has shown that homosexuality is a natural and normal human sexuality, that sexual orientation cannot be chosen, and that the children of same-sex couples fare just as well or even better than the children of opposite-sex couples. Others argue that the word "marriage" has always had a very specific meaning, i.e. the union of a man and a woman. By this argument, calling same-sex unions "marriages" is not a question of law but an example of [Newspeak](Newspeak): same-sex unions are an inherently different entity than a marriage, and that entity has only gained legitimacy through [Orwellian](Orwellian) [brainwashing](brainwashing). Critics of this position counter that historical changes in marriage traditions negate any fixed definition, so the word "marriage" can be infinitely redefined according to the needs of the culture. Some of the opponents of same-sex marriage are religious groups such as the [Church](Catholic)(Catholic Church) and the [Baptist Convention](Southern)(Southern Baptist Convention) which desire for marriage to remain restricted to opposite-sex marriages. However, there are faith-based supporters of same-sex marriage, and homosexual people of faith, within every faith group. Findings from PRRI's American Values Atlas\|website=www.ppri.org\|date=June 21, 2017}} [Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints](The)(The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints) opposed the legalization of same-sex marriage but in 2022, endorsed a federal bill requiring states and territories to honor same-sex marriages solemnized in other states (though it reiterated that church doctrine would not change). Political donations in opposition of same-sex marriage have been an issue of great dispute. Both judges and the IRS have ruled that it is either questionable or illegal for campaign contributions to be shielded by anonymity.[Anti-gay marriage group loses Maine appeal to prevent release of its donor list](http://bangordailynews.com/2012/02/01/news/state/anti-gay-marriage-group-loses-maine-list-appeal/). David Sharp, Associated Press, January 31, 2012. ### Politicians and media figures [[File:Robin Roberts interviewing Barack Obama.jpg\|right\|thumb\|300px\|President [Obama](Barack)(Barack Obama) interviewed by [Roberts](Robin)(Robin Roberts (newscaster)) of [ABC](American Broadcasting Company)'s [Morning America](Good)(Good Morning America), at the [House](White)(White House), May 9, 2012.]] [[File:Celebrating a new America -lovewins 58242 (18588276403).jpg\|thumb\|right\|300px\|The [House](White)(White House), illuminated in rainbow colors, on the evening of the Obergefell ruling, June 26, 2015.]] [Barack Obama's views on same-sex marriage](President)(Social policy of the Barack Obama administration#Same-sex marriage) varied over the course of his political career and became more consistently supportive of it over time. In the 1990s, he had supported same-sex marriage while campaigning for the [Senate](Illinois)(Illinois Senate). During the 2008 presidential campaign, he was opposed to same-sex marriage, but he also opposed the 2008 [referendum](California)(California Proposition 8 (2008)) that aimed at reversing a court ruling establishing same-sex marriage there. In 2009, he opposed two opposing federal legislative proposals that would have banned or established same-sex marriage nationally, stating that each state had to decide the issue. In December 2010, he expressed support for [union](civil)(civil union)s with rights equivalent to marriage and for federal recognition of same-sex relationships. He opposed a federal constitutional amendment to ban same-sex marriage. He also stated that his position on same-sex marriage was "evolving" and that he recognized that civil unions from the perspective of same-sex couples was "not enough". On May 9, 2012, President Obama became the first sitting president to support same-sex marriage. He still said the legal question belonged to the states. In October 2014, Obama told an interviewer that his view had changed: }} Shortly after winning the [election](2016)(2016 United States presidential election), President [Trump](Donald)(Donald Trump) said he's "fine" with same-sex marriage and believes it to be settled law: "It's law. It was settled in the Supreme Court. I mean, it's done." This somewhat contrasted with a previous statement he made in June 2015, after Obergefell v. Hodges, in which he said he's personally for "traditional marriage" and that he believed same-sex marriage should be left to the states. In that same statement, however, Trump admitted that overturning Obergefell is not realistic. Several of his federal appointments have also, subsequently, announced they will uphold same-sex marriage and enforce the Supreme Court ruling, while still being personally against same-sex marriage, namely Attorney General [Sessions](Jeff)(Jeff Sessions) and Secretary of Education [DeVos](Betsy)(Betsy DeVos). Former presidents [Clinton](Bill)(Bill Clinton), [Carter](Jimmy)(Jimmy Carter), and Barack Obama, former vice presidents [Cheney](Dick)(Dick Cheney), [Gore](Al)(Al Gore),\|publisher=[TV](Current)(Current TV)\|access-date=July 8, 2012\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091129220957/http://current.com/items/88817757_gay-men-and-women-should-have-the-same-rights.htm\|archive-date=November 29, 2009\|url-status=dead}} [Mondale](Walter)(Walter Mondale), and [Biden](Joe)(Joe Biden) have voiced their support for same-sex marriage, as have former first ladies [Bush](Laura)(Laura Bush),Wing, Nick. [Laura Bush: Gay Marriage Should Be Legal, Abortion Should Remain Legal (VIDEO)](http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2010/05/13/laura-bush-gay-marriage-s_n_574731.html). The Huffington Post. May 13, 2011. Retrieved March 27, 2013. [Clinton](Hillary)(Hillary Clinton),Wing, Nick. [Hillary Clinton Announces Support For Gay Marriage](http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2013/03/18/hillary-clinton-gay-marriage_n_2900557.html) . The Huffington Post. March 18, 2013. Retrieved March 27, 2013. [Obama](Michelle)(Michelle Obama),[US First Lady Michelle Obama on why she supports gay marriage](https://www.gaystarnews.com/article/us-first-lady-michelle-obama-why-she-supports-gay-marriage010612/) Gay Star News and [Reagan](Nancy)(Nancy Reagan).[Nancy Reagan supports same-sex marriage says daughter Patti Davis](http://www.pinknews.co.uk/2013/04/17/nancy-reagan-supports-same-sex-marriage-says-daughter-patti-davis/) Pink News Former President [H. W. Bush](George)(George H. W. Bush) and his wife former First Lady [Bush](Barbara)(Barbara Bush) served as witnesses to a same-sex wedding, but neither publicly affirmed support for same-sex marriage in general; [W. Bush](George)(George W. Bush) reportedly offered to officiate the same wedding,Johnson, Chris. "[George W. Bush sought to officiate same-sex wedding: report](http://www.washingtonblade.com/2015/05/24/george-w-bush-sought-to-officiate-same-sex-wedding-report/)." Washington Blade. May 24, 2015. Retrieved May 25, 2015. but has similarly not made a public statement regarding his position on the issue (as president, he was opposed). Fifteen [senators](U.S.)(List of current United States senators) announced their support in the spring of 2013.Wilson, Chris. [The same-sex marriage Senate endorsement tracker](https://news.yahoo.com/blogs/ticket/same-sex-marriage-senate-endorsement-tracker-154748412--politics.html). Yahoo! News. Updated June 19, 2013. Retrieved June 27, 2013. By April 2013, a majority of the Senate had expressed support for same-sex marriage. Senator [Portman](Rob)(Rob Portman) of Ohio became the first sitting [Republican](Republican Party (United States)) senator to endorse same-sex marriage in March 2013,Stein, Sam. [Rob Portman's Gay Marriage Conversion Explained By His Son](http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2013/03/25/rob-portman-gay-marriage_n_2947796.html). The Huffington Post. March 25, 2013. Retrieved June 26, 2013. followed by Senator [Kirk](Mark)(Mark Kirk) of Illinois in April, Senator [Murkowski](Lisa)(Lisa Murkowski) of Alaska in June, and Senator [Collins](Susan)(Susan Collins) of Maine a year later. Politicians who have notably opposed same-sex marriage have included [Santorum](Rick)(Rick Santorum), [Huckabee](Mike)(Mike Huckabee), and [Palin](Sarah)(Sarah Palin). Prominent politicians who have shifted from opposing to supporting same-sex marriage include Republican Senator [Portman](Rob)(Rob Portman), and Republican Representative [Barr](Bob)(Bob Barr) (the author of the 1996 [of Marriage Act](Defense)(Defense of Marriage Act)). In an interview on ''[O'Reilly Factor](The)(The O'Reilly Factor)'' in August 2010, when [Beck](Glenn)(Glenn Beck) was asked if he "believe(s) that gay marriage is a threat to [this] country in any way", he stated, "No I don't. ... I believe that [Jefferson](Thomas)(Thomas Jefferson) said: 'If it neither breaks my leg nor picks my pocket what difference is it to me?Elizabeth Tenety, "[Glenn Beck, Gay Marriage Advocate?](https://web.archive.org/web/20100814132033/http://newsweek.washingtonpost.com/onfaith/undergod/2010/08/glenn_beck_gay_marriage_advocate.html)", [Washington Post](The)(The Washington Post), August 12, 2010. Retrieved October 31, 2010.Talkers Magazine, . Retrieved November 30, 2010. ## Studies ### Adolescent attempted suicide The establishment of same-sex marriage is associated with a significant reduction in the rate of attempted suicide among teenagers, with the effect being concentrated among teens of a minority sexual orientation. A study of nationwide data from across the United States from January 1999 to December 2015 revealed that the rate of attempted suicide among all students in grades 9–12 declined by 7% and the rate of attempted suicide among those of a minority sexual orientation in grades 9–12 declined by 14% in states which established same-sex marriage, resulting in approximately 134,000 fewer teens attempting suicide each year in the United States. The researchers took advantage of the gradual manner in which same-sex marriage was established in the United States (expanding from one state in 2004 to all fifty states in 2015) to compare the rate of attempted suicide among teens in each state over the time period studied. Once same-sex marriage was established in a particular state, the reduction in the rate of attempted suicide among teens in that state became permanent. No reduction in the rate of attempted suicide among teens occurred in a particular state until that state recognized same-sex marriage. The lead researcher of the study observed that "laws that have the greatest impact on gay adults may make gay kids feel more hopeful for the future". ### Economic impact on same-sex couples Until the Supreme Court's June 2013 ruling in [States v. Windsor](United)(United States v. Windsor) required the [Government](Federal)(Federal government of the United States) to treat lawfully married same-sex couples on an equal basis with lawfully married opposite-sex couples, same-sex married couples faced severe disadvantages. The Federal Government did not recognize those marriages for any purpose. According to a 1997 [Accounting Office](General)(General Accounting Office) study, at least 1,049 U.S. federal laws and regulations include references to marital status.Dang, Alain, and M. Somjen Frazer. "Black Same-Sex Couple Households in the 2000 U.S. Census: Implications in the Debate Over Same-Sex Marriage." Western Journal of Black Studies 29.1 (Spring2005 2005): 521–530. Academic Search Premier. EBSCO. September 30, 2009 A 2004 study by the [Budget Office](Congressional)(Congressional Budget Office) found 1,138 statutory provisions "in which marital status is a factor in determining or receiving 'benefits, rights, and privileges. Many of these laws govern property rights, benefits, and taxation. Same-sex couples whose marriages were not recognized by the Federal Government were ineligible for spousal and survivor [Security](Social)(Social Security (United States)) benefits and were ineligible for the benefits of the spouse of a federal government employee. One study found that the difference in Social Security income for same-sex couples compared to opposite-sex married couples was per year. Compared to similarly situated opposite-sex married couples, same-sex couples faced the following financial and legal disadvantages: * Legal costs associated with obtaining domestic partner documents to gain legal abilities granted automatically by legal marriage, including power of attorney, health care decision-making, and inheritance * A person can inherit an unlimited amount from a deceased spouse without incurring an estate tax, but was subject to taxes if inheriting from a same-sex partner * Same-sex couples were not eligible to file jointly as a married couple and thus could not take the advantages of lower tax rates when the individual income of the partners differs significantly}} * Employer-provided health insurance coverage for a same-sex partner incurred federal income tax * Higher health costs associated with lack of insurance and preventive care: 20% of same-sex couples had a member who was uninsured compared to 10% of married opposite-sex couples * Inability to protect jointly owned home from loss due to costs of potential medical catastrophe * Inability of a U.S. citizen to [a same-sex spouse for citizenship](sponsor)(Same-sex immigration policy in the United States) Some 7,400 companies were offering spousal benefits to same-sex couples as of 2008. In states that recognized same-sex marriages, same-sex couples could continue to receive those same benefits only if they married.Barkacs, L. L. (2008). "Same sex marriage, civil unions, and employee benefits: Unequal protection under the law – when will society catch up with the business community?", Journal of Legal, Ethical and Regulatory Issues, 11(2), 33–44. Only 18% of private employers offered domestic partner health care benefits. Same-sex couples face the same financial constraints of legal marriage as opposite-sex married couples, including the [penalty](marriage)(marriage penalty) in taxation. While social service providers usually do not count one partner's assets toward the income means test for welfare and disability assistance for the other partner, a legally married couple's joint assets are normally used in calculating whether a married individual qualifies for assistance. A 2019 study found an increase in employment among same-sex couples after the legalization of same-sex marriage. The author of the study provided additional evidence suggesting that this change in employment was driven by a decline in discrimination. ### Economic impact on the state and federal governments The 2004 [Budget Office](Congressional)(Congressional Budget Office) study, working from an assumption "that about 0.6 percent of adults would enter into same-sex marriages if they had the opportunity" (an assumption in which they admitted "significant uncertainty") estimated that legalizing same-sex marriage throughout the United States "would improve the budget's bottom line to a small extent: by less than $1 billion in each of the next 10 years". This result reflects an increase in net government revenues (increased income taxes due to marriage penalties more than offsetting decreased tax revenues arising from postponed estate taxes). Marriage recognition would increase the government expenses for [Security](Social)(Social Security (United States)) and [Employee Health Benefits](Federal)(Federal Employees Health Benefits Program) but that increase would be more than made up for by decreased expenses for [Medicaid](Medicaid), [Medicare](Medicare (United States)), and [Security Income](Supplemental)(Supplemental Security Income). According to a study published in May 2020 by the [Institute on Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity Law and Public Policy](Williams)(Williams Institute on Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity Law and Public Policy), the legalization of same-sex marriage boosted state and local economies by an estimated 3.8 billion [dollars](United States dollar). The Williams Institute estimated that the 300,000 same-sex couples who married in the U.S. since 2015 generated about $3.2 billion for local and state economies. In addition, traveling wedding guests spent an additional $544 million, and about 45,000 jobs were supported by same-sex weddings. $244 million was generated in state and local taxes. ### Mental health Based in part on research that has been conducted on the adverse effects of stigmatization of gays and lesbians, numerous prominent social science organizations have issued position statements supporting same-sex marriage and opposing discrimination on the basis of sexual orientation; these organizations include the [Psychoanalytic Association](American)(American Psychoanalytic Association) and the [Psychological Association](American)(American Psychological Association). Several psychological studies have shown that an increase in exposure to negative conversations, media messages, and negative reactions among peers about same-sex marriage creates a harmful environment for LGBT people that may affect their health and well-being, especially among its younger members.Price, M. ["Upfront—Research uncovers the stress created by same-sex marriage bans"](http://www.apa.org/monitor/2009/01/marriage-bans.html) in Monitor on Psychology, Volume 40, No. 1, page 10, January 2009. Washington DC: American Psychological Association.Potoczniak, Daniel J.; Aldea, Mirela A.; DeBlaere, Cirleen "Ego identity, social anxiety, social support, and self-concealment in lesbian, gay, and bisexual individuals." Journal of Counseling Psychology, Vol 54(4), October 2007, 447–457.Balsam, Kimberly F.; Mohr, Jonathan J. "Adaptation to sexual orientation stigma: A comparison of bisexual and lesbian/gay adults." Journal of Counseling Psychology, Vol 54(3), July 2007, 306–319. One study surveyed more than 1,500 lesbian, gay and bisexual adults across the nation and found that respondents from the 25 states that have outlawed same-sex marriage had the highest reports of "[stress](minority)(minority stress)"—the chronic social stress that results from minority-group stigmatization—as well as general psychological distress. According to the study, the negative campaigning that comes with a ban is directly responsible for the increased stress. Past research has shown that [stress](minority)(minority stress) is linked to health risks such as [sexual behavior](risky)(risky sexual behavior) and substance abuse.Rostosky, Sharon Scales; Riggle, Ellen D. B.; Gray, Barry E.; Hatton, Roxanna L. "Minority stress experiences in committed same-sex couple relationships." Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, Vol 38(4), August 2007, 392–400. Two other studies examined personal reports from LGBT adults and their families living in [Tennessee](Memphis,)(Memphis, Tennessee), immediately after a successful [ballot campaign](2006)(Tennessee Marriage Protection Amendment) banned same-sex marriage. Most respondents reported feeling alienated from their communities. The studies also found that families experienced a kind of secondary minority stress, says Jennifer Arm, a counseling graduate student at the [of Memphis](University)(University of Memphis).Szymanski, Dawn M.; Carr, Erika R. "The roles of gender role conflict and internalized heterosexism in gay and bisexual men's psychological distress: Testing two mediation models." Psychology of Men & Masculinity, Vol 9(1), January 2008, 40–54. At the [v. Schwarzenegger](Perry)(Perry v. Schwarzenegger) trial, expert witness [Meyer](Ilan)(Ilan Meyer) testified that the mental health outcomes for gays and lesbians would improve if laws such as Proposition 8 did not exist because "when people are exposed to more stress...they are more likely to get sick..." and that particular situation is consistent with laws that say to gay people "you are not welcome here, your relationships are not valued." Such laws have "significant power", he said. ### Physical health In 2009, a pair of economists at [University](Emory)(Emory University) tied the passage of state bans on same-sex marriage in the US to an increase in the rates of [HIV/AIDS](HIV/AIDS) infection. The study linked the passage of same-sex marriage ban in a state to an increase in the annual HIV rate within that state of roughly 4 cases per 100,000 population. A study by the [Mailman School of Public Health](Columbia)(Columbia Mailman School of Public Health) found that gay men in Massachusetts visited health clinics significantly less often following the legalization of same-sex marriage in that state. ## In popular culture The Fox sitcom [Roc](Roc (TV series)) was the first sitcom to feature a same-sex marriage in 1991. Since then, several shows and series have featured same-sex marriages, including amongst others [Children](Married...with)(Married...With Children), [Roseanne](Roseanne) ("[Bride](December)(December Bride (Roseanne))"), [Glee](Glee (TV series)), [Friends](Friends) ("[One with the Lesbian Wedding](The)(The One with the Lesbian Wedding)"), [Nine-Nine](Brooklyn)(Brooklyn Nine-Nine), [Family](Modern)(Modern Family), [Simpsons](The)(The Simpsons) ("[Something About Marrying](There's)(There's Something About Marrying)"), [Ellen DeGeneres Show](The)(The Ellen DeGeneres Show), [& Sisters](Brothers)(Brothers & Sisters (2006 TV series)), ''[Anatomy](Grey's)(Grey's Anatomy), [& Grace](Will)(Will & Grace), [Conan](Conan (talk show)), [Universe](Steven)(Steven Universe), [Shameless](Shameless (American TV series)), [Fosters](The)(The Fosters (American TV series)), etc. The 22nd season premier of the [PBS](PBS) animated-show [Arthur](Arthur (TV series))'' featured the marriage of teacher Mr. Ratburn and his male partner. Alabama's public television channel refused to air the episode. ## Marriage statistics There is no complete data on the number of same-sex marriages conducted in the United States. Marriages and divorces are recorded by states, counties, and territories, plus New York City and the District of Columbia, but not by the [Government](Federal)(Federal Government of the United States). States such as [Oregon](Oregon) do not distinguish between opposite-sex and same-sex marriages in their official records. The legal records on marriage and divorce belong to the states. In August 2016, the [Department](Treasury)(United States Department of the Treasury) estimated the number of same-sex marriages by linking the tax returns of same-sex couples who had filed jointly in 2014 with their Social Security records. (Although this method excluded couples who file singly, these are small in number; of all married couples who file taxes, 97.5% file jointly.) This research showed that in 2014 there were about 183,280 married same-sex couples in the country, or "roughly a third of 1 percent of all marriages" according to The New York Times. Numbers from 2015 showed a large increase to 250,450 marriages. According to Census Bureau data, heterosexual marriages still accounted for about 98 percent of marriages for people under 35 in 2021. According to the statistics, female couples were four times more likely to have children than male couples. Additionally, male couples earned a pretax average of $165,960 per year, while lesbian couples earned $118,415 and straight couples earned $115,210. The highest rates of female same-sex marriage were found in [Oakland](Oakland, California) (2.1% of all marriages), [Seattle](Seattle), [Francisco](San)(San Francisco), [(MA)](Springfield)(Springfield, Massachusetts) and [(OR)](Portland)(Portland, Oregon), whereas gay male marriages were most frequent in San Francisco (3.2%), [D.C.](Washington)(Washington D.C.), [York City](New)(New York City), Seattle and [Lauderdale](Fort)(Fort Lauderdale, Florida).[The Most Detailed Map of Gay Marriage in America](https://www.nytimes.com/2016/09/13/upshot/the-most-detailed-map-of-gay-marriage-in-america.html) The New York Times The [States Census Bureau](United)(United States Census Bureau) has collected data on unmarried same-sex households since 2005. Since 2013 following United States v. Windsor, the Bureau began recording married same-sex households in its Same-Sex Couples report. It recorded about 252,000 same-sex spouses in 2013; 335,000 in 2014; 425,000 in 2015; 487,000 in 2016; 555,000 in 2017; 593,000 in 2018. In 2018, the states of California, Texas and New York had the highest total number of same-sex households, whereas Wyoming, Vermont, South Dakota and Connecticut had the most married same-sex households in comparison to unmarried households (92.4% of Wyoming same-sex households were married, followed by Vermont at 79.3%, South Dakota at 77.8% and Connecticut at 70.7%). Nationally, 59.5% of cohabiting same-sex couples were married. The [Reference Bureau](Population)(Population Reference Bureau) reported that by October 2015 approximately 486,000 same-sex marriages had taken place in the United States. It estimated that 45% of all same-sex couples in the country were married at that time. According to [Gallup](Gallup (company)), the percent of cohabiting same-sex couples who are married rose from 38% in 2015 to 49% in 2016 and to 61% in 2017. ## Case law United States federal and state [law](case)(case law) regarding same-sex marriage: ### 1970s * Anonymous v. Anonymous, 67 Misc.2d 982 (N.Y. 1971). The law makes no provision for a "marriage" between persons of the same sex. * [v. Nelson](Baker)(Baker v. Nelson), 191 N.W.2d 185 (Minn. 1971). Upholds a Minnesota law defining marriage as the union of a man and a woman. (Overruled by Obergefell v. Hodges in 2015; see below) * [v. Hallahan](Jones)(Jones v. Hallahan), 501 S.W.2d 588 (Ky. 1973). Upholds the denial of a marriage license to two women in Kentucky based on dictionary definitions of marriage, despite the fact that state statutes do not specify the gender of marriage partners. * Frances B. v. Mark B., 78 Misc.2d 112 (1974). Marriage is and always has been a contract between a man and a woman. * [v. Hara](Singer)(Singer v. Hara), 522 P.2d 1187 (Wash. Ct. App. 1974). The historical definition of marriage is between one man and one woman, and same-sex couples are inherently ineligible to marry. This ban does not constitute sex discrimination. ### 1980s * [v. Howerton](Adams)(Adams v. Howerton), 673 F.2d 1036 (9th Cir. 1982), cert. denied, 458 U.S. 1111. A same-sex marriage does not make one a "spouse" under the Immigration and Nationality Act. * De Santo v. Barnsley, 476 A.2d 952 (Pa. Super. Ct. 1984). Same-sex couples cannot divorce because they cannot form a common law marriage.[De Santo v. Barnsley, May 11, 1984](https://scholar.google.com/scholar_case?case=12528764226087213713&hl=en&as_sdt=2&as_vis=1&oi=scholarr), retrieved January 19, 2013 ### 1990s * In re Estate of Cooper, 149 Misc.2d 282 (Sur. Ct. Kings Co. 1990). The state has a compelling interest in fostering the traditional institution of marriage and prohibiting same-sex marriage. * [v. Lewin](Baehr)(Baehr v. Lewin), 852 P.2d 44 (Haw. 1993). A statute limiting marriage to opposite-sex couples violates the Hawaii Constitution's equal protection clause unless the state can show that the statute is both justified by compelling state interests and also narrowly tailored. This ruling prompted the adoption of Hawaii's [amendment](constitutional)(Hawaii Constitutional Amendment 2 (1998)) allowing the State Legislature to restrict marriage to different-sex couples and the federal [of Marriage Act](Defense)(Defense of Marriage Act). * [v. District of Columbia](Dean)(Same-sex marriage in the District of Columbia#Dean v. District of Columbia), 653 A.2d 307 (D.C. 1995). DC does not authorise same-sex marriage; denial of a marriage license does not violate the [Process Clause](Due)(Due Process Clause) of the [States Constitution](United)(United States Constitution). * Storrs v. Holcomb, 645 N.Y.S.2d 286 (App. Div. 1996). New York does not recognize or authorize same-sex marriage. Overturned in part by Martinez v. County of Monroe in 2008. * In re Estate of Hall, 707 N.E.2d 201, 206 (Ill. App. Ct. 1998). Illinois does not recognize a same-sex marriage. The petitioner's claim to be in a same-sex marriage was not in a marriage recognized by law. * [v. Vermont](Baker)(Baker v. Vermont), 170 Vt. 194; 744 A.2d 864 (Vt. 1999). The Common Benefits Clause of the [of Vermont](Constitution)(Constitution of Vermont) requires that same-sex couples be granted the same legal rights as married persons, though it need not be called marriage. ### 2000s * Frandsen v. County of Brevard, 828 So. 2d 757 (Fla. 2001). The [Constitution](Florida)(Constitution of Florida) will not be construed to recognize same-sex marriage; sex classifications not subject to strict scrutiny under the Constitution. * Burns v. Burns, 560 S.E.2d 47 (Ga. Ct. App. 2002). Marriage is the union of one man and one woman. * [re Estate of Gardiner](In)(In re Estate of Gardiner), 42 P.3d 120 (Kan. 2002). A post-operative male-to-female transsexual is not a woman within the meaning of the statutes and cannot validly marry a man. * Rosengarten v. Downes, 806 A.2d 1066 (Conn. Ct. App. 2002). Connecticut will not dissolve a Vermont civil union. * Standhardt v. Superior Court ex rel. County of Maricopa, 77 P.3d 451 (Ariz. Ct. App. 2003). The [of Arizona](Constitution)(Constitution of Arizona) does not provide the right to same-sex marriage. * [v. Dept. of Public Health](Goodridge)(Goodridge v. Dept. of Public Health), 798 N.E.2d 941 (Mass. 2003). The denial of marriage licenses to same-sex couples violated provisions of the [State Constitution](Massachusetts)(Constitution of Massachusetts) guaranteeing individual liberty and equality, and it was not rationally related to a legitimate state interest. * [v. Sadler](Morrison)(Same-sex marriage in Indiana#Lawsuits), 821 N.E.2d 15 (Ind. Super. Ct. 2005). Indiana's Defense of Marriage Act is valid. * ''[v. St. Vincent's Hospital](Langan)(Langan v. St. Vincent's Hospital)'', 802 N.Y.S.2d 476 (App. Div. 2005). For the purposes of New York's wrongful death statute, the survivor partner from a Vermont civil union lacks standing as a "spouse". * [for Equal Protection v. Bruning](Citizens)(Citizens for Equal Protection v. Bruning), 455 F.3d 859 (8th Cir. 2006). Nebraska's [Measure 416](Initiative)(Nebraska Initiative Measure 416 (2000)) does not violate the Fourteenth Amendment's Equal Protection Clause, was not a bill of attainder, and does not violate the First Amendment. * [v. Harris](Lewis)(Lewis v. Harris), 908 A.2d 196 (N.J. 2006). Prohibiting same-sex marriage does not violate the [Jersey Constitution](New)(Constitution of New Jersey), but the state must extend all the rights and responsibilities of marriage to same-sex couples. The [Jersey Legislature](New)(New Jersey Legislature) had 180 days to amend the marriage laws or create a "parallel structure". * [v. King County](Andersen)(Andersen v. King County), 138 P.3d 963 (Wash. 2006). Washington's Defense of Marriage Act does not violate the [Constitution](State)(Constitution of Washington). * Hernandez v. Robles, 855 N.E.2d 1 (N.Y. 2006). The [York Constitution](New)(New York Constitution) does not require that marriage rights be extended to same-sex couples.[Opinion of the Court, Hernandez v Robles](http://www.courts.state.ny.us/reporter/3dseries/2006/2006_05239.htm), accessed September 24, 2014 * [v. Deane](Conaway)(Same-sex marriage in Maryland#Conaway v. Deane & Polyak), 932 A.2d 571 (Md. 2007). Upholds a Maryland law defining marriage as the union of a man and a woman. * [v. County of Monroe](Martinez)(Martinez v. County of Monroe), 850 N.Y.S.2d 740 (App. Div. 2008). Because New York recognizes the marriages of opposite-sex couples from other jurisdictions, it must do the same for same-sex couples. * [re Marriage Cases](In)(In re Marriage Cases), 183 P.3d 384 (Cal. 2008). Limiting marriage to opposite-sex couples is invalid under the equal protection clause of the [Constitution](California)(Constitution of California). Full marriage rights, not merely domestic partnership, must be offered to same-sex couples.['In re Marriage Cases](http://www.courts.ca.gov/documents/S147999.pdf), 183 P.3d 384 (Cal. 2008). * [v. Commissioner of Public Health](Kerrigan)(Kerrigan v. Commissioner of Public Health), 957 A.2d 407 (Conn. 2008). The availability of civil unions but not marriage to same-sex partners is a violation of the equality and liberty provisions of the [Constitution](Connecticut)(Constitution of Connecticut). * [v. Horton](Strauss)(Strauss v. Horton), 207 P.3d 48 (Cal. 2009). [8](Proposition)(Proposition 8 (2008)) was validly adopted, and marriages contracted before its adoption remain valid.[Strauss v. Horton](http://www.courts.ca.gov/documents/S168047.pdf), 207 P.3d 48 (Cal. 2009). * [v. Brien](Varnum)(Varnum v. Brien), 763 N.W.2d 862 (Iowa 2009). Barring same-sex couples from marriage violates the equal protection provisions of the [Constitution](Iowa)(Iowa Constitution). Equal protection requires full marriage, rather than civil unions or some other substitute, for same-sex couples. ### 2010s ;Challenges to DOMA Section 3 * [v. Office of Personnel Management](Gill)(Gill v. Office of Personnel Management) (2009–2013). Section 3 of the federal Defense of Marriage Act is found unconstitutional in U.S. district court. The [Circuit Court of Appeals](First)(United States Court of Appeals for the First Circuit) affirms that ruling and stays implementation pending appeal. Windsor finds Section 3 unconstitutional and appeal of Gill is denied by the Supreme Court. * [v. United States Department of Health and Human Services](Massachusetts)(Massachusetts v. United States Department of Health and Human Services) (2009–2013). Decided alongside Gill with the same outcome. * [v. Office of Personnel Management](Golinski)(Golinski v. Office of Personnel Management) (2010–2013). Section 3 of the federal Defense of Marriage Act is found unconstitutional in U.S. district court, which determines that sexual orientation is a [classification](quasi-suspect)(suspect classification) requiring the court to apply [scrutiny](intermediate)(intermediate scrutiny), that is, to determine whether Section 3 relates to an important government interest. On appeal, the case is held in abeyance pending the decision of the U.S. Supreme Court in Windsor, which settles the issues raised in Golinski, the appeal of which to the Supreme Court is then denied. * [States v. Windsor](United)(United States v. Windsor) (2010–2013). Section 3 of the federal Defense of Marriage Act is found unconstitutional in U.S. district court. The [Circuit Court of Appeals](Second)(United States Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit) affirms that ruling, as does the U.S. Supreme Court. The U.S. Government began implementing the decision the same week. ;California Proposition 8 * [v. Perry](Hollingsworth)(Hollingsworth v. Perry) (2009–2013). California's Proposition 8, a voter-endorsed constitutional amendment banning same-sex marriage, is found unconstitutional in U.S. district court in Perry v. Schwarzenegger. The proposition's backers appeal to the Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals, which upholds the district court's finding of unconstitutionality in Perry v. Brown. The U.S. Supreme Court ruled that the proposition's backers lacked standing to appeal and left the district court ruling intact. ;Same-sex marriage rights * [v. Christiansen](Christiansen)(Same-sex marriage in Wyoming#Christiansen v. Christiansen). On June 6, 2011, the [Court of Wyoming](Supreme)(Supreme Court of Wyoming) grants a divorce to two women who married in Canada, but says its decision does not apply "in any context other than divorce". * [v. Cowan](Port)(Port v. Cowan) (2010–2012). Maryland must recognize valid out-of-state same-sex marriages under doctrine of [comity](comity). * [State Equality v. Dow](Garden)(Garden State Equality v. Dow) (2011–2013), New Jersey's civil unions violate due process guarantees; denying same-sex marriage ruled unconstitutional in state superior court. The N.J. Supreme Court refuses to stay the ruling and the state defendants drop their appeal. * [v. Oliver](Griego)(Griego v. Oliver), 316 P.3d 865 (N.M. 2013). The New Mexico Supreme Court rules that the [Constitution](State)(Constitution of New Mexico) requires marriage rights to be extended to same-sex couples. * [v. Herbert](Kitchen)(Kitchen v. Herbert), 961 F. Supp. 2d 1181 (2013). U.S. district court rules Utah's ban on same-sex marriage unconstitutional. The Tenth Circuit Court of Appeals upholds that ruling on June 25, 2014. All parties support review by the U.S. Supreme Court, and that court denied review on October 6. * [v. Wolf](Whitewood)(Whitewood v. Wolf) (Pennsylvania). On May 20, 2014, Judge [E. Jones III](John)(John E. Jones III) rules that Pennsylvania's same-sex marriage ban is unconstitutional. * [v. Kitzhaber](Geiger)(Geiger v. Kitzhaber) and [v. Kitzhaber](Rummell)(Rummell v. Kitzhaber) (Oregon). On May 19, 2014, district judge [J. McShane](Michael)(Michael J. McShane) declares Oregon's same-sex marriage ban unconstitutional. * [v. Schaefer](Bostic)(Bostic v. Schaefer) (Virginia). The [Circuit](Fourth)(United States Court of Appeals for the Fourth Circuit) on July 28, 2014, in a 2–1 decision, affirms a district court ruling that Virginia's denial of marriage rights to same-sex couples is unconstitutional. The Supreme Court denied review on October 6. * [v. Bogan](Baskin)(Baskin v. Bogan) (Indiana) and [v. Walker](Wolf)(Wolf v. Walker) (Wisconsin). The Seventh Circuit consolidated these cases and on September 4, 2014, upheld two district court rulings that had found Indiana's and Wisconsin's bans on same-sex marriage unconstitutional. The U.S. Supreme Court denied review on October 6. * [v. Smith](Bishop)(Bishop v. United States) (Oklahoma). On July 18, 2014, the Tenth Circuit upholds the district court ruling that Oklahoma's ban on same-sex marriage is unconstitutional. The Supreme Court denied review on October 6. * [v. Vasterling](Barrier)(Barrier v. Vasterling) (Missouri). State circuit judge J. Dale Youngs rules on October 3, 2014, that Missouri's refusal to recognize same-sex marriages from other jurisdictions violates the plaintiff same-sex couples' right to equal protection under both the state and federal constitutions. * [v. Snyder](Caspar)(Caspar v. Snyder) (Michigan). On January 15, 2015, U.S. district judge [A. Goldsmith](Mark)(Mark A. Goldsmith) ruled that the state must recognize the validity of "window marriages" established on March 21 and 22, 2014, before the Sixth Circuit Court of Appeals stayed a district court ruling in DeBoer v. Snyder that found Michigan's ban on same-sex marriage unconstitutional, despite the fact that DeBoer was later reversed. The state chose not to appeal. * [v. Hodges](Obergefell)(Obergefell v. Hodges) (2013-2015). U.S. Supreme Court case finding state bans on same-sex marriage to be unconstitutional under the [Amendment](14th)(Fourteenth Amendment of the United States Constitution). (Overturned Baker v. Nelson) ## Public opinion Americans began to be polled occasionally on the topic in the 1980s and more regularly in the 1990s. From 1988 to 2009, support for same-sex marriage increased between 1% and 1.5% per year. In the 2010s, it increased more quickly. Gallup found that nationwide public support reached 50% in May 2011, 60% in May 2015, and 70% in May 2021. The [Research Center](Pew)(Pew Research Center) similarly found 40% in 2010, 50% in 2013 and 61% in 2019. As of 2016, 83% of Americans aged 18–29 supported same-sex marriage. As of 2021, there is majority support for same-sex marriage in 47 states, ranging from 50% in [Carolina](South)(South Carolina) to 85% in [Massachusetts](Massachusetts). There is plurality support in [Alabama](Alabama), with 49% supporting and 47% opposing. Only [Mississippi](Mississippi) and [Arkansas](Arkansas) have majority opposition to same-sex marriage; in Mississippi, 55% oppose and 44% support, while in Arkansas, 52% oppose and 47% support same-sex marriage. As of 2018, 60% of Americans said they would not mind if their child married someone of the same gender. Annual polling conducted by [Gallup](Gallup poll) each May in 2017, 2018, 2019 and 2020 has found support for same-sex marriage stable, with two-thirds of Americans indicating that same-sex marriage should be recognized as valid under law (a range of 63% to 67% was recorded). In 2022, a new record high of 71% of respondents stated that same-sex marriage should be legally recognized as valid under the law. A Grinnell College National Poll in September 2022 indicated that 74% of Americans thought that same-sex marriage should be a guaranteed right, 13% thought it should be left to elected officials, and 13% were unsure. Grinnell College \|url=https://www.grinnell.edu/poll/guaranteed-rights \|access-date=2023-01-08 \|website=www.grinnell.edu}} ## See also * [of same-sex couples](Divorce)(Divorce of same-sex couples) * [of same-sex marriage in the United States](History)(History of same-sex marriage in the United States) * [employment discrimination in the United States](LGBT)(LGBT employment discrimination in the United States) * [rights in the United States](LGBT)(LGBT rights in the United States) * [of same-sex unions in the Americas](Recognition)(Recognition of same-sex unions in the Americas) * [unions and military policy#United States](Same-sex)(Same-sex unions and military policy#United States) * [of same-sex marriage](Status)(Status of same-sex marriage) * [of same-sex marriage in the United States](Timeline)(Timeline of same-sex marriage in the United States) * [of same-sex marriage](Timeline)(Timeline of same-sex marriage) ### Legislation * [partnership in the United States](Domestic)(Domestic partnership in the United States) * [Marriage Amendment](Federal)(Federal Marriage Amendment) * [for Marriage Act](Respect)(Respect for Marriage Act) * [U.S. state constitutional amendments banning same-sex unions](Former)(Former U.S. state constitutional amendments banning same-sex unions) * [marriage law in the United States by state](Same-sex)(Same-sex marriage law in the United States by state) * [marriage legislation in the United States](Same-sex)(Same-sex marriage legislation in the United States) * [marriage status in the United States by state](Same-sex)(Same-sex marriage status in the United States by state) * [unions in the United States](Same-sex)(Same-sex unions in the United States) ### Miscellaneous * [Union in Wait](A)(A Union in Wait) (documentary film) ## Notes ## References ## Bibliography * * [John](Corvino,)(John Corvino), and [Gallagher](Maggie)(Maggie Gallagher) (2012). Debating Same-Sex Marriage. New York: Oxford University Press. . * * Murdoch, Joyce, and Deb Price (2001). Courting Justice: Gay Men and Lesbians v. the Supreme Court. New York: Basic Books. . * * [Jonathan](Rauch,)(Jonathan Rauch) (2004). [Marriage: Why It Is Good for Gays, Good for Straights, and Good for America](Gay)(Gay Marriage: Why It Is Good for Gays, Good for Straights, and Good for America). New York: Times Books. * [Andrew](Sullivan,)(Andrew Sullivan) (1989) "[Here Comes the Groom: A (Conservative) Case for Gay Marriage](http://www.slate.com/articles/news_and_politics/politics/2012/11/gay_marriage_votes_and_andrew_sullivan_his_landmark_1989_essay_making_a.single.html)," [New Republic](The)(The New Republic), reprinted in [Slate](Slate (magazine)), November 9, 2012. * Sullivan, Andrew, editor (1997, 2004). Same-Sex Marriage Pro & Con: A Reader. Vintage. . Second edition. * ## External links * * [American Courts on Marriage: Is Marriage Discriminatory? 1998–2008](http://www.marriagedebate.com/pdf/iMAPP.May2008.pdf), Joshua Baker, Institute for Marriage and Public Policy, May 2008. * [Gay rights in the US, state by state](https://www.theguardian.com/world/interactive/2012/may/08/gay-rights-united-states) [Guardian](The)(The Guardian) * * [PollingReport.com Law and Civil Rights](http://www.pollingreport.com/civil.htm) compendium * * [Timeline: Gay marriage, Los Angeles Times, October 6, 2014](http://timelines.latimes.com/gay-marriage/) * [The Shifting Landscape of State Same-Sex Marriage Laws](https://www.bloomberg.com/infographics/2013-03-25/supreme-court-weighs-same-sex-marriage.html) as of February 26, 2014 by the Bloomberg Visual Data Center showing various charts with respect to the development of same-sex marriage in the United States [ ](Category:Same-sex marriage in the United States) [in LGBT history](Category:2015)(Category:2015 in LGBT history)
Tamannaah Bhatia	tamannaah_bhatia	# Tamannaah Bhatia Revision ID: 1160256825 \| Timestamp: 2023-06-15T10:24:10Z --- \| birth_place = [Mumbai](Mumbai), [Maharashtra](Maharashtra), India \| occupation = Actress \| works = [list](Full)(Tamannaah filmography) \| awards = [list](Full)(List of awards and nominations received by Tamannaah) \| signature = \| spouse = \| yearsactive = 2005–present }} Tamanna Bhatia (born 21 December 1989), credited as Tamannaah, is an Indian actress who works in [Telugu](Telugu cinema), [Tamil](Tamil cinema) and [cinema](Hindi)(Hindi cinema). Having starred in more than [films](65)(Tamannaah filmography), she has won a [Indian International Movie Award](South)(South Indian International Movie Awards) and received eight [Awards South](Filmfare)(Filmfare Awards South) nominations. She was conferred with [Kalaimamani](Kalaimamani) in 2010, and an honorary doctorate in 2017 for her contributions to [cinema](Indian)(Cinema of India). Bhatia began her acting career with the [film](Hindi)(Hindi film) [Sa Roshan Chehra](Chand)(Chand Sa Roshan Chehra) (2005). She then debuted in Telugu cinema with [Sri](Sri (2005 film)) and [cinema](Tamil)(Tamil cinema) with [Kedi](Kedi (2006 film)) (2006). In 2007, she starred in two college life-based drama films, [Days](Happy)(Happy Days (2007 film)) in Telugu and [Kalloori](Kalloori) in Tamil. Bhatia's notable films in [Telugu](Telugu language) cinema include [Ishtam Konchem Kashtam](Konchem)(Konchem Ishtam Konchem Kashtam) (2009), [Love](100%)(100% Love (2011 film)) (2011), [Oosaravelli](Oosaravelli) (2011), [Racha](Racha (film)) (2012), [Tadakha](Tadakha) (2013), [The Beginning](Baahubali:)(Baahubali: The Beginning) (2015), [Tiger](Bengal)(Bengal Tiger (2015 film)) (2015), [Oopiri](Oopiri) (2016), [2: The Conclusion](Baahubali)(Baahubali 2: The Conclusion) (2017), [Fun and Frustration](F2:)(F2: Fun and Frustration) (2019), and [Raa Narasimha Reddy](Sye)(Sye Raa Narasimha Reddy) (2019). Her Tamil films include [Ayan](Ayan (film)) (2009), [Paiyaa](Paiyaa) (2010), [Siruthai](Siruthai) (2011), [Veeram](Veeram (2014 film)) (2014), [Durai](Dharma)(Dharma Durai (2016 film)) (2016), [Devi](Devi (2016 film)) (2016), and [Sketch](Sketch (2018 film)) (2018). Bhatia has worked in few Hindi films, including [Himmatwala](Himmatwala (2013 film)) (2013), [Entertainment](Entertainment (2014 film)) (2014), and [Bouncer](Babli)(Babli Bouncer) (2022). In 2023, Tamannaah ventured in [platforms](OTT)(Over-the-top media services in India) and acted in few web series like [Karda](Jee)(Jee Karda) and [Stories 2](Lust)(Lust Stories 2). Bhatia was nominated for [Supporting Actress](Best)(Saturn Award for Best Supporting Actress) for her role as a warrior in Baahubali: The Beginning at the [Saturn Awards](42nd)(42nd Saturn Awards). She won the [Award for Best Actress (Critics) – Telugu](SIIMA)(SIIMA Award for Best Actress – Telugu) for her performance in Tadakha. ## Early life Tamanna Bhatia was born on 21 December 1989 in [Maharashtra](Mumbai,)(Mumbai, Maharashtra) to Santosh and Rajani Bhatia. She has an elder brother, Anand Bhatia. Her father is a diamond merchant. She is of [Hindu](Sindhi)(Sindhi Hindu) descent. She did her schooling in Maneckji Cooper Education Trust School, Mumbai. She later changed her screen name for [reasons](numerological)(numerology), varying it slightly to Tamannaah. When she was 13 years old, she delved into the world of acting, engaging in theatrical performances and becoming an active member of Mumbai's esteemed [Theatre](Prithvi)(Prithvi Theatre) for a year. Also she collaborated with [Sawant](Abhijeet)(Abhijeet Sawant) on his album song "Lafzo Mein" from the album titled Aapka Abhijeet, which was released in 2005. ## Career ### 2005–2008: Debut and breakthrough In 2005, Tamannaah made her debut as the female lead in the Hindi film [Sa Roshan Chehra](Chand)(Chand Sa Roshan Chehra), which unfortunately did not perform well at the box office. The same year, she made her debut in Telugu cinema with [Sri](Sri (2005 film)) and in Tamil cinema with [Kedi](Kedi (2006 film)) in 2006. Tamannaah received positive reviews for her role in Kedi, with "IndiaGlitz" praising her performance and comparing her to renowned actresses [Vijayashanti](Vijayashanti) and [Krishnan](Ramya)(Ramya Krishnan). Her first release of 2007 was [Chidambaram](Shakti)(Shakti Chidambaram)'s [Viyabari](Viyabari), in which she played the role of a journalist. The film opened to negative reviews and flopped at the box office, but Tamannaah received praise for her performance. She got her breakthrough with [Kammula](Sekhar)(Sekhar Kammula)'s [Days](Happy)(Happy Days (2007 film)) and [Sakthivel](Balaji)(Balaji Sakthivel)'s [Kalloori](Kalloori), both of which featured Tamannaah as a college student. She won critical acclaim for her performances in both films. The commercial success of Happy Days and Kalloori established her career as an actress in both Telugu and Tamil films. Her first appearance in 2008 was the Telugu film [Kalidasu](Kalidasu), directed by G. Ravicharan Reddy. The film received moderate reviews, and while critics acknowledged her good looks and romantic appeal, they felt that her performance had limited scope. The film was an average grosser at the box office. She later made a [appearance](cameo)(cameo appearance) in the Telugu film [Ready](Ready (2008 film)), followed by another cameo appearance in the Telugu – Tamil bilingual [Nedu Repu](Ninna)(Ninna Nedu Repu), titled [Indru Naalai](Netru)(Netru Indru Naalai (2008 film)) in Tamil. ### 2009–2010: Critical acclaim Tamannaah's first release of 2009 was the Tamil film [Padikkadavan](Padikkadavan (2009 film)), directed by [Suraj](Suraj (director)) and co-starring [Dhanush](Dhanush). The film received mixed reviews from critics, but Tamannaah's performance in a limited role garnered praise. Despite the mixed reviews, Padikkadavan became a commercial success. Her next release was the Telugu film [Ishtam Konchem Kashtam](Konchem)(Konchem Ishtam Konchem Kashtam), directed by Kishore Kumar Pardasany, co-starring [Siddharth](Siddharth (actor)). The film received positive reviews from critics and she received critical acclaim for her performance. The film, however, was an average grosser at the box office. Her next release, [V. Anand](K.)(K. V. Anand)'s [Ayan](Ayan (film)), co-starring [Suriya](Suriya), became the only major commercially successful Tamil film of the year. She later appeared in [Krishna](Gandhi)(Gandhi Krishna)'s [Thandavam](Ananda)(Ananda Thandavam (film)), which was based on the novel Pirivom Santhippom [serialised](Serial (literature)) by [Sujatha](Sujatha (writer)). The film opened to negative reviews, and was her only commercial failure in 2009. However, Tamannaah's performance was critically acclaimed. Tamannaah later appeared in [Kannan](R.)(R. Kannan)'s [Kadhalai](Kanden)(Kanden Kadhalai), the official remake of [We Met](Jab)(Jab We Met) (2007), co-starring [Bharath](Bharath (actor)), Tamannaah's performance received praise from critics. The film received decent feedback, and she won a [Scope](South)(South Scope) award for the Best Tamil Actress. During this phase, she was established as an undisputed top actress in Tamil cinema. Tamannaah's first release of 2010 was [Linguswamy](N.)(N. Linguswamy)'s [Paiyaa](Paiyaa), co-starring [Karthi](Karthi), which was a Tamil [movie](road)(road movie). The film opened to positive reviews from critics and was a commercial success. She earned a nomination each at the [Filmfare Awards South](58th)(58th Filmfare Awards South) and [Vijay Awards](5th)(5th Vijay Awards) in the Best Tamil Actress category. Her other two releases of 2010 were [P. Rajkumar](S.)(S. P. Rajkumar)'s [Sura](Sura (film)), co-starring [Vijay](Vijay (actor)) and [Raja](M.)(M. Raja)'s [Thillalangadi](Thillalangadi), co-starring [Ravi](Jayam)(Jayam Ravi). Both the films flopped at the box office. ### 2011–2012: Breakthrough in Telugu cinema [[Blender's pride 2011.jpg\|thumb\|Tamannaah in 2011](File:Tamannaah)]Tamannaah's first release of 2011 was [Siva](Siva (director))'s [Siruthai](Siruthai), co-starring Karthi, which was the official remake of [S. Rajamouli](S.)(S. S. Rajamouli)'s [Vikramarkudu](Vikramarkudu) (2006). Her character was received poorly by critics, who considered her role to be little more than arm candy. The film, however, was commercially successful. She also made a cameo appearance in the song "Aga Naga" from K. V. Anand's [Ko](Ko (film)). She made her comeback to Telugu cinema after a two-year gap in the same year with [Sukumar](Sukumar)'s [Love](100%)(100% Love (2011 film)), co-starring [Chaitanya](Naga)(Naga Chaitanya), in which she played the role of a village girl pursuing higher education in Hyderabad. Her performance received praise from critics, who commended her acting skills and beauty. The film became one of the biggest commercial successful Telugu films of 2011. She won the Best Actor Female awards at [Awards](CineMAA)(CineMAA Awards) 2012 and The Hyderabad Times Film Awards 2011. Her next release of 2011 was [V. Vinayak](V.)(V. V. Vinayak)'s [Badrinath](Badrinath (film)), co-starring [Arjun](Allu)(Allu Arjun). The film received mixed to negative reviews from critics, it was a notable success at the box office. She earned a nomination at the [awards](CineMAA)(CineMAA Awards) 2012 in the best actor female category. She played the role of a village girl in [Hari](Hari (director))'s [Venghai](Venghai), co-starring Dhanush. Both the film and her performance opened to mixed reviews from critics, with criticism directed towards her wardrobe choices. Her next release [Oosaravelli](Oosaravelli), co-starring [T. Rama Rao Jr.](N.)(N. T. Rama Rao Jr.) and directed by Surender Reddy, opened to mixed reviews from critics, and was a commercial failure. Tamannaah starred in four Telugu films in 2012, the first one being [Nandi](Sampath)(Sampath Nandi)'s [Racha](Racha (film)), co-starring [Charan](Ram)(Ram Charan), in which she played the role of a rich girl living in a protected world whose character's layers are revealed as the film progresses. Tamannaah received praise from critics, who considered her a major asset to the film. The film was a major commercial success. She earned a nomination each at [Filmfare Awards South](60th)(60th Filmfare Awards South) and CineMAA Awards 2013 in the best actor female category. Her next release, [Karunakaran](A.)(A. Karunakaran)'s [Premanta!](Endukante...)(Endukante... Premanta!), co-starring [Ram](Ram Pothineni), opened to negative reviews and was a commercial failure. However, critics praised hers and Ram's performance in the film. Her third release, [Lawrence](Raghava)(Raghava Lawrence)'s [Rebel](Rebel (2012 film)), co-starring [Prabhas](Prabhas), in which she played a hip hop dance teacher, opened to mixed reviews and was a commercial failure. Her last release of 2012 was [Jagannadh](Puri)(Puri Jagannadh)'s [Gangatho Rambabu](Cameraman)(Cameraman Gangatho Rambabu), co-starring [Kalyan](Pawan)(Pawan Kalyan), in which she played the role of a tomboyish media cameraman. ### 2013–2014: Re-entry into Hindi and Tamil cinema Tamannaah's first release of 2013 was [Khan](Sajid)(Sajid Khan (director))'s [Himmatwala](Himmatwala (2013 film)), co-starring [Devgn](Ajay)(Ajay Devgn), which was the remake of the 1983 Hindi film of the [name](same)(Himmatwala (1983 film)), where she reprises the role of [Sridevi](Sridevi). The film opened to negative reviews from critics, emerged as big flop at the box office. [[File:Ajay Devgan and Tamannaah.jpg\|thumb\|Tamannaah at the trailer launch of the film [Himmatwala](Himmatwala (2013 film)) along with [Devgn](Ajay)(Ajay Devgn) in January 2013, which marked her comeback to Hindi films]] Her other release of 2013 was Kishore Kumar Pardasany's [Tadakha](Tadakha), the official Telugu remake of N. Lingusamy's [Vettai](Vettai), where she reprises the role played by [Paul](Amala)(Amala Paul) in the original. The film opened to moderate reviews and was commercially successful. She made her comeback to Tamil cinema in 2014 after a sabbatical of three years with [Siva](Siva (director))'s [Veeram](Veeram (2014 film)), co-starring [Kumar](Ajith)(Ajith Kumar). The film received positive reviews from critics and was a commercial success. She again collaborated with Sajid Khan for the film [Humshakals](Humshakals) as one of the female leads. The film co-starred [Ali Khan](Saif)(Saif Ali Khan), [Kapoor](Ram)(Ram Kapoor), [Deshmukh](Riteish)(Riteish Deshmukh), [Basu](Bipasha)(Bipasha Basu) and [Gupta](Esha)(Esha Gupta). The film received poor reviews from critics and flopped at the box office. She performed her first [number](item)(item number) in V. V. Vinayak's [Seenu](Alludu)(Alludu Seenu), starring [Sreenivas](Bellamkonda)(Bellamkonda Sreenivas) and [Ruth Prabhu](Samantha)(Samantha Ruth Prabhu) which she accepted to do upon Vinayak's request after walking out of the film initially due to changes in its script. That song, titled "Labbar Bomma", was well received by the audience. In her next release, [Entertainment](Entertainment (2014 film)), directed by [Sajid-Farhad](Sajid-Farhad), co-starring [Kumar](Akshay)(Akshay Kumar), she played the role of a television actress. While the film was a semi-hit at the box office, Her last release of 2014 was Srinu Vaitla's [Aagadu](Aagadu), co-starring [Babu](Mahesh)(Mahesh Babu), in which she played the role of a village belle owning a chain of sweet shops. The film opened to mixed reviews and was a commercial failure at the box office. ### 2015–2017: Roles in commercial films [[File:Tamannaah Bhatia at Lakme Fashion Week,2015.jpg\|thumb\|Tamannaah at the 2015 [Fashion Week](Lakme)(Lakme Fashion Week).]] Tamannaah made a cameo appearance as herself in Jagadish's [Nannbenda](Nannbenda), starring [Stalin](Udhayanidhi)(Udhayanidhi Stalin) and [Nayantara](Nayantara). She also dubbed her own voice for the same. In July 2015, the first part of [S. Rajamouli](S.)(S. S. Rajamouli)'s two-part multilingual fictional [film](epic)(epic film) [Baahubali](Baahubali: The Beginning) was released. Tamannaah played the role of [Avanthika](Avanthika), a [Warrior](Warrior) Princess. She had to lose weight and special care was taken regarding her character's looks, costumes, and jewelry. The film received positive reviews, and Tamannaah's performance was praised. It became the [highest grossing Telugu film](third)(List of highest-grossing Telugu films), collecting around ₹650 crore (US$81 million). Her next release was [Rajesh](M.)(M. Rajesh)'s [Saravananum Onna Padichavanga](Vasuvum)(Vasuvum Saravananum Onna Padichavanga), co-starring [Arya](Arya (actor)), [Santhanam](N.)(N. Santhanam) and [Bhanu](Muktha (actress)). The film received negative reviews from the critics. Later, she made a cameo appearance in the bilingual film [Zero](Size)(Size Zero), which stars Arya, Anushka Shetty and [Chauhan](Sonal)(Sonal Chauhan). Her last release of 2015 was [Nandi](Sampath)(Sampath Nandi)'s [Tiger](Bengal)(Bengal Tiger (2015 film)), co-starring [Teja](Ravi)(Ravi Teja). She was praised for her looks in the film. She performed her second item number in [Srinivasa Rao](Bhimaneni)(Bhimaneni Srinivasa Rao)'s [Speedunnodu](Speedunnodu), which released in February 2016. Her next release was [Vamsi](Vamsi Paidipally)'s [Oopiri](Oopiri), a remake of [Intouchables](The)(The Intouchables) (2011), co-starring [Karthi](Karthi) and [Nagarjuna](Nagarjuna (actor)). The film opened to positive reviews. Her next release was the Tamil film [Durai](Dharma)(Dharma Durai (2016 film)), In which she played a doctor and she also appeared in the film without makeup and it opened to positive reviews. The film also ran successfully in box office. Her next release was a Short Film – [Ching Returns](Ranveer)(Ranveer Ching Returns) with [Singh](Ranveer)(Ranveer Singh), directed by [Shetty](Rohit)(Rohit Shetty) and which received positive reviews. In October 2016, Tamannah released her third item number in the Telugu-[Kannada](Kannada) bilingual film [Jaguar](Jaguar (2016 film)). Her next release was the trilingual (TamilTeluguHindi) film [Devi](Devi (2016 film)). She played a double role in this [film](horror)(horror film), which opened to positive reviews. She was praised for her acting in the film and the film collected at box office, in three languages. and her last release in 2016 was [Sandai](Kaththi)(Kaththi Sandai), co-starring [Vishal](Vishal (actor)). It opened to mixed reviews and was a commercial failure. In 2017, Tamannaah was appeared in [2: The Conclusion](Baahubali)(Baahubali 2: The Conclusion) as [Avanthika](List of Baahubali characters#Avanthika). The film received highly positive reviews and achieved remarkable box office success, becoming the [Indian film](highest-grossing)(List of highest-grossing Indian films) ever at the time. Her next release in [Tamil](Tamil language) was [Asaradhavan Adangadhavan](Anbanavan)(Anbanavan Asaradhavan Adangadhavan) also known as AAA, with [Silambarasan](Silambarasan). The film opened to mixed reviews and commercial failure. Her next release was "Swing Zara," the fourth item song in [Lava Kusa](Jai)(Jai Lava Kusa)s, along with [NTR](Jr.)(N. T. Rama Rao Jr.), directed by [S. Ravindra](K.)(K. S. Ravindra). ### 2018–present : Back to back Telugu and Tamil films [[at an event in Cochin, July 2018.jpg\|left\|thumb\|Bhatia at an event in 2018](File:Tamannaah)] Her first release in 2018 was [Vikram](Vikram (actor))'s [Sketch](Sketch (2018 film)), directed by Vijay Chander. Sketch opened to mixed reviews from critics and audiences. Tamannaah was praised for her performance as Amuthavali, a south Indian [Brahmin](Brahmin) girl in the film.{{Cite web \|title=Sketch Movie Review {2.5/5}: Critic Review of Sketch by Times of India \|url=https://m.timesofindia.com/entertainment/tamil/movie-reviews/sketch/amp_movie_review/62470965.cms \|access-date=2023-06-09 \|website=m.timesofindia.com}} Her next release was the Marathi film [Bb Kk](Aa)(Aa Bb Kk). It opened to positive reviews.{{Cite web \|title=AA BB KK Movie Review {3/5}: Critic Review of AA BB KK by Times of India \|url=https://m.timesofindia.com/entertainment/marathi/movie-reviews/aa-bb-kk/amp_movie_review/64494073.cms \|access-date=2023-06-09 \|website=m.timesofindia.com}} Her next release was the Telugu film [Nuvve](Naa)(Naa Nuvve), in which she was paired opposite [Kalyan Ram](Nandamuri)(Nandamuri Kalyan Ram). It opened to mixed reviews and was a commercial failure. Her next release was a Telugu film [Enti?](Next)(Next Enti?) opposite [Kishan](Sundeep)(Sundeep Kishan) directed by [Kohli](Kunal)(Kunal Kohli). The film opened to mixed reviews from critics and was a commercial failure.{{Cite web \|title=Next Enti? Review {1.5/5}: This film will make you wanna say Oh No Never! \|url=https://m.timesofindia.com/entertainment/telugu/movie-reviews/next-enti/amp_movie_review/66985078.cms \|access-date=2023-06-09 \|website=m.timesofindia.com}}. Her last release in 2018 was [Kannada](Kannada film) film [Chapter 1](KGF:)(K.G.F: Chapter 1), in which she made a special appearance in the item number for the Kannada, Tamil and Telugu releases. Tamannaah's first release of 2019 was [Fun and Frustration](F2:)(F2: Fun and Frustration) a Telugu language comedy film, along with [Venkatesh](Venkatesh (actor)), [Tej](Varun)(Varun Tej) and [Pirzada](Mehreen)(Mehreen Pirzada). It became a blockbuster. Her next release was [Kalaimaane](Kanne)(Kanne Kalaimaane) a Tamil-language drama film written and directed by Seenu Ramasamy, with [Stalin](Udhayanidhi)(Udhayanidhi Stalin). In May end, [2](Devi)(Devi 2) a Tamil horror comedy film co-written and directed by A. L. Vijay was released. Her next release was, [Khamoshi](Khamoshi (2019 film)) a Hindi-language slasher film directed by [Toleti](Chakri)(Chakri Toleti). She played a deaf and mute girl. It was simultaneously made in Tamil as [Kaalam](Kolaiyuthir)(Kolaiyuthir Kaalam). The film received poor reviews from audiences and critics. Her next release was, [Raa Narasimha Reddy](Sye)(Sye Raa Narasimha Reddy) a Telugu-language biographical epic action film directed by Surender Reddy, which opened to highly positive reviews from critics as well as audience and her role was highly praised. Her next release was, [Petromax](Petromax (2019 film)) a Tamil-language comedy horror film directed by Rohin Venkatesan. It also opened to positive reviews. Her last release in 2019 was a Tamil film, [Action](Action (2019 film)), directed by [C.](Sundar)(Sundar C.) in which she paired opposite [Vishal](Vishal (actor)) and it opened to mixed reviews but her role was highly praised by critics. Her only release in 2020 was "Daang Daang", the item song in the Telugu film [Neekevvaru](Sarileru)(Sarileru Neekevvaru) along with [Babu](Mahesh)(Mahesh Babu). In April 2021, Tamannaah Bhatia made her debut in the web series arena with [Hour](11th)(11th Hour (web series)), which received mixed reviews from critics. The show revolves around Aratrika Reddy, played by Tamannaah, a successful businesswoman who finds herself in a race against time to save her company. While her performance was praised for its intensity and commitment, some reviewers felt that the storyline failed to do justice to her talent. The following month, she starred in the web series [Story](November)(November Story), which garnered a fair share of attention. Although her performance was widely appreciated for its depth and versatility, some critics felt that the series suffered from excessive dialogue and a lack of impactful action sequences. In September, her Telugu sports masala film written and directed by [Nandi](Sampath)(Sampath Nandi), co-starring [Gopichand](Gopichand (actor)) was released. Her portrayal of a strong-willed coach was lauded by the audience, who appreciated her dedication to the role and her chemistry with Gopichand. Following this [Maestro](Maestro) was released, a Telugu black comedy thriller film directed by [Gandhi](Merlapaka)(Merlapaka Gandhi).The film received positive reviews for its engaging storyline and brilliant performances. Her portrayal of a pivotal character added depth and intrigue to the narrative, further solidifying her reputation as a versatile actor capable of tackling diverse roles. Her first release in 2022 was "Kodthe", the item song in the Telugu film [Ghani](Ghani (2022 film)) along with [Tej](Varun)(Varun Tej). In May, her Telugu comedy film [F3](F3 (film)) , co-starring [Venkatesh](Venkatesh (actor)), [Tej](Varun)(Varun Tej) and [Pirzada](Mehreen)(Mehreen Pirzada) was released. The film struck a chord with audiences and proved to be a commercial success. Tamannaah's energetic performance and impeccable comic timing added an extra dose of laughter to the film. F3: Fun And Frustration Movie Review: Loud, messy, sometimes funny F3 Movie Review \|url=https://m.timesofindia.com/entertainment/telugu/movie-reviews/f3-fun-and-frustration/amp_movie_review/91829896.cms \|access-date=2023-06-09 \|website=m.timesofindia.com}} In September, Tamannaah took on the challenging role of a lady bouncer in [Bouncer](Babli)(Babli Bouncer), directed by the renowned filmmaker [Bhandarkar](Madhur)(Madhur Bhandarkar). The film, which was released on [Hotstar](Disney+)(Disney+ Hotstar), showcased her versatility as an actress. However, the movie received a mixed response from viewers and critics alike. Release Date, Review, Cast, Trailer, Watch Online at Disney+ Hotstar \|url=https://www.gadgets360.com/entertainment/babli-bouncer-movie-106545 \|access-date=2023-06-09 \|website=Gadgets 360 \|language=en}} Next up, Tamannaah starred in the romantic comedy film [A Plan B](Plan)(Plan A Plan B), alongside [Deshmukh](Riteish)(Riteish Deshmukh). The film, which premiered on [Netflix](Netflix), offered a delightful and light-hearted love story. While the chemistry between the lead actors was appreciated, some found the plot to be predictable. Tamannaah's charisma and on-screen presence shone through in her performance. Towards the end of the year, Tamannaah appeared in the romantic drama [Seethakalam](Gurthunda)(Gurthunda Seethakalam), opposite [Satyadev](Satyadev). The film explored themes of love and life but received mixed reviews from critics and audiences. Although Tamannaah's sincere portrayal garnered praise, the overall execution of the film fell short of expectations. Her first release in 2023 was [Karda](Jee)(Jee Karda), a romantic drama series for [Prime Video](Amazon)(Amazon Prime Video) directed by Arunima Sharma, release on June 15th. ## Filmography ## Awards and nominations ## Other work Tamannaah also has experience as a model appearing in various television commercials. She endorsed popular brands like [Fanta](Fanta) and [Ayurvedic soap](Chandrika)(Chandrika (soap)). In March 2015, she signed as a brand ambassador for channel [Telugu](Zee)(Zee Telugu). In March 2015, Tamannaah introduced her jewelry brand, Wite-n-Gold, with herself as the creative head. The brand's website was launched on April 20, 2015, aligning with the festival of [Tritiya](Akshaya)(Akshaya Tritiya). In January 2016, she became the brand ambassador of the [of India](Government)(Government of India)'s campaign [Bachao, Beti Padhao](Beti)(Beti Bachao Beti Padhao), an initiative of [FOGSI](FOGSI). She performed at the [2018](IPL)(2018 Indian Premier League) opening ceremony, and her captivating act beautifully represented the linguistic diversity of the region. Her first book entitled Back To The Roots was published by [Random House India](Penguin)(Penguin Random House) on 30 August 2021. Tamannaah hosted [India – Telugu](MasterChef)(MasterChef India – Telugu) which was premiered on [TV](Gemini)(Gemini TV) on 27 August 2021. In September 2022, Tamannaah became an equity partner in Sugar Cosmetics. For the second time, she took the stage at the [2023](IPL)(2023 Indian Premier League) opening ceremony, setting it ablaze with her electrifying performance. ## References ## External links * * * * [births](Category:1989)(Category:1989 births) [in Tamil cinema](Category:Actresses)(Category:Actresses in Tamil cinema) [people](Category:Living)(Category:Living people) [people](Category:Sindhi)(Category:Sindhi people) [Hindus](Category:Indian)(Category:Indian Hindus) [people of Sindhi descent](Category:Indian)(Category:Indian people of Sindhi descent) [in Telugu cinema](Category:Actresses)(Category:Actresses in Telugu cinema) [in Hindi cinema](Category:Actresses)(Category:Actresses in Hindi cinema) [film actresses](Category:Indian)(Category:Indian film actresses) [Indian actresses](Category:21st-century)(Category:21st-century Indian actresses) [from Mumbai](Category:Actresses)(Category:Actresses from Mumbai) [child actresses](Category:Indian)(Category:Indian child actresses) [models from Mumbai](Category:Female)(Category:Female models from Mumbai) [Awards winners](Category:CineMAA)(Category:CineMAA Awards winners) [Film Awards winners](Category:Santosham)(Category:Santosham Film Awards winners)
Xbox	xbox	# Xbox Revision ID: 1160308151 \| Timestamp: 2023-06-15T17:05:59Z --- \|markets = Worldwide \|trademarkregistrations = Worldwide \|website = }} Xbox is a [gaming](video)(video gaming) [brand](brand) created and owned by [Microsoft](Microsoft). The brand consists of five video game consoles, as well as [applications](application software) (games), [streaming](streaming media) service [Cloud Gaming](Xbox)(Xbox Cloud Gaming), online services such as the [network](Xbox)(Xbox network) and [Game Pass](Xbox)(Xbox Game Pass), and the [development](Video game development) arm [Game Studios](Xbox)(Xbox Game Studios). The brand was [introduced](first)(2001 in video gaming#Video game consoles) in the United States in November 2001, with the launch of the [Xbox console](original)(original Xbox console). The original device was the first video game console offered by an American company after the [Jaguar](Atari)(Atari Jaguar) stopped sales in 1996. It reached over 24 million units sold by May 2006. Microsoft's second console, the [360](Xbox)(Xbox 360), was released in 2005 and has sold 86 million units as of October 2021. The third console, the [One](Xbox)(Xbox One), was released in November 2013 and has sold 51 million units. The fourth line of Xbox consoles, the [Series X and Series S](Xbox)(Xbox Series X and Series S), were released in November 2020. The head of Xbox is [Spencer](Phil)(Phil Spencer (business executive)), who succeeded former head Marc Whitten in late March 2014. ## History When [Computer Entertainment](Sony)(Sony Computer Entertainment) first announced the [2](PlayStation)(PlayStation 2) in 1999, the company had positioned the console as a centerpiece for home entertainment, as it not only would play video games, but also could play audio CDs and video DVDs. Microsoft, whose business had been primarily in supporting the personal computer (PC) business with its Windows operating system, software, and games, saw the PlayStation 2 as a threat to the personal computer. Four engineers from Microsoft's [DirectX](DirectX) team—Kevin Bachus, [Blackley](Seamus)(Seamus Blackley), Ted Hase and DirectX team leader Otto Berkes, began to envision what a Microsoft console to compete against the PlayStation 2 would be like. They designed a system that would use many hardware components in common with PCs, effectively running a version of Windows and DirectX to power the games on the console. This approach would make it easy for developers on Windows to build games for their new system, differentiating itself from the custom hardware solutions of most consoles. Digital Trends \|access-date=May 31, 2019 \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190606112355/https://www.digitaltrends.com/gaming/the-history-of-the-xbox/ \|archive-date=June 6, 2019 \|url-status=live}} Numerous names were suggested for this console, including "Direct X Box", and the "Windows Entertainment Project". Microsoft's marketing team conducted consumer surveys of the name, using the name "Xbox" as a control believing this would be least desirable, but found that this had the highest preference from their tests, and was selected as the name of the console. While the original Xbox had modest sales, Microsoft took a large financial loss to support it. However, its performance was sufficient to convince the company to continue to produce the line. Since its release, there have been four generations of Xbox, with the most recent being the Xbox Series X and Series S units. The Xbox has become a direct competitor to Sony's PlayStation brand, both offering high performance gaming systems at roughly similar specifications. ### Future Microsoft has been recently working to leverage the branding of "Xbox" beyond the console hardware but as a general video game brand, reflected in the renaming of Microsoft Studios to Xbox Game Studios in 2019. Phil Spencer stated in June 2019 that for Microsoft, "The business isn't how many consoles you sell. The business is how many players are playing the games that they buy, how they play." which journalists have taken as a route to de-emphasize console hardware and prioritize games, subscriptions and services for players. Later in February 2020, Spencer said that moving forward, the company does not see "traditional gaming companies" like Nintendo and Sony as their competitors but instead those that offer [computing](cloud)(cloud computing) services such as [Amazon](Amazon (company)) and [Google](Google). Spencer identified that [Azure](Microsoft)(Microsoft Azure) is a major component of their plans going forward, which powers its [xCloud](xCloud) game streaming service. Spencer also cited mobile gaming as a potential area, and where Microsoft was trying to position itself with its services should this become the more preferred form for gaming. Spencer said "I don't think it's "hardware agnostic" as much as it's 'where you want to play'", in describing how Microsoft was strategizing the Xbox branding for the future. ## Consoles ### First generation: Xbox [[console with "Controller S"](File:Xbox-console.jpg\|thumb\|right\|Xbox)] The original Xbox was released on November 15, 2001, in North America, February 22, 2002, in Japan, and March 14, 2002, in Australia and Europe. It was Microsoft's first foray into the gaming console market. As part of the [generation of video game consoles](sixth)(sixth generation of video game consoles), the Xbox competed with Sony's [2](PlayStation)(PlayStation 2), Sega's [Dreamcast](Dreamcast) (which stopped American sales before the Xbox went on sale), and Nintendo's [GameCube](GameCube). The Xbox was built around a 733 MHz 32-bit Intel Pentium III CPU and a 233 MHz Nvidia GeForce 3-based NV2A GPU with 64 MB of memory. The Xbox was the first console offered by an American company after the [Jaguar](Atari)(Atari Jaguar) stopped sales in 1996. The name Xbox was derived from a contraction of DirectX Box, a reference to Microsoft's graphics [API](API), [DirectX](DirectX). GamesRadar+\|archive-date=September 21, 2013\|website=Edge Magazine}} The integrated [Live](Xbox)(Xbox network) service launched in November 2002 allowed players to [games online](play)(online game) with a broadband connection. It first competed with [online service](Dreamcast's)(Dreamcast Online) but later primarily competed with [2's online service](PlayStation)(PlayStation 2 online functionality). Although the two competing services were free, while Xbox Live required a subscription - as well as broadband-only connection, which was not completely adopted yet - Xbox Live was a success due to it having better [servers](server (computing)), features such as a [list](buddy)(Contact list), and milestone titles such as [2](Halo)(Halo 2) (released in November 2004), which became the best-selling Xbox video game and was by far the most popular online game for the original Xbox system. ### Second generation: Xbox 360 [[Xbox 360 EliteRight: Xbox 360 S and new-style controller](File:Xbox-360-Consoles-Infobox.png\|thumb\|Left:)] The Xbox 360 was released as the successor of the original Xbox in November 2005, competing with [Sony](Sony)'s [3](PlayStation)(PlayStation 3) and [Nintendo](Nintendo)'s [Wii](Wii) as part of the [generation](seventh)(History of video game consoles (seventh generation)) of video game consoles. It featured a custom triple-core 64-bit [PowerPC](PowerPC)-based processor design by [IBM](IBM) with 512 MB of RAM memory. As of June 2014, 84 million Xbox 360 consoles have been sold worldwide. The Xbox 360 was officially unveiled on [MTV](MTV) on May 12, 2005, with detailed launch and game information divulged later that month at the [Entertainment Expo](Electronic)(Electronic Entertainment Expo) (E3). The console sold out completely [release](upon)(Xbox 360 launch) in all regions except in Japan. Several retail configurations of the core Xbox 360 model were offered over its lifetime, varying the amount of RAM and internal storage offered. The Xbox 360 showed an expanded Xbox Live service (which now included a limited "Free" tier called Silver), the ability to stream multimedia content from PCs, while later updates added the ability to purchase and stream music, television programs, and films through the [Music](Xbox)(Xbox Music) and [Video](Xbox)(Xbox Video) services, along with access to third-party content services through [media streaming applications](third-party)(Xbox 360 applications). Microsoft also released [Kinect](Kinect), a motion control system for the Xbox 360 which uses an advanced sensor system. Two major revisions of the Xbox 360 were released following the initial launch. The Xbox 360 S (typically considered as "Slim"), launched in 2010, featured the same core hardware but with a redesigned, slimmer form factor with a smaller-sized 250 GB hard drive. It also added integrated [b/g/n](802.11)(IEEE 802.11) Wi-Fi, [TOSLINK](TOSLINK) [S/PDIF](S/PDIF) optical audio output, five [2.0](USB)(USB 2.0) ports (compared to the three from older versions) and a special port designed for the Kinect peripheral. The Xbox 360 S replaced the base Xbox 360 unit, which was discontinued, and sold at the same price.Dean Takahashi, VentureBeat. "[Microsoft to Launch Smaller XBOX 360 Game Console](https://venturebeat.com/2010/06/14/microsoft-to-launch-smaller-xbox-360-game-console/) ." June 14, 2010. A cheaper Xbox 360 S unit, removing the 250 GB drive while adding 4 GB of internal storage, was released later in 2010; the unit allowed users to hook up an external storage solution or purchase a 250 GB internal add-on. The second major revision of the Xbox 360 was the Xbox 360 E, released in 2013. It featured a case style similar to the upcoming [One](Xbox)(Xbox One), and eliminated one USB port and the S/PDIF, YPbPr component and S-video connections, but otherwise shared the same specifications as the Xbox 360 S. ### Third generation: Xbox One [[Xbox One with the redesigned Kinect and controller](File:Microsoft-Xbox-One-Console-Set-wKinect.jpg\|thumb\|The)] The Xbox One was released on November 22, 2013, in North America, as the successor to the Xbox 360. The Xbox One competes with Sony's [4](PlayStation)(PlayStation 4) and Nintendo's [U](Wii)(Wii U) and [Switch](Nintendo Switch) as part of the [generation](eighth)(History of video game consoles (eighth generation)) of video game consoles. It features an [AMD](Advanced Micro Devices) [Processing Unit](Accelerated)(Accelerated Processing Unit) (APU) built around the 64-bit [x86-64](x86-64) [set](instruction)(instruction set) and can come with up to 12 GB of memory. Announced on May 21, 2013, the Xbox One has an emphasis on internet-based features, including the ability to record and stream gameplay, and the ability to integrate with a [box](set-top)(set-top box) to watch cable or satellite TV through the console with an enhanced guide interface and Kinect-based [control](voice)(voice control). Following its unveiling, the Xbox One proved controversial for its original [rights management](digital)(digital rights management) and privacy practices; while Microsoft touted the ability for users to access their library of games (regardless of whether they were purchased physically or digitally) on any Xbox One console without needing their discs, and the ability to share their entire library with 10 designated "family" members, all games would have to be tied to the user's Xbox Live account and their Xbox One console, and the console would be required to connect to the Internet on a periodic basis (at least once every 24 hours) to synchronize the library, or else the console would be unable to play any games at all. After an overwhelmingly negative response from critics and consumers (who also showed concerns that the system could prevent or hinder the resale of [games](used)(Used goods)), Microsoft announced that these restrictions would be dropped. Microsoft was also criticized for requiring the Xbox One to have its updated [Kinect](Kinect) peripheral plugged in to function, which critics and privacy advocates believed could be used as a surveillance device. As a gesture toward showing a commitment to user privacy, Microsoft decided to allow the console to function without Kinect.[http://kotaku.com/xbox-one-wont-actually-need-kinect-plugged-in-microso-1113142909] Kinect No Longer Mandatory For Xbox One (But Will Still Come With It). Kotaku.com. Retrieved on August 23, 2013. On June 13, 2016, Microsoft announced the Xbox One S at [2016](E3)(Electronic Entertainment Expo 2016), which featured a smaller form factor, as well as support for [4K](4K resolution) video (including streaming and [HD Blu-ray](Ultra)(Ultra HD Blu-ray)) and [HDR](High-dynamic-range video). At [2017](E3)(Electronic Entertainment Expo 2017), Microsoft unveiled [One X](Xbox)(Xbox One X), a high-end model with improved hardware designed to facilitate the playing of games at 4K resolution. Since November 2014, Microsoft has stated it will not release sales numbers for the Xbox One line. Industry estimates project global sales of the Xbox One family to be about 51 million units. Xbox head Phil Spencer said that while they do internally track sales figures, they do not want their developers to be focused on these numbers as to affect their products, and thus have opted not to report further sales of Xbox hardware going forward. ### Fourth generation: Xbox Series X and Series S [[series X (50648118708).jpg\|thumb\|upright\|The Xbox Series X and the controller](File:Xbox)] [[Series S with controller.jpg\|thumb\|upright\|The Xbox Series S and the controller](File:Xbox)] The fourth generation of Xbox models, simply named Xbox, includes the Xbox Series X and Xbox Series S that launched on November 10, 2020. Both are considered members of the [generation of video game consoles](ninth)(ninth generation of video game consoles) alongside the [5](PlayStation)(PlayStation 5), also released that month. Like the Xbox One, the consoles use an AMD 64-bit x86-64 CPU and GPU with up to 16 GB of memory. The Xbox Series X and Series S are high- and low-end versions comparable to the Xbox One X and Xbox One S models, respectively, with all games designed for this model family playable on both systems. The Xbox Series X is estimated to be four times as powerful as Xbox One X, with support for [resolution](8K)(8K resolution) and up to 120 frames-per-second rendering, with a nominal target of [resolution](4K)(4K resolution) at 60 frames per second. The Xbox Series S is a digital-only unit with less graphic processing power, but can still render at a nominal [1440p](1440p) resolution at 60 frames per second with support for 4K upscaling. Both consoles features support for new graphics rendering systems including real-time [ray-tracing](Ray tracing (graphics)), and the new Xbox Velocity Architecture that works with the internal SSD drive to maximize the rate of texture streaming to the graphics processor, among other features. Besides games for this new console family, both consoles are fully compatible with all Xbox One games and most hardware, as well as all backward compatible games that were playable on the Xbox One from the Xbox 360 and original Xbox console. To help transition consumers, Microsoft introduced its Smart Delivery system which most of its first-party games and several third-party games will use to offer free updates to Xbox One versions of games to the Xbox Series X/S version over the first few years of the consoles' launch. ### Comparison The following table is a comparison of the four generations of Xbox hardware. ## Games [[File:Xbox Game Studios.svg\|thumb\|[Game Studios](Xbox)(Xbox Game Studios) logo]] Each console has a variety of games. Most games released on the original Xbox are backwards compatible and can be played directly on its successor, [360](Xbox)(Xbox 360). Backward compatibility with Xbox 360 titles was added to [One](Xbox)(Xbox One) in June 2015, although titles requiring Kinect or USB peripherals will not be supported. Games using the Xbox and Xbox Live brands have also been released for [Windows](Microsoft)(Microsoft Windows), [Phone](Windows)(Windows Phone), [Android](Android (operating system)), and [iOS](iOS) devices. Xbox games can also be played using the [Cloud Gaming](Xbox)(Xbox Cloud Gaming) streaming service. ## Services Microsoft has used the [and blades model](razor)(razor and blades model) to sell the family of Xbox consoles, selling the console at or below the price of its manufacturing costs, while earning revenue from licensing fees it collects from publishers and developers and from its services offered to players. ### Xbox network [network](Xbox)(Xbox network) (formerly known as Xbox Live) is an online service with over 65 million users worldwide (as of July 2019). It comprises an online virtual market, the [Games Store](Xbox)(Xbox Games Store), which allows the purchase and download of games and various forms of multimedia. Online gaming on the Xbox first started on November 15, 2002, worldwide. The service is still active and continues to be played by gamers. ### Xbox Games Store Xbox Games Store is an online marketplace made for Microsoft's [One](Xbox)(Xbox One) and [[Series X and Series S\|Xbox Series X\|S](Xbox)] consoles. The marketplace is where you can buy games and movies through [download](digital)(Digital distribution). ### Xbox SmartGlass Xbox SmartGlass is a companion application for [360](Xbox)(Xbox 360) available for [8](Windows)(Windows 8), [10](Windows)(Windows 10), [Phone](Windows)(Windows Phone), [iOS](iOS), [Android](Android (operating system)) (version 4.0 and above), Companion Application \|publisher=Xbox.com \|access-date=November 8, 2012 \|url-status=dead \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120817234232/http://support.xbox.com/en-US/apps/my-xbox-live/my-xbox-live-android-install \|archive-date=August 17, 2012 }} and [Server 2012](Windows)(Windows Server 2012). It was announced by [Microsoft](Microsoft) during [2012](E3)(Electronic Entertainment Expo 2012) and released on October 26, 2012, coinciding with the release of Windows 8. Companion Application \|publisher=Xbox.com \|access-date=October 18, 2012 \|url-status=dead \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121020004513/http://www.xbox.com/en-US/live/smartglass \|archive-date=October 20, 2012 }} It connects with the [360](Xbox)(Xbox 360) and allows more interactive entertainment, allowing mobile devices to potentially serve as second screens and remote controller. Currently Windows 8 and Windows RT Tablets and PCs, Windows Phone (7.5 and 8) iOS devices, and Android smartphones (4.x) are compatible with SmartGlass, Companion Application Xbox.com\|url=http://www.xbox.com/en-US/smartglass/home#get-smartglass\|publisher=Microsoft\|access-date=March 18, 2013\|url-status=dead\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130409195319/http://www.xbox.com/en-US/smartglass/home#get-smartglass\|archive-date=April 9, 2013}} providing information such as [4](Halo)(Halo 4) stats and [Horizon](Forza)(Forza Horizon) GPS. Users of Windows Server 2012 can currently download the application from the [Store](Windows)(Windows Store) after installing the Windows Desktop Experience feature in the Server Manager. ### Xbox Game Pass Cloud Gaming Xbox Game Pass Cloud Gaming Xbox\|url=https://www.xbox.com/en-US/xbox-game-pass/cloud-gaming/home\|access-date=2020-09-18\|website=Xbox.com\|language=en}} (codenamed xCloud during development) is the [Microsoft](Microsoft)'s Xbox [gaming](cloud)(cloud gaming) streaming service. ### Content filter In 2019, [Microsoft](Microsoft) released a content filtering to stop swearing and toxicity in online gaming. The service enables players to report messages, [Gamertags](Gamertags), photos, and any other toxic content on its platform. ### Xbox Game Pass Xbox Game Pass is a [service](subscription)(subscription service) from [Microsoft](Microsoft) for use with its [One](Xbox)(Xbox One) and [10](Windows)(Windows 10). The Xbox Game Pass grants users access to a catalog of games from a range of publishers for a single monthly subscription price. The service was launched on June 1, 2017. ### Xbox Wire Xbox Wire is Xbox's [blog](news)(news blog), launched by Microsoft in May 2013 in preparation for the announcement of the Xbox One. It was Microsoft's first Xbox-focused blog since it shut down Gamerscore in early 2009. In March 2022, a Japanese-language version of the site was published as part of Microsoft's focus on the Japanese gaming market. ## Software The main interface for all four generations of Xbox has been the Xbox Dashboard, which allows users to manage games stored on the console, play media, and access system settings. Since 2002, the Dashboard has been integrated with [Live](Xbox)(Xbox Live) that provides online functionality and storefront options. Though the software for the original Xbox and the Xbox 360 was originally built on a heavily modified [2000](Windows)(Windows 2000) operating system, the software since the Xbox One has used a Windows-based system (first [8](Windows)(Windows 8), now [10](Windows)(Windows 10)) that allows for easy of compatibility between the console and desktop applications. ### Xbox Family Settings App In May 2020, Xbox presented a preview version of an app that allows parents and guardians to set daily limits for their children's playing time, provides weekly activity reports, filters out age-restricted games, and places limits on online communication. This is the attempt of Microsoft, Xbox's owner, to promote a message of responsible gaming. The full release is expected in the end of 2020 or later. ## Controllers ### Xbox controller Released in 2001, the Xbox control pad was the first controller made for the original [Xbox](Xbox (console)). The Xbox controller features two [stick](analog)(analog stick)s, a pressure-sensitive directional pad, two analog triggers, a Back button, a Start button, two accessory slots and six 8-bit analog action buttons (A/Green, B/Red, X/Blue, Y/Yellow, and Black and White buttons). The original Xbox controller (nicknamed the "Fatty" and later the "Duke") was the controller initially bundled with Xbox systems for all territories except Japan, which received a more compact controller called the Controller S. The Controller S was later made the standard included controller in all territories. ### Xbox 360 controller [[360 S Controller](File:Xbox-360-S-Controller.png\|thumb\|Xbox)] Released in 2005, the Xbox 360 controller for the [360](Xbox)(Xbox 360) succeeded its predecessor. A standard Xbox 360 controller features eleven digital buttons, two analog triggers, two [stick](analog)(analog stick)s and a digital [D-pad](D-pad). The right face of the controller features four digital action buttons; a green "A" button, red "B" button, blue "X" button and yellow "Y" button. The lower right houses the right analog stick, in the lower left is a digital D-pad and on the left face is the left analog stick. Both analog sticks can also be "clicked in" to activate a digital button beneath. In the center of the controller face are digital "Start", "Back" and "Guide" buttons. The "Guide" button is labelled with the Xbox logo, and is used to turn on the console/controller and to access the guide menu. It is also surrounded by the "ring of light", which indicates the controller number, as well as flashing when connecting and to provide notifications. The left and right "shoulders" each feature a digital shoulder button, or "bumper", and an analog trigger. ### Xbox One controller [[One Controller](File:Microsoft-Xbox-One-controller.jpg\|thumb\|right\|221x221px\|Xbox)] The [One](Xbox)(Xbox One) console has a revised controller with forty improvements over the 360's controller. This new controller is built to work with Kinect. The Start and Back buttons are replaced with Menu and View buttons. It has impulse triggers that replace the regular triggers. The Xbox button still brings up the mini-guide as of recent dashboard versions, though in earlier iterations it brought up the main dashboard menu while leaving the game uninterrupted. ### Xbox Series X and Series S Controller The fourth generation Xbox Controller doesn't change much from the Xbox One controller, but the new wireless Xbox Controller does add a capture and share button, a [d-pad](hybrid)(D-pad), and better gripping on the bumpers and triggers. The controller is also promised to be cross compatible with certain [PC's](Personal computer) and [device](mobile)(mobile device)s. Xbox\|website=Xbox.com\|language=en\|access-date=2020-03-16\|archive-date=September 13, 2020\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200913193828/https://www.xbox.com/en-US/consoles/xbox-series-x\|url-status=live}} ### Xbox Adaptive Controller [[Adaptive Controller](File:Xbox_Adaptive_Controller_V&A.JPG\|thumb\|right\|Xbox)] The Xbox Adaptive Controller is a special controller designed for [accessibility](accessibility) features for players. Besides being physically larger than typical controllers, it includes additional ports to allow other devices to be connected and mapped to other controller functions. The controller is not limited to just Xbox and Windows platforms but also is compatible with the PlayStation and Nintendo Switch. ## Other accessories ### Kinect [[Xbox 360 Kinect sensor](File:Xbox-360-Kinect-Standalone.png\|thumb\|left\|The)] Kinect (stylized as KINECT) is a [sensing](motion)(motion sensing) [device](input)(input device) by [Microsoft](Microsoft) for the [360](Xbox)(Xbox 360) [game console](video)(video game console) and [Windows](Windows) [PCs](personal computer). Based around a [webcam](webcam)-style add-on [peripheral](peripheral) for the Xbox 360 console, it enables users to control and interact with the Xbox 360 without the need to touch a [controller](game)(game controller), through a [user interface](natural)(natural user interface) using gestures and [commands](spoken)(speech recognition). The project is aimed at broadening the Xbox 360's audience beyond its typical gamer base. Kinect competes with the [Remote Plus](Wii)(Wii Remote Plus) and [Move](PlayStation)(PlayStation Move) with [Eye](PlayStation)(PlayStation Eye) [controller](motion)(motion controller)s for the [Wii](Wii) and [3](PlayStation)(PlayStation 3) home consoles, respectively. A version for [Windows](Microsoft Windows) was released on February 1, 2012. Kinect was launched in North America on November 4, 2010, in Europe on November 10, 2010, in Australia, New Zealand and Singapore on November 18, 2010, and in Japan on November 20, 2010. Purchase options for the sensor peripheral include a bundle with the game [Adventures](Kinect)(Kinect Adventures) and console bundles with either a 4 GB or 250 GB Xbox 360 console and Kinect Adventures. [Alt URL](http://www.joystiq.com/2010/07/20/kinect-bundled-with-slim-4gb-xbox-360-arcade-for-300-new-conso/) The Kinect claimed the [World Record](Guinness)(Guinness World Record) of being the "fastest selling consumer electronics device" after selling a total of 8 million units in its first 60 days. 24 million units of the Kinect sensor had been shipped as of January 2012. Microsoft released Kinect [development kit](software)(software development kit) for Windows 7 on June 16, 2011. This SDK was meant to allow developers to write Kinecting apps in [C++/CLI](C++/CLI), [C#](C Sharp (programming language)), or [Basic .NET](Visual)(Visual Basic .NET). Additional information on the Xbox One Kinect was released on June 6, 2013, including information on how to turn off the "always on" feature. [[Xbox One Kinect sensor\|211x211px](File:Xbox-One-Kinect.jpg\|thumb\|left\|The)] Although featuring improved performance over the original Xbox 360 Kinect, its successor the Xbox One Kinect was subject to mixed responses. It was praised for its wide-angle, its fast response time and high-quality camera. However, the Kinect's inability to understand some accents in English was criticized. Furthermore, controversies surround Microsoft's intentional tying of the sensor with the Xbox One console despite the initial requirements for the sensor being plugged in at all times having been revised since its initial announcement. There have also been a number of concerns regarding privacy. ### Headsets When the Xbox Live online service was launched in 2002, the Xbox Communicator [headset](Headset (audio)) was included with the Live Starter Kit. The Communicator, which enabled in-game voice chat, consisted of a wired headset and an interface module. The module plugged into the controller's top expansion slot, and the headset plugged into the module; the interface module was equipped with a dial to control volume and a button to mute the microphone. The headset socket on the module was a standard 2.5mm [audio jack](TRS)(Phone connector (audio)#PDAs and mobile phones) with monaural input and output, compatible with cellular phone headsets. Xbox 360 controllers featured a built-in monaural 2.5mm TRS jack also compatible with standard cellular phone headsets, allowing players to reuse the Xbox Communicator headset and chat on Xbox Live without a separate interface module. The premium console bundle included a wired Xbox 360 Live Communicator headset with grey and white cosmetics matching the console, which also was available separately; the wired headset connected to the audio jack on the bottom of the controller through a wide plug that included mute and volume controls. An updated Xbox 360 Headset was released in 2010 with black cosmetics, bundled with the Xbox 360 S; for the revised wired headset, the mute/volume controls were moved to a position inline along the cable. [[Wireless Headset.png\|thumb\|right\|alt=Xbox 360 Wireless Headset, a single-ear headset that combines an earphone and microphone for voice chat over the Xbox Live online service. The headset connects wirelessly with the Xbox console, and features a dark grey ear loop to hold it in place; the microphone boom extends forward a short distance towards the wearer's mouth. On the outside of the headset are three buttons to control volume and power, arranged in a circle.\|Xbox 360 Wireless Headset](File:360)] Microsoft also announced the [360 Wireless Headset](Xbox)(Xbox 360 Wireless Headset), a first-party single-ear headset accessory designed for and released with the Xbox 360 console in November 2005. Special editions of the wireless headset were released with colors themed for [3](Halo)(Halo 3) (green/orange, September 2007), the Xbox 360 S (black, 2010), and [Reach](Halo:)(Halo: Reach) (silver, September 2010). It was replaced by the Xbox 360 Wireless Headset with Bluetooth in 2011, which could be used with the console (using the Xbox wireless protocol) or a phone (using Bluetooth). The initial revision of the Xbox One Wireless Controller (Model 1537) also included a 2.5mm monaural jack compatible with standard cellular phone headsets. Microsoft bundled the Xbox One Chat Headset with each console starting from launch in 2013; the headset was permanently wired to an interface module that plugged into the controller's expansion port and provided microphone mute and volume controls. In addition, Microsoft released the Xbox One Stereo Headset in early March 2014, bundled with a Stereo Headset Adapter, which allowed players to listen to in-game audio blended with chat simultaneously. The Adapter connected to the controller's expansion port and headset jack, and the Headset connected to the Adapter through a 3.5mm plug. Prior headsets released with the Xbox and Xbox 360 were limited to voice chat only. A white-colored special edition was released in fall 2016. The next revision of the controller (Model 1697) replaced with 2.5mm jack with a 3.5mm jack. A new Xbox Wireless Headset was introduced in February 2021, targeted for use on the Xbox One, Xbox Series X/S, and Windows computers. The outer surface of each earcup is a rotary control; the right earcup controls overall volume, and the left earcup controls game/chat mix level. It is equipped with both proprietary Xbox Wireless and Bluetooth radios, and could be connected to both simultaneously. A corresponding Xbox Stereo Headset, which omits the wireless connections in favor of a standard 3.5mm plug and also omits the game/chat mix control dial, was introduced in August 2021 with a reduced price. ## Marketing In 2016, Microsoft announced that it would hold its own Xbox FanFest instead of a press conference at the [Gamescom](Gamescom) annual European video game convention. Microsoft held an Xbox FanFest in Sydney in September 2016. Microsoft held a 20th anniversary celebration stream for the Xbox on November 15, 2021. During it, they announced that a documentary behind the history of the Xbox, titled Power On: The Story of Xbox. The documentary was released in six parts starting on December 13, 2021. The documentary won the [Emmy Award for Outstanding Single Camera Editing](Daytime)(Daytime Emmy Award for Outstanding Single Camera Editing). ## Notes ## References ## External links * }} [ ](Category:Xbox) [in video gaming](Category:2000s)(Category:2000s in video gaming) [toys](Category:2000s)(Category:2000s toys) [in video gaming](Category:2001)(Category:2001 in video gaming) [in video gaming](Category:2010s)(Category:2010s in video gaming) [toys](Category:2010s)(Category:2010s toys) [introductions in 2001](Category:Computer-related)(Category:Computer-related introductions in 2001) [video game consoles](Category:Home)(Category:Home video game consoles) [franchises](Category:Microsoft)(Category:Microsoft franchises) [video game consoles](Category:Microsoft)(Category:Microsoft video game consoles) [introduced in 2001](Category:Products)(Category:Products introduced in 2001)
Glossary of mathematical symbols	glossary_of_mathematical_symbols	# Glossary of mathematical symbols Revision ID: 1155677606 \| Timestamp: 2023-05-19T06:58:48Z --- A mathematical symbol is a figure or a combination of figures that is used to represent a [object](mathematical)(mathematical object), an action on mathematical objects, a relation between mathematical objects, or for structuring the other symbols that occur in a [formula](formula). As formulas are entirely constituted with symbols of various types, many symbols are needed for expressing all mathematics. The most basic symbols are the [digit](decimal)(decimal digit)s (0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9), and the letters of the [alphabet](Latin)(Latin alphabet). The decimal digits are used for representing numbers through the [numeral system](Hindu–Arabic)(Hindu–Arabic numeral system). Historically, upper-case letters were used for representing [points](point (geometry)) in geometry, and lower-case letters were used for [variables](variable (mathematics)) and [constants](constant (mathematics)). Letters are used for representing many other sorts of [object](mathematical)(mathematical object)s. As the number of these sorts has remarkably increased in modern mathematics, the [alphabet](Greek)(Greek alphabet) and some [letters](Hebrew)(Hebrew alphabet) are also used. In mathematical [formula](formula)s, the standard [typeface](typeface) is [type](italic)(italic type) for Latin letters and lower-case Greek letters, and upright type for upper case Greek letters. For having more symbols, other typefaces are also used, mainly [boldface](boldface) \mathbf {a,A,b,B},\ldots, [typeface](script)(script typeface) \mathcal {A,B},\ldots (the lower-case script face is rarely used because of the possible confusion with the standard face), [fraktur](German)(Fraktur) \mathfrak {a,A,b,B},\ldots, and [bold](blackboard)(blackboard bold) \mathbb {N, Z, Q, R, C, H, F}_q (the other letters are rarely used in this face, or their use is unconventional). The use of Latin and Greek letters as symbols for denoting [object](mathematical)(mathematical object)s is not described in this article. For such uses, see [(mathematics)](Variable)(Variable (mathematics)) and [of mathematical constants](List)(List of mathematical constants). However, some symbols that are described here have the same shape as the letter from which they are derived, such as \textstyle\prod{} and \textstyle\sum{}. These letters alone are not sufficient for the needs of mathematicians, and many other symbols are used. Some take their origin in [mark](punctuation)(punctuation mark)s and [diacritic](diacritic)s traditionally used in [typography](typography); others by deforming [form](letter)(letter form)s, as in the cases of \in and \forall. Others, such as and , were specially designed for mathematics. ## Layout of this article Normally, entries of a [glossary](glossary) are structured by topics and sorted alphabetically. This is not possible here, as there is no natural order on symbols, and many symbols are used in different parts of mathematics with different meanings, often completely unrelated. Therefore, some arbitrary choices had to be made, which are summarized below. The article is split into sections that are sorted by an increasing level of technicality. That is, the first sections contain the symbols that are encountered in most mathematical texts, and that are supposed to be known even by beginners. On the other hand, the last sections contain symbols that are specific to some area of mathematics and are ignored outside these areas. However, the long [on brackets](section)(#Brackets) has been placed near to the end, although most of its entries are elementary: this makes it easier to search for a symbol entry by scrolling. Most symbols have multiple meanings that are generally distinguished either by the area of mathematics where they are used or by their syntax, that is, by their position inside a formula and the nature of the other parts of the formula that are close to them. As readers may not be aware of the area of mathematics to which is related the symbol that they are looking for, the different meanings of a symbol are grouped in the section corresponding to their most common meaning. When the meaning depends on the syntax, a symbol may have different entries depending on the syntax. For summarizing the syntax in the entry name, the symbol \Box is used for representing the neighboring parts of a formula that contains the symbol. See for examples of use. Most symbols have two printed versions. They can be displayed as [Unicode](Unicode) characters, or in [LaTeX](LaTeX) format. With the Unicode version, using [engine](search)(search engine)s and [copy-pasting](copy and paste) are easier. On the other hand, the LaTeX rendering is often much better (more aesthetic), and is generally considered a standard in mathematics. Therefore, in this article, the Unicode version of the symbols is used (when possible) for labelling their entry, and the LaTeX version is used in their description. So, for finding how to type a symbol in LaTeX, it suffices to look at the source of the article. For most symbols, the entry name is the corresponding Unicode symbol. So, for searching the entry of a symbol, it suffices to type or copy the Unicode symbol into the search textbox. Similarly, when possible, the entry name of a symbol is also an [anchor](WP:ANCHOR), which allows linking easily from another Wikipedia article. When an entry name contains special characters such as [, ], and \|, there is also an anchor, but one has to look at the article source to know it. Finally, when there is an article on the symbol itself (not its mathematical meaning), it is linked to in the entry name. ## Arithmetic operators ](plus)]}} .}} .}} ](minus)]}} .}} .}} for denoting the [complement](set-theoretic)(set-theoretic complement); see [\](#\) in .}} ](multiplication)]}} .}} .}} ]]}} .}} }}" is clearer than saying that it is denoted as }}.}} ](plus–minus)]}} denotes an unknown value that lies between 8 and 12.}} ](plus–minus)]}} , denotes the opposite sign; that is, if is , and if is .}} ](division)]}} ](colon)]}} }}](#b:b\| ](slash)]}} or \frac 32.}} is an [field](extension)(extension field) of the [field](field (mathematics)) .}} , given that occurs. Also denoted P(A\mid B): see "[[#vbar\|}}]]".}} ](radical)]}} .}} }}](radical)]}} {{defn\|no=1\|1=Denotes [root](square)(square root) and is read as the square root of. For example, \sqrt{3+2}.}} th root](nth)]. For example, \sqrt[7]{3} denotes the 7th root of 3.}} ]]}} when superscripts are not easily available, such as in [language](programming)(programming language)s (including [LaTeX](LaTeX)) or plain text [email](email)s.}} ## Equality, equivalence and similarity ](equals)]}} is an [expression](expression (mathematics)). On a blackboard and in some mathematical texts, this may be abbreviated as x\,\stackrel{\mathrm{def}}{=}\, E or x \triangleq E. This is related to the concept of [assignment](assignment (computer science)) in computer science, which is variously denoted (depending on the [language](programming)(programming language) used) =, :=, \leftarrow, \ldots}} ](not)]}} ](approximate)]}} {{defn\|Means "is approximately equal to". For example, \pi \approx \frac{22}{7} (for a more accurate approximation, see [pi](pi)).}} ]]}} to mean "approximatively equal", or it means "has the same [of magnitude](order)(order of magnitude) as".}} is [normal](standard)(standard normal distribution).}} ](triple)]}} ## Comparison ](less-than)]}} ](greater-than)]}} }} and are, is equivalent to B}}.}} }} and are, is equivalent to B}}.}} }} }} .}} }} and .}} ## Set theory }} {{defn\|Denotes the [set](empty)(empty set), and is more often written \emptyset. Using [notation](set-builder)(set-builder notation), it may also be denoted [\{\}](#bb).}} ](number)]}} {{defn\|term=sharp\|no=1 \|defn=Number of elements: \#{}S may denote the [cardinality](cardinality) of the [set](set (mathematics)) . An alternative notation is \|S\|; see [[#!□!\|\|\square\|]].}} {{defn\|term=sharp\|no=2 \|defn=[Primorial](Primorial): n{}\# denotes the product of the [numbers](prime)(prime number) that are not greater than .}} }} is an element of the set .}} }} }} is a [subset](subset) of , and is possibly equal to ; that is, every element of belongs to ; in formula, \forall{}x, \,x\in A \Rightarrow x\in B.}} is a [subset](proper)(proper subset) of , that is the two sets are different, and every element of belongs to ; in formula, A\neq B \land\forall{}x, \,x\in A \Rightarrow x\in B.}} }} is a [subset](subset) of . Used for emphasizing that equality is possible, or when the of A\subset B is used.}} }} is a [subset](proper)(proper subset) of . Used for emphasizing that A\neq B, or when the of A\subset B is used.}} }} , , and respectively. For example, B\supset A is equivalent to A\subset B.}} }} and together. That is, A\cup B=\{x\mid (x\in A) \lor (x\in B)\}.}} }} and . That is, A\cap B=\{x\mid (x\in A) \land (x\in B)\}.}} }} that are not in . Sometimes, A-B is used instead; see [–](#–) in .}} or \triangle}} {{defn\|[difference](Symmetric)(Symmetric difference): that is, A\ominus B or A\operatorname{\triangle}B is the set formed by the elements that belong to exactly one of the two sets and .}} }} is a set implicitly defined by the context, which contains all sets under consideration. This set is sometimes called the [of discourse](universe)(universe of discourse). }} }} .}} and an element of .}} }} and are sets then A\sqcup B=\left(A\times\{i_A\}\right)\cup\left(B\times\{i_B\}\right) is a set of [pairs](ordered pair) where and are distinct indices discriminating the members of and in .}} }} .}} ## Basic logic Several [symbol](logical)(logical symbol)s are widely used in all mathematics, and are listed here. For symbols that are used only in [logic](mathematical)(mathematical logic), or are rarely used, see [of logic symbols](List)(List of logic symbols). ](not)]}} is a [predicate](logical)(logical predicate), \neg E is the predicate that evaluates to true if and only if evaluates to false. For clarity, it is often replaced by the word "not". In [language](programming)(programming language)s and some mathematical texts, it is sometimes replaced by "" or "", which are easier to type on some keyboards.}} ](descending)]}} and are [predicate](logical)(logical predicate)s, E\lor F is true if either , , or both are true. It is often replaced by the word "or".}} ](wedge)]}} and are [predicate](logical)(logical predicate)s, E\land F is true if and are both true. It is often replaced by the word "and" or the symbol "".}} }} and are two [variable](Boolean)(Boolean variable)s or [predicate](predicate (mathematical logic)#Simplified overview)s, E\veebar F denotes the exclusive or. Notations and E\oplus F are also commonly used; see [⊕](#⊕).}} ](turned)]}} is a [predicate](logical)(logical predicate), \forall x E means that is true for all possible values of the variable .}} in plain text as an abbreviation of "for all" or "for every".}} }} is a [predicate](logical)(logical predicate), \exists x E means that there exists at least one value of for which is true.}} }} such that (is true)". In other words, \exists ! x P(x) is an abbreviation of \exists x\,( P(x) \, \wedge \neg \exists y\,(P(y) \wedge y \ne x)).}} }} and are [predicate](logical)(logical predicate)s, P \Rightarrow Q means that if is true, then is also true. Thus, P \Rightarrow Q is logically equivalent with Q\lor \neg P.}} }} and are [predicate](logical)(logical predicate)s, P \Leftrightarrow Q is thus an abbreviation of (P \Rightarrow Q) \land (Q \Rightarrow P), or of (P \land Q) \lor (\neg P \land \neg Q).}} ]]}} }}]].}} ]]}} }}]].}} ## Blackboard bold The [bold](blackboard)(blackboard bold) [typeface](typeface) is widely used for denoting the basic [system](number)(number system)s. These systems are often also denoted by the corresponding uppercase bold letter. A clear advantage of blackboard bold is that these symbols cannot be confused with anything else. This allows using them in any area of mathematics, without having to recall their definition. For example, if one encounters \mathbb R in [combinatorics](combinatorics), one should immediately know that this denotes the [number](real)(real number)s, although combinatorics does not study the real numbers (but it uses them for many proofs). {{defn\|Denotes the set of [number](natural)(natural number)s \{1, 2,\ldots \}, or sometimes \{0, 1, 2, \ldots \}. It is often denoted also by \mathbf N. When the distinction is important and readers might assume either definition, \mathbb{N}_1 and \mathbb{N}_0 are used, respectively, to denote one of them unambiguously.}} {{defn\|Denotes the set of [integer](integer)s \{\ldots, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2,\ldots \}. It is often denoted also by \mathbf Z.}} {{term\|ℤp\|content=\mathbb{Z}_p}} -adic integers](p-adic)], where is a [number](prime)(prime number).}} ](integers)], where is an [integer](integer) greater than 0. The notation \mathbb Z/n\mathbb Z is also used, and is less ambiguous.}} {{term\|ℚp\|content=\mathbb{Q}_p}} -adic numbers](p-adic)], where is a [number](prime)(prime number).}} {{term\|Fq\|content=\mathbb{F}_q}} elements, where is a [power](prime)(prime power) (including [number](prime)(prime number)s). It is denoted also by .}} ## Calculus }}}} is a [function](function (mathematics)) of a single variable, f', read as "f [prime](Prime_(symbol)#Use_in_mathematics,_statistics,_and_science)", is the derivative of with respect to this variable. The [derivative](second)(second derivative) is the derivative of f', and is denoted f''.}} is a variable depending on time, then \dot x is its derivative with respect to time. In particular, if represents a moving point, then \dot x is its [velocity](velocity).}} is a variable that represents a moving point, then \ddot x is its [acceleration](acceleration).}} }}}} is a variable that [depends](dependent variable) on , then \textstyle \frac{\mathrm{d}y}{\mathrm{d}x}, read as "d y over d x", is the derivative of with respect to .}} is a [function](function (mathematics)) of a single variable , then \textstyle \frac{\mathrm{d}f}{\mathrm{d}x} is the derivative of , and \textstyle \frac{\mathrm{d}f}{\mathrm{d}x}(a) is the value of the derivative at .}} , then \textstyle \frac{\mathrm{d}f}{\mathrm{d}x} is the derivative of considered as a function of . That is, \textstyle \frac{\mathrm{d}f}{dx}=\sum_{i=1}^n \frac{\partial f}{\partial x_i}\,\frac{\mathrm{d}x_i}{\mathrm{d}x}.}} }}}} {{defn\|[derivative](Partial)(Partial derivative): If f(x_1, \ldots, x_n) is a [function](function (mathematics)) of several variables, \textstyle\frac{\partial f}{\partial x_i} is the derivative with respect to the th variable considered as an [variable](independent)(independent variable), the other variables being considered as constants.}} }}}} {{defn\|[derivative](Functional)(Functional derivative): If f(y_1, \ldots, y_n) is a [functional](functional (mathematics)) of several [functions](function (mathematics)), \textstyle \frac{\delta f}{\delta y_{i}} is the functional derivative with respect to the th function considered as an [variable](independent)(independent variable), the other functions being considered constant.}} is a [number](complex)(complex number), then \overline{z} is its complex conjugate. For example, \overline{a+bi} = a-bi.}} is a [subset](subset) of a [space](topological)(topological space) , then \overline{S} is its topological closure, that is, the smallest [subset](closed)(closed subset) of that contains .}} is a [field](field (mathematics)), then \overline{F} is its algebraic closure, that is, the smallest [closed field](algebraically)(algebraically closed field) that contains . For example, \overline\mathbb Q is the field of all [number](algebraic)(algebraic number)s.}} is a [variable](variable (mathematics)) that takes its values in some sequence of numbers , then \overline{x} may denote the mean of the elements of .}} ](arrow)]}} and [codomain](codomain) . For naming such a function, one writes f:A \to B, which is read as " from to ".}} to .}} {{defn\|no=5\|In [geometry](Euclidean)(Euclidean geometry) and more generally in [geometry](affine)(affine geometry), \overrightarrow{PQ} denotes the [vector](vector (mathematics and physics)) defined by the two points and , which can be identified with the [translation](translation (mathematics)) that maps to . The same vector can be denoted also Q-P; see [space](Affine)(Affine space).}} ]]}} The [LaTeX](LaTeX) equivalent to both [Unicode](Unicode) symbols ∘ and ○ is \circ. The Unicode symbol that has the same size as \circ depends on the browser and its implementation. In some cases ∘ is so small that it can be confused with an [interpoint](interpoint), and ○ looks similar as \circ. In other cases, ○ is too large for denoting a binary operation, and it is ∘ that looks like \circ. As LaTeX is commonly considered as the standard for mathematical typography, and it does not distinguish these two Unicode symbols, they are considered here as having the same mathematical meaning.}} and are two functions, then g\circ f is the function such that (g\circ f)(x)=g(f(x)) for every value of .}} and are two matrices of the same size, then A\circ B is the matrix such that (A\circ B)_{i,j} = (A)_{i,j}(B)_{i,j}. Possibly, \circ is also used instead of [[#⊙\|]] for the [product of power series](Hadamard)(Hadamard product (series)).}} ]]}} is a subspace of a topological space, then its boundary, denoted \partial S, is the [difference](set)(set difference) between the [closure](closure (topology)) and the [interior](interior (topology)) of .}} }}]].}} ](Integral)]}} {{defn\|no=1\|1=Without a subscript, denotes an [antiderivative](antiderivative). For example, \textstyle\int x^2 dx = \frac{x^3}3 +C.}} {{defn\|no=2\|1=With a subscript and a superscript, or expressions placed below and above it, denotes a [integral](definite)(definite integral). For example, \textstyle \int_a^b x^2dx = \frac{b^3-a^3}{3}.}} {{defn\|no=3\|1=With a subscript that denotes a curve, denotes a [integral](line)(line integral). For example, \textstyle\int_C f=\int_a^b f(r(t))r'(t)\operatorname{d}t, if is a parametrization of the curve , from to .}} ](line)]}} ](surface)]}} {{term\|∇\|[or \vec{\nabla}](\boldsymbol{\nabla})(nabla symbol)}} {{defn\|[Nabla](del), the [gradient](gradient) or vector derivative operator \textstyle \left(\frac \partial {\partial x}, \frac \partial {\partial y}, \frac \partial {\partial z}\right), also called del or grad.}} or ](Laplace)]}} {{defn\|[operator](Laplace)(Laplace operator) or Laplacian: \textstyle \frac {\partial^2}{\partial x^2} + \frac {\partial^2}{\partial y^2} + \frac {\partial^2}{\partial z^2}. The forms \nabla^2 and \boldsymbol\nabla \cdot \boldsymbol\nabla represent the dot product of the [gradient](#∇) (\boldsymbol{\nabla} or \vec{\nabla}) with itself. Also notated (next item).}} }} (Capital Greek letter [delta](Delta (letter))—not to be confused with \triangle, which may denote a geometric [triangle](triangle) or, alternatively, the [difference](symmetric)(symmetric difference) of two sets.}} {{term\|four-gradient\|[or \partial_\mu](\boldsymbol{\partial})(Four-gradient)}} (Note: the notation \Box is not recommended for the four-gradient since both \Box and {\Box}^2 are used to denote the [d'Alembertian](d'Alembertian); see below.) {{defn\|[Quad](Four-gradient), the [gradient operator](4-vector)(Four-gradient) or [four-gradient](four-gradient), \textstyle \left( \frac \partial {\partial t}, \frac \partial {\partial x}, \frac \partial {\partial y}, \frac \partial {\partial z}\right).}} {{term\|d'Alembertian\|[or {\Box}^2](\Box)(d'Alembertian)}} (here an actual box, not a placeholder) {{defn\|Denotes the [d'Alembertian](d'Alembertian) or squared [four-gradient](four-gradient), which is a generalization of the [Laplacian](Laplacian) to four-dimensional spacetime. In flat spacetime with Euclidean coordinates, this may mean either ~ \textstyle - \frac {\partial^2}{\partial t^2} + \frac {\partial^2}{\partial x^2} + \frac {\partial^2}{\partial y^2} + \frac {\partial^2}{\partial z^2} ~\; or \;~ \textstyle + \frac {\partial^2}{\partial t^2} - \frac {\partial^2}{\partial x^2} - \frac {\partial^2}{\partial y^2} - \frac {\partial^2}{\partial z^2} ~\;; the sign convention must be specified. In curved spacetime (or flat spacetime with non-Euclidean coordinates), the definition is more complicated. Also called box or quabla.}} ## Linear and multilinear algebra ([notation](Sigma)(Sigma notation))}} {{defn\|no=1\|Denotes the [sum](summation) of a finite number of terms, which are determined by subscripts and superscripts (which can also be placed below and above), such as in \textstyle \sum_{i=1}^n i^2 or \textstyle \sum_{0.}} {{defn\|no=2\|Denotes a [series](series (mathematics)) and, if the series is [convergent](convergent series), the [of the series](sum)(sum of series). For example, \textstyle \sum_{i=0}^\infty \frac {x^i}{i!}=e^x.}} ([notation](Capital-pi)(Capital-pi notation))}} {{defn\|no=1\|Denotes the [product](product (mathematics)#Product of sequences) of a finite number of terms, which are determined by subscripts and superscripts (which can also be placed below and above), such as in \textstyle \prod_{i=1}^n i^2 or \textstyle \prod_{0.}} {{defn\|no=2\|Denotes an [product](infinite)(infinite product). For example, the [product formula for the Riemann zeta function](Euler)(Riemann zeta function#Euler's product formula) is \textstyle\zeta(z) = \prod_{n=1}^{\infty} \frac{1}{1 - p_n^{-z}}.}} ](⊕)]}} and are [subgroup](abelian)(abelian subgroup)s of an [group](abelian)(abelian group) , notation V=E\oplus F means that is the direct sum of and ; that is, every element of can be written in a unique way as the sum of an element of and an element of . This applies also when and are [subspace](linear)(linear subspace)s or [submodule](submodule)s of the [space](vector)(vector space) or [module](module (mathematics)) .}} and are two [group](abelian)(abelian group)s, [space](vector)(vector space)s, or [module](module (mathematics))s, then their direct sum, denoted E\oplus F is an abelian group, vector space, or module (respectively) equipped with two [monomorphism](monomorphism)s f:E\to E\oplus F and g:F\to E\oplus F such that E\oplus F is the internal direct sum of f(E) and g(F). This definition makes sense because this direct sum is unique up to a unique [isomorphism](isomorphism).}} and are two [variable](Boolean)(Boolean variable)s or [predicate](predicate (mathematical logic)#Simplified overview)s, E\oplus F may denote the exclusive or. Notations and E\veebar F are also commonly used; see [⊻](#⊻).}} }} and are [group](abelian)(abelian group)s, [space](vector)(vector space)s, or [module](module (mathematics))s over a [ring](commutative)(commutative ring), then the tensor product of and , denoted E\otimes F is an abelian group, a vector space or a module (respectively), equipped with a [map](bilinear)(bilinear map) (e,f)\mapsto e\otimes f from E\times F to E\otimes F, such that the bilinear maps from E\times F to any abelian group, vector space or module can be identified with the [map](linear)(linear map)s from E\otimes F to . If and are vector spaces over a [field](field (mathematics)) , or modules over a ring , the tensor product is often denoted E\otimes_R F to avoid ambiguity.}} }}}} is a matrix, A^\top denotes the transpose of , that is, the matrix obtained by exchanging rows and columns of . Notation ^\top\!\! A is also used. The symbol \top is often replaced by the letter or .}} }}}} is a [subspace](linear)(linear subspace) of an [product space](inner)(inner product space) , then W^\bot denotes its orthogonal complement, that is, the linear space of the elements of whose inner products with the elements of are all zero.}} is a [subspace](linear)(linear subspace) (or a [submodule](submodule)) of a [space](vector)(vector space) (or of a [module](module (mathematics))) , then W^\bot may denote the orthogonal subspace of , that is, the set of all [forms](linear)(linear forms) that map to zero.}} ## Advanced group theory }} and are subgroups of a [group](group (mathematics)) , such that is a [subgroup](normal)(normal subgroup) of , then G=N\rtimes H and G=H\ltimes N mean that is the semidirect product of and , that is, that every element of can be uniquely decomposed as the product of an element of and an element of . (Unlike for the [product of groups](direct)(direct product of groups), the element of may change if the order of the factors is changed.)}} and are two [groups](group (mathematics)), and \varphi is a [homomorphism](group)(group homomorphism) from to the [group](automorphism)(automorphism group) of , then N\rtimes_\varphi H = H\ltimes_\varphi N denotes a group , unique up to a [isomorphism](group)(group isomorphism), which is a semidirect product of and , with the commutation of elements of and defined by \varphi.}} }} and . It is also denoted as G\operatorname{wr} H or G\operatorname{Wr} H; see for several notation variants.}} ## Infinite numbers ](infinity)]}} ]]}} ]]}} as a subscript, denotes the th [number](aleph)(aleph number), that is the th infinite [cardinal](cardinal number). For example, \aleph_0 is the smallest infinite cardinal, that is, the cardinal of the natural numbers.}} ](bet)]}} as a subscript, denotes the th [number](beth)(beth number). For example, \beth_0 is the [cardinal](cardinal number) of the natural numbers, and \beth_1 is the [of the continuum](cardinal)(cardinal of the continuum).}} ]]}} as a subscript, denotes the th [ordinal](limit)(limit ordinal) that has a [cardinality](cardinality) greater than that of all preceding ordinals.}} .}} .}} ## Brackets Many sorts of brackets are used in mathematics. Their meanings depend not only on their shapes, but also on the nature and the arrangement of what is delimited by them, and sometimes what appears between or before them. For this reason, in the entry titles, the symbol is used as a placeholder for schematizing the syntax that underlies the meaning. ### Parentheses }} }} }} and are [number](real)(real number)s, -\infty, or +\infty, and , then (a,b) denotes the [interval](open)(open interval) delimited by and . See [[interval\|]] for an alternative notation.}} and are [integer](integer)s, (a,b) may denote the [common divisor](greatest)(greatest common divisor) of and . Notation \gcd(a,b) is often used instead.}} }} are vectors in \mathbb R^3, then (x,y,z) may denote the [triple product](scalar)(scalar triple product). See also [[#sqb3\|[□,□,□]]] in .}} }} objects separated by commas, it is an -tuple.}} }} {{term\|pmatrix\|content=\begin{pmatrix} \Box & \cdots & \Box \\ \vdots & \ddots & \vdots \\ \Box & \cdots & \Box \end{pmatrix}}} {{term\|binomial\|content=\binom{\Box}{\Box}}} {{defn\|Denotes a [coefficient](binomial)(binomial coefficient): Given two [integer](nonnegative)(nonnegative integer)s, \binom{n}{k} is read as " choose ", and is defined as the integer \frac{n(n-1)\cdots(n-k+1)}{1\cdot 2\cdots k}=\frac{n!}{k!\,(n-k)!} (if 0}}, its value is conventionally ). Using the left-hand-side expression, it denotes a [polynomial](polynomial) in , and is thus defined and used for any [real](real number) or [complex](complex number) value of .}} )}}}} is an odd [number](prime)(prime number) and is an [integer](integer), the value of \left(\frac{a}{p}\right) is 1 if is a [residue](quadratic)(quadratic residue) modulo ; it is –1 if is a [non-residue](quadratic)(quadratic non-residue) modulo ; it is 0 if divides . The same notation is used for the [symbol](Jacobi)(Jacobi symbol) and [symbol](Kronecker)(Kronecker symbol), which are generalizations where is respectively any odd positive integer, or any integer.}} ### Square brackets }} ]] for avoiding nested parentheses.}} .}} is a [number](real)(real number), [x] often denotes the integral part or [truncation](truncation) of , that is, the integer obtained by removing all digits after the [mark](decimal)(decimal mark). This notation has also been used for other variants of [and ceiling functions](floor)(floor and ceiling functions).}} is a [predicate](predicate (mathematical logic)), [P] may denote the Iverson bracket, that is the [function](function (mathematics)) that takes the value for the values of the [variable](free)(free variable)s in for which is true, and takes the value otherwise. For example, [x=y] is the [delta function](Kronecker)(Kronecker delta function), which equals one if x=y, and zero otherwise.}} }} is a [subset](subset) of the [of the function](domain)(domain of a function) , then f[S] is sometimes used for denoting the image of . When no confusion is possible, notation [[#functional\|]] is commonly used.}} }} and are [number](real)(real number)s such that a\le b, then [a,b] denotes the closed interval defined by them.}} and belong to a [group](group (mathematics)), then [a,b]=a^{-1}b^{-1}ab.}} and belong to a [ring](ring (mathematics)), then [a,b]=ab-ba.}} }} is an [extension](extension field) of a [field](field (mathematics)) , then [F:E] denotes the degree of the [extension](field)(field extension) F/E. For example, [C:\mathbb R](\mathbb)=2.}} is a [subgroup](subgroup) of a [group](group (mathematics)) , then [G:H] denotes the index of in . The notation [[#!:!\|}}]] is also used}} }} are vectors in \mathbb R^3, then [x,y,z] may denote the [triple product](scalar)(scalar triple product). See also [(□,□,□)](#(□,□,□)) in .}} {{term\|bmatrix\|content=\begin{bmatrix} \Box & \cdots & \Box \\ \vdots & \ddots & \vdots \\ \Box & \cdots & \Box \end{bmatrix}}} ### Braces }}}} {{term\|b□b\|content={{math\|{□} }}}} ]] and [[#sqb1\|]] for avoiding nested parentheses.}} {{defn\|no=2\|[notation](Set-builder)(Set-builder notation) for a [set](singleton)(singleton set): \{x\} denotes the [set](set (mathematics)) that has as a single element.}} {{term\|b,...,b}\|content={{math\|{□, ..., □} }}}} {{term\|b:b\|content={{math\|{□ : □} }} □} }}}} , then both \{x : P(x)\} and \{x\mid P(x)\} denote the [set](set (mathematics)) formed by the values of for which P(x) is true.}} {{defn\|no=1\|Used for emphasizing that several [equations](equation (mathematics)) have to be considered as [equations](simultaneous)(simultaneous equations); for example, \textstyle \begin{cases}2x+y=1\\3x-y=1\end{cases}.}} {{defn\|no=2\|[Piecewise](Piecewise) definition; for example, \textstyle \|x\|=\begin{cases}x&\text{if }x\ge 0\\-x&\text{if }x.}} {{defn\|no=3\|Used for grouped annotation of elements in a formula; for example, \textstyle \underbrace{ (a,b,\ldots,z) }_{26}, \textstyle \overbrace{ 1+2+\cdots+100 }^{=5050}, \textstyle \left.\begin{bmatrix}A\\B\end{bmatrix}\right\} m+n\text{ rows}}} ### Other brackets □}}}} is a [real](real number) or [complex](complex number) number, \|x\| denotes its absolute value.}} is a [set](set (mathematics)), \|x\| may denote its [cardinality](cardinality), that is, its number of elements. \#S is also often used, see [[#sharp\|]].}} and are two points in a [space](Euclidean)(Euclidean space), then \|PQ\| often denotes the length of the line segment that they define, which is the [distance](Euclidean norm) from to , and is often denoted d(P,Q).}} }}]].}} }}}} is a [subgroup](subgroup) of a [group](group (mathematics)) , then \|G:H\| denotes the index of in . The notation [[#sqb2:\|]] is also used}} {{term\|determinant\|content=\textstyle\begin{vmatrix} \Box & \cdots & \Box \\ \vdots & \ddots & \vdots \\ \Box & \cdots & \Box \end{vmatrix}}} {{defn\|\begin{vmatrix} x_{1,1} & \cdots & x_{1,n} \\ \vdots & \ddots & \vdots \\ x_{n,1} & \cdots & x_{n,n} \end{vmatrix} denotes the [determinant](determinant) of the [matrix](square)(square matrix) \begin{bmatrix} x_{1,1} & \cdots & x_{1,n} \\ \vdots & \ddots & \vdots \\ x_{n,1} & \cdots & x_{n,n} \end{bmatrix}.}} □}}}} ]].}} }} is a real number, \lfloor x\rfloor is the greatest [integer](integer) that is not greater than .}} }} is a real number, \lceil x\rceil is the lowest [integer](integer) that is not lesser than .}} }} is a real number, \lfloor x\rceil is the [integer](integer) that is the closest to .}} }} ](#pair\| }} }} }} is a set of elements in an algebraic structure, \langle S \rangle denotes often the object generated by . If S=\{s_1,\ldots, s_n\}, one writes \langle s_1,\ldots, s_n \rangle (that is, braces are omitted). In particular, this may denote the [span](linear)(linear span) in a [space](vector)(vector space) (also often denoted ), the generated [subgroup](subgroup) in a [group](group (mathematics)), the generated [ideal](ideal (ring theory)) in a [ring](ring (mathematics)), the generated [submodule](submodule) in a [module](module (mathematics)).}} □⟩}}}} }} and □⟩}}](Bra–ket)]}} and are elements of an [product space](inner)(inner product space), \|x\rangle is the vector defined by , and \langle y\| is the [covector](covector) defined by ; their inner product is \langle y\mid x\rangle.}} ## Symbols that do not belong to formulas In this section, the symbols that are listed are used as some sorts of punctuation marks in mathematical reasoning, or as abbreviations of English phrases. They are generally not used inside a formula. Some were used in [logic](classical)(classical logic) for indicating the logical dependence between sentences written in plain English. Except for the first two, they are normally not used in printed mathematical texts since, for readability, it is generally recommended to have at least one word between two formulas. However, they are still used on a [board](black)(black board) for indicating relationships between formulas. ](tombstone)]}} , "as was to be shown") is often used for the same purpose, either in its upper-case form or in lower case.}} ](Bourbaki)]}} ](therefore)]}} ](because)]}} is [prime](prime number) ∵ it has no positive integer factors other than itself and one."}} }} such that x>3".}} .}} }} ## Miscellaneous ]]}} is a [integer](positive)(positive integer), is the product of the first positive integers, and is read as "n factorial".}} is a positive integer, is the number of [derangements](derangements) of a set of elements, and is read as "the subfactorial of n".}} ]]}} .}} }}](vertical)]}} and are two integers, m\mid n means that divides evenly.}} □}}}}](#b:b\| is a [function](function (mathematics)), and is a [subset](subset) of its [domain](domain of a function), then f\|_S is the function with as a domain that equals on .}} given that the event occurs. Also denoted P(X/ E); see "[/](#/)".}} and ) see .}} }} is not a divisor of .}} ]]}} and are two [lines](line (geometry)), PQ\parallel RS means that they are parallel.}} {{defn\|no=2\|[Parallel](Parallel (operator)), an [operation](arithmetical)(operation (mathematics)) used in [engineering](electrical)(electrical engineering) for modeling [resistors](parallel)(parallel resistors): x\parallel y=\frac 1{\frac 1x +\frac 1y}.}} □}}]].}} ]]}} are three points in a [space](Euclidean)(Euclidean space), then AB\perp AC means that the [segment](line)(line segment)s and are [perpendicular](perpendicular), and form a [angle](right)(right angle).}} }} {{defn\|[product of power series](Hadamard)(Hadamard product (series)): if \textstyle S=\sum_{i=0}^\infty s_ix^i and \textstyle T=\sum_{i=0}^\infty t_ix^i, then \textstyle S\odot T=\sum_{i=0}^\infty s_i t_i x^i. Possibly, \odot is also used instead of [[#∘\|]] for the [product of matrices](Hadamard)(Hadamard product (matrices)).}} ## See also ### Related articles * [of mathematics](Language)(Language of mathematics) * [notation](Mathematical)(Mathematical notation) * [in probability and statistics](Notation)(Notation in probability and statistics) * [constant](Physical)(Physical constant)s ### Related lists * [of mathematical symbols by subject](List)(List of mathematical symbols by subject) * [of logic symbols](List)(List of logic symbols) * [of mathematical constants](List)(List of mathematical constants) * [of mathematical symbols by introduction date](Table)(Table of mathematical symbols by introduction date) * [bold](Blackboard)(Blackboard bold) * [letters used in mathematics, science, and engineering](Greek)(Greek letters used in mathematics, science, and engineering) * [of mathematical uses of Latin letters](List)(List of mathematical uses of Latin letters) * [of common physics notations](List)(List of common physics notations) * [of letters used in mathematics and science](List)(List of letters used in mathematics and science) * [of mathematical abbreviations](List)(List of mathematical abbreviations) * [of typographical symbols and punctuation marks](List)(List of typographical symbols and punctuation marks) * [31-11](ISO)(ISO 31-11) (Mathematical signs and symbols for use in physical sciences and technology) * [of APL functions](List)(APL syntax and symbols#Monadic functions) ### [Unicode](Unicode) symbols * [block](Unicode)(Unicode block) * [Alphanumeric Symbols (Unicode block)](Mathematical)(Mathematical Alphanumeric Symbols) * [of Unicode characters](List)(List of Unicode characters) * [Symbols](Letterlike)(Letterlike Symbols) * [operators and symbols in Unicode](Mathematical)(Mathematical operators and symbols in Unicode) * Miscellaneous Mathematical Symbols: [A](Miscellaneous Mathematical Symbols-A), [B](Miscellaneous Mathematical Symbols-B), [Technical](Miscellaneous Technical) * [(symbol)](Arrow)(Arrow (symbol)) and [Symbols and Arrows](Miscellaneous)(Miscellaneous Symbols and Arrows) * [Forms](Number)(Number Forms) * [Shapes](Geometric)(Geometric Shapes) ## References ## External links * [Jeff Miller: Earliest Uses of Various Mathematical Symbols](http://jeff560.tripod.com/mathsym.html) * [Numericana: Scientific Symbols and Icons](http://www.numericana.com/answer/symbol.htm) * [GIF and PNG Images for Math Symbols](http://us.metamath.org/symbols/symbols.html) * [Mathematical Symbols in Unicode](https://web.archive.org/web/20070117015443/http://tlt.psu.edu/suggestions/international/bylanguage/math.html) * [Detexify: LaTeX Handwriting Recognition Tool](https://detexify.kirelabs.org/classify.html) ; Some Unicode charts of mathematical operators and symbols: * [Index of Unicode symbols](https://www.unicode.org/charts/#symbols) * [Range 2100–214F: Unicode Letterlike Symbols](https://www.unicode.org/charts/PDF/U2100.pdf) * [Range 2190–21FF: Unicode Arrows](https://www.unicode.org/charts/PDF/U2190.pdf) * [Range 2200–22FF: Unicode Mathematical Operators](https://www.unicode.org/charts/PDF/U2200.pdf) * [Range 27C0–27EF: Unicode Miscellaneous Mathematical Symbols–A](https://www.unicode.org/charts/PDF/U27C0.pdf) * [Range 2980–29FF: Unicode Miscellaneous Mathematical Symbols–B](https://www.unicode.org/charts/PDF/U2980.pdf) * [Range 2A00–2AFF: Unicode Supplementary Mathematical Operators](https://www.unicode.org/charts/PDF/U2A00.pdf) ; Some Unicode cross-references: * [Short list of commonly used LaTeX symbols](https://web.archive.org/web/20141105143723/http://www.artofproblemsolving.com/Wiki/index.php/LaTeX:Symbols) and [Comprehensive LaTeX Symbol List](https://web.archive.org/web/20090323063515/http://mirrors.med.harvard.edu/ctan/info/symbols/comprehensive/) * [MathML Characters](https://web.archive.org/web/20140222144828/http://www.robinlionheart.com/stds/html4/entities-mathml) - sorts out Unicode, HTML and MathML/TeX names on one page * [Unicode values and MathML names](http://www.w3.org/TR/REC-MathML/chap6/bycodes.html) * [Unicode values and Postscript names](https://web.archive.org/web/20141126074509/http://svn.ghostscript.com/ghostscript/branches/gs-db/Resource/Decoding/Unicode) from the source code for [Ghostscript](Ghostscript) [ ](Category:Mathematical symbols) [*](Category:Mathematical notation) [Mathematics](Category:Lists of symbols) [Symbols](Category:Mathematical logic) [Symbols](Category:Mathematical tables) [Symbols](Category:Glossaries of mathematics) [glossaries using description lists](Category:Wikipedia)(Category:Wikipedia glossaries using description lists)
Asterix	asterix	# Asterix Revision ID: 1160344300 \| Timestamp: 2023-06-15T22:09:10Z --- \| graphic_novel = y \| anthology = [Pilote](Pilote) \| titles = \|creators = \|writers = \|artists = \| translators = \| country = France (origin), other (for translated books) \| genre = \| publisher = [Dargaud](Dargaud), [Albert René](Éditions)(Éditions Albert René), [Hachette](Hachette (publisher)) for canonical volumes in French; others for non-canonical volumes (1976–1996) in French; [Hodder](Hodder & Stoughton), Hachette and others for non-canonical volumes (1976–1996) in English \| date = 29 October 1959–present (original); 1969–present (English translation) \|nonUS = y \|altcat = Asterix \|alttop = y \|sort = A }} *Asterix* or *The Adventures of Asterix* ( or , "Asterix the [Gaul](Gauls)") is a [dessinée](bande)(bande dessinée) [book](comic)(comic book) [series](book series) about a village of indomitable [Gaul](Gaul)ish [warrior](warrior)s who adventure around the world and fight the [Republic](Roman)(Roman Republic), with the aid of a magic potion, during the era of [Caesar](Julius)(Julius Caesar), in an ahistorical telling of the time after the [Wars](Gallic)(Gallic Wars). The series first appeared in the Franco-Belgian comic magazine [Pilote](Pilote)'' on 29 October 1959. It was written by [Goscinny](René)(René Goscinny) and illustrated by [Uderzo](Albert)(Albert Uderzo) until Goscinny's death in 1977. Uderzo then took over the writing until 2009, when he sold the rights to publishing company [Hachette](Hachette (publisher)); he died in 2020. In 2013, a new team consisting of [Ferri](Jean-Yves)(Jean-Yves Ferri) (script) and [Conrad](Didier)(Didier Conrad) (artwork) took over. , 39 volumes have been released, with the most recent released in October 2021. ## Description [[File:Asterix - Cast.png\|thumb\|Some of the many characters in Asterix. In the front row are the regular characters, with [Asterix](Asterix (character)) himself in the centre.]] Asterix comics usually start with the following introduction: The year is 50 BC. Gaul is entirely occupied by the Romans. Well, not entirely... One small village of indomitable Gauls still holds out against the invaders. And life is not easy for the Roman legionaries who garrison the fortified camps of Totorum, Aquarium, Laudanum and Compendium...* The series follows the adventures of a village of [Gauls](Gauls) as they resist [Roman](Roman Republic) occupation in 50 BC. They do so using a [potion](magic)(Potion), brewed by their [druid](druid) Getafix (Panoramix in the French version), which temporarily gives the recipient superhuman strength. The protagonists, the title character [Asterix](Asterix (character)) and his friend [Obelix](Obelix), have various adventures. The "-ix" ending of both names (as well as all the other pseudo-Gaulish "-ix" names in the series) alludes to the "-rix" suffix (meaning "king", like "-rex" in Latin) present in the names of many real Gaulish chieftains such as [Vercingetorix](Vercingetorix), [Orgetorix](Orgetorix), and [Dumnorix](Dumnorix). In some of the stories they travel to foreign countries, whilst other tales are set in and around their village. For much of the history of the series (volumes 4 through 29), settings in Gaul and abroad alternate, with even-numbered volumes set abroad and odd-numbered volumes set in Gaul, mostly in the village. The Asterix series is one of the most popular Franco-Belgian comics in the world, with the series being translated into 111 languages and dialects . The success of the series has led to the adaptation of its books into [films](15)(List of Asterix films): ten animated, and five live action (two of which, [& Obelix: Mission Cleopatra](Asterix)(Asterix & Obelix: Mission Cleopatra) and [and Obelix vs. Caesar](Asterix)(Asterix and Obelix vs. Caesar), were [box office successes in France](major)(Lists of highest-grossing films in France)). There have also been a number of [games](List of Asterix games) based on the characters, and a theme park near Paris, [Astérix](Parc)(Parc Astérix). The very first French satellite, [Astérix](Astérix (satellite)), launched in 1965, was named after the character, whose name is close to Greek ἀστήρ and Latin astrum, meaning a "star". As of 20 April 2022, 385million copies of Asterix books had been sold worldwide and translated in 111 languages making it the world's most widely translated comic book series, with co-creators René Goscinny and Albert Uderzo being France's best-selling authors abroad. In April 2022 Albert and René’s general director, Céleste Surugue, hosted a 45-minute talk entitled ‘The Next Incarnation of a Heritage Franchise: Asterix’ and spoke about the success of the Asterix franchise, of which he noted "The idea was to find a subject with a strong connection with French culture and, while looking at the country's history, they ended up choosing its first defeat, namely the Gaul's Roman colonisation". He also went on to say how since 1989 [Asterix](Parc)(Parc Asterix) has attracted an average of 2.3 million visitors per year. Other notable mentions were how the franchise includes 10 animated movies, which recorded over 53 million viewers worldwide. The inception of Studios Idefix in 1974 and the opening of Studio 58 in 2016 were among the necessary steps to make Asterix a "100% Gaulish production", considered the best solution to keep the creative process under control from start to finish and to employ French manpower. He also noted how a new album is now published every two years, with print figures of 5 million and an estimated readership of 20 million. ## History [[File:Evariste-Vital Luminais - Goths traversant une rivière.jpg\|thumb\|[Vital Luminais](Évariste)(Évariste Vital Luminais)' (1821–1896) paintings of Goths had been rather popular in France and are a possible model for the Asterix series.   ]] Prior to creating the Asterix series, Goscinny and Uderzo had had success with their series [Oumpah-pah](Oumpah-pah), which was published in [Tintin](Tintin (magazine)) magazine. Astérix was originally serialised in [Pilote](Pilote) magazine, debuting in the first issue on 29 October 1959. In 1961 the first book was put together, titled [the Gaul](Asterix)(Asterix the Gaul). From then on, books were released generally on a yearly basis. Their success was exponential; the first book sold 6,000 copies in its year of publication; a year later, the second sold 20,000. In 1963, the third sold 40,000; the fourth, released in 1964, sold 150,000. A year later, the fifth sold 300,000; 1966's Asterix and the Big Fight sold 400,000 upon initial publication. The ninth Asterix volume, when first released in 1967, sold 1.2 million copies in two days. Uderzo's first preliminary sketches portrayed Asterix as a huge and strong traditional Gaulish warrior. But Goscinny had a different picture in his mind, visualizing Asterix as a shrewd, compact warrior who would possess intelligence and wit more than raw strength. However, Uderzo felt that the downsized hero needed a strong but dim companion, to which Goscinny agreed. Hence, Obelix was born. Despite the growing popularity of Asterix with the readers, the financial backing for the publication Pilote ceased. Pilote was taken over by [Dargaud](Georges)(Dargaud). When Goscinny died in 1977, Uderzo continued the series by popular demand of the readers, who implored him to continue. He continued to issue new volumes of the series, but on a less frequent basis. Many critics and fans of the series prefer the earlier collaborations with Goscinny. Uderzo created his own publishing company, [Albert René](Éditions)(Éditions Albert René), which published every album drawn and written by Uderzo alone since then. However, [Dargaud](Dargaud), the initial publisher of the series, kept the publishing rights on the 24 first albums made by both Uderzo and Goscinny. In 1990, the Uderzo and Goscinny families decided to sue Dargaud to take over the rights. In 1998, after a long trial, Dargaud lost the rights to publish and sell the albums. Uderzo decided to sell these rights to Hachette instead of Albert-René, but the publishing rights on new albums were still owned by Albert Uderzo (40%), Sylvie Uderzo (20%) and Anne Goscinny (40%). In December 2008, Uderzo sold his stake to Hachette, which took over the company.Lezard, Nicholas (16 January 2009), [Asterix has sold out to the Empire](https://www.theguardian.com/books/booksblog/2009/jan/16/asterix-sylvie-uderzo-le-monde) ," [Guardian](The)(The Guardian) (retrieved 21 June 2016) In a letter published in the French newspaper [Monde](Le)(Le Monde) in 2009, Uderzo's daughter, Sylvie, attacked her father's decision to sell the family publishing firm and the rights to produce new Astérix adventures after his death. She said: ... the co-creator of Astérix, France's comic strip hero, has betrayed the Gaulish warrior to the modern-day Romans – the men of industry and finance. However, René Goscinny's daughter, Anne, also gave her agreement to the continuation of the series and sold her rights at the same time. She is reported to have said that "Asterix has already had two lives: one during my father's lifetime and one after it. Why not a third?". A few months later, Uderzo appointed three illustrators, who had been his assistants for many years, to continue the series. In 2011, Uderzo announced that a new Asterix album was due out in 2013, with [Ferri](Jean-Yves)(Jean-Yves Ferri) writing the story and [Mébarki](Frédéric)(Frédéric Mébarki) drawing it. A year later, in 2012, the publisher Albert-René announced that Frédéric Mébarki had withdrawn from drawing the new album, due to the pressure he felt in following in the steps of Uderzo. Comic artist [Conrad](Didier)(Didier Conrad) was officially announced to take over drawing duties from Mébarki, with the due date of the new album in 2013 unchanged. In January 2015, after the [murders](Charlie Hebdo shooting) of seven cartoonists at the satirical Paris weekly [Hebdo](Charlie)(Charlie Hebdo), Astérix creator Albert Uderzo came out of retirement to draw two Astérix pictures honouring the memories of the victims. ## List of titles Numbers 1–24, 32 and 34 are by Goscinny and Uderzo. Numbers 25–31 and 33 are by Uderzo alone. Numbers 35–39 are by [Ferri](Jean-Yves)(Jean-Yves Ferri) and [Conrad](Didier)(Didier Conrad). Years stated are for their initial [album](Comic albums) release. # [the Gaul](Asterix)(Asterix the Gaul) (1961) # [and the Golden Sickle](Asterix)(Asterix and the Golden Sickle) (1962) # [and the Goths](Asterix)(Asterix and the Goths) (1963) # [the Gladiator](Asterix)(Asterix the Gladiator) (1964) # [and the Banquet](Asterix)(Asterix and the Banquet) (1965) # [and Cleopatra](Asterix)(Asterix and Cleopatra) (1965) # [and the Big Fight](Asterix)(Asterix and the Big Fight) (1966) # [in Britain](Asterix)(Asterix in Britain) (1966) # [and the Normans](Asterix)(Asterix and the Normans) (1966) # [the Legionary](Asterix)(Asterix the Legionary) (1967) # ''[and the Chieftain's Shield](Asterix)(Asterix and the Chieftain's Shield)* (1968) # [at the Olympic Games](Asterix)(Asterix at the Olympic Games) (1968) # [and the Cauldron](Asterix)(Asterix and the Cauldron) (1969) # [in Spain](Asterix)(Asterix in Spain) (1969) # [and the Roman Agent](Asterix)(Asterix and the Roman Agent) (1970) # [in Switzerland](Asterix)(Asterix in Switzerland) (1970) # [Mansions of the Gods](The)(The Mansions of the Gods) (1971) # [and the Laurel Wreath](Asterix)(Asterix and the Laurel Wreath) (1972) # [and the Soothsayer](Asterix)(Asterix and the Soothsayer) (1972) # [in Corsica](Asterix)(Asterix in Corsica) (1973) # [and Caesar's Gift](Asterix)(Asterix and Caesar's Gift) (1974) # [and the Great Crossing](Asterix)(Asterix and the Great Crossing) (1975) # [and Co.](Obelix)(Obelix and Co.) (1976) # [in Belgium](Asterix)(Asterix in Belgium) (1979) # [and the Great Divide](Asterix)(Asterix and the Great Divide) (1980) # [and the Black Gold](Asterix)(Asterix and the Black Gold) (1981) # [and Son](Asterix)(Asterix and Son) (1983) # [and the Magic Carpet](Asterix)(Asterix and the Magic Carpet) (1987) # [and the Secret Weapon](Asterix)(Asterix and the Secret Weapon) (1991) # [and Obelix All at Sea](Asterix)(Asterix and Obelix All at Sea) (1996) # [and the Actress](Asterix)(Asterix and the Actress) (2001) # [and the Class Act](Asterix)(Asterix and the Class Act) (2003) # [and the Falling Sky](Asterix)(Asterix and the Falling Sky) (2005) # [and Obelix's Birthday: The Golden Book](Asterix)(Asterix and Obelix's Birthday: The Golden Book)'' (2009) # [and the Picts](Asterix)(Asterix and the Picts)* (2013) # [and the Missing Scroll](Asterix)(Asterix and the Missing Scroll) (2015) # [and the Chariot Race](Asterix)(Asterix and the Chariot Race) (2017) # ''[and the Chieftain's Daughter](Asterix)(Asterix and the Chieftain's Daughter)* (2019) # [and the Griffin](Asterix)(Asterix and the Griffin) (2021) # Asterix and the White Iris (2023) Non-canonical volumes: * [Conquers Rome](Asterix)(Asterix Conquers Rome), to be the 23rd volume, before Obelix and Co. (1976) - comic ** [Obelix Fell into the Magic Potion When he was a Little Boy](How)(How Obelix Fell into the Magic Potion When he was a Little Boy) (1989) - special issue album ** Uderzo Croqué par ses Amis (Uderzo sketched by his friends) (1996) - tribute album by various artists ** [Twelve Tasks of Asterix](The)(The Twelve Tasks of Asterix) (2016) - special issue album, illustrated text [Conquers Rome](Asterix)(Asterix Conquers Rome) is a comics adaptation of the animated film [Twelve Tasks of Asterix](The)(The Twelve Tasks of Asterix). It was released in 1976 and was the 23rd volume to be published, but it has been rarely reprinted and is not considered to be [canonical](canon (fiction)) to the series. The only English translations ever to be published were in the [Annual 1980](Asterix)(Asterix Annual 1980) and never an English standalone volume. A picture-book version of the same story was published in English translation as The Twelve Tasks of Asterix by Hodder & Stoughton in 1978. In 1996, a tribute album in honour of Albert Uderzo was released titled Uderzo Croqué par ses Amis, a volume containing 21 short stories with Uderzo in Ancient Gaul. This volume was published by [Productions](Soleil)(Soleil Productions) and has not been translated into English. In 2007, Éditions Albert René released a tribute volume titled [et ses Amis](Astérix)(Astérix et ses Amis), a 60-page volume of one-to-four-page short stories. It was a tribute to Albert Uderzo on his 80th birthday by 34 European cartoonists. The volume was translated into nine languages. , it has not been translated into English. In 2016, the French publisher Hachette, along with Anne Goscinny and Albert Uderzo decided to make the special issue album The XII Tasks of Asterix for the 40th anniversary of the film The Twelve Tasks of Asterix''. There was no English edition. ## Synopsis and characters The main setting for the series is an unnamed coastal village, rumoured to be inspired by [Erquy](Erquy) in [Armorica](Armorica) (present-day [Brittany](Brittany)), a province of [Gaul](Gaul) (modern France), in the year 50 BC. Julius Caesar has conquered nearly all of Gaul for the Roman Empire during the [Wars](Gallic)(Gallic Wars). The little Armorican village, however, has held out because the villagers can gain temporary superhuman strength by drinking a [potion](magic)(Potion) brewed by the local village druid, [Getafix](Getafix). His chief is [Vitalstatistix](Vitalstatistix (character)). The main protagonist and hero of the village is [Asterix](Asterix (character)), who, because of his shrewdness, is usually entrusted with the most important affairs of the village. He is aided in his adventures by his rather corpulent and slower thinking friend, [Obelix](Obelix), who, because he fell into the druid's cauldron of the potion as a baby, has permanent superhuman strength (because of this, Getafix steadfastly refuses to allow Obelix to drink the potion, as doing so would have a dangerous and unpredictable result, as shown in [and Obelix All at Sea](Asterix)(Asterix and Obelix All at Sea)). Obelix is usually accompanied by [Dogmatix](List of Asterix characters#Dogmatix), his little dog. (Except for Asterix and Obelix, the names of the characters change with the language. For example, Obelix's dog's name is "Idéfix" in the original French edition.) Asterix and Obelix (and sometimes other members of the village) go on various adventures both within the village and in far away lands. Places visited in the series include parts of [Gaul](Gaul) ([Lutetia](Lutetia), [Corsica](Corsica) etc.), neighbouring nations ([Belgium](Belgium), [Spain](Spain), [Britain](United Kingdom), [Germany](Germany) etc.), and far away lands ([America](North)(North America), [East](Middle)(Middle East), [India](India) etc.). The series employs [science-fiction](science-fiction) and [fantasy](fantasy) elements in the more recent books; for instance, the use of [extraterrestrials](extraterrestrials) in [and the Falling Sky](Asterix)(Asterix and the Falling Sky)* and the city of [Atlantis](Atlantis) in [and Obelix All at Sea](Asterix)(Asterix and Obelix All at Sea). With rare exceptions, the ending of the albums usually shows a big banquet with the village's inhabitants gathering - the sole exception is the [bard](bard) [Cacofonix](Cacofonix) restrained and gagged to prevent him from singing (but in [and the Normans](Asterix)(Asterix and the Normans) the blacksmith Fulliautomatix was tied up). Mostly the banquets are held under the starry nights in the village, where roast boar is devoured and all (but one) are set about in merrymaking. However, there are a few exceptions, such as in [and Cleopatra](Asterix)(Asterix and Cleopatra). ## Humour The humour encountered in the Asterix comics often centers around [pun](pun)s, [caricature](caricature)s, and [tongue-in-cheek](tongue-in-cheek) [stereotype](stereotype)s of contemporary European nations and [regions](French)(List of regions in France). Much of the humour in the initial Asterix books was French-specific, which delayed the translation of the books into other languages for fear of losing the jokes and the spirit of the story. Some translations have actually added local humour: In the Italian translation, the Roman legionaries are made to speak in 20th-century Roman dialect, and Obelix's famous Ils sont fous, ces Romains ("These Romans are crazy") is translated properly as Sono pazzi questi romani, humorously alluding to the Roman abbreviation [SPQR](SPQR). In another example: [Hiccups](Hiccups) are written [onomatopoeically](onomatopoeia) in French as hips, but in English as "hic", allowing Roman legionaries in more than one of the English translations to [decline](declension) their hiccups absurdly in Latin (hic, haec, hoc). The newer albums share a more universal humour, both written and visual. ### Character names All the fictional characters in Asterix have names which are puns on their roles or personalities, and which follow certain patterns specific to nationality. Certain rules are followed (most of the time) such as Gauls (and their neighbours) having an "-ix" suffix for the men and ending in "-a" for the women; for example, Chief [Vitalstatistix](Vitalstatistix (character)) (so called due to his portly stature) and his wife [Impedimenta](Impedimenta) (often at odds with the chief). The male Roman names end in "-us", echoing Latin nominative male singular form, as in [Maximus](Gluteus)(List of Asterix characters#Romans), a muscle-bound athlete whose name is literally the [butt](gluteus maximus) of the joke. Gothic names (present-day Germany) end in "-ic", after Gothic chiefs such as [Alaric](Alaric I) and [Theoderic](Theoderic); for example [Rhetoric](Rhetoric) the interpreter. Greek names end in "-os" or "-es"; for example, [Thermos](Thermos) the restaurateur. British names usually end in "-ax" or "-os" and are often puns on the [taxation](Taxation in the United Kingdom) associated with the later [Kingdom](United)(United Kingdom); examples include Mykingdomforanos, a British tribal chieftain, [Valuaddedtax](Value added tax) the druid, and [Selectivemploymentax](Selective employment tax) the mercenary. Names of Normans end with "-af", for example Nescaf or Cenotaf. Egyptian characters often end in -is, such as the architects Edifis and Artifis, and the scribe Exlibris. Indic names, apart from the only Indic female characters Orinjade and Lemuhnade, exhibit considerable variation; examples include Watziznehm, Watzit, Owzat, and Howdoo. Other nationalities are treated to [pidgin](pidgin) translations from their language, like Huevos y Bacon, a Spanish chieftain (whose name, meaning [and bacon](eggs)(wikt:eggs and bacon), is often guidebook Spanish for tourists), or literary and other popular media references, like [Dubbelosix](List of Asterix characters#Caricatures) (a sly reference to [Bond](James)(James Bond)'s codename "007"). Most of these jokes, and hence the names of the characters, are specific to the translation; for example, the druid named [Getafix](Getafix) in English translation - "get a fix", referring to the character's role in dispensing the [potion](magic)(Potion) - is Panoramix in the original French and Miraculix in German. Even so, occasionally the wordplay has been preserved: Obelix's dog, known in the original French as Idéfix (from [fixe](idée)(Idée fixe (psychology)), a "fixed idea" or obsession), is called Dogmatix in English, which not only renders the original meaning strikingly closely ("dogmatic") but in fact adds another layer of wordplay with the syllable "Dog-" at the beginning of the name. The name Asterix, [French](French language) Astérix, comes from , meaning "[asterisk](asterisk)", which is the typographical symbol *** indicating a footnote, from the Greek word ἀστήρ (aster), meaning a "star". His name is usually left unchanged in translations, aside from accents and the use of local [alphabet](alphabet)s. For example, in [Esperanto](Esperanto), [Polish](Polish language), [Slovene](Slovene language), [Latvian](Latvian language), and [Turkish](Turkish language) it is Asteriks (in Turkish he was first named Bücür meaning "shorty", but the name was then standardised). Two exceptions include [Icelandic](Icelandic language), in which he is known as Ástríkur ("Rich of love"), and [Sinhala](Sinhala language), where he is known as (Soora Pappa), which can be interpreted as "[Hero](Hero)". The name Obelix (Obélix) may refer to "[obelisk](obelisk)", a stone column from ancient Egypt, but also to another typographical symbol, the [or obelus](obelisk)(Dagger (mark)) (). For explanations of some of the other names, see [of Asterix characters](List)(List of Asterix characters). ### Ethnic stereotypes Many of the Asterix adventures take place in other countries away from their homeland in Gaul. In every album that takes place abroad, the characters meet (usually modern-day) stereotypes for each country, as seen by the French. * Italics (Italians) are the inhabitants of Italy. In the adventures of Asterix, the term "Romans" is used by non-Italics to refer to all inhabitants of Italy, who at that time had extended their dominion over a large part of the Mediterranean basin. But as can be seen in [and the Chariot Race](Asterix)(Asterix and the Chariot Race), in the Italic peninsula this term is used only to refer to the people from the capital, with many Italics preferring to identify themselves as Umbrians, Etruscans, Venetians, etc. Various topics from this country are explored, as in this example, Italian gastronomy (pasta, pizza, wine), art, famous people (Pavarotti, Berlusconi, Mona Lisa), and even the controversial issue of political corruption.Romans in general appear more similar to the historical Romans, than to modern-age Italians. * Goths (Germans) are disciplined and militaristic, they are composed of many factions that fight amongst each other (which is a reference to Germany before [von Bismarck](Otto)(Otto von Bismarck), and to East and West Germany after the Second World War), and they wear the [Pickelhaube](Pickelhaube) helmet common during the [Empire](German)(German Empire). In later appearances, the Goths tend to be more good-natured. * Helvetians (Swiss) are neutral, eat [fondue](fondue), and are obsessed with cleaning, accurate time-keeping, and banks. * The Britons (English) are [phlegmatic](phlegmatic), and speak with early 20th-century aristocratic slang (similar to [Wooster](Bertie)(Bertie Wooster)). They stop for [tea](tea (drink)) every day (making it with hot water and a drop of milk until Asterix brings them actual [tea](tea) leaves), drink lukewarm beer ([Bitter](Bitter (beer))), eat tasteless foods with mint sauce ([Rosbif](Rosbif)), and live in streets containing rows of identical houses. In Asterix and Obelix: God Save Britannia the Britons all wore woollen pullovers and [o' shanters](Tam)(Tam o' shanter (cap)). * Hibernians (Irish) inhabit Hibernia, the Latin name of Ireland and they fight against the Romans alongside the Britons to defend the British Isles. * Iberians (Spanish) are filled with [pride](pride) and have rather choleric tempers. They produce [oil](olive)(olive oil), provide very slow aid for chariot problems on the Roman roads and (thanks to Asterix) adopt [bullfighting](bullfighting) as a tradition. * When the Gauls visited North America in [and the Great Crossing](Asterix)(Asterix and the Great Crossing), Obelix punches one of the attacking [Americans](Native)(Indigenous peoples of the Americas) with a [knockout](knockout) blow. The warrior first hallucinates [emblematic eagles](American-style)(American eagle); the second time, he sees stars in the formation of the [and Stripes](Stars)(Flag of the United States); the third time, he sees stars shaped like the [States Air Force roundel](United)(United States military aircraft national insignia). Asterix's inspired idea for getting the attention of a [Viking ship](nearby)(L'Anse aux Meadows) (which could take them back to Gaul) is to hold up a torch; this refers to the [of Liberty](Statue)(Statue of Liberty) (which was a gift from France). * Corsicans are proud, patriotic, and easily aroused but lazy, making decisions by using [pre-filled](political corruption) [box](ballot)(ballot box)es. They harbour [vendettas](Feud) against each other, and always take their [siesta](siesta). * Greeks are [chauvinists](chauvinism) and consider Romans, Gauls, and all others to be [barbarians](barbarians). They eat stuffed grape leaves ([dolma](dolma)), drink resinated wine ([retsina](retsina)), and are [to tourists](hospitable)(tourism in Greece). Most seem to be related by blood, and often [some cousin](suggest)(nepotism) appropriate for a job. Greek characters are often depicted in side profile, making them resemble figures from classical Greek vase paintings. * Normans ([Vikings](Vikings)) drink endlessly, they always use [cream](cream) in their cuisine, they don't know what fear is (which they're trying to discover), and in their home territory ([Scandinavia](Scandinavia)), the night lasts for 6 months.Their depiction in the albums is a mix of stereotypes of Swedish Vikings and the [French](Norman)(Normans). * [Cimbres](Cimbri) (Danes) are very similar to the Normans with the greatest difference being that the Gauls are unable to communicate with them. Their names end in "-sen", a common ending of surnames in Denmark and Norway akin to "-son". * Belgians speak with a funny accent, snub the Gauls, and always eat [roots deep-fried in bear fat](sliced)(French fries). They also tell [joke](Belgian)(Belgian joke)s. * Lusitanians (Portuguese) are short in stature and polite (Uderzo said all the Portuguese who he had met were like that). * The Indians have elephant trainers, as well as gurus who can fast for weeks and levitate on [carpet](magic)(magic carpet)s. They worship thirty-three million deities and consider cows as sacred. They also bathe in the [Ganges](Ganges) river. * Egyptians are short with prominent noses, endlessly engaged in building pyramids and palaces. Their favorite food is [soup](lentil)(lentil soup) and they sail [felucca](felucca)s along the banks of the [River](Nile)(Nile River). * Persians (Iranians) produce [carpets](carpets) and staunchly refuse to mend foreign ones. They eat [caviar](caviar), as well as roasted camel and the women wear [burqas](burqas). * [Hittites](Hittites), [Sumer](Sumer)ians, [Akkadians](Akkadian Empire), [Assyrians](Assyrian people), and [Babylonia](Babylonia)ns are perpetually at war with each other and attack strangers because they confuse them with their enemies, but they later apologize when they realize that the strangers are not their enemies. This is likely a criticism of the constant conflicts among the Middle Eastern peoples. * The Jews are all depicted as [Jews](Yemenite)(Yemenite Jews), with dark skin, black eyes, and beards, a tribute to [Chagall](Marc)(Marc Chagall), the famous painter whose painting of [David](King)(King David) hangs at the [Knesset](Knesset) (Israeli Parliament). * [Numidian](Numidian)s, contrary to the [Berber](Berbers) inhabitants of ancient Numidia (located in North Africa), are obviously Africans from [Africa](sub-Saharan)(sub-Saharan Africa). The names end in "-tha", similar to the historical king [Jugurtha](Jugurtha) of Numidia. * The Picts (Scots) wear a typical dress with a [kilt](kilt) (skirt), have the habit of drinking "malt water" ([whisky](whisky)) and throwing logs ([toss](caber)(caber toss)ing) as a popular sport and their names all start with "Mac-". * Sarmatians (Ukrainians), inhabit the North [Sea](Black)(Black Sea) area, which represents present-day Ukraine. Their names end in "-ov", like many Ukrainian surnames. When the Gauls see foreigners speaking their foreign languages, these have different representations in the cartoon [bubble](speech)(speech bubble)s: Iberian: Same as Spanish, with inversion of exclamation marks ('¡') and question marks ("¿") Goth language: Gothic script (incomprehensible to the Gauls, except Getafix, who speaks Gothic) Viking (Normans and Cimbres): "Ø" and "Å" instead of "O" and "A" (incomprehensible to the Gauls) Amerindian: Pictograms and sign language (generally incomprehensible to the Gauls) Egyptians and Kushites: [Hieroglyphs](Hieroglyphs) with explanatory footnotes (incomprehensible to the Gauls) Greek: Straight letters, carved as if in stone Sarmatian: In their speech balloons, some letters (E, F, N, R ...) are written in a mirror-reversed form, which evokes the modern [alphabet](Cyrillic)(Cyrillic alphabet). ## Translations The various volumes have been translated into more than 100 languages and dialects. Besides the original French language, most albums are available in Bengali, Estonian, English, Czech, Dutch, German, Galician, Danish, Icelandic, Norwegian, Swedish, Finnish, Spanish, Catalan, Basque, Portuguese, Italian, Greek, Hungarian, Polish, Romanian, Turkish, Slovene, Bulgarian, Serbian, Croatian, Latvian, Welsh, and also in Latin. Some books have also been translated into languages including Esperanto, Scottish Gaelic, Irish, Scots, Indonesian, Persian, Mandarin, Korean, Japanese, Bengali, Afrikaans, Arabic, Hindi, Hebrew, Frisian, Romansch, Vietnamese, Sinhala, Ancient Greek, and Luxembourgish. In Europe, several volumes were translated into a variety of regional [language](language)s and [dialect](dialect)s, such as [Alsatian](Alsatian language), [Breton](Breton language), Chtimi ([Picard](Picard language)), and [Corsican](Corsican language) in France; [Bavarian](Austro-Bavarian language), [Swabian](Swabian German), and [German](Low)(Low German) in Germany; and [Savo](Savonian dialects), [Karelia](Karelia), [Rauma](Rauma, Finland), and [slang](Helsinki)(Helsinki slang) dialects in Finland. In Portugal a special edition of the first volume, [the Gaul](Asterix)(Asterix the Gaul), was translated into local language [Mirandese](Mirandese). In Greece, a number of volumes have appeared in the [Greek](Cretan)(Cretan Greek), [Greek](Cypriot)(Cypriot Greek), and [Greek](Pontic)(Pontic Greek) dialects. In the Italian version, while the Gauls speak standard Italian, the legionaries speak in the [Romanesque](Romanesco dialect) dialect. In the former Yugoslavia, the "Forum" publishing house translated Corsican text in [in Corsica](Asterix)(Asterix in Corsica)* into the Montenegrin dialect of [Serbo-Croatian](Serbo-Croatian) (today called [Montenegrin](Montenegrin language)). In the Netherlands, several volumes were translated into [Frisian](West)(West Frisian language), a Germanic language spoken in the province of [Friesland](Friesland); into [Limburgish](Limburgish language), a regional language spoken not only in [Limburg](Dutch)(Limburg (Netherlands)) but also in [Limburg](Belgian)(Limburg (Belgium)) and [Rhine-Westphalia, Germany](North)(North Rhine-Westphalia); and into [Tweants](Tweants dialect), a dialect in the region of [Twente](Twente) in the eastern province of [Overijssel](Overijssel). Hungarian-language books were published in [Yugoslavia](Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia) for the [Hungarian](Magyars) minority living in [Serbia](Serbia). Although not translated into a fully autonomous dialect, the books differ slightly from the language of the books issued in Hungary. In [Lanka](Sri)(Sri Lanka), the cartoon series was adapted into [Sinhala](Sinhala language) as Sura Pappa. Most volumes have been translated into [Latin](Latin) and [Greek](Ancient)(Attic Greek), with accompanying teachers' guides, as a way of teaching these ancient languages. ### English translation Before Asterix became famous, translations of some strips were published in British comics including Valiant, Ranger, and Look & Learn, under names Little Fred and Big Ed and Beric the Bold, set in Roman-occupied Britain. These were included in an exhibition on Goscinny's life and career, and Asterix, in London's Jewish Museum in 2018. In 1970 [Morrow](William)(William Morrow and Company) published English translations in hardback of three Asterix albums for the American market. These were [the Gaul](Asterix)(Asterix the Gaul), [and Cleopatra](Asterix)(Asterix and Cleopatra) and [the Legionary](Asterix)(Asterix the Legionary). Lawrence Hughes in a letter to [New York Times](The)(The New York Times) stated, "Sales were modest, with the third title selling half the number of the first. I was publisher at the time, and [Cosby](Bill)(Bill Cosby) tried to buy film and television rights. When that fell through, we gave up the series." Asterix in America (Published 1996) \|website=[New York Times](The)(The New York Times) \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230604051741/https://www.nytimes.com/1996/10/24/opinion/l-asterix-in-america-950513.html \|archive-date=2023-06-04 \|url-status=live \|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1996/10/24/opinion/l-asterix-in-america-950513.html}} The first 33 Asterix albums were translated into English by [Bell](Anthea)(Anthea Bell) and [Hockridge](Derek)(Derek Hockridge) (including the three volumes reprinted by William Morrow),[Library of Congress catalog record for first William Morrow volume](https://catalog.loc.gov/vwebv/holdingsInfo?searchId=4799&recCount=25&recPointer=1&bibId=2680665) who were widely praised for maintaining the spirit and humour of the original French versions. Hockridge died in 2013, so Bell translated books 34 to 36 by herself, before retiring in 2016 for health reasons. She died in 2018. [Hunter](Adriana)(Adriana Hunter) became translator. US publisher [Papercutz](Papercutz (publisher)) in December 2019 announced it would begin publishing "all-new more American translations" of the Asterix books, starting on 19 May 2020. The launch was postponed to 15 July 2020 as a result of the [COVID-19](COVID-19) pandemic. The new translator is Joe Johnson, a professor of French and Spanish at [State University](Clayton)(Clayton State University). ## Adaptations The series has been adapted into various media. There are 18 films, 15 board games, 40 video games, and 1 theme park. ### Films * Deux Romains en Gaule, 1967 black and white television film, mixed media, live-action with Asterix and Obelix animated. Released on DVD in 2002. * [the Gaul](Asterix)(Asterix the Gaul (film)), 1967, animated, based on the album [the Gaul](Asterix)(Asterix the Gaul). * Asterix and the Golden Sickle, 1967, animated, based upon the album [and the Golden Sickle](Asterix)(Asterix and the Golden Sickle), incomplete and never released. * [and Cleopatra](Asterix)(Asterix and Cleopatra (film)), 1968, animated, based on the album [and Cleopatra](Asterix)(Asterix and Cleopatra). * The Dogmatix Movie, 1973, animated, a unique story based on Dogmatix and his animal friends, Albert Uderzo created a comic version (consisting of eight comics, as the film is a combination of 8 different stories) of the never-released movie in 2003. * [Twelve Tasks of Asterix](The)(The Twelve Tasks of Asterix), 1976, animated, a unique story not based on an existing comic. * [Versus Caesar](Asterix)(Asterix Versus Caesar), 1985, animated, based on both [the Legionary](Asterix)(Asterix the Legionary) and [the Gladiator](Asterix)(Asterix the Gladiator). * [in Britain](Asterix)(Asterix in Britain (film)), 1986, animated, based upon the album [in Britain](Asterix)(Asterix in Britain). * [and the Big Fight](Asterix)(Asterix and the Big Fight (film)), 1989, animated, based on both [and the Big Fight](Asterix)(Asterix and the Big Fight) and [and the Soothsayer](Asterix)(Asterix and the Soothsayer). * [Conquers America](Asterix)(Asterix Conquers America), 1994, animated, loosely based upon the album [and the Great Crossing](Asterix)(Asterix and the Great Crossing). * [and Obelix vs. Caesar](Asterix)(Asterix and Obelix vs. Caesar), 1999, live-action, based primarily upon [the Gaul](Asterix)(Asterix the Gaul), [and the Soothsayer](Asterix)(Asterix and the Soothsayer), [and the Goths](Asterix)(Asterix and the Goths), [the Legionary](Asterix)(Asterix the Legionary), and [the Gladiator](Asterix)(Asterix the Gladiator). * [& Obelix: Mission Cleopatra](Asterix)(Asterix & Obelix: Mission Cleopatra), 2002, live-action, based upon the album [and Cleopatra](Asterix)(Asterix and Cleopatra). * Asterix and Obelix in Spain, 2004, live-action, based upon the album [in Spain](Asterix)(Asterix in Spain), incomplete and never released because of disagreement with the team behind the movie and the creator of the comics. * [and the Vikings](Asterix)(Asterix and the Vikings), 2006, animated, loosely based upon the album [and the Normans](Asterix)(Asterix and the Normans). * [at the Olympic Games](Asterix)(Asterix at the Olympic Games (film)), 2008, live-action, loosely based upon the album [at the Olympic Games](Asterix)(Asterix at the Olympic Games). * [and Obelix: God Save Britannia](Asterix)(Asterix and Obelix: God Save Britannia), 2012, live-action, loosely based upon the album [in Britain](Asterix)(Asterix in Britain) and [and the Normans](Asterix)(Asterix and the Normans). * [The Mansions of the Gods](Asterix:)(Asterix: The Mansions of the Gods), 2014, computer-animated, based upon the album [Mansions of the Gods](The)(The Mansions of the Gods) and is the first animated Asterix movie in stereoscopic 3D. * [The Secret of the Magic Potion](Asterix:)(Asterix: The Secret of the Magic Potion), 2018, computer-animated, original story. * [& Obelix: The Middle Kingdom](Asterix)(Asterix & Obelix: The Middle Kingdom), 2023, live-action, original story ### Television series On 17 November, 2018, a 52 eleven-minute episode [computer-animated](Computer animation) series centred around [Dogmatix](Dogmatix) was announced to be in production by Studio 58 and [Futurikon](Futurikon) for broadcast on [Télévisions](France)(France Télévisions) in 2020. On 21 December, 2020, it was confirmed that Dogmatix and the Indomitables had been pushed back to fall 2021, with o2o Studio producing the animation. The show is distributed globally by [Distribution](LS)(Mediawan). The series premiered on the Okoo streaming service on 2 July before beginning its linear broadcast on [4](France)(France 4) on 28 August 2021. [[official Netflix announcement poster](File:Official_Netflix_announcement_poster_for_Asterix_series.jpg\|thumb\|left\|The)] On 3 March, 2021, it was announced that Asterix the Gaul is to star in a new [Netflix](Netflix) animated series directed by [Chabat](Alain)(Alain Chabat). The series will be adapted from one of the classic volumes, [and the Big Fight](Asterix)(Asterix and the Big Fight), where the Romans, after being constantly embarrassed by Asterix and his village cohorts, organize a brawl between rival Gaulish chiefs and try to fix the result by kidnapping a druid along with his much-needed magic potion. The series will debut in 2023. The series will be CG-Animated. ### Games Many [gamebook](gamebook)s, [game](board)(board game)s and [game](video)(video game)s are based upon the Asterix series. In particular, many video games were released by various computer game publishers. ### Theme park [Astérix](Parc)(Parc Astérix), a theme park 22 miles north of Paris, based upon the series, was opened in 1989. It is one of the most visited sites in France, with around 2.3  million visitors per year. ## Influence in popular culture [[File:Asterixchips.JPG\|thumb\|upright\|Asterix ham and cheese-flavored [chip](potato)(potato chip)s]] The first French satellite, which was launched in 1965, was named [Astérix-1](Astérix (satellite))* in honour of Asterix.Imanuel Marcus: [Asterix: The European Comic Character with a Personality](https://berlinspectator.com/2019/10/08/asterix-the-european-comic-character-with-a-personality/). The Berlin Spectator, 9 October 2019 Asteroids [Asterix](29401)(29401 Asterix) and [Obelix](29402)(29402 Obelix) were also named in honour of the characters. Coincidentally, the word Asterix/Asterisk originates from the Greek for Little Star. During the campaign for Paris to host the [Summer Olympics](1992)(1992 Summer Olympics), Asterix appeared in many posters over the [Tower](Eiffel)(Eiffel Tower). The French company [Belin](Kraft Foods) introduced a series of Asterix [crisps](crisps) shaped in the forms of [shields](Roman)(scutum (shield)), [gourd](gourd)s, [boar](wild)(wild boar), and [bone](bone)s. * In the UK in 1995, Asterix coins were presented free in every [Nutella](Nutella) jar. * In 1991, Asterix and Obelix appeared on the cover of [Time](Time (magazine)) for a special edition about France, art directed by [Ilic](Mirko)(Mirko Ilić). In a 2009 issue of the same magazine, Asterix is described as being seen by some as a symbol for France's independence and defiance of globalisation. Despite this, Asterix has made several promotional appearances for fast food chain McDonald's, including one advertisement which featured members of the village enjoying the traditional story-ending feast at a McDonald's restaurant. * Version 4.0 of the operating system [OpenBSD](OpenBSD) features a parody of an Asterix story. * [Comics](Action)(Action Comics) Issue #579, published by [Comics](DC)(DC Comics) in 1986, written by [Lofficier](Jean-Marc Lofficier) and Illustrated by [Giffen](Keith)(Keith Giffen), featured a homage to Asterix where [Superman](Superman) and [Olsen](Jimmy)(Jimmy Olsen) are drawn back in time to a small village of indomitable Gauls. * In 2005, the Mirror World Asterix exhibition was held in [Brussels](Brussels). The Belgian post office also released a set of stamps to coincide with the exhibition. A book was released to coincide with the exhibition, containing sections in French, Dutch and English. * On 29 October 2009, the Google homepage of a great number of countries displayed a [logo](Google logo) (called [Doodle](Google)(Google Doodle)) commemorating 50 years of Asterix. * Although they have since changed, the #2 and #3 heralds in the [for Creative Anachronism](Society)(Society for Creative Anachronism)'s Kingdom of Ansteorra were the Asterisk and Obelisk Heralds. * Asterix and Obelix were the official mascots of the [Ice Hockey World Championships](2017)(2017 IIHF World Championship), jointly hosted by France and Germany. * In 2019, France issued a commemorative €2 coin to celebrate the 60th anniversary of Asterix. * The [Canadian Navy](Royal)(Royal Canadian Navy) has a supply vessel named [Asterix](MV)(MV Asterix). A second Resolve-Class ship, to have been named MV Obelix, was cancelled. * Asterix, Obelix and Vitalstatistix appear in [Gonick](Larry)(Larry Gonick)'s [Cartoon History of the Universe](The)(The Cartoon History of the Universe) volume 2, especially in the depiction of the Gallic invasion of Italy (390 – 387 BCE). In the final panel of that sequence, as they trudge off into the sunset, Obelix says "Come on, Asterix! Let's get our own comic book." ## See also [of Asterix* characters](List)(List of Asterix characters) [dessinée](Bande)(Bande dessinée) [translations of Asterix](English)(English translations of Asterix) [of Asterix* games](List)(List of Asterix games) [of Asterix* volumes](List)(List of Asterix volumes) [i Kokosz](Kajko)(Kajko i Kokosz) [Potion](Potion) [Gaul](Roman)(Roman Gaul), after Julius Caesar's conquest of 58–51 BC that consisted of five provinces [de Bello Gallico](Commentarii)(Commentarii de Bello Gallico) ## References ## Sources [Astérix* publications in Pilote](http://bdoubliees.com/journalpilote/series1/asterix.htm) BDoubliées [Astérix* albums](http://www.bedetheque.com/serie-59-BD-Asterix.html) Bedetheque ## Relevant literature * - This is Chapter #16, in Part III: Translations, Transformations, Migrations Tosina Fernández, Luis J. “Creatividad paremiológica en las traducciones al castellano de Astérix”. Proverbium* vol. 38, 2021, pp. 361-376. [Proverbiium PDF](https://hrcak.srce.hr/file/401827) Tosina Fernández, Luis J. “Paremiological Creativity and Visual Representation of Proverbs: An Analysis of the Use of Proverbs in the Adventures of Asterix the Gaul”. Proceedings of the Fourteenth Interdisciplinary Colloquium on Proverbs, 2nd to 8th November 2020, at Tavira, Portugal, edited by Rui J.B. Soares and Outi Lauhakangas, Tavira: Tipografia Tavirense, 2021, pp. 256-277. ## External links [Official site](http://www.asterix.com/en) [Asterix the Gaul](https://www.webcitation.org/66jm7lLVB?url=http://toonopedia.com/asterix.htm) at [Markstein's Toonopedia](Don)(Don Markstein's Toonopedia), from the original on 6 April 2012. [Asterix around the World – The many languages](http://www.asterix-obelix.nl/) [Alea Jacta Est (Asterix* for grown-ups)](https://web.archive.org/web/20051119024530/http://www.gthomas.pwp.blueyonder.co.uk/) Each Asterix book is examined in detail [Les allusions culturelles dans Astérix](http://www.mage.fst.uha.fr/asterix/allusion/allusion.html) - Cultural allusions [The Asterix Annotations](https://web.archive.org/web/20050204014231/http://openscroll.org/asterix/) – album-by-album explanations of all the historical references and obscure in-jokes [ ](Category:Asterix) [comic strips](Category:French)(Category:French comic strips) [titles](Category:Pilote)(Category:Pilote titles) [titles](Category:Dargaud)(Category:Dargaud titles) [history comics](Category:Alternate)(Category:Alternate history comics) [SCA franchises](Category:Lagardère)(Category:Lagardère SCA franchises) [comics](Category:Satirical)(Category:Satirical comics) [franchises](Category:Comic)(Category:Comic franchises) [comics](Category:Fantasy)(Category:Fantasy comics) [comics](Category:Historical)(Category:Historical comics) [comics](Category:Humor)(Category:Humor comics) [comics](Category:Pirate)(Category:Pirate comics) [comics debuts](Category:1959)(Category:1959 comics debuts) [set in Roman Gaul](Category:Fiction)(Category:Fiction set in Roman Gaul) [set in ancient Rome](Category:Comics)(Category:Comics set in ancient Rome) [set in France](Category:Comics)(Category:Comics set in France) [set in Brittany](Category:Comics)(Category:Comics set in Brittany) [set in the 1st century BC](Category:Comics)(Category:Comics set in the 1st century BC) [comics adapted into films](Category:French)(Category:French comics adapted into films) [adapted into animated films](Category:Comics)(Category:Comics adapted into animated films) [adapted into animated series](Category:Comics)(Category:Comics adapted into animated series) [adapted into video games](Category:Comics)(Category:Comics adapted into video games) [establishments in France](Category:1959)(Category:1959 establishments in France) [about rebels](Category:Works)(Category:Works about rebels) [about rebellions](Category:Works)(Category:Works about rebellions) [about rebellions](Category:Fiction)(Category:Fiction about rebellions) [Lugdunensis](Category:Gallia)(Category:Gallia Lugdunensis) [by Albert Uderzo](Category:Comics)(Category:Comics by Albert Uderzo) [Category:Armorica](Category:Armorica)
Sisyphus	sisyphus	# Sisyphus Revision ID: 1158265512 \| Timestamp: 2023-06-03T00:13:50Z --- [[File:Nekyia Staatliche Antikensammlungen 1494 n2.jpg\|thumb\|alt=Sisyphus depicted on a black-figure amphora vase \|[Persephone](Persephone) supervising Sisyphus in the [Underworld](Greek underworld), Attic [black-figure](Black-figure pottery) amphora, BC, [Antikensammlungen](Staatliche)(Staatliche Antikensammlungen)museum 1494]] In [mythology](Greek)(Greek mythology), Sisyphus or Sisyphos (; [Greek](Ancient)(Ancient Greek): Σίσυφος Sísyphos) was the founder and king of [Ephyra](Ancient Corinth) (now known as [Corinth](Corinth)). [Hades](Hades) punished him for cheating death twice by forcing him to roll an immense boulder up a hill only for it to roll back down every time it neared the top, repeating this action for [eternity](eternity). Through the [influence](classical)(classicism) on modern culture, tasks that are both [laborious](wikt:laborious#Adjective) and [futile](wikt:futile#Adjective) are therefore described as Sisyphean (). ## Etymology [S. P. Beekes](R.)(Robert S. P. Beekes) has suggested a [pre-Greek](pre-Greek) origin and a connection with the root of the word ** (σοφός, "wise").[S. P. Beekes](R.)(Robert S. P. Beekes), Etymological Dictionary of Greek, Brill, 2009, p. xxxiii. German [mythographer](mythographer) [Gruppe](Otto)(Otto Gruppe) thought that the name derived from ** (σίσυς, "a goat's skin"), in reference to a rain-charm in which goats' skins were used.Gruppe, O. Griechische Mythologie (1906), ii., p. 1021 ## Family Sisyphus was formerly a [Thessalian](Ancient Thessaly) prince as the son of King [Aeolus](Aeolus (son of Hellen)) of Aeolia and [Enarete](Enarete), daughter of [Deimachus](Deïmachus (mythology)).[Apollodorus](Bibliotheca (Pseudo-Apollodorus)), [1.7.3](https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Apollod.+1.7.3&fromdoc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0022:book=1:chapter=7&highlight=Sisyphus) He was the brother of [Athamas](Athamas), [Salmoneus](Salmoneus), [Cretheus](Cretheus), [Perieres](Perieres (king of Messenia)), [Deioneus](Deioneus), [Magnes](Magnes (son of Aeolus)), [Calyce](Calyce (mythology)), [Canace](Canace), [Alcyone](Alcyone and Ceyx), [Pisidice](Pisidice) and [Perimede](Perimede (mythology)). Sisyphus married the [Pleiad](Pleiades (Greek mythology)) [Merope](Merope (Pleiades)) by whom he became the father of [Ornytion](Ornytion) ([Porphyrion](Porphyrion (mythology))Scholia on [of Rhodes](Apollonius)(Apollonius of Rhodes), [Argonautica](Argonautica) 3.1094), [Glaucus](Glaucus of Corinth), [Thersander](Thersander) and [Almus](Almus of Orchomenus).[Pausanias](Pausanias (geographer)), [2.4.3](http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Paus.+2.4.3&fromdoc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0160:chapter=&highlight=Thersander) He was the grandfather of [Bellerophon](Bellerophon) through [Glaucus](Glaucus (son of Sisyphus)),Apollodorus, [1.9.3](https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Apollod.+1.9.3&fromdoc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0022:book=1:chapter=9&highlight=Sisyphus) [Homer](Homer), [Iliad](Iliad) 6.152 ff. and [Minyas](Minyas (mythology)), founder of [Orchomenus](Orchomenus (Boeotia)), through Almus.Scholia on Apollonius of Rhodes, Argonautica 3.1553 Another account related that Minyas was Sisyphus's son instead.Scholia on Homer, Iliad 2.511 In other versions of the myth, Sisyphus was the true father of [Odysseus](Odysseus) by [Anticleia](Anticlea of Ithaca) instead of [Laërtes](Laertes).Hyginus, Fabulae 201; [Plutarch](Plutarch), Quaestiones Graecae 43; [Suida](Suda), s.v. [Sisyphus](https://topostext.org/work/240#si.490) ## Mythology ### Reign Sisyphus was the founder and first king of Ephyra (supposedly the original name of [Corinth](Ancient Corinth)). King Sisyphus promoted navigation and commerce but was avaricious and deceitful. He killed guests and travelers in his palace, a violation of [guest-obligations](Xenia (Greek)), which fell under [Zeus](Zeus)' domain, thus angering the god. He took pleasure in these killings because they allowed him to maintain his iron-fisted rule. ### Conflict with Salmoneus Sisyphus and his brother [Salmoneus](Salmoneus) were known to hate each other, and Sisyphus consulted the [of Delphi](Oracle)(Pythia) on just how to kill Salmoneus without incurring any severe consequences for himself. From [Homer](Homer) onward, Sisyphus was famed as the craftiest of men. He seduced Salmoneus' daughter [Tyro](Tyro) in one of his plots to kill Salmoneus, only for Tyro to slay their children when she discovered that Sisyphus was planning on using them to eventually dethrone her father. ### Cheating death Sisyphus betrayed one of Zeus' secrets by revealing the whereabouts of the [Asopid](Asopides) [Aegina](Aegina (mythology)) to her father, the river god [Asopus](Asopus), in return for causing a spring to flow on the Corinthian [acropolis](acropolis). Zeus ordered [Thanatos](Thanatos) to chain Sisyphus in [Tartarus](Tartarus). Sisyphus was curious as to why [Charon](Charon), whose job it was to guide souls to the underworld, had not appeared on this occasion. Sisyphus slyly asked Thanatos to demonstrate how the chains worked. As Thanatos was granting him his wish, Sisyphus seized the opportunity and trapped Thanatos in the chains instead. Once Thanatos was bound by the strong chains, no one died on Earth, causing an uproar. Annoyed that his battles had lost their fun because his opponents would not die, [Ares](Ares) intervened. The exasperated Ares freed Thanatos, enabling deaths to happen again and turned Sisyphus over to him. In some versions, [Hades](Hades) was sent to chain Sisyphus and was chained himself. As long as Hades was tied up, nobody could die. Because of this, sacrifices could not be made to the gods and those that were old and sick were suffering. The gods finally threatened to make life so miserable for Sisyphus that he would wish he were dead. He then had no choice but to release Hades. Before Sisyphus died, he had told his wife to throw his naked body into the middle of the public square (purportedly as a test of his wife's love for him). This caused Sisyphus to end up on the shores of the river [Styx](Styx) when he was brought to the [underworld](Greek underworld). Complaining to [Persephone](Persephone) that this was a sign of his wife's disrespect for him, Sisyphus persuaded her to allow him to return to the [world](upper)(Upper World (Greek)). Once back in Ephyra, the spirit of Sisyphus scolded his wife for not burying his body and giving it a proper funeral as a loving wife should. When Sisyphus refused to return to the underworld, he was forcibly dragged back there by [Hermes](Hermes). In another version of the myth, Persephone was tricked by Sisyphus that he had been conducted to Tartarus by mistake, and so she ordered that he be released. In [Philoctetes](Philoctetes (Sophocles play)) by [Sophocles](Sophocles), there is a reference to the father of Odysseus (rumoured to have been Sisyphus, and not [Laërtes](Laërtes), whom we know as the father in the [Odyssey](Odyssey)) upon having returned from the dead . [Euripides](Euripides), in [Cyclops](Cyclops (play)), also identified Sisyphus as Odysseus' father. ### Punishment in the underworld As a punishment for his crimes Hades made Sisyphus roll a huge boulder endlessly up a steep hill in [Tartarus](Tartarus).Homer, Odyssey 11.593 The maddening nature of the punishment was reserved for Sisyphus due to his [hubris](hubris)tic belief that his cleverness surpassed that of Zeus himself. Hades accordingly displayed his own cleverness by enchanting the boulder into rolling away from Sisyphus before he reached the top which ended up consigning Sisyphus to an eternity of useless efforts and unending frustration. Thus, pointless or interminable activities are sometimes described as "Sisyphean". Sisyphus was a common subject for ancient writers and was depicted by the painter [Polygnotus](Polygnotus) on the walls of the [Lesche](Lesche) at [Delphi](Delphi).[Pausanias](Pausanias (geographer)), 10.31 ## Interpretations [[File:Johann-Vogel-Meditationes-emblematicae-de-restaurata-pace-Germaniae MGG 1020.tif\|thumb\|upright=1.0\|alt=Black and white etching of Sisyphus by Johann Vogel \|Sisyphus as a symbol for continuing a senseless war. [Vogel](Johann)(Johann Vogel (poet)): Meditationes emblematicae de restaurata pace Germaniae, 1649]] According to the [theory](solar)(solar theory), King Sisyphus is the disk of the sun that rises every day in the east and then sinks into the west. Other scholars regard him as a personification of waves rising and falling, or of the treacherous sea. The 1st-century BC [Epicurean](Epicureanism) philosopher [Lucretius](Lucretius) interprets the myth of Sisyphus as personifying politicians aspiring for political office who are constantly defeated, with the quest for power, in itself an "empty thing", being likened to rolling the boulder up the hill.[Rerum Natura](De)(De Rerum Natura) III [Welcker](Friedrich)(Friedrich Welcker) suggested that he symbolises the vain struggle of man in the pursuit of knowledge, and [Reinach](Salomon)(Salomon Reinach)Revue archéologique, 1904 that his punishment is based on a picture in which Sisyphus was represented rolling a huge stone [Acrocorinthus](Acrocorinthus), symbolic of the labour and skill involved in the building of the Sisypheum. [Camus](Albert)(Albert Camus), in his 1942 essay [Myth of Sisyphus](The)(The Myth of Sisyphus), saw Sisyphus as personifying the absurdity of human life, but Camus concludes "one must imagine Sisyphus happy" as "The struggle itself towards the heights is enough to fill a man's heart." More recently, [Nigro Sansonese](J.)(J. Nigro Sansonese),[J. Nigro](Sansonese,)(J. Nigro Sansonese). The Body of Myth. Rochester, 1994, pp. 45–52. building on the work of [Dumézil](Georges)(Georges Dumézil), speculates that the origin of the name "Sisyphus" is onomatopoetic of the continual back-and-forth, susurrant sound ("siss phuss") made by the breath in the nasal passages, situating the mythology of Sisyphus in a far larger context of archaic (see [religion](Proto-Indo-European)(Proto-Indo-European religion)) trance-inducing techniques related to breath control. The repetitive inhalation–exhalation cycle is described esoterically in the myth as an up–down motion of Sisyphus and his boulder on a hill. In experiments that test how workers respond when the meaning of their task is diminished, the test condition is referred to as the Sisyphusian condition. The two main conclusions of the experiment are that people work harder when their work seems more meaningful, and that people underestimate the relationship between meaning and motivation. ### Literary interpretations [[File:Punishment sisyph.jpg\|thumb\|upright=1.0\|alt=Painting of Sisyphus by Titian \|[Sisyphus](Sisyphus (Titian)) (1548–49) by [Titian](Titian), [Museum](Prado)(Prado Museum), Madrid, Spain]] * [Homer](Homer) describes Sisyphus in both Book VI of the [Iliad](Iliad) and Book XI of the [Odyssey](Odyssey). * [Ovid](Ovid), the Roman poet, makes reference to Sisyphus in the story of [and Eurydice](Orpheus)(Orpheus and Eurydice). When Orpheus descends and confronts Hades and Persephone, he sings a song so that they will grant his wish to bring Eurydice back from the dead. After this song is sung, Ovid shows how moving it was by noting that Sisyphus, emotionally affected for just a moment, stops his eternal task and sits on his rock, the Latin wording being inque tuo sedisti, Sisyphe, saxo ("and you sat, Sisyphus, on your rock").Ovid. Metamorphoses, 10.44. * In [Plato](Plato)'s [Apology](Apology (Plato)), Socrates looks forward to the after-life where he can meet figures such as Sisyphus, who think themselves wise, so that he can question them and find who is wise and who "thinks he is when he is not"Apology, 41a * [Camus](Albert)(Albert Camus), the [French](French Algeria) [absurdist](absurdism), wrote an essay entitled [Myth of Sisyphus](The)(The Myth of Sisyphus), in which he elevates Sisyphus to the status of absurd hero. * [Kafka](Franz)(Franz Kafka) repeatedly referred to Sisyphus as a bachelor; [Kafkaesque](Kafkaesque) for him were those qualities that brought out the Sisyphus-like qualities in himself. According to Frederick Karl: "The man who struggled to reach the heights only to be thrown down to the depths embodied all of Kafka's aspirations; and he remained himself, alone, solitary."[Frederick](Karl,)(Frederick R. Karl). Franz Kafka: Representative Man. New York: International Publishing Corporation, 1991. p. 2 * The philosopher [Taylor](Richard)(Richard Taylor (philosopher)) uses the myth of Sisyphus as a representation of a life made meaningless because it consists of bare repetition.Taylor, Richard. "Time and Life's Meaning." Review of Metaphysics 40 (June 1987): 675–686. * [Mieder](Wolfgang)(Wolfgang Mieder) has collected cartoons that build on the image of Sisyphus, many of them [cartoons](editorial)(editorial cartoons).Wolfgang Mieder. 2013. Neues von Sisyphus: Sprichtwortliche Mythen der Antike in moderner Literatur, Medien und Karikaturen. Vienna: Praesens. ## In popular culture * Sisyphus is the subject of the song "Sisyphus" by [Bird](Andrew)(Andrew Bird), on the album [Finest Work Yet](My)(My Finest Work Yet) (2019). * Sisyphus is a character in [Hades](Hades (video game)), a 2020 [indie](Indie game) [rogue-like](rogue-like) game developed by [Games](Supergiant)(Supergiant Games), voiced by Andrew Marks. His history of cheating death twice is mentioned, the Furies are responsible for the whipping that causes Sisyphus' boulder to roll away from him, and Sisyphus named the boulder "Bouldy". The player character [Zagreus](Zagreus) is given the option to lessen Sisyphus' sentence in Tartarus. ## See also * [Myth of Sisyphus](The)(The Myth of Sisyphus), a 1942 philosophical essay by [Camus](Albert)(Albert Camus) which uses Sisyphus' punishment as a metaphor for the absurd * [cooling](Sisyphus)(Sisyphus cooling), a cooling technique named after the Sisyphus myth * [prace](Syzyfowe)(Syzyfowe prace), a novel by [Żeromski](Stefan)(Stefan Żeromski) * Comparable characters: [Bhranthan](Naranath)(Naranath Bhranthan), a willing boulder pusher in Indian folklore [Tregeagle](Jan)(Jan Tregeagle), a Cornish magistrate who must empty [Pool](Dozmary)(Dozmary Pool) with a limpet shell or weave sand into rope at [Cove](Gwenor)(Gwenor Cove) [Tantalus](Tantalus), who was similarly punished with a neverending toil [Gang](Wu)(Wu Gang) – also tasked with the impossible: to fell a self-regenerating tree on the Moon ## Notes ## References * [Homer](Homer), [Iliad](The)(Iliad) with an English Translation by A.T. Murray, PhD in two volumes. Cambridge, MA., Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann, Ltd. 1924. [Online version at the Perseus Digital Library.](https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0134) [Homer](Homer). Homeri Opera in five volumes. Oxford, Oxford University Press. 1920. [Greek text available at the Perseus Digital Library](https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0133) . [Homer](Homer), [Odyssey](The)(Odyssey) with an English Translation by A.T. Murray, PH.D. in two volumes. Cambridge, MA., Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann, Ltd. 1919. [Online version at the Perseus Digital Library.](https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0136) [Greek text available from the same website](https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0135) . [Pausanias](Pausanias (geographer)), Description of Greece* with an English Translation by W.H.S. Jones, Litt.D., and H.A. Ormerod, M.A., in 4 Volumes. Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1918. [Online version at the Perseus Digital Library](https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Paus.+1.1.1) [Pausanias](Pausanias (geographer)), Graeciae Descriptio.* 3 vols. Leipzig, Teubner. 1903. [Greek text available at the Perseus Digital Library](https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0159) . [Pseudo-Apollodorus](Bibliotheca (Pseudo-Apollodorus)), The Library* with an English Translation by Sir James George Frazer, F.B.A., F.R.S. in 2 Volumes, Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1921. [Online version at the Perseus Digital Library.](https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0022) [Greek text available from the same website](https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0021) . [Ovidius Naso](Publius)(Ovid), Metamorphoses* translated by Brookes More (1859–1942). Boston, Cornhill Publishing Co. 1922. [Online version at the Perseus Digital Library.](https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.02.0028) [Ovidius Naso](Publius)(Ovid), Metamorphoses.* Hugo Magnus. Gotha (Germany). Friedr. Andr. Perthes. 1892. [Latin text available at the Perseus Digital Library](https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.02.0029) . ## External links * * [tricksters](Category:Mythological)(Category:Mythological tricksters) [in Greek mythology](Category:Princes)(Category:Princes in Greek mythology) [city founders](Category:Mythological)(Category:Mythological city founders) [of Corinth](Category:Kings)(Category:Kings of Corinth) [in Greek mythology](Category:Kings)(Category:Kings in Greek mythology) [who ventured to Hades](Category:Heroes)(Category:Heroes who ventured to Hades) [souls in Tartarus](Category:Condemned)(Category:Condemned souls in Tartarus) [Category:Aeolides](Category:Aeolides) [characters in Greek mythology](Category:Corinthian)(Category:Corinthian characters in Greek mythology) [characters in Greek mythology](Category:Thessalian)(Category:Thessalian characters in Greek mythology) [mythology](Category:Corinthian)(Category:Corinthian mythology) [mythology](Category:Thessalian)(Category:Thessalian mythology) [of Zeus](Category:Deeds)(Category:Deeds of Zeus) [of Ares](Category:Deeds)(Category:Deeds of Ares)
Redo of Healer	redo_of_healer	# Redo of Healer Revision ID: 1159117706 \| Timestamp: 2023-06-08T10:36:33Z --- }} }} \|writer = [Fudeyasu](Kazuyuki)(Kazuyuki Fudeyasu) \|music = \|studio = [TNK](TNK (company)) \|licensee = [Filmworks](Sentai)(Sentai Filmworks) \|network = \|first = January 13, 2021 \|last = March 31, 2021 \|episodes = 12 \|episode_list = #Episode list }} "The Healer's Do-Over: Transcendent Healing Through Insta-Kill Magic and Skill Copying"\|lead=yes}}, also known in Japan as *KaiYari* for short, is a Japanese fantasy [novel](light)(light novel) series written by Rui Tsukiyo and illustrated by Shiokonbu. It began serialization online in December 2016 on the user-generated novel publishing website [ni Narō](Shōsetsuka)(Shōsetsuka ni Narō). It was later acquired by [Shoten](Kadokawa)(Kadokawa Shoten), who have published the series since July 2017 under their [Sneaker Bunko](Kadokawa)(Kadokawa Sneaker Bunko) imprint. A [manga](manga) adaptation with art by Sōken Haga has been serialized online via Kadokawa Shoten's Young Ace Up website since October 2017. An [anime](anime) television series adaptation by [TNK](TNK (company)) aired from January to March 2021. ## Premise Keyaru, who is exploited and sexually abused repeatedly by others due to being a healing magician, notices what lays just beyond his healing magic, and is convinced that a healing magician is the strongest class in the world. However, by the time he realizes his own potential, he is already deprived of everything. Thus, using his healing magic, enhanced by the magic enhancing properties of the Philosopher's Stone on the world itself, he goes back four years into the past, deciding to redo everything and get revenge on the ones who abused him and take down a corrupted empire. ## Characters ; : (Keyaru/Keyarga), [Hikasa](Yoko)(Yoko Hikasa) (Keara)}} :The Healing Hero and the series' main protagonist, who was blessed with the hero's insignia from the coming-of-age. He, however, wanted to save the world from demons only to endure four years of physical, mental, and sexual abuse at the hands of his own allies, making him see how corrupted the Jioral Kingdom is. In the midst of the battle with the demon lord, Eve, Keyaru managed to retain himself finding the true nature of his power and obtains the Philosopher's Stone. Instead of handing it to Flare as instructed, he uses the item to travel back in time, all while being able to maintain his memories of the original timeline, to exact revenge against his torturers and bring down Jioral. During this, he changes his appearance and renames himself Keyarga. His thirst for revenge and mostly psychopathic personality (gained for the torture he endured) makes him an anti-hero, although he does have a caring side. ; : :The Magic Hero and the first princess of the Jioral Kingdom. Flare is the main source of Keyaru's suffering and merely sees him as a baggage carrier and drugs him so he would be receptive to her commands. Generally, she saw healing magicians as the lowest class in the magic world until Keyaru has proven otherwise and doesn't trust her with the Philosopher's Stone. In the alternate timeline, when Flare is left vulnerable, Keyaru tortures her, takes her powers, erases and alters her memories and appearance to become his companion and lover named Freia, all while deceiving everyone into thinking that Flare is dead. As Freia, she is lovable, kind, and obeys Keyarga's every command. She is one of Keyarga's closest allies. ; : :A female demi-human slave that Keyaru buys and recruits into his party. Prior to this, she was infected with an illness (which Keyarga helps to cure), but her rage allows her to withstand it. Setsuna comes from the Ice Wolf clan whereas estranged from humanity and usually sold into slavery that defeats the purpose of equality in the Jioral Kingdom. As Keyarga offers her the chance to avenge her tribe, she reveals her unspoken true name to receive empowering strength from Keyarga, allowing him to gain control over her. Setsuna later becomes sexually attached to Keyarga and often competes with Freia for his affections. Similar to Freia, she is also Keyarga closest companion. ; : :A demon who is one of the candidates to become the Demon Lord. In the previous timeline where she did become the Demon Lord and fought Keyaru in the bitter end, she tearfully begged him to spare her and granted him the Philosopher's Stone, prompting Keyaru to know what she was really trying to protect. Her objective is to kill the current Demon Lord for trying to exterminate her brethren. When she completes the trials of Caladrius, her hair changes from black to silver. In the alternate timeline, she becomes a member of Keyarga's group. Unlike the other girls, she is not entirely comfortable with having sex with Keyarga. ; : :The second princess of Jioral Kingdom, and younger sister of Flare. Both sisters had a close relationship until Flare received a higher reputation for awakening as the Magic Hero and belittles Norn. Compared to her big sister, Norn runs her kingdom in a sadistic and manipulative manner and aims to drive Flare out of the throne. Following Flare's apparent murder, Norn meant to gain aid from neighboring kingdoms by exterminating all innocent demons, after her soldiers killed a friend that Keyarga got to know. She is the first to discover that Flare is still alive and is the only person who knows this besides Keyarga. He and Freia halt her oppression plot and capture her. As he did with Flare, Keyarga erases and alters Norn's memories and appearance to become his little sister named Ellen. As Ellen, she has a brother complex and views Freia as a "big sister". She is also a very close companion to Keyarga, just like Freia and Setsuna. ; : :A female knight of Jioral Kingdom, renowned as the Blade Goddess. Kureha owes Keyaru her gratitude for fixing her amputated arm from their first meeting. She initially opposes Keyaru's party after believing that they were attacking soldiers who were trying to protect Setsuna's village (not realizing that the soldiers were actually threatening the villagers), but allies with them after learning of her kingdom's atrocities. Freia pretends to be her old self to yield Kureha to her words. After being exposed to aphrodisiac and becoming obedient ally, Kureha has sex with Keyaru for her mistakes and acts as an informant for him. Her constant flirting with Keyaru makes the other girls jealous. ; : :The Cannon Hero. Having an obsessive sexual attraction to young boys, he targets Keyaru for rape and murder. Due to the trauma, Keyarga will not allow a single male into his party, preferring only females. ; : :The Sword Hero, affiliated with the Jioral Kingdom. She has an intense homosexual infatuation that urges her to rape ideal girls to death. In the previous timeline, Blade would torment and physically beat up Keyaru every night for "touching" Flare to beset her frustration. Although she is one of Keyaru's torturers, Keyarga does not erase and alter her memories and appearance like how he did to Flare and Norn, instead leaving her to be killed by brainwashed men. ; :}} :A villager from the same village as Keyaru. Anna provides Keyaru food and shelter since his parents' deaths. She encourages Keyaru to follow his belief in changing the world for the better. While Anna cares for Keyaru as her kid, he acknowledges her as his first love. Anna is presented as a normal young woman of medium height with waist-length light brown hair. It is later discovered the Leonard had raped her and destroyed his home, which enrages Keyarga. She dies from the trauma before he can save her. ; : :The antagonistic captain of the Jioral Kingdom's knights who lacks any sense of sympathy and lashes at the imprisoned Keyaru for doing "nothing." In the alternate timeline, Keyaru alters his face to resemble his own in order to trick Flare into arresting him, and then frames him for Flare's apparent murder. When Proum learns of this (although both he and Leonard are unaware that Flare is still alive), he is released and sent to hunt down Keyaru, who by now has changed his name to Keyarga. After murdering Anna, Keyarga takes his revenge on him by turning him into a girl, having him get raped by his brainwashed troops, and then burning them. ; : :A merchant in the city of Lanaritta. ; : :A store owner from the city of Branica with whom Keyaru forms a close bond. He is later killed by Norn's army. ; : :A knight of the Jioral Kingdom and one of the Three Champions of his nation (it is unknown who the other two champions are). His perceived detection skill gave him the name "Hawkeye." He accompanies Norn during her attack on Branica. During his fight with Keyarga, he loses and gets killed before he can have his abilities copied. ; : :The king of the Jioral Kingdom, Flare and Norn's "biological" father, and the series' main antagonist. He sends Leonard and later Bullet to hunt down Keyarga for devastating his kingdom and for the death of his daughters, little realizing that they are still alive. However, Proum's true form reveals that he is not human. ## Media ### Light novels The series was first published online in December 2016 on the user-generated novel publishing website [ni Narō](Shōsetsuka)(Shōsetsuka ni Narō) by Rui Tsukiyo. It was later acquired by [Shoten](Kadokawa)(Kadokawa Shoten), who published the first volume as a [novel](light)(light novel) under their [Sneaker Bunko](Kadokawa)(Kadokawa Sneaker Bunko) imprint in July 2017. On January 23, 2021, Tsukiyo tweeted in English, claiming that one overseas publisher refused to publish the series in English. They said that the situation may change if overseas publishers received enough requests. Tsukiyo also encouraged fans to check out the English version of their other light novel series, ''[World's Finest Assassin Gets Reincarnated in Another World as an Aristocrat](The)(The World's Finest Assassin Gets Reincarnated in Another World as an Aristocrat)'', which is licensed by [Press](Yen)(Yen Press). \|ISBN = 978-4-04105-680-6 }} \|ISBN = 978-4-04105-681-3 }} \|ISBN = 978-4-04106-524-2 }} \|ISBN = 978-4-04106-521-1 }} \|ISBN = 978-4-04107-559-3 }} \|ISBN = 978-4-04107-560-9 }} \|ISBN = 978-4-04107-561-6 }} \|ISBN = 978-4-04109-658-1 }} \|ISBN = 978-4-04109-662-8 }} ### Manga A [manga](manga) adaptation by Sōken Haga began serialization in Kadokawa Shoten's Young Ace Up website on October 24, 2017. Twelve volumes have been released as of February 2023. A [spin-off](spin-off (media)) manga series illustrated by Ken Nagao, titled Kaifuku Jutsushi no Omotenashi (Hospitality of Healer), also began serialization in Young Ace Up on January 18, 2021. \|ISBN = 978-4-04106-838-0 }} \|ISBN = 978-4-04107-292-9 }} \|ISBN = 978-4-04107-730-6 }} \|ISBN = 978-4-04108-358-1 }} \|ISBN = 978-4-04108-359-8 }} \|ISBN = 978-4-04109-347-4 }} \|ISBN = 978-4-04109-350-4 }} \|ISBN = 978-4-04109-352-8 }} \|ISBN = 978-4-04111-575-6 }} \|ISBN = 978-4-04111-579-4 }} \|ISBN = 978-4-04112-627-1 }} \|ISBN = 978-4-04113-257-9 }} ### Anime An [anime](anime) television series adaptation was announced by [Kadokawa](Kadokawa Dwango) in November 2019. The series was animated by [TNK](TNK (company)) and directed by Takuya Asaoka, with [Fudeyasu](Kazuyuki)(Kazuyuki Fudeyasu) handling series composition, and Junji Goto designing the characters. The series aired for twelve episodes from January 13 to March 31, 2021, on [AT-X](AT-X (TV network)), [MX](Tokyo)(Tokyo MX), [KBS](Kyoto Broadcasting System), [SUN](Sun Television), and [BS11](Nippon BS Broadcasting). The opening theme is performed by [Kuribayashi](Minami)(Minami Kuribayashi), while the ending theme is performed by [PROJECT](ARCANA)(Arcana Project). There are three different versions of the anime: a censored broadcast version, a streaming-exclusive "Redo" version, and an uncensored "Complete Recovery" version. All of the stations airing the anime carried the broadcast version. In addition to airing the broadcast version at 11:30 p.m. [JST](Japan Standard Time), AT-X aired the "Complete Recovery" version on the same morning at 4:00 a.m. JST. The official [Twitter](Twitter) account issued a content warning for the anime. [Filmworks](Sentai)(Sentai Filmworks) has licensed the anime outside Asia and German-speaking regions. Children's Playground Entertainment has licensed the series in Southeast Asia and they streamed it on [Bilibili](Bilibili). #### Episode list }} \|director= \|directorR= \|writer= \|writerR= \|airdate= \|airdateR= \|episodes= \|ShortSummary = A young man, Keyaru, hears a voice inside his head directing him to a Star Spirit, who grants him the Halcyon Eye power to see all creation. In a previous life, Keyaru was a healing magician for the tyrannical kingdom Jioral, but his power forced him to endure the painful memories of those he healed. He was captured, abused, and forced to heal his captors in battle. In secret, he grew stronger absorbing the experiences of his abusers and learned to use healing magic in unconventional ways. Eventually, he escaped, defeated a Demon Lord, and used her [Stone](Philosopher's)(Philosopher's Stone) to travel back in time four years in the past with the intention to get revenge on his abusers and bring down Jioral. With his past memories gained despite being warned that he could lose them, Keyaru swears revenge on his main abuser, Princess Flare of the Jioral Kingdom. Flare, who has no memory of these events, senses his awakening and declares him the Recovery Hero. He is brought to the kingdom where they meet Proum, Flare's father and the king of Jioral. Deciding not to blow his cover until Proum is gone due to how powerful he is, Keyaru takes advantage of the maids in the royal household who have sex with him. Keyaru regenerates the amputated arm of grateful swordswoman Kureha, but pretends to pass out. Flare callously orders the court magician to gain control of Keyaru, no matter how torturous the method. Confirming Flare is still as cruel as she was previously, Keyaru begins planning his revenge. \|LineColor = 384910 }} \|ShortSummary = Pretending to be afraid of absorbing painful memories, Keyaru swears never to heal again and pretends to allow Flare to imprison and get him addicted to drugs, even allowing himself to be raped to further fool her. Flare begins forcing Keyaru to heal injured warriors, while Keyaru secretly copies magical abilities from them. When Proum is absent and Keyaru becomes immune to drugs, he uses his stolen abilities to escape and disguise himself as Leonard, Flare's Imperial Commander (having subdued the real Leonard and altered his face to resemble his own so that he gets captured and thrown into the dungeon in his place), and, once alone with Flare, removes his disguise and heals away her ability to use magic, rendering her defenseless and unable to walk. After repeatedly breaking then healing her fingers, Keyaru rapes Flare before he heals her in order to alter her appearance and memories. After healing a dead bodyguard's face to look like Flare, Keyaru frames Leonard before he escapes with the real Flare, tricking the entire kingdom into thinking that Flare was murdered. Keyaru decides to target his other abusers, Bullet and Blade, before seeking out the Demon Lord he previously defeated to find out what she had been trying to protect when she died. With Flare now an [amnesia](amnesia)c, Keyaru renames her Freia, convinces her she is his servant and lover while he changes his face and takes the hero name Keyarga the Healer, leaving his weak name Keyaru behind. The two then have sex and Freia, despite not being able to remember her past, pledges allegiance to Keyarga. \|LineColor = 384910 }} \|ShortSummary = Keyarga decides he and Freia must leave the city. However, he also learns that Norn, Flare's younger, strategist, and sadistic sister, is returning to the city (having left sometime prior to Keyarga's arrival in the kingdom) and he is determined to avoid her. Keyarga has a nightmare of his previous life: Every night, Flare would force him to pleasure her. Second, the Sword Heroine, Blade, would beat him for touching Flare before sexually assaulting him since she could not sleep with Flare herself. Finally, Bullet, the Gun Hero, would violently rape him, claiming to love him before choking him unconscious. They later arrive at Lanaritta, a lawless city dominated by criminals who prey on the poor. With Halcyon Eye, Keyarga detects the town's water is contaminated, making whoever drinks it sick. Using his own antibodies, Keyarga creates a cure from his blood and sells it to a merchant, promising to continue making more in exchange for half the profits. He next visits a [trader](slave)(Slavery) and purchases a female ice wolf demi-human, noting that her rage has kept her conscious despite being infected and is interested in what will happen once she gets revenge against whoever she hates so much. \|LineColor = 384910 }} \|ShortSummary = Keyarga examines the girl's memories and learns she wants revenge against the Jioral Kingdom because they are planning to take her village as slaves. Knowing the girl, Setsuna, has no warrior abilities, Keyarga offers to make her stronger using a skill stolen from another hero, but requires her true name to do it. Setsuna agrees, even though knowing her true name will give him control over her. To prove he can make her stronger, Keyarga has sex with Setsuna. Making their way to Setsuna's village, they find Jioral soldiers torturing prisoners. Keyarga disguises himself as a Sword Hero and kills them while Freia gives him covering fire. Setsuna gets revenge by killing the soldier who enslaved her. Afterward, Keyarga shows Setsuna that the ice wolves poisoned the water and gives her a choice: either make the poison strong enough to kill every human in Lanaritta or replace the poison with medicine. Setsuna chooses the medicine. They have sex again and Setsuna willingly tells Keyarga her true name. In Jioral, Norn returns and reveals that Keyarga altered Leonard's face to look like him to cover up his escape. Believing that Flare was murdered, Proum orders Leonard to find the real Keyarga. \|LineColor = 384910 }} \|ShortSummary = After Keyarga has sex with both Freia and Setsuna, they return to Lanaritta where the merchant attempts to force Keyarga to reveal the formula for the cure so he can get the profits alone. Keyarga gives him a fake formula, pointing out to his companions that with the contaminated water cured, the illness will go away anyway. Kureha appears and challenges him, believing that he attacked the Jioral soldiers at Setsuna's village unprovoked, unaware of what the soldiers were really doing. Freia tries to help, but is quickly overpowered. After a grand sword battle, Keyarga douses her with an [aphrodisiac](aphrodisiac) and then, after she slices his arm off, regenerates his arm and heals her mind to share the memories of the soldiers' atrocities against Setsuna's village, causing her to pass out. When she wakes up, he reveals he is Keyaru, the one who healed her arm, then brings in Freia whom he told to pretend to be Flare in order to convince her that he is telling the truth. "Flare" tells Kureha that Jioral is corrupt and Keyarga faked her death to save her life after Leonard found out about their scheme to expose Jioral's crimes, making Kureha realize that she was fighting on the wrong side. Struck with remorse over her mistake and exposed to the aphrodisiac again, Kureha offers her body and they have sex. She falls in love with him and he gloats that she will now do whatever he says. Meanwhile, Leonard is on their trail. \|LineColor = 384910 }} \|ShortSummary = Freia and Setsuna become increasingly jealous of Keyarga and Kureha's relationship. The group learns troops led by Leonard have captured the inhabitants of Keyaru's village. Keyarga sends Kureha to investigate, then disguises himself and infiltrates Leonard's squad. When he learns Leonard had tortured and raped his childhood friend, Anna, an enraged Keyarga captures Leonard and transforms him into a woman before having his brainwashed squad gang rape him, then kills them all by [the room on fire](setting)(Arson). Keyarga finds Anna and tries to heal her, but she succumbs to her injuries. Distraught, Keyarga has sex with Freia and Setsuna for solace. Kureha returns and reports that the villagers will be publicly executed for supporting the Recovery Hero and that Norn has returned from abroad. Keyarga is wary of Norn as he remembers how she was more competent and manipulative than Flare. When the public execution begins, Keyarga reveals himself to save his villagers. \|LineColor = 384910 }} \|ShortSummary = Keyarga begins to slaughter the executioners and does not stop even when they start killing the villagers. The executioners try to use a magical barrier to drain his strength, but Freia reverses the effect. Keyarga learns the villagers were fed poison earlier so they were already dying; he is only able to save one boy. Freia reveals herself, pretending to be Flare, and reveals the corruption in Jioral, causing the audience to turn on the executioners and kill them. Aware the boy blames him for everything that happened to the village, Keyarga tells the merchant to care for him. Kureha leaves to continue spying on the kingdom and warns him that Norn and her army are headed for the city of Branica. Keyarga notes that Norn never went to Branica in his first life. Meanwhile, Norn learns that Flare is still alive and is now working with Keyarga. Keyarga decides to go to Branica as well because the Demon Lord will be there and he wants to meet her again. Along the way, they make camp and Keyarga has sex with Freia and Setsuna. Freia says she will kill anyone who stands in his way, causing Keyarga to realize that excluding her devotion to him, her personality is not that different from Flare's. \|LineColor = 384910 }} \|ShortSummary = Freia's incredible power causes her magic staves to eventually break, so Keyarga decides they will one day have to acquire divine weapons that can handle it. The party arrives at Branica where humans and other races live in harmony unlike in other places. At a restaurant, they meet Eve Reese, the Demon Lord whom Keyarga met and defeated in his first life, but she is less powerful and her hair is black instead of silver, unlike he remembered, causing him to realize she is not yet the Demon Lord. She is a member of the Black Wing Tribe, whom the current Demon Lord ordered to be eradicated. Bounty hunters attack her and she is hit by a paralyzing arrow, but Keyarga's party rescues and heals her. While hiding out, Keyarga explains to Eve that he met her in the future and she will become the Demon Lord, offering to protect her until she claims her destiny. She does not believe him but agrees to stay with the group. Later that night, Eve wakes up and is shocked and embarrassed to find Keyarga having sex with Freia and Setsuna right in front of her. Keyarga invites her to join them and taunts her to prove she is a grown-up. \|LineColor = 384910 }} \|ShortSummary = Eve turns down Keyarga's offer, but he, Freia, and Setsuna scold her. Keyarga says once she becomes the Demon Lord, he wants the Philosopher's Stone and for her to secure peace between humans and demons. While discussing their combat capabilities, Eve explains she can summon the legendary, disease-spreading bird, Caladrius, but she will have to endure several trials, including traveling all around the world, to make it obey her. Keyarga disguises himself and scouts the city, but a bounty hunter recognizes him due to his scent, forcing Keyarga to kill him. Keyarga returns and has sex with Freia and Setsuna. Embarrassed, Eve leaves the room, but, aroused, listens and masturbates, so Keyarga notes it is only a matter of time before she gives in to his advances. Keyarga and Setsuna track down the bounty hunters and massacre them. As payback for them destroying the restaurant, they leave the survivors in a pit to be devoured by a beast. Freia buys a magic staff and Keyarga improves it. When he improves the other staves in the store, the owner gives him some money back and a mithril sword. Keyarga is furious when Norn, her army, and Blade arrive in Branica. \|LineColor = 384910 }} \|ShortSummary = Keyarga retreats when he notices Norn and Blade are accompanied by a powerful knight named Hawkeye. That night, Blade rapes and tortures a girl. Keyarga sells some potions to Karman, the store owner, who warns him about the girl's fate. After having sex with Freia and Setsuna, Keyarga decides to use himself as bait, transforming into a woman named Keara. At a pub, Blade is enticed by Keara and offers her a drink. Blade transfers a sleeping potion via a kiss and Keara pretends to pass out. While Blade carries her to her hotel, the father of the girl whom Blade raped attacks her, forcing Keara to knock him out to save his life and then fight Blade. However, Blade's sword, Ragnarok, enhances her strength and allows her to heal from injuries. Keara is knocked out cold and later wakes up tied to Blade's bed. Blade prepares to rape her but is horrified to discover Keara has a penis. Keara breaks her bonds and stabs Blade with a poisoned dagger. Blade attempts to grab Ragnarok to heal herself, but is stabbed again and passes out. Keara declares it is time for revenge. \|LineColor = 384910 }} in the episode.}} \|NativeTitleLangCode = ja \|DirectedBy = Shunji Yoshida \|WrittenBy = Kazuyuki Fudeyasu \|OriginalAirDate = \|ShortSummary = Keara reads Blade's memories and learns Norn plans to attack Branica in three days. After paralyzing Blade's legs, she has three brainwashed men gang-rape her. The men then kill and eat her, causing Ragnarok to revert to a gem. After reverting to his true form, Keyarga meets Trist Organ, aka Hawkeye, who is a Jioral knight with powerful skills. Hawkeye is impressed by the potions he sold to Karman and invites him to join his army, but he declines. Realizing Hawkeye is too powerful for him, Keyarga connects with the gem to form a new weapon; it transforms into a clawed gauntlet called Georgius that can heal the user's injuries. Keyarga celebrates by having sex with Freia and Setsuna while Eve masturbates in the room this time. On the third day, Norn becomes tired of searching for Blade and dismisses her as worthless. Accusing the demons of Branica of brainwashing humans into accepting them, Norn commands her army to kill everyone. Keyarga is furious when Karman is killed and begins to slaughter the soldiers. Norn and Hawkeye are shocked when Freia, pretending to be Flare, projects a giant hologram of herself in the sky. \|LineColor = 384910 }} \|ShortSummary = Freia says non-humans are not the enemy and asks the soldiers to stand down, which they do. As Norn and Hawkeye express confusion, Keyarga breaks in and battles Hawkeye. Despite being equally matched, Keyarga successfully kills him, then knocks out Norn and imprisons her in an underground cellar. Afterward, he reads her memories and learns she was responsible for Leonard attacking his village. When she wakes up, he expresses his anger towards her for the destruction of his village and the deaths of his friends. He drugs Freia into acting like a dog, then promises if she can withstand Freia licking her without orgasming until morning, he will release her. Norn fails the challenge, so he and Freia rape her. He then erases and alters Norn's memories and appearance and turns her into Ellen, his little sister who is in love with him, and turns Freia back to normal. Kureha arrives and Keyarga introduces Ellen. Keyarga has sex with Freia, Setsuna, Ellen, and Kureha while Eve masturbates. He decides his party will travel until they can help Eve tame Caladrius, but pauses to lay flowers on Karman's grave, saying he avenged him and Anna. With Jioral now in disarray following Leonard, Blade, and Hawkeye's deaths and Flare and Norn's supposed murders, a vengeful Proum assigns Bullet to stop Keyarga, and Bullet is eager to rape him again. Keyarga realizes he is starting to care for his girls, but decides he will never know peace until he gets revenge on Bullet and put an end to Jioral's tyranny. \|LineColor = 384910 }} }} ## Reception ### Light novel and manga The light novel series has over 800,000 copies in print. Both the light novel and the manga grew in their popularity, which led to an increase in digital sales. Several volumes of the manga also ranked in the top ten of Amazon Japan's manga charts. ### Anime Since its airing, the anime adaptation of Redo of Healer gained higher than average percentage of female viewers and Tsukiyo expressed their surprise on Twitter. The reviewers criticized the series for having a "generic" fantasy [game](role-playing)(role-playing game) inspired setting similar to popular [isekai](isekai) series and for "contrived" in-story justifications for its revenge plot. ## Controversy The anime adaptation garnered controversy, particularly due to its depiction of extreme violence, gratuitous amounts of sexual content and rape, most elements often being used as a [device](plot)(plot device), especially in the first two episodes. In [News Network](Anime)(Anime News Network)'s Winter 2021 Preview Guide, the series was panned by most of the reviewers for its recurring "[and revenge](rape)(Rape and revenge film)", an aspect of the light novels that gained controversy before the anime premiere. ## See also * ''[World's Finest Assassin Gets Reincarnated in Another World as an Aristocrat](The)(The World's Finest Assassin Gets Reincarnated in Another World as an Aristocrat)'', another light novel series by the same author ## Notes ## References ## External links * at [ni Narō](Shōsetsuka)(Shōsetsuka ni Narō) * * * [Anime official Twitter](https://twitter.com/kaiyari_anime) * * [Japanese novels](Category:2017)(Category:2017 Japanese novels) [anime television series debuts](Category:2021)(Category:2021 anime television series debuts) [and manga about revenge](Category:Anime)(Category:Anime and manga about revenge) [and manga based on light novels](Category:Anime)(Category:Anime and manga based on light novels) [and manga controversies](Category:Anime)(Category:Anime and manga controversies) [(TV network) original programming](Category:AT-X)(Category:AT-X (TV network) original programming) [in fiction](Category:Cannibalism)(Category:Cannibalism in fiction) [television series](Category:Censored)(Category:Censored television series) [fantasy anime and manga](Category:Dark)(Category:Dark fantasy anime and manga) [about shapeshifting](Category:Fiction)(Category:Fiction about shapeshifting) [anime and manga](Category:Harem)(Category:Harem anime and manga) [in anime and manga](Category:Incest)(Category:Incest in anime and manga) [LGBT-related animated television series](Category:Japanese)(Category:Japanese LGBT-related animated television series) [webcomics](Category:Japanese)(Category:Japanese webcomics) [Dwango franchises](Category:Kadokawa)(Category:Kadokawa Dwango franchises) [Shoten manga](Category:Kadokawa)(Category:Kadokawa Shoten manga) [Sneaker Bunko](Category:Kadokawa)(Category:Kadokawa Sneaker Bunko) [novels](Category:Light)(Category:Light novels) [novels first published online](Category:Light)(Category:Light novels first published online) [controversies in animation](Category:Obscenity)(Category:Obscenity controversies in animation) [manga](Category:Seinen)(Category:Seinen manga) [Category:Self-censorship](Category:Self-censorship) [Filmworks](Category:Sentai)(Category:Sentai Filmworks) [ni Narō](Category:Shōsetsuka)(Category:Shōsetsuka ni Narō) [(company)](Category:TNK)(Category:TNK (company)) [in print](Category:Webcomics)(Category:Webcomics in print) [about rape](Category:Works)(Category:Works about rape) [about sexual abuse](Category:Works)(Category:Works about sexual abuse) [about sexual harassment](Category:Works)(Category:Works about sexual harassment) [about torture](Category:Works)(Category:Works about torture) [published under a pseudonym](Category:Works)(Category:Works published under a pseudonym)
Sally Field	sally_field	# Sally Field Revision ID: 1159167362 \| Timestamp: 2023-06-08T17:50:09Z --- \| birth_place = [California](Pasadena,)(Pasadena, California), U.S. \| death_date = \| education = [High School](Birmingham)(Birmingham High School) \| years_active = 1962–present \| occupation = Actress \| spouse = \|}} \| partner = [Reynolds](Burt)(Burt Reynolds) (1976–1980) \| children = 3, including [Craig](Peter)(Peter Craig) and [Craig](Eli)(Eli Craig) \| works = [Performances](Sally Field filmography) \| mother = [Field](Margaret)(Margaret Field) \| awards = [list](Full)(List of awards and nominations received by Sally Field) }} Sally Margaret Field (born November 6, 1946) is an American actress. Known for her extensive work on screen and stage, she has received [accolades](many)(List of awards and nominations received by Sally Field) throughout her career spanning over five decades, including two [Awards](Academy)(Academy Awards), two [Globe Awards](Golden)(Golden Globe Awards), and three [Emmy Awards](Primetime)(Primetime Emmy Awards), in addition to nominations for a [Award](Tony)(Tony Award) and two [Academy Film Awards](British)(British Academy Film Awards). She was presented with a star on the [Walk of Fame](Hollywood)(Hollywood Walk of Fame) in 2014, the [Medal of Arts](National)(National Medal of Arts) in 2014, the [Center Honor](Kennedy)(Kennedy Center Honors) in 2019, and the [Actors Guild Life Achievement Award](Screen)(Screen Actors Guild Life Achievement Award) in 2023. Field began her career on television, starring in the comedies [Gidget](Gidget (TV series)) (1965–1966), [Flying Nun](The)(The Flying Nun) (1967–1970), and [Girl with Something Extra](The)(The Girl with Something Extra) (1973–1974). She received the [Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Limited Series or Movie](Primetime)(Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Limited Series or Movie) for the [NBC](NBC) television film [Sybil](Sybil (1976 film)) (1976). Her film debut was as an extra in [Pilot](Moon)(Moon Pilot) (1962) followed by starring roles in [Hungry](Stay)(Stay Hungry) (1976), [Way West](The)(The Way West (film)) (1976) [and the Bandit](Smokey)(Smokey and the Bandit) (1977), [Heroes](Heroes (1977 film)) (1977), [End](The)(The End (1978 film)) (1978), and [Hooper](Hooper (film)) (1978). She won two [Awards for Best Actress](Academy)(Academy Award for Best Actress) for [Rae](Norma)(Norma Rae) (1979), and [in the Heart](Places)(Places in the Heart) (1984). Other notable roles include in [and the Bandit II](Smokey)(Smokey and the Bandit II) (1980), [of Malice](Absence)(Absence of Malice) (1981), [Me Goodbye](Kiss)(Kiss Me Goodbye (film)) (1982), ''[Romance](Murphy's)(Murphy's Romance)* (1985), [Magnolias](Steel)(Steel Magnolias) (1989), [Soapdish](Soapdish) (1991), [Doubtfire](Mrs.)(Mrs. Doubtfire) (1993), and [Gump](Forrest)(Forrest Gump) (1994). In the 2000s, Field returned to television with a recurring role on the NBC [drama](medical)(medical drama) [ER](ER (TV series)), for which she won the [Emmy Award for Outstanding Guest Actress in a Drama Series](Primetime)(Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Guest Actress in a Drama Series) in 2001. For her role of [Walker](Nora)(Nora Walker) in the [ABC](American Broadcast Company) drama series [& Sisters](Brothers)(Brothers & Sisters (2006 TV series)) (2006-2011), Field won the [Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Drama Series](Primetime)(Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Drama Series). She portrayed [Todd Lincoln](Mary)(Mary Todd Lincoln) in [Lincoln](Lincoln (film)) (2012), for which she received an [Award for Best Supporting Actress](Academy)(Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress) nomination. She portrayed [May](Aunt)(Aunt May) in [Amazing Spider-Man](The)(The Amazing Spider-Man (film)) (2012) and its [sequel](2014)(The Amazing Spider-Man 2). Other roles include in the films [My Name Is Doris](Hello,)(Hello, My Name Is Doris) (2015), and [for Brady](80)(80 for Brady) (2023), as well as in the [Netflix](Netflix) limited series [Maniac](Maniac (miniseries))'' (2018). She made her professional stage debut in the [Broadway](Broadway (theatre)) revival of [Albee](Edward)(Edward Albee)'s [Goat, or Who Is Sylvia?](The)(The Goat, or Who Is Sylvia?)* in 2002. Field returned to the stage after an absence of 15 years with the 2017 revival of [Williams](Tennessee)(Tennessee Williams)'s [Glass Menagerie](The)(The Glass Menagerie), for which she received a nomination for the [Award for Best Actress in a Play](Tony)(Tony Award for Best Actress in a Play). She made her debut on the [End](West)(West End (theatre)) theatre in the revival of [Miller](Arthur)(Arthur Miller)'s [My Sons](All)(All My Sons) in 2019. ## Early life Sally Field was born on November 6, 1946, in [California](Pasadena,)(Pasadena, California), to [Field](Margaret)(Margaret Field) (née Morlan), an actress, and Richard Dryden Field, who served in the Army during World War II. Her brother is [D. Field](Richard)(Richard D. Field), a physicist and an academic. Her parents were divorced in 1950; afterward, her mother married [Mahoney](Jock)(Jock Mahoney), an actor and a stuntman. Field said in her 2018 memoir that she was sexually abused by Mahoney during her childhood. As a teen, Field attended [Middle School](Portola)(Portola Middle School (Tarzana)) and [High School](Birmingham)(Birmingham High School) in [Nuys](Van)(Van Nuys), where she was a [cheerleader](cheerleader). Her classmates included financier [Milken](Michael)(Michael Milken), actress [Williams](Cindy)(Cindy Williams), and talent agent [Ovitz](Michael)(Michael Ovitz). ## Career ### 1965–1976 [[File:1976 Sally Field & Joanne Woodward.JPG\|thumb\|upright\|Field with [Woodward](Joanne)(Joanne Woodward) in Sybil (1976)]] Field got her start on television as the boy-crazy [surfer](surfing) girl in the sitcom [Gidget](Gidget (TV series)) (1965–1966). The show was not an initial success and was cancelled after a single season; however, summer reruns garnered respectable ratings, making the show a belated success. Wanting to find a new starring vehicle for Field, ABC next produced [Flying Nun](The)(The Flying Nun) with Field cast as Sister Bertrille for three seasons, from 1967 to 1970. In an interview included on the Season One DVD release, Field said that she thoroughly enjoyed Gidget but hated The Flying Nun because she was not treated with respect by the show's directors. Field was then [typecast](Typecasting (acting)), finding respectable roles difficult to obtain. In 1971, Field starred in the ABC [film](television)(television film) ''[I'll Come Home in the Spring](Maybe)(Maybe I'll Come Home in the Spring)'', playing a discouraged teen runaway who returns home with a bearded, drug-abusing hippie (played by [Carradine](David)(David Carradine)).["'Maybe I'll Come Home in the Spring' Overview"](http://www.tcm.com/tcmdb/title/471729/Maybe-I-ll-Come-Home-in-the-Spring/) , [Classic Movies](Turner)(Turner Classic Movies), accessed October 3, 2016. She made several guest television appearances through the mid-1970s, including a role on the Western [Smith and Jones](Alias)(Alias Smith and Jones), a popular series starring Gidget co-star [Duel](Pete)(Pete Duel). She also appeared in the episode "Whisper" on the thriller [Gallery](Night)(Night Gallery). In 1973, Field was cast in a starring role opposite [Davidson](John)(John Davidson (entertainer)) in the short-lived series [Girl with Something Extra](The)(The Girl with Something Extra) that aired from 1973 to 1974. 1973\|url=https://www.hollywood.com/tv/the-girl-with-something-extra-59508089/\|url-status=dead\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161005073409/http://www.hollywood.com/tv/the-girl-with-something-extra-59508089/\|archive-date=October 5, 2016\|access-date=October 3, 2016\|website=hollywood.com}} Following the series' cancellation, Field studied at the [Studio](Actors)(Actors Studio) with acting teacher [Strasberg](Lee)(Lee Strasberg). Strasberg became a mentor to Field, helping her move past her television image of the girl next door. During this period, Field divorced her first husband in 1975. Soon after studying with Strasberg, Field landed the title role in the 1976 television film [Sybil](Sybil (1976 film)), based on [book](the)(Sybil (Schreiber book)) by [Rheta Schreiber](Flora)(Flora Rheta Schreiber). Her dramatic portrayal of a young woman afflicted with [identity disorder](dissociative)(dissociative identity disorder) earned her an [Award](Emmy)(Emmy Award) for [Lead Actress in a Special Program – Drama or Comedy](Outstanding)(Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Limited Series or Movie) in 1977 and enabled her to break through the typecasting of her sitcom work. ### 1977–1989 In 1977, Field co-starred with [Reynolds](Burt)(Burt Reynolds), [Gleason](Jackie)(Jackie Gleason), and [Reed](Jerry)(Jerry Reed) in the year's second-highest-grossing film, [and the Bandit](Smokey)(Smokey and the Bandit). In 1979, she played the titular union organizer in [Rae](Norma)(Norma Rae), a film that established her as a dramatic actress. [Canby](Vincent)(Vincent Canby), reviewing the film for [New York Times](The)(The New York Times), wrote: "Norma Rae is a seriously concerned contemporary drama, illuminated by some very good performances and one, Miss Field's, that is spectacular." For her role in Norma Rae, Field won the [Female Performance Prize](Best)(Prix d'interprétation féminine) at the [Film Festival](Cannes)(Cannes Film Festival) and the [Award for Best Actress](Academy)(Academy Award for Best Actress). Field appeared with Reynolds in three more films: [End](The)(The End (1978 film)), [Hooper](Hooper (film)), and [and the Bandit II](Smokey)(Smokey and the Bandit II).["Field Filmography"](http://www.tcm.com/tcmdb/person/61489%7C137610/Sally-Field/) , Tcm.com, accessed October 3, 2016. In 1981, she continued to change her image, playing a foul-mouthed prostitute opposite [Lee Jones](Tommy)(Tommy Lee Jones) in the South-set film [Roads](Back)(Back Roads (1981 film)).[Black Roads](http://www.tcm.com/tcmdb/title/20932/Back-Roads/) , Tcm.com, accessed October 3, 2016. She was nominated for a Golden Globe for the 1981 drama [of Malice](Absence)(Absence of Malice) and the 1982 comedy [Me Goodbye](Kiss)(Kiss Me Goodbye (film)).["Sally Field Golden Globe Nominations"](http://www.goldenglobes.com/person/sally-field) goldenglobes.com, accessed October 3, 2016. Then came a second [Oscar](Academy Award) for her starring role in the 1984 drama [in the Heart](Places)(Places in the Heart).["Academy Award 1984"](https://web.archive.org/web/20140609212447/http://awardsdatabase.oscars.org/ampas_awards/DisplayMain.jsp?curTime=1402298663451) oscars.org, accessed October 3, 2016. Field's acceptance speech has since been both admired as earnest and parodied as excessive. She said, "Oh Benton, what you did for me. You changed my life, truly! This means so much more to me this time. I don't know why, I think the first time I hardly felt it because it was all so new. I owe a lot to the cast, to my players. To Lindsay and John and Danny, and Ed and Amy, and my little friends, Gennie and Yankton. I owe a lot to my family for holding me together and loving me and having patience with this obsession of me. But I want to 'thank you' to you. I haven't had an orthodox career. And I've wanted more than anything to have your respect. The first time I didn't feel it, but this time I feel it. And I can't deny the fact that you like me...right now...you like me! (applause) Thank you!" Field was making a humorous reference to dialog from her role in Norma Rae, but many people missed the connection. Field later parodied herself when she delivered the line (often misquoted as "You like me, you really like me!") in a [Schwab](Charles)(Charles Schwab Corporation) commercial. In 1985, she co-starred with [Garner](James)(James Garner) in the romantic comedy ''[Romance](Murphy's)(Murphy's Romance)''.[" 'Murphy's Romance' Overview"](http://www.tcm.com/tcmdb/title/84225/Murphy-s-Romance/) , Tcm.com, accessed October 3, 2016. In [A&E](A&E Network)'s biography of Garner, she cited her on-screen kiss with Garner as the best cinematic kiss she ever had. The following year, Field appeared on the cover of the March 1986 issue of [Playboy](Playboy) magazine, in which she was the interview subject. She did not appear as a pictorial subject in the magazine, although she did wear the classic [leotard](leotard) and bunny-ears outfit on the cover. That year, she received the [in Film](Women)(Women in Film Los Angeles) [Award](Crystal)(Women in Film Crystal + Lucy Awards#THE CRYSTAL AWARD). For her role as matriarch M'Lynn in the film version of [Magnolias](Steel)(Steel Magnolias) (1989), she was nominated for a 1990 Golden Globe Award for Best Actress.["Best Actress Golden Globe 1990"](http://www.goldenglobes.com/winners-nominees/best-performance-actress-motion-picture-drama/all-years#year-1990) goldenglobes.com, accessed October 3, 2016. ### 1990–present [[File:Sally Field (1990) crop.jpg\|thumb\|Field at the [Academy Awards ceremony](1990)(62nd Academy Awards)]] Field had supporting roles in a number of other movies, including [Doubtfire](Mrs.)(Mrs. Doubtfire) (1993), in which she played the wife of [Williams](Robin)(Robin Williams)'s character and the love interest of [Brosnan](Pierce)(Pierce Brosnan)'s character. She then played [Hanks](Tom)(Tom Hanks)'s mother in [Gump](Forrest)(Forrest Gump) (1994), even though she was only 10 years older than Hanks, with whom she had co-starred six years earlier in [Punchline](Punchline (film)). Field's other 1990s films included [Without My Daughter](Not)(Not Without My Daughter (film)), a controversial thriller based on the real-life experience of [Mahmoody](Betty)(Betty Mahmoody)'s escape from Iran with her daughter [Mahtob](Mahtob Mahmoody); and [Soapdish](Soapdish), a comedy in which she played a pampered soap-opera star and was joined by an all-star cast, including [Kline](Kevin)(Kevin Kline), [Goldberg](Whoopi)(Whoopi Goldberg), [Shue](Elisabeth)(Elisabeth Shue), and [Downey, Jr.](Robert)(Robert Downey Jr.) In 1996, Field reprised her role as Sassy in [Bound 2: Lost in San Francisco](Homeward)(Homeward Bound 2: Lost in San Francisco) and later that year, she received the Berlinale Camera award at the [Berlin International Film Festival](46th)(46th Berlin International Film Festival) for her role as a grieving vigilante mother in director [Schlesinger](John)(John Schlesinger)'s film [for an Eye](Eye)(Eye for an Eye (1996 film)). In 1997, Field guest starred on the [of the Hill](King)(King of the Hill) episode "Hilloween", in which she voiced religious woman Junie Harper, who contends with [Hill](Hank)(Hank Hill) ([Judge](Mike)(Mike Judge)) to ban Halloween. She co-starred with [Portman](Natalie)(Natalie Portman) in [the Heart Is](Where)(Where the Heart Is (2000 film)) (2000), and appeared opposite [Witherspoon](Reese)(Reese Witherspoon) in [Blonde 2: Red, White & Blonde](Legally)(Legally Blonde 2: Red, White & Blonde). Field had a recurring role on [ER](ER (TV series)) in the 2000–2001 season as Dr. [Lockhart](Abby)(Abby Lockhart)'s mother, Maggie, who suffers from [disorder](bipolar)(bipolar disorder), a role for which she won an [Award](Emmy)(Emmy Award) in 2001. After her critically acclaimed stint on the show, she returned to the role in 2003 and 2006. She also starred in the very short-lived 2002 series [Court](The)(The Court (TV series)). Field's directorial career began with the television film [Christmas Tree](The)(The Christmas Tree (1996 film)) (1996).King, Susan. ["Fast Christmas Wrapping"](https://articles.latimes.com/1996-12-22/news/tv-11459_1_christmas-tree) Los Angeles Times, December 22, 1996. In 1998, she directed the episode "The Original Wives' Club" of the critically acclaimed TV miniseries [the Earth to the Moon](From)(From the Earth to the Moon (miniseries)), also playing a minor role as Trudy, the wife of astronaut [Cooper](Gordon)(Gordon Cooper).James, Caryn. ["Television Review; Boyish Eyes On the Moon"](https://www.nytimes.com/1998/04/03/movies/television-review-boyish-eyes-on-the-moon.html&usg=AFQjCNEzDrbZMTyAP7BrQfT1CVDGVUEdrw) , [New York Times](The)(The New York Times), April 3, 1998. In 2000, she directed the feature film [Beautiful](Beautiful (2000 film)). Field was a late addition to the [ABC](American Broadcasting Company) drama [& Sisters](Brothers)(Brothers & Sisters (2006 TV series)), which debuted in September 2006. In the show's pilot, the role of matriarch Nora Walker was played by [Buckley](Betty)(Betty Buckley).Sullivan, Brian Ford. ["The Futon's First Look: 'Brothers & Sisters'"](http://www.thefutoncritic.com/reviews/2006/07/12/the-futons-first-look-brothers-and-sisters-abc-21732/20060712_brothersandsisters/) thefutoncritic.com, July 12, 2006. However, the show's producers decided to take the character in another direction, and offered the part to Field, who won the [Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Drama Series](2007)(59th Primetime Emmy Awards#Outstanding Lead Actress in a Drama Series) for her performance.["Sally Field Emmy Awards and Nominations"](http://www.emmys.com/bios/sally-field) , Emmys.com, accessed October 3, 2016. The drama also starred [Flockhart](Calista)(Calista Flockhart) and [Griffiths](Rachel)(Rachel Griffiths) as Nora's adult daughters. In November 2009, Field appeared on an episode of [Doctors](The)(The Doctors (2008 TV series)) to talk about [osteoporosis](osteoporosis) and her Rally With Sally Foundation. She portrayed [May](Aunt)(Aunt May) in the [Comics](Marvel)(Marvel Comics) films [Amazing Spider-Man](The)(The Amazing Spider-Man (film)) (2012) as well as the 2014 sequel. Field's widely praised portrayal of [Todd Lincoln](Mary)(Mary Todd Lincoln) in [Spielberg](Steven)(Steven Spielberg)'s film [Lincoln](Lincoln (film)), also in 2012, brought her Best Supporting Actress Award nominations at the [Oscars](Academy Award), [Globes](Golden)(Golden Globe Award), [BAFTA](BAFTA), and [Actors Guild](Screen)(Screen Actors Guild Award). On May 5, 2014, Field received a star on the [Walk of Fame](Hollywood)(Hollywood Walk of Fame) for her contributions to motion pictures. Her star is located in front of the [Wax Museum](Hollywood)(Hollywood Wax Museum). In January 2015, it was announced that she would co-host [TCM](Turner Classic Movies). The same year, Field portrayed the titular character in [My Name Is Doris](Hello,)(Hello, My Name Is Doris), for which she was nominated for the [Choice Movie Award for Best Actress in a Comedy](Critics')(Critics' Choice Movie Award for Best Actress in a Comedy). In 2017, Field reprised her role as Amanda Wingfield in [Glass Menagerie](The)(The Glass Menagerie) on [Broadway](Broadway theatre) at the [Theatre](Belasco)(Belasco Theatre). Performances began on February 7, 2017, in previews, and officially opened on March 9. The production closed on May 21, 2017. Field had previously played the role in the [Center](Kennedy)(Kennedy Center) production in 2004.Viagas, Robert. ["Sally Field's 'Glass Menagerie' Switches Broadway Theatres"](http://www.playbill.com/article/sally-fields-glass-menagerie-switches-broadway-theatres#) Playbill, October 5, 2016. She was nominated for a [Award for Best Actress in a Play](Tony)(Tony Award for Best Actress in a Play) for her performance.{{Cite news\|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2017/05/02/theater/tony-awards-nominations.html\|title=2017 Tony Awards: 'Great Comet' Leads With 12 Nominations\|last=Paulson\|first=Michael\|date=May 2, 2017\|newspaper=[New York Times](The)(The New York Times)}\|access-date=May 30, 2017\|issn=0362-4331}} Her memoir, In Pieces, was published by [Central Publishing](Grand)(Grand Central Publishing) in September 2018. Field returned to episodic television in 2018, starring in the [Netflix](Netflix) miniseries [Maniac](Maniac (miniseries)). Subsequently, in 2020, Field starred in the [AMC](AMC (TV channel)) series [from Elsewhere](Dispatches)(Dispatches from Elsewhere). In 2022, it was announced that Field would be a co-star in an upcoming comedy movie entitled [for Brady](80)(80 for Brady), which would star [NFL](NFL) quarterback [Brady](Tom)(Tom Brady) along with fellow actresses [Fonda](Jane)(Jane Fonda), [Tomlin](Lily)(Lily Tomlin) and [Moreno](Rita)(Rita Moreno). In 2023, Field was named the 58th recipient of the [Actors Guild Life Achievement Award](Screen)(Screen Actors Guild Life Achievement Award), which she will be presented at the [Screen Actors Guild Awards](29th)(29th Screen Actors Guild Awards). ## Personal life Field was married to Steven Craig from 1968 to 1975, though they separated in 1973. The couple had two sons: [Craig](Peter)(Peter Craig), a novelist and [screenwriter](screenwriter); and [Craig](Eli)(Eli Craig), an actor and director. From 1976 to 1980, Field had a relationship with [Reynolds](Burt)(Burt Reynolds), during which time they co-starred in four films: [and the Bandit](Smokey)(Smokey and the Bandit), [and the Bandit II](Smokey)(Smokey and the Bandit II), [End](The)(The End (1978 film)), and [Hooper](Hooper (film)). Following their 1980 breakup, Field and Reynolds continued to date [and off](on)(on-again, off-again relationship) before splitting permanently in 1982. Field married her second husband, Alan Greisman, in 1984. Together, they had one son, Sam, in 1987. Field and Greisman divorced in 1994. On October 29, 1988, at [County Airport](Aspen/Pitkin)(Aspen/Pitkin County Airport) in [Colorado](Colorado), Field and three members of her family were in a private plane owned by media mogul [Griffin](Merv)(Merv Griffin) when it lost power and [takeoff](rejected)(rejected takeoff), slamming into parked aircraft. They all survived with minor injuries. ## Philanthropy and activism In 2005, Field was diagnosed with [osteoporosis](osteoporosis). Her diagnosis led her to create the "Rally with Sally for Bone Health" campaign with support from [Roche](Hoffmann-La Roche) and [GlaxoSmithKline](GlaxoSmithKline) that controversially co-promoted [Boniva](Ibandronic acid), a [bisphosphonate](bisphosphonate) treatment for osteoporosis. Field's campaign encouraged the early diagnosis of such conditions through technology such as bone-density scans. In 2005, Field received the Golden Plate Award of the [Academy of Achievement](American)(Academy of Achievement) presented in recognition of her lifetime of contributions to the arts as well as her dedication as a social activist. During her acceptance speech at the 2007 [Award](Emmy)(Emmy Award)s, when she won for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Drama Series, Field said: "If the mothers ruled the world, there would be no goddamn wars in the first place." [Broadcasting Company](Fox)(Fox Broadcasting Company), which aired the show, cut the sound and picture after the word "god" and did not return camera/sound to the stage until after Field finished talking. An e-mail statement from the company the day after the incident explained that the censorship of Field's speech (among two other censorship incidents during the award ceremony) occurred because "some language during the live broadcast may have been considered inappropriate by some viewers. As a result, Fox's broadcast standards executives determined it appropriate to drop sound and picture during those portions of the show." Field is an advocate for [rights](women's)(women's rights). She has served on the board of directors of [Voices Global Partnership](Vital)(Vital Voices), an international women's NGO, and has co-hosted the [Leadership Awards](Global)(Global Leadership Awards) six times. A Democrat, Field supported [Clinton](Hillary)(Hillary Clinton)'s bid for the Democratic Party nomination in the [presidential election](2008)(2008 United States presidential election). Video of Cal State Los Angeles rally of february 2, 2008, with Field and actor [Whitford](Bradley)(Bradley Whitford). Field is also an advocate for gay rights, and won the [Rights Campaign](Human)(Human Rights Campaign)'s Ally for Equality Award in 2012. Her youngest son, Samuel Greisman, is gay. Field was arrested on December 13, 2019, while attending [Fonda](Jane)(Jane Fonda)'s weekly Friday climate change protests in Washington, D.C. ## Bibliography ## Discography ### Singles "Felicidad" (Billboard* No. 94, Cashbox No. 91) / "Find Yourself a Rainbow" – Colgems 1008 – August 1967 "Follow the Star" (Both sides, promo only) – Colgems 107 – December 1967 "Golden Days" / "You're a Grand Old Flag" – Colgems 1014 – January 1968 "Gonna Build a Mountain" / "Months of the Year" (also features Flying Nun* co-stars [Sherwood](Madeleine)(Madeleine Sherwood) and [Redmond](Marge)(Marge Redmond)) – Colgems 1030 – September 1968 ### Album Star of The Flying Nun—Colgems COM-106 (Mono) / COS-106 (Stereo) – Billboard No. 172, December 1967 ## Awards and nominations , Goldenglobes.com, accessed October 3, 2016.}} ## References ## External links * * * * * * * * [Actress Sally Field On Hollywood, Family and Aging](https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=104863979), an [NPR](National Public Radio) Interview, June 3, 2009 ([audio](streaming)(streaming audio)) }} [births](Category:1946)(Category:1946 births) [people](Category:Living)(Category:Living people) [American actresses](Category:20th-century)(Category:20th-century American actresses) [American actresses](Category:21st-century)(Category:21st-century American actresses) [from California](Category:Activists)(Category:Activists from California) [from Pasadena, California](Category:Actresses)(Category:Actresses from Pasadena, California) [child actresses](Category:American)(Category:American child actresses) [women singers](Category:American)(Category:American women singers) [film actresses](Category:American)(Category:American film actresses) [people of English descent](Category:American)(Category:American people of English descent) [television actresses](Category:American)(Category:American television actresses) [voice actresses](Category:American)(Category:American voice actresses) [women film directors](Category:American)(Category:American women film directors) [Actress Academy Award winners](Category:Best)(Category:Best Actress Academy Award winners) [Drama Actress Golden Globe (film) winners](Category:Best)(Category:Best Drama Actress Golden Globe (film) winners) [Film Festival Award for Best Actress winners](Category:Cannes)(Category:Cannes Film Festival Award for Best Actress winners) [Democrats](Category:California)(Category:California Democrats) [Records artists](Category:Colgems)(Category:Colgems Records artists) [actors](Category:Method)(Category:Method actors) [of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences](Category:Fellows)(Category:Fellows of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences) [directors from California](Category:Film)(Category:Film directors from California) [Strasberg Theatre and Film Institute alumni](Category:Lee)(Category:Lee Strasberg Theatre and Film Institute alumni) [LGBT rights activists](Category:American)(Category:American LGBT rights activists) [Performance by a Lead Actress in a Drama Series Primetime Emmy Award winners](Category:Outstanding)(Category:Outstanding Performance by a Lead Actress in a Drama Series Primetime Emmy Award winners) [Performance by a Female Actor in a Drama Series Screen Actors Guild Award winners](Category:Outstanding)(Category:Outstanding Performance by a Female Actor in a Drama Series Screen Actors Guild Award winners) [Performance by a Lead Actress in a Miniseries or Movie Primetime Emmy Award winners](Category:Outstanding)(Category:Outstanding Performance by a Lead Actress in a Miniseries or Movie Primetime Emmy Award winners) [of aviation accidents or incidents](Category:Survivors)(Category:Survivors of aviation accidents or incidents) [High School alumni](Category:Birmingham)(Category:Birmingham High School alumni) [Center honorees](Category:Kennedy)(Category:Kennedy Center honorees)
Mary Elizabeth Winstead	mary_elizabeth_winstead	# Mary Elizabeth Winstead Revision ID: 1158398596 \| Timestamp: 2023-06-03T20:57:08Z --- \| birth_place = [Mount](Rocky)(Rocky Mount, North Carolina), [Carolina](North)(North Carolina), U.S. \| occupation = \| years_active = 1997–present \| spouse = * }} \| children = 1 \| signature = Mary Elizabeth Winstead signature.svg }} Mary Elizabeth Winstead (born November 28, 1984) is an American actress and singer. Her first significant role was that of [Bennett](Jessica)(Jessica Bennett (Passions)) on the [NBC](NBC) soap opera [Passions](Passions) (1999–2000). She went on to appear in series such as [Calling](Tru)(Tru Calling) (2004) and films including the superhero film [High](Sky)(Sky High (2005 film)) (2005). She came to wider attention for her roles in the horror series [Lake](Wolf)(Wolf Lake) (2001–2002), the giant monster film [Island](Monster)(Monster Island (2004 film)) (2004), the supernatural horror film [Destination 3](Final)(Final Destination 3) (2006), the slasher film [Christmas](Black)(Black Christmas (2006 film)) (2006), and the exploitation horror film [Proof](Death)(Death Proof) (2007). Further success came with her roles as [McClane](John)(John McClane)'s daughter [Gennero-McClane](Lucy)(John McClane#Lucy McClane) in [Free or Die Hard](Live)(Live Free or Die Hard) (2007) and [Flowers](Ramona)(Ramona Flowers) in [Pilgrim vs. the World](Scott)(Scott Pilgrim vs. the World) (2010). Her critically acclaimed performance as an alcoholic struggling with sobriety in the [Sundance](Sundance Film Festival) drama [Smashed](Smashed (film)) (2012) was followed by a series of roles in other well-received independent films, including [Beauty Inside](The)(The Beauty Inside (2012 film)) (2012), [Spectacular Now](The)(The Spectacular Now) (2013), [Faults](Faults (film)) (2014), [of Venice](Alex)(Alex of Venice) (2014), and [Army Man](Swiss)(Swiss Army Man) (2016). Winstead continued her Scream Queen roles in the sci-fi horror film [Thing](The)(The Thing (2011 film)) (2011), as [Todd Lincoln](Mary)(Mary Todd Lincoln) in the fantasy horror film [Lincoln: Vampire Hunter](Abraham)(Abraham Lincoln: Vampire Hunter) (2012), and in the psychological horror thriller film [Cloverfield Lane](10)(10 Cloverfield Lane) (2016). She reprised her role as Lucy Gennero-McClane in [Good Day to Die Hard](A)(A Good Day to Die Hard) (2013) and returned to television with roles in the supernatural drama series [Returned](The)(The Returned (U.S. TV series)) (2015), the political satire science fiction comedy series [BrainDead](BrainDead) (2016), the period medical drama series [Street](Mercy)(Mercy Street (TV series)) (2016–17) and the black comedy crime drama anthology series [Fargo](Fargo (TV series)) (2017). Her other roles include the comedy drama [About Nina](All)(All About Nina) (2018), the action thriller film [Man](Gemini)(Gemini Man (film)) (2019), and as [Huntress](the)(Huntress (Helena Bertinelli)) in [of Prey](Birds)(Birds of Prey (2020 film)) (2020). Since 2013, Winstead has performed as music duo [a Girl](Got)(Got a Girl) with [the Automator](Dan)(Dan the Automator). ## Early life Mary Elizabeth Winstead was born on November 28, 1984, in [Mount, North Carolina](Rocky)(Rocky Mount, North Carolina), to Betty Lou (née Knight) and James Ronald Winstead and is the youngest of five children. Her grandfather, Ambler William Winstead, was a cousin of actress [Gardner](Ava)(Ava Gardner). When she was five years old, her family moved to [Utah](Sandy,)(Sandy, Utah), where she attended Peruvian Park Elementary and took advanced classes. She studied dance in a [Ballet](Joffrey)(Joffrey Ballet) summer program in [Chicago](Chicago) and sang in the International Children's Choir. During her youth, she hoped to pursue a career as a ballerina and appeared in local ballet productions. As she entered her teens, she was forced to quit ballet due to her height. She later said, "I realized pretty early on that I was already too tall by the time I was 13... You know, your body has to stay that way for your entire life, and it's pretty hard on your muscles and your bones." Realizing a dance career was unlikely, she turned to acting. As she was still a teenager at the time, this required her to be [homeschooled](Homeschooling) through most of high school. ## Career ### Acting #### 1997–2004 Winstead appeared in a production of [and the Amazing Technicolor Dreamcoat](Joseph)(Joseph and the Amazing Technicolor Dreamcoat) starring [Osmond](Donny)(Donny Osmond). After her brief performance in that show, Winstead began making appearances in various television series and earned guest roles in [by an Angel](Touched)(Touched by an Angel) and [Land](Promised)(Promised Land (1996 TV series)). She gained her first major role as [Bennett](Jessica)(Jessica Bennett (Passions)) in the [NBC](NBC) soap opera [Passions](Passions), from 1999 to 2000. She left to pursue other interests, later stating, "I really had one of the smallest roles on Passions, so I didn't get too involved... I was able to leave pretty easily". Winstead's next significant television role was in the short-lived [CBS](CBS) drama series [Lake](Wolf)(Wolf Lake) (2001–02), as the daughter of [Matheson](Tim)(Tim Matheson)'s character. The series was canceled after ten episodes. In 2004, Winstead played a supporting role in [MTV](MTV)'s [made-for-television](made-for-television) film [Island](Monster)(Monster Island (2004 film)). She was offered a role in the film [Cinderella Story](A)(A Cinderella Story), but turned it down as she had just graduated from school and was going on a cruise with friends (where she met Riley Stearns, her future husband). #### 2005–2011 Following a minor role in the [indie](Independent film) [comedy](comedy) [Out](Checking)(Checking Out (2005 film)) (2005), she took on a larger role as a school senior turned the main antagonist in the [Disney Pictures](Walt)(Walt Disney Pictures) film [High](Sky)(Sky High (2005 film)), about an airborne school for teenage superheroes. Winstead said of her role, "I bounced around. I was either the hero of the sidekicks or the sidekick to the heroes." The film was released on July 29, 2005, receiving favorable reviews, and budgeted at US$35 million, it grossed US$63.9 million domestically. Winstead then began working with filmmakers [Wong](James)(James Wong (producer)) and [Morgan](Glen)(Glen Morgan), previously known for their contributions to [X-Files](The)(The X-Files). She starred in the 2006 [movie](horror)(horror movie) [Destination 3](Final)(Final Destination 3) (which Wong directed and Morgan produced) as lead character [Christensen](Wendy)(Wendy Christensen), the "beleaguered heroine who experiences the premonition" that sets the story in motion. The production was a commercial success, but received a mixed response from critics. Winstead's performance fared positively with reviewers; [Berardinelli](James)(James Berardinelli) stated she "does as competent a job as one could expect in these dire circumstances," while Felix Gonzalez, Jr found her "likeable" in her role. Winstead would collaborate again with Morgan and Wong later that year, in the slasher film [Christmas](Black)(Black Christmas (2006 film)). The movie, a loose remake of the 1974 [of the same name](film)(Black Christmas (1974 film)), follows a group of sorority sisters who are stalked and murdered by the house's former inhabitants during a winter storm. It received poor reviews, but earned her a nomination for [Queen](Scream)(Scream Queen) at the 2007 [Awards](Scream)(Scream Awards). Winstead got a chance to lampoon horror scream queens when [Show](Tonight)(The Tonight Show with Jay Leno) host [Leno](Jay)(Jay Leno), unaware of who she was, knocked on her front door and included her in a comedy segment spoofing horror films. She appeared in [Estevez](Emilio)(Emilio Estevez)'s [Bobby](Bobby (2006 film)), a 2006 film depicting the last hours of [F. Kennedy](Robert)(Robert F. Kennedy). Winstead became interested in Bobby after learning that [Hopkins](Anthony)(Anthony Hopkins) would appear in the film. A moderate [office](box)(box office) success in selected theaters, Bobby received mixed reviews with many criticisms directed at the film's script. The film's cast was nominated for the [Actors Guild Award for Best Cast in a Motion Picture](Screen)(Screen Actors Guild Award for Best Cast in a Motion Picture), but won the [Film Festival Award](Hollywood)(Hollywood Film Festival) for Best Ensemble Cast. [[Elizabeth Winstead 3.jpg\|thumb\|upright\|right\|Winstead at the premiere of Grindhouse in Austin, Texas, March 2007](File:Mary)] In 2007, Winstead appeared in a pair of high-profile event films. [Tarantino](Quentin)(Quentin Tarantino) cast her as a well-intentioned but vapid and naïve actress in [Proof](Death)(Death Proof), his high-speed segment of the double–feature [exploitation](Exploitation film) horror [Grindhouse](Grindhouse (film)). Film Industry \|website=[Empire](Empire (magazine)) \|access-date=October 1, 2017}} She appeared alongside [Dawson](Rosario)(Rosario Dawson), [Thoms](Tracie)(Tracie Thoms), [Bell](Zoë)(Zoë Bell), and [Russell](Kurt)(Kurt Russell) in the movie's second part, which followed a [psychopathic](Psychopathy) [man](stunt)(stunt man), played by Russell, stalking and murdering young women. It is the second film to feature Winstead with Russell (after [High](Sky)(Sky High (2005 film))), although she only filmed scenes with Dawson, Thoms, and Bell. The production under-performed commercially but attracted significant media buzz and critical acclaim, [Variety](Variety (magazine)) magazine noted that Death Proof "proves its worth as a stand-alone feature" and found Winstead's "emergence" to be "one agreeable plus [the movie](to)". Her next film appearance of the year was opposite [Willis](Bruce)(Bruce Willis) in [Free or Die Hard](Live)(Live Free or Die Hard), portraying [McClane](John)(John McClane)'s estranged daughter, [Lucy](John McClane#Lucy McClane). The movie grossed US$383.5 million and was highly acclaimed. She starred in a lead role in [It Happen](Make)(Make It Happen (film)), a [film](dance)(Dance in film). The film went [to DVD](straight)(Direct-to-DVD) in the United States, and fared poorly in its UK release. Nevertheless, it proved a delight for Winstead, who once dreamed of being a dancer. Critics agreed that she was the film's best asset. Reviewer Mike Martin wrote, "Winstead infuses every moment with an amazing amount of charm". Matthew Turner of ViewLondon wrote, "[Winstead] compensates for the generally poor direction." Winstead co-starred opposite [Cera](Michael)(Michael Cera) in the film [Pilgrim vs. The World](Scott)(Scott Pilgrim vs. The World), an adaptation of the comic-book [Pilgrim](Scott)(Scott Pilgrim), under the direction of [Wright](Edgar)(Edgar Wright). Her role was [Flowers](Ramona)(Ramona Flowers), a mysterious delivery girl and Scott's love interest. Winstead went through fight training for two months and performed most of her own stunts. Filming occurred from March to August 2009, and the film was released in late 2010, to critical acclaim but poor box office returns. Winstead's performance was well received generally, and earned her a [Choice Awards](Teen)(Teen Choice Awards) nomination for [Actress Action](Choice)(2011 Teen Choice Awards#Choice Movie). Winstead was cast as the lead female in the 2011 [prequel](The Thing (2011 film)) film to 1982's [Thing](The)(The Thing (1982 film)), which followed a group of scientists who discover an alien buried deep in the ice of Antarctica, realizing too late that it is still alive. Winstead portrayed paleontologist Dr. Kate Lloyd, a character she based on her sister, a neurologist. The production received a U.S. theatrical release on October 14, 2011, garnering a mixed critical reception and little commercial interest. Critics singled out Winstead for praise in her performance, with [Vegas Weekly](Las)(Las Vegas Weekly) asserting that she "makes for an appealing protagonist, and Kate is portrayed as competent without being thrust into some unlikely action-hero role". #### 2012–2014 Winstead appeared opposite [Paul](Aaron)(Aaron Paul) in [Smashed](Smashed (film)), an [independent](independent film) drama directed by [Ponsoldt](James)(James Ponsoldt) about a married alcoholic couple (Paul and Winstead) whose relationship is put to test when the wife decides to get sober. She said that the film was shot in 19 days. Screened during the [Sundance Film Festival](2012)(2012 Sundance Film Festival), Winstead's performance earned her rave reviews, with [JoBlo.com](JoBlo.com) calling it: "the type of performance that could be Award-worthy if given the right kind of build-up by whichever studio picks it up". The film was released theatrically on October 12, 2012, and saw Winstead snagging the [International Film Festival Award](Dallas)(Dallas International Film Festival) for Best Actress. During a promotional interview for the movie with website [Collider](Collider (website)), she expressed pride in working on an independent project: "It's something I've been trying to do for years and years [...] It's almost like [first movie](my)(Checking Out (2005 film)) in a weird way, cause it's my first movie in this world, which is a world I've been trying to break into. [wanted](I've) to be around filmmakers that are trying new things and not part of the system, so to speak, and they're doing things on their own terms." Winstead played the role of [Todd Lincoln](Mary)(Mary Todd Lincoln) opposite [Walker](Benjamin)(Benjamin Walker (actor)) in [Lincoln: Vampire Hunter](Abraham)(Abraham Lincoln: Vampire Hunter (film)). The film, also released in 2012, received a mixed critical response while it flopped at the box office. Nevertheless, critics praised Winstead's performance. The [Jose Mercury News](San)(San Jose Mercury News) called Winstead "a standout", and the [Times](Illinois)(Illinois Times) film critic wrote, "Winstead humanizes Mary [Lincoln](Todd) by giving her a fiery wit and sense of resolve in the face of considerable adversity". Winstead was commended for scenes opposite Benjamin Walker, with [White Lies](Little)(Little White Lies (magazine)) writing that they shared: "a sweet chemistry that gives their handful of scenes an endearing warmth". In 2012, Winstead and [Grace](Topher)(Topher Grace) appeared in [Beauty Inside](The)(The Beauty Inside (2012 film)), an "[social film](interactive)(social film)". It was broken into six filmed episodes interspersed with interactive storytelling, all on Alex (the main character)'s [Facebook](Facebook) timeline. He awakes each day with a different appearance; Winstead appeared as Leah, Alex's love interest. The [series](web)(web television) served as an advertising campaign for [Intel](Intel) and [Toshiba](Toshiba); it ran from August 16 through September 20, 2012. [[Elizabeth Winstead Entertainment Weekly CapeTown Film Festival.jpg\|thumb\|upright\|Winstead at the Entertainment Weekly CapeTown Film Festival\|left](File:Mary)] Winstead was also cast in [Coppola](Roman)(Roman Coppola)'s [Glimpse Inside the Mind of Charles Swan III](A)(A Glimpse Inside the Mind of Charles Swan III) (2013), as Kate, "the best friend of [Sheen's](Charlie) girlfriend who just broke up with him. She is not so supportive of their relationship." The film reunited her with [Schwartzman](Jason)(Jason Schwartzman) and [Plaza](Aubrey)(Aubrey Plaza), her collaborators on Scott Pilgrim vs. the World. Winstead next co-starred with [Scott](Adam)(Adam Scott (actor)), [Jenkins](Richard)(Richard Jenkins), [Lynch](Jane)(Jane Lynch), [Alba](Jessica)(Jessica Alba), [Poehler](Amy)(Amy Poehler), and [O'Hara](Catherine)(Catherine O'Hara) in [A.C.O.D.](A.C.O.D.) (2013), portraying Lauren Stinger, the "long-time girlfriend of Carter (Scott) and the rock in his increasingly chaotic life." Although the film received mixed reviews, Winstead's acting was singled out by the [Post](Washington)(Washington Post): "Winstead brings surprising depth to a small role, in which she has little to do except wait for her boyfriend to grow up, or to at least let go of his cynicism about love." [Rant](Screen)(Screen Rant) critic Ben Kendrick wrote: "[Winstead] and [Alba] also deliver in their contributions – though both of their characters are mainly designed to be mirrors for Carter to examine his own life and choices." A Glimpse Inside the Mind of Charles Swan III and A.C.O.D. both received a limited theatrical run in North America. Winstead collaborated again with James Ponsoldt in [Spectacular Now](The)(The Spectacular Now) (2013) as Holly, the sister of [Teller](Miles)(Miles Teller)'s lead character. She appeared with [Larson](Brie)(Brie Larson), her co-star in Scott Pilgrim vs. the World, and with [Woodley](Shailene)(Shailene Woodley), [Chandler](Kyle)(Kyle Chandler), and [Odenkirk](Bob)(Bob Odenkirk). The film garnered critical acclaim and was an arthouse success. Next, Winstead briefly reprised her role in the film [Good Day to Die Hard](A)(A Good Day to Die Hard) (also 2013), shooting her scenes in only one day. Winstead stated in an interview with [Yahoo!](Yahoo!) that she was not expecting another sequel but "[fun reprising](had) the father-daughter rapport." Winstead's scene was only available in the theatrical version, and was cut from the [version](unrated)(Unrated films). In 2014, Winstead was given the title role in [of Venice](Alex)(Alex of Venice), directed by [Messina](Chris)(Chris Messina) and penned by [Goldberg](Jessica)(Jessica Goldberg). She played "an environmental lawyer who is left to raise her 12-year-old son alone after her husband bolts." Premiering at the 57th [Francisco International Film Festival](San)(San Francisco International Film Festival), reviews for the film were mostly positive, with many critics praising Winstead's part in it; [Variety](Variety (magazine)) magazine called her performance "extraordinary", saying the film: "belongs to Winstead, whose minor-key thesping proves as compelling as her heavy lifting in Smashed. Alex's gradual metamorphosis into a richer, more fully realized young woman is accomplished in hundreds of tiny emotional brushstrokes, flitting across her girl-next-door wholesomeness in ever-shifting patterns". Website [Film](Twitch)(Twitch Film) wrote: [Winstead] has matured from her early roles in horror films, to more impressive fare such as Smashed. She has grace, courage, knows how to move the audience and the camera loves her. While her resume up 'til now is a mix of blockbusters (Final Destination 3, Live Free or Die Hard) and indie favorites (Scott Pilgrim vs. the World), this will change as she continues to grow into her profoundly blossoming career. This is an actress ready to do great things. As Alex, she always wears a look of determination, even when she's exhausted and losing the new battles thrown at her: learning how to be alone, taking care of her family and keeping the job she's worked her entire life for. Alex is a tender soul but does her damnedest to keep it together. It's an admirable trait not many can do, let alone be challenged with. In 2014, Winstead starred in Stearns' debut feature film [Faults](Faults (film)). Winstead and co-star [Orser](Leland)(Leland Orser) were praised for their performances, with [School Rejects](Film)(Film School Rejects) calling it an "exceptional performance" and [Indiewire](Indiewire) saying "[Winstead's] inscrutable expression epitomizes this unique movie's enigmatic appeal", and even "ranks among her best". Winstead was next cast alongside [Renner](Jeremy)(Jeremy Renner) and [DeWitt](Rosemarie)(Rosemarie DeWitt) in [the Messenger](Kill)(Kill the Messenger (2014 film)). The thriller tells the [story](true)(List of films based on actual events) of [journalist](investigative)(investigative journalist) [Webb](Gary)(Gary Webb). Winstead portrayed Dawn Garcia, Webb's editor at the [Jose Mercury News](San)(San Jose Mercury News). It received a limited theatrical release on October 10, 2014, to favorable reviews but little commercial interest. #### 2015–present By January 2015, Winstead had been already cast as a series regular on [A&E](A&E (TV channel))'s [remake](U.S.)(The Returned (U.S. TV series)) of the [French](List of French television series) drama series [Returned](The)(Les Revenants (TV series)), with [Holt](Sandrine)(Sandrine Holt) and [Bruckner](Agnes)(Agnes Bruckner). The adapted show followed residents in a small town whose lives are disrupted when people who have been dead for many years begin reappearing. It premiered on March 9, 2015, for a 10-episode run, to mostly critical acclaim. The series was cancelled after its first season though, due to low ratings. Also in 2015, she also made a guest-appearance on the [6 episode](August)(List of Comedy Bang! Bang! (TV series) episodes) of [IFC](IFC (U.S. TV network))'s [Bang! Bang!](Comedy)(Comedy Bang! Bang! (TV series)) ("Mary Elizabeth Winstead Wears an A-Line Skirt and Pointy Black Boots"). Winstead next portrayed the leading role of [Phinney](Mary)(Mary Phinney) in [PBS](PBS)' [rights drama](civil)(civil rights dramas) [Street](Mercy)(Mercy Street (TV series)). The six-part series, about two volunteer nurses on opposing sides of the [War](Civil)(American Civil War), premiered on-demand on January 14, 2016, and made its broadcast debut three days later, on January 17. It rated favorably with reviewers, who also showed praise of Winstead's performance; Variety magazine described her as the "smart, capable center around which Mercy Street pivots" and therefore noted that she was "so good that it's hard not to wish the show had pared down the sheer number of storylines it attempts to service in its six installments". The show was renewed for a second season, which premiered on January 22, 2017, and was cancelled after its finale aired. Winstead headlined the psychological thriller [Cloverfield Lane](10)(10 Cloverfield Lane), appearing as Michelle, a woman held in a shelter with two men, who claim the outside world is affected by a widespread chemical attack. The film, directed by [Trachtenberg](Dan)(Dan Trachtenberg), was released on March 11, 2016, to a widely positive reception from critics who, according to website [Tomatoes](Rotten)(Rotten Tomatoes), agreed that the movie "makes the most of its confined setting and outstanding cast". [Express](Daily)(Daily Express) found Winstead "sympathetic" and remarked that she "creates a character who is smart and resourceful", while writer James Berardinelli called her a "good choice" to play the heroine as she is "strong yet feminine". 10 Cloverfield Lane had the highest debut at the box office for Winstead in a leading role, with over US$24 million grossed on its opening weekend; it went on to gross US$72 million in North America and US$110.2 million worldwide. Winstead appeared in [Army Man](Swiss)(Swiss Army Man), an independent comedy-drama directed by Daniel Kwan and Daniel Scheinert. The film, co-starring [Radcliffe](Daniel)(Daniel Radcliffe) and [Dano](Paul)(Paul Dano), follows a hopeless man stranded on an island who befriends an apparent dead body as he tries to get back home. It premiered at the 2016 [Film Festival](Sundance)(Sundance Film Festival) and was released in selected theaters on June 24, to a positive reception. Winstead also had a role in [Krasinski](John)(John Krasinski)'s small-scale dramedy [Hollars](The)(The Hollars), opposite Richard Jenkins, [Kendrick](Anna)(Anna Kendrick), [Kay Place](Mary)(Mary Kay Place), and [Martindale](Margo)(Margo Martindale). She played the ex-girlfriend of Krasinski's struggling New York City [novelist](graphic)(graphic novelist), who returns to his hometown after learning his mother has fallen ill. Like Swiss Army Man, the production was screened at Sundance and received a limited U.S. theatrical release in August 2016. [[Elizabeth Winstead (35128536332).jpg\|thumb\|upright\|Winstead in 2017](File:Mary)] Winstead appeared in CBS' [political](political film) comic thriller [BrainDead](BrainDead (TV series)), as leading character Laurel, "the daughter of a Democratic political dynasty who left [D.C.](Washington,)(Washington, D.C.) to become a documentary filmmaker, but is pulled back into the family business when her brother needs political help". The series received mildly positive reviews by critics, with [York Magazine](New)(New York Magazine) calling Winstead's casting the "smartest decision the makers made", and [A.V. Club](The)(The A.V. Club) said that she "makes an eminently watchable, formidable heroine". Despite a largely positive critical response, the series debuted to lackluster ratings and after the airing of its 13-episode first season, CBS announced its cancellation. Winstead starred opposite [McGregor](Ewan)(Ewan McGregor) in the [season](third)(Fargo (season 3)) of [Fargo](Fargo (TV series)) as Nikki Swango, "a crafty and alluring recent parolee with a passion for competitive bridge playing with a plan, focused on always being at least one move ahead of her opponents". The season is set around December 2010 in [Minnesota](Minnesota) and follows the lives of McGregor and Winstead's criminal couple roles; it premiered on April 19, 2017, to positive reviews. In an interview with [Variety](Variety (magazine)), Winstead spoke of the character, "I'd never played a character like this. Once I was on set and doing it, it was so easy but it took all the elements coming together for me to feel confident and comfortable." In October 2017, [Deadline](Deadline Hollywood) reported that Winstead would be starring as lead in the semi-autographical dark comedy [About Nina](All)(All About Nina), opposite [Common](Common (rapper)). The film screened at the [Film Festival](Tribeca)(Tribeca Film Festival) in April 2018 2018 Tribeca Festival \|url=https://tribecafilm.com/films/all-about-nina-2018 \|work=Tribeca \|date=June 16, 2021}} and won Winstead rave reviews, with [Hollywood Reporter](The)(The Hollywood Reporter) calling it "yet another impressive performance by Mary Elizabeth Winstead" and earning her a nomination for Bravest Performance at the [of Women Film Journalists](Alliance)(Alliance of Women Film Journalists). In December 2017, it was reported that Winstead would co-star in [Parts You Lose](The)(The Parts You Lose); the romantic thriller saw her reuniting with her [Smashed](Smashed (film)) co-star, [Paul](Aaron)(Aaron Paul). In January 2018, it was reported that Winstead was cast as female lead opposite [Smith](Will)(Will Smith) in [Man](Gemini)(Gemini Man (film)). The film, directed by [Lee](Ang)(Ang Lee), was released in the United States on October 11, 2019, by [Pictures](Paramount)(Paramount Pictures). In late-September 2018, Winstead was announced to play [Huntress](Huntress (Helena Bertinelli)) in [Bros.](Warner)(Warner Bros.)' [Comics](DC)(DC Comics) film [of Prey (And the Fantabulous Emancipation of One Harley Quinn)](Birds)(Birds of Prey (2020 film)). Directed by [Yan](Cathy)(Cathy Yan), and starring [Robbie](Margot)(Margot Robbie), who reprised her role as [Quinn](Harley)(Harley Quinn), the film was released in February 2020. In February 2019, it was revealed that Winstead is also voice starring in the Netflix adult-oriented animated [series](anthology)(anthology series) [Death & Robots](Love,)(Love, Death & Robots). The series saw her reuniting with [Beauty Inside](The)(The Beauty Inside (2012 film)) co-star [Grace](Topher)(Topher Grace) and was released on March 15. In April 2019, Winstead joined the cast of [Netflix](Netflix) action film [Kate](Kate (film)) as the titular lead character. The film was released in September 2021 to lukewarm reviews, but Winstead was praised for her performance. In January 2022, Winstead was added to the cast of [Disney+](Disney+) [Wars](Star)(Star Wars) series [Ahsoka](Ahsoka (TV series)). She is also set to co-star with [Gomez](Xochitl)(Xochitl Gomez) in Jonathan and Josh Baker's second feature film Ursa Major, based on an original script by [Somerville](Patrick)(Patrick Somerville), for [Films](XYZ)(XYZ Films). ### Singing Winstead has expressed her interest in singing, but initially did not plan on pursuing it as a career. "I wasn't ever really going to be a singer, but it's just something I've always loved." For her part in 2007's Death Proof, Tarantino had Winstead sing an [cappella](a)(a cappella) cover of [Shirelles](The)(The Shirelles)' hit recording "[It's You](Baby)(Baby It's You)". She was asked without warning to perform the song and the cast were reportedly "gob-smacked" by her singing. Winstead and [producer](music)(music producer) Thai Long Ly eventually co-wrote a song, called "Warmth of Him"." "Warmth Of Him" by Mary Elizabeth Winstead" thailongly.com, retrieved August 23, 2011 Although first rumored to be a [single](pre-release)(Single (music)), Winstead confirmed that she was just exploring her interest and did not plan at the time on releasing any [albums](music)(music albums). #### Got a Girl In an interview with [Complex](Complex (magazine)) magazine for the June/July 2012 issue, Winstead revealed she was working with [the Automator](Dan)(Dan the Automator) and was indeed planning on releasing a music album. The duo formed the band [a Girl](Got)(Got a Girl) the following year, and released their demo "You & Me" on May 21, 2013. The album, titled [Love You but I Must Drive Off This Cliff Now](I)(I Love You but I Must Drive Off This Cliff Now), was released on July 22, 2014, via Bulk Recordings. The first single, "Did We Live Too Fast" premiered on June 3, and its music video, directed by [Larson](Hope)(Hope Larson), premiered online on June 16. The album features heavy influences of [pop music](French)(French pop music), with Winstead detailing that the inspiration behind the project came from "French '60s pop—[Birkin](Jane)(Jane Birkin), and stuff like that. It's kind of married with Dan's sensibility, which is his beats and a little bit of that low-key hip-hop vibe. So it makes for something that's very unique; it's very lounge-y and light. It's got a little bit of a French quality." All lyrics were written by Winstead while all music was composed by Dan the Automator. #### Guest appearances Winstead was also featured on the songs "The Agony" and "Look Across The Sky" on [3030](Deltron)(Deltron 3030)'s second studio album [2](Event)(Event 2), released on September 30, 2013. In November 2016, Honus Honus from [experimental](Experimental music) band [Man](Man)(Man Man) released a song on [SoundCloud](SoundCloud), "Santa Monica," that features Winstead. In December 2016, [The Man](Portugal.)(Portugal. The Man) released the single and video for "Noise Pollution (Version A, Vocal Up Mix 1.3)" from their album [Woodstock](Woodstock (Portugal. The Man album)), featuring Winstead and Zoe Manville. ## Personal life In 2010, Winstead married filmmaker [Stearns](Riley)(Riley Stearns), whom she had met at age eighteen on an ocean cruise. She starred in and produced Stearns' debut feature film, [Faults](Faults (film)), in 2014. She announced their separation in May 2017 and their divorce was finalized later that year. It was reported in October 2017 that she was in a relationship with Scottish actor [McGregor](Ewan)(Ewan McGregor), whom she had met on the set of the [Fargo](Fargo (TV series)) television series. Their son, Laurie, was born on June 27, 2021. Winstead and McGregor married in April 2022. ## Filmography ### Feature film ### Short film ### Television ### Music videos ## Awards and nominations ## References ## External links * * * [births](Category:1984)(Category:1984 births) [American actresses](Category:20th-century)(Category:20th-century American actresses) [American actresses](Category:21st-century)(Category:21st-century American actresses) [from North Carolina](Category:Actresses)(Category:Actresses from North Carolina) [from Utah](Category:Actresses)(Category:Actresses from Utah) [child actresses](Category:American)(Category:American child actresses) [film actresses](Category:American)(Category:American film actresses) [soap opera actresses](Category:American)(Category:American soap opera actresses) [television actresses](Category:American)(Category:American television actresses) [Emmy Award winners](Category:Daytime)(Category:Daytime Emmy Award winners) [people](Category:Living)(Category:Living people) [from Rocky Mount, North Carolina](Category:People)(Category:People from Rocky Mount, North Carolina) [from Sandy, Utah](Category:People)(Category:People from Sandy, Utah) [from North Carolina](Category:Singers)(Category:Singers from North Carolina) [from Utah](Category:Singers)(Category:Singers from Utah)
List of active United States Air Force aircraft	list_of_active_united_states_air_force_aircraft	# List of active United States Air Force aircraft Revision ID: 1158457818 \| Timestamp: 2023-06-04T06:09:00Z --- [[File:Military service mark of the United States Air Force.svg\|thumb\|Emblem of the [USAF](United States Air Force)]] The following is a list of currently active [aircraft](military)(military aircraft) in the [States Air Force](United)(United States Air Force). ## Aircraft ### Current inventory ## Images File:Fairchild Republic A-10 Thunderbolt II - 32156159151.jpg\|An [Thunderbolt II](A-10)(Fairchild Republic A-10 Thunderbolt II) in 2011. The [aircraft](attack)(attack aircraft) is used for [air support](close)(close air support) File:140508-F-ER377-052 (14206897326).jpg\|An F-15E Strike Eagle from the [Fighter Squadron](494th)(494th Fighter Squadron) File:F-16 June 2008.jpg\|An F-16C over [Iraq](Iraq) in 2008 File:Lockheed Martin F-22A Raptor JSOH.jpg\|An [Raptor](F-22A)(F-22A Raptor) flies over [Air Force Base](Andrews)(Andrews Air Force Base) during an airshow in 2008 File:F-35A - 130516-F-XL333-450 (cropped).jpg\|An F-35A in flight File:KC-10 Extender with the 76th Air Refueling Squadron.jpg\|A KC-10 Extender with the [Air Refueling Squadron](76th)(76th Air Refueling Squadron) File:Boeing C-17A Globemaster III USA - Air Force, RMS Ramstein (Ramstein Air Base), Germany PP1317838862.jpg\|A C-17A Globemaster III taking off from [Air Base](Ramstein)(Ramstein Air Base) File:Air Force One photo op incident.jpg\|The highly modified [747](Boeing)(Boeing VC-25) used to transport the [President](U.S.)(POTUS), under the callsign [Force One](Air)(Air Force One) File:MH-139-Grey-Wolf 96th Test Wing Public Affairs.jpg\|The MH-139A Grey Wolf replacement for the [ Bell UH-1N](Bell UH-1N Twin Huey) File:CV-22 Osprey - RIAT 2015 (cropped).jpg\|A CV-22 Osprey over [RIAT](RIAT) in 2015 File:T-38 Talon over Edwards AFB.jpg\|A T-38 Talon over [AFB](Edwards)(Edwards AFB) File:Reaper UAV Takes to the Skies of Southern Afghanistan MOD 45151418.jpg\|An [Reaper](MQ-9)(MQ-9 Reaper) in 2009, armed with two [ 500 lb. bombs](GBU-12 Paveway II) and four [Hellfire](AGM-114 Hellfire) missiles ## See also [military aircraft of the United States](Future)(Future military aircraft of the United States) [of military aircraft of the United States](List)(List of military aircraft of the United States) [of U.S. DoD aircraft designations](List)(List of U.S. DoD aircraft designations) [of currently active United States naval aircraft](List)(List of currently active United States naval aircraft) [of United States Air Force squadrons](List)(List of United States Air Force squadrons) [of active U.S. Air Force aircraft squadrons](List)(List of active United States Air Force aircraft squadrons) *[in the U.S. military](UAVs)(UAVs in the U.S. military) ## Notes ## References [Aircraft](Category:United States Air Force lists) [aircraft](Category:Military)(Category:Military aircraft)
Idiocracy	idiocracy	# Idiocracy Revision ID: 1158917288 \| Timestamp: 2023-06-07T02:02:32Z --- \| screenplay = \| story = Mike Judge \| starring = \| music = [Shapiro](Theodore)(Theodore Shapiro) \| cinematography = [Suhrstedt](Tim)(Tim Suhrstedt) \| editing = [Rennie](David)(David Rennie (film editor)) \| studio = Ternion \| distributor = [Century Fox](20th)(20th Century Fox) \| released = \| runtime = 84 minutes \| country = United States \| language = English \| budget = $2.4 million \| gross = $495,303 }} *Idiocracy* is a 2006 American [comedy](sci-fi)(science fiction comedy) film directed by [Judge](Mike)(Mike Judge) and co-written by Judge and [Cohen](Etan)(Etan Cohen). The plot follows [Army](U.S.)(U.S. Army) librarian Joe Bauers, who wakes up five hundred years in the future after a botched government [hibernation](Suspended animation) experiment to find himself in a [dystopian](dystopian) society run by corporations, where evolution has made humanity stupid because people no longer had to be intelligent and physically fit to survive due to the benefits of technology. The cast includes [Wilson](Luke)(Luke Wilson), [Rudolph](Maya)(Maya Rudolph), [Shepard](Dax)(Dax Shepard), [Crews](Terry)(Terry Crews), [Herman](David)(David Herman), [Long](Justin)(Justin Long), [Wilson](Andrew)(Andrew Wilson (actor)), and [Jordan](Brad)(Scarface (rapper)). The concept of Idiocracy dates back to a concept Judge envisioned in 1996. Judge finished the script for 3001 in 2001, rewriting the film a year later. Filming took place throughout 2004 at [Studios](Austin)(Austin Studios) and other cities in Texas. Idiocracy serves as a social [satire](Satire (film and television)) that touches on issues including [anti-intellectualism](anti-intellectualism), [capitalism](Late capitalism), [commercialism](commercialism), [consumerism](consumerism), [corporatocracy](corporatocracy), [dysgenics](dysgenics), and [overpopulation](human overpopulation). [Century Fox](20th)(20th Century Fox) was hesitant to promote the film, refusing to grant it a [release](wide)(wide release) and did not screen the film for critics. The decision to not market Idiocracy was seen as unexpected, following the success of [Space](Office)(Office Space) (1999), and led to speculation. According to Crews, the film's satirical depiction of corporations made the film financially unviable, while Judge attributed 20th Century Fox's decision to negative [screening](test)(test screening)s; Judge stated that 20th Century Fox believed that the film would develop a [following](cult)(cult film) through its DVD release, similar to Office Space. Idiocracy was released in the United States on September 1, 2006. Since its DVD release, the film has developed a cult following, despite its lackluster performance at the box office. The film received mostly positive reviews from critics, who praised its cathartic themes, although the film has been subject to criticism for its themes of [eugenics](eugenics). ## Plot In 2005, U.S. Army librarian Joe Bauers is selected for a government [hibernation](Suspended animation) experiment as the "[average individual](most)(Average Joe)" in the entire military. Lacking a suitable female candidate, the military hires prostitute Rita by paying off her [pimp](pimp) Upgrayedd. When the officer in charge is arrested for running his own prostitution ring under Upgrayedd's tutelage, the experiment is forgotten about. Over the next several hundred years, societal expectations and technological advances lead the most intelligent humans to go childless, while the least intelligent [indiscriminately](reproduce)(dysgenics) and create increasingly dumber generations. Five hundred years later, Bauers and Rita's hibernation chambers are unearthed. Bauers crashes into the apartment of Frito Pendejo. He wanders around what was once [D.C.](Washington,)(Washington, D.C.), and finds a population that has become profoundly anti-intellectual, speaking only low [registers](register (sociolinguistics)) of English and wallowing in [overconsumption](overconsumption) and low-brow pop culture. Despite advances in technology, innovations are driven by garish [commercialism](commercialism) or extreme simplicity. Believing that he is hallucinating after a year of hibernation, Bauers enters a hospital and realizes the truth. Arrested for not having a [code](bar)(bar code) tattoo to pay for his doctor's appointment, he is sent to prison after the grossly incompetent Pendejo acts as his lawyer. Rita resumes her job as a prostitute, but soon realizes that people have become so stupid that they will pay her if she only promises to sleep with them. Bauers is renamed "Not Sure" by a faulty speech-recognition tattooing machine, escapes from jail by telling the guards that he is meant to be released, and finds Pendejo, who reveals that there is a time machine that can travel back to 2005; Pendejo agrees to guide Bauers and Rita to the time machine after Bauers promises to make him rich via [interest](compound)(compound interest) on a bank account he will open in Pendejo's name when he arrives in the past. The three venture through a gigantic [Costco](Costco) store, where Bauers is identified by a tattoo scanner and arrested. Bauers is taken to the [House](White)(White House) and is appointed [of the Interior](Secretary)(United States Secretary of the Interior); as the IQ test he took in prison determined he is the smartest man in the world. President Camacho introduces Bauers to the cabinet and gives him the impossible job of fixing a nationwide food shortage, constant [bowl](dust)(dust bowl)s, and a crippled economy within one week. Bauers discovers that the nation's crops are being watered with Brawndo, a [drink](sports)(sports drink) produced by a company that also owns the [FDA](Food and Drug Administration), [FCC](Federal Communications Commission), and [USDA](United States Department of Agriculture). When he arranges for the irrigation system to be replaced with water, Brawndo's stock plummets, causing massive layoffs and riots without any visible improvement to the crops. Bauers is sentenced to die in a [truck](monster)(monster truck) [derby](demolition)(demolition derby) featuring undefeated "rehabilitation officer" Beef Supreme. However, Beef's grossly oversized truck is crushed when it rams into the building's support pillars while trying to enter the arena, and Bauers manages to defeat the other competitors. Rita and Pendejo discover that Bauers' reintroduction of water to the soil has allowed crops to grow, and they steal a TV camera from the arena to broadcast the sprouting crops on the stadium's [Jumbotron](Jumbotron), prompting Camacho to grant Bauers a [pardon](presidential)(presidential pardon). Bauers and Rita decide to stay in the future, and discover that the time machine was just an amusement ride. Following Camacho's term, Bauers is elected president and marries Rita, with whom he has the world's three smartest children. New vice-president Pendejo marries eight women and fathers 32 of the world's stupidest children. In a post-credits scene, Upgrayedd steps out of a third hibernation capsule in 2505 and sets off in search of Rita. ## Cast * [Wilson](Luke)(Luke Wilson) as Corporal Joe Bauers, the "most average individual" in the U.S. military * [Rudolph](Maya)(Maya Rudolph) as Rita, a street prostitute. * [Shepard](Dax)(Dax Shepard) as Frito Pendejo, an average citizen of the United States * [Crews](Terry)(Terry Crews) as Dwayne Elizondo Mountain Dew Herbert Camacho, the dimwitted president of the United States * ["Scarface" Jordan](Brad)(Scarface (rapper)) as Upgrayedd: Rita's pimp * [Wilson](Andrew)(Andrew Wilson (actor)) as Beef Supreme, a rehabilitation officer Other cast members include [Herman](David)(David Herman) as the Secretary of State, [Long](Justin)(Justin Long) as Doctor Lexus, [Root](Stephen)(Stephen Root) as Judge Hector, [Haden Church](Thomas)(Thomas Haden Church) as Brawndo's CEO, and [Rue](Sara)(Sara Rue) as the Attorney General, in an uncredited role. ## Themes The idea of a [dystopia](dystopia)n society based on [dysgenics](dysgenics) can be traced back to the work of Sir [Galton](Francis)(Francis Galton). [G. Wells](H.)(H. G. Wells)' [Time Machine](The)(The Time Machine) postulates a society of humans which has devolved due to lack of challenges, while the "Epsilon-minus Semi-Morons" of [Huxley](Aldous)(Aldous Huxley)'s [New World](Brave)(Brave New World) have been intentionally bred to provide a low-grade workforce; perhaps the best parallel is provided by the short story "[Marching Morons](The)(The Marching Morons)" by [M. Kornbluth](Cyril)(Cyril M. Kornbluth). ## Production Early working titles included The United States of Uhh-merica and 3001. Filming took place in 2004 on several stages at [Studios](Austin)(Austin Studios) and in the [Texas](Texas) cities of [Austin](Austin, Texas), [Marcos](San)(San Marcos, Texas), [Pflugerville](Pflugerville, Texas), and [Rock](Round)(Round Rock, Texas). Test screenings around March 2005 produced unofficial reports of poor audience reactions. After some re-shooting in the summer of 2005, a UK test screening in August produced a report of a positive impression. ## Release Idiocracys original release date was August 5, 2005, according to Mike Judge. In April 2006, a release date was set for September 1, 2006. In August, numerous articles revealed that release was to be put on hold indefinitely. Idiocracy was released as scheduled but only in seven cities (Los Angeles, Atlanta, Toronto, Chicago, Dallas, Houston, and Mike Judge's hometown, Austin, Texas), and expanded to only 130 theaters, not the usual [release](wide)(wide release) of 600 or more theaters.[About Movie Box Office Tracking and Terms](https://www.boxofficemojo.com/about/boxoffice.htm) . Box Office Mojo. Retrieved 2010-08-28. According to the [American-Statesman](Austin)(Austin American-Statesman), [Century Fox](20th)(20th Century Fox), the film's distributor, was entirely absent in promoting the feature; while posters were released to theaters, "no movie trailers, no ads, and only two stills", and no press kits were released. Transcript. The film was not screened for critics. Lack of concrete information from Fox led to speculation that the distributor may have actively tried to keep the film from being seen by a large audience, while fulfilling a contractual obligation for theatrical release ahead of a DVD release, according to Ryan Pearson of the [AP](Associated Press). That speculation was followed by open criticism of the studio's lack of support from [It Cool News](Ain't)(Ain't It Cool News), [Time](Time (magazine)), and [Esquire](Esquire (magazine)). Times Joel Stein wrote "the film's ads and trailers tested atrociously", but, "still, abandoning Idiocracy seems particularly unjust, since Judge has made a lot of money for Fox." In [New York Times](The)(The New York Times), Dan Mitchell argued that Fox might be shying away from the cautionary tale about low-intelligence dysgenics because the company did not want to offend either its viewers or potential advertisers portrayed negatively in the film. This theory has been given extra weight by Terry Crews, who stars in the movie as President Camacho. In a 2018 interview with GQ Magazine, he talked of advertisers being unhappy at the way they were portrayed, which affected the studio's efforts to promote the movie. He said, "The rumor was, because we used real corporations in our comedy (I mean, Starbucks was giving hand jobs) these companies gave us their name thinking they were gonna get 'pumped up', and then we're like, 'Welcome to Costco, we love you' [in monotone](delivered). All these real corporations were like, 'Wait a minute, wait a minute' [...] there were a lot of people trying to back out, but it was too late. And so Fox, who owned the movie, decided, 'We're going to release this in as few theaters as legally possible'. So it got a release in, probably, three theaters over one weekend and it was sucked out, into the vortex". In 2017, Judge told The New York Times that the film's lack of marketing and wide release was the result of negative [screening](test)(test screening)s. He added that Fox subsequently decided to not give the film a strong marketing push because the distributor believed it would develop a [following](cult)(cult film) through word-of-mouth and recoup its budget through [video](home)(home video) sales, as Judge's previous film [Space](Office)(Office Space) had. ### Box office Box office receipts totaled $444,093 in the U.S., with the widest release being 135 theaters. ## Reception Although it was not screened in advance for critics, Idiocracy received positive reviews. On [Tomatoes](Rotten)(Rotten Tomatoes), the film has a score of 71%, with an average rating of 6.4/10, based on 52 reviews. The website's "Critics Consensus" for the film reads, "Frustratingly uneven yet enjoyable overall, Idiocracy skewers society's devolution with an amiably goofy yet deceptively barbed wit." On [Metacritic](Metacritic), the film has a score of 66 out of 100, based on reviews from 12 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews". [Angeles Times](Los)(Los Angeles Times) reviewer Carina Chocano described it as "spot on" satire and a "pitch-black, bleakly hilarious vision of an American future", although the "plot, naturally, is silly and not exactly bound by logic. But it's Judge's gimlet-eyed knack for nightmarish extrapolation that makes Idiocracy a cathartic delight." In an [Weekly](Entertainment)(Entertainment Weekly) review only 87 words long, Joshua Rich gave the film an "EW Grade" of "D", stating that "Mike Judge implores us to reflect on a future in which [Britney](Britney Spears) and [K-Fed](Kevin Federline) are like the new [and Eve](Adam)(Adam and Eve)." [A.V. Club](The)(The A.V. Club)s [Rabin](Nathan)(Nathan Rabin) found Luke Wilson "perfectly cast ... as a quintessential everyman"; and wrote of the film "Like so much superior science fiction, Idiocracy uses a fantastical future to comment on a present. ... There's a good chance that Judge's smartly lowbrow Idiocracy will [mistaken for what it's satirizing](be)(Poe's law)." The film was also well received in other countries. John Patterson, critic for [Guardian](The)(The Guardian), wrote, "Idiocracy isn't a masterpiece—Fox seems to have stiffed Judge on money at every stage—but it's endlessly funny", and of the film's popularity, described seeing the film "in a half-empty house. Two days later, same place, same show—packed-out." Brazilian news magazine [Veja](Veja (magazine)) called the film "[incorrect](politically)(Political correctness)", recommending that readers see the DVD and wrote "the film went flying through [American] theaters and did not open in Brazil. Proof that the future contemplated by Judge is not that far away." Critic Alexandre Koball, of the Brazilian website CinePlayers.com, gave the movie a score of 5 out of 5. Another staff reviewer wrote, "Idiocracy is not exactly ... funny nor ... innovative but it's a movie to make you think, even if for five minutes. And for that it manages to stay one level above the terrible average of comedy movies released in the last years in the United States." ## Home media Idiocracy was released on DVD on January 9, 2007. It has earned $9 million on DVD rentals, over 20 times its gross domestic box office revenue of under $450,000. In the UK, uncut versions of the film were shown on satellite channel Sky Comedy on February 26, 2009, with the [Freeview](Freeview (UK)) premiere shown on [Film4](Film4) on April 26, 2009. ## Spin-offs In August 2012, Crews said he was in talks with director Judge and Fox over a possible Idiocracy [spin-off](Spin-off (media)) featuring his President Camacho character, initially conceived as a [series](web)(web series). A week before the [elections](2012)(2012 United States presidential election), he reprised the character in a series of short sketches for [or Die](Funny)(Funny or Die). Before the [presidential election](2016)(2016 United States presidential election), [Stone](Rolling)(Rolling Stone) published an article stating that Judge and Cohen would produce Idiocracy-themed [ads](campaign)(Campaign advertising) opposing [Trump's presidential campaign](Donald)(Donald Trump 2016 presidential campaign) if given permission from Fox to do so. Crews later told [Insider](Business)(Business Insider) that the ads would not go forward as planned, but that they would have featured Camacho wrestling in a [match](cage)(cage match) against the other candidates. ## Legacy [[Image:Trump-WomensMarch 2017-1060585 (31638091963).jpg\|180px\|thumb\|right\|A placard during the [Women's March](2017)(2017 Women's March) describing Idiocracy as a "documentary"]] During the [Republican Party presidential primaries](2016)(2016 Republican Party presidential primaries), the film's co-writer [Cohen](Etan)(Etan Cohen) and others expressed opinions that the film's predictions were converging on accuracy, a sentiment repeated by director Judge during [elections](the)(2016 United States elections) that year. At the time, Judge also compared Republican presidential nominee [Trump](Donald)(Donald Trump)—who was later elected president—to the film's [wrestler](pro)(professional wrestling)-turned-president Camacho. When asked about predicting the future, he quipped, "I'm no prophet, I was off by 490 years." Comparisons have been made between the film and [presidency](Trump's)(Presidency of Donald Trump). An article for [Collider](Collider (website)) pointed out the ways in which [positions](Trump's)(Political positions of Donald Trump) echoed the political decisions of the characters in the film in areas such as science, business, entertainment, environment, healthcare, law enforcement, and politics. [memes](Internet)(Internet memes) have spawned comparisons to Trump and characters in the film. ## See also * [Kakistocracy](Kakistocracy) * [Dysgenics](Dysgenics) * "[Marching Morons](The)(The Marching Morons)" ## References ## External links * * * * * [Scenes from the film](https://www.youtube.com/results?search_query=foxhomeent+idiocracy) at the [Home Entertainment](Fox)(20th Century Fox Home Entertainment) YouTube channel. [films](Category:2006)(Category:2006 films) [science fiction comedy films](Category:2000s)(Category:2000s science fiction comedy films) [science fiction comedy films](Category:American)(Category:American science fiction comedy films) [satirical films](Category:American)(Category:American satirical films) [English-language films](Category:2000s)(Category:2000s English-language films) [directed by Mike Judge](Category:Films)(Category:Films directed by Mike Judge) [about cryonics](Category:Fiction)(Category:Fiction about cryonics) [dystopian films](Category:American)(Category:American dystopian films) [dystopian films](Category:2000s)(Category:2000s dystopian films) [about fictional presidents of the United States](Category:Films)(Category:Films about fictional presidents of the United States) [set in 2005](Category:Films)(Category:Films set in 2005) [set in the 26th century](Category:Films)(Category:Films set in the 26th century) [shot in Austin, Texas](Category:Films)(Category:Films shot in Austin, Texas) [Century Fox films](Category:20th)(Category:20th Century Fox films) [about television](Category:Films)(Category:Films about television) [set in Washington, D.C.](Category:Films)(Category:Films set in Washington, D.C.) [set in the White House](Category:Films)(Category:Films set in the White House) [with screenplays by Etan Cohen](Category:Films)(Category:Films with screenplays by Etan Cohen) [with screenplays by Mike Judge](Category:Films)(Category:Films with screenplays by Mike Judge) [scored by Theodore Shapiro](Category:Films)(Category:Films scored by Theodore Shapiro) [comedy films](Category:2006)(Category:2006 comedy films) [political comedy films](Category:2000s)(Category:2000s political comedy films) [about intellectual disability](Category:Films)(Category:Films about intellectual disability) [American films](Category:2000s)(Category:2000s American films)
Delta Air Lines fleet	delta_air_lines_fleet	# Delta Air Lines fleet Revision ID: 1160330162 \| Timestamp: 2023-06-15T20:13:12Z --- [[File:Delta Planes at MCI (49879371996) (cropped).jpg\|thumb\|upright=1.2\|Delta Air Lines planes parked on a taxiway at [City International Airport](Kansas)(Kansas City International Airport). The planes were parked due to the sharp decrease in demand for air travel from the [pandemic in the United States](COVID-19)(COVID-19 pandemic in the United States).\|alt=Many in-line airplanes with the Delta Air Lines logo on the tail, parked on the pavement behind a fence.]] The [Air Lines](Delta)(Delta Air Lines) fleet consists of 943 aircraft, making it the [airline fleet](largest)(World's largest airlines By fleet size) in the world. Delta Air Lines operates a fleet manufactured by [Airbus](Airbus) and [Boeing](Boeing Commercial Airplanes), and is the largest operator of the [717](Boeing)(Boeing 717), [757](Boeing)(Boeing 757), and [767](Boeing)(Boeing 767), and has the largest [A220](Airbus)(Airbus A220), [A330](Airbus)(Airbus A330) and [A350](Airbus)(Airbus A350) fleet of any US airline. Delta historically has preferred purchasing or leasing used aircraft or use older generation models to keep initial acquisition costs down and then keep those aircraft flying for a longer time than its competitors. To support this business model, Delta has also invested in an extensive MRO (maintenance, repair, and overhaul) organization, called [TechOps](Delta TechOps). However, Delta has acquired lower priced new aircraft as airframers move towards their next generation designs and offered discounts on slower selling models. As a result, Delta flies the second-oldest fleet among the [carriers](legacy)(Legacy carrier), and the average fleet age has been reduced to 14.8 years. Prior to its 2008 merger with Northwest Airlines, Delta's fleet was made up of solely Boeing and McDonnell Douglas aircraft. Airbus aircraft from Northwest joined the fleet after the merger, and more have since been added. ## Fleet overview Delta's fleet consists of 943 Airbus and Boeing aircraft. , Delta has 501 aircraft from Boeing or about 55 percent of the fleet and 421 aircraft from Airbus or about 45 percent of the fleet. Its 749 [narrow-body](narrow-body) aircraft comprise about 81% of its fleet, while its 173 [wide-body](wide-body) aircraft comprise the remaining 19%. Delta operates the largest fleets of the [A220](Airbus)(Airbus A220), [717](Boeing)(Boeing 717), and [757](Boeing)(Boeing 757), the largest passenger fleet of the [767](Boeing)(Boeing 767), and the largest [A330](Airbus)(Airbus A330) fleet of any US airline. Alongside [Airlines](United)(United Airlines), it is one of only two airlines operating the Boeing 767-400ER. Delta primarily uses narrow-body aircraft for its domestic flights within the United States and international flights from the United States to Canada, Mexico, the Caribbean, and some European destinations. Most of its Boeing 717 aircraft are based out of [Atlanta](Hartsfield–Jackson Atlanta International Airport) and are mainly used for short-haul flights. Its Airbus A220, Airbus A320, Boeing 737 and Boeing 757 aircraft are used for short-haul flights and medium-haul [flight](transcontinental)(transcontinental flight)s. Delta primarily uses its wide-body aircraft on long-haul flights to Africa, Asia, Europe, Oceania, and South America. Its Airbus A330s, Boeing 767-300ERs, and Boeing 767-400ERs mainly operate on flights to Europe, while the Airbus A350-900 mainly operates on flights to Asia and Oceania. ### Fleet renewal Since 2013, Delta has been working to reduce the age of its fleet by purchasing or leasing newly built aircraft or newer model used aircraft. Since launching the effort, Delta has preferred to purchase aircraft from Airbus, a major change for the company which had been a loyal customer of Boeing and McDonnell Douglas (which merged with Boeing in 1997). At the time, Delta had over 200 [DC-9](McDonnell Douglas DC-9), [MD-88](Md 88) and [MD-90](McDonnell Douglas MD-90) aircraft from McDonnell Douglas in its fleet. Replacing these antiquated, fuel-guzzling aircraft was a top priority for Delta. For its narrow-body fleet, Delta acquired 277 aircraft from the [A321](Airbus)(Airbus A321) series and 119 aircraft from the [A220](Airbus)(Airbus A220) series. The first major purchase came in September 2013, when Delta ordered 30 A321 aircraft, its first order with Airbus in more than two decades. This order would later be incrementally increased to 122 aircraft with 15 more added to the order in 2014, an additional 37 in 2016, and 40 more in 2017. Aviation News \|url=http://aviationtribune.com/airlines/north-america/delta-expand-airbus-a321-aircraft-order-defer-10-a350-deliveries/ \|access-date=January 28, 2020 \|archive-date=January 28, 2020 \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200128004618/http://aviationtribune.com/airlines/north-america/delta-expand-airbus-a321-aircraft-order-defer-10-a350-deliveries/ \|url-status=live }} Since 2017, Delta has also purchased a total of 155 [A321neo](A321neo) (new engine option) aircraft, with an initial order for 100 aircraft in December 2017, followed by a purchase of 55 more in 2021. Delta placed its first order for 75 A220 aircraft in April 2016, when the program was still managed by [Aerospace](Bombardier)(Bombardier Aerospace). Delta purchased the aircraft at a steep discount: $19.6m each, well below their $33.2m production cost, which led [to accuse the company of dumping the aircraft](Boeing)(CSeries dumping petition by Boeing). Delta would later increase its order to a total of 119 A220 aircraft. For its wide-body fleet, Delta acquired 25 [A330neo](Airbus)(Airbus A330neo) and 42 of the newly introduced [A350](Airbus)(Airbus A350) aircraft. The A330neo and the first 25 A350 aircraft were purchased in November 2014. The A350 fleet was increased assuming the purchase rights for 10 aircraft from LATAM as part of a deal to acquire a 20% equity stake in [Airlines Group](LATAM)(LATAM Airlines Group) in September 2019 and by leasing 7 used aircraft in July 2021. Delta has also acquired some aircraft from Boeing. The airline purchased 29 used [737-900ER](Boeing)(Boeing 737NG) aircraft in July 2021 and also agreed to purchase 100 Boeing 737 MAX 10 aircraft in 2022. As a result of the fleet renewal, Delta was able to retire its McDonnell Douglas MD-88/MD-90, Boeing 777, and Boeing 737-700 fleets in 2020. The company also plans to phase out its Airbus A320, Boeing 717 and [767-300ER](Boeing)(Boeing 767-300ER) fleets by 2025. ## Current fleet , Delta Air Lines operates the following aircraft: ### Gallery File:Delta Airlines A220-100 (N118DU) at SFO.jpg\|[A220-100](Airbus)(Airbus A220-100) File:Delta A220-300 landing MSP runway 30L.jpg\|Boeing 757 and [A220-300](Airbus)(Airbus A220-300) File:Airbus A319-114 ‘N341NB’ Delta (24317428140).jpg\|[A319-100](Airbus)(Airbus A319-100) File:Delta Air Lines Airbus 2001 A320-212 N374NW - 3274 (cn 1646) (5596896133) (2).jpg\|[A320-200](Airbus)(Airbus A320-200) File:Delta Airbus A321 N106DN BWI MD1.jpg\|[A321-200](Airbus)(Airbus A321-200) File:Hamburg-Finkenwerder Airport Delta Air Lines Airbus A321-271NX N515DE (DSC05895).jpg\|[A321neo](Airbus)(Airbus A321neo) File:Delta Air Lines, N851NW, Airbus A330-223 (49597633437).jpg\|[A330-200](Airbus)(Airbus A330-200) File:N805NW Northwest Airlines Airbus A330-323, landing at Schiphol (AMS - EHAM), Netherlands, pic3.JPG\|[A330-300](Airbus)(Airbus A330-300) File:Delta Air Lines A330-941 N403DX - 51933972810.jpg\|[A330-900neo](Airbus)(Airbus A330-900neo) File:Delta A350 - N515DN.jpg\|[A350-900](Airbus)(Airbus A350-900) File:N925AT Delta Air Lines Boeing 717-231 s-n 55079 (39004908934).jpg\|[717-200](Boeing)(Boeing 717-200) File:N379DA Delta Air Lines 1999 Boeing 737-832 - cn 30349 - 351 (28165004055).jpg\|[737-800](Boeing)(Boeing 737-800) File:Boeing 737-900ER N875DN Delta AL BWI MD1.jpg\|[737-900ER](Boeing)(Boeing 737-900ER) File:Delta Air Lines Boeing 757-232 N699DL - 699 (cn 29970-887) (5287288820) (2).jpg\|[757-200](Boeing)(Boeing 757-200) File:N593NW (4003733402).jpg\|[757-300](Boeing)(Boeing 757-300) File:Delta Air Lines, N1604R, Boeing 767-332 ER (44389255131).jpg\|[767-300ER](Boeing)(Boeing 767-300ER) File:N827MH KJFK (37515487000).jpg\|[767-400ER](Boeing)(Boeing 767-400ER) ## Fleet history ## Notes ## References ## Further reading * [Air Lines](Category:Delta)(Category:Delta Air Lines) [Air Lines](Delta)(Category:Lists of aircraft by operator)
Ethanol	ethanol	# Ethanol Revision ID: 1158074800 \| Timestamp: 2023-06-01T20:45:13Z --- \| pronounce = \| OtherNames = absolute alcoholalcoholcologne spiritdrinking alcoholethylic alcoholEtOHethyl alcoholethyl hydroxideethylene hydrateethylolgrain alcoholhydroxyethanemethylcarbinol \| Section2 = \|Density = 0.78945 g/cm3 (at 20 °C) \|MeltingPtC = −114.14 ± 0.03 \|BoilingPtC = 78.23 ± 0.09 \|Solubility = [Miscible](Miscibility) \|RefractIndex = 1.3611 \|LogP = −0.18 \|VaporPressure = 5.95 kPa (at 20 °C) \|pKa = 15.9 (H2O), 29.8 (DMSO) \|Viscosity = 1.2 mPa·s (at 20 °C), 1.074 mPa·s (at 25 °C)\|edition=92\|year=2012\|publisher=CRC Press/Taylor and Francis\|location=Boca Raton, FL\|pages=6–232}} \|Dipole = 1.69 D\|edition=89\|year=2008\|publisher=CRC Press\|location=Boca Raton, FL\|pages=9–55}} \|MagSus = −33.60·10−6 cm3/mol }} \| Section1 = \|CASNo = 64-17-5 \|UNII_Ref = \|UNII = 3K9958V90M \|SMILES = OCC \|ChemSpiderID_Ref = \|ChemSpiderID = 682 \|DrugBank_Ref = \|DrugBank = DB00898 \|KEGG = C00469 \|PubChem = 702 \|ChEBI = 16236 \|ChEBI_Ref = \|ChEMBL = 545 \|ChEMBL_Ref = \|Gmelin = 787 \|Beilstein = 1718733 \|StdInChI = 1S/C2H6O/c1-2-3/h3H,2H2,1H3 \|StdInChI_Ref = \|InChI = 1/C2H6O/c1-2-3/h3H,2H2,1H3 \|StdInChIKey = LFQSCWFLJHTTHZ-UHFFFAOYSA-N \|StdInChIKey_Ref = \|InChIKey = LFQSCWFLJHTTHZ-UHFFFAOYAB \|3DMet = B01253 \|UNNumber = UN 1170 }} \| Section3 = \|GHSPictograms = \|GHSSignalWord = Danger \|HPhrases = \|PPhrases = \|NFPA-H = 2 \|NFPA-F = 3 \|NFPA-R = 0 \|FlashPt = 14 °C (Absolute) \|LD50 = 7340mg/kg (oral, rat) 7300mg/kg (mouse) \|PEL = TWA 1000 ppm (1900mg/m3) \|IDLH = N.D. \|REL = TWA 1000 ppm (1900mg/m3) }} \| Section4 = }} Ethanol (abbr. EtOH; also called ethyl alcohol, grain alcohol, drinking alcohol, or simply alcohol) is an [compound](organic)(organic compound). It is an [alcohol](Alcohol (chemistry)) with the [formula](chemical)(chemical formula) . Its formula can also be written as or (an [group](ethyl)(ethyl group) linked to a [group](hydroxyl)(hydroxyl group)). Ethanol is a [volatile](Volatility (chemistry)), [flammable](flammable), colorless liquid with a characteristic [wine](wine)-like odor and [pungent](pungent) taste. It is a [psychoactive](psychoactive) [drug](recreational)(recreational drug), and the active ingredient in [drink](alcoholic)(alcoholic drink)s. Ethanol is naturally produced by the [fermentation](fermentation) process of [sugar](sugar)s by [yeast](yeast)s or via [petrochemical](petrochemical) processes such as [ethylene](ethylene) hydration. Historically it was used as a [anesthetic](general)(general anesthetic), and has modern medical applications as an [antiseptic](antiseptic), [disinfectant](disinfectant), solvent for some medications, and [antidote](antidote) for [poisoning](methanol)(methanol poisoning) and [glycol poisoning](ethylene)(ethylene glycol poisoning). It is used as a chemical [solvent](solvent) and in the [synthesis](Chemical synthesis) of [compound](organic)(organic compound)s, and as a [source](fuel)(Alcohol fuel). Ethanol also can be dehydrated to make ethylene, an important chemical feedstock. As of 2006, world production of ethanol was , coming mostly from Brazil and the U.S. ## Etymology Ethanol is the [name](systematic)(systematic name) [defined](IUPAC nomenclature of organic chemistry) by the [Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry](International)(International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry) for a compound consisting of an [group](alkyl)(alkyl group) with two carbon [atom](atom)s (prefix "eth-"), having a single bond between them (infix "-an-") and an attached −OH [group](functional)(functional group) (suffix "-ol"). The "eth-" prefix and the qualifier "ethyl" in "ethyl alcohol" originally come from the name "ethyl" assigned in 1834 to the group − by [Liebig](Justus)(Justus von Liebig). He coined the word from the [German](German language) name Aether of the compound −O− (commonly called "ether" in [English](English language), more specifically called "[ether](diethyl)(diethyl ether)"). According to the [English Dictionary](Oxford)(Oxford English Dictionary), Ethyl is a contraction of the Ancient Greek [αἰθήρ](wikt:αἰθήρ#Ancient Greek) (, "upper air") and the Greek word [ὕλη](wikt:ὕλη#Ancient Greek) (, "substance"). The name ethanol was coined as a result of a resolution on naming alcohols and phenols that was adopted at the International Conference on [Nomenclature](Chemical)(Chemical nomenclature) that was held in April 1892 in [Geneva](Geneva), Switzerland.For a report on the 1892 International Conference on Chemical Nomenclature, see: * \|title=The International Conference on Chemical Nomenclature\|journal=Nature\|volume=46\|pages=56–59\|doi=10.1038/046056c0\|issue=1177\|bibcode=1892Natur..46...56A\|doi-access=free}} * Armstrong's report is reprinted with the resolutions in English in: \|title=The International Conference on Chemical Nomenclature\|journal=The Journal of Analytical and Applied Chemistry\|volume=6\|issue=1177\|pages= 390–400 (398)\|quote= The alcohols and the phenols will be called after the name of the hydrocarbon from which they are derived, terminated with the suffix ol (ex. pentanol, pentynol, etc.) \| bibcode = 1892Natur..46...56A \| doi = 10.1038/046056c0 \|doi-access= free}} The term alcohol now refers to a wider class of substances in chemistry nomenclature, but in common parlance it remains the name of ethanol. It is a medieval loan from [Arabic](Arabic) , a powdered ore of antimony used since antiquity as a cosmetic, and retained that meaning in [Latin](Middle)(Middle Latin). p. 205; [OED](OED); [etymonline.com](etymonline.com) The use of 'alcohol' for ethanol (in full, "alcohol of wine") is modern and was first recorded in 1753. Before the late 18th century the term "alcohol" generally referred to any sublimated substance. ## Uses ### Medical #### Anesthetic Ethanol is the oldest known [sedative](sedative), used as an oral [anesthetic](general)(general anesthetic) during surgery in ancient [Mesopotamia](Mesopotamia) and in [times](medieval)(Middle Ages). Mild intoxication starts at a [alcohol concentration](blood)(blood alcohol concentration) of 0.03-0.05% and induces [coma](anesthetic)(Induced coma) at 0.4%. However, this use carried the high risk of deadly [intoxication](alcohol)(alcohol intoxication) and [aspiration](pulmonary)(pulmonary aspiration) on vomit, which led to use of alternatives in antiquity, such as [opium](opium) and [cannabis](cannabis), and later [ether](diethyl)(diethyl ether) starting in the 1840s.Grattan, N. "Treatment of Uterine Haemorrhage". Provincial Medicine and Surgical Journal. Vol. 1, No. 6 (Nov. 7, 1840), p. 107. #### Antiseptic Ethanol is used in medical wipes and most commonly in antibacterial [sanitizer](hand)(hand sanitizer) gels as an [antiseptic](antiseptic) for its bactericidal and anti-fungal effects. Ethanol kills [microorganism](microorganism)s by dissolving their membrane [bilayer](lipid)(lipid bilayer) and [denaturing](Denaturation (biochemistry)) their [protein](protein)s, and is effective against most [bacteria](bacteria), [fungi](fungi) and [virus](virus)es. However, it is ineffective against bacterial [spores](Endospore), but that can be alleviated by using [peroxide](hydrogen)(hydrogen peroxide). A solution of 70% ethanol is more effective than pure ethanol because ethanol relies on water molecules for optimal antimicrobial activity. Absolute ethanol may inactivate microbes without destroying them because the alcohol is unable to fully permeate the microbe's membrane. Disinfection & Sterilization Guidelines Guidelines Library Infection Control CDC\|website=www.cdc.gov\|language=en-us\|access-date=2018-01-29}} Ethanol can also be used as a disinfectant and antiseptic because it causes cell dehydration by disrupting the osmotic balance across the cell membrane, so water leaves the cell leading to cell death. #### Antidote Ethanol may be administered as an [antidote](antidote) to [glycol poisoning](ethylene)(ethylene glycol poisoning) and [poisoning](methanol)(methanol poisoning). Ethanol serves this process by acting as a [inhibitor](competitive)(competitive inhibitor) against [methanol](methanol) and [glycol](ethylene)(ethylene glycol) for [dehydrogenase](alcohol)(alcohol dehydrogenase). Though it has more side effects, ethanol is less expensive and more readily available than [fomepizole](fomepizole), which is also used as an antidote for methanol and ethylene glycol poisoning. #### Medicinal solvent Ethanol, often in high concentrations, is used to dissolve many water-insoluble medications and related compounds. Liquid preparations of [medications](pain)(analgesics), [and cold medicines](cough)(Cold medicine), and mouth washes, for example, may contain up to 25% ethanol and may need to be avoided in individuals with adverse reactions to ethanol such as [respiratory reactions](alcohol-induced)(alcohol-induced respiratory reactions). Ethanol is present mainly as an antimicrobial preservative in over 700 liquid preparations of medicine including [acetaminophen](acetaminophen), [supplement](iron)(iron supplement)s, [ranitidine](ranitidine), [furosemide](furosemide), [mannitol](mannitol), [phenobarbital](phenobarbital), [trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole](trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole) and [over-the-counter](over-the-counter) [medicine](cough)(cough medicine). #### Pharmacology In mammals, ethanol is primarily [metabolized](metabolized) in the [liver](liver) and [stomach](stomach) by [dehydrogenase](alcohol)(alcohol dehydrogenase) (ADH) enzymes. These enzymes catalyze the [oxidation](oxidation) of ethanol into [acetaldehyde](acetaldehyde) (ethanal): :CH3CH2OH + NAD+ → CH3CHO + [NADH](NADH) + H+ When present in significant concentrations, this metabolism of ethanol is additionally aided by the [P450](cytochrome)(cytochrome P450) enzyme [CYP2E1](CYP2E1) in humans, while trace amounts are also metabolized by [catalase](catalase). The resulting intermediate, acetaldehyde, is a known carcinogen, and poses significantly greater toxicity in humans than ethanol itself. Many of the symptoms typically associated with alcohol intoxication—as well as many of the health hazards typically associated with the long-term consumption of ethanol—can be attributed to acetaldehyde toxicity in humans. The subsequent oxidation of acetaldehyde into acetate is performed by [dehydrogenase](aldehyde)(aldehyde dehydrogenase) (ALDH) enzymes. A mutation in the ALDH2 gene that encodes for an inactive or dysfunctional form of this enzyme affects roughly 50% of east Asian populations, contributing to the characteristic [flush reaction](alcohol)(alcohol flush reaction) that can cause temporary reddening of the skin as well as a number of related, and often unpleasant, symptoms of acetaldehyde toxicity. This mutation is typically accompanied by another mutation in the [dehydrogenase](alcohol)(alcohol dehydrogenase) enzyme [ADH1B](ADH1B) in roughly 80% of east Asians, which improves the catalytic efficiency of converting ethanol into acetaldehyde. ### Recreational As a [nervous system](central)(central nervous system) [depressant](depressant), ethanol is one of the most commonly consumed [drug](psychoactive)(psychoactive drug)s. Despite alcohol's psychoactive, addictive, and [carcinogenic](Alcohol and cancer) properties, it is readily available and legal for sale in most countries. There are laws regulating the sale, exportation/importation, taxation, manufacturing, consumption, and possession of alcoholic beverages. The most common regulation is prohibition for minors. ### Fuel #### Engine fuel The largest single use of ethanol is as an engine [fuel](fuel) and [additive](fuel)(fuel additive). [Brazil](Brazil) in particular relies heavily upon the use of ethanol as an engine fuel, due in part to its role as one of the world's leading producers of ethanol. [Gasoline](Gasoline) sold in Brazil contains at least 25% [anhydrous](anhydrous) ethanol. Hydrous ethanol (about 95% ethanol and 5% water) can be used as fuel in more than 90% of new gasoline-fueled cars sold in the country. The US and many other countries primarily use E10 (10% ethanol, sometimes known as gasohol) and E85 (85% ethanol) ethanol/gasoline mixtures. Over time, it is believed that a material portion of the ≈ per year market for gasoline will begin to be replaced with fuel ethanol. [[File:Ethyl alcohol usp grade.jpg\|thumb\|upright\|[grade](USP)(chemical purity) ethanol for laboratory use]] Australian law limits the use of pure ethanol from [sugarcane](sugarcane) waste to 10% in automobiles. Older cars (and vintage cars designed to use a slower burning fuel) should have the engine valves upgraded or replaced. According to an industry [group](advocacy)(advocacy group), ethanol as a fuel reduces harmful [emissions](tailpipe)(tailpipe emissions) of carbon monoxide, particulate matter, [of nitrogen](oxides)(oxides of nitrogen), and other ozone-forming pollutants. [National Laboratory](Argonne)(Argonne National Laboratory) analyzed greenhouse gas emissions of many different engine and fuel combinations, and found that [biodiesel](biodiesel)/petrodiesel blend ([B20](B20 (biodiesel))) showed a reduction of 8%, conventional [E85](E85) ethanol blend a reduction of 17% and [ethanol](cellulosic)(cellulosic ethanol) 64%, compared with pure gasoline. Ethanol has a much greater research octane number (RON) than gasoline, meaning it is less prone to pre-ignition, allowing for better ignition advance which means more torque, and efficiency in addition to the lower carbon emissions. Ethanol [combustion](combustion) in an [combustion engine](internal)(internal combustion engine) yields many of the products of incomplete combustion produced by gasoline and significantly larger amounts of [formaldehyde](formaldehyde) and related species such as acetaldehyde. This leads to a significantly larger photochemical reactivity and more [level ozone](ground)(ground level ozone). This data has been assembled into The Clean Fuels Report comparison of fuel emissions and show that ethanol exhaust generates 2.14 times as much ozone as gasoline exhaust. \| title = Electro-rheological Fluids and Magneto-rheological Suspensions \| work = Proceedings of the 12th International Conference \| location = Philadelphia \| date = 16–20 August 2010 \| last = Tao \| first = Rongjia \| name-list-style = vanc \| publisher =World Scientific \| isbn = 9789814340229 }} When this is added into the custom Localized Pollution Index of The Clean Fuels Report, the local pollution of ethanol (pollution that contributes to smog) is rated 1.7, where gasoline is 1.0 and higher numbers signify greater pollution. The [Air Resources Board](California)(California Air Resources Board) formalized this issue in 2008 by recognizing control standards for formaldehydes as an emissions control group, much like the conventional [NOx](NOx) and reactive organic gases (ROGs). More than 20% of Brazilian cars are able to use 100% ethanol as fuel, which includes ethanol-only engines and [flex-fuel](flex-fuel) engines. Flex-fuel engines in Brazil are able to work with all ethanol, all gasoline or any mixture of both. In the United States, flex-fuel vehicles can run on 0% to 85% ethanol (15% gasoline) since higher ethanol blends are not yet allowed or efficient. Brazil supports this fleet of ethanol-burning automobiles with large national infrastructure that produces ethanol from domestically grown sugarcane. Ethanol's high [miscibility](miscibility) with water makes it unsuitable for shipping through modern [pipelines](Pipeline transport) like liquid hydrocarbons.\|date=16 March 2009\|isbn=978-0-393-06810-8\|bibcode=2009PhT....62d..63K\|doi=10.1063/1.3120901\|s2cid=153892198 }} Mechanics have seen increased cases of damage to small engines (in particular, the [carburetor](carburetor)) and attribute the damage to the increased water retention by ethanol in fuel.["Mechanics see ethanol damaging small engines"](http://www.nbcnews.com/id/25936782/), NBC News, 8 January 2008 #### Rocket fuel Ethanol was commonly used as fuel in early [bipropellant](bipropellant) [rocket](rocket) (liquid-propelled) vehicles, in conjunction with an [oxidizer](oxidizer) such as liquid oxygen. The German A-4 ballistic rocket of [War II](World)(World War II) (better known by its propaganda name ), which is credited as having begun the space age, used ethanol as the main constituent of . Under such nomenclature, the ethanol was mixed with 25% water to reduce the combustion chamber temperature. The design team helped develop U.S. rockets following World War II, including the ethanol-fueled [rocket](Redstone)(Redstone rocket), which launched the first U.S. satellite.["A Brief History of Rocketry"](http://science.ksc.nasa.gov/history/rocket-history.txt). NASA Historical Archive. Alcohols fell into general disuse as more energy-dense rocket fuels were developed, although ethanol is currently used in [lightweight](Light aircraft) [racing aircraft](rocket-powered)(Mark-III X-racer). #### Fuel cells Commercial fuel cells operate on reformed natural gas, [hydrogen](hydrogen) or methanol. Ethanol is an attractive alternative due to its wide availability, low cost, high purity and low toxicity. There is a wide range of fuel cell concepts that have entered trials including [fuel cell](direct-ethanol)(direct-ethanol fuel cell)s, auto-thermal reforming systems and thermally integrated systems. The majority of work is being conducted at a research level although there are a number of organizations at the beginning of the commercialization of ethanol fuel cells. #### Household heating and cooking Ethanol fireplaces can be used for home heating or for decoration. Ethanol can also be used as stove fuel for cooking. ### Feedstock Ethanol is an important industrial ingredient. It has widespread use as a precursor for other organic compounds such as ethyl [halide](halide)s, ethyl [ester](ester)s, diethyl ether, acetic acid, and ethyl [amine](amine)s. ### Solvent Ethanol is considered a universal [solvent](solvent), as its [molecular](molecular) structure allows for the dissolving of both [polar](Chemical polarity#Polar molecules), [hydrophilic](hydrophilic) and [nonpolar](nonpolar), [hydrophobic](hydrophobic) compounds. As ethanol also has a low [point](boiling)(boiling point), it is easy to remove from a solution that has been used to dissolve other compounds, making it a popular extracting agent for botanical oils. [oil](Cannabis)(Cannabis oil) extraction methods often use ethanol as an extraction solvent, and also as a post-processing solvent to remove oils, waxes, and [chlorophyll](chlorophyll) from solution in a process known as [winterization](Winterization of oil). Ethanol is found in [paint](paint)s, [tincture](tincture)s, markers, and personal care products such as mouthwashes, perfumes and deodorants. [Polysaccharides](Polysaccharides) [precipitate](Ethanol precipitation) from aqueous solution in the presence of alcohol, and ethanol precipitation is used for this reason in the purification of [DNA](DNA) and [RNA](RNA). ### Low-temperature liquid Because of its low [point](freezing)(freezing point) of and low toxicity, ethanol is sometimes used in laboratories (with [ice](dry)(dry ice) or other coolants) as a [bath](cooling)(cooling bath) to keep vessels at temperatures below the freezing point of water. For the same reason, it is also used as the active fluid in [thermometer](alcohol)(alcohol thermometer)s. ## Chemistry ### Chemical formula Ethanol is a 2-carbon alcohol. Its [formula](molecular)(molecular formula) is CH3CH2OH. An alternative notation is CH3−CH2−OH, which indicates that the carbon of a [group](methyl)(methyl group) (CH3−) is attached to the carbon of a [group](methylene)(methylene group) (−CH2–), which is attached to the oxygen of a [group](hydroxyl)(hydroxyl group) (−OH). It is a constitutional [isomer](isomer) of [ether](dimethyl)(dimethyl ether). Ethanol is sometimes abbreviated as EtOH, using the common organic chemistry notation of representing the ethyl group (C2H5−) with Et. ### Physical properties [[mit spektrum.png\|thumb\|upright\|Ethanol burning with its spectrum depicted](File:Spiritusflamme)] Ethanol is a volatile, colorless liquid that has a slight odor. It burns with a smokeless blue flame that is not always visible in normal light. The physical properties of ethanol stem primarily from the presence of its hydroxyl group and the shortness of its carbon chain. Ethanol's hydroxyl group is able to participate in hydrogen bonding, rendering it more viscous and less volatile than less polar organic compounds of similar molecular weight, such as [propane](propane). Ethanol's [flame temperature](adiabatic)(adiabatic flame temperature) for combustion in air is 2082 °C or 3779 °F. Ethanol is slightly more refractive than water, having a [index](refractive)(refractive index) of 1.36242 (at λ=589.3 nm and ). The [point](triple)(triple point) for ethanol is at a pressure of . ### Solvent properties Ethanol is a versatile solvent, [miscible](miscible) with water and with many organic solvents, including [acid](acetic)(acetic acid), [acetone](acetone), [benzene](benzene), [tetrachloride](carbon)(carbon tetrachloride), [chloroform](chloroform), [ether](diethyl)(diethyl ether), ethylene glycol, [glycerol](glycerol), [nitromethane](nitromethane), [pyridine](pyridine), and [toluene](toluene). Its main use as a solvent is in making tincture of iodine, cough syrups, etc. It is also miscible with light aliphatic hydrocarbons, such as [pentane](pentane) and [hexane](hexane), and with aliphatic chlorides such as [trichloroethane](1,1,1-Trichloroethane) and [tetrachloroethylene](tetrachloroethylene). Ethanol's miscibility with water contrasts with the immiscibility of longer-chain alcohols (five or more carbon atoms), whose water miscibility decreases sharply as the number of carbons increases. The miscibility of ethanol with [alkane](alkane)s is limited to alkanes up to [undecane](undecane): mixtures with [dodecane](dodecane) and higher alkanes show a [gap](miscibility)(miscibility gap) below a certain temperature (about 13 °C for dodecane). The miscibility gap tends to get wider with higher alkanes, and the temperature for complete miscibility increases. Ethanol-water mixtures have less volume than the sum of their individual components at the given fractions. Mixing equal volumes of ethanol and water results in only 1.92 volumes of mixture. Mixing ethanol and water is [exothermic](exothermic), with up to 777 J/mol being released at 298 K. Mixtures of ethanol and water form an [azeotrope](azeotrope) at about 89 mole-% ethanol and 11 mole-% water or a mixture of 95.6% ethanol by mass (or about 97% [by volume](alcohol)(alcohol by volume)) at normal pressure, which boils at 351 K (78 °C). This azeotropic composition is strongly temperature- and pressure-dependent and vanishes at temperatures below 303 K. [[bonding in solid ethanol at −186 °C](File:Ethanol-xtal-1976-3D-balls.png\|thumb\|upright=1.35\|Hydrogen)] Hydrogen bonding causes pure ethanol to be [hygroscopic](hygroscopic) to the extent that it readily absorbs water from the air. The polar nature of the hydroxyl group causes ethanol to dissolve many ionic compounds, notably [sodium](sodium hydroxide) and [hydroxide](potassium)(potassium hydroxide)s, [chloride](magnesium)(magnesium chloride), [chloride](calcium)(calcium chloride), [chloride](ammonium)(ammonium chloride), [bromide](ammonium)(ammonium bromide), and [bromide](sodium)(sodium bromide). [Sodium](Sodium chloride) and [chloride](potassium)(potassium chloride)s are slightly soluble in ethanol. Because the ethanol molecule also has a nonpolar end, it will also dissolve nonpolar substances, including most [oil](essential)(essential oil)sMerck Index of Chemicals and Drugs, 9th ed.; monographs 6575 through 6669 and numerous flavoring, coloring, and medicinal agents. The addition of even a few percent of ethanol to water sharply reduces the [tension](surface)(surface tension) of water. This property partially explains the "[of wine](tears)(tears of wine)" phenomenon. When wine is swirled in a glass, ethanol evaporates quickly from the thin film of wine on the wall of the glass. As the wine's ethanol content decreases, its surface tension increases and the thin film "beads up" and runs down the glass in channels rather than as a smooth sheet. ### Flammability An ethanol–water solution will catch fire if heated above a temperature called its [point](flash)(flash point) and an ignition source is then applied to it. For 20% alcohol by mass (about 25% by volume), this will occur at about . The flash point of pure ethanol is , but may be influenced very slightly by atmospheric composition such as pressure and humidity. Ethanol mixtures can ignite below average room temperature. Ethanol is considered a flammable liquid (Class 3 Hazardous Material) in concentrations above 2.35% by mass (3.0% by volume; 6 [proof](Alcohol proof)). Dishes using burning alcohol for culinary effects are called [flambé](flambé). ## Natural occurrence Ethanol is a byproduct of the metabolic process of yeast. As such, ethanol will be present in any yeast habitat. Ethanol can commonly be found in overripe fruit. Ethanol produced by symbiotic yeast can be found in [palm](bertam)(palm wine) blossoms. Although some animal species, such as the [treeshrew](pentailed)(pentailed treeshrew), exhibit ethanol-seeking behaviors, most show no interest or avoidance of food sources containing ethanol. Ethanol is also produced during the germination of many plants as a result of natural [anaerobiosis](anaerobiosis). Ethanol has been detected in [space](outer)(outer space), forming an icy coating around dust grains in [cloud](interstellar)(interstellar cloud)s. Minute quantity amounts (average 196 [ppb](parts per billion)) of endogenous ethanol and acetaldehyde were found in the exhaled breath of healthy volunteers. [syndrome](Auto-brewery)(Auto-brewery syndrome), also known as gut fermentation syndrome, is a rare medical condition in which [intoxicating](Alcohol intoxication) quantities of ethanol are produced through [endogenous](endogenous) [fermentation](fermentation) within the [system](digestive)(digestive system). ## Production [[Flasche.jpg\|thumb\|upright\|94% denatured ethanol sold in a bottle for household use](File:Ethanol)] Ethanol is produced both as a [petrochemical](petrochemical), through the hydration of [ethylene](ethylene) and, via biological processes, by fermenting [sugar](sugar)s with [yeast](yeast). Which process is more economical depends on prevailing prices of [petroleum](petroleum) and grain feed stocks. ### Sources World production of ethanol in 2006 was , with 69% of the world supply coming from Brazil and the U.S. Brazilian ethanol is produced from sugarcane, which has relatively high yields (830% more fuel than the fossil fuels used to produce it) compared to some other [crop](energy)(energy crop)s. Sugarcane not only has a greater concentration of sucrose than corn (by about 30%), but is also much easier to extract. The [bagasse](bagasse) generated by the process is not discarded, but burned by power plants to produce electricity. Bagasse burning accounts for around 9% of the electricity produced in Brazil. In the 1970s most industrial ethanol in the U.S. was made as a petrochemical, but in the 1980s the U.S. introduced subsidies for [ethanol](corn-based)(corn-based ethanol). \|title=Industrial Organic Chemicals \|last2=Reuben \|first2=Bryan G. \|last3=Plotkin \|first3=Jeffery S. \|publisher=John Wiley & Sons \|year=2004 \|isbn=978-0-471-44385-8 \|pages=136– \|name-list-style=vanc}} According to the Renewable Fuels Association, as of 30 October 2007, 131 grain ethanol bio-refineries in the U.S. have the capacity to produce of ethanol per year. An additional 72 construction projects underway (in the U.S.) can add of new capacity in the next 18 months. In India ethanol is made from sugarcane. [sorghum](Sweet)(Sweet sorghum) is another potential source of ethanol, and is suitable for growing in dryland conditions. The [Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics](International)(International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics) is investigating the possibility of growing sorghum as a source of fuel, food, and animal feed in arid parts of [Asia](Asia) and [Africa](Africa). Sweet sorghum has one-third the water requirement of sugarcane over the same time period. It also requires about 22% less water than corn. The world's first sweet sorghum ethanol distillery began commercial production in 2007 in [Pradesh](Andhra)(Andhra Pradesh), [India](India).["Developing a sweet sorghum ethanol value chain"](http://exploreit.icrisat.org/sites/default/files/uploads/1378281395_DevelopingASweetSorghum_2013.pdf) . [ICRISAT](ICRISAT), 2013 ### Hydration Ethanol can be produced from [petrochemical](petrochemical) feed stocks, primarily by the [acid](acid)-[catalyzed](catalysis) [hydration](Hydration reaction) of ethylene. It is often referred to as synthetic ethanol. ]] + → }} The catalyst is most commonly [acid](phosphoric)(phosphoric acid), [adsorbed](adsorption) onto a porous support such as [gel](silica)(silica gel) or [earth](diatomaceous)(diatomaceous earth). This catalyst was first used for large-scale ethanol production by the [Oil Company](Shell)(Shell Oil Company) in 1947. The reaction is carried out in the presence of high pressure steam at where a 5:3 ethylene to steam ratio is maintained.["Ethanol"](http://www.essentialchemicalindustry.org/chemicals/ethanol.html) . Essential Chemical Industry. This process was used on an industrial scale by [Carbide](Union)(Union Carbide) Corporation and others. It is no longer practiced in the US as fermentation ethanol produced from corn is more economical. In an older process, first practiced on the industrial scale in 1930 by Union Carbide but now almost entirely obsolete, ethylene was hydrated indirectly by reacting it with concentrated [acid](sulfuric)(sulfuric acid) to produce [sulfate](ethyl)(ethyl sulfate), which was [hydrolyzed](hydrolyzed) to yield ethanol and regenerate the sulfuric acid: + [[acid\|](sulfuric)] → [[sulfate\|H](ethyl)] : [[sulfate\|H](ethyl)] + [[H2O\|]] → H + [[acid\|](sulfuric)]}} ### From carbon dioxide Ethanol has been produced in the laboratory by converting [dioxide](carbon)(carbon dioxide) via biological and [electrochemical](electrochemical) reactions. → H + side products}} ### Fermentation Ethanol in [beverage](alcoholic)(alcoholic beverage)s and fuel is produced by fermentation. Certain species of yeast (e.g., [cerevisiae](Saccharomyces)(Saccharomyces cerevisiae)) metabolize sugar (namely [polysaccharide](polysaccharide)s, producing ethanol and carbon dioxide. The chemical equations below summarize the conversion: ]] → 2 H + 2 CO2}} ]] + → 4 H + 4 CO2}} Fermentation is the process of culturing yeast under favorable thermal conditions to produce alcohol. This process is carried out at around . Toxicity of ethanol to yeast limits the ethanol concentration obtainable by brewing; higher concentrations, therefore, are obtained by [fortification](Fortified wine) or [distillation](distillation). The most ethanol-tolerant yeast strains can survive up to approximately 18% ethanol by volume. To produce ethanol from starchy materials such as [cereal](cereal)s, the [starch](starch) must first be converted into sugars. In brewing [beer](beer), this has traditionally been accomplished by allowing the grain to germinate, or [malt](malt), which produces the [enzyme](enzyme) [amylase](amylase). When the malted grain is [mashed](mashing), the amylase converts the remaining starches into sugars. #### Cellulose Sugars for [fermentation](ethanol)(ethanol fermentation) can be obtained from [cellulose](cellulose). Deployment of this technology could turn a number of cellulose-containing agricultural by-products, such as [corncob](corncob)s, [straw](straw), and [sawdust](sawdust), into renewable energy resources. Other agricultural residues such as sugarcane bagasse and [crop](energy)(energy crop)s such as [switchgrass](switchgrass) may also be fermentable sugar sources. ### Testing [[reflection spectra of liquid ethanol, showing the −OH band centered near 3300 cm−1 and C−H bands near 2950 cm−1](File:EthanolMIRInfraredSpectra.PNG\|thumb\|upright=1.35\|Infrared)] [[File:Ethanol near IR spectrum.png\|thumb\|upright=1.35\|[spectrum](Near-infrared)(Near-infrared spectrum) of liquid ethanol]] Breweries and [biofuel](biofuel) plants employ two methods for measuring ethanol concentration. Infrared ethanol sensors measure the vibrational frequency of dissolved ethanol using the C−H band at 2900 cm. This method uses a relatively inexpensive solid-state sensor that compares the C−H band with a reference band to calculate the ethanol content. The calculation makes use of the [law](Beer–Lambert)(Beer–Lambert law). Alternatively, by measuring the density of the starting material and the density of the product, using a [hydrometer](hydrometer), the change in specific gravity during fermentation indicates the alcohol content. This inexpensive and indirect method has a long history in the beer brewing industry. ## Purification ### Distillation Ethylene hydration or brewing produces an ethanol–water mixture. For most industrial and fuel uses, the ethanol must be purified. [distillation](Fractional)(Fractional distillation) at atmospheric pressure can concentrate ethanol to 95.6% by weight (89.5 mole%). This mixture is an [azeotrope](azeotrope) with a boiling point of , and cannot be further purified by distillation. Addition of an entraining agent, such as [benzene](benzene), [cyclohexane](cyclohexane), or [heptane](heptane), allows a new ternary azeotrope comprising the ethanol, water, and the entraining agent to be formed. This lower-boiling ternary azeotrope is removed preferentially, leading to water-free ethanol. ### Molecular sieves and desiccants Apart from distillation, ethanol may be dried by addition of a [desiccant](desiccant), such as [sieves](molecular)(molecular sieves), [cellulose](cellulose), or [cornmeal](cornmeal). The desiccants can be dried and reused. [sieve](Molecular)(Molecular sieve)s can be used to selectively absorb the water from the 95.6% ethanol solution.\|title=Advances in Cereal Science and Technology\|last=Chemists\|first=American Association of Cereal\|date=1986\|publisher=American Association of Cereal Chemists, Incorporated\|isbn=978-0-913250-45-7\|language=en}} Molecular sieves of pore-size 3 [Ångstrom](Ångstrom), a type of [zeolite](zeolite), effectively sequester water molecules while excluding ethanol molecules. Heating the wet sieves drives out the water, allowing regeneration of their desiccant capability. ### Membranes and reverse osmosis Membranes can also be used to separate ethanol and water. Membrane-based separations are not subject to the limitations of the water-ethanol azeotrope because the separations are not based on vapor-liquid equilibria. Membranes are often used in the so-called hybrid membrane distillation process. This process uses a pre-concentration distillation column as the first separating step. The further separation is then accomplished with a membrane operated either in vapor permeation or pervaporation mode. Vapor permeation uses a vapor membrane feed and pervaporation uses a liquid membrane feed. ### Other techniques A variety of other techniques have been discussed, including the following: * Salting using [carbonate](potassium)(potassium carbonate) to exploit its insolubility will cause a phase separation with ethanol and water. This offers a very small potassium carbonate impurity to the alcohol that can be removed by distillation. This method is very useful in purification of ethanol by distillation, as ethanol forms an [azeotrope](azeotrope) with water. * Direct [reduction of carbon dioxide](electrochemical)(electrochemical reduction of carbon dioxide) to ethanol under ambient conditions using [nanoparticle](copper)(copper nanoparticle)s on a carbon nanospike film as the catalyst; * Extraction of ethanol from grain mash by [carbon dioxide](supercritical)(supercritical carbon dioxide); * [Pervaporation](Pervaporation); * [freezing](Fractional)(Fractional freezing) is also used to concentrate fermented alcoholic solutions, such as traditionally made [(beverage)](Applejack)(Applejack (beverage)); * [swing adsorption](Pressure)(Pressure swing adsorption). ### Grades of ethanol #### Denatured alcohol Pure ethanol and alcoholic beverages are heavily [taxed](Sin tax) as psychoactive drugs, but ethanol has many uses that do not involve its consumption. To relieve the tax burden on these uses, most jurisdictions waive the tax when an agent has been added to the ethanol to render it unfit to drink. These include [agents](bittering)(bitterant) such as [benzoate](denatonium)(denatonium benzoate) and toxins such as methanol, [naphtha](naphtha), and [pyridine](pyridine). Products of this kind are called denatured alcohol.Great Britain (2005). [The Denatured Alcohol Regulations 2005](http://www.opsi.gov.uk/si/si2005/20051524.htm) . Statutory Instrument 2005 No. 1524. #### Absolute alcohol Absolute or anhydrous alcohol refers to ethanol with a low water content. There are various grades with maximum water contents ranging from 1% to a few parts per million (ppm). If [distillation](azeotropic)(azeotropic distillation) is used to remove water, it will contain trace amounts of the material separation agent (e.g. benzene).\|year=2003\|publisher=New Age International Limited\|isbn=978-81-224-1459-2\|pages=402–}} Absolute alcohol is not intended for human consumption. Absolute ethanol is used as a solvent for laboratory and industrial applications, where water will react with other chemicals, and as fuel alcohol. Spectroscopic ethanol is an absolute ethanol with a low absorbance in [ultraviolet](ultraviolet) and visible light, fit for use as a solvent in [spectroscopy](ultraviolet-visible)(ultraviolet-visible spectroscopy). Pure ethanol is classed as 200 [proof](proof (alcohol)) in the US, equivalent to 175 degrees proof in the UK system.\|date=1 August 2007\|publisher=Tata McGraw-Hill Education\|isbn=978-0-07-065573-7\|pages=268–}} #### Rectified spirits Rectified spirit, an azeotropic composition of 96% ethanol containing 4% water, is used instead of anhydrous ethanol for various purposes. Spirits of wine are about 94% ethanol (188 proof). The impurities are different from those in 95% (190 proof) laboratory ethanol. ## Reactions Ethanol is classified as a primary alcohol, meaning that the carbon that its hydroxyl group attaches to has at least two hydrogen atoms attached to it as well. Many ethanol reactions occur at its hydroxyl group. ### Ester formation In the presence of acid catalysts, ethanol reacts with [acid](carboxylic)(carboxylic acid)s to produce ethyl [ester](ester)s and water: :[RCOOH](carboxylic acid) + HOCH2CH3 → [RCOOCH2CH3](ester) + H2O This reaction, which is conducted on large scale industrially, requires the removal of the water from the reaction mixture as it is formed. Esters react in the presence of an acid or base to give back the alcohol and a salt. This reaction is known as [saponification](saponification) because it is used in the preparation of soap. Ethanol can also form esters with inorganic acids. [sulfate](Diethyl)(Diethyl sulfate) and [phosphate](triethyl)(triethyl phosphate) are prepared by treating ethanol with sulfur trioxide and [pentoxide](phosphorus)(phosphorus pentoxide) respectively. Diethyl sulfate is a useful ethylating agent in [synthesis](organic)(organic synthesis). [nitrite](Ethyl)(Ethyl nitrite), prepared from the reaction of ethanol with [nitrite](sodium)(sodium nitrite) and sulfuric acid, was formerly used as a [diuretic](diuretic). ### Dehydration In the presence of acid catalysts, alcohols can be converted to alkenes such as ethanol to ethylene. Typically [acid](solid)(solid acid)s such as [alumina](alumina) are used. :   CH3CH2OH → H2C=CH2 + H2O Since water is removed from the same molecule, the reaction is known as [dehydration](intramolecular)(Dehydration of alcohols to alkenes). Intramolecular dehydration of an alcohol requires a high temperature and the presence of an acid catalyst such as [acid](sulfuric)(sulfuric acid). Ethylene produced from sugar-derived ethanol (primarily in Brazil) competes with ethylene produced from petrochemical feedstocks such as naphtha and ethane. At a lower temperature than that of intramolecular dehydration, [alcohol dehydration](intermolecular)(Dehydration reaction) may occur producing a symmetrical ether. This is a [reaction](condensation)(condensation reaction). In the following example, [ether](diethyl)(diethyl ether) is produced from ethanol: :2 CH3CH2OH → CH3CH2OCH2CH3 + H2O ### Combustion Complete combustion of ethanol forms carbon dioxide and water: :C2H5OH (l) + 3 O2 (g) → 2 CO2 (g) + 3 H2O (l); −ΔHc = 1371 kJ/mol = 29.8 kJ/g = 327 kcal/mol = 7.1 kcal/g :C2H5OH (l) + 3 O2 (g) → 2 CO2 (g) + 3 H2O (g); −ΔHc = 1236 kJ/mol = 26.8 kJ/g = 295.4 kcal/mol = 6.41 kcal/gCalculated from heats of formation from CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics, 49th Edition, 1968–1969. Specific heat = 2.44 kJ/(kg·K) ### Acid-base chemistry Ethanol is a neutral molecule and the [pH](pH) of a solution of ethanol in water is nearly 7.00. Ethanol can be quantitatively converted to its [base](conjugate)(conjugate base), the [ethoxide](Alkoxide) ion (CH3CH2O−), by reaction with an [metal](alkali)(alkali metal) such as [sodium](sodium): :2 CH3CH2OH + 2 Na → 2 CH3CH2ONa + H2 or a very strong base such as [hydride](sodium)(sodium hydride): :CH3CH2OH + NaH → CH3CH2ONa + H2 The acidities of water and ethanol are nearly the same, as indicated by their [pKa](Acid dissociation constant) of 15.7 and 16 respectively. Thus, sodium ethoxide and [hydroxide](sodium)(sodium hydroxide) exist in an equilibrium that is closely balanced: :CH3CH2OH + NaOH CH3CH2ONa + H2O ### Halogenation Ethanol is not used industrially as a precursor to ethyl halides, but the reactions are illustrative. Ethanol reacts with [halide](hydrogen)(hydrogen halide)s to produce [halides](ethyl)(haloalkane) such as [chloride](ethyl)(ethyl chloride) and [bromide](ethyl)(ethyl bromide) via an [reaction](SN2)(SN2 reaction): :CH3CH2OH + [HCl](hydrogen chloride) → CH3CH2Cl + H2O HCl requires a catalyst such as [chloride](zinc)(zinc chloride). HBr requires [refluxing](refluxing) with a [acid](sulfuric)(sulfuric acid) catalyst. Ethyl halides can, in principle, also be produced by treating ethanol with more specialized [agents](halogenating)(Halogenation), such as [chloride](thionyl)(thionyl chloride) or [tribromide](phosphorus)(phosphorus tribromide). :CH3CH2OH + SOCl2 → CH3CH2Cl + SO2 + HCl Upon treatment with halogens in the presence of base, ethanol gives the corresponding [haloform](haloform) (CHX3, where X = Cl, Br, I). This conversion is called the [reaction](haloform)(haloform reaction). An intermediate in the reaction with chlorine is the [aldehyde](aldehyde) called [chloral](chloral), which forms [hydrate](chloral)(chloral hydrate) upon reaction with water: :4 Cl2 + CH3CH2OH → CCl3CHO + 5 HCl :CCl3CHO + H2O → CCl3C(OH)2H ### Oxidation Ethanol can be oxidized to [acetaldehyde](acetaldehyde) and further oxidized to [acid](acetic)(acetic acid), depending on the reagents and conditions. This oxidation is of no importance industrially, but in the human body, these oxidation reactions are catalyzed by the [enzyme](enzyme) [alcohol dehydrogenase](liver)(liver alcohol dehydrogenase). The oxidation product of ethanol, acetic acid, is a nutrient for humans, being a precursor to [CoA](acetyl)(acetyl CoA), where the acetyl group can be spent as energy or used for biosynthesis. ### Metabolism Ethanol is similar to [macronutrients](macronutrients) such as proteins, fats, and carbohydrates in that it provides calories. When consumed and metabolized, it contributes 7 kilocalories per gram via [metabolism](ethanol)(ethanol metabolism). ## Safety Ethanol is very flammable and should not be used around an open flame. Pure ethanol will irritate the skin and eyes.[Minutes of Meeting](http://www.nfpa.org/Assets/files/AboutTheCodes/704/CLA-AAA_ROPminutes_01-10.pdf) . Technical Committee on Classification and Properties of Hazardous Chemical Data (12–13 January 2010). Nausea, [vomiting](vomiting), and intoxication are symptoms of ingestion. Long-term use by ingestion can result in serious liver damage. Atmospheric concentrations above one part per thousand are above the European Union [exposure limit](occupational)(occupational exposure limit)s. ## History The fermentation of sugar into ethanol is one of the earliest [biotechnologies](biotechnology) employed by humans. Ethanol has historically been identified variously as spirit of wine or ardent spirits, and as [vitae](aqua)(aqua vitae) or aqua vita. The intoxicating effects of its consumption have been known since ancient times. Ethanol has been used by humans since prehistory as the intoxicating ingredient of [beverage](alcoholic)(alcoholic beverage)s. Dried residue on 9,000-year-old pottery found in China suggests that [Neolithic](Neolithic) people consumed alcoholic beverages. The inflammable nature of the exhalations of wine was already known to ancient natural philosophers such as [Aristotle](Aristotle) (384–322 BCE), [Theophrastus](Theophrastus) (–287 BCE), and [the Elder](Pliny)(Pliny the Elder) (23/24–79 CE).. However, this did not immediately lead to the isolation of ethanol, even despite the development of more advanced distillation techniques in second- and third-century [Egypt](Roman)(Roman Egypt).. An important recognition, first found in one of the writings attributed to [ibn Ḥayyān](Jābir)(Jabir ibn Hayyan) (ninth century CE), was that by [salt](adding)(Salt-effect distillation) to boiling wine, which increases the wine's [volatility](relative)(relative volatility), the flammability of the resulting vapors may be enhanced. (same content also available on [the author's website](http://www.history-science-technology.com/notes/notes7.html) ). The distillation of wine is attested in Arabic works attributed to [al-Kindī](Al-Kindi) (–873 CE) and to [al-Fārābī](Al-Farabi) (–950), and in the 28th book of [al-Zahrāwī](Al-Zahrawi)'s (Latin: Abulcasis, 936–1013) Kitāb al-Taṣrīf (later translated into Latin as Liber servatoris). (same content also available on [the author's website](http://www.history-science-technology.com/notes/notes7.html) ); cf. . Sometimes, sulfur was also added to the wine (see ). In the twelfth century, recipes for the production of aqua ardens ("burning water", i.e., ethanol) by distilling wine with salt started to appear in a number of Latin works, and by the end of the thirteenth century it had become a widely known substance among Western European chemists.. The works of [Alderotti](Taddeo)(Taddeo Alderotti) (1223–1296) describe a method for concentrating ethanol involving repeated [distillation](fractional)(fractional distillation) through a water-cooled [still](still), by which an ethanol purity of 90% could be obtained. pp. 51–52. The medicinal properties of ethanol were studied by [of Villanova](Arnald)(Arnald of Villanova) (1240–1311 CE) and [of Rupescissa](John)(John of Rupescissa) (–1366), the latter of whom regarded it as a life-preserving substance able to prevent all diseases (the [vitae](aqua)(aqua vitae) or "water of life", also called by John the [quintessence](Aether (classical element)) of wine). pp. 69-71. In [China](China), archaeological evidence indicates that the true distillation of alcohol began during the [Jin](Jin dynasty (1115–1234)) (1115–1234) or [Song](Southern)(Southern Song dynasty) (1127–1279) dynasties. \| access-date= 10 July 2016 \| quote= The earliest possible period seems to be the Eastern Han dynasty... the most likely period for the beginning of true distillation of spirits for drinking in China is during the Jin and Southern Song dynasties}} A still has been found at an archaeological site in Qinglong, [Hebei](Hebei), dating to the 12th century. In India, the true distillation of alcohol was introduced from the Middle East, and was in wide use in the [Sultanate](Delhi)(Delhi Sultanate) by the 14th century.\|year=2011\|publisher=Pearson Education India\|isbn=978-81-317-2791-1\|pages=55–}} In 1796, German-Russian chemist Johann Tobias Lowitz obtained pure ethanol by mixing partially purified ethanol (the alcohol-water azeotrope) with an excess of anhydrous alkali and then distilling the mixture over low heat.\|year=1796\|title=Anzeige eines, zur volkommen Entwasserung des Weingeistes nothwendig zu beobachtenden, Handgriffs \| language = de \| trans-title = Report of a task that must be done for the complete dehydration of wine spirits [alcohol-water azeotrope](i.e.,)) \|volume= 1 \|pages= 195–204 \| quote = See pp. 197–198: Lowitz dehydrated the azeotrope by mixing it with a 2:1 excess of anhydrous alkali and then distilling the mixture over low heat.}} French chemist [Lavoisier](Antoine)(Antoine Lavoisier) described ethanol as a compound of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, and in 1807 [de Saussure](Nicolas-Théodore)(Nicolas-Théodore de Saussure) determined ethanol's chemical formula. \|year=1807\|title=Mémoire sur la composition de l'alcohol et de l'éther sulfurique \|volume= 64 \|pages= 316–354}} In his 1807 paper, Saussure determined ethanol's composition only roughly; a more accurate analysis of ethanol appears on page 300 of his 1814 paper: \|year=1814\|pages=273–305\|title=Nouvelles observations sur la composition de l'alcool et de l'éther sulfurique\|volume=89}} Fifty years later, [Scott Couper](Archibald)(Archibald Scott Couper) published the structural formula of ethanol. It was one of the first structural formulas determined. Ethanol was first prepared synthetically in 1825 by [Faraday](Michael)(Michael Faraday). He found that sulfuric acid could absorb large volumes of [gas](coal)(coal gas). In a footnote on page 448, Faraday notes the action of sulfuric acid on coal gas and coal-gas distillate; specifically, "The [sulfuric] acid combines directly with carbon and hydrogen; and I find when [resulting compound is](the) united with bases [it] forms a peculiar class of salts, somewhat resembling the sulphovinates [ethyl sulfates](i.e.,), but still different from them." He gave the resulting solution to [Hennell](Henry)(Henry Hennell), a British chemist, who found in 1826 that it contained "sulphovinic acid" ([hydrogen sulfate](ethyl)(Ethyl sulfate)).\|year=1826\|title=On the mutual action of sulphuric acid and alcohol, with observations on the composition and properties of the resulting compound\|volume= 116 \| pages = 240–249 \|doi=10.1098/rstl.1826.0021\|s2cid=98278290}} On page 248, Hennell mentions that Faraday gave him some sulfuric acid in which coal gas had dissolved and that he (Hennell) found that it contained "sulphovinic acid" (ethyl hydrogen sulfate). In 1828, Hennell and the French chemist [Serullas](Georges-Simon)(Georges-Simon Serullas) independently discovered that sulphovinic acid could be decomposed into ethanol.\|doi=10.1098/rstl.1828.0021\|pages=365–371\| s2cid = 98483646 }} On page 368, Hennell produces ethanol from "sulfovinic acid" ([hydrogen sulfate](ethyl)(Ethyl sulfate)).\|year=1828\|title=De l'action de l'acide sulfurique sur l'alcool, et des produits qui en résultent\|volume=39 \|pages=152–186}} On page 158, Sérullas mentions the production of alcohol from "sulfate acid d'hydrogène carboné" (hydrocarbon acid sulfate). Thus, in 1825 Faraday had unwittingly discovered that ethanol could be produced from ethylene (a component of coal gas) by [acid-catalyzed](Acid catalysis) hydration, a process similar to current industrial ethanol synthesis.In 1855, the French chemist [Berthelot](Marcellin)(Marcellin Berthelot) confirmed Faraday's discovery by preparing ethanol from pure ethylene. \|year=1855\|title=Sur la formation de l'alcool au moyen du bicarbure d'hydrogène (On the formation of alcohol by means of ethylene) \|volume= 43 \|pages=385–405}} (Note: The chemical formulas in Berthelot's paper are wrong because chemists at that time used the wrong atomic masses for the elements; e.g., carbon (6 instead of 12), oxygen (8 instead of 16), etc.) Ethanol was used as lamp fuel in the U.S. as early as 1840, but a tax levied on industrial alcohol during the [War](Civil)(American Civil War) made this use uneconomical. The tax was repealed in 1906. Use as an automotive fuel dates back to 1908, with the [Model T](Ford)(Ford Model T) able to run on [petrol](petrol) (gasoline) or ethanol. It fuels some [lamps](spirit)(spirit lamps). Ethanol intended for industrial use is often produced from ethylene.}} Ethanol has widespread use as a solvent of substances intended for human contact or consumption, including scents, flavorings, colorings, and medicines. In chemistry, it is both a solvent and a feedstock for the synthesis of other products. It has a long history as a fuel for heat and light, and more recently as a fuel for internal combustion engines. ## See also * [non-lamellar phases in phospholipids](Ethanol-induced)(Ethanol-induced non-lamellar phases in phospholipids) * [Methanol](Methanol) * [1-Propanol](1-Propanol) * [2-Propanol](2-Propanol) * [alcohol](Rubbing)(Rubbing alcohol) * [alcohol](tert-Butyl)(tert-Butyl alcohol) * [fuel](Butanol)(Butanol fuel) * [of alcohol fuel](Timeline)(Timeline of alcohol fuel) ## References ## Further reading * . * * * ## External links * [Alcohol (Ethanol)](http://www.periodicvideos.com/videos/mv_alcohol.htm) at [Periodic Table of Videos](The)(The Periodic Table of Videos) (University of Nottingham) * [International Labour Organization](http://www.inchem.org/documents/icsc/icsc/eics0044.htm) ethanol safety information * [National Pollutant Inventory – Ethanol Fact Sheet](http://www.npi.gov.au/substances/ethanol/index.html) * [CDC – NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards – Ethyl Alcohol](https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/npg/npgd0262.html) * [National Institute of Standards and Technology](http://webbook.nist.gov/cgi/cbook.cgi?Name=ethanol&Units=SI) chemical data on ethanol * [Chicago Board of Trade](http://www.cmegroup.com/company/cbot.html) news and market data on ethanol futures * Calculation of [vapor pressure](http://ddbonline.ddbst.de/AntoineCalculation/AntoineCalculationCGI.exe?component=Ethanol), [liquid density](http://ddbonline.ddbst.de/DIPPR105DensityCalculation/DIPPR105CalculationCGI.exe?component=Ethanol), [dynamic liquid viscosity](http://ddbonline.ddbst.de/VogelCalculation/VogelCalculationCGI.exe?component=Ethanol), [surface tension](http://ddbonline.ddbst.de/DIPPR106SFTCalculation/DIPPR106SFTCalculationCGI.exe?component=Ethanol) of ethanol * [Ethanol History](https://web.archive.org/web/20140915061825/http://www.ethanolhistory.com/) A look into the history of ethanol * [ChemSub Online: Ethyl alcohol](http://chemsub.online.fr/name/ethyl_alcohol.html) * [Industrial ethanol production process flow diagram using ethylene and sulphuric acid](https://web.archive.org/web/20170210214845/http://www.inclusive-science-engineering.com/industrial-alcohol-production-from-ethylene-and-sulphuric-acid/industrial-ethyl-alcohol-production-from-ethylene-and-sulphuric-acid/) [ ](Category:Ethanol) [solvents](Category:Alcohol)(Category:Alcohol solvents) [Category:Alkanols](Category:Alkanols) [preservation](Category:Anatomical)(Category:Anatomical preservation) [chemicals](Category:Commodity)(Category:Commodity chemicals) [Category:Disinfectants](Category:Disinfectants) [Category:Hepatotoxins](Category:Hepatotoxins) [chemicals](Category:Household)(Category:Household chemicals) [metabolites](Category:Human)(Category:Human metabolites) [Group 1 carcinogens](Category:IARC)(Category:IARC Group 1 carcinogens) [Category:Oxygenates](Category:Oxygenates) [alcohols](Category:Primary)(Category:Primary alcohols) [fuels](Category:Rocket)(Category:Rocket fuels) [Category:Teratogens](Category:Teratogens) [chemistry](Category:Alcohol)(Category:Alcohol chemistry)
Star Trek Into Darkness	star_trek_into_darkness	# Star Trek Into Darkness Revision ID: 1160110269 \| Timestamp: 2023-06-14T13:31:35Z --- \| based_on = \| producer = \| starring = \| cinematography = [Mindel](Dan)(Dan Mindel) \| editing = \| music = [Giacchino](Michael)(Michael Giacchino) \| studio = \| distributor = Paramount Pictures \| released = \| runtime = 132 minutes \| country = United States \| language = English \| budget = $185–190 million \| gross = $467.4 million }} *Star Trek Into Darkness* is a 2013 American [fiction](science)(science fiction film) [film](action)(action film) directed by [J. Abrams](J.)(J. J. Abrams) and written by [Orci](Roberto)(Roberto Orci), [Kurtzman](Alex)(Alex Kurtzman), and [Lindelof](Damon)(Damon Lindelof). It is the 12th installment in the [Trek](Star)(Star Trek) franchise and the sequel to the 2009 film [Trek](Star)(Star Trek (film)), as the second in a [rebooted](reboot (fiction)) film series. It features [Pine](Chris)(Chris Pine) reprising his role as Captain [T. Kirk](James)(James T. Kirk), with [Quinto](Zachary)(Zachary Quinto), [Pegg](Simon)(Simon Pegg), [Urban](Karl)(Karl Urban), [Saldana](Zoe)(Zoe Saldana), [Cho](John)(John Cho), [Yelchin](Anton)(Anton Yelchin), [Greenwood](Bruce)(Bruce Greenwood), and [Nimoy](Leonard)(Leonard Nimoy) reprising their roles from the previous film. [Cumberbatch](Benedict)(Benedict Cumberbatch), [Eve](Alice)(Alice Eve), and [Weller](Peter)(Peter Weller) are also in the film's principal cast. It was Nimoy's last film appearance before his death in 2015. Set in the [century](23rd)(23rd century), the film follows Kirk and the crew of [Enterprise](USS)(USS Enterprise (NCC-1701)) as they are sent to the [Klingon](Klingon) homeworld seeking a former [Starfleet](Starfleet) member-turned-terrorist, [Harrison](John)(Khan Noonien Singh). After the release of Star Trek, Abrams, Burk, Lindelof, Kurtzman, and Orci agreed to produce its sequel. Filming began in January 2012. Into Darknesss visual effects were created by Lucasfilm's [Light & Magic](Industrial)(Industrial Light & Magic). The film was [converted](2D to 3D conversion) to [3D](3D film) during its post-production stage. It premiered at [Cinemas](Event)(Event Cinemas) in Sydney, Australia, on April 23, 2013, and was released in [IMAX](IMAX) theaters in the U.S. on May 15, 2013, with release in standard-format theaters the next day. Into Darkness was a financial success and received positive reviews from critics. Its gross earnings of over $467 million worldwide have made it the highest-grossing entry in the [Trek](Star)(Star Trek) franchise. It was nominated for [Visual Effects](Best)(Academy Award for Best Visual Effects) at the [Academy Awards](86th)(86th Academy Awards). It was followed by [Trek Beyond](Star)(Star Trek Beyond) in 2016. ## Plot In 2259, Captain [T. Kirk](James)(James T. Kirk) is removed from command of the starship [Enterprise](USS)(USS Enterprise (NCC-1701)) for violating the [Directive](Prime)(Prime Directive) by revealing the ship to the primitive inhabitants of the planet Nibiru in order to save them, and Spock, from a cataclysmic volcanic eruption. Admiral [Pike](Christopher)(Christopher Pike (Star Trek)) is reinstated as commanding officer with Kirk demoted to first officer. [Spock](Spock) is transferred to another ship. Shortly after, Starfleet officer Thomas Harewood, sent by Commander John Harrison, bombs a [31](Section)(Section 31 (Star Trek)) installation in [London](London). During an emergency meeting on the situation, Harrison uses a ship to ambush and kill Pike and other senior officers, before transporting to [Kronos](Klingon#Homeworld), homeworld of the hostile [Klingon](Klingon)s. Admiral Alexander Marcus reinstates Kirk and Spock to Enterprise with orders to kill Harrison using a new long range stealth torpedo. Chief Engineer [Scott](Montgomery)(Scotty (Star Trek)) objects to allowing untested torpedoes on board without knowing their specifications; when he is overruled, he resigns. Kirk assigns [Chekov](Pavel)(Pavel Chekov) to replace Scotty. En route to Kronos, Enterprises warp capabilities become disabled. Kirk leads a team with Spock and [Uhura](Uhura) to the planet, where they are ambushed by Klingon patrols. Harrison appears and kills the Klingons. Harrison surrenders when he learns the precise number of torpedoes on board Enterprise. Dr. [McCoy](Leonard)(Leonard McCoy) and Marcus's daughter, Dr. [Marcus](Carol)(Carol Marcus (Star Trek)), open a torpedo at Harrison's urging, revealing the torpedoes contain [cryonically-frozen](cryonics) humans. Harrison is taken to Enterprises brig, where he reveals his true identity as [Noonien Singh](Khan)(Khan Noonien Singh), a genetically engineered superhuman, awoken by Admiral Marcus from centuries of sleep and forced to develop advanced weapons. Khan reveals that Marcus sabotaged Enterprises warp drive, intending for the Klingons to destroy the ship after it fired on Kronos, sparking war with the Klingon Empire. Khan also gives Kirk a set of coordinates, which Kirk asks Scott to investigate. Scott discovers the coordinates lead to a covert Starfleet facility. Enterprise is intercepted by a much larger Starfleet warship, USS Vengeance, commanded by Admiral Marcus. Marcus demands that Kirk deliver Khan, but Enterprise flees to Earth to expose him. After Vengeance disables Enterprise near the Moon, Carol reveals her presence aboard Enterprise to stop the attack. Marcus forcibly transports Carol to Vengeance before ordering Enterprises destruction. Vengeance loses power after being sabotaged by Scott, who infiltrated the ship. With transporters down, Kirk and Khan, with the latter's knowledge of the warship's design, [space-jump](space diving) to Vengeance. Meanwhile, Spock contacts his future self on New Vulcan, who tells him of [own encounter with Khan](his)(Star Trek II: The Wrath of Khan) and warns that he cannot be trusted. After fighting their way to the bridge, Khan overpowers Kirk, Scott, and Carol, kills Marcus, and takes control of Vengeance. Khan demands that Spock return his frozen crew in exchange for the Enterprise officers. Spock complies, having had McCoy surreptitiously remove Khan's frozen crew from the torpedoes beforehand. When Khan starts shooting at Enterprise, Spock detonates the warheads, crippling the ship. With both starships caught in Earth's gravity, they plummet toward the surface. Kirk enters Enterprises radioactive reactor chamber to realign the warp core, sacrificing himself to save the ship. Khan crashes Vengeance into downtown [Francisco](San)(San Francisco) in an attempt to destroy Starfleet headquarters, while McCoy discovers that Khan's blood has regenerative properties that may save Kirk. A vengeful Spock pursues Khan through the city and the two engage in hand-to-hand combat. Uhura beams down and stuns Khan. Spock prepares to kill Khan, but Uhura stops him, explaining he is their only chance to save Kirk. Khan's blood revives Kirk and Khan is sealed in his cryogenic pod and stored with his compatriots. One year later, Kirk speaks at Enterprises re-dedication ceremony. The Enterprise crew embarks on a five-year exploratory mission. ## Cast * [Pine](Chris)(Chris Pine) as [James T. Kirk](Captain)(James T. Kirk), command leader of the [Enterprise](starship)(Starship Enterprise#Altered reality timeline). * [Quinto](Zachary)(Zachary Quinto) as [Spock](Commander)(Spock), first officer and science officer. [Nimoy](Leonard)(Leonard Nimoy) has a cameo appearance as Spock Prime. * [Urban](Karl)(Karl Urban) as [Leonard "Bones" McCoy](Dr.)(Leonard McCoy), chief medical officer. * [Saldana](Zoe)(Zoe Saldana) as [Nyota Uhura](Lieutenant)(Uhura), communications officer. * [Pegg](Simon)(Simon Pegg) as [Commander Montgomery "Scotty" Scott](Lieutenant)(Scotty (Star Trek)), chief engineer. * [Cho](John)(John Cho) as [Hikaru Sulu](Lieutenant)(Hikaru Sulu), helmsman. * [Cumberbatch](Benedict)(Benedict Cumberbatch) as [Noonien Singh](Khan)(Khan Noonien Singh), a genetically-engineered superhuman given the false identity of Commander John Harrison * [Yelchin](Anton)(Anton Yelchin) as [Pavel Chekov](Ensign)(Pavel Chekov), navigator and Scott's temporary replacement as chief engineer. * [Greenwood](Bruce)(Bruce Greenwood) as [Christopher Pike](Admiral)(Christopher Pike (Star Trek)), Kirk's predecessor as captain of the Enterprise and mentor. * [Weller](Peter)(Peter Weller) as Starfleet Fleet Admiral Alexander Marcus, Carol's father. * [Eve](Alice)(Alice Eve) as [Carol Marcus](Dr.)(Carol Marcus (Star Trek)), a science officer who uses the pseudonym Carol Wallace to board the Enterprise. * [Clarke](Noel)(Noel Clarke) as Thomas Harewood, a [Starfleet](Starfleet) officer, working within [31](Section)(Section 31 (Star Trek)) who is bribed by Khan into blowing up the facility. * [Contractor](Nazneen)(Nazneen Contractor) as Rima Harewood, Thomas' wife Additional members of the Enterprise crew include [Foreman](Amanda)(Amanda Foreman (actress)) as Ensign Brackett, [Scully](Jay)(Jay Scully) as Lieutenant Chapin, Jonathan Dixon as Ensign Froman, [Hinds](Aisha)(Aisha Hinds) as Navigation Officer Darwin, and [Gatt](Joseph)(Joseph Gatt) as Science Officer 0718. [Roy](Deep)(Deep Roy) and [Matthew Smith](Jason)(Jason Matthew Smith) reprise their roles as Keenser and Hendorff from the first film. Anjini Taneja Azhar, [North](Nolan)(Nolan North), and [Blakemore](Sean)(Sean Blakemore) also appear in the film, with Azhar as Lucille Harewood, the terminally ill daughter of Thomas Harewood; North portraying a Vengeance helmsman; and Blakemore playing a [Klingon](Klingon). [Langenkamp](Heather)(Heather Langenkamp) portrays Moto, a character she describes as a small role. Finally, [Blain](Ser'Darius)(Ser'Darius Blain) appears as a [redshirt](Redshirt (stock character)). ## Production ### Development In June 2008, it was reported that [Pictures](Paramount)(Paramount Pictures) was interested in signing producers of the 2009 Star Trek [J. Abrams](J.)(J. J. Abrams), [Burk](Bryan)(Bryan Burk), [Lindelof](Damon)(Damon Lindelof), [Kurtzman](Alex)(Alex Kurtzman), and [Orci](Roberto)(Roberto Orci) for a sequel. In March 2009, it was reported that these five producers had agreed to produce the film, with a script again written by Orci and Kurtzman (with the addition of Lindelof). A preliminary script was said to be completed by Christmas 2009 for a 2011 release. Kurtzman and Orci began writing the script in June 2009, originally intending to split the film into two parts. [Nimoy](Leonard)(Leonard Nimoy), the original [Spock](Spock) who plays an older version of the character in the 2009 film, said he would not appear in the film. Abrams was reportedly considering [Shatner](William)(William Shatner) for the sequel. By 2010, a release date of June 29, 2012, was set, with Lindelof announcing he had begun working on the script with Kurtzman and Orci. Pre-production was set for January 2011, although Burk said actual filming would probably begin during the spring or summer. Actor [Quinto](Zachary)(Zachary Quinto) later said that these reports were untrue. Lindelof compared the sequel to [Dark Knight](The)(The Dark Knight (film)). Abrams, Kurtzman, and Orci said that selecting a villain was difficult; according to Abrams, "the universe [Roddenberry](Gene Roddenberry) created is so vast that it's hard to say one particular thing stands out". They also discussed the possibility of [Noonien Singh](Khan)(Khan Noonien Singh) and [Klingon](Klingon)s. Kurtzman and Lindelof said they had "broken" the story (created an outline); instead of a sequel, it will be a stand-alone film. Abrams admitted in December 2010 that there was still no script. In January 2011, Abrams said he had not decided whether or not he would direct, since he had not yet seen a script. [Pictures](Paramount)(Paramount Pictures) then approached him, asking that the sequel be in [3D](3D film). Abrams said that the film would not be shot in 3D, but filmed in 2D and [during post-production](converted)(2D to 3D conversion). He was also interested in filming in [IMAX](IMAX): "IMAX is my favorite format; I'm a huge fan." In February, Orci [tweeted](Twitter) that he (with Lindelof and Kurtzman) planned to deliver the script in March 2011. Although the script was not finished on schedule, Paramount began financing pre-production; similar circumstances on the next [Ryan](Jack)(Jack Ryan (character)) film meant that [Pine](Chris)(Chris Pine) would film the Star Trek sequel first. By April, Orci said at [WonderCon](WonderCon) that the script's first draft had been completed. Abrams told [MTV](MTV) that when he finished his film, [8](Super)(Super 8 (2011 film)), he would turn his full attention to the Trek sequel. Although a script was completed, uncertainty regarding the extent of Abrams's involvement led to the film's being pushed back six months from its scheduled June 2012 release. Other factors which precluded the release, ending up pushing it further back were the high budget and overall difficulty of finding actors to fit the roles. In June, Abrams confirmed that his next project would be the sequel, noting that he would rather the film be good than ready by its scheduled release date. [Pegg](Simon)(Simon Pegg), who played [Scotty](Scotty (Star Trek)), said in an interview that he thought filming would begin during the latter part of the year. Abrams stated he would prioritize the film's story and characters over an early release date. In September, Abrams agreed to direct the film, with the cast from the previous film reprising their respective roles for a winter 2012 or summer 2013 release. In October, Orci said that [scouting](location)(location scouting) was underway, and a [book](comic)(comic book) series (of which Orci would be creative director) would "foreshadow" the film. Into Darkness was given a revised release date of 2013, and [Giacchino](Michael)(Michael Giacchino) confirmed that he would return to write the score. Lindelof said that Khan was considered a character they needed to use at some point, given that "he has such an intense gravity in the Trek universe, we likely would have expended more energy NOT putting him in this movie than the other way around." References to [Trek II: The Wrath of Khan](Star)(Star Trek II: The Wrath of Khan) were eventually added to the script, but Lindelof, Orci, and Kurtzman "were ever wary of the line between 'reimagined homage' and 'direct ripoff'." Orci and Kurtzman said they wanted a film which would work on its own and as a sequel, not using ideas from previous Star Trek works simply "because you think people are going to love it". Orci noted that when trying to create the "gigantic imagery" required by a summer blockbuster, Kurtzman suggested a scene where Enterprise rose from the ocean. With that as a starting point they (and Lindelof) came up with the [open](cold)(cold open) in Nibiru, which blended action and comedy and was isolated from the main story in an homage to [of the Lost Ark](Raiders)(Raiders of the Lost Ark). Actor [del Toro](Benicio)(Benicio del Toro) had reportedly been sought as the villain, and had met with Abrams to discuss the role; however, he later bowed out. In 2011, [Eve](Alice)(Alice Eve) and [Weller](Peter)(Peter Weller) agreed to their roles. [Who](Doctor)(Doctor Who) actor [Clarke](Noel)(Noel Clarke) agreed to an unknown role, reported to be "a family man with a wife and young daughter". [Bichir](Demián)(Demián Bichir) auditioned for the villain role, but as reported by [Variety](Variety (magazine)) on January 4, 2012, [Cumberbatch](Benedict)(Benedict Cumberbatch) was cast. ### Filming Into Darkness began [photography](principal)(principal photography) on January 12, 2012, with a scheduled release date of May 16, 2013. Cinematographer [Mindel](Dan)(Daniel Mindel) shot the film using a combination of [anamorphic](Anamorphic format) [film](35mm)(35mm movie film) and 15 perforation [IMAX](IMAX) cameras. About 30 minutes of the film is shot in the IMAX format, while some other scenes were also shot on 8 perforation [65mm](70mm). Into Darkness was released in 3D. On February 24, 2012, images from the set surfaced of Benedict Cumberbatch's character in a fight with Spock. [Wright](Edgar)(Edgar Wright) directed one shot in the film. Production ended in May 2012.["zq. picture wrap. holy shit."](https://twitter.com/ZacharyQuinto/status/200029006400192512) . [Twitter](Twitter). Retrieved June 7, 2012. Filming was done on location in [Angeles](Los)(Los Angeles), California, and around the area at the [Livermore National Laboratory](Lawrence)(Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory) in [Livermore](Livermore, California). Additional locations included [Studios](Paramount)(Paramount Studios) in [Hollywood](Hollywood, Los Angeles), Sony Pictures Studios in [City](Culver)(Culver City), the [Cathedral](Crystal)(Crystal Cathedral) in [Grove](Garden)(Garden Grove, California), and the [Mansion](Greystone)(Greystone Mansion) in [Hills](Beverly)(Beverly Hills). Some shots were made in [Iceland](Iceland). [Okrand](Marc)(Marc Okrand), the developer of the [language](Klingon)(Klingon language), provided the Klingon dialogues with on-set coaching from constructed language experts. The dialogue did not make cohesive sense following [editing](Rough cut) and so new dialogue was constructed and dubbed during post production. ### Title On September 10, 2012, Paramount confirmed the film's title as Star Trek Into Darkness. Abrams had indicated that unlike some of the earlier films in the franchise, his second Star Trek would not include a number in its title. This decision was made to avoid repeating the sequel numbering which began with [Trek II: The Wrath of Khan](Star)(Star Trek II: The Wrath of Khan), or making a confusing jump from Star Trek to Star Trek 12. Lindelof addressed the team's struggle to agree on a title: "There have been more conversations about what we're going to call it than went into actually shooting it... There's no word that comes after the colon after Star Trek that's cool. Not that Star Trek: Insurrection or First Contact aren't good titles, it's just that everything that people are turned off about when it comes to Trek is represented by the colon". Of the titles proposed, he joked that he preferred Star Trek: Transformers 4 best because the title is "technically available". ## Themes On May 10, 2013, Cho, Pegg, and Eve were interviewed on [Bob Rivers Show](The)(The Bob Rivers Show) to promote the film. Rivers asked about the title: "The title Star Trek Into Darkness indicates some sort of ominous turn, obviously". Eve suggested that Pegg discuss the theme of [terrorism](terrorism), and Pegg obliged: "I think it's a very current film, and it reflects certain things that are going on in our own heads at the moment; this idea that our enemy might be walking among us, not necessarily on the other side of an ocean, you know. John Harrison, Benedict Cumberbatch's character, is ambiguous, you know? We [characters in the film](the) don't know who to support. Sometimes, Kirk, he seems to be acting in exactly the same way as him [Harrison]. They're both motivated by revenge. And the Into Darkness in the title is less an idea of this new trend of po-faced, kind of, everything's-got-to-be-a-bit-dour treatments of essentially childish stories. It's more about Kirk's indecision." Cho agreed about the characterization of Captain Kirk: "It's his crisis of leadership." The pivotal scene near the end when Kirk enters the reactor chamber serves as a role reversal of a similar pivotal scene in Star Trek II: The Wrath of Khan. Originally conceived as a retelling of [of Darkness](Heart)(Heart of Darkness) by [Conrad](Joseph)(Joseph Conrad), Kurtzman and Orci defined the main theme of Into Darkness as "how far will we go to exact vengeance and justice on an enemy that scares us. How far should we go from our values?" They added that running from personal values is a personal struggle, where "the enemy's blood is within us; we are the enemy. We must not succumb to it; we are the same." ## Music Composer [Giacchino](Michael)(Michael Giacchino) composed the film's [music](incidental)(Film score). Into Darkness was Giacchino's fourth film collaboration with Abrams, which included [Trek](Star)(Star Trek (film)) (2009). The film score was recorded at the Sony Scoring Stage in Culver City, California from March 5 to April 3, 2013. Its soundtrack album was released digitally on May 14, 2013, and was made available on May 28 through [Sarabande](Varèse)(Varèse Sarabande). The score contains the original [Trek* theme](Star)(Theme from Star Trek) by [Courage](Alexander)(Alexander Courage). On April 24, 2013, it was announced that British singer [Bruce](Bo)(Bo Bruce) and Irish songwriter [Lightbody](Gary)(Gary Lightbody) of [Patrol](Snow)(Snow Patrol) had collaborated on a song for the film's soundtrack entitled "The Rage That's In Us All"."[Bo Bruce : Voice finalist set to sing in Star Trek Into Darkness movie](http://stillgotthefever.blogspot.co.uk/2013/04/bo-bruce-voice-finalist-set-to-sing-in.html)" Still Got The Fever (April 24, 2013). Retrieved April 24, 2013. Australian songwriter and producer [Conley](Robert)(Robert Conley (music producer)) co-wrote a track with [Austin](Penelope)(Penelope Austin), "The Dark Collide"."[Global Artists Contribute to Star Trek: Into Darkness Soundtrack](http://www.capsulecomputers.com.au/2013/04/global-artists-contribute-to-star-trek-into-darkness-soundtrack/) " Capsule Computers (April 23, 2013). Retrieved April 24, 2013. An expanded soundtrack album was released on July 28, 2014, limited to 6,000 copies. ## Marketing As part of a contest Abrams designed after the release of [8](Super)(Super 8 (2011 film))* (2011), the prize for answering a series of questions would be walk-on roles for two people in Into Darkness. He debuted three frames of the film on [Conan](Conan (talk show)) on October 4, 2012, showing what he described as Spock "in a volcano, in this crazy suit". The official poster for the film was released two months later on December 3, 2012, showing a mysterious figure (thought to be Benedict Cumberbatch's villain) standing on a pile of burning rubble looking over what appears to be a damaged [London](London); he is standing in a hole in the shape of the Starfleet insignia, blown out of the side of a building. About nine minutes of the opening sequence was shown before [IMAX](IMAX) presentations of [Hobbit: An Unexpected Journey](The)(The Hobbit: An Unexpected Journey), which was released in the United States on December 14, 2012. Alice Eve, Cumberbatch, and Burk unveiled the IMAX prologue in London, England on December 14. A two-minute teaser was released in iTunes Movie Trailers on December 17. The teaser marked the beginning of a [marketing](viral)(viral marketing) campaign, with a hidden link directing fans to a movie-related website. A 30-second teaser premiered February 3, 2013 during the stadium blackout of [Bowl XLVII](Super)(Super Bowl XLVII). The same day, Paramount released apps for Android, iPhone, and Windows Phone which enabled users to unlock tickets for showtimes two days before the film's release date. An international trailer was released on March 21, 2013, with an embedded URL revealing an online-only international poster. On April 8, Paramount released the final international one-sheet featuring solely Benedict Cumberbatch's character. On April 12, 2013, iTunes Movie Trailers revealed the final domestic [one-sheet](One sheet#Cinema) featuring USS Enterprise, and announced that the final US domestic trailer would be released on April 16. In the days leading up to the trailer release, character posters featuring Kirk, Spock, Uhura, and Harrison were released on iTunes. Paramount attempted to broaden the film's appeal to international audiences, an area where Star Trek and other science-fiction films had generally performed poorly. Into Darkness was dedicated to post-9/11 veterans. J.J. Abrams is connected with [Mission Continues](The)(The Mission Continues), and a section of the film's website is dedicated to that organization. ### Promotional tours The cast (except for [Yelchin](Anton)(Anton Yelchin), [Greenwood](Bruce)(Bruce Greenwood), and [Weller](Peter)(Peter Weller)) participated in May 2013 press junkets. On May 7, Pegg appeared on [Kimmel Live!](Jimmy)(Jimmy Kimmel Live!). On May 8, Quinto was interviewed on [Night with Jimmy Fallon](Late)(Late Night with Jimmy Fallon). He was followed on May 10 by Cumberbatch (who told Fallon that his fans are called "Cumberbitches"; Fallon countered that his are called "FalPals") and on May 17 by Saldana. Saldana said that she lobbied Abrams for four years: "If we make a sequel, Uhura needs to kick ass". On May 9, Cumberbatch appeared on the [Show with David Letterman](Late)(Late Show with David Letterman). On May 10, Cho, Pegg, and Eve had a radio interview on [Bob Rivers Show](The)(The Bob Rivers Show). They discussed approaching a body of work already mastered by an earlier generation of actors, agreeing that they would remain with the franchise as long as it lasted. That night, Chris Pine appeared on the Late Show with David Letterman; Letterman showed a gag reel of robots in a black-and-white film before showing a clip from Into Darkness. Pine said that he had to gain weight for the role of Captain Kirk. One story told by cast members during the promotion concerned an on-set prank initially devised by Pegg, which he later noted grew out of proportion. While filming at the [Ignition Facility](National)(National Ignition Facility), Pegg and Pine (with the crew's help) tricked the arriving actors into believing there was "ambient radiation" at the location and they had to wear "neutron cream" to avoid being burned by it. Cumberbatch was tricked into signing a release (which was meant to give the joke away, but he signed it without reading it), while Urban and Cho were tricked into recording a [service announcement](public)(public service announcement) about the necessity for neutron cream. On May 13, Abrams appeared on [Daily Show with Jon Stewart](The)(The Daily Show), and on May 16, Pine appeared on [Ellen DeGeneres Show](The)(The Ellen DeGeneres Show). On May 14, Abrams, Zachary Quinto, Pine, and Alice Eve appeared on [Urgant Show](The)(Evening Urgant) (Russian: Вечерний Ургант) in [Russia](Russia). ## Release ### Theatrical [[File:Star Trek Into Darkness Cast 2013.jpg\|thumb\|300px\|right\|upright\|alt=Four young men in suits\|Cast members at the film's [Australia](Australia)n premiere in April 2013 (left to right: Karl Urban, Zachary Quinto, director J.J. Abrams, and Chris Pine)]] [Laboratories](Dolby)(Dolby Laboratories) and Paramount announced that Star Trek Into Darkness would be released in [Atmos](Dolby)(Dolby Atmos), with [Nelson](Andy)(Andy Nelson (sound engineer)) and [Behlmer](Anna)(Anna Behlmer) handling the mix with supervision from [Burtt](Ben)(Ben Burtt) and [Wood](Matthew)(Matthew Wood (sound editor)) at [Lucasfilm](Lucasfilm)'s [Sound](Skywalker)(Skywalker Sound). The film was released on May 9, 2013, in international markets and May 16, 2013, in the [States](United)(United States). ### Home media Star Trek Into Darkness was released as a digital download on August 20, 2013. It was first released on DVD, Blu-ray, and Blu-ray 3D in the United Kingdom on September 2 and in the United States and Canada on September 10. There is also a Special Limited Edition Blu-ray set available with a model on a stand of USS Vengeance as seen in this movie. In North America, the release is split into various retailer exclusives. Retailer [Buy](Best)(Best Buy) has an exclusive Blu-ray edition with 30 minutes of additional content. Target's Blu-ray edition also has 30 minutes of additional content that is different from Best Buy's. Online retailer iTunes' version comes with audio commentary for the film not available in the retailer exclusives. A collection of deleted scenes is available exclusively via the [SmartGlass](Xbox)(Xbox SmartGlass) second-screen app paired with the [Video](Xbox)(Xbox Video) release of the film. The split of the special features between various retailers has attracted criticism from fans. In particular, The Digital Bits' editor Bill Hunt remarked that "taking fully half or more of the disc-based special features created for a major Blu-ray release and casting them to the winds as retailer exclusives, thus forcing your customers to go on an expensive scavenger hunt is, I'm sorry, absolutely outrageous. Seriously, if Paramount is going to treat its Blu-ray customers like this, they should just get out of the business altogether. Or better yet, farm all their titles out to third party licensees who will treat these films and Blu-ray customers in general with greater care and respect." Weeks after posting his article, Hunt himself was invited by Paramount to discuss about the issue of giving away the film's special features to different retail partners. He suggested "[putting] together the true special edition that should have been delivered from the start, with all of the extras that got scattered around to different retailers, including the enhanced audio commentary, plus all-new content just for this release... [and] to consider offering the IMAX version of the film..." ## Reception ### Box office Into Darkness earned $13.5 million on its opening day in the United States and Canada, lower than [Trek](Star)(Star Trek (film))'s $30.9 million. The film earned $21.6million the following Friday, also lower than its predecessor's earnings four years earlier ($26million). It earned $70.6million during its opening weekend, finishing in the US box-office top spot (above [Great Gatsby](The)(The Great Gatsby (2013 film)) and [Man 3](Iron)(Iron Man 3)). Total weekend earnings were $84.1million, including the early-showing grosses. Although these were lower than Paramount's projected box-office earnings, studio vice-chairman [Moore](Rob)(Rob Moore (executive)) said he was "extremely pleased" with the sequel's performance. Several weeks after release, the film grossed $147million at the foreign box office, surpassing the lifetime international earnings of its predecessor. Into Darkness reached the top spot of [China](China)'s box office with a $25.8million gross, tripling the overall earnings of the previous film during its opening weekend. Star Trek Into Darkness ended its North American theatrical run on September 12, 2013, with a box office total of $228,778,661, which places it as the 11th highest-grossing film for 2013. It earned $467,365,246 worldwide, ranking it in 14th place for 2013, and making it the highest-grossing film of the franchise. Scott Mendelson of [Forbes](Forbes) contends that the film's box office performance was the result of Paramount's inability to sell the basic components of the film's story, and inclusion of Khan "for little reason other than marketability and then spent the next year or so lying to everyone and claiming said villain wasn't in the picture[...] With no added value elements to sell, Paramount was forced to craft a generic campaign based around Benedict Cumberbatch as "Generic Bad Guy", so the excitement never took hold[...] This was adding to the idea that merely withholding basic story elements is tantamount to promising stunning plot twists[...] and it made fans and general moviegoers less excited about Star Trek 2 than they were four, three, or even two years ago." Calculating in all expenses, [Hollywood](Deadline)(Deadline Hollywood) estimated that the film made a profit of $29.9 million. ### Critical response On [Tomatoes](Rotten)(Rotten Tomatoes) the film has an approval rating of 84% based on 297 reviews, with an average rating of 7.4/10. The site's consensus reads, "Visually spectacular and suitably action packed, Star Trek Into Darkness is a rock-solid installment in the venerable sci-fi franchise, even if it's not as fresh as its predecessor." On [Metacritic](Metacritic) the film has a weighted average score of 72 out of 100, based on 43 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews". Audiences polled by [CinemaScore](CinemaScore) gave the film an average grade of "A" on an A+ to F scale. Critics called it a "rousing adventure" and "a riveting action-adventure in space". Cumberbatch's performance attracted praise from critics, with Peter Travers of [Stone](Rolling)(Rolling Stone) calling it a "tour de force to reckon with" and his character "a villain for the ages". Joe Neumaier of the New York [News](Daily)(Daily News (New York)) wrote that Cumberbatch delivered "one of the best blockbuster villains in recent memory". Jonathan Romney of [Independent](The)(The Independent) noted Cumberbatch's voice, saying it was "so sepulchrally resonant that it could have been synthesised from the combined timbres of [McKellen](Ian)(Ian McKellen), [Stewart](Patrick)(Patrick Stewart), and [Rickman](Alan)(Alan Rickman) holding an elocution contest down a well". [New York Times](The)(The New York Times) praised his screen presence: "He fuses Byronic charisma with an impatient, imperious intelligence that seems to raise the ambient I.Q. whenever he's on screen". However, not all of the reviews were positive; The Independent said the film would "underwhelm even the Trekkies". [Lumenick](Lou)(Lou Lumenick) of the [York Post](New)(New York Post) gave the film one-and-a-half stars (out of four), saying it had a "limp plot" and the "special effects are surprisingly cheesy for a big-budget event movie". A.O. Scott dismissed the film in The New York Times: "It's uninspired hackwork, and the frequent appearance of blue lens flares does not make this movie any more of a personal statement". [Meyer](Nicholas)(Nicholas Meyer), director of Star Trek II: Wrath of Khan (from which the film borrows and remakes some scenes), revealed in 2018 that he had been disappointed with the film. He was quoted as saying: "In my sort of artistic worldview, if you're going to do an homage, you have to add something. You have to put another layer on it, and they didn't. Just by putting the same words in different characters' mouths didn't add up to anything, and if you have someone dying in one scene and sort of being resurrected immediately after, there's no real drama going on. It just becomes a gimmick or gimmicky, and that's what I found it to be, ultimately." The film was criticized for a scene with actress [Eve](Alice)(Alice Eve)'s character Carol Marcus in her underwear, which was called "wholly unnecessary" and "gratuitous". Screenwriter and producer Damon Lindelof apologized on [Twitter](Twitter) for the scene: "I take responsibility and will be more mindful in the future". On [Conan](Conan (talk show)), Abrams addressed the matter by debuting a deleted scene of actor [Cumberbatch](Benedict)(Benedict Cumberbatch)'s character Khan taking a shower. Eve addressed the underwear controversy at a 2013 Las Vegas Star Trek Convention and said, "I didn't know it would cause such a ruckus. I didn't feel exploited."StarTrek.com staff. ["Star Trek Las Vegas 2013: Day 2 Recap"](http://www.startrek.com/article/star-trek-las-vegas-2013-day-2-recap) , StarTrek.com. August 10, 2013. Retrieved October 30, 2013. \|width=35%\|align=right}} Despite an acclaimed performance from Cumberbatch, Christian Blauvelt of Hollywood.com criticized the casting of the actor as [Noonien Singh](Khan)(Khan Noonien Singh), saying that the character had been "whitewashed into oblivion", since Khan is an explicitly non-white character in the [Trek* canon](Star)(Star Trek canon) (introduced as a [Sikh](Sikh) and former ruler of much of eastern Eurasia). There have been similar accusations of [whitewashing](whitewashing in film) by fans and American Sikhs, with [Trek: Voyager](Star)(Star Trek: Voyager)* actor [Wang](Garrett)(Garrett Wang) tweeting "The casting of Cumberbatch was a mistake on the part of the producers. I am not being critical of the actor or his talent, just the casting". [Takei](George)(George Takei), the original Hikaru Sulu, was also disappointed with the casting, as he thought it would have been better to cast Cumberbatch not as an established villain like Khan but as a new character. On Trekmovie.com, co-producer and co-screenwriter Bob Orci addressed Khan's casting: "Basically, as we went through the casting process and we began honing in on the themes of the movie, it became uncomfortable for me to support demonizing anyone of color, particularly any one of Middle Eastern descent or anyone evoking that. One of the points of the movie is that we must be careful about the villain within , not some other race". An in-canon comic book has subsequently been created to [retcon](retcon) Khan's hitherto unexplained change in ethnicity in the film. In an interview with [Buzzfeed](BuzzFeed) two years after the film's release, Abrams addressed some of the film's shortcomings. He thought that the dynamic for Kirk and Spock's relationship in the film "wasn't really clear." For keeping the identity of Khan a secret prior to the film's release, Abrams felt he "was trying to preserve the fun for the audience, and not just tell them something that the characters don't learn for 45 minutes into the movie, so the audience wouldn't be so ahead of it." In the end, Abrams recognized that "there were certain things I was unsure of[...] Any movie[...] has a fundamental conversation happening during it. And [Into Darkness,](for) I didn't have it[...] [problems with the plot](The) was not anyone's fault but mine, or, frankly, anyone's problem but mine. [script](The) was a little bit of a collection of scenes that were written by my friends[...] And yet, I found myself frustrated by my choices, and unable to hang my hat on an undeniable thread of the main story. So then I found myself on that movie basically tap-dancing as well as I could to try and make the sequences as entertaining as possible[...] I would never say that I don't think that the movie ended up working. But I feel like it didn't work as well as it could have had I made some better decisions before we started shooting." ### Accolades List of accolades received by Star Trek Into Darkness}} ## Sequel Star Trek Beyond}} Into Darkness received a sequel, Beyond in July 2016. ## See also * [Star Trek Into Darkness controversy](Wikipedia)(Wikipedia Star Trek Into Darkness controversy) * [Trek* film series](Star)(Star Trek (film series)) [of adventure films of the 2010s](List)(List of adventure films of the 2010s) * [of films featuring extraterrestrials](List)(List of films featuring extraterrestrials) * [of science fiction films of the 2010s](List)(List of science fiction films of the 2010s) * [in film](Whitewashing)(Whitewashing in film) ## References ## External links * * [Official database website](http://www.startrek.com/page/star-trek-into-darkness) * * }} [films](Category:2013)(Category:2013 films) [English-language films](Category:2010s)(Category:2010s English-language films) [3D films](Category:2013)(Category:2013 3D films) [science fiction action films](Category:2013)(Category:2013 science fiction action films) [science fiction adventure films](Category:2010s)(Category:2010s science fiction adventure films) [science fiction action films](Category:American)(Category:American science fiction action films) [science fiction adventure films](Category:American)(Category:American science fiction adventure films) [sequel films](Category:American)(Category:American sequel films) [about cryonics](Category:Fiction)(Category:Fiction about cryonics) [about interracial romance](Category:Films)(Category:Films about interracial romance) [about terrorism in Europe](Category:Films)(Category:Films about terrorism in Europe) [set in the 23rd century](Category:Films)(Category:Films set in the 23rd century) [set in the future](Category:Films)(Category:Films set in the future) [set in London](Category:Films)(Category:Films set in London) [set in San Francisco](Category:Films)(Category:Films set in San Francisco) [shot in Iceland](Category:Films)(Category:Films shot in Iceland) [shot in Los Angeles](Category:Films)(Category:Films shot in Los Angeles) [films](Category:IMAX)(Category:IMAX films) [Darkness](Into)(Category:Star Trek (film franchise)) [Robot Productions films](Category:Bad)(Category:Bad Robot Productions films) [Media films](Category:Skydance)(Category:Skydance Media films) [Pictures films](Category:Paramount)(Category:Paramount Pictures films) [scored by Michael Giacchino](Category:Films)(Category:Films scored by Michael Giacchino) [directed by J. J. Abrams](Category:Films)(Category:Films directed by J. J. Abrams) [produced by J. J. Abrams](Category:Films)(Category:Films produced by J. J. Abrams) [produced by Damon Lindelof](Category:Films)(Category:Films produced by Damon Lindelof) [produced by Roberto Orci](Category:Films)(Category:Films produced by Roberto Orci) [with screenplays by Alex Kurtzman and Roberto Orci](Category:Films)(Category:Films with screenplays by Alex Kurtzman and Roberto Orci) [with screenplays by Damon Lindelof](Category:Films)(Category:Films with screenplays by Damon Lindelof) [American films](Category:2010s)(Category:2010s American films)
Amanda Marshall	amanda_marshall	# Amanda Marshall Revision ID: 1159947122 \| Timestamp: 2023-06-13T14:54:59Z --- \| birth_place = [Toronto](Toronto), [Ontario](Ontario), Canada \| origin = \| genre = \| years_active = 1988Present \| label = \| associated_acts = \| website = }} Amanda Meta Marshall (born August 29, 1972) is a [Canadian](Canadians) [pop](pop music)-[rock](rock music) singer. She has released three studio albums; the first was certified Diamond in Canada, with the latter two certified 3× Platinum and Platinum respectively. She is best known for her 1996 single, "[Birmingham](Birmingham (Amanda Marshall song))", which reached number 3 in Canada and was her only song to reach the US charts. ## Early life Marshall was born in [Toronto](Toronto), [Ontario](Ontario), Canada. Toronto Star \|website=Thestar.com \|date=2010-10-31 \|access-date=2016-08-29}} She grew up an only child, in her own words, "the product of an interracial marriage": her mother is from Trinidad, her father is White. In several of her songs, Marshall has reflected on her racial identity "as a woman who looks white but is actually black". Marshall studied music extensively during her childhood, including at the [Conservatory of Music](Royal)(Royal Conservatory of Music) in Toronto. While performing on the [Street West](Queen)(Queen Street West) bar scene in her teens, she met guitarist [Healey](Jeff)(Jeff Healey), who was struck by her powerful voice and took her on tour for a long time. ## Career ### Debut album and critical success Marshall signed a recording contract with Metalblade Records in 1991, but both parties agreed that they were not a good fit and went their separate ways. In 1994, Marshall signed to [Records](Epic)(Epic Records), and contributed to the [Young](Neil)(Neil Young) [album](tribute)(tribute album) [Tunes: A Tribute to Neil Young](Borrowed)(Borrowed Tunes: A Tribute to Neil Young) the same year. Her debut album [Marshall](Amanda)(Amanda Marshall (album)) was released the following year in 1995. The album was a major success in Canada, generating a great deal of [airplay](airplay (radio)) and spawning six Top 40 hits—"[It Rain](Let)(Let It Rain (Amanda Marshall song))", "Beautiful Goodbye", "Dark Horse", "Fall From Grace", "Sitting on Top of the World", and "[Birmingham](Birmingham (Amanda Marshall song))", her most successful hit in Canada and the only song to reach the US charts. In 1996, Marshall's song "This Could Take All Night" was included in the [soundtrack](original)(original soundtrack) of [Cup](Tin)(Tin Cup). In 1997, Marshall's song "I'll Be Okay" was included in the [soundtrack](original)(original soundtrack) of ''[Best Friend's Wedding](My)(My Best Friend's Wedding)''. Amanda's career got a huge boost when [John](Elton)(Elton John) named her as an artist he was then-currently listening to when he appeared on [Rosie Show](The)(The Rosie Show); as of 2023, Elton John is still a fan of Amanda Marshall’s music. ### 1999–2000: ''Tuesday's Child* and further success In 1999, she released a successful follow-up album, [Child](Tuesday's)(Tuesday's Child (album))''. It followed in the same vein as her debut, with a mix of soulful pop songs and ballads, characterizing her powerful voice.["Deadly Snakes give a rattlin' good time Pop Reviews ; Deck goes here"](https://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/thestar/doc/437928686.html?FMT=ABS&FMTS=ABS:FT&type=current&date=May+29%2C+1999&author=&pub=Toronto+Star&edition=&startpage=1&desc=Deadly+Snakes+give+a+rattlin%27+good+time+Pop+Reviews+%3B+Deck+goes+here). Toronto Star* - Toronto, Ont. May 29, 1999 Page: 1 Her song "Ride" from that album was featured in [Replacements](The)(The Replacements (film)) and on its soundtrack. In autumn 1999, she supported [Houston](Whitney)(Whitney Houston) on the European leg of her [Love Is Your Love World Tour](My)(My Love Is Your Love World Tour). Another single from that album, "Believe In You", was featured on one episode of [by an Angel](Touched)(Touched by an Angel) and on its [soundtrack](Touched by an Angel: The Album) as well as the 2002 [direct-to-video](direct-to-video) film ''[Swamp Years](Kermit's)(Kermit's Swamp Years)'', while [Sambora](Richie)(Richie Sambora) of Bon Jovi was the guest guitarist on the track "Why Don't You Love Me". She also co wrote a song "Right Here All Along" with Carole King, who also performed background vocals on the track. She was nominated as best songwriter at the 2000 Juno Awards. ### 2001–present: ''Everybody's Got a Story* and further releases In 2001, Marshall released her third album, Everybody's Got a Story''. It marked a change in style and sound for Marshall, with a noticeable [R&B](rhythm and blues) influence. Her singles "Everybody's Got a Story" and "Sunday Morning After" received some Canadian airplay, and for the album, Marshall worked with the likes of [Asher](Peter)(Peter Asher) and [Mann](Billy)(Billy Mann). Marshall's absence from the music scene was due to legal battles with her record label after she fired her management in 2002. Those fights were not resolved for about 12 years. In 2003, she released a greatest hits album entitled Intermission: The Singles Collection, which was followed by another greatest hits album, Collections, in 2006. In 2008, yet another greatest hits album, The Steel Box Collection, was released. In a 2012 radio interview, Marshall announced that she was working on a new album. In the interview, she explained to the radio host that "a new CD is in the works", and that she was "hopeful" of its release in 2013, however this did not eventuate. In an article, she said that the record was "70% done". ### 2023–present: Heavy Lifting* On March 27, 2023, Marshall announced her new album, Heavy Lifting, along with a Canada-wide tour. She released the first single from Heavy Lifting, "I Hope She Cheats", a cover of [Ambrosius](Marsha)(Marsha Ambrosius)'s "[She Cheats on You (With a Basketball Player)](Hope)(Hope She Cheats on You (With a Basketball Player))", on March 31, 2023.Megan LaPierre, ["Amanda Marshall Returns with New Album 'Heavy Lifting,' Canadian Tour"](https://exclaim.ca/music/article/amanda_marshall_returns_with_new_album_heavy_lifting_canadian_tour). [Exclaim!](Exclaim!), March 27, 2023. Other tracks on the upcoming album include "Dawgcatcher" and "I'm Not Drunk." ## Discography ### Studio albums ### Compilations ### Singles ### Soundtracks and appearances ## References ## External links * * * [births](Category:1972)(Category:1972 births) [people](Category:Living)(Category:Living people) [people of Trinidad and Tobago descent](Category:Canadian)(Category:Canadian people of Trinidad and Tobago descent) [Royal Conservatory of Music alumni](Category:The)(Category:The Royal Conservatory of Music alumni) [women singer-songwriters](Category:Canadian)(Category:Canadian women singer-songwriters) [singer-songwriters](Category:Canadian)(Category:Canadian singer-songwriters) [from Toronto](Category:Musicians)(Category:Musicians from Toronto) [Records artists](Category:Epic)(Category:Epic Records artists) [Black Canadian women singers](Category:21st-century)(Category:21st-century Black Canadian women singers) [women pop singers](Category:Canadian)(Category:Canadian women pop singers) [Black Canadian women singers](Category:20th-century)(Category:20th-century Black Canadian women singers)
Index of Windows games _C	index_of_windows_games__c	# Index of Windows games (C) Revision ID: 1157312798 \| Timestamp: 2023-05-27T20:29:46Z --- This is an index of [Windows](Microsoft)(Microsoft Windows) games. This list has been split into multiple pages. Please use the Table of Contents to browse it. ## References [Windows](Category:Lists of PC games) [ ](Category:Windows games)
Henley Passport Index	henley_passport_index	# Henley Passport Index Revision ID: 1159576873 \| Timestamp: 2023-06-11T06:27:44Z --- \| country_of_origin = [Kingdom](United)(United Kingdom) \| locations = \| area_served = \| owner = Henley & Partners \| key_people = \| industry = \| services = \| revenue = \| operating_income = \| international = \| net_income = \| assets = \| equity = \| employees = \| parent = \| divisions = \| subsidiaries = \| url = \| ipv6 = \| advertising = \| commercial = Yes \| registration = None \| num_users = \| launch_date = \| current_status = Online \| native_clients = \| content_license = \| footnotes = }} The Henley Passport Index ([abbreviation](abbreviation): HPI) is a global ranking of countries according to the travel freedom enjoyed by the holders of that country's ordinary passport for its citizens. It started in 2006 as [& Partners](Henley)(Henley & Partners) [Visa](Travel visa) Restrictions Index (HVRI) and was modified and renamed in January 2018.Andrejevic, Mark and Volcic, Zala (2016). Commercial Nationalism: Selling the Nation and Nationalizing the Sell. Palgrave Macmillan, New York. The index provides annual ranking for 199 [passport](passport)s of the world according to the number of countries their holders can travel to visa-free. The number of countries that a specific passport can access becomes its visa-free 'score'. In collaboration with the [Air Transport Association](International)(International Air Transport Association) (IATA), and based on official data from their global database, Henley & Partners has analysed the visa regulations of the vast majority of the countries and territories in the world since 2006.Abrahamian, Atossa Araxia (2015). The Cosmopolites: The Coming of the Global Citizen, pp. 70–93. Colombia Global Reports, New York. ## Definition of the Index The Henley Passport index (HPI) ranks passports according to the number of destinations that can be reached using a particular country's ordinary passport without requiring a prior visa ('visa-free'). The ranking includes a total of 199 passports in its survey, against 227 travel destinations in the world, which consists of countries, territories, and micro-states. All distinct destination countries and territories that are in the [IATA](International Air Transport Association) database are considered by the index. The IATA maintains a database of travel information worldwide. However, since not all territories issue passports, there are far fewer passports ranked than destinations against which queries are made. ## Methodology To determine the score for each country or territory, its passport is checked against the IATA database in several steps: # Each of the 199 passports on the list is checked against all 227 possible travel destinations for which travel restriction information exists in the IATA database. The score is updated throughout the year as conditions and variables change. # Each query must satisfy certain conditions: #* passport is issued in the country of nationality #* passport holder is an adult citizen of the country which issued the passport and a lone traveller, not part of a tourist group #* entry is sought for tourism or business #* the stay is a minimum of three days # Further conditions include: #* queries are made only for holders of normal passports rather than diplomatic, service, emergency, or temporary passports and other travel documents are disregarded #* passport holders do not meet any complex requirements for entry (for example, possessing a government-issued letter, translations, or empty pages) #* passport holders have all necessary vaccinations and certificates; #* passport holders are arriving at and departing from the same airport #* passport holders are seeking a short stay rather than a transit #* the port of entry is a major city or capital, in cases where this is required #* requirements by the destination country or territory regarding a particular length of validity of passports are disregarded #* passport holders meet all basic requirements for entry (for example, holding a hotel reservation or having proof of sufficient funds or return tickets) #* advance passenger information and advance approval to board are not considered to be a visa requirement or travel restriction, neither is the requirement to pay airport tax # If no visa is required for passport holders from a particular country or territory to enter the destination, then that passport scores 1. The passport also scores 1 if a visa on arrival, a visitor's permit, or an electronic travel authority (ETA) can be obtained because they do not require pre-departure government approval, perhaps because of specific visa-waiver programs in place. # Where visas are needed, or where passport holders have to get government-approved electronic visas (e-Visas) before departure, a score of 0 is given. If passport holders must get government approval before leaving in order to obtain a visa on arrival, this also scores 0. # The score for each particular passport is then totalled by adding up its scores for all destinations. # The index does not factor in temporary restrictions or airspace closures. # It factors in mobility data which is based on national GDPs and the percentage of global wealth that the country's passport could provide access to. ## Rankings ### 2023 Henley Passport Index As of June 2023, the [Singaporean](Singapore passport) passport offers holders visa-free or visa-on-arrival access to a total of 194 countries and territories, with [Japanese](Japanese passport) passport offering 192 visa-free or visa-on-arrival countries and territories to its holders. These rankings were subsequently followed by [Germany](German passport), [Italy](Italian passport), [Korea](South)(South Korean passport) and [Spain](Spanish passport) (all at 191) as well as [Austria](Austrian passport), [Finland](Finland passport), [Luxembourg](Luxembourg passport) and [Sweden](Swedish passport) (all at 190). Notably, the ranking of the [States](United)(United States passport) declined by two places, following a decrease in its visa-free or visa-on-arrival access from 187 to 185 countries and territories. As a result, the United States passport offers the lowest visa-free or visa-on-arrival access out of the five countries of the [Nations Passport Group](Five)(Five Nations Passport Group) (Australia, Canada, New Zealand, United Kingdom, United States). An [passport](Afghan)(Afghan passport) has once again been labelled by the index as the least powerful passport in the world, with its nationals only able to visit 26 destinations visa-free. This was followed by the [passport](Iraqi)(Iraqi passport) at 29. ### 2022 Henley Passport Index As of 2022, a [Japanese](Japanese passport) passport offers its holders visa-free or visa-on-arrival access to a total of 193 countries and territories, with [Korean](South)(South Korean passport) and [passport](Singapore)(Singapore passport)s each offering 192 visa-free or visa-on-arrival countries and territories to their holders. An [passport](American)(United States passport) offers its holders visa-free or visa-on-arrival access to 186 countries and territories, with the [passport](British)(British passport) offering 187 visa-free or visa-on-arrival countries and territories to their holders. [Canadian](Canadian passport) and [passport](Australian)(Australian passport)s each offer their holders visa-free access to 185 countries and territories. An [passport](Afghan)(Afghan passport) has once again been labelled by the index as the least powerful passport in the world, with its nationals only able to visit 27 destinations visa-free. ### 2006–2015 A number of Asian and European countries are notable for their stability over the past decade, and [Belgium](Belgium), [France](France), [Italy](Italy), [Luxembourg](Luxembourg), [Japan](Japan), [Singapore](Singapore), [Spain](Spain), and [Sweden](Sweden) all remain in exactly the same position as 10 years before. The 'Top 10s' were almost identical, with 30 countries in 2015, compared to 26 a decade before. While [Liechtenstein](Liechtenstein) dropped, the [Republic](Czech)(Czech Republic), [Finland](Finland), [Hungary](Hungary), [Malta](Malta), [Slovakia](Slovakia), and [Korea](South)(South Korea) all made it into the top 10. [Taiwan](Taiwan), [Albania](Albania), the [Arab Emirates](United)(United Arab Emirates), [and Herzegovina](Bosnia)(Bosnia and Herzegovina), and [Serbia](Serbia) all moved up more than 20 places in the Henley & Partners Visa Restrictions Index over the period, while the biggest drops were experienced by [Guinea](Guinea) (−32), [Liberia](Liberia) (−33), [Leone](Sierra)(Sierra Leone) (−35), and [Bolivia](Bolivia) (−37). ### Older rankings In the table below, the "access" columns denote the number of visa-free destinations for holders of that passport. Unless indicated otherwise, the data in this table is taken from these sources. ## See also [Kochenov](Dimitry)(Dimitry Kochenov) [Passport Index](The)(The Passport Index) ## References ## Further reading * * * * * ## External links * [The Henley & Partners Visa Restrictions Index 2016](https://web.archive.org/web/20160312121441/https://www.henleyglobal.com/files/download/HP/hvri/HP%20Visa%20Restrictions%20Index%20160223.pdf) * [Henley & Partners Passport Index](https://www.henleypassportindex.com/global-ranking) * [Henley Passport Index ranking, as of 9 July 2018](https://www.henleypassportindex.com/assets/PI_2018_INFOGRAPHS_GLOBAL_180709.pdf) [Category:Indexes](Category:Indexes) [organizations](Category:Travel-related)(Category:Travel-related organizations) [*](Category:Passports) [travel documents](Category:International)(Category:International travel documents)
Sikhism	sikhism	# Sikhism Revision ID: 1159797619 \| Timestamp: 2023-06-12T16:02:02Z --- [Punjabi](Punjabi language) ([Gurmukhi](Gurmukhi))[bole](Khalsa)(Khalsa bole) \|founder=[Nanak](Guru)(Guru Nanak) \|founded_date=15th-16th century [CE](Common Era) \|founded_place=[region](Punjab)(Punjab) \| headquarters = [Takht](Akal)(Akal Takht) \|number_of_followers=25-30 million (referred to as "[Sikhs](Sikhs)" or "Sikh Panth") \|other_names=Sikhi\|slogan="[So Nihal](Bole)(Bole So Nihal)… [Sri Akaal](Sat)(Sat Sri Akaal)" \| area =Predominant religion in [India](Punjab,)(Punjab, India) (58%), and [worldwide](widespread)(Sikhism by country) as minorities ([diaspora](Sikh)(Sikh diaspora)) }} Sikhism (), also known as Sikhi ( *, , from ),Sikhism* (commonly known as Sikhī) originated from the word Sikh, which comes from the [Sanskrit](Sanskrit) root meaning "disciple", or meaning "instruction". [Khushwant](Singh,)(Khushwant Singh). 2006. The Illustrated History of the Sikhs. [University Press](Oxford)(Oxford University Press). . p. 15.Kosh, Gur Shabad Ratnakar Mahan. https://web.archive.org/web/20050318143533/http://www.ik13.com/online_library.htm or Sikh Dharma, is an [religion](Indian/Dharmic)(Indian religions) and philosophy that originated in the [Punjab](Punjab) region of the [subcontinent](Indian)(Indian subcontinent),"Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism and Sikh originated in India." around the end of the 15th century CE.Almasy, Steve. 2018 [2012]. "[Who are Sikhs and what do they believe?](https://edition-m.cnn.com/2012/08/05/us/religion-what-is-a-sikh/index.html)" [International](CNN)(CNN International). US: [Broadcasting System](Turner)(Turner Broadcasting System).\|date=2005\|publisher=[University Press](Oxford)(Oxford University Press) \|isbn=978-0-19-280601-7\|pages=21–23}} It is the most recently founded [organized faith](major)(Major religious groups) and stands at fifth-largest worldwide, with about 25–30million adherents (known as [Sikhs](Sikhs)).McLeod, William Hewat. 2019 [1998]. Sikhism developed from the spiritual teachings of [Nanak](Guru)(Guru Nanak) (1469–1539), the faith's first [guru](guru),Singh, Patwant (2000). The Sikhs. New York: [A. Knopf](Alfred)(Alfred A. Knopf). p. 17. . and the nine [gurus](Sikh)(Sikh gurus) who succeeded him. The tenth guru, [Singh](Gobind)(Guru Gobind Singh) (1666–1708), named the Sikh [scripture](scripture) [Granth Sahib](Guru)(Guru Granth Sahib) as his successor, bringing to a close the line of human gurus and establishing the [scripture](Religious text) as the 11th and last eternally living guru, a religious spiritual/life guide for Sikhs.Fenech, Louis, and [Hewat McLeod](William)(William Hewat McLeod) (2014). [Historical Dictionary of Sikhism](https://books.google.com/books?id=vgixwfeCyDAC) (3rd ed.). [& Littlefield](Rowman)(Rowman & Littlefield). . pp. 17, 84–5.James, William (2011). ''God's Plenty: Religious Diversity in Kingston.'' [University Press](McGill–Queen's)(McGill–Queen's University Press). . pp. 241–42.\|title=The Making of Sikh Scripture \|publisher=[University Press](Oxford)(Oxford University Press) \|date=2001 \|isbn=978-0-19-513024-9 \|pages=21–25, 123–24}} [Nanak](Guru)(Guru Nanak) taught that living an "active, creative, and practical life" of "truthfulness, fidelity, self-control and purity" is above metaphysical truth, and that the ideal man "establishes union with God, knows His Will, and carries out that Will". [Hargobind](Guru)(Guru Hargobind), the sixth Sikh Guru (1606–1644), established the concept of mutual co-existence of the [miri](Miri piri) ('political'/'temporal') and piri ('spiritual') realms. The Sikh scripture opens with the [Mantar](Mul)(Mul Mantar) or alternatively spelled "Mool Mantar" (), fundamental prayer about [Onkar](Ik)(Ik Onkar) (). The core beliefs of Sikhism, articulated in the Guru Granth Sahib, include [faith](faith) and [meditation](Simran) in the name of the [creator](one)(Ik Onkar); [divine](Divinity) unity and equality of all humankind; engaging in seva ('[service](selfless)(selfless service)'); striving for justice for the [and prosperity of all](benefit)(Sarbat da bhala); and honest conduct and livelihood while living a householder's life. \|year=2005 \|isbn=0-7910-8098-6 \|pages=41–50}} Following this standard, Sikhism rejects claims that any particular religious tradition has a monopoly on [truth](Absolute)(Absolute truth)."Sikhism rejects the view that any particular religious tradition has a monopoly regarding Absolute Truth. Sikhism rejects the practice of converting people to other religious traditions." Kalsi, Sewa Singh (2008). Sikhism. London: Kuperard. p. 24. . Sikhism emphasizes [simran](simran) (, meditation and remembrance of the teachings of Gurus), which can be expressed musically through [kirtan](kirtan), or internally through [japna](naam)(Naam Japo) ('meditation on His name') as a means to feel God's presence. It teaches followers to transform the "[Thieves](Five)(Five Thieves)" (i.e. lust, rage, greed, attachment, and ego). The religion developed and evolved in times of [persecution](religious)(Religious persecution#Persecutions of Sikhs), gaining converts from both [Hinduism](Hinduism) and [Islam](Islam). [rulers](Mughal)(Mughal Empire) of India tortured and executed two of the Sikh gurus—[Arjan](Guru)(Guru Arjan) (1563–1605) and [Tegh Bahadur](Guru)(Guru Tegh Bahadur) (1621–1675)—after [refused to convert to Islam](they)(Forced conversion#Islam). The persecution of Sikhs triggered the founding of the [Khalsa](Khalsa) by Guru Gobind Singh in 1699 as an order to protect the [of conscience](freedom)(freedom of conscience) and [religion](Freedom of religion), with members expressing the qualities of a [Sant-Sipāhī](Sant Sipahi) ('saint-soldier'). ## Terminology The majority of Sikh scriptures were originally written in the alphabet of [Gurmukhī](Gurmukhi), a script standardised by [Angad](Guru)(Guru Angad) out of [scripts](Laṇḍā)(Laṇḍā scripts) historically used in present-day Pakistan and [India](North)(North India). Adherents of Sikhism are known as [Sikhs](Sikhs), meaning 'students' or 'disciples' of the Guru. The [English](English language) word Sikhism derives from the Punjabi verb Sikhi, which connotes the "temporal path of learning" and is rooted in the word ('to learn'). ## Philosophy and teachings I. One Immortal Being, II. Ten Gurus, from Guru Nanak Sahib to Guru Gobind Singh Sahib, III. The Guru Granth Sahib, IV. The utterances and teachings of the ten Gurus and, V. The baptism bequeathed by the tenth Guru, and who does not owe allegiance to any other religion, is a Sikh. \| width = 33% \| align = right \| style = padding:8px; }} Sikhism is classified as an [religion](Indian)(Indian religion) or [Dharmic](Dharma) religion along with [Buddhism](Buddhism), [Hinduism](Hinduism), and [Jainism](Jainism)."As an Indian religion, Sikhism affirms transmigration, the continued rebirth after death". "Sikhism, Indian religion founded in the Punjab in the late 15th century." (McLeod 2019/1998).["Classification of Religions"](https://www.britannica.com/topic/classification-of-religions), [Britannica](Encyclopædia)(Encyclopædia Britannica) Online. The basis of Sikhism lies in the teachings of [Nanak](Guru)(Guru Nanak) and his successors. Sikh ethics emphasize the congruence between spiritual development and everyday moral conduct. Its founder Guru Nanak summarized this perspective as: "Truth is the highest virtue, but higher still is truthful living." Sikhism lays emphasis on Ėk nūr te sab jag upjiā, 'From the one light, the entire universe welled up.' ### Teachings Sikhism is a [monotheistic](Monotheism) and [panentheistic](Panentheism) religion, advocating the belief in One Universal God signified by the term [Onkar](Ik)(Ik Onkar)."[Sikhism at a glance \|Religions: Sikhism](http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/sikhism/ataglance/glance.shtml)." BBC (2014). In Sikhism, the overall concept of God is [Waheguru](Waheguru) ('wondrous Teacher') considered to be [nirankar](nirankar) ('shapeless'), akal ('timeless'), karta purakh ('the creator'), and agam agochar ('incomprehensible and invisible'). In a literal sense, God has no gender in Sikhism, though metaphorically, God is presented as masculine and God's power as feminine. For example, God is repeatedly referred to by the name akaal purkh ('beyond time and space') and [nirankar](nirankar) ('without form') by the tenth guru Guru Gobind Singh Ji, but he also refers to God as his father, and God's creative power as his mother. Similarly, another example is that the scripture and eternal guru, the Guru Granth Sahib says that all humans are soul-brides who long to unite with their husband Lord. In addition, the gurus also wrote in the Guru Granth Sahib that there are many worlds on which the transcendental God has created life. The Sikh scripture begins with God as [Onkar](Ik)(Ik Onkar) (), the 'formless one',Singh, Pashaura; Fenech, Louis E. (2014). [The Oxford Handbook of Sikh Studies](https://books.google.com/books?id=8I0NAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA234). Oxford University Press. . understood in the Sikh tradition as monotheistic unity of God. Ik onkar (sometimes capitalized) is more loosely rendered 'the one supreme reality', 'the one creator', 'the all-pervading [spirit](Para Brahman)', and other ways of expressing a diffused but unified and singular sense of God and creation. The traditional [Mantar](Mul)(Mul Mantar) goes from ik onkar until Nanak hosee bhee sach The opening line of the Guru Granth Sahib and each subsequent [raga](raga), mentions ik onkar: \|author=[Granth Sahib](Guru)(Guru Granth Sahib) (17th c.), p. 1}} ### Worldly Illusion [[File:Akalees Emily Eden PDL.jpg\|thumb\|upright\|A sketch made in 1844 by [Eden](Emily)(Emily Eden) of the "Akalees or Immortals". Digitized by the [Digital Library](Panjab)(Panjab Digital Library).]] [Māyā](Maya (illusion)), defined as a temporary illusion or "[unreality](unreality)", is one of the core deviations from the pursuit of God and salvation: where worldly attractions give only illusory temporary satisfaction and pain that distracts from the process of the devotion of God. However, Nanak emphasised māyā as not a reference to the unreality of the world, but of its values. In Sikhism, the influences of [ego](Ahankar), [anger](Krodh), [greed](Lobh), [attachment](Moh), and [lust](Kam), known as the pānj chor ('[Thieves](Five)(Five Thieves)'), are believed to be particularly distracting and hurtful. Sikhs believe the world is currently in a state of [Yuga](Kali)(Kali Yuga) ('age of darkness') because the world is led astray by the love of and attachment to māyā. The fate of people vulnerable to the five thieves, is separation from God, and the situation may be remedied only after intensive and relentless devotion. ### Timeless Truth [[File:Sikh.man.at.the.Golden.Temple.jpg\|thumb\|An [Sikh Warrior](Akali-Nihang)(Nihang singh) at [Sahib](Harmandir)(Harmandir Sahib), also called the [Temple](Golden)(Golden Temple)]] [[Dhal Talwar.png\|thumb\|The original Sikh Symbol, or flag called the Nishan Sahib](File:Kattar)] According to Guru Nanak, the supreme purpose of human life is to reconnect with Akal ('The Timeless One'). However, [egotism](egotism) is the biggest barrier in making this connection. Using the Guru's teaching remembrance of [nām](Nām Japō) (the divine Name of the Lord) leads to the end of egotism. Guru Nanak designated the word Guru ('teacher')Some disagree with this viewpoint, and state that guru in Sikhism is "not a teacher or a guide", but "God's own manifestation"; see: to mean the voice of "the spirit": the source of knowledge and the guide to salvation. As ik onkar is [immanent](universally)(Panentheism), Guru is indistinguishable from Akal and are one and the same. One connects with Guru only with accumulation of selfless search of truth. Ultimately the seeker realises that it is the consciousness within the body which is the seeker/follower of the Word that is the true Guru. The human body is just a means to achieve the reunion with Truth. Once truth starts to shine in a person's heart, the essence of current and past holy books of all religions is understood by the person. ### Liberation Guru Nanak's teachings are founded not on a final destination of heaven or hell, but on a spiritual union with the Akal, which results in [salvation](salvation) or [jivanmukti](Jivanmukta) ('enlightenment/liberation within one's lifetime'), a concept also found in [Hinduism](Hinduism). [Gobind Singh](Guru)(Guru Gobind Singh) makes it clear that human birth is obtained with great fortune, therefore one needs to be able to make the most of this life. Sikhs accept [reincarnation](reincarnation) and [karma](karma) concepts found in [Buddhism](Buddhism), [Hinduism](Hinduism), and [Jainism](Jainism), but do not necessarily infer a [metaphysical](Metaphysics) [soteriology](soteriology) akin to those found in those other religions. However, in Sikhism, both karma and liberation "is modified by the concept of God's grace" (nadar, mehar, kirpa, karam, etc.). Guru Nanak states that "the body takes birth because of karma, but salvation is attained through grace." To get closer to God, Sikhs: avoid the evils of maya; keep the everlasting truth in mind; practice [shabad](Shabad (hymn)) [kirtan](kirtan) (musical recitation of hymns); [meditate](meditate) on [naam](Nām Japō); and serve humanity. Sikhs believe that being in the company of the [satsang](satsang) (association with sat, 'true', people) or sadh [sangat](Sangat (term)) is one of the key ways to achieve liberation from the cycles of reincarnation. ### Power and Devotion (Miri and Piri) Miri-Piri is a doctrine that has been practiced in Sikh religion since the seventeenth century. The doctrine of the "Mir" (social and political aspects of life) and the "Pir" (guides to spiritual aspect of life) was revealed by the first Guru of Sikhism, [Nanak](Guru)(Guru Nanak), but propounded by the sixth Guru of Sikhism, [Hargobind](Guru)(Guru Hargobind), on 12 June 1606. After the martyrdom of [father](his)(Guru Arjan), Guru Hargobind was elevated to the Guruship and fulfilled the prophecy that was given by the primal figure of Sikh, [Buddha](Baba)(Baba Buddha), that the guru will possess spiritual and temporal power. [Hargobind](Guru)(Guru Hargobind) introduced the two swords of Miri and Piri symbolizing both worldly (social and political) and spiritual authority.Jakobsh, D. R. (2012). Sikhism. University of Hawaii Press. The two [kirpan](kirpan) of Miri and Piri are tied together with a [khanda](Khanda (Sikh symbol)) in center, so the combination of both is considered supreme, Where action informed or arising out of the spiritual heart completes one's purpose and meaning in the world of action: [spirituality](spirituality).Singh, D. (1992). THE SIKH IDENTITY. Fundamental Issues, 105. [Nanak](Guru)(Guru Nanak), the first Sikh Guru and the founder of Sikhism, was a [Bhakti](Bhakti) saint. He taught that the most important form of worship is Bhakti (devotion to [Waheguru](Waheguru)). [Arjan](Guru)(Guru Arjan), in the [Sahib](Sukhmani)(Sukhmani Sahib), recommended the true religion is one of loving devotion to God. The [Granth Sahib](Guru)(Guru Granth Sahib) includes suggestions on how a Sikh should perform constant Bhakti. Some scholars call Sikhism a Bhakti sect of Indian traditions,Cole, William Owen, and Piara Singh Sambhi (1997). A Popular Dictionary of Sikhism: Sikh Religion and Philosophy. Abingdon-on-Thames, England: Routledge. , p. 22.Lorenzen, David (1995). Bhakti Religion in North India: Community Identity and Political Action. Albany: [University of New York Press](State)(State University of New York Press), . adding that it emphasises "nirguni Bhakti," i.e. loving devotion to a divine without qualities or physical form.Syan, Hardip (2014). P. 178 in The Oxford Handbook of Sikh Studies, edited by P. Singh and L E. Fenech. Oxford University Press. .. While Western scholarship generally places Sikhism as arising primarily within a Hindu Bhakti movement milieu while recognizing some [Islamic](Sufi)(Sufism) influences,Elsberg, Constance (2003), Graceful Women. [of Tennessee Press](University)(University of Tennessee Press). . pp. 27–28. some Indian Sikh scholars disagree and state that Sikhism transcended the environment it emerged from. The basis of the latter analysis is that Bhakti traditions did not clearly disassociate from Vedic texts and their cosmologies and metaphysical worldview, while the Sikh tradition clearly did disassociate from the Vedic tradition. Some Sikh sects outside the [Punjab](Punjab, India) region of India, such as those found in [Maharashtra](Maharashtra) and [Bihar](Bihar), practice [aarti](aarti) (the ceremonial use of lamps) during Bhakti observances in a Sikh [gurdwara](gurdwara). But, most Sikh gurdwaras forbid aarti during their Bhakti practices. While emphasizing Bhakti, the Sikh gurus also taught that the spiritual life and secular householder life are intertwined, and not separate. This logically follows from the panentheistic nature of Sikh philosophy. In Sikh worldview, the everyday world is part of the Infinite Reality, increased spiritual awareness leads to increased and vibrant participation in the everyday world. Guru Nanak described living an "active, creative, and practical life" of "truthfulness, fidelity, self-control and purity" as being higher than the [metaphysical](metaphysics) truth. The 6th Sikh Guru, [Hargobind](Guru)(Guru Hargobind), after [Arjan](Guru)(Guru Arjan)'s martyrdom, faced with oppression by the Islamic [Empire](Mughal)(Mughal Empire), affirmed the philosophy that the political/temporal (Miri) and spiritual (Piri) realms are mutually coexistent. According to the 9th Sikh Guru, [Bahadur](Tegh)(Tegh Bahadur), the ideal Sikh should have both [Shakti](Shakti) (power that resides in the temporal), and [Bhakti](Bhakti) (spiritual meditative qualities). This was developed into the concept of the "saint soldier" by the 10th Sikh Guru, [Singh](Gobind)(Gobind Singh). The concept of humanity as elaborated by [Nanak](Guru)(Guru Nanak) refines and negates the "monotheistic concept of self/God", and "monotheism becomes almost redundant in the movement and crossings of love". The human's goal, taught the Sikh gurus, is to end all dualities of "self and other, I and not-I", attain the "attendant balance of separation-fusion, self-other, action-inaction, attachment-detachment, in the course of daily life". ### Singing and Music Sikhs refer to the hymns of the gurus as [Gurbani](Gurbani) ('Guru's word'). [Shabad](Shabad (hymn)) [Kirtan](Kirtan) is the singing of Gurbani. The entire verses of Guru Granth Sahib are written in a form of poetry and rhyme to be recited in thirty-one Ragas of the Classical Indian Music as specified. However, the exponents of these are rarely to be found amongst the Sikhs who are conversant with all the Ragas in the Guru Granth Sahib. Guru Nanak started the Shabad Kirtan tradition and taught that listening to kirtan is a powerful way to achieve tranquility while meditating, and singing of the glories of the Supreme Timeless One (God) with devotion is the most effective way to come in communion with the Supreme Timeless One. The three morning prayers for Sikhs consist of Japji Sahib, Jaap Sahib, and Tav-Prasad Savaiye. [Sikhs](Baptised)(Khalsa) (Amritdharis) rise early and meditate, then recite all the [Banis](Five)(Five Banis) of Nitnem, before breakfast. [Banis](Five)(Five Banis) consists of [Ji Sahib](Jap)(Jap Ji Sahib), [Sahib](Jaap)(Jaap Sahib), [Savaiye](Tav-Prasad)(Tav-Prasad Savaiye), [Sahib](Chaupai)(Chaupai Sahib), [Sahib](Anand)(Anand Sahib) and recitation of the banis [paath](paath) is followed by [Ardās](Ardās) in which [da Bhala](Sarbat)(Sarbat da Bhala) principle is taught by Gurus which literally means blessings for everyone, blessings to humankind in good faith without discrimination. ### Remembrance of the Divine Name A key practice by Sikhs is remembrance}} of the Naam (divine name) Waheguru. This contemplation is done through [Japna](Nām)(Nām Japō) (repetition of the divine name) or [Simran](Naam)(Simran) (remembrance of the divine Name through recitation). The verbal repetition of the name of God or a sacred syllable has been an ancient established practice in religious traditions in India, however, Sikhism developed Naam-simran as an important Bhakti practice. Guru Nanak's ideal is the total exposure of one's being to the divine Name and a total conforming to [Dharma](Dharma) or the "Divine Order". Nanak described the result of the disciplined application of nām simraṇ as a "growing towards and into God" through a gradual process of five stages. The last of these is [Khaṇḍ](Sach)(Sach Khand) (The Realm of Truth) the final union of the spirit with God. ### Service and Action The Sikh gurus taught that by constantly remembering the divine name ([simran](naam)(Simran)) and through selfless service ([sēvā](Seva (Indian religions))) the devotee overcomes egotism ([Haumai](Haumai)). This, it states, is the primary root of five evil impulses and the cycle of birth and death. Service in Sikhism takes three forms: Tan (physical service, i.e. labor), Man (mental service, such as dedicating your heart for service of others), and Dhan (material service, including financial support). Sikhism stresses [karō](kirat)(kirat karō): that is "honest work". Sikh teachings also stress the concept of sharing, or [chakkō](vaṇḍ)(vaṇḍ chakkō), giving to the needy for the benefit of the community. ### Justice and Equality Sikhism regards God as the true king, the king of all kings, the one who dispenses justice through the law of [karma](karma), a retributive model and divine grace. The term for justice in the Sikh tradition is Niāyā It is related to the term dharam which in Sikhism connotes 'moral order' and righteousness (derived from but become distinct from the etymologically related Hindu concept of [dharma](dharma)). According to the Tenth Sikh Guru, [Gobind Singh](Guru)(Guru Gobind Singh), states Pashaura Singh (a professor of Sikh studies), "one must first try all the peaceful means of negotiation in the pursuit of justice" and if these fail then it is legitimate to "draw the sword in defense of righteousness". Sikhism considers "an attack on dharam is an attack on justice, on righteousness, and on the moral order generally" and the dharam "must be defended at all costs". The divine name is its antidote for pain and vices. Forgiveness is taught as a virtue in Sikhism, yet it also teaches its faithful to shun those with evil intentions and to pick up the sword to fight injustice and religious persecution. Sikhism does not differentiate religious obligations by sex. God in Sikhism has no sex, and the Sikh scripture does not discriminate against women, nor bar them from any roles. Women in Sikhism have been in positions of leadership, including leading in wars and issuing orders or [hukamnama](hukamnama)s. ### Ten Gurus and Authority [[File:Sikh Gurus with Bhai Bala and Bhai Mardana.jpg\|thumb\|upright\|A rare [Tanjore](Tanjore painting)-style painting from the late 19th century depicting the ten Sikh Gurus with [Bala](Bhai)(Bhai Bala) and [Mardana](Bhai)(Bhai Mardana)]] The term [Guru](Guru) comes from the [Sanskrit](Sanskrit) gurū, meaning teacher, enlightener, guide, or mentor. The traditions and philosophy of Sikhism were established by ten Gurus from 1469 to 1708. Each Guru added to and reinforced the message taught by the previous, resulting in the creation of the Sikh religion. Guru Nanak was the first Guru and appointed a disciple as successor. [Gobind Singh](Guru)(Guru Gobind Singh) was the final Guru in human form. Before his death, Guru Gobind Singh decreed in 1708, that the Gurū Granth Sāhib would be the final and perpetual Guru of the Sikhs. Guru Nanak stated that his Guru is God who is the same from the beginning of time to the end of time. Nanak said to be a God's slave and servant, but maintained that he was only a guide and teacher. Nanak stated that the human Guru is mortal, who is to be respected and loved but not worshipped. When Guru, or SatGuru (The true Guru) is used in Gurbani it is often referring to the highest expression of truthfulness. [Angad](Guru)(Guru Angad) succeeded Guru Nanak. Later, an important phase in the development of Sikhism came with the third successor, Guru Amar Das. Guru Nanak's teachings emphasised the pursuit of salvation; Guru Amar Das began building a cohesive community of followers with initiatives such as sanctioning distinctive ceremonies for birth, marriage, and death. Amar Das also established the manji (comparable to a [diocese](diocese)) system of clerical supervision. [Amar Das](Guru)(Guru Amar Das)'s successor and son-in-law [Ram Das](Guru)(Guru Ram Das) founded the city of [Amritsar](Amritsar), which is home of the [Sahib](Harimandir)(Harimandir Sahib) and regarded widely as the holiest city for all Sikhs. [Arjan](Guru)(Guru Arjan) was arrested by [Mughal](Mughal Empire) authorities who were suspicious and hostile to the religious community he was developing. His persecution and death inspired his successors to promote a military and political organization of Sikh communities to defend themselves against the attacks of Mughal forces. [[File:Interior of Akal Takht.jpg\|thumb\|The interior of the [Takht](Akal)(Akal Takht)]]The Sikh gurus established a mechanism which allowed the Sikh religion to react as a community to changing circumstances. The sixth guru, [Hargobind](Guru)(Guru Har Gobind), was responsible for the creation of the concept of [Takht](Akal)(Akal Takht) (throne of the timeless one), which serves as the supreme decision-making centre of Sikhism and sits opposite the [Sahib](Harmandir)(Harmandir Sahib). The Akal Takht is located in the city of Amritsar. The leader is appointed by the Shiromani Gurdwara Pabandhak Committee (SPGC). The [Ḵẖālsā](Sarbat)(Sarbat Khalsa) (a representative portion of the Khalsa Panth) historically gathers at the Akal Takht on special festivals such as [Vaisakhi](Vaisakhi) or [Mohalla](Hola)(Hola Mohalla) and when there is a need to discuss matters that affect the entire Sikh nation. A [gurmatā](Gurmata) (literally, 'guru's intention') is an order passed by the Sarbat Ḵẖālsā in the presence of the Gurū Granth Sāhib. A gurmatā may only be passed on a subject that affects the fundamental principles of Sikh religion; it is binding upon all Sikhs. The term [hukamnāmā](Hukamnama) (literally, 'edict' or 'royal order') is often used interchangeably with the term gurmatā. However, a hukamnāmā formally refers to a hymn from the Gurū Granth Sāhib which is given order to Sikhs. [[showing Life Spans and Guruship Spans of Sikh Gurus\|Approximate Life Spans and Guruship Spans of the 10 Sikh Gurus](File:SikhGurus-LifeSpans-GurushipSpans.jpg\|thumb\|center\|upright=3.65\|alt=Graph)] The word guru in Sikhism also refers to Akal Purkh (God), and God and guru can sometimes be synonymous in [Gurbani](Gurbani) (Sikh writings). ## Scripture There is one primary scripture for the Sikhs: the Gurū Granth Sāhib. It is sometimes synonymously referred to as the Ādi Granth. Chronologically, however, the Ādi Granth – literally, 'First Volume' – refers to the version of the scripture created by [Arjan](Guru)(Guru Arjan) in 1604.Cole, William Owen; Sambhi, Piara Singh (1995), The Sikhs: Their Religious Beliefs and Practices, Sussex Academic Press, , pp. 45–46 The Gurū Granth Sāhib is the final expanded version of the scripture compiled by [Gobind Singh](Guru)(Guru Gobind Singh).Cole, William Owen; Sambhi, Piara Singh (1995), The Sikhs: Their Religious Beliefs and Practices, Sussex Academic Press, , pp. 49–50 While the Guru Granth Sahib is an unquestioned scripture in Sikhism, another important religious text, the [Granth](Dasam)(Dasam Granth), does not enjoy universal consensus, but is considered a secondary scripture by many Sikhs.Christopher Shackle and Arvind Mandair (2005), Teachings of the Sikh Gurus, Abingdon-on-Thames, England: Routledge, , pp. xvii–xx ### Adi Granth The Ādi Granth was compiled primarily by [Gurdas](Bhai)(Bhai Gurdas) under the supervision of [Arjan](Guru)(Guru Arjan) between the years 1603 and 1604. It is written in the [Gurmukhī](Gurmukhi) script, which is a descendant of the [Laṇḍā](Laṇḍā) script used in the Punjab at that time. The [Gurmukhī](Gurmukhi) script was standardised by Guru Angad, the second guru of the Sikhs, for use in the Sikh scriptures and is thought to have been influenced by the [Śāradā](Śāradā script) and [Devanāgarī](Devanāgarī) scripts. An authoritative scripture was created to protect the integrity of hymns and teachings of the Sikh Gurus, and thirteen Hindu and two Muslim bhagats of the [movement](Bhakti)(Bhakti movement) sant tradition in medieval India. The thirteen Hindu bhagats whose teachings were entered into the text included [Ramananda](Ramananda), [Namdev](Namdev), [Pipa](Bhagat Pipa), [Ravidas](Ravidas), [Beni](Bhagat Beni), [Bhikhan](Bhagat Bhikhan), [Dhanna](Bhagat Dhanna), [Jaidev](Jayadeva), [Parmanand](Bhagat Parmanand), [Sadhana](Bhagat Sadhana), [Sain](Bhagat Sain), [Sur](Sur (poet)), [Trilochan](Bhagat Trilochan), while the two Muslim bhagats were [Kabir](Kabir) and Sufi saint [Farid](Fariduddin Ganjshakar). However, the bhagats in context often spoke of transcending their religious labels, Kabir often attributed to being a Muslim states in the Adi Granth, "I am not Hindu nor Muslim." The Gurus following on this message taught that different methods of devotion are for the same infinite God. ### Guru Granth Sahib [[Granth Sahib.jpg\|thumb\|upright\|Gurū Granth Sāhib – the primary scripture of Sikhism](File:Guru)] The Guru Granth Sahib is the holy scripture of the Sikhs, and is regarded as the living Guru. #### Compilation The Guru Granth started as a volume of Guru Nanak's poetic compositions. Prior to his death, he passed on his volume to Guru Angad (Guru 1539–1551). The final version of the [Granth Sāhib](Gurū)(Gurū Granth Sāhib) was compiled by [Gobind Singh](Guru)(Guru Gobind Singh) in 1678. It consists of the original Ādi Granth with the addition of [Tegh Bahadur](Guru)(Guru Tegh Bahadur)'s hymns. The predominant bulk of Guru Granth Sahib is compositions by seven Sikh Gurus – Guru Nanak, Guru Angad, Guru Amar Das, Guru Ram Das, Guru Arjan, Guru Teg Bahadur and Guru Gobind Singh. It also contains the traditions and teachings of thirteen [Hindu](Hindu) Bhakti movement sants (saints) such as [Ramananda](Ramananda), [Namdev](Namdev) among others, and two [Muslim](Muslim) saints namely [Kabir](Kabir) and the Sufi [Farid](Sheikh)(Sheikh Farid). The text comprises 6,000 [śabads](shabhad) (line compositions), which are poetically rendered and set to rhythmic ancient north Indian classical music.Anna S. King and JL Brockington (2005), The Intimate Other: Love Divine in Indic Religions, Orient Blackswan, , pp. 359–361 The bulk of the scripture is classified into sixty [rāgas](raga), with each Granth rāga subdivided according to length and author. The hymns in the scripture are arranged primarily by the rāgas in which they are read. #### Language and script [[File:Guru Har Rai - Mool Mantar.jpg\|thumb\|[Mantar](Mul)(Mul Mantar) written by [Har Rai](Guru)(Guru Har Rai), showing the Ik Onkar at top]] The main language used in the scripture is known as [Bhāṣā](Sant)(Sant Bhasha), a language related to both [Punjabi](Punjabi language) and [Hindi](Hindi language) and used extensively across medieval northern India by proponents of popular devotional religion ([bhakti](bhakti)). The text is printed in Gurumukhi script, believed to have been developed by Guru Angad. The language shares the Indo-European roots found in numerous regional languages of India.Shackle, Christopher; Mandair, Arvind (2005); Teachings of the Sikh Gurus; Abingdon-on-Thames, England: Routledge; , pp. xxi–xxxii #### Teachings [[File:Sikh musicians.jpg\|thumb\|left\|upright\|A group of [music](Sikh)(Sikh music)ians called Dhadi at the [Temple](Golden)(Golden Temple) complex]] The vision in the Guru Granth Sahib, states Torkel Brekke, is a society based on divine justice without oppression of any kind. The Granth begins with the [Mantra](Mūl)(Mul Mantra), an iconic verse which received Guru Nanak directly from Akal Purakh (God). The traditional Mul Mantar goes from Ik Oankar until Nanak Hosee Bhee Sach. :One God exists, truth by name, creative power, without fear, without enmity, timeless form, unborn, self-existent, by the Guru's grace. :() #### As guru The Tenth Guru, Guru Gobind Singh ji, named the Sikh scripture Guru Granth Sahib as his successor, terminating the line of human Gurus and making the scripture the literal embodiment of the eternal, impersonal Guru, where Gods/Gurus word serves as the spiritual guide for Sikhs.Jane Bingham (2007), Sikhism, Atlas of World Faiths, , pp. 19–20 :All Sikhs are commanded to take the Granth as Guru :() The Guru Granth Sahib is installed in Sikh Gurdwara (temple); many Sikhs bow or prostrate before it on entering the temple. The Guru Granth Sahib is installed every morning and put to bed at night in many Gurdwaras.Cole, William Owen; Sambhi, Piara Singh (1995), The Sikhs: Their Religious Beliefs and Practices, Sussex Academic Press, , p. 44 The Granth is revered as eternal [gurbānī](gurbani) and the spiritual authority. The copies of the Guru Granth Sahib are not regarded as material objects, but as living subjects which are alive.Kristina Myrvold (2016). "Making the Scripture a Person: Reinventing Death Rituals of Guru Granth Sahib in Sikhism", pp. 134–136, 142–143, 152–155; In: Kristina Myrvold (2016), The Death of Sacred Texts: Ritual Disposal and Renovation of Texts in World Religions, Abingdon-on-Thames, England: Routledge According to Myrvold, the Sikh scripture is treated with respect like a living person, in a manner similar to the Gospel in early Christian worship. Old copies of the Sikh scripture are not thrown away, rather funerary services are performed. In India the Guru Granth Sahib is even officially recognised by the Supreme Court of India as a judicial person which can receive donations and own land. Yet, some Sikhs also warn that, without true comprehension of the text, veneration for the text can lead to [bibliolatry](bibliolatry), with the concrete form of the teachings becoming the object of worship instead of the teachings themselves. #### Relation to Hinduism and Islam The Sikh scriptures use [Hindu](Hindu) terminology, with references to the [Vedas](Vedas), and the names of gods and goddesses in Hindu bhakti movement traditions, such as Vishnu, Shiva, Brahma, Parvati, Lakshmi, Saraswati, Rama, Krishna, but not to worship.Torkel Brekke (2014), Religion, War, and Ethics: A Sourcebook of Textual Traditions (Editors: Gregory M. Reichberg and Henrik Syse), Cambridge University Press, , pp. 673, 675, 672–686Sinha, A. K. (2013), Glimpse of Scriptures of Religions of Indian Origin, Xlibris, , pp. 204–216 It also refers to the spiritual concepts in Hinduism ([Ishvara](Ishvara), [Bhagavan](Bhagavan), [Brahman](Brahman)) and the concept of God in [Islam](Islam) (Allah) to assert that these are just "alternate names for the Almighty One".Singh, Nirbhai (1990); [ Philosophy of Sikhism: Reality and Its Manifestations](https://archive.org/details/philosophyofsikh0000nirb/page/n134), New Delhi: Atlantic Publishers; pp. 115–122 While the Guru Granth Sahib acknowledges the [Vedas](Vedas), [Puranas](Puranas) and [Qur'an](Qur'an),Cole, William Owen; Sambhi, Piara Singh (1995), The Sikhs: Their Religious Beliefs and Practices, Sussex Academic Press, , p. 157 it does not imply a [syncretic](Syncretic religion) bridge between Hinduism and Islam,Cole, William Owen; Sambhi, Piara Singh (1995), The Sikhs: Their Religious Beliefs and Practices, Sussex Academic Press, , p. 40 but emphasises focusing on [banis](nitnem)(Nitnem) like [Japji](Japji Sahib), instead of Muslim practices such as [circumcision](circumcision) or praying by prostrating on the ground to God in a specific direction, or Hindu rituals such as wearing thread. ### Dasam Granth [[File:Dasam.Granth.Frontispiece.BL.Manuscript.1825-1850.jpg\|thumb\|The Dasam Granth is a Sikh scripture which contains texts attributed to Guru Gobind Singh, including his autobiography [Natak](Bachittar)(Bachittar Natak). The major narrative in the text is on [Avtar](Chaubis)(Chaubis Avtar) (24 [Avatars](Avatars) of Hindu god [Vishnu](Vishnu)), [Rudra](Rudra), [Brahma](Brahma), the Hindu warrior goddess [Chandi](Chandi) and a story of [Rama](Rama) in [Natak](Bachittar)(Bachittar Natak).]] The Dasam Granth is a scripture of Sikhs which contains texts attributed to the Guru Gobind Singh. The Dasam Granth is important to a great number of Sikhs, however it does not have the same authority as the Guru Granth Sahib. Some compositions of the Dasam Granth like [Sahib](Jaap)(Jaap Sahib), ([Savaiye](Amrit)(Amrit Savaiye)), and [Chaupai](Benti)(Chaupai (Sikhism)) are part of the daily prayers ([Nitnem](Nitnem)) for Sikhs.Robert Zaehner (1988), The Hutchinson Encyclopedia of Living Faiths, Hutchinson, , pp. 426–427 The first verse of the [ardās](ardās) prayer is from [di Var](Chandi)(Chandi di Var). The Dasam Granth is largely versions of Hindu mythology from the [Puranas](Puranas), secular stories from a variety of sources called Charitro Pakhyan – tales to protect careless men from perils of lust.William McLeod (2009), The A to Z of Sikhism, Toronto: Rowman & Littlefield, , p. 151 Many versions of Dasam Granth exist, and the authenticity of the Dasam Granth has in modern times become one of the most debated topics within Sikhism. The [Nihangs](Akali)(Nihang) consider the Dasam and [Granth](Sarbloh)(Sarbloh Granth) as extensions of the [Granth Sahib](Guru)(Guru Granth Sahib). The text played a significant role in Sikh history, but in modern times parts of the text have seen antipathy and discussion among Sikhs. ### Janamsakhis The Janamsākhīs (literally birth stories), are writings which profess to be biographies of Guru Nanak. Although not scripture in the strictest sense, they provide a [hagiographic](hagiography) look at Guru Nanak's life and the early start of Sikhism. There are several – often contradictory and sometimes unreliable – Janamsākhīs and they are not held in the same regard as other sources of scriptural knowledge. ## Observances [[File:InsideSikhGurdwara.jpg\|thumb\|The [Sahib](Darbar)(Darbar Sahib Hall) of a [Gurdwara](Gurdwara)]] Observant Sikhs adhere to long-standing practices and traditions to strengthen and express their faith. The daily recitation of the divine name of God VaheGuru and from a memory of specific passages from the Gurū Granth Sāhib, like the Japu (or Japjī, literally chant) hymns is recommended immediately after rising and bathing. Baptized Sikhs recite the five-morning prayers, the evening and night prayer. Family customs include both reading passages from the scripture and attending the [gurdwara](gurdwara) (also gurduārā, meaning the doorway to God; sometimes transliterated as Gurudwara). There are many gurdwaras prominently constructed and maintained across India, as well as in almost every nation where Sikhs reside. Gurdwaras are open to all, regardless of religion, background, caste, or race. Worship in a gurdwara consists chiefly of the singing of passages from the scripture. Sikhs will commonly enter the gurdwara, touch the ground before the holy scripture with their foreheads. The recitation of the eighteenth century [ardās](ardās) is also customary for attending Sikhs. The ardās recalls past sufferings and glories of the community, invoking divine grace for all humanity. The gurdwara is also the location for the historic Sikh practice of "[Langar](Langar (Sikhism))" or the community meal. All gurdwaras are open to anyone of any faith for a free meal, always vegetarian.Cole, William Owen; Sambhi, Piara Singh (1995), The Sikhs: Their Religious Beliefs and Practices, Sussex Academic Press, , p. 148 People eat together, and the kitchen is maintained and serviced by Sikh community volunteers. ### Sikh festivals/events [Amar Das](Guru)(Guru Amar Das) chose festivals for celebration by Sikhs like [Vaisakhi](Vaisakhi), wherein he asked Sikhs to assemble and share the festivities as a community. Vaisakhi is one of the most important festivals of Sikhs, while other significant festivals commemorate the birth, lives of the Gurus and Sikh martyrs. Historically, these festivals have been based on the moon calendar [calendar](Bikrami)(Bikrami calendar). In 2003, the [SGPC](SGPC), the Sikh organisation in charge of upkeep of the historical gurdwaras of Punjab, adopted [Nanakshahi](Nanakshahi) calendar. The new calendar is highly controversial among Sikhs and is not universally accepted. Sikh festivals include the following: * [Vaisakhi](Vaisakhi) which includes Parades and Nagar Kirtan and occurs on 13 April or 14 April. Sikhs celebrate it because on this day, which fell on 30 March 1699, the tenth Guru, Gobind Singh, inaugurated the [Khalsa](Khalsa), the 11th body of Guru Granth Sahib and leader of Sikhs until eternity. ** [Kirtan](Nagar)(Nagar Kirtan) involves the processional singing of holy hymns throughout a community. While practiced at any time, it is customary in the month of Visakhi (or Vaisakhi). Traditionally, the procession is led by the saffron-robed Panj Piare (the five beloved of the Guru), who are followed by the Guru Granth Sahib, the holy Sikh scripture, which is placed on a float. * Band Chor Diwas has been another important Sikh festival in its history. In recent years, instead of Diwali, the post-2003 calendar released by SGPC has named it the [Chhor Divas](Bandi)(Bandi Chhor Divas). Sikhs celebrate [Hargobind](Guru)(Guru Hargobind)'s release from the [Fort](Gwalior)(Gwalior Fort), with several innocent Raja kings who were also imprisoned by Mughal Emperor [Jahangir](Jahangir) in 1619. This day continues to be commemorated on the same day of Hindu festival of [Diwali](Diwali), with lights, fireworks and festivities. * [Mohalla](Hola)(Hola Mohalla) is a tradition started by Guru Gobind Singh. It starts the day after Sikhs celebrate [Holi](Holi), sometimes referred to as Hola. Guru Gobind Singh modified Holi with a three-day [Mohalla](Hola)(Hola Mohalla) extension festival of martial arts. The extension started the day after the Holi festival in [Sahib](Anandpur)(Anandpur Sahib), where Sikh soldiers would train in mock battles, compete in horsemanship, athletics, archery and military exercises. * [Gurpurb](Gurpurb)s are celebrations or commemorations based on the lives of the Sikh Gurus. They tend to be either birthdays or celebrations of Sikh martyrdom. All ten Gurus have Gurpurbs on the Nanakshahi calendar, but it is Guru Nanak and Guru Gobind Singh who have a gurpurb that is widely celebrated in Gurdwaras and Sikh homes. The martyrdoms are also known as a Shaheedi Gurpurbs, which mark the martyrdom anniversary of [Arjan](Guru)(Guru Arjan) and [Tegh Bahadur](Guru)(Guru Tegh Bahadur). ### Ceremonies and customs [[File:Sikh wedding.jpg\|thumb\|[wedding](Sikh)(Sikh wedding)]] [[File:Sikh funeral procession. Mandi, Himachel Pradesh.jpg\|thumb\|Sikh funeral procession, [Mandi](Mandi, Himachal Pradesh), [Pradesh](Himachal)(Himachal Pradesh)]] Khalsa Sikhs have also supported and helped develop major pilgrimage traditions to sacred sites such as Harmandir Sahib, Anandpur Sahib, Fatehgarh Sahib, Patna Sahib, Hazur Nanded Sahib, Hemkund Sahib and others. Sikh pilgrims and Sikhs of other sects customarily consider these as holy and a part of their Tirath. The [Mohalla](Hola)(Hola Mohalla) around the festival of [Holi](Holi), for example, is a ceremonial and customary gathering every year in [Sahib](Anandpur)(Anandpur Sahib) attracting over 100,000 Sikhs. Major Sikh temples feature a [sarovar](sarovar) where some Sikhs take a customary dip. Some take home the [water](sacred)(Sacred waters) of the tank particularly for sick friends and relatives, believing that the waters of such sacred sites have restorative powers and the ability to purify one's karma.The Sikh scripture contains verses which have been literally interpreted as relevant to pilgrimage and taking dips in waters for salvific value; some criticize it (AG 358, 75); others support it (AG 623–624). The various Gurus of Sikhism have had different approaches to pilgrimage. Upon a child's birth, the Guru Granth Sahib is opened at a random point and the child is named using the first letter on the top left hand corner of the left page. All boys are given the last name [Singh](Singh), and all girls are given the last name [Kaur](Kaur) (this was once a title which was conferred on an individual upon joining the [Khalsa](Khalsa)). The Sikh marriage ritual includes the [kāraj](anand)(Anand Karaj) ceremony. The marriage ceremony is performed in front of the Guru Granth Sahib by a baptized Khalsa, Granthi of the Gurdwara. The tradition of circling the Guru Granth Sahib and Anand Karaj among Khalsa is practised since the fourth Guru, Guru Ram Das. Its official recognition and adoption came in 1909, during the [Sabha Movement](Singh)(Singh Sabha Movement). Upon death, the body of a Sikh is usually cremated. If this is not possible, any respectful means of disposing the body may be employed. The kīrtan sōhilā and ardās prayers are performed during the funeral ceremony (known as [sanskār](antim)(Antam Sanskar)). ### Initiation and the Khalsa [Khalsa](Khalsa) (meaning "pure and sovereign") is the collective name given by Guru Gobind Singh to those Sikhs who have been fully initiated by taking part in a ceremony called [sañcār](ammrit)(ammrit sañcār) (nectar ceremony). During this ceremony, sweetened water is stirred with a double-edged sword while liturgical prayers are sung; it is offered to the initiating Sikh, who ritually drinks it. Many Sikhs are not formally and fully initiated, as they do not undergo this ceremony, but do adhere to some components of Sikhism and identify as Sikhs. The initiated Sikh, who is believed to be [reborn](Dvija#The meaning of the two births), is referred to as [Amritdhari](Amritdhari) or Khalsa Sikh, while those who are not initiated or baptised are referred to as Kesdhari or Sahajdhari Sikhs. The first time that this ceremony took place was on [Vaisakhi](Vaisakhi), which fell on 30 March 1699 at [Sahib](Anandpur)(Anandpur Sahib) in Punjab. It was on that occasion that Gobind Singh baptised the [Piārē](Pañj)(Panj Piare) – the five beloved ones, who in turn baptised Guru Gobind Singh himself. To males who initiated, the last name Singh, meaning "lion", was given, while the last name Kaur, meaning "princess", was given to baptised Sikh females. Baptised [Sikhs](Sikhs) wear five items, called the [Ks](Five)(Five Ks) (in Punjabi known as pañj kakkē or pañj kakār), at all times. The five items are: [kēs](Kesh (Sikhism)) (uncut hair), [kaṅghā](Kanga (Sikhism)) (small wooden comb), [kaṛā](Kara (Sikhism)) (circular steel or iron bracelet), [kirpān](Kirpan) (sword/dagger), and [kacchera](Kaccha) (special undergarment). The Five Ks have both practical and symbolic purposes. ## History [[map.svg\|thumb\|upright=1.5\|Map of Punjab, where Sikhism originated, against present-day borders](File:Punjab)] Guru Nanak (1469–1539), the founder of Sikhism, was born in the village of Rāi Bhōi dī Talwandī, now called [Sahib](Nankana)(Nankana Sahib) (in present-day Pakistan). His parents were [Khatri](Punjabi)(Punjabi Khatri) [Hindu](Hindu)s. According to the [hagiography](hagiography) Puratan Janamsakhi composed more than two centuries after his death and probably based on [tradition](oral)(oral tradition), Nanak as a boy was fascinated by religion and spiritual matters, spending time with wandering ascetics and holy men. His friend was Mardana, a Muslim. Together they would sing devotional songs all night in front of the public, and bathe in the river in the morning. One day, at the usual bath, Nanak went missing and his family feared he had drowned. Three days later he returned home, and declared: "There is no Hindu, there is no Muslim" ("nā kōi hindū nā kōi musalmān"). Thereafter, Nanak started preaching his ideas that form the tenets of Sikhism. In 1526, Guru Nanak at age 50, started a small commune in Kartarpur and his disciples came to be known as Sikhs. Although the exact account of his itinerary is disputed, hagiographic accounts state he made five major journeys, spanning thousands of miles: the first tour being east towards [Bengal](Bengal) and [Assam](Assam); the second south towards [Andhra](Andhra Pradesh) and [Nadu](Tamil)(Tamil Nadu); the third north to [Kashmir](Kashmir), [Ladakh](Ladakh), and [Sumeru](Mount)(Mount Meru)McLeod, W. H.; Essays in Sikh History, Tradition and Society, [University Press](Oxford)(Oxford University Press), , pp. 40–44 in [Tibet](Tibet); and the fourth to [Baghdad](Baghdad). In his last and final tour, he returned to the banks of the Ravi River to end his days. There are two competing theories on Guru Nanak's teachings. One, according to Cole and Sambhi, is based on hagiographical [Janamsakhis](Janamsakhis),Cole, William Owen; Sambhi, Piara Singh (1995), The Sikhs: Their Religious Beliefs and Practices, Sussex Academic Press, , pp. 9–12 and states that Nanak's teachings and Sikhism were a revelation from God, and not a social protest movement nor any attempt to reconcile Hinduism and Islam in the 15th century. The other states that Nanak was a [guru](guru). According to Singha, "Sikhism does not subscribe to the theory of incarnation or the concept of prophethood. But it has a pivotal concept of Guru. He is not an incarnation of God, not even a prophet. He is an illumined soul." The second theory continues that hagiographical Janamsakhis were not written by Nanak, but by later followers without regard for historical accuracy, and contain numerous legends and myths created to show respect for Nanak.Kaur Singh, Nikky-Guninder (2011), Sikhism: An Introduction; London / New York: [Tauris](I.B.)(I.B. Tauris), , pp. 2–8 The term revelation, clarify Cole and Sambhi, in Sikhism is not limited to the teachings of Nanak, but is extended to all Sikh gurus, as well as the words of past, present and future men and women, who possess divine knowledge intuitively through meditation. The Sikh revelations include the words of non-Sikh [bhagat](bhagat)s, some who lived and died before the birth of Nanak, and whose teachings are part of the Sikh scriptures.Cole, William Owen; Sambhi, Piara Singh (1995), The Sikhs: Their Religious Beliefs and Practices, Sussex Academic Press, , pp. 52–53, 46, 95–96, 159 The Adi Granth and successive Sikh gurus repeatedly emphasised, states Mandair, that Sikhism is "not about hearing voices from God, but it is about changing the nature of the human mind, and anyone can achieve direct experience and spiritual perfection at any time". ### Historical influences The roots of the Sikh tradition are, states Louis Fenech, perhaps in the [Sant](Sant (religion))-tradition of India whose ideology grew to become the Bhakti tradition. Furthermore, adds Fenech: that the Indic mythology permeates the Sikh sacred canon, the Guru Granth Sahib, and the secondary canon, the Dasam Granth ... and adds delicate nuance and substance to the sacred symbolic universe of the Sikhs of today and of their past ancestors.}} The development of Sikhism was influenced by the [movement](Bhakti)(Bhakti movement);"Historically, Sikh religion derives from this nirguni current of bhakti religion." (Lorenzen 1995, pp. 1–2)."Technically this would place the Sikh community's origins at a much further remove than 1469, perhaps to the dawning of the Sant movement, which possesses clear affinities to Guru Nanak's thought sometime in the tenth century. The predominant ideology of the Sant parampara in turn corresponds in many respects to the much wider devotional Bhakti tradition in northern India. (Pashaura and Fenech 2014, p. 35)."In its earliest stage Sikhism was clearly a movement within the Hindu tradition; Nanak was raised a Hindu and eventually belonged to the Sant tradition of northern India." (McLeod 2019/1998). however, Sikhism was not simply an extension of the Bhakti movement. Sikhism, for instance, disagreed with some of the views of Bhakti saints Kabir and Ravidas.These views include Sikhs believing in achieving blissful mukhti while alive, Sikhs placing emphasis on the path of the householder, Sikhs disbelief in [Ahinsa](Ahinsa), and the Sikhs afterlife aspect of merging with God rather than a physical heaven. Sikhism developed while the region was being ruled by the [Empire](Mughal)(Mughal Empire). Two of the Sikh Gurus, [Arjan](Guru)(Guru Arjan) and [Tegh Bahadur](Guru)(Guru Tegh Bahadur), refused to convert to Islam and were tortured and executed by the Mughal rulers.Pashaura Singh (2005), Understanding the Martyrdom of Guru Arjan, Journal of Punjab Studies, 12(1), pp. 29–62Gandhi, Surjit (2008), History of Sikh Gurus Retold: 1606–1708; New Delhi: Atlantic Publishers; , pp. 689–690 The Islamic era persecution of Sikhs triggered the founding of the [Khalsa](Khalsa), as an order for freedom of conscience and religion. A Sikh is expected to embody the qualities of a "Sant-Sipāhī" a [saint-soldier](Khalsa). ### Growth of Sikhism [[File:Guru.Nanak.with.Hindu.holymen-b.JPG\|thumb\|[Nanak](Guru)(Guru Nanak) explaining [teachings](Sikh)(Sikh beliefs) to [Sadhu](Sadhu)s]] After its inception, Sikhism grew as it gained converts among Hindus and Muslims in the Punjab region. In 1539, Guru Nanak chose his disciple Lahiṇā as a successor to the Guruship rather than either of his sons. Lahiṇā was named [Angad](Guru)(Guru Angad) and became the second Guru of the Sikhs. Nanak conferred his choice at the town of [Kartarpur](Kartarpur (Pakistan)) on the banks of the river [Ravi](Ravi River). [Chand](Sri)(Sri Chand), Guru Nanak's son was also a religious man, and continued his own commune of Sikhs. His followers came to be known as the [Udasi](Udasi) Sikhs, the first parallel sect of Sikhism that formed in Sikh history. The Udasis believe that the Guruship should have gone to Sri Chand, since he was a man of pious habits in addition to being Nanak's son. Guru Angad, before joining Guru Nanak's commune, worked as a [pujari](Puja (Hinduism)) (priest) and religious teacher centered around Hindu goddess [Durga](Durga). On Nanak's advice, Guru Angad moved from Kartarpur to Khadur, where his wife [Khivi](Mata Khivi) and children were living, until he was able to bridge the divide between his followers and the Udasis. Guru Angad continued the work started by Guru Nanak and is widely credited for standardising the [script](Gurmukhī)(Gurmukhī script) as used in the sacred scripture of the Sikhs. [Amar Das](Guru)(Guru Amar Das) became the third Sikh Guru in 1552 at the age of 73. He adhered to the [Vaishnavism](Vaishnavism) tradition of Hinduism for much of his life, before joining the commune of Guru Angad. [Goindval](Goindval) became an important centre for Sikhism during the Guruship of Guru Amar Das. He was a reformer, and discouraged veiling of women's faces (a Muslim custom) as well as [sati](sati (practice)) (a Hindu custom). He encouraged the [Kshatriya](Kshatriya) people to fight in order to protect people and for the sake of justice, stating this is [Dharma](Dharma). Guru Amar Das started the tradition of appointing manji (zones of religious administration with an appointed chief called sangatias), introduced the dasvandh ("the tenth" of income) system of revenue collection in the name of Guru and as pooled community religious resource, and the famed [langar](Langar (Sikhism)) tradition of Sikhism where anyone, without discrimination of any kind, could get a free meal in a communal seating. The collection of revenue from Sikhs through regional appointees helped Sikhism grow. Guru Amar Das named his disciple and son-in-law Jēṭhā as the next Guru, who came to be known as [Ram Das](Guru)(Guru Ram Das). The new Guru faced hostilities from the sons of Guru Amar Das and therefore shifted his official base to lands identified by Guru Amar Das as Guru-ka-Chak. He moved his commune of Sikhs there and the place then was called Ramdaspur, after him. This city grew and later became [Amritsar](Amritsar) – the holiest city of Sikhism. Guru Ram Das expanded the manji organization for clerical appointments in Sikh temples, and for revenue collections to theologically and economically support the Sikh movement. In 1581, [Arjan](Guru)(Guru Arjan) – the youngest son of [Ram Das](Guru)(Guru Ram Das), became the fifth Guru of the Sikhs. The choice of successor, as throughout most of the history of Sikh Guru successions, led to disputes and internal divisions among the Sikhs. The elder son of Guru Ram Das named [Chand](Prithi)(Prithi Chand) is remembered in the Sikh tradition as vehemently opposing Guru Arjan, creating a faction Sikh community which the Sikhs following Guru Arjan called as Minaas (literally, "scoundrels"). Guru Arjan is remembered in the Sikh for many things. He built the first [Sahib](Harimandir)(Harimandir Sahib) (later to become the [Temple](Golden)(Golden Temple)). He was a poet and created the first edition of Sikh sacred text known as the [Granth](Ādi)(Adi Granth) (literally "the first book") and included the writings of the first five Gurus and other enlightened 13 Hindu and 2 Muslim Sufi saints. In 1606, he was tortured and killed by the [Mughal](Mughal Empire) emperor [Jahangir](Jahangir), for refusing to convert to Islam.Louis E. Fenech (2006), Martyrdom in the Sikh Tradition, Oxford University Press, , pp. 118–121 His martyrdom is considered a watershed event in the history of Sikhism. ### Political advancement After the martyrdom of Guru Arjan, his son [Hargobind](Guru)(Guru Hargobind) at age eleven became the sixth Guru of the Sikhs, and Sikhism dramatically evolved to become a political movement in addition to being religious. Guru Hargobind carried two swords, calling one spiritual and the other for temporal purpose (known as mīrī and pīrī in Sikhism). According to the Sikh tradition, Guru Arjan asked his son Hargobind to start a military tradition to protect the Sikh people and always keep himself surrounded by armed Sikhs. The building of an armed Sikh militia began with Guru Hargobind. Guru Hargobind was soon arrested by the Mughals and kept in jail in Gwalior. It is unclear how many years he served in prison, with different texts stating it to be between 2 and 12. He married three women, built a fort to defend Ramdaspur and created a formal court called [Takht](Akal)(Akal Takht), now the highest Khalsa Sikh religious authority. In 1644, Guru Hargobind named his grandson [Rai](Har)(Guru Har Rai) as the Guru. The Mughal Emperor [Jahan](Shah)(Shah Jahan) attempted political means to undermine the Sikh tradition, by dividing and influencing the succession. The Mughal ruler gave land grants to Dhir Mal, a grandson of Guru Hargobind living in Kartarpur, and attempted to encourage Sikhs to recognise Dhir Mal as the rightful successor to Guru Hargobind. Dhir Mal issued statements in favour of the Mughal state, and critical of his grandfather [Arjan](Guru)(Guru Arjan). Guru Hargobind rejected Dhir Mal, the latter refused to give up the original version of the Adi Granth he had, and the Sikh community was divided. Guru Har Rai is famed to have met Dara Shikoh during a time Dara Shikoh and his younger brother Aurangzeb were in a bitter succession fight. Aurangzeb summoned Guru Har Rai, who refused to go and sent his elder son Ram Rai instead. The emperor found a verse in the Sikh scripture insulting to Muslims, and Ram Rai agreed it was a mistake then changed it. Ram Rai thus pleased Aurangzeb, but displeased Guru Har Rai who excommunicated his elder son. He nominated his younger son [Har Krishan](Guru)(Guru Har Krishan) to succeed him in 1661. Aurangzeb responded by granting Ram Rai a [jagir](jagir) (land grant). Ram Rai founded a town there and enjoyed Aurangzeb's patronage; the town came to be known as Dehradun, after Dehra referring to Ram Rai's shrine. Sikhs who followed Ram Rai came to be known as [Ramraiya](Ramraiya) Sikhs. However, according to rough estimates, there are around 120–150 million (12–15 [crore](crore))[Ram Rai](http://www.learnpunjabi.org/eos/index.aspx), Encyclopedia of Sikhism. Harbans, Singh (ed.). Punjab University. Guru Har Krishan became the eighth Guru at the age of five, and died of smallpox before reaching the age of eight. No hymns composed by these three Gurus are included in the Guru Granth Sahib. [Tegh Bahadur](Guru)(Guru Tegh Bahadur), the uncle of Guru Har Krishan, became Guru in 1665. Tegh Bahadur resisted the forced conversions of [Kashmir](Kashmir)i [Pandit](Pandit)s, Quote:"This is the reputed place where several Kashmiri pandits came seeking protection from Auranzeb's army.", Quote:"this second martyrdom helped to make 'human rights and freedom of conscience' central to its identity." and non-Muslims, Quote: "The Guru's stance was a clear and unambiguous challenge, not to the sovereignty of the Mughal state, but to the state's policy of not recognizing the sovereign existence of non-Muslims, their traditions and ways of life". to [Islam](Islam), and was publicly beheaded in 1675 on the orders of [emperor](Mughal)(Mughal Empire) [Aurangzeb](Aurangzeb) in [Delhi](Delhi) for refusing to convert to Islam.;;; His beheading traumatized the Sikhs. His body was cremated in Delhi, the head was carried secretively by Sikhs and cremated in [Anandpur](Anandpur Sahib). He was succeeded by his son, Gobind Rai, who militarised his followers by creating the [Khalsa](Khalsa) in 1699, and baptising the [Piārē](Pañj)(Panj Piare). From then on, he was known as [Gobind Singh](Guru)(Guru Gobind Singh), and Sikh identity was redefined into a political force resisting religious persecution. File:Interior-view-Gurudwara-Sis-Ganj-Sahib.jpg\|[Sis Ganj Sahib](Gurudwara)(Gurudwara Sis Ganj Sahib) in Delhi. The long window under the marble platform is the location where [Tegh Bahadur](Guru)(Guru Tegh Bahadur) was executed by the Mughals. File:Bhai Mati Das.jpg\|Artistic rendering of the execution of [Mati Das](Bhai)(Bhai Mati Das) by the Mughals. This image is from a [Ajaibghar](Sikh)(Sikh Ajaibghar) near the towns of Mohali and Sirhind in Punjab, India. #### Sikh confederacy and the rise of the Khalsa Mehdiana 5.jpg\|Sculpture at [Sahib](Mehdiana)(Mehdiana Sahib) of the execution of [Singh Bahadur](Banda)(Banda Singh Bahadur) in 1716 by the Mughals. Bodyguard of Ranjit Singh.jpg\|Some bodyguards of [Ranjit Singh](Maharaja)(Ranjit Singh) at the Sikh capital, Lahore, Punjab. [Gobind Singh](Guru)(Guru Gobind Singh) inaugurated the [Khalsa](Khalsa) (the collective body of all [Sikhs](initiated)(Amrit Sanskar)) as the Sikh temporal authority in the year 1699. It created a community that combines its spiritual purpose and goals with political and military duties. Shortly before his death, Guru Gobind Singh proclaimed the [Granth Sāhib](Gurū)(Guru Granth Sahib) (the Sikh Holy Scripture) to be the ultimate spiritual authority for the Sikhs. The Sikh Khalsa's rise to power began in the 17th century during a time of growing militancy against Mughal rule. The creation of a [Empire](Sikh)(Sikh Empire) began when Guru Gobind Singh sent a Sikh general, [Singh Bahadur](Banda)(Banda Singh Bahadur), to fight the Mughal rulers of India and those who had committed atrocities against [Buddhu Shah](Pir)(Pir Buddhu Shah). Banda Singh advanced his army towards the main Muslim Mughal city of Sirhind and, following the instructions of the Guru, punished all the culprits. Soon after the invasion of Sirhind, while resting in his chamber after the Rehras prayer Guru Gobind Singh was stabbed by a [Pathan](Pathan) assassin hired by [Mughals](Mughal Empire). Gobind Singh killed the attacker with his sword. Though a European surgeon stitched the Guru's wound, the wound re-opened as the Guru tugged at a hard strong bow after a few days, causing profuse bleeding that led to Gobind Singh's death. After the Guru's death, Baba [Singh Bahadur](Banda)(Banda Singh Bahadur) became the commander-in-chief of the [Khalsa](Khalsa). He organised the civilian rebellion and abolished or halted the [Zamindar](Zamindar)i system in time he was active and gave the farmers [proprietorship](Self-ownership) of their own land. Banda Singh was executed by the emperor [Siyar](Farrukh)(Farrukhsiyar) after refusing the offer of a pardon if he converted to Islam. The [of Sikh warrior bands](confederacy)(Sikh Confederacy) known as [misls](misls) emerged, but these fought between themselves. Ranjit Singh achieved a series of military victories and created a [Empire](Sikh)(Sikh Empire) in 1799. The Sikh empire, with its capital in [Lahore](Lahore), spread over almost comprising what is now northwestern [subcontinent](Indian)(Indian subcontinent). The Sikh Empire entered into a treaty with the colonial British powers, with each side recognizing Sutlej River as the line of control and agreeing not to invade the other side. Ranjit Singh's most lasting legacy was the restoration and expansion of the [Sahib](Harmandir)(Harmandir Sahib), most revered [Gurudwara](Gurudwara) of the Sikhs, with marble and gold, from which the popular name of the "[Temple](Golden)(Golden Temple)" is derived. After the death of Ranjit Singh in 1839, the Sikh Empire fell into disorder. Ranjit Singh had failed to establish a lasting structure for Sikh government or stable succession, and the Sikh Empire rapidly declined after his death. Factions divided the Sikhs, and led to [wars](Anglo-Sikh)(First Anglo-Sikh War). The British easily defeated the confused and demoralised [forces](Khalsa)(Sikh Khalsa Army), then disbanded them into destitution. The youngest son of Ranjit Singh, named [Singh](Duleep)(Maharaja Duleep Singh), ultimately succeeded, but he was arrested and exiled after the defeat of Sikh Khalsa. #### Singh Sabha movement The [Sabha movement](Singh)(Singh Sabha movement), a movement to revitalize Sikhism, also saw the resurgence of the [Khalsa](Khalsa) after their defeat in wars with the British - latterly in the [Anglo-Sikh War](Second)(Second Anglo-Sikh War) - and the subsequent decline and corruption of Sikh institutions during colonial rule, and the proselytization of other faith groups in the Punjab. It was started in the 1870s, and after a period of interfactional rivalry, united under the Tat Khalsa to reinvigorate Sikh practice and institutions. The last Maharaja of the Sikh Empire, Duleep Singh, converted to Christianity in 1853, a controversial but influential event in Sikh history. Along with his conversion, and after Sikh Empire had been dissolved and the region made a part of the colonial British Empire, [proselytising](Proselytism) activities of [Christians](Christians), [Samaj](Brahmo)(Brahmo Samaj)is, [Samaj](Arya)(Arya Samaj), Muslim Anjuman-i-Islamia and Ahmadiyah sought to convert the Sikhs in northwestern Indian subcontinent into their respective faiths. These developments launched the [Sabha Movement](Singh)(Singh Sabha Movement). The first meeting of the movement was in the [Temple](Golden)(Golden Temple), Amritsar in 1873, and it was largely launched by the [Sikh](Sanatan)(Sanatan Sikh)s, Gianis, priests, and granthis.Dr Harjinder Singh Dilgeer, Sikh History in 10 Volumes, Sikh University Press, Belgium, published in 2012; vol 4, pp 49–69 Shortly thereafter, Nihang Sikhs began influencing the movement, followed by a sustained campaign by the [Khalsa](Tat)(Tat Khalsa), which had quickly gained dominance by the early 1880s. The movement became a struggle between Sanatan Sikhs and Tat Khalsa in defining and interpreting Sikhism. Sanatan Sikhs led by [Singh Bedi](Khem)(Khem Singh Bedi) – who claimed to be a direct descendant of Guru Nanak, Avtar Singh Vahiria and others supported a more inclusive approach which considered Sikhism as a reformed tradition of Hinduism, while Tat Khalsa campaigned for an exclusive approach to the Sikh identity, disagreeing with Sanatan Sikhs and seeking to modernize Sikhism. The Sikh Sabha movement expanded in north and northwest Indian subcontinent, leading to more than 100 Singh Sabhas. By the early decades of the 20th century, the influence of Tat Khalsa increased in interpreting the nature of Sikhism and their control over the Sikh Gurdwaras. The Tat Khalsa banished Brahmanical practices including the use of the [yagna](yajna) fire, replaced by the [Karaj](Anand)(Anand Karaj) marriage ceremony in accordance with Sikh scripture, and the idols and the images of Sikh Gurus from the [Temple](Golden)(Golden Temple) in 1905, traditions which had taken root during the administration of the [mahants](Singh Sabha Movement#Colonial rule) during the 1800s. They undertook a sustained campaign to standardize how Sikh Gurdwaras looked and ran, while looking to Sikh scriptures and the early Sikh tradition to purify the Sikh identity. The spiritual successors of the Singh Sabha include the [movement](Akali)(Akali movement) of the 1920s, as well as the modern-day Shiromani Gurdwara Parbandhak Committee ([SGPC](SGPC)), a [gurdwara](gurdwara) administration body, and the [Dal](Akali)(Akali Dal) political party. #### Partition of India Sikhs participated and contributed to the decades-long Indian independence movement in the first half of the 20th century. Ultimately when the British Empire recognized independent India, the [was partitioned](land)(partition of India) into Hindu-majority India and Muslim-majority Pakistan (East and West) in 1947. According to Banga, the partition was a watershed event in Sikh history. The Sikhs had historically lived in northwestern region of Indian subcontinent on both sides of the partition line ("[Line](Radcliffe)(Radcliffe Line)"). According to Banga and other scholars, the Sikhs had strongly opposed the [League](Muslim)(All-India Muslim League) demands and saw it as "perpetuation of Muslim domination" and anti-Sikh policies in what just a hundred years before was a part of the Sikh Empire. As such, Sikh organizations, including the [Khalsa Dewan](Chief)(Chief Khalsa Diwan) and [Akali Dal](Shiromani)(Shiromani Akali Dal) led by [Tara Singh](Master)(Master Tara Singh), condemned the [Resolution](Lahore)(Lahore Resolution) and the movement to create Pakistan, viewing it as inviting possible persecution; the Sikhs largely thus [opposed the partition of India](strongly)(opposition to the partition of India). During the discussions with the colonial authorities, Tara Singh emerged as an important leader who campaigned to prevent the partition of colonial India and for the recognition of Sikhs as a third community. When partition was announced, the newly created line divided the Sikh population. Along with Hindus, Sikhs suffered organized violence and riots against them in West Pakistan. As a result, Sikhs moved en masse to the Indian side, leaving behind their property and holy sites. However, the anti-Sikh violence was not one-sided. As Sikhs moved to the eastern side of the partition line, they engaged in reprisals against Muslims there, forcing them into Pakistan. Before the partition, Sikhs constituted about 15% of the population in West Punjab, the majority being Muslims (55%). The Sikhs were the economic elite in West Punjab, however. They had the largest representation in West Punjab's aristocracy, and there were nearly 700 Gurdwaras and 400 educational institutions that served the interests of the Sikhs. Prior to the partition, there were a series of disputes between the majority Muslims and minority Sikhs, such as on the matters of [jhatka](jhatka) versus [halal](halal) meat, the disputed ownership of [Sahidganj](Gurdwara)(Shaheed Ganj Mosque) in Lahore which Muslims sought as a mosque and Sikhs as a Gurdwara, and the insistence of the provincial Muslim government on switching from Indian [Gurmukhi](Gurmukhi) script to Arabic-Persian [Nastaliq](Nastaliq) script in schools. During and after the [Conference](Simla)(Simla Conference) in June 1945, headed by Lord Wavell, the Sikh leaders initially expressed their desire to be recognized as a third community, but ultimately relegated these demands and sought a United India where Sikhs, Hindus and Muslims would live together, under a Swiss-style constitution. The Muslim League rejected this approach, demanding that the entire Punjab should be granted to Pakistan. The Sikh leaders then sought the original partition instead, and the Congress Working Committee passed a resolution in support of partitioning Punjab and Bengal. [[File:Sikh Light Infantry.jpg\|thumb\|[Light Infantry](Sikh)(Sikh Light Infantry) personnel march past during the [day parade](Republic)(Delhi Republic Day parade) in New Delhi, India]] Between March and August 1947, a series of riots, arson, plunder of Sikh and property, assassination of Sikh leaders, and killings in Jhelum districts, Rawalpindi, Attock and other places led to Tara Singh calling the situation in Punjab a "civil war", while [Mountbatten](Lord)(Lord Mountbatten) stated "civil war preparations were going on." The riots had triggered the early waves of migration in April, with some 20,000 people leaving northwest Punjab and moving to Patiala. In Rawalpindi, 40,000 people became homeless. The Sikh leaders made desperate petitions, but all religious communities were suffering in the political turmoil. Sikhs constituted only 4 million out of a total of 28 million in Punjab, and 6 million out of nearly 400 million in India; they did not constitute the majority, not even in a single district. When the partition line was formally announced in August 1947, the violence was unprecedented, with Sikhs being one of the most affected religious community both in terms of deaths, as well as property loss, injury, trauma and disruption. Sikhs and Muslims were both victims and perpetrators of retaliatory violence against each other. Estimates range between 200,000 and 2 million deaths of Sikhs, Hindus and Muslims. There were numerous rapes of and mass suicides by Sikh women, they being taken captives, their rescues and above all a mass exodus of Sikhs from newly created Pakistan into newly independent India. The partition created the "largest foot convoy of refugees recorded in [human] history, stretching over 100 kilometer long", states Banga, with nearly 300,000 people consisting of mostly "distraught, suffering, injured and angry Sikhs". Sikh and Hindu refugees from Pakistan flooded into India, Muslim refugees from India flooded into Pakistan, each into their new homeland. #### Khalistan [[File:Thousands-Sikhs-protest-in-London.jpg\|thumb\|Sikhs in [London](London) protesting against the Indian government]] In 1940, a few Sikhs such as the victims of [Maru in Canada](Komagata)(Komagata Maru incident) proposed the idea of Khalistan as a buffer state between an independent India and what would become Pakistan. These leaders, however, were largely ignored. The early 1980s witnessed some Sikh groups seeking an independent nation named [Khalistan](Khalistan) carved out from India and Pakistan. The [Temple](Golden)(Golden Temple) and Akal Takht were occupied by various militant groups in 1982. These included the [Yudh Morcha](Dharam)(Dharam Yudh Morcha) led by [Singh Bhindranwale](Jarnail)(Jarnail Singh Bhindranwale), the Babbar Khalsa, the AISSF and the National Council of Khalistan. Between 1982 and 1983, there were [Resolution](Anandpur)(Anandpur Resolution) demand-related terrorist attacks against civilians in parts of India. By late 1983, the Bhindranwale led group had begun to build bunkers and observations posts in and around the [Temple](Golden)(Golden Temple), with militants involved in weapons training. In June 1984, the then [Minister of India](Prime)(Prime Minister of India) [Gandhi](Indira)(Indira Gandhi) ordered Indian Army to begin [Blue Star](Operation)(Operation Blue Star) against the militants. The fierce engagement took place in the precincts of Darbar Sahib and resulted in many deaths, including Bhindranwale, the destruction of the Sikh Reference Library, which was considered a national treasure that contained over a thousand rare manuscripts, and destroyed Akal Takht. Numerous soldiers, civilians and militants died in the cross fire. Within days of the Operation Bluestar, some 2,000 Sikh soldiers in India mutinied and attempted to reach Amritsar to liberate the [Temple](Golden)(Golden Temple). Within six months, on 31 October 1984, Indira Gandhi's Sikh bodyguards [Satwant](Satwant Singh) and [Singh](Beant)(Beant Singh (assassin)) [her](assassinated)(Assassination of Indira Gandhi). The assassination triggered the [anti-Sikh riots](1984)(1984 anti-Sikh riots). According to Donald Horowitz, while anti-Sikh riots led to much damage and deaths, many serious provocations by militants also failed to trigger ethnic violence in many cases throughout the 1980s. The Sikhs and their neighbors, for most part, ignored attempts to provoke riots and communal strife. ## Sikh people Estimates state that Sikhism has some 25–30 million followers worldwide. According to [Research](Pew)(Pew Research Center), a think tank and research group based in Washington DC, over 9-in-10 Sikhs are in [India](Sikhism in India), but there are also sizable Sikh communities in the [States](United)(Sikhism in the United States), the [Kingdom](United)(Sikhism in the United Kingdom), and [Canada](Sikhism in Canada). Within India, the Sikh population is found in every [and union territory](state)(States and union territories of India), but it is predominantly found in the northwestern and northern states. Only in the state of [Punjab](Punjab, India) do Sikhs constitute a majority (58% of the total, per [census](2011)(2011 Census of India)). In addition to Punjab, the states and union territories of India where Sikhs constitute more than 1.5% of its population are [Chandigarh](Chandigarh), [Haryana](Haryana), [Delhi](Delhi), [Uttarakhand](Uttarakhand), and [& Kashmir](Jammu)(Jammu and Kashmir (union territory)), all of which are in the northern half of India.[Religion demographics: 2011 Census](http://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011census/Religion_PCA.html), Office of the Registrar General & Census Commissioner, Ministry of Home Affairs, Government of India Canada is home to the largest national Sikh proportion (2.1% of the total population) in the world. Within Canada, Sikhs form 5.9% of the total population in the western province of [Columbia](British)(British Columbia), representing the third-largest Sikh proportion amongst all global [divisions](administrative)(administrative divisions), behind only Punjab and Chandigarh in India. British Columbia, [Manitoba](Manitoba), and [Yukon](Yukon) hold the distinction of being three of the only four [divisions](administrative)(administrative divisions) in the world with Sikhism as the second-most followed religion among the population.\|name="ProvincePopulation"}} Prior to the [partition](1947)(Partition of India) of [India](British)(British Raj), millions of Sikhs lived in what later became [Pakistan](Punjab, Pakistan). Likewise, Sikhism was founded in what is now Pakistan, and some of the [Gurus](Sikh gurus) were born near [Lahore](Lahore) and in other parts of Pakistan. During the partition, Sikhs and Hindus left the newly-created Muslim-majority Pakistan and mostly moved to Hindu-majority India—with some moving to Muslim-majority [Afghanistan](Afghanistan)—while numerous Muslims in India moved to Pakistan. According to 2017 news reports, only about 20,000 [remain in Pakistan](Sikhs)(Sikhism in Pakistan), and their population is dwindling ( of the country's estimated 200 million population).[Pakistan's dwindling Sikh community wants improved security](https://www.dawn.com/news/1176521), The Dawn, Pakistan (17 April 2017)[Pakistan's Sikh community disappointed at being 'left out' of national census](https://www.dawn.com/news/1321294), Ali Akbar, The Dawn (March 2017) ### Sikh sects Sikh sects are sub-traditions within Sikhism that believe in an alternate lineage of gurus, or have a different interpretation of the Sikh scriptures, or believe in following a living guru, or hold other concepts that differ from the orthodox Khalsa Sikhs. The major historic sects of Sikhism have included Udasi, Nirmala, Nanakpanthi, Khalsa, Sahajdhari, Namdhari Kuka, Nirankari, and Sarvaria. Sikhs originally had only 5 orders, or [sampradas](Sampradaya) (not to be confused as deviant sects). These include: [Nihangs](Nihang) - the Sikh [Panth's](Panth) warriors or armed troops. There are two main groups within this order: Buddha Dal, or the army of veterans, and Tarna Dal, or the army of youth. There are other smaller sub-orders connected to these two. The president of Buddha Dal, previously always served as the president of the [Takht](Akaal)(Akal Takht), which has jurisdiction over all things pertaining to the [Nihang](Akaali)(Nihang) order. Theoretically, the religion is the property of [Fateh Singh](Baba)(Fateh Singh (Sikhism)), Sahibzada (son) of the tenth Guru. [[Sant Singh Khalsa, a white convert to Sikhism, who authored the most widely used translation of the primary Sikh Scripture.jpg\|thumb\|Dr. Sant Singh Khalsa, a white convert to Sikhism, authored the most widely used translation of the Guru Granth Sahib](File:Dr.)] [Nirmalas](Nirmala (sect)) - scholars. Composed texts as well as traditionally studying a wide range of [Indian](Indian religions) and some non-Indian literature. They converse with other [pathways](Dharmik)(Dharma) as well. The 10th Guru also institutionalized them. Bhai Daya Singh Ji Samparda and Bhai Dharam Singh Ji Samparda, two of the [Pyare](Panj)(Panj Pyare) or cherished ones of the 10th Guru, founded two Nirmala orders. There are further sub-orders with these two orders. [Udasis](Udasi) - an ascetic group that historically looked after [Gurdwaras](Gurdwara) and carried out [missionary](missionary) activity. Although not promoting it to others, certain of their practices depart from the majority of Sikh beliefs. [Sri Chand](Baba)(Sri Chand), the eldest Sahibzada (son) of the first Guru, [Nanak Dev](Guru)(Guru Nanak), founded the order. Their Gurdev is Baba Sri Chand. [Sevapanthis](Sevapanthi (Sikh Order)) - philanthropists who engage in charitable work/seva, or selfless service, without expecting payment.Shriniwas, Geeta. "sevapanthi sampradaya itihash aur vikas." They also work on academic projects. Bhai Kahnaiya, a Sikh of the 9th & 10th Guru, served as the first head of the orderMahal, Ramandeep. "Bhai Kanhaiya ji: A Humanitarian Soul." and is renowned for his wartime medical assistance to wounded enemy soldiers. Very few of them exist today. The environment in which they lived and interacted with was a predominately Muslim. [Samparda](Gyaaniyan)(Damdami Taksal) - the university of Sikhi, whilst technically not an order, it essentially serves as one. Made up from individuals belonging to all of the above sects. Many branches within this order.[[File:Ustad Baljit Singh Luxmi Namdhari and Fateh Singh.jpg\|left\|thumb\|[Sikhs](Namdhari)(Namdhari), also called the Kuka Sikhs are a sect of Sikhism known for their crisp white dress and horizontal pagari (turban).["Sects and other groups: Sikhism"](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Sikhism/Sects-and-other-groups), [Britannica](Encyclopaedia)(Encyclopaedia Britannica) Online. Above: Namdhari singer and musicians.]] The early Sikh sects were [Udasi](Udasi)s and [Minas](Mina (Sikhism)) founded by Baba [Chand](Sri)(Sri Chand) – the elder son of [Nanak](Guru)(Guru Nanak), and [Chand](Prithi)(Prithi Chand) – the elder son of [Ram Das](Guru)(Guru Ram Das) respectively, in parallel to the official succession of the Sikh Gurus. Later on [Ramraiya](Ramraiya) sect, founded by [Rai](Ram)(Baba Ram Rai), grew in [Dehradun](Dehradun) with the patronage of Aurangzeb. Many splintered Sikh communities formed during the [Empire](Mughal)(Mughal Empire) era. Some of these sects were financially and administratively supported by the Mughal rulers in the hopes of gaining a more favorable and compliant citizenry. After the collapse of Mughal Empire, and particularly during the rule of Ranjit Singh, Udasi Sikhs protected Sikh shrines, preserved the Sikh scripture and rebuilt those that were desecrated or destroyed during the Muslim–Sikh wars. However, Udasi Sikhs kept idols and images inside these Sikh temples. In the 19th century, [Namdhari](Namdhari)s and [Nirankari](Nirankari)s sects were formed in Sikhism, seeking to reform and return to what each believed was the pure form of Sikhism. All these sects differ from Khalsa orthodox Sikhs in their beliefs and practices, such as continuing to solemnize their weddings around fire and being strictly vegetarian. Many accept the concept of living Gurus such as Guru [Dyal Singh](Baba)(Baba Dyal Singh). The Nirankari sect, though unorthodox, was influential in shaping the views of Tat Khalsa and the contemporary-era Sikh beliefs and practices.["Sects in Sikhism"](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Sikhism/Sects-and-other-groups), [Britannica](Encyclopædia)(Encyclopædia Britannica) Online. Retrieved 7 August 2018. Another significant Sikh sect of the 19th century was the Radhasoami movement in Punjab led by Baba Shiv Dyal. Other contemporary era Sikhs sects include the [3HO](3HO), formed in 1971, which exists outside India, particularly in North America and Europe. ### Sikh castes [[File:Nagar Kirtan.jpg\|thumb\|[Kirtan](Nagar)(Nagar Kirtan) in [Bangalore](Bangalore)]] According to Surinder Jodhka, the state of Punjab with a Sikh majority has the "largest proportion of [caste](scheduled)(Dalit) population in India". Although decried by Sikhism, Sikhs have practiced a caste system. The system, along with [untouchability](untouchability), has been more common in rural parts of Punjab. The landowning dominant Sikh castes, states Jodhka, "have not shed all their prejudices against the lower castes or [dalits](dalits); while dalits would be allowed entry into the village gurdwaras they would not be permitted to cook or serve langar." The Sikh dalits of Punjab have tried to build their own gurdwara, other local level institutions and sought better material circumstances and dignity. According to Jodhka, due to economic mobility in contemporary Punjab, castes no longer mean an inherited occupation, nor are work relations tied to a single location. In 1953, the government of India acceded to the demands of the Sikh leader, [Tara Singh](Master)(Tara Singh (activist)), to include Sikh Dalit castes in the list of scheduled castes. In the [Gurdwara Prabandhak Committee](Shiromani)(Shiromani Gurdwara Prabandhak Committee), 20 of the 140 seats are reserved for low-caste Sikhs. Over 60% of Sikhs belong to the [Jat](Jat Sikh) caste, which is an agrarian caste. Despite being very small in numbers, the mercantile [Khatri](Khatri) and [Arora](Arora) castes wield considerable influence within the Sikh community. Other common Sikh castes include [Saini](Saini)s, [Ramgarhia](Ramgarhia)s (artisans), [Ahluwalias](Ahluwalia (caste)) (formerly brewers), [Rajputs](Rajput), India: Rajput Sikh religion \|url=https://www.refworld.org/docid/3df4be4214.html \|access-date=4 April 2023 \|website=Refworld \|language=en}} [Sikh](Rai)(Rai Sikh) (Rai), [Kamboj](Kamboj)s (rural caste), [Labana](Labana)s, [Kumhar](Kumhar)s and the two Dalit castes, known in Sikh terminology as the [Mazhabi](Mazhabi)s (the Chuhras) and the [Ravidasia](Ravidasia)s (the Chamars). ### Sikh diaspora [[File:Sikhs on the move!.jpg\|thumb\|Sikhs celebrating [Vaisakhi](Vaisakhi) in [Canada](Toronto,)(Toronto, Canada)]] Sikhism is [fifth-largest amongst the world religions](the)(Major religious groups#Religious demographics), and one of the youngest. Worldwide, there are 30 million Sikhs, which makes up 0.4% of the world's population. Approximately 75% of Sikhs live in [Punjab](Punjab, India), where they constitute 57.7% of the state's population. Large communities of Sikhs migrate to the neighboring states such as Indian State of Haryana which is home to the second largest Sikh population in India with 1.1 million Sikhs as per 2001 census, and large immigrant communities of Sikhs can be found across India. However, Sikhs only comprise about 1.7% of the Indian population. Most Sikhs outside India live in the [Anglosphere](core)(core Anglosphere), with 771,790 in [Canada](Sikhism in Canada) (2.1% Sikh), 524,140 in the [Kingdom](United)(Sikhism in the United Kingdom) (0.9% Sikh), 269,986 in the [States](United)(Sikhism in the United States) (0.1% Sikh), Sikh organizations estimate the Sikh American population to be as high as 750,000. Before the [Kingdom Census](United)(United Kingdom Census) started asking about religion in [2001](2001 United Kingdom Census), Sikh organizations estimated the British Sikh population to be as high as 750,000, but the 2001 census found the British Sikh population to be only 336,149. Thus, population figures by Sikh organizations are likely overestimates. A comprehensive 2012 survey by the Pew Research Center estimated that 1% of Asian Americans and 5% of Indian Americans are Sikhs, which would yield a Sikh population of approximately 200,000 in 2012 and 290,000 in 2021. The most comprehensive way to estimate the Sikh American population is by comparing to the Punjabi American population. Out of the 4,060,554 Americans who spoke a South Asian language at home in 2021, 318,588, or , spoke [Punjabi](Punjabi language) at home. This indicates that [Americans](Punjabi)(Punjabi Americans) make up of the [Asian American](South)(South Asian American) population of 5,492,692, and thus number 430,952. This matches with a comprehensive 2020 survey of [Americans](Indian)(Indian Americans) by the [Endowment for International Peace](Carnegie)(Carnegie Endowment for International Peace), which found that 8% of Indian Americans were Punjabi. Using this same method, the populations of [Canadians](Punjabi)(Punjabi Canadians), [Punjabis](English)(British Punjabis), and [Australians](Punjabi)(Punjabi Australians) can be estimated at 1,146,900, 931,671, and 319,377 respectively, using language data from censuses conducted in 2021 in those nations. Those nations also ask about religion in their censuses, with there being 771,790 [Canadians](Sikh)(Sikh Canadians), 520,092 [Sikhs](English)(English Sikhs), and 210,400 [Australians](Sikh)(Sikhism in Australia) in 2021.Thus, the Sikh population was about of the Punjabi population in those three countries combined. Using this ratio, the American Sikh population can be estimated at 269,986 in 2021. This ratio can also be used to estimate Sikh populations of American states, counties, and communities using population data of Punjabi speakers.\|name="Population"}} 210,397 in [Australia](Sikhism in Australia) (0.8% Sikh), and 40,908 in [Zealand](New)(Sikhism in New Zealand) (0.9% Sikh). While these communities are over 125 years old, most Sikhs in the West are first, second, or third-generation immigrants. the [Canadian Census](2021)(2021 Canadian Census), more than half of Canada's Sikhs can be found in one of four cities: [Brampton](Brampton, Ontario) (163,260), [Surrey](Surrey, BC) (154,415), [Calgary](Calgary) (49,465), and [Abbotsford](Abbotsford, BC) (38,395). Brampton, Surrey, and Abbotsford are 25.1% Sikh, 27.4% Sikh, and 25.5% Sikh, respectively. [Gurdwaras](Gurdwaras), newspapers, radio stations, and markets cater to these large, multi-generational Sikh Canadian groups. Sikh festivals such as Vaisakhi and [Chhor](Bandi)(Bandi Chhor Divas) are celebrated in those Canadian cities by the largest groups of followers in the world outside the Punjab. Sikhs also migrated to East Africa, the Middle East, and Southeast Asia. These communities developed as Sikhs migrated out of Punjab to fill in gaps in imperial labour markets. Smaller populations of Sikhs are found within many countries in Western Europe, especially Italy, as well as other nations such as Malaysia, Philippines, Singapore, Hong Kong, Fiji, Nepal, China, Afghanistan, and Iran. ## Prohibitions in Sikhism These prohibitions are strictly followed by initiated [Khalsa](Khalsa) Sikhs who have undergone baptism. While the Sikh gurus did not enforce religion and did not believe in forcing people to follow any particular religion in general, the Sikh community does encourage all people to become better individuals by following the Guru's Way (Gur-mat), as opposed to living life without the Guru's code of disciple (Man-mat): 4 major transgressions:Sikh Rehat Maryada: [Section Four, Chapter X, Article XVI, i.](https://old.sgpc.net/rehat_maryada/section_four.html); [Section Six, Chapter XIII, Article XXIV, p. 1.-4.](https://old.sgpc.net/rehat_maryada/section_six.html) * Hair removal – [Hair](Hair) [cutting](cutting), trimming, removing, [shaving](shaving), [plucking](Plucking (hair removal)), [threading](Threading (epilation)), [dyeing](Dyeing hair), or any other alteration from any body part is strictly forbidden.Sikh Rehat Maryada: [Section Four, Chapter X, Article XVI, i.](https://old.sgpc.net/rehat_maryada/section_four.html); [Section Six, Chapter XIII, Article XXIV, p. 1. & q. 3.](https://old.sgpc.net/rehat_maryada/section_six.html) * Eating [Kutha](Kutha meat) meat.[Sikh Rehat Maryada: Section Six, Chapter XIII, Article XXIV, p. 2.](https://old.sgpc.net/rehat_maryada/section_six.html) This is the absolute minimum required by all [Sikhs](initiated)(Khalsa). Many Sikhs refrain from eating [non-vegetarian](non-vegetarian) food, and believe all should follow this diet. This is due to various social, cultural, political, and familial aspects. As such, there has always been major disagreement among Sikhs over the issue of eating [non-vegetarian](non-vegetarian) food. Sikhs following the rahit (code of conduct) of the [Taksal](Damdami)(Damdami Taksal) & [AKJ](Akhand Kirtani Jatha) also subscribe to this view. The [Nihangs](Akali)(Nihang) have traditionally eaten meat and are famous for performing [Jhatka](Jhatka)."The most special occasion of the Chhauni is the festival of Diwali which is celebrated for ten days. This is the only Sikh shrine at Amritsar where Maha Prasad (meat) is served on special occasions in Langar", The Sikh review, Volume 35, Issue 409 – Volume 36, Issue 420, Sikh Cultural Centre., 1988"The tradition traces back to the time of Sri Guru Hargobind Sahib Ji who started the tradition of hunting for Sikhs ... The tradition of ritually sacrificing goats and consuming Mahaparshad remains alive not only with the Nihang Singh Dals, but also at Sachkhand Sri Hazoor Sahib and Sachkhand Sri Patna Sahib (two of the Sikhs holiest shrines)." [Panth Akali Budha Dal](http://www.nihangsingh.org/website/trad-jhatka.html) ''"Another noteworthy practice performed here is that a goat is sacrificed on Dussehra night every year. This ceremony was performed on Diwali day this year (Oct 28, 2008). The fresh blood of the sacrificed goat is used for tilak on the Guru's weapons."'', SIGNIFICANT DEVELOPMENTS OF THE SIKH COMMUNITY, Dr Madanjit Kaur, Institute of Sikh Studies [Institute of Sikh Studies, Madan Kaur](http://sikhinstitute.org/apr_2009/10-madakaur.html) Thus, there is a wide range of views that exist on the issue of a proper "Sikh diet" in the [Panth](Panth). Nonetheless, all Sikhs agree with the minimum consensus that meat slaughtered via the Muslim ([Halal](Halal)) or Jewish ([Shechita](Shechita)) methods is strictly against Sikh dogma and principles."Sikhism, A Complete Introduction" by Dr. H.S. Singha & Satwant Kaur Hemkunt, Hemkunt Press, New Delhi, 1994, "Sikh Identity: An Exploration of Groups Among Sikhs" by Opinderjit Kaur Takhar, pg. 51, Ashgate Publishing, Ltd, 2005, The [Takht](Akal)(Akal Takht) represents the final authority on controversial issues concerning the Sikh [Panth](Panth) (community or collective). The [Hukamnama](Hukamnama) (edict or clarification), issued by [Takht](Akal)(Akal Takht) [Jathedar](Jathedar) [Singh Bhaura](Sadhu)(Jathedar Sadhu Singh Bhaura) dated 15 February 1980, states that eating meat does not go against the code of conduct of the Sikhs. [Amritdhari](Khalsa) Sikhs can eat meat as long as it is [Jhatka](Jhatka) meat. * [Adultery](Adultery): Cohabiting with a person other than one's spouse (sexual relations with anyone who you are not married to).Jakobsh, Doris R. 2003. Relocating Gender In Sikh History: Transformation, Meaning and Identity. New Delhi: Oxford University Press. pp. 39–40 * [Intoxication](Intoxications) – A Sikh must not take [hemp](hemp) ([cannabis](cannabis)), [opium](opium), [liquor](liquor), [tobacco](tobacco), in short, any [intoxicant](intoxicant).Sikh Rehat Maryada: [Section Four, Chapter X, Article XVI, j.](https://old.sgpc.net/rehat_maryada/section_four.html) Consumption of [tobacco](tobacco) and [intoxicants](intoxicants) ([hemp](hemp), [opium](opium), [liquor](liquor), [narcotic](narcotic)s, [cocaine](cocaine), etc.) is not allowed.Sikh Rehat Maryada: [Section Six, Chapter XIII, Article XXIV, p. 4. & q. 1., q. 5.](https://old.sgpc.net/rehat_maryada/section_six.html) [is generally prohibited](Cannabis)(Cannabis and Sikhism), but ritually consumed in edible form by some Sikhs. Some Sikh groups, like the [Taksal](Damdami)(Damdami Taksal), are even opposed to drinking [caffeine](caffeine) in [tea](Indian)(Tea). Indian tea is almost always served in Sikh [Gurudwaras](Gurdwara) around the world. Some [Nihang](Akali)(Nihang) groups consume [cannabis-containing](Cannabis (drug)) shaheedi degh (), purportedly to help in [meditation](meditation).[Hola Mohalla: United colours of celebrations](https://web.archive.org/web/20110811031946/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2003-03-19/chandigarh/27281595_1_bhang-united-colours-procession), Sūkha parshaad (), "Dry-sweet", is the term [Nihangs](Akali)(Nihang) use to refer to it. It was traditionally crushed and consumed as a liquid, especially during festivals like [Mohalla](Hola)(Hola Mohalla). It is never smoked, as this practice is forbidden in Sikhism. In 2001, [Santa Singh](Jathedar)(Jathedar Santa Singh), the leader of [Dal](Budha)(Budha Dal), along with 20 chiefs of [Nihang](Nihang) sects, refused to accept the ban on consumption of* shaheedi degh* by the apex Sikh clergy of [Takht](Akal)(Akal Takht) - in order to preserve their traditional practices.[Nihangs 'not to accept' ban on shaheedi degh](http://www.tribuneindia.com/2001/20010326/punjab1.htm#3). [Tribune](The)(The Tribune (Chandigarh)). 26 March 2001. According to a recent BBC article, "Traditionally they also drank shaheedi degh, an infusion of cannabis, to become closer with God". Baba Santa Singh was excommunicated and replaced with Baba Balbir Singh, who agreed to shun the consumption of bhang.[No 'bhang' at Hola Mohalla](http://www.tribuneindia.com/2001/20010310/main7.htm#2). [Tribune](The)(The Tribune (Chandigarh)). 10 March 2001. Other mentioned practices to be avoided, as per the Sikh Rehat Maryada: * Piercing of the nose or ears for wearing ornaments is forbidden for Sikh men and women.Sikh Rehat Maryada: [Section Four, Chapter X, Article XVI, k.](https://old.sgpc.net/rehat_maryada/section_four.html) However, this is a point of contention as it was common for Sikh men and women to wear during the [Misl](Sikh)(Sikh Misl) period. * Female infanticide: A Sikh should not kill their daughter; nor should they maintain any relationship with a killer of daughter.Sikh Rehat Maryada: [Section Four, Chapter X, Article XVI, l.](https://old.sgpc.net/rehat_maryada/section_four.html) * A Sikh shall not [steal](Theft), form dubious associations or engage in [gambling](gambling).Sikh Rehat Maryada: [Section Four, Chapter X, Article XVI, o.](https://old.sgpc.net/rehat_maryada/section_four.html) * It is not proper for a Sikh woman to wear a [veil](veil), or keep her face hidden.Sikh Rehat Maryada: [Section Four, Chapter X, Article XVI, s.](https://old.sgpc.net/rehat_maryada/section_four.html) * Sikhs cannot wear any token of any other faith, nor participate in idol worship (Idolatry) according to the Guru Granth Sahib. Sikhs must not have their head bare or wear [cap](cap)s. They also cannot wear any [ornament](Ornament (art))s piercing through any part of the body.Sikh Rehat Maryada: [Section Four, Chapter X, Article XVI, i.](https://old.sgpc.net/rehat_maryada/section_four.html); [Section Six, Chapter XIII, Article XXIV, d.](https://old.sgpc.net/rehat_maryada/section_six.html) * Hereditary priest – Sikhism does not have priests, as they were abolished by Guru Gobind Singh (the 10th Guru of Sikhism). The only position he left was a [Granthi](Granthi) to look after the Guru Granth Sahib; any Sikh is free to become Granthi or read from the Guru Granth Sahib. ## See also * [Nanaki](Bebe)(Bebe Nanaki) * [Bhago](Mai)(Mai Bhago) * [Virtues](Five)(Five Virtues) * [Singh Nalwa](Hari)(Hari Singh Nalwa) * [religions](Indian)(Indian religions) * [Digital Library](Panjab)(Panjab Digital Library) * [training centre](Turban)(Turban training centre) * [in the Guru Granth Sahib](Women)(Women in the Guru Granth Sahib) * [in Sikhism](Idolatry)(Idolatry in Sikhism) ## Notes ## References ## Further reading * * Dilgeer, Harjinder Singh (1997), The Sikh Reference Book; Sikh University Press / Singh Brothers Amritsar, 1997. * Dilgeer, Harjinder Singh (2005), Dictionary of Sikh Philosophy; Sikh University Press / Singh Brothers Amritsar, 2005. * Dilgeer, Harjinder Singh (2008), Sikh Twareekh; Sikh University Press / Singh Brothers Amritsar, 2008. * Dilgeer, Harjinder Singh (2012), Sikh History (in 10 volumes); Sikh University Press / Singh Brothers Amritsar, 2010–2012. * * Kaur, Surjit; Amongst the Sikhs: Reaching for the Stars; New Delhi: Roli Books, 2003, * Khalsa, Guru Fatha Singh; ''Five Paragons of Peace: Magic and Magnificence in the Guru's Way, Toronto: Monkey Minds Press, 2010, , [GuruFathaSingh.com](https://web.archive.org/web/20110711135252/http://www.gurufathasingh.com/five-paragons-of-peace.html) Khalsa, Shanti Kaur; The History of Sikh Dharma of the Western Hemisphere; Espanola, New Mexico, US: Sikh Dharma; 1995 * * * Takhar, Opinderjit Kaur, Sikh Identity: An Exploration of Groups Among Sikhs. Burlington, Vermont: Ashgate; 2005 ## External links * ["Sikhism"](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Sikhism). [Britannica](Encyclopædia)(Encyclopædia Britannica) Online''. [ ](Category:Sikhism) [worship traditions](Category:Nirguna)(Category:Nirguna worship traditions) [religions](Category:Indian)(Category:Indian religions) [establishments in Asia](Category:1500)(Category:1500 establishments in Asia) [organizations established in the 15th century](Category:Religious)(Category:Religious organizations established in the 15th century) [establishments in India](Category:15th-century)(Category:15th-century establishments in India) [Category:Punjab](Category:Punjab) [Category:Monotheism](Category:Monotheism) [dharmas](Category:Moksha-aligned)(Category:Moksha-aligned dharmas)
Kerala	kerala	# Kerala Revision ID: 1160325958 \| Timestamp: 2023-06-15T19:37:41Z --- \| nickname = "God own's country" \| motto = [Jayate](Satyameva)(Satyameva Jayate) (Truth alone triumphs) \| image_map = IN-KL.svg \| coordinates = \| region = South India \| before_was = [Travancore–Cochin](Travancore–Cochin) [Kasargod](Kasargod) [Kanara](South)(South Kanara district) and [district](Malabar)(Malabar District) of [Madras](Madras) \| formation_date4 = 1 November 1956 \| capital = Thiruvananthapuram \| largestcity = \| districts = [14](List of districts of Kerala) \| Governor = [Mohammad Khan](Arif)(Arif Mohammad Khan) \| Chief_Minister = [Vijayan](Pinarayi)(Pinarayi Vijayan) \| party = [CPI(M)](Communist Party of India (Marxist)) \| judiciary = [High Court](Kerala)(Kerala High Court) \| legislature_type = Unicameral \| assembly = [Legislative Assembly](Kerala)(Kerala Legislative Assembly) \| assembly_seats = 140 seats \| rajya_sabha_seats = 9 seats \| lok_sabha_seats = 20 seats \| area_total_km2 = 38863 \| area_rank = 21st \| length_km = 560 \| width_km = 70 \| elevation_footnotes = Geographical location Kerala Kerala \|url=https://kerala.me/geography \|access-date=2023-03-24 \|language=en-US}} \| elevation_m = 900 \| elevation_max_m = 2,695 \| elevation_max_point = [Anamudi](Anamudi) \| elevation_min_m = −2.7 \| elevation_min_point = [Kuttanad](Kuttanad) \| population_footnotes = \| population_total = 34,630,192 \| population_as_of = 2018 \| population_rank = 13th \| population_urban = 47.7% \| population_rural = 52.3% \| population_density = 890 \| population_demonym = Keralite, Malayali \| 0fficial_Langs = [Malayalam](Malayalam) \| additional_official = [English](English language) \| official_script = [ Malayalam script]( Malayalam script) \| GDP_footnotes = \| GDP_total = \| GDP_year = 2022-2023 \| GDP_rank = 11th \| GDP_per_capita = \| GDP_per_capita_rank = 11th \| HDI = 0.782 \| HDI_year = 2019 \| HDI_rank = [1st](List of Indian states and union territories by Human Development Index) \| literacy = 96.2% \| literacy_year = 2018 \| literacy_rank = [1st](List of Indian states and union territories by literacy rate) \| sex_ratio = 1084[♀](female)/1000 [♂](male) \| sexratio_year = 2011 \| sexratio_rank = [17th](List of states and union territories of India by sex ratio) \| iso_code = IN-KL \| registration_plate = KL \| website = kerala.gov.in \| mammal = [elephant](Indian)(Indian elephant) \| bird = [hornbill](Great)(Great hornbill) \| fish = [chromide](Green)(Green chromide) \| butterfly = [buddha](Papilio)(Papilio buddha) \| flower = [shower tree](Golden)(Cassia fistula) \| tree = [Tree](Coconut)(Coconut) \| fruit = [Jackfruit](Jackfruit) \| image_highway = SH IN-KL.png \| SH_numbers = [KL1 - SH KL79](SH)(List of state highways in Kerala) }} Kerala ( ; ) is a [state](States and union territories of India) on the [Coast](Malabar)(Malabar Coast) of [India](India). It was formed on 1 November 1956, following the passage of the [Reorganisation Act](States)(States Reorganisation Act), by combining [Malayalam](Malayalam)-speaking regions of the erstwhile regions of [Cochin](Kingdom of Cochin), [Malabar](Malabar District), [Canara](South)(South Canara), and [Travancore](Travancore). Spread over , Kerala is the 21st [Indian state by area](largest)(List of states and union territories of India by area). It is bordered by [Karnataka](Karnataka) to the north and northeast, [Nadu](Tamil)(Tamil Nadu) to the east and south, and the [Sea](Lakshadweep)(Laccadive Sea) to the west. With 33 million inhabitants as per the [census](2011)(2011 Census of India), Kerala is the [Indian state by population](13th-largest)(List of states of India by population). It is divided into 14 [districts](List of districts of Kerala) with the capital being [Thiruvananthapuram](Thiruvananthapuram). [Malayalam](Malayalam) is the most widely spoken language and is also the official language of the state. The [dynasty](Chera)(Chera dynasty) was the first prominent kingdom based in Kerala. The [kingdom](Ay)(Ay kingdom) in the deep south and the [kingdom](Ezhimala)(Mushika dynasty) in the north formed the other kingdoms in the early years of the [Era](Common)(Common Era) (CE). The region had been a prominent spice exporter since 3000 [BCE](Common Era). The region's prominence in trade was noted in the works of [Pliny](Pliny the elder) as well as the [Periplus](Periplus of the Erythraean Sea) around . In the 15th century, the [trade](spice)(spice trade) attracted [Portuguese](Portuguese people) traders to Kerala, and paved the way for [colonisation](European)(Colonial India) of India. At the time of [independence movement](Indian)(Indian independence movement) in the early 20th century, there were two major [states](princely)(princely states) in Kerala: [Travancore](Travancore State) and [Cochin](Kingdom of Cochin). They united to form the state of [Thiru-Kochi](Thiru-Kochi) in 1949. The [region](Malabar)(Malabar District), in the northern part of Kerala, had been a part of the [province](Madras)(Madras province) of [India](British)(British India), which later became a part of the [State](Madras)(Madras State) post-independence. After the [Reorganisation Act, 1956](States)(States Reorganisation Act, 1956), the modern-day state of Kerala was formed by merging the [district](Malabar)(Malabar district) of [State](Madras)(Madras State) (excluding [taluk](Gudalur)(Gudalur taluk) of [district](Nilgiris)(The Nilgiris District), [Lakshadweep](Lakshadweep) Islands, [Topslip](Topslip), the [Attappadi](Attappadi) Forest east of Anakatti), the taluk of [Kasaragod](Kasaragod) (now [District](Kasaragod)(Kasaragod District)) in [Canara](South)(South Canara), and the erstwhile state of Thiru-Kochi (excluding four southern taluks of [district](Kanyakumari)(Kanyakumari district), and Shenkottai taluks). Kerala has the lowest positive population growth rate in India, 3.44%; the highest [Development Index](Human)(Human Development Index) (HDI), 0.784 in 2018 (0.712 in 2015); the highest [literacy](literacy) rate, 96.2% in the 2018 literacy survey conducted by the National Statistical Office, India; the highest life expectancy, 77.3 years; and the highest [ratio](sex)(sex ratio), 1,084 women per 1,000 men. Kerala is the [impoverished state](least)(List of Indian states and union territories by poverty rate) in India according to [Aayog](NITI)(NITI Aayog)'s Sustainable Development Goals dashboard and [Bank of India](Reserve)(Reserve Bank of India)'s 'Handbook of Statistics on Indian Economy'. Kerala is the [urbanised major state](second-most)(Urbanisation in India) in the country with [urban population](47.7%)(List of cities in Kerala by urban area growth) according to the [Census of India](2011)(2011 Census of India). The state topped in the country to achieve the [Development Goals](Sustainable)(Sustainable Development Goals) according to the annual report of [Aayog](NITI)(NITI Aayog) published in 2019. The state has the [media exposure in India](highest)(Indian states ranking by media exposure) with newspapers publishing in nine languages, mainly [Malayalam](Malayalam) and sometimes [English](English language). [Hinduism](Hinduism in Kerala) is practised by more than half of the population, followed by [Islam](Islam in Kerala) and [Christianity](Christianity in Kerala). The [of Kerala](economy)(economy of Kerala) is the [8th-largest](List of Indian states and union territories by GDP) in India with in gross state domestic product (GSDP) and a per capita net state domestic product of . The [sector](tertiary)(Tertiary sector of the economy) contributes around 65% to state's [GSVA](Gross value added), while the [sector](primary)(Primary sector of the economy) contributes only 8%. The state has witnessed significant emigration, especially to the [states of the Persian Gulf](Arab)(Arab states of the Persian Gulf) during the [Boom](Gulf)(Kerala Gulf diaspora#The Gulf Boom) of the 1970s and early 1980s, and its economy depends significantly on [remittances](remittances) from a large [Malayali](Malayali) expatriate community. The production of [pepper](Black pepper) and [rubber](natural)(natural rubber) contributes significantly to the total national output. In the agricultural sector, [coconut](coconut), [tea](tea), [coffee](coffee), [cashew](cashew) and spices are important. The state is situated between [Sea](Arabian)(Arabian Sea) to the west and [Ghats](Western)(Western Ghats) mountain ranges to the east. The state's coastline extends for , and around 1.1 million people in the state are dependent on the fishery industry, which contributes 3% to the state's income. Named as one of the ten paradises of the world by [Geographic Traveler](National)(National Geographic Traveler), Kerala is one of the prominent [destinations](tourist)(Tourism in Kerala) of India, with [sandy beaches](coconut-lined)(Beaches in Kerala), [backwaters](Kerala Backwaters), [station](hill)(hill station)s, [tourism](Ayurvedic)(Ayurveda) and [tropical](tropical) greenery as its major attractions. ## Etymology The word Kerala is first recorded as Keralaputo ('son of [Chera](Chera dynasty) [s]') in a 3rd-century-BCE rock inscription left by the [emperor](Maurya)(Maurya empire) [Ashoka](Ashoka) (274–237 BCE), one of [edicts](his)(Edicts of Ashoka) pertaining to welfare. At that time, one of three states in the region was called [[Dynasty\|](Chera)] in Classical Tamil: and are variants of the same word. The word refers to the oldest known dynasty of Kerala kings and is derived from the Proto-Tamil-Malayalam word for 'lake'. may stem from the Classical [Tamil](Tamil language) 'declivity of a hill or a mountain slope' or 'land of the Cheras'. One [etymology](folk)(folk etymology) derives Kerala from the [Malayalam](Malayalam) word 'coconut tree' and 'land'; thus, 'land of coconuts', which is a nickname for the state used by locals due to the abundance of coconut trees. The earliest Sanskrit text to mention Kerala as Cherapadha is the late Vedic text [Aranyaka](Aitareya)(Aitareya Aranyaka). Kerala is also mentioned in the [Ramayana](Ramayana) and the [Mahabharata](Mahabharata), the two Hindu epics. The [Purana](Skanda)(Skanda Purana) mentions the ecclesiastical office of the [Kaimal](Thachudaya)(Thachudaya Kaimal) who is referred to as , synonymous with the deity of the [Koodalmanikyam](Koodalmanikyam) temple.See Sahyadri Kanda Chapter 7 in Skanda Purana. Rocher, Ludo (1986). The Puranas. Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. .Who's Who in Madras 1934 The [Greco-Roman](Greco-Roman world) trade map [Maris Erythraei](Periplus)(Periplus Maris Erythraei) refers to Kerala as Celobotra. Kerala was alternatively called [Malabar](Malabar Coast) in the [trade circles](foreign)(Indian Ocean trade). Earlier, the term Malabar had also been used to denote [Nadu](Tulu)(Tulu Nadu) and [Kanyakumari](Kanyakumari district) which lie contiguous to Kerala on the southwestern coast of India, in addition to the modern state of Kerala. The people of Malabar were known as [Malabars](Malabars). Until the arrival of the [India Company](East)(East India Company), the term Malabar was used as a general name for Kerala, along with the term Kerala. From the time of [Indicopleustes](Cosmas)(Cosmas Indicopleustes) (6th century CE) itself, the [Arab](Arabs) sailors used to call Kerala as Male. The first element of the name, however, is attested already in the Topography written by [Indicopleustes](Cosmas)(Cosmas Indicopleustes). This mentions a pepper emporium called Male, which clearly gave its name to Malabar ('the country of Male'). The name Male is thought to come from the [Malayalam](Malayalam) word Mala ('hill').C. A. Innes and F. B. Evans, Malabar and Anjengo, volume 1, Madras District Gazetteers (Madras: Government Press, 1915), p. 2.M. T. Narayanan, [Agrarian Relations in Late Medieval Malabar](https://books.google.com/books?id=kHtbkuXruzwC) (New Delhi: Northern Book Centre, 2003), xvi–xvii. [Al-Biruni](Al-Biruni) () is the first known writer to call this country Malabar. Authors such as [Khordadbeh](Ibn)(Ibn Khordadbeh) and [Al-Baladhuri](Al-Baladhuri) mention Malabar ports in their works.Mohammad, K.M. "Arab relations with Malabar Coast from 9th to 16th centuries" Proceedings of the Indian History Congress. Vol. 60 (1999), pp. 226–34. The Arab writers had called this place Malibar, Manibar, Mulibar, and Munibar. Malabar is reminiscent of the word Malanad which means the land of hills. According to [Logan](William)(William Logan (author)), the word Malabar comes from a combination of the [Malayalam](Malayalam) word Mala (hill) and the [Persian](Persian Language)/[Arabic](Arabic) word Barr (country/continent). ## History [[File:Parashurama with axe.jpg\|alt=\|thumb\|left\|220px\|Portrait of [Parashurama](Parashurama) by [Ravi Varma](Raja)(Raja Ravi Varma) relating to [Keralolpathi](Keralolpathi).]] ### Traditional sources According to the Sangam classic [Purananuru](Purananuru), the [Chera](Chera dynasty) king [Senkuttuvan](Senguttuvan) conquered the lands between [Kanyakumari](Kanyakumari) and the [Himalayas](Himalayas). Lacking worthy enemies, he besieged the sea by throwing his spear into it.Ancient Indian History By Madhavan Arjunan Pillai, p. 204 According to the 17th-century Hindu mythology work [Keralolpathi](Keralolpathi), the lands of Kerala were recovered from the sea by the axe-wielding warrior sage [Parasurama](Parasurama), the sixth [avatar](Daśāvatāra) of [Vishnu](Vishnu) (hence, Kerala is also called Parasurama Kshetram 'The Land of Parasurama' in Hindu mythology).S.C. Bhatt, Gopal K. Bhargava (2006) "Land and People of Indian States and Union Territories: Volume 14.", p. 18 Parasurama threw his axe across the sea, and the water receded as far as it reached. According to the legendary account, this new area of land extended from [Gokarna](Gokarna, India) to [Kanyakumari](Kanyakumari). The land which rose from sea was filled with salt and unsuitable for habitation; so Parasurama invoked the Snake King [Vasuki](Vasuki (snake)), who spat holy poison and converted the soil into fertile lush green land. Out of respect, Vasuki and all snakes were appointed as protectors and guardians of the land. [T. Srinivasa Iyengar](P.)(P. T. Srinivasa Iyengar) theorised, that [Senguttuvan](Senguttuvan) may have been inspired by the [Parasurama](Parasurama) legendary account, which was brought by early Aryan settlers. Another much earlier [Puranic](Puranic) character associated with Kerala is [Mahabali](Mahabali), an [Asura](Asura) and a prototypical just king, who ruled the earth from Kerala. He won the war against the [Devas](Deva (Hinduism)), driving them into exile. The Devas pleaded before Lord Vishnu, who took his fifth incarnation as [Vamana](Vamana) and pushed Mahabali down to [netherworld](Patala) to placate the Devas. There is a belief that, once a year during the [Onam](Onam) festival, Mahabali returns to Kerala. The [Purana](Matsya)(Matsya Purana), among the oldest of the 18 [Puranas](Puranas), uses the [Mountains](Malaya)(Malaya Mountains) of Kerala (and [Nadu](Tamil)(Tamil Nadu)) as the setting for the story of [Matsya](Matsya), the first [incarnation](Dashavatara) of Vishnu, and [Manu](Manu (Hinduism)), the first man and the king of the region. #### Ophir [[File:Poovar Kerala.jpg\|thumb\|[Poovar](Poovar) is often identified with Biblical [Ophir](Ophir)]] [Ophir](Ophir), a port or region mentioned in the [Bible](Bible),["Ophir"](https://dictionary.reference.com/browse/ophir). ''[House Webster's Unabridged Dictionary](Random)(Random House Webster's Unabridged Dictionary). famous for its [wealth](wealth), is often identified with some coastal areas of Kerala. According to the account, the [Solomon](King)(King Solomon) received a cargo from Ophir every three years ([Kings](1)(1 Kings) 10:22) which consisted of [gold](gold), [silver](silver), [sandalwood](sandalwood), [pearl](pearl)s, [ivory](ivory), apes, and [peacock](peacock)s. A Dictionary of the Bible* by [William Smith](Sir)(Sir William Smith), published in 1863,Smith, William, A dictionary of the Bible, Hurd and Houghton, 1863 (1870), p. 1441 notes the Hebrew word for parrot Thukki, derived from the Classical Tamil for peacock Thogkai and Cingalese Tokei'', joins other Classical Tamil words for ivory, cotton-cloth and apes preserved in the Hebrew Bible. This theory of Ophir's location in [Tamilakam](Tamilakam) is further supported by other historians.Ramaswami, Sastri, The Tamils and their culture, Annamalai University, 1967, p. 16Gregory, James, Tamil lexicography, M. Niemeyer, 1991, p. 10Fernandes, Edna, The last Jews of Kerala, Portobello, 2008, p. 98Encyclopædia Britannica, Ninth Edition, Volume I Almug Tree Almunecar→ALMUG or ALGUM TREE. The Hebrew words Almuggim or Algummim have translated Almug or Algum trees in our version of the Bible (see 1 Kings x. 11, 12; 2 Chron. ii. 8, and ix. 10, 11). The wood of the tree was very precious, and was brought from Ophir (probably some part of India), along with gold and precious stones, by Hiram, and was used in the formation of pillars for the temple at Jerusalem, and for the king's house; also for the inlaying of stairs, as well as for harps and psalteries. It is probably the red sandal-wood of India (Pterocarpus santalinus). This tree belongs to the natural order Leguminosæ, sub-order Papilionaceæ. The wood is hard, heavy, close-grained, and of fine red colour. It is different from the white fragrant sandal-wood, which is the produce of Santalum album, a tree belonging to a distinct natural order. Also, see notes by George Menachery in the St. Thomas Christian Encyclopaedia of India, Vol. 2 (1973) The most likely location on the coast of Kerala conjectured to be Ophir is [Poovar](Poovar) in [Thiruvananthapuram](Thiruvananthapuram district) District (though some Indian scholars also suggest [Beypore](Beypore) as possible location). The [of Kings](Books)(Books of Kings) and [Chronicles](Books of Chronicles) tell of a joint expedition to Ophir by King Solomon and the [Tyrian](Tyre, Lebanon) king [I](Hiram)(Hiram I) from [Ezion-Geber](Ezion-Geber), a port on the [Sea](Red)(Red Sea), that brought back large amounts of gold, precious stones and '[wood](algum)(Algum)' and of a later failed expedition by king [Jehoshaphat](Jehoshaphat) of [Judah](Kingdom of Judah). The famous 'gold of Ophir' is referenced in several other books of the Hebrew Bible. #### Cheraman Perumals [[File:Chera King's Sword given to the Zamorin of Calicut.png\|thumbnail\|Portrait of the sword of [of Kozhikode](Zamorins)(Zamorin of Calicut), relating to the legend of Cheraman Perumal.]] The legend of Cheraman Perumals is the medieval tradition associated with the Cheraman Perumals* (literally the [kings](Chera)(Chera dynasty)) of Kerala.Narayanan, M. G. S. Perumāḷs of Kerala. Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013. 31–32. The validity of the legend as a source of history once generated much debate among South Indian historians.Kesavan Veluthat, ‘The Keralolpathi as History’, in The Early Medieval in South India, New Delhi, 2009, pp. 129–46. The legend was used by Kerala chiefdoms for the legitimation of their rule (most of the major chiefly houses in medieval Kerala traced its origin back to the legendary allocation by the Perumal).Noburu Karashima (ed.), A Concise History of South India: Issues and Interpretations. New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2014. 146–47.Frenz, Margret. 2003. ‘Virtual Relations, Little Kings in Malabar’, in Sharing Sovereignty. The Little Kingdom in South Asia, eds Georg Berkemer and Margret Frenz, pp. 81–91. Berlin: Zentrum Moderner Orient. According to the legend, Rayar, the overlord of the Cheraman Perumal in a country east of the [Ghats](Western Ghats), invaded Kerala during the rule of the last Perumal. To drive back the invading forces the Perumal summoned the militia of his chieftains (like Udaya Varman Kolathiri, Manichchan, and Vikkiran of [Eranad](Eranad)). The Cheraman Perumal was assured by the Eradis (chief of Eranad) that they would take a fort established by the Rayar.Logan, William. Malabar. Madras: Government Press, Madras, 1951 (reprint). 223–40. The battle lasted for three days and the Rayar eventually evacuated his fort (and it was seized by the Perumal's troops). Then the last Cheraman Perumal divided Kerala or Chera kingdom among his chieftains and disappeared mysteriously. The Kerala people never more heard any tidings of him. The Eradis of [Nediyiruppu](Nediyiruppu), who later came to be known as the [of Kozhikode](Zamorins)(Zamorin of Calicut), who were left out in cold during allocation of the land, was granted the Cheraman Perumal sword (with the permission to "die, and kill, and seize"). According to the [Juma Mosque](Cheraman)(Cheraman Juma Mosque) and some other narratives, "Once a Cheraman Perumal probably named Ravi Varma was walking with his queen in the palace, when he witnessed the [of the moon](splitting)(splitting of the moon). Shocked by this, he asked his astronomers to note down the exact time of the splitting. Then, when some [Arab](Arab) merchants visited his palace, he asked them about this incident. Their answers led the King to [Mecca](Mecca), where he met Islamic prophet [Muhammad](Muhammad) and converted to [Islam](Islam). It is assumed that the first recorded version of this legend is an [Arabic](Arabic) manuscript of anonymous authorship known as [Shakarwati Farmad](Qissat)(Qissat Shakarwati Farmad).Prange, Sebastian R. Monsoon Islam: Trade and Faith on the Medieval Malabar Coast. Cambridge University Press, 2018. p. 98. The 16th century [Arabic](Arabic) work [Ul Mujahideen](Tuhfat)(Tuhfat Ul Mujahideen) authored by [Makhdoom II](Zainuddin)(Zainuddin Makhdoom II) of [Ponnani](Ponnani), as well as the medieval [Malayalam](Malayalam) work [Keralolpathi](Keralolpathi), also mention about the departure of last Cheraman Perumal of Kerala into [Mecca](Mecca).History of Travancore by Shangunny Menon, page 63 However, [N. Sadasivan](S.)(S. N. Sadasivan) contends in A Social History of India that [Kalimanja](Dhovemi of the Maldives), the king of the [Maldives](Maldives), was the one who converted to [Islam](Islam). The story of Tajuddeen in the [Cochin](Kingdom of Cochin) Gazetteer may have originated because Mali, as it was known to sailors at the time, was mistaken for Malabar (Kerala). ### Pre-history A substantial portion of Kerala including the western coastal lowlands and the plains of the midland may have been under the sea in ancient times. Marine fossils have been found in an area near [Changanassery](Changanassery), thus supporting the hypothesis. Pre-historical archaeological findings include [dolmen](dolmen)s of the [Neolithic](Neolithic) era in the [Marayur](Marayur) area of the [district](Idukki)(Idukki district), which lie on the eastern highland made by [Ghats](Western)(Western Ghats). They are locally known as "muniyara", derived from muni ([hermit](hermit) or [sage](Index of religious honorifics and titles)) and ara (dolmen). Rock engravings in the [Caves](Edakkal)(Edakkal Caves), in [Wayanad](Wayanad) date back to the Neolithic era around 6000 BCE. Archaeological studies have identified [Mesolithic](Mesolithic), Neolithic and [Megalithic](Megalithic) sites in Kerala. The studies point to the development of ancient Kerala society and its culture beginning from the [Age](Paleolithic)(Paleolithic), through the Mesolithic, Neolithic and Megalithic Ages. Foreign cultural contacts have assisted this cultural formation; historians suggest a possible relationship with [Valley civilization](Indus)(Indus Valley civilization) during the late [Age](Bronze)(Bronze Age) and early [Age](Iron)(Iron Age). ### Ancient period [[File:Silk route.jpg\|thumb\|Ancient [Road](Silk)(Silk Road) map showing the then trade routes. The spice trade was mainly along the water routes (blue).\|right]] [[File:Periplous of the Erythraean Sea.svg\|thumbnail\|Names, routes and locations of the [of the Erythraean Sea](Periplus)(Periplus of the Erythraean Sea) (1st century CE)]] [[File:Ezhimala beach.JPG\|thumb\|[Ezhimala](Ezhimala (hill, Kannur)), the early historic headquarters of [dynasty](Mushika)(Mushika dynasty), which was succeeded by the kingdom of [Kannur](Kolathunadu) later.]] Kerala has been a major spice exporter since 3000 BCE, according to [records](Sumerian)(Sumer) and it is still referred to as the "Garden of Spices" or as the "Spice Garden of India". Kerala's spices attracted ancient [Arab](Arab)s, [Babylonians](Babylonians), [Assyria](Assyria)ns and [Egyptians](Egyptians) to the [Coast](Malabar)(Malabar Coast) in the 3rd and 2nd millennia BCE. [Phoenicians](Phoenicians) established trade with Kerala during this period. [Arab](Arab)s and [Phoenicians](Phoenicians) were the first to enter Malabar Coast to trade [Spice](Spice)s. The Arabs on the coasts of [Yemen](Yemen), [Oman](Oman), and the [Gulf](Persian)(Persian Gulf), must have made the first long voyage to Kerala and other [countries](eastern)(Eastern world). They must have brought the [Cinnamon](Cinnamon) of Kerala to the [East](Middle)(Middle East). The Greek historian [Herodotus](Herodotus) (5th century BCE) records that in his time the cinnamon spice industry was monopolized by the Egyptians and the Phoenicians. The Land of Keralaputra was one of the four independent kingdoms in southern India during Ashoka's time, the others being [Chola](Chola Empire), [Pandya](Pandya Empire), and [Satiyaputra](Satiyaputras). Scholars hold that Keralaputra is an alternate name of the [Cheras](Chera dynasty), the first dominant dynasty who ruled Kerala, and had its capital at [Karur](Karur). These territories once shared a common language and culture, within an area known as [Tamilakam](Tamilakam). The region around [Coimbatore](Coimbatore) was ruled by the [Cheras](Chera dynasty) during [period](Sangam)(Sangam period) between 1st and the 4th centuries CE and it served as the eastern entrance to the [Gap](Palakkad)(Palakkad Gap), the principal trade route between the [Coast](Malabar)(Malabar Coast) and [Nadu](Tamil)(Tamil Nadu). Along with the [kingdom](Ay)(Ay kingdom) in the south and the [kingdom](Ezhimala)(Ezhimala kingdom) in the north, the [Cheras](Chera dynasty) formed the ruling kingdoms of Kerala in the early years of the Common Era (CE). It is noted in Sangam literature that the Chera king [Cheralathan](Uthiyan)(Uthiyan Cheralathan) ruled most of modern Kerala from his capital in [Kuttanad](Kuttanad), and controlled the port of [Muziris](Muziris), but its southern tip was in the kingdom of [Pandyas](Pandyas), which had a trading port sometimes identified in ancient Western sources as [Nelcynda](Nelcynda) (or Neacyndi) in [Quilon](Quilon). [Tyndis](Tyndis) was a major center of trade, next only to [Muziris](Muziris), between the Cheras and the [Empire](Roman)(Roman Empire).Coastal Histories: Society and Ecology in Pre-modern India, Yogesh Sharma, Primus Books 2010 The lesser known [Ays](Ay kingdom) and [Mushikas](Ezhimala kingdom) kingdoms lay to the south and north of the Chera regions, respectively. [the Elder](Pliny)(Pliny the Elder) (1st century CE) states that the port of [Tyndis](Tyndis) was located at the northwestern border of Keprobotos ([dynasty](Chera)(Chera dynasty)).Gurukkal, R., & Whittaker, D. (2001). In search of Muziris. Journal of Roman Archaeology, 14, 334–350. The [Malabar](North)(North Malabar) region, which lies north of the port at [Tyndis](Tyndis), was ruled by the kingdom of [Ezhimala](Ezhimala) during [period](Sangam)(Sangam period). The port at [Tyndis](Tyndis) which was on the northern side of [Muziris](Muziris), as mentioned in Greco-Roman writings, was somewhere around [Kozhikode](Kozhikode). Its exact location is a matter of dispute. The suggested locations are [Ponnani](Ponnani), [Tanur](Tanur, Malappuram), [Beypore](Beypore)-[Chaliyam](Chaliyam)-[Kadalundi](Kadalundi)-[Vallikkunnu](Vallikkunnu), and [Koyilandy](Koyilandy). According to the [of the Erythraean Sea](Periplus)(Periplus of the Erythraean Sea), a region known as [Limyrike](Limyrike) began at [Naura](Kannur) and [Tyndis](Tyndis). However the [Ptolemy](Ptolemy) mentions only [Tyndis](Tyndis) as the [Limyrike](Limyrike)'s starting point. The region probably ended at [Kanyakumari](Kanyakumari); it thus roughly corresponds to the present-day [Coast](Malabar)(Malabar Coast). The value of Rome's annual trade with the region was estimated at 50,000,000 [sesterces](sesterces). According to [the Elder](Pliny)(Pliny the Elder), goods from India were sold in the Empire at 100 times their original purchase price. [the Elder](Pliny)(Pliny the Elder) mentioned that [Limyrike](Limyrike) was prone to raids by pirates.Bostock, John (1855). "26 (Voyages to India)". Pliny the Elder, The Natural History. London: Taylor and Francis. The [Indicopleustes](Cosmas)(Cosmas Indicopleustes) mentioned that the [Limyrike](Limyrike) was a source of [pepper](Malabar)(Malabar pepper)s.Indicopleustes, Cosmas (1897). Christian Topography. 11. United Kingdom: The Tertullian Project. pp. 358–373.Das, Santosh Kumar (2006). The Economic History of Ancient India. Genesis Publishing Pvt Ltd. p. 301. In the last centuries BCE the coast became important to the Greeks and Romans for its spices, especially [pepper](Malabar)(Malabar pepper). The Cheras had trading links with [China](Ancient China), [Asia](West)(Western Asia), [Egypt](Egypt), [Greece](Greece), and the [Empire](Roman)(Roman Empire).[Cyclopaedia of India and of Eastern and Southern Asia.](https://books.google.com/books?id=eONSAAAAcAAJ&q=Muziris) Ed. by Edward Balfour (1871), Second Edition. Volume 2. p. 584. In foreign-trade circles the region was known as Male or Malabar. [Muziris](Muziris), [Tyndis](Tyndis), [Naura](Kannur), Nelcynda, and [Barace](Purakkad), were among the principal ports at that time. Contemporary [literature](Sangam)(Sangam literature) describes Roman ships coming to Muziris in Kerala, laden with gold to exchange for [pepper](Malabar)(Malabar pepper). One of the earliest western traders to use the monsoon winds to reach Kerala was [of Cyzicus](Eudoxus)(Eudoxus of Cyzicus), around 118 or 166 BCE, under the patronage of [VIII](Ptolemy)(Ptolemy VIII Physcon), king of the [Hellenistic](Hellenistic civilisation) [dynasty](Ptolemaic)(Ptolemaic dynasty) in Egypt. Roman establishments in the port cities of the region, such as a temple of [Augustus](Augustus) and barracks for garrisoned Roman soldiers, are marked in the [Peutingeriana](Tabula)(Tabula Peutingeriana), the only surviving map of the Roman [publicus](cursus)(cursus publicus). Merchants from West Asia and Southern Europe established coastal posts and settlements in Kerala. The Israeli (Jewish) connection with Kerala started in 573 BCE.[The Israelis (Jews) of India: A Story of Three Communities](https://books.google.com/books?id=qhKGPprbQaYC&q=two+millennia) by Orpa Slapak. The Israel Museum, Jerusalem. 2003. p. 27. . Arabs also had trade links with Kerala, starting before the 4th century BCE, as [Herodotus](Herodotus) (484–413 BCE) noted that goods brought by Arabs from Kerala were sold to the Israelis [Jews](Hebrew) at Eden. In the 4th century, the [Knanaya](Knanaya) or Southist Christians also migrated from [Persia](Persia) and lived alongside the early [Christian](Syriac)(Saint Thomas Christians) community known as the [Thomas Christians](St.)(St. Thomas Christians) who trace their origins to the evangelistic activity of [the Apostle](Thomas)(Thomas the Apostle) in the 1st century.[The Encyclopedia of Christianity, Volume 5](https://books.google.com/books?id=lZUBZlth2qgC&q=Muziris) by Erwin Fahlbusch. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing – 2008. p. 285. . Mappila was an honorific title that had been assigned to respected visitors from abroad; Israelite (Jewish), Syrian Christian, and [Muslim](Muslim) immigration account for later names of the respective communities: [Mappila](Juda)(Juda Mappila)s, [Mappilas](Muslim)(Mappila), and [Mappilas](Nasrani)(Saint Thomas Christians).Bindu Malieckal (2005) Muslims, Matriliny, and A Midsummer Night's Dream: European Encounters with the Mappilas of Malabar, India; The Muslim World Volume 95 Issue 2 The earliest [Thomas Christian Churches](Saint)(Saint Thomas Christian Churches), [Jumu'ah Masjid](Cheraman)(Cheraman Juma Masjid) (traditionally dated to "629 CE" by the Mappilas)—regarded as "the first mosque of India"—and [Synagogue](Paradesi)(Paradesi Synagogue) (1568 CE)—the oldest active synagogue in the [of Nations](Commonwealth)(Commonwealth of Nations)—were built in Kerala. ### Early medieval period [[File:3rd Tiruvalla Copper Plate.jpg\|thumb\|right\|200px\|[Syrian copper plates](Quilon)(Quilon Syrian copper plates) granted to [Thomas Christians](Saint)(Saint Thomas Christians) by [Venad](Venad) ([Kollam](Kollam)) ruler [Ravi Varma](Sthanu)(Sthanu Ravi Varma), testified about merchant guilds and trade corporations in Early Medieval Kerala. The sixth plate also contains a number of signatures of the witnesses to the grant in [Arabic](Arabic) (Kufic script), [Persian](Middle)(Middle Persian) (cursive Pahlavi script) and [Judeo-Persian](Judeo-Persian) (standard square [Hebrew](Hebrew) script).]] A [Chera Kingdom](second)(Later Chera Dynasty) (c. 800–1102), also known as [dynasty of Mahodayapuram](Kulasekhara)(Kulasekhara dynasty (Venad)) (present-day [Kodungallur](Kodungallur)), was established by [Varman](Kulasekhara)(Kulashekhara Alwar), which ruled over a territory comprising the whole of modern Kerala and a smaller part of modern Tamil Nadu. During the early part of the Kulasekara period, the southern region from [Nagercoil](Nagercoil) to [Thiruvalla](Thiruvalla) was ruled by [kings](Ay)(Ays (Kerala)), who lost their power in the 10th century, making the region a part of the Kulasekara empire. Under Kulasekhara rule, Kerala witnessed a developing period of art, literature, trade and the [movement](Bhakti)(Bhakti movement) of Hinduism. A [Keralite](Malayali) identity, distinct from the [Tamils](Tamil people), became linguistically separate during this period around the seventh century. The origin of [calendar](Malayalam)(Malayalam calendar) dates back to year 825 CE. For local administration, the empire was divided into provinces under the rule of [Naduvazhi](Naduvazhi)s, with each province comprising a number of Desams* under the control of chieftains, called as Desavazhis. [festival](Mamankam)(Mamankam festival), which was the largest native festival, was held at [Tirunavaya](Tirunavaya) near [Kuttippuram](Kuttippuram), on the bank of river [Bharathappuzha](Bharathappuzha). [Athavanad](Athavanad), the headquarters of [Thamprakkal](Azhvanchery)(Azhvanchery Thamprakkal), who were also considered as the supreme religious chief of the [Nambudiri](Nambudiri) [Brahmin](Brahmin)s of Kerala, is also located near Tirunavaya. [al-Tajir](Sulaiman)(Sulaiman al-Tajir), a [Persian](Persians) merchant who visited Kerala during the reign of [Ravi Varma](Sthanu)(Sthanu Ravi Varma) (9th century CE), records that there was extensive trade between Kerala and [China](China) at that time, based at the port of [Kollam](Kollam). A number of foreign accounts have mentioned about the presence of considerable [Muslim](Muslim) population in the coastal towns. Arab writers such as [Al-Masudi](Al-Masudi) of [Baghdad](Baghdad) (896–956 CE), [al-Idrisi](Muhammad)(Muhammad al-Idrisi) (1100–1165 CE), [Abulfeda](Abulfeda) (1273–1331 CE), and [Al-Dimashqi](Al-Dimashqi (geographer)) (1256–1327 CE) mention the Muslim communities in Kerala. Some historians assume that the [Mappila](Mappila)s can be considered as the first native, settled Muslim community in [Asia](South)(South Asia). The known earliest mention about [Muslim](Muslim)s of Kerala is in the [Syrian copper plates](Quilon)(Quilon Syrian copper plates). [[File:Calicut 1572 (cropped).jpg\|thumb\|300px\|left\|A panorama of port [Kozhikode](Kozhikode), shows several types of ships, shipbuilding, net fishing, dinghy traffic and a rugged, sparsely populated interior ([Braun](Georg)(Georg Braun) and [Hogenberg](Frans)(Frans Hogenberg)'s atlas Civitates orbis terrarum, 1572)]] The inhibitions, caused by a series of Chera-Chola wars in the 11th century, resulted in the decline of foreign trade in Kerala ports. In addition, Portuguese invasions in the 15th century caused two major religions, [Buddhism](Buddhism) and [Jainism](Jainism), to disappear from the land. It is known that the Menons in the Malabar region of Kerala were originally strong believers of [Jainism](Jainism). The social system became fractured with divisions on [caste](Caste system in kerala) lines. Finally, the Kulasekhara dynasty was subjugated in 1102 by the combined attack of [Pandyas](Later)(Pandyan dynasty) and [Cholas](Later)(Later Cholas). However, in the 14th century, Ravi Varma Kulashekhara (1299–1314) of the southern [kingdom](Venad)(Venad) was able to establish a short-lived supremacy over southern India. ### The rise of Kozhikode After his death, in the absence of a strong central power, the state was divided into thirty small warring principalities; the most powerful of them were the kingdom of [of Kozhikode](Zamorin)(Zamorin of Calicut) in the north, [Kollam](Venad) in the far-south, [Kochi](Kingdom of Cochin) in the south, and [Kannur](Kolathunadu) in the far north. The port at [Kozhikode](Kozhikode) held the superior economic and political position in Kerala, while [Kollam](Kollam) (Quilon), [Kochi](Kochi), and [Kannur](Kannur) (Cannanore) were commercially confined to secondary roles.The Portuguese, Indian Ocean and European Bridgeheads 1500–1800. Festschrift in Honour of Prof. K. S. Mathew (2001). Edited by: Pius Malekandathil and T. Jamal Mohammed. Fundacoa Oriente. Institute for Research in Social Sciences and Humanities of MESHAR (Kerala) The Zamorin of Calicut was originally the ruler of [Eranad](Eranad), which was a minor principality located in the northern parts of present-day [district](Malappuram)(Malappuram district). The Zamorin allied with Arab and Chinese merchants and used most of the wealth from Kozhikode to develop his military power. Kozhikode became the most powerful kingdom in the [Malayalam](Malayalam) speaking region during the [Age](Middle)(Middle Age)s.Varier, M. R. Raghava. "Documents of Investiture Ceremonies" in K. K. N. Kurup, Edit., "India's Naval Traditions". Northern Book Centre, New Delhi, 1997K. V. Krishna Iyer, Zamorins of Calicut: From the earliest times to AD 1806. Calicut: Norman Printing Bureau, 1938. In the 14th century, Kozhikode conquered larger parts of central Kerala after the seize of [Tirunavaya](Tirunavaya) from [Valluvanad](Kingdom of Valluvanad), which were under the control of the king of [Swaroopam](Perumbadappu)(Kingdom of Cochin) (Cochin). The ruler of [Perumpadappu](Perumpadappu, Malappuram) was forced to shift his capital (c. CE 1405) further south from [Kodungallur](Kodungallur) to [Kochi](Kochi). In the 15th century, the status of Cochin was reduced to a vassal state of Kozhikode. The ruler of [Kolathunadu](Kolathunadu) ([Kannur](Kannur)) had also came under the influence of Zamorin by the end of the 15th century. [[File:Uru.jpg\|thumbnail\|[Uru](Uru (boat)), a type of ship that was historically used for maritime trade, built at [Beypore](Beypore), [Kozhikode](Kozhikode)]] At the peak of their reign, the Zamorins of Kozhikode ruled over a region from Kollam ([Quilon](Quilon)) in the south to Panthalayini Kollam ([Koyilandy](Koyilandy)) in the north. [Battuta](Ibn)(Ibn Battuta) (1342–1347), who visited the city of [Kozhikode](Kozhikode) six times, gives the earliest glimpses of life in the city. He describes Kozhikode as "one of the great ports of the district of Malabar" where "merchants of all parts of the world are found". The king of this place, he says, "shaves his chin just as the Haidari Fakeers of Rome do... The greater part of the Muslim merchants of this place are so wealthy that one of them can purchase the whole freightage of such vessels put here and fit-out others like them". [Huan](Ma)(Ma Huan) (1403 AD), the Chinese sailor part of the Imperial Chinese fleet under Cheng Ho ([He](Zheng)(Zheng He))[Huan](Ma)(Ma Huan): Ying Yai Sheng Lan, ''The Overall Survey of the Ocean's Shores, translated by J.V.G. Mills, 1970 [Society](Hakluyt)(Hakluyt Society), reprint 1997 White Lotus Press. states the city as a great emporium of trade frequented by merchants from around the world. He makes note of the 20 or 30 mosques built to cater to the religious needs of the Muslims, the unique system of calculation by the merchants using their fingers and toes (followed to this day), and the matrilineal system of succession ([Marumakkathayam](Marumakkathayam)''). [Razzak](Abdur)(Abdur Razzaq (traveller)) (1442–43), [de' Conti](Niccolò)(Niccolò de' Conti) (1445), [Nikitin](Afanasy)(Afanasy Nikitin) (1468–74), [di Varthema](Ludovico)(Ludovico di Varthema) (1503–1508), and [Barbosa](Duarte)(Duarte Barbosa) witnessed the city as one of the major trading centres in the [subcontinent](Indian)(Indian subcontinent) where traders from different parts of the world could be seen.Varthema, Ludovico di, The Travels of Ludovico di Varthema, A.D.1503–08, translated from the original 1510 Italian ed. by John Winter Jones, Hakluyt Society, LondonGangadharan. M., The Land of Malabar: The Book of Barbosa (2000), Vol II, M.G University, Kottayam. ### Vijayanagara Conquests The king [Raya II](Deva)(Deva Raya II) (1424–1446) of the [Empire](Vijayanagara)(Vijayanagara Empire) conquered the entirety of present-day state of Kerala in the 15th century. He defeated the [Zamorin](Zamorin) of Kozhikode, as well as the ruler of [Kollam](Kollam) around 1443. [Nunes](Fernão)(Fernão Nunes) says that the Zamorin had to pay tribute to the king of Vijayanagara Empire. Later Kozhikode and Venad seem to have rebelled against their Vijayanagara overlords, but Deva Raya II quelled the rebellion. As the Vijayanagara power diminished over the next fifty years, the Zamorin of Kozhikode again rose to prominence in Kerala. He built a fort at [Ponnani](Ponnani) in 1498. ### Early modern period [[File:1652 Sanson Map of India - Geographicus - India-sanson-1652.jpg\|left\|thumbnail\|A 1652 Map of India ([Coast](Malabar)(Malabar Coast) is highlighted separately on the right side)]] [[File:Caminho maritimo para a India.png\|thumb\|The path [da Gama](Vasco)(Vasco da Gama) took to reach [Kozhikode](Kozhikode) (black line) in 1498, which was also the [of a sea route](discovery)(Age of Discovery) from [Europe](Europe) to India, and eventually paved way for the [colonisation](European)(Colonial India) of [subcontinent](Indian)(Indian subcontinent).]] [[File:Bolgatty Palace.jpg\|thumbnail\|[Palace](Bolgatty)(Bolgatty Palace), built in 1744 by [Malabar](Dutch)(Dutch Malabar), also acted as the [Residency](British)(Resident minister) in [Kochi](Kochi)]] The maritime [trade](spice)(spice trade) monopoly in the [Sea](Arabian)(Arabian Sea) stayed with the Arabs during the [High](High Middle Ages) and [Middle Ages](Late)(Late Middle Ages). However, the dominance of Middle East traders was challenged in the European [of Discovery](Age)(Age of Discovery). After [Da Gama](Vasco)(Vasco Da Gama)'s arrival in [Kappad](Kappad) [Kozhikode](Kozhikode) in 1498, the [Portuguese](Portuguese India) began to dominate eastern shipping, and the spice-trade in particular. Following the discovery of sea route from [Europe](Europe) to [Malabar](Malabar Coast) in 1498, the Portuguese began to expand their territories and ruled the seas between [Ormus](Ormus) and the Malabar Coast and south to [Ceylon](Sri Lanka).Sanjay Subrahmanyam, The Career and Legend of Vasco da Gama, Cambridge University Press, 1997, 288 They established a trading center at [Tangasseri](Tangasseri) in [Quilon](Quilon) during 1502 as per the invitation of the then Queen of Quilon to start spices trade from there. The [Zamorin](Zamorin) of Kozhikode permitted the new visitors to trade with his subjects such that Portuguese trade in Kozhikode prospered with the establishment of a [factory](Factory (trading post)) and a fort. However, Portuguese attacks on Arab properties in his jurisdiction provoked the Zamorin and led to conflicts between them. [[File:Mattancherry palace at night.jpg\|left\|thumbnail\|The [Palace](Mattancherry)(Mattancherry Palace) at [Kochi](Kochi) was built and gifted by the Portuguese as a present to the [of Cochin](Kingdom)(Kingdom of Cochin) around 1545]] [[File:Bekal Fort Kasargod.jpg\|thumbnail\|[Fort](Bekal)(Bekal Fort) at [Kasaragod](Kasaragod district) built in 1650 CE, the largest fort in Kerala]] The ruler of the [of Tanur](Kingdom)(Kingdom of Tanur), who was a vassal to the [of Calicut](Zamorin)(Zamorin of Calicut), sided with the Portuguese, against his overlord at [Kozhikode](Kozhikode). As a result, the [of Tanur](Kingdom)(Kingdom of Tanur) ([Vettathunadu](Tirur Taluk)) became one of the earliest Portuguese Colonies in India. The ruler of [Tanur](Tanur, Malappuram) also sided with [Cochin](Kingdom of Cochin). Many of the members of the royal family of Cochin in 16th and 17th centuries were selected from [Vettom](Vettom Grama Panchayath). However, the [Tanur](Tanur, Malappuram) forces under the king fought for the Zamorin of Calicut in the [of Cochin (1504)](Battle)(Battle of Cochin (1504)). However, the allegiance of the [Mappila](Mappila) merchants in [Tanur](Tanur, Malappuram) region still stayed under the [of Calicut](Zamorin)(Zamorin of Calicut). [[File:British Residency in Asramam, Kollam.jpg\|right\|thumb\|[Residency](British)(British Residency) in [Asramam](Asramam), [Kollam](Kollam)]] The Portuguese took advantage of the rivalry between the Zamorin and the King of Kochi allied with Kochi. When [de Almeida](Francisco)(Francisco de Almeida) was appointed as Viceroy of Portuguese India in 1505, his headquarters was established at [Kochi](Fort)(Fort Kochi) ([Emmanuel](Fort)(Fort Emmanuel)) rather than in Kozhikode. During his reign, the Portuguese managed to dominate relations with Kochi and established a few fortresses on the Malabar Coast. Fort St Angelo or [Angelo Fort](St.)(St. Angelo Fort) was built at [Kannur](Kannur) in 1505 and [St Thomas](Fort)(St Thomas Fort) was built at [(Quilon)](Kollam)(Kollam) in 1518 by the Portuguese. However, the Portuguese suffered setbacks from attacks by Zamorin forces in [Malabar](South)(South Malabar); especially from naval attacks under the leadership of Kozhikode admirals known as [Marakkar](Kunjali)(Kunjali Marakkar)s, which compelled them to seek a treaty. The Kunjali Marakkars are credited with organizing the first naval defense of the Indian coast. [Ul Mujahideen](Tuhfat)(Tuhfat Ul Mujahideen) written by [Makhdoom II](Zainuddin)(Zainuddin Makhdoom II) (born around 1532) of [Ponnani](Ponnani) in 16th-century CE is the first-ever known book fully based on the history of Kerala, written by a Keralite.A. Sreedhara Menon. Kerala History and its Makers. D C Books (2011)A G Noorani. Islam in Kerala. Books [https://www.frontline.in/static/html/fl2704/stories/20100226270407900.htm]Roland E. Miller. Mappila Muslim Culture SUNY Press, 2015 It is written in [Arabic](Arabic) and contains pieces of information about the resistance put up by the navy of [Marakkar](Kunjali)(Kunjali Marakkar) alongside the Zamorin of Calicut from 1498 to 1583 against Portuguese attempts to colonize [coast](Malabar)(Malabar coast). [Ezhuthachan](Thunchaththu)(Thunchaththu Ezhuthachan), who is considered as the father of modern [literature](Malayalam)(Malayalam literature), was born at [Tirur](Tirur) ([Vettathunadu](Kingdom of Tanur)) during Portuguese period. In 1571, the Portuguese were defeated by the Zamorin forces in the [at Chaliyam Fort](battle)(Kingdom of Tanur#Battles at Chaliyam Fort). An insurrection at the [of Quilon](Port)(Port of Quilon) between the [Arabs](Arabs) and the [Portuguese](Portuguese people) led to the end of the Portuguese era in [Quilon](Quilon). The Muslim line of Ali Rajas of [kingdom](Arakkal)(Arakkal kingdom), near [Kannur](Kannur), who were the vassals of the [Kolathiri](Kolathiri), ruled over the [Lakshadweep](Lakshadweep) islands. The [Fort](Bekal)(Bekal Fort) near [Kasaragod](Kasaragod district), which is also largest fort in the state, was built in 1650 by [Nayaka](Shivappa)(Shivappa Nayaka) of [Keladi](Nayakas of Keladi). In 1602, the [Zamorin](Zamorin) sent messages to [Aceh](Aceh) promising the Dutch a fort at [Kozhikode](Kozhikode) if they would come and trade there. Two factors, Hans de Wolff and Lafer, were sent on an Asian ship from Aceh, but the two were captured by the chief of [Tanur](Tanur, Malappuram), and handed over to the Portuguese.Sanjay Subrahmanyam. "The Political Economy of Commerce: Southern India 1500–1650". Cambridge University Press, 2002 A Dutch fleet under Admiral [van der Hagen](Steven)(Steven van der Hagen) arrived at Kozhikode in November 1604. It marked the beginning of the Dutch presence in Kerala and they concluded a treaty with [Kozhikode](Kozhikode) on 11 November 1604, which was also the first treaty that the [East India Company](Dutch)(Dutch East India Company) made with an Indian ruler. By this time the kingdom and the port of [Kozhikode](Kozhikode) was much reduced in importance. The treaty provided for a mutual alliance between the two to expel the Portuguese from Malabar. In return the [East India Company](Dutch)(Dutch East India Company) was given facilities for trade at Kozhikode and [Ponnani](Ponnani), including spacious storehouses. The Portuguese were ousted by the [East India Company](Dutch)(Dutch East India Company), who during the conflicts between the [Kozhikode](Saamoothiri) and the [Kochi](Kingdom of Cochin), gained control of the trade. They lost to Dutch at [Quilon](Quilon) after 1661 and later, the [Portuguese](Portuguese people) left south-western coast. The arrival of [British](East India Company) on [Coast](Malabar)(Malabar Coast) can be traced back to the year 1615, when a group under the leadership of Captain [Keeling](William)(William Keeling) arrived at [Kozhikode](Kozhikode), using three ships. It was in these ships that Sir [Roe](Thomas)(Thomas Roe) went to visit [Jahangir](Jahangir), the fourth [emperor](Mughal)(Mughal emperors), as [envoy](British)(British Empire). In 1664, the municipality of [Kochi](Fort)(Fort Kochi) was established by [Malabar](Dutch)(Dutch Malabar), making it the first municipality in the [subcontinent](Indian)(Indian subcontinent), which got dissolved when the Dutch authority got weaker in the 18th century. ### The Kingdoms of Travancore and Cochin, and British influences The [Dutch](Netherlands) in turn were weakened by constant battles with [Varma](Marthanda)(Marthanda Varma) of the [Royal Family](Travancore)(Travancore Royal Family), and were defeated at the [of Colachel](Battle)(Battle of Colachel) in 1741. An agreement, known as "Treaty of Mavelikkara", was signed by the Dutch and Travancore in 1753, according to which the Dutch were compelled to detach from all political involvement in the region. In the 18th Century, Travancore King Sree [Thirunal Marthanda Varma](Anizham)(Anizham Thirunal Marthanda Varma) annexed all the kingdoms up to [Cochin](Kingdom of Cochin) through military conquests, resulting in the rise of Travancore to pre-eminence in Kerala. The Kochi ruler sued for peace with Anizham Thirunal and the northern and north-central parts of Kerala ([District](Malabar)(Malabar District)), along with [Kochi](Fort)(Fort Kochi), [Tangasseri](Tangasseri), and [Anchuthengu](Anchuthengu) in southern Kerala, came under direct [rule](British)(British raj) until [became independent](India)(Independence of India). Travancore became the dominant state in Kerala by defeating the powerful [Zamorin](Zamorin) of [Kozhikode](History of Kozhikode) in the battle of [Purakkad](Purakkad) in 1755. [[File:From a map by Emanuel Bowen, 1744.jpg\|thumb\|A 1744 map of [Coast](Malabar)(Malabar Coast) (Malabar coast is on the left side)]] [[File:Kanakakkunnu Palace DSW.jpg\|alt=\|thumb\|220x220px\|[Palace](Kanakakkunnu)(Kanakakkunnu Palace) at [Thiruvananthapuram](Thiruvananthapuram). Thiruvananthapuram became a major city on [Coast](Malabar)(Malabar Coast) after the ruler [Varma](Marthanda)(Marthanda Varma) annexed all minor kingdoms up to [Cochin](Kingdom of Cochin) to form [Travancore](Travancore) in the 18th century CE.]] The island of [Dharmadom](Dharmadom) near [Kannur](Kannur), along with [Thalassery](Thalassery), was ceded to the [India Company](East)(East India Company) in 1734, which were claimed by all of the [Rajas](Kolattu)(Kolathiri), [Rajas](Kottayam)(Kingdom of Kottayam), and [Bibi](Arakkal)(Arakkal kingdom) in the late medieval period, where the British initiated a factory and English settlement following the [cession](cession). In 1761, the British captured [Mahé](Mahé, India), and the settlement was handed over to the ruler of [Kadathanadu](Kadathanadu). The British restored [Mahé](Mahé, India) to the French as a part of the 1763 Treaty of Paris. In 1779, the Anglo-French war broke out, resulting in the French loss of [Mahé](Mahé, India). In 1783, the British agreed to restore to the French their settlements in India, and [Mahé](Mahé, India) was handed over to the French in 1785. [[File:British Indian Empire 1909 Imperial Gazetteer of India.jpg\|left\|thumbnail\|Kerala in [India (1909)](British)(British Raj). [Thiruvananthapuram](Thiruvananthapuram), [Kozhikode](Kozhikode), [Kochi](Kochi), and [Kannur](Kannur), were the major cities of the state at that time as indicated in the map]] In 1757, to resist the invasion of the [of Kozhikode](Zamorin)(Zamorin of Calicut), the [Palakkad](Palakkad) Raja sought the help of the [Ali](Hyder)(Hyder Ali) of [Mysore](Kingdom of Mysore). In 1766, Hyder Ali defeated the Zamorin of Kozhikode – an [India Company](East)(East India Company) ally at the time – and absorbed Kozhikode into his state. The smaller princely states in northern and north-central parts of Kerala ([region](Malabar)(Malabar District)) including [Kolathunadu](Kolathunadu), [Kottayam](Kingdom of Kottayam), [Kadathanadu](Kadathanadu), [Kozhikode](Zamorin of Calicut), [Tanur](Kingdom of Tanur), [Valluvanad](Kingdom of Valluvanad), and [Palakkad](Palakkad) were unified under the rulers of Mysore and were made a part of the larger [of Mysore](Kingdom)(Kingdom of Mysore). His son and successor, [Sultan](Tipu)(Tipu Sultan), [campaigns](launched)(Mysorean invasion of Kerala#Invasions by Tipu Sultan) against the expanding [East India Company](British)(British East India Company), resulting in two of the four [Wars](Anglo-Mysore)(Anglo-Mysore Wars). Tipu ultimately ceded the [District](Malabar)(Malabar District) and [Kanara](South)(South Kanara) to the company in the 1790s as a result of the [Anglo-Mysore War](Third)(Third Anglo-Mysore War) and the subsequent [of Seringapatam](Treaty)(Treaty of Seringapatam); both were annexed to the [Presidency](Bombay)(Bombay Presidency) (which had also included other regions in the western coast of India) of [India](British)(British India) in the years 1792 and 1799, respectively. Later in 1800, both of the [District](Malabar)(Malabar District) and [Canara](South)(South Canara) were separated from Bombay presidency to merge them with the neighbouring [Presidency](Madras)(Madras Presidency). The company forged tributary alliances with Kochi in 1791 and Travancore in 1795. By the end of the 18th century, the whole of Kerala fell under the control of the British, either administered directly or under [suzerainty](suzerainty). Initially the British had to suffer local resistance against their rule under the leadership of [Varma Pazhassi Raja](Kerala)(Pazhassi Raja), who had popular support in [Thalassery](Thalassery)-[Wayanad](Wayanad) region. The municipalities of [Kozhikode](Kozhikode), [Palakkad](Palakkad), [Kochi](Fort)(Fort Kochi), [Kannur](Kannur), and [Thalassery](Thalassery), were founded on 1 November 1866 of the [Indian Empire](British)(British Indian Empire), making them the first modern municipalities in the state of Kerala. The [Special Police](Malabar)(Malabar Special Police) was formed by the colonial government in 1884 headquartered at [Malappuram](Malappuram). British in Malabar also converted Thiyyar army, called as Thiyya pattalam into a special regiment centered at Thalassery called as The [Regiment](Thiyyar)(Thiyyar Regiment) in 1904.L.K.A.Iyer, [The Mysore Tribes and caste](https://books.google.com/books?id=XGSuAwWHa0kC). Vol.III, A Mittal Publish. Page.279, Google BooksNagendra k.r.singh ''[Global Encyclopedia of the South India Dalit's Ethnography](https://books.google.com/books?id=Xcpa_T-7oVQC)* (2006) page.230, Google BooksL.Krishna Anandha Krishna Iyer(Divan Bahadur) [The Cochin Tribes and Caste](https://books.google.com/books?id=hOyqKkYi6McC)'' Vol.1. Johnson Reprint Corporation, 1962. Page. 278, Google Books There were major revolts in Kerala during the independence movement in the 20th century; most notable among them is the 1921 [Rebellion](Malabar)(Malabar Rebellion) and the social struggles in [Travancore](Travancore). In the Malabar Rebellion, Mappila Muslims of Malabar rebelled against the [Raj](British)(British Raj). The [of Pookkottur](Battle)(Battle of Pookkottur) adorns an important role in the rebellion.Tottenham GRF (ed), The Mappila Rebellion 1921–22, Govt Press Madras 1922 P 71 Some social struggles against caste inequalities also erupted in the early decades of the 20th century, leading to the 1936 [Entry Proclamation](Temple)(Temple Entry Proclamation) by Travancore Maharaja [Thirunal Balarama Varma](Chithira)(Chithira Thirunal Balarama Varma) that opened Hindu temples in Travancore to all castes. ### As a state of the Republic of India After India was [partitioned](Partition of India) in 1947 into [India](India) and [Pakistan](Pakistan), [Travancore](Travancore) and [Kochi](Kochi), part of the [of India](Union)(Dominion of India) were merged on 1 July 1949 to form [Travancore-Cochin](Travancore-Cochin). On 1 November 1956, the [taluk](taluk) of [Kasargod](Kasaragod District) in the [Kanara district](South)(South Kanara District (Madras Presidency)) of Madras, the [district of Madras](Malabar)(Malabar district) (excluding the islands of [Lakshadweep](Lakshadweep)), and Travancore-Cochin, without four southern taluks and [Sengottai](Sengottai) taluk (which joined Tamil Nadu), merged to form the state of Kerala under the [Reorganisation Act](States)(States Reorganisation Act). A [Communist](Communist)-led government under [M. S. Namboodiripad](E.)(E. M. S. Namboodiripad) resulted from the first elections for the new Kerala Legislative Assembly in [1957](1957 Kerala Legislative Assembly election). It was one of the earliest elected Communist governments anywhere. His government implemented [land](Land reform in Kerala) and [reforms](educational)(Kerala Education Act 1958 (Act 6 of 1959)) which in turn, reduced [inequality](income)(income inequality) in the state. ## Geography The state is wedged between the [Sea](Lakshadweep)(Lakshadweep Sea) and the [Ghats](Western)(Western Ghats). Lying between northern latitudes 8°18' and 12°48' and eastern longitudes 74°52' and 77°22', Kerala experiences humid [rainforest climate](tropical)(tropical rainforest climate) with some cyclones. The state has a coast of and the width of the state varies between . Geographically, Kerala can be divided into three climatically distinct regions: the eastern highlands; rugged and cool mountainous terrain, the central mid-lands; rolling hills, and the western lowlands; coastal plains. [Pre-Cambrian](Pre-Cambrian) and [Pleistocene](Pleistocene) geological formations compose the bulk of Kerala's terrain. A catastrophic flood in Kerala in 1341 CE drastically modified its terrain and consequently affected its history; it also created a natural harbour for spice transport. The eastern region of Kerala consists of high mountains, gorges and deep-cut valleys immediately west of the Western Ghats' [shadow](rain)(rain shadow). 41 of Kerala's west-flowing rivers, and 3 of its east-flowing ones originate in this region. The Western Ghats form a wall of mountains interrupted only near [Palakkad](Palakkad); hence also known Palghat, where the [Gap](Palakkad)(Palakkad Gap) breaks. The Western Ghats rise on average to [sea level](above)(above sea level), while the highest peaks reach around . [Anamudi](Anamudi) in the [Idukki](Idukki) district is the highest peak in south India, is at an elevation of . The Western Ghats mountain chain is recognised as one of the world's eight "hottest hotspots" of biological diversity and is listed among [UNESCO](UNESCO) [Heritage Site](World)(World Heritage Site)s. The chain's forests are considered to be older than the Himalaya mountains. The [Falls](Athirappilly)(Athirappilly Falls), which is situated on the background of Western Ghat mountain ranges, is also known as The [Niagara](Niagara Falls) of India. It is located in the [River](Chalakudy)(Chalakudy River) and is the largest waterfall in the state. [Wayanad](Wayanad) is the sole [Plateau](Plateau) in Kerala. The eastern regions in the districts of [Wayanad](Wayanad district), [Malappuram](Malappuram district) ([Chaliyar](Chaliyar) valley at [Nilambur](Nilambur)), and [Palakkad](Palakkad district) ([Attappadi](Attappadi) Valley), which together form parts of the [Biosphere Reserve](Nilgiri)(Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve) and a continuation of the [Plateau](Mysore)(Mysore Plateau), are known for natural [Gold](Gold) fields, along with the adjoining districts of [Karnataka](Karnataka). [[of Kerala.png\|left\|thumb\|Topography of Kerala](File:Topography)] Kerala's western coastal belt is relatively flat compared to the eastern region, and is criss-crossed by a network of interconnected [brackish](brackish) canals, lakes, [estuaries](estuaries), and rivers known as the [Backwaters](Kerala)(Kerala Backwaters). [Kuttanad](Kuttanad), also known as The Rice Bowl of Kerala, has the [altitude in India](lowest)(List of extreme points of India#Altitudes), and is also one of the few places in world where cultivation takes place below sea level. The country's longest lake [Vembanad](Vembanad Lake), dominates the backwaters; it lies between [Alappuzha](Alappuzha) and [Kochi](Kochi) and is about in area. Around eight percent of India's waterways are found in Kerala. Kerala's [rivers](44)(List of rivers in Kerala) include the [Periyar](Periyar River); , [Bharathapuzha](Bharathapuzha); , [Pamba](Pamba River); , [Chaliyar](Chaliyar River); , [Kadalundipuzha](Kadalundipuzha River); , [Chalakudipuzha](Chalakudy River); , [Valapattanam](Valapattanam River); and the [River](Achankovil)(Achankovil River); . The average length of the rivers is . Many of the rivers are small and entirely fed by monsoon rain. As Kerala's rivers are small and lacking in [delta](river delta), they are more prone to environmental effects. The rivers face problems such as sand mining and pollution.Padmalal D, Maya K, Sreebha S & Sreeja R, (2007), "Environmental effects of river sand mining: a case from the river catchments of [lake](Vembanad)(Vembanad lake), Southwest coast of India", Environmental Geology* 54(4), 879–89. [springerlink.com](https://doi.org/10.1007/s00254-007-0870-z). Retrieved 17 July 2009. The state experiences several natural hazards like landslides, floods and droughts. The state was also affected by the [Indian Ocean tsunami](2004)(2004 Indian Ocean tsunami), and in 2018 received [worst flooding](the)(2018 Kerala floods) in nearly a century. ### Climate With around 120–140 rainy days per year, Kerala has a wet and maritime tropical climate influenced by the seasonal heavy rains of the [summer monsoon](southwest)(Southwest monsoon) and [winter monsoon](northeast)(Northeast monsoon). Around 65% of the rainfall occurs from June to August corresponding to the Southwest monsoon, and the rest from September to December corresponding to Northeast monsoon. The moisture-laden winds of the Southwest monsoon, on reaching the southernmost point of the [Peninsula](Indian)(Indian Peninsula), because of its topography, divides into two branches; the "Arabian Sea Branch" and the "Bay of Bengal Branch". The "Arabian Sea Branch" of the Southwest monsoon first hits the Western Ghats, making Kerala the first state in India to receive rain from the Southwest monsoon. The distribution of pressure patterns is reversed in the Northeast monsoon, during this season the cold winds from North India pick up moisture from the Bay of Bengal and precipitate it on the east coast of peninsular India. In Kerala, the influence of the Northeast monsoon is seen in southern districts only. Kerala's rainfall averages 2,923 mm (115 in) annually. Some of Kerala's drier lowland regions average only 1,250 mm (49 in); the mountains of the eastern [district](Idukki)(Idukki district) receive more than 5,000 mm (197 in) of [precipitation](orographic)(Precipitation (meteorology)#Orographic precipitation): the highest in the state. In eastern Kerala, a drier tropical wet and dry climate prevails. During the summer, the state is prone to gale-force winds, storm surges, cyclone-related torrential downpours, occasional droughts, and rises in sea level. The mean daily temperature ranges from 19.8 °C to 36.7 °C. Mean annual temperatures range from 25.0 to 27.5 °C in the coastal lowlands to 20.0–22.5 °C in the eastern highlands. ### Environment #### Background radiation levels Minerals including [Ilmenite](Ilmenite), [Monazite](Monazite), [Thorium](Thorium), and [Titanium](Titanium), are found in the coastal belt of Kerala. Kerala's coastal belt of [Karunagappally](Karunagappally) is known for high background radiation from [thorium](thorium)-containing [monazite](monazite) sand. In some coastal panchayats, median outdoor radiation levels are more than 4 [mGy/yr](Gray (unit)#Effect on the body) and, in certain locations on the coast, it is as high as 70 mGy/yr. ### Flora and fauna Most of the [biodiversity](biodiversity) is concentrated and protected in the [Ghats](Western)(Western Ghats). Three quarters of the land area of Kerala was under thick forest up to the 18th century. , over 25% of India's 15,000 plant species are in Kerala. Out of the 4,000 [plant](flowering)(flowering plant) species; 1,272 of which are [endemic](endemic (ecology)) to Kerala, 900 are [medicinal](Herbalism), and 159 are [threatened](Threatened species). Its 9,400 km2 of forests include tropical wet evergreen and semi-evergreen forests (lower and middle elevations—3,470 km2), tropical moist and dry deciduous forests (mid-elevations—4,100 km2 and 100 km2, respectively), and montane subtropical and [temperate](temperate) (shola) forests (highest elevations—100 km2). Altogether, 24% of Kerala is forested. Four of the world's [Convention](Ramsar)(Ramsar Convention) listed [wetland](wetland)s—[Sasthamkotta](Lake)(Sasthamkotta Lake), [Lake](Ashtamudi)(Ashtamudi Lake), [Kole Wetlands](Thrissur-Ponnani)(Thrissur-Ponnani Kole Wetlands), and the Vembanad-Kol wetlands—are in Kerala, as well as 1455.4 km2 of the vast [Biosphere Reserve](Nilgiri)(Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve) and 1828 km2 of the [Biosphere Reserve](Agasthyamala)(Agasthyamala Biosphere Reserve). Subjected to extensive clearing for cultivation in the 20th century, much of the remaining forest cover is now protected from [clearfelling](clearfelling). Eastern Kerala's windward mountains shelter [moist forests](tropical)(Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests) and [dry forests](tropical)(Tropical and subtropical dry broadleaf forests), which are common in the Western Ghats. The world's oldest teak plantation 'Conolly's Plot' is in [Nilambur](Nilambur). Kerala's fauna are notable for their diversity and high rates of endemism: it includes 118 species of [mammal](mammal)s (1 endemic), [species of birds](500)(List of birds of Kerala), 189 species of freshwater fish, 173 species of reptiles (10 of them endemic), and 151 species of [amphibian](amphibian)s (36 endemic). These are threatened by extensive habitat destruction, including soil erosion, landslides, [salinisation](Soil salinity), and resource extraction. In the forests, sonokeling, [Dalbergia](Dalbergia) latifolia, anjili, mullumurikku, [Erythrina](Erythrina), and [Cassia](Cinnamomum aromaticum) number among the more than 1,000 species of trees in Kerala. Other plants include [bamboo](bamboo), wild black pepper, wild [cardamom](cardamom), the [calamus](calamus (palm)) [rattan](rattan) palm, and aromatic vetiver grass, Vetiveria zizanioides. [elephant](Indian)(Indian elephant), [tiger](Bengal)(Bengal tiger), [leopard](Indian)(Indian leopard), [tahr](Nilgiri)(Nilgiri tahr), [palm civet](common)(common palm civet), and [giant squirrel](grizzled)(grizzled giant squirrel)s are also found in the forests. Reptiles include the [cobra](king)(king cobra), [viper](Viperidae), [python](Pythonidae), and [crocodile](mugger)(mugger crocodile). Kerala's birds include the [trogon](Malabar)(Malabar trogon), the [hornbill](great)(great hornbill), [laughingthrush](Kerala)(Kerala laughingthrush), [darter](darter) and [hill myna](southern)(southern hill myna). In the lakes, wetlands, and waterways, fish such as [Kadu](Heteropneustes fossilis), [Line Torpedo Barb](Red)(Red Line Torpedo Barb) and choottachi; [chromide](orange)(orange chromide)—Etroplus maculatus are found. Recently, a newly described tardigrade (water bears) species collected from Vadakara coast of Kerala named after Kerala State; [keralensis](Stygarctus)(Stygarctus keralensis). ## Subdivisions [[Divisions of Kerala (2020).svg\|thumb\|230px\|Administrative Subdivisions](File:Administrative)] The state's [districts](14)(List of districts of Kerala) are distributed among six regions: [Malabar](North)(North Malabar) (far-north Kerala), [Malabar](South)(South Malabar) (north-central Kerala), [Kochi](Kochi) (central Kerala), [Travancore](Northern)(Northern Travancore), [Travancore](Central)(Central Travancore) (southern Kerala) and [Travancore](Southern)(Southern Travancore) (far-south Kerala). The districts which serve as administrative regions for taxation purposes are further subdivided into [revenue subdivisions](27)(Revenue Divisions of Kerala) and [taluks](77)(List of talukas of Kerala), which have fiscal and administrative powers over settlements within their borders, including maintenance of local land records. Kerala's taluks are further sub-divided into 1,674 revenue villages. Since the [and 74th amendments to the Constitution of India](73rd)(List of amendments of the Constitution of India), the local government institutions function as the third tier of government, which constitutes 14 [Panchayat](District)(District Panchayat)s, 152 [Panchayats](Block)(Block panchayat), 941 [Panchayats](Grama)(Gram panchayat), [Municipalities](87)(Municipalities of Kerala), [Municipal Corporations](six)(List of municipal corporations in Kerala) and one [Township](Township). [Mahé](Mahé, India), a part of the Indian [territory](union)(union territory) of [Puducherry](Puducherry (union territory)), though away from it, is a coastal exclave surrounded by Kerala on all of its landward approaches. The Kannur District surrounds Mahé on three sides with the Kozhikode District on the fourth. In 1664, the municipality of [Kochi](Fort)(Fort Kochi) was established by [Malabar](Dutch)(Dutch Malabar), making it the first municipality in the [subcontinent](Indian)(Indian subcontinent), which got dissolved when the Dutch authority got weaker in the 18th century. The municipalities of [Kozhikode](Kozhikode), [Palakkad](Palakkad), [Kochi](Fort)(Fort Kochi), [Kannur](Kannur), and [Thalassery](Thalassery), were founded on 1 November 1866 of the [Indian Empire](British)(British Indian Empire), making them the first modern municipalities in the state of Kerala. The Municipality of [Thiruvananthapuram](Thiruvananthapuram) came into existence in 1920. After two decades, during the reign of [Chithira Thirunal](Sree)(Sree Chithira Thirunal), Thiruvananthapuram Municipality was converted into Corporation on 30 October 1940, making it the oldest Municipal Corporation of Kerala. Year of becoming a corporation The first Municipal Corporation founded after the independence of [India](India) as well as the second-oldest Municipal Corporation of the state is at [Kozhikode](Kozhikode Municipal Corporation) in the year 1962.[Kozhikode Lok Sabha constituency redrawn Delimitation impact](https://web.archive.org/web/20080209134539/https://www.hindu.com/2008/02/05/stories/2008020561140500.htm), The Hindu 5 February 2008 There are six [corporations](Municipal)(Municipal Corporations in India) in Kerala that govern [Thiruvananthapuram](Thiruvananthapuram Municipal Corporation), [Kozhikode](Kozhikode Municipal Corporation), [Kochi](Kochi Municipal Corporation), [Kollam](Kollam Municipal Corporation), [Thrissur](Thrissur Municipal Corporation), and [Kannur](Kannur Municipal Corporation). The [Municipal Corporation](Thiruvananthapuram)(Thiruvananthapuram Municipal Corporation) is the largest corporation in Kerala while Kochi metropolitan area named [UA](Kochi)(Kochi UA) is the largest urban agglomeration. According to a survey by economics research firm Indicus Analytics in 2007, [Thiruvananthapuram](Thiruvananthapuram), [Kozhikode](Kozhikode), [Kochi](Kochi), [Kollam](Kollam), [Thrissur](Thrissur) are among the "best cities in India to live"; the survey used parameters such as health, education, environment, safety, public facilities and entertainment to rank the cities. ## Government and administration Kerala hosts two major political alliances: the [Democratic Front](United)(United Democratic Front (India)) (UDF), led by the [National Congress](Indian)(Indian National Congress); and the [Democratic Front](Left)(Left Democratic Front (Kerala)) (LDF), led by the [Party of India (Marxist)](Communist)(Communist Party of India (Marxist)) (CPI(M)). [Kerala Legislative Assembly election](2021)(2021 Kerala Legislative Assembly election), the LDF is the ruling coalition; [Vijayan](Pinarayi)(Pinarayi Vijayan) of the Communist Party of India (Marxist) is the Chief Minister, while [D. Satheesan](V.)(V. D. Satheesan) of the Indian National Congress is the [of the Opposition](Leader)(List of leaders of the opposition in the Kerala Legislative Assembly). According to the [of India](Constitution)(Constitution of India), Kerala has a [system](parliamentary)(parliamentary system) of [democracy](representative)(representative democracy); [suffrage](universal)(universal suffrage) is granted to residents. The government is organised into the three branches: # Legislature: The [unicameral](unicameralism) legislature, the [Legislative Assembly](Kerala)(Kerala Legislative Assembly) popularly known as Niyamasabha, comprises elected members and special office bearers; the Speaker and Deputy Speaker elected by the members from among themselves. Assembly meetings are presided over by the Speaker and in the Speaker's absence, by the Deputy Speaker. The state has 140 assembly constituencies. The state elects 20 and 9 members for representation in the [Sabha](Lok)(Lok Sabha) and the [Sabha](Rajya)(Rajya Sabha), respectively. # Executive: The [of Kerala](Governor)(Governors of Kerala) is the constitutional head of state, and is appointed by the [of India](President)(President of India). [Mohammad Khan](Arif)(Arif Mohammad Khan) is the Governor of Kerala. The [authority](executive)(executive (government)) is headed by the [Minister of Kerala](Chief)(Chief Minister of Kerala), who is the head of government and is vested with extensive executive powers; the head of the majority party in the Legislative Assembly is appointed to the post by the Governor. The Council of Ministers has its members appointed by the Governor, taking the advice of the Chief Minister. The executive administration is based in Thiruvananthapuram at [Secretariat](State)(Kerala Government Secretariat) complex. Each district has a district administrator appointed by government called [collector](District)(District collector) for executive administration. Auxiliary authorities known as [panchayat](panchayat)s, for which [body elections](local)(Local Body Election in Kerala) are regularly held, govern local affairs. # Judiciary: The [judiciary](judiciary) consists of the [High Court](Kerala)(Kerala High Court) and a system of lower courts. The High Court, located in Kochi, has a Chief Justice along with 35 permanent and twelve additional [tempore](pro)(pro tempore) justices . The high court also hears cases from the Union Territory of [Lakshadweep](Lakshadweep). The local government bodies; Panchayat, Municipalities and Corporations have existed in Kerala since 1959, however, the major initiative to decentralise the governance was started in 1993, conforming to the constitutional amendments of central government in this direction. With the enactment of Kerala Panchayati Raj Act and Kerala Municipality Act in 1994, the state implemented reforms in local self-governance. The Kerala Panchayati Raj Act envisages a 3-tier system of local government with [panchayat](Gram)(Gram panchayat), [panchayat](Block)(Block panchayat) and [Panchayat](District)(District Councils of India) forming a hierarchy. The acts ensure a clear demarcation of power among these institutions. However, the Kerala Municipality Act envisages a single-tier system for urban areas, with the institution of municipality designed to par with the Gram panchayat of the former system. Substantial administrative, legal and financial powers are delegated to these bodies to ensure efficient decentralisation. As per the present norms, the state government devolves about 40% of the state plan outlay to the local government. Kerala was declared as the first digital state of India on 27 February 2016. The India Corruption Survey 2019 by [International](Transparency)(Transparency International) declared Kerala the least-corrupt state in India. The Public Affairs Index-2020 released by the Public Affairs Centre, India, designated Kerala as the best governed Indian state. ## Economy }} }} After independence, the state was managed as a [socialist](democratic)(democratic socialism) [economy](welfare)(welfare economy). From the 1990s, [liberalisation](neoliberalism) of the [economy](mixed)(mixed economy) allowed [Raj](Licence)(Licence Raj) restrictions against capitalism and [direct investment](foreign)(foreign direct investment) to be lightened, leading to economic expansion and an increase in employment. In the fiscal year 2018–19, the nominal [state domestic product](gross)(Gross regional domestic product) (GSDP) was . GSDP growth; 11.4% in 2018–2019 and 10.5% in 2017–2018 had been high compared to an average of 2.3% annually in the 1980s and between 5.1% and 6.0% in the 1990s. The state recorded 8.9% growth in enterprises from 1998 to 2005, higher than the national rate of 4.8%. The "Kerala phenomenon" or "[model of development](Kerala)(Kerala model)" of very high human development and in comparison low economic development has resulted from a strong service sector. In 2019–20, the [sector](tertiary)(Tertiary sector of the economy) contributed around 63% of the state's [GSVA](Gross value added), compared to 28% by [sector](secondary)(Secondary sector of the economy), and 8% by [sector](primary)(Primary sector of the economy). In the period between 1960 and 2020, Kerala's economy was gradually shifting from an agrarian economy into a service-based one. The state's [sector](service)(Tertiary sector of the economy) which accounts for around 63% of its revenue is mainly based upon [industry](Hospitality)(Hospitality industry), [Tourism](Tourism in Kerala), [Ayurveda](Ayurveda) & Medical Services, Pilgrimage, [technology](Information)(Information technology), [Transportation](Roads in Kerala), Financial sector, and [Education](Education in Kerala). Major initiatives under the industrial sector include [Shipyard](Cochin)(Cochin Shipyard), Shipbuilding, Oil refinery, Software Industry, Coastal mineral industries, food processing, marine products processing, and Rubber based products. The primary sector of the state is mainly based upon [crop](Cash)(Cash crop)s. Kerala produces a significant amount of national output of the cash crops such as [Coconut](Coconut), [Tea](Tea), [Coffee](Coffee), [pepper](Malabar pepper), [rubber](Natural)(Natural rubber), [Cardamom](Cardamom), and [Cashew](Cashew) in India. The cultivation of food crops began to reduce since the 1950s. The [labourers in Kerala](Migrant)(Migrant labourers in Kerala) are a significant [workforce](workforce) in its industrial and agricultural sectors. Being home to only 1.18% of the total land area of India and 2.75% of its population, Kerala contributes more than 4% to the [Domestic Product](Gross)(Gross Domestic Product) of India. Kerala's economy depends significantly on [working in foreign countries](emigrants)(Kerala Gulf diaspora), mainly in the [states of the Persian Gulf](Arab)(Arab states of the Persian Gulf), and the [remittance](remittance)s annually contribute more than a fifth of GSDP. The state witnessed significant emigration during the [Boom](Gulf)(Kerala Gulf diaspora#The Gulf Boom) of the 1970s and early 1980s. In 2008, the Persian Gulf countries together had a Keralite population of more than 25 lakh(2.5 million), who sent home annually a sum of 6.81 billion, which is the highest among [states](Indian)(States and union territories of India) and more than 15.1% of [to India](remittances)(Remittance#Top recipient countries) in 2008. In 2012, Kerala still received the highest remittances of all states: US$11.3 billion, which was nearly 16% of the US$71 billion remittances to the country. In 2015, NRI deposits in Kerala have soared to over , amounting to one-sixth of all the money deposited in NRI accounts, which comes to about . [district](Malappuram)(Malappuram district) has the highest proportion of emigrant households in state. A study commissioned by the [State Planning Board](Kerala)(Kerala State Planning Board), suggested that the state look for other reliable sources of income, instead of relying on remittances to finance its expenditure. A decline of about 300,000 in the number of emigrants from the state was recorded during the period between 2013 and 2018. The total remittances received by the emigrants stood at in the year 2018. According to a study done in 2013, was the total amount paid to [labourers in the state](migrant)(migrant labourers in Kerala) every year. The tertiary sector comprises services such as transport, storage, communications, tourism, banking, insurance and real estate. In 2011–2012, it contributed 63.2% of the state's GDP, agriculture and allied sectors contributed 15.7%, while manufacturing, construction and utilities contributed 21.1%. Around 600 varieties of rice, which is Kerala's most used [staple](staple food) and cereal crop, are harvested from 3105.21 km2; a decline from 5883.4 km2 in 1990. 6,88,859 [tonne](tonne)s of rice are produced per year. Other key crops include coconut; 899,198 ha, tea, coffee; 23% of Indian production, or 57,000 tonnes, rubber, cashews, and [spices](spices)—including pepper, cardamom, vanilla, cinnamon, and nutmeg. As of March 2002, Kerala's banking sector comprised 3341 local branches: each branch served 10,000 people, lower than the national average of 16,000; the state has the third-highest bank penetration among Indian states. On 1 October 2011, Kerala became the first state in the country to have at least one banking facility in every village. [in 2007](Unemployment)(Unemployment in Kerala) was estimated at 9.4%; chronic issues are [underemployment](underemployment), low employability of youth, and a low female [participation rate](labour)(labour force) of only 13.5%, as was the practice of [kooli](Nokku)(Nokku kooli), "wages for looking on". (On 30 April 2018, the Kerala state government issued an order to abolish Nokku Kooli, to take effect on 1 May.) By 1999–2000, the rural and urban poverty rates dropped to 10.0% and 9.6%, respectively. The [Kerala Shopping Festival](Grand)(Grand Kerala Shopping Festival) (GKSF) was started in 2007, covering more than 3000 outlets across the nine cities of Kerala with huge tax discounts, VAT refunds and huge array of prizes. [International Mall](Lulu)(Lulu Mall, Thiruvananthapuram) at [Thiruvananthapuram](Thiruvananthapuram) is the largest [Mall](Shopping)(Shopping Mall) in India. [[coconut n Tagetes erecta.jpg\|alt=\|thumb\|Coconuts are an important regional cash crop.](File:Intercropping)] The state's budget of 2020–2021 was . The state government's tax revenues (excluding the shares from Union tax pool) amounted to in 2020–21; up from in 2019–20. Its [revenue](non-tax)(non-tax revenue)s (excluding the shares from Union tax pool) of the Government of Kerala reached in 2020–2021. However, Kerala's high ratio of taxation to GSDP has not alleviated chronic budget deficits and unsustainable levels of government debt, which have impacted social services. A record total of 223 [hartal](hartal)s were observed in 2006, resulting in a revenue loss of over .[Kerala: Hartals Own Country?](https://www.rediff.com/news/2008/jul/06kerala.htm) 6 July 2008 Kerala's 10% rise in GDP is 3% more than the national GDP. In 2013, capital expenditure rose 30% compared to the national average of 5%, owners of two-wheelers rose by 35% compared to the national rate of 15%, and the teacher-pupil ratio rose 50% from 2:100 to 4:100. The [Infrastructure Investment Fund Board](Kerala)(Kerala Infrastructure Investment Fund Board) is a government owned [institution](financial)(financial institution) in the state to mobilize funds for infrastructure development from outside the state revenue, aiming at overall infrastructure development of the state. In November 2015, the [of Urban Development](Ministry)(Ministry of Urban Development) selected seven cities of Kerala for a [development program](comprehensive)(List of government schemes in India) known as the [Mission for Rejuvenation and Urban Transformation](Atal)(Atal Mission for Rejuvenation and Urban Transformation) (AMRUT). A package of was declared for each of the cities to develop service level improvement plan (SLIP), a plan for better functioning of the local urban bodies in the cities of Thiruvananthapuram, Kollam, Alappuzha, Kochi, Thrissur, Kozhikode, and Palakkad. Despite of many achievements, Kerala facing many challenges like high levels of unemployment that disproportionately impact educated women, a high degree of global exposure and a very fragile environment. ### Information technology [[File:Carnival Info Park Phase - 4.jpg\|thumbnail\|[Kochi](Infopark,)(Infopark, Kochi)]] Kerala has focused more attention towards growth of Information Technology sector with formation of [Technopark](Technopark, Trivandrum), Thiruvananthapuram which is one of the largest IT employer in Kerala. It was the first technology park in India and with the inauguration of the Thejaswini complex on 22 February 2007, Technopark became the largest IT Park in India. Software giants like [Infosys](Infosys), [Oracle](Oracle Corporation), [Consultancy Services](Tata)(Tata Consultancy Services), [Capgemini](Capgemini), [HCL](HCL Technologies), [Global](UST)(UST Global), NeST and Suntec have offices in the state. The state has a second major IT hub, the [Infopark](InfoPark, Kochi) centred in Kochi with "spokes"(it acts as the "hub") in Thrissur and Alleppy. , Infopark generates one-third of total IT Revenues of the state with key offices of IT majors like Tata Consultancy Services, [Cognizant](Cognizant), [Wipro](Wipro), UST Global, IBS Software Services etc. and [corporation](Multinational)(Multinational corporation)s like [KPMG](KPMG), [& Young](Ernst)(Ernst & Young), [Service](EXL)(EXL Service), [DB Telecom](Etisalat)(Etisalat), [Audio](Nielsen)(Nielsen Audio), [ACS](Xerox)(Affiliated Computer Services), Tata ELXSI etc. Kochi also has another major project [SmartCity](SmartCity, Kochi) under construction, built in partnership with Dubai Government. A third major IT Hub is under construction centred around [Kozhikode](Kozhikode) known as Cyberpark. Kerala is the first Indian state to make Internet access a basic right. As of 2019, Kerala's Internet penetration rate is the second-highest in India only after to [Delhi](Delhi). Kerala is the first Indian state to have its own Internet service with the launch of [Fiber Optic Network](Kerala)(Kerala Fiber Optic Network) in 2021. ### Industries Traditional industries manufacturing items; [coir](coir), [handloom](handloom)s, and [handicraft](handicraft)s employ around one million people. Kerala supplies 60% of the total global produce of white coir fibre. India's first coir factory was set up in [Alleppey](Alleppey) in 1859–60. The Central Coir Research Institute was established there in 1959. As per the 2006–2007 census by [SIDBI](SIDBI), there are 14,68,104 [small and medium enterprises](micro,)(Small and medium enterprises#India) in Kerala employing 30,31,272 people. The [KSIDC](KSIDC) has promoted more than 650 medium and large manufacturing firms in Kerala, creating employment for 72,500 people. A mining sector of 0.3% of GSDP involves extraction of [ilmenite](ilmenite), [kaolin](kaolin), [bauxite](bauxite), [silica](silica), [quartz](quartz), [rutile](rutile), [zircon](zircon), and [sillimanite](sillimanite). Other major sectors are [tourism](tourism in Kerala), medical sector, [sector](educational)(Education in Kerala), banking, [building](ship)(Cochin shipyard), [refinery](oil)(Kochi Refineries), infrastructure, manufacturing, [gardens](home)(Residential garden), animal husbandry and [process outsourcing](business)(business process outsourcing). ### Agriculture [[File:Ripe jackfruit.jpg\|alt=\|thumb\|[Jackfruit](Jackfruit)s are the state fruit, and are a cultural icon of Kerala.]] [[File:Nemmara-paddy.jpg\|alt=A field\|thumb\|A paddy field at [Palakkad](Palakkad district), also known as The Granary of Kerala]] [[File:Black Pepper (Piper nigrum) fruits.jpg\|alt=\|thumb\|[pepper](Black)(Black pepper) is an important cash crop in Kerala, which leads the country in production.]] The major change in agriculture in Kerala occurred in the 1970s when production of rice fell due to increased availability of rice all over India and decreased availability of labour. Consequently, investment in rice production decreased and a major portion of the land shifted to the cultivation of perennial tree crops and seasonal crops. Profitability of crops fell due to a shortage of farm labour, the high price of land, and the uneconomic size of operational holdings. Only 27.3% of the families in Kerala depend upon agriculture for their livelihood, which is also the least curresponding rate in India. Kerala produces 97% of the national output of black pepper and accounts for 85% of the [rubber](natural)(natural rubber) in the country. [Coconut](Coconut), [tea](tea), [coffee](coffee), [cashew](cashew), and spices—including cardamom, [vanilla](vanilla), [cinnamon](cinnamon), and [nutmeg](nutmeg) are the main agricultural products. Around 80% of [India](India)'s export quality cashew kernels are prepared in [Kollam](Kollam). The key cash crop is [Coconut](Coconut) and Kerala ranks first in the area of coconut cultivation in India. In 1960–61, about 70% of the Coconuts produced in India were from Kerala, which have reduced to 42% in 2011–12. Around 90% of the total [Cardamom](Cardamom) produced in India is from Kerala. India is the second-largest producer of Cardamom in world. About 20% of the total [Coffee](Coffee) produced in India are from Kerala. The key agricultural staple is rice, with varieties grown in extensive paddy fields. Home gardens made up a significant portion of the agricultural sector. Related [husbandry](animal)(animal husbandry) is touted by proponents as a means of alleviating rural poverty and unemployment among women, the marginalised, and the landless. The state government promotes these activities via educational campaigns and the development of new cattle breeds such as the [Sunandini](Sunandini). Though the contribution of the agricultural sector to the state economy was on the decline in 2012–13, through the strength of the allied livestock sector, it has picked up from 7.0% (2011–12) to 7.2%. In the 2013–14 fiscal period, the contribution has been estimated at a high of 7.8%. The total growth of the farm sector has recorded a 4.4% increase in 2012–13, over a 1.3% growth in the previous fiscal year. The agricultural sector has a share of 9.3% in the sectoral distribution of Gross State Domestic Product at Constant Price, while the secondary and tertiary sectors have contributed 23.9% and 66.7%, respectively. There is a preference for organic products and home farming compared to [fertilizers](synthetic)(synthetic fertilizers) and [pesticide](pesticide)s. [gardens](Forest)(Forest gardening) are common and known by the name home gardens. According to the English horticulturist [Hart](Robert)(Robert Hart (horticulturist)), Kerala is "from the [agroforestry](agroforestry) point of view, perhaps the world's most advanced country, with an extraordinary intensivity of cultivation of some forest gardens." ### Fisheries [[File:Chinese Fishing Nets with Blue Cloudy Sky in Background at Fort Kochi, Kerala, India.jpg\|alt=\|thumb\|[vala](Cheena)(Cheena vala) (Chinese fishing net)]] With of coastal belt, 400,000 hectares of inland water resources and approximately 220,000 active fishermen, Kerala is one of the leading producers of fish in India. According to 2003–04 reports, about 11 lakh(1.1 million) people earn their livelihood from fishing and allied activities such as drying, processing, packaging, exporting and transporting fisheries. The annual yield of the sector was estimated as 6,08,000 tons in 2003–04. This contributes to about 3% of the total economy of the state. In 2006, around 22% of the total Indian marine fishery yield was from Kerala. During the southwest monsoon, a suspended mud bank develops along the shore, which in turn leads to calm ocean water, peaking the output of the fishing industry. This phenomenon is locally called [chakara](chakara). The waters provide a large variety of fish: [species](pelagic)(Pelagic fish); 59%, [species](demersal)(Demersal fish); 23%, [crustacean](crustacean)s, [molluscs](Mollusca) and others for 18%. Around 10.5 lakh(1.050 million) fishermen haul an annual catch of 668,000 tonnes as of a 1999–2000 estimate; 222 fishing villages are strung along the coast. Another 113 fishing villages dot the hinterland. ## Transportation ### Roads Kerala has of roads, which accounts for 5.6% of India's total. This translates to about of road per thousand people, compared to an average of in the country. Roads in Kerala include of national highway; 1.6% of the nation's total, of state highway; 2.5% of the nation's total, of district roads; 4.7% of the nation's total, of urban (municipal) roads; 6.3% of the nation's total, and of rural roads; 3.8% of the nation's total. [Kottayam](Kottayam district) has the maximum length of roads among the [of Kerala](districts)(List of districts of Kerala), while [Wayanad](Wayanad) accounts for minimum. Most of Kerala's west coast is accessible through the [66](NH)(National Highway 66 (India)) (previously NH 17 and 47); and the eastern side is accessible through state highways. New projects for hill and coastal highways were recently announced under [KIIFB](Kerala Infrastructure Investment Fund Board). National Highway 66, with the longest stretch of road () connects [Kanyakumari](Kanyakumari) to [Mumbai](Mumbai); it enters Kerala via [Talapady](Talapady) in [Kasargod](Kasargod) and passes through [Kannur](Kannur), [Kozhikode](Kozhikode), [Malappuram](Malappuram), [Guruvayur](Guruvayur), [Kochi](Kochi), [Alappuzha](Alappuzha), [Kollam](Kollam), [Thiruvananthapuram](Thiruvananthapuram) before entering [Nadu](Tamil)(Tamil Nadu). [district](Palakkad)(Palakkad district) is generally referred to as the Gateway of Kerala, due to the presence of the Palakkad Gap in the Western Ghats, through which the northern ([Malabar](Malabar region)) and southern (Travancore) parts of Kerala are connected to the rest of India via road and rail. The state's largest checkpoint, [Walayar](Walayar), is on [544](NH)(National Highway 544 (India)), in the border town between Kerala and [Nadu](Tamil)(Tamil Nadu), through which a large amount of public and commercial transportation reaches the northern and central districts of Kerala. [[File:Vyttila Mobility Hub BNC.jpg\|thumb\|700px\|left\|A panoramic view of [Mobility Hub](Vyttila)(Vyttila Mobility Hub) integrated transit terminal in the city of [Kochi](Kochi)]] The [of Public Works](Department)(Department of Public Works (Kerala)) is responsible for maintaining and expanding the [highways system](state)(List of State Highways in Kerala) and major district roads. The Kerala State Transport Project (KSTP), which includes the [GIS](GIS)-based Road Information and Management Project (RIMS), is responsible for maintaining and expanding the state highways in Kerala. It also oversees a few major district roads. Traffic in Kerala has been growing at a rate of 10–11% every year, resulting in high traffic and pressure on the roads. Traffic density is nearly four times the national average, reflecting the state's high population. Kerala's annual total of road accidents is among the nation's highest. The accidents are mainly the result of the narrow roads and irresponsible driving. National Highways in Kerala are among the narrowest in the country and will remain so for the foreseeable future, as the state government has received an exemption that allows narrow national highways. In Kerala, highways are wide. In other states, national highways are grade separated, wide with a minimum of four lanes, as well as 6 or 8-lane access-controlled expressways. The National Highways Authority of India (NHAI) has threatened the Kerala state government that it will give higher priority to other states in highway development since political commitment to better highways in Kerala has been lacking. , Kerala had the highest road accident rate in the country, with most fatal accidents taking place along the state's national highways. [[File:Ksrtc bus stand calicut.jpg\|alt=\|thumb\|230px\|KSRTC Bus Station at [Kozhikode](Kozhikode)]] #### Kerala State Road Transport Corporation Kerala State Road Transport Corporation (KSRTC) is a state-owned road transport corporation. It is one of the country's oldest state-run public bus transport services. Its origins can be traced back to Travancore State Road Transport Department, when the Travancore government headed by Sri. Chithra Thirunnal decided to set up a public road transportation system in 1937. The corporation is divided into three zones (North, Central and South), with the headquarters in [Thiruvananthapuram](Thiruvananthapuram) (Kerala's capital city). Daily scheduled service has increased from to , using 6,241 buses on 6,389 routes. At present the corporation has 5373 buses running on 4795 schedules. The [Urban Road Transport Corporation](Kerala)(Kerala Urban Road Transport Corporation) (KURTC) was formed under KSRTC in 2015 to manage affairs related to urban transportation. It was inaugurated on 12 April 2015 at [Thevara](Thevara). ### Railways [Railway](Southern)(Southern Railway (India)) zone of [Railways](Indian)(Indian Railways) operates all railway lines in the state connecting most major towns and cities except those in the highland districts of [Idukki](Idukki district) and [Wayanad](Wayanad district). The railway network in the state is controlled by two out of six divisions of the [Railway](Southern)(Southern Railway zone); [Railway division](Thiruvananthapuram)(Thiruvananthapuram Railway division) headquartered at [Thiruvananthapuram](Thiruvananthapuram) and [Railway Division](Palakkad)(Palakkad Railway Division) headquartered at [Palakkad](Palakkad). [Central](Thiruvananthapuram)(Thiruvananthapuram Central) (TVC) is the busiest railway station in the state. Kerala's major railway stations are: The first railway line in the state was laid from [Tirur](Tirur) to [Chaliyam](Chaliyam) ([Kozhikode](Kozhikode)), with the oldest Railway Station at [Tirur](Tirur railway station), passing through [Tanur](Tanur, Malappuram), [Parappanangadi](Parappanangadi), [Vallikkunnu](Vallikkunnu), and [Kadalundi](Kadalundi). The railway was extended from [Tirur](Tirur) to [Kuttippuram](Kuttippuram) through [Tirunavaya](Tirunavaya) in the same year. It was again extended from [Kuttippuram](Kuttippuram) to [Shoranur](Shoranur) through [Pattambi](Pattambi) in 1862, resulting in the establishment of [Junction railway station](Shoranur)(Shoranur Junction railway station), which is also the largest railway junction in the state. Major railway transport between [Chaliyam](Chaliyam)–[Tirur](Tirur) began on 12 March 1861, from [Tirur](Tirur)-[Shoranur](Shoranur) in 1862, from [Harbour section](Shoranur–Cochin)(Shoranur–Cochin Harbour section) in 1902, from [Kollam–Sengottai](Kollam–Sengottai branch line) on 1 July 1904, [Kollam–Thiruvananthapuram](Kollam–Thiruvananthapuram trunk line) on 4 January 1918, from Nilambur-[Shoranur](Shoranur) in 1927, from [Ernakulam](Ernakulam)–Kottayam in 1956, from Kottayam–Kollam in 1958, from Thiruvananthapuram–Kanyakumari in 1979 and from the [Section](Thrissur-Guruvayur)(Thrissur-Guruvayur Section) in 1994. The [line](Nilambur–Shoranur)(Nilambur–Shoranur line) is one of the shortest [gauge](broad)(broad gauge) railway lines in [India](India). It was established in the British era for the transportation of [Nilambur](Nilambur) teaks and [Laterite](Angadipuram)(Angadipuram Laterite) to [Kingdom](United)(United Kingdom) through the port at [Kozhikode](Kozhikode). The presence of [Gap](Palakkad)(Palakkad Gap) on [Ghats](Western)(Western Ghats) makes the [Junction railway station](Shoranur)(Shoranur Junction railway station) important as it connects the southwestern coast of India ([Mangalore](Mangalore)) with the southeastern coast ([Chennai](Chennai)). #### Kochi Metro [[File:Kochi Metro train at Palarivattom, Aug 2017.jpg\|right\|thumb\|[Metro](Kochi)(Kochi Metro) train at [Palarivattom](Palarivattom) Metro station]] [Metro](Kochi)(Kochi Metro) is the metro rail system in the city of Kochi. It is the only metro rail system in Kerala. Construction began in 2012, with the first phase being set up at an estimated cost of . The Kochi Metro uses 65-metre long [Metropolis](Alstom Metropolis) train sets built and designed by [Alstom](Alstom). It is the first metro system in India to use a [train control](communication-based)(communication-based train control) (CBTC) system for signalling and telecommunication. In October 2017, Kochi Metro was named the "Best Urban Mobility Project" in India by the [Development Ministry](Urban)(Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs), as part of the Urban Mobility India (UMI) International Conference hosted by the ministry every year. ### Airports [[File:Cochin International Airport Limited.jpg\|right\|thumb\|[International Airport](Cochin)(Cochin International Airport), the first airport in the world to be fully powered by solar energy]] Kerala has four international airports: [Airport](Kollam)(Kollam Airport), established under the Madras Presidency, but since closed, was the first airport in Kerala. [Kannur](Kannur) had an airstrip used for commercial aviation as early as 1935 when [Tata](Tata Group) airlines operated weekly flights between [Mumbai](Mumbai) and Thiruvananthapuram – stopping at [Goa](Goa) and Kannur. Trivandrum International Airport, managed by the [Authority of India](Airport)(Airport Authority of India), is among the oldest existing airports in South India. [International Airport](Calicut)(Calicut International Airport), which was opened in 1988, is the second-oldest existing airport in Kerala and the oldest in the [region](Malabar)(Malabar District). Cochin International Airport is the busiest in the state and the [busiest](seventh)(List of the busiest airports in India) in the country. It is also the first airport in the world to be fully powered by [energy](solar)(CIAL Solar Power Project) and has won the coveted [of the Earth](Champion)(Champions of the Earth) award, the highest environmental honour instituted by the [Nations](United)(United Nations). Cochin International Airport is also the first Indian airport to be incorporated as a [limited company](public)(public limited company); it was funded by nearly 10,000 [Indians](non-resident)(Non-resident Indian and person of Indian origin) from 30 countries. Other than civilian airports, [Kochi](Kochi) has a naval airport named [Garuda](INS)(INS Garuda). Thiruvananthapuram airport shares civilian facilities with the Southern Air Command of the [Air Force](Indian)(Indian Air Force). These facilities are used mostly by central government VIPs visiting Kerala. ### Water transport [[File:Cochin Ship Yard Cranes.JPG\|alt=\|thumb\|230px\|Cranes at the [Shipyard](Cochin)(Cochin Shipyard)]] Kerala has [major port, four intermediate ports, and 13 minor ports](one)(Ports in Kerala). The major port in the state is at [Kochi](Cochin Port), which has an area of 8.27 km2. The [International Seaport](Vizhinjam)(Vizhinjam International Seaport), which is currently classified as an intermediate port, is an upcoming major port under construction. Other intermediate ports include [Beypore](Beypore), [Kollam](Kollam), and [Azheekal](Azhikode and Azhikkal). The remaining ports are classified as minor which include [Manjeshwaram](Manjeshwaram), [Kasaragod](Kasaragod), [Nileshwaram](Nileshwaram), [Kannur](Kannur), [Thalassery](Thalassery), [Vadakara](Vadakara), [Ponnani](Ponnani), [Munambam](Munambam), Manakodam, [Alappuzha](Alappuzha), [Kayamkulam](Kayamkulam), [Neendakara](Neendakara), and [Valiyathura](Valiyathura). The [Maritime Institute](Kerala)(Kerala Maritime Institute) is headquartered at [Neendakara](Neendakara), which has an additional subcentre at [Kodungallur](Kodungallur) too. The state has numerous [backwaters](Kerala backwaters), which are used for commercial [navigation](inland)(inland navigation). Transport services are mainly provided by country craft and passenger vessels. There are 67 navigable rivers in the state while the total length of inland waterways is . The main constraints to the expansion of inland navigation are; lack of depth in waterways caused by silting, lack of maintenance of navigation systems and bank protection, accelerated growth of the [hyacinth](water)(water hyacinth), lack of modern inland craft terminals, and lack of a cargo handling system. The long West-Coast Canal is the longest waterway in state connecting [Kasaragod](Kasaragod) to [Poovar](Poovar). It is divided into five sections: long [Kasaragod](Kasaragod)-[Nileshwaram](Nileshwaram) reach, long [Nileshwaram](Nileshwaram)-[Kozhikode](Kozhikode) reach, [Kozhikode](Kozhikode)-[Kottapuram](Kottappuram, Thrissur) reach, long [Waterway 3](National)(National Waterway 3) ([Kottapuram](Kottappuram, Thrissur)-[Kollam](Kollam) reach), and long [Kollam](Kollam)-[Vizhinjam](Vizhinjam) reach. The [Canal](Conolly)(Conolly Canal), which is a part of West-Coast Canal, connects the city of [Kozhikode](Kozhikode) with [Kochi](Kochi) through [Ponnani](Ponnani), passing through the districts of [Malappuram](Malappuram district) and [Thrissur](Thrissur district). It begins at [Vadakara](Vadakara). It was constructed in the year 1848 under the orders of then [collector](District)(District collector) of [Malabar](Malabar District), H. V. Conolly, initially to facilitate movement of goods to [Kallayi](Kallayi) Port from hinter lands of Malabar through [Kuttiady](Kuttiady) and [Korapuzha](Korapuzha) river systems. It was the main waterway for the cargo movement between Kozhikode and Kochi through [Ponnani](Ponnani), for more than a century. Other important waterways in Kerala include the [Alappuzha](Alappuzha)-[Changanassery](Changanassery) Canal, [Alappuzha](Alappuzha)-[Kottayam](Kottayam)-[Athirampuzha](Athirampuzha) Canal, and [Kottayam](Kottayam)-[Vaikom](Vaikom) Canal. ## Demographics \| 1901 \| 6396262 \| 1911 \| 7147673 \| 1921 \| 7802127 \| 1931 \| 9507050 \| 1941 \| 11031541 \| 1951 \| 13549118 \| 1961 \| 16903715 \| 1971 \| 21347375 \| 1981 \| 25453680 \| 1991 \| 29098518 \| 2001 \| 31841374 \| 2011 \| 33406061 }} [[File:Kerala Population Pyramid in 5-year age groups (2011 census).png\|left\|thumbnail\|The [pyramid](Population)(Population pyramid) of Kerala]] Kerala is home to 2.8% of India's population; with a density of 859 persons per km2, its land is nearly three times as densely settled as the national average of 370 persons per km2. , Thiruvananthapuram is the most populous city in Kerala. In the state, the rate of population growth is India's lowest, and the decadal growth of 4.9% in 2011 is less than one third of the all-India average of 17.6%. Kerala's population more than doubled between 1951 and 1991 by adding 15.6 million people to reach 29.1 million residents in 1991; the population stood at 33.3 million by 2011. Kerala's coastal regions are the most densely settled with population of 2022 persons per km2, 2.5 times the overall population density of the state, 859 persons per km2, leaving the eastern hills and mountains comparatively sparsely populated. Kerala is the [urbanised major state](second-most)(Urbanisation in India) in the country with [urban population](47.7%)(List of cities in Kerala by urban area growth) according to the [Census of India](2011)(2011 Census of India). Around 31.8 million Keralites are predominantly Malayali. The state's 321,000 indigenous tribal [Adivasi](Adivasi)s, 1.1% of the population, are concentrated in the east. ### Gender There is a tradition of matrilineal inheritance in Kerala, where the mother is the head of the household. As a result, women in Kerala have had a much higher standing and influence in the society. This was common among certain influential castes and is a factor in the value placed on daughters. Christian missionaries also influenced Malayali women in that they started schools for girls from poor families. Opportunities for women such as education and gainful employment often translate into a lower birth rate, Madhyamam \|url=https://www.madhyamam.com/velicham/special-stories/july-11-world-population-day-821671 \|access-date=2021-07-16\|website=www.madhyamam.com \|language=en}} which in turn, make education and employment more likely to be accessible and more beneficial for women. This creates an upward spiral for both the women and children of the community that is passed on to future generations. According to the Human Development Report of 1996, Kerala's [Development Index](Gender)(Gender Development Index) was 597; higher than any other state of India. Factors, such as high rates of female literacy, education, work participation and life expectancy, along with favourable [ratio](sex)(human sex ratio), contributed to it. Kerala's sex ratio of 1.084 (females to males) is higher than that of the rest of India and is the only state where women outnumber men. While having the opportunities that education affords them, such as political participation, keeping up to date with current events, reading religious texts etc., these tools have still not translated into full, [rights](equal)(Women's rights) for the women of Kerala. There is a general attitude that women must be restricted for their own benefit. In the state, despite the social progress, gender still influences [mobility](social)(social mobility).Brenda Maddox mentions in: Maddox, Brenda. "A Marxist Paradise For Women?" New Statesman. (London, England: 1996) 128 no4440 30 January 14, 1999.Antherjanam, Lalithambika. Cast Me Out If You Will. New York: The Feminist Press, 1997. #### LGBT rights [[File:Kerala Pride March 2018 IMG 20181007 162532.jpg\|200px\|thumb\|right\|Participants at a [parade](pride)(pride parade) in [Thrissur](Thrissur) in October 2018]] Kerala has been at the forefront of LGBT issues in [India](India). Kerala is one of the first [in India](states)(States and union territories of India) to form a welfare policy for the transgender community. In 2016, the Kerala government introduced free [reassignment surgery](sex)(sex reassignment surgery) through government hospitals. [Queerala](Queerala) is one of the major LGBT organisations in Kerala. It campaigns for increased awareness of LGBT people and sensitisation concerning healthcare services, workplace policies and educational curriculum. Since 2010, Kerala Queer Pride has been held annually across various cities in Kerala. In June 2019, the Kerala government passed a new order that members of the transgender community should not be referred to as the "[gender](third)(third gender)" or "other gender" in government communications. Instead, the term "transgender" should be used. Previously, the gender preferences provided in government forms and documents included male, female, and other/third gender. In the 2021 Mathrubhumi Youth Manifesto Survey conducted on people aged between 15 and 35, majority (74.3%) of the respondents supported legislation for same-sex marriage while 25.7% opposed it. ### Human Development Index [[File:2006 Human Development Index for India map by states, HDI data by GoI and UNDP India.svg\|thumb\|[Development Index](Human)(Human Development Index) map for Indian states in 2006, as calculated by [of India](Government)(Government of India) and [Nations Development Programme](United)(United Nations Development Programme).]] Under a democratic communist local government, Kerala has achieved a record of social development much more advanced than the Indian average. , Kerala has a [Development Index](Human)(Human Development Index) (HDI) of 0.770, which is in the "high" category, ranking it first in the country. It was 0.790 in 2007–08 and it had a consumption-based HDI of 0.920, which is better than that of many developed countries. Comparatively higher spending by the government on [level education](primary)(primary education), [care](health)(health care) and the elimination of [poverty](poverty in India) from the 19th century onwards has helped the state maintain an exceptionally high HDI; the report was prepared by the central government's Institute of Applied Manpower Research. However, the Human Development Report 2005, prepared by Centre for Development Studies envisages a virtuous phase of inclusive development for the state since the advancement in human development had already started aiding the economic development of the state. Kerala is also widely regarded as the [cleanest](public hygiene) and healthiest state in India. According to the 2011 census, Kerala has the highest [rate](literacy)(literacy rate) (94%) among Indian states. In 2018, the literacy rate was calculated to be 96%. In the [district](Kottayam)(Kottayam district), the literacy rate was 97%. The [expectancy](life)(life expectancy) in Kerala is 74 years, among the highest in India . Kerala's rural poverty rate fell from 59% (1973–1974) to 12% (1999–2010); the overall (urban and rural) rate fell 47% between the 1970s and 2000s against the 29% fall in overall poverty rate in India. By 1999–2000, the rural and urban poverty rates dropped to 10.0% and 9.6%, respectively. The 2013 Tendulkar Committee Report on poverty estimated that the percentages of the population living below the poverty line in rural and urban Kerala are 9.1% and 5.0%, respectively. These changes stem largely from efforts begun in the late 19th century by the kingdoms of Cochin and Travancore to boost social welfare. This focus was maintained by Kerala's post-independence government. Kerala has undergone a "[transition](demographic)(demographic transition)" characteristic of such [nation](developed)(developed nation)s as [Canada](Canada), [Japan](Japan), and [Norway](Norway). In 2005, 11.2% of people were over the age of 60. In 2023, the BBC reported on the problems and benefits which have arisen from migration away from Kerala, focussing on the village of Kumbanad. In 2004, the birthrate was low at 18 per 1,000. According to the 2011 census, Kerala had a total fertility rate (TFR) of 1.6. All district except Malappuram district had fertility rate below 2. Fertility rate is highest in [district](Malappuram)(Malappuram district) (2.2) and lowest in [district](Pathanamthitta)(Pathanamthitta district) (1.3). In 2001, Muslims had the TFR of 2.6 as against 1.5 for Hindus and 1.7 for Christians. The state also is regarded as the "least corrupt Indian state" according to the surveys conducted by CMS Indian Corruption Study (CMS-ICS) Transparency International (2005) and India Today (1997). Kerala has the lowest [homicide](homicide) rate among Indian states, with 1.1 per 100,000 in 2011. In respect of female empowerment, some negative factors such as higher [rate](suicide)(suicide rate), lower share of [income](earned)(earned income), [marriage](child)(child marriage), complaints of [harassment](sexual)(sexual harassment) and limited freedom are reported. The child marriage is lower in Kerala. The Malappuram district has the highest number of child marriage and the number of such cases are increasing in Malappuram. The child marriages are particularly [among the Muslim community](higher)(Child marriage among Muslims in Kerala). In 2019, Kerala recorded the highest child sex abuse complaints in India. In 2015, Kerala had the highest conviction rate of any state, over 77%. Kerala has the lowest proportion of homeless people in rural India, and the state is attempting to reach the goal of becoming the first "Zero Homeless State", in addition to its acclaimed "Zero landless project", with private organisations and the expatriate Malayali community funding projects for building homes for the homeless. The state was also among the lowest in the [State Hunger Index](India)(India State Hunger Index) next only to [Punjab](Punjab, India). In 2015 Kerala became the first "complete digital state" by implementing e-governance initiatives. ### Healthcare Kerala is a pioneer in implementing the [health care](universal)(universal health care) program. The [fertility](sub-replacement)(sub-replacement fertility) level and [mortality rate](infant)(infant mortality rate) are lower compared to those of other states, estimated from 12 to 14 deaths per 1,000 live births; as per the National Family Health Survey 2015–16, it has dropped to 6. According to a study commissioned by [Lien](Lien Ying Chow) Foundation, a [Singapore](Singapore)-based philanthropic organisation, Kerala is considered to be the best place to die in India based on the state's provision of palliative care for patients with serious illnesses. However, Kerala's [rate](morbidity)(morbidity rate) is higher than that of any other Indian state—118 (rural) and 88 (urban) per 1,000 people. The corresponding figures for all India were 55 and 54 per 1,000, respectively . Kerala's 13.3% [prevalence](prevalence) of [birth weight](low)(low birth weight) is higher than that of many [world](first)(first world) nations. Outbreaks of [disease](water-borne)(water-borne disease)s such as [diarrhoea](diarrhoea), [dysentery](dysentery), [hepatitis](hepatitis), and [typhoid](typhoid) among the more than 50% of people who rely on 3 million [well](water)(water well)s is an issue worsened by the lack of [sewers](sanitary sewer). As of 2017, the state has the highest number of diabetes patients and also the highest prevalence rate of the disease in India. The [Nations Children's Fund](United)(United Nations Children's Fund) (UNICEF) and the [Health Organization](World)(World Health Organization) designated Kerala the world's first "[baby-friendly](Baby Friendly Hospital Initiative) state" because of its effective promotion of breast-feeding over formulas. Over 95% of Keralite births are hospital delivered and the state also has the lowest infant mortality rate in the country. The third National Family Health Survey ranks Kerala first in "Institutional Delivery" with 100% births in medical facilities. [Ayurveda](Ayurveda), [siddha](siddha), and endangered and endemic modes of [medicine](traditional)(traditional medicine), including kalari, marmachikitsa and vishavaidyam, are practised. Some occupational communities such as [Kaniyar](Kaniyar) were known as native medicine men in relation to the practice of such streams of medical systems, apart from their traditional vocation.Angus Stewart, woodburn The Religious attitude: A psychological study of its differentiation, 1927 These propagate via [gurukula](gurukula) discipleship, and comprise a fusion of both medicinal and alternative treatments. The [Vaidya Sala](Arya)(Arya Vaidya Sala) established by [P. S. Warrier](Vaidyaratnam)(Vaidyaratnam P. S. Warrier) at [Kottakkal](Kottakkal) (about 10 km from [Malappuram](Malappuram)) in 1902, is the largest Ayurvedic medicinal network and health centre in the state. It is also one of the largest Ayurvedic medicinal brands in the world. In 2014, Kerala became the first state in India to offer free cancer treatment to the poor, via a program called Sukrutham. People in Kerala experience elevated incidence of [cancer](cancer)s, [liver](Liver disease) and [kidney](Kidney disease) diseases. In April 2016, the Economic Times reported that 250,000 residents undergo treatment for cancer. It also reported that approximately 150 to 200 liver transplants are conducted in the region's hospitals annually. Approximately 42,000 cancer cases are reported in the region annually. This is believed to be an underestimate as private hospitals may not be reporting their figures. Long waiting lists for kidney donations has stimulated illegal trade in human kidneys, and prompted the establishment of the Kidney Federation of India which aims to support financially disadvantaged patients. As of 2017–18, there are 6,691 modern medicine institutions under the department of health services, of which the total bed strength is 37,843; 15,780 in rural areas and 22,063 in urban. ### Language \|label1 = [Malayalam](Malayalam) \|value1 = 97.02 \|color1 = orange \|label2 = [Tamil](Tamil language) \|value2 = 1.49 \|color2 = blue \|label3 = Others \|value3 = 1.49 \|color3 = red }} [Malayalam](Malayalam) is the official language of Kerala, and one of the six [languages of India](Classical)(Languages of India). There is a significant [Tamil](Tamil language) population in [Idukki](Idukki district) district, which accounts for 17.48% of its total population. [Tulu](Tulu language) and [Kannada](Kannada) are spoken mainly in the northern parts of [district](Kasaragod)(Kasaragod district), each of which account for 8.77% and 4.23% of total population in the district, respectively. ### Religion \|label1 = [Hinduism](Hinduism in Kerala) \|value1 = 54.73 \|color1 = darkorange \|label2 = [Islam](Islam in Kerala) \|value2 = 26.56 \|color2 = Green \|label3 = [Christianity](Christianity in Kerala) \|value3 = 18.38 \|color3 = Blue \|label4 = Other or none \|value4 = 0.32 \|color4 = black }} Kerala is very religiously diverse with [Hindus](Hindus), [Muslims](Muslims) and [Christians](Christians) having a significant population throughout the state, Kerala is often regarded as one of the most diverse states in all of India. [Hinduism](Hinduism) is the most widely professed faith in Kerala, with significant [Muslim](Muslim) and [Christian](Christians) minorities. In comparison with the rest of India, Kerala experiences relatively little [sectarianism](sectarianism). According to [Census of India](2011)(2011 Census of India) figures, 54.7% of Kerala's residents are Hindus, 26.6% are Muslims, 18.4% are Christians, and the remaining 0.3% follow another religion or have no religious affiliation. [Hindu](Hindu)s represent the biggest religious group in all districts except [Malappuram](Malappuram district), where they are outnumbered by Muslims. Kerala has the largest population of Christians in India. As of 2016, Hindus, Muslims, Christians and others account for 41.9%, 42.6%, 15.4% and 0.2% of the total child births in the state, respectively. The mythological legends regarding the origin of Kerala are Hindu in nature. Kerala produced several saints and movements. [Shankara](Adi)(Adi Shankara) was a religious philosopher who contributed to Hinduism and propagated the philosophy of [Advaita](Advaita). He was instrumental in establishing four [matha](matha)s at [Sringeri](Sringeri), [Dwarka](Dwarka), [Puri](Puri) and [Jyotirmath](Jyotirmath). [Narayana Bhattathiri](Melpathur)(Melpathur Narayana Bhattathiri) was another religious figure who composed [Narayaniyam](Narayaniyam), a collection of verses in praise of the Hindu God [Krishna](Krishna). Islam arrived in Kerala, a part of the larger [Ocean](Indian)(Indian Ocean) rim, via spice and silk traders from the [East](Middle)(Middle East). Historians do not rule out the possibility of Islam being introduced to Kerala as early as the seventh century CE.Katz 2000; Koder 1973; Thomas Puthiakunnel 1973; David de Beth Hillel, 1832; Lord, James Henry 1977. Notable has been the occurrence of [Perumal Tajuddin](Cheraman)(Legend of Cheraman Perumals), the mythical Hindu king that moved to [Arabia](Arabia) to meet the Islamic [Prophet](Prophet) [Muhammad](Muhammad) and converted to Islam.Minu Ittyipe; [Solomon](Solomon) to Cheraman; Outlook Indian Magazine; 2012 Kerala Muslims are generally referred to as the [Mappila](Mappila)s. Mappilas are but one among the many communities that forms the Muslim population of Kerala.Kunhali, V. "Muslim Communities in Kerala to 1798" PhD Dissertation Aligarh Muslim University (1986) [https://ir.amu.ac.in/2736/1/T%205242.pdf] According to the [of Cheraman Perumals](Legend)(Legend of Cheraman Perumals), the first Indian mosque was built in at [Kodungallur](Kodungallur) with the mandate of the last the ruler (the Cheraman Perumal) of [dynasty](Chera)(Chera dynasty), who converted to Islam during the lifetime of [Muhammad](Prophet)(Muhammad) (–632). According to [Shakarwati Farmad](Qissat)(Qissat Shakarwati Farmad), the [Masjids](Mosque) at [Kodungallur](Kodungallur), [Kollam](Kollam), [Madayi](Madayi), [Barkur](Barkur), [Mangalore](Mangalore), [Kasaragod](Kasaragod), [Kannur](Kannur), [Dharmadam](Dharmadam), [Panthalayini](Koyilandy), and [Chaliyam](Chaliyam), were built during the era of [Dinar](Malik)(Malik Dinar), and they are among the oldest Masjids in the [subcontinent](Indian)(Indian subcontinent). It is believed that [Dinar](Malik)(Malik Dinar) died at [Thalangara](Thalangara) in [Kasaragod](Kasaragod) town.A. Sreedhara Menon (1978), Cultural heritage of Kerala: an introduction, East-West Publications, p. 58 According to popular tradition, [Islam](Islam) was brought to [Lakshadweep](Lakshadweep) islands, on the western side of Kerala, by [Ubaidullah](Sheikh Ubaidullah) in 661 CE. His grave is believed to be located on the island of [Andrott](Andrott). A few [Umayyad](Umayyad Caliphate) (661–750 CE) coins were discovered from [Kothamangalam](Kothamangalam) in the eastern part of [district](Ernakulam)(Ernakulam district). According to some scholars, the Mappilas are the oldest settled Muslim community in South Asia.Miller, E. Roland. "Mappila Muslim Culture" State University of New York Press, Albany (2015); p. xi.Miller, R. E. "Mappila" in The Encyclopedia of Islam Volume VI. Leiden E. J. Brill 1988 pp. 458–66 [https://books.google.com/books?id=SiBkMSIZ2LYC&q=editions:lTASeHyksMsC] The monopoly of overseas spice trade from [Coast](Malabar)(Malabar Coast) was safe with the West Asian shipping magnates of Kerala ports. The Muslims were a major financial power to be reckoned within the kingdoms of Kerala and had great political influence in the Hindu royal courts. The Koyilandy Jumu'ah Mosque contains an [Malayalam](Old)(Old Malayalam) inscription written in a mixture of [Vatteluttu](Vatteluttu) and [script](Grantha)(Grantha script)s which dates back to the 10th century CE.Aiyer, K. V. Subrahmanya (ed.), South Indian Inscriptions. VIII, no. 162, Madras: Govt of India, Central Publication Branch, Calcutta, 1932. p. 69. It is a rare surviving document recording patronage by a Kerala king to the [Muslim](Muslim)s of Kerala. A 13th century granite inscription, written in a mixture of Old Malayalam and [Arabic](Arabic), at [Mosque](Muchundi)(Muchundi Mosque) in [Kozhikode](Kozhikode) mentions a donation by the king to the mosque.M. G. S. Narayanan. "Kozhikkodinte Katha". Malayalam/Essays. Mathrubhumi Books. Second Edition (2017) Travellers have recorded the considerably huge presence of Muslim merchants and settlements of sojourning traders in most of the ports of Kerala. Immigration, intermarriage and missionary activity/conversion—secured by the common interest in the spice trade—helped in this development.Prange, Sebastian R. Monsoon Islam: Trade and Faith on the Medieval Malabar Coast. Cambridge University Press, 2018. Most of the Muslims in Kerala follow the [Shāfiʿī](Shafi'i) [of religious law](school)(Madh'hab) ([Kerala Jamiat-ul-Ulema](Samastha)(Samastha Kerala Jem-iyyathul Ulama (1989–present))) while a large minority follow movements that developed within [Islam](Sunni)(Sunni Islam). The latter section consists of majority [Salafists](Salafi movement) ([Nadvathul Mujahideen](Kerala)(Kerala Nadvathul Mujahideen)). There is a large Keralan diaspora in the [East](Middle)(Middle East).Miller, Roland. E., "Mappila" in The Encyclopedia of Islam. Volume VI. E. J. Brill, Leiden. 1987 pp. 458–56. Ancient Christian tradition says that Christianity reached the shores of Kerala in 52 CE with the arrival of [the Apostle](Thomas)(Thomas the Apostle), one of the [Apostles](Twelve)(Twelve Apostles) of [Christ](Jesus)(Jesus).Menachery G; 1973, 1998; Mundalan, A. M; 1984; Podipara, Placid J. 1970; Leslie Brown, 1956 [Thomas Christians](Saint)(Saint Thomas Christians) include [Catholic](Syro-Malabar)(Syro-Malabar Church), [Catholic](Syro-Malankara)(Syro-Malankara Catholic Church), [Syrian Christian Church](Jacobite)(Jacobite Syrian Christian Church), [Thoma Syrian Church](Mar)(Mar Thoma Syrian Church), [Orthodox Syrian Church](Malankara)(Malankara Orthodox Syrian Church), the [Anglicans](Syrian)(Saint Thomas Anglicans) of the [CSI](Church of South India) and [Saint Thomas Christians](Pentecostal)(Pentecostal Saint Thomas Christians). The origin of the [Catholic](Latin)(Latin Church) Christians in Kerala is the result of the missionary endeavours of the Portuguese [Padroado](Padroado) in the 16th century. As a consequence of centuries of mixing with colonial immigrants, beginning with the Portuguese, Dutch, French, British and other Europeans, there is a community of [Anglo-Indians](Anglo-Indians) in Kerala of mixed European and Indian parentage or ancestry. Kerala has the highest population of Christians among all the states of India.Singh, Anjana. "Fort Cochin in Kerala 1750–1830 The Social Condition of a Dutch Community in an Indian Milieu." Brill, Leiden Boston: 2010, 3: 92. [Judaism](Judaism) reached Kerala in the 10th century BCE during the time of [Solomon](King)(Solomon).Weil, Shalva. "Jews in India." in M.Avrum Erlich (ed.) Encyclopedia of the Jewish Diaspora, Santa Barbara, CA: ABC CLIO. 2008, 3: 1204–12. They are called [Jews](Cochin)(Cochin Jews) or Malabar Jews and are the oldest group of [in India](Jews)(History of the Jews in India).Weil, Shalva. India's Jewish Heritage: Ritual, Art and Life-Cycle, Mumbai: Marg Publications, 2009. [published in 2002; 3rd edn.](first). Katz 200/Religion / 0; Koder 1973; Menachery 1998 There was a significant Jewish community which existed in Kerala until the 20th century, when most of them [to Israel](migrated)(Aliyah). The [Synagogue](Paradesi)(Cochin Synagogue) at [Kochi](Kochi) is the oldest synagogue in the [Commonwealth](Commonwealth Nations). [Jainism](Jainism in Kerala) has a considerable following in the [district](Wayanad)(Wayanad district). Buddhism was popular in the time of Ashoka but vanished by the 12th century CE. Certain Hindu communities such as the [Kshatriyas](Samantan)(Samantha Kshatriya), [Ambalavasi](Ambalavasi)s, [Nair](Nair)s, [Thiyya](Thiyya)s and some Muslims around North Malabar used to follow a traditional matrilineal system known as [marumakkathayam](marumakkathayam), although this practice ended in the years after Indian independence. Other [Muslim](Muslim)s, Christians, and some Hindu castes such as the Namboothiris, most of the [castes](Ambalavasi)(Ambalavasi) and the Ezhavas followed makkathayam, a patrilineal system. Owing to the former matrilineal system, women in Kerala enjoy a high social status."Kerala." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 8 June 2008 However, gender inequality among low caste men and women is reportedly higher compared to that in other castes. ## Education The [school of astronomy and mathematics](Kerala)(Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics) flourished between the 14th and 16th centuries. In attempting to solve astronomical problems, the Kerala school independently created a number of important mathematics concepts, including [expansion](series)(series expansion) for trigonometric functions. The Kerala School of Astronomy and Mathematics was based at [Vettathunadu](Kingdom of Tanur) ([region](Tirur)(Tirur Taluk)). In the early decades of the 19th century, the modern educational transformation of Kerala was triggered by the efforts of the [Mission Society](Church)(Church Mission Society) missionaries to promote mass education. }} Following the recommendations of the [despatch](Wood's)(Wood's despatch) of 1854, the princely states of Travancore and Cochin launched mass education drives mainly based on castes and communities, and introduced a system of [grant-in-aid](grant-in-aid) to attract more private initiatives. The efforts by leaders such as [Swami](Vaikunda)(Ayya Vaikundar), [Guru](Narayana)(Narayana Guru), [Ayyankali](Ayyankali), and [Elias Chavara](Kuriakose)(Kuriakose Elias Chavara) in aiding the socially discriminated castes in the state—with the help of community-based organisations like [Service Society](Nair)(Nair Service Society), [SNDP](Sree Narayana Trust), [Educational Society](Muslim)(Muslim Educational Society), Muslim Mahajana Sabha, Yoga Kshema Sabha (of Nambudiris) and congregations of Christian churches—led to the further development of mass education in Kerala. According to the first economic census, conducted in 1977, 99.7% of the villages in Kerala had a primary school within , 98.6% had a middle school within and 96.7% had a high school or higher secondary school within . In 1991, Kerala became the first state in India to be recognised as completely literate, although the effective literacy rate at that time was only 90%. In 2006–2007, the state topped the Education Development Index (EDI) of the 21 major states in India. , enrolment in elementary education was almost 100%; and, unlike other states in India, educational opportunity was almost equally distributed among sexes, social groups, and regions. According to the 2011 census, Kerala has a 93.9% literacy, compared to the national literacy rate of 74.0%. In January 2016, Kerala became the first Indian state to achieve 100% primary education through its Athulyam literacy programme. The educational system prevailing in the state's schools specifies an initial 10-year course of study, which is divided into three stages: lower primary, upper primary, and secondary school—known as 4+3+3, which signifies the number of years for each stage. After the first 10 years of schooling, students typically enroll in [Secondary Schooling](Higher)(Junior college) in one of the three major streams—[arts](liberal)(liberal arts), commerce, or science. Upon completing the required coursework, students can enroll in general or professional undergraduate (UG) degree-college programmes. The majority of public schools are affiliated with the [Board of Public Examination](Kerala)(Kerala Board of Public Examination) (KBPE). There are 15,892 schools under KBPE, of which 5,986 are [schools](government)(State school), 8,183 are aided schools, and the rest are either [un-aided](Unaided educational institution) or technical schools. Other educational boards are the [Certificate of Secondary Education](Indian)(Indian Certificate of Secondary Education) (ICSE), the [Board for Secondary Education](Central)(Central Board for Secondary Education) (CBSE), and the [Institute of Open Schooling](National)(National Institute of Open Schooling) (NIOS). English is the language of instruction in most self-financing schools, while government and government-aided schools offer instruction in English or Malayalam. Though the cost of education is generally considered low in Kerala,Najith Kumar, K.K. George, "Kerala's education system: from inclusion to exclusion", [and Political Weekly](Economic)(Economic and Political Weekly), 10 October 2009, VOL XLIV, NO 41, page 55 according to the 61st round of the National Sample Survey (2004–2005), per capita spending on education by the rural households was reported to be for Kerala, more than twice the national average. The survey also revealed that the rural-urban difference in household expenditure on education was much less in Kerala than in the rest of India.Najith Kumar, K.K. George, "Kerala's education system: from inclusion to exclusion", Economic and Political Weekly, 10 October 2009, VOL XLIV, NO 41, page 56 [College](CMS)(CMS College), [Kottayam](Kottayam), established in 1817, is the first western-style college, and one of the oldest colleges, in India. [Brennen College, Thalassery](Government)(Government Brennen College, Thalassery), founded by philanthropist [Brennen](Edward)(Edward Brennen) in 1862, and [Victoria College, Palakkad](Government)(Government Victoria College, Palakkad), founded in 1866, are among the oldest educational institutions in India. The [Kerala](KITE)(KITE Kerala) is a state owned [purpose company](special)(special purpose company) under education department of the [of Kerala](Government)(Government of Kerala). It was developed to support [ICT](Information and communications technology) enabled education for schools in the state. The erstwhile [Project](IT@School)(IT@School Project) was transformed into KITE for extending its scope of operations in August 2017. Kerala is the first Indian state to have ICT-enabled education with hi-tech classrooms in all public schools. Kerala topped in the School Education Quality Index published by [Aayog](NITI)(NITI Aayog) in 2019. The [Naval Academy](Indian)(Indian Naval Academy), located at [Ezhimala](Ezhimala), is Asia's largest, and the world's third-largest, naval academy. ## Culture The culture of Kerala is composite and cosmopolitan in nature and it is an integral part of [culture](Indian)(Indian culture). It is a synthesis of [Aryan](Indo-Aryan peoples), [Dravidian](South Indian culture), [Arab](Arab culture), and [European](Culture of Europe) cultures, developed over millennia, under influences from other parts of India and abroad. It is defined by its antiquity and the organic continuity sustained by the [people](Malayali)(Malayali people). It was elaborated through centuries of contact with neighbouring and overseas cultures. However, the geographical insularity of Kerala from the rest of the country has resulted in the development of a distinctive lifestyle, art, architecture, language, literature and social institutions. Over 10,000 festivals are celebrated in the state every year. The [calendar](Malayalam)(Malayalam calendar), a solar sidereal calendar started from 825 CE in Kerala, finds common usage in planning agricultural and religious activities. [Malayalam](Malayalam), one of the classical languages in India, is Kerala's [language](official)(official language). Over a dozen other [and unscheduled languages](scheduled)(Languages with official status in India) are also spoken. Kerala has the greatest consumption of alcohol in India. ### Festivals Many of the temples in Kerala hold festivals on specific days of the year. A common characteristic of these festivals is the hoisting of a holy flag which is brought down on the final day of the festival after immersing the deity. Some festivals include Poorams, the best known of these being the [Pooram](Thrissur)(Thrissur Pooram). "Elephants, firework displays and huge crowds" are the major attractions of Thrissur Pooram. Other known festivals are [Makaravilakku](Makaravilakku), [Pooram](Chinakkathoor)(Chinakkathoor Pooram), [Pongala](Attukal)(Attukal Pongala) and [Vallangi Vela](Nenmara)(Nenmara Vallangi Vela) Other than these, festivals locally known as [utsavam](utsavam)s are conducted by many temples mostly on annual basis. Temples that can afford it will usually involve at least one richly caparisoned elephant as part of the festivities. The idol in the temple is taken out on a procession around the countryside atop this elephant. When the procession visits homes around the temple, people will usually present rice, coconuts, and other offerings to it. Processions often include traditional music such as [melam](Panchari)(Panchari melam) or [Panchavadyam](Panchavadyam). [al-Fitr](Eid)(Eid al-Fitr) and [al-Adha](Eid)(Eid al-Adha) are celebrated by the Muslim community of the state while the festivals like [Christmas](Christmas) and [Easter](Easter) are observed by the Christians. #### Onam Onam is a harvest festival celebrated by the people of Kerala and is reminiscent of the state's agrarian past. It is a local festival of Kerala consisting of a four-day public holidays; from Onam Eve (Uthradam) to the fourth Onam Day. Onam falls in the Malayalam month of Chingam (August–September) and marks the commemoration of the homecoming of King [Mahabali](Mahabali). The total duration of Onam is 10 days and it is celebrated all across Kerala. It is one of the festivals celebrated with cultural elements such as [Kali](Vallam)(Vallam Kali), Kerala Boat Races Onam Kerala Backwaters Kerala \|url=https://www.keralatourism.org/kerala-article/2020/vallamkali-resplendent-water-regattas-of-kerala/1017 \|access-date=2021-06-09\|website=Kerala Tourism \|language=en}} [Pulikali](Pulikali), Pookkalam, Thumbi Thullal and [Onavillu](Onavillu). ### Dance Kerala is home to a number of [art](performance)(performance art)s. These include five classical dance forms: [Kathakali](Kathakali), [Mohiniyattam](Mohiniyattam), [Koodiyattom](Koodiyattom), [Thullal](Ottan thullal) and [Krishnanattam](Krishnanattam), which originated and developed in the temple theatres during the classical period under the patronage of royal houses. [natanam](Kerala)(Kerala natanam), [Thirayattam](Thirayattam),"Thirayattam" (Folklore Text-Malayalam), State Institute of language, Kerala [Kaliyattam](Kaliyattam), [Theyyam](Theyyam), [Koothu](Koothu) and [Padayani](Padayani) are other dance forms associated with the temple culture of the region. Some traditional dance forms such as [Oppana](Oppana) and [Duffmuttu](Duffmuttu) were popular among the Muslims of the state, while [Margamkali](Margamkali) and [Parichamuttukali](Parichamuttukali) are popular among the Syrian Christians and [nadakom](Chavittu)(Chavittu nadakom) is popular among the Latin Christians. ### Music The development of classical music in Kerala is attributed to the contributions it received from the traditional performance arts associated with the temple culture of Kerala. The development of the indigenous classical music form, [Sangeetham](Sopana)(Sopana Sangeetham), illustrates the rich contribution that temple culture has made to the arts of Kerala. [music](Carnatic)(Carnatic music) dominates Keralite traditional music. This was the result of [Thirunal Rama Varma](Swathi)(Swathi Thirunal Rama Varma)'s popularisation of the genre in the 19th century. Raga-based renditions known as sopanam accompany kathakali performances. Melam; including the paandi and panchari variants, is a more percussive style of music: it is performed at [Kshetram](mandir)-centered festivals using the [chenda](chenda). Panchavadyam is a form of percussion ensemble, in which artists use five types of percussion instrument. Kerala's visual arts range from [murals](traditional)(Murals of Kerala) to the works of [Ravi Varma](Raja)(Raja Ravi Varma), the state's most renowned painter. Most of the castes and communities in Kerala have rich collections of folk songs and ballads associated with a variety of themes; [Pattukal](Vadakkan)(Vadakkan Pattukal) (Northern Ballads), Thekkan pattukal (Southern Ballads), Vanchi pattukal (Boat Songs), [Pattukal](Mappila)(Mappila Pattukal) (Muslim songs) and Pallipattukal (Church songs) are a few of them. ### Cinema [films](Malayalam)(Malayalam Cinema) carved a niche for themselves in the Indian film industry with the presentation of social themes. Directors from Kerala, like [Gopalakrishnan](Adoor)(Adoor Gopalakrishnan), [Ravi Varma](Mankada)(Mankada Ravi Varma), [Aravindan](G.)(G. Aravindan), [Bharathan](Bharathan), [Padmarajan](P.)(P. Padmarajan), [Vasudevan Nair](M.T.)(M.T.Vasudevan Nair), [George](K.G.)(K.G. George), [Priyadarshan](Priyadarshan), [Abraham](John)(John Abraham (director)), [Karyat](Ramu)(Ramu Karyat), [S Sethumadhavan](K)(K S Sethumadhavan), [Vincent](A.)(A. Vincent) and [N Karun](Shaji)(Shaji N Karun) have made a considerable contribution to the Indian [cinema](parallel)(parallel cinema). Kerala has also given birth to numerous actors, such as [Mohanlal](Mohanlal), [Mammootty](Mammootty), [Satyan](Satyan), [Nazir](Prem)(Prem Nazir), [Madhu](Madhu (actor)), [Sheela](Sheela), [Sharada](Sharada (actress)), [Kumari](Miss)(Miss Kumari), [Jayan](Jayan), [Bhasi](Adoor)(Adoor Bhasi), [Seema](Seema (actress)), [Gopi](Bharath)(Bharath Gopi), [Thilakan](Thilakan), [Raghavan](Vijaya)(Vijaya Raghavan), [Mani](Kalabhavan)(Kalabhavan Mani), [Indrans](Indrans), [Shobana](Shobana), [Pauly](Nivin)(Nivin Pauly), [Sreenivasan](Sreenivasan), [Urvashi](Urvashi (actress)), [Warrier](Manju)(Manju Warrier), [Gopi](Suresh)(Suresh Gopi), [Jayaram](Jayaram), [Murali](Murali (Malayalam actor)), [Shankaradi](Shankaradi), [Madhavan](Kavya)(Kavya Madhavan), [Menon](Bhavana)(Bhavana Menon), [Prithviraj](Prithviraj Sukumaran), [(actress)](Parvathy)(Parvathy Thiruvothu), [Jayasurya](Jayasurya), [Salmaan](Dulquer)(Dulquer Salmaan), [Unnikrishnan](Oduvil)(Oduvil Unnikrishnan), [Sreekumar](Jagathy)(Jagathy Sreekumar), [Venu](Nedumudi)(Nedumudi Venu), [Lalitha](KPAC)(KPAC Lalitha), [Innocent](Innocent (actor)) and [Fazil](Fahad)(Fahad Fazil). Late Malayalam actor Prem Nazir holds the world record for having acted as the protagonist of over 720 movies. Since the 1980s, actors [Mohanlal](Mohanlal) and [Mammootty](Mammootty) have dominated the movie industry; Mohanlal has won five National Film Awards (four for acting), while Mammootty has three National Film Awards for acting. Malayalam Cinema has produced a few more notable personalities such as [Yesudas](K.J.)(K.J. Yesudas), [Chitra](K.S.)(K.S. Chitra), [Sreekumar](M.G.)(M. G. Sreekumar), [Rama Varma](Vayalar)(Vayalar Rama Varma), [Madhusoodanan Nair](V.)(V. Madhusoodanan Nair), [Vasudevan Nair](M.T.)(M.T. Vasudevan Nair) and [Kurup](O.N.V.)(O.N.V. Kurup), the last two mentioned being recipients of [award](Jnanpith)(Jnanpith award), the highest literary award in India. [Pookutty](Resul)(Resul Pookutty), who is from Kerala, is only the second Indian to win an [award for sound design](academy)(Academy Award for Best Sound Mixing), for the breakthrough film [Millionaire](Slumdog)(Slumdog Millionaire). As of 2018, [cinema](Malayalam)(Malayalam cinema) has got 14 awards for the best actor, 6 for the best actress, 11 for the best film, and 13 for the best film director in the [Film Awards](National)(National Film Awards), [India](India). ### Literature The [literature](Sangam)(Sangam literature) can be considered as the ancient predecessor of [Malayalam](Malayalam). [literature](Malayalam)(Malayalam literature) starts from the [Malayalam](Old)(Old Malayalam) period (9th–13th century CE) and includes such notable writers as the 14th-century [poets](Niranam)(Niranam poets) (Madhava Panikkar, Sankara Panikkar and Rama Panikkar), and the 16th-century poet [Ezhuthachan](Thunchaththu)(Ezhuthachan), whose works mark the dawn of both the modern Malayalam language and its poetry. For the first 600 years of [calendar](Malayalam)(Kollam Era), the literature mainly consisted of the oral [Ballad](Ballad)s such as [Pattukal](Vadakkan)(Vadakkan Pattukal) in [Malabar](North)(North Malabar) and Thekkan Pattukal in [Travancore](Southern)(Southern Division (Travancore)). Designated a "[Language in India](Classical)(Classical Language in India)" in 2013, it developed into the current form mainly by the influence of the poets [Namboothiri](Cherusseri)(Cherusseri Namboothiri), [Ezhuthachan](Thunchaththu)(Thunchaththu Ezhuthachan), and [Nambudiri](Poonthanam)(Poonthanam Nambudiri), in the 15th and the 16th centuries of [Era](Common)(Common Era).Freeman, Rich (2003). "Genre and Society: The Literary Culture of Premodern Kerala". In Literary Cultures in History: Reconstructions from South Asia [Variyar](Unnayi)(Unnayi Variyar), a probable poet of the 17th/18th century CE, and [Nambiar](Kunchan)(Kunchan Nambiar), a poet of the 18th century CE, have also influenced a lot in the growth of modern Malayalam literature in its pre-mature form. The [Bharathappuzha](Bharathappuzha) river, also known as [Ponnani](River)(Ponnani), and its tributaries, have played a major role in the development of modern Malayalam Literature. [Thoma Kathanar](Paremmakkal)(Paremmakkal Thoma Kathanar) and [Varma Valiakoi Thampuran](Kerala)(Kerala Varma Valiakoi Thampuran) are noted for their contribution to Malayalam prose. The "[of poets](triumvirate)(triumvirate poets of modern malayalam)" (Kavithrayam): [Asan](Kumaran)(Kumaran Asan), [Narayana Menon](Vallathol)(Vallathol Narayana Menon), and [S. Parameswara Iyer](Ulloor)(Ulloor S. Parameswara Iyer), are recognised for moving Keralite poetry away from archaic sophistry and metaphysics, and towards a more [lyrical](lyrics) mode. The poets like [Vaidyar](Moyinkutty)(Moyinkutty Vaidyar) and [Hyder](Pulikkottil)(Pulikkottil Hyder) have made notable contributions to the [songs](Mappila)(Mappila songs), which is a genre of the [Malayalam](Arabi)(Arabi Malayalam) literature.Pg 167, Mappila Muslims: a study on society and anti colonial struggles By Husain Raṇdathaṇi, Other Books, Kozhikode 2007 The first travelogue in any Indian language is the Malayalam [Varthamanappusthakam](Varthamanappusthakam), written by [Thoma Kathanar](Paremmakkal)(Paremmakkal Thoma Kathanar) in 1785. The prose literature, [journalism](Malayalam)(Malayalam journalism), and criticism began after the latter-half of the 18th century. Contemporary Malayalam literature deals with social, political, and economic life context. The tendency of the modern literature is often towards [radicalism](political)(political radicalism). [literature](Malayalam)(Malayalam literature) has been presented with 6 [awards](Jnanapith)(Jnanpith Award), the second-most for any Dravidian language and the third-highest for any Indian language. In the second half of the 20th century, [Jnanpith](Jnanpith) winning poets and writers like [Sankara Kurup](G.)(G. Sankara Kurup), [K. Pottekkatt](S.)(S. K. Pottekkatt), [Sivasankara Pillai](Thakazhi)(Thakazhi Sivasankara Pillai), [T. Vasudevan Nair](M.)(M. T. Vasudevan Nair), [N. V. Kurup](O.)(O. N. V. Kurup), and [Achuthan Namboothiri](Akkitham)(Akkitham Achuthan Namboothiri), had made valuable contributions to the modern Malayalam literature. Later, writers like [V. Vijayan](O.)(O. V. Vijayan), [Kamaladas](Kamaladas), [Mukundan](M.)(M. Mukundan), [Roy](Arundhati)(Arundhati Roy), [Muhammed Basheer](Vaikom)(Vaikom Muhammed Basheer), have gained international recognition. ### Cuisine Kerala cuisine includes a wide variety of vegetarian and non-vegetarian dishes prepared using fish, poultry, and meat. Culinary spices have been cultivated in Kerala for millennia and they are characteristic of its cuisine. Rice is a dominant staple that is eaten at all times of day. A majority of the breakfast foods in Kerala are made out of rice, in one form or the other ([idli](idli), [dosa](Dosa (food)), [puttu](puttu), [pathiri](pathiri), [appam](appam), or [idiyappam](idiyappam)), [tapioca](tapioca) preparations, or pulse-based [vada](Vada (food)). These may be accompanied by [chutney](chutney), [kadala](Chickpea), [payasam](payasam), [payar](Mung bean) [pappadam](pappadam), [appam](appam), chicken curry, beef fry, egg masala and fish curry. [Porotta](Porotta) and [Biryani](Biryani) are also often found in restaurants in Kerala. Thalassery biryani is popular as an ethnic brand. Lunch dishes include [and curry](rice)(rice and curry) along with [rasam](Rasam (dish)), pulisherry and [sambar](Sambar (dish)). [Sadhya](Sadhya) is a vegetarian meal, which is served on a banana leaf and followed with a cup of payasam. Popular snacks include [chip](banana)(banana chip)s, yam crisps, [chip](tapioca)(tapioca chip)s, [Achappam](Achappam), [appam](Unni)(Unni appam) and kuzhalappam. Seafood specialties include [karimeen](karimeen), prawns, shrimp and other crustacean dishes. [Cuisine](Thalassery)(Thalassery Cuisine) is varied and is a blend of many influences. ### Elephants Elephants have been an integral part of the culture of the state. Almost all of the local festivals in Kerala include at least one richly caparisoned elephant. Kerala is home to the largest domesticated population of elephants in India—about 700 [elephants](Indian)(Indian elephants), owned by temples as well as individuals. These elephants are mainly employed for the processions and displays associated with festivals celebrated all around the state. More than 10,000 festivals are celebrated in the state annually and some animal lovers have sometimes raised concerns regarding the overwork of domesticated elephants during them. In Malayalam literature, elephants are referred to as the "sons of the [sahya](sahyadri)". The elephant is the state animal of Kerala and is featured on the emblem of the [of Kerala](Government)(Government of Kerala). ## Media The media, telecommunications, broadcasting and cable services are regulated by the [Regulatory Authority of India](Telecom)(Telecom Regulatory Authority of India) (TRAI). The National Family Health Survey – 4, conducted in 2015–16, ranked Kerala as the state with the [media exposure in India](highest)(Indian states ranking by media exposure). Dozens of newspapers are published in Kerala, in nine major languages, but principally Malayalam and English. Kerala has the [media exposure in India](highest)(Indian states ranking by media exposure). The most widely circulated [newspapers](Malayalam-language)(List of Malayalam language newspapers) are [Manorama](Malayala)(Malayala Manorama), [Mathrubhumi](Mathrubhumi), [Deshabhimani](Deshabhimani), [Madhyamam](Madhyamam), [Kaumudi](Kerala)(Kerala Kaumudi), [Mangalam](Mangalam Publications), [Chandrika](Chandrika (Malayalam newspaper)), [Deepika](Deepika (newspaper)), [Janayugam](Janayugam), [Janmabhumi](Janmabhumi), [Daily](Siraj)(Siraj Daily) and [Suprabhaatham](Suprabhaatham Daily). [Malayalam periodicals](Major)(List of Malayalam periodicals) include [Azhchappathippu](Mathrubhumi)(Mathrubhumi Azhchappathippu), [Vanitha](Vanitha), [Today Malayalam](India)(India Today), [Weekly](Madhyamam)(Madhyamam Weekly), [Grihalakshmi](Grihalakshmi (magazine)), [Dhanam](Dhanam (business magazine)), [Chithrabhumi](Chithrabhumi) and [Bhashaposhini](Bhashaposhini). [Hindu](The)(The Hindu) is the most read English language newspaper in the state, followed by [New Indian Express](The)(The New Indian Express). Other dailies include [Chronicle](Deccan)(Deccan Chronicle), [Times of India](The)(The Times of India), [DNA](Daily News & Analysis), [Economic Times](The)(The Economic Times) and [Financial Express](The)(The Financial Express (India)). [[File:Malayala Manorama New Press in Kollam-3, Apr 2016.jpg\|right\|thumb\|[Manorama](Malayala)(Malayala Manorama) office in [Kottiyam](Kottiyam), [Kollam](Kollam)]] [Malayalam](DD)(DD Malayalam) is the state-owned television broadcaster. [system operator](Multi)(Multi system operator)s provide a mix of Malayalam, English, other Indian language and international channels. Some of the popular Malayalam television channels are [Asianet](Asianet (TV channel)), [News](Asianet)(Asianet News), [Plus](Asianet)(Asianet Plus), [Movies](Asianet)(Asianet Movies), [TV](Surya)(Surya TV), [Movies](Surya)(Surya Movies), [Manorama](Mazhavil)(Mazhavil Manorama), [News](Manorama)(Manorama News), [TV](Kairali)(Kairali TV), [News](Kairali)(Kairali TV), [Flowers](Flowers (TV channel)), [One TV](Media)(Media One TV), [News](Mathrubhumi)(Mathrubhumi News), [TV](Kappa)(Kappa TV), [TV](Amrita)(Amrita TV), [TV](Reporter)(Reporter TV), [Jaihind](Jaihind), [TV](Janam)(Janam TV), [TV](Jeevan)(Jeevan TV), [TV](Kaumudy)(Kaumudy TV) and [TV](Shalom)(Shalom (TV channel)). With the second-highest internet penetration rate in India, [media](Digital)(Digital media)s including [media](Social)(Social media)s and [services](OTT)(Over-the-top media service in India) are a main source of information and entertainment in the state. Malayalam version of [News](Google)(Google News) was launched in September 2008. A sizeable [science movement](People's)(People's science movement) has taken root in the state, and such activities as writer's cooperatives are becoming increasingly common. [BSNL](BSNL), [Airtel](Bharti Airtel), [Idea Limited](Vodafone)(Vodafone Idea Limited), [Jio](Jio) are the major cell phone service providers. Broadband Internet services are widely available throughout the state; some of the major [ISP](ISP)s are [BSNL](BSNL), [Satellite Communications](Asianet)(Asianet Satellite Communications), [Communications](Reliance)(Reliance Communications), [Airtel](Bharti Airtel), [Idea Limited](Vodafone)(Vodafone Idea Limited), [MTS](MTS India), [RailWire](RailTel Corporation of India) and [VSNL](VSNL). According to a TRAI report, as of June 2018 the total number of wireless phone subscribers in Kerala is about 43.1 million and the wireline subscriber base is at 1.9 million, accounting for the [density](telephone)(Telephone Density) of 124.15. Unlike in many other states, the urban-rural divide is not visible in Kerala with respect to mobile phone penetration. ## Sports [[File:Kerala boatrace.jpg\|thumb\|The annual [boat race](snake)(Vallam Kali) is performed during [Onam](Onam) on the [River](Pamba)(Pamba River)]] [[File:The Sports Hub Trivandrum after T20 IND VS NZL.jpg\|thumb\|[International Stadium](Greenfield)(Greenfield International Stadium) in [Thiruvananthapuram](Thiruvananthapuram).]] By the 21st century, almost all of the native sports and games from Kerala have either disappeared or become just an art form performed during local festivals; including [Poorakkali](Poorakkali), Padayani, Thalappandukali, Onathallu, Parichamuttukali, Velakali, and Kilithattukali. However, [Kalaripayattu](Kalaripayattu), regarded as "the mother of all martial arts in the world", is an exception and is practised as the indigenous martial sport. Another traditional sport of Kerala is the boat race, especially the race of [boat](Snake)(Snake boat)s. [[File:Jewaharlal Nehru Stadium Kochi ISL.jpg\|thumb\|[Nehru Stadium](Jawaharlal)(Jawaharlal Nehru Stadium (Kochi)) in [Kochi](Kochi).]] [Cricket](Cricket) and [football](association football) became popular in the state; both were introduced in Malabar during the British colonial period in the 19th century. Cricketers, like [Yohannan](Tinu)(Tinu Yohannan), [Kuruvilla](Abey)(Abey Kuruvilla), [Rizwan](Chundangapoyil)(Chundangapoyil Rizwan), [Sreesanth](Sreesanth), [Samson](Sanju)(Sanju Samson) and [Thampi](Basil)(Basil Thampi) found places in the national cricket team. A cricket franchise from Kerala, the [Tuskers](Kochi)(Kochi Tuskers Kerala), played in the [Premier League](Indian)(Indian Premier League)'s [season](fourth)(2011 Indian Premier League). However, this team was disbanded after the season because of conflicts of interest among its franchises. Kerala has only performed well recently in the [Trophy](Ranji)(Ranji Trophy) cricket competition, in 2017–18 reaching the quarterfinals for the first time in history. Football is one of the most widely played and watched sports with huge in this state support for club and district level matches. Kochi hosts [Blasters FC](Kerala)(Kerala Blasters FC) in the [Super League](Indian)(Indian Super League). The Blasters are one of the most widely supported clubs in the country as well as the fifth most followed football club from [Asia](Asia) in the social media. Seasia.co \|url=https://seasia.co/2018/10/31/top-five-asian-clubs-with-highest-social-media-followers-up-to-october-2018 \|access-date=2020-09-17\|website=Good News from Southeast Asia \|language=en}} News18 Kerala, Sports Latest Malayalam News ലേറ്റസ്റ്റ് മലയാളം വാർത്ത \|url=https://malayalam.news18.com/amp/news/sports/kerala-blasters-become-fifth-asian-club-with-the-biggest-social-media-following-50113.html \|access-date=2020-12-05\|website=malayalam.news18.com}} Also, Kozhikode hosts [Kerala FC](Gokulam)(Gokulam Kerala FC) in the [I-League](I-League) as well as the [Nagjee Football Tournament](Sait)(Sait Nagjee Football Tournament). Kerala is one of the major footballing states in India along with West Bengal and Goa and has produced national players like [M. Vijayan](I.)(I. M. Vijayan), [V. Pappachan](C.)(C. V. Pappachan), [P. Sathyan](V.)(V. P. Sathyan), [Sharaf Ali](U.)(U. Sharaf Ali), [Paul Ancheri](Jo)(Jo Paul Ancheri), [Kuruniyan](Ashique)(Ashique Kuruniyan), [Rafi](Muhammad)(Mohammed Rafi (footballer)), [Jacob](Jiju)(Jiju Jacob), [Shereef](Mashoor)(Mashoor Shereef), [Pradeep](Pappachen)(Pappachen Pradeep), [Vineeth](C.K.)(C.K. Vineeth), [Edathodika](Anas)(Anas Edathodika), [Abdul Samad](Sahal)(Sahal Abdul Samad), and [Anto](Rino)(Rino Anto). The Kerala state football team has won the [Trophy](Santhosh)(Santhosh Trophy) seven times; in 1973, 1992, 1993, 2001, 2004, 2018, and 2022. They were also the runners-up eight times. Among the prominent athletes hailing from the state are [T. Usha](P.)(P. T. Usha), [Wilson](Shiny)(Shiny Wilson) and [Valsamma](M.D.)(M.D. Valsamma), all three of whom are recipients of the [Shri](Padma)(Padma Shri) as well as [Award](Arjuna)(Arjuna Award), while [M. Beenamol](K.)(K. M. Beenamol) and [Bobby George](Anju)(Anju Bobby George) are [Gandhi Khel Ratna](Rajiv)(Rajiv Gandhi Khel Ratna) and Arjuna Award winners. [C. Yohannan](T.)(T. C. Yohannan), [Babu](Suresh)(Suresh Babu), [Paulose](Sinimol)(Sinimol Paulose), Angel Mary Joseph, [Kuttan](Mercy)(Mercy Kuttan), K. Saramma, [C. Rosakutty](K.)(Rosa Kutty), Padmini Selvan and Tintu Luka are the other Arjuna Award winners from Kerala. Volleyball is another popular sport and is often played on makeshift courts on sandy beaches along the coast. [George](Jimmy)(Jimmy George) was a notable Indian volleyball player, rated in his prime as among the world's ten best players. Other popular sports include [badminton](badminton), [basketball](basketball) and [kabaddi](kabaddi). The Indian Hockey team captain [R. Shreejesh](P.)(P. R. Shreejesh), ace goalkeeper hails from Kerala. International Walkers from the state include [T. Irfan](K.)(K. T. Irfan). For the [FIFA U-17 World Cup](2017)(2017 FIFA U-17 World Cup) in [India](India), the [Nehru Stadium (Kochi)](Jawaharlal)(Jawaharlal Nehru Stadium (Kochi)), was chosen as one of the six venues where the game would be hosted in [India](India). [International Stadium](Greenfield)(Greenfield International Stadium) at located at Kariavattom in Thiruvananthapuram city, is India's first DBOT (design, build, operate and transfer) model outdoor stadium and it has hosted international cricket matches and international football matches including [SAFF Championship](2015)(2015 SAFF Championship). ## Tourism Kerala's culture and traditions, coupled with its varied [demographics](demographics of Kerala), have made the state one of the most popular tourist destinations in India. In 2012, [Geographic](National)(National Geographic Society)'s [Traveller](National Geographic Traveler) magazine named Kerala as one of the "ten paradises of the world" and "50 must see destinations of a lifetime". [and Leisure](Travel)(Travel and Leisure) also described Kerala as "One of the 100 great trips for the 21st century". In 2012, it overtook the [Mahal](Taj)(Taj Mahal) to be the number one travel destination in Google's search trends for India. [Travel](CNN)(CNN Travel) listed Kerala amongst its '19 best places to visit in 2019'. Kerala was named by [magazine](TIME)(Time (magazine)) in 2022 among the 50 extraordinary destinations to explore in its list of the World's Greatest Places. Kerala's beaches, backwaters, lakes, mountain ranges, waterfalls, ancient ports, palaces, religious institutions Info Kerala Communications Pvt Ltd \|isbn=978-8192128481 \|page=314}} and wildlife sanctuaries are major attractions for both domestic and international tourists. The city of Kochi ranks first in the total number of international and domestic tourists in Kerala. Until the early 1980s, Kerala was a relatively unknown destination compared to other states in the country. In 1986 the government of Kerala declared tourism an important industry and it was the first state in India to do so. Marketing campaigns launched by the [Tourism Development Corporation](Kerala)(Kerala Tourism Development Corporation), the government agency that oversees the tourism prospects of the state, resulted in the growth of the tourism industry. Many advertisements branded Kerala with the tagline ''[God's Own Country](Kerala,)(God's Own Country)''. Kerala tourism is a global brand and regarded as one of the destinations with highest recall. In 2006, Kerala attracted 8.5 million tourists, an increase of 23.7% over the previous year, making the state one of the fastest-growing popular destinations in the world. In 2011, tourist inflow to Kerala crossed the 10-million mark. Ayurvedic tourism has become very popular since the 1990s, and private agencies have played a notable role in tandem with the initiatives of the Tourism Department. Kerala is known for its [ecotourism](ecotourism) initiatives which include mountaineering, trekking and bird-watching programmes in the Western Ghats as the major activities. The state's tourism industry is a major contributor to the [economy](state's)(economy of Kerala), growing at the rate of 13.3%. The revenue from tourism increased five-fold between 2001 and 2011 and crossed the 190 billion mark in 2011. According to the Economic Times Kerala netted a record revenue of INR 36,528.01 crore from the tourism sector in 2018, clocking an increase of Rs 2,874.33 crore from the previous year. Over 16.7 million tourists visited Kerala in 2018 as against 15.76 million the previous year, recording an increase of 5.9%. The industry provides employment to approximately 1.2 million people. The state's only drive-in beach, [Muzhappilangad](Muzhappilangad Beach) in Kannur, which stretches across five kilometres of sand, was chosen by the BBC as one of the top six drive-in beaches in the world in 2016. [Dam](Idukki)(Idukki Dam), the world's second arch dam, and Asia's first is at [Idukki](Idukki). The major beaches are at [Kovalam](Kovalam), [Varkala](Varkala), [Kozhikode](Kozhikode), [Kochi](Fort)(Fort Kochi), [Cherai](Cherai), [Alappuzha](Alappuzha), [Ponnani](Ponnani), [Kadalundi](Kadalundi), [Tanur](Tanur, Malappuram), [Chaliyam](Chaliyam), [Payyambalam](Payyambalam), Kappad, [Muzhappilangad](Muzhappilangad Beach) and [Bekal](Bekal). Popular [station](hill)(hill station)s are at [Ponmudi](Ponmudi), [Wayanad](Wayanad), [Vagamon](Vagamon), [Munnar](Munnar), [Peermade](Peermade), [Ramakkalmedu](Ramakkalmedu), [Arimbra](Arimbra Hills, Malappuram), [Paithalmala](Paithalmala) of [Kannur](Idukki) district, [Kodikuthimala](Kodikuthimala), and [Nelliampathi](Nelliampathi). Munnar is 4,500 feet above sea level and is known for tea plantations, and a variety of flora and fauna. Kerala's ecotourism destinations include 12 wildlife sanctuaries and two national parks: [Tiger Reserve](Periyar)(Periyar Tiger Reserve), [Wildlife Sanctuary](Parambikulam)(Parambikulam Wildlife Sanctuary), [Wildlife Sanctuary](Chinnar)(Chinnar Wildlife Sanctuary), [Bird Sanctuary](Thattekad)(Thattekad Bird Sanctuary), [Wildlife Sanctuary](Wayanad)(Wayanad Wildlife Sanctuary), [Bird Sanctuary](Kadalundi)(Kadalundi Bird Sanctuary), [Wildlife Sanctuary](Karimpuzha)(Karimpuzha Wildlife Sanctuary), [Wildlife Sanctuary](Muthanga)(Muthanga), [Wildlife Sanctuary](Aralam)(Aralam Wildlife Sanctuary), [National Park](Eravikulam)(Eravikulam National Park), and [Valley National Park](Silent)(Silent Valley National Park) are the most popular among them. The Kerala backwaters are an extensive network of interlocking rivers (41 west-flowing rivers), lakes, and canals that centre around Alleppey, [Kumarakom](Kumarakom), [Ponnani](Ponnani), [Nileshwaram](Nileshwaram), and [Punnamada](Punnamada) (where the annual Nehru Trophy Boat Race is held in August), [Pathiramanal](Pathiramanal) a small island in [Muhamma](Muhamma). [Palace](Padmanabhapuram)(Padmanabhapuram Palace) and the [Palace](Mattancherry)(Mattancherry Palace) are two nearby heritage sites. [Temple](Padmanabhaswamy)(Padmanabhaswamy Temple) in the state capital of Thiruvananthapuram holds the record as the wealthiest place of worship in the world, with assets of at least . ## See also [of Kerala](Outline)(Outline of Kerala) ## References ### Citations ### Sources \|language=Malayalam }} ## Further reading Bose, Satheese Chandra and Varughese, Shiju Sam (eds.) 2015. [Kerala Modernity: Ideas, Spaces and Practices in Transition](https://web.archive.org/web/20150102071757/https://www.orientblackswan.com/display.asp?categoryID=0&isbn=978-8125057222). Hyderabad: Orient Blackswan. * * * * * ## External links ; Government [The Official website](https://www.kerala.gov.in/) of the Government of Kerala [The Official website](https://www.keralatourism.org/) of Kerala Tourism ; General information * * [ ](Category:Kerala) [.](Category:South India) [and territories established in 1956](Category:States)(Category:States and territories established in 1956) [and union territories of India](Category:States)(Category:States and union territories of India)
Paramount Global	paramount_global	# Paramount Global Revision ID: 1160351741 \| Timestamp: 2023-06-15T23:27:29Z --- (Class A) \| (Class B) \| [500](S&P)(S&P 500) component (PARA) }} \| ISIN = \| industry = \| predecessors = \| founded = \| hq_location = [Astor Plaza](One)(One Astor Plaza), [Manhattan](Manhattan) \| hq_location_city = [York City](New)(New York City), U.S. \| area_served = Worldwide \| key_people = \| products = \| services = \| revenue = US$30.15 billion (2022) \| operating_income = US$2.342 billion (2022) \| net_income = US$1.104 billion (2022) \| assets = US$58.39 billion (2022) \| equity = US$23.04 billion (2022) \| num_employees = \| owner = [Amusements](National)(National Amusements) (9.7% equity, 79.9% voting power) \| divisions = \| subsid = \| website = \| footnotes = }} Paramount Global (file no. 2106821) ([business as](doing)(Trade name) Paramount) is an American [multinational](Multinational corporation) mass media and entertainment [conglomerate](Conglomerate (company)) controlled by [Amusements](National)(National Amusements) and headquartered at [Astor Plaza](One)(One Astor Plaza) in [Manhattan](Midtown)(Midtown Manhattan), [York City](New)(New York City). It was formed on December 4, 2019, as ViacomCBS Inc. through the [merger](2019 merger of CBS and Viacom) of the second incarnations of [Corporation](CBS)(CBS Corporation) and [Viacom](Viacom (2005–2019)) (which were split from the [Viacom](original)(Viacom (1952–2006)) on December 31, 2005). The company changed its name to Paramount Global on February 16, 2022, the day after its Q4 earnings presentation. Paramount's main properties include the namesake [Pictures](Paramount)(Paramount Pictures) film and [television](Paramount Television Studios) studio, the [Entertainment Group](CBS)(CBS Entertainment Group) (consisting of the [CBS](CBS) and [CW](The CW) television networks, [stations](television)(CBS News and Stations), and other CBS-branded assets), [networks](media)(Paramount Media Networks) (consisting of U.S.-based cable television networks including [MTV](MTV), [Nickelodeon](Nickelodeon), [BET](BET), [Central](Comedy)(Comedy Central), [VH1](VH1), [CMT](CMT (American TV channel)), [Network](Paramount)(Paramount Network), and [Showtime](Showtime (TV network))) and the [streaming services](company's)(Paramount Streaming) (including [Paramount+](Paramount+), Showtime OTT and [TV](Pluto)(Pluto TV)). It also has an [division](international)(Paramount International Networks) that manages international versions of its pay TV networks, as well as region-specific assets including Argentina's [Telefe](Telefe), Chile's [Chilevisión](Chilevisión), the United Kingdom's [5](Channel)(Channel 5 (British TV channel)) and Australia's [10](Network)(Network 10). As of 2019, the company operates over 170 networks and reaches approximately 700 million subscribers in 180 countries. Company Profile\|url=https://www.vault.com/company-profiles/media-entertainment/viacom-inc\|access-date=March 30, 2021\|website=Vault}} ## Background [Pictures](Paramount)(Paramount Pictures), [CBS](CBS), and [Viacom](Viacom (1952–2006)) each had a history of being associated with one another through a series of various corporate mergers and splits. Paramount Pictures was founded in 1912 as the [Players Film Company](Famous)(Famous Players Film Company). CBS was founded in 1927, which Paramount Pictures held a 49 percent ownership stake in from 1929 to 1932. In 1952, CBS formed CBS Television Film Sales, a division which handled syndication rights for CBS's library of network-owned television series. This division was renamed CBS Films in 1958, again renamed CBS Enterprises Inc. in January 1968, and finally renamed [Viacom](Viacom (1952–2006)) (an acronym of Video and Audio Communications) in 1970. In 1971, this syndication division was [off](spun)(Corporate spin-off) amid new [FCC](Federal Communications Commission) rules forbidding television networks from [syndication companies](owning)(Financial Interest and Syndication Rules) (these rules were eventually abolished completely in 1993). In 1985, Viacom purchased [Networks](MTV)(ViacomCBS Domestic Media Networks) and [Movie Channel Inc.](Showtime/The)(Showtime Networks) from [Communications](Warner)(WarnerMedia) and [Express](American)(American Express). In 1987, Viacom was acquired by theater operator company [Amusements](National)(National Amusements). Meanwhile, Paramount Pictures was acquired by [and Western Industries](Gulf)(Gulf and Western Industries) in 1966, which then re-branded itself as [Communications](Paramount)(Paramount Communications) in 1989. Viacom then purchased Paramount Communications in 1994. In 1999, Viacom made its biggest acquisition to date by announcing plans to merge with its former parent CBS Corporation (the renamed [Electric Corporation](Westinghouse)(Westinghouse Electric Corporation), which had merged with CBS in 1995). The merger was completed in 2000, resulting in CBS reuniting with its former syndication division. On December 31, 2005, Viacom was split into two companies: [Corporation](CBS)(CBS Corporation), the former's corporate successor and the [Viacom](spun-off)(Viacom (2005–2019)) company. ## History ### Formation On September 29, 2016, [Amusements](National)(National Amusements), the parent company of CBS Corporation and Viacom, wrote to Viacom and CBS encouraging the two companies to merge back into one company. On December 12, the deal was called off. On January 12, 2018, [CNBC](CNBC) reported that Viacom had re-entered talks to merge back into CBS Corporation, after the merger of [AT&T](AT&T)-[Warner](Time)(WarnerMedia) and [Disney](The Walt Disney Company)'s [acquisition](proposed)(Acquisition of 21st Century Fox by Disney) of most of [Century Fox](21st)(21st Century Fox)'s assets were announced. Viacom and CBS also faced heavy competition from companies such as [Netflix](Netflix) and [Amazon](Amazon (company)). Shortly afterward, it was reported that the combined company could be a suitor for acquiring the film studio [Lionsgate](Lionsgate Films). Viacom and Lionsgate were both interested in acquiring [Weinstein Company](The)(The Weinstein Company) (TWC). Following the [effect](Weinstein)(Weinstein effect), Viacom was listed as one of 22 potential buyers that were interested in acquiring TWC. They lost the bid, and on March 1, 2018, it was announced that [Contreras-Sweet](Maria)(Maria Contreras-Sweet) would acquire all of TWC's assets for $500 million. Lantern Capital would later acquire the studio. On March 30, 2018, CBS made an all-stock offer slightly below Viacom's market value, insisting that its existing leadership, including long-time chairman and CEO [Moonves](Les)(Les Moonves), oversee the re-combined company. Viacom rejected the offer as too low, requesting a $2.8  billion increase and that [Bakish](Bob)(Robert Bakish) be maintained as president and COO under Moonves. These conflicts had resulted from [Redstone](Shari)(Shari Redstone) seeking more control over CBS and its leadership. Eventually, on May 14, 2018, CBS Corporation sued its and Viacom's parent company National Amusements and accused Redstone of abusing her voting power in the company and [a merger that was not supported by it or Viacom](forcing)(Hostile takeover). CBS also accused Redstone of discouraging [Communications](Verizon)(Verizon Communications) from acquiring it, which could have been beneficial to its shareholders. On May 23, 2018, Les Moonves explained that he considered the Viacom channels to be an "[albatross](Albatross (metaphor))," and while he favored more content for [All Access](CBS)(CBS All Access), he believed that there were better deals for CBS than the Viacom deal, such as [Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer](Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer) (MGM), [Lionsgate](Lionsgate Films), or [Pictures](Sony)(Sony Pictures). Moonves also considered Bakish a threat because he did not want an ally of Shari Redstone as a board member of the combined company. On September 9, 2018, Les Moonves exited CBS following multiple accusations of sexual assault. National Amusements agreed to not propose a CBS-Viacom merger for at least two years after the date of the settlement. On May 30, 2019, CNBC reported that CBS Corporation and Viacom would explore merger discussions in mid-June 2019. CBS's board of directors was revamped with people who were open to merging; the re-merger was made possible with the resignation of Moonves, who had opposed all merger attempts. The talks had started following rumors of CBS acquiring [Starz](Starz Inc.) from Lionsgate. Reports said that CBS and Viacom reportedly set August 8 as an informal deadline for reaching an agreement to recombine the two media companies. CBS announced to acquire Viacom as part of the re-merger deal for up to $15.4 billion. On August 2, 2019, it was reported that CBS and Viacom agreed to merge back into one entity, with both companies agreeing on the management team for the merger. Bob Bakish would serve as CEO of the combined company with the president and acting CEO of CBS, [Ianniello](Joseph)(Joseph Ianniello), overseeing CBS-branded assets. On August 7, 2019, CBS and Viacom separately reported their quarterly earnings as the talks about the re-merger continued. ### Initial operations On August 13, 2019, CBS and Viacom officially announced their merger; the combined company was to be named ViacomCBS, with Shari Redstone serving as chair. Upon the merger agreement, Viacom and CBS jointly announced that the transaction is expected to close by the end of 2019, pending regulatory and shareholder approvals. The merger required approval by the [Trade Commission](Federal)(Federal Trade Commission) (FTC). On October 28, 2019, the merger was approved by National Amusements, which then announced the deal would close in early December; the recombined company trades its shares on [Nasdaq](Nasdaq) under the symbols "VIAC" and "VIACA" after CBS Corporation delisted its shares on the [York Stock Exchange](New)(New York Stock Exchange) (NYSE). On November 25, 2019, Viacom and CBS announced the merger would close on December 4 and begin trading on NASDAQ on the next day. On December 4, 2019, Bakish confirmed that the ViacomCBS merger had closed. On December 10, 2019, days after the merger, Bakish announced that ViacomCBS would look to divest [Rock](Black)(CBS Building), the building that held CBS's headquarters since 1964. He stated, "Black Rock is not an asset we need to own and we believe that money would be put to better use elsewhere." On December 20, 2019, ViacomCBS agreed to acquire a 49% minority stake in film studio [Miramax](Miramax) from [Media Group](beIN)(beIN Media Group) for $379 million. As part of the purchase, [Pictures](Paramount)(Paramount Pictures) reached a long-term deal for exclusive distribution rights to its library, and [first-look](First-look deal) agreements to co-develop new film and television projects based on Miramax-owned properties. On March 2, 2020, executive vice president Dana McClintock announced that he would depart the company after 27 years in CBS Communications. On March 4, the company announced plans to potentially sell its [& Schuster](Simon)(Simon & Schuster) publishing unit, with Bakish arguing that it lacked a "significant connection for our broader business." On June 19, 2020, Jaime Ondarza, formerly the senior vice president of [Broadcasting](Turner)(Turner Broadcasting) South Europe and Africa, became the new head of ViacomCBS Networks International for France, Spain, Italy, the Middle East, Greece, and Turkey. On August 4, 2020, ViacomCBS announced that the company's connected video advertising platform, EyeQ, is set to launch in fall 2020. On September 14, 2020, ViacomCBS announced an agreement to sell the CBSi-owned [Media Group](CNET)(CNET) to [Ventures](Red)(Red Ventures) for $500 million. The deal included the eponymous CNET tech site, as well as [ZDNet](ZDNet), [GameSpot](GameSpot), the [Guide](TV)(TV Guide) digital assets, [Metacritic](Metacritic), and [Chowhound](Chowhound). ViacomCBS to Sell CNET to Red Ventures for $500 Million\|work=[Wall Street Journal](The)(The Wall Street Journal)\|url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/viacomcbs-nears-deal-to-sell-cnet-to-red-ventures-for-500-million-11600057067\|access-date=September 15, 2020\|issn=0099-9660}} The deal closed on October 30, 2020. On November 17, 2020, various news outlets reported that companies such as [Vivendi](Vivendi), [Bertelsmann](Bertelsmann)'s [Random House](Penguin)(Penguin Random House) and [Corp](News)(News Corp)'s [HarperCollins](HarperCollins) had considered acquiring Simon & Schuster for as much as $1.7 billion. ViacomCBS had expected the bids to be placed before November 26. On November 25, 2020, Penguin Random House agreed to purchase Simon & Schuster for $2.175 billion; however, the deal was blocked two years later by U.S. federal judge [Y. Pan](Florence)(Florence Y. Pan). On August 16, 2021, ViacomCBS announced that they had agreed to sell the [Building](CBS)(CBS Building) to the real estate investment and management firm Harbor Group International for $760 million, leasing the space back under a short-term lease. On September 28, 2021, ViacomCBS announced that they had agreed to partner with software and data firm VideoAmp. On October 28, 2021, ViacomCBS announced that they had agreed to acquire a majority stake in the Spanish-language content producer [TeleColombia](TeleColombia) & Estudios TeleMexico. On November 30, 2021, ViacomCBS announced that they had agreed to sell the [Studio Center](CBS)(CBS Studio Center) to Hackman Capital Partners and Square Mile Capital Management for $1.85 billion. On January 5, 2022, [Wall Street Journal](The)(The Wall Street Journal) reported that [WarnerMedia](WarnerMedia) (whose then-owner [AT&T](AT&T) was selling it to [Discovery](Discovery, Inc.) to form [Bros. Discovery](Warner)(Warner Bros. Discovery)) and ViacomCBS were exploring a possible sale of either a majority stake or all of The CW, and that [Media Group](Nexstar)(Nexstar Media Group) (which became The CW's largest affiliate group when it acquired former [WB](The WB) co-owner [Broadcasting](Tribune)(Tribune Broadcasting) in 2019) was considered a leading bidder. The news led to speculation that, should a sale take place, new ownership could steer the network in a new direction, transforming The CW from a young adult-oriented network into one that featured more unscripted and even national news programming. However, reports also indicated that WarnerMedia and ViacomCBS could include a contractual commitment that would require any new owner to buy new programming from those companies, allowing them to reap some continual revenue through the network. Network president/CEO [Pedowitz](Mark)(Mark Pedowitz) confirmed talks of a potential sale in a memo to CW staffers, but added that "It's too early to speculate what might happen" and that the network "must continue to do what we do best." ### Rebranding On February 15, 2022, during a presentation to investors, ViacomCBS announced that it would change its name to Paramount Global beginning the following day; in a memo to staff announcing the change, it was stated that the rebranding was intended to leverage the "iconic global name", and would "reflect who we are, what we aspire to be, and all that we stand for." The company will primarily do business as simply "Paramount". In May 2022, [Hathaway](Berkshire)(Berkshire Hathaway) had acquired a $2.6 billion stake in Paramount. On August 15, Nexstar confirmed it had "entered into a definitive agreement" to acquire a 75% majority share in The CW; the remaining 25% would be shared equally by Paramount and WBD. Additionally, Nexstar indicated that Mark Pedowitz would remain the network's chairman and CEO and have "responsibility for day-to-day operations. Though no monetary terms were announced, Nexstar reportedly would not pay any cash or stock upfront and would absorb approximately $100 million of network debt. As the sale does not entail the transfer of any [FCC](Federal Communications Commission) broadcast licenses (unlike the [Four" networks]("Big)(Big Three (American television)), The CW does not directly own any of its affiliates), no regulatory approvals are required, only customary financial closing conditions expected to be cleared in Nexstar's fiscal third quarter, i.e. by the start of October 2022; as such, Nexstar immediately took operational control of the network on August 15. On October 3, it was officially announced Nexstar closed the deal to acquire the majority ownership of The CW, and that longtime CEO Mark Pedowitz would be stepping down, planning to revive his production company Pine Street Entertainment. Dennis Miller would take Pedowitz's role as president of The CW. On May 5, Paramount's [News and Stations](CBS)(CBS News and Stations) unit announced that it would convert its eight CW affiliates to independent stations on September 1, per the Nexstar purchase deal. ## Company units Paramount Global comprises six major units: * [Pictures](Paramount)(Paramount Pictures) as the company's namesake division focuses on theatrical film production and distribution, including film releases under the [Animation](Paramount)(Paramount Animation) and [Players](Paramount)(Paramount Players) labels in addition to the flagship Paramount Pictures label, as well as producing television shows through [Television Studios](Paramount)(Paramount Television Studios). * [Media Networks](Paramount)(Paramount Media Networks) encompasses the pay television channels owned by Paramount in the United States such as [MTV](MTV), [Nickelodeon](Nickelodeon), [Showtime](Showtime (TV network)), [Central](Comedy)(Comedy Central), [Land](TV)(TV Land), [Network](Paramount)(Paramount Network), [Logo](Logo TV), [CMT](CMT (American TV channel)), [TV](Pop)(Pop (American TV channel)), [Channel](Smithsonian)(Smithsonian Channel), [Movie Channel](The)(The Movie Channel) and [Flix](Flix (TV network)), as well as controlling its production facilities for the listed channels above, including [Animation Studio](Nickelodeon)(Nickelodeon Animation Studio) and [Entertainment Studios](MTV)(MTV Entertainment Studios). [International Networks](Paramount)(Paramount International Networks) encompasses certain international versions of their television channels split into three regional hubs: [Kingdom and Australia](United)(Paramount Networks UK & Australia), [Middle East, Africa and Asia (EMEAA)](Europe,)(Paramount Networks EMEAA), and [Americas](the)(Paramount Networks Americas), as well as region-specific networks (such as [5](Channel)(Channel 5 (British TV channel)) in the United Kingdom, [10](Network)(Network 10) in Australia, [Telefe](Telefe) in Argentina and [Chilevisión](Chilevisión) in Chile), owning other businesses in a percentage stake (such as 13.01% of [Viacom18](Viacom18)), and all CBS-branded channels across Europe which are co-owned with [Networks International](AMC)(AMC Networks International). Paramount Digital Studios consists of digital online and video internet properties including [Awesomeness](Awesomeness (company)) (a media and entertainment company where is overseen by its co-founder [Robbins](Brian)(Brian Robbins), also an executive for Paramount Media Networks, as of November 2019). * [Streaming](Paramount)(Paramount Streaming) focuses on the global over-the-top streaming services that encompasses [Paramount+](Paramount+), [TV](Pluto)(Pluto TV), [Showtime](Showtime Networks), [SkyShowtime](SkyShowtime) (50% with [Comcast](Comcast) (through [Group](Sky)(Sky Group))), [News](CBS)(CBS News (streaming service)), [Sports HQ](CBS)(CBS Sports HQ), [BET+](BET+) and [Noggin](Noggin (brand)). * [Global Content Distribution](Paramount)(Paramount Global Content Distribution) focuses on the global distribution and licensing of programs produced by Paramount production studios. * [Consumer Products](Paramount)(Paramount Consumer Products) focuses on the retailing and licensing of merchandising for Paramount-owned brands. * [Entertainment Group](CBS)(CBS Entertainment Group) consists of CBS-branded assets including the [CBS](CBS) television network, [News](CBS)(CBS News) and [Stations](CBS News and Stations), [Sports](CBS)(CBS Sports), [Studios](CBS)(CBS Studios), [Media Ventures](CBS)(CBS Media Ventures), and [Ticket Television](Big)(Big Ticket Television). It also has a 12.5% ownership in [CW Television Network](The)(The CW). In addition, the group consists of [Networks](BET)(BET Networks), which contains premium cable television channels including the flagship service [BET](BET) and [VH1](VH1). Other assets owned by Paramount include [Pictures](Republic)(Republic Pictures) (acquisitions label), [& Schuster](Simon)(Simon & Schuster) (book publisher), [VidCon](VidCon) (multi-genre online video conference) and [Bellator](Bellator MMA) (mixed martial arts promoter). The company also has an undisclosed stake in [FuboTV](FuboTV), which acquired in 2020. ## Notes ## References ## External links * [ ](Category:Paramount Global) [establishments in New York City](Category:2019)(Category:2019 establishments in New York City) [companies established in 2019](Category:American)(Category:American companies established in 2019) [companies based in New York City](Category:Entertainment)(Category:Entertainment companies based in New York City) [companies established in 2019](Category:Entertainment)(Category:Entertainment companies established in 2019) [based in Manhattan](Category:Companies)(Category:Companies based in Manhattan) [based in New York City](Category:Companies)(Category:Companies based in New York City) [listed on the Nasdaq](Category:Companies)(Category:Companies listed on the Nasdaq) [media companies based in New York City](Category:Mass)(Category:Mass media companies based in New York City) [media companies established in 2019](Category:Mass)(Category:Mass media companies established in 2019) [companies based in New York City](Category:Multinational)(Category:Multinational companies based in New York City) [traded companies based in New York City](Category:Publicly)(Category:Publicly traded companies based in New York City)
Elo rating system	elo_rating_system	# Elo rating system Revision ID: 1157971047 \| Timestamp: 2023-06-01T04:06:08Z --- [[File:ArpadElo.jpg\|thumb\|[Elo](Arpad)(Arpad Elo), the inventor of the Elo rating system]] The Elo or in English. The original name is pronounced in Hungarian.}} rating system is a method for calculating the relative skill levels of players in [game](zero-sum)(zero-sum game)s such as [chess](chess). It is named after its creator [Elo](Arpad)(Arpad Elo), a Hungarian-American physics professor. The Elo system was invented as an improved chess-rating system over the previously used [system](Harkness)(Harkness rating system), but is also used as a rating system in [football](association)(association football), [football](American)(American football), [baseball](baseball), [basketball](basketball), [pool](pool (cue sports)), [tennis](table)(table tennis), various [game](board)(board game)s and [esports](esports), and most recently [language models](large)(Large language model). The difference in the ratings between two players serves as a predictor of the outcome of a match. Two players with equal ratings who play against each other are expected to score an equal number of wins. A player whose rating is 100 points greater than their opponent's is expected to score 64%; if the difference is 200 points, then the expected score for the stronger player is 76%. A player's Elo rating is represented by a number which may change depending on the outcome of rated games played. After every game, the winning player takes points from the losing one. The difference between the ratings of the winner and loser determines the total number of points gained or lost after a game. If the higher-rated player wins, then only a few rating points will be taken from the lower-rated player. However, if the lower-rated player scores an [win](upset)(Upset (competition)), many rating points will be transferred. The lower-rated player will also gain a few points from the higher rated player in the event of a draw. This means that this rating system is self-correcting. Players whose ratings are too low or too high should, in the long run, do better or worse correspondingly than the rating system predicts and thus gain or lose rating points until the ratings reflect their true playing strength. Elo ratings are comparative only, and are valid only within the rating pool in which they were calculated, rather than being an absolute measure of a player's strength. ## History Arpad Elo was a master-level chess player and an active participant in the [States Chess Federation](United)(United States Chess Federation) (USCF) from its founding in 1939. The USCF used a numerical ratings system, devised by [Harkness](Kenneth)(Kenneth Harkness), to allow members to track their individual progress in terms other than tournament wins and losses. The Harkness system was reasonably fair, but in some circumstances gave rise to ratings which many observers considered inaccurate. On behalf of the USCF, Elo devised a new system with a more sound [statistical](Statistics) basis. At about the same time, György Karoly and Roger Cook independently developed a system based on the same principles for the New South Wales Chess Association.Elo 1986, p. 4 Elo's system replaced earlier systems of competitive rewards with a system based on statistical estimation. Rating systems for many sports award points in accordance with subjective evaluations of the 'greatness' of certain achievements. For example, winning an important [golf](golf) tournament might be worth an arbitrarily chosen five times as many points as winning a lesser tournament. A statistical endeavor, by contrast, uses a model that relates the game results to underlying variables representing the ability of each player. Elo's central assumption was that the chess performance of each player in each game is a [distributed](normally)(normal distribution) [variable](random)(random variable). Although a player might perform significantly better or worse from one game to the next, Elo assumed that the mean value of the performances of any given player changes only slowly over time. Elo thought of a player's true skill as the mean of that player's performance random variable. A further assumption is necessary because chess performance in the above sense is still not measurable. One cannot look at a sequence of moves and derive a number to represent that player's skill. Performance can only be inferred from wins, draws and losses. Therefore, if a player wins a game, they are assumed to have performed at a higher level than their opponent for that game. Conversely, if the player loses, they are assumed to have performed at a lower level. If the game is a draw, the two players are assumed to have performed at nearly the same level. Elo did not specify exactly how close two performances ought to be to result in a draw as opposed to a win or loss. Actually, there is a probability of a draw that is dependent on the performance differential, so this latter is more of a confidence interval than any deterministic frontier. And while he thought it was likely that players might have different [deviation](standard)(standard deviation)s to their performances, he made a simplifying assumption to the contrary. To simplify computation even further, Elo proposed a straightforward method of estimating the variables in his model (i.e., the true skill of each player). One could calculate relatively easily from tables how many games players would be expected to win based on comparisons of their ratings to those of their opponents. The ratings of a player who won more games than expected would be adjusted upward, while those of a player who won fewer than expected would be adjusted downward. Moreover, that adjustment was to be in linear proportion to the number of wins by which the player had exceeded or fallen short of their expected number. From a modern perspective, Elo's simplifying assumptions are not necessary because computing power is inexpensive and widely available. Several people, most notably [Glickman](Mark)(Mark Glickman), have proposed using more sophisticated statistical machinery to estimate the same variables. On the other hand, the computational simplicity of the Elo system has proven to be one of its greatest assets. With the aid of a pocket calculator, an informed chess competitor can calculate to within one point what their next officially published rating will be, which helps promote a perception that the ratings are fair. ### Implementing Elo's scheme The USCF implemented Elo's suggestions in 1960, and the system quickly gained recognition as being both fairer and more accurate than the [rating system](Harkness)(Chess rating systems#Harkness system). Elo's system was adopted by the [Chess Federation](World)(Fédération Internationale des Échecs) (FIDE) in 1970.Elo 1986, Preface to the First Edition Elo described his work in detail in The Rating of Chessplayers, Past and Present, first published in 1978.Elo 1986. Subsequent statistical tests have suggested that chess performance is almost certainly not distributed as a [distribution](normal)(normal distribution), as weaker players have greater winning chances than Elo's model predicts.Elo 1986, ch. 8.73.Glickman, Mark E., and Jones, Albyn C., (1999), Chance, 12, 2, 21-28. In practice, there is little difference between the shape of the [logistic](logistic distribution) and normal curve. So it does not matter whether the logistic or normal distribution is used to calculate the expected scores. Mathematically, however, the logistic function is more convenient to work with.Glickman, Mark E. (1995), A subsequent version of this paper appeared in the American Chess Journal, 3, pp. 59–102. FIDE continues to use the rating difference table as proposed by Elo. The development of the Percentage Expectancy Table (table 2.11) is described in more detail by Elo as follows:Elo 1986, p159. The normal probabilities may be taken directly from the standard tables of the areas under the normal curve when the difference in rating is expressed as a z score. Since the standard deviation σ of individual performances is defined as 200 points, the standard deviation σ' of the differences in performances becomes σ√2 or 282.84. The z value of a difference then is D/282.84. This will then divide the area under the curve into two parts, the larger giving P for the higher rated player and the smaller giving P for the lower rated player. For example, let D = 160. Then z = 160/282.84 = .566. The table gives .7143 and .2857 as the areas of the two portions under the curve. These probabilities are rounded to two figures in table 2.11. The table is actually built with standard deviation 2000/7 as an approximation for 200√2. The normal and logistic distributions are, in a way, arbitrary points in a spectrum of distributions which would work well. In practice, both of these distributions work very well for a number of different games. ## Different ratings systems The phrase "Elo rating" is often used to mean a player's chess rating as calculated by FIDE. However, this usage may be confusing or misleading because Elo's general ideas have been adopted by many organizations, including the USCF (before FIDE), many other national chess federations, the short-lived [Chess Association](Professional)(Professional Chess Association) (PCA), and online chess servers including the [Chess Club](Internet)(Internet Chess Club) (ICC), [Internet Chess Server](Free)(Free Internet Chess Server) (FICS), [Lichess](Lichess), [Chess.com](Chess.com), and [Yahoo!](Yahoo!) Games. Each organization has a unique implementation, and none of them follows Elo's original suggestions precisely. Instead one may refer to the organization granting the rating. For example: "As of August 2002, [Kaidanov](Gregory)(Gregory Kaidanov) had a FIDE rating of 2638 and a USCF rating of 2742." The Elo ratings of these various organizations are not always directly comparable, since Elo ratings measure the results within a closed pool of players rather than absolute skill. ### FIDE ratings For top players, the most important rating is their [FIDE](FIDE) rating. FIDE has issued the following lists: * From 1971 to 1980, one list a year was issued. * From 1981 to 2000, two lists a year were issued, in January and July. * From July 2000 to July 2009, four lists a year were issued, at the start of January, April, July and October. * From July 2009 to July 2012, six lists a year were issued, at the start of January, March, May, July, September and November. * Since July 2012, the list has been updated monthly. The following analysis of the July 2015 FIDE rating list gives a rough impression of what a given FIDE rating means in terms of world ranking: * 5,323 players had an active rating in the range 2200 to 2299, which is usually associated with the [Master](Candidate)(Candidate Master) title. * 2,869 players had an active rating in the range 2300 to 2399, which is usually associated with the [Master](FIDE)(FIDE Master) title. * 1,420 players had an active rating between 2400 and 2499, most of whom had either the [Master](International)(International Master) or the [Grandmaster](International)(International Grandmaster) title. * 542 players had an active rating between 2500 and 2599, most of whom had the [Grandmaster](International)(International Grandmaster) title. * 187 players had an active rating between 2600 and 2699, all of whom had the [Grandmaster](International)(International Grandmaster) title. * 40 players had an active rating between 2700 and 2799. * 4 players had an active rating of over 2800. ([Carlsen](Magnus)(Magnus Carlsen) was rated 2853, and 3 players were rated between 2814 and 2816). The highest ever FIDE rating was 2882, which [Carlsen](Magnus)(Magnus Carlsen) had on the May 2014 list. A list of the highest-rated players ever is at [of top chess players throughout history](Comparison)(Comparison of top chess players throughout history). #### Performance rating Performance rating or special rating is a hypothetical rating that would result from the games of a single event only. Some chess organizations use the "algorithm of 400" to calculate performance rating. According to this algorithm, performance rating for an event is calculated in the following way: # For each win, add your opponent's rating plus 400, # For each loss, add your opponent's rating minus 400, # And divide this sum by the number of played games. Example: 2 wins (opponents w & x), 2 losses (opponents y & z) : \begin{align} & \frac{w+400+x+400+y-400+z-400}{4} \\[6pt] & \frac{w+x+y+z+400(2)-400(2)}{4} \end{align} This can be expressed by the following formula: : \text{Performance rating} = \frac{\text{Total of opponents' ratings } + 400 \times (\text{Wins} - \text{Losses})}{\text{Games}} Example: If you beat a player with an Elo rating of 1000, : \text{Performance rating} = \frac{1000 + 400 \times (1)}{1} = 1400 If you beat two players with Elo ratings of 1000, : \text{Performance rating} = \frac{2000 + 400 \times (2)}{2} = 1400 If you draw, : \text{Performance rating} = \frac{1000 + 400 \times (0)}{1} = 1000 This is a simplification, but it offers an easy way to get an estimate of PR (performance rating). [FIDE](FIDE), however, calculates performance rating by means of the formula\text{Performance rating} = \text{Average of Opponents' Ratings} + d_p,where Rating Difference d_p is based on a player's tournament percentage score p, which is then used as the key in a lookup table where p is simply the number of points scored divided by the number of games played. Note that, in case of a perfect or no score d_p is 800. The full table can be found in the [Manual de la FIDE, B. Permanent Commissions, 02. FIDE Rating Regulations (Qualification Commission), FIDE Rating Regulations effective from 1 July 2017, 8.1a](https://handbook.fide.com/chapter/B022017) online. A simplified version of this table is on the right. ### Live ratings [FIDE](FIDE) updates its ratings list at the beginning of each month. In contrast, the unofficial "Live ratings" calculate the change in players' ratings after every game. These Live ratings are based on the previously published FIDE ratings, so a player's Live rating is intended to correspond to what the FIDE rating would be if FIDE were to issue a new list that day. Although Live ratings are unofficial, interest arose in Live ratings in August/September 2008 when five different players took the "Live" No. 1 ranking.Anand lost No. 1 to Morozevich ([Chessbase, August 24 2008](http://www.chessbase.com/newsdetail.asp?newsid=4860) ), then regained it, then Carlsen took No. 1 ([Chessbase, September 5 2008](http://www.chessbase.com/newsdetail.asp?newsid=4892) ), then Ivanchuk ([Chessbase, September 11 2008](http://www.chessbase.com/newsdetail.asp?newsid=4901) ), and finally Topalov ([Chessbase, September 13 2008](http://www.chessbase.com/newsdetail.asp?newsid=4908) ) The unofficial live ratings of players over 2700 were published and maintained by Hans Arild Runde at [the Live Rating website](https://web.archive.org/web/20080603001814/http://chess.liverating.org/) until August 2011. Another website, [2700chess.com](http://www.2700chess.com), has been maintained since May 2011 by [Tsepotan](Artiom)(Artiom Tsepotan), which covers the top 100 players as well as the top 50 female players. Rating changes can be calculated manually by using the FIDE ratings change calculator. All top players have a K-factor of 10, which means that the maximum ratings change from a single game is a little less than 10 points. ### United States Chess Federation ratings The [States Chess Federation](United)(United States Chess Federation) (USCF) uses its own classification of players:[US Chess Federation](http://archive.uschess.org/ratings/ratedist.php) 2400 and above: Senior Master 2200–2399: National Master *2200–2399 plus 300 games above 2200: Original Life Master[USCF Glossary Quote:"a player who competes in over 300 games with a rating over 2200"](http://main.uschess.org/content/view/7327#Master) from The United States Chess Federation 2000–2199: Expert or Candidate Master 1800–1999: Class A 1600–1799: Class B 1400–1599: Class C 1200–1399: Class D 1000–1199: Class E 800–999: Class F 600–799: Class G 400–599: Class H 200–399: Class I 100–199: Class J #### The K-factor used by the USCF The K-factor, in the USCF rating system, can be estimated by dividing 800 by the effective number of games a player's rating is based on (Ne) plus the number of games the player completed in a tournament (m).["Approximating Formulas for the US Chess Rating System"](http://www.glicko.net/ratings/approx.pdf) , [States Chess Federation](United)(United States Chess Federation), Mark Glickman, April 2017 : K = \frac{800}{N_e + m} \, #### Rating floors The USCF maintains an absolute rating floor of 100 for all ratings. Thus, no member can have a rating below 100, no matter their performance at USCF-sanctioned events. However, players can have higher individual absolute rating floors, calculated using the following formula: :AF = \operatorname{min}\{100+4N_W+2N_D+N_R , 150\} where N_W is the number of rated games won, N_D is the number of rated games drawn, and N_R is the number of events in which the player completed three or more rated games. Higher rating floors exist for experienced players who have achieved significant ratings. Such higher rating floors exist, starting at ratings of 1200 in 100-point increments up to 2100 (1200, 1300, 1400, ..., 2100). A rating floor is calculated by taking the player's peak established rating, subtracting 200 points, and then rounding down to the nearest rating floor. For example, a player who has reached a peak rating of 1464 would have a rating floor of 1464 − 200 = 1264, which would be rounded down to 1200. Under this scheme, only Class C players and above are capable of having a higher rating floor than their absolute player rating. All other players would have a floor of at most 150. There are two ways to achieve higher rating floors other than under the standard scheme presented above. If a player has achieved the rating of Original Life Master, their rating floor is set at 2200. The achievement of this title is unique in that no other recognized USCF title will result in a new floor. For players with ratings below 2000, winning a cash prize of $2,000 or more raises that player's rating floor to the closest 100-point level that would have disqualified the player for participation in the tournament. For example, if a player won $4,000 in a 1750-and-under tournament, they would now have a rating floor of 1800. ## Theory [comparison](Pairwise)(Pairwise comparison)s form the basis of the Elo rating methodology.Elo 1986, ch. 1.12. Elo made references to the papers of Good, David, Trawinski and David, and Buhlman and Huber. ### Mathematical details Performance is not measured absolutely; it is inferred from wins, losses, and draws against other players. Players' ratings depend on the ratings of their opponents and the results scored against them. The difference in rating between two players determines an estimate for the expected score between them. Both the average and the spread of ratings can be arbitrarily chosen. The USCF initially aimed for an average club player to have a rating of 1500 and Elo suggested scaling ratings so that a difference of 200 rating points in chess would mean that the stronger player has an expected score (basically an expected average score) of approximately 0.75. A player's expected score is their probability of winning plus half their probability of drawing. Thus, an expected score of 0.75 could represent a 75% chance of winning, 25% chance of losing, and 0% chance of drawing. On the other extreme it could represent a 50% chance of winning, 0% chance of losing, and 50% chance of drawing. The probability of drawing, as opposed to having a decisive result, is not specified in the Elo system. Instead, a draw is considered half a win and half a loss. In practice, since the true strength of each player is unknown, the expected scores are calculated using the player's current ratings as follows. If player A has a rating of \, R_\mathsf{A} \, and player B a rating of \, R_\mathsf{B} \,, the exact formula (using the [curve](logistic)(logistic curve) with [10](base)(common logarithm))Elo 1986, p. 141, ch. 8.4& Logistic probability as a rating basis for the expected score of player A is : E_\mathsf{A} = \frac 1 {1 + 10^{(R_\mathsf{B} - R_\mathsf{A})/400}} ~. Similarly the expected score for player B is : E_\mathsf{B} = \frac 1 {1 + 10^{(R_\mathsf{A} - R_\mathsf{B})/400}} ~. This could also be expressed by : E_\mathsf{A} = \frac{ Q_\mathsf{A} }{ Q_\mathsf{A} + Q_\mathsf{B} } and : E_\mathsf{B} = \frac{ Q_\mathsf{B} }{Q_\mathsf{A} + Q_\mathsf{B} } ~, where \; Q_\mathsf{A} = 10^{R_\mathsf{A}/400} \;, and \; Q_\mathsf{B} = 10^{R_\mathsf{B}/400} ~. Note that in the latter case, the same denominator applies to both expressions, and it is plain that \; E_\mathsf{A} + E_\mathsf{B} = 1 ~. This means that by studying only the numerators, we find out that the expected score for player A is \; Q_\mathsf{A}/Q_\mathsf{B} \; times greater than the expected score for player B. It then follows that for each 400 rating points of advantage over the opponent, the expected score is magnified ten times in comparison to the opponent's expected score. When a player's actual tournament scores exceed their expected scores, the Elo system takes this as evidence that player's rating is too low, and needs to be adjusted upward. Similarly, when a player's actual tournament scores fall short of their expected scores, that player's rating is adjusted downward. Elo's original suggestion, which is still widely used, was a simple linear adjustment proportional to the amount by which a player over-performed or under-performed their expected score. The maximum possible adjustment per game, called the K-factor, was set at \; K = 16 \; for masters and \; K = 32 \; for weaker players. Suppose player A (again with rating R_\mathsf{A}) was expected to score \, E_\mathsf{A} \, points but actually scored \, S_\mathsf{A} \, points. The formula for updating that player's rating is :R_\mathsf{A}' = R_\mathsf{A} + K \cdot (S_\mathsf{A} - E_\mathsf{A}) ~.Elo August 1967. This update can be performed after each game or each tournament, or after any suitable rating period. An example may help to clarify: 2.5 .}} The expected score, calculated according to the formula above, was = 2.88. Therefore, the player's new rating is 1601 ,}} assuming that a -factor of 32 is used. Equivalently, each game the player can be said to have put an ante of times their expected score for the game into a pot, the opposing player does likewise, and the winner collects the full pot of value ; in the event of a draw, the players [the pot](split)(Glossary of poker terms) and receive \; \tfrac{1}{2}K \; points each. Note that while two wins, two losses, and one draw may seem like a par score, it is worse than expected for player A because their opponents were lower rated on average. Therefore, player A is slightly penalized. If player A had scored two wins, one loss, and two draws, for a total score of three points, that would have been slightly better than expected, and the player's new rating would have been 1617 .}}}} This updating procedure is at the core of the ratings used by [FIDE](FIDE), [USCF](United States Chess Federation), [Games](Yahoo!)(Yahoo! Games), the [Chess Club](Internet)(Internet Chess Club) (ICC) and the [Internet Chess Server](Free)(Free Internet Chess Server) (FICS). However, each organization has taken a different route to deal with the uncertainty inherent in the ratings, particularly the ratings of newcomers, and to deal with the problem of ratings inflation/deflation. New players are assigned provisional ratings, which are adjusted more drastically than established ratings. The principles used in these rating systems can be used for rating other competitions—for instance, international [football](association football) matches. Elo ratings have also been applied to games without the possibility of [draw](Draw (chess))s, and to games in which the result can also have a quantity (small/big margin) in addition to the quality (win/loss). See [rating with Elo](Go)(Go ranks and ratings#Elo ratings as used in Go) for more. #### Suggested modification In 2011 after analyzing 1.5 million FIDE rated games, [Sonas](Jeff)(Jeff Sonas) demonstrated according to the Elo formula, two players having a rating difference of X, actually have a true difference more like X(5/6). Likewise you can leave the rating difference alone and divide by 480 instead of 400. Since the Elo formula is incorrectly overestimating the stronger player's win probability, they're losing points for winning, because their real win rate is under what the formula predicts. Likewise, weaker players gain points for losing. When the modification is applied, observed win rates deviate less than 0.1% away from prediction, while traditional Elo can be 4% off the predicted rate. #### Most accurate distribution model The first mathematical concern addressed by the USCF was the use of the [distribution](normal)(normal distribution). They found that this did not accurately represent the actual results achieved, particularly by the lower rated players. Instead they switched to a [distribution](logistic)(logistic distribution) model, which the USCF found provided a better fit for the actual results achieved.Elo 1986, ch. 8.73 FIDE also uses an approximation to the logistic distribution. #### Most accurate K-factor The second major concern is the correct "-factor" used. The chess statistician [Sonas](Jeff)(Jeff Sonas) believes that the original \; K = 10 \; value (for players rated above 2400) is inaccurate in Elo's work. If the -factor coefficient is set too large, there will be too much sensitivity to just a few, recent events, in terms of a large number of points exchanged in each game. And if the K-value is too low, the sensitivity will be minimal, and the system will not respond quickly enough to changes in a player's actual level of performance. Elo's original -factor estimation was made without the benefit of huge databases and statistical evidence. Sonas indicates that a -factor of 24 (for players rated above 2400) may be more accurate both as a predictive tool of future performance, and also more sensitive to performance.A key Sonas article is Certain Internet chess sites seem to avoid a three-level K-factor staggering based on rating range. For example, the ICC seems to adopt a global K=32 except when playing against provisionally rated players. The USCF (which makes use of a [distribution](logistic)(logistic distribution) as opposed to a [distribution](normal)(normal distribution)) formerly staggered the K-factor according to three main rating ranges: : Currently, the USCF uses a formula that calculates the -factor based on factors including the number of games played and the player's rating. The K-factor is also reduced for high rated players if the event has shorter time controls. FIDE uses the following ranges: : FIDE used the following ranges before July 2014: : The gradation of the -factor reduces rating change at the top end of the rating range, reducing the possibility for rapid rise or fall of rating for those with a rating high enough to reach a low -factor. In theory, this might apply equally to online chess players and over-the-board players, since it is more difficult for all players to raise their rating after their rating has become high and their -factor consequently reduced. However, when playing online, 2800+ players can more easily raise their rating by simply selecting opponents with high ratings – on the ICC playing site, a [grandmaster](grandmaster (chess)) may play a string of different opponents who are all rated over 2700. In over-the-board events, it would only be in very high level all-play-all events that a player would be able to engage that number of 2700+ opponents. In a normal, open, Swiss-paired chess tournament, frequently there would be many opponents rated less than 2500, reducing the ratings gains possible from a single contest for a high-rated player. ### Formal derivation for win/loss games The above expressions can be now formally derived by exploiting the link between the Elo rating and the stochastic gradient update in the logistic regression. If we assume that the game results are [binary](Binary random variable), that is, only a win or a loss can be observed, the problem can be addressed via [regression](logistic)(logistic regression), where the games results are [variables](dependent)(Dependent and independent variables), the players' ratings are [variables](independent)(Dependent and independent variables), and the model relating both is probabilistic: the probability of the player \mathsf{A} winning the game is modeled as : \Pr\{\mathsf{A}~\textrm{wins}\} = \sigma(r_{\mathsf{A,B}}), \quad \sigma(r)=\frac 1 {1 + 10^{-r/s}}, where : r_{\mathsf{A,B}} = (R_\mathsf{A} - R_\mathsf{B}) denotes the difference of the players' ratings, and we use a scaling factor s=400, and, by [of total probability](law)(law of total probability) : \Pr\{\mathsf{B}~\textrm{wins}\} = 1-\sigma(r_{\mathsf{A,B}})=\sigma(-r_{\mathsf{A,B}}). The [loss](log)(log loss) is then calculated as : \ell = \begin{cases} -\log \sigma(r_\mathsf{A,B}) & \textrm{if}~ \mathsf{A}~\textrm{wins},\\ -\log \sigma(-r_\mathsf{A,B}) & \textrm{if}~ \mathsf{B}~\textrm{wins}, \end{cases} and, using the [gradient descent](stochastic)(stochastic gradient descent) the log loss is minimized as follows: : R_{\mathsf{A}}\leftarrow R_{\mathsf{A}} - \eta \frac{\textrm{d}\ell}{\textrm{d} R_{\mathsf{A}}}, : R_{\mathsf{B}}\leftarrow R_{\mathsf{B}} - \eta \frac{\textrm{d}\ell}{\textrm{d} R_{\mathsf{B}}}. where \eta is the adaptation step. Since \frac{\textrm{d}}{\textrm{d} r}\log\sigma(r)=\frac{\log 10}{s}\sigma(-r), \frac{\textrm{d} r_{\mathsf{A,B}}}{\textrm{d} R_{\mathsf{A}}}=1, and \frac{\textrm{d} r_{\mathsf{A,B}}}{\textrm{d} R_{\mathsf{B}}}=-1, the adaptation is then written as follows : R_{\mathsf{A}}\leftarrow \begin{cases} R_{\mathsf{A}} + K \sigma(-r_{\mathsf{A,B}}) & \textrm{if}~\mathsf{A}~\textrm{wins}\\ R_{\mathsf{A}} - K \sigma(r_{\mathsf{A,B}}) & \textrm{if}~\mathsf{B}~\textrm{wins}, \end{cases} which may be compactly written as : R_{\mathsf{A}}\leftarrow R_{\mathsf{A}} + K (S_{\mathsf{A}}-E_{\mathsf{A}}) where K=\eta\log10/s is the new adaptation step which absorbs \eta and s, S_{\mathsf{A}}=1 if \mathsf{A} wins and S_{\mathsf{A}}=0 if \mathsf{B} wins, and the expected score is given by E_{\mathsf{A}}=\sigma(r_{\mathsf{A,B}}). Analogously, the update for the rating R_{\mathsf{B}} is : R_{\mathsf{B}}\leftarrow R_{\mathsf{B}} + K (S_{\mathsf{B}}-E_{\mathsf{B}}). ### Formal derivation for win/draw/loss games Since the very beginning, the Elo rating has been also used in chess where we observe wins, losses or draws and, to deal with the latter a fractional score value, S_{\mathsf{A}}=0.5, is introduced. We note, however, that the scores S_{\mathsf{A}}=1 and S_{\mathsf{A}}=0 are merely indicators to the events when the player \mathsf{A} wins or loses the game. It is, therefore, not immediately clear what is the meaning of the fractional score. Moreover, since we do not specify explicitly the model relating the rating values R_{\mathsf{A}} and R_{\mathsf{B}} to the probability of the game outcome, we cannot say what the probability of the win, the loss, or the draw is. To address these difficulties, and to derive the Elo rating in the ternary games, we will define the explicit probabilistic model of the outcomes. Next, we will minimize the log loss via stochastic gradient. Since the loss, the draw, and the win are [variables](ordinal)(Ordinal data), we should adopt the model which takes their ordinal nature into account, and we use the so-called adjacent categories model which may be traced to the Davidson's work : \Pr\{\mathsf{A}~\textrm{wins}\} = \sigma(r_{\mathsf{A,B}}; \kappa), : \Pr\{\mathsf{B}~\textrm{wins}\} = \sigma(-r_{\mathsf{A,B}}; \kappa), : \Pr\{\mathsf{A}~\textrm{draws}\} = \kappa\sqrt{\sigma(r_{\mathsf{A,B}}; \kappa)\sigma(-r_{\mathsf{A,B}}; \kappa)}, where : \sigma(r; \kappa) = \frac{10^{r/s}}{10^{-r/s}+\kappa + 10^{r/s}} and \kappa\ge 0 is a parameter. Introduction of a free parameter should not be surprising as we have three possible outcomes and thus, an additional degree of freedom should appear in the model. In particular, with \kappa=0 we recover the model underlying the logistic regression : \Pr\{\mathsf{A}~\textrm{wins}\} = \sigma(r_{\mathsf{A,B}};0)=\frac{10^{r_{\mathsf{A,B}}/s}}{10^{-r_{\mathsf{A,B}}/s}+ 10^{r_{\mathsf{A,B}}/s}}=\frac{1}{1+ 10^{-r_{\mathsf{A,B}}/s'}}, where s' = s/2. Using the ordinal model defined above, the [loss](log)(log loss) is now calculated as : \ell = \begin{cases} -\log \sigma(r_{\mathsf{A,B}};\kappa) & \textrm{if}~ \mathsf{A}~\textrm{wins},\\ -\log \sigma(-r_{\mathsf{A,B}};\kappa) & \textrm{if}~ \mathsf{B}~\textrm{wins},\\ -\log \kappa -\frac{1}{2}\log\sigma(r_{\mathsf{A,B}};\kappa) - \frac{1}{2}\log\sigma(-r_{\mathsf{A,B}};\kappa) & \textrm{if}~ \mathsf{A}~\textrm{draw}, \end{cases} which may be compactly written as : \ell = -(S_{\mathsf{A}} +\frac{1}{2}D)\log \sigma(r_{\mathsf{A,B}};\kappa) -(S_{\mathsf{B}} +\frac{1}{2}D) \log \sigma(-r_{\mathsf{A,B}};\kappa) -\log \kappa where S_{\mathsf{A}}=1 [iff](If and only if) \mathsf{A} wins, S_{\mathsf{B}}=1 iff \mathsf{B} wins, and D=1 iff \mathsf{A} draws. As before, we need the derivative of \log\sigma(r;\kappa) which is given by : \frac{\textrm{d}}{\textrm{d} r}\log\sigma(r; \kappa) =\frac{2\log 10}{s} [1-g(r;\kappa)] , where : g(r;\kappa)= \frac{10^{r/s}+\kappa/2 } {10^{-r/s}+\kappa + 10^{r/s}}. Thus, the derivative of the log loss with respect to the rating R_{\mathsf{A}} is given by : \begin{align} \frac{\textrm{d}}{\textrm{d} R_{\mathsf{A}}}\ell &= -\frac{2\log 10}{s} \left( (S_{\mathsf{A}} +0.5D)[1-g(r_{\mathsf{A,B}};\kappa)] -(S_{\mathsf{B}} +0.5D)g(r_{\mathsf{A,B}};\kappa) \right)\\ &= -\frac{2\log 10}{s} \left(S_{\mathsf{A}} + 0.5D-g(r_{\mathsf{A,B}};\kappa)\right), \end{align} where we used the relationships S_{\mathsf{A}} + S_{\mathsf{B}} + D=1 and g(-r;\kappa)=1-g(r;\kappa) . Then, the stochastic gradient descent applied to minimize the log loss yields the following update for the rating R_{\mathsf{A}} : R_{\mathsf{A}}\leftarrow R_{\mathsf{A}} + K (\hat{S}_{\mathsf{A}}- g(r_{\mathsf{A,B}};\kappa)) where K=2\eta\log10/s and \hat{S}_{\mathsf{A}}= S_{\mathsf{A}} + 0.5D . Of course, \hat{S}_{\mathsf{A}}= 1 if \textsf{A} wins, \hat{S}_{\mathsf{A}}= 0.5 if \textsf{A} draws, and \hat{S}_{\mathsf{A}}= 0 if \textsf{A} loses. To recognize the origin in the model proposed by Davidson, this update is called an Elo-Davidson rating. The update for R_{\mathsf{B}} is derived in the same manner as : R_{\mathsf{B}}\leftarrow R_{\mathsf{B}} + K (\hat{S}_{\mathsf{B}}- g(r_{\mathsf{B,A}};\kappa)) , where r_{\mathsf{B,A}}=R_{\mathsf{B}}-R_{\mathsf{A}}=-r_{\mathsf{A,B}} . We note that : \begin{align} E[\hat{S}_{\mathsf{A}}] &=\Pr\{\mathsf{A}~\text{wins}\}+0.5\Pr\{\mathsf{A}~\text{draws}\}\\ &=\sigma(r_{\mathsf{A,B}};\kappa)+0.5\kappa\sqrt{\sigma(r_{\mathsf{A,B}};\kappa)\sigma(-r_{\mathsf{A,B}};\kappa)}\\ &=g(r_{\mathsf{A,B}};\kappa) \end{align} and thus, we obtain the rating update may be written as : R_{\mathsf{A}}\leftarrow R_{\mathsf{A}} + K (\hat{S}_{\mathsf{A}}- E_{\mathsf{A}}) , where E_{\mathsf{A}}=E[\hat{S}_\mathsf{A}] and we obtained practically the same equation as in the Elo rating except that the expected score is given by E_{\mathsf{A}}=g(r_{\mathsf{A,B}};\kappa) instead of E_{\mathsf{A}}=\sigma(r_{\mathsf{A,B}}) . Of course, as noted above, for \kappa=0, we have g(r;0) = \sigma(r) and thus, the Elo-Davidson rating is exactly the same as the Elo rating. However, this is of no help to understand the case when the draws are observed (we cannot use \kappa=0 which would mean that the probability of draw is null). On the other hand, if we use \kappa=2 , we have : g(r;2)= \frac{10^{r/s}+1 } {10^{-r/s}+2 + 10^{r/s}}=\frac{1} {1+10^{-r/s}}=\sigma(r) which means that, using \kappa=2 , the Elo-Davidson rating is exactly the same as the Elo rating. ## Practical issues ### Game activity versus protecting one's rating In some cases the rating system can discourage game activity for players who wish to protect their rating.[A Parent's Guide to Chess](http://www.chesscafe.com/text/skittles176.pdf) Skittles, Don Heisman, Chesscafe.com, August 4, 2002 In order to discourage players from sitting on a high rating, a 2012 proposal by British Grandmaster [Nunn](John)(John Nunn) for choosing qualifiers to the chess world championship included an activity bonus, to be combined with the rating. Beyond the chess world, concerns over players avoiding competitive play to protect their ratings caused [of the Coast](Wizards)(Wizards of the Coast) to abandon the Elo system for [the Gathering](Magic:)(Magic: the Gathering) tournaments in favour of a system of their own devising called "Planeswalker Points". ### Selective pairing A more subtle issue is related to pairing. When players can choose their own opponents, they can choose opponents with minimal risk of losing, and maximum reward for winning. Particular examples of players rated 2800+ choosing opponents with minimal risk and maximum possibility of rating gain include: choosing opponents that they know they can beat with a certain strategy; choosing opponents that they think are overrated; or avoiding playing strong players who are rated several hundred points below them, but may hold chess titles such as IM or GM. In the category of choosing overrated opponents, new entrants to the rating system who have played fewer than 50 games are in theory a convenient target as they may be overrated in their provisional rating. The ICC compensates for this issue by assigning a lower K-factor to the established player if they do win against a new rating entrant. The K-factor is actually a function of the number of rated games played by the new entrant. Therefore, Elo ratings online still provide a useful mechanism for providing a rating based on the opponent's rating. Its overall credibility, however, needs to be seen in the context of at least the above two major issues described—engine abuse, and selective pairing of opponents. The ICC has also recently introduced "auto-pairing" ratings which are based on random pairings, but with each win in a row ensuring a statistically much harder opponent who has also won x games in a row. With potentially hundreds of players involved, this creates some of the challenges of a major large Swiss event which is being fiercely contested, with round winners meeting round winners. This approach to pairing certainly maximizes the rating risk of the higher-rated participants, who may face very stiff opposition from players below 3000, for example. This is a separate rating in itself, and is under "1-minute" and "5-minute" rating categories. Maximum ratings achieved over 2500 are exceptionally rare. ### Ratings inflation and deflation [[rating graph.svg\|thumb\|300px\|Graphs of probabilities and Elo rating changes (for K=16 and 32) of expected outcome (solid curve) and unexpected outcome (dotted curve) vs initial rating difference. For example, player A starts with a 1400 rating and B with 1800 in a tournament using K = 32 (brown curves). The blue dash-dot line denotes the initial rating difference of 400 (1800 − 1400). The probability of B winning, the expected outcome, is 0.91 (intersection of black solid curve and blue line); if this happens, A's rating decreases by 3 (intersection of brown solid curve and blue line) to 1397 and B's increases by the same amount to 1803. Conversely, the probability of A winning, the unexpected outcome, is 0.09 (intersection of black dotted curve and blue line); if this happens, A's rating increases by 29 (intersection of brown dotted curve and blue line) to 1429 and B's decreases by the same amount to 1771.](File:Elo)] The term "inflation", applied to ratings, is meant to suggest that the level of playing strength demonstrated by the rated player is decreasing over time; conversely, "deflation" suggests that the level is advancing. For example, if there is inflation, a modern rating of 2500 means less than a historical rating of 2500, while the reverse is true if there is deflation. Using ratings to compare players between different eras is made more difficult when inflation or deflation are present. (See also [of top chess players throughout history](Comparison)(Comparison of top chess players throughout history).) Analyzing FIDE rating lists over time, Jeff Sonas suggests that inflation may have taken place since about 1985. Sonas looks at the highest-rated players, rather than all rated players, and acknowledges that the changes in the distribution of ratings could have been caused by an increase of the standard of play at the highest levels, but looks for other causes as well. The number of people with ratings over 2700 has increased. Around 1979 there was only one active player ([Karpov](Anatoly)(Anatoly Karpov)) with a rating this high. In 1992 [Anand](Viswanathan)(Viswanathan Anand) was only the 8th player in chess history to reach the 2700 mark at that point of time. This increased to 15 players by 1994. 33 players had a 2700+ rating in 2009 and 44 as of September 2012. The current benchmark for elite players lies beyond 2800. One possible cause for this inflation was the rating floor, which for a long time was at 2200, and if a player dropped below this they were struck from the rating list. As a consequence, players at a skill level just below the floor would only be on the rating list if they were overrated, and this would cause them to feed points into the rating pool. In July 2000 the average rating of the top 100 was 2644. By July 2012 it had increased to 2703. Using a strong [engine](chess)(chess engine) to evaluate moves played in games between rated players, Regan and Haworth analyze sets of games from FIDE-rated tournaments, and draw the conclusion that there had been little or no inflation from 1976 to 2009. In a pure Elo system, each game ends in an equal transaction of rating points. If the winner gains N rating points, the loser will drop by N rating points. This prevents points from entering or leaving the system when games are played and rated. However, players tend to enter the system as novices with a low rating and retire from the system as experienced players with a high rating. Therefore, in the long run a system with strictly equal transactions tends to result in rating deflation. In 1995, the USCF acknowledged that several young scholastic players were improving faster than the rating system was able to track. As a result, established players with stable ratings started to lose rating points to the young and underrated players. Several of the older established players were frustrated over what they considered an unfair rating decline, and some even quit chess over it.A conversation with Mark Glickman [http://www.glicko.net/ratings/cl-article.pdf] , Published in Chess Life October 2006 issue #### Combating deflation Because of the significant difference in timing of when inflation and deflation occur, and in order to combat deflation, most implementations of Elo ratings have a mechanism for injecting points into the system in order to maintain relative ratings over time. FIDE has two inflationary mechanisms. First, performances below a "ratings floor" are not tracked, so a player with true skill below the floor can only be unrated or overrated, never correctly rated. Second, established and higher-rated players have a lower K-factor. New players have a K = 40, which drops to K = 20 after 30 played games, and to K = 10 when the player reaches 2400. The current system in the United States includes a bonus point scheme which feeds rating points into the system in order to track improving players, and different K-values for different players. Some methods, used in Norway for example, differentiate between juniors and seniors, and use a larger K-factor for the young players, even boosting the rating progress by 100% for when they score well above their predicted performance. Rating floors in the United States work by guaranteeing that a player will never drop below a certain limit. This also combats deflation, but the chairman of the USCF Ratings Committee has been critical of this method because it does not feed the extra points to the improving players. A possible motive for these rating floors is to combat sandbagging, i.e., deliberate lowering of ratings to be eligible for lower rating class sections and prizes. ### Ratings of computers [chess matches](Human–computer)(Human–computer chess matches) between 1997 ([Blue versus Garry Kasparov](Deep)(Deep Blue versus Garry Kasparov)) and 2006 demonstrated that [computers](chess)(chess computers) are capable of defeating even the strongest human players. However, [engine](chess)(chess engine) ratings are difficult to quantify, due to variable factors such as the time control and the hardware the program runs on. Published engine rating lists such as [CCRL](CCRL) are based on engine-only games on standard hardware configurations and are not directly comparable to FIDE ratings. For some ratings estimates, see [engine § Ratings](Chess)(Chess engine rating lists). ## Use outside of chess ### Other board and card games * [Go](Go (game)): The [Go Federation](European)(European Go Federation) adopted an Elo-based rating system initially pioneered by the Czech Go Federation. * [Backgammon](Backgammon): The popular [Internet Backgammon Server](First)(First Internet Backgammon Server) (FIBS) calculates ratings based on a modified Elo system. New players are assigned a rating of 1500, with the best humans and bots rating over 2000. The same formula has been adopted by several other backgammon sites, such as [Play65](Play65), [DailyGammon](DailyGammon), [GoldToken](GoldToken) and [VogClub](VogClub). VogClub sets a new player's rating at 1600. The UK Backgammon Federation uses the FIBS formula for its UK national ratings. * [Scrabble](Scrabble): National Scrabble organizations compute normally distributed Elo ratings except in the [Kingdom](United)(United Kingdom), where a different system is used. The [American Scrabble Players Association](North)(North American Scrabble Players Association) has the largest rated population of active members, numbering about 2,000 as of early 2011. [Lexulous](Lexulous) also uses the Elo system. * Despite questions of the appropriateness of using the Elo system to rate games in which luck is a factor, trading-card game manufacturers often use Elo ratings for their organized play efforts. The [DCI](Duelists' Convocation International) (formerly Duelists' Convocation International) used Elo ratings for tournaments of [The Gathering](Magic:)(Magic: The Gathering) and other [of the Coast](Wizards)(Wizards of the Coast) games. However, the DCI abandoned this system in 2012 in favor of a new cumulative system of "Planeswalker Points", chiefly because of the above-noted concern that Elo encourages highly rated players to avoid playing to "protect their rating". [USA](Pokémon)(Pokémon USA) uses the Elo system to rank its TCG organized play competitors. Prizes for the top players in various regions included holidays and world championships invites until the 2011–2012 season, where awards were based on a system of Championship Points, their rationale being the same as the DCI's for Magic: The Gathering. Similarly, [Inc.](Decipher,)(Decipher, Inc.) used the Elo system for its ranked games such as [Trek Customizable Card Game](Star)(Star Trek Customizable Card Game) and [Wars Customizable Card Game](Star)(Star Wars Customizable Card Game). ### Athletic sports The Elo rating system is used in the chess portion of [boxing](chess)(chess boxing). In order to be eligible for professional chess boxing, one must have an Elo rating of at least 1600, as well as competing in 50 or more matches of amateur boxing or martial arts. [college football](American)(College football) used the Elo method as a portion of its [Championship Series](Bowl)(Bowl Championship Series) rating systems from [1998](1998 NCAA Division I-A football season) to [2013](2013 NCAA Division I FBS football season) after which the BCS was replaced by the [Football Playoff](College)(College Football Playoff). [Sagarin](Jeff)(Jeff Sagarin) of [Today](USA)(USA Today) publishes team rankings for most American sports, which includes Elo system ratings for college football. The use of rating systems was effectively scrapped with the creation of the College Football Playoff in 2014; participants in the CFP and its associated bowl games are chosen by a selection committee. In other sports, individuals maintain rankings based on the Elo algorithm. These are usually unofficial, not endorsed by the sport's governing body. The [Football Elo Ratings](World)(World Football Elo Ratings) is an example of the method applied to men's [football](association football). In 2006, Elo ratings were adapted for [League Baseball](Major)(Major League Baseball) teams by [Silver](Nate)(Nate Silver), then of [Prospectus](Baseball)(Baseball Prospectus). Based on this adaptation, both also made Elo-based [Carlo](Monte)(Monte Carlo method) simulations of the odds of whether teams will make the playoffs. In 2014, Beyond the Box Score, an [Nation](SB)(SB Nation) site, introduced an Elo ranking system for international baseball. In tennis, the Elo-based Universal Tennis Rating (UTR) rates players on a global scale, regardless of age, gender, or nationality. It is the official rating system of major organizations such as the [Tennis Association](Intercollegiate)(Intercollegiate Tennis Association) and [TeamTennis](World)(World TeamTennis) and is frequently used in segments on the [Channel](Tennis)(Tennis Channel). The algorithm analyzes more than 8 million match results from over 800,000 tennis players worldwide. On May 8, 2018, [Nadal](Rafael)(Rafael Nadal)—having won 46 consecutive sets in clay court matches—had a near-perfect clay UTR of 16.42. In [pool](pool (cue sports)), an Elo-based system called Fargo Rate is used to rank players in organized amateur and professional competitions. One of the few Elo-based rankings endorsed by a sport's governing body is the [Women's World Rankings](FIFA)(FIFA Women's World Rankings), based on a simplified version of the Elo algorithm, which [FIFA](FIFA) uses as its official ranking system for national teams in [football](women's)(women's association football). From the first ranking list after the [FIFA World Cup](2018)(2018 FIFA World Cup), FIFA has used Elo for their [World Rankings](FIFA)(FIFA World Rankings). In 2015, Nate Silver, editor-in-chief of the statistical commentary website [FiveThirtyEight](FiveThirtyEight), and Reuben Fischer-Baum produced Elo ratings for every [Basketball Association](National)(National Basketball Association) team and season through the 2014 season. Also see Reuben Fischer-Baum and Nate Silver, "The Complete History of the NBA," FiveThirtyEight, May 21, 2015.[http://fivethirtyeight.com/interactives/the-complete-history-of-every-nba-team-by-elo/#bulls] In 2014 FiveThirtyEight created Elo-based ratings and win-projections for the American professional [Football League](National)(National Football League).. The English [Korfball](Korfball) Association rated teams based on Elo ratings, to determine handicaps for their cup competition for the 2011/12 season. An Elo-based ranking of [Hockey League](National)(National Hockey League) players has been developed. The hockey-Elo metric evaluates a player's overall two-way play: scoring AND defense in both even strength and power-play/penalty-kill situations. Rugbyleagueratings.com uses the Elo rating system to rank international and club [league](rugby)(rugby league) teams. ### Video games and online games Many video games use modified Elo systems in competitive gameplay. The [MOBA](Multiplayer online battle arena) game [of Legends](League)(League of Legends) used an Elo rating system prior to the second season of competitive play. The [Esports](Esports) game [Overwatch](Overwatch (video game)), the basis of the unique [League](Overwatch)(Overwatch League) professional [organization](sports)(Professional sports league organization), uses a derivative of the Elo system to rank competitive players with various adjustments made between competitive seasons. [of Warcraft](World)(World of Warcraft) also previously used the Glicko-2 system to team up and compare Arena players, but now uses a system similar to Microsoft's [TrueSkill](TrueSkill). The game [Pirates](Puzzle)(Puzzle Pirates) uses the Elo rating system to determine the standings in the various puzzles. This system is also used in FIFA Mobile for the Division Rivals modes. The browser game [Manager](Quidditch)(Quidditch Manager) uses the Elo rating to measure a team's performance. Another recent game to start using the Elo rating system is [AirMech](AirMech), using Elo ratings for 1v1, 2v2, and 3v3 random/team matchmaking. [3](RuneScape)(RuneScape) used the Elo system in the rerelease of the bounty hunter minigame in 2016.[http://services.runescape.com/m=news/design-doc--bounty-hunter--deathmatch-pvp?acq_id=3001] [Online](Mechwarrior)(Mechwarrior Online) instituted an Elo system for its new "Comp Queue" mode, effective with the Jun 20, 2017 patch. [of Empires II DE](Age)(Age of Empires II: Definitive Edition) is using the Elo system for its Leaderboard and matchmaking, with new players starting at Elo 1000. Few video games use the original Elo rating system. According to [Lichess](Lichess), an online chess server, the Elo system is outdated, with Glicko-2 now being used by many chess organizations. [Battlegrounds](PlayerUnknown’s)(PlayerUnknown's Battlegrounds) is one of the few video games that utilizes the very first Elo system. In [Wars](Guild)(Guild Wars), Elo ratings are used to record guild rating gained and lost through guild-versus-guild battles. In 1998, an online gaming ladder called Clanbase was launched, which used the Elo scoring system to rank teams. The initial K-value was 30, but was changed to 5 in January 2007, then changed to 15 in July 2009. The site later went offline in 2013. A similar alternative site was launched in 2016 under the name Scrimbase, which also used the Elo scoring system for ranking teams. Since 2005, [Tee Live](Golden)(Golden Tee Golf) has rated players based on the Elo system. New players start at 2100, with top players rating over 3000. Despite many video games using different systems for [matchmaking](matchmaking (video games)), it is common for players of ranked video games to refer to all matchmaking ratings as Elo. ### Other usage The Elo rating system has been used in [biometrics](soft)(soft biometrics),["Using Comparative Human Descriptions for Soft Biometrics"](http://eprints.soton.ac.uk/272922/1/IJCB%20(3).pdf) , D.A. Reid and M.S. Nixon, International Joint Conference on Biometrics (IJCB), 2011 which concerns the identification of individuals using human descriptions. Comparative descriptions were utilized alongside the Elo rating system to provide robust and discriminative 'relative measurements', permitting accurate identification. The Elo rating system has also been used in biology for assessing male dominance hierarchies, and in automation and computer vision for [inspection](fabric)(fabric inspection). Moreover, [judge](online)(online judge) sites are also using Elo rating system or its derivatives. For example, [Topcoder](Topcoder) is using a modified version based on normal distribution, while [Codeforces](Codeforces) is using another version based on logistic distribution. Elo rating system has also been noted in dating apps, such as in the matchmaking app [Tinder](Tinder (app)), which uses a variant of the Elo rating system. The YouTuber [Brownlee](Marques)(Marques Brownlee) and his team used Elo rating system when they let people to vote between digital photos taken with different [smartphone](smartphone) models launched in 2022. ## References in the media The Elo rating system was featured prominently in [Social Network](The)(The Social Network) during the algorithm scene where [Zuckerberg](Mark)(Mark Zuckerberg) released [Facemash](Facemash). In the scene [Saverin](Eduardo)(Eduardo Saverin) writes mathematical formulas for the Elo rating system on Zuckerberg's dormitory room window. Behind the scenes, the movie claims, the Elo system is employed to rank girls by their attractiveness. The equations driving the algorithm are shown briefly, written on the window;[Screenplay for The Social Network, Sony Pictures](http://flash.sonypictures.com/video/movies/thesocialnetwork/awards/thesocialnetwork_screenplay.pdf) , p. 16 however, they are slightly incorrect. ## See also * [model](Bradley–Terry)(Bradley–Terry model) * [rating system](Chess)(Chess rating system), other chess rating systems * [hell](Elo)(Elo hell) * [rating system](Glicko)(Glicko rating system), the rating methods developed by Mark Glickman ## Notes ## References ### Notes ### Sources * ## Further reading * ## External links * [Mark Glickman's research page, with a number of links to technical papers on chess rating systems](http://www.glicko.net/research.html) [rating systems](Category:Chess)(Category:Chess rating systems) [records and statistics](Category:Sports)(Category:Sports records and statistics)
Christchurch mosque shootings	christchurch_mosque_shootings	# Christchurch mosque shootings Revision ID: 1159274983 \| Timestamp: 2023-06-09T09:31:28Z --- \| pos1 = left \| label2 = Linwood Islamic Centre \| coordinates2 = \| pos2 = right }} \|Show map of Christchurch, New Zealand \| }} \|Show map of New Zealand }} \| map_size = \| map_alt = \| map_caption = \| location = [Christchurch](Christchurch), [New Zealand](Canterbury,)(Canterbury, New Zealand) \| target = [Muslim](Muslims) worshippers \| coordinates = \|([Noor Mosque](Al)(Al Noor Mosque, Christchurch))\|\|([Islamic Centre](Linwood)(Linwood Islamic Centre))}} \| date = 15 March 2019 () \| time-begin = 1:40 \| time-end = 1:59 pm \| timezone = [NZDT](NZDT); [UTC+13](UTC+13) \| type = [shooting](Mass)(Mass shooting), [attack](terrorist)(terrorist attack), [spree](shooting)(spree killer), [murder](mass)(mass murder), [terrorism](right-wing)(right-wing terrorism), [crime](hate)(hate crime) \| fatalities = 51 \| injuries = 40 \| perp = Brenton Harrison Tarrant \| accused = \| weapons = * Two [style rifle](AR-15)(AR-15 style rifle)s * 12-gauge [930](Mossberg)(Mossberg 930) semi-automatic shotgun * 12-gauge [870](Ranger)(Remington Model 870) pump-action shotgun * [Magnum](.357)(.357 Magnum) [Uberti](A. Uberti, Srl.) lever-action rifle * .223-caliber [Mossberg](O.F. Mossberg & Sons) Predator bolt-action rifle \| motive = * [extremism](Far-right)(Far-right extremism) * [Islamophobia](Islamophobia) * [supremacy](White)(White supremacy) * [Ecofascism](Ecofascism) \| coroner = \| convicted = \| verdict = [guilty](Pleaded)(Pleaded guilty) to all charges \| convictions = 51 counts of [murder](murder)40 counts of [murder](attempted)(attempted murder)One count of [a terrorist act](committing)(Terrorism Suppression Act 2002) }} On 15 March 2019, two consecutive [shooting](mass)(mass shooting)s occurred in a [attack](terrorist)(terrorist attack) on two mosques in [Christchurch](Christchurch), New Zealand. The attacks, carried out by a lone gunman who entered both mosques during [prayer](Friday)(Friday prayer), began at the [Noor Mosque](Al)(Al Noor Mosque, Christchurch) in the suburb of [Riccarton](Riccarton, New Zealand) at 1:40 pm and continued at the [Islamic Centre](Linwood)(Linwood Islamic Centre) at 1:52 pm. 51 people were killed and 40 were injured. The gunman, 28-year-old Brenton Harrison Tarrant from [New South Wales](Grafton,)(Grafton, New South Wales), [Australia](Australia), was arrested after his vehicle was rammed by a police unit as he was driving to a third mosque in [Ashburton](Ashburton, New Zealand). He was described in media reports as a [supremacist](white)(white supremacist). He had [live-streamed](live-streamed) the first shooting on [Facebook](Facebook), and prior to the attack, had published an online manifesto; both the video and manifesto were subsequently banned in New Zealand and Australia.Multiple sources: * * * * On 26 March 2020, he pleaded guilty to 51 murders, 40 attempted murders, and engaging in a terrorist act, and in August was sentenced to [imprisonment](life)(Life imprisonment in New Zealand) without the possibility of [parole](parole)the first such sentence in New Zealand. The attack was linked to an increase in white supremacy and [alt-right](alt-right) extremism globally observed since about 2015. Politicians and world leaders condemned it, and [Minister](Prime)(Prime Minister of New Zealand) [Ardern](Jacinda)(Jacinda Ardern) described it as "one of New Zealand's darkest days". The government established a [commission](royal)(royal commission) into its security agencies in the wake of the shootings, which were the deadliest in modern New Zealand history and the worst ever committed by an Australian national. The commission submitted its report to the government on 26 November 2020, the details of which were made public on 7 December. ## Background New Zealand has been considered a safe and tolerant place with low levels of gun violence and was named the second-most peaceful country in the world by [Peace Index](Global)(Global Peace Index) in 2019, the year of the attacks. This attack was the first mass shooting in the country since the [massacre](Raurimu)(Raurimu massacre) in 1997; prior to that, the deadliest public mass shooting was the 1990 [massacre](Aramoana)(Aramoana massacre), in which 13 people died. While New Zealand has rarely been associated with [extremism](far-right)(far-right extremism), experts have suggested it has been growing there. Sociologist [Spoonley](Paul)(Paul Spoonley) called Christchurch a hotbed for white supremacists and the extreme nationalist movement, a suggestion rejected by [Christchurch](Christchurch)-based MP [Brownlee](Gerry)(Gerry Brownlee). Australia, where the gunman, Brenton Tarrant, was from, has also seen an increase in [xenophobia](xenophobia), racism, and Islamophobia. In the [census](2018)(2018 New Zealand census), some 57,000 New Zealand residents (1.2% of the population) reported their religion as Islam. The [Noor Mosque](Al)(Al Noor Mosque, Christchurch), the first [mosque](mosque) in the [Island](South)(South Island), opened in June 1985. The [Islamic Centre](Linwood)(Linwood Islamic Centre) opened in early 2018. ## Events ### Al Noor Mosque On 15 March 2019, at 1:40 pm, Tarrant entered the [Noor Mosque](Al)(Al Noor Mosque, Christchurch) in [Riccarton](Riccarton, New Zealand) and began shooting. Approximately 190 people, mostly men, were attending [prayer](Friday)(Friday prayer) at the time. Tarrant [live-streamed](live-streamed) for 17 minutes (before and during the first shooting, and between the two shootings) on [Live](Facebook)(Facebook Live), starting with the drive to the Al Noor mosque and ending as he drove away. Just before the shooting, he played several songs, including "[Kebab](Remove)(Remove Kebab)", a [nationalist](Serb)(Serb nationalist) and [anti-Muslim](Islamophobia) song; and "[British Grenadiers](The)(The British Grenadiers)", a traditional British military marching song. During the shooting, he continued to play "military music" from a portable speaker attached to a tactical vest he was wearing. As Tarrant approached the mosque, a worshipper greeted him with "Hello, brother". Tarrant fired a [930](Mossberg)(Mossberg 930) semiautomatic shotgun nine times towards the front entrance from outside, killing the worshipper. He then dropped the shotgun and opened fire on people inside with an [style rifle](AR-15)(AR-15 style rifle), killing three other men near the entrance and dozens more inside a prayer hall; a [light](strobe)(strobe light) attached to one of his weapons disoriented victims.Multiple sources: * * * Another worshipper charged at Tarrant but was shot and fatally wounded. This worshipper, Naeem Rashid, was posthumously awarded the [Nishan-e-Shujaat](Nishan-e-Shujaat) and the [Zealand Cross](New)(New Zealand Cross (1999)), the highest awards of bravery in Pakistan and New Zealand respectively. Tarrant fired at worshippers in the prayer hall from close range, shooting many multiple times. He then went outside, where he killed another man and retrieved another weapon from his car, before going to the mosque's car park and shooting several people there. He reentered the mosque and fired on already-wounded people in the prayer hall, then again went outside, where he killed a woman. He drove off about five minutes after arriving at the mosque, firing at people and cars through the windscreen and closed window of his own car. He said, on the livestream, that he had planned to set the mosque on fire; four modified petrol containers were later found in his car. Police arrived just as Tarrant was leaving, but his car was hidden by a bus. He drove eastwards on [Avenue](Bealey)(Bealey Avenue) at speeds up to , weaving between lanes against oncoming traffic and driving onto a grass [strip](median)(median strip). At 1:51 pm, the livestream ended, but the [GoPro](GoPro) device attached to Tarrant's helmet continued recording until he was apprehended by police eight minutes later. ### Linwood Islamic Centre [[Islamic Centre, March 2020. At the time of the shootings there was a buiding at the front of the section and access was along a driveway to the left.jpg\|thumb\|Linwood Islamic Centre, March 2020. At the time of the shootings there was a building at the front of the section and access was along an ungated driveway to the left.](File:Linwood)] At 1:52 pm, Tarrant arrived at the [Islamic Centre](Linwood)(Linwood Islamic Centre), east of the Al Noor Mosque, where about 100 people were inside. Tarrant parked his vehicle on the mosque's driveway, preventing other cars from entering or leaving. According to a witness, Tarrant was initially unable to find the mosque's main door, instead shooting people outside and through a window, killing four and alerting those inside. A worshipper named Abdul Aziz Wahabzada ran outside and, as Tarrant was retrieving another gun from his car, threw a [terminal](payment)(payment terminal) at Tarrant. Tarrant fired at Aziz, who picked up an empty shotgun Tarrant had dropped, took cover among nearby cars, and attempted to draw Tarrant's attention by shouting, "I'm here!" Regardless, Tarrant entered the mosque, where he shot and killed three people. When Tarrant returned to his car, Aziz threw the shotgun at it. Tarrant drove away at 1:55 pm.Multiple sources: * * * Aziz was awarded the [Zealand Cross](New)(New Zealand Cross (1999)), New Zealand's highest award for bravery. In May 2023, he represented recipients of the Cross at the [of Charles III and Camilla](coronation)(coronation of Charles III and Camilla). ### Tarrant's arrest A silver [Subaru Outback](2005)(Subaru Legacy (fourth generation)#Outback) matching the description of Tarrant's vehicle was seen by a police unit, and a pursuit was initiated at 1:57 pm. Two police officers rammed his car with their vehicle, and Tarrant was arrested on Brougham Street in [Sydenham](Sydenham, New Zealand) at 1:59 pm, 18 minutes after the first emergency call. Tarrant later admitted that when he was arrested, he was on his way to attack a mosque in [Ashburton](Ashburton, New Zealand), southwest of Christchurch. ## Victims Fifty-one people died from the attacks, either at the scene or shortly afterwards: 44 at the Al Noor Mosque and seven at the Linwood Islamic Centre. Almost all were male. Their ages ranged from three to 77 years old. Thirty-five others were injured at the Al Noor Mosque and five at Linwood. ## Perpetrator Brenton Harrison Tarrant (born 27 October 1990), a white Australian man, was 28 years old at the time of the shootings. He grew up in [Grafton](Grafton, New South Wales), [South Wales](New)(New South Wales), where he attended [High School](Grafton)(Grafton High School (New South Wales)). After Tarrant's parents separated when he was young, his mother's subsequent boyfriend abused her and the children. He worked as a [trainer](personal)(personal trainer) in his hometown from 2009 to 2011, quitting after an injury; in that time, he inherited from his father, who committed suicide in 2010. In 2015, he took a trip to Ukraine and came into contact with extreme right-wing groups. At the time of the shootings, Tarrant had been living in [Bay](Andersons)(Andersons Bay) in [Dunedin](Dunedin) since 2017. He was a member of a South Otago gun club, where he practised shooting at its range. A neighbour described him as a friendly loner. In 2018, Tarrant was treated for eye and thigh injuries at [Hospital](Dunedin)(Dunedin Hospital); he told doctors he had sustained the injuries while trying to dislodge an improperly chambered bullet from a gun. The doctors also treated him for steroid abuse, but never reported Tarrant's visit to the authorities, which would have resulted in police reassessing his fitness to hold a gun licence. ### Travels and racist views Tarrant began expressing racist ideas from a young age. From 2012 onward, he visited a number of countries in Asia and Europe, using the money he inherited from his father. He always travelled alone, with the exception of a trip to [Korea](North)(North Korea). Police in [Bulgaria](Bulgaria) and [Turkey](Turkey) investigated Tarrant's visits to their countries. Security officials suspected that he had come into contact with far-right organisations about two years before the shooting, while visiting European nations. He donated €1,500 to [Bewegung Österreich](Identitäre)(Identitäre Bewegung Österreich) (IBÖ), the Austrian branch of Generation Identity (part of the [movement](Identitarian)(Identitarian movement)) in Europe, as well as €2,200 to Génération Identitaire, the French branch of the group, and interacted with IBÖ leader [Sellner](Martin)(Martin Sellner) via email between January 2018 and July 2018, offering to meet in [Vienna](Vienna) and a linking to his [YouTube](YouTube) channel.Multiple sources: * * * During the planning stages of his attack he made a donation of $106.68 to [Media](Rebel)(Rebel News), a site that featured both Sellner and several articles espousing "[genocide](white)(white genocide)" and "[Replacement](Great)(Great Replacement)" conspiracy theories. Captivated with sites of battles between Christian European nations and the [Empire](Ottoman)(Ottoman Empire), Tarrant went on another series of visits to the [Balkans](Balkans) from 2016 to 2018, with Croatia, Bulgaria, Romania, Hungary, Turkey, and Bosnia-Herzegovina confirming his presence there in these years. He posted Balkan nationalist material on social media platforms and called for the United States to be weakened in order to prevent what he perceived as [intervention](NATO)(NATO intervention in Kosovo) in support of [Muslims](Kosovo Albanians) (Albanians) against Christians (Serbs). He said he was against intervention by NATO because he saw the Serbian military as "Christian Europeans attempting to remove these Islamic occupiers from Europe". By June 2016, relatives noted a change in Tarrant's personality, which he claimed was the result of a mugging incident in [Ethiopia](Ethiopia), and his mother had expressed concern for his mental health. In 2016, three years prior to the attacks, Tarrant praised [Cottrell](Blair)(Blair Cottrell) as a leader of the far-right movements in Australia and made more than 30 comments on the now-deleted "[Patriots Front](United)(United Patriots Front)" and "[Blue Crew](True)(True Blue Crew)" webpages. An [Broadcasting Corporation](Australian)(Australian Broadcasting Corporation) team who studied the comments called them "fragments and digital impressions of a well-travelled young man who frequented hate-filled anonymous messaging boards and was deeply engaged in a global alt-right culture." A [Melbourne](Melbourne) man said that in 2016, he filed a police complaint after Tarrant allegedly told him in an online conversation, "I hope one day you meet the rope". He said that the police told him to block Tarrant and did not take a statement from him. The police said that they were unable to locate a complaint. After his arrest, Tarrant told investigators that he frequented right-wing discussion boards on 4chan and 8chan and also found YouTube to be "a significant source of information and inspiration." ### Weapons [[attack gun.png\|thumb\|Gun used in the shootings, marked up with text referencing extreme right-wing ideologies and previous terrorist attacks](File:Christchurch)] Police recovered six guns: two [style rifle](AR-15)(AR-15 style rifle)s (one manufactured by Windham Weaponry and the other by [Ruger](Sturm, Ruger & Co.)), two 12-gauge shotguns (a semiautomatic [930](Mossberg)(Mossberg 930) and a pump-action Ranger 870), and two other rifles (a [Magnum](.357)(.357 Magnum) [Uberti](A. Uberti, Srl.) lever-action rifle, and a .223-caliber [Mossberg](O.F. Mossberg & Sons) Predator bolt-action rifle). They were all purchased between December 2017 and March 2019, along with more than 7,000 rounds of ammunition. Tarrant held a [licence](firearms)(firearms licence (New Zealand)) with an "A" endorsement, and he started buying his arsenal a month after acquiring his licence. According to a city gun store, Tarrant bought four firearms and ammunition online. The shop said none of the four were military-style weapons, and it is not known if these guns were the ones used in the attacks. The shop did not detect anything unusual or extraordinary about the customer. Additionally, he illegally replaced the semi-automatic rifles' small, legal magazines with 30-round magazines purchased online, and the triggers of some of the firearms were modified so he could fire them more quickly. According to [Stuff](Stuff (company)), Tarrant was wrongly granted a firearms licence due to police failures. Sources said that police failed to interview a family member as required for obtaining a firearms licence, instead interviewing two men that Tarrant had met through an online chatroom. In the days after the attacks, the police had quashed concerns that Tarrant had obtained the weapons inappropriately. Police have not given comment to this allegation, saying they do not wish to interfere with the ongoing inquiry into the event at the time. The guns and [magazines](Magazine (firearms)) used were covered in white writing naming historical events, people, and motifs related to historical conflicts, wars, and battles between Muslims and European Christians; as well as the names of recent Islamic terrorist attack victims and the names of far-right attackers such as [Bissonnette](Alexandre)(Alexandre Bissonnette), [Osbourne](Darren)(2017 Finsbury Park attack) and [Traini](Luca)(Macerata shooting). The markings also included references to "Turkofagos" (, ; this was the nickname of the revolutionary [Stamatelopoulos](Nikitas)(Nikitas Stamatelopoulos) during his battles in the [War of Independence](Greek)(Greek War of Independence)), and white supremacist slogans such as the [anti-Muslim](Islamophobia) phrase "[Kebab](Remove)(Remove Kebab)" that originated from [Serbia](Serbia) and the [Words](Fourteen)(Fourteen Words). The Archangel Michael's Cross of the [Romania](Romania)n fascist organization [Guard](Iron)(Iron Guard) was among the symbols on the firearm. Apart from the [alphabet](Latin)(Latin alphabet), writings on the weaponry were in the [Cyrillic](Cyrillic alphabets), [Armenian](Armenian alphabet) and [alphabet](Georgian)(Georgian alphabet)s. The writings were names dedicated to historic individuals that fought against Muslim forces. On his pack was a [Sun](Black)(Black Sun (symbol)) patch, a symbol commonly used by the [Regiment](Azov)(Azov Regiment), and two [tag](dog)(dog tag)s: one with a [cross](Celtic)(Celtic cross), and one with a [swastika](Slavic)(Kolovrat (symbol)) design; all of these symbols are popular in [counter-culture](far-right)(Far-right subcultures). Police also found two [explosive device](improvised)(improvised explosive device)s attached to a car; these were defused by the [Zealand Defence Force](New)(New Zealand Defence Force). No explosives were found on the gunman. ### Manifesto Tarrant claims to be the author of a 74-page [manifesto](manifesto) titled The Great Replacement, a reference to the "[Replacement](Great)(The Great Replacement conspiracy theory)" and "[genocide](white)(White genocide conspiracy theory)" conspiracy theories. It said that the attacks were planned two years prior, and the location was selected three months prior. Minutes before the attacks began, the manifesto was emailed to more than 30 recipients, including the prime minister's office and several media outlets, and links were shared on [Twitter](Twitter) and [8chan](8chan). In the manifesto, several anti-immigrant sentiments are expressed, including hate speech against migrants, white supremacist rhetoric, and calls for all non-European immigrants in Europe whom he claimed to be "invading his land" to be removed. The manifesto displays [neo-Nazi](neo-Nazi) symbols such as the [Sun](Black)(Black Sun (symbol)) and the [cross](Odin's)(Sun cross). The author denies being a Nazi, describing himself instead as an "[ethno-nationalist](ethno-nationalist)", an "[eco-fascist](eco-fascist)",Multiple sources: * * * * and a "[removalist](kebab)(kebab removalist)", in reference to a meme exalting the [genocide](Bosnian genocide) of [Muslims](Bosnian)(Bosnian Muslims) that occurred during the [War](Bosnian)(Bosnian War). The author cites Norwegian terrorist [Behring Breivik](Anders)(Anders Behring Breivik), [Roof](Dylann)(Dylann Roof) and others as an inspiration. The author said that he agrees with [Union of Fascists](British)(British Union of Fascists) leader [Mosley](Oswald)(Oswald Mosley) and that the [Republic of China](People's)(People's Republic of China) was the nation closest to his ideology. Despite claiming to launch this attack in the name of diversity, he called for the expulsion of people he deemed to be "invaders" from [Europe](Europe) including but not limited to [Roma](Roma people), [Africans](Black people), [Indians](Indian people), [Turks](Turkish people) and [people](Semitic)(Semitic people)s. The author says he originally targeted the Al Huda Mosque in Dunedin but changed his mind after visiting Christchurch, because the mosques there contained "more adults and a prior history of extremism". In 2014 and 2015, local press had reported an allegation that a congregation member had been radicalised at the mosque.Multiple sources: * * * Additionally, the shooter also called for the killing of [Chancellor](German)(Chancellor of Germany) [Merkel](Angela)(Angela Merkel), Turkish President [Tayyip Erdoğan](Recep)(Recep Tayyip Erdoğan) and London Mayor [Khan](Sadiq)(Sadiq Khan). The manifesto was described by some media outlets as "[shitposting](shitposting)"—[trolling](trolling) designed to engender conflict between certain groups and people.Multiple sources: * * * Readers of the manifesto described it as containing deliberately provocative and absurd statements, such as sarcastically claiming to have been turned into a killer by [violent video games](playing)(Violence and video games).Multiple sources: * * * On 23 March 2019, the manifesto was deemed "objectionable" by the [Censor of New Zealand](Chief)(Chief Censor of New Zealand), making it unlawful to possess or distribute it in New Zealand. Exemptions to the ban were available for journalists, researchers, and academics. In August 2019, [New Zealand Herald](The)(The New Zealand Herald) reported that printed copies of the manifesto were being sold online outside New Zealand, something New Zealand law could not prevent. Genocide scholar [Dirk Moses](A.)(A. Dirk Moses) analysed the manifesto, concluding that "Tarrant's words yield insights into the subjectivity of genocidaires more generally, namely that they commit terrorist acts with genocidal intent as – in their own mind – preventative self-defence; not as acts of aggression but, as he writes, 'a partisan action against an occupying force. According to Moses, it was hypocritical for Tarrant to complain about supposed "[genocide](white)(white genocide)" from immigration without recognising that he himself comes from a settler colony that resulted from genocide against [Australians](Indigenous)(Indigenous Australians). In the manifesto, Tarrant said he hoped mass shootings would cause conflict over gun control in the United States, and potentially lead to civil war. An arm of the Ukrainian [movement](Azov)(Azov Battalion) subsequently disseminated the manifesto both online and in print. ### Preparation [[attack preparation - hostile reconnaissance.png\|thumb\|Tarrant's travels on 8–9 January 2019](File:Christchurch)] Tarrant is thought to have become obsessed with terrorist attacks committed by [extremists](Islamic)(Islamic extremism) in 2016 and 2017, started planning an attack about two years prior to the shootings, and chosen his targets three months in advance. Some survivors at the Al Noor Mosque believed they had seen Tarrant there on several Fridays before the attack, pretending to pray and asking about the mosque's schedules. The Royal Commission report found no evidence of this, and police instead believe that Tarrant had viewed an online tour of Al-Noor as part of his planning. On 8 January 2019, Tarrant used a [drone](Unmanned aerial vehicle) operated from a nearby park to investigate the mosque's grounds. Additionally, he used the Internet to find detailed mosque plans, interior pictures, and prayer schedules to figure out when mosques would be at their busiest levels. On the same day, he had driven past the Linwood Islamic Centre. ## Legal proceedings ### Arraignment Tarrant appeared in the Christchurch [Court](District)(District Court of New Zealand) on 16 March, where he was charged with one count of murder. The judge ordered the courtroom closed to the public except for accredited media and allowed the accused to be filmed and photographed on the condition that Tarrant's face be pixellated. In court, Tarrant smiled at reporters and made an inverted [gesture](OK)(OK gesture#White power symbol) below his waist, said to be a "white power" sign. The case was transferred to the [Court](High)(High Court of New Zealand), and Tarrant was [in custody](remanded)(remanded in custody) as his lawyer did not seek bail. He was subsequently transferred to the country's only maximum-security unit at [Prison](Auckland)(Auckland Prison). He lodged a formal complaint regarding his prison conditions, on the grounds that he has no access to newspapers, television, Internet, visitors, or phone calls. On 4 April, police announced they had increased the total number of charges to 89, 50 for murder and 39 for attempted murder, with other charges still under consideration. At the next hearing on 5 April, Tarrant was ordered by the judge to undergo a psychiatric assessment of his mental fitness to stand trial. On 20 May, a new charge of engaging in a terrorist act was laid against Tarrant under the [Suppression Act 2002](Terrorism)(Terrorism Suppression Act 2002). One murder charge and one attempted murder charge were also added, bringing the total to 51 and 40, respectively. ### Initial plea and pre-trial detention On 14 June 2019, Tarrant appeared at the Christchurch High Court via audio-visual link from Auckland Prison. Through his lawyer, he pleaded not guilty to one count of engaging in a terrorist act, 51 counts of murder, and 40 counts of attempted murder. Mental health assessments had indicated no issues regarding his fitness to plead or stand trial. The trial was originally set to begin on 4 May 2020, but it was later pushed back to 2 June 2020 to avoid coinciding with the Islamic holy month of [Ramadan](Ramadan). During his time in prison, Tarrant was able to send seven letters, one of which was subsequently posted on the Internet message boards [4chan](4chan) and [8chan](8chan) by a recipient. [of Corrections](Minister)(Minister of Corrections (New Zealand)) [Davis](Kelvin)(Kelvin Davis (politician)) and the [of Corrections](Department)(Department of Corrections (New Zealand)) were criticised for allowing the distribution of these letters.Multiple sources: * * * Prime Minister Ardern subsequently announced that the Government would explore amending the Corrections Act 2004 to further restrict what mail can be received and sent by prisoners. ### Guilty plea and sentencing arrangements On 26 March 2020, Tarrant appeared at the Christchurch High Court via audio-visual link from Auckland Prison. During the appearance, he pleaded guilty to all 92 charges. Due to the [COVID-19 pandemic lockdown](nationwide)(COVID-19 pandemic in New Zealand), the general public was barred from the hearing. Reporters and representatives for the Al-Noor and Linwood mosques were present in the courtroom. According to media reports, Tarrant's lawyers had informed the courts that their client was considering changing his plea. On 25 March, Tarrant issued his lawyers with formal written instructions confirming that he wanted to change his pleas to guilty. In response, court authorities began making arrangements for the case to be called as soon as possible in the midst of the COVID-19 lockdown. The judge convicted Tarrant on all charges and remanded him in custody to await sentencing. For sentencing, Tarrant had dismissed his lawyers and represented himself during those proceedings. On 10 July, the government announced that overseas-based victims of the shootings would receive border exemptions and financial help in order to fly to New Zealand for the sentencing. On 13 July, it was reported that Tarrant had dismissed his lawyers and would be representing himself during sentencing proceedings. ### Sentencing [[shooter sentencing 770.jpg\|thumb\|Armed police outside Christchurch courthouse during Tarrant's sentencing](File:Mosque)] Sentencing began on 24 August 2020 before Justice Cameron Mander at the Christchurch High Court, and it was televised. Tarrant did not oppose the sentence proposed and declined to address the court. The Crown prosecutors demonstrated to the court how Tarrant had meticulously planned the two shootings and more attacks, while numerous survivors and their relatives gave [impact statement](victim)(victim impact statement)s, which were covered by national and international media.Multiple sources: * * * * Tarrant was then sentenced to [imprisonment](life)(Life imprisonment in New Zealand) without the possibility of parole for each of the 51 murders, and life imprisonment for engaging in a terrorist act and 40 attempted murders. The sentence is New Zealand's first terrorism conviction. It was also the first time that life imprisonment without parole, the maximum sentence available in New Zealand, had been imposed.}} Mander said Tarrant's crimes were "so wicked that even if you are detained until you die, it will not exhaust the requirements of punishment and denunciation." Following the sentencing, [Prime Minister](Deputy)(Deputy Prime Minister of New Zealand) [Peters](Winston)(Winston Peters) called for Tarrant to serve his sentence in Australia in order to avoid New Zealand having to pay the costs for his life imprisonment. The cost of housing Tarrant in prison was estimated at 4,930 per day, compared to an average cost of $338 per sentenced prisoner per day. Peters's remarks were also motivated by Australia's policy of deporting New Zealand citizens who had committed crimes or breached character requirements. Prime Minister [Ardern](Jacinda)(Jacinda Ardern) said there is currently no legal basis for the proposal and that respecting the wishes of his victims and their relatives would be paramount. [Minister](Justice)(Minister of Justice (New Zealand)) [Little](Andrew)(Andrew Little (New Zealand politician)) said Parliament would need to pass a law to deport Tarrant to Australia. [of Otago](University)(University of Otago) law professor Andrew Geddis said it was "legally impossible" to deport Tarrant to Australia to serve his sentence. On 28 August, [Prime Minister](Australian)(Prime Minister of Australia) [Morrison](Scott)(Scott Morrison) and [Home Affairs Minister](Australian)(Minister for Home Affairs (Australia)) [Dutton](Peter)(Peter Dutton) advised that, while no formal request had been made by the New Zealand Government to repatriate Tarrant to Australia and for him to serve his life sentence in an Australian correctional facility, the Australian Government was open to considering a request. ### Imprisonment On 14 April 2021, Tarrant appealed against his prison conditions and his designation as a "terrorist entity" at the [High Court](Auckland)(Auckland High Court). According to media reports, he is being imprisoned at a special "prison within a prison" known as a "Prisoners of Extreme Risk Unit" with two other inmates. Eighteen guards have been rostered to guard Tarrant, who is being housed in his own wing. On 24 April, Tarrant abandoned his appeal. In early November 2021, Tarrant's new lawyer Tony Ellis stated that his client intended to appeal against his sentence and conviction, claiming that his guilty plea had been obtained under duress and that his conditions while on remand breached the [Zealand Bill of Rights Act 1990](New)(New Zealand Bill of Rights Act 1990). Mosque attack survivors have criticised Tarrant's appeal as a form of "grandstanding" and an attempt by the terrorist to "re-traumatise" the Muslim community. In early November 2022, Tarrant appealed against his sentence and conviction at the [of Appeal](Court)(Court of Appeal (New Zealand)) in Wellington. A Court of Appeal spokeswoman confirmed Tarrant's appeal and that no hearing date had been set. Mosque shooting survivors including Imam Gamal Fouda, Temel Atacocugu, and Rahimi Ahmad described Tarrant's appeal as "re-traumatising," insensitive and attention-seeking. ## Aftermath ### Governmental response Police advised mosques to close temporarily, and sent officers to secure and patrol various sites in Christchurch. All [New Zealand Link](Air)(Air New Zealand Link) services departing from [Airport](Christchurch)(Christchurch Airport) were cancelled as a precaution, due to the absence of security screening at the regional terminal. Security was increased at [Parliament](New Zealand Parliament Buildings), and public tours of the buildings were cancelled. In [Dunedin](Dunedin), the Police [Offenders Squad](Armed)(Armed Offenders Squad) searched a house, later reported to have been rented by Tarrant, and cordoned off part of the surrounding street in Andersons Bay because Tarrant had indicated on social media that he had originally planned to target the Al Huda Mosque in that city. [[File:NZ PM Jacinda Ardern - Kirk HargreavesCCC.jpg\|alt=A photo of a woman from the waist up, hands clasped in front of her, with a sad facial expression. She is wearing a black dress and scarf with gold trim.\|thumb\|upright\|Prime Minister [Ardern](Jacinda)(Jacinda Ardern) visited members of the Muslim community at the Phillipstown Community Hub in Christchurch the day after the attack.]] For the first time in New Zealand history, the [threat level](terrorism)(Terrorism in New Zealand#Level of threat) was raised to high. Prime Minister Ardern called the incident an "act of extreme and unprecedented violence" on "one of New Zealand's darkest days".Multiple sources: * * * She described it as a "well-planned" terrorist attack and said she would render the person accused of the attacks "nameless" while urging the public to speak the victims' names instead. Ardern directed that flags on public buildings be flown at [half-mast](Half-mast#New Zealand). In May 2019, the [Transport Agency](NZ)(NZ Transport Agency) offered to replace any vehicle number plates with the prefix "GUN" on request. In mid-October 2019, Ardern awarded bravery awards to the two police officers who apprehended Tarrant at the annual Police Association Conference in Wellington. Due to the legal proceedings against Tarrant at the time, the two officers had interim name suppression, but in December 2019, this was lifted.Multiple sources: * * * On 1 September 2020, Prime Minister Ardern designated Tarrant as a terrorist entity, thereby freezing his assets and making it a criminal offence for anyone to support him financially. ### Media response For the three months following the shooting, almost 1,000 reports were published in major news outlets in New Zealand. Less than 10% of news reports published by major media outlets mentioned Tarrant's name. Susanna Every-Palmer, an academic psychiatrist, suggested that the media made a moral choice to deny Tarrant exposure and not sensationalise his views, deviating from how similar events internationally were covered in the media. The court required the media to pixelate Tarrant's face when covering the legal proceedings, thus, within New Zealand, he remained largely faceless and nameless. Instead, media coverage focused largely on the victims and their families. In contrast, the media response in Australia was different, focusing on the extreme violence of the attack, as well as the attacker and his manifesto. For example, [Australian](The)(The Australian) published an audio excerpt containing cries for help, and [Herald Sun](The)(The Herald Sun) wrote dramatic descriptions of victims being shot and used poetic devices to create more vivid imagery. Coverage of the victims was largely focused on physical horrors such as bloodshed, injuries, and graves being dug. ### Other responses in New Zealand [[File:Patsy Reddy lays flowers at Hagley Park.jpg\|thumb\|alt=A woman adds a flower arrangement to a large memorial display set against a fence.\|[Reddy](Patsy)(Patsy Reddy) laying flowers at the [Botanic Gardens](Christchurch)(Christchurch Botanic Gardens) on 19 March]] Within an hour of the attack, all schools in the city were placed in "[lockdown](lockdown)". A ministry report launched after the attacks said schools' handling of the events were varied: some schoolchildren in lockdown still had their mobile phones, and some were able to view the footage of the first attack online, while some schools had children "[commando](commando) crawl" to the bathroom under teacher supervision. Student climate strikers at the global [Strike for the Climate](School)(School strike for the climate) rally in [Square](Cathedral)(Cathedral Square, Christchurch), near the sites of the attacks, were advised by police either to seek refuge in public buildings or go home. The citywide lockdown lasted nearly three hours. In response to security concerns, the [of Otago](University)(University of Otago) postponed its sesquicentennial street parade which had been scheduled for 16 March. The third [cricket](test)(test cricket) match [New Zealand and Bangladesh](between)(Bangladeshi cricket team in New Zealand in 2018–19#3rd Test), scheduled to commence at [Oval](Hagley)(Hagley Oval) in Hagley Park on 16 March, was likewise cancelled due to security concerns. The [team](Bangladesh)(Bangladesh national cricket team) were planning to attend Friday prayer at the Al Noor Mosque and were moments from entering the building when the incident began. The players then fled on foot to Hagley Oval. Two days later, [Canterbury](Canterbury cricket team) withdrew from their match against [Wellington](Wellington cricket team) in the [Shield](Plunket)(2018–19 Plunket Shield season) cricket tournament. Likewise, the [Rugby](Super)(Super Rugby) match between the [Crusaders](Crusaders (rugby union)), based in Christchurch, and [Highlanders](Highlanders (rugby union)), based in Dunedin, due to be played the next day, was cancelled as "a mark of respect for the events". Sporting News\|website=www.sportingnews.com\|access-date=16 March 2019\|archive-date=24 March 2019\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190324002245/https://www.sportingnews.com/us/amp/rugby/news/highlanders-vs-crusaders-cancelled-after-christchurch-massacre/upw6fkjybgrq1lq04zkfy2wjf\|url-status=dead}} After the attacks, there were renewed calls to rename the Crusaders team, since its name derives from the medieval Crusades against Muslims. [[File:Vigil in Wellington on 17 March 2019 for the Christchurch mosques attacks (2).jpg\|thumb\|Vigil in [Wellington](Wellington) for the victims of the attack]] Canadian rock singer-songwriter [Adams](Bryan)(Bryan Adams) and American [metal](thrash)(thrash metal) band [Slayer](Slayer) both cancelled their concerts that were scheduled to be held in Christchurch on 17 March, two days after the shootings. The [Polynesian](Polynesian culture) cultural festival Polyfest was cancelled after the shootings, with security concerns cited as the reason. The music and cultural festival WOMAD went ahead in New Plymouth despite the attacks, with armed police stationed around the festival perimeter, inside the event, and outside artists' hotels. Mosques around world became the focus of vigils, messages, and floral tributes.Multiple sources: * * * * The mayor of Christchurch, [Dalziel](Lianne)(Lianne Dalziel), encouraged people to lay flowers outside the city's Botanic Gardens. As a mark of sympathy and solidarity, school pupils and other groups performed [haka](haka) and [waiata](Māori music#Waiata) to honour those killed in the attacks. Street gangs including the [Mob](Mongrel)(Mongrel Mob), [Power](Black)(Black Power (New Zealand gang)), and the [Cobras](King)(King Cobras (gang)) sent members to mosques around the country to help protect them during prayer time.Multiple sources: * * * One week after the attacks, an open-air Friday prayer service was held in Hagley Park. Broadcast nationally on radio and television, it was attended by 20,000 people, including Ardern,Multiple sources: * * * who said, "New Zealand mourns with you. We are one." The imam of the Al Noor Mosque thanked New Zealanders for their support and added, "We are broken-hearted but we are not broken." A national remembrance service was held on 29 March, a fortnight after the attacks. #### Operation Whakahaumanu Shortly after the attack, [Zealand Police](New)(New Zealand Police) launched Operation Whakahaumanu. The operation was designed to reassure New Zealanders after the attack and to also investigate possible threats who shared a similar ideology to the gunman. Police increased visibility in streets and visited many schools, businesses, and religious places as part of the operation. In Canterbury alone, there were almost 600 people of interest to police, where hundreds of properties were searched. On 14 July 2020, the [Police Conduct Authority](Independent)(Independent Police Conduct Authority) deemed three of these searches to be unlawful. ### Fundraisers and philanthropy [[File:JMP 6115 (46691677764).jpg\|thumb\|Vigil in [Melbourne](Melbourne), Australia]] An online fundraiser on the fundraising website "Givealittle" started to support victims and their families had, raised over . Counting other fundraisers, a combined total of $8.4 million had been raised for the victims and their families ( Prime Minister Ardern reiterated that those injured or killed in the shootings and their immediate families are covered by the country's accident-compensation scheme, [ACC](Accident Compensation Corporation), which offers compensation for lost income and a $10,000 funeral grant, among other benefits. In late June, it was reported that the Jewish Federation of Greater Pittsburgh had raised more than NZ$967,500 (US$650,000) through its New Zealand Islamophobia Attack Fund for the victims of the Christchurch mosque shootings. This amount included $60,000 raised by [of Life – Or L'Simcha Congregation](Tree)(Tree of Life – Or L'Simcha Congregation). These funds will be donated to the Christchurch Foundation, a registered charity which has been receiving money to support victims of the Christchurch shootings. This philanthropy was inspired by local Muslim support for the Pittsburgh Jewish community following the [synagogue shooting](Pittsburgh)(Pittsburgh synagogue shooting) in late October 2018.Multiple sources: * * * ### Related arrests and incidents #### New Zealand Police arrested four people on 15 March in relation to the attacks, including a woman and a man, after finding a firearm in a vehicle in which they were travelling together. The woman was released uncharged, but the man was held in custody and was charged with a firearms offence. Additionally, a 30-year-old man said he was arrested when he arrived at [High School](Papanui)(Papanui High School) to pick up his 13-year-old brother-in-law. He was in [camouflage](camouflage) clothing, which he said he habitually wore. He is seeking compensation for a wrongful arrest. The actions were defended by police, who mentioned the threat level after the massacre and that they had to deal with reports possibly related to the attacks. On 4 March 2020, a 19-year-old Christchurch man was arrested for allegedly making a terror threat against the Al Noor Mosque on encrypted social media platform [Telegram](Telegram (software)).Multiple sources: * * * Media reports subsequently identified the man as Sam Brittenden, a member of the white supremacist group [Zealandia](Action)(Action Zealandia). On 4 March 2021, a 27-year-old man was charged with "threatening to kill" after making an online threat against both the Linwood Islamic Centre and the Al Noor Mosque on [4chan](4chan). The suspect was granted name suppression and remanded into custody until 19 March. #### Outside New Zealand On 18 March 2019, the [Federal Police](Australian)(Australian Federal Police) conducted raids on the homes of Tarrant's sister and mother near [Harbour](Coffs)(Coffs Harbour) and [Maclean](Maclean, New South Wales) in New South Wales. Police said the raids were carried out to assist New Zealand Police with their investigations into the shootings, adding that Tarrant's sister and mother were assisting the investigation. On 19 March 2019, an Australian man who had posted on social media praising the shootings was indicted on one count of aggravated possession of a firearm without a licence and four counts of using or possessing a prohibited weapon. He was released on bail on the condition that he stay offline.Multiple sources: * * * * A 24-year-old man from [Oldham](Oldham), [Manchester](Greater)(Greater Manchester), United Kingdom, was arrested on 16 March for sending Facebook posts in support of the shootings. On 20 March, an employee for Transguard, a company based in the United Arab Emirates, was fired by his company and deported for making comments supporting the shootings. Thomas Bolin, a 22-year-old living in New York, sent Facebook messages praising the shootings and discussing a desire to carry out a similar act in the United States with his cousin. Bolin was later convicted of lying to the [FBI](Federal Bureau of Investigation) for claiming he did not possess any firearms. #### Inspired incidents Nine days after the attack, a mosque in [California](Escondido,)(Escondido, California), was [on fire](set)(Escondido mosque fire). Police found [graffiti](graffiti) on the mosque's driveway that referenced the shootings, leading them to investigate the fire as a [terrorist](terrorist) attack. According to Sri Lankan State Defence Minister [Wijewardene](Ruwan)(Ruwan Wijewardene), an early inquiry indicated that the [Sri Lanka Easter bombings](2019)(2019 Sri Lanka Easter bombings) on 21 April were retaliation for the Christchurch attack.Multiple sources: * * * * Some analysts believe the attacks were planned before the Christchurch attack, and any linkage was questioned by [Zealand's government](New)(Government of New Zealand)—with Prime Minister Ardern saying she was not aware of any intelligence linking the two. A [shooting](mass)(Poway synagogue shooting) later took place at a synagogue in [Poway](Poway, California), [California](California) on 27 April 2019, killing a person and injuring three others. The neo-Nazi perpetrator of the shooting, John T. Earnest, also claimed responsibility for the fire and praised the Christchurch shootings in a manifesto. He and Tarrant were said to have been radicalised on 8chan's [/pol/](/pol/) discussion board. He also unsuccessfully attempted to live stream his shooting on Facebook. On 3 August 2019, Patrick Crusius opened fire and killed 23 people and injured 23 others in a [shooting at a Walmart](mass)(2019 El Paso shooting) in [Paso, Texas](El)(El Paso, Texas), targeting [Mexicans](Mexican Americans). In a manifesto posted to 8chan's /pol/ board, the suspect expressed support for and inspiration from the Christchurch shootings. Additionally, the alleged shooter described himself as an "eco-fascist". On 10 August 2019, Philip Manshaus [fire at a mosque](opened)(Bærum mosque shooting) in [Bærum](Bærum), Norway, and livestreamed it on Facebook. He referred to Tarrant as a saint online and posted an image depicting Tarrant, Crusius, and Earnest as "heroes". The attack resulted in one injury. Manshaus was sentenced to 21 years for the attack and for killing his teenage stepsister, who was found dead shortly after the attack. On 27 January 2021, the Singaporean [Security Department](Internal)(Internal Security Department (Singapore)) reported it had arrested a 16-year-old Protestant Indian youth under the [Security Act](Internal)(Internal Security Act (Singapore)) for [to attack](plotting)(Singapore mosque attacks plot) the Assyafaah and Yusof Ishak Mosques on the anniversary of the shootings. The youth had produced a manifesto that described Tarrant as a "saint" and praised the shootings as the "justifiable killing of Muslims". Unable to obtain firearms and explosives due to Singapore's strict gun control laws, the youth had instead purchased a machete and vest. On 14 May 2022, white supremacist shooter Payton Gendron [10 people and injured 3 others](killed)(2022 Buffalo shooting) at a [Friendly Markets](Tops)(Tops Friendly Markets) grocery store in [New York](Buffalo,)(Buffalo, New York), targeting [Americans](African)(African Americans). Eleven of the 13 victims shot were Black and two others were White. He livestreamed the attack on [Twitch](Twitch (service)) and published a manifesto stating that he was inspired by Tarrant and others including Crusius and Earnest respectively. In response, Acting Chief Censor Rupert Ablett-Hampson placed an interim ban on the circulation of Gendron's manifesto within New Zealand. In addition, the [of Internal Affairs](Department)(Department of Internal Affairs (New Zealand)) considered referring Gendron's livestream of the shooting to the [of Film and Literature Classification](Office)(Office of Film and Literature Classification). ## Reactions ### World leaders [Elizabeth II](Queen)(Queen Elizabeth II), New Zealand's head of state, said she was "deeply saddened" by the attacks. Other politicians and world leaders also condemned the attacks, with some attributing them to rising Islamophobia. The prime minister of Pakistan, [Khan](Imran)(Imran Khan), announced that the Pakistani emigrant who charged at Tarrant and died, would be posthumously honoured with a national award for his courage. The [of Turkey](president)(president of Turkey), [Tayyip Erdoğan](Recep)(Recep Tayyip Erdoğan), showed footage taken by Tarrant to his supporters at campaign rallies for [elections](local)(2019 Turkish local elections). The New Zealand and Australian governments, as well as Turkey's main opposition party, criticised his actions. President [Trump](Donald)(Donald Trump) condemned the "horrible massacre". When asked after the attacks if he thought white nationalists were a growing threat around the world, Trump replied, "I don't really. I think it's a small group of people that have very, very serious problems. It's certainly a terrible thing." ### Far-right Two New Zealand-based [anti-immigration](Opposition to immigration) groups, the [Movement](Dominion)(Action Zealandia#Dominion Movement) and the [Zealand National Front](New)(New Zealand National Front), condemned the attacks, distanced themselves from the perpetrator, and shut their websites down. Some in the broader [culture](far-right)(Far-right politics) celebrated the attacks and "sanctified" Tarrant as a central figure. Tarrant's manifesto was translated and distributed in more than a dozen different languages with a number of supporters on 8chan making photo and video edits of the shooting. Some extremists were inspired by Tarrant, committing violent incidents and deadly attacks of their own, such as those in Poway, El Paso, and Bærum. The United Kingdom's domestic intelligence service, [MI5](MI5), launched an inquiry into Tarrant's possible links to the British far-right. ### Islamic groups [Bhamji](Ahmed)(Ahmed Bhamji), chair of the largest mosque in New Zealand, spoke at a rally on 23 March in front of one thousand people. He claimed that [Mossad](Mossad), the Israeli foreign intelligence agency, was behind the attack. The claim has been widely described as an unfounded, antisemitic [theory](conspiracy)(conspiracy theory). The chairman of the [of Islamic Associations of New Zealand](Federation)(Federation of Islamic Associations of New Zealand) said that Bhamji's statement did not represent other New Zealand Muslims, but Bhamji defended his statements. The attack was also condemned by the Secretary General of the Muslim Council of Britain, Harun Khan, describing it as "the most deadly Islamophobic terrorist attack" observed recently. The [on American-Islamic Relations](Council)(Council on American–Islamic Relations) (CAIR) called on Donald Trump, then U.S. president, to condemn the shootings. Speaking to reporters in Washington, D.C. Nihad Award, executive director of CAIR said: "You should condemn this, not only as a hate crime but as a white supremacist terrorist attack." Globalnews.ca \|url=https://globalnews.ca/news/5061186/u-s-muslim-group-urges-trump-to-condemn-new-zealand-mosque-shootings-as-white-supremacist-terrorist-attacks/ \|access-date=2023-01-01 \|website=Global News \|language=en-US}} ### People and countries mentioned by Tarrant Just before carrying out the attacks, Tarrant asked his audience to subscribe to YouTuber [PewDiePie](PewDiePie)'s channel in light of his [rivalry](then-ongoing)(PewDiePie vs T-Series) with Indian channel [T-Series](T-Series (company)). PewDiePie, real name Felix Kjellberg, has been accused of using far-right content in his videos. Kjellberg tweeted his condolences in reaction, saying he "felt absolutely sickened" to be mentioned by Tarrant. Kjellberg later called for the "[to PewDiePie](subscribe)(subscribe to PewDiePie)" movement to be discontinued, citing the attacks; "to have my name associated with something so unspeakably vile has affected me in more ways than I've let show." During the attacks, Tarrant played the song "[Fire](Fire (Arthur Brown song))" by [Crazy World of Arthur Brown](The)(The Crazy World of Arthur Brown). In a Facebook post, singer [Brown](Arthur)(Arthur Brown (musician)) expressed "horror and sadness" at the use of his song during the attacks, and cancelled a planned instore appearance at [Records](Waterloo)(Waterloo Records) shortly after the shootings out of respect for the victims. In [China](China), internet users expressed outrage and anger at the shooter praising their country's government. ## Video distribution Copies of the live-streamed video were reposted on many platforms and file-sharing websites, including Facebook, [LiveLeak](LiveLeak), and YouTube. Police, Muslim advocacy groups, and government agencies urged anyone who found the footage to take it down or report it. The New Zealand [of Film and Literature Classification](Office)(Office of Film and Literature Classification (New Zealand)) quickly classified the video as "objectionable", making it a criminal offence in the country to distribute, copy, or exhibit the video, with potential penalties of up to 14 years' imprisonment for an individual, or up to $100,000 in fines for a corporation.Multiple sources: * * * Stuart Bender of [University](Curtin)(Curtin University) in Perth noted that the use of live video as an integral part of the attacks "makes [them] a form of 'performance crime' where the act of video recording and/or streaming the violence by the perpetrator is a central component of the violence itself, rather than being incidental." ### Arrests and prosecutions At least eight people in New Zealand have been arrested for possessing or sharing the video or manifesto; most of their [have been suppressed](names)(name suppression) either to prevent threats against them or in support of [of expression](freedom)(Freedom of speech) online.Multiple sources: * * * * * The first was an 18-year-old man who was arrested and charged with inciting racial disharmony under the [Rights Act](Human)(Human Rights Act 1993) on the same day as the shooting. Early news media reports identified him as an accomplice to the shooting, but the police have denied this. On 20 March 2019, [Arps](Philip)(Philip Arps) was indicted for sharing the video under the [Videos, and Publications Classification Act 1993](Films,)(Films, Videos, and Publications Classification Act 1993), he subsequently pleaded guilty to the charges. In June 2019, he was sentenced to 21 months' imprisonment and was released in January 2020, under the condition of him wearing a GPS electronic monitor.Multiple sources: * * * * Arps had also expressed neo-Nazi views and sent letters advocating violence against New Zealand politicians. On 26 February 2020, another Christchurch man was jailed for nearly two years for doctoring footage of the shootings upon Arps' request, two days after the attacks. ### Media outlets Several media organisations in Australia and [tabloid-news](Tabloid journalism) websites in the UK broadcast parts of the video, up to the point Tarrant entered the building, despite pleas from the New Zealand Police not to show it. [Television New Zealand](Sky)(Sky Television (New Zealand)) temporarily stopped its syndication of [News Australia](Sky)(Sky News Australia) after that network showed the footage, and said it was working with Sky News Australia to prevent further displays of the video. At least three [service provider](Internet)(Internet service provider)s in New Zealand blocked access to 8chan and other sites related to the attacks; and they temporarily blocked other sites hosting the video such as [4chan](4chan), LiveLeak, and [Mega](Mega (service)) until they comply with requests to take down copies of the video. The administrator of the online message board [Farms](Kiwi)(Kiwi Farms) refused a New Zealand Police request for the data of users who made posts related to Tarrant and the attack. ### Social media companies Social media sites including Facebook, YouTube, [Reddit](Reddit), and Twitter said they were working to remove the video from their platforms, and would also remove content posted in support of the attacks. According to Facebook, no complaints were made about the video until 12 minutes after the live-stream ended; the original video from Tarrant himself had been viewed fewer than 200 times before Facebook was notified of its content, and it had been viewed only 4,000 times before it was removed, which happened within minutes of notification. Facebook created a digital [fingerprint](hash)(Hash function) to detect further uploads after the video had been propagated on other sites. The company said it had blocked 1.5 million uploads of the video. Reddit banned "subreddits" named "[WatchPeopleDie](WatchPeopleDie)" and "[Gore](R/gore)" for glorifying the attacks.Multiple sources: * * * Microsoft proposed the establishment of industry-wide standards that would flag such content quickly, and a joint project to manage and control the spread of such information via social media. Despite the networks' attempts to self-police, New Zealand officials and other world leaders have asked them to take responsibility for extremist content posted on their services. Australia introduced legislation that would fine content providers and potentially imprison their executives if they do not remove violent imagery of these types of attacks. The [Council of the Muslim Faith](French)(French Council of the Muslim Faith) filed a lawsuit against Facebook and YouTube, accusing the companies of "broadcasting a message with violent content abetting terrorism, or of a nature likely to seriously violate human dignity and liable to be seen by a minor". Facebook has contested the lawsuit, saying, "Acts of terror and hate speech have no place on Facebook, and our thoughts are with the families of the victims and the entire community affected by this tragedy. We have taken many steps to remove this video from our platform, we are cooperating with the authorities". On 15 May 2019, Ardern and French President [Macron](Emmanuel)(Emmanuel Macron) co-hosted the [Call summit](Christchurch)(Christchurch Call summit) in Paris, which called for major technology companies to step up their efforts to combat violent extremism. The initiative had 53 state signatories and eight large tech companies. ## Legacy ### Gun laws Gun laws in New Zealand came under scrutiny in the aftermath, specifically the legality of [semi-automatic](military-style)(military-style semi-automatic) rifles. In 2018, for example, it was reported that of the estimated 1.5 million firearms in New Zealand, 15,000 were registered military style semi-automatic weapons as well as perhaps 50,000 and 170,000 unregistered A-Category semi-automatics. As Philip Alpers of GunPolicy.org noted, "New Zealand is almost alone with the United States in not registering 96 percent of its firearms ... one can assume that the ease of obtaining these firearms may have been a factor in his decision to commit the crime in Christchurch." Cabinet remains undecided on the creation of a register.Multiple sources: * * * On the day of the attack, Ardern announced that gun laws would change. Attorney-General [Parker](David)(David Parker (New Zealand politician)) was later quoted as saying that the government would ban semi-automatic guns but subsequently backtracked, saying the government had not yet committed to anything and that regulations around semi-automatic weapons was "one of the issues" the government would consider. On 21 March, Ardern announced a ban on semi-automatic weapons. As an interim measure, the government reclassified some semi-automatic rifles and shotguns, requiring police approval to buy them. The [(Prohibited Firearms, Magazines, and Parts) Amendment Act 2019](Arms)(Arms (Prohibited Firearms, Magazines, and Parts) Amendment Act 2019) was introduced in the House of Representatives on 1 April and passed its first reading the following day. The final reading was passed on 10 April, supported by all parties in Parliament except [ACT](ACT New Zealand), and it became law by the end of the week.Multiple sources: * * * All legally obtained semiautomatic and military-grade firearms and their relevant ammunition were able to be handed over to police in a [scheme](buy-back)(Gun buyback program).Multiple sources: * * * The scheme was initiated in July and lasted six months. Provisional data from police show that as of 21 December 2019 a total of 33,619 hand-ins had been completed, 56,250 firearms had been collected (51,342 as buy-back and 4,908 under [amnesty](amnesty)), 2,717 firearms had been modified, and 194,245 parts had been collected (187,995 as buy-back and 6,250 under amnesty). Police Minister [Nash](Stuart)(Stuart Nash) hailed the buy-back scheme as a success. In contrast, [McKee](Nicole)(Nicole McKee), the spokeswoman of the Council of Licensed Firearms Owners, said that the buyback had been a failure and claimed that there are 170,000 prohibited guns in New Zealand, so "50,000 is not a number to boast about". ### Royal commission of inquiry [Cabinet](Cabinet of New Zealand) agreed to hold an inquiry into the attacks, and announced on 25 March 2019 that it would take the form of a [commission of inquiry](royal)(Royal Commission of Inquiry). On 8 April 2019, Prime Minister Ardern announced that [Court](Supreme)(Supreme Court of New Zealand) justice [William Young](Sir)(William Young (judge)) would chair the inquiry. On 26 November 2020, the Royal Commission formally presented its 792-page report to the government. This report was made public on 8 December. Though it acknowledged there were no signs an attack in New Zealand was imminent at the time, it highlighted failures by the police system to properly vet gun purchases, as well as the country's intelligence services' strong focus on Islamic extremism at the expense of other potential threats such as white supremacy. The report also made 44 recommendations, including the establishment of a new national intelligence agency specialising in counterterrorism strategies. After the report's recommendations were made public, Ardern said the government agreed to implement all of them.Multiple sources: * * * The report also found that [YouTube](YouTube) had radicalised Tarrant. The inquiry was itself criticised by some Islamic community groups, such as the Islamic Women's Council, for not going far enough in its criticisms of government and police organisations, and the inquiry concluding that no organisation was at fault or had breached government standards. ### He Whenua Taurikura In line with one of the recommendations of the Royal Commission of Inquiry into the terrorist attack on Christchurch masjidain on 15 March 2019, the New Zealand Government held a [hui](Hui (Māori assembly)) (social gathering) called "He Whenua Taurikura, a country at peace" on 15–16 June 2021 to discuss countering terrorism and violent extremism. The hui was attended by several community, civil society, media, academic, private sector, and government leaders and representatives including Prime Minister Jacinda Ardern, [Zealand Security Intelligence Service](New)(New Zealand Security Intelligence Service) (NZSIS) Director-General [Kitteridge](Rebecca)(Rebecca Kitteridge), Police Commissioner [Coster](Andrew)(Andrew Coster), Anjum Rahman of the Islamic Women's Council and representatives from social media giants Facebook and Twitter, [International New Zealand](Amnesty)(Amnesty International New Zealand), and the New Zealand Jewish Council. The hui's stated aims are "to develop options for the National Centre of Excellence, which will focus on generating research and public discussion to prevent and counter violent extremism, understand diversity and promote social cohesion." On 15 June, several Muslim delegates chanted "Free Palestine" and staged a walk-out at the He Whenua Taurikura after NZ Jewish Council spokesperson Juliet Moses criticised [Hezbollah](Hezbollah) and [Hamas](Hamas) as terror organisations while discussing a pro-Hezbollah rally in Auckland in 2018. Muslim attendees including Haris Murtaza of the National Islamic Youth Association, the Federation of the Islamic Associations of New Zealand (FIANZ) chair Abdur Razzaq, and Azad Khan of the Foundation against Islamophobia and Racism criticised Moses for her alleged Islamophobia, perceived insensitivity to Muslim mosque shooting survivors, and for injecting the Israel-Palestine conflict into the conference proceedings. Moses later defended her remarks, denying that she was conflating Islam with terrorism but was seeking to raise the security concerns of the [Zealand Jewish community](New)(Jews in New Zealand). During the conference, Anjum Rahman of the Islamic Women's Council testified that her group had tried to warn the Government of a potential attack on Muslims in New Zealand. Some delegates including Aliya Danzeisen, Iman Bsivov, and Radiya Ali also related encounters of racism and discrimination. Danzeisen also criticised the insufficient presence of Muslim delegates among the panel. [University of Wellington](Victoria)(Victoria University of Wellington) criminologist Sara Salman and [University of Technology](Auckland)(Auckland University of Technology) communications lecturer Khairiah Rahman said that counter-terrorism needed to address economic security, structural injustice, racism, and discrimination. Prime Minister Ardern also addressed the conference via video conference. Activist and "Foundation Against Islamophobia and Racism" Valerie Morse also called on Twitter senior director Nick Pickles to take action against a neo-Nazi account. ### Coroner's inquiry On 21 October 2021, Chief Coroner Judge Deborah Marshall confirmed that she had opened an inquiry into the Christchurch mosque shootings at the recommendation of the families of the victims and other interested parties. In late October, Marshall confirmed that she plans to examine the initial response to the attacks by emergency services and whether any victims could have been saved if things had been done differently. The Judge confirmed that she was also seeking submissions from interested parties before the scope of the inquiry is finalised. On 22 February, the coronial inquiry into the mosque shootings commenced. The inquiry was chaired by Coroner Brigitte Windle. The inquiry is expected to hear from lawyers representing the families of the victims, the [of Islamic Associations of New Zealand](Federation)(Federation of Islamic Associations of New Zealand), the Islamic Women's Council, [John New Zealand](St)(St John New Zealand), the [District Health Board](Canterbury)(Canterbury District Health Board), Police, and the [Rights Commission](Human)(Human Rights Commission (New Zealand)). The entire coronial hearing was held via video conferencing due to the ongoing [pandemic in New Zealand](COVID-19)(COVID-19 pandemic in New Zealand). Tarrant is scheduled to attend the hearing remotely from [Prison](Auckland)(Auckland Prison) and to make a submission through his lawyers. On 22 February, survivors and relatives of the mosque shootings asked the Coroner to investigate allegations that police responding to the attacks had acted aggressively or confrontationally towards victims of the Al Noor mosque attack. They also asked the Coroner to investigate whether Tarrant was a lone wolf or had received help, and how he had obtained his firearms license. In addition, Anne Toohey, the counsel representing Zuhair Kamel, whose brother Kamel Darwish perished at the Al-Noor mosque, presented evidence challenging the Police's account that Darwish had immediately perished following Tarrant's attack on the mosque. On 24 February, Tarrant's lawyer Ron Mansfield KC told the Coroner that his client was seeking an appeal of the earlier Royal Commission of Inquiry's hearings on the basis of factual errors in their report. Mansfield stated that Tarrant was questioned as part of the Inquiry but was denied a transcript of his interview or a draft of the report's findings. Tarrant had only received a copy of the final report the previous week due to restrictions put in place by the [of Corrections](Department)(Department of Corrections (New Zealand)). Mansfield claimed that Tarrant had been denied "natural justice" and called upon the Coroner to reject the Royal Commission's report. That same day, the Islamic Women's Council's national co-ordinator Aliya Danzeisen told the Coroner about the dangers of online "radical movements" operating on [4Chan](4Chan) and [Telegram](Telegram (software)) promoting hatred and violence against the Muslim community and undermining democracy and the rule of law in light of the [Wellington protests](2022)(2022 Wellington protests). ### Centre of Research Excellence In line with the recommendations of the Royal Commission of Inquiry report into the Christchurch mosque shootings, the Government formally created the "Centre of Research Excellence for Preventing and Countering Violent Extremism" in early June 2022. The goal of the research centre was to fund research and academic scholarships into countering terrorism and extremism. Prime Minister Ardern also announced that [sociologists](sociology) Professors [Kidman](Joanna)(Joanna Kidman) and [Spoonley](Paul)(Paul Spoonley) would serve as the directors of the Centre for Research Excellence. ### Film At least two films about the Christchurch mosque shootings have been proposed, Hello Brother and They are Us. Both films have attracted controversy and their future production timetable is uncertain.Multiple sources: * * * In May 2019, [Variety](Variety (magazine)) reported that the Egyptian writer and director [Masoud](Moez)(Moez Masoud) was developing a movie titled Hello Brother, based on the shootings. Masoud's proposed film project was criticised by the Muslim Association of Canterbury, Al Noor Masjid, and New Zealand filmmaker Jason Lei Howken for taking advantage of the tragedy and failing to consult the Christchurch Muslim community. In early August 2021, the [Zealand Herald](New)(New Zealand Herald) reported that Masoud's film had been put on hold for unspecified reasons. Glen Basner's [Entertainment](FilmNation)(FilmNation Entertainment) began soliciting funding for They are Us in June 2021. The film was intended to focus on Ardern's response to the shootings, with the Australian actress [Byrne](Rose)(Rose Byrne) being cast as Ardern, while New Zealander [Niccol](Andrew)(Andrew Niccol) was named as its writer. The filmmakers' choice to focus on Ardern's response rather than the victims attracted criticism.Multiple sources: * * * A spokesperson for the Prime Minister clarified that Ardern and the New Zealand government had no involvement with the film. Some also felt casting an Australian as Ardern was questionable; while this was not an emphasised issue it was seen as emblematic of the foreign, not local, desire to make the film. Several representatives of the New Zealand Muslim community also questioned the timing and appropriateness of the film. Due to this public backlash, producer [Campbell](Philippa)(Philippa Campbell) resigned in June 2021. A draft script was then leaked to [Newshub](Newshub) in July 2021 and was heavily criticised by the politicians depicted and the families of victims. In response, the producers of They Are Us stated that the script is still in development and subject to change. Later that same month it was confirmed that production had been put on hold until the producers had undertaken a full consultation with the country's Muslim community. ### Awards On 6 July 2022, [Governor-General](Governor-General of New Zealand) [Kiro](Cindy)(Cindy Kiro) awarded the [Zealand Cross](New)(New Zealand Cross (1999)) to Linwood Mosque survivor Abdul Aziz and the late Naeem Rashid for confronting Tarrant. In addition, Kiro awarded the [Zealand Bravery Decoration](New)(New Zealand Bravery Decoration) to Senior Constables Scott Carmody and Jim Manning for apprehending the terrorist; and Liam Beale and Wayne Maley for helping survivors of the Al Noor mosque. In addition, Lance Bradford, Mike Robinson and Mark Miller posthumously received the [Zealand Bravery Medal](New)(New Zealand Bravery Medal) for helping victims of the mosque shootings. ## See also * [of the Patriarchs massacre](Cave)(Cave of the Patriarchs massacre) * [mosque shooting](Bayonne)(Bayonne mosque shooting) * [terrorism in Australia](Far-right)(Far-right terrorism in Australia) * [synagogue shooting](Halle)(Halle synagogue shooting) * [of massacres in New Zealand](List)(List of massacres in New Zealand) * [of Islamophobic incidents](List)(List of Islamophobic incidents) * [of right-wing terrorist attacks](List)(List of right-wing terrorist attacks) * [of terrorist incidents in March 2019](List)(List of terrorist incidents in March 2019) * [of rampage killers (religious, political, or ethnic crimes)](List)(List of rampage killers (religious, political, or ethnic crimes)) ## Notes * * British prime minister [May](Theresa)(Theresa May) described the incident as a "horrifying terrorist attack", and said "my thoughts are with all of those affected by this sickening act of violence". Canadian Prime Minister [Trudeau](Justin)(Justin Trudeau) expressed "deepest condolences" and said "Canada remembers too well the sorrow we felt when a senseless attack on the [culturel islamique de Québec](Centre)(Islamic Cultural Centre of Quebec City) in Ste-Foy claimed the lives of many innocent people gathered in prayer", referencing the [City mosque shooting](Quebec)(Quebec City mosque shooting) in 2017. U.S. President [Trump](Donald)(Donald Trump) extended his "warmest sympathy and best wishes...to the people of New Zealand," and he and the FBI offered them assistanceMultiple sources: * * * * while security at mosques around the United States was increased. Russian President [Putin](Vladimir)(Vladimir Putin) sent Prime Minister Ardern a message of condolence, saying, "This attack on civilians who gathered for prayer is shocking in its violence and cynicism." The lighting of the [Tower](Ostankino)(Ostankino Tower) in [Moscow](Moscow), the tallest free-standing structure in [Europe](Europe), was off for one hour as a sign of mourning. King [of Saudi Arabia](Salman)(Salman of Saudi Arabia) said, "The heinous massacre of the worshipers at mosques in New Zealand is a terrorist act." He also called on the international community to confront hate speech and terrorism. Cardinal [Parolin](Pietro)(Pietro Parolin), the Secretary of State of Vatican City, sent a letter of condolences on behalf of Pope Francis, assuring the Muslim community in New Zealand of the Pope's "heartfelt solidarity in the wake of these attacks" and saying, "His Holiness prays for the healing of the injured, the consolation of those who grieve the loss of their loved ones, and for all affected by this tragedy." Prime Minister [Modi](Narendra)(Narendra Modi) of India expressed "deep shock and sadness" over the deaths and expressed India's solidarity with the people of New Zealand. Condolences were also provided by Azerbaijani, Bangladeshi, Bruneian, Cambodian, Chinese, Fijian, Filipino, Hungarian, Indonesian, Japanese, South Korean, Kosovar, Malaysian, Pakistani, Singaporean, Taiwanese, Thai, Turkish, and Vietnamese leaders.}} }} ## References ## Further reading * * * ## External links * * * [The last prayer: surviving Christchurch terror attack](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Aa25HUJy_-M), a documentary about the mosque shootings by Turkish news channel [World](TRT)(TRT World) * Information on [The Royal Commission of Inquiry into the Attack on Christchurch Mosques](https://christchurchattack.royalcommission.nz/) * [Christchurch terror attack: The day NZ changed forever](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hv-dCHtWN5w&t=1470s), a documentary about the shootings by New Zealand media company [RNZ](Radio New Zealand) [ ](Category:Christchurch mosque shootings) [crimes in New Zealand](Category:2019)(Category:2019 crimes in New Zealand) [mass shootings in Oceania](Category:2019)(Category:2019 mass shootings in Oceania) [in Islam](Category:2019)(Category:2019 in Islam) [in Christchurch](Category:2010s)(Category:2010s in Christchurch) [century mass murder in Oceania](Category:21st)(Category:21st century mass murder in Oceania) [shootings](Mosque)(Category:Crime in Christchurch) [by firearm in New Zealand](Category:Deaths)(Category:Deaths by firearm in New Zealand) [criticisms and controversies](Category:Facebook)(Category:Facebook criticisms and controversies) [politics in New Zealand](Category:Far-right)(Category:Far-right politics in New Zealand) [killings](Category:Filmed)(Category:Filmed killings) [in New Zealand](Category:Islam)(Category:Islam in New Zealand) [in New Zealand](Category:Islamophobia)(Category:Islamophobia in New Zealand) [politics in New Zealand](Category:Gun)(Category:Gun politics in New Zealand) [crimes](Category:Hate)(Category:Hate crimes) [crimes](Category:Livestreamed)(Category:Livestreamed crimes) [2019 crimes in Oceania](Category:March)(Category:March 2019 crimes in Oceania) [2019 events in New Zealand](Category:March)(Category:March 2019 events in New Zealand) [murder in New Zealand](Category:Mass)(Category:Mass murder in New Zealand) [shootings in New Zealand](Category:Mass)(Category:Mass shootings in New Zealand) [in 2019](Category:Massacres)(Category:Massacres in 2019) [in New Zealand](Category:Massacres)(Category:Massacres in New Zealand) [in religious buildings and structures](Category:Massacres)(Category:Massacres in religious buildings and structures) [of Muslims](Category:Massacres)(Category:Massacres of Muslims) [shootings](Category:Mosque)(Category:Mosque shootings) [terrorist incidents](Category:Neo-fascist)(Category:Neo-fascist terrorist incidents) [in New Zealand](Category:Neo-Nazism)(Category:Neo-Nazism in New Zealand) [of Muslims](Category:Persecution)(Category:Persecution of Muslims) [phenomena](Category:/pol/)(Category:/pol/ phenomena) [shootings in New Zealand](Category:Spree)(Category:Spree shootings in New Zealand) [incidents in New Zealand in the 2010s](Category:Terrorist)(Category:Terrorist incidents in New Zealand in the 2010s) [incidents in Oceania in 2019](Category:Terrorist)(Category:Terrorist incidents in Oceania in 2019) [against Muslims](Category:Violence)(Category:Violence against Muslims) [genocide conspiracy theory](Category:White)(Category:White genocide conspiracy theory) [mass shootings in New Zealand](Category:2010s)(Category:2010s mass shootings in New Zealand)
Sergey Brin	sergey_brin	# Sergey Brin Revision ID: 1160258515 \| Timestamp: 2023-06-15T10:41:58Z --- \| birth_place = Moscow, [SFSR](Russian)(Russian SFSR), Soviet Union (now [Russia](Russia)) \| nationality = American \| education = \| occupation = \| organization = \| known_for = \| spouse = * }}}} \| children = 3 \| signature = Sergey Brin google signature.svg }} Sergey Mikhailovich Brin (; born August 21, 1973) is an American [magnate](business)(business magnate) who co-founded [Google](Google) with [Page](Larry)(Larry Page). Brin was the president of Google's parent company, [Inc.](Alphabet)(Alphabet Inc.), until stepping down from the role on December 3, 2019. He and Page remain at Alphabet as co-founders, [shareholders](controlling)(Controlling interest) and board members. As of May 2023, Brin is the [person in the world](10th-richest)(Bloomberg Billionaires Index), with an estimated net worth of $93.2 billion. Brin emigrated to the United States from the [Union](Soviet)(Soviet Union) at the age of six. He earned his bachelor's degree at the [of Maryland, College Park](University)(University of Maryland, College Park), following in his father's and grandfather's footsteps by studying mathematics as well as computer science. After graduation, he enrolled in [University](Stanford)(Stanford University) to acquire a PhD in computer science. There he met Page, with whom he built a [search engine](web)(web search engine). The program became popular at Stanford, and they suspended their PhD studies to start up Google in [Wojcicki](Susan)(Susan Wojcicki)'s garage in [Park](Menlo)(Menlo Park, California). ## Early life and education Brin was born on August 21, 1973, in Moscow in the [Union](Soviet)(Soviet Union), to [Jewish](Russian)(History of the Jews in Russia) parents, Mikhail and Eugenia Brin, both graduates of [State University](Moscow)(Moscow State University) (MSU). His father is a retired mathematics professor at the [of Maryland](University)(University of Maryland, College Park), and his mother a researcher at [NASA](NASA)'s [Space Flight Center](Goddard)(Goddard Space Flight Center).Smale, Will (April 30, 2004). [Profile: The Google founders](http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/3666241.stm) , BBC News. Retrieved January 7, 2010. The Brin family lived in a three-room apartment in central Moscow, which they also shared with Sergey's paternal grandmother. In 1977, after his father returned from a mathematics conference in [Warsaw](Warsaw), Poland, Mikhail Brin announced that it was time for the family to emigrate. They formally applied for their [visa](exit)(exit visa) in September 1978, and as a result, his father was "promptly fired". For related reasons, his mother had to leave her job. For the next eight months, without any steady income, they were forced to take on temporary jobs as they waited, afraid their request would be denied as it was for many [refuseniks](refuseniks). In May 1979, they were granted their official exit visas and were allowed to leave the country. The Brin family lived in [Vienna](Vienna) and Paris while Mikhail Brin secured a teaching position at the [of Maryland](University)(University of Maryland) with help from [Katok](Anatole)(Anatole Katok). During this time, the Brin family received support and assistance from the [Immigrant Aid Society](Hebrew)(HIAS). They arrived in the United States on October 25, 1979. Brin attended elementary school at Paint Branch [School](Montessori)(Montessori education) in [Maryland](Adelphi,)(Adelphi, Maryland), but he received further education at home; his father, a professor in the department of mathematics at the [of Maryland](University)(University of Maryland), encouraged him to learn mathematics and his family helped him retain his Russian-language skills. He attended [Roosevelt High School, Maryland](Eleanor)(Eleanor Roosevelt High School (Maryland)). In September 1990, Brin enrolled in the [of Maryland](University)(University of Maryland, College Park), where he received his Bachelor of Science from the Department of Computer Science in 1993 with honors in computer science and mathematics at the age of 19. In 1993, he interned at [Research](Wolfram)(Wolfram Research), the developers of [Mathematica](Wolfram Mathematica). Brin began his graduate study in computer science at [University](Stanford)(Stanford University) on a [fellowship](graduate)(NSF-GRFP) from the [Science Foundation](National)(National Science Foundation), receiving a M.S. in computer science in 1995. , he was on leave from his PhD studies at Stanford. ## Search engine development [[File:Schmidt-Brin-Page-20080520.jpg\|thumb\|Left to right, [Schmidt](Eric)(Eric Schmidt), Sergey Brin and [Page](Larry)(Larry Page), 2008]] During an orientation for new students at Stanford, he met [Page](Larry)(Larry Page). The two men seemed to disagree on most subjects, but after spending time together they "became intellectual soul-mates and close friends." Brin's focus was on developing data mining systems while Page's was on extending "the concept of inferring the importance of a research paper from its [citation](citation)s in other papers". Together, they authored a paper titled "The Anatomy of a Large-Scale [Hypertext](Hypertext)ual Web Search Engine". To convert the backlink data gathered by BackRub's [crawler](web)(web crawler) into a measure of importance for a given web page, Brin and Page developed the [algorithm](PageRank)(PageRank), and realized that it could be used to build a [engine](search)(search engine) far superior to those existing at the time. The new algorithm relied on a new kind of technology that analyzed the relevance of the [backlink](backlink)s that connected one Web page to another, and allowed the number of links and their rank, to determine the rank of the page.Moschovitis Group. The Internet: A Historical Encyclopedia, ABC-CLIO, 2005. Combining their ideas, they began utilizing Page's dormitory room as a machine laboratory, and extracted spare parts from inexpensive computers to create a device that they used to connect the nascent search engine with Stanford's broadband campus network. After filling Page's room with equipment, they then converted Brin's dorm room into an office and programming center, where they tested their new search engine designs on the web. The rapid growth of their project caused Stanford's computing infrastructure to experience problems. Page and Brin used the former's basic [HTML](HTML) programming skills to set up a simple search page for users, as they did not have a web page developer to create anything visually elaborate. They also began using any computer part they could find to assemble the necessary computing power to handle searches by multiple users. As their search engine grew in popularity among Stanford users, it required additional [servers](server (computing)) to process the queries. In August 1996, the initial version of Google was made available on the Stanford Web site. By early 1997, the BackRub page described the state as follows: [[File:PageRanks-Example.svg\|thumb\|179x179px\|The mathematical website interlinking that the [PageRank](PageRank) algorithm facilitates, illustrated by size-percentage correlation of the circles. The [algorithm](algorithm) was named after Page himself.]] ::Some Rough Statistics (from August 29, 1996) ::Total indexable HTML urls: 75.2306 Million ::Total content downloaded: 207.022 gigabytes ::... ::BackRub is written in Java and Python and runs on several Sun Ultras and Intel Pentiums running [Linux](Linux). The primary database is kept on a [Ultra series](Sun)(Sun Ultra series) II with 28GB of disk. Scott Hassan and Alan Steremberg have provided a great deal of very talented implementation help. Sergey Brin has also been very involved and deserves many thanks. :::- Larry Page [Downloaded 11 – February 2009](http://backrub.c63.be/1997/backrub.htm). Backrub.c63.be. Retrieved May 29, 2011. BackRub already exhibited the rudimentary functions and characteristics of a search engine: a query input was entered and it provided a list of backlinks ranked by importance. Page recalled: "We realized that we had a querying tool. It gave you a good overall ranking of pages and ordering of follow-up pages." Page said that in mid-1998 they finally realized the further potential of their project: "Pretty soon, we had 10,000 searches a day. And we figured, maybe this is really real." Some compared Page and Brin's vision to the impact of [Gutenberg](Johannes)(Johannes Gutenberg), the inventor of modern printing: originally replicated by handto be printed at a much faster rate, thus spreading knowledge and helping to usher in the European Renaissance... Google has done a similar job.["Google the Gutenberg"](http://www.librarystuff.net/2009/10/01/google-the-gutenberg/) . Information Technology. October 1, 2009}} The comparison was also noted by the authors of The Google Story: "Not since Gutenberg... has any new invention empowered individuals, and transformed access to information, as profoundly as Google."[David](Vise,)(Vise, David), and [Mark](Malseed,)(Malseed, Mark). [Google Story](The)(The Google Story), Delta Publ. (2006) Also, not long after the two "cooked up their new engine for web searches, they began thinking about information that was at the time beyond the web," such as digitizing books and expanding health information. ## Other interests Brin's [office](family)(family office) with ex-wife Wojcicki, [Global Management](Bayshore)(Bayshore Global Management), oversees over $100 billion in assets and manages his secretive $5 billion charitable foundation. In June 2008, Brin invested $4.5 million in [Adventures](Space)(Space Adventures), the [Virginia](Virginia)-based [tourism](space)(space tourism) company. Brin and Page jointly own a customized [767-200](Boeing)(Boeing 767) and a [Alpha Jet](Dassault/Dornier)(Dassault/Dornier Alpha Jet), and pay $1.3 million a year to house them and two [V](Gulfstream)(Gulfstream V) jets owned by Google executives at [Federal Airfield](Moffett)(Moffett Federal Airfield). The aircraft have had scientific equipment installed by [NASA](NASA) to allow experimental data to be collected in flight. Brin is a backer of LTA Research & Exploration LLC, an [airship](airship) maker company. ## Personal life [[File: Sergey Brin, Web 2.0 Conference.jpg\|thumb\|Brin in 2005 at the [2.0](Web)(Web 2.0) Conference]] Brin was raised Jewish, but is not religious. In May 2007, Brin married [analyst](biotech)(Biotechnology) and entrepreneur [Wojcicki](Anne)(Anne Wojcicki) in [Bahamas](the)(the Bahamas). They had a son in late 2008 and a daughter in late 2011. In August 2013, it was announced that Brin and his wife were living separately after Brin had an extramarital affair with [Glass](Google)(Google Glass)'s marketing director Amanda Rosenberg.Liz Gannes, ["Google Co-Founder Sergey Brin and 23andMe Co-Founder Anne Wojcicki Have Split"](http://allthingsd.com/20130828/google-co-founder-sergey-brin-and-23andme-co-founder-anne-wojcicki-have-split) , All Things Digital, August 28, 2013[Alan Farnham, "Google: Men Apparently Do Make Passes At Girls Who Wear Glasses"](https://abcnews.go.com/Business/google-founder-divorce-latest-costly-ceo-split/story?id=20143307) , ABC News, September 3, 2013. In June 2015, Brin and Wojcicki finalized their divorce. On November 7, 2018, he married Nicole Shanahan, a [tech](legal)(legal technology) founder. They have a daughter, born in late 2018. Brin and Shanahan separated on December 15, 2021, and Brin filed for divorce on January 4, 2022. Brin's mother, Eugenia, has been diagnosed with [disease](Parkinson's)(Parkinson's disease). In 2008, he decided to make a donation to the [of Maryland School of Medicine](University)(University of Maryland School of Medicine), where his mother has received treatment. According to Forbes, Brin has donated over $1 billion to fund research on the disease. Brin and Wojcicki, although divorced, still jointly run The Brin Wojcicki Foundation. They have donated extensively to [Michael J. Fox Foundation](The)(The Michael J. Fox Foundation) and in 2009 gave $1 million to support the [Immigrant Aid Society](Hebrew)(HIAS). Brin is a donor to [Party](Democratic)(Democratic Party (United States)) candidates and organizations, having donated $5,000 to [Obama](Barack)(Barack Obama)'s [campaign](reelection)(Barack Obama 2012 presidential campaign) and $30,800 to the [DNC](Democratic National Committee). According to CNBC, Brin became interested in [technology](blockchain)(Blockchain) after building a gaming computer with his son to mine [Ethereum](Ethereum). ## Awards and accolades ### 2002–2009 In 2002, Brin, along with Larry Page, was named in the [Technology Review](MIT)(MIT Technology Review) [TR100](Innovators Under 35), as one of the top 100 innovators in the world under the age of 35. In 2003, both Brin and Page received an [honorary](Honorary degree) MBA from [Business School](IE)(IE Business School) "for embodying the entrepreneurial spirit and lending momentum to the creation of new businesses...".[Brin and Page Awarded MBAs](http://www.ie.edu/IE/php/en/noticia.php?id=225) , Press Release, September 9, 2003 In 2003, Brin and Page were both Award Recipients and National Finalists for the EY Entrepreneur of the Year Award"15 Local Business Leaders Receive Awards for Their Success in Business and the Community." 15 Local Business Leaders Receive Awards for Their Success in Business... PR NewsWire, June 23, 2003. Web. April 10, 2015. [http://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/15-local-business-leaders-receive-awards-for-their-success-in-business-and-the-community-71384622.html] In 2004, they received the [Foundation](Marconi)(Marconi Society) Prize, the "Highest Award in Engineering", and were elected [Fellows](Fellowship of Independent Evangelical Churches) of the Marconi Foundation at [University](Columbia)(Columbia University School of General Studies). "In announcing their selection, John Jay Iselin, the Foundation's president, congratulated the two men for their invention that has fundamentally changed the way information is retrieved today." In 2004, Brin received the [Academy of Achievement](American)(Academy of Achievement)'s Golden Plate Award with Larry Page at a ceremony in Chicago, Illinois. ### 2009–present In November 2009, [Forbes](Forbes) named Brin and Page the fifth most powerful people in the world.["The World's Most Powerful People: #5 Sergey Brin and Larry Page"](https://www.forbes.com/lists/2009/20/power-09_Sergey-Brin-and-Larry-Page_D664.html) Forbes, November 11, 2009 Earlier that same year, in February, Brin was inducted into the [Academy of Engineering](National)(National Academy of Engineering), which is "among the highest professional distinctions accorded to an engineer ... [and] honors those who have made outstanding contributions to engineering research, practice...". He was selected specifically, "for leadership in development of rapid indexing and retrieval of relevant information from the World Wide Web".[National Academy of Engineering](http://www8.nationalacademies.org/onpinews/newsitem.aspx?RecordID=02062009) , Press Release, February 6, 2009 In their "Profiles" of Fellows, the [Science Foundation](National)(National Science Foundation) included a number of earlier awards:, Fellow Profiles}} As of October 2022, Brin is the 8th-richest person in the world according to Forbes, with an estimated net worth of $83.8 billion. ## Appearances in film ## References ## External links [Sergey Brin](https://www.forbes.com/profile/sergey-brin/) on [Forbes](Forbes) * * [births](Category:1973)(Category:1973 births) [American inventors](Category:21st-century)(Category:21st-century American inventors) [Inc. people](Category:Alphabet)(Category:Alphabet Inc. people) [billionaires](Category:American)(Category:American billionaires) [computer businesspeople](Category:American)(Category:American computer businesspeople) [computer programmers](Category:American)(Category:American computer programmers) [computer scientists](Category:American)(Category:American computer scientists) [people of Russian-Jewish descent](Category:American)(Category:American people of Russian-Jewish descent) [technology chief executives](Category:American)(Category:American technology chief executives) [technology company founders](Category:American)(Category:American technology company founders) [citizens of the United States](Category:Naturalized)(Category:Naturalized citizens of the United States) [duos](Category:Business)(Category:Business duos) [from Maryland](Category:Businesspeople)(Category:Businesspeople from Maryland) [from the San Francisco Bay Area](Category:Businesspeople)(Category:Businesspeople from the San Francisco Bay Area) [in information technology](Category:Businesspeople)(Category:Businesspeople in information technology) [in software](Category:Businesspeople)(Category:Businesspeople in software) [of Alphabet Inc.](Category:Directors)(Category:Directors of Alphabet Inc.) 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Joy _singer	joy__singer	# Joy (singer) Revision ID: 1157706826 \| Timestamp: 2023-05-30T12:51:13Z --- \| birth_place = [Island](Jeju)(Jeju Province), South Korea \| occupation = \| years_active = 2014–present \| signature = Signature of Red Velvet's Joy.png \| signature_size = 220px \| signature_alt = Signature of Joy \| module = \| instrument = Vocals \| label = [SM](SM Entertainment) \| current_member_of = \| website = }} \| module2 = \| hanja = \| rr = Bak Su-yeong \| mr = Pak Suyŏng \| hangulstage = \| hanjastage = \| rrstage = Jo-i \| mrstage = Ch'oi }} }} Park Soo-young (; born September 3, 1996), known by the stage name Joy, is a South Korean singer, actress, and host. She debuted as a member of South Korean girl group [Velvet](Red)(Red Velvet (group)) in August 2014. In 2017, Joy debuted as an actress and has had starring roles in the [dramas](television)(Korean drama) [Liar and His Lover](The)(The Liar and His Lover (TV series)) (2017), [Tempted](Tempted (TV series)) (2018), [One and Only](The)(The One and Only (South Korean TV series)) (2021), and [Upon a Small Town](Once)(Once Upon a Small Town) (2022). In 2021, Joy officially debuted as a soloist with the release of her special album [Hello](Hello (Joy EP)). ## Early life Park Soo-young was born in [Island](Jeju)(Jeju Island) and raised in [Dobong](Dobong District), [Seoul](Seoul). She is the eldest of three sisters. As a child, Joy was interested in modern [music](trot)(trot music) and was influenced to become a singer after receiving praise for her rendition of [rock](Korean)(Korean rock) band [Filter](Cherry)(Cherry Filter)'s song "Flying Duck" during a grade school festival. Joy auditioned and was cast by [Entertainment](SM)(SM Entertainment) at the SM Global Audition in Seoul in 2012. ## Career ### 2014–present: Debut and group activities Following two years of training, a vocal coach gave her the stage name "Joy". Joy was officially introduced as the fourth member of [Velvet](Red)(Red Velvet (group)) on July 29, 2014. Joy was the only member of the group who was not introduced as a part of [Rookies](SM)(SM Rookies), a pre-debut training team created by SM Entertainment. Red Velvet made their debut in August 2014 with the digital single "[Happiness](Happiness (Red Velvet song))". Over the course of their promotion, the group established themselves as one of the most powerful celebrities in South Korea by [Korea Power Celebrity](Forbes)(Forbes Korea Power Celebrity) in 2018 and 2019, and gained global popularity with [Billboard](Billboard (magazine)) regarding them as one of the most popular K-pop groups worldwide. ### 2015–2020: Solo activities [[at fansigning event on August 18, 2015 03.png\|thumb\|left\|upright\|Joy at a fansigning in August 2015](File:Joy)] In June 2015, Joy began her first solo television activity with the fourth season of [MBC](MBC TV (South Korean TV channel)) variety show [Got Married](We)(We Got Married), where she was paired with [BtoB](BtoB (band)) member [Sung-jae](Yook)(Yook Sung-jae). Joy gained recognition for her participation and won the New Star Award and Best Couple Award at the [MBC Entertainment Awards](2015)(MBC Entertainment Awards). Joy also released a duet with Yook entitled "Young Love" in April 2016, with Joy receiving a songwriting credit for the song. Departing in May 2016, they became known as one of the longest-running and most popular couples in the show's history. In November 2016, Joy collaborated with [Seul-ong](Lim)(Lim Seul-ong) in a duet titled "Always In My Heart". The song reached number one on several charts and number ten on the Gaon Digital Chart. [[File:171202 멜론 뮤직 어워즈 레드벨벳 (3).jpg\|thumb\|upright\|Joy during Red Velvet's performance at the 2017 [MMA](Melon Music Awards)]] In 2017, Joy made her acting debut as the female lead in [tvN](tvN)'s music-based drama [Liar and His Lover](The)(The Liar and His Lover (TV series)), a South Korean adaptation of [Aoki](Kotomi)(Kotomi Aoki)'s popular [manga](manga) [wa Uso o Aishisugiteru](Kanojo)(Kanojo wa Uso o Aishisugiteru). With the drama's musical nature, Joy released several OSTs including: "Yeowooya", "I'm Okay", "Your Days", "Shiny Boy", "Waiting For You", and "The Way to Me". For her performance as lead actress, Joy received the Newcomer Award at the OSEN Cable TV Awards. In July 2017, Joy participated on the singing variety contest show [of Mask Singer](King)(King of Mask Singer) under the alias of Bandabi, where she made it through to the next round of the competition. In 2018, Joy began her first fixed hosting position as the co-host of the second season of [JTBC](JTBC)'s [Man](Sugar)(Two Yoo Project Sugar Man) alongside top TV personalities [Jae-suk](Yoo)(Yoo Jae-suk), [Hee-yeol](You)(You Hee-yeol), and [Na-rae](Park)(Park Na-rae (comedian)). In 2018, Joy starred in [MBC](Munhwa Broadcasting Corporation)'s* drama [Tempted](Tempted (TV series)), loosely based on the French novel [Liaisons dangereuses](Les)(Les Liaisons dangereuses),* and recorded its OST "OMG!". Joy received numerous award nominations for her performance including: Best Actress at the [MBC Drama Awards](2018)(2018 MBC Drama Awards), and the Popularity Award (Drama Actress) at [Seoul Awards](The)(The Seoul Awards). In July 2018, Joy was chosen as one of the hosts of [Lifetime](Lifetime (TV network))'s new variety show [Friends](Pajama)(Pajama Friends), alongside [Ji-hyo](Song)(Song Ji-hyo) and [Yoon-ju](Jang)(Jang Yoon-ju).Ha Su Jeong.[B'파자마 프렌즈' 송지효x장윤주x조이x성소, 4MC 확정..8월 첫촬영](http://osen.mt.co.kr/article/G1110969593) OSEN, July 17, 2018. Retrieved August 22, 2018. Later that year in October 2018, Joy released the soundtrack song "Dream Me" (with [Lee](Mark)(Mark Lee (singer))) for the [KBS](Korean Broadcasting System) drama [Ghost Detective](The)(The Ghost Detective). In January 2019, it was announced that Joy was chosen to be a main host of the popular beauty program [OnStyle](OnStyle)'s Get It Beauty, with former Pajama Friends co-host, [Yoon-ju](Jang)(Jang Yoon-ju). In December 2019, Joy became part of the athletic variety show, [Tigers](Handsome)(Handsome Tigers), as the manager of [Jang-hoon](Seo)(Seo Jang-hoon)'s basketball team composed of celebrities such as [Sang-yoon](Lee)(Lee Sang-yoon) and [Eun-woo](Cha)(Cha Eun-woo). After positive response in variety shows, Joy won the Best Female Variety Idol Award at the 2020 Brand Customer Loyalty Awards. In March 2020, Joy released her solo OST "[Me a Good Person](Introduce)(Introduce Me a Good Person)" for the soundtrack of [tvN](TVN (South Korean TV channel))'s drama [Playlist](Hospital)(Hospital Playlist). The song reached number one on multiple charts, number five on the [Billboard](Billboard charts) K-Pop Hot 100 Chart, number six on the [Digital Chart](Gaon)(Gaon Digital Chart), and has surpassed 500 Million Digital Index Points on Gaon. In April 2020, Joy next participated alongside prominent Korean artists in the multi-collaboration project "Evergreen Tree" to support medical professionals during the [pandemic](COVID-19)(COVID-19 pandemic). In May 2020, Joy featured on the lead single of [R&B](Contemporary R&B) artist [Crush](Crush (singer)), with "Mayday" topping the charts on several Korean music platforms. "Introduce Me a Good Person" went on to be nominated for the Song of the Year Daesang (Grand Prize) and Best OST Award at the [Asian Music Awards](Mnet)(Mnet Asian Music Awards), and Best OST at the 30th [Music Awards](Seoul)(Seoul Music Awards). Joy was also nominated as a soloist for the Top 10 Artist of the Year Bonsang (Main Prize) at the 2020 [Music Awards](Melon)(Melon Music Awards), and Artist of the Year Daesang at the 2020 [Music Awards](Genie)(Genie Music Awards). Mwave\|url=http://mama.mwave.me/en/\|access-date=2020-10-31\|website=mama.mwave.me\|language=en\|archive-date=November 17, 2020\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201117030634/https://mama.mwave.me/en/main\|url-status=live}} ### 2021–present: Solo debut, return to acting, and rising popularity On May 12, 2021, it was announced that Joy would make her official solo debut with a special album consisting of 6 remake songs from the 1990s to 2000s. Joy's extended play [Hello](Hello (Joy EP)) was released on May 31, with the title track reaching number one on multiple charts and the album recording number one on the iTunes Top Album charts of 26 countries. All 6 tracks from the album debuted on the [Digital Chart](Gaon)(Gaon Digital Chart), with Joy also reaching number one as a soloist on the [Melon](Melon (online music service)) Female Solo Artist Chart. Joy's title track "Hello" also reached the Top 10 of ''[Billboard's](Billboard (magazine))'' K-Pop Hot 100, with 5 tracks in total from her solo debut album also entering the chart. On November 8, 2021, Joy's solo debut album Hello was nominated for the Album of the Year Daesang (Grand Prize) at the 2021 [Music Awards](Melon)(Melon Music Awards). Joy was also nominated as a soloist for the second consecutive year for the MMA Top 10 Artist Bonsang (Main Prize). On November 27, 2021, Joy was nominated for Artist of the Year (Digital Music - May) at the Gaon Music Awards. In December, Joy was also nominated for the Best Digital Song Bonsang at the [Golden Disc Awards](36th)(36th Golden Disc Awards), and the Main Award (Bonsang) at the [Seoul Music Awards](31st)(31st Seoul Music Awards). In addition, [NME](NME) listed Joy's "Hello" as one of the Top 25 Best K-pop songs of 2021. On December 20, 2021, Joy made her return to acting in the [JTBC](JTBC) drama [One and Only](The)(The One and Only (South Korean TV series)). In 2022, Joy was nominated for Best Actress Idol and Best Variety Idol at the 2022 Brand Customer Loyalty Awards. On May 26, 2022, it was announced that Joy would star in [KakaoTV](KakaoTV)'s original drama [Upon a Small Town](Once)(Once Upon a Small Town), set to premiere worldwide on [Netflix](Netflix) on September 5, 2022. ## Public image [[Red Velvet in 2019.jpg\|thumb\|left\|upright\|Joy in early 2019](File:Joy)] In 2019, Joy ranked in [Korea](Gallup)(Gallup Korea)'s annual data list of the Top 20 Most Popular Idols. In another survey conducted among soldiers doing [military service in South Korea](mandatory)(Conscription in South Korea), Joy was ranked in the Top 5 most popular female K-pop idols. In their annual list, K-pop Radar also confirmed that Joy's Instagram account _imyour_joy had the most Instagram followers out of K-pop female artists who opened their account in 2019. Joy has also ranked first several times in the "Individual Girl Group Members Brand Power Ranking" published by the Korean Corporate Reputation Research Institute. In February 2020, Joy was invited as a VIP guest of [Kors](Michael)(Michael Kors) to attend [York Fashion Week](New)(New York Fashion Week), with [Vogue](Vogue (magazine)) calling Joy "one of K-pop's brightest stars". As a singer, Joy's voice has received praise from various producers and musicians including composer Hwang Hyun, singer-songwriter [Hee-yeol](You)(You Hee-yeol), and producer Ma Joo-hee. In 2020, Joy became the first [SM](SM Entertainment) Female Artist without a solo debut to receive a Bonsang (Main Prize) nomination. In 2021, Joy became the first SM Female Soloist to be nominated for the Album of the Year Daesang (Grand Prize) at the Melon Music Awards. ## Other ventures ### Endorsements In July 2018, Joy was named as the new model and dual endorser for [Lotte](Lotte Chilsung)'s liquor drink Fitz. In May 2019, eSpoir, of South Korea's leading cosmetics conglomerate [Pacific](Amore)(Amorepacific Corporation), chose Joy as their official muse for their makeup and skincare products. In 2020, Joy became the face of [Aveda](Aveda) South Korea, owned by [Lauder](Estée)(The Estée Lauder Companies), with the brand citing Joy's positive image across various fields. In February 2021, Joy became a muse of [Tod's](Tod's) Italian luxury brand, [Hogan](Tod's), and was later officially announced as the new Ambassador for [Tod's](Tod's) in Korea on August 13, 2021. In September 2021, Joy became the face and model for [Klein](Calvin)(Calvin Klein (fashion house))'s latest campaign in Korea. In January 2022, Joy was named as a muse of Calvin Klein. In February 2022, Joy became the exclusive model of premium vegan beauty brand, Athé. In March 2022, Joy was announced as the new endorser of Lacto-Joy health products. In July 2022, Joy was announced as the first exclusive model for Alachi Chicken, with the brand stating that Joy was selected for her lively charm and luxurious image. ### Philanthropy In February 2020, Joy donated 10 million won to the [Chest of Korea](Community)(Community Chest of Korea) to help support those affected by the [pandemic in South Korea](COVID-19)(COVID-19 pandemic in South Korea). On October 21, 2022, Joy and [Wonstein](Wonstein) released the single "Love Song" as part of the World Peace Project, with proceeds donated to [UNICEF](UNICEF) Korea. ## Personal life In February 2015, Joy graduated from [of Performing Arts Seoul](School)(School of Performing Arts Seoul). On August 23, 2021, Joy was confirmed to be dating R&B singer-songwriter [Crush](Crush (singer)). ## Discography ### Extended play ### Singles ### Soundtrack appearances ### Other charted songs ### Composition credits ## Filmography ### Film ### Television series ### Web series ### Television show ### Music videos ## Awards and nominations ## Notes ## References ## External links * * * [births](Category:1996)(Category:1996 births) [people](Category:Living)(Category:Living people) [from Jeju Province](Category:People)(Category:People from Jeju Province) [Velvet (group) members](Category:Red)(Category:Red Velvet (group) members) [Town](Category:SM)(Category:SM Town) [Entertainment artists](Category:SM)(Category:SM Entertainment artists) [Trax artists](Category:Avex)(Category:Avex Trax artists) [Korean child singers](Category:South)(Category:South Korean child singers) [Korean television actresses](Category:South)(Category:South Korean television actresses) [Korean web series actresses](Category:South)(Category:South Korean web series actresses) [Korean female idols](Category:South)(Category:South Korean female idols) [Korean women pop singers](Category:South)(Category:South Korean women pop singers) [Korean contemporary R&B singers](Category:South)(Category:South Korean contemporary R&B singers) [of Performing Arts Seoul alumni](Category:School)(Category:School of Performing Arts Seoul alumni) [South Korean singers](Category:21st-century)(Category:21st-century South Korean singers) [South Korean women singers](Category:21st-century)(Category:21st-century South Korean women singers) [singers of South Korea](Category:Japanese-language)(Category:Japanese-language singers of South Korea)
Capital One	capital_one	# Capital One Revision ID: 1159470925 \| Timestamp: 2023-06-10T14:41:39Z --- \|[100](S&P)(S&P 100) component\|[500](S&P)(S&P 500) component}} \| foundation = [Richmond](Richmond, Virginia), [Virginia](Virginia), U.S. \| founder = [Fairbank](Richard)(Richard Fairbank), [Morris](Nigel)(Nigel Morris) \| hq_location = [One Tower](Capital)(Capital One Tower (Virginia))[Virginia](McLean,)(McLean, Virginia) \| key_people = [Fairbank](Richard)(Richard Fairbank)([Chairman](Chairman), [President](President (corporate title)) and [CEO](Chief Executive Officer))Andrew Young([CFO](Chief financial officer)) \| industry = [services](Financial)(Financial services) \| products = [banking](Retail)(Retail banking), [card](credit)(credit card)s, [loan](loan)s, [savings](savings), [coupons](online)(online coupons) \| revenue = US$38.37 billion (2022) COF \|url=https://www.macrotrends.net/stocks/charts/COF/capital-one-financial/net-income \|website=www.macrotrends.net \|access-date=January 28, 2023}} \| operating_income = US$1.54 billion (2022) \| net_income = US$1.16 billion (2022) \| assets = US$444.23 billion (2022) \| equity = US$50.86 billion (2022) \| ratio = 6.59% (2022) \| num_employees = 50,800 (2021) \| subsid = Wikibuy, ShareBuilder, Paribus, United Income, BlueTarp, Adaptive Path, Confyrm, Capital One Securities, Critical Stack, Monsoon Company, Finnoble Solutions, Notch \| homepage = \| footnotes = }} Capital One Financial Corporation is an American [holding company](bank)(bank holding company) specializing in [cards](credit)(credit cards), [loan](auto)(auto loan)s, banking, and [account](savings)(savings account)s, headquartered in [Virginia](McLean,)(McLean, Virginia) with operations primarily in the United States. It is on the [of largest banks in the United States](list)(list of largest banks in the United States) and has developed a reputation for being a technology-focused bank. The bank has 755 branches including 30 café style locations and 2,000 ATMs. It is ranked 99th on the [500](Fortune)(Fortune 500), 15th on Fortune's [Best Companies to Work For](100)(100 Best Companies to Work For) list, and conducts business in the United States, Canada, and the United Kingdom. The company helped pioneer the mass marketing of credit cards in the 1990s. In 2016, it was the 5th largest credit card issuer by purchase volume, after [Express](American)(American Express), [Chase](JPMorgan)(JPMorgan Chase), [of America](Bank)(Bank of America), and [Citigroup](Citigroup). With a market share of 5%, Capital One is also the second largest [finance](auto)(car finance) company in the United States, following [Financial](Ally)(Ally Financial), formerly known as GMAC. The company's three divisions are credit cards, consumer banking and commercial banking. In the fourth quarter of 2018, 75% of the company's revenues were from credit cards, 14% were from consumer banking, and 11% were from commercial banking. ## History ### Monoline credit card company (1994–2004) [[One footprint 2010-01.png\|thumb\|right\|150px\|Capital One retail footprint as of 2010](File:Capital)] On July 21, 1994, [Virginia](Richmond,)(Richmond, Virginia)-based Signet Financial Corp (now part of Wells Fargo) announced the [spin-off](corporate)(corporate spin-off) of its credit card division, OakStone Financial, naming [Fairbank](Richard)(Richard Fairbank) as CEO. Signet renamed the subsidiary Capital One in October 1994, and the spin-off was completed in February 1995. At that time, Capital One was a monoline bank, meaning that all of its revenue came from a single product, in this case, credit cards. This strategy is risky in that it can lead to losses during bad times. Capital One attributed its relative success as a monoline to its use of data collection to build [profile](demographic)(demographic profile)s, allowing it to target personalized offers of credit directly to consumers. ### Expansion into auto loans (1996–present) In 1996, Capital One moved from relying on teaser rates to generate new clients to adopting more innovative techniques that would attract more customers to their business model. At the time, it was losing customers to competitors who offered higher ceilings on loan balances and no-annual-fee accounts. The company came up with co-branded, secured, and joint account credit cards. In mid-1996, Capital One received approval from the federal government to set up Capital One FSB. This meant that the company could now retain and lend out deposits on secured cards and even issue automobile installment loans. In 1996, Capital One expanded its business operations to the United Kingdom and Canada. This gave the company access to a large international market for its credit cards. An article appearing in Chief Executive in 1997 noted that the company held $12.6 billion in credit card receivables and served more than nine million customers. The company was listed in the Standard & Poor's 500, and its stock price hit the $100 mark for the first time in 1998. In July 1998, Capital One acquired auto financing company Summit Acceptance Corporation. In 1999, Capital One was looking to expand beyond credit cards. CEO Richard Fairbank announced moves to use Capital One's experience with collecting consumer data to offer loans, insurance, and phone service. In October 2001, PeopleFirst Finance LLC was acquired by Capital One. The companies were combined and re-branded as Capital One Auto Finance Corporation in 2003. In late 2002, Capital One and the [States Postal Service](United)(United States Postal Service) proposed a negotiated services agreement (NSA) for bulk discounts in mailing services. The resulting three-year agreement was extended in 2006. In June 2008, however, Capital One filed a complaint with the USPS regarding the terms of the next agreement, citing the terms of the NSA of Capital One's competitor, [of America](Bank)(Bank of America). Capital One subsequently withdrew its complaint to the [Regulatory Commission](Postal)(Postal Regulatory Commission) following a settlement with the USPS. Automobile loan financer Onyx Acceptance Corporation was acquired by Capital One in January 2005. ### Expansion into retail banking (2005–present) [[Café in Chicago](File:CapitalOneCafeHydeParkChicago.jpg\|thumb\|CapitalOne)] In 2005 Capital One became the first monoline credit card issuer to buy a bank, as it entered into [banking](retail)(retail banking) by acquiring [National Bank](Hibernia)(Hibernia National Bank). It purchased the [Orleans, Louisiana](New)(New Orleans, Louisiana)-based Hibernia for $4.9 billion in cash and stock. It acquired [New York](Melville,)(Melville, New York)-based [Fork Bank](North)(North Fork Bank) for $13.2 billion in cash and stock in 2006. The acquisition of retail banks greatly reduced its dependency on the credit-card business alone. It acquired Netspend, a marketer of prepaid debit cards, for $700 million in 2007. During the [subprime mortgage financial crisis](2007)(2007 subprime mortgage financial crisis), Capital One closed its mortgage platform, GreenPoint Mortgage, due in part to investor pressures. The [Securities and Exchange Commission](U.S.)(U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission) criticized Capital One's conduct during the crisis, claiming that they understated auto loan losses during the [crisis of 2007–2008](financial)(financial crisis of 2007–2008). In 2013, Capital One paid $3.5 million to settle the case, but was not required to directly address the allegations of wrongdoing. In 2008, Capital One received an investment of $3.56 billion from the [States Treasury](United)(United States Treasury) as a result of the [Asset Relief Program](Troubled)(Troubled Asset Relief Program). On June 17, 2009, Capital One completed the repurchase of the stock the company issued to the [Treasury](U.S.)(U.S. Treasury) paying a total of $3.67 billion, resulting in a profit of over $100 million to the U.S. Treasury. In February 2009, Capital One acquired [Chase Bank](Chevy)(Chevy Chase Bank) for $520 million in cash and stock. In January 2011, Capital One acquired Canada-based [Bay Company](Hudson's)(Hudson's Bay Company)'s private credit card portfolio from [Financial](Synchrony)(Synchrony Financial), then known as GE Financial. In June 2011, [Group](ING)(ING Group) announced the sale of its ING Direct division to Capital One for $9 billion in cash and stock. On August 26, 2011, the [Reserve Board of Governors](Federal)(Federal Reserve Board of Governors) announced it would hold public hearings on the Capital One acquisition of ING Direct, and extend to October 12, 2011, the public comment period that had been scheduled to end August 22. The move came amidst rising scrutiny of the deal on systemic risk, or "Too-Big-to-Fail," performance under the [Reinvestment Act](Community)(Community Reinvestment Act), and pending legal challenges. A coalition of national civil rights and consumer groups, led by the National Community Reinvestment Coalition, were joined by Rep. [Frank](Barney)(Barney Frank) to challenge immediate approval of the deal. The groups argued that the acquisition was a test of the [Wall Street Reform and Consumer Protection Act](Dodd-Frank)(Dodd-Frank Wall Street Reform and Consumer Protection Act), under which systemically risky firms must demonstrate a public benefit that outweighs new risk before they are allowed to grow. Kansas City Federal Reserve Bank head [M. Hoenig](Thomas)(Thomas M. Hoenig) was also skeptical of the deal. In February 2012, the acquisition was approved by regulators and Capital One completed its acquisition of ING Direct. Capital One received permission to merge ING into its business in October 2012, and rebranded ING Direct as Capital One 360 in November 2012. In April 2011, Capital One signed a deal with [Kohl's](Kohl's) to handle Kohl's private label credit card program that was previously serviced by [Bank](Chase)(Chase Bank) for a seven-year period for an undisclosed amount. The contract between the two companies was extended in May 2014. In August 2011, Capital One reached a deal with [HSBC](HSBC) to acquire its U.S. credit card operations. Capital One paid $31.3 billion in exchange for $28.2 billion in loans and $600 million in other assets. The acquisition was completed in May 2012. The acquisition also included private issued credit cards for such companies as [Fifth Avenue](Saks)(Saks Fifth Avenue), [Marcus](Neiman)(Neiman Marcus), and [& Taylor](Lord)(Lord & Taylor) that were previously handled by HSBC. In February 2012, along with several other banks, Capital One announced support for the [Mobile Wallet](Isis)(Isis Mobile Wallet) payment system. However, in September 2013, Capital One dropped support for the venture. In 2012, Capital One closed 41 branch locations. In February 2014, Capital One became a 25% owner in [ClearXchange](ClearXchange), a [transaction](Peer-to-peer)(Peer-to-peer transaction) money transfer service designed to make [funds transfer](electronic)(electronic funds transfer)s to customers within the same bank and other financial institutions via mobile phone number or email address. ClearXchange was sold to Early Warning in 2016. In January 2015, Capital One acquired Level Money, a budgeting app for consumers. In 2015, Capital One closed several branch locations to leave 174 operating branches in the D.C. metro area. In July 2015, the company acquired Monsoon, a design studio, development shop, marketing house and strategic consultancy. In 2015, Capital One acquired [Electric](General)(General Electric)'s Healthcare Financial Services unit, which included $8.5 billion in loans made to businesses in the healthcare industry, for $9 billion. In October 2016, Capital One acquired [Paribus](Paribus), a price tracking service, for an undisclosed amount. In July 2019, Capital One signed a deal with [Walmart](Walmart) to handle Walmart's private label and co-branded credit card programs that was previously serviced by [Financial](Synchrony)(Synchrony Financial). In November 2021, the company introduced Venture X, a [rewards](travel)(Incentive program) credit card, with a $395 annual fee. ### Exit from mortgage banking (2006–2007 and 2011–2017) In November 2017, President of Financial Services Sanjiv Yajnik announced that the mortgage market was too competitive in the low rate environment to make money in the business. The company exited the mortgage origination business on November 7, 2017, laying off 1,100 employees. This was the second closure; the first occurred on August 20, 2007, when GreenPoint Mortgage unit was closed. GreenPoint had been acquired December 2006 when Capital One paid $13.2 billion to North Fork Bancorp Inc. The re-emergence into the mortgage industry came in 2011 with the purchase of online bank ING Direct USA. ### Other acquisitions In May 2018, the company acquired Confyrm, a digital identity and fraud alert service. In November 2018, Capital One acquired Wikibuy, a shopping comparison app and browser extension from an Austin, Texas start-up business; Wikibuy has no connection with Wikipedia/Wikimedia. ## Divisions Capital One operates 3 divisions as follows: * Credit cards – Capital One issues credit cards in the United States, Canada, and the United Kingdom and is the 3rd largest credit card issuer, after [Chase](JPMorgan)(JPMorgan Chase) and [Citigroup](Citigroup). As of December 31, 2018, Capital One had $107.350 billion in credit card loans outstanding in the United States and $9.011 billion of credit card loans outstanding in Canada and the United Kingdom, with credit cards representing 47.3% of total loans outstanding. * Consumer banking – Capital One offers banking services, including [account](checking)(checking account)s, [account](saving)(saving account)s, and [market account](money)(money market account)s via its branches and [bank](direct)(direct bank) as well as retail and auto loans. As of December 31, 2018, the company had $2.864 billion in retail loans outstanding and $56.341 billion in [finance](car)(car finance) loans outstanding, representing 22.9% of total loans outstanding. * Commercial banking – As of December 31, 2018, Capital One had $70.333 billion in loans outstanding secured by commercial, multifamily, and industrial properties, representing 28.6% of total loans outstanding. ## Sports marketing [[File:Capital one arena.jpg\|200px\|thumb\|Capital One owns the naming rights for the major sports and entertainment arena in [D.C.](Washington,)(Washington, D.C.)]] From 2001 to 2014, Capital One was the principal sponsor of the [football](college)(college football) Florida Citrus Bowl, which was called the [One Bowl](Capital)(Capital One Bowl) from 2003 to 2014. It sponsored a mascot challenge every year, announcing the winner on the day of the Capital One Bowl. The name of the [game](bowl)(bowl game) was changed in 2015 to the [Wild Wings](Buffalo)(Buffalo Wild Wings) Citrus Bowl. Capital One is the title sponsor of the [Bowl](Orange)(Orange Bowl) since 2015. Capital One Venture X is the presenting sponsor of the [Bowl Game](Rose)(Rose Bowl Game) since 2022. Capital One is one of the top three sponsors of the [NCAA](NCAA), paying an estimated $35 million annually in exchange for advertising and access to consumer data. Capital One also sponsored the [Cup](EFL)(EFL Cup), an English Soccer Competition, from 2012 to 2016. The company sponsored [Forest F.C.](Nottingham)(Nottingham Forest F.C.) from 2003 to 2009 and [United F.C.](Sheffield)(Sheffield United F.C.) from 2006 to 2008. From 2009 to 2022, the [of Maryland Terrapins football team](University)(Maryland Terrapins football) played at [One Field at Maryland Stadium](Capital)(Maryland Stadium) (formerly Byrd Stadium), a naming-rights deal inherited in the bank's acquisition of [Chase Bank](Chevy)(Chevy Chase Bank). In 2017, the company became the sponsor of the [One Arena](Capital)(Capital One Arena) in [D.C.](Washington)(Washington D.C.) In 2018, to celebrate the [Capitals](Washington)(Washington Capitals)' second-ever [Cup Finals](Stanley)(2018 Stanley Cup Finals) appearance, the firm temporarily changed its logo by replacing the word "Capital" with the Capitals' [logo](titular)(Washington Capitals#Logos and jerseys), without the "s" plural. In 2022, [League Baseball](Major)(Major League Baseball) announced that Capital One is the official bank and credit card and presenting sponsor of the [Series](World)(World Series). ## Corporate citizenship Capital One operates some charitable programs. The accountability organization [Committee for Responsive Philanthropy](National)(National Committee for Responsive Philanthropy) has been highly critical of Capital One's relatively low rate of giving, stating that "Capital One's philanthropic track record is dismal". The organization pointed out that Capital One's donations of 0.024% of revenue were much less than the industry median of 0.11% of revenue. Capital One has disputed the groups figures, saying that "... In 2011 alone, our giving totals are more than 6 times greater ($30 million) than the number given by the NCRP". ## Criticism and legal actions ### Fines for misleading customers to pay extra for services In July 2012, Capital One was fined by the [of the Comptroller of the Currency](Office)(Office of the Comptroller of the Currency) and the [Financial Protection Bureau](Consumer)(Consumer Financial Protection Bureau) for misleading millions of its customers, for example by requiring customers to pay extra for payment protection or credit monitoring when they took out a card. The company agreed to pay $210 million to settle the legal action and to refund two million customers. This was the CFPB's first public enforcement action. ### Automated dialing to customers' phones In August 2014, Capital One and three collection agencies entered into an agreement to pay $75.5 million to end a consolidated class action lawsuit pending in the [States District Court for the Northern District of Illinois](United)(United States District Court for the Northern District of Illinois) alleging that the companies used an automated dialer to call customers' cellphones without consent, which is a violation of the [Consumer Protection Act of 1991](Telephone)(Telephone Consumer Protection Act of 1991). It is notable that this legal action involved informational telephone calls, which are not subject to the "prior express written consent" requirements which have been in place for telemarketing calls since October 2013. ### 2014 amendment to terms of use to allow personal visits In 2014, Capital One amended its [of use](terms)(terms of use) to allow it to "contact you in any manner we choose", including a "personal visit . . . at your home and at your place of employment." It also asserted its right to "modify or suppress caller ID and similar services and identify ourselves on these services in any manner we choose." The company stated that it would not actually make personal visits to customers except "As a last resort, . . . if it becomes necessary to repossess [a] sports vehicle". Capital One also attributed its assertion of a right to "[spoof](Caller ID spoofing)" as necessary because "sometimes the number is 'displayed differently' by 'some local phone exchanges,' something that is 'beyond our control'". ### July 2019 security breach #Split proposed \|date=June 2022}} Capital One publicly acknowledged on July 29, 2019, that they had found unauthorized access had occurred ten days earlier by an individual who had breached the account and identity security of 106 million people in the United States and Canada. The [FBI](Federal Bureau of Investigation) arrested Paige Thompson, who had previously worked as a [engineer](software)(software engineer) for [Web Services](Amazon)(Amazon Web Services), Capital One's [hosting](cloud)(Cloud computing) company. Capital One declared that Thompson had accessed about 140,000 [Security number](Social)(Social Security number)s, a million Canadian [insurance number](social)(social insurance number)s; 80,000 bank account numbers, and an unknown number of names and addresses of customers. Capital One began offering free [monitoring services](credit)(Credit report monitoring) to those affected by the breach. Thompson's employment at Amazon appears to have ended in September 2016. Amazon stated that the security vulnerability she used to access Capital One could have been discovered by anyone, the information that facilitated her activity was not gained from work at Amazon, and that she gained access via "a misconfiguration of the (Capital One-designed) web application and not the underlying (Amazon-designed) cloud-based infrastructure".https://www.cbsnews.com/news/capital-one-hacker-amazon-employee-paige-thompson/ What we know about accused Capital One hacker Paige Thompson. #### Details of the breach Forensic analysis determined Thompson's actual hacking activity occurred in March 2019, then she posted the information to different outlets over the next three months. In April she posted a trove of leaked data along with instructions on how to access the company's credentials for more data extraction. In July a [white-hat](white hat (computer security)) alerted Capital One to Thompson's hacking activity. Thompson pleaded not guilty to charges of wire fraud and computer fraud and abuse. During the investigations and subsequent data freeze, millions of Capital One accounts were locked; their owners were unable to process financial transactions, meet payments, or gain access to their financial records. #### Capital One response Critics lambasted the bank's effort to downplay the hack while investigations were ongoing, and described the bank as more concerned about its image than the needs of its clients. Several Capital One customers stated that the first time they heard about the hack was through the media and the bank did not disclose the breach or explain its implications to affected customers. On [media](social)(social media) and in the mainstream press, Capital One's contradictory July 2019 press statement was mocked for saying "No bank account numbers or Social Security numbers were compromised," but then listing hundreds of thousands of bank account numbers and social security numbers that were compromised. #### Federal Reserve Action On August 6, 2020, the Federal Reserve Board of Governors announced a [and desist order](cease)(cease and desist order) against Capital One resulting from the breach. The order mandated, among other things, significant improvements in Capital One's [risk management and compliance](governance,)(governance, risk management and compliance) (GRC) practices. #### Lawsuits Lawsuits were filed against Capital One and its employees in federal and circuit courts, led by the firms Colson Hicks Eidson, Franklin D. Azar and Associates P.C., and several others. Additional lawsuits were filed against both Amazon and GitHub, alleging they were aware of the exploit but did not act to fix or patch the vulnerability. ### Government investigations In 2015 the bank disclosed that it was under federal investigation for bank fraud, [laundering](money)(money laundering), and possible racketeering charges. No further information was given and government investigators would only confirm that it was under scrutiny for "unspecified charges." In 2018, Capital One was fined $100 million for failure to monitor, detect, and prevent money laundering. Charging documents specified Capital One failed to file suspicious activity reports, had deficiencies in its risk assessment, remote deposit capture and generally had weaknesses that compromised national bank security controls. The bank was the subject of a larger investigation that alleged funds were siphoned out of US jurisdiction to safe havens. In January 2021, Capital one was fined $390 million by [FINCEN](FINCEN) for anti-money laundering control failure concerning a now-defunct small portfolio of check-cashing businesses that Capital One acquired around 2008 and subsequently exited from in 2014. Capital One later admitted that it failed to file thousands of suspicious activity reports and lapsed on filing currency transaction reports on around 50,000 reportable cash transactions valued around $16 billion. FinCEN.gov\|url=https://www.fincen.gov/news/news-releases/fincen-announces-390000000-enforcement-action-against-capital-one-national\|access-date=October 3, 2021\|website=www.fincen.gov}} ## Notable office buildings * [One Tower (Virginia)](Capital)(Capital One Tower (Virginia)) - company headquarters * [One Tower (Louisiana)](Capital)(Capital One Tower (Louisiana)) * [St. Charles (New Orleans)](Place)(Place St. Charles) * [West Wacker Drive (Chicago)](77)(77 West Wacker Drive) * [Park Avenue (New York)](299)(299 Park Avenue) ## References ## External links * * (Canada) * (United Kingdom) [ ](Category:Capital One) [based in Virginia](Category:Banks)(Category:Banks based in Virginia) [companies established in 1994](Category:American)(Category:American companies established in 1994) [established in 1994](Category:Banks)(Category:Banks established in 1994) [establishments in Virginia](Category:1994)(Category:1994 establishments in Virginia) [based in McLean, Virginia](Category:Companies)(Category:Companies based in McLean, Virginia) [based in Richmond, Virginia](Category:Companies)(Category:Companies based in Richmond, Virginia) [listed on the New York Stock Exchange](Category:Companies)(Category:Companies listed on the New York Stock Exchange) [spin-offs](Category:Corporate)(Category:Corporate spin-offs) [initial public offerings](Category:1994)(Category:1994 initial public offerings)
Guadeloupe	guadeloupe	# Guadeloupe Revision ID: 1160229287 \| Timestamp: 2023-06-15T05:49:41Z --- Guadalupe}} \| native_name_lang = \| settlement_type = [Overseas](Overseas France) [department](Departments of France) and [region](Regions of France) of [France](France) and [region](outermost)(Special territories of members of the European Economic Area#Outermost Regions) of the [Union](European)(European Union) \| image_map = Guadeloupe in France 2016.svg \| image_map1 = Guadeloupe map.png \| map_caption = \| image_seal = Guadaloupe logo.svg \| seal_size = 120 \| seal_type = Emblem \| seal_link = Coat of arms of Guadeloupe \| image_coat = \| motto = \| coordinates = \| subdivision_type = Country \| subdivision_name = \| seat_type = [Prefecture](Prefectures in France) \| seat = [Basse-Terre](Basse-Terre) \| blank3_name_sec1 = Largest metropolitan area \| blank3_info_sec1 = [Pointe-à-Pitre](Pointe-à-Pitre) \| parts_type = [Departments](Departments of France) \| parts_style = list \| parts = 1 \| leader_party = \| leader_title1 = [of the Departmental Council](President)(Departmental Council of Guadeloupe) \| leader_name1 = Guy Losbar \| leader_title2 = [of the Regional Council](President)(Regional Council of Guadeloupe) \| leader_name2 = [Chalus](Ary)(Ary Chalus) \| area_footnotes = \| area_total_km2 = 1628 \| area_land_km2 = \| area_water_km2 = \| area_rank = 16th region \| elevation_max_m = 1467 \| elevation_max_point = [Grande Soufriere](La)(La Grande Soufriere) \| population_total = \| population_as_of = \| population_footnotes = \| population_density_km2 = auto \| population_demonym = Guadeloupean \| timezone = [AST](Atlantic Time Zone) \| utc_offset = -4:00 \| timezone1_DST = \| utc_offset1_DST = \| blank_name_sec1 = GDP (2014) \| blank_info_sec1 = [15th](Ranked)(List of French regions and overseas collectivities by GDP) \| blank1_name_sec1 = Total \| blank1_info_sec1 = €8.1 billion (US$10.3 bn) \| blank2_name_sec1 = Per capita \| blank2_info_sec1 = €19,810 (US$25,479) \| blank_name_sec2 = [Region](NUTS)(First level NUTS of the European Union#France) \| blank_info_sec2 = FRA \| website = \| iso_code = \| footnotes = \| anthem = ("The Marseillaise") }} Guadeloupe (; ; , ) is an archipelago and [department and region](overseas)(Overseas departments and regions of France) of [France](France) in the [Caribbean](Caribbean). It consists of six inhabited islands—[Basse-Terre](Basse-Terre Island), [Grande-Terre](Grande-Terre), [Marie-Galante](Marie-Galante), [Désirade](La)(La Désirade), and the two inhabited [des Saintes](Îles)(Îles des Saintes)—as well as many uninhabited islands and outcroppings. It is south of [and Barbuda](Antigua)(Antigua and Barbuda) and [Montserrat](Montserrat) and north of the [of Dominica](Commonwealth)(Dominica). The region's capital city is [Basse-Terre](Basse-Terre), located on the southern west coast of Basse-Terre Island; however, the most populous city is [Abymes](Les)(Les Abymes) and the main centre of business is neighbouring [Pointe-à-Pitre](Pointe-à-Pitre), both located on Grande-Terre Island. It had a population of 384,239 in 2019.[Populations légales 2019: 971 Guadeloupe](https://www.insee.fr/fr/statistiques/fichier/6011060/dep971.pdf), INSEE Like the other overseas departments, it is an integral part of France. As a constituent territory of the [Union](European)(European Union) and the [Eurozone](Eurozone), the [euro](euro) is its official currency and any European Union citizen is free to settle and work there indefinitely. However, as an overseas department, it is not part of the [Area](Schengen)(Schengen Area). The region formerly included [Barthélemy](Saint)(Saint Barthélemy) and [Martin](Saint)(Collectivity of Saint Martin), which were detached from Guadeloupe in 2007 following a [referendum](2003)(2003 Guadeloupean autonomy referendum). [Columbus](Christopher)(Christopher Columbus) visited Guadeloupe in 1493, during his second voyage, and gave the island its name. The official language is French; [Creole](Antillean)(Antillean Creole) is also spoken. ## Etymology [[File:Virgenguadalupe.jpg\|thumb\|right\|upright\|Our Lady of Guadalupe in the [of Santa María de Guadalupe](Monastery)(Monastery of Santa María de Guadalupe), after whom the island gets its name]] The archipelago was called (or "The Island of Beautiful Waters") by the native [Arawak](Arawak) people. [Columbus](Christopher)(Christopher Columbus) named the island in 1493 after [Lady of Guadalupe](Our)(Our Lady of Guadalupe in Extremadura), a shrine to the [Mary](Virgin)(Virgin Mary) venerated in the Spanish town of [Guadalupe](Guadalupe, Cáceres), Extremadura. When the area became a French colony, the Spanish name was retained - though altered to [orthography](French)(French orthography) and [phonology](French phonology). The islands are locally known as . ## History ### Pre-colonial era [[File:Petroglyphe Plessis3.jpg\|thumb\|left\|upright\|Ancient [petroglyph](petroglyph) in [Baillif](Baillif)]] The islands were first populated by [peoples of the Americas](indigenous)(indigenous peoples of the Americas), possibly as far back as 3000 BCE.Siegel et al – Analyse préliminaire de prélèvements sédimentaires en provenance de Marie-Galante. Bilan scientifique 2006–2008. Service régional de l’archéologie Guadeloupe- Saint-Martin – Saint-Barthélemy 2009.. The [Arawak](Arawak) people are the first identifiable group, but they were later displaced circa 1400 CE by [Kalina](Kalina people)-Carib peoples. ### 15th–17th centuries Christopher Columbus was the first European to see Guadeloupe, landing in November 1493 and giving it its current name. Several attempts at colonisation by the Spanish in the 16th century failed due to attacks from the native peoples. In 1626, the French, under the trader and adventurer [Belain d'Esnambuc](Pierre)(Pierre Belain d'Esnambuc), began to take an interest in Guadeloupe, expelling Spanish settlers. The [des Îles de l'Amérique](Compagnie)(Compagnie des Îles de l'Amérique) settled in Guadeloupe in 1635, under the direction of the French colonial leaders [Liénard de L'Olive](Charles)(Charles Liénard de L'Olive) and [du Plessis d'Ossonville](Jean)(Jean du Plessis d'Ossonville); they formally took possession of the island for France and brought in French farmers to colonise the land. This led to the death of many indigenous people by disease and violence. By 1640, however, the Compagnie des Îles de l'Amérique had gone bankrupt, and they thus sold Guadeloupe to [Houël du Petit Pré](Charles)(Charles Houël du Petit Pré) who began [plantation](plantation) agriculture, with the first African slaves arriving in 1650.La Guadeloupe: renseignements sur l'histoire, la flore, la faune, la géologie, la minéralogie, l'agriculture, le commerce, l'industrie, la législation, l'administration, Volume 1, Partie 2, de Jules Ballet (Imprimerie du gouvernement, 1895) (in French) Slave resistance was immediately widespread, with an open uprising in 1656 lasting several weeks and a simultaneous spate of mass desertions that lasted at least two years until the French compelled indigenous peoples to stop assisting them. Ownership of the island passed to the [West India Company](French)(French West India Company) before it was annexed to France in 1674 under the tutelage of their Martinique colony. Institutionalised slavery, enforced by the [Noir](Code)(Code Noir) from 1685, led to a booming sugar [plantation](plantation) economy. ### 18th–19th centuries During the [Years' War](Seven)(Seven Years' War), the [British](Kingdom of Great Britain) [captured](Invasion of Guadeloupe (1759)) and occupied the islands until the [Treaty of Paris](1763)(Treaty of Paris (1763)). During that time, [Pointe-à-Pitre](Pointe-à-Pitre) became a major harbour, and markets in Britain's [American colonies](North)(British America) were opened to Guadeloupean sugar, which was traded for foodstuffs and timber. The economy expanded quickly, creating vast wealth for the French colonists. So prosperous was Guadeloupe at the time that, under the 1763 Treaty of Paris, France forfeited its [colonies](Canadian)(New France) in exchange for the return of Guadeloupe. Coffee planting began in the late 1720s,Auguste Lacour, Histoire de la Guadeloupe, vol. 1 (1635–1789). Basse-Terre, Guadeloupe, 1855 [full text at Google Books](https://books.google.com/books?id=Cch7AAAAMAAJ), p. 236ff. also worked by slaves and, by 1775, [cocoa](cocoa bean) had become a major export product as well. [[File:Combat naval 12 avril 1782-Dumoulin-IMG 5484.JPG\|thumb\|right\|The [of the Saintes](Battle)(Battle of the Saintes) was fought between France and Britain in 1782.]] The [Revolution](French)(French Revolution) brought chaos to Guadeloupe. Under new revolutionary law, [freedmen](Free person of color) were entitled to equal rights. Taking advantage of the chaotic political situation, Britain invaded Guadeloupe in 1794. The French responded by sending an expeditionary force led by [Hugues](Victor)(Victor Hugues), who retook the islands and abolished slavery. More than 1,000 French colonists were killed in the aftermath. [[de Louis Delgrès à Matouba.JPG\|thumb\|right\|Bust of Louis Delgrès, leader of the 1802 slave rebellion](File:Buste)] In 1802, the [Consulate](French)(French Consulate) government reinstated the pre-revolutionary government and slavery, prompting a [rebellion](slave)(slave rebellion) led by [Delgrès](Louis)(Louis Delgrès). The French authorities responded quickly, culminating in the [of Matouba](Battle)(Battle of Matouba) on 28 May 1802. Realising they had no chance of success, Delgrès and his followers committed mass suicide by deliberately exploding their gunpowder stores. In 1810, the [British](United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland) [the island again](captured)(Invasion of Guadeloupe (1810)), handing it over to Sweden under the [Treaty of Stockholm](1813)(Treaty of Stockholm (1813)). In the [Treaty of Paris](1814)(Treaty of Paris (1814)), Sweden ceded Guadeloupe to France, giving rise to the [Fund](Guadeloupe)(Guadeloupe Fund). In 1815, the [of Vienna](Treaty)(Treaty of Vienna (1815)) acknowledged French control of Guadeloupe. [Slavery](Slavery) was abolished in the French Empire in 1848. After 1854, [labourer](indentured)(indentured labourer)s from the French colony of [Pondicherry](Pondicherry) in India were brought in. Emancipated slaves had the vote from 1849, but French nationality and the vote were not granted to Indian citizens until 1923, when a long campaign, led by [Sidambarom](Henry)(Henry Sidambarom), finally achieved success. ### 20th–21st centuries In 1936, [Éboué](Félix)(Félix Éboué) became the first black governor of Guadeloupe.. During the Second World War Guadeloupe initially came under the control of the [government](Vichy)(Vichy government), later joining [France](Free)(Free France) in 1943. In 1946, the colony of Guadeloupe became an overseas department of France. Tensions arose in the post-war era over the social structure of Guadeloupe and its relationship with mainland France. The 'Massacre of St Valentine' occurred in 1952, when striking factory workers in [Moule](Le)(Le Moule) were shot at by the [républicaines de sécurité](Compagnies)(Compagnies républicaines de sécurité), resulting in four deaths. In May 1967 racial tensions exploded into rioting following a racist attack on a black Guadeloupean, resulting in eight deaths. An independence movement grew in the 1970s, prompting France to declare Guadeloupe a French region in 1974. The [populaire pour la libération de la Guadeloupe](Union)(Union populaire pour la libération de la Guadeloupe) (UPLG) campaigned for complete independence, and by the 1980s the situation had turned violent with the actions of groups such as [de libération armée](Groupe)(Groupe de libération armée) (GLA) and [révolutionnaire caraïbe](Alliance)(Alliance révolutionnaire caraïbe) (ARC). Greater autonomy was granted to Guadeloupe in 2000. Through a [in 2003](referendum)(2003 Guadeloupean autonomy referendum), [Saint-Martin](Collectivity of Saint Martin) and [Barthélemy](Saint)(Saint Barthélemy) voted to separate from the administrative jurisdiction of Guadeloupe, this being fully enacted by 2007. In January 2009, labour unions and others known as the [Kont Pwofitasyon](Liyannaj)(Liyannaj Kont Pwofitasyon) went [strike](on)(2009 French Caribbean general strikes) for more pay."[Race, class fuel social conflict on French Caribbean islands](https://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5gk4fdgdkSoLI7uwcWr8DPvufQdAg?hl=en)". [France-Presse](Agence)(Agence France-Presse) (AFP). 17 February 2009 Strikers were angry with low wages, the high cost of living, high levels of poverty relative to mainland France and levels of unemployment that are amongst the worst in the European Union. The situation quickly escalated, exacerbated by what was seen as an ineffectual response by the French government, turning violent and prompting the deployment of extra police after a union leader ([Bino](Jacques)(Jacques Bino)) was shot and killed. The strike lasted 44 days and had also inspired similar actions on nearby [Martinique](Martinique). President [Sarkozy](Nicolas)(Nicolas Sarkozy) later visited the island, promising reform.[Sarkozy offers autonomy vote for Martinique](https://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5iQcNm7wF2_1t5AffHQZY1jZwd9Cw), [AFP](Agence France-Presse) Tourism suffered greatly during this time and affected the 2010 tourist season as well. ## Geography [[NASA 61.42577W 16.17142N.jpg\|thumb\|Satellite photo of Guadeloupe](File:Guadeloupe)] [[Chutes du Carbet.jpg\|thumb\|right\|Lush forest on Basse-Terre](File:Panorama)] [[map of Guadeloupe](File:Guadeloupe2021OSM.png\|thumb\|right\|Detailed)] Guadeloupe is an archipelago of more than 12 islands, as well as [islet](islet)s and rocks situated where the northeastern [Sea](Caribbean)(Caribbean Sea) meets the western Atlantic Ocean. It is located in the [Islands](Leeward)(Leeward Islands) in the northern part of the [Antilles](Lesser)(Lesser Antilles), a partly volcanic [arc](island)(island arc). To the north lie [and Barbuda](Antigua)(Antigua and Barbuda) and the [Overseas Territory](British)(British Overseas Territories) of [Montserrat](Montserrat), with [Dominica](Dominica) lying to the south. The two main islands are Basse-Terre (west) and [Grande-Terre](Grande-Terre) (east), which form a butterfly shape as viewed from above, the two 'wings' of which are separated by the [Cul-de-Sac Marin](Grand)(Grand Cul-de-Sac Marin), and [Cul-de-Sac Marin](Petit)(Petit Cul-de-Sac Marin). More than half of Guadeloupe's land surface consists of the 847.8 km2 Basse-Terre. The island is mountainous, containing such peaks as [Sans Toucher](Mount)(Mount Sans Toucher) () and [Découverte](Grande)(Grande Découverte) (), culminating in the active volcano [Grande Soufrière](La)(La Grande Soufrière), the highest mountain peak in the [Antilles](Lesser)(Lesser Antilles) with an elevation of . In contrast Grande-Terre is mostly flat, with rocky coasts to the north, irregular hills at the centre, mangrove at the southwest, and white sand beaches sheltered by [reefs](coral)(coral reefs) along the southern shore. This is where the main tourist resorts are found. [Marie-Galante](Marie-Galante) is the third-largest island, followed by [Désirade](La)(La Désirade), a north-east slanted [limestone](limestone) plateau, the highest point of which is . To the south lies the [de Petite-Terre](Îles)(Îles de Petite-Terre), which are two islands (Terre de Haut and Terre de Bas) totalling 2 km2. [Saintes](Les)(Les Saintes) is an archipelago of eight islands of which two, [Terre-de-Bas](Terre-de-Bas) and [Terre-de-Haut](Terre-de-Haut Island) are inhabited. The landscape is similar to that of Basse-Terre, with volcanic hills and irregular shoreline with deep bays. There are numerous other smaller islands. ### Geology Basse-Terre is a [island](volcanic)(volcanic island). The Lesser Antilles are at the outer edge of the [Plate](Caribbean)(Caribbean Plate), and Guadeloupe is part of the outer arc of the [Antilles Volcanic Arc](Lesser)(Lesser Antilles Volcanic Arc). Many of the islands were formed as a result of the [subduction](subduction) of [crust](oceanic)(oceanic crust) of the [Plate](Atlantic)(Atlantic Plate) under the [Plate](Caribbean)(Caribbean Plate) in the [Antilles subduction zone](Lesser)(Lesser Antilles subduction zone). This process is ongoing and is responsible for volcanic and earthquake activity in the region. Guadeloupe was formed from multiple volcanoes, of which only La Grande Soufrière is not extinct. Its last eruption was in 1976, and led to the evacuation of the southern part of Basse-Terre. 73,600 people were displaced throughout three and a half months following the eruption. [dating](K–Ar)(K–Ar dating) indicates that the three northern [massif](massif)s on [Island](Basse-Terre)(Basse-Terre Island) are 2.79 million years old. Sections of volcanoes collapsed and eroded within the last 650,000 years, after which the Sans Toucher volcano grew in the collapsed area. Volcanoes in the north of Basse-Terre Island mainly produced [andesite](andesite) and [andesite](basaltic)(basaltic andesite). There are several beaches of dark or "black" sand. [Désirade](La)(La Désirade (commune)), east of the main islands, has a [basement](Basement (geology)) from the [Mesozoic](Mesozoic), overlaid with thick [limestones](limestones) from the [Pliocene](Pliocene) to [Quaternary](Quaternary) periods. Grande-Terre and Marie-Galante have basements probably composed of volcanic units of [Eocene](Eocene) to [Oligocene](Oligocene), but there are no visible outcrops. On Grande-Terre, the overlying [platform](carbonate)(carbonate platform) is 120 metres thick. ### Climate The islands are part of the [Islands](Leeward)(Leeward Islands), so called because they are downwind of the prevailing [wind](trade)(trade wind)s, which blow out of the northeast. This was significant in the days of [ship](sailing)(sailing ship)s. Grande-Terre is so named because it is on the eastern, or [windward](windward) side, exposed to the Atlantic winds. Basse-Terre is so named because it is on the [leeward](leeward) south-west side and sheltered from the winds. Guadeloupe has a [climate](tropical)(tropical climate) tempered by maritime influences and the [Winds](Trade)(Trade Winds). There are two seasons, the dry season called "Lent" from January to June, and the wet season called "winter", from July to December. \|date=September 2011}} [[de la Grande Anse à Deshaies 2.jpg\|thumb\|Grande Anse Beach](File:Plage)] ### Tropical cyclones and storm surges Located in a very exposed region, Guadeloupe and its [dependencies](Dependent territory) have to face many [cyclones](cyclones). The deadliest hurricane to hit Guadeloupe was the Pointe-à-Pitre hurricane of 1776, which killed at least 6,000 people. In 1989, [Hugo](Hurricane)(Hurricane Hugo) caused severe damage to the islands of the archipelago and left a deep mark on the memory of the local inhabitants. In 1995, three hurricanes (Iris, Luis and [Marilyn](Hurricane Marilyn)) hit the archipelago in less than three weeks. Other notable hurricanes include [Okeechobee](1928 Okeechobee hurricane) in 1928, [Betsy](Hurricane Betsy) in 1956, [Cleo](Hurricane Cleo) in 1964, [Inez](Hurricane Inez) in 1966, and [Irma](Hurricane Irma) and [Maria](Hurricane Maria) in 2017. ### Flora [[File:Pic de la Guadeloupe.jpg\|thumb\|right\|The [woodpecker](Guadeloupe)(Guadeloupe woodpecker) is endemic to the islands.]] With fertile volcanic soils, heavy rainfall and a warm climate, vegetation on Basse-Terre is lush. Most of the islands' forests are on Basse-Terre, containing such species as [mahogany](mahogany), [ironwood](ironwood) and [tree](chestnut)(chestnut tree)s. [swamps](Mangrove)(Mangrove swamps) line the Salée River. Much of the forest on Grande-Terre has been cleared, with only a few small patches remaining. Between of altitude, the [rainforest](rainforest) that covers a large part of the island of Basse-Terre develops. There we find the white gum tree, the acomat-boucan or chestnut tree, the marbri or bois-bandé or the oleander; shrubs and herbaceous plants such as the mountain palm, the balisier or ferns; many epiphytes: [bromeliads](bromeliads), philodendrons, [orchids](orchids) and [lianas](lianas). Above , the humid savannah develops, composed of mosses, [lichen](lichen)s, sphagnum or more vigorous plants such as mountain [mangrove](mangrove), high altitude violet or mountain thyme. The [forest](dry)(dry forest) occupies a large part of the islands of Grande-Terre, Marie-Galante, Les Saintes, [Désirade](La)(La Désirade) and also develops on the leeward coast of Basse-Terre. The coastal forest is more difficult to develop because of the nature of the soil (sandy, rocky), [salinity](salinity), sunshine and wind and is the environment where the sea grape, the [mancenilla](Hippomane) (a very toxic tree whose trunk is marked with a red line), the icaquier or the [Coconut](Coconut) tree grow. On the [cliffs](cliffs) and in the [Arid](Arid) zones are found cacti such as the cactus-cigar (Cereus), the prickly pear, the chestnut cactus, the "Tête à l'anglais" cactus and the aloes. The [Mangrove](Mangrove) forest that borders some of Guadalupe's coasts is structured in three levels, from the closest to the sea to the farthest. On the first level are the [mangroves](red)(Optediceros breviculum); on the second, about from the sea, the [mangrove](black)(black mangrove)s form the shrubby mangrove; on the third level the white mangroves form the tall mangrove. Behind the mangrove, where the tide and salt do not penetrate, a swamp forest sometimes develops, unique in Guadeloupe. The representative species of this environment is the Mangrove-medaille.[[File:Artibeus jamaicensis.jpg\|thumb\|right\|alt=A Jamaican fruit bats hanging from a tree\|The [fruit bat](Jamaican)(Jamaican fruit bat) can be found throughout the [department](department of France)\|310x310px]] ### Fauna Few terrestrial mammals, aside from bats and [raccoons](raccoons), are native to the islands. The [introduced](introduced species) [mongoose](Javan)(Javan mongoose) is also present on Guadeloupe. Bird species include the [endemic](endemism) [carib](purple-throated)(purple-throated carib) and the [woodpecker](Guadeloupe)(Guadeloupe woodpecker). The waters of the islands support a rich variety of marine life. However, by studying 43,000 bone remains from six islands in the [archipelago](archipelago), 50 to 70% of snakes and lizards on the Guadeloupe Islands became extinct after European colonists arrived, who had brought with them mammals such as cats, mongooses, rats, and raccoons, which might have preyed upon the native reptiles. ### Environmental preservation In recent decades, Guadeloupe's natural environments have been affected by hunting and fishing, forest retreat, urbanization and suburbanization. They also suffer from the development of intensive crops (banana and [cane](sugar)(Sugarcane), in particular), which reached their peak in the years 1955–75. This has led to the following situation: seagrass beds and [reefs](reefs) have degraded by up to 50% around the large islands; mangroves and [mantids](Mantidae) have almost disappeared in [Marie-Galante](Marie-Galante), Les Saintes and La Désirade; the [salinity](salinity) of the fresh water table has increased due to "the intensity of use of the layer"; and pollution of agricultural origin (pesticides and nitrogenous compounds).Un rapport s’alarme de « la dégradation généralisée » des masses d’eau en Guadeloupe, Le Monde.fr, 10 septembre 2019 In addition, the ChlEauTerre study, unveiled in March 2018, concludes that 37 different [anthropogenic](Climate change) molecules (more than half of which come from residues of now-banned pesticides, such as chlordecone) were found in "79% of the watersheds analyzed in Grande-Terre and 84% in Basse-Terre." A report by the Guadeloupe Water Office notes that in 2019 there is a "generalized [degradation](Environmental degradation) of water bodies." Despite everything, there is a will to preserve these [environments](Natural environment) whose vegetation and [landscape](landscape) are preserved in some parts of the islands and constitute a sensitive asset for tourism. These areas are partially protected and classified as ZNIEFF, sometimes with nature reserve status, and several caves are home to protected chiropterans. [[de la Soufrière.jpg\|thumb\|La Soufrière Volcano crater and its fumaroles](File:Sommet)] The Guadalupe [Park](National)(National Park) was created on 20 February 1989. In 1992, under the auspices of [UNESCO](UNESCO), the [Reserve](Biosphere)(Biosphere Reserve) of the Guadeloupe Archipelago (''Réserve de biosphère de l'archipel de la Guadeloupe'') was created. As a result, on 8 December 1993, the marine site of Grand Cul-de-sac was listed as a wetland of international importance. Service d'information sur les Sites Ramsar\|url=https://rsis.ramsar.org/fr/ris/642\|access-date=10 June 2021\|website=rsis.ramsar.org}} The island thus became the [department](overseas)(Overseas departments and regions of France) with the most [area](protected)(protected area)s. ### Earthquakes and tsunamis The archipelago is crossed by numerous [faults](geological)(Fault (geology)) such as those of la Barre or la Cadoue, while in depth, in front of Moule and [Désirade](La)(La Désirade) begins the Désirade Fault, and between the north of Maria-Galante and the south of Grande-Terre begins the Maria Galante Fault. And it is because of these geological characteristics, the islands of the department of Guadeloupe are classified in zone III according to the seismic zoning of France and are subject to a specific risk prevention plan. The 1843 earthquake in the [Antilles](Lesser)(Lesser Antilles) is, to this day, the most violent earthquake known. It caused the death of more than a thousand people, as well as major damage in Pointe-à-Pitre. On 21 November 2004, the islands of the department, in particular [Saintes](Les)(Îles des Saintes) archipelago, were shaken by a violent earthquake that reached a magnitude of 6.3 on the [scale](Richter)(Richter magnitude scale) and caused the death of one person, as well as extensive material damage. ## Demographics Guadeloupe recorded a population of 402,119 in the 2017 census. The population is mainly [Afro-Caribbean](Afro-Caribbean). European, [(Tamil, Telugu, and other South Indians)](Indian)(Indians in Guadeloupe), [Lebanese](Lebanese people), [Syrians](Syrian people), and Chinese are all minorities. There is also a substantial population of [Haitians](Haitians) in Guadeloupe who work mainly in construction and as street vendors. [Basse-Terre](Basse-Terre) is the political capital; however, the largest city and economic hub is [Pointe-à-Pitre](Pointe-à-Pitre). The population of Guadeloupe has been decreasing by 0.8% per year since 2013. In 2017 the average population density in Guadeloupe was , which is very high in comparison to metropolitan France's average of .[Population en historique depuis 1968: France métropolitaine](https://www.insee.fr/fr/statistiques/4515315?geo=METRO-1#ancre-POP_T1), INSEE One third of the land is devoted to agriculture and all mountains are uninhabitable; this lack of space and shelter makes the population density even higher. ### Major urban areas The most populous [unit](urban)(urban unit) (agglomeration) is [Pointe-à-Pitre](Pointe-à-Pitre)-[Abymes](Les)(Les Abymes), which covers 11 communes and 65% of the population of the department.[Unité urbaine 2020 de Pointe-à-Pitre-Les Abymes (9A701)](https://www.insee.fr/fr/metadonnees/cog/unite-urbaine/UU20209A701-pointe-a-pitre-les-abymes), INSEE The three largest urban units are: ### Health In 2011, [expectancy](life)(life expectancy) at birth was recorded at 77.0 years for males and 83.5 for females. Medical centres in Guadeloupe include: University Hospital Centre (CHU) in Pointe-à-Pitre, Regional Hospital Centre (CHR) in Basse-Terre, and four hospitals located in Capesterre-Belle-Eau, Pointe-Noire, Bouillante and Saint-Claude. The Institut Pasteur de la Guadeloupe, is located in Pointe-à-Pitre and is responsible for researching environmental hygiene, vaccinations, and the spread of [tuberculosis](tuberculosis) and other [mycobacteria](mycobacterium). ### Immigration The relative wealth of Guadeloupe contrasts with the [poverty](extreme)(extreme poverty) of several islands in the [Caribbean](Caribbean) region, which makes the community an attractive place for the populations of some of these territories. In addition, other factors, such as political instability and natural disasters, explain this immigration. As early as the 1970s, the first illegal immigrants of [origin](Haitian)(Haitian diaspora) arrived in Guadeloupe to meet a need for labour in the agricultural sector; alongside this [immigration](Haitian)(Haitian Americans), which is more visible because it is more numerous, Guadeloupe has also seen the arrival and settlement of populations from the island of Dominica and the Dominican Republic. In 2005, the prefecture, which represents the State in Guadeloupe, reported figures of between 50,000 and 60,000 foreigners in the department. [[women (1911).png\|thumb\|Guadeloupe women (1911) on Ellis Island](File:Guadeloupe)] ### Migration Created in 1963 by [Debré](Michel)(Michel Debré), Bumidom's objective was to "[...] contribute to the solution of demographic problems in the overseas departments". To this end, its missions were multiple: information for future emigrants, vocational training, family reunification and management of reception centres. At the time, this project was also seen as a means to diminish the influence of the [Indian](West)(West Indian) independence movements, which were gaining strength in the 1960s. Between 1963 and 1981, an estimated 16,562 Guadeloupeans emigrated to [France](metropolitan)(metropolitan France) through Bumidom. And the miniseries Le Rêve français (The French Dream) sets out to recount some of the consequences of the emigration of West Indians and Reunionese to France. An estimated 50,000 Guadeloupeans and Martinicans participated in the construction of the [Canal](Panama)(Panama Canal) between 1904 and 1914. In 2014, it was estimated that there were between 60,000 and 70,000 descendants of these West Indians living in Panama. Other waves of migration to North America, especially to Canada, occurred at the beginning of the 20th century. ## Governance Together with [Martinique](Martinique), [Réunion](La)(La Réunion), [Mayotte](Mayotte) and [Guiana](French)(French Guiana), Guadeloupe is one of the [departments](overseas)(Overseas department and region), being both a [region](Regions of France) and a [department](Departments of France) combined into one entity. It is also an outermost region of the [Union](European)(European Union). The inhabitants of Guadeloupe are French citizens with full political and legal rights. [[de Goyave.jpg\|thumb\|Goyave Town Hall](File:Mairie)] Legislative powers are centred on the separate [departmental](Departmental council (France)) and [regional](Regional council (France)) councils. The elected president of the [Council of Guadeloupe](Departmental)(Departmental Council of Guadeloupe) is currently Guy Losbar (1.7.2021); its main areas of responsibility include the management of a number of social and welfare allowances, of junior high school (collège) buildings and technical staff, and local roads and school and rural buses. The [Council of Guadeloupe](Regional)(Regional Council of Guadeloupe) is a body, elected every six years, consisting of a president (currently [Chalus](Ary)(Ary Chalus)) and eight vice-presidents. The regional council oversees [education](secondary)(Secondary education in France), regional transportation, economic development, the environment, and some infrastructure, among other things. Guadeloupe elects one deputy from one of each of the [first](Guadeloupe's 1st constituency), [second](Guadeloupe's 2nd constituency), [third](Guadeloupe's 3rd constituency), and [fourth](Guadeloupe's 4th constituency) constituencies to the [Assembly of France](National)(National Assembly of France). Three senators are chosen for the [of France](Senate)(Senate of France) by [election](indirect)(indirect election). For electoral purposes, Guadeloupe is divided into two [arrondissements](Arrondissements of the Guadeloupe department) ([Basse-Terre](Arrondissement of Basse-Terre) and [Pointe-à-Pitre](Arrondissement of Pointe-à-Pitre)), and 21 [cantons](Cantons of the Guadeloupe department). Most of the [political parties](French)(List of political parties in France) are active in Guadeloupe. In addition there are also regional parties such as the [Communist Party](Guadeloupe)(Guadeloupe Communist Party), the [Democratic Party of Guadeloupe](Progressive)(Progressive Democratic Party of Guadeloupe), the [Objective](Guadeloupean)(Guadeloupean Objective), the [Left](Pluralist)(Pluralist Left), and [Guadeloupe, Solidary and Responsible](United)(United Guadeloupe, Solidary and Responsible). The [prefecture](prefectures in France) (regional capital) of Guadeloupe is [Basse-Terre](Basse-Terre). Local services of the state administration are traditionally organised at departmental level, where the [prefect](prefect) represents the government. ### Administrative divisions For the purposes of local government, Guadeloupe is divided into [communes](32)(Communes of the Guadeloupe department). Each commune has a municipal council and a mayor. Revenues for the communes come from transfers from the French government, and local taxes. Administrative responsibilities at this level include water management, civil register, and municipal police. ### Geopolitics From a [geostrategic](Geostrategy) point of view, Guadeloupe is located in a central part of the [archipelago](Caribbean)(Antilles) between the Atlantic Ocean and the [Sea](Caribbean)(Caribbean Sea). This location in the region allows France to reach a large part of the eastern coast of the [continent](American)(Americas). The [economic zone](exclusive)(Exclusive economic zone of France) formed by Guadeloupe and [Martinique](Martinique) covers just over 126,146 square kilometres. limitesmaritimes.gouv.fr\|url=https://limitesmaritimes.gouv.fr/ressources/tableau-des-superficies\|access-date=8 July 2021\|website=limitesmaritimes.gouv.fr\|archive-date=3 December 2022\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221203231450/https://limitesmaritimes.gouv.fr/ressources/tableau-des-superficies\|url-status=dead}} In 1980 France established its maritime boundaries in the area by signing a Treaty with [Venezuela](Venezuela). This provides France with important fishing resources.[[File:EU OCT and OMR map en.png\|thumb\|The [territories of the European Union](special)(Special member state territories and the European Union)]]This offers France important fishing resources and independence to develop a sovereign policy of underwater research and protection (protection of [whale](humpback)(humpback whale)s, Cousteau reserve, protection of [reefs](coral)(coral reefs)). Because of its geographical position, Guadeloupe allows France to participate in political and diplomatic dialogues at both the regional (Lesser and [Antilles](Greater)(Greater Antilles)) and continental ([Latin](Latin America) and North America) levels. The signing of the Regional Convention for the Internationalisation of Enterprise (CRIE), membership of the [Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean](Economic)(United Nations Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean) (ECLAC) and membership of the [of Caribbean States](Association)(Association of Caribbean States) (ACS) are milestones that have enabled Guadeloupe to develop its bilateral or multilateral relations within the framework of international agreements or institutions.11 The development of bilateral and multilateral economic partnerships with other Caribbean and American states is based on the modernisation of the autonomous port of Guadeloupe and the importance of the Guadeloupe-Polo Caribe international airport. ### Symbols and flags As a part of France, Guadeloupe uses the [tricolour](French)(Flag of France) as its flag and La Marseillaise as its anthem. However, a variety of other flags are also used in an unofficial or informal context, as [of Guadeloupe](flag)(flag of Guadeloupe) most notably the sun-based flag. Independentists also have their own flag suggested by the [Union for the Liberation of Guadeloupe](People's)(People's Union for the Liberation of Guadeloupe). Image:Flag_of_France.svg\|National flag of France Image:Unofficial flag of Guadeloupe (local).svg\|Colonial flag of Guadeloupe Image:Flag of Guadeloupe (local) variant.svg\|Red variant of the colonial sun flag Image:Flag of Guadeloupe (UPLG).svg\|Flag used by the independence and the cultural movements Image:Flag of Guadeloupe (Local).svg\|Logo of the Regional Council of Guadeloupe ## Economy [[File:Caroline-6.jpg\|thumb\|[de Pompierre](Plage)(Plage de Pompierre), one of the many beaches on Guadeloupe that draw in tourists]] [[plantations on Basse-Terre](File:Regimedebanane.jpg\|thumb\|upright\|right\|Banana)] The economy of Guadeloupe depends on tourism, agriculture, [industry](light)(light industry) and [services](Tertiary sector of economic activity). It is reliant upon mainland France for large subsidies and imports and public administration is the largest single employer on the islands. Unemployment is especially high among the youth population. In 2017, the Gross domestic product (GDP) of Guadeloupe was €9.079 billion, and showed 3.4% growth. The [per capita](GDP)(GDP per capita) of Guadeloupe was €23,152. Imports amounted to €3.019 billion, and exports to €1.157 billion. The main export products are bananas, sugar and rum. Banana exports suffered in 2017 from damages due to [Irma](Hurricane)(Hurricane Irma) and [Maria](Hurricane)(Hurricane Maria). ### Tourism Tourism is the one of the most prominent sources of income, with most visitors coming from France and North America. An increasingly large number of cruise ships visit Guadeloupe, the cruise terminal of which is in Pointe-à-Pitre. ### Agriculture The traditional [cane](sugar)(sugar cane) crop is slowly being replaced by other crops, such as bananas (which now supply about 50% of export earnings), [eggplant](eggplant), [guinnep](Mamoncillo), [noni](noni), [sapotilla](sapotilla), [squash](giraumon)(Squash (plant)), [yam](yam (vegetable)), [gourd](gourd), [plantain](Plantain (cooking)), [christophine](christophine), [cocoa](cocoa bean), [jackfruit](jackfruit), [pomegranate](pomegranate), and many varieties of flowers. Other vegetables and root crops are cultivated for local consumption, although Guadeloupe is dependent upon imported food, mainly from the rest of France. ### Light industry Of the various light industries, sugar and [rum](rum) production, solar energy, cement, furniture and clothing are the most prominent. Most manufactured goods and fuel are imported. ## Culture ### Language Guadeloupe's official language is [French](French language), which is spoken by nearly all of the population. Most residents also speak [Creole](Guadeloupean)(Antillean Creole), a [creole language](French-based)(French-based creole language). Guadeloupean Creole emerged as a result of the need for all ethnic groups (French, African and Amerindian) to be able to understand each other. This language is therefore the result of a mixture created in the 17th century in response to a communicative emergency. At the time of the colony's foundation, a majority of the French population did not speak the standard French language but local dialects and languages, such as [Breton](Breton language) and [Norman](Norman language), while the Africans came from a variety of West and Central African ethnic groups and lacked a common language themselves. The Creole language emerged as a lingua franca and ultimately became the native language of much of the population. Moreover, Terre-de-Haut and Terre-de-Bas, in the Saintes [archipelago](archipelago), due to their settlement history (Breton, Norman and Poitevin settlers), have their own Creoles which differ from Guadeloupean Creole by their French pronunciations, their particular expressions, their syntax and their sonorities. Although it is not transcribed, these islanders call their Creole "patois" or "language of St. Martin" and actively ensure its transmission and perpetuation by their descendants in vernacular form. [[creole 2010-03-30.JPG\|thumb\|Warning sign written in Guadeloupe Creole\|258x258px](File:Guadeloupe)] A Guadeloupean [béké](béké) first wrote Creole at the end of the 17th century, transcribing it using [orthography](French)(French orthography). As Guadeloupe is a French department, French is the [language](official)(official language). However, Guadeloupean French (in contact with Creole) has certain linguistic characteristics that differ from those of standard metropolitan French. Recently, a very detailed study of the phonetic aspect of Guadeloupean French has been undertaken (this would be the first study to deal with both the acoustic and the phonological and perceptual aspects of Guadeloupean French in particular and West Indian French in general). It is also concerned with the reading varieties of Guadeloupean French (acrolect, mesolect and basilect). In recent decades there has been a revival of Creole, which has stimulated the appearance of books of short stories and poetry published in Creole and French over the last ten years. In this context, Hector Poullet is a pioneer of Creole-mediated dictation. Creole is also a very colourful language and very philosophical in its expressions and phrases, which, translated literally into French, can be confusing. The representatives of the older generations are not always fluent in French, but in Guadeloupean Creole. Today, the question as to whether French and Creole are stable in Guadeloupe, i.e. whether both languages are practised widely and competently throughout society, remains a subject of active research.Manahan, Kathe. Diglossia Reconsidered: Language Choice and Code-Switching in Guadeloupean Voluntary Organizations, Kathe Manahan Texas Linguistic Forum. 47: 251–261, Austin, TX. 2004 ### Religion [[Notre - Dame de Guadeloupe.jpg\|thumb\|Cathédrale Notre-Dame de Guadeloupe\|276x276px](File:Cathédrale)] About 80% of the population is [Catholic](Roman)(Roman Catholic). Guadeloupe is in the diocese of [(et Pointe-à-Pitre)](Basse-Terre)(Basse-Terre (et Pointe-à-Pitre)). Other major religions include various [Protestant](Protestant) denominations. In 1685, the [Code](Black)(Code Noir) announced the [religion](Christian)(Christianity) in its [form](Catholic)(Catholic Church) as the only authorized religion in the [West Indies](French)(French West Indies), thus excluding Jews and the various Protestant groups from practicing their beliefs, and imposed the forced [conversion](Conversion to Christianity) of the newly arrived slaves and the baptism of the older ones. This was followed by a rapid fashion among the [slaves](slaves), since this religion offered them a spiritual refuge and allowed them to safeguard some of their African beliefs and customs, thus marking the beginning of a religious syncretism. Since the 1970s, new religions and groups have been 'competing' with the Catholic Church, such as the [Pentecostal Church](Evangelical)(Pentecostalism), the [Adventist Church](Seventh-day)(Seventh-day Adventist Church), the Bible Students or [Witnesses](Jehovah's)(Jehovah's Witnesses) and [Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints](the)(the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints). Administratively, the territory of Guadeloupe is part of the Diocese of Basse-Terre and Pointe-à-Pitre, attached to the Catholic Church in France. The diocese includes the territories of Guadeloupe, St. Barthélemy and St. Martin and the number of faithful is estimated at 400,000. In 2020 there were 59 priests active in the diocese. The episcopal see is located in Basse-Terre, in the cathedral of Notre-Dame-de-Guadeloupe. [Hinduism](Hinduism), which accompanied the Indians who came to work in Guadeloupe in the mid-19th century, has expanded since the 1980s. The Indian community has its own tradition that comes from India. It is the mayé men, a distorted pronunciation of the name of the Tamil Indian goddess Mariamman. There are no less than 400 temples in the archipelago. Islam made its appearance in the French West Indies in the 1970s, first in Martinique. According to the president of the Muslim association of Guadeloupe, there are between 2,500 and 3,000 [Muslims](Muslims) in the department. The island has two mosques. Judaism has been present in Guadeloupe since the arrival of [Dutch](Dutch East India Company) settlers expelled from the northeast of present-day Brazil in 1654. There is a synagogue and an Israelite cultural community. Guadeloupeans of Syrian and Lebanese origin practice Catholicism in its [Maronite](Maronite Church) form. [Rastafari](Rastafari) has been attractive to some young people since the 1970s following its emergence in [Jamaica](Jamaica). The quimbois or kenbwa, practiced in Guadeloupe, refer to magical-religious practices derived from Christian and African syncretism. ### Literature [[File:Maryse_Cond%C3%A9.jpg\|thumb\|upright\|[Condé](Maryse)(Maryse Condé), historical fiction author]] Guadeloupe has always had a rich literary output, with Guadeloupean author [Perse](Saint-John)(Saint-John Perse) winning the 1960 [Prize in Literature](Nobel)(Nobel Prize in Literature). Other prominent writers from Guadeloupe or of Guadeloupean descent include [Condé](Maryse)(Maryse Condé), [Schwarz-Bart](Simone)(Simone Schwarz-Bart), [Warner-Vieyra](Myriam)(Myriam Warner-Vieyra), [Lara](Oruno)(Oruno Lara), [Maximin](Daniel)(Daniel Maximin), [Niger](Paul)(Paul Niger), [Tirolien](Guy)(Guy Tirolien) and [Léonard](Nicolas-Germain)(Nicolas-Germain Léonard). ### Music Music and dance are also very popular, and the interaction of African, French and Indian culturesSahai, Sharad (1998). [Guadeloupe Lights Up: French-lettered Indians in a remote corner of the Caribbean reclaim their Hindu identity](http://www.hinduismtoday.com/archives/1998/2/1998-2-12.shtml) . Hinduism Today, Digital Edition, February 1998. has given birth to some original new forms specific to the archipelago, most notably [zouk](Zouk (musical movement)) music. Since the 1970s, Guadeloupean music has increasingly claimed the local language, Guadeloupean Creole as the preferred language of popular music. Islanders enjoy many local dance styles including [zouk](Zouk (musical movement)), [zouk-love](zouk-love), [compas](compas), as well as the modern international genres such as hip hop, etc. Traditional Guadeloupean music includes [biguine](biguine), [kadans](Cadence rampa), [cadence-lypso](cadence-lypso), and [ka](gwo)(gwo ka). Popular music artists and bands such as [7](Experience)(Experience 7), [Vincent](Francky)(Francky Vincent), [Kassav'](Kassav') (which included Patrick St-Eloi, and Gilles Floro) embody the more traditional music styles of the island, whilst other musical artists such as the punk band The Bolokos [(1)](https://www.rci.fm/guadeloupe/infos/Culture/Bolokos-veritable-succes-pour-les-guadeloupeens-au-festival-anglais-Rebellion) or Tom Frager focus on more international genres such as rock or [reggae](reggae). Many international festivals take place in Guadeloupe, such as the Creole Blues Festival on [Marie-Galante](Marie-Galante). All the Euro-French forms of art are also ubiquitous, enriched by other communities from Brazil, [Republic](Dominican)(Dominican Republic), [Haiti](Haiti), India, [Lebanon](Lebanon), [Syria](Syria)) who have migrated to the islands. Classical music has seen a resurgent interest in Guadeloupe. One of the first known composers of African origin was born in Guadeloupe, [Chevalier de Saint-Georges](Le)(Chevalier de Saint-Georges), a contemporary of [Haydn](Joseph)(Joseph Haydn) and [Amadeus Mozart](Wolfgang)(Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart), and a celebrated figure in Guadeloupe. Several monuments and cites are dedicated to Saint-Georges in Guadeloupe, and there is an annual music festival, [International de Musique Saint-Georges](Festival)(Saint-Georges International Music Festival), dedicated in his honour. The festival attracts classical musicians from all over the world and is one of the largest classical music festivals in the Caribbean.[[of Guadeloupe\|424x424px](File:Carnaval_de_Saint-Fran%C3%A7ois_2013_01.JPG\|thumb\|Carnival)]Another element of Guadeloupean culture is its dress. A few women (particularly of the older generation) wear a unique style of traditional dress, with many layers of colourful fabric, now only worn on special occasions. On festive occasions they also wore a madras (originally a "kerchief" from South India) headscarf tied in many different symbolic ways, each with a different name. The headdress could be tied in the "bat" style, or the "firefighter" style, as well as the "Guadeloupean woman". Jewellery, mainly gold, is also important in the Guadeloupean lady's dress, a product of European, African and Indian inspiration. ### Traditional dress [dress](Traditional)(Folk costume),Néba Francis Yale, « », HAL. Archives-ouvertes.fr, 25 juillet 2015, p. 174 inherited today, is the result of a long cultural mix involving Africa, Asia and Europe. This cultural mix was initially based on triangular trade and later on a more globalized trade that included importing fabrics from the Orient. For example, in the traditional Guadeloupean costume, we find Asian influences with the use of madras cloth from India, African and European influences ([Spanish](Spanish Empire) in this case) with the use of the headscarf for covering and again European influences ([French](First French Empire) in this case) in the adoption of the lace petticoat from [Brittany](Brittany). The clothing worn in Guadeloupe has mutated over the centuries and has undergone changes that reflect the social conditions and the evolution of society, from the time of slavery to the present day. During the second half of the 17th century, slaves arriving in Guadeloupe were naked or nearly [naked](Nudity). They were then forced to wear rags or the owner's worn-out clothes, which were quickly discarded, barely concealing their nakedness. Or [slaves](slaves) working in the fields wore the "three-hole" dress, made of a vegetable fiber fabric in which three holes were made (two for the arms and one for the head). Under pressure from the church and the authorities, slaves were forced to wear the "three-hole" dress. Under pressure from the church and as soon as the [Code](Black)(Code Noir) was enforced in 1685, owners were required to provide "each slave with two suits of cloth or four alders [](about) of cloth a year... art.25" which only modestly improved their conditions. However, the poor quality of the clothing worn during slavery must be qualified, as it could vary according to the day of the week (daily clothing, Sunday clothing, clothing for special occasions), or according to the status of the slaves employed in the houses. In fact, the latter could be dressed in clothes of different quality according to the job they performed on the [property](property). For example, in the case of the maids, their clothes could be of better quality because they had to reflect the image of success and wealth that their master wanted to project. From the 17th century onwards, the development of the [Creole](Creole peoples) costume coincided with the desire of slave women to regain their dignity, with the evolution of their employment within the household or Guadeloupean society (specialization in the sewing and dressmaking trades), with the evolution of Guadeloupean society (free women of colour, freed slaves, mulatto women) and with the influence of the European fashionable costume, which the housewife represented. After the abolition of slavery, the main periods of traditional Guadeloupean dress were the following: * 1848 to 1930, establishment of the use of the costume;Mission académique: langue et culture régionales créoles. * From 1930 to 1950, significant decrease in the use of the traditional costume; * From 1950 to 1960, period in which the traje becomes a "[folkloric](Folklore)" garment; * From 1960 to the present, the traditional costume has been recovered and is valued both as an everyday garment and as a sign of attachment to the culture of Guadalupe.53 Today, many designers are inspired by the traditional costume to make some of their creations. As a result of this fusion of African and European dress codes over the centuries, including materials from distant origins, the Guadeloupean wardrobe includes Creole garments such as: the cozy dress or wòb ti-do, an everyday dress also called "à corps" because it fits the body like a corset; the skirt-shirt, in ceremonial dress (the shirt is made of very fine batiste trimmed with lace, which stops at the elbows and is buttoned with golden buttons. The [skirt](skirt), full and very wide in the back with tail, is knotted above the breasts); the bodice dress which is distinguished from the others by the quantity and richness of the fabric used (satin, brocade satin, satin). * The traditional headdress, worn with or without the women's traditional costume, is the subject of a precise codification: * The "tête chaudière" is the ceremonial [headdress](Headgear) with a round, flat shape, topped with a spiked knot;[[fête des cuisinières\|310x310px](File:Mobeye-ÉtéDesVilles-Guadeloupe-827.jpg\|thumb\|La)] * The four-pointed headdress (headdress with four knots) means "my heart has room for whoever wants it! "; * The three-pointed headdress means "my heart is taken!". * The two-pointed headdress means "my heart is compromised, but you can try your luck! "; * The one-ended headdress means "my heart is free!" ### Gastronomy Guadeloupean [cuisine](cuisine) is a mixture of African, European and Asian influences. It uses first of all agricultural products such as poyo (plantain more commonly called green plantain or ti-nain), bread plantain, okra, [cabbage](cabbage), pigeon peas, cristofina, yam or sweet potato. The sea and rivers provide rays, snappers, octopus (chatou), lambis, burgots (a type of large whelk), sea urchins and ouassous. Orchards provide fruits such as soursop, red jambosier, [fruit](passion)(Passiflora edulis) (marakoudja), [mango](mango), quenette, and citrus. Condiments sometimes added to dishes are habanero chili, cive (a kind of onion from the country) or roucou seeds that give a red tint to sauces. The cooking, often [spicy](Pungency) and seasoned, results from soaking meat or fish for hours before cooking, to enhance its flavour. Typical dishes are: fish blaff, dombrés, bébélé (from Marie-Galante), colombo (equivalent to Indian curry) and matété (rice cooked with crab). As for appetizers or snacks, there are morcillas criollas, accras, cassava cakes and bokit. As for desserts, there are blancmange, sorbets or various fruit salads. Pastries include pâtés with jam, tournament d'amour (in Les Saintes), caca bœuf (in Marie-Galante) or sacristain. Pain natté, a local brioche bread, is often eaten. There are local productions of candied fruits (elderberry, [pineapple](pineapple), carambola) and jams (guava, banana, coconut). Sorbets such as coconut sherbet or snowball made with crushed ice to which a syrup (mint, grenadine) is added are also consumed. Sweets include [coconut](coconut) sugar, kilibibi and konkada (of Beninese origin).[[de la Darse (épices).jpg\|thumb\|Darse Market, Pointe-à-Pitre.\|247x247px](File:Marché)]In the category of [beverages](Drink), the consumption of soft drinks is very important in Guadeloupe, as well as that of a drink locally nicknamed black beer. In addition, it is not uncommon to see vendors of sugar cane juice or coconut water on the roads. Chaudeau is consumed on special occasions (weddings, baptisms, communions) and is a Guadeloupean-style eggnog eaten with a whipped cake (génoise). The [rum](rum), whose consumption is culturally imbricated in the Guadeloupean society, comes in particular from one of the ten distilleries distributed in the Guadeloupean territory and that produce the rums of Guadeloupe. ### Festivities At Christmas, families and friends gather during the chanté Nwel, an opportunity to sing [carols](Carol (music)) and celebrate. After the [vacation](vacation)s, rehearsals begin for the Guadeloupe carnival. Carnival groups parade through the streets every Sunday afternoon until the Carnival festivities in February or March. For example, the groups with skins, the Akiyo group are groups composed only of large percussion and lambi shell instruments. They have the particularity of having no brass instruments in the band, no choreography, they often parade without themed costumes. Since 2014, the Carnival in kabwèt of Marie-Galante has been registered in the inventory of the [heritage](intangible)(Intangible cultural heritage) of France at [UNESCO](UNESCO). Shrove Tuesday is the big party where carnival groups compete in the main town, [Basse-Terre](Basse-Terre), or in Pointe-à-Pitre, for the best costumes, the best music or the best choreography whose theme is imposed by the carnival committees. The next day, on Ash Wednesday, the day that ends the carnival, the mascot king of the carnival nicknamed Vaval is burned, which signals the end of the festivities, everyone parades in black and white (to mark Vaval's mourning), and then the forty days of Lent begin. Most of the population is [Catholic](Catholic Church) and respects this period. But, given the great fondness for festivities, on the "Thursday of Lent" a parade is organized in red and black identical to that of Carnival, with groups of musicians preceded by people parading. After this period of deprivation, the Easter celebrations take place, during which families usually go camping on the beach and eat traditional and very popular dishes based on crabs: matété (rice cooked with crab), calalou (crabs with wooden leaves accompanied by white rice) or dombrés with crabs (small balls of flour cooked with crab). ## Sport [[File:Osaka07_D2M_Christine_Arron.jpg\|thumb\|upright\|[Arron](Christine)(Christine Arron), the world's fifth-fastest female sprinter (10.73 sec)]] Football is popular in Guadeloupe, and several notable footballers are of Guadeloupean origin, including [Trésor](Marius)(Marius Trésor), [Auvray](Stéphane)(Stéphane Auvray), [Zubar](Ronald)(Ronald Zubar) and his younger brother [Stéphane](Stéphane Zubar), [Comminges](Miguel)(Miguel Comminges), [Foulquier](Dimitri)(Dimitri Foulquier), [Lambourde](Bernard)(Bernard Lambourde), [Martial](Anthony)(Anthony Martial), [Lacazette](Alexandre)(Alexandre Lacazette), [Henry](Thierry)(Thierry Henry), [Thuram](Lilian)(Lilian Thuram), [Gallas](William)(William Gallas), [Kurzawa](Layvin)(Layvin Kurzawa), [Silvestre](Mikael)(Mikael Silvestre), [Lemar](Thomas)(Thomas Lemar), [Tel](Mathys)(Mathys Tel), [Coman](Kingsley)(Kingsley Coman) and [Regis](David)(David Regis). The [football team](Guadeloupe)(Guadeloupe national football team) were [CONCACAF Gold Cup](2007)(2007 CONCACAF Gold Cup) semi-finalists, defeated by [Mexico](Mexican national football team). Basketball is popular. Best known players are the [NBA](National Basketball Association) players [Gobert](Rudy)(Rudy Gobert), [Piétrus](Mickaël)(Mickaël Piétrus), [Petro](Johan)(Johan Petro), [Beaubois](Rodrigue)(Rodrigue Beaubois), and [Gelabale](Mickael)(Mickael Gelabale) (now playing in Russia), who were born on the island. Several [and field](track)(track and field) athletes, such as [Pérec](Marie-José)(Marie-José Pérec), [Girard-Léno](Patricia)(Patricia Girard-Léno), [Arron](Christine)(Christine Arron), and [Belocian](Wilhem)(Wilhem Belocian), are also Guadeloupe natives. The island has produced many world-class [fencers](fencing). [Borel](Yannick)(Yannick Borel), [Jérent](Daniel)(Daniel Jérent), [Thibus](Ysaora)(Ysaora Thibus), [Blaze](Anita)(Anita Blaze), [Lefort](Enzo)(Enzo Lefort) and [Flessel](Laura)(Laura Flessel) were all born and raised in Guadeloupe. According to olympic gold medalist and world champion Yannick Borel, there is a good fencing school and a culture of fencing in Guadeloupe. Even though Guadeloupe is part of France, it has its own sports teams. [union](Rugby)(rugby union in Guadeloupe) is a small but rapidly growing sport in Guadeloupe. [[Amédée Detraux 2015 01.jpg\|left\|thumb\|Amédée Detraux Velodrome](File:Vélodrome)] The island is internationally known for hosting the Karujet Race – Jet Ski World Championship since 1998. This nine-stage, four-day event attracts competitors from around the world (mostly Caribbeans, Americans, and Europeans). The Karujet, generally made up of seven races around the island, has an established reputation as one of the most difficult championships in which to compete. The [du Rhum](Route)(Route du Rhum) is one of the most prominent nautical French sporting events, occurring every four years. Bodybuilder [Nubret](Serge)(Serge Nubret) was born in [Anse-Bertrand](Anse-Bertrand), [Grande-Terre](Grande-Terre), representing the French state in various bodybuilding competitions throughout the 1960s and 1970s including the [IFBB](International Federation of BodyBuilding & Fitness)'s [Olympia](Mr.)(Mr. Olympia) contest, taking 3rd place every year from 1972 to 1974, and 2nd place in 1975. Bodybuilder [Mahabir](Marie-Laure)(Marie Mahabir) also hails from Guadeloupe. The country has a passion for cycling. It hosted the French Cycling Championships in 2009 and continues to host the [de Guadeloupe](Tour)(Tour de Guadeloupe) every year. Guadeloupe continues to host the Orange [de Guadeloupe](Open)(Open de Guadeloupe) tennis tournament (since 2011). The Tour of Guadeloupe sailing, which was founded in 1981. In boxing, [Proto](Ludovic)(Ludovic Proto) - as an amateur, he competed in the 1988 Summer Olympics in the men's light welterweight division. As a professional, he was a former French and European welterweight champion; [Delé](Gilbert)(Gilbert Delé) - as a professional, he was a former French and European light-middleweight champion, then he won the WBA world light-middleweight title in 1991; [Mormeck](Jean-Marc)(Jean-Marc Mormeck) - as a professional, he was a former French light heavyweight champion and two-time unified world cruiserweight champion—held the WBA, WBC, and The Ring titles twice between 2005 and 2007). ## Transport [[road on Marie-Galante](File:Marie-Galante.JPG\|thumb\|A)] Guadeloupe is served by a number of [airports](List of airports in Guadeloupe); most international flights use [International Airport](Pointe-à-Pitre)(Pointe-à-Pitre International Airport). Boats and cruise ships frequent the islands, using the ports at Pointe-à-Pitre and Basse-Terre. On 9 September 2013 the county government voted in favour of constructing a tramway in [Pointe-à-Pitre](Pointe-à-Pitre). The first phase will link northern [Abymes](Les Abymes) to downtown Pointe-à-Pitre by 2019. The second phase, scheduled for completion in 2023, will extend the line to serve the university. ## Education The Guadeloupe academic region includes only the Guadeloupe academy. It employs 9,618 people and its operating budget was €714.3 million for 2018–2019. The territory has 300 elementary schools, including 1 private [kindergarten](kindergarten) under contract and 14 private elementary schools under contract. It also has 52 middle schools, including 6 private under contract. And finally, it has 38 high schools, 13 of which are private under contract. During the 2018–2019 school year were enrolled at Guadeloupe Academy: * 45,510 students in primary education; * [[de Saint-Claude.JPG\|thumb\|View of the University of the West Indies and Guiana, Saint-Claude, Guadeloupe](File:Médiathèque)]45,626 students in secondary education; * 2,718 graduate students in high school. * Since 2014, the academy has 12 districts divided into 5 poles:Académie de Guadeloupe, répartition des 12 circonscriptions, pdf. * The Pôle Îles du Nord ([Martin](St.)(Collectivity of Saint Martin) and [Barthélemy](St.)(Saint Barthélemy)); * The Basse-Terre Nord Pole (Baie-Mahault, Capesterre-Belle-Eau and Sainte-Rose) ; * The South Pole of Basse-Terre: Basse-Terre and Bouillante (including the islands of Les Saintes); * The North Pole of Grande-Terre: Grande-Terre Nord, Sainte-Anne and Saint-François (including the islands of La Désirade and Marie-Galante); * The South Pole of Grande-Terre: Les Abymes, Gosier and Pointe-à-Pitre. The islands of Guadeloupe are also home to two campuses of the [of the French Antilles](University)(University of the French Antilles), Camp-Jacob in [Saint-Claude](Saint-Claude, Guadeloupe) and Fouillole in [Pointe-à-Pitre](Pointe-à-Pitre), the latter being the headquarters of the institution. Student residences are located around each campus. Furthermore, a satellite campus dedicated to healthcare is located in the vicinity of the [Hospital Centre of Pointe-à-Pitre](University)(Centre hospitalier universitaire de Pointe-à-Pitre), many schools for apprentices are located throughout the archipelago, an Arts and Crafts Centre acting as local school for fine art is located in Bergevin, [Pointe-à-Pitre](Pointe-à-Pitre), and, finally, three sites of the regional second chance school are implanted in various high schools. ## Infrastructure ### Energy The island has great potential for solar, wind and marine energy, but by 2018, [biomass](biomass) and coal energy and petroleum hydrocarbons are still the most used. [[géothermique de Bouillante 4.JPG\|thumb\|300x300px\|Bouillante geothermal power plant, Guadeloupe](File:Usine)] The [transition](Energy)(Energy transition) Law (TECV) provides for 50% renewable energy by 2020 in the territory. And the Guadeloupe EPP plans to develop 66 MW of additional biomass capacity between 2018 and 2023, including 43 MW to replace coal. For example, the [Caraïbes](Albioma)(Albioma) (AC) coal-fired power plant will be converted to biomass to help increase the share of [renewables](Renewable energy) in Guadeloupe's energy mix from 20.5% to 35%, thereby mitigating the island's dependence on fossil fuels and reducing acidic air pollution and the production of toxic and bottom ash. Connaissances des énergies\|url=https://www.connaissancedesenergies.org/afp/une-centrale-charbon-va-se-convertir-la-biomasse-en-guadeloupe-181115\|access-date=22 July 2021\|website=www.connaissancedesenergies.org\|language=fr}} This 34 MW power plant, producing 260 GWh/year of electricity in 2018 (i.e. 15% of the island's needs), should reduce 265 000 t of [](Carbon dioxide) equivalent/year throughout the chain (−87% once converted to biomass compared to the previous situation, coal). Guadeloupe has an electricity production plant, in Le Moule, based on the sugar cane agricultural sector, which recovers the residues from sugar cane crushing (bagasse) to produce energy; 12 wind farms, such as in Désirade, Le Moule or Marie-Galante; a geothermal power plant in Bouillante, which uses the energy of water vapor produced by volcanic activity (the plant's electricity production ranks it first nationally); a project to harness the energy of waves and ocean currents; photovoltaic installations that contribute to the operation of solar water heaters for homes and to the development of the electric vehicle sector. Agence de la transition écologique\|url=https://www.guadeloupe.ademe.fr/\|access-date=22 July 2021\|website=www.guadeloupe.ademe.fr}} Electricity produced by [hydropower](hydropower), which represents 2.2% of total production, comes from dams built on the beds of certain rivers. ### Drinking water supply The water distributed by Guadeloupe's [water](drinking)(drinking water) network comes mainly from Basse Terre, 70% from river intakes and 20% from spring catchments. The remaining 10% comes from boreholes tapping the groundwater of Grande Terre and Marie-Galante. Access to water and [sanitation](sanitation) is problematic due to the deteriorated state of the network, which causes many losses in the water supply system. For years, water shortages have been recurrent and have forced "water shifts", mainly in the municipalities of [Grande-Terre](Grande-Terre), which are the most affected, with consequences for private individuals and agricultural activities. According to statistics from the Water Office (2020 data), 61% of drinking water production is wasted, i.e. almost 50 million cubic metres of water per year, due to pipes in poor condition. In addition, 70% of wastewater treatment plants do not meet standards. ## Police and crime Although Guadeloupe is one of the safest islands in the Caribbean,[Graff, Vincent. (2013)](http://www.radiotimes.com/news/2013-01-08/death-in-paradise-ben-miller-on-investigating-the-deadliest-place-on-the-planet) , "Death in Paradise: Ben Miller on investigating the deadliest place on the planet," Radio Times, 8 January 2013 it was the most [violent](violence) overseas French [department](departments of France) in 2016.[Guadeloupe : la spirale de la violence](http://www.francetvinfo.fr/faits-divers/meurtres/guadeloupe-la-spirale-de-la-violence_1848359.html), francetvinfo.fr, 29 September 2016 The murder rate is slightly more than that of Paris, at 8.2 per 100,000. The high level of unemployment caused violence and crime to rise, especially in 2009 and 2010, the years following the [Recession](Great)(Great Recession). Residents of Guadeloupe describe the island as a place with little everyday crime, and most violence is caused by the drug trade or domestic disputes. In 2021, additional police officers were deployed to the island in the face of rioting arising out of COVID-19 restrictions. Normally, about 2,000 police officers are present on the island including some 760 active [Gendarmerie](National)(National Gendarmerie) of the COMGEND (Gendarmerie Command of Guadeloupe) region plus around 260 reservists. The active Gendarmerie include three Mobile Gendarmerie Squadrons (EGM) and a [Guard](Republican)(Republican Guard (France)) Intervention Platoon (PIGR). The [Gendarmerie](Maritime)(Maritime Gendarmerie) deploys the patrol boat Violette in the territory, which is planned for replacement by a new PCG-NG patrol boat in about 2025–2026. ## See also * [of Guadeloupe](Bibliography)(Bibliography of Guadeloupe) * [of Guadeloupe-related articles](Index)(Index of Guadeloupe-related articles) * [of colonial and departmental heads of Guadeloupe](List)(List of colonial and departmental heads of Guadeloupe) * [departments and territories of France](Overseas)(Overseas departments and territories of France) * [in the Caribbean](Slavery)(Slavery in the British and French Caribbean) ## References ## Further reading * Haigh, Sam – An Introduction to Caribbean Francophone Writing: Guadeloupe and Martinique. * Jennings, Eric T. – Vichy in the Tropics: Petain’s National Revolution in Madagascar, Guadeloupe, and Indochina, 1940–1944. * Noble, G. K. – The Resident Birds of Guadeloupe. * Paiewonsky, Michael – Conquest of Eden, 1493–1515: Other Voyages of Columbus; Guadeloupe, Puerto Rico, Hispaniola, Virgin Islands. * Roche, Jean-Claude – Oiseau des Antilles. Vol. 1, The Lesser Antilles from Grenada to Guadeloupe. ## External links * [Prefecture website](https://www.guadeloupe.gouv.fr/) * [Regional Council website](https://www.regionguadeloupe.fr/) * [Departmental Council website](https://www.cg971.fr/) }} }} [ ](Category:Guadeloupe) [territories in the Caribbean](Category:Dependent)(Category:Dependent territories in the Caribbean) [departments of France](Category:Overseas)(Category:Overseas departments of France) [Caribbean](Category:French)(Category:French Caribbean) [Islands (Caribbean)](Category:Leeward)(Category:Leeward Islands (Caribbean)) [Antilles](Category:Lesser)(Category:Lesser Antilles) [of France](Category:Regions)(Category:Regions of France) [regions of the European Union](Category:Outermost)(Category:Outermost regions of the European Union) [British colonies and protectorates in the Americas](Category:Former)(Category:Former British colonies and protectorates in the Americas) [Caribbean](Category:British)(Category:British Caribbean) [Swedish colonies](Category:Former)(Category:Former Swedish colonies) [colonies in North America](Category:Former)(Category:Former colonies in North America) [Union](Category:French)(Category:French Union) [countries](Category:Island)(Category:Island countries) [places established in the 4th century](Category:Populated)(Category:Populated places established in the 4th century) [establishments in the French colonial empire](Category:1674)(Category:1674 establishments in the French colonial empire) [establishments in North America](Category:1674)(Category:1674 establishments in North America) [disestablishments in the French colonial empire](Category:1759)(Category:1759 disestablishments in the French colonial empire) [disestablishments in North America](Category:1759)(Category:1759 disestablishments in North America) [establishments in the British Empire](Category:1759)(Category:1759 establishments in the British Empire) [establishments in North America](Category:1759)(Category:1759 establishments in North America) [disestablishments in the British Empire](Category:1763)(Category:1763 disestablishments in the British Empire) [disestablishments in North America](Category:1763)(Category:1763 disestablishments in North America) [establishments in the French colonial empire](Category:1763)(Category:1763 establishments in the French colonial empire) [establishments in North America](Category:1763)(Category:1763 establishments in North America) [establishments in the British Empire](Category:1810)(Category:1810 establishments in the British Empire) [disestablishments in the French colonial empire](Category:1810)(Category:1810 disestablishments in the French colonial empire) [disestablishments in North America](Category:1810)(Category:1810 disestablishments in North America) [establishments in North America](Category:1810)(Category:1810 establishments in North America) [disestablishments in the British Empire](Category:1816)(Category:1816 disestablishments in the British Empire) [disestablishments in North America](Category:1816)(Category:1816 disestablishments in North America) [establishments in the French colonial empire](Category:1816)(Category:1816 establishments in the French colonial empire) [establishments in North America](Category:1816)(Category:1816 establishments in North America)
Federal Reserve	federal_reserve	# Federal Reserve Revision ID: 1159001080 \| Timestamp: 2023-06-07T16:04:04Z --- \| governance = [of Governors](Board)(Federal Reserve Board of Governors) \| key_people = \| president = \| leader_title = \| president2 = \| leader2_title = \| bank_of = [States](United)(United States) \| ownership = \| currency = [States dollar](United)(United States dollar) \| currency_iso = USD \| borrowing_rate = 5.25% \| website = \| footnotes = \| reserve_requirements = [None](Reserve requirement#United States) \| interest_rate_target = 5.00–5.25% \| deposit_rate = 5.15% \| IOER = Yes \| embed = }} The Federal Reserve System (often shortened to the Federal Reserve, or simply the Fed) is the [bank](central)(central bank)ing system of the [States](United)(United States). It was created on December 23, 1913, with the enactment of the [Reserve Act](Federal)(Federal Reserve Act), after a series of [panic](financial)(financial panic)s (particularly the [of 1907](panic)(panic of 1907)) led to the desire for central control of the monetary system in order to alleviate financial crises.}} Over the years, events such as the [Depression](Great)(Great Depression) in the 1930s and the [Recession](Great)(Great Recession) during the 2000s have led to the expansion of the roles and responsibilities of the Federal Reserve System. "It was founded by Congress in 1913 to provide the nation with a safer, more flexible, and more stable monetary and financial system. Over the years, its role in banking and the economy has expanded."; [Congress](U.S. Congress) established three key objectives for [policy](monetary)(monetary policy) in the Federal Reserve Act: maximizing employment, stabilizing prices, and moderating long-term interest rates. The first two objectives are sometimes referred to as the Federal Reserve's dual mandate. Its duties have expanded over the years, and currently also include supervising and [banks](regulating)(bank regulation), maintaining the stability of the financial system, and providing financial services to [institution](depository)(depository institution)s, the U.S. government, and foreign official institutions. The Fed also conducts research into the economy and provides numerous publications, such as the [Book](Beige)(Beige Book) and the [database](FRED)(FRED database). The Federal Reserve System is composed of several layers. It is governed by the presidentially-appointed [of governors](board)(Federal Reserve Board of Governors) or Federal Reserve Board (FRB). Twelve regional [Reserve Bank](Federal)(Federal Reserve Bank)s, located in cities throughout the nation, regulate and oversee privately-owned commercial banks. (See [structure](#Structure)); ; Nationally chartered commercial banks are required to hold stock in, and can elect some board members of, the Federal Reserve Bank of their region. The [Open Market Committee](Federal)(Federal Open Market Committee) (FOMC) sets monetary policy. It consists of all seven members of the board of governors and the twelve regional Federal Reserve Bank presidents, though only five bank presidents vote at a time—the president of the [York Fed](New)(Federal Reserve Bank of New York) and four others who rotate through one-year voting terms. There are also various advisory councils.}} It has a structure unique among central banks, and is also unusual in that the [States Department of the Treasury](United)(United States Department of the Treasury), an entity outside of the central bank, prints the [currency](currency) used. The federal government sets the salaries of the board's seven governors, and it receives all the system's annual profits, after dividends on member banks' capital investments are paid, and an account surplus is maintained. In 2015, the Federal Reserve earned a net income of $100.2 billion and transferred $97.7 billion to the U.S. Treasury, and 2020 earnings were approximately $88.6 billion with remittances to the U.S. Treasury of $86.9 billion. Although an instrument of the U.S. government, the Federal Reserve System considers itself "an independent central bank because its monetary policy decisions do not have to be approved by the president or by anyone else in the executive or legislative branches of government, it does not receive funding appropriated by Congress, and the terms of the members of the board of governors span multiple presidential and congressional terms." ## Purpose The primary declared motivation for creating the Federal Reserve System was to address [panics](banking)(bank run). "Just before the founding of the Federal Reserve, the nation was plagued with financial crises. At times, these crises led to 'panics,' in which people raced to their banks to withdraw their deposits. A particularly severe panic in 1907 resulted in bank runs that wreaked havoc on the fragile banking system and ultimately led Congress in 1913 to write the Federal Reserve Act. Initially created to address these banking panics, the Federal Reserve is now charged with a number of broader responsibilities, including fostering a sound banking system and a healthy economy." Other purposes are stated in the [Reserve Act](Federal)(Federal Reserve Act), such as "to furnish an elastic currency, to afford means of rediscounting [paper](commercial)(commercial paper), to establish a more effective supervision of banking in the United States, and for other purposes". Before the founding of the Federal Reserve System, the United States underwent several financial crises. A particularly severe crisis in 1907 led Congress to enact the Federal Reserve Act in 1913. Today the Federal Reserve System has responsibilities in addition to stabilizing the financial system. Current functions of the Federal Reserve System include: * To address the problem of [panics](banking)(bank run) * To serve as the [bank](central)(central bank) for the United States * To strike a balance between private interests of banks and the centralized responsibility of government To supervise and regulate banking institutions To protect the credit rights of consumers * To manage the nation's [supply](money)(money supply) through [policy](monetary)(monetary policy) to achieve the sometimes-conflicting goals of maximum employment stable prices, including prevention of either [inflation](inflation) or [deflation](deflation) ** moderate long-term interest rates * To maintain the stability of the financial system and contain [risk](systemic)(systemic risk) in financial markets * To provide financial services to depository institutions, the U.S. government, and foreign official institutions, including playing a major role in operating the nation's payments system To facilitate the exchange of payments among regions To respond to local liquidity needs * To strengthen U.S. standing in the world economy [[File:Unemployment vs Inflation vs Inverted yield curve.webp\|thumb\|375px\|center\|[Unemployment](Unemployment in the United States) vs [Inflation](United States Consumer Price Index) vs [yield curve](Inverted)(Inverted yield curve) ]] ### Addressing the problem of bank panics Banking institutions in the United States are required to hold reservesamounts of currency and deposits in other banksequal to only a fraction of the amount of the bank's deposit liabilities owed to customers. This practice is called [banking](fractional-reserve)(fractional-reserve banking). As a result, banks usually invest the majority of the funds received from depositors. On rare occasions, too many of the bank's customers will withdraw their savings and the bank will need help from another institution to continue operating; this is called a [run](bank)(bank run). Bank runs can lead to a multitude of social and economic problems. The Federal Reserve System was designed as an attempt to prevent or minimize the occurrence of bank runs, and possibly act as a [of last resort](lender)(lender of last resort) when a bank run does occur. Many economists, following [Nobel](List of Nobel Memorial Prize laureates in Economics) laureate [Friedman](Milton)(Milton Friedman), believe that the Federal Reserve inappropriately refused to lend money to small banks during the bank runs of 1929; Friedman argued that this contributed to the [Depression](Great)(Great Depression).; FRB Speech: [FederalReserve.gov: Remarks by Governor Ben S. Bernanke, Conference to Honor Milton Friedman, University of Chicago, Nov. 8, 2002](http://www.federalreserve.gov/boarddocs/speeches/2002/20021108/default.htm); #### Check clearing system Because some banks refused to [clear](Clearing (finance)) checks from certain other banks during times of economic uncertainty, a check-clearing system was created in the Federal Reserve System. It is briefly described in The Federal Reserve SystemPurposes and Functions as follows: that is, a currency that would expand or shrink in amount as economic conditions warrantedbut also an efficient and equitable check-collection system.}} #### Lender of last resort In the United States, the Federal Reserve serves as the [of last resort](lender)(lender of last resort) to those institutions that cannot obtain credit elsewhere and the collapse of which would have serious implications for the economy. It took over this role from the private sector "clearing houses" which operated during the [Banking Era](Free)(History of central banking in the United States#1837–1862: "Free Banking" Era); whether public or private, the availability of liquidity was intended to prevent bank runs.; #### Fluctuations Through its [window](discount)(discount window) and credit operations, Reserve Banks provide liquidity to banks to meet short-term needs stemming from seasonal fluctuations in deposits or unexpected withdrawals. Longer-term liquidity may also be provided in exceptional circumstances. The rate the Fed charges banks for these loans is called the discount rate (officially the primary credit rate). By making these loans, the Fed serves as a buffer against unexpected day-to-day fluctuations in reserve demand and supply. This contributes to the effective functioning of the banking system, alleviates pressure in the reserves market and reduces the extent of unexpected movements in the interest rates. For example, on September 16, 2008, the Federal Reserve Board authorized an $85 billion loan to stave off the bankruptcy of international insurance giant [International Group](American)(American International Group) (AIG).; ### Central bank [[File:Onedolar2009series.jpg\|right\|thumb\|Obverse of a Federal Reserve [note]($1)(United States one-dollar bill) issued in 2009]] In its role as the [bank](central)(central bank) of the United States, the Fed serves as a banker's bank and as the government's bank. As the banker's bank, it helps to assure the safety and efficiency of the payments system. As the government's bank or fiscal agent, the Fed processes a variety of financial transactions involving trillions of dollars. Just as an individual might keep an account at a bank, the [Treasury](U.S.)(United States Department of the Treasury) keeps a checking account with the Federal Reserve, through which incoming federal tax deposits and outgoing government payments are handled. As part of this service relationship, the Fed sells and redeems [government securities](U.S.)(Treasury security) such as savings bonds and Treasury bills, notes and bonds. It also issues the nation's [coin](Coins of the United States dollar) and [currency](paper)(Federal Reserve note). The U.S. Treasury, through its [of the Mint](Bureau)(United States Mint) and [of Engraving and Printing](Bureau)(Bureau of Engraving and Printing), actually produces the nation's cash supply and, in effect, sells the paper currency to the Federal Reserve Banks at manufacturing cost, and the coins at face value. The Federal Reserve Banks then distribute it to other financial institutions in various ways. During the [Year](Fiscal)(Fiscal Year) 2020, the Bureau of Engraving and Printing delivered 57.95 billion notes at an average cost of 7.4 cents per note. Engraving & Printing \|url=https://www.bep.gov/currency/production-figures/annual-production-reports \|access-date=2023-01-06 \|website=www.bep.gov}} #### Federal funds Federal funds are the reserve balances (also called [Reserve Deposits](Federal)(Federal Reserve Deposits)) that private banks keep at their local Federal Reserve Bank.; These balances are the namesake reserves of the Federal Reserve System. The purpose of keeping funds at a Federal Reserve Bank is to have a mechanism for private banks to lend funds to one another. This market for funds plays an important role in the Federal Reserve System as it is what inspired the name of the system and it is what is used as the basis for monetary policy. Monetary policy is put into effect partly by influencing how much interest the private banks charge each other for the lending of these funds. Federal reserve accounts contain federal reserve credit, which can be converted into [reserve note](federal)(federal reserve note)s. Private banks maintain their [reserves](bank)(bank reserves) in federal reserve accounts. ### Bank regulation The Federal Reserve regulates private banks. The system was designed out of a compromise between the competing philosophies of privatization and government regulation. In 2006 [L. Kohn](Donald)(Donald L. Kohn), vice chairman of the board of governors, summarized the history of this compromise: The balance between private interests and government can also be seen in the structure of the system. Private banks elect members of the board of directors at their regional Federal Reserve Bank while the members of the board of governors are selected by the [of the United States](president)(president of the United States) and confirmed by the [Senate](United States Senate). #### Government regulation and supervision [[File:House Financial Services Committee hearing with Ben Bernanke.jpg\|thumb\|right\|[Bernanke](Ben)(Ben Bernanke) (lower right), former chairman of the Federal Reserve Board of Governors, at a [Financial Services Committee](House)(House Financial Services Committee) hearing on February 10, 2009. Members of the board frequently testify before congressional committees such as this one. The Senate equivalent of the House Financial Services Committee is the [Committee on Banking, Housing, and Urban Affairs](Senate)(Senate Committee on Banking, Housing, and Urban Affairs).]] The Federal Banking Agency Audit Act, enacted in 1978 as Public Law 95-320 and 31 U.S.C. section 714 establish that the board of governors of the Federal Reserve System and the Federal Reserve banks may be audited by the [Accountability Office](Government)(Government Accountability Office) (GAO). The GAO has authority to audit check-processing, currency storage and shipments, and some regulatory and bank examination functions, however, there are restrictions to what the GAO may audit. Under the Federal Banking Agency Audit Act, 31 U.S.C. section 714(b), audits of the Federal Reserve Board and Federal Reserve banks do not include (1) transactions for or with a foreign central bank or government or non-private international financing organization; (2) deliberations, decisions, or actions on monetary policy matters; (3) transactions made under the direction of the Federal Open Market Committee; or (4) a part of a discussion or communication among or between members of the board of governors and officers and employees of the Federal Reserve System related to items (1), (2), or (3). See Federal Reserve System Audits: Restrictions on GAO's Access (GAO/T-GGD-94-44), statement of Charles A. Bowsher. The board of governors in the Federal Reserve System has a number of supervisory and regulatory responsibilities in the U.S. banking system, but not complete responsibility. A general description of the types of regulation and supervision involved in the U.S. banking system is given by the Federal Reserve: that are members of the Federal Reserve System, [holding companies](bank)(Bank holding company) (companies that control banks), the foreign activities of member banks, the U.S. activities of foreign banks, and [Act](Edge)(Edge Act) and "agreement corporations" (limited-purpose institutions that engage in a foreign banking business). The Board and, under delegated authority, the Federal Reserve Banks, supervise approximately 900 state member banks and 5,000 bank holding companies. Other federal agencies also serve as the primary federal supervisors of commercial banks; the [of the Comptroller of the Currency](Office)(Office of the Comptroller of the Currency) supervises national banks, and the [Deposit Insurance Corporation](Federal)(Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation) supervises [bank](state)(state bank)s that are not members of the Federal Reserve System. Some regulations issued by the Board apply to the entire banking industry, whereas others apply only to member banks, that is, [bank](state)(state bank)s that have chosen to join the Federal Reserve System and national banks, which by law must be members of the System. The Board also issues regulations to carry out major federal laws governing [credit protection](consumer)(Consumer protection), such as the [in Lending](Truth)(Truth in Lending Act), [Credit Opportunity](Equal)(Equal Credit Opportunity Act), and [Mortgage Disclosure Act](Home)(Home Mortgage Disclosure Act)s. Many of these consumer protection regulations apply to various lenders outside the banking industry as well as to banks. Members of the Board of Governors are in continual contact with other policy makers in government. They frequently testify before [committee](congressional)(congressional committee)s on the economy, [policy](monetary)(monetary policy), [supervision and regulation](banking)(Bank regulation), [credit protection](consumer)(Consumer protection), [market](financial)(financial market)s, and other matters. The Board has regular contact with members of the President's [of Economic Advisers](Council)(Council of Economic Advisers) and other key economic officials. The Chair also meets from time to time with the [of the United States](President)(President of the United States) and has regular meetings with the [of the Treasury](Secretary)(Secretary of the Treasury). The Chair has formal responsibilities in the international arena as well.}} ##### Regulatory and oversight responsibilities The board of directors of each Federal Reserve Bank District also has regulatory and supervisory responsibilities. If the board of directors of a district bank has judged that a member bank is performing or behaving poorly, it will report this to the board of governors. This policy is described in law: }} ### National payments system The Federal Reserve plays a role in the U.S. payments system. The twelve Federal Reserve Banks provide banking services to depository institutions and to the federal government. For depository institutions, they maintain accounts and provide various payment services, including collecting checks, electronically transferring funds, and distributing and receiving currency and coin. For the federal government, the Reserve Banks act as fiscal agents, paying Treasury checks; processing electronic payments; and issuing, transferring, and redeeming U.S. government securities. In the [Institutions Deregulation and Monetary Control Act](Depository)(Depository Institutions Deregulation and Monetary Control Act) of 1980, Congress reaffirmed that the Federal Reserve should promote an efficient nationwide payments system. The act subjects all depository institutions, not just member commercial banks, to reserve requirements and grants them equal access to Reserve Bank payment services. The Federal Reserve plays a role in the nation's retail and wholesale payments systems by providing financial services to depository institutions. Retail payments are generally for relatively small-dollar amounts and often involve a depository institution's retail clientsindividuals and smaller businesses. The Reserve Banks' retail services include distributing currency and coin, collecting checks, electronically transferring funds through [FedACH](FedACH) (the Federal Reserve's [clearing house](automated)(automated clearing house) system), and beginning in 2023, facilitating [payment](instant)(instant payment)s using the [FedNow](FedNow) service. By contrast, wholesale payments are generally for large-dollar amounts and often involve a depository institution's large corporate customers or counterparties, including other financial institutions. The Reserve Banks' wholesale services include electronically transferring funds through the [Funds Service](Fedwire)(Fedwire) and transferring securities issued by the U.S. government, its agencies, and certain other entities through the Fedwire Securities Service. ## Structure [[System.png\|thumb\|right\|upright=1.4\|Organization of the Federal Reserve System](File:FederalReserve)] The Federal Reserve System has a "unique structure that is both public and private" and is described as "[within the government](independent)(Independent agencies of the United States government)" rather than "[of government](independent)(Privatization)". The System does not require public funding, and derives its authority and purpose from the [Reserve Act](Federal)(Federal Reserve Act), which was passed by Congress in 1913 and is subject to Congressional modification or repeal.["Is The Fed Public Or Private?"](http://www.philadelphiafed.org/education/teachers/resources/fed-today/fed-today_lesson-3.pdf) [Reserve Bank of Philadelphia](Federal)(Federal Reserve Bank of Philadelphia). Retrieved June 29, 2012. The four main components of the Federal Reserve System are (1) the board of governors, (2) the Federal Open Market Committee, (3) the twelve regional Federal Reserve Banks, and (4) the member banks throughout the country. ### Board of governors The seven-member board of governors is a large federal agency that functions in business oversight by examining national banks.**** It is charged with the overseeing of the 12 District Reserve Banks and setting national monetary policy. It also supervises and regulates the U.S. banking system in general.. Governors are appointed by the [of the United States](president)(president of the United States) and confirmed by the [Senate](United States Senate) for staggered 14-year terms. One term begins every two years, on February 1 of even-numbered years, and members serving a full term cannot be renominated for a second term. "[U]pon the expiration of their terms of office, members of the Board shall continue to serve until their successors are appointed and have qualified." The law provides for the removal of a member of the board by the president "for cause".See . The board is required to make an annual report of operations to the Speaker of the U.S. House of Representatives. The chair and vice chair of the board of governors are appointed by the [president](President of the United States) from among the sitting governors. They both serve a four-year term and they can be renominated as many times as the president chooses, until their terms on the board of governors expire.See #### List of members of the board of governors [[Reserve Governors meeting April 2019 (47679887231).jpg\|thumb\|upright=1.4\|Board of governors in April 2019, when two of the seven seats were vacant](File:Federal)] The current members of the board of governors are: #### Nominations, confirmations and resignations In late December 2011, President [Obama](Barack)(Barack Obama) nominated [C. Stein](Jeremy)(Jeremy C. Stein), a [University](Harvard)(Harvard University) finance professor and a [Democrat](Democratic Party of the United States), and [Powell](Jerome)(Jerome Powell), formerly of [Read](Dillon)(Dillon Read), [Trust](Bankers)(Bankers Trust) and [Carlyle Group](The)(The Carlyle Group) and a [Republican](Republican Party of the United States). Both candidates also have [Department](Treasury)(United States Treasury) experience in the Obama and [H. W. Bush](George)(George H. W. Bush) administrations respectively.Goldstein, Steve (December 27, 2011). ["Obama to nominate Stein, Powell to Fed board"](http://www.marketwatch.com/story/obama-to-nominate-stein-powell-to-fed-board-2011-12-27?link=MW_home_latest_news). MarketWatch. Retrieved December 27, 2011. "Obama administration officials [had] regrouped to identify Fed candidates after [Diamond](Peter)(Peter Diamond), a Nobel Prize-winning economist, withdrew his nomination to the board in June [2011] in the face of Republican opposition. [Clarida](Richard)(Richard Clarida), a potential nominee who was a Treasury official under [W. Bush](George)(George W. Bush), pulled out of consideration in August [2011]", one account of the December nominations noted.Lanman, Scott; Runningen, Roger (December 27, 2011). ["Obama to Choose Powell, Stein for Fed Board"](https://www.bloomberg.com/news/2011-12-27/obama-to-nominate-jerome-powell-jeremy-stein-to-fed-s-board-of-governors.html). Bloomberg LP. Retrieved December 27, 2011. The two other Obama nominees in 2011, [Yellen](Janet)(Janet Yellen) and [Bloom Raskin](Sarah)(Sarah Bloom Raskin),Robb, Greg (April 29, 2010). ["Obama nominates 3 to Federal Reserve board"](http://www.marketwatch.com/story/obama-nominates-3-to-federal-reserve-board-2010-04-29). [MarketWatch](MarketWatch). Retrieved April 29, 2010. were confirmed in September.Lanman, Scott (September 30, 2010). ["Yellen, Raskin Win Senate Approval for Fed Board of Governors"](https://www.bloomberg.com/news/2010-09-30/yellen-raskin-win-fed-board-confirmation-as-vote-on-monetary-easing-nears.html). Bloomberg LP. Retrieved December 27, 2011. One of the vacancies was created in 2011 with the resignation of [Warsh](Kevin)(Kevin Warsh), who took office in 2006 to fill the unexpired term ending January 31, 2018, and resigned his position effective March 31, 2011.Censky, Annalyn (February 10, 2011). ["Fed inflation hawk Warsh resigns"](https://money.cnn.com/2011/02/10/news/economy/fed_official_warsh_resigns/index.htm). [CNNMoney](CNNMoney). Retrieved December 27, 2011.Chan, Sewell (February 10, 2011). ["Sole Fed Governor With Close Ties to Conservatives Resigns"](https://www.nytimes.com/2011/02/11/business/economy/11fed.html). The New York Times. Retrieved December 27, 2011. In March 2012, U.S. Senator [Vitter](David)(David Vitter) ([R](Republican Party of the United States), [LA](Louisiana)) said he would oppose Obama's Stein and Powell nominations, dampening near-term hopes for approval.Robb, Greg (March 28, 2012). ["Senator to block quick vote on Fed picks: report"](http://www.marketwatch.com/story/senator-to-block-quick-vote-on-fed-picks-report-2012-03-28?link=MW_latest_news). MarketWatch. Retrieved March 28, 2012. However, Senate leaders reached a deal, paving the way for affirmative votes on the two nominees in May 2012 and bringing the board to full strength for the first time since 2006Robb, Greg, ["Stein sworn in as Fed governor"](http://www.marketwatch.com/story/stein-sworn-in-as-fed-governor-2012-05-30), MarketWatch, May 30, 2012. Retrieved May 30, 2012. with Duke's service after term end. Later, on January 6, 2014, the United States Senate confirmed Yellen's nomination to be chair of the Federal Reserve Board of Governors; she was the first woman to hold the position. Subsequently, President Obama nominated [Fischer](Stanley)(Stanley Fischer) to replace Yellen as the vice-chair. In April 2014, Stein announced he was leaving to return to Harvard May 28 with four years remaining on his term. At the time of the announcement, the FOMC "already is down three members as it awaits the Senate confirmation of ... Fischer and [Brainard](Lael)(Lael Brainard), and as [President] Obama has yet to name a replacement for ... Duke. ... Powell is still serving as he awaits his confirmation for a second term."Goldstein, Steve, ["Jeremy Stein to resign from Federal Reserve"](http://www.marketwatch.com/story/jeremy-stein-to-resign-from-federal-reserve-2014-04-03), [MarketWatch](MarketWatch), April 3, 2014. Retrieved April 3, 2014. [R. Landon](Allan)(Allan R. Landon), former president and CEO of the [of Hawaii](Bank)(Bank of Hawaii), was nominated in early 2015 by President Obama to the board.Appelbaum, Binyamin, ["Allan Landon, Community Banker, Nominated to Federal Reserve"](https://www.nytimes.com/2015/01/07/business/allan-landon-community-banker-said-to-be-choice-for-federal-reserve.html), The New York Times, January 6, 2015. Retrieved January 6, 2015. In July 2015, President Obama nominated [of Michigan](University)(University of Michigan) economist [M. Dominguez](Kathryn)(Kathryn M. Dominguez) to fill the second vacancy on the board. The Senate had not yet acted on Landon's confirmation by the time of the second nomination.Leubsdorf, Ben, ["Kathryn Dominguez to Be Nominated for Fed Governor"](https://www.wsj.com/articles/president-obama-to-nominate-kathryn-dominguez-as-fed-governor-1437422626), Wall Street Journal, July 20, 2015. Retrieved July 20, 2015. [Tarullo](Daniel)(Daniel Tarullo) submitted his resignation from the board on February 10, 2017, effective on or around April 5, 2017. ### Federal Open Market Committee The Federal Open Market Committee (FOMC) consists of 12 members, seven from the board of governors and 5 of the regional Federal Reserve Bank presidents. The FOMC oversees and sets policy on [market operations](open)(open market operations), the principal tool of national monetary policy. These operations affect the amount of Federal Reserve balances available to depository institutions, thereby influencing overall monetary and credit conditions. The FOMC also directs operations undertaken by the Federal Reserve in foreign exchange markets. The FOMC must reach consensus on all decisions. The president of the Federal Reserve Bank of New York is a permanent member of the FOMC; the presidents of the other banks rotate membership at two- and three-year intervals. All Regional Reserve Bank presidents contribute to the committee's assessment of the economy and of policy options, but only the five presidents who are then members of the FOMC vote on policy decisions. The FOMC determines its own internal organization and, by tradition, elects the chair of the board of governors as its chair and the president of the Federal Reserve Bank of New York as its vice chair. Formal meetings typically are held eight times each year in Washington, D.C. Nonvoting Reserve Bank presidents also participate in Committee deliberations and discussion. The FOMC generally meets eight times a year in telephone consultations and other meetings are held when needed. There is very strong consensus among economists against politicising the FOMC. ### Federal Advisory Council The Federal Advisory Council, composed of twelve representatives of the banking industry, advises the board on all matters within its jurisdiction. ### Federal Reserve Banks [[Reserve Districts Map - Banks & Branches.png\|upright=1.8\|right\|thumb\|Map of the 12 Federal Reserve Districts, with the 12 Federal Reserve Banks marked as black squares, and all Branches within each district (24 total) marked as red circles. The Washington, DC, headquarters is marked with a star. (Also, a 25th branch in Buffalo, NY, was closed in 2008.)](File:Federal)] [[Federal Reserve Banks collage 1936.jpg\|thumb\|The 12 Reserve Banks buildings in 1936](File:US)] There are 12 Federal Reserve Banks, each of which is responsible for member banks located in its district. They are located in [Boston](Federal Reserve Bank of Boston), [York](New)(Federal Reserve Bank of New York), [Philadelphia](Federal Reserve Bank of Philadelphia), [Cleveland](Federal Reserve Bank of Cleveland), [Richmond](Federal Reserve Bank of Richmond), [Atlanta](Federal Reserve Bank of Atlanta), [Chicago](Federal Reserve Bank of Chicago), [Louis](St.)(Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis), [Minneapolis](Federal Reserve Bank of Minneapolis), [City](Kansas)(Federal Reserve Bank of Kansas City), [Dallas](Federal Reserve Bank of Dallas), and [Francisco](San)(Federal Reserve Bank of San Francisco). The size of each district was set based upon the population distribution of the United States when the Federal Reserve Act was passed. The charter and organization of each Federal Reserve Bank is established by law and cannot be altered by the member banks. Member banks do, however, elect six of the nine members of the Federal Reserve Banks' boards of directors. Each regional Bank has a president, who is the chief executive officer of their Bank. Each regional Reserve Bank's president is nominated by their Bank's board of directors, but the nomination is contingent upon approval by the board of governors. Presidents serve five-year terms and may be reappointed. Each regional Bank's board consists of nine members. Members are broken down into three classes: A, B, and C. There are three board members in each class. Class A members are chosen by the regional Bank's shareholders, and are intended to represent member banks' interests. Member banks are divided into three categories: large, medium, and small. Each category elects one of the three class A board members. Class B board members are also nominated by the region's member banks, but class B board members are supposed to represent the interests of the public. Lastly, class C board members are appointed by the board of governors, and are also intended to represent the interests of the public. #### Legal status of regional Federal Reserve Banks The Federal Reserve Banks have an intermediate legal status, with some features of private corporations and some features of public federal agencies. The United States has an interest in the Federal Reserve Banks as tax-exempt federally created instrumentalities whose profits belong to the federal government, but this interest is not proprietary.[Kennedy C. Scott v. Federal Reserve Bank of Kansas City, et al.](http://www.ca8.uscourts.gov/opndir/05/04/042357P.pdf) , [406 F.3d 532](http://bulk.resource.org/courts.gov/c/F3/406/406.F3d.532.04-2357.html) (8th Cir. 2005). In Lewis v. United States,[680 F.2d 1239](http://bulk.resource.org/courts.gov/c/F2/680/680.F2d.1239.80-5905.html) (9th Cir. 1982). the [States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit](United)(United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit) stated that: "The Reserve Banks are not federal instrumentalities for purposes of the FTCA [the [Tort Claims Act](Federal)(Federal Tort Claims Act)], but are independent, privately owned and locally controlled corporations." The opinion went on to say, however, that: "The Reserve Banks have properly been held to be federal instrumentalities for some purposes." Another relevant decision is Scott v. Federal Reserve Bank of Kansas City, in which the distinction is made between Federal Reserve Banks, which are federally created instrumentalities, and the board of governors, which is a federal agency. Regarding the structural relationship between the twelve Federal Reserve banks and the various commercial (member) banks, political science professor Michael D. Reagan has written:Michael D. Reagan, "The Political Structure of the Federal Reserve System," American Political Science Review, Vol. 55 (March 1961), pp. 64–76, as reprinted in Money and Banking: Theory, Analysis, and Policy, p. 153, ed. by S. Mittra (Random House, New York 1970). [[Federal Reserve System plaque.png\|thumb\|Plaque marking a bank as a member](File:Member)] ### Member banks A member bank is a private institution and owns stock in its regional Federal Reserve Bank. All nationally chartered banks hold stock in one of the Federal Reserve Banks. State chartered banks may choose to be members (and hold stock in their regional Federal Reserve bank) upon meeting certain standards. The amount of stock a member bank must own is equal to 3% of its combined capital and surplus.; However, holding stock in a Federal Reserve bank is not like owning stock in a publicly traded company. These stocks cannot be sold or traded, and member banks do not control the Federal Reserve Bank as a result of owning this stock. From their Regional Bank, member banks with $10 billion or less in assets receive a dividend of 6%, while member banks with more than $10 billion in assets receive the lesser of 6% or the current 10-year Treasury auction rate. The remainder of the regional Federal Reserve Banks' profits is given over to the [States Treasury Department](United)(United States Treasury Department). In 2015, the Federal Reserve Banks made a profit of $100.2 billion and distributed $2.5 billion in dividends to member banks as well as returning $97.7 billion to the U.S. Treasury. About 38% of U.S. banks are members of their regional Federal Reserve Bank.; ### Accountability An external auditor selected by the audit committee of the Federal Reserve System regularly audits the Board of Governors and the Federal Reserve Banks. The GAO will audit some activities of the Board of Governors. These audits do not cover "most of the Fed's monetary policy actions or decisions, including discount window lending (direct loans to financial institutions), open-market operations and any other transactions made under the direction of the Federal Open Market Committee" ...[may the GAO audit](nor) "dealings with foreign governments and other central banks." The annual and quarterly financial statements prepared by the Federal Reserve System conform to a basis of accounting that is set by the Federal Reserve Board and does not conform to Generally Accepted Accounting Principles (GAAP) or government Cost Accounting Standards (CAS). The financial reporting standards are defined in the Financial Accounting Manual for the Federal Reserve Banks. The cost accounting standards are defined in the Planning and Control System Manual. , the Federal Reserve Board has been publishing unaudited financial reports for the Federal Reserve banks every quarter. November 7, 2008, [L.P.](Bloomberg)(Bloomberg L.P.) News brought [lawsuit](a)(Bloomberg L.P. v. Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System) against the board of governors of the Federal Reserve System to force the board to reveal the identities of firms for which it has provided guarantees during the [crisis of 2007–2008](financial)(financial crisis of 2007–2008). Bloomberg, L.P. won at the trial courtDocket entry 31, Bloomberg, L.P. v. Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System, case no. 1:08-cv-09595-LAP, U.S. District Court for the District of New York. and the Fed's appeals were rejected at both the [States Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit](United)(United States Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit) and the [Supreme Court](U.S.)(U.S. Supreme Court). The data was released on March 31, 2011.; ## Monetary policy The term "[policy](monetary)(monetary policy)" refers to the actions undertaken by a central bank, such as the Federal Reserve, to influence the availability and cost of money and credit to help promote national economic goals. What happens to money and credit affects interest rates (the cost of credit) and the performance of an economy. The [Reserve Act of 1913](Federal)(Federal Reserve Act of 1913) gave the Federal Reserve authority to set monetary policy in the United States. ### Interbank lending The Federal Reserve sets monetary policy by influencing the [funds rate](federal)(federal funds rate), which is the rate of interbank lending of [reserves](excess)(excess reserves). The rate that banks charge each other for these loans is determined in the [market](interbank)(interbank lending market) and the Federal Reserve influences this rate through the three "tools" of monetary policy described in the [section](Tools)(Federal Reserve System#Monetary policy) below. The federal funds rate is a short-term interest rate that the FOMC focuses on, which affects the longer-term interest rates throughout the economy. The Federal Reserve summarized its monetary policy in 2005: Effects on the quantity of reserves that banks used to make loans influence the economy. Policy actions that add reserves to the banking system encourage lending at lower interest rates thus stimulating growth in money, credit, and the economy. Policy actions that absorb reserves work in the opposite direction. The Fed's task is to supply enough reserves to support an adequate amount of money and credit, avoiding the excesses that result in inflation and the shortages that stifle economic growth. ### Tools There are three main tools of monetary policy that the Federal Reserve uses to influence the amount of reserves in private banks: #### Federal funds rate and open market operations [[funds rate history and recessions.png\|frameless\|upright=2.75\|right](File:Federal)] The Federal Reserve System implements [policy](monetary)(monetary policy) largely by targeting the [funds rate](federal)(federal funds rate). This is the [rate](interest)(interest rate) that banks charge each other for overnight loans of [funds](federal)(federal funds), which are the reserves held by banks at the Fed. This rate is actually determined by the market and is not explicitly mandated by the Fed. The Fed therefore tries to align the effective federal funds rate with the targeted rate by adding or subtracting from the money supply through open market operations. The Federal Reserve System usually adjusts the federal funds rate target by 0.25% or 0.50% at a time. Open market operations allow the Federal Reserve to increase or decrease the amount of money in the banking system as necessary to balance the Federal Reserve's dual mandates. Open market operations are done through the sale and purchase of [States Treasury security](United)(United States Treasury security), sometimes called "Treasury bills" or more informally "T-bills" or "Treasuries". The Federal Reserve buys Treasury bills from its primary dealers. The purchase of these securities affects the federal funds rate, because primary dealers have accounts at depository institutions. The Federal Reserve education website describes open market operations as follows: the primary dealerscompete on the basis of price. Open market operations are flexible and thus, the most frequently used tool of monetary policy. Open market operations are the primary tool used to regulate the supply of bank reserves. This tool consists of Federal Reserve purchases and sales of financial instruments, usually securities issued by the U.S. Treasury, Federal agencies and government-sponsored enterprises. Open market operations are carried out by the Domestic Trading Desk of the Federal Reserve Bank of New York under direction from the FOMC. The transactions are undertaken with primary dealers. The Fed's goal in trading the securities is to affect the federal funds rate, the rate at which banks borrow reserves from each other. When the Fed wants to increase reserves, it buys securities and pays for them by making a deposit to the account maintained at the Fed by the primary dealer's bank. When the Fed wants to reduce reserves, it sells securities and collects from those accounts. Most days, the Fed does not want to increase or decrease reserves permanently so it usually engages in transactions reversed within a day or two. That means that a reserve injection today could be withdrawn tomorrow morning, only to be renewed at some level several hours later. These short-term transactions are called repurchase agreements (repos)the dealer sells the Fed a security and agrees to buy it back at a later date.}} ##### Repurchase agreements To smooth temporary or cyclical changes in the money supply, the desk engages in [agreement](repurchase)(repurchase agreement)s (repos) with its primary dealers. Repos are essentially secured, short-term lending by the Fed. On the day of the transaction, the Fed deposits money in a [dealer's](primary)(Primary dealers) reserve account, and receives the promised securities as [collateral](collateral (finance)). When the transaction matures, the process unwinds: the Fed returns the collateral and charges the [dealer](primary)(primary dealer)'s reserve account for the principal and accrued interest. The term of the repo (the time between settlement and maturity) can vary from 1 day (called an overnight repo) to 65 days. #### Discount rate The Federal Reserve System also directly sets the discount rate (a.k.a. the policy rate), which is the interest rate for "discount window lending", overnight loans that member banks borrow directly from the Fed. This rate is generally set at a rate close to 100 [point](basis)(basis point)s above the target federal funds rate. The idea is to encourage banks to seek alternative funding before using the "discount rate" option.Federal Reserve Bank San Francisco( 2004) The equivalent operation by the [Central Bank](European)(European Central Bank) is referred to as the "[lending facility](marginal)(marginal lending facility)". Both the discount rate and the federal funds rate influence the [rate](prime)(prime rate), which is usually about 3 percentage points higher than the federal funds rate. #### Reserve requirements Another instrument of monetary policy adjustment historically employed by the Federal Reserve System was the fractional [requirement](reserve)(reserve requirement), also known as the required reserve ratio. The required reserve ratio sets the balance that the Federal Reserve System requires a depository institution to hold in the Federal Reserve Banks, which depository institutions trade in the federal funds market discussed above. The required reserve ratio is set by the board of governors of the Federal Reserve System. The reserve requirements have changed over time and some history of these changes is published by the Federal Reserve. As a response to the financial crisis of 2008, the Federal Reserve now makes interest payments on depository institutions' required and excess reserve balances. The payment of interest on excess reserves gives the central bank greater opportunity to address credit market conditions while maintaining the federal funds rate close to the target rate set by the FOMC. As of March 2020, the reserve ratio is zero for all banks, which means that no bank is required to hold any reserves, and hence the reserve requirement effectively does not exist. The reserve requirement did not play a significant role in the post-2008 interest-on-excess-reserves regime. #### New facilities In order to address problems related to the [mortgage crisis](subprime)(subprime mortgage crisis) and [States housing bubble](United)(United States housing bubble), several new tools have been created. The first new tool, called the [auction Facility](Term)(Term auction Facility), was added on December 12, 2007. It was first announced as a temporary tool but there have been suggestions that this new tool may remain in place for a prolonged period of time. Creation of the second new tool, called the [securities Lending Facility](Term)(Term securities Lending Facility), was announced on March 11, 2008. The main difference between these two facilities is that the Term auction Facility is used to inject cash into the banking system whereas the Term securities Lending Facility is used to inject [securities](treasury)(Treasury security) into the banking system. "The step goes beyond past initiatives because the Fed can now inject liquidity without flooding the banking system with cash...Unlike the newest tool, the past steps added cash to the banking system, which affects the Fed's benchmark interest rate...By contrast, the TSLF injects liquidity by lending Treasuries, which doesn't affect the federal funds rate. That leaves the Fed free to address the mortgage crisis directly without concern about adding more cash to the system than it wants" Creation of the third tool, called the [Dealer Credit Facility](Primary)(Primary Dealer Credit Facility) (PDCF), was announced on March 16, 2008. The PDCF was a fundamental change in Federal Reserve policy because now the Fed is able to lend directly to [dealer](primary)(primary dealer)s, which was previously against Fed policy. The differences between these three new facilities is described by the Federal Reserve: Some measures taken by the Federal Reserve to address this mortgage crisis have not been used since the [Depression](Great)(Great Depression). The Federal Reserve gives a brief summary of these new facilities: A fourth facility, the Term Deposit Facility, was announced December 9, 2009, and approved April 30, 2010, with an effective date of June 4, 2010."Reserve Requirements of Depository Institutions Policy on Payment System Risk," [75 Federal Register 86 (May 5, 2010), pp. 24384–24389.](http://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/FR-2010-05-05/pdf/2010-10483.pdf) The Term deposit Facility allows Reserve Banks to offer term deposits to institutions that are eligible to receive earnings on their balances at Reserve Banks. Term deposits are intended to facilitate the implementation of monetary policy by providing a tool by which the Federal Reserve can manage the aggregate quantity of reserve balances held by depository institutions. Funds placed in term deposits are removed from the accounts of participating institutions for the life of the term deposit and thus drain reserve balances from the banking system. ##### Term auction facility The Term auction Facility is a program in which the Federal Reserve auctions term funds to depository institutions. The creation of this facility was announced by the Federal Reserve on December 12, 2007, and was done in conjunction with the [of Canada](Bank)(Bank of Canada), the [of England](Bank)(Bank of England), the [Central Bank](European)(European Central Bank), and the [National Bank](Swiss)(Swiss National Bank) to address elevated pressures in short-term funding markets. The reason it was created is that banks were not lending funds to one another and banks in need of funds were refusing to go to the discount window. Banks were not lending money to each other because there was a fear that the loans would not be paid back. Banks refused to go to the discount window because it is usually associated with the stigma of bank failure. Under the Term auction Facility, the identity of the banks in need of funds is protected in order to avoid the stigma of bank failure. [exchange swap lines](Foreign)(Central bank liquidity swap) with the [Central Bank](European)(European Central Bank) and [National Bank](Swiss)(Swiss National Bank) were opened so the banks in Europe could have access to [dollar](U.S.)(U.S. dollar)s. Federal Reserve chairman Ben Bernanke briefly described this facility to the U.S. House of Representatives on January 17, 2008: }} It is also described in the Term auction Facility FAQ ##### Term securities lending facility The Term securities Lending Facility is a 28-day facility that will offer Treasury general collateral to the Federal Reserve Bank of New York's primary dealers in exchange for other program-eligible collateral. It is intended to promote liquidity in the financing markets for Treasury and other collateral and thus to foster the functioning of financial markets more generally. Like the Term auction Facility, the TSLF was done in conjunction with the [of Canada](Bank)(Bank of Canada), the [of England](Bank)(Bank of England), the [Central Bank](European)(European Central Bank), and the [National Bank](Swiss)(Swiss National Bank). The resource allows dealers to switch debt that is less liquid for U.S. government securities that are easily tradable. The currency swap lines with the [Central Bank](European)(European Central Bank) and [National Bank](Swiss)(Swiss National Bank) were increased. ##### Primary dealer credit facility The Primary Dealer Credit Facility (PDCF) is an overnight loan facility that will provide funding to primary dealers in exchange for a specified range of eligible collateral and is intended to foster the functioning of financial markets more generally. This new facility marks a fundamental change in Federal Reserve policy because now [dealer](primary)(primary dealer)s can borrow directly from the Fed when this used to be prohibited. ##### Interest on reserves , the Federal Reserve banks will pay interest on reserve balances (required and excess) held by depository institutions. The rate is set at the lowest federal funds rate during the reserve maintenance period of an institution, less 75[bp](basis point). , the Fed has lowered the spread to a mere 35 bp. ##### Term Deposit facility The Term Deposit facility is a program through which the Federal Reserve Banks offer interest-bearing [deposits](term)(time deposit) to eligible institutions. Fed Chair Ben S. Bernanke, testifying before the House Committee on Financial Services, stated that the Term Deposit Facility would be used to reverse the expansion of credit during the Great Recession, by drawing funds out of the money markets into the Federal Reserve Banks.; [GPO Access Serial No. 111–118 Retrieved September 10, 2010](http://frwebgate.access.gpo.gov/cgi-bin/useftp.cgi?IPaddress=162.140.64.184&filename=56764.pdf&directory=/diska/wais/data/111_house_hearings) It would therefore result in increased market interest rates, acting as a brake on economic activity and inflation. The Federal Reserve authorized up to five "small-value offerings" in 2010 as a pilot program. After three of the offering auctions were successfully completed, it was announced that small-value auctions would continue on an ongoing basis. ##### Asset Backed Commercial Paper Money Market Mutual Fund Liquidity Facility The Asset Backed Commercial Paper Money Market Mutual Fund Liquidity Facility (ABCPMMMFLF) was also called the AMLF. The Facility began operations on September 22, 2008, and was closed on February 1, 2010. All U.S. depository institutions, bank holding companies (parent companies or U.S. broker-dealer affiliates), or U.S. branches and agencies of foreign banks were eligible to borrow under this facility pursuant to the discretion of the FRBB. Collateral eligible for pledge under the Facility was required to meet the following criteria: * was purchased by Borrower on or after September 19, 2008 from a registered investment company that held itself out as a money market mutual fund; * was purchased by Borrower at the Fund's acquisition cost as adjusted for amortization of premium or accretion of discount on the ABCP through the date of its purchase by Borrower; * was rated at the time pledged to FRBB, not lower than A1, F1, or P1 by at least two major rating agencies or, if rated by only one major rating agency, the ABCP must have been rated within the top rating category by that agency; * was issued by an entity organized under the laws of the United States or a political subdivision thereof under a program that was in existence on September 18, 2008; and * had stated maturity that did not exceed 120 days if the Borrower was a bank or 270 days for non-bank Borrowers. ##### Commercial Paper Funding Facility On October 7, 2008, the Federal Reserve further expanded the collateral it will loan against to include commercial paper using the new [Paper Funding Facility](Commercial)(Commercial Paper Funding Facility) (CPFF). The action made the Fed a crucial source of credit for non-financial businesses in addition to commercial banks and investment firms. Fed officials said they'll buy as much of the debt as necessary to get the market functioning again. They refused to say how much that might be, but they noted that around $1.3 trillion worth of commercial paper would qualify. There was $1.61 trillion in outstanding commercial paper, seasonally adjusted, on the market , according to the most recent data from the Fed. That was down from $1.70 trillion in the previous week. Since the summer of 2007, the market has shrunk from more than $2.2 trillion. This program lent out a total $738 billion before it was closed. Forty-five out of 81 of the companies participating in this program were foreign firms. Research shows that [Asset Relief Program](Troubled)(Troubled Asset Relief Program) (TARP) recipients were twice as likely to participate in the program than other commercial paper issuers who did not take advantage of the TARP bailout. The Fed incurred no losses from the CPFF. #### Quantitative Easing (QE) policy A little-used tool of the Federal Reserve is the quantitative easing policy. Under that policy, the Federal Reserve buys back corporate bonds and mortgage backed securities held by banks or other financial institutions. This in effect puts money back into the financial institutions and allows them to make loans and conduct normal business. The bursting of the [States housing bubble](United)(United States housing bubble) prompted the Fed to buy mortgage-backed securities for the first time in November 2008. Over six weeks, a total of $1.25 trillion were purchased in order to stabilize the housing market, about one-fifth of all U.S. government-backed mortgages. ## History ### Central banking in the United States, 1791–1913 The first attempt at a national currency was during the [Revolutionary War](American)(American Revolutionary War). In 1775, the Continental Congress, as well as the states, began issuing paper currency, calling the bills "[Continentals](Early American currency)". The Continentals were backed only by future tax revenue, and were used to help finance the Revolutionary War. Overprinting, as well as British counterfeiting, caused the value of the Continental to diminish quickly. This experience with paper money led the United States to strip the power to issue Bills of Credit (paper money) from a draft of the new Constitution on August 16, 1787, as well as banning such issuance by the various states, and limiting the states' ability to make anything but gold or silver coin legal tender on August 28.US Constitution Article 1, Section 10. "no state shall ..emit Bills of Credit; make any Thing but gold and silver Coin a Tender in Payment of Debts;" In 1791, the government granted the [Bank of the United States](First)(First Bank of the United States) a charter to operate as the U.S. central bank until 1811. The First Bank of the United States came to an end under [Madison](President)(James Madison) when Congress refused to renew its charter. The [Bank of the United States](Second)(Second Bank of the United States) was established in 1816, and lost its authority to be the central bank of the U.S. twenty years later under [Jackson](President)(Andrew Jackson) when its charter expired. Both banks were based upon the Bank of England. Ultimately, a third national bank, known as the Federal Reserve, was established in 1913 and still exists to this day. #### First Central Bank, 1791 and Second Central Bank, 1816 The first U.S. institution with central banking responsibilities was the [Bank of the United States](First)(First Bank of the United States), chartered by Congress and signed into law by President [Washington](George)(George Washington) on February 25, 1791, at the urging of [Hamilton](Alexander)(Alexander Hamilton). This was done despite strong opposition from [Jefferson](Thomas)(Thomas Jefferson) and [Madison](James)(James Madison), among numerous others. The charter was for twenty years and expired in 1811 under President Madison, when Congress refused to renew it. In 1816, however, Madison revived it in the form of the [Bank of the United States](Second)(Second Bank of the United States). Years later, early renewal of the bank's charter became the primary issue in the reelection of President [Jackson](Andrew)(Andrew Jackson). After Jackson, who was opposed to the central bank, was reelected, he pulled the government's funds out of the bank. Jackson was the only President to completely pay off the national debt but his efforts to close the bank contributed to the [of 1837](Panic)(Panic of 1837). The bank's charter was not renewed in 1836, and it would fully dissolve after several years as a private corporation. From 1837 to 1862, in the [Banking Era](Free)(Free Banking Era) there was no formal central bank. From 1846 to 1921, an [Treasury System](Independent)(Independent Treasury System) ruled. From 1863 to 1913, a system of national banks was instituted by the 1863 [Banking Act](National)(National Banking Act) during which series of bank panics, in [1873](Panic of 1873), [1893](Panic of 1893), and [1907](Panic of 1907) occurred. #### Creation of Third Central Bank, 1907–1913 The main motivation for the third central banking system came from the [of 1907](Panic)(Panic of 1907), which caused a renewed desire among legislators, economists, and bankers for an overhaul of the monetary system. During the last quarter of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century, the United States economy went through a series of [panics](financial)(financial panics). According to many economists, the previous national banking system had two main weaknesses: an [inelastic](elasticity (economics)) currency and a lack of liquidity. In 1908, Congress enacted the [Act](Aldrich–Vreeland)(Aldrich–Vreeland Act), which provided for an emergency currency and established the [Monetary Commission](National)(National Monetary Commission) to study banking and currency reform. The National Monetary Commission returned with recommendations which were repeatedly rejected by Congress. A revision crafted during a secret meeting on [Island](Jekyll)(Jekyll Island) by Senator Aldrich and representatives of the nation's top finance and industrial groups later became the basis of the [Reserve Act](Federal)(Federal Reserve Act).; The House voted on December 22, 1913, with 298 voting yes to 60 voting no. The Senate voted 43–25 on December 23, 1913. President [Wilson](Woodrow)(Woodrow Wilson) signed the bill later that day. ##### Federal Reserve Act, 1913 [[Reserve.JPG\|thumb\|upright=1.35\|Newspaper clipping, December 24, 1913](File:Fed)] The head of the bipartisan National Monetary Commission was financial expert and Senate [Republican](Republican Party (United States)) leader [Aldrich](Nelson)(Nelson Aldrich). Aldrich set up two commissions – one to study the American monetary system in depth and the other, headed by Aldrich himself, to study the European central banking systems and report on them. In early November 1910, Aldrich met with five well known members of the New York banking community to devise a central banking bill. [Warburg](Paul)(Paul Warburg), an attendee of the meeting and longtime advocate of central banking in the U.S., later wrote that Aldrich was "bewildered at all that he had absorbed abroad and he was faced with the difficult task of writing a highly technical bill while being harassed by the daily grind of his parliamentary duties". After ten days of deliberation, the bill, which would later be referred to as the "Aldrich Plan", was agreed upon. It had several key components, including a central bank with a Washington-based headquarters and fifteen branches located throughout the U.S. in geographically strategic locations, and a uniform elastic currency based on gold and commercial paper. Aldrich believed a central banking system with no political involvement was best, but was convinced by Warburg that a plan with no public control was not politically feasible. The compromise involved representation of the public sector on the board of directors. Aldrich's bill met much opposition from politicians. Critics charged Aldrich of being biased due to his close ties to wealthy bankers such as [P. Morgan](J.)(J. P. Morgan) and [D. Rockefeller Jr.](John)(John D. Rockefeller Jr.), Aldrich's son-in-law. Most Republicans favored the Aldrich Plan, but it lacked enough support in Congress to pass because rural and western states viewed it as favoring the "eastern establishment". In contrast, progressive Democrats favored a reserve system owned and operated by the government; they believed that public ownership of the central bank would end Wall Street's control of the American currency supply. Conservative Democrats fought for a privately owned, yet decentralized, reserve system, which would still be free of Wall Street's control. The original Aldrich Plan was dealt a fatal blow in 1912, when Democrats won the White House and Congress. Nonetheless, President [Wilson](Woodrow)(Woodrow Wilson) believed that the Aldrich plan would suffice with a few modifications. The plan became the basis for the Federal Reserve Act, which was proposed by Senator [Owen](Robert)(Robert L. Owen) in May 1913. The primary difference between the two bills was the transfer of control of the board of directors (called the Federal Open Market Committee in the Federal Reserve Act) to the government. The bill passed Congress on December 23, 1913,; on a mostly partisan basis, with most Democrats voting "yea" and most Republicans voting "nay". ### Federal Reserve era, 1913–present Key laws affecting the Federal Reserve have been: * [Reserve Act](Federal)(Federal Reserve Act), 1913 * [Act](Glass–Steagall)(Glass–Steagall Act), 1933 * [Act of 1935](Banking)(Banking Act of 1935) * [Act of 1946](Employment)(Employment Act of 1946) * [Reserve-Treasury Department Accord of 1951](Federal)(1951 Accord) * [Holding Company Act of 1956](Bank)(Bank Holding Company Act of 1956) and the amendments of 1970 * [Reserve Reform Act of 1977](Federal)(Federal Reserve Reform Act of 1977) * [Banking Act of 1978](International)(International Banking Act of 1978) * [Employment and Balanced Growth Act](Full)(Full Employment and Balanced Growth Act) (1978) * [Institutions Deregulation and Monetary Control Act](Depository)(Depository Institutions Deregulation and Monetary Control Act) (1980) * [Institutions Reform, Recovery and Enforcement Act of 1989](Financial)(Financial Institutions Reform, Recovery and Enforcement Act of 1989) * [Deposit Insurance Corporation Improvement Act of 1991](Federal)(Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation Improvement Act of 1991) * [Act](Gramm–Leach–Bliley)(Gramm–Leach–Bliley Act) (1999) * [Services Regulatory Relief Act](Financial)(Financial Services Regulatory Relief Act) (2006) * [Economic Stabilization Act](Emergency)(Emergency Economic Stabilization Act) (2008) * [Wall Street Reform and Consumer Protection Act](Dodd–Frank)(Dodd–Frank Wall Street Reform and Consumer Protection Act) (2010) ## Measurement of economic variables The Federal Reserve records and publishes large amounts of data. A few websites where data is published are at the board of governors' Economic Data and Research page, the board of governors' statistical releases and historical data page, and at the St. Louis Fed's FRED (Federal Reserve Economic Data) page. The [Open Market Committee (FOMC)](Federal)(Federal Open Market Committee) examines many economic indicators prior to determining monetary policy. Some criticism involves economic data compiled by the Fed. The Fed sponsors much of the monetary economics research in the U.S., and [H. White](Lawrence)(Lawrence H. White) objects that this makes it less likely for researchers to publish findings challenging the status quo. ### Net worth of households and nonprofit organizations [[Net Worth - Balance Sheet of Households and Nonprofit Organizations 1949-2012.jpg\|thumb\|Total Net WorthBalance Sheet of Households and Nonprofit Organizations 1949–2012](File:Total)] The net worth of households and nonprofit organizations in the United States is published by the Federal Reserve in a report titled Flow of Funds.[FRB: Z.1 Release – Flow of Funds Accounts of the United States, Release Dates](http://www.federalreserve.gov/RELEASES/z1/) See the pdf documents from 1945 to 2007. The value for each year is on page 94 of each document (the 99th page in a pdf viewer) and duplicated on page 104 (109th page in pdf viewer). It gives the total assets, total liabilities, and net worth. This chart is of the net worth. At the end of the third quarter of fiscal year 2012, this value was $64.8 trillion. At the end of the first quarter of fiscal year 2014, this value was $95.5 trillion.[Balance Sheet of Households and Nonprofit Organizations](http://www.federalreserve.gov/releases/z1/current/z1r-5.pdf) , June 5, 2014 ### Money supply The most common measures are named M0 (narrowest), M1, M2, and M3. In the United States they are defined by the Federal Reserve as follows: [[of the United States money supply2.svg\|frameless\|right\|upright=1.8](File:Components)] The Federal Reserve stopped publishing M3 statistics in March 2006, saying that the data cost a lot to collect but did not provide significantly useful information. The other three money supply measures continue to be provided in detail. [[File:CPI_vs_M2_money_supply_increases.png\|thumb\|center\|upright=4.1\|[price index](Consumer)(Consumer price index) vs [M2](M2 (economics)) money supply increases]] ### Personal consumption expenditures price index The [consumption expenditures price index](Personal)(Personal consumption expenditures price index), also referred to as simply the PCE price index, is used as one measure of the value of money. It is a United States-wide indicator of the average increase in prices for all domestic personal consumption. Using a variety of data including [States Consumer Price Index](United)(United States Consumer Price Index) and [Producer Price Index](U.S.)(U.S. Producer Price Index) prices, it is derived from the largest component of the [domestic product](gross)(gross domestic product) in the BEA's [Income and Product Accounts](National)(National Income and Product Accounts), personal consumption expenditures. One of the Fed's main roles is to maintain price stability, which means that the Fed's ability to keep a low inflation rate is a long-term measure of their success. Although the Fed is not required to maintain inflation within a specific range, their long run target for the growth of the PCE price index is between 1.5 and 2 percent. There has been debate among policy makers as to whether the Federal Reserve should have a specific [targeting](inflation)(inflation targeting) policy.; ; ; #### Inflation and the economy Most [economists](mainstream)(mainstream economists) favor a low, steady rate of inflation. [economist](Chief)(Chief economist), and advisor to the Federal Reserve, the [Budget Office](Congressional)(Congressional Budget Office) and the [of Economic Advisers](Council)(Council of Economic Advisers), [C. Swonk](Diane)(Diane C. Swonk) observed, in 2022, that "From the Fed's perspective, you have to remember inflation is kind of like cancer. If you don't deal with it now with something that may be painful, you could have something that metastasized and becomes much more chronic later on."["Inflation remains stubbornly high despite Federal Reserve’s efforts to stabilize costs"](https://www.pbs.org/newshour/show/inflation-remains-stubbornly-high-despite-federal-reserves-efforts-to-stabilize-costs) Amna Nawaz, [PBS](PBS), October 13, 2022. Retrieved October 14, 2022. Low (as opposed to zero or [negative](Deflation)) inflation may reduce the severity of economic [recession](recession)s by enabling the labor market to adjust more quickly in a downturn, and reduce the risk that a [trap](liquidity)(liquidity trap) prevents [policy](monetary)(monetary policy) from stabilizing the economy. The task of keeping the rate of inflation low and stable is usually given to [authorities](monetary)(monetary authority). ### Unemployment rate [[Seasonal Unemployment.svg\|thumb\|right\|300px\|United States unemployment rates 1975–2010 showing variance between the fifty states](File:US)] One of the stated goals of monetary policy is maximum employment. The unemployment rate statistics are collected by the [of Labor Statistics](Bureau)(Bureau of Labor Statistics), and like the PCE price index are used as a barometer of the nation's economic health. ## Budget The Federal Reserve is self-funded. Over 90percent of Fed revenues come from open market operations, specifically the interest on the portfolio of Treasury securities as well as "capital gains/losses" that may arise from the buying/selling of the securities and their derivatives as part of Open Market Operations. The balance of revenues come from sales of financial services (check and electronic payment processing) and discount window loans. The board of governors (Federal Reserve Board) creates a budget report once per year for Congress. There are two reports with budget information. The one that lists the complete balance statements with income and expenses, as well as the net profit or loss, is the large report simply titled, "Annual Report". It also includes data about employment throughout the system. The other report, which explains in more detail the expenses of the different aspects of the whole system, is called "Annual Report: Budget Review". These detailed comprehensive reports can be found at the board of governors' website under the section "Reports to Congress" ### Remittance payments to the Treasury [[File:Remittances.webp\|thumb\|300px\|Federal Reserve remittances to the [Treasury](U.S.)(United States Treasury) (annually)]] [[File:Federal Reserve Remittences to the Treasury.webp\|thumb\|300px\|Federal Reserve Remittances to the [Treasury](United States Treasury) (weekly)]] The Federal Reserve has been [remitting](remitting) interest that it has been receiving back to the [States Treasury](United)(United States Treasury). Most of the assets the Fed holds are [Treasury bonds](U.S.)(United States Treasury security) and [securities](mortgage-backed)(mortgage-backed securities) that it has been purchasing as part of [easing](quantitative)(quantitative easing) since the [financial crisis](2007–2008)(2007–2008 financial crisis). In 2022 the Fed started [tightening](quantitative)(quantitative tightening) (QT) and selling these assets and taking a loss on them in the [secondary](secondary market) [market](bond)(bond market). As a result, the nearly $100billion that it was remitting annually to the Treasury, is expected to be discontinued during QT. ## Balance sheet [[Statement of Condition of all Federal Reserve Banks-ASSETS.gif\|thumb\|right\|Total combined assets for all 12 Federal Reserve Banks, 2007–2009](File:Consolidated)] [[Statement of Condition of All Federal Reserve Banks-LIABILITIES.png\|thumb\|right\|Total combined liabilities for all 12 Federal Reserve Banks, 2007–2009](File:Consolidated)] One of the keys to understanding the Federal Reserve is the Federal Reserve balance sheet (or [statement](balance)(Balance sheet)). In accordance with Section 11 of the [Reserve Act](Federal)(Federal Reserve Act), the [of governors](board)(board of governors) of the Federal Reserve System publishes once each week the "Consolidated Statement of Condition of All Federal Reserve Banks" showing the condition of each Federal Reserve bank and a consolidated statement for all Federal Reserve banks. The board of governors requires that excess earnings of the Reserve Banks be transferred to the Treasury as interest on Federal Reserve notes.; The Federal Reserve releases its balance sheet every Thursday. Below is the balance sheet (in billions of dollars): \| style="vertical-align:top;" \| \| style="vertical-align:top;" \| \|} In addition, the balance sheet also indicates which assets are held as collateral against [Reserve Notes](Federal)(Federal Reserve Notes). ## Criticism [[File:FFR treasuries.webp\|thumb\|300px\|right\| [Recessions](List of recessions in the United States) ]] The Federal Reserve System has faced various criticisms since its inception in 1913. Criticisms include lack of [transparency](Federal Reserve Transparency Act) and claims that it is ineffective.; [[File:Money_supply_during_the_great_depression_era.png\|upright=1.8\|thumb\|center\| Money supply decreased significantly between [Tuesday](Black)(Black Tuesday) and the [Holiday in March 1933](Bank)(Emergency Banking Act) when there were massive [runs](bank)(bank runs) across the United States]] ## See also * [leverage ratio](Consumer)(Consumer leverage ratio) * [inflation](Core)(Core inflation) * [Credit System](Farm)(Farm Credit System) * [model](Fed)(Fed model) * [Home Loan Banks](Federal)(Federal Home Loan Banks) * [Reserve Police](Federal)(Federal Reserve Police) * [Reserve Statistical Release](Federal)(Federal Reserve Statistical Release) * [banking](Free)(Free banking) * [standard](Gold)(Gold standard) * [debt](Government)(Government debt) * [put](Greenspan)(Greenspan put) * [of Federal Open Market Committee actions](History)(History of Federal Open Market Committee actions) * [of central banking in the United States](History)(History of central banking in the United States) * [Treasury](Independent)(Independent Treasury) * [Tender Cases](Legal)(Legal Tender Cases) * [of economic reports by U.S. government agencies](List)(List of economic reports by U.S. government agencies) * [market participants (United States)](Securities)(Securities market participants (United States)) * [12 of the Code of Federal Regulations](Title)(Title 12 of the Code of Federal Regulations) * [States Bullion Depository](United)(United States Bullion Depository)known as Fort Knox ## References ### Bundled references ## Bibliography ### Recent * Sarah Binder & Mark Spindel. 2017. The Myth of Independence: How Congress Governs the Federal Reserve. [University Press](Princeton)(Princeton University Press). * \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140111193753/http://www.federalreserve.gov/pf/pdf/pf_complete.pdf \|archive-date=January 11, 2014}} * }} from the St. Louis Fed * [Research Service](Congressional)(Congressional Research Service) [Changing the Federal Reserve's Mandate: An Economic Analysis](https://fas.org/sgp/crs/misc/R41656.pdf) * [Research Service](Congressional)(Congressional Research Service) [Federal Reserve: Unconventional Monetary Policy Options](https://fas.org/sgp/crs/misc/R42962.pdf) * Conti-Brown, Peter. The Power and Independence of the Federal Reserve ([University Press](Princeton)(Princeton University Press), 2016). * Epstein, Lita & Martin, Preston (2003). ''The Complete Idiot's Guide to the Federal Reserve. Alpha Books. . [William](Greider,)(William Greider) (1987). Secrets of the Temple. Simon & Schuster. ; nontechnical book explaining the structures, functions, and history of the Federal Reserve, focusing specifically on the tenure of [Volcker](Paul)(Paul Volcker). * Hafer, R. W. The Federal Reserve System: An Encyclopedia. Greenwood Press, 2005. 451 pp, 280 entries; . * [Laurence H.](Meyer,)(Laurence Meyer) (2004). A Term at the Fed: An Insider's View''. [HarperBusiness](HarperBusiness). ; focuses on the period from 1996 to 2002, emphasizing [Greenspan](Alan)(Alan Greenspan)'s chairmanship during the [Asian financial crisis](1997)(1997 Asian financial crisis), the [market boom](stock)(Dot-com bubble) and the [aftermath](financial)(September 11, 2001 attacks#Economic aftermath) of the September 11, 2001 attacks. Woodward, Bob. ''Maestro: Greenspan's Fed and the American Boom* (2000) study of Greenspan in the 1990s. ### Historical * * * * * * * * Livingston, James. Origins of the Federal Reserve System: Money, Class, and Corporate Capitalism, 1890–1913'' (1986). * * Mayhew, Anne. "Ideology and the Great Depression: Monetary History Rewritten". Journal of Economic Issues 17 (June 1983): 353–360. * (cloth) and (paper). * Mullins, Eustace C. [Secrets of the Federal Reserve](The)(The Secrets of the Federal Reserve), 1952. John McLaughlin. . * Roberts, Priscilla. 'Quis Custodiet Ipsos Custodes?' The Federal Reserve System's Founding Fathers and Allied Finances in the First World War", Business History Review (1998) 72: 585–603. * * Shull, Bernard. "The Fourth Branch: The Federal Reserve's Unlikely Rise to Power and Influence" (2005) . * Steindl, Frank G. Monetary Interpretations of the Great Depression. (1995). * * Wells, Donald R. The Federal Reserve System: A History (2004) * West, Robert Craig. Banking Reform and the Federal Reserve, 1863–1923 (1977). * Wicker, Elmus. "A Reconsideration of Federal Reserve Policy during the 1920–1921 Depression", Journal of Economic History (1966) 26: 223–238. ** Wicker, Elmus. Federal Reserve Monetary Policy, 1917–33. (1966). ** Wicker, Elmus. The Great Debate on Banking Reform: Nelson Aldrich and the Origins of the Fed [State University Press](Ohio)(Ohio State University Press), 2005. * Wood, John H. A History of Central Banking in Great Britain and the United States (2005) * Wueschner, Silvano A. Charting Twentieth-Century Monetary Policy: Herbert Hoover and Benjamin Strong, 1917–1927. Greenwood Press (1999). ## Further reading * ## External links * * [Federal Reserve System](https://www.federalregister.gov/agencies/federal-reserve-system) in the [Register](Federal)(Federal Register) * [Records of the Federal Reserve System in the National Archives (Record Group 82)](https://catalog.archives.gov/id/411) [ ](Category:Federal Reserve System) [establishments in Washington, D.C.](Category:1913)(Category:1913 establishments in Washington, D.C.) [regulation in the United States](Category:Bank)(Category:Bank regulation in the United States) [established in 1913](Category:Banks)(Category:Banks established in 1913) [States](United)(Category:Central banks) [agencies established in 1913](Category:Government)(Category:Government agencies established in 1913) [agencies of the United States government](Category:Independent)(Category:Independent agencies of the United States government)
Olivia Munn	olivia_munn	# Olivia Munn Revision ID: 1154236413 \| Timestamp: 2023-05-11T04:00:38Z --- \| birth_place = [City, Oklahoma](Oklahoma)(Oklahoma City, Oklahoma), U.S. \| other_names = Lisa Munn \| death_date = \| death_place = \| occupation = Actress \| yearsactive = 1999–present \| partner = [Mulaney](John)(John Mulaney) (2021-present) \| children = 1 \| alma_mater = [of Oklahoma](University)(University of Oklahoma) ([BA](Bachelor of Arts)) }} Lisa Olivia Munn (born July 3, 1980) is an American actress and former television host. After an [internship](internship) at a news station in [Tulsa](Tulsa, Oklahoma), she moved to [Angeles](Los)(Los Angeles) where she began her professional career as a television host for the gaming network [G4](G4tv), primarily on the series [of the Show!](Attack)(Attack of the Show!) from 2006 until 2010. She appeared as a correspondent on [Daily Show with Jon Stewart](The)(The Daily Show with Jon Stewart) from 2010 to 2011. She is known for her three-season-long portrayal of Sloan Sabbith in [Sorkin](Aaron)(Aaron Sorkin)'s [HBO](HBO) political drama series [Newsroom](The)(The Newsroom (American TV series)) (2012–2014). Munn's other acting roles include a recurring role on the television series [the Break](Beyond)(Beyond the Break) (2006—2009) and supporting roles in comedy films [Stan](Big)(Big Stan) (2007) and [Night](Date)(Date Night) (2010), superhero film [Man 2](Iron)(Iron Man 2) (2010), and [Soderbergh](Steven)(Steven Soderbergh)'s comedy-drama [Mike](Magic)(Magic Mike) (2012). She starred in the supernatural horror film [Us from Evil](Deliver)(Deliver Us from Evil (2014 film)) (2014), the comedy [Mortdecai](Mortdecai (film)) (2015), and [Apocalypse](X-Men:)(X-Men: Apocalypse) (2016) as [Psylocke](Betsy Braddock in other media). In 2017, she provided the voice of Koko in [Lego Ninjago Movie](The)(The Lego Ninjago Movie), and had appeared in the [Channel](History)(History (U.S. TV network)) series [Six](Six (TV series)) (2017). In 2018, she had a leading role in the science fiction film [Predator](The)(The Predator (film)), the fourth film in the [franchise](Predator)(Predator (franchise)). ## Early life Munn was born on July 3, 1980, in Oklahoma City to Kimberly Schmid and Winston Munn. Her father is of [German](Germans), [Irish](Irish people), and [English](English people) ancestry. Her mother, who is a [Vietnamese](Vietnamese people) woman of [Chinese](Hoa people) ancestry, arrived as a refugee in the United States in 1975 following the [War](Vietnam)(Vietnam War) and settled in [Oklahoma](Oklahoma), where she met Munn's father. Munn has a younger brother, John, a physicist; an older brother, James, a custom motorcycle shop owner; and two older sisters, Annie and Sara, the latter of whom is a lawyer. . When Munn was two years old, her parents divorced and her mother married a member of the [States Air Force](United)(United States Air Force). The family relocated to [Utah](Utah), where they resided until 1986. Munn's stepfather was then transferred to [Air Base](Yokota)(Yokota Air Base) near [Tachikawa](Tachikawa) in [Tokyo](Tokyo), Japan, where she spent her formative years. She has said that her stepfather was "verbally abusive" and demeaning. "When [he] would be screaming his head off in the living room, I would hustle everybody into my room and launch into imitations of teachers or do scenes from movies," she recalled. "And that would take their minds off of the hell that was happening down the hall." When Munn was 16, her mother divorced her stepfather and moved with the children back to Oklahoma City. Munn attended [City North High School](Putnam)(Putnam City North High School) for her junior and senior years, then attended the [of Oklahoma](University)(University of Oklahoma), where she earned a [B.A.](Bachelor of Arts) in [journalism](journalism) with a minor in [Japanese](Japanese language) and [arts](dramatic)(dramatic arts). ## Career ### 2004–2009: Career beginnings and acting [[File:E3 Expo Olivia Munn (2009).jpg\|thumb\|right\|upright\|Munn at the 2009 [Entertainment Expo](Electronic)(E3)]] Munn worked as an intern at [NBC affiliate](the)(KJRH-TV) in [Tulsa](Tulsa, Oklahoma)["Olivia Munn & Sam Roberts on News Room, Magic Mike, Nude Scene, Leaving G4, & more"](//www.youtube.com/watch?v=bsBF1ZPRWMY). [YouTube](YouTube). June 27, 2013. Retrieved August 25, 2013. before relocating to [Angeles](Los)(Los Angeles). In 2004, she interned at [Sports Networks](Fox)(Fox Sports Networks) and worked as a [reporter](sideline)(sideline reporter) for college football and women's basketball. She said that she disliked the experience: "I was trying to be something I wasn't, and that made me really uncomfortable on live TV." She soon moved to Los Angeles, where she was cast in a small role in the [direct-to-video](direct-to-video) [film](horror)(horror film) [Gone Wild](Scarecrow)(Scarecrow Gone Wild). She appeared in rock band [Zebrahead](Zebrahead)'s music video for their song "Hello Tomorrow" as the love interest of lead singer [Mauriello](Justin)(Justin Mauriello). Retrieved December 6, 2008. She also appeared in ''National Lampoon's Strip Poker, filmed at [II](Hedonism)(Hedonism Resorts), a [resort](naturist)(naturist resort) in [Negril](Negril), [Jamaica](Jamaica), with [Kaelin](Kato)(Kato Kaelin). The films aired on [DirecTV](DirecTV) and [Demand](In)(In Demand) [pay-per-view](pay-per-view). In late 2005, Munn began her role as teen surfer Mily Acuna over two seasons of the television drama [the Break](Beyond)(Beyond the Break)'', which aired during [Noggin](Noggin (brand))'s teen block, [N](The)(The N). She enjoys surfing and continues to practice the sport. She originally auditioned for the role of Kai Kealoha, but the producers wanted a "local girl". She also appeared in the film The Road to Canyon Lake. In 2006, Munn won a contest put out to the public to find a replacement for departing co-host Kevin Rose on the popular [network](G4)(G4 (U.S. TV channel)) program Attack of the Show! She then began co-hosting with [Pereira](Kevin)(Kevin Pereira) on April 10. She replaced temporary co-host Sarah Lane. The network, devoted to the world of video games and the video games lifestyle, was at first hesitant to hire Munn. Although she admits video games were her "weak point", she was confident in her technical knowledge."Playboy after hours – babe of the month" (February 2007) [Playboy](Playboy), magazine page image as seen in: On the show, she was featured with journalist [David](Anna)(Anna David (journalist)) in a segment called "In Your Pants", which deals with sex and relationship questions from viewers. While working on Attack of the Show!, she hosted [D](Formula)(Formula D), a now defunct program about American [racing](drift)(drifting (motorsport)), and an online [podcast](podcast) called Around the Net, formerly known as The Daily Nut, for G4. She left Attack of the Show! in December 2010 and was replaced by [Bailey](Candace)(Candace Bailey). She appeared in the [Schneider](Rob)(Rob Schneider) film [Stan](Big)(Big Stan) (2007), where she played Schneider's character's receptionist Maria. She had a significant role in the horror film [Insanitarium](Insanitarium), where she played a nurse at an asylum. ### 2010–2014: The Newsroom and breakthrough [[File:Olivia Munn 2013.jpg\|thumb\|upright\|left\|Munn at the 2013 ''[Bazaar](Harper's)(Harper's Bazaar)* Women of the Year Awards]] She had roles in the films [Night](Date)(Date Night) (2010) and [Man 2](Iron)(Iron Man 2)'' (2010). [Downey, Jr.](Robert)(Robert Downey, Jr.) praised Munn for her improvisation skills and led the crew in a round of applause. Munn hosted [Microsoft](Microsoft)'s Bing-a-thon, an advertisement on [Hulu](Hulu) for the Microsoft search-engine [Bing](Bing (search engine)), on June 8, 2009, alongside [Sudeikis](Jason)(Jason Sudeikis). Munn appeared in [Family](ABC)(ABC Family)'s [Greek](Greek (TV series)), portraying Cappie's love interest, Lana. In May 2010, [NBC](NBC) announced that Munn would star on the television series [Couples](Perfect)(Perfect Couples). The half-hour romantic comedy premiered on January 20, 2011. The series was canceled before it completed its first season run. On June 3, 2010, Munn debuted in her new role as a correspondent on [Central](Comedy)(Comedy Central)'s The Daily Show. She went on to appear in 16 more episodes as a correspondent, with [Guide](TV)(TV Guide)* naming her signature segment "Tiger Mothering," in which she mocked the high expectations of Chinese mothers, in part by interviewing her own mother.s coolest Graduates \|journal=[Guide](TV)(TV Guide)\|pages=21–22\|issn=0039-8543}} Her last episode as a correspondent aired September 2, 2011. She returned for a brief segment in host [Stewart](Jon)(Jon Stewart)'s final show on August 6, 2015. In 2010, Munn guest-starred on NBC's comedy-drama [Chuck](Chuck (TV series)) as a [CIA](Central Intelligence Agency) agent. In 2011, Munn appeared in the comedy film ''[Don't Know How She Does It](I)(I Don't Know How She Does It)* (2011) as Momo. In 2012, Munn had a leading role in [Babymakers](The)(The Babymakers), a minor role in [Freeloaders](Freeloaders (film)), and appeared in Magic Mike'', directed by [Soderbergh](Steven)(Steven Soderbergh). She also appeared as Angie, Nick's stripper girlfriend, in three episodes in season two of FOX's sitcom [Girl](New)(New Girl). Munn gained prominence in a lead role in [Sorkin](Aaron)(Aaron Sorkin)'s drama series [Newsroom](The)(The Newsroom (American TV series))* on [HBO](HBO). In the series, she played Sloan Sabbith, an economist who worked on the show's fictional news network, ACN, alongside lead anchor Will McAvoy ([Daniels](Jeff)(Jeff Daniels)). The series ran for three seasons from 2012 to 2015. Since then, Munn and her costar [Sadoski](Thomas)(Thomas Sadoski) have discussed with Sorkin their desire for the show to return. Munn played a correspondent in "True Colors," the May 12, 2014 episode of the Showtime documentary series [of Living Dangerously](Years)(Years of Living Dangerously) in which she interviewed Washington State Governor [Inslee](Jay)(Jay Inslee) about his efforts to reduce CO2 emissions in his home state. As of June 2014, Munn has been hired as the main promoter of Proactiv acne cleanser products starring in several commercials and one infomercial for the product. The commercials show Munn experiencing acne herself. ### 2015–present Beginning in January 2015, Munn voiced the character Phoebe Callisto on the [Junior](Disney)(Disney Junior) animated series [from Tomorrowland](Miles)(Miles from Tomorrowland). In 2016, Munn was cast as [Braddock / Psylocke](Elizabeth)(Betsy Braddock in other media) (one of [Apocalypse](Apocalypse (comics))'s Four Horsemen) in [Apocalypse](X-Men:)(X-Men: Apocalypse). Though the film received mixed reviews, it was a financial success, grossing over $500 million worldwide. The same year, Munn had a leading role portraying a technical supervisor in the comedy film [Christmas Party](Office)(Office Christmas Party). She also had a starring role in the television series [Six](Six (TV series)) as a [CIA](CIA) operative and appeared on [13](Season)(America's Got Talent (season 13)) of ''[Got Talent](America's)(America's Got Talent)'' as a guest judge in the season's second Judge Cuts episode. Munn also starred as a biologist in the 2018 science fiction horror film [Predator](The)(The Predator (2018 film)), the fourth installment in the [franchise](Predator)(Predator (franchise)). Following the film's release, it was revealed that Munn's co-star, Steven Wilder Striegel, with whom she shared a scene, was a registered [offender](sex)(sex offender) who had preyed on a 14-year-old girl. Upon learning of this, Munn informed her fellow cast members, and requested that the scene (Striegel's sole appearance in the film) be cut from the film, which [Century Fox](20th)(20th Century Fox) agreed to. Munn subsequently had a lead role in the [Netflix](Netflix)-released romantic comedy film [Wedding Repeat](Love)(Love Wedding Repeat) (2020), a remake of the French feature Plan de Table. ## In print [[File:Olivia Munn & Joel McHale (13950135434).jpg\|thumb\|Munn with Deliver Us from Evil co-star [McHale](Joel)(Joel McHale) at the 2014 WonderCon]] Munn has appeared in advertising campaigns for [Nike](Nike, Inc.), [Pepsi](Pepsi) and [Neutrogena](Neutrogena). She appeared on the Fall 2006 cover of Foam magazine in September, in ''Men's Edge* magazine in August, and was featured in a pictorial in [Complex](Complex (magazine))'' in November 2006, where she later became a columnist. In February 2007, she appeared as "Babe of the Month" in a non-nude pictorial in [Playboy](Playboy (magazine))* magazine. She discusses this shoot in her book Suck it, Wonder Woman: The Misadventures of a Hollywood Geek.Hess, Amanda (June 30, 2010). ["Consent and Manipulation in Olivia Munn's Playboy Shoot"](http://www.washingtoncitypaper.com/blogs/sexist/2010/06/30/consent-and-manipulation-in-olivia-munns-playboy-shoot/) . [City Paper](Washington)(Washington City Paper). Retrieved June 6, 2012. Munn also appeared in the July/August 2007 issue of ''[Health](Men's)(Men's Health (magazine)). In September 2007, she was featured in the Italian [Fair](Vanity)(Vanity Fair (magazine))* for their "Hot Young Hollywood" Issue. Munn appeared in the Winter/Spring 2009 issue of Men's Health Living''. She was featured as the [girl](cover)(cover girl) for the July/August 2009 issue of Playboy, and later on the cover of the January 2010 and February 2011 issues of [Maxim](Maxim (magazine)). Munn appears on the cover of the January 2012 issue of [FHM](FHM)* magazine. She was voted #2 by readers on Maxims list of their Hot 100 Women of 2012. Munn's book Suck It, Wonder Woman was released on July 6, 2010. In a review for [Out New York](Time)(Time Out New York), Olivia Giovetti said that the book offers glimpses into Munn's life, but does not go into depth. ## Activism and charity work In 2011, Munn teamed up with Dosomething.org's Green Your School Challenge. She was a spokesperson for the campaign by filming a PSA regarding the challenge, and sat on the panel of judges that evaluated the entries. Munn helped [PETA](People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals) with a campaign that ultimately freed an ill [elephant](elephant) from a touring [circus](circus). Her blog for [Huffington Post](The)(The Huffington Post)Munn, Olivia (November 21, 2011). ["Sarah Cannot Wait Another Day"](http://www.huffingtonpost.com/olivia-munn/ringling-bros-animal-abuse-elephants_b_1106802.html) . [Huffington Post](The)(The Huffington Post). Retrieved June 6, 2012. was credited with encouraging fans to contact the [USDA](United States Department of Agriculture) on the elephant's behalf.Daily Dish (November 29, 2011). ["Olivia Munn Celebrates After Ailing Elephant Is Saved"](http://blog.sfgate.com/dailydish/2011/11/29/olivia-munn-celebrates-after-ailing-elephant-is-saved/) . San Francisco Chronicle Retrieved June 6, 2012. Munn posed for PETA's "I'd Rather Go Naked Than Wear Fur" campaign in April 2010,[FITSNews](FITSNews) (April 28, 2010). ["Olivia Munn Wants Elephants To Run Free"](http://www.fitsnews.com/2010/04/28/olivia-munn-wants-elephants-to-run-free/) . fitsnews.com. Retrieved January 13, 2012.["Olivia Munn Combats Circus Cruelty"](http://www.peta.org/features/olivia-munn/) . [PETA](PETA). Retrieved January 13, 2011. and again in January 2012. In February 2013, Munn fronted a PETA release of new footage showing cruelty to animals in Chinese [farms](fur)(Fur farming). She appears in the 2021 short film [Ralph](Save)(Save Ralph), a film by [Society International](Humane)(Humane Society International) about [testing](animal)(animal testing). Munn has used her platform to speak out against [sentiments](anti-Asian)(Anti-Asian racism in the United States), harassment, and assaults following the [pandemic](COVID-19)(COVID-19 pandemic). Munn was part of a roundtable discussion alongside [AAPI Hate](Stop)(Stop AAPI Hate) co-founder [Jeung](Russell)(Russell Jeung), [RISE](Rise (non-governmental organization)) founder and CEO [Nguyen](Amanda)(Amanda Nguyen) with [News](CBS)(CBS News) entitled "Asian Americans Battling Bias: Continuing Crisis." ## Personal life In regard to her faith and work in [Us from Evil](Deliver)(Deliver Us from Evil (2014 film)), Munn has said that "I didn't believe in the supernatural before this movie." However, after viewing footage from the [York City Police Department](New)(New York City Police Department) of allegedly real-life [exorcisms](Exorcism in Christianity), she stated "I'm a full believer [now]." She is a [belt](black)(black belt (martial arts)) in [taekwondo](taekwondo). In November 2017, Munn accused film director [Ratner](Brett)(Brett Ratner) of repeatedly [harassing](sexually)(sexual harassment) her, as well as an instance of [assault](sexual)(sexual assault). She has supported the [Too](Me)(Me Too movement) and [Up](Time's)(Time's Up (organization)) movements with both personal efforts and public statements. Munn was in a relationship with NFL [quarterback](quarterback) [Rodgers](Aaron)(Aaron Rodgers) from 2014 to 2017. She began dating comedian [Mulaney](John)(John Mulaney) in 2021, and they announced that Munn was pregnant in September 2021. Their son was born on November 24, 2021. Their son's middle name is Hiệp, which is in honor of Munn's Vietnamese heritage. ## Filmography ### Film ### Television ### Music videos ## Bibliography * ## References ## Further reading * ## External links * * [births](Category:1980)(Category:1980 births) [American actresses](Category:21st-century)(Category:21st-century American actresses) [American memoirists](Category:21st-century)(Category:21st-century American memoirists) [American women writers](Category:21st-century)(Category:21st-century American women writers) [from Los Angeles](Category:Actresses)(Category:Actresses from Los Angeles) [from Oklahoma City](Category:Actresses)(Category:Actresses from Oklahoma City) [from Tokyo](Category:Actresses)(Category:Actresses from Tokyo) [from Utah](Category:Actresses)(Category:Actresses from Utah) [actresses of Chinese descent](Category:American)(Category:American actresses of Chinese descent) [expatriates in Japan](Category:American)(Category:American expatriates in Japan) [female taekwondo practitioners](Category:American)(Category:American female taekwondo practitioners) [film actresses](Category:American)(Category:American film actresses) [people of English descent](Category:American)(Category:American people of English descent) [people of German descent](Category:American)(Category:American people of German descent) [people of Irish descent](Category:American)(Category:American people of Irish descent) [people of Vietnamese descent](Category:American)(Category:American people of Vietnamese descent) [television actresses](Category:American)(Category:American television actresses) [television talk show hosts](Category:American)(Category:American television talk show hosts) [voice actresses](Category:American)(Category:American voice actresses) [women memoirists](Category:American)(Category:American women memoirists) [women television presenters](Category:American)(Category:American women television presenters) [writers of Chinese descent](Category:American)(Category:American writers of Chinese descent) [writers of Vietnamese descent](Category:American)(Category:American writers of Vietnamese descent) [Category:Cosplayers](Category:Cosplayers) [people](Category:Living)(Category:Living people) [(TV series) contestants](Category:Sasuke)(Category:Sasuke (TV series) contestants) [personalities from Los Angeles](Category:Television)(Category:Television personalities from Los Angeles) [personalities from Oklahoma City](Category:Television)(Category:Television personalities from Oklahoma City) [personalities from Utah](Category:Television)(Category:Television personalities from Utah) [of Oklahoma alumni](Category:University)(Category:University of Oklahoma alumni) [from Oklahoma City](Category:Writers)(Category:Writers from Oklahoma City) [from Los Angeles](Category:Writers)(Category:Writers from Los Angeles) [from Tokyo](Category:Writers)(Category:Writers from Tokyo) [from Utah](Category:Writers)(Category:Writers from Utah)
Van Halen	van_halen	# Van Halen Revision ID: 1157584097 \| Timestamp: 2023-05-29T15:59:23Z --- \| origin = [California](Pasadena,)(Pasadena, California), U.S. \| years_active = 1973–2020 \| label = \| spinoffs = \| website = \| past_members = * [Van Halen](Eddie)(Eddie Van Halen) * [Van Halen](Alex)(Alex Van Halen) * [Lee Roth](David)(David Lee Roth) * Mark Stone * [Anthony](Michael)(Michael Anthony (musician)) * [Hagar](Sammy)(Sammy Hagar) * [Cherone](Gary)(Gary Cherone) * [Van Halen](Wolfgang)(Wolfgang Van Halen) }} Van Halen ( ) was an American [rock](hard)(hard rock) band formed in [California](Pasadena,)(Pasadena, California), in 1973. Credited with "restoring hard rock to the forefront of the music scene", Van Halen was known for its energetic live shows and for the virtuosity of its lead guitarist, [Van Halen](Eddie)(Eddie Van Halen). The band was inducted into the [and Roll Hall of Fame](Rock)(Rock and Roll Hall of Fame) in 2007. From 1974 until 1985, Van Halen consisted of Eddie Van Halen; Eddie's brother, drummer [Van Halen](Alex)(Alex Van Halen); vocalist [Lee Roth](David)(David Lee Roth); and bassist/vocalist [Anthony](Michael)(Michael Anthony (musician)). Upon its release in 1978, the band's [debut album](self-titled)(Van Halen (album)) reached No. 19 on the [Billboard](Billboard (magazine)) pop music charts and would sell over 10 million copies in the U.S. By 1982, the band released four more albums ([Halen II](Van)(Van Halen II), [and Children First](Women)(Women and Children First), [Warning](Fair)(Fair Warning (Van Halen album)), and [Down](Diver)(Diver Down)), all of which have since been certified multi-platinum. By the early 1980s, Van Halen was one of the most successful rock acts of the day. The album [1984](1984 (Van Halen album)) was a commercial success with U.S. sales of 10 million copies and four successful singles. Its lead single, "[Jump](Jump (Van Halen song))", was the band's only U.S. number one single. In 1985, Roth left the band to embark on a solo career and was replaced by former [Montrose](Montrose (band)) lead vocalist [Hagar](Sammy)(Sammy Hagar). With Hagar, the group released four U.S. number-one, multi-platinum albums over the course of 11 years ([5150](5150 (album)) in 1986, [OU812](OU812) in 1988, [Unlawful Carnal Knowledge](For)(For Unlawful Carnal Knowledge) in 1991, and [Balance](Balance (Van Halen album)) in 1995). Hagar left the band in 1996 shortly before the release of the band's first greatest hits collection, [Of – Volume I](Best)(Best Of – Volume I (Van Halen album)). Former [Extreme](Extreme (band)) frontman [Cherone](Gary)(Gary Cherone) replaced Hagar and recorded the commercially unsuccessful album [Halen III](Van)(Van Halen III) with the band in 1998, before parting ways in 1999. Van Halen then went on hiatus until reuniting with Hagar in 2003 for a [tour in 2004](worldwide)(Summer Tour 2004 (Van Halen)) and the double-disc greatest hits collection [Best of Both Worlds](The)(The Best of Both Worlds (Van Halen album)). Hagar again left Van Halen in 2005. In 2006 Roth returned, but Anthony was replaced on bass guitar by Eddie's son, [Van Halen](Wolfgang)(Wolfgang Van Halen). In 2012, the band released their final studio album [Different Kind of Truth](A)(A Different Kind of Truth), which was commercially and critically successful. It was also Van Halen's first album with Roth in 28 years and the only one to feature Wolfgang. , Van Halen is 20th on the [Industry Association of America](Recording)(Recording Industry Association of America) (RIAA) list of best-selling artists in the United States; the band has sold 56 million albums in the States and more than 80 million worldwide, making them one of the [groups of all time](best-selling)(List of best-selling music artists). , Van Halen is one of only five rock bands with two studio albums to sell more than 10 million copies in the United States and is tied for the most multi-platinum albums by an American band. Additionally, Van Halen has charted 13 number-one hits on Billboards [Rock](Mainstream)(Mainstream Rock (chart)) chart. VH1 ranked the band seventh on a list of the top 100 Hard Rock artists of all time. Eddie was diagnosed with cancer in 2001, and died of the disease on October 6, 2020. A month after his father's death, Wolfgang confirmed that Van Halen had disbanded. ## History ### 1972–1977: Formation and early history The Van Halen brothers were born in [Amsterdam](Amsterdam), the Netherlands, [Van Halen](Alex)(Alex Van Halen) in 1953 and [Van Halen](Eddie)(Eddie Van Halen) in 1955, sons to [Dutch](Dutch people) musician Jan Van Halen and Indonesian-born [Indo](Indo people) Eugenia Van Beers. The family moved to [California](Pasadena,)(Pasadena, California), in 1962. Young Edward soon began learning classical piano [ear](by)(Playing by ear), and became so proficient he won an annual piano recital contest 2 or 3 years in a row, despite never mastering the art of [sight-reading](sight-reading) [music](sheet)(sheet music). The brothers began playing music together in the 1960s, Eddie on drums and Alex on guitar. However, while Ed was delivering newspapers to payoff his drum set, Alex would secretly develop a passion and proficiency at them. Eventually out of frustration and brotherly competition, Ed told Alex, "OK, you play drums and I'll play your guitar."Everybody Wants Some: The Van Halen Saga by Ian Christie, The Van Halen brothers formed their very first band, the Broken Combs, in 1964. As they gained popularity playing backyard parties and local high school functions, they changed their name first to the Trojan Rubber Co, then in 1972 to Genesis, later still to Mammoth when they discovered [Genesis](Genesis (band)) was already in use by a major-label British band. At this time Eddie was both vocalist and lead guitarist and friend Mark Stone on bass. They rented a [sound-system](public address system) from Indiana-born, Pasadena transplant [Lee Roth](David)(David Lee Roth) for $10 per night. The loquacious, worldly, energetic son of a local ophthalmologist, Roth fronted a local R & B influenced rock band the Red Ball Jets. Roth's uncle Manny owned NYC's Bleecker street [Wha?](Cafe)(Cafe Wha?) until 1968. Partly to save money, they now invited Roth to join as their lead vocalist despite previous unconvincing audition(s). Ultimately Roth's charismatic "[Dandy](Jim)(Jim Dandy (song))" approach would be both an artistic foil to Eddie's circumspect, guitar prodigy talents as well as allowing Eddie to focus his energies on song composition. [[File:Van halen at La Canada High School 1976.jpg\|thumb\|left\|upright=1.2\|Van Halen performing at [Cañada High School](La)(La Cañada High School) in 1975.]] In 1973, Mammoth officially changed its name to Van Halen. According to Roth,Crazy from the Heat by David Lee Roth this was his brainchild. He felt it was a name that held long-term identity, artistic and marketing advantages, like [Santana](Santana (band)). They continued to play Pasadena, San Bernardino, and Venice at clubs, festivals, backyard parties and city parks like Hamilton, drawing up to 2000 people. Traffic jams and noise complaints to the local police often ensued, as far away as San Pedro. Van Halen subsequently played clubs in Los Angeles and West Hollywood to growing audiences, increasing their popularity entirely through self-promotion, passing out flyers at local high schools. This tenacious self-promotion soon built them an auspicious, loyal, area following. [[File:Van halen flyer.jpg\|thumb\|upright=0.7\|Flyer handed out at [Cañada High School](La)(La Cañada High School) show. Ed playing an [Ibanez](Ibanez) Destroyer.]] By 1974, Roth had been in the band for about a year, when they decided to replace the ambivalent Stone, who was unsure about a career in music. [Anthony Sobolewski](Michael)(Michael Anthony (musician)), a Pasadena college music-classmate of Eddie's, joined the group after an all-night jam session. He had sung and played bass in a number of less successful Arcadia backyard-party bands, including "Snake". Although he had some reticence, his own Snake-bandmate encouraged him to seize this golden opportunity. Also in 1974, the band got a major break when it was hired to play regularly at the [Strip](Sunset)(Sunset Strip) club [Gazzarri's](Gazzarri's). The Doors had also 'broken' there in the late 60s. Owner, Bill Gazzarri previously claimed VH was "too loud". However, their new managers, Mark Algorri and Mario Miranda, took over the club's hiring and booked them through 1976. By the Spring of 1975, they were also the regular Tuesday night band at Myron's Ballroom. They had succeeded in becoming a staple of the Los Angeles music scene during the mid-1970s, playing at well-known clubs like the [a Go Go](Whisky)(Whisky a Go Go) on Sunset Strip. All the club gig success led naturally to the need for a demo tape, which was recorded at [Studios](Cherokee)(Cherokee Studios) in Northridge where [Dan](Steely)(Steely Dan) had recently completed an LP. According to a January 4, 1977, [Times](L.A.)(Los Angeles Times) article by Robert Hilburn, entitled "HOMEGROWN PUNK", [Bingenheimer](Rodney)(Rodney Bingenheimer) saw Van Halen at Gazzarri's in the summer of 1976, and enticed [Simmons](Gene)(Gene Simmons) of [Kiss](Kiss (band)) to see them. Impressed to action, Simmons produced a 29-track Van Halen demo tape, entitled "Zero" at [Recorder](Village)(The Village (studio)) studios in Los Angeles and with post-production overdubs completed at [Lady Studios](Electric)(Electric Lady Studios) in New York. Simmons even suggested changing their name to "Daddy Longlegs." However, a very disappointed Simmons could do no more once Kiss management opined that VH "had no chance of making it".Van Halen: The Early Years movie ### 1977–1985: Breakthrough and initial success with David Lee Roth Doug Messenger, Van Morrison's band leader guitarist, knowing that [Templeman](Ted)(Ted Templeman) was looking for a "guitar hero" act, had seen Van Halen at the [Starwood](Starwood (nightclub)) in Hollywood and placed a number of calls to Warner Bros. for Ted to check them out. "I don't know if it was 4 calls or 10, but I knew this was exactly the act Ted wanted. So on a horrendously rainy night in mid-1977", Warner Bros. executive [Ostin](Mo)(Mo Ostin) and producer Ted Templeman saw Van Halen perform at the Starwood in Hollywood.YouTube video According to a December 1977 story in the Los Angeles Times, it was Van Halen's first booking at the Starwood and the first time they hired their own roadies. "We wanted to come on with a little class and we couldn't be seen setting up our own stuff in Hollywood," explained Roth. Although the audience was negligible — Messenger claims only a barmaid and himself were there until Ostin and Templeman arrived — the Warner reps were so impressed that they wrote a [of intent](letter)(letter of intent) on a napkin, and within a week met at a local diner with the band, their future manager Marshall Berle (nephew of comedian [Berle](Milton)(Milton Berle)) and Warner touring manager [Monk](Noel)(Noel Monk), who had just guided the [Pistols](Sex)(Sex Pistols) across the United States. Warner offered the band a rather basic two album recording contract, one that heavily favored Warner, paying the four young men only $0.70 per unit (album) sold, a deal that would leave the band over $1 million in debt at the conclusion of their first supporting tour as the opening act for [Journey](Journey (band)) and [Montrose](Montrose (band)). The group recorded their debut album at [Sound Recorders](Sunset)(Sunset Sound Recorders) studio from mid-September to early October 1977, recording guitar parts for one week and then vocals for two additional. All of the tracks were laid down with little [over-dubbing](Overdub) or multi-tracking. Minor mistakes were purposely left on the record and a very rudimentary instrument set-up was used to give the record a live feel. During this time, they continued to play various venues in Southern California, including some notable concerts at the Pasadena Convention Center produced by their promoter and impresario, Steve Tortomasi, himself a fixture in the local rock and roll scene. Upon its release, [Halen](Van)(Van Halen (album)) reached No. 19 on the [Billboard](Billboard (magazine)) pop music charts, one of rock's most commercially successful debuts. It was highly regarded as both a heavy metal and hard rock album. The album included songs now regarded as Van Halen classics, like "[with the Devil](Runnin')(Runnin' with the Devil)" and the guitar solo "[Eruption](Eruption (instrumental))", which showcased Eddie's use of a technique known as ["finger-tapping"](Tapping). The band toured for 9 months more, opening for [Sabbath](Black)(Black Sabbath) and establishing a reputation for their performances.Monk, Noel memoir The band's chemistry was based on Eddie Van Halen's guitar technique and David Lee Roth's charisma. The band returned to the studio for 2 weeks, in late 1978, to record [Halen II](Van)(Van Halen II), a 1979 [LP](LP record) similar in style to their debut. This record yielded the band's first hit single, "[the Night Away](Dance)(Dance the Night Away (Van Halen song))", which peaked at 15 on BB Hot 100. Over the next four years, the band toured non stop, never taking more than 2 weeks to record an album. Their [and Children First](Women)(Women and Children First) album was released in 1980, and further cemented Van Halen's platinum-selling status to Warner Bros. It yielded two hit singles [the Cradle Will Rock...](And)(And the Cradle Will Rock...) and [Wants Some!!](Everybody)(Everybody Wants Some!! (song)). For the first time, an amplified [electric piano](Wurlitzer)(Wurlitzer electric piano) was used to complement Ed's guitar. [[1981.jpg\|thumb\|Van Halen in 1981](File:Vanhalen)] In 1981, during the recording of the [Warning](Fair)(Fair Warning (Van Halen album)) album, artistic tensions rose. Eddie's desire for darker, more complex songs in minor keys was at odds with Roth's pop tastes and style. Nonetheless, Roth and veteran Warner Bros rock producer Ted Templeman acquiesced to Eddie's wishes on this album. Doug Messenger recalls how Ed and (engineer) Don Landee rerecorded the [Unchained](Unchained (song)) solo hours after Ted "stormed out of" the studio. This darker album only reached platinum status after $250,000 of [payola](payola) pushed it up nationwide from 400k copies. Planning to release a cover single, then take a hiatus, Roth and Ed easily agreed upon a remake of the 1960s Roy Orbison classic [Pretty Woman](Oh,)(Oh, Pretty Woman), which peaked at 12 on BB Top 100. Pretty Woman's comical video helped its immediate success, but was also banned by MTV. However, due to much pressure from Warner Bros. the hiatus was canceled and the [Down](Diver)(Diver Down) LP was squeezed out, again, within 2 weeks time. Roth's preference for pop covers prevailed this time and with Ed's synthesizer and guitar riffs Diver Down charted much better. The band then earned a spot in the [Book of World Records](Guinness)(Guinness Book of World Records) for the highest-paid single appearance of a band: $1.5 million for a 90-minute set at [Wozniak](Steve)(Steve Wozniak)'s 1983 [Festival](US)(US Festival). A show that both Noel Monk and Doug Messenger considered artistically, a performance disaster, Roth being imbibed on cocaine to the point of forgetting lyrics. Despite this return to form, Roth and Eddie's differences continued, and this caused friction with other band members. [Sheehan](Billy)(Billy Sheehan), after his band [Talas](Talas (band)) completed a tour with Van Halen, claims he was approached by Eddie to replace Michael Anthony, the reasons for this were never completely clear to Sheehan as nothing came of it. During this time, Eddie contributed the score and instrumental songs to the movie The Wild Life, starring [Stoltz](Eric)(Eric Stoltz). The score was laden with drum machine and hinted at sounds and riffs that would come with their next two albums, [1984](1984 (Van Halen album)) and [5150](5150 (album)). 1984 (released on January 9, 1984) was a commercial success, going five-times platinum after a year of release. Recorded at Eddie's newly built [Studios](5150)(5150 Studios), the album featured keyboards, which had only been used sporadically on previous albums. The lead single, "[Jump](Jump (Van Halen song))", featured a synthesizer [hook](Hook (music)) and anthemic lyrics inspired by news coverage of a suicidal jumper. It became the band's first and only No. 1 [pop](popular music) hit with Roth, garnering them a Grammy nomination. }} Other singles included "[Panama](Panama (song))" (No. 13 U.S.), "[Wait](I'll)(I'll Wait)" (also No. 13 U.S.), and "[for Teacher](Hot)(Hot for Teacher)". Three of the songs had popular music videos on MTV. 1984 was praised by critics and fans alike, peaking at No. 2 on the [Billboard](Billboard (magazine)) charts behind Michael Jackson's Thriller. Following the 1984 Tour, Roth decided to quit and form a new band. Group members have given different reasons for the split, but all were firmly rooted in control of the band's sound, artistic direction, singles released and pace. Roth was concerned about Eddie playing music outside of Van Halen. Roth was also launching a successful solo career with two hit cover songs off his [from the Heat](Crazy)(Crazy from the Heat) EP, a remake of [Beach Boys](the)(the Beach Boys)' classic "[Girls](California)(California Girls)" (#3 U.S.) and a pairing of the classic [Jolson](Al)(Al Jolson) standard "[a Gigolo](Just)(Just a Gigolo (song))" and "[Ain't Got Nobody](I)(I Ain't Got Nobody)"(#12 U.S.), which had previously been paired together by [Prima](Louis)(Louis Prima). Roth was also offered a $20-million film deal for a script titled Crazy from the Heat. Roth hoped Van Halen would contribute the soundtrack; however, the film deal fell through when [Pictures](CBS)(CBS Pictures) was reorganized in 1986. ### 1985–1996: Sammy Hagar era [[Hagar.jpg\|alt=Hagar playing guitar\|thumb\|The introduction of Sammy Hagar (pictured in 2005) as vocalist continued the band's worldwide popularity.](File:Sammy)] Eddie invited [Smyth](Patty)(Patty Smyth) of [Scandal](Scandal (American band)) to replace Roth but she declined. Eddie was then introduced to [Hagar](Sammy)(Sammy Hagar) in 1985, via their mutual [Ferrari](Ferrari) mechanic. Hagar was the former frontman for the hard rock group [Montrose](Montrose (band)), and now a solo artist coming off a very successful year. His hit single "[Can't Drive 55](I)(I Can't Drive 55)" came from his 1984 album [VOA](VOA (Sammy Hagar album)), produced by [Templeman](Ted)(Ted Templeman) who had also produced Montrose's first album [Montrose](Montrose (album)), as well as all of Van Halen's albums up to that point. Hagar agreed to sing as well as play rhythm guitar. [Hall](Daryl)(Daryl Hall) was also offered the lead vocal position in 1985, but also declined. Hall verified, to Hagar, his musical guest in the May 2015 season premiere of ''[from Daryl's House](Live)(Live from Daryl's House)'' that indeed he was approached after a Hall & Oates concert. When Warner Brothers president Mo Ostin came to the band's [Studios](5150)(5150 Studios) to hear the band's progress, Hagar said, the band played "[Can't This Be Love](Why)(Why Can't This Be Love)" live with Eddie on keyboards, after which Ostin proclaimed: "I smell money." The 1986 Van Halen album [5150](5150 (album)) was a huge hit, becoming the band's first No. 1 album on the [Billboard](Billboard (magazine)) charts, driven by the keyboard-dominated singles "Why Can't This Be Love" (#3 U.S.), "[Dreams](Dreams (Van Halen song))", and "[Walks In](Love)(Love Walks In)" (Top 30 U.S.). To further introduce the new era for the band, a new Van Halen logo was put on the cover. The new logo retained elements of the original, but now the lines extending from either side of 'VH' wrapped around and formed a ring. Following the release of the 5150 album, the "[Tour](5150)(5150 Tour)" was launched to support it across North America. Footage was released on VHS and DVD as [Without a Net](Live)(Live Without a Net (Van Halen video)). The band minimized the use of pre-Hagar Van Halen songs in the set, other than the band's best known classics. This was a trend that continued, with the expanding repertoire of Hagar-era songs slowly whittling away at the number of Roth-era songs on the set list. All four studio albums produced during this period reached No. 1 on the [Billboard](Billboard (magazine)) pop music charts and 17 singles breached the top 12 of the mainstream rock tracks chart. During that era, a single taken from 1988's [OU812](OU812), "[It's Love](When)(When It's Love)", reached the Top Five, peaking at No. 5. In addition, Van Halen was nominated for two [award](Grammy)(Grammy award)s. The band won the 1992 Grammy Award for Best Hard Rock Performance with Vocal for the album [Unlawful Carnal Knowledge](For)(For Unlawful Carnal Knowledge). Van Halen continued to enjoy success throughout the mid-1990s. They recorded a live album and concert film at two 1992 F.U.C.K. tour shows in Fresno, California called [Right Here, Right Now](Live:)(Live: Right Here, Right Now). During the F.U.C.K. and the live album supporting Live: Right Here Right Now tour, [Ranger](Night)(Night Ranger)'s [Fitzgerald](Alan)(Alan Fitzgerald) played keyboards offstage every night allowing Eddie to concentrate on guitar. (Fitzgerald would return to play offstage keyboards on the 2004, 2007, and 2012 tours) In 1995, Van Halen released the album [Balance](Balance (Van Halen album)) and supported [Jovi](Bon)(Bon Jovi) on their [Summer stadium tour](European)(These Days Tour). During the recording of songs for the film [Twister](Twister (1996 film)), escalating tension between Hagar and the Van Halen brothers boiled over and Hagar departed on [Day](Father's)(Father's Day (United States)), 1996. Hagar would later claim he was fired, and Eddie would later claim Hagar quit. The band had recorded "[Being](Humans)(Humans Being)", a song for which Eddie, unhappy with Hagar's lyrics, retitled the song and wrote the melody. This upset Hagar, and when they were to record a second song for the soundtrack, Hagar was in Hawaii for the birth of his child. It was not an easy birth as the baby was [breech](Breech birth), so it needed to be delivered via C-section. With Hagar back in Hawaii and against the idea of doing the project, but having another song left to contribute, the Van Halen brothers alone recorded the instrumental "Respect the Wind". The performance, which featured Eddie playing guitar and Alex playing keyboards, was nominated for [Rock Instrumental Performance](Best)(Grammy Award for Best Rock Instrumental Performance) at the [Annual Grammy Awards](39th)(39th Annual Grammy Awards). The band was also working on a compilation album. This led to conflicts with Hagar and the group's new manager, [Danniels](Ray)(Ray Danniels), (Ed Leffler's replacement and Alex Van Halen's former brother-in-law), even though it was Leffler who had renewed their contract with Warner Bros. Records and had added in the Best Of album option years before. Hagar was reluctant to work on a compilation album before a new album came out, but if the rest of the band and Danniels insisted on going forward with one at that time, his preference was that it should include only Roth-era songs, or as a second choice, that two volumes should be released, one of Roth-era songs and one of Hagar-era songs. During this same period, competing personal priorities and creative differences contributed to increasing interpersonal tensions within the band, particularly between Eddie and Hagar. The relationship between Hagar and Van Halen broke down. ### 1996: Temporary reunion with Roth David Lee Roth called Eddie to discuss what tracks would be included on a planned Van Halen compilation (work on which had actually begun before Hagar's departure). They got along well, and Eddie invited him up to his house/studio. Shortly afterwards, Roth re-entered the studio with the band and producer [Ballard](Glen)(Glen Ballard). Two songs from those sessions were added to the band's [Of – Volume I](Best)(Best Of – Volume I (Van Halen album)) album and released as singles to promote it. In September, Van Halen was asked to present an award at the [MTV Video Music Awards](1996)(1996 MTV Video Music Awards). They agreed, and on September 4, 1996, the four original members of Van Halen made their first public appearance together in over eleven years. This helped to bring the compilation to No. 1 on the U.S. album charts. However, unknown to Roth, Eddie and Alex were still auditioning other singers, including [Malloy](Mitch)(Mitch Malloy). Eddie, Alex and Anthony recorded several Van Halen songs with Mitch on lead vocals during his audition, two of which (Why Can't This Be Love and Panama) later leaked online. Malloy declined Eddie's invitation to join the band after the VMAs publicity stunt with Roth, of which he had no prior knowledge until it aired on TV. As a parting gift, Eddie gave Malloy an instrumental track to which Malloy later wrote lyrics to and released in 2015 with the title "It's The Right Time" (The guitar riff from that instrumental later reemerged in the sessions leading up to Van Halen's 1998 studio album [Halen III](Van)(Van Halen III) in the song "That's Why I Love You." The song was scrapped from the record in favor of "Josephina.") The band's appearance on the 1996 MTV Video Music Awards fueled reunion speculation. But several weeks after the awards show, it was discovered that Roth was out of Van Halen again. Roth released a statement in which he apologized to the media and the fans, stating that he was an unwitting participant in a publicity stunt by Van Halen and manager Ray Danniels. The next day, Eddie and Alex released their own statement, claiming they had been completely honest with Roth and had never suggested he was guaranteed to be the next lead singer.Open letter from David Lee Roth about the band's appearance on the MTV Video Music Awards Eddie later explained (in regard to the MTV Video Music Awards appearance) that he had initially been embarrassed by Roth's antics while on camera behind [Beck](Beck), who was giving an acceptance speech for the award that Van Halen had presented to him. Immediately following this, the band had been taken to a backstage press conference where press queries about a reunion tour were met with Eddie saying that he needed a hip replacement and would have to record an entire new studio album before any tour. In private Roth told Eddie to avoid talking about negative things like his hip and the two almost came to blows, thereby shattering any chance of a full-scale reunion. ### 1996–2000: Gary Cherone era [[Cherone-Extreme-2.jpg\|alt=\|thumb\|upright=0.7\|Vocalist Gary Cherone (pictured in 2008) joined the band briefly in the late 1990s.](File:Gary)] Van Halen's next lead singer was [Cherone](Gary)(Gary Cherone), frontman of the then-defunct Boston-based band [Extreme](Extreme (band)), a group which had enjoyed some popular success in the early 1990s. The result was the album [Halen III](Van)(Van Halen III). Many songs were longer and more experimental than Van Halen's earlier work. It was a notable contrast from their previous material, with more focus on ballads than traditional rock songs ("How Many Say I", with Eddie on vocals). Sales were poor by the band's standards, only reaching a Gold certification, despite the album peaking at No. 4 on the U.S. charts. However, Van Halen III did produce the hit "[You](Without)(Without You (Van Halen song))", and another album track, "Fire in the Hole", appeared on the [Weapon 4](Lethal)(Lethal Weapon 4) soundtrack. The album was followed by a tour. The III Tour saw Van Halen playing in new countries, including first ever visits to Australia and [Zealand](New)(New Zealand). "Without You" acquired No. 1 place on the Billboard Mainstream Rock Charts in 1998, the 13th song of theirs to do so, and thus making them the band with the most Mainstream Rock No. 1s. Shortly afterwards, Van Halen returned to the studio and in early 1999, they started work on a new album. For the sessions, they brought on [Kortchmar](Danny)(Danny Kortchmar) to produce the scrapped album. Working titles of songs included "Left for Dead", "River Wide", "Say Uncle", "You Wear it Well", "More Than Yesterday", "I Don't Miss You ... Much", "Love Divine", and "From Here, Where Do We Go?", however more than 20 songs were rumored to have been written. The project was never released, with Cherone leaving the band amicably in November 1999. Citing musical differences, it is likely III's poor sales and critical reception had a big impact. None of the material from these sessions has ever been released, and in fact the band released no new material until three new songs written and recorded with Hagar were included on the 2004 [of Both Worlds](Best)(The Best of Both Worlds (Van Halen album)) compilation. Lyrics that Cherone had written for the Van Halen III follow up would be used in his next project with [of Judah](Tribe)(Tribe of Judah (band)). Cherone later stated that he believed if he and the band had toured first and then recorded an album they might have creatively gelled more and the album would have turned out better. Touring with Cherone had proven disappointing in terms of attendance. Eddie later admitted that "the powers that be" ([Bros.](Warner)(Warner Bros. Records)) had forced his hand in parting with Cherone. Unlike with the previous two singers, there was reportedly no bad blood behind the breakup, and Cherone remained in contact and on good terms with Van Halen. As when Hagar left, speculation resumed on a Roth reunion. ### 1999–2003: Hiatus from public Eddie recovered from his hip surgery in November 1999, but from 2000 to early 2004 no official statements were made by Van Halen and no music was released. However, information about members past and present trickled in. The Van Halen brothers continued writing at 5150 Studios, Cherone recorded an album and toured with new band [of Judah](Tribe)(Tribe of Judah (band)). One of the songs that Cherone had written for the scrapped second album with Van Halen, titled "Left For Dead", would see its lyrics set to a new musical arrangement with Tribe of Judah. [[File:Sammy Hagar and the Waboritas.jpg\|alt=The band hugging onstage\|thumb\|left\|After leaving Van Halen, Hagar has focused on his band the Waboritas as well as branching out into the [Wabo](Cabo)(Cabo Wabo) nightclub, merchandise, and alcohol brands.]] Responding to speculation that he had been approached to replace Cherone, [Coverdale](David)(David Coverdale) said, "I called a mutual friend and said, 'Tell Eddie I had nothing to do with this.' It just got ridiculous. I've heard that they were going to approach me, but since I left [Purple](Deep Purple) I've always done my own thing. Why would I join anybody else?" In 2000, the band would reunite briefly with David Lee Roth attempting to do a new album, only for disputes with the singer to ultimately abort these plans. The recorded demos would be among the ones reworked into new songs on 2012's [Different Kind of Truth](A)(A Different Kind of Truth). The band also tried to just schedule some concerts with Roth at a later date.[Michael Anthony Breaks His Silence](https://www.vhnd.com/2006/03/17/michael-anthony-breaks-his-silence/) In the summer of 2002, Roth and Hagar teamed up in the Song for Song, the Heavyweight Champs of Rock and Roll tour (also known as the 'Sans-Halen' or 'Sam & Dave' Tour). The tour, with both singers headlining, attracted media and audience fascination because it seemed more improbable than even a Van Halen tour with Roth or Hagar. It drew large crowds and featured no opening acts, Roth and Hagar alternating as the first act. Roth contrasted his personality with Hagar's: "He's the kind of guy you go out with to split a bottle with a friend. I'm the kind of guy you go out with if you want to split your friend with a bottle." Anthony guested with Hagar's band, [Waboritas](the)(the Waboritas), numerous times and sometimes even sang lead vocals. During performances, Hagar would tease Anthony by asking, "Do the brothers know you're here?" Anthony never played with Roth. Cherone appeared on occasion. Hagar released a live album (Hallelujah), featuring vocals by Anthony and Cherone, and a documentary DVD, Long Road to Cabo, about touring with Roth. While the two singers promoted the tour and publicly claimed mutual respect, rumors of bitter acrimony and mutual loathing swirled. The allegations were later supported by backstage video, which showed the Roth and Hagar camps maintaining strict separation. Next, Hagar joined with [Satriani](Joe)(Joe Satriani) and [Journey](Journey (band)) guitarist Neal Schon to form a side project, Planet Us, with Michael Anthony and Deen Castronovo (also of Journey) on drums. The band recorded just two songs and played live a few times before dissolving when Hagar and Anthony rejoined Van Halen. On July 4, 2004, Roth performed with one of the world's most popular orchestras, the [Pops](Boston)(Boston Pops), at United States' annual Pops Goes the Fourth celebration in Boston. Hagar remained active, releasing five albums and creating his own merchandising brand Cabo Wabo, which lends its name to the line of [tequila](tequila) he formerly owned, as well as his franchise of cantinas. He reunited with [Montrose](Montrose (band)) in 2003 and 2005 for a few performances and maintained contact with Anthony, often playing with him. With Van Halen inactive, Anthony set up a website and worked on merchandising projects such as his signature [Yamaha](Yamaha Corporation) bass and range of hot sauces. He became involved with the annual music industry [Show](NAMM)(NAMM Show). ### 2003–2005: Reunion with Hagar [[Halen during their 2004 reunion period. Left to right: Michael Anthony, Sammy Hagar, Eddie Van Halen.](Image:VanHalenwithHagar.jpg\|thumb\|right\|Van)] Anthony had repeatedly contacted Hagar regarding a reunion, detailing how the attempts to do the same with Roth never worked out. Eventually, Hagar decided to call Alex to spend a day together with him, the two got along and got interested in reuniting on stage. In late March 2004, Van Halen and Hagar announced that Hagar would reunite with the band for a new compilation release and a summer concert tour of the U.S. In July 2004, Van Halen released [Best of Both Worlds](The)(The Best of Both Worlds (Van Halen album)), a double CD compilation featuring three new songs with Hagar: "It's About Time", "Up for Breakfast", and "Learning to See". These new songs were credited to Hagar/Van Halen/Van Halen, which was unusual since normally the entire lineup, which also included Michael Anthony, would be credited. However, the performance was credited to the entire band. Anthony later revealed in interviews that Eddie had in fact not wanted him to be a part of the reunion, with him only joining at Hagar's insistence. The new songs had already been recorded, with Eddie playing the bass parts himself instead, and Anthony only provided backing vocals for the three tracks. No songs with Cherone from Van Halen III were included. It was certified platinum in the US in August 2004. [Summer 2004 tour](The)(Van Halen Summer Tour 2004) grossed almost US$55 million, and Pollstar listed Van Halen in the top 10 grossing tours of 2004. Professional reviews of the tour, however, proved to be mixed. On some shows, Eddie's son Wolfgang came onstage and played guitar with his father during "316", a song dedicated to his son, taking its name from his March 16 date of birth. During the later stages of the tour, stories of Eddie being drunk began to surface along with fan-shot video footage of poor playing. At the band's final show of the tour, in Tucson, Eddie smashed one of his guitars at the end of the show. After the tour, things broke down. At first Hagar stated he had yet to decide what he would be doing with Van Halen, although he was still an official member of the band. Soon after, however, both Hagar and Anthony admitted that Eddie had problems with alcohol during the tour that affected everyone involved. Hagar stated that he was "done with Van Halen" and wished that everyone would have "taken it more seriously." Despite this, Eddie later described himself as "satisfied" with the tour. After the tour ended, Hagar returned to his solo band [Waboritas](the)(the Waboritas), and Anthony appeared with him on tour occasionally. The band quickly faded from view after Hagar left again. In December 2005, Anthony revealed in an interview with [& Brian](Mark)(Mark & Brian) that he had not talked with the Van Halens and was unsure of their plans. ### 2006–2008: Second reunion with Roth and Wolfgang Van Halen era [[HALEN KSAT 20080124 (cropped).jpg\|thumb\|right\|Roth and the Van Halen brothers performing in San Antonio, Texas in 2008.](File:VAN)] Rumors of a Roth reunion re-emerged and on January 3, 2006, Roth explained during an interview that he had spoken to Alex Van Halen the previous week and a reunion was "inevitable." However, he also said that Eddie Van Halen was "off in his own little world" recently. When asked if any problems occurred with Hagar during the 2004 tour Eddie answered, "Sammy is Sammy, and for the most part that's just fine." Roth persisted with suggestions of a reunion, saying, "People want the reunion," and "No one will pay respect to what any of us do [musically] until we get the reunion out of the way." In May 2006, he told Billboard.com, "There's contact between the two camps." On June 3, Anthony began a successful tour with Hagar billed as the Other Half (a reference to them being half of Van Halen with the other half being Eddie/Alex), with Anthony singing lead vocals sometimes. Meanwhile, on June 19 the Van Halen brothers jumped onstage with [Chesney](Kenny)(Kenny Chesney) at [Home Depot Center](The)(The Home Depot Center) performing "Jump" and "[Really Got Me](You)(You Really Got Me)". This unusual performance was their first onstage since the 2004 tour. This was followed by another Eddie performance on July 19, 2006, at the House of Petals in Los Angeles, playing new material. He followed this with an announcement on July 27, 2006, that some of his new music would be released on the soundtrack for the pornographic film Sacred Sin. In March 2006, Anthony spoke to Japanese rock magazine [Burrn!](Burrn!), claiming the brothers did not want him on the 2004 reunion tour, although Hagar did (and would not play without Anthony), but he had to agree to reduced royalties and end absolutely all association with the band after the tour in terms of rights to using the name to promote himself. It was in this same interview he admitted he was not involved in the new songs on Best of Both Worlds and only recorded three tracks for Van Halen III. Anthony was replaced as bass player by Eddie's son, Wolfgang Van Halen, in 2006. On September 8, 2006, [Stern](Howard)(Howard Stern)'s live interview with Eddie broke the band's long silence. Eddie said he was willing to reunite with Roth and revealed a solo album in the works. Eddie confirmed that Wolfgang had replaced Anthony on bass; Wolfgang had played guitar alongside his father during Eddie's guitar solo on some 2004 concert dates. When queried about the Other Half tour, Eddie said Anthony could "do what he wants" now. This shocked and offended many fans. In November, Eddie's spokesperson, Janie Liszewski, claimed the Van Halen family was writing/rehearsing for a summer 2007 tour, which [Billboard](Billboard (magazine)) magazine's website shortly confirmed. However, the Van Halen website remained in the state it had been in since the Hagar reunion. On December 11, 2006, Eddie stated to [World](Guitar)(Guitar World) magazine that Roth had been directly invited to rejoin the band. However, on December 28, Roth announced that he had not talked to Eddie in two years, and a reunion with Van Halen could result in a "[Springer](Jerry)(The Jerry Springer Show)-style fight." In January 2007, Van Halen was inducted into the [and Roll Hall of Fame](Rock)(Rock and Roll Hall of Fame). The Van Halen brothers, Anthony, Hagar, and Roth were inducted, though only Hagar and Anthony appeared at the induction ceremony on behalf of the group.[Rock and Roll Hall of Fame Backs New Members](https://www.nytimes.com/2007/01/08/arts/music/08cnd-rock.html?_r=1&oref=slogin&pagewanted=print) Ben Sisario, January 8, 2007, [New York Times](The)(The New York Times), "Rock and Roll Hall of Fame Backs New Members" Eddie Van Halen was in rehab at the time, so neither he nor Alex attended the ceremony. Velvet Revolver had been slated to perform You Really Got Me with Roth on lead vocals, however Roth wanted to perform Jump and the band hadn't rehearsed that song, so Roth elected to not attend the ceremony at all. Billboard announced on January 24, 2007, that Van Halen would reunite with Roth for a U.S. tour. This was confirmed shortly after on the official Van Halen website. The Van Halen News Desk announced on February 15, 2007, that a Van Halen Best Of (1978–1984), a single-disc compilation of the Roth era, would be released by April 3. Shortly after, information arrived in a flood. Various sources claimed the tour was shut down as was the new Best Of CD. On March 8, 2007, Eddie announced on Van Halen's website that he was in rehab. Along with the announcement, a change was made to the website. The logo at the top of the page changed to the original Van Halen logo from their 1978 debut album. As the band's Hall of Fame induction drew near, media focus shifted to that. [Revolver](Velvet)(Velvet Revolver) would induct the band and speak on their behalf. On March 12, 2007, the band was inducted at a ceremony held at the [Hotel](Waldorf-Astoria)(Waldorf-Astoria Hotel) in New York City. Anthony and Hagar were the only inductees in attendance. Velvet Revolver performed "[Talkin' 'Bout Love](Ain't)(Ain't Talkin' 'Bout Love)". Their performance was universally panned by Van Halen fans because of [Weiland's](Scott)(Scott Weiland) poor vocal performance and [Slash's](Slash (musician)) inability to even correctly play the opening main guitar riff. Anthony and Hagar performed "[Can't This Be Love](Why)(Why Can't This Be Love)" with [Shaffer](Paul)(Paul Shaffer). This performance was also panned by Van Halen fans for the poor musicianship of and the weird arrangement performed by the backing band. At a post-induction press conference, Hagar said he would love to work with Van Halen again but that the Van Halens should tour with Roth first. On April 21, 2007, Eddie served as an Honorary Race Official for the [NASCAR](NASCAR) race at [International Raceway](Phoenix)(Phoenix International Raceway). On May 24, he posted a note to the Van Halen website confirming that he had completed rehab successfully. After nearly 10 months of speculation and rumors, Van Halen (and Roth separately via his own website) said that the band would be going on a tour of North America. Roth claimed in the press release that, "the idea is that this will continue on and on and on" and also that [world tour](a)(Van Halen World Tour 2008) and a new album were both in the works. [[HALEN 2008.jpg\|thumb\|left\|Van Halen onstage with Roth and Wolfgang in 2008.](File:VAN)] Press reaction to the reunion was largely warm, but the re-designed website sparked controversy when Anthony was removed from images of old album artwork. The album covers were restored to their original condition a day later without a word. Wolfgang later explained in 2020 that the omission of Anthony on the website was a choice made by the band's marketing team and was done without consent of the band. Once the band discovered the condition of the website, they ordered it be reverted to its original state. [Fall 2007 tour](The)(Van Halen Fall 2007 Tour) was originally 25 dates, but was extended into 2008 with a second leg. Van Halen started their new tour on September 27, 2007, in [North Carolina](Charlotte,)(Charlotte, North Carolina). Playing to sellout crowds, the tour generated positive reviews. Amid rumors of Eddie being back in rehab, multiple dates of the tour were postponed. The official reason was the need for medical procedures to be run on Eddie. On March 5, 2008, World Entertainment Weekly to CBS News reported that the reason the tour had been interrupted was Eddie's needing to reenter rehab. The report also indicated that it had been a "furious backstage bust-up in Florida with his 17-year-old son and bandmate Wolfgang" which had motivated Eddie to seek help once again. In response to rumors about Eddie being back in rehab [Bertinelli](Valerie)(Valerie Bertinelli) said that "he is not in rehab." She did not, however, say if he had recently been in rehab, stating only that he was not currently, a statement echoed by Wolfgang during the 2008 Kids Choice Awards. Eventually, the tour started back up on April 17 at the [Events Center](Reno)(Reno Events Center) in Nevada. The tour ended on June 2, 2008, at the [Andel Arena](Van)(Van Andel Arena) in [Rapids](Grand)(Grand Rapids), [Michigan](Michigan). During the show Roth stated multiple times that this would not be their final show and that they would "see everyone next time." At this show the arena sign was altered to read "VAN HALEN ARENA". According to the Van Halen News Desk, the reunion tour with Roth was the highest grossing in the band's history, raking in almost $93 million. On July 3, 2008, Van Halen headlined the [City Summer Festival](Quebec)(Quebec City Summer Festival) in front of a crowd of 85,000. ### 2008–2015: A Different Kind of Truth In an interview with [World](Guitar)(Guitar World), posted on November 12, 2008, about the making of his upcoming new [Wolfgang](EVH)(EVH Wolfgang) guitar from Fender, Eddie said, in regard to new Van Halen music, "I'll be making music 'til the day I die. I've done all kinds of stuff, and more is coming. I can't tell you exactly when right now. Wolfgang is in the 12th grade and he needs to graduate first. Then I'm getting married in June. We'll pick it up after that." Eddie underwent surgery on his left hand in 2009, following some treatment for [arthritis](arthritis) as he felt pain in his fingers during the 2007 tour. In an interview with Glide Magazine appearing in the May 2010 issue, [Zappa](Dweezil)(Dweezil Zappa) commented that Eddie had played him "new stuff from his record." It was not clear from the interview if the music was intended for a new Van Halen record. In August 2010, Warner/Chappell Music extended its administration agreements with Van Halen (specifically Eddie and Alex Van Halen). Under the agreement, Warner/Chappell will continue to administer their catalog of works. This press release also stated that the group was in the studio recording an album with Roth, that was due for release in 2011. Van Halen entered the [Studio](Henson)(Henson Recording Studios) C with producer [Shanks](John)(John Shanks) on January 17, 2011. Shanks posted on his Twitter account that he was in the studio with the band and posted a picture of one of Eddie's signature amps. The new album would be the first full-length Van Halen album since 1998's [Halen III](Van)(Van Halen III) and the first new music from the band since the three new songs from the 2004's Best of Both Worlds compilation. It would also be the first Van Halen album to feature Eddie's son, Wolfgang, on the bass in place of Anthony. This would also be the first full-length album to feature Roth on vocals in over 27 years, and the first new material with him in 15 years, since the two new songs with him on the [Of – Volume I](Best)(Best Of – Volume I (Van Halen album)). It would also be the first full-length album from Roth since 2003's Diamond Dave. On June 16, 2011, [Creed](Creed (band)), [Bridge](Alter)(Alter Bridge) and [Tremonti](Tremonti (band)) guitarist [Tremonti](Mark)(Mark Tremonti) claimed that he had been invited to 5150 studios and that Eddie, Alex and Wolfgang Van Halen performed the album live, in its entirety, for Tremonti and Creed touring guitarist, Eric Friedman. Producer/engineer Ross Hogarth claimed on July 31, 2011, that "[t]he whole Van Halen record has been recorded." On September 5, 2011, it was reported that the mixing on the new album had been completed in mid-August, and production had progressed to the mastering stage. Their official website was updated on December 26, 2011, announcing that tickets for their [tour](2012)(A Different Kind of Truth Tour) would be available starting January 10, 2012. On January 5, 2012, Van Halen played an intimate club gig at New York City's [Wha?](Cafe)(Cafe Wha?) which received widespread praise from media and fans. On January 10, the upcoming album's first single, titled "[Tattoo](Tattoo (Van Halen song))", made its premiere on radio stations. The following week, the single debuted at No. 67 on the Billboard Hot 100 Chart. The band's new studio album from [Records](Interscope)(Interscope Records), titled [Different Kind of Truth](A)(A Different Kind of Truth), was released on February 7, 2012. It was Van Halen's first studio release since 1998 and first with Roth on lead vocals since 1984. [[Halen-8570 (20616871306).jpg\|thumb\|Roth and Eddie Van Halen performing live in 2015.](File:Van)] On February 8, 2012, Van Halen performed a "friends and family" dress rehearsal at the Forum in Inglewood, California. The show featured many classics as well as several new songs from their latest release, A Different Kind of Truth, which was released officially the day before in the United States. Despite Van Halen's long lay-off between studio albums, A Different Kind of Truth sold 188,000 copies during its first six days of release, debuting at No. 2 on the Billboard 200 Albums Chart. There was an overwhelmingly positive critical and fan response to A Different Kind of Truth, which helped to fuel the album's long run in the upper reaches of the U.S. Billboard 200 Album Chart; additionally, it earned the band its highest-ever charting album in the United Kingdom (debuting at No. 6). Despite an average ticket price of approximately $150, Van Halen's "[Different Kind of Truth Tour](A)(A Different Kind of Truth Tour)" proved to be a commercial success as well, with nearly all U.S. arena shows "either sold-out, or close to it." Critically, the band received mostly positive reviews, particularly when performing throughout the U.S. Northeast and West Coast. R&B legends [and the Gang](Kool)(Kool and the Gang) were hand-picked by frontman Roth to open the first two legs of Van Halen's tour. On May 17, 2012, [Stone](Rolling)(Rolling Stone) reported that Van Halen was postponing all tour dates after their show of June 26 in [Orleans](New)(New Orleans), Louisiana. Shortly thereafter, the Van Halen News Desk revealed that the band's members were in good health, had not been arguing with each other, and that the reason for the postponed tour dates was to take a break after 18 months of non-stop recording and touring as well as to allow the group the opportunity to enhance its concert presentation before resuming the tour in the late summer of 2012. However, the postponed dates were officially listed as cancelled shortly thereafter. On August 30, 2012, Eddie was diagnosed with [diverticulitis](diverticulitis) and underwent surgery postponing the shows in Japan initially scheduled for November 2012. On April 20, 2013, the Roth-fronted Van Halen played its first show outside North America since 1984, and their first in Australia since 1998, at the Stone Festival in Sydney. This was followed by one show each in Tokyo and Nagoya, and two in Osaka, from June 18 to 26. In February 2015, Van Halen fansite VHND.com announced that Van Halen would be releasing their first ever live album with original vocalist David Lee Roth, [Dome Live in Concert](Tokyo)(Tokyo Dome Live in Concert) on March 31, 2015. The album featured performances from their June 23, 2013 performance at the [Dome](Tokyo)(Tokyo Dome). It was also reported that the band would be releasing newly remastered versions of their [debut](1978)(Van Halen (album)) and [1984](1984 (Van Halen album)) on CD, digital, and vinyl. In an interview the same month, when asked about the status of Van Halen, Eddie responded by saying "I'd love to make a studio record. Depends on everybody's timing. I don't know what Dave Lee Roth is up to now. I don't know if he's living in New York or Japan or wherever he is." ### 2015–2020: North American Tour, Eddie's death, and disbandment On March 24, 2015, Van Halen announced a [date tour](39)(Van Halen 2015 North American Tour) with Roth to take place from July to October 2015 across North America. In April 2015, Eddie told [Stone](Rolling)(Rolling Stone) that the band would "probably hunker down and do a studio record" after their tour. On September 12, 2019, Van Halen announced that they would be releasing a box set of the Japanese singles, which was released on November 1, 2019. On September 30, 2019, while promoting an upcoming 2020 solo concert, Roth expressed uncertainty towards the band's future, stating "I think Van Halen is finished." However, Hagar indicated in a May 2020 interview that he believed otherwise claiming "Until Ed or Alex Van Halen die, they’re not finished." He expressed a hope that the band could reunite with himself and Anthony saying "My dream tour is the Sam and Dave tour with Ed, Al and Mike." On October 6, 2020, Wolfgang announced on his Twitter account that Eddie had died from cancer. His death came just ten days after original Van Halen bassist Mark Stone died of cancer. In a November 2020 interview with [Stern](Howard)(Howard Stern), Wolfgang Van Halen confirmed the band's end, stating "You can't have Van Halen without Eddie Van Halen." He had also confirmed that the band had considered a "kitchen-sink" reunion tour with Hagar, Anthony and Cherone in the mix prior to Eddie's illness. He also stated that Eddie had been excited about reuniting with Anthony, Hagar, and Cherone. ## Contract riders [[Halen 027.jpg\|alt=A laser show above the band\|thumb\|Van Halen's elaborate stage productions required extra security included in their contract riders](File:Van)] The complex technical demands of a Van Halen tour ultimately had a notable side-effect on modern pop music tours, especially via the concert's technical [contract-rider](Rider (theater)). The band used contract-riders to verify the venue's power availability, security, structural and weight distribution details. Their now-infamous riders specified that a bowl of [M&M's](M&M's) candies was to be placed in their dressing room and, separately, in a different area of the contract, that all of the brown M&M's were to be removed. According to both manager Noel Monk and Roth, this was listed in the technical portion of the contract not because the band wanted to make capricious demands of the venue location, but rather as a test to see if the electrical, structural, security, and safety requirements in the rider had been thoroughly observed.From Crazy from the Heat, David Lee Roth's autobiography If the bowl, sans brown M&Ms was present, then the band, management and crew could safely assume the other, more legitimate concerns in the technical rider were fulfilled; conversely, if the bowl was missing, or brown M&M's were present, then Van Halen management would be within their rights to have their crew or the venue inspect the work, redo it or even cancel the night's production at the venue's expense. ## Musical style Van Halen's musical style has been described as [rock](hard)(hard rock), [metal](heavy)(Heavy metal music),. [Stone](Rolling)(Rolling Stone). [Wenner](Jann)(Jann Wenner). Retrieved August 16, 2014. [AOR](Arena rock), [rock](pop)(pop rock), and [metal](glam)(glam metal). ## Band members Final members [Van Halen](Eddie)(Eddie Van Halen) – guitar, keyboards, backing vocals ; lead vocals [Van Halen](Alex)(Alex Van Halen) – drums, percussion * [Lee Roth](David)(David Lee Roth) – lead vocals, occasional guitar * [Van Halen](Wolfgang)(Wolfgang Van Halen) – bass, backing vocals Former members * Mark Stone – bass, backing vocals * [Anthony](Michael)(Michael Anthony (musician)) – bass, backing vocals * [Hagar](Sammy)(Sammy Hagar) – lead vocals, guitar * [Cherone](Gary)(Gary Cherone) – lead vocals ### Timeline ### Lineups ## Discography * [Halen](Van)(Van Halen (album)) (1978) * [Halen II](Van)(Van Halen II) (1979) * [and Children First](Women)(Women and Children First) (1980) * [Warning](Fair)(Fair Warning (Van Halen album)) (1981) * [Down](Diver)(Diver Down) (1982) * [1984](1984 (Van Halen album)) (1984) * [5150](5150 (album)) (1986) * [OU812](OU812) (1988) * [Unlawful Carnal Knowledge](For)(For Unlawful Carnal Knowledge) (1991) * [Balance](Balance (Van Halen album)) (1995) * [Halen III](Van)(Van Halen III) (1998) * [Different Kind of Truth](A)(A Different Kind of Truth) (2012) ## Concert tours * [World Tour](1978)(Van Halen 1978 World Tour) * [Vacation Tour](World)(Van Halen World Vacation Tour) (1979) * [Invasion Tour](World)(Van Halen World Invasion Tour) (1980) * [Warning Tour](Fair)(Fair Warning Tour) (1981) * [Your Sheep Tour](Hide)(Hide Your Sheep Tour) (1982–1983) * [Tour](1984)(1984 Tour) * [Tour](5150)(5150 Tour) (1986) * [Tour](OU812)(OU812 Tour) (1988–1989) * [Unlawful Carnal Knowledge Tour](For)(For Unlawful Carnal Knowledge Tour) (1991–1992) * [Here Right Now Tour](Right)(Right Here Right Now Tour) (1993) * [Tour](Balance)(Balance Tour) (1995) * [Tour](III)(III Tour) (1998) * [Tour 2004](Summer)(Summer Tour 2004 (Van Halen)) * [American Tour 2007–2008](North)(Van Halen 2007–2008 North American Tour) * [Different Kind of Truth Tour](A)(A Different Kind of Truth Tour) (2012–2013) * [American Tour 2015](North)(Van Halen 2015 North American Tour) ## Awards and nominations Van Halen's For Unlawful Carnal Knowldege won two awards in the 1992 season: [Hard Rock Performance](Best)(Grammy Award for Best Hard Rock Performance) at the [Annual Grammy Awards](34th)(34th Annual Grammy Awards), and Favorite Heavy Metal/Hard Rock Album at the [Music Awards](American)(American Music Awards of 1992). The band has received an additional two Grammy nominations and eight further AMA nominations. The video for their 1992 single "Right Now" won three awards (of seven nominations) at the [MTV Video Music Awards](1992)(1992 MTV Video Music Awards) including the prestigious title of [of the Year](Video)(MTV Video Music Award for Video of the Year). The band's videos had previously been nominated for four VMAs, with "Jump" winning [for Best Stage Performance](Award)(MTV Video Music Award for Best Stage Performance) at the [MTV Video Music Awards](inaugural)(1984 MTV Video Music Awards) in 1984. ## See also * [of artists who reached number one in the United States](List)(List of artists who reached number one in the United States) * [of artists who reached number one on the U.S. Mainstream Rock chart](List)(List of artists who reached number one on the U.S. Mainstream Rock chart) ## References ### Sources * * * * * * ## External links * * * * [Van Halen News Desk](http://vhnd.com) * [VHLinks.com](http://www.vhlinks.com/) }} [ ](Category:Van Halen) [establishments in California](Category:1972)(Category:1972 establishments in California) [disestablishments in California](Category:2020)(Category:2020 disestablishments in California) [which contain graphical timelines](Category:Articles)(Category:Articles which contain graphical timelines) [of Pasadena, California](Category:Culture)(Category:Culture of Pasadena, California) [Award winners](Category:Grammy)(Category:Grammy Award winners) [rock musical groups from California](Category:Hard)(Category:Hard rock musical groups from California) [metal musical groups from California](Category:Heavy)(Category:Heavy metal musical groups from California) [groups established in 1972](Category:Musical)(Category:Musical groups established in 1972) [groups disestablished in 2020](Category:Musical)(Category:Musical groups disestablished in 2020) [groups from Los Angeles](Category:Musical)(Category:Musical groups from Los Angeles) [quartets](Category:Musical)(Category:Musical quartets) [musical groups](Category:Sibling)(Category:Sibling musical groups)
Founding Fathers of the United States	founding_fathers_of_the_united_states	# Founding Fathers of the United States Revision ID: 1160058788 \| Timestamp: 2023-06-14T05:22:47Z --- [[File:Gilbert Stuart Williamstown Portrait of George Washington.jpg\|thumb\|upright=1\|[Washington](George)(George Washington), commanding general of the [Army](Continental)(Continental Army) during the [War](Revolutionary)(American Revolutionary War) and a Revolutionary hero, presided over the [Convention](Constitutional)(Constitutional Convention (United States)) and became the nation's first [president](President of the United States).[1994](Jilson,)(#jillson1994), p. 291; Portrait by [Stuart](Gilbert)(Gilbert Stuart)]] The Founding Fathers of the United States, commonly referred to simply as the Founding Fathers, were a group of late-18th-century [revolutionary](American)(American Revolution) leaders who [united](United Colonies) the [Colonies](Thirteen)(Thirteen Colonies), oversaw the [of Independence](War)(American Revolutionary War) from [Britain](Great)(Kingdom of Great Britain), established the [States](United)(United States), and crafted a [of government](framework)(Constitution of the United States) for the new nation. America's Founders include the signers of the [States Declaration of Independence](United)(United States Declaration of Independence), [of Confederation](Articles)(Articles of Confederation), the [States Constitution](United)(United States Constitution), along with many others. In 1973 historian [B. Morris](Richard)(Richard B. Morris) identified seven figures as key Founders, based on what he called the "triple tests" of leadership, longevity, and statesmanship: [Adams](John)(John Adams), [Franklin](Benjamin)(Benjamin Franklin), [Hamilton](Alexander)(Alexander Hamilton), [Jay](John)(John Jay), [Jefferson](Thomas)(Thomas Jefferson), [Madison](James)(James Madison), and [Washington](George)(George Washington).[1973](Morris,)(#morris1973), p. 1 ## Historical founders Morris's selection of seven "greats" was widely accepted through the 20th century.[1987](Bernstein,)(#berstein1987), pp. 6–7 Adams, Jefferson, and Franklin were members of the [of Five](Committee)(Committee of Five) that drafted the Declaration of Independence. [Federalist Papers](The)(The Federalist Papers), which advocated the ratification of the [Constitution](Constitution of the United States), were written by Hamilton, Madison, and Jay. The constitutions drafted by Jay and Adams for their respective states of [York (1777)](New)(Constitution of New York) and [(1780)](Massachusetts)(Constitution of Massachusetts) were heavily relied upon when creating language for the U.S. Constitution.[Constitution, Transcription](US)(#founding'gov)[and Massachusetts Constitution](J.Adams)(#mass'gov)[John Jay & the Constitution](Morris:)(#morris2022) Franklin, Jay and Adams negotiated the 1783 [of Paris](Treaty)(Treaty of Paris (1783)), which recognized American independence, bringing an end to the American Revolutionary War.[2006](Jedson,)(#jedson2006), pp. 4–5, 37 Washington was [Commander-in-Chief](Commander-in-Chief) of the [Army](Continental)(Continental Army) and later president of the [Convention](Constitutional)(Constitutional Convention (United States)).[1994](Bradford,)(#bradford1994), pp. 129, 132[1994](Jilson,)(#jillson1994), p. 291 All held additional important roles in the early government of the United States, with Washington, Adams, Jefferson, and Madison serving as the first four [presidents](President of the United States); Adams and Jefferson as the first two [presidents](vice)(Vice president of the United States);[of Congress: Chronological list of Presidents](Library)(#loc'presidents) Jay as the nation's first [justice](chief)(Chief Justice of the United States);[of American biography, 1932](Dictionary)(#malone10), v. 10, pp. 8–9 Hamilton as the first [of the Treasury](Secretary)(United States Secretary of the Treasury);[2004](Chernow,)(#chernow2004), pp. 2, 4, 287 Jefferson and Madison as [of State](Secretaries)(United States Secretary of State);[2010](Chernow,)(#chernow2010), pp. 429, 526[2015](Stewart,)(#stewart2015), p. 186 and Franklin as America's most senior diplomat from the start of the Revolutionary War through the signing of the [of Paris](Treaty)(Treaty of Paris (1783)) in 1783.[of American Biography, 1932](Dictionary)(#malone6), v. 6, p. 595 The list of Founders is often expanded to include the [of the Declaration of Independence](signers)(Signing of the United States Declaration of Independence) and individuals who later ratified the [Constitution](U.S.)(Constitution of the United States). Meanwhile, some scholars regard all delegates to the [Convention](Constitutional)(Constitutional Convention (United States)) as Founding Fathers whether they approved the Constitution or not.[Archives: Signers of the Declaration](National)(#signers.gov), Outline of signers[Archives](National)(#framers.gov), Framers of the Constitution In addition, some historians include signers of the [of Confederation](Articles)(Articles of Confederation), which was adopted in 1781 as the nation's first constitution.[1958](Padover,)(#padover1958), pp. 191–214 Beyond this, the criteria for inclusion varied. Historians with an expanded view of the list of Founding Fathers include [War military leaders](Revolutionary)(List of military leaders in the American Revolutionary War) as well as participants in developments leading up to the war, including prominent writers, orators, and other men and women who contributed to the American Revolutionary cause.[Britannica](Encyclopædia)(#britannica2010), p. 12[2016](Sneff,)(#sneff2016), Essay[2009](Bernstein,)(#bernstein2009), pp. 6–7 Since the 19th century, some of the analysis has shifted from the concept of the Founders as [demigods](demigods) who created the modern nation-state to take into account [concerns](contemporary)(Presentism (literary and historical analysis)) over the inability of the founding generation to quickly remedy issues such as [slavery](Slavery in the United States) and the treatment of [Americans](Native)(Native Americans in the United States).[2007](Ellis,)(#ellis2007), pp. 14–15[Britannica](Encyclopædia)(#britannica2010), p. 12 More recently, other scholars of the American founding have suggested that the Founding Fathers' accomplishments and shortcomings be viewed within the context of their times.[2009](Bernstein,)(#bernstein2009), pp. ix–x1 ## Origin of phrase The exact phrase "Founding Fathers" was first coined by U.S. Senator [G. Harding](Warren)(Warren G. Harding) in his keynote speech at the [National Convention of 1916](Republican)(1916 Republican National Convention).[1987](Bernstein,)(#berstein1987), pp. 3–5 Harding later repeated the phrase at his [4, 1921 inauguration](March)(Inauguration of Warren G. Harding).[1921, Inaugural Address](Harding,)(#harding1921) While U.S. presidents used the terms founders and fathers in their speeches throughout much of the early 20th century, it was another 60 years before Harding's phrase would be used again during the inaugural ceremonies. [Reagan](Ronald)(Ronald Reagan) referred to "Founding Fathers" at both his [inauguration on January 20, 1981](first)(First inauguration of Ronald Reagan), and his [on January 20, 1985](second)(Second inauguration of Ronald Reagan).[1981, First Inaugural Address](Reagan,)(#reagan1981)[1985, Second Inaugural Address](Reagan,)(#reagan1985) In 1811, responding to praise for his generation, [Adams](John)(John Adams) wrote to [Quincy III](Josiah)(Josiah Quincy III), "I ought not to object to your Reverence for your Fathers as you call them ... but to tell you a very great secret...I have no reason to believe We were better than you are." He also wrote, "Don't call me, ... Father ... [or] Founder ... These titles belong to no man, but to the American people in general."[2007](Ellis,)(#ellis2007), pp. 6–7 In his [inaugural address in 1805](second)(Second inauguration of Thomas Jefferson), [Jefferson](Thomas)(Thomas Jefferson) referred to those who first came to the New World as "forefathers".[1805, Second Inaugural Address](Jefferson,)(#jefferson1805) At his [inauguration](1825)(Inauguration of John Quincy Adams), [Quincy Adams](John)(John Quincy Adams) called the U.S. Constitution "the work of our forefathers" and expressed his gratitude to "founders of the Union".[Quincy Adams, 1825, Inaugural Address](J.)(#quincy1825) In July of the following year, Quincy Adams, in an executive order upon the deaths of his father John Adams and Thomas Jefferson, paid tribute to the two as both "Fathers" and "Founders of the Republic".[Adams, 1826, Executive order](J. Q.)(#ex'order1826) These terms were used in the U.S. throughout the 19th century, from the inaugurations of [Van Buren](Martin)(Martin Van Buren) and [Polk](James)(James K. Polk) in [1837](Inauguration of Martin Van Buren) and [1845](Inauguration of James K. Polk), to [Lincoln](Abraham)(Abraham Lincoln)'s [Union speech](Cooper)(Cooper Union speech) in 1860 and his [Address](Gettysburg)(Gettysburg Address) in 1863, and up to [McKinley](William)(William McKinley)'s [inauguration](first)(First inauguration of William McKinley) in 1897.[Van Buren, 1837, Inaugural Address](Martin)(#vanburen1837)[1845, Inaugural Address](Polk,)(#polk1845)[2015](Conany,)(#conant2015), p. ix[1897, First Inaugural Address](McKinley,)(#mckinley1897) At a 1902 celebration of [Birthday](Washington's)(Washington's Birthday) in [Brooklyn](Brooklyn), [M. Beck](James)(James M. Beck), a constitutional lawyer and later a U.S. Congressman, delivered an address, "Founders of the Republic", in which he connected the concepts of founders and fathers, saying: "It is well for us to remember certain human aspects of the founders of the republic. Let me first refer to the fact that these fathers of the republic were for the most part young men." ### Framers and signers [[File:Portraits and autograph signatures of the framers and signers of the Declaration of Independence, Philadelphia, July 4th, 1776 (NYPL Hades-292367-466033).tif\|thumb\|upright=1\|Portraits and autograph signatures of the [Fathers](Founding)(Signing of the United States Declaration of Independence), who signed of the [of Independence](Declaration)(United States Declaration of Independence) at the [Continental Congress](Second)(Second Continental Congress) in [Philadelphia](Philadelphia)]] The [Archives](National)(National Archives and Records Administration) has identified three founding documents as the "Charters of Freedom": Declaration of Independence, [States Constitution](United)(United States Constitution), and [of Rights](Bill)(Bill of Rights (U.S. history)). According to the Archives, these documents "have secured the rights of the American people for more than two and a quarter centuries and are considered instrumental to the founding and philosophy of the United States." In addition, as the nation's first constitution, the Articles of Confederation and [Union](Perpetual)(Perpetual Union) has also gained acceptance as a founding document.[2003](Altman,)(#altman2003), pp. 20–21[2020](Bellia,)(#bellia2020), pp. 835–940 As a result, signers of three key documents are generally considered to be Founding Fathers of the United States: Declaration of Independence (DI), Articles of Confederation (AC), and U.S. Constitution (USC). The following table provides a list of these signers, some of whom signed more than one document. #### Other delegates The 55 delegates who attended the [Convention](Constitutional)(Constitutional Convention (United States)) are referred to as framers. Of these, 16 failed to sign the document.[2006](Morton,)(#morton2006), pp. 1, 316 Three refused, while the remainder left early, either in protest of the proceedings or for personal reasons.[2009](Beeman,)(#beeman2009), pp. xxi–xxiii, 25955[2006](Morton,)(#morton2006), p. 4 Nevertheless, some sources regard all framers as Founders, including those who did not sign:[2009](Bernstein,)(#bernstein2009), pp. 177–179 * [Richardson Davie](William)(William Richardson Davie), North Carolina * [Ellsworth](Oliver)(Oliver Ellsworth), Connecticut * [Gerry](Elbridge)(Elbridge Gerry), Massachusetts * * [Houston](William)(William Houston), New Jersey * [Houstoun](William)(William Houstoun (lawyer)), Georgia * [Lansing Jr.](John)(John Lansing Jr.), New York * [Martin](Alexander)(Alexander Martin), North Carolina * [Martin](Luther)(Luther Martin), Maryland * [Mason](George)(George Mason), Virginia * * [McClurg](James)(James McClurg), Virginia * [Francis Mercer](John)(John Francis Mercer), Maryland * [Pierce](William)(William Pierce (politician)), Georgia * [Randolph](Edmund)(Edmund Randolph), Virginia * * [Strong](Caleb)(Caleb Strong), Massachusetts * [Wythe](George)(George Wythe), Virginia * [Yates](Robert)(Robert Yates (politician)), New York () Randolph, Mason, and Gerry were the only three present at the Constitution's adoption who refused to sign. ### Additional Founding Fathers In addition to the signers and Framers of the founding documents and one of the seven notable leaders previously mentioned—[Jay](John)(John Jay)—the following are regarded as Founders based on their contributions to the creation and early development of the new nation: [Boudinot](Elias)(Elias Boudinot), New Jersey representative in the Continental Congress, [of the Confederation](Congress)(Congress of the Confederation) (president 1782–1783), and the first three [Congresses](U.S.)(United States Congress). Boudinot was director of the [Mint](U.S.)(United States Mint) under presidents Washington, Adams, and Jefferson, and also was the founding president of the [Bible Society](American)(American Bible Society).[2006](Holmes,)(#holmes2006), p. 150 * [Clinton](George)(George Clinton (vice president)), first governor of New York, 1777–1795, served again from 1801–1805, and was the fourth vice president of the US, 1805–1812. He was an anti-Federalist advocate of the Bill of Rights. * * [Henry](Patrick)(Patrick Henry), gifted orator, known for his famous quote, "[me liberty, or give me death!](Give)(Give me liberty, or give me death!)",[1969](Campbell,)(#campbell1969), pp. 130, 134 served in the First Continental Congress in 1774 and briefly in the Second Congress in 1775 before returning to Virginia to lead its militia. He then completed terms as the first and sixth governor of Virginia, 1776–1779 and 1784–1786.[2011](Kidd,)(#kidd2011), pp. 81, 101, 177, 198, 216 * [Hopkins](Esek)(Esek Hopkins), Commander-in-Chief of the [Navy](Continental)(Continental Navy)[of American biography, 1932](Dictionary)(#malone9), v. 9, pp. 209–210 * [Knox](Henry)(Henry Knox) served as chief [artillery](artillery) officer in most of Washington's campaigns. His earliest achievement was the capture of over 50 pieces of artillery, primarily cannons, at New York's Fort Ticonderoga, one of the keys to Washington's capture of Boston in early 1776. Knox became the first [of War](Secretary)(Secretary of War) under the U.S. Constitution in 1789. * [du Motier, Marquis de Lafayette](Gilbert)(Gilbert du Motier, Marquis de Lafayette), French Marquis who became a Continental Army general.[Nicholas, 2010](Dungan,)(#dugan2010), pp. 3, 4, 187–189 Served without pay, brought a ship to America, outfitted for war, provided clothing and other provisions for the patriot cause, all at his own expense.[2004](Chernow,)(#chernow2004), p. 96 * [R. Livingston](Robert)(Robert R. Livingston), member of the [of Five](Committee)(Committee of Five) that drafted the Declaration of Independence, 1776; first [Secretary of Foreign Affairs](U.S.)(United States Secretary of Foreign Affairs), 1781–1783, and first Chancellor of New York, 1777–1801. He administered the [oath of office](presidential)(Oath of office of the President of the United States) at the [inauguration of George Washington](First)(First inauguration of George Washington) and with James Monroe negotiated the [Purchase](Louisiana)(Louisiana Purchase) as the minister to France.[Center, NY: Livingston papers](Gotham)(#gothamcenter)[1960](Dangerfield,)(#dangerfield1960) * [Marshall](John)(John Marshall) served with George Washington at Valley Forge and later would be the first to refer to him as "the Father of his country". Appointed the fourth chief justice of the U.S. Supreme Court under John Adams, Marshall defined the authority of the court and ensured the stability of the federal government during the first three decades of the 19th century.[2009](Bernstein,)(#bernstein2009), pp. 126, 180 * [Monroe](James)(James Monroe), elected to the Virginia legislature (1782); member of the Continental Congress (1783–1786);[of American biography, 1932](Dictionary)(#malone13), v. 82, pp. 219–223 fifth president of the United States for two terms (1817–1825);[2009](Unger,)(#unger2009), pp. 2–3 Negotiated the Louisiana Purchase along with Robert Livingston.[2006](Cogliano,)(#cogliano2006), p. 241 * [Paine](Thomas)(Thomas Paine), author of [Sense](Common)(Common Sense) and other influential pamphlets in the 1770s; sometimes referred to as "Father of the American Revolution".[of Blacks in Higher Education, 2005](Journal)(#journal2005), p. 45[2009](Braff,)(#braff2009), pp. 39–43 While John Adams strongly criticized Paine for failing to see the need for a separation of powers in government, Common Sense proved crucial in building support for independence following its publication in January 1776.[2001](McCullough,)(#mccullough2001), pp. 96–97[2009](Bernstein,)(#bernstein2009), pp. 51–179 * [Randolph](Peyton)(Peyton Randolph), speaker of Virginia's [of Burgesses](House)(House of Burgesses), [of the First Continental Congress](president)(presidents of the Continental Congress), and a signer of the Continental Association.[1922](Ramage,)(#ramage1922), pp. 415–418 * [Rogers](John)(John Rogers (Continental Congress)), Maryland lawyer and judge, delegate to the [Congress](Continental)(Continental Congress) who voted for the Declaration of Independence but fell ill before he could sign it. * [Thomson](Charles)(Charles Thomson), secretary of the Continental Congress from its formation to its final session, 1774–1789.[1976](Bowling,)(#bowling1976), pp. 314–335 * [Warren](Joseph)(Joseph Warren), respected physician and architect of the Revolutionary movement, known as the "Founding Martyr" for his death at the [of Bunker Hill](Battle)(Battle of Bunker Hill), drafted the [Resolves](Suffolk)(Suffolk Resolves) in response to the [Acts](Intolerable)(Intolerable Acts).[1961](Cary,)(#cary1961), pp. viii, 19–20 * [Anthony" Wayne]("Mad)(Anthony Wayne), a prominent army general during the Revolutionary War. * [Willing](Thomas)(Thomas Willing), delegate to the [Congress](Continental)(Continental Congress) from Pennsylvania, the first president of the [of North America](Bank)(Bank of North America), and the first president of the [Bank of the United States](First)(First Bank of the United States)[1996](Wright,)(#wright1996), pp. 525–560 * [Wisner](Henry)(Henry Wisner), New York Continental Congress delegate who voted for the Declaration of Independence but left Philadelphia before the signing. ### Women founders [[File:Abigail Adams.jpg\|thumb\|upright=0.7\|[Adams](Abigail)(Abigail Adams) was a close advisor to her husband [Adams](John)(John Adams), a founder and the [U.S. president](second)(President of the United States).]] Historians have come to recognize the roles women played in the nation's early development, using the term "Founding Mothers".[Britannica](Encyclopædia)(#britannica2010)[1999](Kann,)(#kann1999), pp. xi–xii Among the females honored in this respect are: * [Adams](Abigail)(Abigail Adams), wife, confidant, and advisor to John Adams, as well as second [Lady](First)(First Lady of the United States); mother of sixth U.S. president [Quincy Adams](John)(John Quincy Adams); famously extolled her husband to "remember the ladies" in shaping the new nation. * [Otis Warren](Mercy)(Mercy Otis Warren), poet, playwright, and pamphleteer during the American Revolution.[Britannica](Encyclopædia)(#britannica2010), pp. 166–167 ### Other patriots The following men and women are also recognized for the notable contributions they made during the founding era: * [Allen](Ethan)(Ethan Allen), military leader and founder of Vermont.[1976](McWilliams,)(#mcwilliams1976), pp. 257–282[2009](Bernstein,)(#bernstein2009), p. 179 * [Allen](Richard)(Richard Allen (bishop)), African-American bishop, founder of the [African Society](Free)(Free African Society) and the [Methodist Episcopal Church](African)(African Methodist Episcopal Church) * [Attucks](Crispus)(Crispus Attucks), believed to be of Native American and African descent, was the first of five persons killed in the [Massacre](Boston)(Boston Massacre) of 1770, and thus the first to die in the American Revolution.[Britannica](Encyclopædia)(#britannica2010), pp. 172–173 Of the deaths at Boston John Adams would later write, "On that night the foundations of American independence was laid."[City Council, archives](Boston)(#boston1925), p. 34 * [Barry](John)(John Barry (naval officer)), an officer in the [Navy](Continental)(Continental Navy) during the [Revolutionary War](American)(American Revolutionary War), has been credited as "The Father of the American Navy" (sharing the descriptor with [Paul Jones](John)(John Paul Jones) and [Adams](John)(John Adams)) and was the first captain of a U.S. warship commissioned for service under the Continental flag. * [Bissell](Israel)(Israel Bissell), a patriot [rider](post)(Post riders) in Massachusetts who rode the news to Philadelphia of the British attack on [and Concord](Lexington)(Battles of Lexington and Concord). * [Henry Brackenridge](Hugh)(Hugh Henry Brackenridge), lawyer, judge, author, chaplin in the Continental army, ally of Madison, collaborator with Freneau, and central figure in early western Pennsylvania * [Burr](Aaron)(Aaron Burr), vice president under Jefferson[2006](Wood,)(#wood2006), pp. 225–242. * [Cato](Cato (spy)), a [Patriot](Black)(Black Patriot) and slave who served as a spy alongside his owner, [Mulligan](Hercules)(Hercules Mulligan). Cato carried intelligence gathered by Mulligan to officers in the Continental Army and other revolutionaries, including through British-held territory, which was credited for likely saving [Washington](George)(George Washington)'s life on at least two occasions. He was granted his freedom in 1778 for his service.[1996](Deetz,)(#deetz1996), pp. 138–140 * [Schuyler Church](Angelica)(Angelica Schuyler Church), sister-in-law of Alexander Hamilton, corresponded with many of the leading Founding Fathers, including Thomas Jefferson, Alexander Hamilton, and the Marquis de Lafayette.[2004](Chernow,)(#chernow2004), pp. 301, 315, 318–319, 423, 464 * [Coxe](Tench)(Tench Coxe), economist in the Continental Congress[2006](Yafa,)(#yafa2006), p. 76 [Deane](Silas)(Silas Deane), a delegate to the Continental Congress who signed the [Association](Continental)(Continental Association), became the first foreign diplomat from the U.S. to France where he helped negotiate and then signed the 1778 [of Alliance](Treaty)(Treaty of Alliance (1778)) that allied France with the United States during the Revolutionary War. [Freneau](Philip)(Philip Freneau), called the "Poet of the Revolution" * [Gallatin](Albert)(Albert Gallatin), politician and treasury secretary[Nicholas, 2010](Dungan,)(#dugan2010) * [Greene](Nathanael)(Nathanael Greene), Revolutionary War general; commanded [southern theater](the)(Southern theater of the American Revolutionary War) * [Hale](Nathan)(Nathan Hale), captured U.S. soldier, executed in 1776 for spying on British in New York[2007](Ellis,)(#ellis2007a), p. 86 * [Schuyler Hamilton](Elizabeth)(Elizabeth Schuyler Hamilton), wife of Alexander HamiltonRoberts, Cokie (2005). Founding Mothers: The Women Who Raised Our Nation. Harper Perennial.Roberts, Cokie (2008). Ladies of Liberty: The Women Who Shaped Our Nation. Harper. * [Iredell](James)(James Iredell), essayist for independence and advocate for the constitution, early Supreme Court Justice * [Paul Jones](John)(John Paul Jones), U.S. Navy captain; when the British requested his surrender, he replied, "I have not yet begun to fight"[2010](Chernow,)(#chernow2010), p. 363 * [Kent](Benjamin)(Benjamin Kent), lawyer, Massachusetts Attorney General, senior member of the [of Liberty](Sons)(Sons of Liberty) and the [End Caucus](North)(Boston Caucus). In April, 1776, Kent encouraged John Adams to declare American independence. * [Kościuszko](Tadeusz)(Tadeusz Kościuszko), American general, former Polish army general * [de Galvez](Bernardo)(Bernardo de Galvez), Spanish military, governor of Spanish Louisiana. Captured Baton Rouge, Natchez, and Mobile, all in British West Florida.Raab, 2007, , pp. 135 * [Laurance](John)(John Laurance), New York politician and judge who served as [advocate general](Judge)(Judge advocate general) during the RevolutionJones, Keith Marshall, III. John Laurance: The Immigrant Founding Father America Never Knew. Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society, 2019. [Lee](Arthur)(Arthur Lee (diplomat)), diplomat who helped negotiate and signed the 1778 [of Alliance](Treaty)(Treaty of Alliance (1778)) with France, along with Benjamin Franklin and Silas Deane. [Lee III](Henry)(Henry Lee III), army officer and Virginia governor[2007](Buchanan,)(#buchanan2007), pp. 522–524 * [Maclay](William)(William Maclay (Pennsylvania senator)), [Pennsylvania](Pennsylvania) politician and U.S. senator * [Mazzei](Philip)(Philip Mazzei), Italian physician, merchant, and authorLaGumina, Salvatore (2000). The Italian American experience: an encyclopedia. Taylor & Francis, p. 361. * [Morgan](Daniel)(Daniel Morgan), military leader and Virginia congressman * [Mulligan](Hercules)(Hercules Mulligan), Irish-American tailor and spy, member of the [of Liberty](Sons)(Sons of Liberty).[1937](O'Brien,)(#obrien1937), p. 13 Introduced Alexander Hamilton into New York society and helped him recruit men for his artillery units.[2004](Chernow,)(#chernow2004), pp. 42, 73, 78 * [Nicholas](Samuel)(Samuel Nicholas), commander-in-chief of the [Marines](Continental)(Continental Marines)[Marine Corps University](https://www.usmcu.edu/Research/Marine-Corps-History-Division/People/Whos-Who-in-Marine-Corps-History/Mackie-Ozbourn/Major-Samuel-Nicholas/), Essay * [Otis Jr.](James)(James Otis Jr.), one of the earliest proponents of patriotic causes, an opponent of slavery, and leader of Massachusetts' Committee of Correspondence, all in the 1760s.[1999](Kann,)(#kann1999), p. xi[2005](Bowman,)(#bowman2005), pp. 22–25 * [Pickens](Andrew)(Andrew Pickens (congressman)), army general and [Carolina](South)(South Carolina) congressman * [Pickering](Timothy)(Timothy Pickering), Secretary of War, [secretary of state](U.S.)(United States Secretary of State), from Massachusetts. Fired by President John Adams; replaced by John Marshall.[2001](McCullough,)(#mccullough2001), pp. 538–539 * [Pollock](Oliver)(Oliver Pollock), a merchant, diplomat, and financier of the [Revolutionary War](American)(American Revolutionary War) * [Putnam](Israel)(Israel Putnam), army generalRaphael, Ray. ''The Complete Idiot's Guide to the Founding Fathers And the Birth of Our Nation'' (Penguin, 2011). * [Revere](Paul)(Paul Revere), silversmith, member of the Sons of Liberty which staged the Boston Tea Party, and one of two horsemen in the [ride](midnight)(Paul Revere's Midnight Ride). * [Donatien de Vimeur, comte de Rochambeau](Jean-Baptiste)(Jean-Baptiste Donatien de Vimeur, comte de Rochambeau), French army general * [Salomon](Haym)(Haym Salomon), along with [Morris](Robert)(Robert Morris (financier)), was the prime financier of the American Revolution. He also spied for the Continental Army.[1987](Schwartz,)(#schwartz1987), pp. 12, 28 * [Schuyler](Philip)(Philip Schuyler), Revolutionary War general, U.S. senator from New York, father of the Schuyler sisters. * [St. Clair](Arthur)(Arthur St. Clair), major general, [of the Confederation Congress](president)(president of the Confederation Congress), and later first [of the Northwest Territory](governor)(governor of the Northwest Territory) * [Sumter](Thomas)(Thomas Sumter), [Carolina](South)(South Carolina) military leader, and member of both houses of Congress * [Trumbull](John)(John Trumbull), artist, whose paintings inform the collective memory of the early American Republic * [Varick](Richard)(Richard Varick), private secretary to [Washington](George)(George Washington), recorder of New York City (1786); Speaker of the New York Assembly (1787); second attorney general of [York state](New)(New York state) (1788–1789); Mayor of [York City](New)(New York City) (1789–1801); founder of the [Bible Society](American)(American Bible Society) (1828)[of American biography, 1932](Dictionary)(#malone19), v. 19, pp. 226–227 * [Wilhelm von Steuben](Friedrich)(Friedrich Wilhelm von Steuben), [Prussian](Kingdom of Prussia) officer; Inspector General of Continental Army; present at Valley forge with Washington, training militia[of American biography, 1932](Dictionary)(#malone17), v. 17, pp. 226–227 * [Webster](Noah)(Noah Webster), political writer, [lexicographer](Lexicography), educator[2010](Kendall,)(#kendall2010), pp. 5–7 ## The colonies unite (1765–1774) In the mid-1760s, Parliament began levying taxes on the colonies to finance Britain's debts from the [and Indian War](French)(French and Indian War), a decade-long conflict that ended in 1763.[1968](Jensen,)(#jensen1968), pp. 59–61[2010](Carp,)(#carp2010), p. 15 Opposition to [Act](Stamp)(Stamp Act of 1765) and [Acts](Townshend)(Townshend Acts) united the colonies in a common cause.[1991](Chaffin,)(#chaffin1991), p. 132. While the Stamp Act was withdrawn, taxes on tea remained under the Townshend Acts and took on a new form in 1773 with Parliament's adoption of the [Act](Tea)(Tea Act). The new tea tax, along with stricter customs enforcement, was not well-received across the colonies, particularly in Massachusetts.[2010](Carp,)(#carp2010), pp. 193–195 On December 16, 1773, 150 colonists disguised as [Indians](Mohawk)(Mohawk people), boarded ships in Boston and dumped 342 chests of tea into the [harbor](city's)(Boston Harbor), a protest that came to be known as the [Tea Party](Boston)(Boston Tea Party).[2010](Carp,)(#carp2010), p. 143 Orchestrated by Samuel Adams and the Boston [of Correspondence](Committee)(Committee of Correspondence), the protest was viewed as treasonous by British authorities.[2012](Andrilk,)(#andrilk2012), pp. 98–99 In response, Parliament passed the [or Intolerable Acts](Coercive)(Intolerable Acts), a series of punitive laws that closed Boston's port and placed the colony under direct control of the British government. These measures stirred unrest throughout the colonies, which felt Parliament had overreached its authority and was posing a threat to the self-rule that had existed in the Americas since the 1600s. Intent on responding to the Acts, twelve of the [Colonies](Thirteen)(Thirteen Colonies) agreed to send delegates to meet in Philadelphia as the [Continental Congress](First)(First Continental Congress), with [Georgia](Georgia (U.S. state)) declining because it needed British military support in its conflict with native tribes.[Vernon, Essay: First Continental Congress](Mount)(#firstcongress) The concept of an American union had been entertained long before 1774, but always embraced the idea that it would be subject to the authority of the British Empire. By 1774, however, letters published in [newspapers](colonial)(Early American publishers and printers), mostly by anonymous writers, began asserting the need for a "Congress" to represent all Americans, one that would have equal status with British authority.[1968](Jensen,)(#jensen1968), p. 461 ## Continental Congress (1774–1775) [[File:First continental Congress at Prayer.jpg\|thumb\|upright=1.3\|First Continental Congress at Prayer, an 1848 portrait by [H. Matteson](T.)(T. H. Matteson)]] The [Congress](Continental)(Continental Congress) was convened to deal with a series of pressing issues the colonies were facing with Britain. Its delegates were men considered to be the most intelligent and thoughtful among the colonialists. In the wake of the [Acts](Intolerable)(Intolerable Acts), at the hands of an unyielding British King and Parliament, the colonies were forced to choose between either totally submitting to arbitrary Parliamentary authority or resorting to unified armed resistance.[1974](Ammerman,)(#ammerman1974), p. 145[2011](Chorlton,)(#chorlton2011), p.xxviii The new Congress functioned as the directing body in declaring a great war, and was sanctioned only by reason of the guidance it provided during the armed struggle. Its authority remained ill defined, and few of its delegates realized that events would soon lead them to deciding policies that ultimately established a "new power among the nations". In the process the Congress performed many experiments in government before an adequate Constitution evolved.[1941](Burnett,)(#burnett1941), pp. ix, 197 ### First Continental Congress (1774) The [Continental Congress](First)(First Continental Congress) convened at Philadelphia's [Hall](Carpenter's)(Carpenter's Hall) on September 5, 1774.[1968](Jensen,)(#jensen1968), p. 490 The Congress, which had no legal authority to raise taxes or call on colonial militias, consisted of 56 delegates, including George Washington of Virginia; John Adams and [Adams](Samuel)(Samuel Adams) of Massachusetts; John Jay of New York; [Dickinson](John)(John Dickinson) of Pennsylvania; and [Sherman](Roger)(Roger Sherman) of Connecticut. [Randolph](Peyton)(Peyton Randolph) of Virginia was unanimously elected its first president.[Vernon, Peyton Randolph, Essay](Mount)(#randolph2022)[2011](Chorlton,)(#chorlton2011), p. 51 The Congress came close to disbanding in its first few days over the issue of representation, with smaller colonies desiring equality with the larger ones. While [Henry](Patrick)(Patrick Henry), from the largest colony, Virginia, disagreed, he stressed the greater importance of uniting the colonies: "The distinctions between Virginians, Pennsylvanians, New Yorkers, and New Englanders are no more. I am not a Virginian, but an American!".[1969](Campbell,)(#campbell1969), p. 110 The delegates then began with a discussion of the [Resolves](Suffolk)(Suffolk Resolves), which had just been approved at a town meeting in [Massachusetts](Milton,)(Milton, Massachusetts).[1973, pp. 21–34](Suffolk,)(#suffolk1973) Joseph Warren, chairman of the Resolves drafting committee, had dispatched [Revere](Paul)(Paul Revere) to deliver signed copies to the Congress in Philadelphia.[1971, Autobiography](Adams,)(#adams1971), p. 135[1921](Scaife,)(#scaife1921), p. 9 The Resolves called for the ouster of British officials, a trade embargo of British goods, and the formation of a [militia](militia) throughout the colonies. Despite the radical nature of the resolves, on September 17 the Congress passed them in their entirety in exchange for assurances that Massachusetts' colonists would do nothing to provoke war.[1973, pp. 37–38](Suffolk,)(#suffolk1973)[1998](Maier,)(#maier1998), p. 3 The delegates then approved a series of measures, including a [to the King](Petition)(Petition to the King) in an appeal for peace and a [and Resolves](Declaration)(Declaration and Resolves of the First Continental Congress) which introduced the ideas of natural law and natural rights, foreshadowing some of the principles found in the Declaration of Independence and [of Rights](Bill)(United States Bill of Rights).[1959](Perry,)(#perry1959), pp. xix, 285 The declaration asserted the rights of colonists and outlined Parliament's abuses of power. Proposed by [Henry Lee](Richard)(Richard Henry Lee), it also included a trade boycott known as the [Association](Continental)(Continental Association). The Association, a crucial step toward unification, empowered [of correspondence](committees)(committees of correspondence) throughout the colonies to enforce the boycott. The Declaration and its boycott directly challenged Parliament's right to govern in the Americas, bolstering the view of [George III](King)(George III) and his administration under [North](Lord)(Lord North) that the colonies were in a state of rebellion.[1999](Bullion,)(#bullion1999), pp. 73,76 [Dartmouth](Lord)(William Legge, 2nd Earl of Dartmouth), the [of State for the Colonies](Secretary)(Secretary of State for the Colonies) who had been sympathetic to the Americans, condemned the newly established Congress for what he considered its illegal formation and actions.[1974](Ammerman,)(#ammerman1974), pp. 83–84[2011](Chorlton,)(#chorlton2011), pp. 25–26 In tandem with the Intolerable Acts, British Army commander-in-chief [General Thomas Gage](Lieutenant)(Thomas Gage) was installed as governor of Massachusetts. In January 1775, Gage's superior, Lord Dartmouth, ordered the general to arrest those responsible for the Tea Party and to seize the munitions that had been stockpiled by militia forces outside of Boston. The letter took several months to reach Gage, who acted immediately by sending out 700 [regulars](army)(Regular army). During their march to [and Concord](Lexington)(Battle of Lexington and Concord) on the morning of April 19, 1775, the British troops encountered militia forces, who had been warned the night before by Paul Revere and another messenger on horseback, [Dawes](William)(William Dawes). Even though it is unknown who fired the first shot, the [War](Revolutionary)(American Revolutionary War) began.[2002](Alexander,)(#alexander2002), pp. 145–146 ### Second Continental Congress (1775) [[File:George Mason.jpg\|thumb\|upright=0.8\|[Mason](George)(George Mason), author of the 1776 [Declaration of Rights](Virginia)(Virginia Declaration of Rights) and co-father of the [States Bill of Rights](United)(United States Bill of Rights)]] On May 10, 1775, less than three weeks after the Battles at Lexington and Concord, the [Continental Congress](Second)(Second Continental Congress) convened in the [State House](Pennsylvania)(Independence Hall). The gathering essentially reconstituted the First Congress with many of the same delegates in attendance.[1941](Burnett,)(#burnett1941), pp. 64–67 Among the new arrivals were [Franklin](Benjamin)(Benjamin Franklin) of Pennsylvania, [Hancock](John)(John Hancock) of Massachusetts, and in June, [Jefferson](Thomas)(Thomas Jefferson) of Virginia. Hancock was elected president two weeks into the session when Peyton Randolph was recalled to Virginia to preside over the [of Burgesses](House)(House of Burgesses) as speaker, and Jefferson was named to replace him in the Virginia delegation.[1980](Fowler,)(#Fowler1980), p. 189 After adopting the rules of debate from the previous year and reinforcing its emphasis on secrecy,[1775, pp. 96–97](Congress)(#Congress1775)[1941](Burnett,)(#burnett1941), pp. 66–67 the Congress turned to its foremost concern, the defense of the colonies.[1941](Burnett,)(#burnett1941), pp. 71–72 The provincial assembly in Massachusetts, which had declared the colony's governorship vacant, reached out to the Congress for direction on two matters: whether the assembly could assume the powers of civil government and whether the Congress would take over the army being formed in Boston.[1775, p. 105](Congress)(#Congress1775) In answer to the first question, on June 9 the colony's leaders were directed to choose a council to govern within the spirit of the colony's charter.[1775, p. 108](Congress)(#Congress1775)[1941](Burnett,)(#burnett1941), pp. 72–76 As for the second, Congress spent several days discussing plans for guiding the forces of all thirteen colonies. Finally, on June 14 Congress approved provisioning the New England militias, agreed to send ten companies of riflemen from other colonies as reinforcements, and appointed a committee to draft rules for governing the military, thus establishing the [Army](Continental)(Continental Army). The next day, Samuel and John Adams nominated Washington as commander-in-chief, a motion that was unanimously approved.[2012](Andrilk,)(#andrilk2012), p. 132[2010](Chernow,)(#chernow2010), pp. 185–187 Two days later, on June 17, the militias clashed with British forces at [Hill](Bunker)(Battle of Bunker Hill), a victory for Britain but a costly one.[2012](Phillips,)(#phillips2012), p. 11 The Congress's actions came despite the divide between conservatives who still hoped for reconciliation with England and at the other end of the spectrum, those who favored independence.[1973](Morris,)(#morris1973), pp. 133–134 To satisfy the former, Congress adopted the [Branch Petition](Olive)(Olive Branch Petition) on July 5, an appeal for peace to King George III written by John Dickinson. Then, the following day, it approved the [of the Causes and Necessity of Taking Up Arms](Declaration)(Declaration of the Causes and Necessity of Taking Up Arms), a resolution justifying military action. The declaration, intended for Washington to read to the troops upon his arrival in Massachusetts, was drafted by Jefferson but edited by Dickinson who thought its language too strong.[1950](Boyd,)(#boydauthorship), p. 55[1941](Burnett,)(#burnett1941), p. 86 When the Olive Branch Petition arrived in London in September, the king refused to look at it.[2006](McCullough,)(#mccullough2006), p. 10 By then, he had already issued a [proclamation](Proclamation of Rebellion) declaring the American colonies in rebellion.[1998](Maier,)(#maier1998), p. 25 ## Declaration of Independence (1776) Under the auspices of the [Continental Congress](Second)(Second Continental Congress) and its [of Five](Committee)(Committee of Five),[2006](Cogliano,)(#cogliano2006), p. 139 Thomas Jefferson drafted the [of Independence](Declaration)(United States Declaration of Independence). It was presented to the Congress by the Committee on June 28,[1998](Maier,)(#maier1998), p. 131 and after much debate and editing of the document, on July 2, 1776,[2007](Ellis,)(#ellis2007), p. 20[2002](Allen,)(#allen2002), p. 96 Congress passed the [Resolution](Lee)(Lee Resolution), which declared the [Colonies](United)(United Colonies) independent from Great Britain. Two days later, on July 4, the Declaration of Independence was adopted.[2002](Allen,)(#allen2002), p. 60 The name "[States of America](United)(United States of America)", which first appeared in the Declaration, was formally approved by the Congress on September 9, 1776.[2002](Allen,)(#allen2002), p. 233 In an effort to get this important document promptly into the public realm [Hancock](John)(John Hancock), president of the Second Continental Congress, commissioned [Dunlap](John)(John Dunlap), editor and printer of the [Packet](Pennsylvania)(Pennsylvania Packet), to print 200 [broadside](Broadside (printing)) copies of the Declaration, which came to be known as the [broadsides](Dunlap)(Dunlap broadsides). Printing commenced the day after the Declaration was adopted. They were distributed throughout the 13 colonies/states with copies sent to General Washington and his troops at New York with a directive that it be read aloud. Copies were also sent to Britain and other points in Europe.[1904](Friedenwald,)(#friedenwald1904), pp. 123, 139[2012](Andrilk,)(#andrilk2012), p. 194 ## Fighting for independence [[File:Washington Crossing the Delaware by Emanuel Leutze, MMA-NYC, 1851.jpg\|thumb\|upright=1.3\|[Washington's crossing of the Delaware River](George)(George Washington's crossing of the Delaware River) on December 25–26, 1776, depicted in an 1856 portrait, [Crossing the Delaware](Washington's)(Washington Crossing the Delaware (1851 paintings)), by [Leutze](Emanuel)(Emanuel Leutze)]] While the colonists were fighting the British to gain independence their newly formed government, with its Articles of Confederation, were put to the test, revealing the shortcomings and weaknesses of America's first Constitution. During this time Washington became convinced that a strong federal government was urgently needed, as the individual states were not meeting the organizational and supply demands of the war on their own individual accord.[1981](Swindler,)(#swindler1981), pp. 167–168[2010](Chernow,)(#chernow2010), pp. 352–353 Key precipitating events included the [Tea Party](Boston)(Boston Tea Party) in 1773, [Revere's Ride](Paul)(Paul Revere's Ride) in 1775, and the [of Lexington and Concord](Battles)(Battles of Lexington and Concord) in 1775.[2007](Ferling,)(#ferling2007), p. 29 George Washington's [of the Delaware River](crossing)(George Washington's crossing of the Delaware River) was a major American victory over [forces](Hessian)(Hessian (soldier)) at the [of Trenton](Battle)(Battle of Trenton) and greatly boosted American morale.[2007](Ferling,)(#ferling2007), p. 178 The [of Saratoga](Battle)(Battle of Saratoga) and the [of Yorktown](Siege)(Siege of Yorktown), which primarily ended the fighting between American and British, were also pivotal events during the war. The [Treaty of Paris](1783)(Treaty of Paris (1783)) marked the official end of the war.[2007](Renehan,)(#renehan2007), p. 2 After the war, Washington was instrumental in organizing the effort to create a "national militia" made up of individual state units, and under the direction of the Federal government. He also endorsed the creation of a military academy to train artillery offices and engineers. Not wanting to leave the country disarmed and vulnerable so soon after the war, Washington favored a peacetime army of 2600 men. He also favored the creation of a navy that could repel any European intruders. He approached Henry Knox, who accompanied Washington during most of his campaigns, with the prospect of becoming the future Secretary of War.[2010](Chernow,)(#chernow2010), p. 446 ### Treaty of Paris [[File:Treaty of Paris 1783 - last page (hi-res).jpg\|thumb\|upright=1.2\|Signature page of the [of Paris of 1783](Treaty)(Treaty of Paris (1783)) – See also: [Page, image](First)(:File:Treaty of Paris (1783).jpg)[of Treaty](Transcript)(s:Treaty of Paris (1783))]] After Washington's final victory at the [at Yorktown](surrender)(Siege of Yorktown) on October 19, 1781, more than a year passed before official negotiations for peace commenced. The [of Paris](Treaty)(Treaty of Paris (1783)) was drafted in November 1782, and negotiations began in April 1783. The completed treaty was signed on September 3. Benjamin Franklin, John Adams, John Jay and Henry Laurens represented the United States,[2006](Jedson,)(#jedson2006), pp. 4–5 while [Hartley](David)(David Hartley (the Younger)), a member of Parliament, and [Oswald](Richard)(Richard Oswald (merchant)), a prominent and influential Scottish businessman, represented Great Britain.[1965](Morris,)(#morris1965), p. 110[2006](Jedson,)(#jedson2006), p. 35 Franklin, who had a long-established rapport with the French and was almost entirely responsible for securing an alliance with them a few months after the start of the war, was greeted with high honors from the French council, while the others received due accommodations but were generally considered to be amateur negotiators.[2007](Renehan,)(#renehan2007), p. 28 Communications between Britain and France were largely effected through Franklin and [Shelburne](Lord)(William Petty, 2nd Earl of Shelburne) who was on good terms with Franklin.[1933](Meng,)(#meng1933), pp. 198–200 Franklin, Adams and Jay understood the concerns of the French at this uncertain juncture and, using that to their advantage, in the final sessions of negotiations convinced both the French and the British that American independence was in their best interests.[1986](Ferling,)(#ferling1996), p. 254 ## Constitutional Convention [[File:Scene at the Signing of the Constitution of the United States.jpg\|thumb\|upright=1.3\|[at the Signing of the Constitution of the United States](Scene)(Scene at the Signing of the Constitution of the United States), a 1940 portrait by [Chandler Christy](Howard)(Howard Chandler Christy) depicting the 1787 [Convention](Constitutional)(Constitutional Convention (United States)) in [Philadelphia](Philadelphia)]] Under the Articles of Confederation, the [of the Confederation](Congress)(Congress of the Confederation) had no power to collect taxes, regulate commerce, pay the national debt, conduct diplomatic relations, or effectively manage the western territories.[2010](Maier,)(#maier2010), pp. 11–12[1986](Bowen,)(#bowen1986), p. 5 Key leaders – George Washington, Thomas Jefferson, Alexander Hamilton, James Madison, and others – began fearing for the young nation's fate. As the Articles' weaknesses became more and more apparent, the idea of creating a strong central government gained support, leading to the call for a convention to amend the Articles.[1964](Jensen,)(#jensen1964), pp. 31–33[1950](Jensen,)(#jensen1950), p. 421 The [Convention](Constitutional)(Philadelphia Convention) met in the Pennsylvania State House from May 14 through September 17, 1787.[1928](Warren,)(#warren1928), p. 95 The 55 delegates in attendance represented a cross-section of 18th-century American leadership. The vast majority were well-educated and prosperous, and all were prominent in their respective states with over 70 percent (40 delegates) serving in the Congress when the Convention was proposed.[2015](Adler,)(#adler2015), p. xi Many delegates were late to arrive, and after eleven days' delay, a [quorum](quorum) was finally present on May 25 to elect Washington, the nation's most trusted figure, as convention president.[1994](Jillson,)(#jillson1994), p. 42[2010](Maier,)(#maier2010), p. 28 Four days later, on May 29, the convention adopted a rule of secrecy, a controversial decision but a common practice that allowed delegates to speak freely.[2009](Beeman,)(#beeman2009), pp. 83–84[1986](Bowen,)(#bowen1986), p. 22–23[1928](Warren,)(#warren1928), pp. 134–136 ### Virginia and New Jersey plans Immediately following the secrecy vote, Virginia governor Edmund Randolph introduced the [Plan](Virginia)(Virginia Plan), fifteen resolutions written by Madison and his colleagues proposing a government of three branches: a single executive, a [bicameral](bicameralism) (two-house) legislature, and a judiciary.[1928](Warren,)(#warren1928), pp. 141–142[1986](Bowen,)(#bowen1986), pp. 38, 104–106[1987](Bernstein,)(#bernstein1986), pp. 158-161 The lower house was to be elected by the people, with seats apportioned by state population. The upper house would be chosen by the lower house from delegates nominated by state legislatures. The executive, who would have veto power over legislation, would be elected by the Congress, which could overrule state laws.[1986](Bowen,)(#bowen1986), pp. 106–107[1913](Farrand,)(#farrand1913), pp. 68–70 While the plan exceeded the convention's objective of merely amending the Articles, most delegates were willing to abandon their original mandate in favor of crafting a new form of government.[1928](Warren,)(#warren1928), pp. 146–148 Discussions of the Virginia resolutions continued into mid-June, when William Paterson of New Jersey presented an alternative proposal.[2016](Jillson,)(#jilson2016), pp. 41–43 The [Jersey Plan](New)(New Jersey Plan) retained most of the Articles' provisions, including a one-house legislature and equal power for the states. One of the plan's innovations was a "plural" executive branch, but its primary concession was to allow the national government to regulate trade and commerce.[1986](Bowen,)(#bowen1986), pp. 107[2009](Beeman,)(#beeman2009), pp. 160–16255[2010](Rakove,)(#rakove2010), pp. 370–371 Meeting as a committee of the whole, the delegates discussed the two proposals beginning with the question of whether there should be a single or three-fold executive and then whether to grant the executive veto power.[1986](Bowman,)(#bowman1986), p. 54, 63 After agreeing on a single executive who could veto legislation, the delegates turned to an even more contentious issue, legislative representation.[1928](Warren,)(#warren1928), pp. 185–186 Larger states favored [representation](proportional)(proportional representation) based on population, while smaller states wanted each state to have the same number of legislators.[1986](Bowen,)(#bowen1986), p. 86[2016](Jillson,)(#jilson2016), p. 43[2009](Beeman,)(#beeman2009), p. 55 ### Connecticut Compromise By mid-July, the debates between the large-state and small-state factions had reached an impasse.[Doren, 1986](Van)(#vandoren1986), pp. 96–105 With the convention on the verge of collapse, [Sherman](Roger)(Roger Sherman) of Connecticut introduced what became known as the [(or Great) Compromise](Connceticut)(Connecticut Compromise).[1913](Farrand,)(#farrand1913), pp. 89–91[2010](Maier,)(#maier2010), p. 42[1986](Bowen,)(#bowen1986), p. 140 Sherman's proposal called for a House of Representatives elected proportionally and a Senate where all states would have the same number of seats. On July 16, the compromise was approved by the narrowest of margins, 5 states to 4.[1987](Bernstein,)(#bernstein2009), pp. 167–168[2009](Beeman,)(#beeman2009), pp. 218–220 The proceedings left most delegates with reservations.[2010](Maier,)(#maier2010), p. 35[2009](Beeman,)(#beeman2009), pp. 362–363 Several went home early in protest, believing the convention was overstepping its authority.[1913](Farrand,)(#farrand1913), p. 105[1928](Warren,)(#warren1928), pp. 281–282, 810–812[1986](Bowman,)(#bowman1986), pp. 115, 140 Others were concerned about the lack of a Bill of Rights safeguarding individual liberties.[2010](Maier,)(#maier2010), p. 46[1987](Bernstein,)(#berstein1987), p. 179 Even Madison, the Constitution's chief architect, was dissatisfied, particularly over equal representation in the Senate and the failure to grant Congress the power to veto state legislation.[2010](Maier,)(#maier2010), p. 36 Misgivings aside, a final draft was approved overwhelmingly on September 17, with 11 states in favor and New York unable to vote since it had only one delegate remaining, Hamilton. Rhode Island, which was in a dispute over the state's paper currency, had refused to send anyone to the convention.[Doren, 1986](Van)(#vandoren1986), p. 237[2010](Maier,)(#maier2010), p. 22 Of the 42 delegates present, only three refused to sign: Randolph and George Mason, both of Virginia, and Elbridge Gerry of Massachusetts.[2006](Morton,)(#morton2006), p. 15 ### State ratification conventions The [S. Constitution](U.)(Constitution of the United States) faced one more hurdle: approval by the legislatures in at least nine of the 13 states.[2009](Beeman,)(#beeman2009), pp. 294, 351 Within three days of the signing, the draft was submitted to the Congress of the Confederation, which forwarded the document to the states for ratification.[2007](Ellis,)(#ellis2007), p. 160 In November, Pennsylvania's legislature convened the first of the conventions. Before it could vote, Delaware became the first state to ratify, approving the Constitution on December 7 by a 30–0 margin.[2010](Maier,)(#maier2010), p. 122 Pennsylvania followed suit five days later, splitting its vote 46–23.[1928](Warren,)(#warren1928), pp. 768, 819 Despite unanimous votes in New Jersey and Georgia, several key states appeared to be leaning against ratification because of the omission of a Bill of Rights, particularly Virginia where the opposition was led by Mason and Patrick Henry, who had refused to participate in the convention claiming he "smelt a rat".[2016](Jillson,)(#jilson2016), p. 50[2006](Morton,)(#morton2006), pp. 185–186[1969](Campbell,)(#campbell1969), p. 317 Rather than risk everything, the Federalists relented, promising that if the Constitution was adopted, amendments would be added to secure people's rights.[2009](Beeman,)(#beeman2009), p. 409 Over the next year, the string of ratifications continued. Finally, on June 21, 1788, New Hampshire became the ninth state to ratify, making the Constitution the law of the land.[2009](Beeman,)(#beeman2009), pp. 351, 442[2010](Maier,)(#maier2010), pp. 314–316 Virginia followed suit four days later, and New York did the same in late July. After North Carolina's assent in November, another year-and-a-half would pass before the 13th state would weigh in.[1928](Warren,)(#warren1928), p. 820 Facing trade sanctions and the possibility of being forced out of the union, Rhode Island approved the Constitution on May 29, 1790 by a begrudging 34–32 vote.[2010](Maier,)(#maier2010), pp. 458–459 ### New form of government The Constitution officially took effect on , when the House and Senate met for their first sessions. On April 30, Washington was sworn in as the nation's first president.[2005](Bowman,)(#bowman2005), p. 175[Doren, 1986](Van)(#vandoren1986), p. 238[2010](Maier,)(#maier2010), p. 439 Ten amendments, known collectively as the [States Bill of Rights](United)(United States Bill of Rights), were ratified on December 15, 1791.[2005](Bowman,)(#bowman2005), p. 129 Because the delegates were sworn to secrecy, Madison's notes on the ratification were not published until after his death in 1836.[Archives: Madison at the Federal Convention](National)(#archive'madison), Essay ## Bill of Rights The Constitution, as drafted, was sharply criticized by the Anti-Federalists, a group that contended the document failed to safeguard individual liberties from the federal government. Leading Anti-Federalists included Patrick Henry and Richard Henry Lee, both from Virginia, and Samuel Adams of Massachusetts. Delegates at the Constitutional Convention who shared their views were Virginians George Mason and Edmund Randolph and Massachusetts representative Elbridge Gerry, the three delegates who refused to sign the final document.[2006](Labunski,)(#labunski2006), pp. 20–22 Henry, who derived his hatred of a central governing authority from his Scottish ancestry, did all in his power to defeat the Constitution, opposing Madison every step of the way.[2006](Labunski,)(#labunski2006), pp. xi–xii The criticisms are what led to the amendments proposed under the Bill of Rights. Madison, the bill's principal author, was originally opposed to the amendments, but was influenced by the 1776 [Declaration of Rights](Virginia)(Virginia Declaration of Rights), primarily written by Mason, and the Declaration of Independence, by Thomas Jefferson.[2006](Labunski,)(#labunski2006), pp. 51–53, 104, 169 Jefferson, while in France, shared Henry's and Mason's fears about a strong central government, especially the president's power, but because of his friendship with Madison and the pending Bill of Rights, he quieted his concerns.[2011](Kidd,)(#kidd2011), p. 189 Alexander Hamilton, however, was opposed to a Bill of Rights believing the amendments not only unnecessary but dangerous: Why declare things shall not be done, which there is no power to do ... that the liberty of the press shall not be restrained, when no power is given by which restrictions may be imposed?[2006](Labunski,)(#labunski2006), pp. 9–10 Madison had no way of knowing the debate between Virginia's two legislative houses would delay the adoption of the amendments for more than two years.[2006](Labunski,)(#labunski2006), p. 240, 253 The final draft, referred to the states by the federal Congress on September 25, 1789,[2006](Labunski,)(#labunski2006), pp. 59–60 was not ratified by Virginia's Senate until December 15, 1791. The Bill of Rights drew its authority from the consent of the people and held that, Madison came to be recognized as the founding era's foremost proponent of religious liberty, free speech, and freedom of the press.[2015](Stewart,)(#stewart2015), pp. 98, 180 ## Ascending to the presidency The first five [presidents](U.S.)(List of presidents of the United States#Presidents) are regarded as Founding Fathers for their active participation in the American Revolution: Washington, John Adams, Jefferson, Madison, and Monroe. Each of them served as a [delegate](List of delegates to the Continental Congress) to the [Congress](Continental)(Continental Congress).[2009](Bernstein,)(#bernstein2009), p. 6 ## Demographics and other characteristics The Founding Fathers represented the upper echelon of political leadership in the British colonies during the latter half of the 18th century.[2009](Bernstein,)(#bernstein2009), p. 8[1958](Padover,)(#padover1958), pp. 192–193 All were leaders in their communities and respective colonies who were willing to assume responsibility for public affairs.[1958](Padover,)(#padover1958), pp. 193–194 Of the signers of the Declaration of Independence, Articles of Confederation, and U.S. Constitution, nearly all were native born and of British heritage, including Scots, Irish, and Welsh.[1958](Padover,)(#padover1958), pp. 195[1976](Brown,)(#brown1976), p. 479 Nearly half were lawyers, while the remainder were primarily businessmen and planter-farmers.[1958](Padover,)(#padover1958), p. 194[1976](Brown,)(#brown1976), pp. 474–476 The average age of the founders was 43.[1976](Brown,)(#brown1976), p. 469 Benjamin Franklin, born in 1706, was the oldest, while only a few were born after 1750 and thus were in their 20s. The following sections discuss these and other demographic topics in greater detail. For the most part, the information is confined to signers/delegates associated with the Declaration of Independence, Articles of Confederation, and Constitution. ### Political experience All of the Founding Fathers had extensive political experience at the national and state levels.[1973](Martin,)(#martin1973), pp. 174, 223[1973](Greene,)(#greene1973), pp. 1–22 As just one example, the signers of the Declaration of Independence and Articles of Confederation were members of Second Continental Congress, while four-fifths of the delegates at the Constitutional Convention had served in the Congress either during or prior to the convention. The remaining fifth attending the convention were recognized as leaders in the state assemblies that appointed them. Following are brief profiles of the political backgrounds of some of the more notable founders: * John Adams began his political career as a town council member in [Braintree](Braintree, Massachusetts) outside Boston. He came to wider attention following a series of essays he wrote during the Stamp Act crisis of 1765. In 1770, he was elected to the [General Assembly](Massachusetts)(Massachusetts General Assembly), went on to lead Boston's Committee of Correspondence, and in 1774, was elected to the Continental Congress. Two decades later, Adams would become the second president of the nation he helped found.[National Biography, 1999](American)(#malone1), v. 1, pp. 101–104[2001](McCullough,)(#mccullough2001), pp. 71, 222, 379 * John Dickinson was one of the leaders of the Pennsylvania Assembly during the 1770s. As a member of the First and Second Continental Congress, he wrote two petitions for the Congress to King George III seeking a peaceful solution. Dickinson opposed independence and refused to sign the Declaration of Independence, but served as an officer in the militia and wrote the initial draft of the Articles of Confederation. In the 1780s, he served as [of Pennsylvania](president)(List of governors of Pennsylvania) and [of Delaware](president)(List of governors of Delaware)[of American Biography, 1932](Dictionary)(#malone5), v. 5, pp. 299–300 * Benjamin Franklin retired from his business activities in 1747 and was elected to the [Assembly](Pennsylvania)(Pennsylvania Assembly) in 1751. He was sent to London in 1757 for the first of two diplomatic missions on behalf of the colony.[[#franklin'auto\|Franklin, Autobiography, 1895, [1790]]], pp. 6, 51, 83, 214 Upon returning from England in 1775, Franklin was elected to the Second Continental Congress. After signing the Declaration of Independence in 1776, he was appointed Minister to France and then Sweden, and in 1783 helped negotiate the Treaty of Paris. Franklin was [of Pennsylvania](governor)(List of governors of Pennsylvania) from 1785 to 1788 and was a delegate to the Constitutional Convention.[2000](Brands,)(#brands2000), p. 8 * John Jay was a New York delegate to the First and Second Continental Congress and in 1778 was elected [president](Congress)(President of the Continental Congress). In 1782, he was summoned to Paris by Franklin to help negotiate the Treaty of Paris with Great Britain. As a supporter of the proposed Constitution, he wrote five of the Federalist Papers and became the first [Justice of the Supreme Court](Chief)(Chief Justice of the United States) following the Constitution's adoption.[of American biography, 1932](Dictionary)(#malone10), v. 10, pp. 6–8 Minister to Spain[& Wilson, 1994](Jillson)(#jillson2004), p. 77[1965](Morris,)(#morris1965), p. xiii * [Jefferson](Thomas)(Thomas Jefferson) was a delegate from Virginia to the Second Continental Congress (1775–1776) and was the primary author of the Declaration of Independence. He was elected the [governor of Virginia](second)(List of governors of Virginia) (1779–1781) and served as Minister to France (1785–1789).[2014](Ferling,)(#ferling2014), pp. xx, 4, 89, 155[2000](Brands,)(#brands2000), pp. 639, 710 * Robert Morris had been a member of the [Assembly](Pennsylvania)(Pennsylvania Assembly) and president of Pennsylvania's [of Safety](Committee)(Committees of safety (American Revolution)). He was also a member of the [of Secret Correspondence](Committee)(Committee of Secret Correspondence) and member of the Second Continental Congress.[of American biography, 1932](Dictionary)(#malone13), v. 13, pp. 219–223 * Roger Sherman had served in the First and Second Continental Congresses, [House of Representatives](Connecticut)(Connecticut House of Representatives) and Justice of the Peace.[of American biography, 1932](Dictionary)(#malone17), v. 17, pp. 88–89 ### Education More than a third of the Founding Fathers attended or graduated from colleges in the American colonies, while additional founders attended college abroad, primarily in England and Scotland. All other founders either were home schooled, received tutoring, completed apprenticeships, or were self-educated. #### American colleges Following is a listing of founders who graduated from six of the nine colleges established in the Americas during the Colonial Era. A few founders, such as Alexander Hamilton and James Monroe, attended college but did not graduate. The other three colonial colleges, all founded in the 1760s, included [University](Brown)(Brown University) (originally College of Rhode Island), [College](Dartmouth)(Dartmouth College), and [University](Rutgers)(Rutgers University) (originally Queen's College). * [of William & Mary](College)(College of William & Mary): Thomas Jefferson,[2006](Cogliano,)(#cogliano2006), p. 19 John Blair Jr., James McClurg, James Francis Mercer, Edmund Randolph * [University](Columbia)(Columbia University) (originally King's College): John Jay, Robert R. Livingston, Gouverneur Morris, * [University](Harvard)(Harvard University) (originally Harvard College): John Adams, Samuel Adams, Francis Dana, William Ellery, Elbridge Gerry, John Hancock, William Hooper, William Samuel Johnson (also Yale), Rufus King, James Lovell, Robert Treat Paine, Caleb Strong, Joseph Warren, John Wentworth Jr., William Williams * [University](Princeton)(Princeton University) (originally The College of New Jersey): Gunning Bedford Jr., William Richardson Davie, Jonathan Dayton, Oliver Ellsworth, Joseph Hewes, William Houstoun, Richard Hutson, James Madison, Alexander Martin, Luther Martin, William Paterson, Joseph Reed, Benjamin Rush, Nathaniel Scudder, Jonathan Bayard Smith, Richard Stockton * [of Pennsylvania](University)(University of Pennsylvania) (originally [of Philadelphia](College)(Academy and College of Philadelphia)): Francis Hopkinson, Henry Marchant, Thomas Mifflin, William Paca, Hugh Williamson * [University](Yale)(Yale University) (originally Yale College): Andrew Adams, Abraham Baldwin, Lyman Hall, Titus Hosmer, Jared Ingersoll, William Samuel Johnson (also Harvard), Philip Livingston, William Livingston, Lewis Morris, Oliver Wolcott #### United Kingdom colleges Following are founders who graduated from colleges in Great Britain: * [Temple](Inner)(Inner Temple), is one of the four [of Court](Inns)(Inns of Court) in London offering legal studies for admission to the English Bar. William Houstoun,[North Carolina Review, p. 280](The)(#NCReview) William Paca (also University of Pennsylvania graduate)[North Carolina Review, p. 278](The)(#NCReview) * [Temple](Middle)(Middle Temple), also one of the four Inns of Court: John Banister, John Blair, John Dickinson, Thomas Heyward Jr.,[North Carolina Review, p. 279](The)(#NCReview) Thomas Lynch Jr. (also University of Cambridge graduate), John Matthews, Charles Cotesworth Pinckney,[North Carolina Review, p. 280](The)(#NCReview) Peyton Randolph,[North Carolina Review, p. 278](The)(#NCReview) John Rutledge * [of Cambridge](University)(University of Cambridge), England: Thomas Lynch Jr. (also Middle Temple graduate),[North Carolina Review, p. 286](The)(#NCReview) Thomas Nelson Jr. * [of Edinburgh](University)(University of Edinburgh), Scotland: Benjamin Rush, John Witherspoon ### Ethnicity Most of the founders were natives of the American Colonies, while just nineteen were born in other parts of the [Empire](British)(British Empire#"First" British Empire (1583–1783)). * England: William Richardson Davie,[Vol. 1, 1997](Concise)(#concise1997v1), p. 285 William Duer,[of American biography, 1932](Dictionary)(#malone5), v. 5, pp. 486–487 Button Gwinnett,[of American biography, 1932](Dictionary)(#malone7), v. 7, pp. 65–66 Robert Morris,[Vol. 1, 1997](Concise)(#concise1997v1), p. 884 Thomas Paine[Vol. 2, 1997](Concise)(#concise1997v2), p. 951 * Ireland: Pierce Butler,[of American biography, 1932](Dictionary)(#malone3), v. 3, pp. 364–365 Thomas Fitzsimons,[of American biography, 1932](Dictionary)(#malone7), v. 6, p. 444 James McHenry,[of American biography, 1932](Dictionary)(#malone18), v. 18, pp. 324–325 William Paterson,[of American biography, 1932](Dictionary)(#malone9), v. 14, p. 293 James Smith,[of American biography, 1932](Dictionary)(#malone17), v. 17, pp. 283–284 George Taylor, Charles Thomson,[of American biography, 1932](Dictionary)(#malone18), v. 18, p. 481 Matthew Thornton[of American biography, 1932](Dictionary)(#malone18), v. 18, pp. 503–504 * Scotland: Edward Telfair,[Vol. 2, 1997](Concise)(#concise1997v2), p. 1281 James Wilson,[Vol. 2, 1997](Concise)(#concise1997v2), p. 1456 John Witherspoon[Vol. 2, 1997](Concise)(#concise1997v2), p. 1473 * Wales: Francis Lewis * West Indies: Alexander Hamilton,[2004](Chernow,)(#chernow2004), p. 17 Daniel Roberdeau[of American biography, 1932](Dictionary)(#malone9), v. 14, p. 646 ### Occupations While the Founding Fathers were engaged in a broad range of occupations, most had careers in three professions: about half the founders were lawyers, a sixth were planters/farmers, another sixth were merchants/businessmen, and the others were spread across miscellaneous professions. * Ten founders were physicians: Josiah Bartlett, Lyman Hall, Samuel Holten, James McClurg, James McHenry (surgeon), Benjamin Rush, Nathaniel Scudder, Matthew Thornton, Joseph Warren, and Hugh Williamson. * John Witherspoon was the only minister, although Lyman Hall had been a preacher prior to becoming a physician. * George Washington, a Virginia planter, was a land surveyor before becoming a colonel in the [Regiment](Virginia)(Virginia Regiment).[2010](Chernow,)(#chernow2010), pp. 18–19 * Benjamin Franklin was a successful printer and publisher and an accomplished scientist and inventor, in Philadelphia. Franklin retired at age 42 to focus first on scientific pursuits and then politics and diplomacy, serving as a member of the Continental Congress, first postmaster general, minister to Great Britain, France, and Sweden, and governor of Pennsylvania.[2004](Isaacson,)(#isaacson2004), pp. 127–128, 176, 206–209, 291, 325, 382 ## Religion Of the 55 delegates to the [Convention](Constitutional)(Constitutional Convention (United States)) in 1787, 28 were [Anglicans](Anglicanism) ([of England](Church)(Church of England) or [Episcopalian](Episcopal Church (United States))), 21 were other [Protestants](Protestantism), and three were [Catholics](Catholic Church) (Daniel Carroll and Fitzsimons; Charles Carroll was Catholic but was not a Constitution signatory).[2003](Lambert,)(#lambert=2003), p. Among the Protestant delegates to the Constitutional Convention, eight were [Presbyterians](Presbyterianism), seven were [Congregationalists](Congregational church), two were [Lutherans](Lutheranism), two were [Reformed](Dutch)(Dutch Reformed Church), and two were [Methodists](Methodism). A few prominent Founding Fathers were [anti-clerical](Anti-clericalism), notably Jefferson.[2007](Onuf,)(#onuf2007), pp. 139–168Letter to Horatio G. Spafford, March 17, 1814. "In every country and in every age, the priest has been hostile to liberty. He is always in alliance with the despot, abetting his abuses in return for protection to his own." Historian Gregg L. Frazer argues that the leading Founders (John Adams, Jefferson, Franklin, Wilson, Morris, Madison, Hamilton, and Washington) were neither Christians nor [Deists](Deism), but rather supporters of a hybrid "[rationalism](theistic)(theistic rationalism)".[2012](Frazer,)(#frazer2012), pp. 23, 69, 164, 197 Many Founders deliberately avoided public discussion of their faith. Historian [L. Holmes](David)(David L. Holmes) uses evidence gleaned from letters, government documents, and second-hand accounts to identify their religious beliefs. ## Founders on currency and postage Four U.S. Founders are minted on [currency](American)(American currency)—[Franklin](Benjamin)(Benjamin Franklin), [Hamilton](Alexander)(Alexander Hamilton), [Jefferson](Thomas)(Thomas Jefferson), and [Washington](George)(George Washington); Washington and Jefferson both appear on three different denominations. \|image1=Alexander Hamilton2-30c.jpg\|caption1=[Hamilton](Alexander)(Alexander Hamilton), 1870 issue \|image2=Thomas Jefferson 1904 Issue, 2c.jpg \|caption2=[Jefferson](Thomas)(Thomas Jefferson), 1904 issue \|image3=Washington WF 1917 Issue-5c.jpg \|caption3=[Washington](George)(George Washington),1917 issue \|image4=Benjamin Franklin 1920 $2.jpg\|caption4=[Franklin](Benjamin)(Benjamin Franklin),1920 issue }} ## Political and cultural impact ### Political rhetoric According to David Sehat, in modern politics:[2015](Shehat,)(#sehat2015), pp 1-2. Everyone cites the Founders. Constitutional originalists consult the Founders’ papers to decide original meaning. Proponents of a living and evolving Constitution turn to the Founders as the font of ideas that have grown over time. Conservatives view the Founders as architects of a free enterprise system that built American greatness. The more liberal-leaning, following their sixties parents, claim the Founders as egalitarians, suspicious of concentrations of wealth. Independents look to the Founders to break the logjam of partisan brinksmanship. Across the political spectrum, Americans ground their views in a supposed set of ideas that emerged in the eighteenth century. But, in fact, the Founders disagreed with each other....they had vast and profound differences. They argued over federal intervention in the economy and about foreign policy. They fought bitterly over how much authority rested with the executive branch, about the relationship and prerogatives of federal and state government. The Constitution provided a nearly limitless theater of argument. The founding era was, in reality, one of the most partisan periods of American history. ### Holidays [[File:Fourth of July fireworks behind the Washington Monument, 1986.jpg\|thumb\|upright=1\|[Fireworks](Fireworks), such as these shown over the [Monument](Washington)(Washington Monument) in [D.C.](Washington,)(Washington, D.C.) on July 4, 1986, are an annual national holiday tradition every July 4 in celebration of [Day](Independence)(Independence Day (United States)) and the founding of the [States](United)(United States).]] [Day](Independence)(Independence Day (United States)) (colloquially called the Fourth of July) is a [States](United)(United States) national holiday celebrated yearly on July 4 to commemorate the signing of the Declaration of Independence and the founding of the nation. [Birthday](Washington's)(President's Day) is also observed as a national federal holiday, and is also known as ''Presidents' Day. ### Media and theater The Founding Fathers were portrayed in the [Award](Tony)(Tony Award)–winning 1969 musical [1776](1776 (musical)), which depicted the debates over and eventual adoption of the Declaration of Independence. The stage production was adapted into the [film](1972)(1776 (film)) of the same name. The 1989 film [More Perfect Union](A)(A More Perfect Union (film)), which was filmed on location in [Hall](Independence)(Independence Hall), depicts the events of the Constitutional Convention. The writing and passing of the founding documents are depicted in the 1997 documentary miniseries [Liberty!](Liberty!), and the passage of the Declaration of Independence is portrayed in the second episode of the 2008 miniseries [Adams](John)(John Adams (miniseries)#Part II: Independence (1774–1776))* and the third episode of the 2015 miniseries [of Liberty](Sons)(Sons of Liberty (miniseries)). The Founders also feature in the 1986 miniseries [Washington II: The Forging of a Nation](George)(George Washington II: The Forging of a Nation), the 2002–2003 animated television series [Kids](Liberty's)(Liberty's Kids), the 2020 miniseries [Washington](Washington (miniseries)), and in [other films](many)(List of films about the American Revolution) and [portrayals](television)(List of television series and miniseries about the American Revolution). Several Founding Fathers, Hamilton, Washington, Jefferson, and Madison—were reimagined in [Hamilton''](Hamilton (musical)), a 2015 [musical](Musical theater) inspired by [Chernow](Ron)(Ron Chernow)'s 2004 biography [Hamilton](Alexander)(Alexander Hamilton (book)), with music, lyrics and book by [Miranda](Lin-Manuel)(Lin-Manuel Miranda). The musical won eleven Tony Awards and a [Prize for Drama](Pulitzer)(Pulitzer Prize for Drama). ### Sports Several major professional sports teams in the [United States](Northeastern)(Northeastern United States) are named for themes based on the founders: [England Patriots](New)(New England Patriots) ([Football League](National)(National Football League)) * [England Revolution](New)(New England Revolution) ([League Soccer](Major)(Major League Soccer)) * [York Liberty](New)(New York Liberty) ([National Basketball Association](Women's)(Women's National Basketball Association)) * [76ers](Philadelphia)(Philadelphia 76ers) ([Basketball Association](National)(National Basketball Association)) * [Capitals](Washington)(Washington Capitals) ([Hockey League](National)(National Hockey League)) * [Nationals](Washington)(Washington Nationals) ([League Baseball](Major)(Major League Baseball)) ## Religious freedom Religious persecution had existed for centuries around the world and it existed in colonial America.[1969](Gelfand,)(#gelfand1969), pp. 7–8 Founders such as [Jefferson](Thomas)(Thomas Jefferson), [Madison](James)(James Madison), [Henry](Patrick)(Patrick Henry), and [Mason](George)(George Mason) first established a measure of religious freedom in [Virginia](Virginia) in 1776 with the [Declaration of Rights](Virginia)(Virginia Declaration of Rights), which became a model for religious liberty for the nation.[1969](Gelfand,)(#gelfand1969), p. 34, 37 Prior to this, [Baptists](Baptists), [Presbyterians](Presbyterianism), and [Lutherans](Lutheranism) had for a decade petitioned against the [of England](Church)(Church of England)'s suppression of religious liberties. Jefferson left the Continental Congress to return to Virginia to join the fight for religious freedom, which proved difficult since many members of the Virginia legislature belonged to the established church. While Jefferson was not completely successful, he managed to have repealed the various laws that were punitive toward those with different religious beliefs.[2006](Cogliano,)(#cogliano2006), pp. 46, 56, 110[2012](Meacham,)(#meacham2012), p. 123 Jefferson was the architect for [of Church and State](separation)(Separation of church and state in the United States), which opposed the use of public funds to support any established religion and believe it was unwise to link civil rights to religious doctrine.[2006](Cogliano,)(#cogliano2006), pp. 151, 153 [of religion](Freedom)(Freedom of religion in the United States) and [of speech](freedom)(Freedom of speech in the United States) ultimately were affirmed as the nation's law in the [of Rights](Bill)(United States Bill of Rights). The first enumerated right in the Bill of Rights, which was adopted in 1791, was the [Amendment](First)(First Amendment to the United States Constitution), which proclaims the right to freedom of religion. Washington was also a strong proponent of religious freedom, once assuring Virginia Baptists worried that the Constitution might not protect their religious liberties, that, "... certainly, I would never have placed my signature to it." Along with Christians, [Jews](Jews) also viewed Washington as a champion of freedom and sought his assurances that they would enjoy complete religious freedom. Washington responded by declaring America's revolution in religion stood as an example for the rest of the world.[2003](Lambert,)(#lambert=2003), p. 260 ## Slavery }} [[File:George Washington by John Trumbull (1780).jpg\|thumb\|upright=1.2\|[Washington and William Lee](George)(George Washington (Trumbull)), a 1780 portrait by [Trumbull](John)(John Trumbull)]] The Founding Fathers, although not unified on the issue of slavery, continued to accommodate it within the new nation. Some were morally opposed to slavery and some even attempted to end slavery in several of the colonies, but at the national level slavery remained protected. In her study of Jefferson, historian Annette Gordon-Reed discusses this topic, "Others of the founders held slaves, but no other founder drafted the charter for American freedom".[2000](Gordon-Reed,)(#reed2000), pp. 171–182 In addition to Jefferson, Washington and many other of the Founding Fathers were slaveowners, but some were also conflicted by the institution, seeing it as immoral and politically divisive; Washington gradually became a cautious supporter of [abolitionism](Abolitionism in the United States) and freed his slaves in his will. Jay and Hamilton led the successful fight to outlaw the slave trade in New York, with the efforts beginning as early as 1777.[The Selected Papers of John Jay](http://www.columbia.edu/cu/libraries/inside/dev/jay/JaySlavery.html). Columbia University. Conversely, many Founders such as Samuel Adams and John Adams were against slavery their entire lives. Rush wrote a pamphlet in 1773 which criticized the slave trade as well as the institution of slavery. In the pamphlet, Rush argued on a scientific basis that Africans are not by nature intellectually or morally inferior, and that any apparent evidence to the contrary is only the "perverted expression" of slavery, which "is so foreign to the human mind, that the moral faculties, as well as those of the understanding are debased, and rendered torpid by it." The Continental Association contained a clause which banned any [Patriot](Patriot (American Revolution)) involvement in slave trading.[Notes on the history of slavery in Massachusetts](https://archive.org/details/notesonhistory00moorrich), by [Henry Moore (author)](George)(George Henry Moore (author))James A. Rawley and [D. Behrendt](Stephen)(Stephen D. Behrendt), [The Transatlantic Slave Trade: A History (2008)](https://books.google.com/books?id=UQcOo4csdzEC&pg=PA271)Thomas N. Ingersoll, [The Loyalist Problem in Revolutionary New England](https://books.google.com/books?id=qwdQDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA228) (2016)[2010](Dolbeare,)(#dolbeare2010), p. 44 Franklin, though he was a key founder of the [Abolition Society](Pennsylvania)(Pennsylvania Abolition Society),[2002](Wright,)(#wright2002) originally owned slaves whom he later [manumitted](Manumission) (released from slavery). While serving in the Rhode Island Assembly, in 1769 Hopkins introduced one of the earliest anti-slavery laws in the colonies. When Jefferson entered public life as a young member of the House of Burgesses, he began his career as a social reformer by an effort to secure legislation permitting the emancipation of slaves. Jefferson say's "In 1769, I became a member of the legislature…. I made one effort in that body for the permission of the emancipation of slaves, which was rejected", but the representatives of the Crown sought "to direct our labors in subservience to [mother country's](the) interest…. and… the Royal negative closed the last door to every hope of amelioration." Jay founded the [York Manumission Society](New)(New York Manumission Society) in 1785, for which Hamilton became an officer. They and other members of the Society founded the [Free School](African)(African Free School) in New York City, to educate the children of free blacks and slaves. When Jay was governor of New York in 1798, he helped secure and signed into law an abolition law; fully ending forced labor as of 1827. He freed his own slaves in 1798. Hamilton opposed slavery, as his experiences in life left him very familiar with slavery and its effect on slaves and on slaveholders, although he did negotiate slave transactions for his wife's family, the [Schuylers](Schuyler family). New evidence suggests Hamilton may have owned a house slave. After the [Treaty](Jay)(Jay Treaty) was signed, Hamilton advocated that slaves taken in by the British during the Revolutionary War be returned to their masters.[2020](Serfilippi,)(#serfilippi2020), pp. 1-3 Many of the Founding Fathers never owned slaves, including John Adams, Samuel Adams, and Paine. [and slavery](Slaves)(Slavery in the United States) are mentioned only indirectly in the 1787 Constitution. For example, [1, Section 2, Clause 3](Article)(Three-fifths Compromise) prescribes that "three-fifths of all other Persons" are to be counted for the apportionment of seats in the [of Representatives](House)(United States House of Representatives) and direct taxes. Additionally, in [4, Section 2, Clause 3](Article)(Fugitive Slave Clause), slaves are referred to as "persons held in service or labor".[1972](Freehling,)(#freehling1972), p. 85 The Founding Fathers, however, did make important efforts to contain slavery. Many Northern states had adopted legislation to end or significantly reduce slavery during and after the American Revolution. In 1782, Virginia passed a manumission law that allowed slave owners to free their slaves by will or deed.[History of Law, 2008](Cambridge)(#cambridge2008), p. 278 As a result, thousands of slaves were manumitted in Virginia. In the [of 1784](Ordinance)(Ordinance of 1784), Jefferson proposed to ban slavery in all the western territories, which failed to pass Congress by one vote. Partially following Jefferson's plan, Congress did ban slavery in the [Ordinance](Northwest)(Northwest Ordinance), for lands north of the [River](Ohio)(Ohio River). The [slave trade](international)(Atlantic slave trade) was banned in all states except South Carolina by 1800. Finally in 1807, President Jefferson called for and signed into law a federally enforced ban on the international slave trade throughout the U.S. and its territories. It became a federal crime to import or export a slave. However, the domestic slave trade was allowed for expansion or for diffusion of slavery into the [Territory](Louisiana)(Louisiana Territory). ### Reconstruction as a "Second Founding" According to Professors [K. Tulis](Jeffrey)(Jeffrey K. Tulis) and Nicole Mellow:Jeffrey K. Tulis and Nicole Mellow, Legacies of losing in American politics (U of Chicago Press, 2018), p. 2. - The Founding, Reconstruction (often called “the second founding”), and the New Deal are typically heralded as the most significant turning points in the country's history, with many observers seeing each of these as political triumphs through which the United States has come to more closely realize its liberal ideals of liberty and equality. Scholars such as [Foner](Eric)(Eric Foner) have recently expanded the theme into full-length books.Eric Foner, The Second Founding: How the Civil War and Reconstruction Remade the Constitution (2020) [excerpt](https://www.amazon.com/Second-Founding-Reconstruction-Remade-Constitution/dp/0393358526/)Ilan Wurman, The Second Founding: An Introduction to the Fourteenth Amendment ( 2020) [excerpt](https://www.amazon.com/Second-Founding-Introduction-Fourteenth-Amendment/dp/1108843158/)See also Garrett Epps, "Second Founding: The Story of the Fourteenth Amendment." Oregon Law Review 85 (2006) pp: 895-911 [online](https://scholarworks.law.ubalt.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1239&context=all_fac). Black abolitionists played a key role by stressing that freed blacks needed equal rights after slavery was abolished. David Hackett Fischer, African Founders: How Enslaved People Expanded American Ideals (Simon and Schuster, 2022) pp 1-3.[excerpt](https://www.amazon.com/African-Founders-Enslaved-Expanded-American/dp/1982145099/) Biographer [Blight](David)(David Blight) states that [Douglass](Frederick)(Frederick Douglass), "played a pivotal role in America's Second Founding out of the apocalypse of the Civil War, and he very much wished to see himself as a founder and a defender of the Second American Republic."David W. Blight, Frederick Douglass: Prophet of Freedom (Simon and Schuster, 2018) p. xv; winner of Pulitzer Prize; [excerpt](https://www.amazon.com/Frederick-Douglass-David-W-Blight/dp/1416590323/). Constitutional provision for racial equality for free blacks was enacted by a Republican Congress led by [Stevens](Thaddeus)(Thaddeus Stevens), [Sumner](Charles)(Charles Sumner) and [Trumbull](Lyman)(Lyman Trumbull)./ref> Paul Rego, Lyman Trumbull and the Second Founding of the United States (University Press of Kansas, 2022) pp. 1–2. [excerpt](https://www.amazon.com/Trumbull-Founding-American-Political-Thought/dp/0700633499/). The "second founding" comprised the [13th](Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution), [14th](Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution) and [15th](Fifteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution) amendments to the Constitution. All citizens now had federal rights that could be enforced in federal court. In a deep reaction, after 1876 freedmen lost many of these rights and had second class citizenship in the era of lynching and [Crow laws](Jim)(Jim Crow laws). Finally in the 1950s the U.S, Supreme Court started to restore those rights. Under the leadership of [Luther King](Martin)(Martin Luther King) and [Bevel](James)(James Bevel), the [Rights movement](Civil)(Civil Rights movement) made the nation aware of the crisis, and under [Lyndon Johnson](President)(Presidency of Lyndon B. Johnson) major civil rights legislation was passed in 1964, 1965, and 1968. ## Scholarly analysis Historians who wrote about the [Revolution](American)(American Revolution) era and the founding of the United States government now number in the thousands. Their inclusion would go well beyond the scope of this article. Some of the most prominent ones, however, are listed below. While most scholarly works maintain overall objectivity, historian Arthur H. Shaffer notes that many of the early works about the American Revolution often express a national bias, or anti-bias. Shaffer maintains that this bias lends a direct insight into the minds of the founders and their adversaries respectively. He notes that any bias is the product of a national interest and prevailing political mood, and as such cannot be dismissed as having no historic value for the modern historian.Shaffer, 2017, Preface: Conversely, various modern accounts of history contain [anachronisms](anachronisms), modern day ideals and perceptions used in an effort to write about the past and as such can distort the historical account in an effort to placate a modern audience.[2013](Murison,)(#murison2013), pp. 821–823[1990](Grafton,)(#grafton1990), pp. inside cover, 5, 35, 118 ### Early historians Several of the earliest histories of the founding of the United States and its founders were written by [Belknap](Jeremy)(Jeremy Belknap), author of his three volume work, The history of New-Hampshire, published in 1784. * [Adams](Henry)(Henry Adams), grandson of [Quincy Adams](John)(John Quincy Adams), wrote a nine-volume work, The History of the United States of America During the Administrations of Thomas Jefferson and James Madison, which is acclaimed for its literary style, documentary evidence, and first-hand knowledge of major figures during the early [Revolutionary](American Revolution) era.Cunningham, 1988: * [Wilmot Griswold](Rufus)(Rufus Wilmot Griswold) authored Washington and the Generals of the Revolution, a two-volume work, in 1885. * [Bushnell Hart](Albert)(Albert Bushnell Hart), a [University](Harvard)(Harvard University) history professor, edited a 27-volume work, The American Nation: A History, published in 1904–1918.[(ed.), 1904–1918](Hart)(#hart1904) * [Marshall](John)(John Marshall), a [Supreme Court](U.S.)(United States Supreme Court) Justice, published a two-volume biography of [Washington](George Washington) in 1832, three years before his death. * [Ramsay](David)(David Ramsay (historian)) is regarded as one of the first major historians of the [Revolutionary War](American)(American Revolutionary War).[1967 Master of Arts Thesis](Cooney,)(#cooney1967) * [Otis Warren](Mercy)(Mercy Otis Warren), who wrote extensively about the Revolution and post-Revolution eras, published all her works anonymously until 1790.[2009](Bernstein,)(#bernstein2009), p. 180 * [Locke Weems](Mason)(Mason Locke Weems) authored the first biography of Washington in 1800, which includes the famed story about a young Washington cutting down a cherry tree. * [Wirt](William)(William Wirt (Attorney General)) wrote the first biography on [Henry](Patrick)(Patrick Henry) in 1805, but was accused for excessive praise of Henry.Appleton's American Biography, v. 6, p. 579 ### Modern historians Articles and books by these and other 20th- and 21st-century historians, combined with the digitization of primary sources such as handwritten letters, continue to contribute to an encyclopedic body of knowledge about the Founding Fathers: * [Chernow](Ron)(Ron Chernow) won the [Prize](Pulitzer)(Pulitzer Prize) for his 2010 [of Washington](biography)(Washington: A Life). His 2004 [book Alexander Hamilton](bestselling)(Alexander Hamilton (book)) inspired the 2015 blockbuster [of the same name](musical)(Hamilton (musical)). * [Southall Freeman](Douglas)(Douglas Southall Freeman) wrote an extensive seven volume biography on [Washington](George Washington). Historian and George Washington biographer [E. Ferling](John)(John E. Ferling) maintains that no other biography for Washington compares to that of Freeman's work.[2007](Ferling,)(#ferling2007), p. 654 * [Malone](Dumas)(Dumas Malone) is noted for his six-volume biography Jefferson and His Time, for which he received the 1975 Pulitzer Prize, and for his co-editorship of the 20-volume [of American Biography](Dictionary)(Dictionary of American Biography). * [Gordon-Reed](Annette)(Annette Gordon-Reed) is an American historian and [Law School](Harvard)(Harvard Law School) professor. She is noted for changing scholarship on Jefferson regarding his alleged relationship with [Hemings](Sally)(Sally Hemings) and her children. She has studied the challenges faced by the Founding Fathers, particularly as it relates to their position and actions on slavery. * [P. Greene](Jack)(Jack P. Greene) is an American historian who specializes in colonial-era American history. * [McCullough](David)(David McCullough)'s [Prize](Pulitzer)(Pulitzer Prize)–winning 2001 book [Adams](John)(John Adams (book)) focuses on [Adams](John Adams), and his 2005 book, [1776](1776 (book)) details Washington's military history in the American Revolution and other independence events carried out by America's founders.[2001](McCullough,)(#mccullough2001), 751 pages * [S. Onuf](Peter)(Peter S. Onuf) and [N. Rakove](Jack)(Jack N. Rakove) have researched Jefferson extensively. According to American historian [Ellis](Joseph)(Joseph Ellis), the concept of the Founding Fathers of the U.S. emerged in the 1820s as the last survivors died out. Ellis says the founders or the fathers comprised an aggregate of semi-sacred figures whose particular accomplishments and singular achievements were decidedly less important than their sheer presence as a powerful but faceless symbols of past greatness. For the generation of national leaders coming of age in the 1820s and 1830s, such as [Jackson](Andrew)(Andrew Jackson), [Clay](Henry)(Henry Clay), [Webster](Daniel)(Daniel Webster), and [C. Calhoun](John)(John C. Calhoun), the founders represented heroic but anonymous abstraction whose long shadow fell across all followers and whose legendary accomplishments defied comparison. \|}} ### Noted collections * [Papers Editorial Project](Adams)(Adams Papers Editorial Project), an ongoing project by the Massachusetts Historical Society to organize, transcribe, and documents authored by and by the family of [Adams](John)(John Adams), his wife [Adams](Abigail)(Abigail Adams), and their family, including [Quincy Adams](John)(John Quincy Adams) * [Online](Founders)(Founders Online), a searchable database of over 184,000 documents authored by or addressed to George Washington, John Jay, Benjamin Franklin, John Adams (and family), Thomas Jefferson, Alexander Hamilton, and James Madison * [Papers of Benjamin Franklin](The)(The Papers of Benjamin Franklin) at [University](Yale)(Yale University) * [Papers of James Madison](The)(The Papers of James Madison) at the [of Virginia](University)(University of Virginia) * [Papers of Thomas Jefferson](The)(The Papers of Thomas Jefferson) at [University](Princeton)(Princeton University) * [Selected Papers of John Jay](The)(The Selected Papers of John Jay) at [University](Columbia)(Columbia University) * [Washington Papers](The)(The Washington Papers) at the University of Virginia ## See also * [Memorial](Adams)(Adams Memorial) (proposed) * [American founding fathers of the United States](African)(African American founding fathers of the United States) * [Descendants of Slavery (ADOS)](American)(American Descendants of Slavery (ADOS)) * [Franklin National Memorial](Benjamin)(Benjamin Franklin National Memorial) * [of the United States Constitution](Bibliography)(Bibliography of the United States Constitution) * [of Freedom](Charters)(Charters of Freedom) * [of the Nation](Father)(Father of the Nation) * [Online](Founders)(Founders Online) * [of the United States (1776–1789)](History)(History of the United States (1776–1789)) * [of the United States Constitution](History)(History of the United States Constitution) * [Memorial](Jefferson)(Jefferson Memorial) * [of the Continental Congress](Journals)(Journals of the Continental Congress) * [of military leaders in the American Revolutionary War](List)(List of military leaders in the American Revolutionary War) * [of national founders](List)(List of national founders) * [Madison Memorial Building](James)(James Madison Memorial Building) * [Mason Memorial](George)(George Mason Memorial) * [to the 56 Signers of the Declaration of Independence](Memorial)(Memorial to the 56 Signers of the Declaration of Independence) * [of Englishmen](Rights)(Rights of Englishmen) * [of the United States Constitution](Signing)(Signing of the United States Constitution) * [of the United States Declaration of Independence](Signing)(Signing of the United States Declaration of Independence) * [Stuart](Gilbert)(Gilbert Stuart), artist who painted portraits of many Founders * [of drafting and ratification of the United States Constitution](Timeline)(Timeline of drafting and ratification of the United States Constitution) * [Monument](Washington)(Washington Monument) * [in the American Revolution](Women)(Women in the American Revolution) ## Notes ## Citations ## Bibliography * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * Encyclopedia Britannia. Founding Fathers: The Essential Guide to the Men Who Made America (John Wiley and Sons, 2007) [online](https://archive.org/details/foundingfatherse0000unse/mode/2up); short biographies of leaders * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * Online sources * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * ## Further reading * * * * * * * * * * Burnard, Trevor. "The Founding Fathers in Early American Historiography: A View from Abroad." William and Mary Quarterly 62#4 (2005), pp. 745-76 [online](https://www.jstor.org/stable/3491447) * Dreisbach, Daniel L. Reading the Bible with the Founding Fathers (2017) [online review](https://muse.jhu.edu/article/710817/summary) * Encyclopedia Britannica, Founding fathers : the essential guide to the men who made America (2007) [Ellis](Joseph)(Joseph Ellis) in the introduction page 1 states: "The following 10, presented alphabetically, represent the 'gallery of greats' that has stood the test of time: John Adams, Samuel Adams, Benjamin Franklin, Alexander Hamilton, Patrick Henry, Thomas Jefferson, James Madison, John Marshall, George Mason, and George Washington. There is a nearly unanimous consensus that George Washington was the Foundingest Father of them all." --The book has short bios of 46 "founding Fathers" (and mothers). see [online complete text](https://archive.org/details/foundingfatherse0000unse/page/n13/mode/2up?q=10) * Fischer, David Hackett. African Founders: How Enslaved People Expanded American Ideals (2022) [excerpt](https://www.amazon.com/African-Founders-Enslaved-Expanded-American/dp/1982145099/); also see [online review](https://muse.jhu.edu/article/881597) * Flower, Milton Embick, [John Dickinson, Conservative Revolutionary](https://archive.org/details/johndickinsoncon0000flow), University Press of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia (1983) * [excerpt](https://www.amazon.com/Second-Founding-Reconstruction-Remade-Constitution/dp/0393652572?asin=0393652572&revisionId=&format=4&depth=1) * * Gilhooley, Simon J. The Antebellum Origins of the Modern Constitution: Slavery and the Spirit of the American Founding (Cambridge University Press, 2020). * Graebner, Norman A., Richard Dean Burns, and Joseph M. Siracusa. Foreign affairs and the founding fathers: From confederation to constitution, 1776-1787 (ABC-CLIO, 2011). * Green, Steven K. (2015). Inventing a Christian America: The Myth of the Religious Founding. Oxford University Press. * Harris, Matthew; Kidd, Thomas, eds. (2012). The founding fathers and the debate over religion in revolutionary America: a history in documents. (Oxford University Press). * * Koch, Adrienne (1961). [Power, Morals, and the Founding Fathers: Essays in the Interpretation of the American Enlightenment](https://archive.org/details/powermoralsfound0000adri). Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. * Kostyal, K. M. (2014). Founding Fathers: The Fight for Freedom and the Birth of American Liberty * * * * Mason, Matthew. "A Missed Opportunity? The Founding, Postcolonial Realities, and the Abolition of Slavery." Slavery & Abolition 35.2 (2014): 199-213. * Moreland-Capuia, Alisha. "The Role of Fear in the Founding of the United States: A Historical and Philosophical Perspective." in The Trauma of Racism: Exploring the Systems and People Fear Built (Cham: Springer International Publishing, 2021) pp. 13-33. * Newman, Richard S. and Roy E. Finkenbine. "Black Founders in the New Republic" William and Mary Quarterly (2007) 64#1 pp. 83-94 [online](https://www.jstor.org/stable/4491598) * Newman, Richard S. ''Freedom's Prophet: Bishop Richard Allen, the AME Church, and the Black Founding Fathers* (2008). [online](https://archive.org/details/freedomsprophetb0000newm) * Previdi, Robert. "Vindicating the Founders: Race, Sex, Class, and Justice in the Origins of America," Presidential Studies Quarterly, Vol. 29, 1999 * * * Squiers, Anthony. "The Apotheosis of the Founding Fathers and Signs of Filial Piety." in The Politics of the Sacred in America: The Role of Civil Religion in Political Practice (2018) pp: 75-96. * Trees, Andrew S. [The Founding Fathers and the Politics of Character](https://archive.org/details/foundingfathersp0000tree), Princeton University Press (2005) * Unger, Harlow Giles. First Founding Father: Richard Henry Lee and the Call to Independence (2017) * Unger, Harlow Giles. Dr. Benjamin Rush: The Founding Father Who Healed a Wounded Nation (2018) * Unger, Harlow Giles. Lion of Liberty: Patrick Henry and the Call to a New Nation (Da Capo Press, 2010). * Unger, Harlow Giles. Thomas Paine and the clarion call for American independence (Da Capo Press, 2019). * Unger, Harlow Giles. John Marshall: The Chief Justice Who Saved the Nation. (Da Capo Press, 2014). * Unger, Harlow Giles. John Hancock: Merchant King and American Patriot (John Wiley & Sons, 2000). * Valsania, Maurizio. The French Enlightenment in America: Essays on the Times of the Founding Fathers (U of Georgia Press, 2021). ## External links * [Founders Online: Correspondence and Other Writings of Seven Major Shapers of the United States](https://founders.archives.gov/) * [Meet the Framers of the Constitution](https://www.archives.gov/founding-docs/founding-fathers#), National Archives * [The Federalist Papers](https://avalon.law.yale.edu/subject_Menus/fed.asp), The Avalon Project, [Goldman Law Library](Lillian)(Lillian Goldman Law Library), [University](Yale)(Yale University) * [Signers of the Declaration of Independence](https://www.archives.gov/files/founding-docs/declaration_signers_gallery_facts.pdf), National Archives * [Signers of the Declaration: Individual Biographies](http://www.npshistory.com/publications/nhl/theme-studies/signers-declaration.pdf) (PDF), National Park Service * [The Fates of Signers of the Declaration of Independence: Debunking the Myths](http://www.snopes.com/history/american/pricepaid.asp), published June 28, 2005 * ["What Would the Founding Fathers Do Today?"](https://web.archive.org/web/20070114055143/http://www.americanheritage.com/articles/magazine/ah/2006/3/2006_3_31.shtml) American Heritage'', 2006 [Were the Founding Fathers 'Ordinary People'?](https://www.politifact.com/article/2015/jul/02/founding-fathers-ordinary-folk/), [PolitiFact](PolitiFact) }} [ ](Category:Founding Fathers of the United States) [neologisms](Category:1910s)(Category:1910s neologisms) [of Enlightenment](Category:Age)(Category:Age of Enlightenment) [Revolution](Category:American)(Category:American Revolution) [States](United)(Category:National founders) [in the American Revolution](Category:Patriots)(Category:Patriots in the American Revolution) [leaders of the American Revolution](Category:Political)(Category:Political leaders of the American Revolution)
Porsche 911	porsche_911	# Porsche 911 Revision ID: 1160172685 \| Timestamp: 2023-06-14T20:52:30Z --- \|related= \|layout=[Rear-engine](Rear-engine design), [drive](rear-wheel)(rear-wheel drive)/[drive](all-wheel)(all-wheel drive) \|predecessor=[356](Porsche)(Porsche 356) }} The Porsche 911 (pronounced Nine Eleven or in ) is a two-door [2+2](2+2 (car body style)) high performance [rear-engined](Rear-engine design) [car](sports)(sports car) introduced in September 1964 by [AG](Porsche)(Porsche) of [Stuttgart](Stuttgart), Germany. It has a [rear-mounted](Rear-engine design) [engine](flat-six)(flat-six engine) and originally a [bar suspension](torsion)(torsion bar suspension). The car has been continuously enhanced through the years but the basic concept has remained unchanged.Corlett, p. 12 The engines were [air-cooled](Air-cooled engine) until the introduction of the [series](996)(Porsche 996) in 1998. The 911 has been raced extensively by private and factory teams, in a variety of classes. It is among the most successful competition cars. In the mid-1970s, the [aspirated](naturally)(Naturally aspirated engine) 911 Carrera RSR won world championship races including [Florio](Targa)(Targa Florio) and the [Hours of Daytona](24)(24 Hours of Daytona). The 911-derived [turbo](935)(Porsche 935) also won the [Hours of Le Mans](24)(24 Hours of Le Mans) in 1979. Porsche won the [Championship for Makes](World)(World Sportscar Championship) in 1976, 1977, 1978, and 1979 with 911-derived models. In a 1999 poll to determine the [of the Century](Car)(Car of the Century), the 911 was fifth. It is one of two in the top five that had remained continuously in production (the original Beetle remained in production until 2003).Paternie, p. 7 The one millionth example was manufactured in May 2017 and is in the company's permanent collection. ## 911 nomenclature Although Porsche has used internal code numbers for each series of the 911, all models have been marketed and sold as 911s. The model series and associated internal codes are as follows: * [911](Porsche 911 (classic)) (1964–1989) * [930](Porsche 930) (1975–1989) the turbocharged version * [964](Porsche 964) (1989–1994) * [993](Porsche 993) (1995–1998) the last air-cooled 911 * [996](Porsche 996) (1999–2004) all-new body and water-cooled engines * [997](Porsche 997) (2005–2012) * [991](Porsche 991) (2012–2019) all-new body * [992](Porsche 992) (2019–) A series letter is used by Porsche to indicate the revision for production cars, usually on an annual basis. 911s have also been categorized into families based on body styles or engine enhancements: * 911 Carrera: including the Carrera, Carrera S, Carrera 4, Carrera 4S, Carrera GTS, Carrera 4 GTS, Carrera T. All are available as cabriolets except the Carrera T. * 911 Targa: including the Targa 4, Targa 4S, Targa 4 GTS. * 911 Turbo: including the Turbo, Turbo S. All are available as cabriolets. * GT3/GT3 RS: a track-focused version of the 911 Carrera with a naturally aspirated engine and rear wheel drive. No cabriolet variant has ever been produced to date. A grand touring version featuring comfort-oriented options is called the GT3 Touring, and is available for the 991 and 992 generations. * GT2/GT2 RS: the highest performance derivative, a track-focused version based on the Turbo with rear wheel drive. No cabriolet version has ever been produced to date. Now available as an RS (Renn Sport) model only. ## Air-cooled engines (1964–1998) ### 911, 911E, 911L, 911S, 911T [[File:Porsche 901, GIMS 2019, Le Grand-Saconnex (GIMS1277).jpg\|thumb\|The original Porsche 901 on display at the [Geneva Motor Show](2019)(Geneva Motor Show#2019)\|alt=]] The 911 traces its roots to sketches drawn by ["Butzi" Porsche](Ferdinand)(Ferdinand Alexander Porsche) in 1959.Paternie, Red Book, p. 8 The Porsche 911 was developed as a more powerful, larger and a more comfortable replacement for the [356](Porsche 356), the company's first model. The new car made its public debut at the [Frankfurt Motor Show](1963)(Frankfurt Motor Show#1963) ().Paternie, p. 11 The car was developed with the proof-of-concept twin-fan Type 745 flat-six engine, but the car presented at the auto show had a non-operational mockup of the single-fan 901 engine, receiving a working unit in February 1964. It originally was designated as the "Porsche 901" (901 being its internal project number). A total of 82 cars were built as which were badged as 901s. However, French automobile manufacturer [Peugeot](Peugeot) protested on the grounds that in France it had exclusive rights to car names formed by three numbers with a zero in the middle. Instead of selling the new model with a different name in France, Porsche changed the name to 911. Internally, the cars' part numbers carried on the prefix 901 for years. Production began in September 1964, with the first 911s exported to the US in February 1965. The first models of the 911 had a rear-mounted [[#Notes\|[1]]] Type 901/01 [flat-6](flat-6) engine, in the "[boxer](Flat engine)" configuration like the 356, the engine is [air-cooled](air-cooled) and displaces as compared to the 356's four-cylinder, unit. The car had four seats although the rear seats were small, thus it is usually called a [2+2](2+2 (car body style)) rather than a four-seater (the 356 was also a 2+2). A four or five-speed "Type 901" [transmission](manual)(manual transmission) was available. The styling was largely penned by Ferdinand "Butzi" Porsche, son of ["Ferry" Porsche](Ferdinand)(Ferdinand Anton Ernst Porsche). Butzi Porsche initially came up with a notchback design with proper space for seating two rear passengers but Ferry Porsche insisted that the 356's successor was to use its fastback styling. 7 prototypes were built based on Butzi Porsche's original design and were internally called the Porsche 754 T7. [Komenda](Erwin)(Erwin Komenda), the leader of the Porsche car body construction department who initially objected, was also involved later in the design. [[File:Bonhams - The Paris Sale 2012 - Porsche 912 'SWB' Coupé - 1967 - 014.jpg\|thumb\|The 911-based 912, powered by a [flat-4](flat-4) engine (1967)]] Production of the 356 ended in 1965, but there was still a market for a [4-cylinder](Flat-4) car, particularly in the US. The [912](Porsche 912), introduced in the same year, served as a direct replacement, offering the de-tuned version of 356 SC's 4-cylinder, , boxer four Type 616/36 engine inside the 911 bodywork with Type 901 four-speed manual transmission (a 5-speed manual transmission was optional). In 1966, Porsche introduced the more powerful 911S with Type 901/02 engine having a power output of . Forged aluminum [wheel](alloy)(alloy wheel)s from [Fuchsfelge](Fuchs wheel), with a 5-spoke design, were offered for the first time. In motorsport at the same time, the engine was developed into the Type 901/20 and was installed in the [mid-engine](mid-engine design) [904](Porsche 904) and [906](Porsche 906) with an increased power output of , as well as fuel injected Type 901/21 installed in later variants of the 906 and [910](Porsche 910) with a power output of . In August 1967, the A series went into production with dual brake circuits and widened (5.5J-15) wheels still fitted with [Cinturato](Pirelli)(Pirelli) 165HR15 CA67 tyres., and the previously standard gasoline-burning heater became optional. The [Targa](Targa top) (meaning "plate" in ItalianPaternie, Red Book, p. 9) version was introduced. The Targa had a [steel](stainless)(stainless steel)-clad roll bar, as automakers believed that proposed rollover safety requirements by the US [Highway Traffic Safety Administration](National)(National Highway Traffic Safety Administration) (NHTSA) would make it difficult for fully open [convertible](convertible (car))s to meet regulations for sale in the US, an important market for the 911. The name "Targa" came from the [Florio](Targa)(Targa Florio) sports car road race in [Sicily](Sicily), Italy in which Porsche had several victories until 1973. The last win in the subsequently discontinued event was scored with a 911 Carrera RS against prototypes entered by [Ferrari](Ferrari) and [Romeo](Alfa)(Alfa Romeo). The road-going Targa was equipped with a removable roof panel and a removable plastic rear window (although a fixed glass version was offered from 1968). [[File:Porsche 911 2.0 Coupe IMG 0819.jpg\|thumb\|[911 2.0 Coupe](Porsche)(Porsche 911 classic) (1964) at the [Museum](Porsche)(Porsche Museum, Stuttgart) in [Stuttgart](Stuttgart)]] [[Porsche 911R - Flickr - exfordy.jpg\|thumb\|The 911 R (1967)](File:1967)] The 911T was also launched in 1967 with Type 901/03 engine. The model was renamed the 911L with Type 901/06 engine and ventilated front disc brakes. The brakes had been introduced on the previous 911S. The 911R with 901/22 engine had a limited production (20 in all), as this was a lightweight racing version with thin fiberglass reinforced plastic doors, a [magnesium](magnesium) crankcase, twin overhead camshafts, and a power output of . A clutchless [semi-automatic](Semi-automatic transmission) Sportomatic model, composed of a [converter](torque)(torque converter), an [clutch](automatic)(automatic transmission), and the four-speed transmission was added in Autumn 1967. It was canceled after the 1980 model yearPaternie, p. 36 partly because of the elimination of a forward gear to make it a three-speed. The B series went into production in August 1968, replacing the 911L model with 911E with fuel injection. It remained in production until July 1969. The 911E gained [Pirelli Cinturato](185/70VR15)(Pirelli) CN36, and 6J-15 wheels. The C series was introduced in August 1969 with an enlarged 2.2-litre engine (84 mm bore x 66 mm stroke). The wheelbase for all 911 and 912 models was increased from , to help as a remedy to the car's nervous handling at the limit. The overall length of the car did not change, but the rear wheels were relocated further back. Fuel injection arrived for the 911S (901/10 engine) and for a new middle model, 911E (901/09 engine). The D series was produced from Aug. 1970 to July 1971. The 2.2-litre 911E (C and D series) had lower power output of the 911/01 engine ( at 6,200 rpm) compared to the 911S's Type 911/02 ( at 6,500 rpm), but 911E was quicker in acceleration up to . The E series for 1972–1973 model years (August 1971 to July 1972 production) consisted of the same models, but with a new, larger engine. This is known as the "2.4 L" engine, despite its displacement being closer to 2.3 litres. The 911E (Type 911/52 engine) and 911S (Type 911/53) used Bosch mechanical [injection](fuel)(fuel injection) (MFI) in all markets. For 1972 the 911T (Type 911/57) was [carbureted](carburettor), except in the US and some Asian markets where the 911T also came with (MFI) mechanical fuel injection (Type 911/51 engine) with power increase over European models (130 hp) to 140 hp commonly known as a 911T/E. With power and torque increase, the 2.4-litre cars also got a newer, stronger transmission, identified by its Porsche type number 915. Derived from the transmission in the [908](Porsche 908) race car, the 915 did away with the 901 transmission's "dog-leg" style first gear arrangement, opting for a traditional H pattern with first gear up to the left, second gear underneath first, etc. The E series had the unusual oil filler behind the right side door, with the dry sump oil tank relocated from behind the right rear wheel to the front of it in an attempt to move the center of gravity slightly forward for better handling. An extra oil filler/inspection flap was located on the rear wing, for this reason it became known as an "Oil Klapper", "Ölklappe" or "Vierte Tür (4th door)". The F series (August 1972 to July 1973 production) moved the oil tank back to the original behind-the-wheel location. This change was in response to complaints that gas-station attendants often filled gasoline into the oil tank. In January 1973, US 911Ts were switched to the new [K-Jetronic](Jetronic) CIS (Continuous Fuel Injection) system from [Bosch](Robert Bosch GmbH) on Type 911/91 engine. 911S models also gained a small [spoiler](Spoiler (automotive)) under the front bumper to improve high-speed stability. The cars weighed . The 911 ST was produced in small numbers for racing (the production run for the ST lasted from 1970 to 1971). The cars were available with engines of either or displacement, having a power output of at 8,000 rpm. Weight was down to . The cars had success at the Daytona 6 Hours, the [12 Hours](Sebring)(Sebring 12 Hours), the [km Nürburgring](1000)(1000 km Nürburgring), and the [Florio](Targa)(Targa Florio). ### 911 Carrera RS (1973 and 1974) [[Porsche 911 RS Carrera (35097626702).jpg\|thumb\|1973 Porsche 911 Carrera RS](File:1973)] [[- RM auctions - 20150204 - Porsche 911 Carrera RS 2.7 Touring - 1973 - 005.jpg\|thumb\|Porsche 911 Carrera RS 2.7 touring](File:Paris)] RS stands for Rennsport in German, meaning race sport. The [Carrera](Porsche Carrera) name was reintroduced from the 356 Carrera which had itself been named after Porsche's class victories in the [Panamericana](Carrera)(Carrera Panamericana) races in Mexico in the 1950s. The RS was developed to meet [homologation](motorsport)(Homologation (motorsport)) requirements. Compared to a standard 911S, the Carrera 2.7 RS had a larger engine (2,687 cc) developing with Bosch ([Kugelfischer](Kugelfischer)) mechanical fuel injection, revised and stiffened suspension, a "ducktail" rear spoiler, larger brakes, wider rear wheels and rear fenders, to fit 185/70VR15 & 215/60VR15 Pirelli Cinturato CN36 tyres. In RS Touring form it weighed , in Sport Lightweight form it was about lighter, the saving coming from thin gauge steel used for parts of the body shell and also the use of thinner glass. In total, 1,580 units were made, and qualified for the [FIA](Fédération Internationale de l'Automobile) [4](Group)(Group 4 (racing)) class. 49 Carrera RSR cars were built with engines rated at . [[911 RSR LM24.jpg\|thumb\|The 911 RSR](File:Porsche)] For the 1974 IROC Championship (which started in December 1973), 1973 Carrera RSR models were fitted with the 3.0 engine and a flat "whale tail" in place of the ducktail spoiler along with wide body panels and large tyres. In 1974, Porsche developed the Carrera RS 3.0 with mechanical fuel injection rated at . Its price was almost twice that of the 2.7 RS, but it offered racing capability. The chassis was largely similar to that of the 1973 Carrera RSR and the braking system was from the [917](Porsche 917) racing car. The use of thinner metal plate panels and a minimalist interior enabled its weight to be reduced to around . The Carrera RSR 3.0 was sold to racing teams and scored wins in several major sports car races of the mid-1970s. Also, a prototype Carrera RSR Turbo (with 2.1-litre engine due to a 1.4x equivalency formula) came second at the [Hours of Le Mans in 1974](24)(1974 24 Hours of Le Mans) and won several major races, a significant event in that its engine would form the basis of many future Porsche attempts in sports car racing. This, and the earlier 917, was Porsche's commitment to [turbocharger](turbocharger) applications in its cars. ### 911 and 911S 2.7 (1973–1977) There is a common misconception that all 911s built between 1974 and 1989 are 'G-series' cars. In fact, the G-series was only produced for the 1974 model year. It was followed by the H, J, K, and so on. Model year 1974 (G Series. Aug. 1973 to July 1974 production) Model year 1975 (H Series. Aug. 1974 to July 1975 production) Model year 1976 (J Series. Aug. 1975 to July 1976 production) Model year 1977 (K Series. Aug. 1976 to July 1977 production) The 1974 model year brought many significant changes to the 911 to meet legislative requirements around the world for both impact safety and emissions. First, the engine size was increased to 2,687 cc achieving higher torque. Second, new impact [bumpers](Bumper (automobile)) conformed with low-speed protection requirements of US regulations. Thirdly, the use of K-Jetronic CIS Bosch fuel injection in two of the three models in the line up— the 911 and 911S models, retaining the narrow rear arches of the old 2.4, now had a 2.7-litre engine rated at and , respectively. The standard 911 version received an increase to for Model Year 1976, which meant that starting from MY 1976, there was only a difference in power of 10 hp between the 911 and the 911S. The engine remained a K-Jetronic 2.7-litre. The 911S 2.7 engine was rated during the entire lifespan at . ### Carrera 2.7 MFI and CIS (1974–1976) The Carrera 2.7 model built for all markets, except for the United States, used the RS 911/83 engine with Bosch mechanical fuel injection pump from the 1973 Carrera RS. These Carrera 2.7 MFI models were built from 1974 until 1976 and were mechanically identical to the 1973 Carrera RS. The Carrera 2.7 model produced for the North American markets, often referred to as the Carrera 2.7 CIS, was powered by the same 2.7-litre engine as the 911S which produced . The initial Carrera 2.7 models had the same welded-on rear RS flares, before switching to the SC stamped style rear flares during the middle of the 1974 production year. The Carrera 2.7 coupés weighed in at , the same weight as the 1973 Carrera RS Touring. For the 1974 model year, the Carrera 2.7 was available with the "ducktail" rear spoiler first introduced with the 1973 Carrera RS. In the North American markets, the ducktail was standard equipment for the Carrera. All other markets the ducktail was optional, except for the home German market where the ducktail had been outlawed by the TÜV road homologation department. This led to the introduction of the whale tail rear spoiler, available as an option on the 1974-75 Carrera 2.7 models, as well as the newly introduced 930 Turbo. The Carrera 2.7 was replaced by the Carrera 3.0 for the 1976 model year, except for a special run of 113 1976 Carrera 2.7 MFI coupés were built for the German market featuring the 911/83 RS engine, with an additional 20 narrow-bodied 1976 Carrera MFI 2.7 Targas being supplied to the Belgian Gendarmerie. The 1976 Carrera 2.7 MFI Sondermodells were the last mechanically fuel injected 911 produced by Porsche and still featured the 1973 RS engine. ### 912E (1976) For the 1976 model year, the 912E was produced for the U.S. market. This was a 4-cylinder version of the 911 in the same manner as the 912 that had last been produced in 1969. It used the I-series chassis powered by the [Volkswagen](Volkswagen) 2.0 engine also used in the [914](Porsche)(Porsche 914) for 1973 through 1975 model years. 2,099 units were produced. The 912E was replaced by the front-engine [924](Porsche)(Porsche 924) for the 1977 model year. ### Carrera 3.0 (1976–1977) [[911 Carrera 3.0.JPG\|thumbnail\|left\|Porsche 911 Carrera 3.0](File:Porsche)] [[911 Carrera 3.0 1976.JPG\|thumbnail\|right\|Porsche 911 Carrera 3.0](File:Porsche)] For the 1976 model year, Porsche introduced the Carrera 3.0 with wide rear flares, optional whaletail, and a variety of other luxury options. It was available in all markets except North America. The Carrera 3.0 was fitted with a variation of the 930 Turbo's 2994 cc engine (minus the [turbocharger](turbocharger)). The engine (dubbed the 930/02) featured K-Jetronic CIS. It developed in contrast to the older Carrera 2.7 MFI model's . The crankcase and gearbox housing were made of aluminium rather than magnesium for improved reliability. Magnesium cases were reviled for thermal expansion/contraction issues as engines grew in displacement and heat generation also increased. The new engine, which featured bigger intake and exhaust valves, produced greater torque allowing the Carrera 3.0 to achieve the same performance as the previous Carrera 2.7, in 6.1 seconds and in 27 seconds. Both versions boasted a top speed of approximately . Weight increased marginally by to . The 911 Carrera 3.0 was produced in both targa (1,125 examples produced) and coupé (2,566) versions. The Carrera 3.0 was available with a manual gearbox (type 915) with 4 or 5 speeds as well as 3-speed automatic transmission (called the Sportomatic). Production totals were 3,691 manual cars and 58 Sportomatic cars. ### 930 Turbo and Turbo Carrera 3.0-litre (1975–1977) [[oldtimerdag Zandvoort 2010, Red Porsche.JPG\|thumb\|Porsche 911 Turbo (930)](File:Nationale)] For the 1975 model year, Porsche introduced the first production [turbocharged](turbocharged) 911. Although called the 930 Turbo (930 being its internal type number) in Europe, it was marketed as the 930 Turbo Carrera in North America. The body shape incorporated wide wheel-arches to accommodate the wide 205/50R15 & 225/50R15 Pirelli P7 tyres, and a large rear spoiler often known as a "[tail](whale)(Whale tail (automotive spoiler))" on the early cars (modified from the original 1974 IROC design). They were initially fitted with a 3.0-litre engine and four-speed manual transmission. [[934 Turbo (9224976479).jpg\|thumb\|The Porsche 934, one of the first racing versions of the 930 Turbo](File:Porsche)] [[Porsche 935 (20202549045).jpg\|thumb\|The Porsche 935 known for its signature "slant nose" front](File:1979)] Production of the first 400 units qualified the 930 for FIA Group 4 competition. With the racing version called the [934](Porsche)(Porsche 934) of 1976 participating at the [Hours of Le Mans](24)(Le Mans 24 Hours) and other races including battles with the [3.0 CSL "Batmobile"](BMW)(BMW E9). The [Group 5](FIA)(Group 5 (racing)) version called [935](Porsche)(Porsche 935) evolved from the 934. Fitted with a slope nose or "slant nose", the 500+ PS car was campaigned in 1976 by the factory, winning the world championship title. Private teams went on to win many races, like Le Mans in 1979, and continued to compete successfully with the car well into the 1980s until the FIA and IMSA rules were changed. ### 930 Turbo 3.3-litre (1978–1989) [[930 3.3-litre, distinguished by its raised "tea tray" rear wing](File:12-01-03-autostadtl-by-RalfR-81.jpg\|thumb\|Porsche)] For the 1978 model year, Porsche revised the 930 with a larger 3.3-litre [turbocharged](turbocharged) engine with intercooler rated at . To fit the intercooler a newly designed "tea-tray" tail spoiler replaced the earlier whale tail spoiler. Porsche dropped the "Carrera" nomenclature for the North American markets and the car was simply called the Porsche 911 Turbo worldwide. The larger engine helped reduce some of the turbo lag inherent in the earlier models. In 1989, a 5-speed manual transmission became available for the 930. The 930 was replaced in 1990 with the [964](Porsche 964) turbo featuring the same 3.3-litre engine. There have been turbocharged variants of each subsequent generation of 911 since then. ### 911SC (1978–1983) [[Porsche 911 SC, the last production year of the SC](File:1983Porsche911SC.JPG\|thumb\|1983)] [[File:1000pistestoivonen84.jpg\|thumb\|[Toivonen](Henri)(Henri Toivonen) at rallye des 1000 pistes in 1984 on a Porsche 911 SC/RS]] In 1978, Porsche introduced the new version of the 911, called the '911SC'. Porsche reintroduced the SC designation for the first time since the 356SC (as distinguished from the race engined 356 Carrera). There was no Carrera version of the 911SC. According to modern-day Porsche literature and websites (there is no period reference to SC meaning anything) the "SC" stands for "Super Carrera". It featured a 3.0-litre aluminum engine with Bosch K-Jetronic fuel injection and a 5-speed 915 transmission. Originally power output was , later and then in 1981 it was increased to . The move to an aluminum engine was to regain case reliability, something missing for many years with magnesium. In 1981 a Cabriolet concept car was introduced at the [Motor Show](Frankfurt)(Frankfurt Motor Show). The [convertible](convertible) body design also featured [drive](four-wheel)(four-wheel drive), although this was dropped in the production version. The first 911 Cabriolet debuted in late 1982, as a 1983 model. This was Porsche's first cabriolet since the [356](Porsche 356) of the mid-1960s. A total of 4,214 were sold in its introductory year, despite its premium price relative to the open-top targa.P. 77 Paternie, P (2000). Porsche 911 Red Book 1965–1999 Motorbooks International. Cabriolet versions of the 911 have been offered ever since. In 1979, Porsche had made plans to replace the 911 with their new [928](Porsche 928) company [flagship](halo car). Sales of the 911 remained so strong, however, that Porsche revised its strategy and decided to inject new life into the 911 editions. 911 SC sales totaled 58,914 cars. [W. Schutz](Peter)(Peter W. Schutz) (CEO Porsche AG 1981–1987) wrote: , the Porsche operating board member responsible for all engineering and development. I noticed a chart on the wall of Professor Bott's office. It depicted the ongoing development schedules for the three primary Porsche product lines: [944](Porsche 944), 928 and 911. Two of them stretched far into the future, but the 911 program stopped at the end of 1981. I remember rising from my chair, walking over to the chart, taking a black marker pen, and extending the 911 program bar clean off the chart. I am sure I heard a silent cheer from Professor Bott, and I knew I had done the right thing. The Porsche 911, the company icon, had been saved, and I believe the company was saved with it.Corlett, p. 6}} ### Carrera 3.2 (1984–1989) [[911carrera Jubi Targa und TLcabrio.jpg\|thumb\|right\|1988 Porsche 911 Commemorative Edition's Carrera "Turbo-Look" Cabriolet and "Carrera Targa"](File:1987)] The replacement for the SC series came in 1984 as the 911 3.2 Carrera, reviving the Carrera name for the first time since 1977. This was the last iteration in the original 911 series, with all subsequent models featuring new body styling and new brake, electronic, and suspension technologies. A new higher-displacement engine, a 3.2-litre horizontally opposed flat 6-cylinder unit, was utilized. At the time Porsche claimed it was 80% new.Corlett, p. 13 The new swept volume of 3,164 cc was achieved using the bore (from the previous SC model) combined with the 1978 Turbo 3.3 crankshaft's stroke. In addition, higher domed pistons increased the compression ratio from 9.8 to 10.3:1 (9.5:1 for the US market). New inlet manifold and exhaust systems were fitted. The 915 transmission was carried over from the SC series for the first three model years. In 1987, the Carrera got a new five-speed gearbox sourced from [Getrag](Getrag), model number G50 with proven [BorgWarner](BorgWarner) synchronizers. This slightly heavier version also featured a hydraulically operated clutch. With the new engine, power was increased to (at 5,900 rpm) for North American-delivered cars and to (at 5,900 rpm) for most other markets. This version of the 911 accelerated in 5.4 seconds and had a top speed of as measured by [Autocar](Autocar (magazine)). Factory figures were more modest: 0– time of 6.3 seconds for the US version and 6.1 seconds for cars outside the American market. The brake discs were increased in size to aid in more effective heat dissipation and improved oil-fed chain tensioners were fitted to the engine. To improve oil cooling, a finned cooler replaced the serpentine lines in the front passenger fender well. This was further improved in 1987, with the addition of a thermostatically controlled fan. Driving refinement and motor reliability were improved with an upgrade of the fuel and [ignition](Ignition system) control components to an [L-Jetronic](Jetronic) with Bosch Motronics 2 DME (Digital Motor Electronics system). An improvement in [efficiency](fuel)(fuel efficiency) was due to the DME providing a petrol cut-off on the overrun. Changes in the fuel map and chip programming from October 1986 further improved the power to (at 5,900 rpm) for North American delivered cars as well as for other markets mandating low emissions, like Germany. Three basic models were available – coupé, targa and cabriolet. The Carrera is almost indistinguishable from the SC with the external clue being the front fog lights that were integrated into the front valance. Only cosmetic changes were made during the production of the Carrera, with a redesigned dashboard featuring larger air conditioning vents appearing in 1986. In 1984, Porsche also introduced the M491 option. Officially called the Supersport in the UK, it was commonly known as the "Turbo-Look". It was a style that resembled the 930 Turbo with wide wheel arches and the distinctive "tea tray" tail. It featured the stiffer suspension shared with the Turbo and the superior Turbo braking system as well as the wider Turbo wheels. Sales of the Turbo-Look were high for its first two years in the United States because the desirable 930 was not available. 3,663 were sold until 1989. The Turbo-Look, received official title in the sales lists, as the 930 Chassis option starting in model year 1984. The order was now possible without the special wish department (as previously). At first, only available for the Coupé, some cabriolets were still ordered with Turbo-Look items without having option code M491 in the internal data sheets (cardex). For these cars the "Sonderwunsch" dept. was once more responsible. From model year 1985 the Turbo-Look option could be ordered on all three models; Coupé, Cabriolet and Targa produced together with the narrow body on the same production line. The Turbo-Look option package contained: Front fenders of 930 Turbo; which, were attached the same way as the Turbo, first by welding flares to the narrow fender, then from model year 1986 a new, widened fender as a one piece stamped steel part was developed. Side rear 930 widened fenders at the back; which, was attached the same way as the Turbo, first by welding flares to the narrow body, then from model year 1986 a new, widened quarter panel as one piece stamped steel part was manufactured. Porsche service information reads: "The visible from inside weld seam is omitted. The drawing part is now manufactured in one piece" The 930 front apron with Black rubber elastic spoiler with integrated front driving lights. The 930 Turbo rear wing with the black rubber elastic lip of the Porsche 930 3.3 Intercooled model. One could cancel the front spoiler and back spoiler - first without a change in price; however, later the package price decreased by about 2000 - DM. Such vehicles were documented, in addition, with the option M470. The complete brake assembly of the 930 Turbo 3.3, derived for the Porsche 917. Axle brackets and anti-sway bars of the Turbo 3.3 (first 20 mm then 22 mm rear, as well as 23 mm in front). FUCHS Magnesium with dimensions: Front: 7x16 and Rear 9x16 – with Tires 205 55 x 16 and 245 50 x 16 (from Model year 1986). The Turbo-Look option package did not include: Bilstein shocks/struts of the Turbo – Instead the Turbo-Look used the Carrera Boge units. The 930 tie rods of the Turbo. There was no independent chassis number given for the M491/M490 optioned vehicles.Turbo-Look Register [[Carrera CS registered August 1988 3164cc.jpg\|thumb\|right\|1988 Porsche Carrera CS](File:Porsche)] In 1985, Porsche introduced the first Carrera Club Sport prototype with the identification number WP0ZZZ91ZF100848. Later on in that year, a 911 Club Sport Row (Rest Of World) with the identification number WP0ZZZ91ZFS101166 was special ordered for a Porsche driver that was particularly inspired by the CS prototype on the track. From 1987 to September 1989, Porsche decided to produced 340 units for their customers that wanted a track inspired road car, The 911 Carrera Club Sport (CS) (option M637), is a reduced weight version of the standard Carrera purposely built for club racing, it gained engine and suspension modifications. The CS had a blueprinted engine with hollow intake valves and a higher rev limit, deletion of: all power options, sunroof (except one unit), air conditioning (except two units), radio, rear seat, undercoating, sound insulation, rear wiper, door pocket lids, fog lamps, front hood locking mechanism, engine and luggage compartment lights, lockable wheel nuts and even the rear lid "Carrera" logo, all in order to save an estimated in weight. With the exception of CS cars delivered to the UK, all are identifiable by the "CS Club Sport" decal on the left front fender and came in a variety of colors, some special ordered. Some U.S. CS cars did not have the decal installed by the dealer; however, all have a "SP" stamp on the crankcase and cylinder head. The UK cars were all finished "Grand Prix White" with a red "Carrera CS" decal on each side of the car and red wheels. Although the CS was well received by the club racers, because it cost more than the standard 911, but had fewer comfort features. According to Porsche Club of America and Porsche Club Great Britain CS Registers, 21 are documented as delivered to the U.S. in 1988 with 7 in 1989, one to Canada in 1988 and 53 to the United Kingdom from 1987 to 1989. In 1988, Porsche produced 875 examples of the CE or Commemorative Edition 911 Carrera in coupe, targa and cabriolet variants to mark the production of the 250,000th 911. Distinguishing features include special diamond blue metallic paint with color-matched Fuchs wheels, front and rear spoilers, and interior carpets and leather. These cars also featured Dr. Ferdinand Porsche's signature embroidered on the seats in the headrest area. Of the 875 examples produced, only 300 were imported to the US (120 coupes, 100 cabrio's and 80 Targa's), 250 were sold in Germany, 50 went to the UK, and the remainder to other countries. [[911 Carrera 3.2 Speedster "Turbo-Look"](File:Porsche-32-speedster.jpg\|thumb\|Porsche)] For 1989, Porsche produced the 25th Anniversary Special Edition model to mark the 25th year of 911 production. The 1989 Porsche brochure lists production of 500 U.S. market cars, of which 300 were coupés (240 in silver metallic paint and 60 in satin black metallic), and 200 cabriolet models (160 in silver and 40 in black). All had "silk grey" leather with black accent piping and silk grey velour carpeting. Included were body color Fuchs wheels in 6x16 (front) and 8x16 (rear), stitched leather console with an outside temperature gauge and a CD or cassette holder, a limited-slip differential, and a short shifting gear lever, as well as small bronze "25th Anniversary Special Edition" badges. The 911 Speedster (option M503), a low-roof version of the Cabriolet which was evocative of the 356 Speedster of the 1950s, was produced in limited numbers (2,104 units) starting in January 1989 until July 1989 as both a narrow body car and a Turbo-look. The narrow version production was 171 units. The Speedster started as a design under in 1983 but was not manufactured until six years later. It was a two-seat convertible that featured a low swept windshield.Corlett, p. 45 Total production of the 911 3.2 Carrera series was 76,473 cars (35,670 coupé, 19,987 cabrio, 18,468 targa).Corlett, p. 74 According to the manufacturer in 2014, an estimate of around 150,000 of the 911 cars from the model years 1964 to 1989 are still on the road at that date. ### 964 Series (1989–1993) [[Porsche 911 Carrera 2 (803367948).jpg\|thumb\|1990 Porsche 911 Carrera 2](File:1990)] For 1989 the 911 underwent a major evolution with the introduction of the Type 964. With technologies from the [959](Porsche 959) flagship model, this would be an important car for Porsche, since the world economy was undergoing [recession](recession) and the company could not rely on its image alone. It was launched as the Carrera 4, the "4" indicating [four-wheel-drive](four-wheel-drive), demonstrating the company's commitment to engineering. [coefficient](Drag)(Drag coefficient) was down to 0.32. A rear spoiler deployed at high speed, preserving the purity of design when the vehicle was at rest. The chassis was redesigned overall. Coil springs, [brakes](ABS)(ABS brakes) and [steering](power)(power steering) made their debut. The engine was increased in size to 3,600 cc and was rated at . The [rear-wheel-drive](rear-wheel-drive) version, the Carrera 2, arrived a year later. The [incarnation of the 911 Turbo](964)(Porsche 911#964 Turbo (1990–1994)) returned in 1990 after an absence from the price lists. At first, it used a refined version of the 3.3 L engine of the previous Turbo, but two years later a turbocharged engine based on the 3.6 L engine of the other 964 models was introduced. In 1990, Porsche introduced the ahead-of-its-time [Tiptronic](Tiptronic) automatic transmission in the 964 Carrera 2, featuring adaptive electronic management and full manual control. The 964 was one of the first cars in the world offered with dual [airbags](airbags) standard (from 1991), the first being the [Turbo](944)(Porsche 944 Turbo) (from 1987). [[Carrera RS - Flickr - Alexandre Prévot.jpg\|thumb\|Porsche 964 Carrera RS](File:Porsche)] In 1992, Porsche re-introduced a limited-edition RS model, inspired by the 1973 Carrera RS and emissions-legal in Europe only. In 1993, appeals from American customers resulted in Porsche developing the RS America of which 701 units were built. In 1994, the RS America returned with rear seats. A total of 84 RS America cars were made in 1994. However, while European RS was a homologation special, RS America was an option delete variant of the regular model. The RS 3.8 of 1993 had Turbo-style bodywork, a larger fixed whale tail in place of the electronically operated rear spoiler, and a engine. Since the RS/RS America was intended as a no-compromise, higher performance version of the 964, there were four factory options available: a [differential](limited-slip)(limited-slip differential), AM/FM [cassette](Compact Cassette) stereo, air conditioning, and a sunroof. The interior was more basic than a standard 911 as well; for example, the interior door panels lacked the armrests and door pockets and had a simple pull strap for the opening mechanism. #### 964 Turbo (1990–1994) [[911-964 turbo 1990-1993 frontright 2009-10-04 U.jpg\|thumb\|left\|Porsche 964 Turbo](File:Porsche)] In 1990 Porsche introduced a [version](Turbocharged)(1991-1992 Porsche 964 Turbo Technical Data) of the 964 series. This car is sometimes mistakenly called 965 (this type number actually referred to a [project](stillborn)(Porsche 969) that would have been a hi-tech turbocharged car in the vein of the 959). For the 1991 through 1993 model years, Porsche produced the 964 Turbo with the 930's proven 3.3 L engine, improved to have a power output of . 1994 brought the Carrera 2/4's 3.6 L engine, now in turbocharged form and sending a staggering to the rear wheels. With the 993 on the way, this car was produced through 1994 and remains rather rare. ### 993 Series (1994–mid 1998) [[Porsche 911 993 GT2 - Flickr - The Car Spy (4).jpg\|thumb\|right\|The mid-nineties Type 993 had sleeker bodywork. This is the high-performance GT2 variant](File:1996)] The 911 was again revised for model year 1994 under the internal name Type 993. This car was significant as it was the final incarnation of the [air-cooled](air-cooled) 911 first introduced in 1964. Most enthusiasts and collectors consider the 993 to be the best of the air-cooled 911 series. As Car & Driver noted, "Porsche's version of the Goldilocks tale is the 993-generation 911, the one many Porschephiles agree that the company got just right," with an "ideal blend of technology and classic 911 air-cooled heritage." Porsche itself refers to the 993 as "a significant advance, not just from a technical, but also a visual perspective." "993s especially [are] widely regarded as the best the 911 ever got."James Edition, 28 April 2015, "The Classic Porsche 911 Market Continues to Surprise." The exterior featured all-new front and rear ends. The revised bodywork was smoother, having a noticeably more aerodynamic front end somewhat reminiscent of the [959](Porsche 959). Styling was by Englishman Tony Hatter under the supervision of design chief [Lagaay](Harm)(Harm Lagaay) and was completed in 1991. Along with the revised bodywork, mechanically the 993 also featured an all-new multilink rear suspension that improved the car's ride and handling. This rear suspension was largely derived from the stillborn [989](Porsche)(Porsche 989)'s rear multilink design and served to rectify the problems with earlier models' tendency to oversteer if the throttle or brakes were applied mid-corner. These modifications also reduced previous 911's lift-off oversteer problems to a much more moderate degree. [[993 RS Clubsport (3).jpg\|thumb\|The Porsche 993 Carrera RS continued the tradition of a light weight and minimalist 911 beginning with the 1973 Carrera RS](File:Porsche)] The new suspension, along with chassis refinements, enabled the car to keep up dynamically with the competition. Engine capacity remained at 3.6 L, but power rose to due to better engine management and exhaust design, and beginning with model year 1996 to . The 993 was the first Porsche to debut variable-length intake runners with the "Varioram" system on 1996 models. This addressed the inherent compromise between high-rpm power production and low-rpm torque production and was one of the first of its kind to be employed on production vehicles. However, the Varioram version with its OBD II had issues with carbon deposits, resulting in failed smog tests. This caused expensive repairs and made comparisons with the 1995 car (with OBD I and just 12 hp less) inevitable. Meanwhile, a new four-wheel-drive system was introduced as an option in the form of the Carrera 4, the [rear-wheel-drive](rear-wheel drive) versions simply being called Carrera or C2. A lightweight RS variant had a 3.8 L engine rated at , and was only rear-wheel drive. [[Techno-Classica 2018, Essen (IMG 9738).jpg\|thumb\|right\|The Porsche 993 Targa had a departure from the classic Targa design, incorporating an expensive glass sliding roof mechanism](File:Porsche,)] The Targa open-topped model also made a return, this time with a large glass roof that slid under the rear window. The expensive air-cooled 993 Targa had a limited production run between 1996 and 1998. [numbers: 1996: US/Can: 462 ROW: 1980, 1997: US/Can: 567 ROW: 1276, 1998: US/Can: 122 (100 Tiptronic / 22 Manual)](Production) As an investment, the 1997 and 1998 Carrera S version has proven the most desirable (apart from even rarer models such as the RS and Turbo S). "Many find that they are the best looking 911 there is and used prices have always seemed to reflect this. They command a hefty premium in today's market and the very best example wide body cars can be priced more than the higher mileage Turbos."993 Buying Guide, www.jackals-forge.com/lotus/993/993_buy_guide.html. Of the widebody 993 series, "The purists will want 2 wheel drive and nothing else will do."993 Buying Guide; Id. Similarly, purists will insist upon the manual transmission over the automatic "Tiptronic" version; this is even more true in the case of the 993 as compared with other models, because Porsche 993s were the first production model (apart from the 959 flagship sports car) to feature a 6-speed manual transmission. The C2S wide-body 993 models are in scarce supply, with none built in 1995 or 1996, and just 759 units made for North America in 1997, with a final supply of 993 in 1998, for a total of 1,752 C2S examples overall. #### 993 Turbo (1995–1997) [[Techno-Classica 2018, Essen (IMG 9729).jpg\|thumb\|Porsche 993 Turbo](File:Porsche,)] A [Turbocharged](Porsche 993 Turbo) version of the 993 was launched in 1995 and became the first standard production Porsche with twin turbochargers and the first 911 Turbo to be equipped with permanent all-wheel-drive (the homologated GT2 version based on the Turbo retained RWD). The similarity in specification and in performance levels inspired several comparison road tests with the 959.(f.e. [and Driver](Car)(Car and Driver), July 1997, p. 63) The 3.6 L twin-turbocharged M64/60 engine is rated at ). The performance was outstanding at the time, as 0 to has been measured at 3.2 seconds, and the braking was even more impressive in 2.3 seconds from the same speed. The car's top speed was measured at at 7,000 rpm. The differences were striking - the 959 had a much smaller engine, sequential turbocharging and a computer-controlled all wheel drive system. The 993 turbo had parallel turbochargers, 3.6 litres of displacement, and a viscous coupling for the center differential in the AWD drivetrain. The turbo was only produced in 1996 and 1997 model years. The main difference was that the ECU in the 1996 model year could not be flashed for an upgrade, while the 1997 could. Additionally, the 1996 year had Porsche crested centre caps on the wheels, while the 1997 had turbo inscribed. Another difference is the motion sensor and map lights above the interior rear view mirror on the 1997 while the 1996 had no such devices. In 1997, Porsche introduced a limited run of 183 units of the Sport version of the 993 turbo dubbed the turbo S. With over the regular Turbo's , features include a scoop on the side right behind the doors for engine cooling and vents on the whale tail rear spoiler. Aside from an upgraded ECU mapping, a centre oil cooler behind the centre air intake at the front bumper was added. ## Water-cooled engines (1998–present) ### 996 (1999–2005) [[File:2002 911C4S.JPG\|thumb\|right\|2002 [996](Porsche 996) Carrera 4S]] The Type 996 introduced in 1998 represented two major changes for the venerable 911 lineage: a [water-cooled](water-cooled) flat-6 engine replaced the popular air-cooled engine used in the 911 for 34 years and the body shell received its first major re-design. Changing to a water-cooled engine was controversial with Porsche traditionalists, who noted this as the end of the 'true' 911. The 996 styling shared its front end with Porsche's mid engine entry-level [Boxster](Porsche Boxster). Pinky Lai's work on the exterior won international design awards between 1997 and 2003. The Carrera variant had a 0.30 [of drag](coefficient)(coefficient of drag). The interior was criticized for its plainness and its lack of relationship to prior 911 interiors, although this came largely from owners of older 911s. The Type 996 spawned over a dozen variations, including an all-wheel-drive Carrera 4 and Carrera 4S (the latter which had a 'Turbo look' in facelift form) models, the club racing-oriented [GT3](Porsche 911 GT3) and GT3 RS instead of a Carrera RS variant and the [forced-induction](turbocharging) 996 Turbo and [GT2](Porsche 911 GT2). The Turbo, which was four-wheel-drive and had a [twin-turbocharged](twin-turbocharged) engine, often made appearances in magazines' lists of the best cars on sale. The Carrera and Carrera 4 underwent revisions for the 2002 model year, receiving clear lens front and rear indicator lights which were first seen on the Turbo version two years earlier. This allowed the 911 to be more distinguishable from the Boxster. A mildly revised front fascia was also introduced, though the basic architecture remained. Engine displacement was 3.4 L and power output was featuring a change to an "integrated dry sump" design and variable valve timing. The displacement was increased in 2002 to 3.6 L and power received an increase to . The folding roof mechanism on the convertible variants required 19 seconds for operation. An electronically adjustable rear spoiler was installed that raised at speeds over . It could also be raised manually by means of an electric switch. Starting from the models with water-cooled engines, all variants of the 911 Carrera do not come with rear [differential](limited-slip)(limited-slip differential), except the 40th Anniversary 911, GT2, GT3 and Turbo. The exception would be for MY1999 where the limited-slip differential was available as option code 220. #### 996 GT3 (1999–2004) [[996 GT3 - Flickr - Alexandre Prévot (3).jpg\|thumb\|left\|996 GT3](File:Porsche)] [[exhibition at Oca, Parque do Ibirapuera 2018 057.jpg\|thumb\|right\|996 GT3 RS](File:Porsche)] Porsche introduced a road-legal GT3 version of the 996 series which was derived from the company's racing car used in the GT3 class racing. Simply called GT3, the car featured lightweight materials including thinner windows and deletion of the rear seats. The GT3 was a lighter and more focused design with an emphasis on handling and performance, a concept that dates back to the 1973 Carrera RS. The suspension ride height was lowered and tuned for responsiveness over compliance and comfort. These revisions improved handling and steering. Of more significance was the engine used in the GT3. Instead of using a version of the water-cooled units found in other 996 models, the naturally aspirated engine was derived from the [GT1 '98](911)(Porsche 911 GT1#911 GT1-98) sports-prototype racing car and featured lightweight materials which enabled the engine to have higher rpm. The engine used was a naturally aspirated flat-six rather than the engine from the pre-facelift and revised Carrera. It is rated at at first and later improved to at the end of the 996 series' revision. #### 996 Turbo (2001–2005) [[996 Turbo - Flickr - Alexandre Prévot (15).jpg\|thumb\|996 Turbo](File:Porsche)] [[Turbo, Techno Classica 2018, Essen (IMG 0015).jpg\|thumb\|right\|996 Turbo S](File:Porsche)] In 2000, Porsche launched the turbocharged version of the Type 996 for the 2001 model year. Like the GT3, the Turbo's engine was derived from the engine used in the 911 GT1 and, like its predecessor, featured twin-turbos and now had a power output of . Also like its predecessor, the new Turbo was only available with all-wheel drive. In 2002, the X50 package was available that increased the engine output to with of torque across a wide section of the power band. With the X50 package, the car could accelerate from in 3.91 seconds. Later on toward the end of the 996 life cycle, the Turbo S nameplate also returned with the debut of the cabriolet variant as well. The Turbo S boasted even more power— and — than the standard Turbo courtesy of the X50 package being standard. The Turbo S was limited to 1,500 units worldwide. The Turbo can attain a top speed of .Paternie, p. 92 The styling was more individual than the previous generations of the Turbo. Along with the traditional wider rear wing, the 996 Turbo had different front lights and bumpers when compared to the Carrera and Carrera 4. The rear bumper had air vents reminiscent of those on the 959 and there were large vents on the front bumper. ### 997 (2004–2013) [[911 (997) Carrera - Flickr - The Car Spy (11).jpg\|thumb\|right\|997 Carrera](File:Porsche)] [[Carrera 4S front 20080519.jpg\|thumb\|right\|997 Carrera S](File:Porsche)] [[911 Carrera 4S 997.jpg\|thumb\|997 Carrera 4S](File:Porsche)] The [996](Porsche 996) was replaced with the [997](Porsche 997) in 2004, for the 2005 model year. It retains the 996's basic profile, with an even lower 0.28 drag coefficient, but draws on the 993 for detailing. In addition, the new headlights revert to the original bug-eye design from the teardrop scheme of the 996. Its interior is also similarly revised, with strong links to the earlier 911 interiors while at the same time looking fresh and modern. The 997 shares less than a third of its parts with the outgoing 996, but is still technically similar to it. Initially, two versions of the 997 were introduced— the rear-wheel-drive Carrera and Carrera S. While the base 997 Carrera had a power output of from its 3.6 L Flat 6, a more powerful 3.8 L Flat 6 powers the Carrera S. Besides a more powerful engine, the Carrera S also comes standard with "Lobster Fork" style wheels, more powerful and larger brakes (with red calipers), lowered suspension with PASM (Porsche Active Suspension Management: dynamically adjustable dampers), Xenon headlamps, and a sports steering wheel. In late 2005, Porsche introduced the all-wheel-drive versions to the 997 lineup. Carrera 4 models (both Carrera 4 and Carrera 4S) were announced as 2006 models. Both Carrera 4 models are wider than their rear-wheel-drive counterparts by to cover wider rear tyres. The acceleration time for the Carrera 4S with the engine equipped with a manual transmission was reported at 4.8 seconds. The 0– acceleration for the Carrera S with the was noted to be as fast as 4.2 seconds in a [Trend](Motor)(Motor Trend) comparison, and [& Track](Road)(Road & Track) has timed it at 3.8 seconds. The 997 lineup includes both 2- and 4-wheel-drive variants, named Carrera and Carrera 4 respectively. The Targas (4 and 4S), released in November 2006, are 4-wheel-drive versions that divide the difference between the coupés and the cabriolets with their dual, sliding glass tops. [[Porsche 997 Carrera GTS coupe 4105x2737.jpg\|thumb\|right\|Porsche 997 GTS](File:2010)] The 997 received a larger air intake in the front bumper, new headlights, new rear taillights, new clean-sheet design [fuel injection](direct)(gasoline direct injection) engines, and the introduction of a [gearbox](dual-clutch)(dual-clutch gearbox) called PDK for the 2009 model year. They were also equipped with [Bluetooth](Bluetooth) support. The change to the 7th generation (991) took place in the middle of the 2012 model year. A 2012 Porsche 911 can either be a 997 or a 991, depending on the month of the production. #### 997 Turbo [[997 Turbo - Flickr - Alexandre Prévot (8) (cropped).jpg\|thumb\|997 Turbo](File:Porsche)] The [version of the 997 series](Turbocharged)(Porsche 997#Turbo) featured the same 3.6 L twin-turbocharged engine as the 996 Turbo, with modifications to have a power output of and of torque. It has VTG ([turbine geometry](variable)(variable geometry turbocharger)), that combines the low-rev boost and quick responses of a small turbocharger with the high-rev power of a larger turbocharger. It also offers higher [efficiency](fuel)(fuel efficiency) compared to the 996 Turbo. The 997 Turbo features a new [all-wheel-drive](all-wheel-drive) system, similar to the one found on the [Cayenne](Porsche Cayenne). The new PTM (Porsche Traction Management) system incorporates a clutch-based system that varies the amount of torque to the wheels to avoid tyre slippage. According to Porsche, redirecting torque to control oversteer or understeer results in neutral handling as well as greatly improved performance in all weather conditions. For the face lifted 2010 model year 911 Turbo, known internally as the 997.2 (as opposed to the 997.1 2007-2009 model years), launched in August 2009, the PTM system was tweaked to give a more rearward power bias. The paddle shifters for the PDK double-clutch gearbox debuted on the Turbo. The turbo uses a different engine. The previous water-cooled turbo models (996 and 997) measured 3,600cc. This new engine measures and was first developed for the Carrera that was launched in 2008. The variable-vane twin turbochargers have also been reworked to increase responsiveness, and the intercooler and fuel system were uprated. The engine has a power output of which is 20 hp more than the outgoing model. The steering wheel also houses a display showing when Sport, Sport Plus and launch control have been selected through the optional Sport Chrono package. Porsche claimed that the new 911 turbo will accelerate from in 3.4 seconds, or 0–60 mph in 3.2 seconds and could attain a top-speed of . As with the 996 Turbo, the car featured distinctive styling cues over the Carrera models including front LED driving/parking/indicator lights mounted on a horizontal bar across the air intakes. The traditional rear wing is a variation of the 996 bi-plane unit. A new 911 Turbo S was set for production in 2010. It is a fully optioned Porsche 911 Turbo with a PDK gearbox and sports exhaust as standard. It also comes with re-engineered turbochargers to give an extra 30 horsepower increase to a total of . #### 997 GT3 [[Porsche 997 GT3 front.jpg\|thumb\|right\|997 GT3](File:BRRacing)] The [GT3](911)(Porsche 997 GT3) was added to the 997 lineage on 23 February 2006. Performance figures include a acceleration time of 4.1 seconds and a top speed of , almost as fast as the Turbo. Porsche's factory reports were proven to be conservative about the performance of the car; Excellence magazine tested the 997 GT3 and recorded a 0– of 3.9 seconds and a top speed of . It was at that time crowned "the best handling car in America" by Motor Trend. #### 997 GT3 RS [[(6935716030).jpg\|left\|thumb\|997 GT3 RS 4.0](File:P1020080)] The 911 GT3 RS was announced in early 2006 as a homologation version of the GT3 RSR racing car for competition events like Sebring and the 24 Hours of Le Mans. The drivetrain of the RS is based on the 911 GT3, except for the addition of a lightweight flywheel and closer gear ratios for further improved response under acceleration. Unlike the GT3, the RS is built on the body and chassis of the 911 Carrera 4 and Turbo, and accordingly has a wider rear track for better cornering characteristics on the track. Visually, the RS is distinguished by its distinctive colour scheme – bright orange or green with black accents, which traces its roots to the iconic Carrera RS of 1973. The plastic rear deck lid is topped by a wide carbon-fibre rear wing. The front airdam has been fitted with an aero splitter to improve front downforce and provide more cooling air through the radiator. The European version of the RS is fitted with lightweight plexiglass rear windows and a factory-installed roll cage. Production of the first generation 997 GT3 RS ended in 2009. An estimated 413 units were delivered to the US and the worldwide production run is estimated to be under 2,000 vehicles. In August 2009, Porsche announced the second generation of the 997 GT3 RS with an enlarged 3.8-litre engine having a power output of , a modified suspension, dynamic engine mounts, new titanium sport exhaust, and modified lightweight bodywork. In April 2011, Porsche announced the third generation of the 997 GT3 RS with an enlarged 4.0-litre engine having a power output of , Porsche designed the GT3 RS 4.0 using lightweight components such as bucket seats, carbon-fibre bonnet and front wings, and poly carbonate plastic rear windows for weight reduction, while using suspension components from the racing version. Other characteristics include low centre of gravity, a large rear wing and an aerodynamically optimised body. The lateral front air deflection vanes, a first on a production Porsche, increase downforce on the front axle. Aided by a steeply inclined rear wing, aerodynamic forces exert an additional 190 kg, enhancing the 911 GT3 RS 4.0's grip to the tarmac. The GT3 RS 4.0 weighs . #### 997 GT2 [[997 GT2 (7348033426).jpg\|thumb\|right\|997 GT2](File:Panning)] The [996 911 GT2](Type)(Porsche 996#GT variants) was superseded by the [997](Type)(Porsche 997) GT2 in 2007. The new car was announced on 16 July of that year but was launched during the 62nd [Motor Show](Frankfurt)(Internationale Automobil-Ausstellung), held every other year in [Frankfurt](Frankfurt), Germany. It arrived in dealerships from November 2007. The 997 GT2 has a twin-turbocharged 3.6-litre flat-6 engine, which generates at 6,500 rpm, and of torque from 2,200 to 4,500 rpm. It has a 6-speed manual transmission and is rear wheel drive. With a curb weight of , the 997 GT2 accelerates from in 3.6 seconds, and from 0 to in 7.4 seconds, and has a top speed of . This makes it the first street-legal 911 to exceed barrier, with the exception of the 1998 [GT1](911)(Porsche 911 GT1) road car (which is broadly considered not to be a true 911 due to its [mid-mounted](mid-engine design) engine). [Trend](Motor)(Motor Trend) tested a 2008 Porsche 911 GT2 and found the 0– acceleration time at 3.4 seconds, and 11.4 seconds at for the quarter mile. The GT2 also recorded a braking distance from of and recorded 1.10g lateral grip. The GT2 made an appearance on [Gear](Top)(Top Gear (2002 TV series)), where it had a lap time of 1:19.5, faster than a [GT](Carrera)(Porsche Carrera GT) by .3 of a second. Its appearance differs slightly from its sister-car, the 911 (997) Turbo, in a few ways. It does not have fog lights in the front bumper, it has a revised front lip, it has a different rear wing (with two small air scoops on either side), and it has a different rear bumper (now featuring [titanium](titanium) exhaust pipes). The 997 GT2 is also different from the 997 Turbo in that it is [rear-wheel-drive](rear-wheel-drive) rather than [all-wheel-drive](all-wheel-drive). #### 997 GT2 RS [[silver 997 GT2 RS at Goodwood FoS.jpg\|thumb\|997 GT2 RS](File:2010)] On 4 May 2010, an RS variant was announced to German dealers in Leipzig. The GT2 RS develops and of torque and weighs less than the standard GT2, allowing for a top speed of and the acceleration time of 3.4 seconds. #### Sport Classic [[997 Sport Classic.jpg\|thumb\|right\|997 Sport Classic](File:Porsche)] Unveiled at the 2009 Frankfurt Auto Show, the Sport Classic is a limited (250 units- all sold in under 48 hours) version of 911 Carrera S coupé, inspired by the 1973 Carrera RS 2.7. The engine is rated at via newly developed resonance intake manifold with 6 vacuum-controlled switching flaps. It includes 6-speed manual transmission, double-dome roof, wider rear fenders, SportDesign front apron with a spoiler lip and a fixed 'duck tail' rear wing (similar to the one found on the 1973 Carrera RS 2.7), PCCB Porsche Ceramic Composite Brakes, lower PASM sports suspension, mechanical rear axle differential, 19-inch black Fuchs wheels, Porsche Exclusive woven leather seats and door panels, dashboard with Espresso Nature natural leather upholstery, and a specially developed Sport Classic Grey body colour. #### Carrera GTS For the 2011 model year, Porsche introduced the first-ever GTS model for the 911. Designed as a driver's car, the GTS was more powerful than the S, better handling via a bespoke suspension design, and positioned as a more street-friendly alternative to the GT3, Porsche's track-focused 911 variant. The GTS featured race-inspired [lock wheels](center)(Centerlock wheel), unique styling including a Sport Design front bumper, special rear bumper, blackout trim, side skirts borrowed from the GT2 model, brushed stainless steel "Carrera GTS" door sills and Alcantara trim. Many GTS' were ordered with the Alcantara delete, instead being built with leather. The GTS was very rare in that it was a rear wheel drive Wide-Body design (44 mm wider than a standard 911), 20 mm lower and offered 408 HP (versus 385 HP for the S) like the similar, limited volume Sport Classic and the Speedster. Porsche built approximately 2,265 total GTS models for the world market, as well as a handful designated as 2012 models. The enthusiastic reception the GTS model received from both the motoring press and consumers, convinced Porsche to make the GTS a staple of the 911 line beginning in 2015, with the "type 991" 911 successor. #### Speedster [[911 Speedster (5828928863).jpg\|thumb\|right\|997 Speedster](File:Porsche)] In 2011, Porsche added a new 911 Speedster in a limited series of only 356 units to the 997 lineage, the number of cars produced recalling [iconic car of the 1950s](the)(Porsche 356). It was the third 911 Speedster produced, the other two being from the [930](Porsche 930) and [964](Porsche 964) generations. The Speedster was powered by the same engine of the Carrera GTS which is rated at . It accelerated from 0 to in 4.2 seconds and attained a top speed of around . Only two colours were offered, Pure Blue (which was developed specifically for the Speedster) and Carrara White. (Paint To Sample versions were produced in very limited numbers and upon special request from "loyal customers".) The Speedster featured a windscreen 70mm shorter than the standard 997 cabriolet while maintaining the same rake angle. ### 991 Series (2011 – 2019) [[Porsche 911 Carrera 4S (991) (9626546987).jpg\|thumb\|991 Carrera S](File:2013)] The [991](Porsche 991) introduced in 2011 for the 2012 model year is an entirely new platform, only the third since [original 911](the)(Porsche 911 classic). Porsche revealed basic information on the new Carrera and Carrera S models on 23 August 2011. The Carrera is powered by a 3.4-litre engine. The Carrera S features a 3.8-litre engine rated at . A Power Kit (option X51) is available for the Carrera S, increasing power output to . The new 991's overall length grows by and wheelbase grows by (now 96.5 in.) Overhangs are trimmed and the rear axle moves rearward at roughly towards the engine (made possible by new 3-shaft transmissions whose output flanges are moved closer to the engine). There is a wider front track ( wider for the Carrera S). The design team for the 991 was headed by Michael Mauer. At the front, the new 991 has wide-set headlights that are more three-dimensional. The front fender peaks are a bit more prominent, and wedgy directionals now appear to float above the intakes for the twin coolant radiators. The stretched rear 3/4 view has changed the most, with a slightly more voluminous form and thin taillights capped with the protruding lip of the bodywork. The biggest and main change in the interior is the center console, inspired by the [GT](Carrera)(Porsche Carrera GT) and adopted by the [Panamera](Porsche Panamera). The 991 is the first 911 to use a predominantly [aluminium](aluminium) construction. This means that even though the car is larger than the outgoing model, it is still up to lighter. The reduced weight and increased power means that both the Carrera and Carrera S are appreciably faster than the outgoing models. The acceleration time for the manual transmission cars are 4.6 seconds for the Carrera and 4.3 seconds for the Carrera S. When equipped with the PDK transmission, the two 991 models can accelerate from in 4.4 seconds and 4.1 seconds. With the optional sports chrono package, available for the cars with the PDK transmission, the 991 Carrera can accelerate from in as little as 4.2 seconds and the Carrera S can do the same in 3.9 seconds. [[0624 132727AA (27886350045).jpg\|thumb\|right\|Porsche 991 Turbo S](File:FoS20162016)] Apart from the reworked PDK transmission, the new 991 is also equipped with an industry-first 7-speed manual transmission. On vehicles produced in late 2012 (2013 model year) Rev Matching is available on the 7-speed manual transmission when equipped with the Sport Chrono package. Rev-Matching is a new feature with the manual transmission that blips the throttle during downshifts (if in Sport Plus mode). Also, the 7th gear cannot be engaged unless the car is already in 5th or 6th gear. One of Porsche's primary objectives with the new model was to improve fuel economy as well as increase performance. In order to meet these objectives, Porsche introduced a number of new technologies in the 911. One of the most controversial of these is the introduction of electromechanical power steering instead of the previous hydraulic steering. This steering helps reduce fuel consumption, but some enthusiasts feel that the precise steering feedback for which the 911 is famous is reduced with the new system. The cars also feature an engine stop/start system that turns the engine off at red lights, as well as a coasting system that allows the engine to idle while maintaining speed on downhill gradients on highways. This allows for up to a 16% reduction in fuel consumption and emissions over the outgoing models. The new cars also have a number of technologies aimed at improving handling. The cars include a torque vectoring system (standard on the Carrera S and optional on the Carrera) which brakes the inner wheel of the car when going into turns. This helps the car to turn in quicker and with more precision. The cars also feature hydraulic engine mounts (which help reduce the inertia of the engine when going into turns) as part of the optional sports chrono package. Active suspension management is standard on the Carrera S and optional on the Carrera. This helps improve ride quality on straights while stiffening the suspension during aggressive driving. The new 991 is also equipped with a new feature called Porsche Dynamic Chassis Control (PDCC). Porsche claims that this new feature alone has shaved 4 seconds off the standard car's lap time around the Nürburgring. PDCC helps the car corner flat and is said to improve high-speed directional stability and outright lateral body control, but according to several reviews, the car is more prone to understeer when equipped with this new technology. In January 2013, Porsche introduced the all-wheel-drive variants of the Carrera models. The '4' and '4S' models are distinguishable by wider tyres, marginally wider rear body-work and a red-reflector strip that sits in between the tail-lights. The 4 and 4S models are equipped with an all-new variable all-wheel-drive system that sends power to the front wheels only when needed, giving the driver a sense of being in a rear-wheel-drive 911. [[automobile international 2015 - Porsche 911 Targa - 003.jpg\|thumb\|right\|The 991 Targa features an all-new electronically operated roof mechanism which allows it to have the original Targa design](File:Festival)] In May 2013, Porsche announced changes to the model year 2014 911 Turbo and Turbo S models, increasing their power to on the 'Turbo', and on the 'Turbo S', giving them a 0–97 km/h acceleration time of 3.2 and 2.9 seconds, respectively. A [steering](rear-wheel)(Four-wheel steering) system has also been incorporated on the Turbo models that steers the rear wheels in the opposite direction at low speeds or the same direction at high speeds to improve handling. During low-speed maneuvers, this has the virtual effect of shortening the wheelbase, while at high speeds, it is virtually extending the wheelbase for higher driving stability and agility. In January 2014, Porsche introduced the new model year 2015 Targa 4 and Targa 4S models. These new models come equipped with an all-new roof technology with the original Targa design, now with an all-electric cabriolet roof along with the B-pillar and the glass 'dome' at the rear. [[Porsche 911 Carrera 4S Coupe.jpg\|thumb\|right\|Porsche 991 (post face-lift)](File:2015)] In September 2015, Porsche introduced the second generation of 991 Carrera models at the Frankfurt Motor Show. Both Carrera and Carrera S models break with previous tradition by featuring a 3.0-litre turbocharged 6-cylinder boxer engine, marking the first time that a forced induction engine has been fitted to the base models within the 911 range. #### 991 GT3 [[991 at European Motor Show Brussels 2018.jpg\|thumb\|right\|Porsche 991 GT3](File:Porsche)] Porsche introduced the 991 GT3 at the [Motor Show](Geneva)(Geneva Motor Show#2013) in 2013. The 991 GT3 features a new 3.8 litre [fuel injection](direct)(Gasoline direct injection) (DFI) flat-six engine developing at 8,250 rpm, a Porsche Doppelkupplung (PDK) double-clutch gearbox and rear-wheel steering. The engine is based on the unit fitted in the 991 Carrera S, but shares only a few common parts. All other components, particularly the crankshaft and valve train, were specially adapted or developed for the 991 GT3. The dual-clutch gearbox is another feature specially developed for the 991 GT3, based on sequential manual transmissions used in racing cars. The 911 GT3 is claimed to be able to accelerate from 0– in 3.2 seconds or less, and the quarter mile in 11.2 seconds at . The GT3 has a claimed top speed of . Porsche unveiled the facelifted 991.2 GT3 at the [Geneva Motor Show](2017)(Geneva Motor Show#2017). Extensive changes were made to the engine allowing a 9,000 rpm redline from the 4.0 litre flat-six engine. Porsche's focus was on reducing internal friction to improve throttle response. Compared to the 991.1, the rear spoiler is higher and located further back to be more effective. There is a new front spoiler and changes to the rear suspension. The 991.2 GT3 brought back the choice between a manual transmission or PDK dual-clutch transmission. A touring version was also introduced which comes standard with the comfort package and the manual transmission along with the deletion of the fixed rear wing and employing an electronically operated rear wing instead. #### 991 GT3 RS [[International Motor Show 2018, Le Grand-Saconnex (1X7A0083).jpg\|thumb\|right\|Porsche 991 GT3 RS](File:Geneva)] Porsche launched the Renn Sport version of the 911 GT3 at the [Motor Show](Geneva)(Geneva Motor Show#2015) in 2015. Compared to the 911 GT3, the front fenders are now equipped with louvers above the wheels and the rear fenders now include Turbo-like intakes, rather than an intake below the rear wing. The roof is made from magnesium. The interior includes full bucket seats (based on the carbon seats of the 918 Spyder), carbon-fibre inserts, lightweight door handles and the Club Sport Package as standard (a bolted-on roll cage behind the front seats, preparation for a battery master switch, and a six-point safety harness for the driver and fire extinguisher with mounting bracket). The 3.8-litre unit found in the previous 997 GT3 is replaced with a 4.0-litre unit that has a power output of and of torque. The transmission is PDK only. The car accelerates from 0– in 3.4 seconds (0.6 seconds quicker than the 997 GT3 RS 4.0) and 0– in 10.9 seconds. The 991 GT3 RS also comes with functions such as declutching by "paddle neutral" — comparable to pressing the clutch with a conventional manual gearbox – and a Pit Speed limiter button. As with the 911 GT3, a rear-axle steering and Porsche Torque Vectoring Plus with fully variable rear axle differential lock are available as standard. In February 2018, Porsche introduced a facelifted GT3 RS model to continue their updates for the 991 generation of the 911. Changes include a new engine similar to the GT3 and RSR models with a 9,000 rpm redline and a and increase over the outgoing model, NACA ducts for brake cooling, modified front fascia (similar to the 991.2 GT3), side skits and rear wing (similar to the [RS](GT2)(Porsche 911 GT2#Road cars)) for increased downforce, ball joints on all suspension links, front helper springs, lightweight glass for the rear and rear-side windows and a newly developed tyre compound. A Weissach package was available that included additional carbon fibre body and interior parts as well as magnesium wheels and stiffer suspension settings is available as an option. #### 911 R [[0624 132640AA (27608366620).jpg\|thumb\|right\|Porsche 911 R](File:FoS20162016)] In 2016, Porsche unveiled a limited production 911 R based on the GT3 RS. Production was limited to 991 units worldwide. It has an overall weight of , a high-revving 4.0 L six-cylinder naturally aspirated engine from the 991 GT3 RS, and a six-speed manual transmission, while air conditioning and audio systems are removable options to save weight. The car accelerates from in 3.7 seconds and has a top speed of . #### 991 GT2 RS [[911 GT2RS yellow3 IMG 0685.jpg\|thumb\|right\|Porsche 991 GT2 RS](File:Porsche)] The high-performance GT2 version made a return to the 991 lineage but now as an RS variant only with no standard variant being produced, unlike the previous generations. It was initially unveiled at the 2017 E3 along with the announcement of the [Motorsport 7](Forza)(Forza Motorsport 7) video game. The car was officially launched by Porsche at the 2017 [Festival of Speed](Goodwood)(Goodwood Festival of Speed) along with the introduction of the 911 Turbo S Exclusive Series. The 991 GT2 RS is powered by a 3.8 L twin-turbocharged flat-6 engine that produces a maximum power of at 7,000 rpm and of torque, making it the most powerful 911 ever built. Unlike the previous GT2 versions, this car is fitted with a 7-speed [PDK](Dual-clutch transmission) transmission to handle the excessive torque produced from the engine. Porsche claims that this car will accelerate from 0 to in 2.7 seconds, and has a top speed of . The car has a roof made of magnesium, front lid, front and rear spoilers and boot lid made of carbon, front and rear apron made of lightweight polyurethane, rear and side windows made of polycarbonate and features a titanium exhaust system. Porsche claims that the car will have a wet weight of . A Weissach package option is available, which reduces the weight by , through the use of additional carbon-fiber and titanium parts. These include the roof, the anti-roll bars and the coupling rods on both axles made out of carbon-fiber while the package also includes a set of light-weight [magnesium](magnesium) wheels. #### Speedster (2019) [[911 Speedster Concept, Paris Motor Show 2018, IMG 0434.jpg\|thumb\|right\|Porsche 911 Speedster Concept](File:Porsche)] At the 2018 [Motor Show](Paris)(Paris Motor Show) held in October on the occasion of the 70th-anniversary celebration of the marque, Porsche unveiled the Speedster variant of the 991 generation for the 911, as a concept. Utilising the chassis of the GT3 and the body shell of the Carrera 4 Cabriolet, the Speedster includes the GT3's 4.0-litre naturally aspirated Flat-6 engine generating a maximum power output of and having a red-line of 9,000 rpm coupled with a 6-speed manual transmission and titanium exhaust system which are claimed to be lighter than the 7-speed manual transmission found on the standard 991 models. The car also features the signature "hump" shaped double-bubble roof cover along with a shorter windshield frame, side window glass and the analogue roof folding mechanism retaining the "Talbot" wing mirrors and the central fuel cap from the 911 Speedster concept unveiled earlier at the Goodwood Festival of Speed harking back to its use on the [Speedster](356)(Porsche 356). Other highlights include a leather interior with perforated seats, red tinted daytime running lights, carbon fibre fenders, engine cover and hood and stone guards. Production began in the first half of 2019 and be limited to 1,948 units in honour of the year in which the 356 "Number 1" gained its operating license. The final production version of the Speedster was unveiled at the 2019 [York Auto Show](New)(New York Auto Show) in April and dropped the "Talbot" wing mirrors in favour of standard 991 wing mirrors. The speedster was available for sale in May 2019. ### 992 Series (2019–present) [[992 Carrera 4S Genf 2019 1Y7A5561.jpg\|thumb\|right\|Porsche 992](File:Porsche)] The 2019 version of the 911, under the internal name Type 992, made its debut at the 2018 Los Angeles Auto Show. During the actual debut, a presentation of the history of the 911 series was shown, along with a lineup of 911s from different generations. On 30 July 2019 Porsche started marketing the non 'S' model of the new 992. The exterior is almost identical to the 991 'S's models with the exception of having 19" wheels front and 20" wheels at the rear, compared to the 'S' Models 20" front and 21" rear. , Porsche offers the Carrera and Carrera S versions (offered with all-wheel-drive 4 and 4S versions along with the standard rear-wheel-drive version in coupe, targa, and convertible body styles), Carrera T (only offered in the coupe body style with rear-wheel-drive), Carrera GTS versions (offered in coupe, convertible, and targa body styles with the optional all-wheel-drive available), the GT3 and GT3 RS (only offered in the coupe body style and rear-wheel-drive), the Turbo and the flagship Turbo S (only offered in coupe and convertible body styles with only all-wheel-drive). ## 911 GT1 [[911 GT1-96 front-left Porsche Museum.jpg\|thumb\|right\|Porsche 911 GT1 on display at the Porsche Museum](File:Porsche)] The [911 GT1](Porsche)(Porsche 911 GT1) is a race car that was developed in 1996 for the GT1 class in the [Hours of Le Mans](24)(24 Hours of Le Mans). In order to qualify for GT racing, 25 road-going models were built to achieve type homologation. The engine in the GT1 is rated at ( for the road version) and accelerated from 0–97 km/h in 3.3 seconds. The top speed stood at . Both the road and race cars carried the same [twin-turbocharged](twin-turbocharged) engine as used in the [962](Porsche 962), and the race car was a match for the then-dominant [F1 GTR](McLaren)(McLaren F1 GTR)s. A redeveloped version of the 911 GT1 race car was later built, winning outright at the [24 Hours of Le Mans](1998)(1998 24 Hours of Le Mans). The car is not considered to be a real 911, as it is derived from the 962 with the 993 and later the 996 911's front section. It was the most powerful and fastest road-going Porsche until the introduction of the [GT](Carrera)(Porsche Carrera GT) in 2004 and later the [Spyder](918)(Porsche 918) in 2013. ## Awards In 1999, the 911 placed fifth in the Global Automotive Elections Foundation's [of the Century](Car)(Car of the Century) competition, trailing mass market cars: [Model T](Ford)(Ford Model T), BMC [Mini](Mini), [DS](Citroën)(Citroën DS), and [Beetle](Volkswagen)(Volkswagen Beetle). In 2004, [Car International](Sports)(Sports Car International) named the 911 number three on the list of [Sports Cars of the 1960s](Top)(Sports Car International Top Sports Cars), the Carrera RS number seven on the list of [Sports Cars of the 1970s](Top)(Sports Car International Top Sports Cars), and the 911 Carrera number seven on the list of [Sports Cars of the 1980s](Top)(Sports Car International Top Sports Cars). In addition, the 911 was voted Number 2 on [Magazine](Automobile)(Automobile Magazine) list of the "100 Coolest Cars". Motor Trend chose the Porsche 911 Carrera S as its Best Driver's Car for 2012. It also won "World Performance Car Of The Year" in 2014. In 2015, Car and Driver named the Porsche 911 "the best premium sports car on the market". ## Notes ## References * * * ## Further reading * }} * Frère, P. (2006). Porsche 911 Story (eighth edition). J H Haynes. . * * * * Meredith, L. (2000). Porsche 911. Sutton Publishing. . * Morgan, P. (1995). Original Porsche 911. MBI Publishing. . * [P.](Raby,)(Philip Raby) (2005). Porsche 911 Identification Guide. Herridge & Son. . * ## External links * [Official Porsche 911 microsite](https://web.archive.org/web/20090616064807/http://www.porsche.com/microsite/911/default.aspx) * [Official USA Porsche 911 page](http://www.porsche.com/usa/models/911/) * [Official Porsche Evolution microsite](http://www.porschevolution.com/) * [Radio List for Porsche (1974–1989)](http://www.turbosition.com/de/service/porsche-radio) * Production videos: ** [introduced in 1964](Category:Cars)(Category:Cars introduced in 1964) [911](Category:Porsche vehicles) [vehicles](Category:Rear-engined)(Category:Rear-engined vehicles) [cars](Category:Rally)(Category:Rally cars) [B cars](Category:Group)(Category:Group B cars) [cars](Category:Sports)(Category:Sports cars) [Category:Coupés](Category:Coupés) [Category:Convertibles](Category:Convertibles) [cars](Category:1970s)(Category:1970s cars) [cars](Category:1980s)(Category:1980s cars) [cars](Category:1990s)(Category:1990s cars) [cars](Category:2000s)(Category:2000s cars) [powered by boxer engines](Category:Cars)(Category:Cars powered by boxer engines) [powered by rear-mounted 6-cylinder engines](Category:Cars)(Category:Cars powered by rear-mounted 6-cylinder engines) [vehicles](Category:Flagship)(Category:Flagship vehicles) [4 (racing) cars](Category:Group)(Category:Group 4 (racing) cars) [coupés](Category:2+2)(Category:2+2 coupés)
The Picture of Dorian Gray	the_picture_of_dorian_gray	# The Picture of Dorian Gray Revision ID: 1157623325 \| Timestamp: 2023-05-29T21:40:35Z --- *The Picture of Dorian Gray* is a [philosophical](philosophical fiction) [novel](novel) by Irish writer [Wilde](Oscar)(Oscar Wilde). A shorter [novella](novella)-length version was published in the July 1890 issue of the American periodical [Monthly Magazine](Lippincott's)(Lippincott's Monthly Magazine).The Picture of Dorian Gray'' (Penguin Classics) – Introduction The novel-length version was published in April 1891. The story revolves around a [portrait](Oil painting) of [Gray](Dorian)(Dorian Gray (character)) painted by Basil Hallward, a friend of Dorian's and an artist infatuated with Dorian's [beauty](Aesthetics). Through Basil, Dorian meets Lord Henry Wotton and is soon enthralled by the aristocrat's [hedonistic](Hedonism) worldview: that beauty and sensual fulfillment are the only things worth pursuing in life. Newly understanding that his beauty will fade, Dorian expresses the desire to [his soul](sell)(Deal with the Devil), to ensure that the picture, rather than he, will age and fade. The wish is granted, and Dorian pursues a [libertine](libertine) life of varied [amoral](Amorality) experiences while staying young and beautiful; all the while, his portrait ages and visually records every one of Dorian's [sin](sin)s.[Picture of Dorian Gray](The)(gutenberg:174) (Project Gutenberg 20-chapter version), line 3479 et seq. in plain text (Chapter VII). Wilde's only novel, it was subject to much controversy and criticism in its time but has come to be recognized as a classic of [literature](gothic)(gothic literature). ## Origins [[Wilde and Arthur Conan Doyle green plaque (Westminster).jpg\|thumb\|left\|Plaque commemorating the dinner between Wilde, Doyle and the publisher on 30 August 1889 at 1 Portland Place, Regent Street, London\|197x197px](File:Oscar)] In 1889, [M. Stoddart](J.)(Joseph Marshall Stoddart), an editor for ''Lippincott's Monthly Magazine, was in London to solicit novellas to publish in the magazine. On 30 August 1889, Stoddart dined with Oscar Wilde, [Arthur Conan Doyle](Sir)(Sir Arthur Conan Doyle) and [P. Gill](T.)(T. P. Gill) at the [Hotel](Langham)(Langham Hotel, London), and commissioned novellas from each writer. Doyle promptly submitted [Sign of the Four](The)(The Sign of the Four), which was published in the February 1890 edition of Lippincott's'', but Stoddart did not receive Wilde's manuscript for The Picture of Dorian Gray* until 7 April 1890, seven months after having commissioned the novel from him. In July 1889, Wilde published "[Portrait of Mr. W. H.](The)(The Portrait of Mr. W. H.)", a very different story but one that has a similar title to The Picture of Dorian Gray and has been described as "a preliminary sketch of some of its major themes", including homosexuality. ## Publication and versions ### 1890 novella The literary merits of The Picture of Dorian Gray impressed Stoddart, but he told the publisher, George Lippincott, "in its present condition there are a number of things an innocent woman would make an exception to." Fearing that the story was indecent, Stoddart deleted around five hundred words without Wilde's knowledge prior to publication. Among the pre-publication deletions were: (i) passages alluding to homosexuality and to homosexual desire; (ii) all references to the fictional book title Le Secret de Raoul and its author, Catulle Sarrazin; and (iii) all "mistress" references to Gray's lovers, Sibyl Vane and Hetty Merton. It was published in full as the first 100 pages in both the American and British editions of the July 1890 issue, first printed on 20 June 1890. Later in the year the text was distributed by [Lock and Company](Ward,)(Ward Lock & Co). ### 1891 novel [[Grey Chapitre Quatre.jpg\|thumb\|Original manuscript of one of the 1891 novel's new chapters, here labeled chapter 4 but it would end up as chapter 5\|238x238px](File:Dorian)][[File:The title card of an 1891 print of The Picture of Dorian Gray, by Oscar Wilde.png\|thumb\|238x238px\|The [page](title)(title page) of the [Lock & Co](Ward)(Ward Lock & Co) 1891 edition of The Picture of Dorian Gray with decorative lettering, designed by [Ricketts](Charles)(Charles Ricketts)]] For the fuller 1891 novel, Wilde retained Stoddart's edits and made some of his own, while expanding the text from thirteen to twenty chapters and added the book's famous preface. Chapters 3, 5, and 15–18 are new, and chapter 13 of the magazine edition was divided into chapters 19 and 20 for the novel. Revisions include changes in character dialogue as well as the addition of the preface, more scenes and chapters, and Sibyl Vane's brother, James Vane. The edits have been construed as having been done in response to criticism, but Wilde denied this in his 1895 [trials](Oscar Wilde#Trials), only ceding that critic [Pater](Walter)(Walter Pater), whom Wilde respected, did write several letters to him "and in consequence of what he said I did modify one passage" that was "liable to misconstruction".Lawler, Donald L., ''An Inquiry into Oscar Wilde's Revisions of 'The Picture of Dorian Gray'' (New York: Garland, 1988) A number of edits involved obscuring [homoerotic](homoerotic) references, to simplify the moral message of the story. In the magazine edition (1890), Basil tells Lord Henry how he "worships" Dorian, and begs him not to "take away the one person that makes my life absolutely lovely to me." In the magazine edition, Basil focuses upon love, whereas, in the book edition (1891), he focuses upon his art, saying to Lord Henry, "the one person who gives my art whatever charm it may possess: my life as an artist depends on him." Wilde's textual additions were about the "fleshing out of Dorian as a character" and providing details of his ancestry that made his "psychological collapse more prolonged and more convincing."The Picture of Dorian Gray (Penguin Classics) – A Note on the Text The introduction of the James Vane character to the story develops the socio-economic background of the Sibyl Vane character, thus emphasising Dorian's selfishness and foreshadowing James's accurate perception of the essentially immoral character of Dorian Gray; thus, he correctly deduced Dorian's dishonourable intent towards Sibyl. The sub-plot about James Vane's dislike of Dorian gives the novel a Victorian tinge of class struggle. With such textual changes, Oscar Wilde meant to diminish the moralistic controversy about the novel The Picture of Dorian Gray. In April 1891, the publishing firm of [Lock and Company](Ward,)(Ward Lock & Co), who had distributed the shorter, more inflammatory, magazine version in England the previous year, published the revised version of The Picture of Dorian Gray. In the decade after Wilde's death, the authorized edition of the novel was published by [Carrington](Charles)(Charles Carrington), who specialized in literary erotica. ### 2011 "uncensored" novella The original typescript submitted to ''Lippincott's Monthly Magazine, housed at [UCLA](UCLA), had been largely forgotten outside of professional Wilde scholars until the 2011 publication of The Picture of Dorian Gray: An Annotated, Uncensored Edition'' by the Belknap Press. This includes the roughly 500 words of text deleted by J. M. Stoddart, the story's initial editor, prior to its publication in ''Lippincott's* in 1890. For instance, in one scene, Basil Hallward confesses to have worshipped Dorian Gray with a "romance of feeling", and that he had never loved a woman. ## Preface Following the criticism of the magazine edition of the novel, the 1891 publication of The Picture of Dorian Gray'' included a preface in which Wilde addressed the criticisms and defended the reputation of his novel.[The Picture of Dorian Gray](http://www.gradesaver.com/classicnotes/titles/dorian/section2.html) – a summary and analysis of the book and its preface (Retrieved 19 November 2022) The content, style, and presentation of the preface made it famous in its own right as a literary and artistic manifesto in support of artists' rights and [for art's sake](art)(art for art's sake). To communicate how the novel should be read, Wilde used [aphorism](aphorism)s to explain the role of the artist in society, the purpose of art, and the value of beauty. It traces Wilde's cultural exposure to [Taoism](Taoism) and to the philosophy of Chuang Tsǔ ([Zhou](Zhuang)(Zhuang Zhou)). Before writing the preface, Wilde had written a book review of [Giles](Herbert)(Herbert Giles)'s translation of the work of Zhuang Zhou, and in the essay The Artist as Critic, Oscar Wilde said: The preface was first published in the April 1891 edition of the novel; nonetheless, by June 1891, Wilde was defending The Picture of Dorian Gray* against accusations that it was a bad book.The Letters of Oscar Wilde, Merlin Holland and Rupert Hart-Davis, eds., Henry Holt (2000), ; and The Artist as Critic, Richard Ellmann, ed., University of Chicago (1968), – containing Wilde's book review of Giles's translation, and Chuang Tsǔ (Zhuang Zhou) is incorrectly identified as [Confucius](Confucius). Wilde's book review of Giles's translation was published in The Speaker magazine of 8 February 1890. ## Summary [[File:Doriangray 1945.jpg\|thumb\|left\|200px\|Dorian Gray ([Hatfield](Hurd)(Hurd Hatfield)) observes the corruption recorded in his portrait, in the film [Picture of Dorian Gray](The)(The Picture of Dorian Gray (1945 film)) (1945). Inset painting by [Albright](Ivan)(Ivan Albright).]] On a beautiful summer day in [Victorian](Victorian era) England, Lord Henry Wotton, an opinionated man, is observing the sensitive artist Basil Hallward painting the portrait of Dorian Gray, a handsome young man who is Basil's ultimate [muse](muse). While sitting for the painting, Dorian listens to Lord Henry espousing his [hedonistic](hedonistic) world view and begins to think that [beauty](Aesthetics) is the only aspect of life worth pursuing, prompting Dorian to wish that his portrait would age instead of himself. Under Lord Henry's hedonistic influence, Dorian fully explores his sensuality. He discovers the actress Sibyl Vane, who performs [Shakespeare](Shakespeare) plays in a dingy, working-class theatre. Dorian approaches and courts her, and soon proposes marriage. The enamoured Sibyl calls him "Prince Charming", and swoons with the happiness of being loved, but her protective brother, James, warns that if "Prince Charming" harms her, he will murder him. Dorian invites Basil and Lord Henry to see Sibyl perform in [and Juliet](Romeo)(Romeo and Juliet). Sibyl, too enamoured with Dorian to act, performs poorly, which makes both Basil and Lord Henry think Dorian has fallen in love with Sibyl because of her beauty instead of her acting talent. Embarrassed, Dorian rejects Sibyl, telling her that acting was her beauty; without that, she no longer interests him. On returning home, Dorian notices that the portrait has changed; his wish has come true, and the man in the portrait bears a subtle sneer of cruelty. Conscience-stricken and lonely, Dorian decides to reconcile with Sibyl, but he is too late, as Lord Henry informs him that Sibyl has killed herself. Dorian then understands that, where his life is headed, lust and beauty shall suffice. Dorian locks the portrait up, and over the following eighteen years, he experiments with every vice, influenced by a morally poisonous French novel that Lord Henry Wotton gave him. One night, before leaving for Paris, Basil goes to Dorian's house to ask him about rumours of his self-indulgent [sensualism](sensualism). Dorian does not deny his debauchery, and takes Basil to see the portrait. The portrait has become so hideous that Basil is only able to identify it as his by the signature he affixes to all of his portraits. Basil is horrified, and beseeches Dorian to pray for salvation. In anger, Dorian blames his fate on Basil and stabs him to death. Dorian then calmly blackmails an old friend, the scientist Alan Campbell, into using his knowledge of chemistry to destroy the body of Basil Hallward. Alan later kills himself. [[smoking 1874.jpg\|thumb\|right\|200px\|A 19th-century London opium den (based on fictional accounts of the day)](File:Opium)] To escape the guilt of his crime, Dorian goes to an [den](opium)(opium den), where, unbeknownst to Dorian, James Vane is present. James had been seeking vengeance upon Dorian ever since Sibyl killed herself, but had no leads to pursue as the only thing he knew about Dorian was the name Sibyl called him, "Prince Charming". In the opium den, however, he hears someone refer to Dorian as "Prince Charming", and he accosts Dorian. Dorian deceives James into believing that he is too young to have known Sibyl, who killed herself eighteen years earlier, as his face is still that of a young man. James relents and releases Dorian, but is then approached by a woman from the opium den who reproaches James for not killing Dorian. She confirms that the man was Dorian Gray and explains that he has not aged in eighteen years. James runs after Dorian, but he has gone. James then begins to stalk Dorian, causing Dorian to fear for his life. However, during a shooting party, a hunter accidentally kills James Vane, who was lurking in a thicket. On returning to London, Dorian tells Lord Henry that he will live righteously from now on. His new probity begins with deliberately not breaking the heart of the naïve Hetty Merton, his current romantic interest. Dorian wonders if his newly-found goodness has rescinded the corruption in the picture but when he looks at it, he sees only an even uglier image of himself. From that, Dorian understands that his true motives for the self-sacrifice of moral reformation were the vanity and curiosity of his quest for new experiences, along with the desire to restore beauty to the picture. Deciding that only full [confession](confession (religion)) will [absolve](absolve) him of wrongdoing, Dorian decides to destroy the last vestige of his conscience and the only piece of evidence remaining of his crimes: the picture. In a rage, he takes the knife with which he murdered Basil Hallward and stabs the picture. The servants of the house awaken on hearing a cry from the locked room; on the street, a passerby who also heard the cry calls the police. On entering the locked room, the servants find an unknown old man stabbed in the heart, his figure withered and decrepit. The servants are able to identify the disfigured corpse as Dorian only by the rings on the fingers, while the portrait beside him is beautiful again. ## Characters [[painter Basil Hallward and the aristocrat Lord Henry Wotton observe the picture of Dorian Gray.](File:Doriangray.jpg\|thumb\|225px\|The)] [Gray](Dorian)(Dorian Gray (character)) – a handsome, [narcissistic](narcissistic) young man enthralled by Lord Henry's "new" [hedonism](hedonism). He indulges in every pleasure and virtually every 'sin', studying its effect upon him. Basil Hallward – a deeply moral man, the painter of the portrait, and infatuated with Dorian, whose patronage realises his potential as an artist. The picture of Dorian Gray is Basil's masterpiece. * Lord Henry "Harry" Wotton – an imperious [aristocrat](Aristocracy) and a decadent [dandy](dandy) who espouses a philosophy of self-indulgent hedonism. Initially Basil's friend, he neglects him for Dorian's beauty. The character of witty Lord Harry is a [critique](Cultural criticism) of [culture](Victorian)(Victorian era#Culture) at the [de siècle](Fin)(Fin de siècle) – of Britain at the end of the 19th century. Lord Harry's [libertine](Libertinism) world view corrupts Dorian, who then successfully emulates him. To the aristocrat Harry, the observant artist Basil says, "You never say a moral thing, and you never do a wrong thing." Lord Henry takes pleasure in impressing, influencing, and even misleading his acquaintances (to which purpose he bends his considerable wit and eloquence) but appears not to observe his own hedonistic advice, preferring to study himself with scientific detachment. His distinguishing feature is total indifference to the consequences of his actions. * Sibyl Vane – a talented actress and singer, she is a beautiful girl from a poor family with whom Dorian falls in love. Her love for Dorian ruins her acting ability, because she no longer finds pleasure in portraying fictional love as she is now experiencing real love in her life. She commits suicide with poison on learning that Dorian no longer loves her; at that, Lord Henry likens her to [Ophelia](Ophelia), in Hamlet. * James Vane – Sibyl's younger brother, a sailor who leaves for Australia. He is very protective of his sister, especially as their mother cares only for Dorian's money. Believing that Dorian means to harm Sibyl, James hesitates to leave, and promises vengeance upon Dorian if any harm befalls her. After Sibyl's suicide, James becomes obsessed with killing Dorian, and [stalks](Stalking) him, but a hunter accidentally kills James. The brother's pursuit of vengeance upon the lover (Dorian Gray), for the death of the sister (Sibyl) parallels that of [Laertes](Laertes (Hamlet))' vengeance against Prince Hamlet. * Alan Campbell – chemist and one-time friend of Dorian who ended their friendship when Dorian's libertine reputation devalued such a friendship. Dorian blackmails Alan into destroying the body of the murdered Basil Hallward; Campbell later shoots himself dead. * Lord Fermor – Lord Henry's uncle, who tells his nephew, Lord Henry Wotton, about the family [lineage](Lineage (anthropology)) of Dorian Gray. * Adrian Singleton – A youthful friend of Dorian's, whom he evidently introduced to opium addiction, which induced him to forge a cheque and made him a total outcast from his family and social set. * Victoria, Lady Henry Wotton – Lord Henry's wife, whom he treats disdainfully; she later divorces him. ## Influences and allusions ### Wilde's own life Wilde wrote in an 1894 letter: }} Hallward is supposed to have been formed after painter [Haslewood Shannon](Charles)(Charles Haslewood Shannon). Scholars generally accept that Lord Henry is partly inspired by Wilde's friend [Ronald Gower](Lord)(Lord Ronald Gower).Wilde, Oscar; Frankel, Nichols (ed.) The Picture of Dorian Gray: An Annotated, Uncensored Edition The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, London 2011, p68 It was purported that Wilde's inspiration for Dorian Gray was the poet [Gray](John)(John Gray (poet)), but Gray distanced himself from the rumour. Some believe that Wilde used [de Montesquiou](Robert)(Robert de Montesquiou) in creating Dorian Gray.[Edgar](Munhall,)(Edgar Munhall), Whistler and Montesquiou: The Butterfly and the Bat, New York and Paris: The [Collection](Frick)(Frick Collection)/[Flammarion](Groupe Flammarion), 1995, p. 13. ### Faust* Wilde is purported to have said, "in every first novel the hero is the author as Christ or [Faust](Faust)." In both the legend of Faust and in The Picture of Dorian Gray a temptation (ageless beauty) is placed before the protagonist, which he indulges. In each story, the protagonist entices a beautiful woman to love him, and then destroys her life. In the preface to the novel, Wilde said that the notion behind the tale is "old in the history of literature", but was a thematic subject to which he had "given a new form".The Picture of Dorian Gray (Penguin Classics) – Preface Unlike the academic Faust, the gentleman Dorian makes no [with the Devil](deal)(deal with the Devil), who is represented by the cynical hedonist Lord Henry, who presents the temptation that will corrupt the [virtue](virtue) and innocence that Dorian possesses at the start of the story. Throughout, Lord Henry appears unaware of the effect of his actions upon the young man; and so frivolously advises Dorian, that "the only way to get rid of a temptation is to yield to it. Resist it, and your soul grows sick with longing."The Picture of Dorian Gray'' (Penguin Classics) – Chapter II As such, the devilish Lord Henry is "leading Dorian into an unholy pact, by manipulating his innocence and insecurity."[The Picture of Dorian Gray](http://education.yahoo.com/homework_help/cliffsnotes/the_picture_of_dorian_gray/10.html) – a summary of and a commentary on Chapter II of The Picture of Dorian Gray* (retrieved 29 July 2006) ### Shakespeare In the preface, Wilde speaks of the sub-human [Caliban](Caliban) character from [Tempest](The)(The Tempest). In chapter seven, he writes: "He felt as if he had come to look for Miranda and had been met by Caliban". When Dorian tells Lord Henry about his new love Sibyl Vane, he mentions the Shakespeare plays in which she has acted, and refers to her by the name of the heroine of each play. Later, Dorian speaks of his life by quoting [Hamlet](Prince Hamlet), a privileged character who impels his potential suitor ([Ophelia](Ophelia)) to suicide, and prompts her brother (Laertes) to swear mortal revenge. ### Joris-Karl Huysmans The anonymous "poisonous French novel" that leads Dorian to his fall is a thematic variant of [rebours](À)(À rebours) (1884), by [Huysmans](Joris-Karl)(Joris-Karl Huysmans). In the biography Oscar Wilde (1989), the literary critic [Ellmann](Richard)(Richard Ellmann) said: Wilde does not name the book, but at his trial he conceded that it was, or almost [was], Huysmans's À rebours ... to a correspondent, he wrote that he had played a "fantastic variation" upon À rebours, and someday must write it down. The references in Dorian Gray to specific chapters are deliberately inaccurate. ### Possible Disraeli influence Some commentators have suggested that The Picture of Dorian Gray was influenced by the British Prime Minister [Disraeli](Benjamin)(Benjamin Disraeli)'s (anonymously published) first novel [Grey](Vivian)(Vivian Grey) (1826) as, "a kind of homage from one outsider to another." The name of Dorian Gray's love interest, Sibyl Vane, may be a modified fusion of the title of Disraeli's best known novel ([Sybil](Sybil (novel))) and Vivian Grey's love interest Violet Fane, who, like Sibyl Vane, dies tragically. There is also a scene in Vivian Grey in which the eyes in the portrait of a "beautiful being" move when its subject dies.Disraeli (1853) p101-2 ## Reactions ### Contemporary response Even after the removal of controversial text, The Picture of Dorian Gray offended the moral sensibilities of British book reviewers, to the extent, in some cases, of saying that Wilde merited prosecution for violating [laws guarding public morality](the)(Obscene libel). In the 30 June 1890 issue of the [Chronicle](Daily)(Daily Chronicle (United Kingdom)), the book critic said that Wilde's novel contains "one element ... which will taint every young mind that comes in contact with it." In the 5 July 1890 issue of the [Observer](Scots)(Scots Observer), a reviewer asked "Why must Oscar Wilde 'go grubbing in muck-heaps?'" The book critic of The Irish Times said, The Picture of Dorian Gray was "first published to some scandal." Such book reviews achieved for the novel a "certain notoriety for being 'mawkish and nauseous', 'unclean', 'effeminate' and 'contaminating'."[The Modern Library](http://www.randomhouse.com/modernlibrary/catalog/display.pperl?isbn=9780679642091) – a synopsis of the novel and a short biography of Oscar Wilde. (retrieved 6 July 2006) Such [moralistic](Moralism) scandal arose from the novel's [homoeroticism](homoeroticism), which offended the sensibilities (social, literary, and aesthetic) of Victorian book critics. Most of the criticism was, however, personal, attacking Wilde for being a hedonist with values that deviated from the conventionally accepted morality of Victorian Britain. In response to such criticism, Wilde aggressively defended his novel and the sanctity of art in his correspondence with the British press. Wilde also obscured the homoeroticism of the story and expanded the personal background of the characters in the 1891 book edition.[CliffsNotes:The Picture of Dorian Gray](http://www.cliffsnotes.com/WileyCDA/LitNote/id-144,pageNum-2.html) – an introduction and overview the book (retrieved 5 July 2006) Due to controversy, retailing chain [H Smith](W)(W H Smith), then Britain's largest bookseller, withdrew every copy of the July 1890 issue of ''Lippincott's Monthly Magazine'' from its bookstalls in railway stations. At Wilde's 1895 [trials](Oscar Wilde#Trials), the book was called a "perverted novel" and passages (from the magazine version) were read during cross-examination. The book's association with Wilde's trials further hurt the book's reputation. In the decade after Wilde's death in 1900, the authorized edition of the novel was published by [Carrington](Charles)(Charles Carrington), who specialized in literary erotica. ### Modern response In a 2009 review, critic Robin McKie considers the novel to be technically mediocre, saying that the conceit of the plot guaranteed its fame, but the device is never pushed to its full.McKie, Robin (25 January 2009). ["Classics Corner: The Picture of Dorian Gray"](https://www.theguardian.com/books/2009/jan/25/classics-picture-dorian-gray-wilde) . [Guardian](The)(The Guardian) (London). On the other hand, in March 2014, [McCrum](Robert)(Robert McCrum) of [Guardian](The)(The Guardian) listed it among the 100 best novels ever written in English, calling it "an arresting, and slightly camp, exercise in late-Victorian [gothic](Gothic fiction)". ## Legacy and adaptations [[File:Angela Lansbury in The Picture of Dorian Gray trailer.jpg\|thumb\|[Lansbury](Angela)(Angela Lansbury) as Sibyl Vane in the film adaptation [Picture of Dorian Gray* (1945)](The)(The Picture of Dorian Gray (1945 film)). Lansbury was nominated for the [Award for Best Supporting Actress](Academy)(Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress) for her performance.]] Though not initially a widely appreciated component of Wilde's body of work following his death in 1900, The Picture of Dorian Gray* has come to attract a great deal of academic and popular interest, and has been the subject of many adaptations to film and stage. In 1913, it was adapted to the stage by writer G. Constant Lounsbery at London's [Theatre](Vaudeville)(Vaudeville Theatre). In the same decade, it was the subject of several silent film adaptations. Perhaps the best-known and most critically praised film adaptation is 1945's [Picture of Dorian Gray](The)(The Picture of Dorian Gray (1945 film)), which earned an Academy Award for best black-and-white cinematography, as well as a Best Supporting Actress nomination for [Lansbury](Angela)(Angela Lansbury), who played Sibyl Vane. In 2003, [Townsend](Stuart)(Stuart Townsend) played Dorian Gray in the film [of Extraordinary Gentlemen](League)(The League of Extraordinary Gentlemen (film)). In 2009, the novel was loosely adapted into the film [Gray](Dorian)(Dorian Gray (2009 film)), starring [Barnes](Ben)(Ben Barnes (actor)) as Dorian and [Firth](Colin)(Colin Firth) as Lord Henry. The [Award](Dorian)(Dorian Awards)[https://galeca.org/about/] Retrieved February 19th, 2023 is named in honor of Wilde, in reference to The Picture of Dorian Gray; the original award was a simple certificate with an image of Wilde along with a graphic of hands holding a black [tie](bow)(bow tie).[E!](E!) ["Party Pics: Hollywood Gay and Lesbian Entertainment Critics Association Winners Toast"](http://www.eonline.com/photos/204/party-pics-hollywood/744827/) Retrieved November 29, 2017 The first Dorian Awards were announced in January 2010 (nominees were revealed the previous month).[TheWrap](TheWrap), January 20, 2010, by Lisa Horowitz, [/ "Single Man, Glee, Grey Gardens Top Dorian Awards"](http://www.thewrap.com/deal-central/article/single-man-glee-grey-gardens-top-dorian-awards-13272) ## Bibliography Editions include: * The Picture of Dorian Gray ([Oxford](Oxford): [World's Classics](Oxford)(Oxford World's Classics), 2008) . Edited with an introduction and notes by [Bristow](Joseph)(Joseph Bristow (literary scholar)). Based on the 1891 book edition. * The Uncensored Picture of Dorian Gray ([Press](Belknap)(Belknap Press), 2011) . Edited with an introduction by Nicholas Frankel. This edition presents the uncensored typescript of the 1890 magazine version. * The Picture of Dorian Gray ([York](New)(New York City): [Critical Editions](Norton)(W. W. Norton), 2006) . Edited with an introduction and notes by Michael Patrick Gillespie. Presents the 1890 magazine edition and the 1891 book edition side by side. * The Picture of Dorian Gray ([Harmondsworth](Harmondsworth): [Classics](Penguin)(Penguin Classics), 2006), . Edited with an introduction and notes by [Mighall](Robert)(Robert Mighall). Included as an appendix is [Ackroyd](Peter)(Peter Ackroyd)'s introduction to the 1986 Penguin Classics edition. It reproduces the 1891 book edition. * The Picture of Dorian Gray (Broadview Press, 1998) . Edited with an introduction and notes by Norman Page. Based on the 1891 book edition. ## See also * [Gray syndrome](Dorian)(Dorian Gray syndrome) * [Happy Hypocrite](The)(The Happy Hypocrite) – a thematic inversion of The Picture of Dorian Gray ## References ## External links * * [Replica of the 1890 Edition & Critical Edition](https://web.archive.org/web/20170130221042/http://www.uvic.ca/library/featured/collections/literature/DorianGray.php) at [of Victoria](University)(University of Victoria) * * * * [ ](Category:The Picture of Dorian Gray) [British novels](Category:1890)(Category:1890 British novels) [fantasy novels](Category:1890)(Category:1890 fantasy novels) [LGBT novels](Category:1890s)(Category:1890s LGBT novels) [Gothic novels](Category:British)(Category:British Gothic novels) [first published in serial form](Category:Novels)(Category:Novels first published in serial form) [novels](Category:Victorian)(Category:Victorian novels) [by Oscar Wilde](Category:Works)(Category:Works by Oscar Wilde) [originally published in Lippincott's Monthly Magazine](Category:Works)(Category:Works originally published in Lippincott's Monthly Magazine) [about ageing](Category:Novels)(Category:Novels about ageing) [in fiction](Category:Narcissism)(Category:Narcissism in fiction) [about suicide](Category:Fiction)(Category:Fiction about suicide) [novels adapted into plays](Category:British)(Category:British novels adapted into plays) [novels adapted into films](Category:Irish)(Category:Irish novels adapted into films) [LGBT novels](Category:British)(Category:British LGBT novels) [adapted into operas](Category:Novels)(Category:Novels adapted into operas) [novels adapted into television shows](Category:British)(Category:British novels adapted into television shows) [novels adapted into plays](Category:Irish)(Category:Irish novels adapted into plays) [horror literature](Category:LGBT-related)(Category:LGBT-related horror literature) [controversies in literature](Category:Obscenity)(Category:Obscenity controversies in literature) [with gay themes](Category:Novels)(Category:Novels with gay themes) [debut novels](Category:1890)(Category:1890 debut novels) [Irish novels](Category:19th-century)(Category:19th-century Irish novels) [adapted into comics](Category:Novels)(Category:Novels adapted into comics) [philosophical novels](Category:British)(Category:British philosophical novels) [controversies in literature](Category:LGBT-related)(Category:LGBT-related controversies in literature)
The Haves and the Have Nots _TV series	the_haves_and_the_have_nots__tv_series	# The Haves and the Have Nots (TV series) Revision ID: 1159731468 \| Timestamp: 2023-06-12T05:49:33Z --- \| creator = [Perry](Tyler)(Tyler Perry) \| developer = \| writer = Tyler Perry \| director = Tyler Perry \| creative_director = \| presenter = \| starring = \| judges = \| voices = \| narrated = \| theme_music_composer = Elvin Ross \| opentheme = \| endtheme = \| composer = \| country = United States \| language = English \| num_seasons = 8 \| num_episodes = 196 \| list_episodes = List of The Haves and the Have Nots episodes \| executive_producer = \| producer = \| editor = \| camera = [Multiple](Multiple-camera setup) \| runtime = 42 minutes \| company = [Perry Studios](Tyler)(Tyler Perry Studios) \| network = [Winfrey Network](Oprah)(Oprah Winfrey Network) \| first_aired = \| last_aired = \| related = [Haves and the Have Nots (play)](The)(The Haves and the Have Nots (play)) }} *The Haves and the Have Nots* (sometimes referred to as *Haves and Have Nots* and abbreviated as *HAHN) is an American [drama](crime)(Crime fiction) and [opera](soap)(soap opera) created, executive produced, written, and directed by [Perry](Tyler)(Tyler Perry). The premise of the series is based on Perry's 2011 play [the same name](of)(The Haves and the Have Nots (play)). The Haves and the Have Nots* premiered on May 28, 2013, and ran for 8 seasons on the [Winfrey Network](Oprah)(Oprah Winfrey Network) (OWN), for a total of 196 hour-long episodes. The series finale aired on Tuesday, July 20, 2021. As part of the show's finale, a two-part cast reunion special consisting of all The Have and Have Nots main characters in front of a live studio audience was televised, part 1 on July 27 and part 2 on August 3. The Haves and the Have Nots was ranked among the top 2 scripted cable series with a majority [American](African)(African Americans) cast. The soap opera led the ratings for OWN programming throughout much of its series run. It averaged 2.8 million total viewers across its 196 episodes. During its highest rated years from 2014 to 2017, the program averaged more than 3.1 million viewers each year. It was reported in June 2021 that the program is the most-watched scripted cable series among African American women and households. The Haves and the Have Nots is the first scripted and first fictionalized television series to air on the Oprah Winfrey Network and is considered the network's first claim to fame. Amid struggles to keep her network afloat before debuting The Haves and the Have Nots, [Winfrey](Oprah)(Oprah Winfrey) was quoted in a 2012 interview as stating, “Had I known that it was this difficult, I might have done something else.” The success of The Haves and the Have Nots, however, opened the door to myriad other popular scripted dramas on Winfrey's network, including but not limited to [Sugar](Queen)(Queen Sugar) and [Greenleaf](Greenleaf (TV series)). ## Synopsis The series follows three families and their lifestyles as they struggle to coexist among one another in [Georgia](Savannah,)(Savannah, Georgia): the rich, powerful, and locally very public Cryer and Harrington families (originally regarded as "The Haves") and the [poor](poverty) and destitute Young family (originally regarded as "The Have Nots"). The Young family is headed by Hanna, a single mother who works as the Cryer family's maid and also serves as the best friend and confidante of the lady of the house, Katheryn. Included as part of The Have Nots is another [worker](domestic)(domestic worker), initially for the Cryer family and later for the local hospital, Celine Gonzales. The Haves and the Have Nots centers on the toxicity, conflicts, corruption, hardships and dysfunctional family relations similarly experienced between the [underprivileged](Disadvantaged) Young family and their [well-to-do](upper-class) counterparts, who only ostensibly live the [of Riley](life)(wikt:life of Riley). Drastically and destructively flawed character traits abound from both rich and poor, perpetually creating for multidimensional chaos, tension and calamity. Circumstances on the program are regularly resolved through wild acts of violence, sabotage, rape, framing, murder, arson and other criminal acts. While the Young family versus the Cryer and Harrington families originally lead polar opposite lifestyles in terms of [class](social)(social class), [economics](economics), [status](social)(social status), and surroundings, they are each similar in that they lead exceedingly toxic, dysfunctional lifestyles with broken family units. At the root of the turmoil are deeply wounded, complex [backstories](backstory) among all the characters that precede the existence of this television series. Habitual fraudulence is also at the root of the turmoil, in which mass amounts of wealth are regularly misappropriated back and forth between the show's main characters. As a result, there are repeated shifts in which characters are regarded as "the haves" and which are regarded as "the have nots," extended through the entire course of the series. ## Broadcast ## Characters ### The Youngs [Sumpter](Tika)(Tika Sumpter) as Candace Young. Candace is Hanna's [estranged](wikt: estrange) daughter, Benny's older [half-sister](sibling#Types of siblings), and one of Jim's multitude of [mistresses](mistress (lover)) turned ex-mistress and archenemy who's less than half his age. Candace is nowhere near as easily subjugated as the rest of Jim's ex-mistresses, such as Celine for one example. Candace is portrayed as a roguish, crafty [jezebel](wikt: Jezebel); mischievous, flippant, [saucy](wikt: saucy), [presumptuous](wikt: presumptuous), and extremely nervy. Much to Jim's shock, it’s Candace who subjugates others—central throughout much of the program—through her many forms of [manipulation](Psychological manipulation); [extortion](extortion); low blows; and dirt she's able to obtain on individuals. [Fox](Crystal)(Crystal R. Fox) as Hanna Young. Hanna is Benny and Candace's mother, and the Cryer's [maid](maid). She raised her two children as a single mother. Hanna is very deep, soulful, [religious](religion), nurturing and compassionate. Though when it comes to those who have done wrong by her, Hanna has taken to obscenities and an especially harsh, overreactive, rancorous, and even violent nature. Haggard and long-suffering, she often displays the effects of overwhelming stress, overwork, and worry in her behavior. Still, she is very much a trouper who takes to [prayer](prayer), singing of gospel [hymn](hymn)s, and recitation of [verse](Bible)(Bible verse)s in place of complaining. Conscientious and assiduous, Hanna also displays a strong work ethic. Compounded with this, Hanna is trustworthy and reliable and can be confided in about anything; this has won her the respect of her superiors and a close bond with her boss Katheryn. [Lepley](Tyler)(Tyler Lepley) as Benjamin "Benny" Young. Benny is Hanna's son and Candace's half-brother. He operates a [truck](tow)(tow truck) company. Benny has a tough demeanor and is overprotective. Benny is personable, dutiful, and hard-working. In comparison to his conniving sister, he is less prone to cause trouble for his mother. Still and all, Benny has proven to be particularly reckless, foolhardy and hardheaded, on numerous occasions landing himself into troubling circumstances much to his mother and sister's displeasure. He has unconditional love and care for his mother and sister, and is often caught in the middle of their acrimonious mother/daughter relationship, or lack thereof. Jordan Preston Carter as Quincy Delon "Q" Young Jr. (seasons 2–4). Candace and Quincy's mild-mannered son, Hanna's grandson and Benny's nephew. ### The Harringtons [Parros](Peter)(Peter Parros) as David Harrington. David is the level-headed, grim, and gravelly-voiced husband of Veronica and father of Jeffrey, who often acts as a voice of reason. He is a judge and is also Jim's business partner and loyal friend, sometimes going along with Jim's misdeeds at the ire of others and at his own peril. [Robinson](Angela)(Angela Robinson (actress)) as Veronica Harrington, the wife turned ex-wife of David and mother of Jeffrey. Although appearing refined, composed, and classy, Veronica is actually an extremely [no-holds-barred](wikt:no holds barred), vicious, cold, calculating, manipulative, and catty [snob](snob). She customarily delivered stinging barbs to receiving parties in either her trademarked cool, calm, collected manner or a plainly mocking, taunting manner. Whenever Veronica perceived herself as being crossed in the series, she orchestrated barbarically retaliatory measures through [thugs](Crime) and [felons](convicted)(Felony) while, in and of herself, bearing a [facade](wikt:facade) of [innocence](innocence), thus typically able to evade serious repercussions. During the show's original run, Veronica was advertised by OWN and various media outlets as "The Ice Queen." Very obdurate, Veronica more than proved to be set in her [anti-gay](anti-gay) and diabolic ways. It's later learned by the series end that the character was involved with a man (Jeffrey's biological father according to Veronica) who had [out of the closet](come)(coming out) during their relationship, providing [backstory](backstory) elements to her behaviors. Professionally, Veronica is portrayed as an insurmountable attorney with a knack for winning legal cases. [Houston](Gavin)(Gavin Houston) as Jeffery Harrington. Jeffery is David and Veronica's beleaguered, conflicted, ill-at-ease, dismissive and aloof son. He started out on the series as Wyatt Cryer's 24/7 [abuse](substance)(substance abuse) counselor in the Harrington family's [rehabilitation](drug)(drug rehabilitation) program. Much to Wyatt's displeasure, Jeffery's counseling is full of preachy remarks, frequent urges for Wyatt to open up about his feelings and secret admiring. After being [closeted](closeted) throughout much of the first season, Jeffery spent much of the series being harassed himself by a conflicted, closeted, predatory officer named Justin. Much of the series also centers around Jeffrey regularly being persecuted by his anti-gay mother. ### The Cryers [Schneider](John)(John Schneider (screen actor)) as James "Jim" Cryer. The take-charge, self-assured, demeaning, crooked, unethical and thoughtlessly destructive [patriarch](patriarch) of the Cryer family, and a Savannah [courts](criminal)(criminal justice) [judge](judge) who has his eyes set on becoming [Governor](Governor) of [Georgia](Georgia (U.S. state)). A major reason for Jim's rising to where he's at professionally and socioeconomically is because of his wife Katheryn's family. Although a kind-hearted and sensitive man at heart, Jim's urges, vices, greed, and self-preservation often get the better of him and cause him to act rashly, disloyally, destructively inconsiderately, and even abusively as far as his rank and power. Given his position as a wealthy judge in high society, Jim has certain dirty measures at his disposal from which to gain the upper hand on anyone that crosses him, to which he's never above resorting to. [Lawless](Reneé)(Reneé Lawless) as Katheryn Cryer (née Hargrave). Katheryn is Jim's deeply warm, sensitive, caring but [passive-aggressive](passive-aggressive) wife. Katheryn often displays her anger, hatred, bitterness, and stress in a suppressed but still very detectable fashion. She is filled with melancholy, rancor, and sullen indignation primarily as a result of the various trials and tribulations brought upon her as it relates to her family, particularly her cheating husband to which she regularly spews vitriol. [O'Connell](Aaron)(Aaron O'Connell) as Wyatt Cryer. Wyatt is the deeply troubled, one-track-mind, drug-addicted, unfeeling and brazen son of Jim and Katheryn. In the first episode, it's learned that Wyatt is so incorrigible in his vices that he's on his third stint in [rehab](Drug rehabilitation) for [abuse](drug)(drug abuse) and [alcoholism](alcoholism). Despite his parents repeated efforts to get him help and rescue him from disaster, he shows no love for either of them nor anyone else in the program but his [addiction](addiction)s. [Betham](Jaclyn)(Jaclyn Betham) as Amanda Cryer (Season 1). Amanda was Jim and Katheryn's naïve college-aged daughter who was friends with her father's mistress, Candace. Amanda has had issues with [self-harm](self-harm) and [suicide](suicide) in the past, having engaged in cutting herself. It has been hinted in the series that the reasons for Amanda's battles with self-harm may stem from some traumatic [abuse](sex)(sexual abuse) incident from her distant past, involving Wyatt and a [priest](priest). ### The Malones Brett Davis as Mitchell "Mitch" Malone (Seasons 3–8; recurring season 2). Mitch is a friend of Benny, recruited to work at Benny's new tow truck business. Mitch is later revealed to be related to the Malone [family](crime)(crime family) but chooses to live a straight and narrow life, though seen as the outcast within his family as a result. After suspecting War as bad news and witnessing War sexually assault Candace at the tow yard, he protects her and Benny, by throwing War in jail, putting drugs in his car to make it look as if they were his. [Torre](Oscar)(Oscar Torre) as Vincent "Vinny" Malone (Seasons 5–8), Mitch's dour, tough-talking, [negrophobic](Negrophobia), murderous and authoritative uncle. Michael Galante as Sandy Malone (Seasons 5–8), Mitch's petulant, [negrophobic](Negrophobia) brother, who has difficulty living up to his uncle's cruel expectations of him. He is also a domestically abusive stalker of his [biracial](biracial) ex-girlfriend and later love interest of Benny. John Kap as Salvador "Sal" Malone (Seasons 1–2, 5, 8), Mitch's cousin Derek Russo as Tony Malone (Seasons 4–5, 8), Mitch's cousin Cameron Radice as Sammy Malone (Season 4), Mitch's first brother Brandon Stacy as Zeek Malone (Season 5), Mitch's youngest cousin Chris Caldovino as Don Malone (Season 5), Mitch's fourth oldest cousin [Savante](Stelio)(Stelio Savante) as Dino Malone (Season 5), Mitch and Sandy's cousin John Emil D'Angela as D. Malone (Season 1), Mitch's third uncle Alessandro Folchitto as Al Malone (Seasons 1, 4 & 8), Mitch's second uncle [Martin](Sandy)(Sandy Martin (actress)) (Season 1) & Rachel Winfree (Seasons 4, 7) as Rosa Malone "Mama Rose", Mitch's dark-natured, hard-boiled [boss](mob)(Crime boss) grandmother, who is big on favors and had a pact with Jim and David in the show's early going. This pact saw Mama Rose directing her large gang family and thug friends to carry out dirty deeds for them. This was in exchange for Jim and David previously allowing members of Mama Rose's gang family off as far as criminal charges and sentences when Jim and David were acting judges. At one point in the series, Mama Rose was of the mind that her crew owed Candace a favor for Candace's role in the death of War, thus Candace had pull with the Malones. ### Other characters [Tamargo](Eva)(Eva Tamargo) as Celine Gonzales (Main, Seasons 1–2, 7; Recurring Season 8). Celine is a former maid in the Cryer home and [ex-friend](ex (relationship)) of Hanna. She was originally depicted as a casual, relaxed woman, often fostering a friendly, informal atmosphere. She was also depicted as savvy, well-informed and gossipy, given to divulging useful inside information about life at the Cryers' to Hanna. However, as time passed on and Hanna appeared to become closer to Katheryn and gain favor within the Cryer household, Celine's demeanor changed: she began to take on more jealous, bullying and antagonistic behaviors, largely towards Hanna and later towards Katheryn as well. To boot, it is later learned that Celine is one of Jim's many ex-mistresses, one who slept around with Jim before being disdainfully dismissed by him, much to Celine's dismay. After several seasons of absence, Celine reappears with claims to a son of hers belonging to Jim, regularly enjoining him to assist her with [support](child)(child support). These efforts have all been disdainfully dismissed by Jim. [Headley](Shari)(Shari Headley) as [D.A.](District attorney) Jennifer Sallison (Season 3; recurring seasons 1–2). The district attorney who has been gunning for the Cryers and the Harringtons for some time. After a striking a deal with Wyatt for immunity for both him and Jeffery at the end of Season 3, she finally manages to arrest the Cryer and Harrington families for tampering with evidence and obstruction of justice. She also succeeds in getting Wyatt's inheritance for him, which is sure to anger his parents. In the Season 3 finale, Katheryn pulls out a gun and fatally shoots Jennifer multiple times, thus killing her. It turns out that Jennifer's body was being disposed of by the Malone family while being wrapped in plastic wrap with a note that says her name and "Cryer Victim". Her body was left at a television station by the Malone's as a way for their head boss and grandmother, Mama Rose, to pressure Jim even harder into tracking down War. [McAtee](Allison)(Allison McAtee) as Margaret "Maggie" Day (Season 3; recurring Seasons 1–2). A campaign manager hired by Jim's staff, who has feelings for David. She and her assistant, Landon (who is attracted to David's son Jeffrey), manage to get David released and he learns of Veronica's infidelity. In the mid-season 4 premiere, she was shot multiple times in the stomach by a gunman, being mistaken as Veronica, whom Jim intended to be killed. David witnesses her and the gunman's bodies covered in sheets at the crime scene of the shooting and mistakes her as Veronica. [Deadwyler](Danielle)(Danielle Deadwyler) as LaQuita "Quita" Maxwell (Season 3; Guest in Seasons 2, 5–8; recurring season 4). Quincy's ill-tempered sister who had been watching over Quincy's son before Benny rescued him. She acts as an antagonist throughout the series' run towards several characters, particularly Candace due to the mysterious absence of her brother Quincy. [James](Nicholas)(Nicholas James (actor)) as Justin Lewis (Main, Seasons 3–7; Recurring, season 8). A police officer, who comes to Candace's house, minutes after Quincy had been stabbed, to check out a noise complaint from his mother, Candace's neighbor. Deeply in the closet, he makes it a habit of sexually assaulting men in the back of his squad car. After getting seduced by Jeffrey, they form a purely sexual relationship much to the disgust of Veronica. [Robertson](Antoinette)(Antoinette Robertson) as Melissa Wilson (Main, Season 5; Recurring, Seasons 1–4). A young lady who Veronica arranges to marry Jeffery. Due to her father dying of cancer and her family's inability to afford his treatment, she goes along with this knowing that her potential husband is gay. Due to Veronica's abuse and Jeffrey's obvious uninterest, she begins a brief affair with Benny Young. Jon Chaffin as Warrick "Warlock/War" Lewis (Season 4; Guest in Season 2, 8; recurring seasons 3, 5). A friend of Candace, who helps extort money from Jim, but learns that Candace lied about the amount. Presilah Nunez as Erica (Seasons 3–5; guest in season 2, 8). A woman who sold Benny her boyfriend's car after a bad break-up. It turned out that she and Candace were working together as good friends. She aided Candace in interrogating Alliyah Delong and Landon after Oscar stole Candace's money. Beginning a new mark, she becomes a love interest to David (originally as a set-up), igniting a feud between her and his wife Veronica. [Yurich](Brock)(Brock Yurich) as Madison (Main, Seasons 7–8; Recurring, Seasons 5–6). A nurse who works at the hospital where David was severely injured. He is also Jeffery's old friend since elementary school. Madison has witnessed Jeffery get into fights with an old bully, Bobby Safeman who was also tormenting him as well. Madison is also openly gay and has feelings for Jeffery. ### Recurring characters Patrick Faucette as Tony Watson (Seasons 1–2). Tony is Benny's estranged father whom he doesn't find out is his father until it is accidentally revealed by his mom. Through Hanna's church, Benny knew of him as "Mr. Watson" before finding out his relation to him. Hanna had a [one-night-stand](one-night-stand) with Tony, which resulted in her pregnancy with Benny. In the second season, Tony tries to get Benny taken off life support, so that he could have his kidneys, not showing any sincere feelings of remorse and compassion for his son's well-being. In the third season, when Hanna reveals to Benny that Tony tried to take him off life support, Benny had Tony to come over and explain why. Tony, feeling guilty, says he didn't want his son to have to worry about not being able to walk and suffering through pain. Susie Abromeit as Laura (Season 1). Laura is Wyatt's longtime girlfriend, who he had not seen since rehab. When she and Wyatt reunites, Jeffery becomes jealous and tries to keep her away, and lies to Wyatt, telling him she's dating someone else, whom she hasn't seen since highschool. Once Jeffery is revealed to Wyatt by Laura, Laura calls out Jeffery for his behavior calling him a mean, cruel person. Medina Islam as Quincy Maxwell (Seasons 1–2; Guest in Season 3). Quincy is one of the main antagonists of the Young family. He had once had a romantic relationship with Candace, with whom he share a child, Quincy Delon "Q" Young Jr. [Pralgo](Robert)(Robert Pralgo) as Professor Cannon (Seasons 1; Guest in Season 2), Candace and Amanda's law professor. Kristian Kordula as Landon (Season 1–present), a guy who works at the campaign office and has feelings for Jeffery Leith Burke as Byron (Season 1), a detective Robert Crayton as Gansta henchman of known Drug Dealer War. Dasha Chadwick as Darlene (Season 1), an old friend and classmate of Benny's. She works at the county hospital where Benny was placed in by Katheryn. Jerome Brooks as Michael (Seasons 1–2; Guest in Season 3), Lizzie's grandfather Gerald Celasco as Carlos (Seasons 1–2), Jim Cryer's estranged son Philip Boyd as Brandon Wallace / "Oscar Adien" (Philip Boyd) (Seasons 2–5). Oscar is a strange guy who Candace notices spotting her at the Sarandon Hotel. He shows interest in Candace and wants to get to know her, but she continues to reject him, until he reveals his life story to her, telling her about his wife's death and how after her death, he would sleep with any woman, to keep from mourning. After this, him and Candace start to fall in love with each other. Maree Cheatham as Pearl (Season 3–present), Justin's mother and Candace's nosy neighbor Yaani King as Alliyah Delong (Seasons 2–3), a social worker for Child welfare. She helps Hanna get custody of Quincy Jr. [Brown](Quincy)(Quincy Brown) as Daylon (Seasons 1–3), a friend of Quita who helps her try to track down Quincy Fang Du as George (Season 5–present), a [attorney](District)(District attorney) who takes it upon himself to investigate Jennifer Sallison's murder. His main suspects is the Cryers. [Flynn](Rome)(Rome Flynn) as RK (Season 5–6), a friend of Candace who works at the bar of the Artesian Hotel Quin Walters as Gia (Season 5), a prostitute who is struggling to make a living Keith Burke as Derrick (Season 5–present), a handyman who works for Katheryn and quickly develops romantic feelings for Hanna [Gopradi](Geovanni)(Geovanni Gopradi) as Broderick (Season 5–present), a manager of the Artesian Hotel Marc Cumpton as Rocky (Season 4–present), a bartender at the Artesian Hotel [Condon](Bree)(Bree Condon) as Sarah (Season 5–present), a prosecutor who works under George in the Jennifer Sallison's murder case Morgan Findlay as Akil (Season 7-present), one of Jim Cryer's clients Kwajalyn Brown as News Reporter (Seasons 1, 2 and 5), reporter who announces major news of the day ## Cast diversity While composed of a majority [American](African)(African Americans) cast, The Haves and the Have Nots* is notably made up of a collection of racially diverse actors and actresses: one of the [class](upper)(upper class) families are [American](Caucasian)(White American) and the other is [American](African)(African American); the poor family is also African American; in addition to this, there is a poor maid who is [Hispanic](Hispanic and Latino Americans). To that end, when [Robinson](Angela)(Angela Robinson (actress)) (the actress who plays Veronica Harrington) was interviewed about her then new role on the series in late June 2013, she stated, "This is one of the only shows on television with a diverse cast that looks like America: black, white, Latino, straight, gay, rich, and poor." ## Filming locations and setting The series is set in [Georgia](Savannah,)(Savannah, Georgia). The setting for The Haves and the Have Nots has been described as "firmly set in an [antebellum](Antebellum South) setting that depicts what most people think about when they think of [aristocratic](southern)(Planter class) culture of towns like Savannah, Georgia." The Have and Have Nots was primarily filmed at the [Perry Studios](Tyler)(Tyler Perry Studios) in Atlanta, Georgia. Though various scenes of the program were shot from other cities of Georgia. Among examples, one of the settings for the show was the Old Douglas County Jail, located at 6840 Church Street in [Georgia](Douglasville,)(Douglasville, Georgia), 30134. The Old Douglas County Jail has been the site of many television and film productions, especially since the building and property was [salvaged](Cultural resource management#Cultural resource management applied to heritage management) by local officials. As another example, scenes of the show were shot at the 151 W. Main Building in [Georgia](Canton,)(Canton, Georgia). ## Reception ### Awards and nominations A central antagonist in the series, the "Veronica Harrington" character drew considerable attention in the media for her brand of [villain](villain)y, promoted as "the ice queen with ice water running through her veins." An [News](NBC)(NBC News) article characterized the character as an "insecure woman that everyone loves to hate" and "a bougie buppie, diabolical diva who slept her way to the top of Savannah's high society". ### Ratings The Haves and the Have Nots debuted on May 28, 2013 on [OWN](Oprah Winfrey Network). The Haves and the Have Nots is the first scripted television series to air on OWN. Both the show's first and second episodes aired back to back on its premiere night. The Haves and the Have Nots set a record for OWN, scoring the highest ratings ever for a series premiere on the network and held up that record for 3 years, with [Greenleaf](Greenleaf (TV series)) securing the record in June 2016. Within its first season, [Variety](Variety (magazine)) had recognized The Haves and the Have Nots as "OWN's most popular series to date." Also within its first season, The Haves and the Have Nots had been critically acclaimed as being "one of OWN's biggest success stories with its weekly dose of soapy fun, filled with the typical [betrayal](betrayal)s, [affair](affair)s, manipulations and a bitch slap or two." The Haves and the Have Nots episode "Why Didn't You Tell Me?" which aired on March 11, 2014, as the mid-season 2 finale had set a record for all of OWN programming, at that time the highest rated program in the station's history. The then record-breaking episode brought in 3.6 million viewers, surpassing the 3.5 million that tuned in for Oprah Winfrey's interview with Bobbi Kristina. Not only was the episode the most watched broadcast in all of OWN history at the time but it came in at number 1 among all of cable television and number 4 among all shows on television for its airing night. In May 2015, it was reported that the 3rd season of "The Haves and the Have Nots" was primetime's #1 original cable series among African-American women and total viewers, regularly attracting more than three million viewers. ## Series end Taking cues from [television](reality)(reality television) programming, The Haves and the Have Nots aired a two-part cast reunion special in front of a live studio audience in the weeks following its series finale episode: the finale package began on Tuesday, July 20, 2021, with the series finale. Part I of the cast reunion aired on Tuesday, July 27, 2021, while part II aired on August 3, 2021. The move for a cast reunion addendum is novel in that cast reunion specials are, to date, uncharacteristic of scripted programming. They are a trademark of reality television that typically see turbulent exchanges among cast members in relation to the series of events from a recent season. The Have and Have Nots cast reunion special was hosted by [Sherrod](Egypt)(Egypt Sherrod). Supposedly, due to a decline in Have and Have Not ratings and Perry's contract with OWN ending in 2019 (to transition to [ViacomCBS](ViacomCBS)'s [Network](BET)(BET Networks)), it was determined that the series would conclude at 8 seasons. Despite a decline in [ratings](Nielson)(Nielson ratings) by its final seasons, The Haves and the Have Nots still remained OWN's highest rated program with a series run that lasted longer than most television programs. Moreover, announcement of the show's ending caused a stir among the show's fanbase, lamenting over its departure. In sharing her feelings on the soap opera's series end, [Winfrey](Oprah)(Oprah Winfrey) stated, "The Haves and the Have Nots was the first scripted drama we aired on OWN, and to say it took off from the first day it hit the air is an understatement. It’s all due to one man’s creativity and very vivid imagination. I thank Tyler, the incredible cast, the tireless crew, and every single viewer who watched with bated breath each week and tweeted along with us these past eight years". ## References ## External links * * * [The Haves and the Have Nots page at Tyler Perry Official website](http://www.tylerperry.com/tv-shows/haves-and-have-nots/) [American television series debuts](Category:2013)(Category:2013 American television series debuts) [American crime drama television series](Category:2010s)(Category:2010s American crime drama television series) [American black television series](Category:2010s)(Category:2010s American black television series) [American LGBT-related drama television series](Category:2010s)(Category:2010s American LGBT-related drama television series) [American black television series](Category:2020s)(Category:2020s American black television series) [American crime drama television series](Category:2020s)(Category:2020s American crime drama television series) [American LGBT-related drama television series](Category:2020s)(Category:2020s American LGBT-related drama television series) [television soap operas](Category:American)(Category:American television soap operas) [television shows](Category:Gay-related)(Category:Gay-related television shows) [television shows](Category:English-language)(Category:English-language television shows) [African-American culture](Category:LGBT)(Category:LGBT African-American culture) [Winfrey Network original programming](Category:Oprah)(Category:Oprah Winfrey Network original programming) [series based on plays](Category:Television)(Category:Television series based on plays) [shows set in Savannah, Georgia](Category:Television)(Category:Television shows set in Savannah, Georgia) [series created by Tyler Perry](Category:Television)(Category:Television series created by Tyler Perry) [series by Tyler Perry Studios](Category:Television)(Category:Television series by Tyler Perry Studios) [American television series endings](Category:2021)(Category:2021 American television series endings)
Game Boy Color	game_boy_color	# Game Boy Color Revision ID: 1159864265 \| Timestamp: 2023-06-13T01:05:27Z --- \| type = [game console](Handheld)(Handheld game console) \| generation = [Fifth](Fifth generation of video game consoles) \| release date = \| discontinued= Yes; date undisclosed \| retail availability = \| lifespan = \| price = [US$](US dollar)79.95 \| units shipped = 118.69 million \| media = [Boy Game Pak](Game)(Game Boy Game Pak)[Boy Color Game Pak](Game)(Game Boy Color Game Pak) \| cpu = [Sharp](Sharp Corporation) LR35902 core @ 4.19/8.38MHz \| memory = 32 KB [RAM](Random-access memory)16 KB [VRAM](Video RAM (dual-ported DRAM)) \| display = [LCD](TFT)(thin-film-transistor liquid-crystal display) 160 (w) x 144 (h) pixels, 44x40 [mm](Millimetre) \| service = Mobile System GB \| topgame = [Gold* and Silver](Pokémon)(Pokémon Gold and Silver), approximately 23 million units \| compatibility = [Boy](Game)(Game Boy) \| predecessor = Game Boy \| successor = [Boy Advance](Game)(Game Boy Advance) }} The Game Boy Color* (commonly abbreviated as GBC) is a [game console](handheld)(handheld game console), manufactured by [Nintendo](Nintendo), which was released in Japan on October 21, 1998 and to international markets that November. It is the successor to the [Boy](Game)(Game Boy) and is part of its product line. Critics like IGN consider it more akin to a hardware revision than a next generation product. The handheld features a [screen](color)(RGB color model) rather than [monochrome](monochrome monitor), but it is not [backlit](Backlight). It is slightly thicker and taller and features a slightly smaller screen than [Boy Pocket](Game)(Game Boy Pocket), its immediate predecessor. As with the original Game Boy, it has a custom [8-bit](8-bit) [processor](Processor (computing)) made by [Sharp](Sharp Corporation) that is considered a hybrid between the [8080](Intel)(Intel 8080) and the [Z80](Zilog)(Zilog Z80). The [English](American)(American English) [spelling](American and British English spelling differences#-our, -or) of the system's name, Game Boy Color, remains consistent throughout the world. The GBC is part of the [generation of video game consoles](fifth)(fifth generation of video game consoles). The Game Boy and the Game Boy Color combined have sold 118.69 million units worldwide making them the fourth-[system of all time](best-selling)(List of best-selling game consoles). Its best-selling game is [Gold* and Silver](Pokémon)(Pokémon Gold and Silver), which shipped 23 million units worldwide. ## History Development for the Game Boy Color began in 1996, when Nintendo received requests from game developers for a more sophisticated handheld platform, who said that even the latest iteration of the original system, the [Boy Pocket](Game)(Game Boy Pocket), had insufficient hardware. Nintendo developed the console concurrently with [Atlantis](Project)(Project Atlantis). The resultant product was [compatible](backward)(Backward compatibility) with all existing Game Boy software, a first for a handheld system, allowing each new Game Boy product launch to begin with a significantly larger game library than any of its competitors. [Nintendo](Nintendo) formally announced the release of the Game Boy Color on 10 March 1998. All remaining new units were sold by March 31, 2003. ## Hardware ### Technical specifications The technical specifications for the console are as follows: Game Paks manufactured by Nintendo have the following specifications: ROM: 8 MB maximum * Cartridge RAM: 128 KB maximum Without additional mapper hardware, the maximum ROM size is 32 KB (256 kbit). [[Game Boy Color motherboard](File:Nintendo-Game-Boy-Color-Motherboard-Bottom.jpg\|thumb\|right\|The)] The processor, which is a hybrid [8080](Intel)(Intel 8080) and [Z80](Zilog)(Zilog Z80) workalike made by [Sharp](Sharp Corporation) with a few extra (bit manipulation) instructions, has a clock speed of approximately 8 MHz, twice as fast as that of the original Game Boy.}} The Game Boy Color has three times as much memory as the original (32 KB system RAM, 16 KB video RAM). The screen resolution is the same as the original Game Boy at 160×144 pixels. The Game Boy Color features an [infrared](infrared) communications port for wireless linking. The feature is only supported in a small number of games, so the infrared port was dropped from the [Boy Advance](Game)(Game Boy Advance) line, to be later reintroduced with the [3DS](Nintendo)(Nintendo 3DS), though wireless linking would return in the [DS](Nintendo)(Nintendo DS) line using [Wi-Fi](Wi-Fi). The console is capable of displaying up to 56 different colors simultaneously on screen from its [palette](Palette (computing)) of 32,768 (8×4 color background palettes, 8x3+transparent sprite palettes), and can add basic four-, seven- or ten-color shading to games that had been developed for the original 4-shades-of-grey Game Boy. In the 7-color modes, the sprites and backgrounds are given separate color schemes, and in the 10-color modes the sprites are further split into two differently-colored groups; however, as flat black (or white) was a shared fourth color in all but one (7-color) palette, the overall effect is that of 4, 6, or 8 colors. This method of upgrading the color count results in graphic artifacts in certain games; for example, a sprite that is supposed to meld into the background is sometimes colored separately, making it easily noticeable. Manipulation of palette registers during display allows for a rarely used high color mode, capable of displaying more than 2,000 colors on the screen simultaneously. ### Color palettes For dozens of select Game Boy games, the Game Boy Color has an enhanced palette built-in featuring up to 16 colors—four colors for each of the Game Boy's four layers. If the system does not have a palette stored for a game, it defaults to the "Dark green" palette. However, at power-up, one of 12 built-in color palettes is selectable by pressing a directional button and optionally A or B while the Game Boy logo is present on the screen. These palettes each contain up to ten colors. In most games, the four shades displayed on the original Game Boy translate to different subsets of this 10-color palette, such as by displaying movable [sprites](sprite (computer graphics)) in one subset and backgrounds in another. The grayscale (Left + B) palette produces an appearance similar to that experienced on the original [Boy](Game)(Game Boy), [Boy Pocket](Game)(Game Boy Pocket), or [Boy Light](Game)(Game Boy Light). [[keypad palettes.png\|thumb\|Illustrated color-samples of the palettes for the different key combinations. Any color crossed out will be present in palette RAM, but rendered as transparent.](File:GBC)] Games with special palettes include: * [Kong](Donkey)(Donkey Kong (Game Boy)) * [Golf](Golf (Game Boy)) * ''[Dream Land](Kirby's)(Kirby's Dream Land)* * [Dream Land 2](Kirby's)(Kirby's Dream Land 2) * [Pinball Land](Kirby's)(Kirby's Pinball Land) * [II: Return of Samus](Metroid)(Metroid II: Return of Samus) * [Red* and Blue](Pokémon)(Pokémon Red and Blue) [Yellow](Pokémon)(Pokémon Yellow) (original Game Boy version) * [Mario Land](Super)(Super Mario Land) * [Mario Land 2: 6 Golden Coins](Super)(Super Mario Land 2: 6 Golden Coins) * [Tetris](Tetris (Game Boy)) * [Land: Super Mario Land 3](Wario)(Wario Land: Super Mario Land 3) A few games used a scan-line color switch technique to increase the number of colors available on-screen to more than 2,000. This "Hi-Color mode" was used by licensed developers including 7th Sense. Some examples of games using this technique are The Fish Files, The New Addams Family Series, and Alone in the Dark: The New Nightmare. [Fodder](Cannon)(Cannon Fodder (video game))'' uses this technique to render [motion video](full)(full motion video) segments in the introduction sequence, ending, and main menu screen. ### Cartridges [[clear cartridge for exclusive Game Boy Color games](File:Nintendo-Game-Boy-Color-Cartridge.jpg\|thumb\|right\|The)] [[black cartridge is for Game Boy games that takes advantage of the Game Boy Color's increased palette, but not the increased memory or processor speed. These games can be played on the original Game Boy in grayscale.](File:Nintendo-Game-Boy-Cartridge-Black.jpg\|thumb\|right\|The)] Game Boy Color exclusive games are housed in clear-colored [Pak](Game)(Game Pak) cartridges. They are shaped differently than original Game Boy Game Paks. Notably, these cartridges lack a notch that prevented the original Game Paks from being removed while the original Game Boy was powered on due to a plastic piece attached to the power switch, which would slide over the notch, locking a cartridge inside the system during gameplay (although some special cartridges like ''[Tilt 'n' Tumble](Kirby)(Kirby Tilt 'n' Tumble) do include this notch). The lack of this notch keeps original Game Boy systems loaded with Game Boy Color cartridges from powering on. Similarly, Game Boy Pocket, Super Game Boy, Super Game Boy 2, and Game Boy Light will power on when loaded with a Game Boy Color cartridge but will refuse to load the game and will display a warning message stating that a Game Boy Color system is required. This same warning message can be viewed on an original Game Boy as well if the piece that slides into the notch is cut out of the Game Boy. Some Game Boy cartridges such as [Alien](Chee-Chai)(Chee-Chai Alien) and [Music](Pocket)(Pocket Music)'' cannot be played on Game Boy Advance and Game Boy Advance SP systems. When inserted and powered on, these systems will exhibit a similar error message and will not load the game. Black cartridges are backwards compatible, playable on the original Game Boy. ### Model colors The logo for Game Boy Color spells out the word "COLOR" in the five original colors in which the unit was manufactured: Berry (C), Grape (O), Kiwi (L), Dandelion (O), and Teal (R). Another color released at the same time was "Atomic Purple", made of a translucent purple plastic similar to the color available for the [64 controller](Nintendo)(Nintendo 64 controller). Other colors were sold as limited editions or in specific countries. ## Games Due to its backward compatibility with Game Boy games, the Game Boy Color's launch period had a large playable library. The system amassed a library of 576 Game Boy Color games over a four-year period. While the majority of the games are Game Boy Color exclusive, approximately 30% of the games released are compatible with the original Game Boy. Most Game Boy Color games released after 1999 are not compatible with the original Game Boy. [Tetris](Tetris (Game Boy))* for the original Game Boy is the best-selling game compatible with Game Boy Color, and [Gold* and Silver](Pokémon)(Pokémon Gold and Silver) are the best-selling games developed primarily for it. The best-selling Game Boy Color exclusive game is [Crystal](Pokémon)(Pokémon Crystal). The last Game Boy Color game ever released is the Japanese exclusive Doraemon no Study Boy: Kanji Yomikaki Master, on July 18, 2003. The last game released in North America is [Potter and the Chamber of Secrets](Harry)(Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets (video game)), released on November 15, 2002. In Europe the last game released for the system is [Ham-Hams Unite!](Hamtaro:)(Hamtaro: Ham-Hams Unite!), on January 10, 2003. ### Launch games ## Reception ### Sales The [Boy](Game)(Game Boy) and Game Boy Color were both commercially successful, selling a combined 32.47 million units in Japan, 44.06 million in the [Americas](Americas), and 42.16 million in other regions. At the time of its discontinuation in 2003, the combined sales of the [Boy](Game)(Game Boy) were the [game console of all time](best-selling)(List of best-selling game consoles). Surpassed in sales by the [DS](Nintendo)(Nintendo DS) and [2](PlayStation)(PlayStation 2), the pair are now the third-best-selling console and the second-best-selling handheld of all time. Sales of the console were in part driven by the success of [Gold and Silver](Pokémon)(Pokémon Gold and Silver)* and [Crystal](Pokémon)(Pokémon Crystal), with combined sales of 29.5 million units, making them one of the [selling-video games of all time](best)(List of best-selling video games). Sales of the Game Boy Color were strong at launch. [of America](Nintendo)(Nintendo) reported a sale of one million units from launch to December 1998, and two million by July 1999. Retail chains in the [States](United)(United States) reported unexpectedly high demand for the console, with executives of [FuncoLand](FuncoLand) reporting "very pleasant and unpredicted" sales and [Boutique](Electronics)(EB Games) stating "the entire Game Boy Color line just exploded, including accessories" upon release. Faced with high worldwide demand and competitive retail pricing, retailers such as [CompUSA](CompUSA) sold out of Game Boy Color stock in the weeks before the 1998 Christmas season. ### Critical reception Reception of the Game Boy Color was positive, with critics praising the addition of color and improved clarity of the display. Affiliated publications such as Total Game Boy praised the handheld for its "bright, colorful picture that can be viewed in direct light", [compatibility](backward)(backward compatibility) features preserving the "vast catalogue of original [Boy](Game)(Game Boy) games", and improved technical performance. [and Video Games](Computer)(Computer and Video Games) praised the Game Boy Color for making the [Boy](Game)(Game Boy) library of games "look better than ever - everything is crystal clear, bright and in colour". Writing for [GameSpot](GameSpot), Chris Johnston stated that the display was "crystal clear" and free of motion blur, stating that [DX](Tetris)(Tetris) was the "killer app" of the launch titles on the platform. Milder reviews included those by Arcade, who conceded that the colors were "not as eyeball-popping as you might have hoped for...it's mostly seaweed greens, rusty browns, timid yellows and the like", and that "nothing about it is very radical". ### Legacy Commentary on the legacy of the Game Boy Color has been shaped by the perception that the handheld was as an incremental and transitional upgrade of the [Boy](Game)(Game Boy) rather than a completely new handheld release. In a history of [Nintendo](Nintendo), author Jeff Ryan noted the Game Boy Color had a reputation as a "legacy machine" that found success mostly due to its [compatibility](backward)(backward compatibility), as "few wanted to lose all the [Mario](Dr.)(Dr. Mario) and [Pokémon](Pokémon) cartridges they had amassed over the years." Quoted in [Gamer](Retro)(Retro Gamer), [Games Studios](Blitz)(Blitz Games Studios) developer Bob Pape acknowledged that although "[compatibility](backwards)(backward compatibility) more or less defined (the) Game Boy Color", the handheld "ticked all the right boxes with regards to size, battery life, reliability and most importantly backwards compatibility". Positive assessment on the legacy of the Game Boy Color has also focused upon the merits of its game library, particularly for its third-party and import titles. Travis Fahs for [IGN](IGN) noted whilst "the Game Boy Color's life was relatively brief", it "built up a small library of excellent games", including [Land 3](Wario)(Wario Land 3) and [Gold and Silver](Pokémon)(Pokémon Gold and Silver), and a "unique" and "previously unheard of" line of successful third-party games, including [Warrior Monsters](Dragon)(Dragon Warrior Monsters), [Gear Solid](Metal)(Metal Gear Solid (2000 video game)) and [Dark Duel Stories](Yu-Gi-Oh!)(Yu-Gi-Oh! Dark Duel Stories). Ashley Day of [Gamer](Retro)(Retro Gamer) noted that the handheld had an "overlooked" status, stating "the Game Boy Color (has) an unfair reputation as the one [Nintendo](Nintendo) handheld with few worthwhile titles, but this simply isn't the case...returning to the Game Boy Color now reveals a wealth of great games that you never knew existed, especially those available on import." ## See also * [of Game Boy accessories](List)(List of Game Boy accessories) ## Notes ## References ## External links * * [Game Boy Color](https://www.nintendo.com/consumer/systems/gameboy/index.jsp) at Nintendo.com ([archived versions](https://web.archive.org/web//www.nintendo.com/systemsclassic?type=gbc) at the [Archive Wayback Machine](Internet)(Digital time capsule)) [Wayback Machine](https://web.archive.org/web/20040212061705/http://www.nintendo.com/doc/cgb_games.pdf) at Nintendo.com (archived from at the [Archive Wayback Machine](Internet)(Digital time capsule)) * * [Nintendo Announces Full Color Game Boy - ROME (March 10, 1998)](https://web.archive.org/web/19980530162411/http://www.nintendo.com/corp/press/030998.html) [toys](Category:1990s)(Category:1990s toys) [toys](Category:2000s)(Category:2000s toys) [video game consoles](Category:Backward-compatible)(Category:Backward-compatible video game consoles) [handheld game consoles](Category:Discontinued)(Category:Discontinued handheld game consoles) [video game consoles](Category:Fifth-generation)(Category:Fifth-generation video game consoles) [Boy consoles](Category:Game)(Category:Game Boy consoles) [game consoles](Category:Handheld)(Category:Handheld game consoles) [and services discontinued in 2003](Category:Products)(Category:Products and services discontinued in 2003) [introduced in 1998](Category:Products)(Category:Products introduced in 1998) [game consoles](Category:Regionless)(Category:Regionless game consoles) [video game consoles](Category:Z80-based)(Category:Z80-based video game consoles) [Boy#Game Boy Color](de:Game)(de:Game Boy#Game Boy Color)
N,N-Dimethyltryptamine	n,n-dimethyltryptamine	# N,N-Dimethyltryptamine Revision ID: 931614464 \| Timestamp: 2019-12-20T00:47:20Z --- #REDIRECT [N,N-Dimethyltryptamine ](N,N-Dimethyltryptamine ) }} [drugs](Category:Psychedelic)(Category:Psychedelic drugs)
Empire of the Sun _film	empire_of_the_sun__film	# Empire of the Sun (film) Revision ID: 1159482754 \| Timestamp: 2023-06-10T16:22:01Z --- \| screenplay = [Stoppard](Tom)(Tom Stoppard) \| based_on = \| starring = \| music = [Williams](John)(John Williams) \| cinematography = [Daviau](Allen)(Allen Daviau) \| editing = [Kahn](Michael)(Michael Kahn (film editor)) \| studio = [Entertainment](Amblin)(Amblin Entertainment) \| distributor = [Bros.](Warner)(Warner Bros. Pictures) \| released = \| runtime = 154 minutes \| country = United States \| language = \| budget = $25 million \| gross = $66.7 million }} *Empire of the Sun* is a 1987 American [epic](epic film) [coming-of-age](coming of age) [film](war)(war film) directed by [Spielberg](Steven)(Steven Spielberg) and written by [Stoppard](Tom)(Tom Stoppard), based on [G. Ballard](J.)(J. G. Ballard)'s semi-autobiographical 1984 [of the same name](novel)(Empire of the Sun (novel)). The film tells the story of Jamie "Jim" Graham ([Bale](Christian)(Christian Bale)), a young boy who goes from living with his wealthy British family in [Shanghai](Shanghai) to becoming a [of war](prisoner)(prisoner of war) in a Japanese [camp](internment)(internment camp) during [War II](World)(World War II). [Becker](Harold)(Harold Becker) and [Lean](David)(David Lean) were originally to direct before Spielberg came on board, initially as a producer for Lean.[1997](McBride)(#refMcBride1997), p. 391. Spielberg was attracted to directing the film because of a personal connection to Lean's films and World War II topics. He considers it to be his most profound work on "the loss of innocence".Forsberg, Myra. ["Spielberg at 40: The Man and the Child"](https://www.nytimes.com/books/97/06/15/reviews/spielberg-turns40.html) . [New York Times](The)(The New York Times), October 1, 2008. Retrieved: September 17, 2008. The film received positive reviews, with praise towards Bale's performance, the cinematography, the visuals, Williams' score and Spielberg's direction. However, the film was not initially a commercial success, earning only $22 million at the US box office, although it eventually more than recouped its budget through revenues in foreign markets, home video, and television. ## Plot Amid [invasion of China](Japan's)(Second Sino-Japanese War) during [War II](World)(World War II), Jamie "Jim" Graham is a British [middle class](upper)(upper middle class) schoolboy enjoying a privileged life in the [International Settlement](Shanghai)(Shanghai International Settlement). After the [on Pearl Harbor](attack)(attack on Pearl Harbor), Japan begins occupying the settlement. As the Graham family evacuate the city, Jamie is separated from his parents in the ensuing chaos. Jamie makes his way back to their house, assuming they will return. After a length of time alone and having eaten the little remaining food, he ventures back into the city. Hungry, Jamie tries surrendering to Japanese soldiers, who ignore him. After being chased by a street [urchin](Street children), he is taken in by two American [expatriate](expatriate)s and [hustlers](Con man), Basie and Frank. Unable to sell Jamie for money, they intend to abandon him in the streets, but Jamie offers to lead them to his [neighbourhood](neighbourhood) to [loot](looting) the empty houses there. Jamie is surprised to see lights on in his family home and thinks his parents have returned, only to discover it is occupied by Japanese troops. The trio are taken prisoner, transported to the [Civilian Assembly Centre](Lunghua)(Lunghua Civilian Assembly Centre) in Shanghai for processing, and ultimately sent to an [camp](internment)(internment camp) in [Suzhou](Suzhou). It is now 1945, nearing the end of the [War](Pacific)(Pacific War) and WW2. Despite the terror and poor living conditions of the camp, Jim survives by establishing a successful trading network—which even involves the camp's commander, Sergeant Nagata. Dr Rawlins, the camp's British doctor, becomes a father figure and teacher to Jim. Jim also visits Basie in the American POW barracks, where he idolises the Americans and their culture. One night after a bombing raid, Nagata orders the destruction of the prisoners' infirmary as a reprisal, but stops when Jim eloquently begs forgiveness. Through the barbed wire fencing Jim befriends a Japanese teenager who is a trainee pilot. One morning, at dawn, the base is suddenly attacked by a group of American [Mustang](P-51)(North American P-51 Mustang) fighter aircraft. Jim is overjoyed and climbs the ruins of a nearby pagoda to better watch the action. Dr Rawlins chases Jim up the pagoda to save him, whereupon the boy breaks down in tears—saying he cannot remember what his parents look like. Dr. Rawlins comforts Jim and carries him down from the pagoda. As a result of the attack the Japanese decide to evacuate the camp. Basie escapes during the confusion. As they leave, Jim's trainee pilot friend goes through the ritual kamikaze preparation and attempts to take off in a Japanese attack plane. The trainee is devastated when the engine sputters and dies. The camp prisoners march through the wilderness, where many die from fatigue, starvation and disease. Arriving at a football stadium near [Nantao](Nantao), where many of the Shanghai inhabitants' possessions have been stored by the Japanese, Jim recognises his parents' [Packard](Packard) car. He spends the night there with Mrs. Victor, a fellow prisoner who dies shortly thereafter, and later witnesses flashes from the [bombing of Nagasaki](atomic)(Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki) hundreds of miles away. Jim wanders back to the Suzhou camp. Along the way he hears news of [surrender](Japan's)(Surrender of Japan) and the war's end. He is reunited with the now-disillusioned Japanese teenager, who remembers Jim and offers him a mango, drawing his [guntō](guntō) to cut it. Basie re-appears with a group of armed Americans to loot the [Cross](Red)(Red Cross) containers being airdropped over the area. One of the Americans, thinking Jim is in danger, shoots and kills the Japanese youth. Basie offers to help Jim find his parents but Jim—infuriated over his friend's death—chooses to stay behind. Jim is eventually found by American soldiers and placed in an orphanage, where he is reunited with his mother and father, though he does not recognise them at first. ## Cast [[File:Ch Bale 02.jpg\|180px\|[Bale](Christian)(Christian Bale), pictured here in 1988, played Jamie "Jim" Graham.\|thumb\|right]] Author [G. Ballard](J.)(J. G. Ballard) makes a cameo appearance as a house party guest. ## Production ### Development [Bros.](Warner)(Warner Bros.) purchased the [rights](film)(film rights), intending [Becker](Harold)(Harold Becker) to direct and [Shapiro](Robert)(Robert Shapiro (filmmaker)) to produce. [Stoppard](Tom)(Tom Stoppard) wrote the first draft of the screenplay, on which Ballard briefly collaborated. Becker dropped out, and [Lean](David)(David Lean) came to direct with Spielberg as producer. Lean explained, "I worked on it for about a year and in the end I gave it up because I thought it was too similar to a [diary](diary). It was well-written and interesting, but I gave it to Steve."[1997](McBride)(#refMcBride1997), p. 392. Spielberg felt "from the moment I read [G. Ballard](J.)(J. G. Ballard)'s novel I secretly wanted to direct myself." Spielberg found the project to be very personal. As a child, his favourite film was Lean's [Bridge on the River Kwai](The)(The Bridge on the River Kwai), which similarly takes place in a Japanese prisoner of war camp. Spielberg's fascination with World War II and [aircraft of that era](the)(List of aircraft of World War II) was stimulated by his father's stories of his experience as a [operator](radio)(radioman) on [American B-25 Mitchell](North)(North American B-25 Mitchell) bombers in the [Theater](China-Burma)(China Burma India Theatre of World War II). Spielberg hired [Meyjes](Menno)(Menno Meyjes) to do an uncredited re-write before Stoppard was brought back to write the [script](shooting)(shooting script). ### Casting J.G. Ballard felt Bale had a physical resemblance to himself at the same age. The actor was 12 years old when he was cast. [Irving](Amy)(Amy Irving), Bale's co-star in the [movie](television)(television movie) [The Mystery of Anna](Anastasia:)(Anastasia: The Mystery of Anna), recommended Bale to her then-husband, Steven Spielberg, for the role. More than 4,000 child actors auditioned.Wills, Dominic. ["Christian Bale Biography"](http://www.tiscali.co.uk/entertainment/film/biographies/christian_bale_biog.html) . [Tiscali](Tiscali). Retrieved: September 16, 2008. Jim's singing voice was provided by English performer James Rainbird.Bullock, Paul. ["Spielberg Questions #4: Did Christian Bale sing in Empire of the Sun?"](http://fromdirectorstevenspielberg.tumblr.com/post/140508311575/steven-spielberg-questions-4-did-christian-bale-sing-in) . From Director Steven Spielberg. Retrieved: March 5th 2016. ### Filming Empire of the Sun was filmed at [Studios](Elstree)(Elstree Studios (Shenley Road)) in the United Kingdom, and [location](on)(filming location) in [Shanghai](Shanghai) and [Spain](Spain). [photography](Principal)(Principal photography) began on 1 March 1987, and lasted for 16 weeks. The filmmakers searched across Asia in an attempt to find locations that resembled 1941 Shanghai. They entered negotiations with [Film Studio](Shanghai)(Shanghai Film Studio)s and [Film Co-Production Corporation](China)(China Film Group Corporation#China Film Co-Production Corporation) in 1985. After a year of negotiations, permission was granted for a three-week shoot in early March 1987. It was the first American film shot in Shanghai since the 1940s. The Chinese authorities allowed the crew to alter signs to [Chinese characters](traditional)(traditional Chinese characters), as well as closing down city blocks for filming. Over 5,000 local [extras](Extra (actor)) were used, some old enough to remember the [occupation of Shanghai](Japanese)(Second Sino-Japanese War) 40 years earlier. Members of the [Liberation Army](People's)(People's Liberation Army) played Japanese soldiers. Other locations included [Trebujena](Trebujena) in [Andalusia](Andalusia), [Knutsford](Knutsford) in [Cheshire](Cheshire) and [Sunningdale](Sunningdale) in [Berkshire](Berkshire).[1988](Walker)(#refWalker1998), p. 49. Lean often visited the set during the England shoot.[1997](McBride)(#refMcBride1997), pp. 394–398. Spielberg attempted to portray the era accurately, using period vehicles and aircraft. Four [SNJ](Harvard)(North American T-6 Texan) aircraft were lightly modified in France to resemble [A6M Zero](Mitsubishi)(Mitsubishi A6M Zero) aircraft. Two additional non-flying replicas were used. Three restored [Mustang](P-51D)(P-51D Mustang)s, two from 'The Fighter Collection' of England, and one from the 'Old Flying Machine Company', were flown in the film. These P-51s were flown by [Hanna](Ray)(Ray Hanna) (who was featured in the film flying at low-level past the child star with the canopy back, waving), his son Mark and "Hoof" Proudfoot and took over 10 days of filming to complete due to the complexity of the planned aerial sequences, which included the P-51s actually dropping plaster-filled replica 500 lb bombs at low level, with simulated bomb blasts. A number of large scale remote control flying models were also used, including an 18-foot wingspan [B-29](B-29), but Spielberg felt the results were disappointing, so he extended the film contract with the full-size examples and pilots on set in Trebujena, Spain. J.G. Ballard makes a [appearance](cameo)(cameo appearance) at the [party](costume)(costume party) scene.[Martin](Sheen,)(Martin Sheen) (narrator), Steven Spielberg, J.G. Ballard, and Christian Bale. The China Odyssey: Empire of the Sun [Broadcasting Company](American)(American Broadcasting Company), 1987. Spielberg had wanted to film in [Panavision 70](Super)(Super Panavision 70) but did not want to work with the old camera equipment that was only available at the time. ### Special effects [Light & Magic](Industrial)(Industrial Light & Magic) designed the [effects](visual)(visual effects) sequences with some [imagery](computer-generated)(computer-generated imagery) also used for the atomic bombing of Nagasaki. [Reynolds](Norman)(Norman Reynolds) was hired as the [designer](production)(production designer) while [Armstrong](Vic)(Vic Armstrong) served as the [co-ordinator](stunt)(stunt co-ordinator).[1988](Walker)(#refWalker1998), pp. 63–65. ## Reception Empire of the Sun was given a [release](limited)(limited release) on 11 December 1987 before being widely released on Christmas Day, 1987. The film earned $22.24 million in North America,[" Empire of the Sun"](http://www.boxofficemojo.com/movies/?id=empireofthesun.htm) . [Office Mojo](Box)(Box Office Mojo) ([Amazon.com](Amazon.com)). Retrieved: September 16, 2008. and $44.46 million in other countries, accumulating a worldwide total of $66.7 million, earning more than its budget but still considered a box office disappointment by Spielberg. ### Critical response Review aggregation website [Tomatoes](Rotten)(Rotten Tomatoes) gives the film an approval rating of 77% based on reviews from 61 critics, with an average rating of 6.9/10. The site's critical consensus reads, "One of Steven Spielberg's most ambitious efforts of the 1980s, Empire of the Sun remains an under-rated gem in the director's distinguished filmography." [Metacritic](Metacritic) calculated an average score of 62 out of 100 based on 22 reviews, indicating "generally favorable reviews". Audiences polled by [CinemaScore](CinemaScore) gave the film an average grade of "B+" on an A+ to F scale. [G. Ballard](J.)(J. G. Ballard) gave positive feedback, and was especially impressed with Christian Bale's performance. Critical reaction was not universally affirmative, but [Corliss](Richard)(Richard Corliss) of [Time](Time (magazine)) stated that Spielberg "has energized each frame with allusive legerdemain and an intelligent density of images and emotions". [Maslin](Janet)(Janet Maslin) from [New York Times](The)(The New York Times) said Spielberg's movie-conscious spirit gave it "a visual splendor, a heroic adventurousness and an immense scope that make it unforgettable".[Janet](Maislin,)(Janet Maslin). ["Empire of the Sun"](https://www.nytimes.com/1987/12/09/movies/moviesspecial/09SUN.html) . [New York Times](The)(The New York Times), December 9, 1987. Retrieved: September 16, 2008. Julie Salamon of [Wall Street Journal](The)(The Wall Street Journal) wrote that the film was "an edgy, intelligent script by playwright [Stoppard](Tom)(Tom Stoppard), Spielberg has made an extraordinary film out of Mr. Ballard's extraordinary war experience."Salmon, Julie. ["Empire of the Sun"](http://www.metacritic.com/movie/empire-of-the-sun/critic-reviews) . [Wall Street Journal](The)(The Wall Street Journal), December 9, 1987. Retrieved: January 31, 2011. J. Hoberman from [Village Voice](The)(The Village Voice) decried that the serious subject was undermined by Spielberg's "shamelessly kiddiecentric" approach. [Ebert](Roger)(Roger Ebert) gave a mixed reaction, "Despite the emotional potential in the story, it didn't much move me. Maybe, like the kid, I decided that no world where you can play with airplanes can be all that bad."[Roger](Ebert,)(Roger Ebert). ["Empire of the Sun"](http://rogerebert.suntimes.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=/19871211/REVIEWS/712110301/1023). [Sun-Times](Chicago)(Chicago Sun-Times), December 11, 1987. Retrieved: September 16, 2008. On his [show](TV)(At the Movies (1986 TV program)) with [Siskel](Gene)(Gene Siskel), Ebert said that the film "is basically a good idea for a film that never gets off the ground". Siskel added, "I don't know what the film is about. It's so totally confused and taking things from different parts. On one hand, if it wants to say something about a child's-eye view of war, you got a movie made by [Boorman](John)(John Boorman) called [and Glory](Hope)(Hope and Glory (film)) that was just released that is much better, and much more daring in showing the whimsy that children's view of war is. On the other hand, this film wants to hedge its bet and make it like an adventure film, so you've got like [Jones](Indiana)(Indiana Jones) with the John Malkovich character helping the little kid through all the fun of war. I don't know what Spielberg wanted to do."["Empire of the Sun"](http://www.retrojunk.com/content/movie/15/index/). Siskel & Ebert. Disney-ABC Domestic Television. December 12, 1987. Television. ### Awards [[File:Suo Gan - Susan Bullock (Darlun Fy Mam).oga\|thumb\|The opening song is an old [Welsh](Wales) folk song: [Gân](Suo)(Suo Gân) or Huna Blentyn ([Eng](English language): 'Sleep My Child'); here sung by Susan Bullock.]] The film won awards from the [Board of Review of Motion Pictures](National)(National Board of Review of Motion Pictures) for [Film](Best)(National Board of Review Award for Best Film) and [Director](Best)(National Board of Review Award for Best Director), and Bale received a special citation for Best Performance by a Juvenile Actor, the first National Board award bestowed on a child actor. ["National Board of Review 1987 Award Winners"](http://www.nationalboardofreview.org/award-years/1987/) . National Board of Review. Retrieved: October 21, 2016. At the [Academy Awards](60th)(60th Academy Awards), Empire of the Sun was nominated for [Direction](Art)(Academy Award for Best Production Design), [Cinematography](Academy Award for Best Cinematography), [Design](Costume)(Academy Award for Best Costume Design) ([Ringwood](Bob)(Bob Ringwood)), [Editing](Film)(Academy Award for Best Film Editing), [Music Score](Original)(Academy Award for Best Original Score), and [Sound](Academy Award for Best Sound) ([Knudson](Robert)(Robert Knudson), [Digirolamo](Don)(Don Digirolamo), [Boyd](John)(John Boyd (sound engineer)) and [Dawe](Tony)(Tony Dawe)). It did not convert any of the nominations into awards.["Nominees & Winners for the 60th Academy Awards"](http://www.oscars.org/awards/academyawards/oscarlegacy/1980-1989/60nominees.html) [of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences](Academy)(Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences). Retrieved: January 31, 2011. [Daviau](Allen)(Allen Daviau), who was nominated as cinematographer, publicly complained, "I can't second-guess the Academy, but I feel very sorry that I get nominations and Steven doesn't. It's his vision that makes it all come together, and if Steven wasn't making these films, none of us would be here." The film won awards for cinematography, sound design, and music score at the [British Academy Film Awards](42nd)(42nd British Academy Film Awards). The nominations included [design](production)(Production designer), [design](costume)(costume design), and [screenplay](adapted)(film adaptation).["42nd British Academy Awards"](https://www.imdb.com/Sections/Awards/BAFTA_Awards/1989) . [IMDb](IMDb). Retrieved: September 17, 2008. Spielberg was honored for this work by the [Guild of America](Directors)(Directors Guild of America),["DGA Awards: 1988"](https://www.imdb.com/Sections/Awards/Directors_Guild_of_America_USA/1988) . [IMDb](IMDb). Retrieved: September 17, 2008. while the [Society of Cinematographers](American)(American Society of Cinematographers) honored [Daviau](Allen)(Allen Daviau).["ASC Awards: 1988"](https://www.imdb.com/Sections/Awards/American_Society_of_Cinematographers_USA/1988) . [IMDb](IMDb). Retrieved: September 17, 2008. Empire of the Sun was nominated for [Motion Picture (Drama)](Best)(Golden Globe Award for Best Motion Picture – Drama) and [Score](Original)(Golden Globe Award for Best Original Score) at the [Golden Globe Awards](45th)(45th Golden Globe Awards).["The 45th Annual Golden Globe Awards (1988)"](http://www.goldenglobes.org/browse/year/1987) . [Globes](Golden)(Golden Globes). Retrieved: January 31, 2011. John Williams earned a [Award](Grammy)(Grammy Award) nomination.["Grammy Awards: 1988"](https://www.imdb.com/Sections/Awards/Grammy_Awards/1989) . [IMDb](IMDb). Retrieved: September 17, 2008. ## Themes Jim's growing alienation from his pre-war self and society is reflected in his hero-worship of the Japanese aviators based at the airfield adjoining the camp. "I think it's true that the Japanese were pretty brutal with the Chinese, so I don't have any particularly sentimental view of them," Ballard recalled. "But small boys tend to find their heroes where they can. One thing there was no doubt about, and that was that the Japanese were extremely brave. One had very complicated views about patriotism [and] loyalty to one's own nation. Jim is constantly identifying himself, first with the Japanese; then, when the Americans start flying over in their [Mustangs](North American P-51 Mustang) and [B-29s](Boeing B-29 Superfortress), he's very drawn to the American." The apocalyptic wartime setting and the [climactic](climax (narrative)) moment when Jim sees the distant white flash of the [bombing of Nagasaki](atomic)(Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki) gave Spielberg powerful visual metaphors "to draw a parallel story between the death of this boy's innocence and the death of the innocence of the entire world".[1997](McBride)(#refMcBride1997), p. 393. Spielberg reflected he "was attracted to the idea that this was a death of innocence, not an [attenuation](attenuation) of childhood, which by my own admission and everybody's impression of me is what my life has been. This was the opposite of [Pan](Peter)(Peter Pan). This was a boy who had grown up too quickly." Other topics that Spielberg previously dealt with, and are presented in Empire of the Sun, include a child being separated from his parents ([Sugarland Express](The)(The Sugarland Express), [the Extra-Terrestrial](E.T.)(E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial), [Encounters of the Third Kind](Close)(Close Encounters of the Third Kind), [Color Purple](The)(The Color Purple (1985 film)), and [Poltergeist](Poltergeist (1982 film))) and World War II ([1941](1941 (film)), and [of the Lost Ark](Raiders)(Raiders of the Lost Ark)).[2008](Kowalski)(#refKowalski2008), pp. 35, 67. Spielberg explained "My parents got a divorce when I was 14, 15. The whole thing about separation is something that runs very deep in anyone exposed to divorce." ## In popular culture The dramatic attack on the Japanese prisoner of war camp carried out by P-51 Mustangs is accompanied by Jim's whoops of "...the Cadillac of the skies!", a phrase believed to be first used in Ballard's text as "Cadillac of air combat".[1984](Ballard)(#refBallard1984), p. 151. Steven Bull quotes the catchwords in the Encyclopedia of Military Technology and Innovation (2004) as originating in 1941.[2004](Bull)(#refBull2004), p. 184. John Williams' soundtrack includes "Cadillac of the Skies" as an individual score cue. Ben Stiller conceived the idea for [Thunder](Tropic)(Tropic Thunder) while performing in Empire of the Sun.Vary, Adam B. ["First Look: Tropic Thunder"](http://www.ew.com/ew/article/0,,20182058,00.html) . [Weekly](Entertainment)(Entertainment Weekly), March 5, 2008. Retrieved: May 27, 2008. ## See also * [of the Sun* (soundtrack)](Empire)(Empire of the Sun (soundtrack)) ## Notes ## References ## Sources * * * * * * * * * ## External links * [Official Website](https://www.warnerbros.com/movies/empire-sun/) * * * * * * * [films](Category:1987)(Category:1987 films) [drama films](Category:1987)(Category:1987 drama films) [war films](Category:1980s)(Category:1980s war films) [aviation films](Category:American)(Category:American aviation films) [coming-of-age films](Category:American)(Category:American coming-of-age films) [war drama films](Category:American)(Category:American war drama films) [war epic films](Category:American)(Category:American war epic films) [shot at EMI-Elstree Studios](Category:Films)(Category:Films shot at EMI-Elstree Studios) [scored by John Williams](Category:Films)(Category:Films scored by John Williams) [based on British novels](Category:Films)(Category:Films based on British novels) [directed by Steven Spielberg](Category:Films)(Category:Films directed by Steven Spielberg) [produced by Kathleen Kennedy](Category:Films)(Category:Films produced by Kathleen Kennedy) [produced by Frank Marshall](Category:Films)(Category:Films produced by Frank Marshall) [produced by Steven Spielberg](Category:Films)(Category:Films produced by Steven Spielberg) [set in the 1940s](Category:Films)(Category:Films set in the 1940s) [set in Shanghai](Category:Films)(Category:Films set in Shanghai) [shot in Berkshire](Category:Films)(Category:Films shot in Berkshire) [shot in Cheshire](Category:Films)(Category:Films shot in Cheshire) [shot in Hertfordshire](Category:Films)(Category:Films shot in Hertfordshire) [shot in Shanghai](Category:Films)(Category:Films shot in Shanghai) [shot in Spain](Category:Films)(Category:Films shot in Spain) [War films](Category:Pacific)(Category:Pacific War films) [with screenplays by Tom Stoppard](Category:Films)(Category:Films with screenplays by Tom Stoppard) [Sino-Japanese War films](Category:Second)(Category:Second Sino-Japanese War films) [Bros. films](Category:Warner)(Category:Warner Bros. films) [War II prisoner of war films](Category:World)(Category:World War II prisoner of war films) [International Settlement](Category:Shanghai)(Category:Shanghai International Settlement) [based on works by J. G. Ballard](Category:Films)(Category:Films based on works by J. G. Ballard) [in non-Japanese culture](Category:Japan)(Category:Japan in non-Japanese culture) [shot in Bedfordshire](Category:Films)(Category:Films shot in Bedfordshire) [American films](Category:1980s)(Category:1980s American films)
Miles Teller	miles_teller	# Miles Teller Revision ID: 1159837845 \| Timestamp: 2023-06-12T21:15:25Z --- \| birth_place = [Pennsylvania](Pennsylvania), U.S. \| alma_mater = [York University](New)(New York University) ([BFA](Bachelor of Fine Arts)) \| spouse = \| occupation = Actor \| years_active = 2004–present }} Miles Teller (born February 20, 1987) is an American actor. He made his feature film debut with the independent drama [Hole](Rabbit)(Rabbit Hole (2010 film)) (2010), and gained recognition for his starring role in the coming-of-age film [Spectacular Now](The)(The Spectacular Now) (2013) and the [film trilogy](Divergent)(The Divergent Series) (2014–2016), both opposite [Woodley](Shailene)(Shailene Woodley). His starring role in the drama [Whiplash](Whiplash (2014 film)) (2014) served as his breakthrough and earned him praise. He went on to star in the superhero film [Four](Fantastic)(Fantastic Four (2015 film)) (2015) and the biographical film [Dogs](War)(War Dogs (2016 film)) (2016). Teller gained wider success for starring in the action film [Gun: Maverick](Top)(Top Gun: Maverick) (2022). On television, he has starred in the [Prime Video](Amazon)(Amazon Prime Video) crime drama [Old to Die Young](Too)(Too Old to Die Young) (2019) and the [Paramount+](Paramount+) miniseries [Offer](The)(The Offer) (2022). ## Early life Teller was born in [Pennsylvania](Pennsylvania) to parents Merry, a real estate agent, and Michael, a nuclear power plant engineer. He has two older sisters, Erin and Dana. His paternal grandfather was of [Russian-Jewish](Russian-Jewish) descent, and his ancestry also includes [English](English-American) and [Irish](Irish-American) forebears. Teller spent his early years in [Pennsylvania](Pennsylvania) and [Delaware](Delaware) before his family moved to [County, Florida](Citrus)(Citrus County, Florida), at age twelve. Growing up, he was involved with acting, was president of his high school's drama club, and played alto saxophone, drums, piano and guitar. He also played baseball competitively and had dreams of turning professional. He graduated from [High School](Lecanto)(Lecanto High School) in [Florida](Lecanto,)(Lecanto, Florida). Subsequently, he attended the [York University Tisch School of the Arts](New)(New York University Tisch School of the Arts); there, he studied [acting](method)(method acting) at the [Strasberg Theatre and Film Institute](Lee)(Lee Strasberg Theatre and Film Institute) and screen acting with Stonestreet Studios. He earned a [BFA](Bachelor of Fine Arts) in drama in 2009. In 2007, Teller was a passenger in a car that lost control at and flipped eight times. He has multiple scars on his face from the crash. ## Career [[File:Miles Teller by Gage Skidmore.jpg\|thumb\|upright\|Teller at the 2015 [Diego Comic-Con](San)(San Diego Comic-Con)]] [[Teller March 18, 2014 (cropped).jpg\|thumb\|upright\|Teller at the film premiere of Divergent in March 2014](File:Miles)] Teller appeared in many short films between 2004 and 2010. After graduating from [School of the Arts](Tisch)(Tisch School of the Arts) in 2009, he made his major film debut in [Hole](Rabbit)(Rabbit Hole (2010 film)) (2010), after [Kidman](Nicole)(Nicole Kidman) handpicked him for the role.Yamato, Jen (November 8, 2010). [Miles Teller on Rabbit Hole, Nicole Kidman and Cutting Footloose.](http://www.movieline.com/2010/11/miles-teller-on-diving-into-rabbit-hole-with-nicole-kidman-and-cutting-footloose.php) [Movieline](Movieline) Teller starred in the stage musical [Footloose](Footloose (musical)) in high school, and later starred in the 2011 remake film of the [name](same)(Footloose (2011 film)).Durbin, Jonathan (2011). [Miles Teller.](http://www.interviewmagazine.com/film/miles-teller/) [Interview](Interview (magazine)) In 2013, he starred in [& Over](21)(21 & Over (film))Weinstein, Joshua L. (May 26, 2011). [Miles Teller Joins Relativity's '21 and Over.'](https://www.thewrap.com/movies/column-post/miles-teller-enters-hangover-territory-27760) [Wrap](The)(The Wrap) and [Spectacular Now](The)(The Spectacular Now), opposite [Woodley](Shailene)(Shailene Woodley). In [Chazelle](Damien)(Damien Chazelle)'s second film [Whiplash](Whiplash (2014 film)) (2014), Teller played a drummer who tries to impress his abusive jazz teacher ([K. Simmons](J.)(J. K. Simmons)), which earned him nominations for the [Independent Film Award for Best Actor](Gotham)(Gotham Awards), the [Award for Best Actor – Motion Picture](Satellite)(Satellite Award for Best Actor – Motion Picture) and the [Rising Star Award](BAFTA)(BAFTA Rising Star Award). Teller received further recognition for playing [Hayes](Peter)(List of Divergent characters#Peter Hayes) in [Divergent](Divergent (film)) (2014), and the film's sequels, [Insurgent](The Divergent Series: Insurgent) (2015) and [Allegiant](The Divergent Series: Allegiant) (2016). He has also played [Fantastic](Mister)(Mister Fantastic) in the reboot film [Four](Fantastic)(Fantastic Four (2015 film)) (2015) and arms dealer [Packouz](David)(David Packouz) in [Dogs](War)(War Dogs (2016 film)) (2016). He trained for 5 months to get in shape for the role of biopic boxer [Paz](Vinny)(Vinny Paz) in film [for This](Bleed)(Bleed for This) (2016). In 2017, he starred in two biopic films, [the Brave](Only)(Only the Brave (2017 film)) and [You for Your Service](Thank)(Thank You for Your Service (2017 film)). In November 2020, it was announced that Teller will star in a political satire called The Fence. In September 2021, it was reported that filming on [Offer](The)(The Offer), the [Paramount+](Paramount+) miniseries about the production of the film [Godfather](The)(The Godfather) in which Teller plays producer [S. Ruddy](Albert)(Albert S. Ruddy), was temporarily halted due to COVID concerns. The miniseries ran from April to June 2022. In November 2021, he appeared in [Swift](Taylor)(Taylor Swift)'s music video "[Bet You Think About Me](I)(I Bet You Think About Me)" directed by [Lively](Blake)(Blake Lively). In 2022, he starred in [Gun: Maverick](Top)(Top Gun: Maverick). He was initially hesitant to accept the role, as he was wary of the potential success and attention he would receive from starring in a major film alongside [Cruise](Tom)(Tom Cruise). He was convinced to accept it by Cruise himself, who persuaded him that he was perfect for the role. In May 2022, Miles Teller stated that he had been [pitching](Pitch (filmmaking)) a follow-up film centered around his character to the studio. The actor referred to his pitch as Top Gun: Rooster. By July of the same year, he stated that he has been having ongoing discussions regarding a sequel with Tom Cruise. In regard to the popularity and support, Teller said that the experience has "been awesome" and that "I've never really experienced something like this in my life." Teller made his hosting debut on the opener of the 48th season of [Night Live](Saturday)(Saturday Night Live) in 2022, and during the [Bowl LVII](Super)(Super Bowl LVII) telecast in 2023, Teller, his wife, and their dog starred in a commercial for [Light](Bud)(Bud Light) in which they pass the time while waiting for a customer service representative to speak to them, dancing to the [music](on-hold)(Music on hold). ## Personal life [[Teller Deauville 2014.jpg\|alt=Miles Teller in 2014\|thumb\|upright\|Teller in 2014](File:Miles)] Since 2013, he has been in a relationship with model Keleigh Sperry. They were engaged at the Molori Safari Lodge in the [Game Reserve](Madikwe)(Madikwe Game Reserve), [Africa](South)(South Africa), on August 20, 2017, and were married on September 1, 2019, in [Maui](Maui), [Hawaii](Hawaii). In 2021, he was allegedly punched in the face by his wedding planner's husband, who claimed that he and Sperry owed $60,000 from their nuptials. ## Filmography ### Film ### Television ### Short films ### Music video ## Awards and nominations ## References ## External links * * * [births](Category:1987)(Category:1987 births) [American male actors](Category:21st-century)(Category:21st-century American male actors) [male film actors](Category:American)(Category:American male film actors) [male television actors](Category:American)(Category:American male television actors) [people of English descent](Category:American)(Category:American people of English descent) [people of Irish descent](Category:American)(Category:American people of Irish descent) [people of Polish descent](Category:American)(Category:American people of Polish descent) [people of Russian-Jewish descent](Category:American)(Category:American people of Russian-Jewish descent) [Strasberg Theatre and Film Institute alumni](Category:Lee)(Category:Lee Strasberg Theatre and Film Institute alumni) [people](Category:Living)(Category:Living people) [actors from Pennsylvania](Category:Male)(Category:Male actors from Pennsylvania) [from Citrus County, Florida](Category:People)(Category:People from Citrus County, Florida) [from Downingtown, Pennsylvania](Category:People)(Category:People from Downingtown, Pennsylvania) [School of the Arts alumni](Category:Tisch)(Category:Tisch School of the Arts alumni)
Mark Rober	mark_rober	# Mark Rober Revision ID: 1159633501 \| Timestamp: 2023-06-11T15:15:39Z --- \| nationality = American \| alma_mater = \| occupation = \| known_for = \| children = 1 \| module = \| views = 3.5 billion \| network = \| associated_acts = \| silver_button = yes \| silver_year = 2014 \| gold_button = yes \| gold_year = 2016 \| diamond_button = yes \| diamond_year = 2019 \| stats_update = June 11, 2023 }} }} Mark Rober (born ) is an American [YouTuber](YouTuber), engineer, inventor, and educator. He is known for his YouTube videos on [science](popular)(popular science) and [do-it-yourself](do it yourself) [gadget](gadget)s. Before he became a YouTuber, Rober was an engineer with [NASA](NASA) for nine years, where he spent seven years working on the [rover](Curiosity)(Curiosity (rover)) at NASA's [Propulsion Laboratory](Jet)(Jet Propulsion Laboratory). He later worked for four years at [Inc.](Apple)(Apple Inc.) as a product designer in their Special Projects Group, where he authored patents involving virtual reality in self-driving cars. ## Early life and education Rober was raised in [California](Brea,)(Brea, California), the youngest of three siblings. He graduated from [Olinda High School](Brea)(Brea Olinda High School) in 1998. He became interested in engineering at a young age, making a pair of goggles that helped avoid [while cutting onions](tears)(Onion#Eye irritation). Rober earned a mechanical engineering degree from [Young University](Brigham)(Brigham Young University) as well as a master's degree from the [of Southern California](University)(University of Southern California). ## Career ### Early career (NASA) Rober joined [NASA](NASA)'s [Propulsion Laboratory](Jet)(Jet Propulsion Laboratory) (JPL) in 2004. He worked there for nine years, seven of which were spent working on the [rover](Curiosity)(Curiosity (rover)), which is now on [Mars](Mars). He designed and delivered hardware on several JPL missions, including AMT, [GRAIL](Gravity Recovery and Interior Laboratory), [SMAP](Soil Moisture Active Passive), and [Science Laboratory](Mars)(Mars Science Laboratory). While at NASA, Rober was one of the primary architects for "JPL Wired", which was a comprehensive knowledge capture [wiki](wiki). He published a case study about applying wiki technology in a high-tech organization to develop an "Intrapedia" for the capture of corporate knowledge. ### YouTube channel, science communication While at NASA, Rober began making viral videos. His videos cover a wide variety of topics, sparking ideas for [Fools' Day](April)(April Fools' Day) pranks and teaching about beating an [room](escape)(escape room) and filming primates in zoos non-invasively. He also advocates for science in many of his videos. In October 2011, Rober recorded his first YouTube video. It shows a [Halloween](Halloween) costume that used two [iPad](iPad)s to create the illusion of seeing through his body. His video of the "gaping hole in torso" costume went [viral](viral video), receiving 1.5 million views in one day. The following year, Rober launched Digital Dudz, an online Halloween costume company that specializes in Halloween costumes based on the same concept as the video (to which Rober holds the patent). The company took in $250,000 in revenue in its first three weeks of operations, and by 2013 his app-integrated costumes were sold in retail stores such as [City](Party)(Party City). The costumes were widely featured on news channels such as [News](CBS)(CBS News), [CNN](CNN), [Tonight Show with Jay Leno](The)(The Tonight Show with Jay Leno), [Fox](Fox Broadcasting Company), [News](Yahoo!)(Yahoo! News), [Channel](Discovery)(Discovery Channel), [Today Show](The)(Today (U.S. TV program)) and [GMA](Good Morning America). He sold the company to UK-based costume company [Morphsuits](Morphsuits) in 2013. In December 2018, Rober posted a video showing how he tricked [thieves](parcel)(Mail robbery) with an engineered contraption that sprayed glitter on the thieves, emitted a foul odor, and captured video of the thieves. The video went viral, receiving 25 million views in one day. Rober later removed two of the five incidents caught on tape after discovering that two of the thieves were actually friends of a person he hired to help catch the package thieves. Rober posted a follow-up in December 2019, teaming up with [Culkin](Macaulay)(Macaulay Culkin) and featuring an improved design. Rober would post another follow up a year later with a third edition of the bomb. While designing it, Rober collaborated with [Browning](Jim)(Jim Browning (YouTuber)), [Payback](Scammer)(Scammer Payback), and various state and federal authorities to use the glitter-bomb bait package as a tactic to track and arrest [mule](money)(money mule)s and their supervisors, who were working with [scamming](Scammers) [centers](call)(call centers) in India to rob elderly people of thousands of dollars. This was in conjunction with a multi-Youtuber movement to get back at and shut down scam callers, while raising awareness to prevent other people from being scammed. The videos resulted in the shutdown of these call centers and the arrest of 15 senior officials involved in the scams. In 2021, Rober released the video Backyard Squirrel Maze, showing a backyard obstacle course he built to deter squirrels from stealing food from his bird feeders. He released a follow-up video of an updated obstacle course a year later. By August 2022, the original video had 96.2 million views; the second video, 61.4 million. Rober has contributed articles to ''[Health](Men's)(Men's Health)'', and gave a [TEDx](TED (conference)#TEDx) presentation in 2015 How to Come Up with Good Ideas and another one entitled The Super Mario Effect – Tricking Your Brain into Learning More. Mark Rober TEDxPenn\|date=May 31, 2018\|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9vJRopau0g0\|access-date=October 29, 2018\|archive-date=October 29, 2018\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181029004224/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9vJRopau0g0\|url-status=live}} He has also made numerous appearances on [Kimmel Live!](Jimmy)(Jimmy Kimmel Live!), including guest-hosting the show in July 2022. In 2018, it was reported that Rober had been secretly working on virtual reality projects for [Inc.](Apple)(Apple Inc.), including the company's on-board entertainment for self-driving cars, for which Rober wrote two virtual reality-related patents. Rober worked as a product designer in Apple's Special Projects Group from 2015 to early 2020. In 2020, Rober was to star in a [Channel](Discovery)(Discovery Channel) hidden-camera show Revengineers alongside [Kimmel](Jimmy)(Jimmy Kimmel). In October 2019, [MrBeast](MrBeast) and Rober released a project labeled [#TeamTrees](Team Trees), after a tweet that suggested that MrBeast should plant 20 million trees. MrBeast and Rober worked with YouTubers across the globe in an effort to make this come true. The goal of this project was to raise $20,000,000 for the [Day Foundation](Arbor)(Arbor Day Foundation) by 2020, and in exchange, the Arbor Day Foundation would plant one tree for each dollar raised. In 2021, he founded [#TeamSeas](Team Seas) with MrBeast, which raised $33 million to clean up [beach](beach)es and [sea](sea)s, along with removing one pound of trash for each dollar donated, with help from [Ocean Cleanup](The)(The Ocean Cleanup). ## Personal life Rober moved to [California](Sunnyvale,)(Sunnyvale, California), in 2015. Rober is an advocate for [autism](autism) awareness, as his son lives with it. In April 2021, Rober and Jimmy Kimmel hosted a live stream, raising $3 million in support of [for AUTISM](NEXT)(NEXT for AUTISM). ## Awards and nominations In 2021, the [of Engineering and Technology](Institution)(Institution of Engineering and Technology) awarded Rober a one-off prize as STEM Personality of the Year and later named him an Honorary Fellow in recognition of his contribution to the engineering profession. Rober also delivered the 2023 commencement address at [Institute of Technology](Massachusetts)(Massachusetts Institute of Technology). ## Notes ## References ## External links * [births](Category:1980s)(Category:1980s births) [people](Category:Living)(Category:Living people) [American inventors](Category:21st-century)(Category:21st-century American inventors) [mechanical engineers](Category:American)(Category:American mechanical engineers) [YouTubers](Category:American)(Category:American YouTubers) [Inc. employees](Category:Apple)(Category:Apple Inc. employees) [Young University alumni](Category:Brigham)(Category:Brigham Young University alumni) [fundraisers (people)](Category:Charity)(Category:Charity fundraisers (people)) [YouTubers](Category:DIY)(Category:DIY YouTubers) [people](Category:NASA)(Category:NASA people) [edutainment](Category:Online)(Category:Online edutainment) [from Orange County, California](Category:People)(Category:People from Orange County, California) [communicators](Category:Science)(Category:Science communicators) [of Southern California alumni](Category:University)(Category:University of Southern California alumni) [YouTube channels](Category:Education-related)(Category:Education-related YouTube channels) [Science-related YouTube channels](Category:)(Category: Science-related YouTube channels) [activists](Category:Autism)(Category:Autism activists)
Twisters _film	twisters__film	# Twisters (film) Revision ID: 1159194049 \| Timestamp: 2023-06-08T20:58:40Z --- \| producer = \| starring = \| cinematography = \| editing = \| music = \| studio = \| distributor = \| released = \| runtime = \| country = United States \| language = English \| budget = \| gross = }} *Twisters* is an upcoming American [epic](epic film) [film](disaster)(disaster film) directed by [Isaac Chung](Lee)(Lee Isaac Chung) from a screenplay by [L. Smith](Mark)(Mark L. Smith). Produced by [Marshall](Frank)(Frank Marshall (filmmaker)), it is described as a "new chapter" of the 1996 film [Twister](Twister (1996 film)) and stars [Edgar-Jones](Daisy)(Daisy Edgar-Jones), [Powell](Glen)(Glen Powell) and [Ramos](Anthony)(Anthony Ramos). The film is scheduled to be released by [Pictures](Universal)(Universal Pictures) in the United States and by [Bros. Pictures](Warner)(Warner Bros. Pictures) internationally on July 19, 2024. ## Cast * [Edgar-Jones](Daisy)(Daisy Edgar-Jones) * [Powell](Glen)(Glen Powell) * [Ramos](Anthony)(Anthony Ramos) * [Perea](Brandon)(Brandon Perea) * [McCormack](Daryl)(Daryl McCormack) * [Tierney](Maura)(Maura Tierney) * [Hadden-Paton](Harry)(Harry Hadden-Paton) * [Lane](Sasha)(Sasha Lane) * [Shipka](Kiernan)(Kiernan Shipka) * [Dodani](Nik)(Nik Dodani) * [Corenswet](David)(David Corenswet) * [Adebimpe](Tunde)(Tunde Adebimpe) * [O'Brian](Katy)(Katy O'Brian) ## Production ### Development In June 2020, a remake of [Twister](Twister (1996 film)) (1996) was announced to be in development from the original film's international distributor [Pictures](Universal)(Universal Pictures), with [Kosinski](Joseph)(Joseph Kosinski) in early negotiations to serve as director. [Marshall](Frank)(Frank Marshall (filmmaker)) and Sara Scott were set to serve as producers on the project. In June 2021, [Hunt](Helen)(Helen Hunt) expressed interest in developing a sequel to the original film. The studio rejected Hunt's plans for writing and directing it, due to her character being killed off for the sequel. In October 2022, the sequel, now titled Twisters, was announced to be in the works with a script written by [L. Smith](Mark)(Mark L. Smith), and produced by Marshall, while directors [Chin](Jimmy)(Jimmy Chin) and [Chai Vasarhelyi](Elizabeth)(Elizabeth Chai Vasarhelyi), [Trachtenberg](Dan)(Dan Trachtenberg), and [Knight](Travis)(Travis Knight) were in talks to helm the project; there was hope that Hunt would reprise her role, and it was reported that it would focus on the daughter of her and [Paxton](Bill)(Bill Paxton)'s characters. In December, [Isaac Chung](Lee)(Lee Isaac Chung) was hired to direct. It is a joint-venture production between Universal Pictures, [Bros. Pictures](Warner)(Warner Bros. Pictures), [Entertainment](Amblin)(Amblin Entertainment), and [Kennedy/Marshall Company](the)(the Kennedy/Marshall Company). ### Casting In March 2023, [Edgar-Jones](Daisy)(Daisy Edgar-Jones) joined the cast in the lead role. [Powell](Glen)(Glen Powell) and [Ramos](Anthony)(Anthony Ramos) were cast the following month. In May 2023, [Perea](Brandon)(Brandon Perea), [McCormack](Daryl)(Daryl McCormack), [Tierney](Maura)(Maura Tierney), [Lane](Sasha)(Sasha Lane), [Shipka](Kiernan)(Kiernan Shipka), and [Corenswet](David)(David Corenswet) were among those announced as new additions to the cast. ### Filming [photography](Principal)(Principal photography) commenced in [City](Oklahoma)(Oklahoma City) and [Oklahoma](Okarche,)(Okarche, Oklahoma) in May 2023 and is scheduled to [wrap](wrap (filmmaking)) in July. ## Release The film is scheduled to be released in the United States by Universal Pictures on July 19, 2024, and internationally by Warner Bros. Pictures. ## References ## External links * [films](Category:Upcoming)(Category:Upcoming films) [films](Category:2024)(Category:2024 films) [American films](Category:2020s)(Category:2020s American films) [disaster films](Category:2020s)(Category:2020s disaster films) [English-language films](Category:2020s)(Category:2020s English-language films) [Entertainment films](Category:Amblin)(Category:Amblin Entertainment films) [disaster films](Category:American)(Category:American disaster films) [about tornadoes](Category:Films)(Category:Films about tornadoes) [produced by Frank Marshall](Category:Films)(Category:Films produced by Frank Marshall) [shot in Oklahoma City](Category:Films)(Category:Films shot in Oklahoma City) [Kennedy/Marshall Company films](Category:The)(Category:The Kennedy/Marshall Company films) [Pictures films](Category:Universal)(Category:Universal Pictures films) [English-language films](Category:Upcoming)(Category:Upcoming English-language films) [Bros. films](Category:Warner)(Category:Warner Bros. films)
Steve Ditko	steve_ditko	# Steve Ditko Revision ID: 1153948287 \| Timestamp: 2023-05-09T09:22:23Z --- 1970s \| birth_name = Stephen John Ditko \| birth_date = \| birth_place = [Pennsylvania](Johnstown,)(Johnstown, Pennsylvania), U.S. \| death_date = \| death_place = [York City](New)(New York City), U.S. \| pencil = Y \| write = Y \| ink = Y \| alias = \| notable works = [Spider-Man](Spider-Man)[Strange](Doctor)(Doctor Strange)[Creeper](Creeper (comics))[and Dove](Hawk)(Hawk and Dove)[A](Mr.)(Mr. A)[Question](Question (comics))[Atom](Captain)(Captain Atom)[Beetle](Blue)(Blue Beetle (Ted Kord)) \| awards = }} Stephen John Ditko. Page contains two reproductions from school yearbooks. A 1943 Garfield Junior High School yearbook excerpt lists "Stephen Ditko". A 1945 Johnstown High School yearbook excerpt lists "Stephen J. Ditko" under extracurricular activities: "Vocational Course. Ambition: Undecided". (; November 2, 1927 – June 29, 2018) was an American [artist](comics)(comics artist) and writer best known for being co-creator of [Marvel](Marvel Comics) superhero [Spider-Man](Spider-Man) and creator of [Strange](Doctor)(Doctor Strange). He also made notable contributions to the character of [Man](Iron)(Iron Man) with the character's iconic red and yellow design being revolutionized by Ditko. Ditko studied under [Batman](Batman) artist [Robinson](Jerry)(Jerry Robinson) at the [and Illustrators School](Cartoonist)(Cartoonist and Illustrators School) in New York City. He began his professional career in 1953, working in the studio of [Simon](Joe)(Joe Simon) and [Kirby](Jack)(Jack Kirby), beginning as an inker and coming under the influence of artist [Meskin](Mort)(Mort Meskin). During this time, he then began his long association with [Comics](Charlton)(Charlton Comics), where he did work in the genres of science fiction, horror, and mystery. He also co-created the superhero [Atom](Captain)(Captain Atom) in 1960. During the 1950s, Ditko also drew for [Comics](Atlas)(Atlas Comics (1950s)), a forerunner of Marvel Comics. He went on to contribute much significant work to Marvel. Ditko was artist for the first 38 issues of [Amazing Spider-Man](The)(The Amazing Spider-Man), co-creating much of the Spider-Man supporting characters and villains with [Lee](Stan)(Stan Lee). Beginning with issue #25, Ditko was also credited at the plotter. In 1966, after being the exclusive artist on [Amazing Spider-Man](The)(The Amazing Spider-Man) and the "Doctor Strange" feature in [Tales](Strange)(Strange Tales), Ditko left Marvel for a variety of reasons, including creative differences and unpaid royalties. Ditko continued to work for Charlton and also [Comics](DC)(DC Comics), including a revamp of the long-running character the [Beetle](Blue)(Blue Beetle), and creating or co-creating the [Question](Question (comics)), the [Creeper](Creeper (comics)), [the Changing Man](Shade)(Shade, the Changing Man), and [and Dove](Hawk)(Hawk and Dove). Ditko also began contributing to small independent publishers, where he created [A](Mr.)(Mr. A), a hero reflecting the influence of [Rand](Ayn)(Ayn Rand)'s philosophy of [Objectivism](Objectivism). Ditko largely declined to give interviews, saying he preferred to communicate through his work. Ditko was inducted into the comics industry's [Kirby Hall of Fame](Jack)(Jack Kirby Hall of Fame) in 1990, and into the [Eisner Award Hall of Fame](Will)(List of Eisner Award winners#The Will Eisner Award Hall of Fame) in 1994. ## Early life [[Ditko HS Yearbook.jpeg\|thumb\|Ditko as a senior in high school, 1945](File:Steve)] Stephen John Ditko was born on November 2, 1927 in [Pennsylvania](Johnstown,)(Johnstown, Pennsylvania).Bell, pp. 14–15.''[Buyer's Guide](Comics)(Comics Buyer's Guide)'' #1636 (December 2007) p. 135 His parents were second-generation Americans: children of [Rusyn](Rusyn people) [Catholic](Byzantine)(Ruthenian Greek Catholic Church) immigrants from the former [Empire](Austro-Hungarian)(Austria-Hungary) (now [Slovakia](Slovakia)).For information on the Ditkos's origins and Steve's siblings, see Bell, Strange and Stranger, Endnotes, p.1, citing 1920 and [United States Census](1930)(1930 United States Census) data. "Ditko's grandparents were of Austrian descent (the paternal grandfather having landed in l900, and paternal grandmother in 190l), even though Ditko's parents, on the 1930 Census, list their parents as "Czechoslovakian" Czechoslovakia coming into creation in 1918, owing to the dissolution of the Austro-Hungarian Empire after WWI (and the parents' mother tongue being Slovak)." * For parents' and grandparents' place of birth, see * For Rusyn history of St. Mary's Byzantine Catholic Church, His father, Stefan ("Stephen"), was an artistically talented [carpenter](master)(carpenter) at a [mill](steel)(steel mill) and his mother, Anna ([née](née) Balaschak), a homemaker. The second-oldest child in a working-class family, he was preceded by sister Anna Marie, and followed by sister Elizabeth and brother Patrick. Inspired by his father's love of newspaper [strips](comic)(comic strips), particularly [Foster](Hal)(Hal Foster)'s [Valiant](Prince)(Prince Valiant), Ditko found his interest in comics accelerated by the introduction of the superhero [Batman](Batman) in 1939, and by [Eisner](Will)(Will Eisner)'s [Spirit](The)(Spirit (comics)), which appeared in a [tabloid](Tabloid (newspaper format))-sized comic-book insert in Sunday newspapers. Ditko in junior high school was part of a group of students who crafted wooden models of German airplanes to aid civilian [War II](World)(World War II) aircraft-spotters. Upon graduating from [Johnstown High School](Greater)(Greater Johnstown High School) in 1945, he enlisted in the U.S. Army on October 26, 1945, and did military service in [Germany](Allied-occupied)(Allied-occupied Germany), where he drew comics for an Army newspaper. ## Career [[Thing 12.jpg\|thumb\|The Thing #12 (Feb. 1954), Ditko's first published comic-book cover](File:The)] Following his discharge, Ditko learned that his idol, Batman artist [Robinson](Jerry)(Jerry Robinson), was teaching at the Cartoonists and Illustrators School (later the [of Visual Arts](School)(School of Visual Arts)) in New York City. Moving there in 1950, he enrolled in the art school under the [Bill](G.I.)(G.I. Bill). Robinson found the young student "a very hard worker who really focused on his drawing"Jerry Robinson interview, [Ego](Alter)(Alter Ego (magazine)) #38 (Aug. 2004), p. 9 and someone who "could work well with other writers as well as write his own stories and create his own characters", and he helped Ditko acquire a scholarship for the following year. "He was in my class for two years, four or five days a week, five hours a night. It was very intense."[Jerry](Robinson,)(Jerry Robinson), "Student and Teacher", in Yoe, Craig, ed. The Art of Ditko ([Publishing](IDW)(IDW Publishing), January 2010), , p. 54 Robinson, who invited artists and editors to speak with his class, once brought in [Lee](Stan)(Stan Lee), then editor of [Comics](Marvel)(Marvel Comics)' 1950s precursor [Comics](Atlas)(Atlas Comics (1950s)) and, "I think that was when Stan first saw Steve's work." Ditko began professionally illustrating comic books in early 1953, drawing writer Bruce Hamilton's science-fiction story "Stretching Things" for the [Publications](Key)(Key Publications) imprint [Publications](Stanmor)(Stanmor Publications), which sold the story to [Ajax/Farrell](Ajax/Farrell), where it finally found publication in Fantastic Fears #5 ([cover-date](cover-date)d Feb. 1954). Ditko's first published work was his second professional story, the six-page "Paper Romance" in Daring Love #1 (Oct. 1953), published by the Key imprint [Magazines](Gillmor)(Gillmor Magazines).[Daring Love #1](http://www.comics.org/issue/241499/) at the Grand Comics Database Shortly afterward, Ditko found work at the studio of writer-artists [Simon](Joe)(Joe Simon) and [Kirby](Jack)(Jack Kirby), who had created [America](Captain)(Captain America) and other characters. Beginning as an inker on backgrounds, Ditko was soon working with and learning from [Meskin](Mort)(Mort Meskin), an artist whose work he had long admired. "Meskin was fabulous," Ditko once recalled. "I couldn't believe the ease with which he drew: strong compositions, loose pencils, yet complete; detail without clutter. I loved his stuff".Theakston, Steve Ditko Reader, p. 3 (unnumbered) Ditko's known assistant work includes aiding inker Meskin on the Jack Kirby pencil work of [Comics](Harvey)(Harvey Comics)' [3-D](Captain)(Captain 3-D) #1 (Dec. 1953).[Captain 3-D #1 (Dec. 1953)](http://www.comics.org/details.lasso?id=10952) at the Grand Comics Database For his own third published story, Ditko penciled and inked the six-page "A Hole in His Head" in Black Magic vol. 4, #3 (Dec. 1953), published by Simon & Kirby's [Publications](Crestwood)(Crestwood Publications) imprint [Comics](Prize)(Prize Comics).[http://www.comics.org/details.lasso?id=10906 Black Magic vol. 4, #3 [27] (Dec. 1953)] at the Grand Comics Database Ditko then began a long association with the [Connecticut](Derby,)(Derby, Connecticut), publisher [Comics](Charlton)(Charlton Comics), a low-budget division of a company best known for song-lyric magazines. Beginning with the cover of [Thing!](The)(The Thing!) #12 (Feb. 1954) and the eight-page [vampire](vampire) story "Cinderella" in that issue, Ditko would continue to work intermittently for Charlton until the company's demise in 1986, producing science fiction, [horror](horror fiction) and [mystery](mystery fiction) stories, as well as co-creating [Atom](Captain)(Captain Atom), with writer [Gill](Joe)(Joe Gill), in [Adventures](Space)(Space Adventures (comics)) #33 (March 1960). Ditko was allowed a great deal of creative freedom at Charlton due to very little editorial interference. However, the [Code Authority](Comics)(Comics Code Authority) was imposed on the comics industry in 1954 due to public concern over graphic violence and horror imagery in comic books, and would prevent Ditko from further developing as a horror artist. He first went on hiatus from the company, and comics altogether, in mid-1954, when he contracted [tuberculosis](tuberculosis) and returned to his parents' home in Johnstown to recuperate. ### Marvel Comics After he recovered, Ditko had originally intended to return to Charlton, but Charlton's office had been flooded by [Diane](Hurricane)(Hurricane Diane) and operations wouldn't resume until months later. Ditko instead moved back to New York City in late 1955 and began drawing for [Comics](Atlas)(Atlas Comics (1950s)), the 1950s precursor of [Comics](Marvel)(Marvel Comics), beginning with the four-page "There'll Be Some Changes Made" in [into Mystery](Journey)(Journey into Mystery) #33 (April 1956); this debut tale would be reprinted in Marvel's Curse of the Weird #4 (March 1994). In 1957, Atlas switched distributors to the [News Company](American)(American News Company), which shortly afterward lost a [Department](Justice)(United States Department of Justice) [lawsuit](lawsuit) and discontinued its business,Jones, Gerard. Men of Tomorrow: Geeks, Gangsters, and the Birth of the Comic Book (Basic Books, 2004). leading to Atlas's entire staff being laid off. Ditko returned to Charlton afterward and experimented with various drawing styles and genres in series such as [of The Mysterious Traveler](Tales)(The Mysterious Traveler) and This Magazine is Haunted. During the summer of 1958, writer-editor [Lee](Stan)(Stan Lee) invited Ditko back to Atlas. Ditko would go on to contribute a large number of stories, many considered classic, to Atlas/Marvel's [Tales](Strange)(Strange Tales) and the newly launched [Adventures](Amazing)(Amazing Adventures), [Worlds](Strange)(Strange Worlds (Atlas Comics)), [of Suspense](Tales)(Tales of Suspense) and [to Astonish](Tales)(Tales to Astonish), issues of which would typically open with a Kirby-drawn monster story, followed by one or two twist-ending thrillers or sci-fi tales drawn by [Heck](Don)(Don Heck), [Reinman](Paul)(Paul Reinman), or [Sinnott](Joe)(Joe Sinnott), all capped by an often-surreal, sometimes self-reflective short by Ditko and Stan Lee. The first collaboration between Ditko and Lee was 2-Gun Western #4 (May 1956), which was also Ditko's only non-fantasy story. These Lee-Ditko short stories proved so popular that Amazing Adventures was reformatted to feature such stories exclusively beginning with issue #7 (Dec. 1961), when the comic was rechristened Amazing Adult Fantasy, a name intended to reflect its more "sophisticated" nature, as likewise the new tagline "The magazine that respects your intelligence". Lee in 2009 described these "short, five-page filler strips that Steve and I did together", originally "placed in any of our comics that had a few extra pages to fill", as "odd fantasy tales that I'd dream up with [Henry](O.)(O. Henry)-type endings." Giving an early example of what would later be known as the "[Method](Marvel)(Marvel Method)" of writer-artist collaboration, Lee said, "All I had to do was give Steve a one-line description of the plot and he'd be off and running. He'd take those skeleton outlines I had given him and turn them into classic little works of art that ended up being far cooler than I had any right to expect."[Stan](Lee,)(Stan Lee), "Introduction", in Yoe, p. 9 #### Creation of Spider-Man After Marvel Comics editor-in-chief Stan Lee obtained permission from publisher [Goodman](Martin)(martin Goodman (publisher)) to create a new "ordinary teen" superhero named "Spider-Man",Lee, Stan, and Mair, George. Excelsior!: The Amazing Life of Stan Lee (Fireside, 2002), p.130. Lee originally approached his leading artist, [Kirby](Jack)(Jack Kirby). Kirby told Lee about his own 1950s character conception, variously called the Silver Spider and Spiderman, in which an orphaned boy finds a magic ring that gives him super powers. Comics historian [Theakston](Greg)(Greg Theakston) says Lee and Kirby "immediately sat down for a story conference" and Lee afterward directed Kirby to flesh out the character and draw some pages. "A day or two later", Kirby showed Lee the first six pages, and, as Lee recalled, "I hated the way he was doing it. Not that he did it badly — it just wasn't the character I wanted; it was too heroic".Theakston, Greg. The Steve Ditko Reader (Pure Imagination, Brooklyn, New York, 2002; ), p. 12 (unnumbered) Lee turned to Ditko, who developed a visual motif Lee found satisfactory,[Tom](DeFalco,)(Tom DeFalco) "1960s" in Gilbert (2008), p. 87: "Deciding that his new character would have spider-like powers, [Stan] Lee commissioned Jack Kirby to work on the first story. Unfortunately, Kirby's version of Spider-Man's alter ego Peter Parker proved too heroic, handsome, and muscular for Lee's everyman hero. Lee turned to Steve Ditko, the regular artist on Amazing Adult Fantasy, who designed a skinny, awkward teenager with glasses." although Lee would later replace Ditko's original cover with one penciled by Kirby. Ditko said, "The Spider-Man pages Stan showed me were nothing like the (eventually) published character. In fact, the only drawings of Spider-Man were on the splash [[i.e.](i.e.), page 1] and at the end [where] Kirby had the guy leaping at you with a web gun... Anyway, the first five pages took place in the home, and the kid finds a ring and turns into Spider-Man."Theakston, Steve Ditko Reader, p. 13 Ditko also recalled that, "One of the first things I did was to work up a costume. A vital, visual part of the character. I had to know how he looked ... before I did any breakdowns. For example: A clinging power so he wouldn't have hard shoes or boots, a hidden wrist-shooter versus a web gun and holster, etc. ... I wasn't sure Stan would like the idea of covering the character's face but I did it because it hid an obviously boyish face. It would also add mystery to the character...."Ditko, Steve. "Jack Kirby's Spider-Man", ''Robin Snyder's History of Comics* #5 (May 1990). Reprinted in [Roy](Thomas,)(Roy Thomas), ed., Alter Ego: The Comic Book Artist Collection''. Raleigh, North Carolina: [Publishing](TwoMorrows)(TwoMorrows Publishing), 2001, p. 56. Much earlier, in a rare contemporaneous account, Ditko described his and Lee's contributions in a mail interview with Gary Martin published in Comic Fan* #2 (Summer 1965): "Stan Lee thought the name up. I did costume, web gimmick on wrist & spider signal". He added he would continue drawing Spider-Man "[i]f nothing better comes along." Additional , February 28, 2012. That same year, he expressed to the fanzine Voice of Comicdom, regarding a poll of "Best Liked" fan-created comics, "It seems a shame, since comics themselves have so little variety of stories and styles that you would deliberately restrict your own creative efforts to professional comics['] shallow range. What is 'Best Liked' by most readers is what they are most familiar in seeing and any policy based on readers likes has to end up with a lot of look-a-like ([sic](sic)) strips. You have a great opportunity to show everyone a whole new range of ideas, unlimited types of stories and styles—why FLUB it!" Punctuation verbatim. Additional , September 23, 2010. From 1958 to 1968,Pérez Seves, Eric Stanton & the History of the Bizarre Underground, p. 213. Ditko shared a [Manhattan](Manhattan) studio at 43rd Street and [Avenue](Eighth)(Eighth Avenue (Manhattan)) with noted fetish artist [Stanton](Eric)(Eric Stanton), an art-school classmate. When either artist was under deadline pressure, it was not uncommon for them to pitch in and help the other with his assignment. Additional .Theakston, The Steve Ditko Reader, pp. 13–15 (unnumbered, pp. 14–15 misordered as pp. 16 & 14) Ditko biographer Blake Bell, without citing sources, said, "At one time in history, Ditko denied ever touching Stanton's work, even though Stanton himself said they would each dabble in each other's art; mainly spot-inking", and the introduction to one book of Stanton's work says, "Eric Stanton drew his pictures in [ink](India)(India ink), and they were then hand-coloured by Ditko". In a 1988 interview with Theakston, Stanton recalled that although his contribution to Spider-Man was "almost nil", he and Ditko had "worked on storyboards together and I added a few ideas. But the whole thing was created by Steve on his own... I think I added the business about the webs coming out of his hands".Theakston, Steve Ditko Reader, p. 14 (unnumbered, misordered as page 16) Spider-Man debuted in [Fantasy](Amazing)(Amazing Fantasy) #15 (Aug. 1962), the final issue of that science-fiction/fantasy anthology series. When the issue proved to be a top seller, Spider-Man was given his own series, [Amazing Spider-Man](The)(The Amazing Spider-Man).DeFalco "1960s" in Gilbert (2008), p. 91: "Thanks to a flood of fan mail, Spider-Man was awarded his own title six months after his first appearance. Amazing Spider-Man began as a bimonthly title, but was quickly promoted to a monthly." Lee and Ditko's collaboration on the series saw the creation of many of the character's best known antagonists including [Octopus](Doctor)(Doctor Octopus) in issue #3 (July 1963);DeFalco "1960s" in Gilbert (2008), p. 93: "Dr. Octopus shared many traits with Peter Parker. They were both shy, both interested in science, and both had trouble relating to women...Otto Octavius even looked like a grown up Peter Parker. Lee and Ditko intended Otto to be the man Peter might have become if he hadn't been raised with a sense of responsibility" the [Sandman](Sandman (Marvel Comics)) in #4 (Sept. 1963); the [Lizard](Lizard (comics)) in #6 (Nov. 1963);Manning "1960s" in Gilbert (2012), p. 20: "The Amazing Spider-Mans sixth issue introduced the Lizard." [Electro](Electro (comics)) in #9 (March 1964);Manning "1960s" in Gilbert (2012), p. 24: "Electro charged into Spider-Man's life for the first time in another [Stan] Lee and [Steve] Ditko effort that saw Peter Parker using his brilliant mind to outwit a foe." and the [Goblin](Green)(Green Goblin) in #14 (July 1964).Manning "1960s" in Gilbert (2012), p. 26: "Spider-Man's arch nemesis, the Green Goblin, as introduced to readers as the 'most dangerous foe Spidey's ever fought.' Writer Stan Lee and artist Steve Ditko had no way of knowing how true that statement would prove to be in the coming years." Increasingly irritated by his perception that he was not receiving his due or proper compensation, Ditko demanded credit for the plotting he was contributing under the [Method](Marvel)(Marvel Method). Lee acquiesced, and starting with #25 (June 1965), Ditko received plot credit for the stories. One of the most celebrated issues of the Lee-Ditko run is #33 (Feb. 1966), the third part of the story arc "[This Be My Destiny...!](If)(If This Be My Destiny...!)", and featuring the dramatic scene of Spider-Man, through force of will and thoughts of family, escaping from being pinned by heavy machinery. Comics historian [Daniels](Les)(Les Daniels) noted, "Steve Ditko squeezes every ounce of anguish out of Spider-Man's predicament, complete with visions of the uncle he failed and the aunt he has sworn to save." [David](Peter)(Peter David) observed, "After his origin, this two-page sequence from Amazing Spider-Man #33 is perhaps the best-loved sequence from the Stan Lee/Steve Ditko era." Steve Saffel stated the "full page Ditko image from The Amazing Spider-Man #33 is one of the most powerful ever to appear in the series and influenced writers and artists for many years to come." Matthew K. Manning wrote that "Ditko's illustrations for the first few pages of this Lee story included what would become one of the most iconic scenes in Spider-Man's history."Manning "1960s" in Gilbert (2012), p. 34 The story was chosen as #15 in the 100 Greatest Marvels of All Time poll of Marvel's readers in 2001. Editor [Greenberger](Robert)(Robert Greenberger) wrote in his introduction to the story, "These first five pages are a modern-day equivalent to Shakespeare as Parker's soliloquy sets the stage for his next action. And with dramatic pacing and storytelling, Ditko delivers one of the great sequences in all comics." In this series, Ditko also had a lasting effect on Marvel's [branding](Branding (promotional)) when he inserted a small box on the upper left-hand corner of issue #2 that featured a picture of Spider-Man's face along with the company name and price. Stan Lee approved of this visual motif and soon made it a standard feature on all of Marvel's subsequent comic books that would last for decades. #### Doctor Strange and other characters [[File:DitkoEternity.jpg\|thumb\|right\|280px\|[Dormammu](Dormammu) attacks [Eternity](Eternity (Marvel Comics)) in a Ditko "Dr. Strange" panel from Strange Tales #146 (July 1966).]] Ditko createdIn a 1963 letter to [Bails](Jerry)(Jerry Bails), Marvel writer-editor Stan Lee called the character Ditko's idea, saying, "The first story is nothing great, but perhaps we can make something of him-- 'twas Steve's idea and I figured we'd give it a chance, although again, we had to rush the first one too much. Little sidelight: Originally decided to call him Mr. Strange, but thought the 'Mr.' bit too similar to [Fantastic](Mr.)(Mr. Fantastic)...." the [supernatural](supernatural) hero [Strange](Doctor)(Doctor Strange) in [Tales](Strange)(Strange Tales) #110 (July 1963).DeFalco "1960s" in Gilbert (2008), p. 93: "When Dr. Strange first appeared in Strange Tales #110, it was only clear that he dabbled in black magic and had the ability to project his consciousness into an astral form that could leave his physical body." Ditko in the 2000s told a visiting fan that Lee gave Dr. Strange the first name "Stephen". Though often overshadowed by his Spider-Man work, Ditko's Doctor Strange artwork has been equally acclaimed for its [surrealistic](surrealism) mystical landscapes and increasingly psychedelic visuals that helped make the feature a favorite of college students. "People who read 'Doctor Strange' thought people at Marvel must be heads [drug users](i.e.)," recalled then-associate editor and former Doctor Strange writer [Thomas](Roy)(Roy Thomas) in 1971, "because they had had similar experiences high on [mushrooms](Psilocybin mushroom). But ... I don't use hallucinogens, nor do I think any artists do." Ditko, "always the most straight-laced man in comics", was deeply offended by the suggestion that he used [drug](psychedelic)(psychedelic drug)s to create the worlds of Dr. Strange. Eventually Lee & Ditko would take Strange into ever-more-abstract realms. In an epic 17-issue story arc in Strange Tales #130–146 (March 1965 – July 1966), Lee and Ditko introduced the cosmic character [Eternity](Eternity (Marvel Comics)), who personified the universe and was depicted as a silhouette whose outlines are filled with the cosmos.[Strange Tales #134](http://www.comics.org/issue/19306/) at the Grand Comics Database: "Indexer Notes: Part 5 of 17. First mention of Eternity. Strange would finally find it in Strange Tales #138 (November 1965)". As historian Bradford W. Wright describes, . p. 213}} The [cartoonist](cartoonist) and [artist](fine)(fine artist) [Seth](Seth (cartoonist)) in 2003 described Ditko's style as: In addition to Dr. Strange, Ditko in the 1960s also drew comics starring the Hulk and Iron Man. He penciled and inked the final issue of [Incredible Hulk](The)(The Incredible Hulk (comic book)) (#6, March 1963), then continued to collaborate with writer-editor Lee on a relaunched [Hulk](Hulk) feature in the omnibus [to Astonish](Tales)(Tales to Astonish), beginning with issue #60 (Oct. 1964). Ditko, inked by [Roussos](George)(George Roussos), penciled the feature through #67 (May 1965). Ditko designed the Hulk's primary antagonist, the [Leader](Leader (character)), in #63 (Jan. 1965). Ditko also penciled the [Man](Iron)(Iron Man) feature in [of Suspense](Tales)(Tales of Suspense) #47–49 (Nov. 1963 – Jan. 1964), with various inkers. The first of these debuted the initial version of Iron Man's modern red-and-golden armor. Whichever feature he drew, Ditko's idiosyncratic, cleanly detailed, instantly recognizable art style, emphasizing mood and [anxiety](anxiety (mood)), found great favor with readers. The character of Spider-Man and his troubled personal life meshed well with Ditko's own interests, which Lee eventually acknowledged by giving the artist plotting credits on the latter part of their 38-issue run. But after four years on the title, Ditko left Marvel;DeFalco "1960s" in Gilbert (2008), p. 117: "To this day, no one really knows why Ditko quit. Bullpen sources reported he was unhappy with the way Lee scripted some of his plots, using a tongue-in-cheek approach to stories Ditko wanted handled seriously." he and Lee had not been on speaking terms for some time, with art and editorial changes handled through intermediaries. The details of the rift remain uncertain, even to Lee, who confessed in 2003, "I never really knew Steve on a personal level." Ditko later claimed it was Lee who broke off contact and disputed the long-held belief[Jonathan](Ross,)(Jonathan Ross), In Search of Steve Ditko, [Four](BBC)(BBC Four) that the disagreement was over the true identity of the [Goblin](Green)(Green Goblin): "Stan never knew what he was getting in my Spider-Man stories and covers until after [manager](production) [Brodsky](Sol)(Sol Brodsky) took the material from me ... so there couldn't have been any disagreement or agreement, no exchanges ... no problems between us concerning the Green Goblin or anything else from before issue #25 to my final issues".Lawrence, Christopher, "Who Is Steve Ditko?", Wizard #124 (Jan. 2002) Spider-Man successor artist [Romita](John)(John Romita Sr.), in a 2010 [deposition](Deposition (law)), recalled that Lee and Ditko "ended up not being able to work together because they disagreed on almost everything, cultural, social, historically, everything, they disagreed on characters. ..." A friendly farewell was given to Ditko in the "[Bulletins](Bullpen)(Bullpen Bulletins)" of comics cover-dated July 1966, including Fantastic Four #52: "Steve recently told us he was leaving for personal reasons. After all these years, we're sorry to see him go, and we wish the talented guy success with his future endeavors.""Bullpen Bulletins", Fantastic Four #52 (July 1966). Marvel Comics. Regardless, said Lee in 2007, "Quite a few years ago I met him up at the Marvel offices when I was last in New York. And we spoke; he's a hell of a nice guy and it was very pleasant. ... I haven't heard from him since that meeting." ### Charlton and DC Comics Back at Charlton—where the page rate was low but creators were allowed greater freedom—Ditko worked on such characters as the [Beetle](Blue)(Blue Beetle) (1967–1968),McAvennie "1960s" in Dolan, p. 123: "After Ted Kord assumed the scarab as Blue Beetle in a back-up feature of Captain Atom #83, writer/artist Steve Ditko and co-writer 'D.C. Glanzman' (who was actually Ditko) launched the Blue Beetle into his own series." the [Question](Question (comics)) (1967–1968), and [Atom](Captain)(Captain Atom) (1965–1967), returning to the character he had co-created in 1960. In addition, in 1966 and 1967, he drew 16 stories, most of them written by [Goodwin](Archie)(Archie Goodwin (comics)), for [Publishing](Warren)(Warren Publishing)'s horror-comic magazines [Creepy](Creepy (magazine)) and [Eerie](Eerie), generally using an [ink-wash](wash (visual arts)) technique. In 1967, Ditko gave his Objectivist ideas ultimate expression in the form of [A](Mr.)(Mr. A), published in [Wood](Wally)(Wally Wood)'s independent title [witzend](witzend) # 3. Mr. A is a similar character to the Question, but did not have to be approved by the Comics Code. Ditko's hard line against criminals was controversial and he continued to produce Mr. A stories and one-pagers until the end of the 1970s. Ditko returned to Mr. A in 2000 and in 2009.''Steve Ditko's 176-Page, Heroes Package, Robin Snyder & Steve Ditko, 2000Ditko Continued, Robin Snyder & Steve Ditko, 2009 and Oh, No! Not Again, Ditko!, Robin Snyder & Steve Ditko, 2009 [[File:Ditko-DC-characters.jpg\|thumb\|300px\|A panoply of Ditko [Comics](DC)(DC Comics) characters, from a "DC Profiles" biographical page appearing in comics [cover-date](cover-date)d April 1980, including Batman* #322 and The Legion of Super-Heroes #262. From left: the [Creeper](Creeper (comics)); [and Dove](Hawk)(Hawk and Dove); [Stalker](Stalker (comics)); the [Man](Odd)(Odd Man (comics)); [the Changing Man](Shade,)(Shade, the Changing Man); [Starman](Starman (comics)#Prince Gavyn).]] Ditko moved to [Comics](DC)(DC Comics) in 1968, where he co-created the [Creeper](Creeper (comics)) in [Showcase](Showcase (comics))'' #73 (April 1968) with Don Segall, under editor [Boltinoff](Murray)(Murray Boltinoff).McAvennie "1960s" in Dolan, p. 129 "Writer/artist Steve Ditko and co-scripter Don Segall gave [Jack Ryder](character) more than the last laugh as the garishly garbed Creeper, one of DC's quirkiest protagonists." DC Comics writer and executive [Levitz](Paul)(Paul Levitz) observed that Ditko's art on the Creeper* stories made "them look unlike anything else being published by DC at the time." Ditko co-created the team [and Dove](Hawk)(Hawk and Dove) in Showcase #75 (June 1968), with writer [Skeates](Steve)(Steve Skeates).McAvennie "1960s" in Dolan, p. 130 "Brothers Hank and Don Hall were complete opposites, yet writer/artist Steve Ditko with scripter Steve Skeates made sure the siblings shared a desire to battle injustice as Hawk and Dove." Around this time, he penciled the lead story, written and inked by Wally Wood, in Wood's early mature-audience, [independent-comics](Alternative media) publication [Inc. Presents Cannon](Heroes,)(Heroes, Inc. Presents Cannon) (1969). Ditko's stay at DC was short—he would work on all six issues of the Creeper's own title, Beware the Creeper (June 1968 – April 1969), though leaving midway through the final one—and the reasons for his departure uncertain. But while at DC, Ditko recommended Charlton staffer [Giordano](Dick)(Dick Giordano) to the company, who would go on to become a top DC penciller, inker, editor, and ultimately, in 1981, the managing editor. From this time up through the mid-1970s, Ditko worked exclusively for Charlton and various [press/independent](small)(alternative comics) publishers. [McLaughlin](Frank)(Frank McLaughlin (artist)), Charlton's art director during this period, describes Ditko as living "in a local hotel in [Derby](Derby, Connecticut) for a while. He was a very happy-go-lucky guy with a great sense of humor at that time, and always supplied the [female] color separators with candy and other little gifts".Cooke, Jon B., & Christopher Irving. ["The Charlton Empire: A Brief History of the Derby, Connecticut Publisher"](http://twomorrows.com/comicbookartist/articles/09empire.html), [Book Artist](Comic)(Comic Book Artist)  #9, August 2000. Access date April 27, 2010. [WebCitation archive](https://web.archive.org/web/20100614062925/http://twomorrows.com/comicbookartist/articles/09empire.html). For Charlton in 1974 he did [Belle](Liberty)(Liberty Belle (comics)#Charlton Comics) backup stories in [E-Man](E-Man) and conceived Killjoy. Ditko produced much work for Charlton's science-fiction and horror titles, as well as for former Marvel publisher [Goodman](Martin)(Martin Goodman (publisher))'s start-up line [Comics](Atlas/Seaboard)(Atlas/Seaboard Comics), where he co-created the superhero the Destructor with writer Archie Goodwin, and penciled all four issues of the namesake series (Feb.–Aug. 1975), the first two of which were inked by Wally Wood. Ditko worked on the second and third issues of [Tiger-Man](Tiger-Man) and the third issue of Morlock 2001, with [Wrightson](Bernie)(Bernie Wrightson) inking. ### After 1975 Ditko returned to DC Comics in 1975, creating a short-lived title, [the Changing Man](Shade,)(Shade, the Changing Man) (1977–1978).McAvennie "1970s" in Dolan, p. 174 "Steve Ditko returned to mainstream comics with Shade, the Changing Man. Joined by writer Michael Fleisher, Ditko unveiled the story of Rac Shade, a secret agent-turned-fugitive from the extra-dimensional world of Meta." Shade was later revived, without Ditko's involvement, in DC's mature-audience imprint [Vertigo](Vertigo (comics)). With writer [Levitz](Paul)(Paul Levitz), he co-created the four-issue [and sorcery](sword)(sword and sorcery) series [Stalker](Stalker (comics)) (1975–1976).[Stalker](http://www.comics.org/series/2226/) at the Grand Comics DatabaseMcAvennie "1970s" in Dolan, p. 164 "This sword and sorcery title by scripter Paul Levitz and artist Steve Ditko epitomized the credo 'Be careful what you wish for'. The series anti-hero was a nameless wanderer whose dreams of becoming a warrior brought him first slavery, then worse." Ditko and writer [Conway](Gerry)(Gerry Conway) produced the first issue of a two-issue [Man-Bat](Man-Bat) series.McAvennie "1970s" in Dolan, p. 168 "Thanks to his appearances in Detective Comics and Batman, Man-Bat's popularity soared to the point where writer Gerry Conway and artist Steve Ditko launched the [character] into his own series." He also revived the Creeper and did such various other jobs as a short [Demon](Etrigan the Demon) backup series in 1979, created The Odd Man and stories in DC's horror and science-fiction anthologies. Editor [C. Harris](Jack)(Jack C. Harris) hired Ditko as guest artist on several issues of The [of Super-Heroes](Legion)(Legion of Super-Heroes), a decision which garnered a mixed reaction from the title's readership. Ditko also drew the [Gavyn](Prince)(Starman (Prince Gavyn)) version of [Starman](Starman (comics)) in [Comics](Adventure)(Adventure Comics) #467–478 (1980).Manning, Matthew K. "1980s" in Dolan, p. 186 "The second [in Adventure Comics #467](feature) debuted a new version of Starman by writer Paul Levitz and illustrator Steve Ditko." He then decamped to do work for a variety of publishers, briefly contributing to DC again in the mid-1980s, with four pinups of his characters for ''[Who: The Definitive Directory of the DC Universe](Who's)(Who's Who in the DC Universe)* and a pinup for [Superman](Superman (comic book)) #400 (Oct. 1984)[Superman #400](http://www.comics.org/issue/39168/) at the Grand Comics Database and its companion portfolio.[Dick](Giordano,)(Dick Giordano) "Meanwhile" column, Jemm, Son of Saturn'' #2 (Oct. 1984) "We have another goodie for you! Also on this year's October schedule is the Superman* #400 portfolio...The portfolio will have a full-color painted cover by Howard Chaykin and will contain 15 black-and-white plates by [including](artists) Steve Ditko...." Ditko returned to Marvel in 1979, taking over Jack Kirby's [Man](Machine)(Machine Man),[Peter](Sanderson,)(Peter Sanderson) "1970s" in Gilbert (2008), p. 185: "Jack Kirby wrote and drew the initial nine issues of Machine Man. In August 1979, the series was revived by writer Marv Wolfman and artist Steve Ditko." drawing The [Micronauts](Micronauts (comics)) and [Universe](Captain)(Captain Universe), and continuing to freelance for the company into the late 1990s. Starting in 1984, he penciled the last two years of the space-robot series [Rom](Rom (comics)). A [Godzilla](Godzilla (comics)) story by Ditko and [Wolfman](Marv)(Marv Wolfman) was changed into a [Lord](Dragon)(Dragon Lord (comics)) story published in [Spotlight](Marvel)(Marvel Spotlight).DeFalco "1980s" in Gilbert (2008), p. 197: "Tako Shamara became the Dragon Lord in Marvel Spotlight #5 by writer/editor Marv Wolfman and artist Steve Ditko." Ditko and writer [DeFalco](Tom)(Tom DeFalco) introduced the [Speedball](Robbie Baldwin) character in The Amazing Spider-Man Annual #22 (1988)DeFalco "1980s" in Gilbert (2008), p. 238: "Editor-in-Chief Tom DeFalco thought Marvel should publish more titles starring teenagers...He wrote the basic scenario and character descriptions for a new series and hired Steve Ditko to design it." and Ditko drew a ten-issue series based on the character. In 1982, he also began freelancing for the early independent comics label [Comics](Pacific)(Pacific Comics), beginning with [Victory and the Galactic Rangers](Captain)(Captain Victory and the Galactic Rangers) #6 (Sept. 1982), in which he introduced the superhero Missing Man, with [Evanier](Mark)(Mark Evanier) scripting to Ditko's plot and art. Subsequent Missing Man stories appeared in Pacific Presents #1–3 (Oct. 1982 – March 1984), with Ditko scripting the former and collaborating with longtime friend Robin Snyder on the script for the latter two. Ditko also created [Mocker](The)(Mocker (comics)) for Pacific, in [Star](Silver)(Silver Star (comics)) #2 (April 1983). For [Comics](Eclipse)(Eclipse Comics), he contributed a story featuring his character [Static](Static (Steve Ditko character)) (no relation to the later [Comics](Milestone)(Milestone Comics) character) in [Monthly](Eclipse)(Eclipse Monthly) #1–3 (Aug.–Oct. 1983), introducing [supervillain](supervillain) the Exploder in #2. With writer Jack C. Harris, Ditko drew the backup feature "The Faceless Ones" in [Comics](First)(First Comics)' [Warp](Warp (First Comics)) #2–4 (April–June 1983). Working with that same writer and others, Ditko drew a handful of the [Fly](Fly (Red Circle Comics)), [Flygirl](Flygirl (Archie Comics)) and [Jaguar](Jaguar (Archie Comics)) stories for The Fly #2–8 (July 1983 – Aug. 1984), for [Comics](Archie)(Archie Comics)' short-lived 1980s superhero line; in a rare latter-day instance of Ditko [inking](inker) another artist, he inked [penciler](penciler) [Ayers](Dick)(Dick Ayers) on the Jaguar story in The Fly #9 (Oct. 1984). [Publishing](Western)(Western Publishing) in 1982 announced a series by Ditko and Harris would appear in a new science-fiction comic, Astral Frontiers, but that title never materialized. In the early 1990s Ditko worked for [Shooter's](Jim)(Jim Shooter) newly founded company [Comics](Valiant)(Valiant Comics), drawing, among others, issues of [Robot Fighter](Magnus,)(Magnus, Robot Fighter), [Man of the Atom](Solar,)(Solar (comics)) and [X-O-Manowar](X-O Manowar). In 1992 Ditko worked with writer [Murray](Will)(Will Murray (writer)) to produce one of his last original characters for Marvel Comics, the superheroine [Girl](Squirrel)(Squirrel Girl), who debuted in [Super-Heroes](Marvel)(Marvel Super-Heroes (comics)) vol. 2, #8, a.k.a. Marvel Super-Heroes Winter Special (Jan. 1992).[Marvel Super-Heroes (Marvel, 1990 series)](http://www.comics.org/character/name/Squirrel%20Girl/sort/chrono/) at the [Comics Database](Grand)(Grand Comics Database) In 1993, he did the [Horse Comics](Dark)(Dark Horse Comics) [one-shot](One-shot (comics)) The Safest Place in the World. For the [Comics](Defiant)(Defiant Comics) series [Dominion](Dark)(Dark Dominion), he drew issue #0, which was released as a set of [cards](trading)(trading cards). In 1995, he pencilled a four-issue series for Marvel based on the [2040](Phantom)(Phantom 2040) animated TV series. This included a poster that was inked by [Romita Sr.](John)(John Romita Sr.) ''Steve Ditko's Strange Avenging Tales* was announced as a quarterly series from [Books](Fantagraphics)(Fantagraphics Books), although it only ran one issue (Feb. 1997) due to publicly unspecified disagreements between Ditko and the publisher. [New York Times](The)(The New York Times)'' assessed in 2008 that, "By the '70s he was regarded as a slightly old-fashioned odd-ball; by the '80s he was a commercial has-been, picking up wretched work-for-hire gigs. ...following the example of [Ayn] Rand's John Galt, Ditko hacked out moneymaking work, saving his care for the crabbed Objectivist screeds he published with tiny presses. And boy, could Ditko hack: seeing samples of his [Transformers](Transformers)* coloring book and his Big Boy comic is like hearing [Welles](Orson)(Orson Welles) sell frozen peas." Ditko retired from mainstream comics in 1998.Bell, Blake. Archive of (requires scrolling down), Ditko Looked Up. Entry refers to Ditko's final mainstream comics work, a [Gods](New)(New Gods) story that would remain unpublished for 10 years. . His later work for Marvel and DC included such established superheroes as the [Sub-Mariner](Sub-Mariner) (in [Comics Presents](Marvel)(Marvel Comics Presents)) and newer, licensed characters such as the [Morphin Power Rangers](Mighty)(Mighty Morphin Power Rangers). The last mainstream character he created was Marvel's Longarm in Shadows & Light #1 (Feb. 1998), in a self-inked, 12-page [Man](Iron)(Iron Man) story "A Man's Reach....", scripted by [Wein](Len)(Len Wein). His final mainstream work was a five-page [Gods](New)(New Gods) story for DC Comics, "Infinitely Gentle Infinitely Suffering", inked by Mick Gray and believed to be intended for the 2000–2002 Orion series Additional [WebCitation archive](https://web.archive.org/web/20111120034113/http://www.ditko-fever.com/intro.html) of main page. but not published until the 2008 [paperback](trade)(Trade paperback (comics)) Tales of the New Gods. Thereafter, Ditko's solo work was published intermittently by Robin Snyder, who was his editor at Charlton, Archie Comics, and [Press](Renegade)(Renegade Press) in the 1980s. The Snyder publications have included a number of original books as well as reprints such as Static, The Missing Man, The Mocker and, in 2002, Avenging World, a collection of stories and essays spanning 30 years. In 2008, Ditko and Snyder released The Avenging Mind, a 32-page essay publication featuring several pages of new artwork; and Ditko, Etc..., a 32-page comic book composed of brief vignettes and editorial cartoons. Releases have continued in that format, with stories introducing such characters as the Hero, Miss Eerie, the Cape, the Madman, the Grey Negotiator, the !? and the Outline. He said in 2012 of his self-published efforts, "I do those because that's all they'll let me do." In addition to the new material, Ditko and Snyder reprinted earlier Ditko material. In 2010 they published a new edition of the 1973 Mr. A comic and a selection of Ditko covers in The Cover Series. In 2011 they published a new edition of the 1975 comic ''...Wha...!? Ditko's H. Series''. Two "lost" stories drawn by Ditko in 1978 have been published by DC in hardcover collections of the artist's work. A Creeper story scheduled for the never published [Showcase](Showcase (comics)) #106 appears in The Creeper by Steve Ditko (2010) and an unpublished Shade, the Changing Man story appears in The Steve Ditko Omnibus Vol. 1 (2011). A [Hulk](Hulk) and the [Torch](Human)(Human Torch) story written by Jack C. Harris and drawn by Ditko in the 1980s was published by Marvel as Incredible Hulk and the Human Torch: From the Marvel Vault #1 in August 2011. ## Personal life As of 2012, Ditko continued to work in Manhattan's Midtown West neighborhood. He mostly declined to give interviews or make public appearances, explaining in 1969 that, "When I do a job, it's not my personality that I'm offering the readers but my artwork. It's not what I'm like that counts; it's what I did and how well it was done. I produce a product, a comic art story. Steve Ditko is the brand name." Also reprinted in However, he did contribute numerous essays to Robin Snyder's fanzine The Comics. He had a nephew who became an artist, also named Steve Ditko. As far as it is known, he never married and had no surviving children at the time of his death. [Eisner](Will)(Will Eisner) stated that Ditko had a son out of wedlock,Eisner in but this may have been a confused reference to the nephew. Politically, Ditko supported a "constitutional republic" and "individual" and "property rights", describing them as "inalienable". He supported neither [W. Bush](George)(George W. Bush) nor [Kerry](John)(John Kerry) in the [presidential election](2004)(2004 United States presidential election) due to believing neither would prioritize them. Ditko said in 2012 that he had made no income on the four Spider-Man films released to that time. However, a neighbor of Ditko stated that Ditko received royalty checks. Those involved with creating the 2016 film [Strange](Doctor)(Doctor Strange (2016 film)) purposely declined to contact him during production, believing they would not be welcome. ### Objectivism Ditko was an ardent supporter of [Objectivism](Objectivism). (September 10, 2007). Archived from [the original](http://www.silverbulletcomicbooks.com/soapbox/118952109462730.htm) on April 5, 2010. (September 14, 2007). Archived from [the original](http://www.silverbulletcomicbooks.com/soapbox/11897806446424.htm) on May 31, 2009; and (September 22, 2007). Archived from [the original](http://www.silverbulletcomicbooks.com/soapbox/119047224282703.htm) on January 14, 2009. The philosophy of [Rand](Ayn)(Ayn Rand) had "forever changed [Ditko's] outlook on morality, finances and his mission as a comic-book creator". After Ditko had received greater control of the plotting, he began revering the role of policemen in his Spider-Man work. Ditko had once told his Charlton co-worker [Morisi](Pete)(Pete Morisi), a policeman who moonlighted as a comic book artist, that he envied Morisi for being able to arrest criminals. Randian philosophy had influenced Ditko to demand being credited and compensated as both the plotter and artist for Spider-Man beginning in issue #25, which Stan Lee (now credited as "scripter") allowed, though their working relationship would begin deteriorating. Other ways Ditko incorporated Randian views into Spider-Man were by having Peter Parker become more aggressive, demand better pay for his Spider-Man photos, and show contempt for student protestors. Marvel publisher Martin Goodman had been worried that Parker's hard right-wing politics would distance the character from left-leaning counterculture of most university students, and disputes with Goodman over royalties had led to Ditko leaving Marvel. Ditko later expressed his Objectivist views even further with the Question, who criticized the apathy of the public toward right and wrong, and Mr. A, who refused to save villains from death. He also described himself as an [Aristotelian](Aristotelianism). ## Death Ditko was found unresponsive in his apartment in [York City](New)(New York City) on June 29, 2018. Police said he had died within the previous two days. He was pronounced dead at the age of 90, with the cause of death initially deemed as a result of a [infarction](myocardial)(myocardial infarction), brought on by arteriosclerotic and hypertensive [disease](cardiovascular)(cardiovascular disease). The final words of Ditko's last essay, published posthumously in Down Memory Lane in February 2019, quoted an "old toast": "Here's to those who wish me well, and those that don't can go to hell."[Image of posthumous words](https://pbs.twimg.com/media/DzBLAriXQAALEpQ.jpg) In June 2021, Ditko's nephew Mark Ditko was interviewed and discussed his history with his uncle and his legacy, dispelling myths about him while also discussing his work with the Bottleworks Exhibition which houses a Steve Ditko Exhibition. He also shared rare photos among many other facts. ## Awards and honors * 1962 [Award](Alley)(Alley Award) for Best Short Story: "Origin of [Spider-Man](Spider-Man)" by [Lee](Stan)(Stan Lee) and Steve Ditko, [Fantasy](Amazing)(Amazing Fantasy) #15 (Marvel Comics). * 1963 Alley Award for Best Adventure Hero Comic Book: [Amazing Spider-Man](The)(The Amazing Spider-Man) * 1963 Alley Award for Top Hero: Spider-Man * 1964 Alley Award for Best Adventure Hero Comic Book: The Amazing Spider-Man * 1964 Alley Award for Best Giant Comic: The Amazing Spider-Man [Annual](annual publication) #1 * 1964 Alley Award for Best Hero: Spider-Man * 1965 Alley Award for Best Adventure Hero Comic Book: The Amazing Spider-Man * 1965 Alley Award for Best Hero: Spider-Man * 1985 [Award](Eagle)(Eagle Award (comics)): Roll of Honour . * In 1987, Ditko was presented a [International](Comic-Con)(Comic-Con International) [Award](Inkpot)(Inkpot Award) in absentia, accepted on his behalf by [Press](Renegade)(Renegade Press) publisher [Loubert](Deni)(Deni Loubert), who had published ''Ditko's World* the previous year. Ditko refused the award, and returned it to Loubert after having phoned her to say, "Awards bleed the artist and make us compete against each other. They are the most horrible things in the world. How dare you accept this on my behalf". At his behest, Loubert returned the award to the convention organizers. * 1991 [Comic Art Award](UK)(UK Comic Art Award) Career Achievement Award"British Awards Announced," The Comics Journal #142 (June 1991), p. 17. * Ditko was inducted into the [Kirby Hall of Fame](Jack)(List of Harvey Award winners#The Jack Kirby Hall of Fame) in 1990 and into the [Eisner Award Hall of Fame](Will)(List of Eisner Award winners#The Will Eisner Award Hall of Fame) in 1994. * 2015 [Awards](Inkwell)(Inkwell Awards) Joe Sinnott Hall of Fame Award ## BBC documentary In September 2007, presenter [Ross](Jonathan)(Jonathan Ross) hosted a one-hour documentary for [Four](BBC)(BBC Four) titled [Search of Steve Ditko](In)(In Search of Steve Ditko)''. The program covers Ditko's work at Marvel, DC, and Charlton Comics and at Wally Wood's witzend, as well as his following of Objectivism. It includes testimonials by writers and artists [Moore](Alan)(Alan Moore), [Millar](Mark)(Mark Millar), Jerry Robinson and Stan Lee, among others. Ross, accompanied by writer [Gaiman](Neil)(Neil Gaiman), met Ditko briefly at his New York office, but he declined to be filmed, interviewed or photographed. He did, however, give the two a selection of some comic books. At the end of the show, Ross said he had since spoken to Ditko on the telephone and, as a joke, that he was now on first name terms with him. ## Bibliography As penciller (generally but not exclusively self-inked), unless otherwise noted [Publications](Farrell)(Farrell Publications)* *[Fantasy](Strange)(Strange Fantasy) #2–14 (1952–1954) *Fantastic Fears #5 (1954) [Comics](Harvey)(Harvey Comics) *[3-D](Captain)(Captain 3-D) #1 (inks assist to [Meskin](Mort)(Mort Meskin)) (1953) [Publications](Key)(Key Publications) *Daring Love #1 (1953) *Blazing Western #1 (1954) [Comics](Prize)(Prize Comics) [Magic](Black)(Black Magic (comics)) #27–29, 47 (1953–1961) [Comics](Charlton)(Charlton Comics)* *[Thing!](The)(The Thing!) #12–15, 17 (1954) *[Magazine is Haunted](This)(This Magazine Is Haunted) #16–19, 21 (1954) *Crime and Justice #18 (1954) *Racket Squad in Action #11–12 (1954) *[Suspense Stories](Strange)(Strange Suspense Stories) #18–22, 31–37, 39–41, 45, 47–48, 50–53 (1954–1961) *[Adventures](Space)(Space Adventures (comics)) #10–12, 24–27, 31–40, 42 (#33 debut [Atom](Captain)(Captain Atom)) (1954–1961) *From Here to Insanity #10 (1955) *[of The Mysterious Traveler](Tales)(The Mysterious Traveler) #2–11 (1957–1959) *Out of this World #3–12, 16 (1957–1959) *Cheyenne Kid #10 (1957) *This Magazine is Haunted vol. 2 #12–14, 16 (1957–1958) *From Here to Insanity vol. 3 #10 (1957) *Mysteries of Unexplored Worlds #3–12, 19, 21–24, 26 (1957–1961) *Texas Rangers in Action #8, 77 (1957–1970) *Unusual Tales #6–12, 14–15, 22–23, 25–27, 29 (1957–1961) ''[Army](Fightin')(Fightin' Army) #20, 89–90, 92 (1957–1970) *Outer Space #18–21 (1958) *Robin Hood and his Merry Men #38 (1958) *Rocky Lane's Black Jack #24–28 (1958–1959) *[Fury](Black)(Black Fury (comics)) #16–18 (1958–1959) *Outlaws of the West #18, 80–81 (1959–1970) *Gorgo #1–4, 11, 13–16, The Return of Gorgo #2–3 (1960–1964) *Konga #1, 3–15, Konga's Revenge #2 (1960–1963) *Space War #4–6, 8, 10 (1960–1961) *Mad Monsters #1 (1961) *Captain Atom #78–89 (1965–1967) *Fantastic Giants #64 (1966) *Shadows from Beyond #50 (1966) *[Tales](Ghostly)(Ghostly Tales) #55–58, 60–61, 67, 69–73, 75–90, 92–97, 99–123, 125–126 (1966–1977) *[Many Ghosts of Doctor Graves](The)(The Many Ghosts of Doctor Graves) #1, 7, 9, 11–13, 15–18, 20–22, 24, 26–35, 37–38, 40–43, 47–48, 51–56, 58, 60–62 (1967–1977) *[Beetle](Blue)(Ted Kord) #1–5 (1967–1968) *[Suspense](Mysterious)(Question (comics)) #1 ([Question](The)(Question (comics))) (1968) *Outer Space vol. 2 #1 (1968) *Strange Suspense Stories vol. 2 #2 (1968) *Charlton Premiere #4 (1968) *Time for Love #13 (1969) *Space Adventures vol. 3 #2, 5–6, 8 (1968–1969) *[Jim](Jungle)(Jungle Jim) #22, 27–28 (1969–1970) *[Manor](Ghost)(Ghost Manor (comics)) #13–16, 18–19 (1970–1971) *Phantom #36, 39 (1970) *Romantic Story #107 (1970) *Just Married #79 (1971) *[Love You](I)(I Love You (comics)) # 91 (1971) *[Haunted](Haunted (comics)) #1–8, 11–16, 18, 23–25, 28, 30 (1971–1976) *Ghost Manor vol. 2 #1–18, 20–22, 24–26, 28–31, 37 (1971–1978) *[Haunts](Ghostly)(Ghostly Haunts) #22–34, 36–40, 43–48, 50, 52, 54 (1972–1977) *[Love](Haunted)(Haunted Love) #4–5 (1973) *[E-Man](E-Man) #2, 4 (Killjoy), #5 (intro [Belle II](Liberty)(Liberty Belle (comics))) (1973–1974) *[Tales](Midnight)(Midnight Tales) #12 (1975) *Scary Tales #3, 5, 7–8, 11–12, 14–15 (1975–1978) *Beyond the Grave #1–6 (1975–1976) *Monster Hunters #2, 4, 6, 8, 10 (1975–1977) *Creepy Things #3, 5 (1975–1976) *[+1](Doomsday)(Doomsday + 1) #5 (1976) [Comics](Marvel)(Marvel Comics) *2-Gun Western #4 (1956) *[Adventures](Amazing)(Amazing Adventures) #1–6 (1961); becomes ::[Adult Fantasy](Amazing)(Amazing Adult Fantasy) #7–14 (1961–1962); becomes :::[Fantasy](Amazing)(Amazing Fantasy) #15 (debut [Spider-Man](Spider-Man)) (1962) *[Spider-Man](Amazing)(Amazing Spider-Man) #1–38, Annual #1–2 (1963–1966) *Amazing Spider-Man Annual #22 (debut [Speedball](Speedball (comics))), #24–25 (1988–1991) *Astonishing #53 (1956) *[Annual](Avengers)(Avengers (comic book)) #13, 15 (1984–1986) *Battle #63, 68, 70 (1958–1960) *Chuck Norris: Karate Kommandos 1–3 (1987) *[Magazine](Crazy)(Crazy Magazine) #68 (1980) *[Daredevil](Daredevil (Marvel Comics character)) #162, 234-235, 264 (1980-1989) *Destroyer, The #4 (1990) *Destroyer, The vol. 2 #1 (1991) *[Fantastic Four](The)(Fantastic Four (comic book)) #13 (inking Jack Kirby) (1963) *Fantastic Four Annual #16 (1981) *[Western](Gunsmoke)(Gunsmoke Western) #56, 66 (1960–1961) *Heroes & Legends #1 (1997) *[Incredible Hulk](The)(Incredible Hulk (comic book)) #2 (inking [Kirby](Jack)(Jack Kirby)), #6 (1962–1963) *The Incredible Hulk #249, Annual #9 (1980) *Incredible Hulk and the Human Torch: From the Marvel Vault #1 (story created in the 1980s) (2011) *[Further Adventures of Indiana Jones](The)(Indiana Jones (comics)) #21, 25–28, 32–34 (1984–1986) *[Man](Iron)(Iron Man) #160 (1982) *Iron Man Annual #11 (1990) *[into Mystery](Journey)(Journey into Mystery) #33, 38, 50–96 (1956–1963) *[Man](Machine)(Machine Man) #10–19 (1979–1981) [Into Unknown Worlds](Journey)(Journey into Unknown Worlds) #45, 51 (1956) [Age](Marvel)(Marvel Age) Annual #4 (Speedball) (1988) *[Comics Presents](Marvel)(Marvel Comics Presents) #7, 10, 14, 54, 56, 58, 80–81, 83 (1988–1991) *Marvel Legacy Doctor Strange #381 *[Preview](Marvel)(Marvel Preview) #21 ([Shroud](Shroud (comics))) (1980) *[Spotlight](Marvel)(Marvel Spotlight) vol. 2 #4 ([Marvel](Captain)(Captain Marvel (Marvel Comics))), #5 ([Lord](Dragon)(Dragon Lord (comics))), #9–11 ([Universe](Captain)(Captain Universe)) (1980–1981) *[Super-Heroes](Marvel)(Marvel Super-Heroes (comics)) vol. 2 #1–3, #5–8 (#8 debut [Girl](Squirrel)(Squirrel Girl)) (1990–1992) *[Tales](Marvel)(Marvel Tales (1949–1957)) #147 (1956) *[Team-Up](Marvel)(Marvel Team-Up) #101 (1981) *[Micronauts](Micronauts (comics)) #39, Annual #1–2 (1979–1982) *[Morphin Power Rangers](Mighty)(Mighty Morphin Power Rangers) #2, 4 (1995–1996) *Mighty Morphin Power Rangers: Ninja Rangers/VR Troopers #4–5 (1996) *Mystery Tales #40, 45, 47 (1956) *[2040](Phantom)(Phantom 2040) #1–4 (1995) *[Speedball](Robbie Baldwin) #1–10 (1988–1989) *[Spaceknight](Rom)(Rom (comics)) #59–75, Annual #4 (1984–1986) *Spellbound #29 (1956) *[Fury and his Howling Commandos](Sgt.)(Sgt. Fury and his Howling Commandos) #15 (inking [Ayers](Dick)(Dick Ayers)) (1965) *[Tales](Strange)(Strange Tales) #46, 50, 67–146 ([Strange](Doctor)(Doctor Strange) in #110–111, 114–146), Annual #2 (inking Jack Kirby) (1956–1966) *Shadows & Light #1 (Iron Man) (1998) *Strange Tales of the Unusual #5 (1956) *[Worlds](Strange)(Strange Worlds (Atlas Comics)) #1–5 (1958–1959) *[to Astonish](Tales)(Tales to Astonish) #1–48, 60–67 ([Hulk](The)(Hulk) in #60–67, [Man](Giant)(Giant-Man) in #61) (1959–1965) *[of Suspense](Tales)(Tales of Suspense) #1–49 ([Man](Iron)(Iron Man) in #47–49) (1959–1964) *[of Dracula](Tomb)(Tomb of Dracula) magazine #2 (1979) *[of Shadows](Tower)(Tower of Shadows) #6, 8–9 (1970–1971) *[U.S.1](U.S. 1 (comics)) #12 (1984) *[of Spider-Man](Web)(Web of Spider-Man) Annual #5 (Captain Universe) (1989) *[If?](What)(What If (comics)) #35 ([Tigra](Tigra)) (1982) *What If Special #1 (Iron Man) (1988) *[The--?!](What)(What The--?!) #1 (1988) *[of Fantasy](World)(World of Fantasy) #16–19 (1959) *World of Mystery #3, 6 (1956–1957) [John Publications](St.)(St. John Publications) *Do You Believe in Nightmares #1 (1957) [Comics](DC)(DC Comics) *[Adventures](Strange)(Strange Adventures) #188–189 (1966) *[Showcase](Showcase (comics)) #73 (debut, the [Creeper](Creeper (comics))) #75 (debut, [Hawk and the Dove](The)(Hawk and Dove)) (1968) *[the Creeper](Beware)(Creeper (comics)) #1–6 (1968–1969) *[Hawk and the Dove](The)(Hawk and Dove) #1–2 (1968) *[Stalker](Stalker (comics)) #1–4 (1975–1976) *[of Mystery](House)(House of Mystery) #236, 247 (1975–1976) *[Issue Special](1st)(1st Issue Special) #7 (Creeper) (1975) *[Man-Bat](Man-Bat) #1 (1975) *[Plop!](Plop!) #16 (1975) *[of Secrets](House)(House of Secrets (DC Comics)) #139 (1976) *[War Tales](Weird)(Weird War Tales) #46, 49, 95, 99, 104–106 (1976–1981) *[World of DC Comics](Amazing)(The Amazing World of DC Comics) #13 (1976) *[the Changing Man](Shade,)(Shade, the Changing Man) #1–8 (1977–1978) *[of Haunted House](Secrets)(Secrets of Haunted House) #9, 12, 41, 45 (1977–1982) [Special Series #9: Wonder Woman Spectacular](DC)(DC Special Series#9: Wonder Woman Spectacular) (1978) [Finest Comics](World's)(World's Finest Comics) #249–255 (Creeper) (1978–1979) *[Comic Cavalcade](Cancelled)(Cancelled Comic Cavalcade) #2 (two stories planned for Shade, the Changing Man #9) (1978) *[Ghosts](Ghosts (comics)) #77, 111 (1979–1982) *[Warp](Time)(Time Warp (comics)) #1–4 (1979–1980) *[Comics](Detective)(Detective Comics) #483–485 ([Demon](The)(Etrigan the Demon)), #487 ([Man](Odd)(Odd Man (comics)) debut, revised story, originally planned for Shade, the Changing Man #9) (1979) *[and the Legion of Superheroes](Superboy)(Superboy and the Legion of Super-Heroes) #257 (1979) *Unexpected #189–190, 221 (1979–1982) *[of Super-Heroes](Legion)(Legion of Super-Heroes) vol. 2 #267, 268, 272, 274, 276, 281 (1980–1981) *[Comics](Adventure)(Adventure Comics) #467–478 ([Starman](Starman (comics)#Prince Gavyn)) (1980) *[in Space](Mystery)(Mystery in Space) #111, 114–16 (1980–1981) *[Outsiders](The)(Outsiders (comics)) #13 (1986) *[Who: The Definitive Directory of the DC Universe](Who's)(Who's Who in the DC Universe) #19–22 (1986) *[Comics](Action)(Action Comics) Weekly #642 (among other artists) (1989) *Legends of the DC Universe 80-Page Giant #1 (1998) *[of the New Gods](Tales)(Tales of the New Gods) TPB (story originally planned for the [Orion](Orion (comic book)) series) (2008) *The Creeper by Steve Ditko HC (includes 25-page Creeper story originally planned for [Showcase](Showcase (comics)) #106) (2010) *The Steve Ditko Omnibus Vol. 1 HC (includes story originally planned for Shade, the Changing Man #9) (2011) [ACG](American Comics Group) *[into the Unknown](Adventures)(Adventures into the Unknown) #168 (1966) *[Worlds](Forbidden)(Forbidden Worlds) #137–138, 140 (1966) *Unknown Worlds #49–50, 54 (1966–1967) [Publishing](Dell)(Dell Publishing) *[Nukla](Nukla) #4 (1966) *[Smart](Get)(Get Smart) #2–3 (1966) *[Heroes](Hogan's)(Hogan's Heroes) #3 (1966) [Publishing](Warren)(Warren Publishing) *[Eerie](Eerie (magazine)) #3–10 (1966–1967) *[Creepy](Creepy (magazine)) #9–16 (1966–1967) [Comics](Tower)(Tower Comics) *[Agents](T.H.U.N.D.E.R.)(T.H.U.N.D.E.R. Agents) #6–7, 12, 14, 16, 18 (1966–1968) *Dynamo #1, 4 (1966–1967) Independent *[Witzend](Witzend) #3, 4, 6, 7 ([Wood](Wallace)(Wally Wood)) (1967–1969) *Heroes, Inc. #1 (Wallace Wood) (1969) *Mr. A. (Comic Art Publishers) (1973) *Avenging World ([Hershenson](Bruce)(Bruce Hershenson)) (1973) (Note that the 2002 Avenging World is a collection of Ditko works including the 1973 comic) *...Wha..!? (Bruce Hershenson) (1975) *Mr. A. (Bruce Hershenson) (1975) [Atlas/Seaboard](Atlas/Seaboard) *The Destructor #1–4 (1975) *Morlock 2001 #3 (1975) *[Tiger-Man](Tiger-Man) #2–3 (1975) [Gang](CPL)(CPL Gang) *[Bullseye](Charlton)(Charlton Bullseye (fanzine)) #1–2 (1975) *StarReach Productions Imagine* #4 (1978) M W Communications *Questar #1–5 (1978–1979) [Comics](Pacific)(Pacific Comics) *[Victory and the Galactic Rangers](Captain)(Captain Victory and the Galactic Rangers) #6 (Missing Man) (1981) *Pacific Presents #1–3 (Missing Man) (1982–1984) *[Star](Silver)(Silver Star (comics)) #2 ([Mocker](The)(Mocker (comics))) (1983) [Media Publishing](New)(New Media Publishing) *Fantasy Illustrated #1 (1982) [Comics](First)(First Comics) [Warp](Warp (First Comics)) #2–4 (1983) [Comics](Eclipse)(Eclipse Comics)* *[Monthly](Eclipse)(Eclipse Monthly) #1–3 ([Static](Static (Eclipse Comics))) (1983) [Comics](Epic)(Epic Comics) *[Coyote](Coyote (comics)) #7–10 (The Djinn) (1984–1985) [Comics](Archie)(Archie Comics) [Fly](The)(Fly (Archie Comics)) #2–4, #5–8, #9 (inking [Ayers](Dick)(Dick Ayers)) (1983–1986) [Ribbon Comics](Blue)(Blue Ribbon Comics) #12 (1984) [Comics](Deluxe)(Deluxe Comics) * [Wood's T.H.U.N.D.E.R. Agents](Wally)(T.H.U.N.D.E.R. Agents) #3–4 (1985–1986) [Press](Renegade)(Renegade Press) *Revolver #1–5, Annual Frisky Frolics #1 (1985–1986) *Ditko's World featuring...Static #1–3 (1986) *Murder #1–3 (1986) Globe Communications *[Cracked](Cracked (magazine)) #218–223, 225–227, 231 (1986–1987) *Monsters Attack #1–5 (1989–1990) *Cracked Collector's Edition #86 (1991) Ace Comics *[Is...the Face?](What)(The Face (comics)) #1–3 (1986–1987) *[of the Skyman](Return)(Skyman (Columbia Comics)) #1 (1987) 3-D- Zone *3-D Substance #1–2 (1990) [Comics](Valiant)(Valiant Comics) *[Wrestling Federation](World)(World Wrestling Federation): Lifestyles of the Brutal and Infamous (1991) *World Wrestling Federation: Out-of-the-Ring Challenges (1991) *World Wrestling Federation: When I Get My Hands... (1991) *WWF Battlemania #5 (1991) *[X-O-Manowar](X-O Manowar) #6 (1992) *[Shadowman](Shadowman (comics)) #6 (1992) *[Man of the Atom](Solar,)(Solar (comics)) #14–15 (1992) *[Robot Fighter](Magnus,)(Magnus, Robot Fighter) #18–19 (1992) [UK](Marvel)(Marvel UK) *[Toon Adventures](Tiny)(Tiny Toon Adventures) #4 (1992) [Horse Comics](Dark)(Dark Horse Comics) *The Safest Place... (1993) [Comics](Defiant)(Defiant Comics) *[Dominion](Dark)(Dark Dominion) #0 (1993) [Comics](Topps)(Topps Comics) *Captain Glory #1 (1993) *[Six](Satan's)(Satan's Six) #1 (inking [Lash](Batton)(Batton Lash)) (1993) *[Kirby's Secret City Saga](Jack)(Secret City Saga) #1–4 (1993) [Studio](Yoe!)(Craig Yoe) [Boy Magazine](Big)(Big Boy Restaurants#Adventures of the Big Boy comic book) #470 (promo) (1997) [Books](Fantagraphics)(Fantagraphics Books)* *Steve Ditko's Strange Avenging Tales #1 (1997) [Comics](AC)(AC Comics) *AC Retro Comics #5 (1998) Robin Snyder *Ditko Package (1989) *The Mocker (1990) *Ditko Public Service Package (1991) *The Ditko Package series: :Steve Ditko's 160-Page Package (1999) :Steve Ditko's 80-Page Package: The Missing Man (1999) :Steve Ditko's 160-Page Package: From Charlton Press (1999) :Steve Ditko's 176-Page Package: Heroes (2000) :Steve Ditko's 32-Page Package: Tsk! Tsk! (2000) *Steve Ditko's Static: Chapters 1 to 14 plus... (2000) *Avenging World (2002) (240-page expanded version of 1973 edition) *Mr. A. (2010) (Revised and reformatted reprint of the 1973 edition) *Mr. A. #15 (2014) (Contains two stories originally intended for the first issue of a Mr. A. series solicited but unpublished by AAA circa 1990) *The Four-Page Series (essays) #1–9 (2012–2015) *The 32-page Series: :The Avenging Mind (2008) :Ditko, etc... (2008) :Ditko Continued... (2008) :Oh, No! Not Again, Ditko (2009) :Ditko Once More (2009) :Ditko Presents (2009) :A Ditko Act Two (2010) :A Ditko Act 3 (2010) :Act 4 (2010) :Act 5 (2010) :Act 6 (2011) :Act 7, Seven, Making 12 (2011) :Act 8, Making Lucky 13 (2011) :A Ditko #14 (2011) :A Ditko #15 (2011) :#16: Sixteen (2012) :#17: Seventeen (2012) :Ate Tea N: 18 (2013) :#9 Teen (2014) :#20 (2014) :#2oww1 (2014) :#22 (2015) :#23 (2015) :#24 (2016) :#25 (2016) :#26 (2018) :Down Memory Lane (2019) *The 32 Series by Ditko: (each collecting 5–6 issues from the 32-page series) :Vol. I: Overture (2019) collecting 5 issues: Avenging Mind through Ditko Once More :Vol. II: Opening Acts (2019) collecting 5 issues: Ditko Presents through Act 5 :Vol. III: Character Twists (2019) collecting 5 issues: Act 6 through A Ditko #15 :Vol. IV: Postshadowing (2019) collecting 6 issues: #16: Sixteen through #2oww1 :Vol. V: Curtain (2019) collecting 6 issues: #22 through Down Memory Lane ## References ## Sources * ## External links * * [Steve Ditko](https://web.archive.org/web/20090201102153/http://www.ditko.comics.org/) Ditko Looked Up (archived website) * * Hart, Hugh. ["Strange and Stranger Salutes Spider-Man Artist Steve Ditko"](https://www.wired.com/underwire/2008/08/book-looks-at-s/), [Wired](Wired (magazine))'', August 21, 2008. [WebCitation archive](https://web.archive.org/web/20110115193922/http://www.wired.com/underwire/2008/08/book-looks-at-s/). Steve Ditko interviewed in [births](Category:1927)(Category:1927 births) [deaths](Category:2018)(Category:2018 deaths) [American artists](Category:20th-century)(Category:20th-century American artists) [American artists](Category:21st-century)(Category:21st-century American artists) [American writers](Category:20th-century)(Category:20th-century American writers) [American writers](Category:21st-century)(Category:21st-century American writers) [comics artists](Category:American)(Category:American comics artists) [comics writers](Category:American)(Category:American comics writers) [people of Slovak descent](Category:American)(Category:American people of Slovak descent) [from Pennsylvania](Category:Artists)(Category:Artists from Pennsylvania) [Comics](Category:Atlas)(Category:Atlas Comics) [Comics](Category:Charlton)(Category:Charlton Comics) [Comics people](Category:DC)(Category:DC Comics people) [Age comics creators](Category:Golden)(Category:Golden Age comics creators) [Award winners](Category:Inkpot)(Category:Inkpot Award winners) [Comics people](Category:Marvel)(Category:Marvel Comics people) [Category:Objectivists](Category:Objectivists) [from Johnstown, Pennsylvania](Category:People)(Category:People from Johnstown, Pennsylvania) [of Visual Arts alumni](Category:School)(Category:School of Visual Arts alumni) [Age comics creators](Category:Silver)(Category:Silver Age comics creators) [States Army soldiers](Category:United)(Category:United States Army soldiers) [Eisner Award Hall of Fame inductees](Category:Will)(Category:Will Eisner Award Hall of Fame inductees) [from Pennsylvania](Category:Writers)(Category:Writers from Pennsylvania)
Austin Butler	austin_butler	# Austin Butler Revision ID: 1160050665 \| Timestamp: 2023-06-14T03:52:11Z --- \| birth_place = [California](Anaheim,)(Anaheim, California), U.S. \| occupation = Actor \| years_active = 2005–present \| partner = [Hudgens](Vanessa)(Vanessa Hudgens) (2011–2019) }} Austin Robert Butler (born August 17, 1991) is an American actor. He is known for portraying [Presley](Elvis)(Elvis Presley) in the musical biopic [Elvis](Elvis (2022 film)) (2022), for which he won a [Globe Award](Golden)(Golden Globe Award for Best Actor – Motion Picture Drama) and a [BAFTA](BAFTA Award for Best Actor in a Leading Role), in addition to a nomination for the [Award for Best Actor](Academy)(Academy Award for Best Actor). [Time](Time (magazine)) magazine named him one of the [most influential people in the world](100)(Time 100) in 2023. Butler began his career on television, first in roles on the [Channel](Disney)(Disney Channel) and [Nickelodeon](Nickelodeon) and later on teen dramas, including recurring parts on [CW](The)(The CW)'s [Unexpected](Life)(Life Unexpected) (2010–2011) and [at Birth](Switched)(Switched at Birth (TV series)) (2011–2012). He gained recognition for starring in [Carrie Diaries](The)(The Carrie Diaries (TV series)) (2013–2014) and [Shannara Chronicles](The)(The Shannara Chronicles) (2016–2017). Butler made his [Broadway](Broadway theatre) debut in the 2018 revival of [Iceman Cometh](The)(The Iceman Cometh) and played [Watson](Tex)(Tex Watson) in [Tarantino](Quentin)(Quentin Tarantino)'s film [Upon a Time in Hollywood](Once)(Once Upon a Time in Hollywood) (2019). ## Early life Butler was born on August 17, 1991, in [California](Anaheim,)(Anaheim, California), the son of Lori Anne (née Howell), an aesthetician, and David Butler. The two divorced when he was seven. He has an older sister, Ashley (born in 1986), who worked as a background actor alongside him on ''[Declassified School Survival Guide](Ned's)(Ned's Declassified School Survival Guide)''. When Butler was thirteen, he was approached by a representative from a background acting management company at the [County Fair](Orange)(Orange County Fair (California)) who helped him get started in the entertainment industry. He found that he enjoyed it and soon began taking acting classes. Butler attended public school until the seventh grade, when he left to be [homeschooled](Homeschooling) to better accommodate his work schedule. He continued his homeschooling until the tenth grade and later passed the [CHSPE](California High School Proficiency Exam), the state's high school equivalency diploma. ## Career ### 2005–2011: Early career in teen sitcoms In 2005, after working as an extra on several television series, including [Unfabulous](Unfabulous) and [and Josh](Drake)(Drake and Josh), Butler landed his first regular job as a background actor playing the role of Zippy Brewster for two seasons on [Nickelodeon](Nickelodeon)'s ''[Declassified School Survival Guide](Ned's)(Ned's Declassified School Survival Guide)''. His friend on the show, [Shaw](Lindsey)(Lindsey Shaw), introduced him to her manager, Pat Cutler, who signed him and launched his career. From that point on, Butler began taking acting seriously as a career. In May 2007, Butler landed a guest starring role on the [Channel](Disney)(Disney Channel) series [Montana](Hannah)(Hannah Montana) playing the role of Derek Hanson opposite actress [Cyrus](Miley)(Miley Cyrus), and in September of that same year, he portrayed Jake Krandle in the episode "iLike Jake" on the [Nickelodeon](Nickelodeon) series [iCarly](iCarly). [[butler.jpg\|thumb\|left\|upright\|Butler in 2008](File:Austin)] In February 2008, Butler landed a main role on another [Nickelodeon](Nickelodeon) series, [101](Zoey)(Zoey 101), playing James Garrett, the love interest of [Lynn Spears](Jamie)(Jamie Lynn Spears)'s title character Zoey in the fourth season; previously, he guest starred on the same show playing the role of Danifer on the third-season episode "Quarantine". In March of that year, he appeared in an episode on the short-lived [Network](Cartoon)(Cartoon Network) sitcom, ''[of Jimmy's Head](Out)(Out of Jimmy's Head)'', playing the role of Lance in the episode titled "Princess". In July 2009, Butler starred in 20th Century Fox's family adventure movie [in the Attic](Aliens)(Aliens in the Attic) portraying Jake Pearson, alongside [Tisdale](Ashley)(Ashley Tisdale), [Jenkins](Carter)(Carter Jenkins), [Hoffman](Robert)(Robert Hoffman (actor)), [Nealon](Kevin)(Kevin Nealon) and [Roberts](Doris)(Doris Roberts). In the movie, his character, along with his family, battles to save their vacation home and the world from an alien invasion. That same summer, Butler appeared in the starring role of Jordan Gallagher on the popular, but short-lived [Family](ABC)(ABC Family) series [& the Rockits](Ruby)(Ruby & the Rockits), alongside [Cassidy](David)(David Cassidy), [Cassidy](Patrick)(Patrick Cassidy (actor)) and his good friend, [Vega](Alexa)(Alexa PenaVega). In February 2010, Butler landed a recurring role as Jones on the [CW](The CW) series [Unexpected](Life)(Life Unexpected), Later that year, he guest-starred in episodes of the Disney Channel sitcoms [of Waverly Place](Wizards)(Wizards of Waverly Place) and [Jonas](Jonas (TV series)) as well as on [Miami](CSI:)(CSI: Miami) and [Defenders](The)(The Defenders (2010 TV series)). Also in 2010, Butler's Aliens in the Attic co-star [Tisdale](Ashley)(Ashley Tisdale) invited him to audition for a lead role in the film ''[Fabulous Adventure](Sharpay's)(Sharpay's Fabulous Adventure)'', a spin-off of [Disney](The Walt Disney Company)'s [School Musical](High)(High School Musical) franchise that followed the adventures of [Evans](Sharpay)(Sharpay Evans) after high school as she tries to get her big break on [Broadway](Broadway theatre). In the film, Butler plays Peyton Leverette, the love interest of Sharpay. Regarding his casting, Butler told Week In Rewind, "I had worked with Ashley once, and then I heard about the movie, because she called me and said, 'Austin, I want you to come and read for the director for this—I think you'd be perfect.' So, I went and met with the director, and it went really well, and I ended up doing the movie." The film was released direct to DVD on April 19, 2011. In 2011, he booked the recurring role of Wilke on the [Family](ABC)(ABC Family) series [at Birth](Switched)(Switched at Birth (TV series)), debuting on June 27, 2011. In the same year, he signed on to play the lead role of Zack Garvey in the [Lifetime](LMN (TV channel)) TV movie The Bling Ring, made by [Clark Productions](Dick)(Dick Clark Productions) and directed by [Lembeck](Michael)(Michael Lembeck), based on the [group of the same name](burglary)(Bling Ring) who targeted the homes of Hollywood's celebrities. The movie was released on September 26, 2011. In January 2012, Butler guest-starred on the [NBC](NBC) comedy [You There, Chelsea?](Are)(Are You There, Chelsea?) ### 2012–2017: Leading roles in television In his early twenties, Butler continued to act in teen-oriented television series, but gained greater recognition his starring roles in [Carrie Diaries](The)(The Carrie Diaries (TV series)) and later [Shannara Chronicles](The)(The Shannara Chronicles); he also branched out into new stage and film projects. In March 2012, Butler was cast in The CW's [and the City](Sex)(Sex and the City) prequel series [Carrie Diaries](The)(The Carrie Diaries (TV series)) to play Sebastian Kydd, a brooding heartthrob attending the same high school as [Bradshaw](Carrie)(Carrie Bradshaw), played by [Robb](AnnaSophia)(AnnaSophia Robb). The Carrie Diaries is based on [Bushnell](Candace)(Candace Bushnell)'s [by the same name](novel)(The Carrie Diaries) and follows Bradshaw's life in the 1980s as a teenager in New York City. The show was cancelled after two seasons. In April 2014, it was announced that Butler had joined the cast of the play Death of the Author at the [Playhouse](Geffen)(Geffen Playhouse) in [Angeles](Los)(Los Angeles). He played the role of Bradley, a pre-law student with a double major in political science and math, and is set to graduate from a wealthy university. The play is directed by [DeLorenzo](Bart)(Bart DeLorenzo) and written by [Drukman](Steven)(Steven Drukman). Following previews on May 20, 2014, the play ran from May 28 to June 29. Butler then joined the cast of [Arrow](Arrow (TV series)) in the recurring role of Chase. His character was a DJ and a love interest of [Holland](Willa)(Willa Holland)'s character [Queen](Thea)(Thea Queen). He co-starred with [Cosgrove](Miranda)(Miranda Cosgrove) and [Sizemore](Tom)(Tom Sizemore) in the 2015 thriller film [Intruders](The)(The Intruders (2015 film)), and appeared in Kevin Smith's 2016 horror-comedy film [Hosers](Yoga)(Yoga Hosers) about 15-year-old yoga nuts Colleen Collette and Colleen McKenzie. The films also stars [Depp](Johnny)(Johnny Depp), [Depp](Lily-Rose)(Lily-Rose Depp), [Quinn Smith](Harley)(Harley Quinn Smith) and [Joel Osment](Haley)(Haley Joel Osment). In 2016, he began playing the role of Wil Ohmsford in [Shannara Chronicles](The)(The Shannara Chronicles), [MTV](MTV)'s television adaptation of the [Brooks](Terry)(Terry Brooks) novel [Elfstones of Shannara](The)(The Elfstones of Shannara). The series was cancelled after two seasons. ### 2018–present: Critical acclaim and Elvis [[File:Austin Butler 2019 by Glenn Francis.jpg\|thumb\|upright\|Butler at the premiere of [Upon a Time in Hollywood](Once)(Once Upon a Time in Hollywood) in 2019]] Butler made his Broadway debut playing Don Parritt, the "lost boy" in [Iceman Cometh](The)(The Iceman Cometh), which starred [Washington](Denzel)(Denzel Washington) and David Morse. Previews for the limited run began in March 2018, and the play closed in July 2018. Per Hilton Als' review of the play in [New Yorker](The)(The New Yorker): "Although there are many performers in George C. Wolfe's staging of Eugene O'Neill's phenomenal [...] drama, The Iceman Cometh, [...] there is only one actor, and his name is Austin Butler." In 2019, he appeared in the [Tarantino](Quentin)(Quentin Tarantino) film [Upon a Time in Hollywood](Once)(Once Upon a Time in Hollywood) as a fictional version of [Family](Manson)(Manson Family) member [Watson](Tex)(Tex Watson). Though he had limited screen time, his performance has been described as "intense" and "brooding". In that same year, Butler was cast as [Presley](Elvis)(Elvis Presley) in [Elvis](Elvis (2022 film)), a biographical film about the singer directed by [Luhrmann](Baz)(Baz Luhrmann). The film premiered at the [Cannes Film Festival](2022)(2022 Cannes Film Festival), where it received a twelve-minute standing ovation from the audience, the longest at the year's festival. Butler's performance received critical acclaim, as well as praise from the Presley family. He described the part as "the most intimidating thing I've ever done. I honestly didn't sleep for about two years." Butler hosted an episode of [Night Live](Saturday)(Saturday Night Live) later that year. Butler will next star in the [drama](war)(war drama) miniseries [of the Air](Masters)(Masters of the Air). He will then play [Feyd-Rautha](Feyd-Rautha) in the science fiction epic [Part Two](Dune:)(Dune: Part Two) and will star alongside [Hardy](Tom)(Tom Hardy) and [Comer](Jodie)(Jodie Comer) in [Nichols](Jeff)(Jeff Nichols)’s [Bikeriders](The)(The Bikeriders). ## Personal life Butler enjoys creating and recording music. He taught himself to play guitar at the age of thirteen and piano at sixteen. He was in a relationship with actress [Hudgens](Vanessa)(Vanessa Hudgens) from 2011 to 2019. Since late 2021, Butler has been in a relationship with model [Gerber](Kaia)(Kaia Gerber). In 2014, Butler's mother died of [cancer](duodenal)(duodenal cancer). ## Acting credits ### Film ### Television ### Theater ## Awards and nominations ## References ## External links * }} [births](Category:1991)(Category:1991 births) [people](Category:Living)(Category:Living people) [American male actors](Category:21st-century)(Category:21st-century American male actors) [American male singers](Category:21st-century)(Category:21st-century American male singers) [American singers](Category:21st-century)(Category:21st-century American singers) [child singers](Category:American)(Category:American child singers) [male child actors](Category:American)(Category:American male child actors) [male film actors](Category:American)(Category:American male film actors) [male television actors](Category:American)(Category:American male television actors) [Actor AACTA Award winners](Category:Best)(Category:Best Actor AACTA Award winners) [Actor BAFTA Award winners](Category:Best)(Category:Best Actor BAFTA Award winners) [Drama Actor Golden Globe (film) winners](Category:Best)(Category:Best Drama Actor Golden Globe (film) winners) [impersonators](Category:Elvis)(Category:Elvis impersonators) [actors from Anaheim, California](Category:Male)(Category:Male actors from Anaheim, California) [from Anaheim, California](Category:Musicians)(Category:Musicians from Anaheim, California) [from California](Category:Singers)(Category:Singers from California)
Bourbon whiskey	bourbon_whiskey	# Bourbon whiskey Revision ID: 1158838215 \| Timestamp: 2023-06-06T15:06:07Z --- Bourbon () is a type of [barrel-aged](Aging (food)) [whiskey](American)(American whiskey) made primarily from corn ([maize](maize)). The name derives from the [French](Kingdom of France) [dynasty](Bourbon)(Bourbon dynasty), although the precise source of inspiration is uncertain; contenders include [County](Bourbon)(Bourbon County, Kentucky) in [Kentucky](Kentucky) and [Street](Bourbon)(Bourbon Street) in [Orleans](New)(New Orleans), both of which are named after the dynasty.Kiniry, Laura. "[Where Bourbon Really Got Its Name and More Tips on America's Native Spirit](http://www.smithsonianmag.com/arts-culture/where-bourbon-really-got-its-name-and-more-tips-on-americas-native-spirit-145879/?no-ist)". Smithsonian.com. June 13, 2013. The name bourbon was not applied until the 1850s, and the Kentucky etymology was not advanced until the 1870s. Bourbon has been [distilled](distilled) since the 18th century. Although bourbon may be made anywhere in the United States, it is strongly associated with the [South](American)(Southern United States) in general, and with Kentucky in particular. As of 2014, distillers' wholesale market revenue for bourbon sold within the U.S. was about $2.7 billion, and bourbon made up about two thirds of the $1.6 billion of U.S. exports of distilled spirits. According to the [Spirits Council of the United States](Distilled)(Distilled Spirits Council of the United States), in 2018 U.S. distillers derived $3.6 billion in revenue from bourbon and [whiskey](Tennessee)(Tennessee whiskey) (a closely related spirit produced in the state of [Tennessee](Tennessee)). Bourbon was recognized in 1964 by the [Congress](U.S.)(U.S. Congress) as a "distinctive product of the United States". Bourbon sold in the U.S. must be produced in the country from at least 51% corn and stored in a new container of charred [oak](oak). ## History [[from Gettysburg.jpeg\|thumb\|left\|upright\|Nineteenth century bourbon bottle](File:Bourbon-bottle)] Distilling was most likely brought to present-day Kentucky in the late 18th century by Scots, [Scots-Irish](Scotch-Irish American), and other settlers (including English, Irish, Welsh, German, and French) who began to farm the area in earnest. The origin of bourbon as a distinct form of whiskey is not well documented and there are many conflicting legends and claims. For example, the invention of bourbon is often attributed to [Craig](Elijah)(Elijah Craig), a [Baptist](Baptist) minister and distiller credited with many Kentucky firsts (e.g., [mill](fulling)(fulling mill), [mill](paper)(paper mill), [ropewalk](ropewalk)) who is said to have been the first to age the product in charred oak casks, a process that gives bourbon its brownish color and distinctive taste.John E. Kleber, ed., The Kentucky Encyclopedia (Lexington: [Press of Kentucky](University)(University Press of Kentucky), 1992), 103 In [County](Bourbon)(Bourbon County, Kentucky), across the county line from Craig's distillery in what was then [County](Fayette)(Fayette County, Kentucky), an early distiller named Jacob Spears is credited with being the first to label his product as Bourbon whiskey. Although still popular and often repeated, the Craig legend is [apocrypha](apocrypha#Metaphorical usage)l. Similarly, the Spears story is a local favorite but is rarely repeated outside the county. There likely was no single "inventor" of bourbon, which developed into its present form in the late 19th century. Essentially, any type of grain can be used to make whiskey, and the practice of aging whiskey and charring the barrels for better flavor had been known in Europe for centuries.Cowdery, Charles K., "Who Invented Bourbon?" Malt Advocate Magazine, (4th Quarter 2002), pp. 72-75 The late date of the Bourbon County etymology has led historian Michael Veach to dispute its authenticity. He proposes the whiskey was named after [Street](Bourbon)(Bourbon Street) in [Orleans](New)(New Orleans), a major port where shipments of Kentucky whiskey sold well as a cheaper alternative to French [cognac](cognac). Another proposed origin of the name is the association with the geographic area known as Old Bourbon, consisting of the original Bourbon County in [Virginia](Virginia) organized in 1785. This region included much of today's Eastern Kentucky, including 34 of the modern counties. It included the current [County](Bourbon)(Bourbon County, Kentucky) in Kentucky, which became a county when Kentucky separated from Virginia as a new state in 1792.Leon Howlett, The Kentucky Bourbon Experience: A Visual Tour of Kentucky's Bourbon Distilleries, "Bourbon- A Short History", 2012, pg. 7.Cowdery, Charles K., Bourbon, Straight: The Uncut and Unfiltered Story of American Whiskey, p. 25 Numerous newspaper articles reference whiskey from Bourbon County, Kentucky dating as far back as 1824.How Bourbon Really Got Its Name https://robertfmoss.com/features/How-Bourbon-Really-Got-Its-Name According to Charles K. Cowdery, Although many distilleries operated in Bourbon County historically, no distilleries operated there between 1919, when [Prohibition](Prohibition in the United States) began in Kentucky, and late 2014, when a small distillery opened – a period of 95 years. Prohibition devastated the bourbon industry. With the ratification of the 18th amendment in 1919, all distilleries were forced to stop operating, although a few were granted permits to bottle existing stocks of medicinal whiskey. Later, a few were allowed to resume production when the stocks ran out. Distilleries that were granted permits to produce or bottle medicinal whiskey included [Brown-Forman](Brown-Forman), Frankfort Distillery, James Thompson and Brothers, American Medical Spirits, the Schenley Distillery (modern-day [Trace Distillery](Buffalo)(Buffalo Trace Distillery)), and the [Ph. Stitzel Distillery](A.)(A. Ph. Stitzel Distillery). A refinement often dubiously credited to [C. Crow](James)(James C. Crow) is the [mash](sour)(sour mash) process, which conditions each new [fermentation](fermentation (food)) with some amount of spent mash. Spent mash is also known as spent beer, distillers' [grain](spent)(brewer's spent grain), stillage, and slop or feed mash, so named because it is used as animal feed. The [acid](acid) introduced when using the sour mash controls the growth of [bacteria](bacterium) that could taint the whiskey and creates a proper [pH](pH) balance for the yeast to work. A [resolution](concurrent)(concurrent resolution) adopted by the [States Congress](United)(United States Congress) in 1964 declared bourbon to be a "distinctive product of the United States" and asked "the appropriate agencies of the United States Government ... [to] take appropriate action to prohibit importation into the United States of whiskey designated as 'Bourbon Whiskey'."Defining "Bourbon". The State (Columbia, SC), 5-1-02, p. D1. [regulation](Federal)(Code of Federal Regulations) now defines bourbon whiskey to only include bourbon produced in the U.S. In recent years, bourbon and [whiskey](Tennessee)(Tennessee whiskey), which is sometimes regarded as a different type of spirit but generally meets the legal requirements to be called bourbon, have enjoyed significant growth in popularity. The industry trade group [Spirits Council of the United States](Distilled)(Distilled Spirits Council of the United States) (DISCUS) tracks sales of bourbon and Tennessee whiskey together.Associated Press, ["Bourbon, Tennessee Whiskey Sales Up in US; Exports Top $1B"](http://www.seattletimes.com/business/bourbon-tennessee-whiskey-sales-soar-in-us-exports-top-1b/) (February 3, 2015). According to DISCUS, during 2009–2014, the volume of 9-liter cases of whiskey increased by 28.5% overall. Higher-end bourbon and whiskeys experienced the greatest growth. Gross supplier revenues (including [excise tax](federal)(Excise tax in the United States)) for U.S. bourbon and Tennessee whiskey increased by 46.7% over the 2009–2014 period, with the greatest growth coming from high-end products. In 2014, more than 19 million nine-liter cases of bourbon and Tennessee whiskey were sold in the U.S., generating almost $2.7 billion in wholesale distillery revenue. U.S. exports of bourbon whiskey surpassed $1 billion for the first time in 2013; distillers hailed the rise of a "golden age of Kentucky bourbon" and predicted further growth. In 2014, it was estimated that U.S. bourbon whiskey exports surpassed $1 billion, making up the majority of the U.S. total of $1.6 billion in spirits exports. Major export markets for U.S. spirits are, in descending order: Canada, the United Kingdom, Germany, Australia, and France. The largest percentage increases in U.S. exports were, in descending order: Brazil, the Dominican Republic, Bahamas, Israel, and United Arab Emirates. Key elements of growth in the markets showing the largest increases have been changes of law, trade agreements, and reductions of tariffs, as well as increased consumer demand for premium-category spirits. ## Legal requirements [[File:Beam Rack House.jpg\|thumb\|right\|American [oak](white)(Quercus alba) [barrel](barrel)s filled with new bourbon whiskey rest in a rickhouse, giving bourbon its well-known copper color.]] Bourbon's legal definition varies somewhat from country to country, but many trade agreements require that the name "bourbon" be reserved for products made in the U.S. The U.S. regulations for labeling and advertising bourbon apply only to products made for consumption within the U.S.; they do not apply to [distilled](distilled) spirits made for export. Canadian law requires products labeled bourbon to be made in the U.S. and also to conform to the requirements that apply within the U.S. The European Union also requires bourbon to be made in the U.S. following the law of the country. But in other countries, products labeled bourbon may not adhere to the same standards. The Federal Standards of Identity for Distilled Spirits, codified under 27 CFR §5.22(b)(1)(i), states bourbon made for U.S. consumption must be: * Produced in the U.S. and its Territories (Puerto Rico), as well as the District of Columbia * Made from a grain mixture that is at least 51% [corn](corn) * Aged in new, charred oak containers * Distilled to no more than 160 (U.S.) [proof](alcoholic proof) (80% [by volume](alcohol)(alcohol by volume)) * Entered into the container for aging at no more than 125 proof (62.5% [by volume](alcohol)(alcohol by volume)) * Bottled (like other whiskeys) at 80 proof or more (40% [by volume](alcohol)(alcohol by volume)) Bourbon has no minimum specified duration for its aging period.[Favorite whiskey myths debunked](http://chuckcowdery.blogspot.com/2009/12/favorite-whiskey-myths-debunked.html) , The Chuck Cowdery Blog, December 16, 2009. (Accessed January 2011.) Products aged for as little as three months are sold as bourbon. The exception is [straight](Straight whiskey) bourbon, which has a minimum aging requirement of two years. In addition, any bourbon aged less than four years must include an age statement on its label. Bourbon that meets the above requirements, has been aged for a minimum of two years, and does not have added coloring, flavoring, or other spirits may be – but is not required to be – called [straight](Straight whiskey) bourbon. * Bourbon that is labeled as straight that has been aged under four years must be labeled with the duration of its aging. * Bourbon that has an age stated on its label must be labeled with the age of the youngest whiskey in the bottle (not counting the age of any added [grain spirits](neutral)(neutral grain spirits) in a bourbon that is labeled as [blended](blended whiskey), as neutral-grain spirits are not considered whiskey under the regulations and are not required to be aged at all). [Bottled-in-bond](Bottled-in-bond) bourbon is a sub-category of straight bourbon and must be aged at least four years. Bourbon that is labeled blended (or as a blend) may contain added coloring, flavoring, and other spirits, such as un-aged neutral grain spirits, but at least 51% of the product must be straight bourbon. "High rye bourbon" is not a legally defined term but usually means a bourbon with 20–35% rye. High-wheat bourbons are described as more mild and subdued compared to high-rye varieties. Bourbon that has been aged for fewer than three years cannot legally be referred to as whiskey (or whisky) in the EU. ### Geographic origin [[File:Bourbon - National Historic Landmarks.jpg\|thumb\|left\|upright=1.35\|The bourbon distilleries that produce [Trace](Buffalo)(Buffalo Trace Distillery) (left), [Mark](Maker's)(Maker's Mark) (center), and [Reserve](Woodford)(Woodford Reserve) (right), are [Historic Landmarks in Kentucky](National)(List of National Historic Landmarks in Kentucky).]] On May 4, 1964, the U.S. Congress recognized bourbon whiskey as a "distinctive product of the United States" by concurrent resolution. Bourbon may be produced anywhere in the U.S. where it is legal to distill spirits, but most [brands](List of Bourbon brands) are produced in Kentucky, where bourbon production has a strong historical association. The filtering of iron-free water through the high concentrations of limestone that are unique to the area is often touted by bourbon distillers in Kentucky as a signature step in the bourbon-making process. On August 2, 2007, the [Senate](U.S.)(U.S. Senate) passed a resolution sponsored by Senator [Bunning](Jim)(Jim Bunning) (R-KY) officially declaring September 2007 to be [Bourbon Heritage Month](National)(National Bourbon Heritage Month), commemorating the history of bourbon whiskey.S. Res. No. 110-294 (2007). Notably, the resolution claimed that Congress had declared bourbon to be "America's Native Spirit" in its 1964 resolution. However, the 1964 resolution did not contain such a statement; it declared bourbon to be a distinctive product identifiable with the U.S. (in a similar way that [Scotch](Scotch whisky) is considered identifiable with Scotland).[Is Bourbon Officially America's Native Spirit?](http://chuckcowdery.blogspot.com/2009/04/is-bourbon-officially-americas-native.html) , The Chuck Cowdery Blog, April 27, 2009. The resolution was passed again in 2008. As of 2018, 95% of all bourbon is produced in Kentucky, according to the Kentucky Distillers' Association. As of 2018, there were 68 whiskey distilleries in Kentucky, this was up 250 percent in the past ten years. At that time, the state had more than 8.1 million barrels of bourbon that were aging – a number that greatly exceeds the state's population of about 4.3 million.["Maker's Mark to restore alcohol content of whiskey"](https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/nation/2013/02/17/makers-mark-restore-proof/1926081/) , [Today](USA)(USA Today), February 17, 2013. [Kentucky](Bardstown,)(Bardstown, Kentucky), is home to the annual [Festival](Bourbon)(Kentucky Bourbon Festival) held each September. It has been called the "Bourbon Capital of the World" by the Bardstown Tourism Commission and the Kentucky Bourbon Festival organizers who have registered the phrase as a [trademark](trademark). The [Bourbon Trail](Kentucky)(Kentucky Bourbon Trail) is the name of a tourism promotion program organized by the Kentucky Distillers' Association that is aimed at attracting visitors to the distilleries in Kentucky, particularly [Roses](Four)(Four Roses) ([Lawrenceburg](Lawrenceburg, Kentucky)), [Hill](Heaven)(Heaven Hill) ([Bardstown](Bardstown, Kentucky)), [Beam](Jim)(Jim Beam) ([Clermont](Clermont, Kentucky)), [Mark](Maker's)(Maker's Mark) ([Loretto](Loretto, Kentucky)), [Branch](Town)(Town Branch) ([Lexington](Lexington, Kentucky)), [Turkey](Wild)(Wild Turkey (bourbon)) ([Lawrenceburg](Lawrenceburg, Kentucky)), and [Reserve](Woodford)(Woodford Reserve) ([Versailles](Versailles, Kentucky)). [Tennessee](Tennessee) is home to other major bourbon makers, although most prefer to call their product "[whiskey](Tennessee)(Tennessee whiskey)" instead, including giant [Daniel's](Jack)(Jack Daniel's). It is legally defined under Tennessee House Bill 1084, the [American Free Trade Agreement](North)(North American Free Trade Agreement) and at least one other international trade agreement as the recognized name for a straight bourbon whiskey produced in Tennessee.[SICE - Free Trade Agreement between the Government of the United States of America and the Government of the Republic of Chile](http://www.sice.oas.org/Trade/chiusa_e/Text_e.asp) , Section E, Article 3.15 "Distinctive products". It is also required to meet the legal definition of bourbon under Canadian law. Although some Tennessee whiskey makers maintain that a pre-aging filtration through chunks of maple charcoal, known as the [County Process](Lincoln)(Lincoln County Process) and legally mandated since 2013, As U.S. federal law requires statements of origin on labels to be accurate, and various international trade agreements also codify this requirement, the Tennessee law effectively gives a firm definition to Tennessee whiskey.}} make its flavor distinct from bourbon, U.S. regulations defining bourbon neither require nor prohibit its use.Charles K. Cowdery, [Tennessee Whiskey Versus Bourbon Whiskey](http://chuckcowdery.blogspot.com/2009/02/tennessee-whiskey-versus-bourbon.html) , The Chuck Cowdery Blog, February 21, 2009. (Accessed January 2011.)[Filtration and the Lincoln County Process](http://bourbonobserver.blogspot.com/2009/06/filtration-and-lincoln-county-process.html) , The Bourbon Observer, June 13, 2009. Bourbon also was and is made in other U.S. states. The largest bourbon distiller outside of Kentucky and Tennessee is [of Indiana](MGP)(MGP of Indiana), which primarily wholesales its spirits products to bottling companies that sell them under about 50 different brand names – in some cases, misleadingly marketed as "craft" whiskey, despite being produced at a large wholesaler's factory. ## Production process [[with a flavour to impart - geograph.org.uk - 286747.jpg\|thumb\|right\|Used bourbon barrels awaiting fresh contents in Scotland](File:Barrels)] To be legally sold as bourbon, the whiskey's [bill](mash)(mash ingredient) requires a minimum of 51% corn, with the remainder being any cereal grain. A proposed change to U.S. regulations will expand allowable "grains" to include seeds of the pseudocereals amaranth, buckwheat, and quinoa. A mash bill that contains wheat instead of rye produces what is known as a wheated bourbon. The grain is ground and mixed with water. Usually mash from a previous distillation is added to ensure consistency across batches, creating a sour mash. Finally, yeast is added, and the mash is [fermented](ethanol fermentation). It is distilled to (typically) between 65% and 80% alcohol using either a traditional [alembic](alembic) (or [still](pot)(pot still)) or the much less expensive [still](continuous)(continuous still). Most modern bourbons are initially run off using a column still and then redistilled in a "doubler" (alternatively known as a "thumper" or "retort") that is basically a pot still.[Pot Stills Versus Column Stills](http://chuckcowdery.blogspot.com/2008/02/pot-stills-versus-column-stills.html) , The Chuck Cowdery Blog: American Whiskey & Other Stuff, February 26, 2008. Retrieved January 2, 2015. The resulting clear spirit, called "white dog", is placed in charred new oak containers for aging. In practice, these containers are generally barrels made from American [oak](white)(Quercus alba). The spirit gains its color and much of its flavor from the [caramelized](caramelized) [sugar](sugar)s and [vanillin](vanillin)s in the charred wood. Straight bourbon must be aged at least two years, and blended bourbon must contain at least 51% straight bourbon on a proof gallon basis (i.e., most of the alcohol in the blend must be from straight bourbon). The remainder of the spirits in a blended bourbon may be neutral grain spirits that are not aged at all. If a product is labeled merely as bourbon whiskey rather than straight or blended, no specific minimum aging period is prescribed – only that the product has been "stored at not more than 62.5% alcohol by volume (125 proof) in charred new oak containers". Bourbons gain more color and flavor the longer they age in wood. Changes to the spirit also occur due to [evaporation](evaporation) and chemical processes such as [oxidation](oxidation). Lower-priced bourbons tend to be aged relatively briefly. Even for higher-priced bourbons, "maturity" rather than a particular age duration is often the goal, as over-aging bourbons can negatively affect the flavor of the bourbon (making it taste woody, bitter, or unbalanced). After maturing, bourbon is withdrawn from the barrel and is typically [filtered](chill filtering) and diluted with water. It is then bottled at no less than 80 US proof (40% abv). Although most bourbon whiskey is sold at 80 US proof, other common proofs are 86, 90, and 100. All "[in bond](bottled)(bottled in bond)" bourbon is 100 proof. Some higher-proof bottlings are marketed as "[proof](barrel)(barrel proof)", meaning they have not been diluted or have been only lightly diluted after removal from the barrels. Bourbon whiskey may be sold at less than 80 proof but must be labeled as "diluted bourbon". After processing, barrels remain saturated with up to of bourbon, although is the norm. They may not be reused for bourbon, and most are sold to distilleries in Canada, Scotland, Ireland, Mexico, and the Caribbean for aging other spirits. Some are employed in the manufacture of various barrel-aged products, including amateur and professionally brewed bourbon [beer](barrel-aged)(barrel-aged beer), barbecue sauce, wine, hot sauce, and others. Since 2011, Jim Beam has employed barrel rinsing on a large scale to extract bourbon from its used barrels, mixing the extract with a 6-year-old Beam bourbon to create a 90-proof product that it sells as "Devil's Cut". The bottling operation for bourbon is the process of filtering, mixing together straight whiskey from different barrels (sometimes from different distilleries), diluting with water, blending with other ingredients (if producing blended bourbon), and filling containers to produce the final product that is marketed to consumers. By itself, the phrase "bottled by" means only that. Only if the bottler operates the distillery that produced the whiskey may "distilled by" be added to the label. Labeling requirements for bourbon and other alcoholic beverages (including the requirements for what is allowed to be called bourbon under U.S. law) are defined in the U.S. [of Federal Regulations](Code)(Code of Federal Regulations). No whiskey made outside the U.S. may be labeled bourbon or sold as bourbon inside the U.S. Various other countries have trade agreements with the U.S. to recognize bourbon as a distinctive product of the U.S., including Canada and Mexico, the United Kingdom, Chile, and Brazil. A 2016 experiment by Louisville craft distiller Jefferson's Bourbon suggests that in the era before whiskey was routinely bottled at the distillery, Kentucky bourbon developed a superior taste because it was shipped in barrels, using water transport wherever practical. To test this theory, Jefferson's cofounder Trey Zoeller sent two barrels of the company's signature product to New York City via barge, first down the Ohio and Mississippi Rivers and then along the [Waterway](Intracoastal)(Intracoastal Waterway). As a control, he brought a batch of the same whiskey that had remained in Louisville during the same period. According to [Mechanics](Popular)(Popular Mechanics) writer Jacqueline Detwiler, who documented the test, the sample that made the waterborne journey "was mature beyond its age, richer, with new flavors of tobacco, vanilla, caramel, and honey. It was some of the best bourbon any of us had ever drunk." It was theorized that the action of gentle sloshing of the whiskey in barrels for a period of 2 to 4 weeks during the barge trip led to a dramatic improvement in smoothness and taste. Chemical analysis of the two samples revealed significant differences in molecular profiles, with the sample transported by water having a greater diversity of aromatic compounds. ## Uses [[File:Mint Julep im Silberbecher.jpg\|thumb\|left\|upright\|A [julep](mint)(mint julep)]] Bourbon is served in a variety of manners, including [neat](bartending terminology); diluted with water; over ice ("on the rocks"); with [cola](cola) or other beverages in simple mixed drinks; and [cocktails](in)(Whiskey cocktail) – including the [Manhattan](Manhattan (cocktail)), [Smash](Bourbon)(Whiskey smash), the [Fashioned](Old)(Old fashioned (cocktail)), the [sour](whiskey)(whiskey sour), and the [julep](mint)(mint julep). Bourbon is also used in [cooking](cooking), and it was historically used for medicinal purposes. Bourbon can be used in a variety of [confections](confections) such as a [banana](banana) bourbon syrup for [waffles](waffles), a flavoring for [cake](chocolate)(chocolate cake), and fruit-based desserts like grilled peach [sundaes](sundaes) served with salted bourbon-[caramel](caramel) or brown sugar [shortcake](shortcake) with warmed bourbon [peach](peach)es. It is an optional ingredient in several [pie](pie) recipes traditional to [cuisine](American)(American cuisine), including [pie](pumpkin)(pumpkin pie), where it can be combined with brown sugar and pecans to make a sweet and crunchy topping for the creamy pumpkin pie filling. It can also be used as a flavoring in [sauces](sauces) for savory dishes like [grit](Grits) cakes with country [ham](ham) served with bourbon [mayonnaise](mayonnaise), Kentucky bourbon [chili](chili con carne), and grilled [steak](flank)(flank steak). ## See also * [Whiskey Trail](American)(American Whiskey Trail) * [Trail](Bourbon)(Bourbon Trail) * [of cocktails with bourbon](List)(List of cocktails with bourbon) * [of maize dishes](List)(List of maize dishes) * [Moonshine](Moonshine) * [whiskey](Rye)(Rye whiskey) * [barrel whiskey](Single)(Single barrel whiskey) * [batch](Small)(Small batch) ## References ### Notes ### Citations ## Further reading * Carson, Gerald. The Social History of Bourbon: An Unhurried Account of Our Star-Spangled Drink (Lexington, KY: [Press of Kentucky](University)(University Press of Kentucky)), 1963. . * Cowdery, Charles K. Bourbon, Straight: The Uncut and Unfiltered Story of American Whiskey (Chicago: Made and Bottled in Kentucky), 2004. . * Crowgey, Henry G. Kentucky Bourbon: The Early Years of Whiskeymaking (Lexington, KY: [Press of Kentucky](University)(University Press of Kentucky)), 1971. . * . * Regan, Gary and Mardee Haidin Regan. ''The Bourbon Companion: A Connoisseur's Guide'' (Philadelphia, PA: [Press](Running)(Running Press)), 1998. . [ ](Category:Bourbon whiskey) [of Kentucky](Category:Economy)(Category:Economy of Kentucky) [of Louisville, Kentucky](Category:Economy)(Category:Economy of Louisville, Kentucky) [cuisine](Category:Kentucky)(Category:Kentucky cuisine) [Category:Whisky](Category:Whisky)
Amazon rainforest	amazon_rainforest	# Amazon rainforest Revision ID: 1160163274 \| Timestamp: 2023-06-14T19:38:21Z --- Amazon\|and\|Amazonia (disambiguation)}} and the [drainage basin](Amazon)(Amazon basin) in light green. \| map_width = \| coordinates = \| county = \| region = \| country = [Bolivia](Bolivia), [Brazil](Brazil), [Colombia](Colombia), [Ecuador](Ecuador), [Guiana](French)(French Guiana) ([France](French Fifth Republic)), [Guyana](Guyana), [Peru](Peru), [Suriname](Suriname), and [Venezuela](Venezuela) \| elevation = \| area = \| max_area = \| date_max_area = \| status = \| established = \| visitation = \| visitation_year = \| events = \| authority = \| website = \| ecosystem = \| classification_WWF = \| classification_EPA = \| classification_CEC = \| disturbance = \| forest_cover = \| species = \| indicator_plants = \| lesser_flora = \| fauna = }} The Amazon rainforest, or ; , , or usually ; ; . In English, the names are sometimes capitalized further, as Amazon Rainforest, Amazon Forest, or Amazon Jungle.}} also called Amazon jungle or Amazonia, is a [broadleaf](moist)(Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests) [rainforest](tropical)(tropical rainforest) in the [biome](Amazon)(Amazon biome) that covers most of the [basin](Amazon)(Amazon basin) of South America. This basin encompasses , of which are covered by the [rainforest](rainforest). This region includes territory belonging to nine nations and 3,344 formally acknowledged [territories](indigenous)(Indigenous territory (Brazil)). The majority of the forest, 60%, is in [Brazil](Amazônia Legal), followed by [Peru](Peruvian Amazonia) with 13%, [Colombia](Amazon natural region) with 10%, and with minor amounts in [Bolivia](Bolivia), [Ecuador](Ecuador), [Guiana](French)(French Guiana), [Guyana](Guyana), [Suriname](Suriname), and [Venezuela](Venezuela). Four nations have "[Amazonas](Amazonas (disambiguation))" as the name of one of their first-level administrative [regions](regions), and [France](France) uses the name "[Amazonian Park](Guiana)(Guiana Amazonian Park)" for French Guiana's protected rainforest area. The Amazon represents over half of [Earth](Earth)'s remaining rainforests, and comprises the largest and most [biodiverse](biodiverse) tract of [tropical](Tropics) rainforest in the world, with an estimated 390 billion individual [trees](trees) in about 16,000 species. More than 30 million people of 350 different ethnic groups live in the Amazon, which are subdivided into 9 different national political systems and 3,344 formally acknowledged [territories](indigenous)(Indigenous territory (Brazil)). Indigenous peoples make up 9% of the total population, and 60 of the groups remain largely isolated. Large scale deforestation is occurring in the forest, creating different harmful effects. Economic losses due to deforestation in Brazil could be approximately 7 times higher in comparison to the cost of all commodities produced through deforestation. In 2023 the [Bank](World)(World Bank), published a report proposing non-deforestation based economic program in the region. ## Etymology The name Amazon is said to arise from a war [de Orellana](Francisco)(Francisco de Orellana) fought with the [Tapuyas](Tapuyas) and other tribes. The women of the tribe fought alongside the men, as was their custom. Orellana derived the name Amazonas from the [Amazons](Amazons) of [mythology](Greek)(Greek mythology), described by [Herodotus](Herodotus) and [Diodorus](Diodorus Siculus). ## History [[File:Naturalist on the River Amazons figure 4.png\|thumb\|[Bates](Henry Walter Bates)'s 1863 [Naturalist on the River Amazons](The)(The Naturalist on the River Amazons)]] In the Amazonas, there has been fighting and wars between the neighboring tribes of the [Jivaro](Jivaroan peoples). Several tribes of the Jivaroan group, including the [Shuar](Shuar people), practised [headhunting](headhunting) for trophies and [headshrinking](Shrunken head). The accounts of missionaries to the area in the borderlands between Brazil and Venezuela have recounted constant infighting in the [Yanomami](Yanomami) tribes. More than a third of the Yanomamo males, on average, died from warfare.Chagnon, Napoleon A. (1992). Yanomamo. New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston. The [Munduruku](Munduruku) were a [warlike](Warrior) tribe that expanded along the [Tapajós](Tapajós) river and its tributaries and were feared by neighboring tribes. In the early 19th century, the Munduruku were pacified and subjugated by the Brazilians. During the [rubber boom](Amazon)(Amazon rubber boom) it is estimated that diseases brought by immigrants, such as [typhus](typhus) and [malaria](malaria), killed 40,000 native Amazonians.La Republica Oligarchic. Editorial Lexus 2000 p. 925. In the 1950s, Brazilian explorer and defender of indigenous people, [Rondon](Cândido)(Cândido Rondon), supported the [brothers](Villas-Bôas)(Villas-Bôas brothers)' campaign, which faced strong opposition from the government and the ranchers of [Grosso](Mato)(Mato Grosso) and led to the establishment of the [Brazilian National Park](first)(Xingu National Park) for indigenous people along the [River](Xingu)(Xingu River) in 1961.[From the first expedition to the creation of the Park](http://pib.socioambiental.org/en/povo/xingu/1541), pib.socioambiental.org In 1961, British explorer [Mason](Richard)(Richard Mason (explorer)) was killed by an uncontacted Amazon [tribe](Indigenous peoples in Brazil) known as the [Panará](Panará people). The [Matsés](Matsés) made their first permanent contact with the outside world in 1969. Before that date, they were effectively at-war with the Peruvian government. ## Geography ### Location Nine countries share the Amazon basin—most of the rainforest, 58.4%, is contained within the borders of Brazil. The other eight countries include Peru with 12.8%, Bolivia with 7.7%, Colombia with 7.1%, Venezuela with 6.1%, Guyana with 3.1%, Suriname with 2.5%, French Guiana with 1.4%, and Ecuador with 1%. ### Natural [[tree.jpg\|thumb\|Amazon rainforest in Colombia](File:Walking)] [[File:Amazon CIAT (2).jpg\|thumb\|Aerial view of the Amazon rainforest, near [Manaus](Manaus)]] The rainforest likely formed during the [Eocene](Eocene) era (from 56 million years to 33.9 million years ago). It appeared following a global reduction of tropical temperatures when the [Ocean](Atlantic)(Atlantic Ocean) had widened sufficiently to provide a warm, moist climate to the Amazon basin. The rainforest has been in existence for at least 55 million years, and most of the region remained free of [savanna](savanna)-type [biome](biome)s at least until the [ice age](current)(current ice age) when the climate was drier and savanna more widespread. Following the [extinction event](Cretaceous–Paleogene)(Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event), the extinction of the [dinosaur](dinosaur)s and the wetter climate may have allowed the tropical rainforest to spread out across the continent. From 66 to 34 [Mya](mya (unit)), the rainforest extended as far south as [45°](45th parallel south). Climate fluctuations during the last 34 million years have allowed savanna regions to expand into the tropics. During the [Oligocene](Oligocene), for example, the rainforest spanned a relatively narrow band. It expanded again during the [Miocene](Middle)(Middle Miocene), then retracted to a mostly inland formation at the [glacial maximum](last)(Last glacial period). However, the rainforest still managed to thrive during these [periods](glacial)(glacial periods), allowing for the survival and evolution of a broad diversity of species. [[2.JPG\|thumb\|Aerial view of the Amazon rainforest](File:Campo12Foto)] During the [mid-Eocene](mid-Eocene), it is believed that the drainage basin of the Amazon was split along the middle of the continent by the [Arch](Púrus)(Púrus Arch). Water on the eastern side flowed toward the Atlantic, while to the west water flowed toward the Pacific across the [Basin](Amazonas)(Amazonas Basin). As the [Andes](Andes) Mountains rose, however, a large basin was created that enclosed a lake; now known as the [Basin](Solimões)(Solimões River). Within the last 5–10 million years, this accumulating water broke through the Púrus Arch, joining the easterly flow toward the Atlantic. There is evidence that there have been significant changes in the Amazon rainforest [vegetation](vegetation) over the last 21,000 years through the last glacial maximum (LGM) and subsequent deglaciation. Analyses of sediment deposits from Amazon basin paleolakes and the Amazon Fan indicate that rainfall in the basin during the LGM was lower than for the present, and this was almost certainly associated with reduced moist tropical vegetation cover in the basin. In present day, the Amazon receives approximately 9 feet of rainfall annually. There is a debate, however, over how extensive this reduction was. Some scientists argue that the rainforest was reduced to small, isolated [refugia](refugium (population biology)) separated by open forest and grassland; other scientists argue that the rainforest remained largely intact but extended less far to the north, south, and east than is seen today. This debate has proved difficult to resolve because the practical limitations of working in the rainforest mean that data sampling is biased away from the center of the Amazon basin, and both explanations are reasonably well supported by the available data. #### Sahara Desert dust windblown to the Amazon More than 56% of the dust fertilizing the Amazon rainforest comes from the [depression](Bodélé)(Bodélé depression) in Northern Chad in the [Sahara](Sahara) desert. The dust contains [phosphorus](phosphorus), important for plant growth. The yearly Sahara dust replaces the equivalent amount of phosphorus washed away yearly in Amazon soil from rains and floods. NASA's [CALIPSO](CALIPSO) satellite has measured the amount of dust transported by wind from the Sahara to the Amazon: an average of 182 million tons of dust are windblown out of the Sahara each year, at 15 degrees west longitude, across over the Atlantic Ocean (some dust falls into the Atlantic), then at 35 degrees West longitude at the eastern coast of South America, 27.7 million tons (15%) of dust fall over the Amazon basin (22 million tons of it consisting of phosphorus), 132 million tons of dust remain in the air, 43 million tons of dust are windblown and falls on the Caribbean Sea, past 75 degrees west longitude. CALIPSO uses a laser range finder to scan the Earth's atmosphere for the vertical distribution of dust and other aerosols. CALIPSO regularly tracks the Sahara-Amazon dust plume. CALIPSO has measured variations in the dust amounts transported – an 86 percent drop between the highest amount of dust transported in 2007 and the lowest in 2011. A possibility causing the variation is the [Sahel](Sahel), a strip of semi-arid land on the southern border of the Sahara. When rain amounts in the Sahel are higher, the volume of dust is lower. The higher rainfall could make more vegetation grow in the Sahel, leaving less sand exposed to winds to blow away. Amazon phosphorus also comes as smoke due to biomass burning in Africa. ### Human activity [[File:Skyline Parcial de Manaus.jpg\|thumb\|[Manaus](Manaus), with 2.2 million inhabitants, is the largest city in the Amazon basin]] [[File:Inneres eines Schabono 4.jpg\|thumb\|The [Yanomami](Yanomami) are a group of approximately 32,000 indigenous people who live in the Amazon rainforest.]] [[File:Índios isolados no Acre 5.jpg\|thumb\|right\|Members of an [tribe](uncontacted)(uncontacted tribe) encountered in the Brazilian state of [Acre](Acre (state)) in 2009]] Based on [archaeological](Archaeology) evidence from an excavation at [da Pedra Pintada](Caverna)(Caverna da Pedra Pintada), human inhabitants first settled in the Amazon region at least 11,200 years ago. Subsequent development led to late-prehistoric settlements along the periphery of the forest by AD 1250, which induced alterations in the [cover](forest)(forest cover). For a long time, it was thought that the Amazon rainforest was never more than sparsely populated, as it was impossible to sustain a large population through [agriculture](agriculture) given the poor soil. Archeologist [Meggers](Betty)(Betty Meggers) was a prominent proponent of this idea, as described in her book Amazonia: Man and Culture in a Counterfeit Paradise. She claimed that a population density of is the maximum that can be sustained in the rainforest through hunting, with agriculture needed to host a larger population. However, recent [anthropological](Anthropology) findings have suggested that the region was actually densely populated. Some 5 million people may have lived in the Amazon region in AD 1500, divided between dense coastal settlements, such as that at [Marajó](Marajoara culture), and inland dwellers. By 1900, the population had fallen to 1 million and by the early 1980s it was less than 200,000. The first European to travel the length of the [River](Amazon)(Amazon River) was [de Orellana](Francisco)(Francisco de Orellana) in 1542. The BBC's [Histories](Unnatural)(Unnatural Histories (TV series)) presents evidence that Orellana, rather than exaggerating his claims as previously thought, was correct in his observations that a complex civilization was flourishing along the Amazon in the 1540s. It is believed that civilization was later devastated by the spread of diseases from Europe, such as [smallpox](smallpox). This civilization was investigated by the British explorer [Fawcett](Percy)(Percy Fawcett) in the early twentieth century. The results of his expeditions were inconclusive and he disappeared mysteriously on his last trip. His name for this lost civilization was the [of Z](City)(City of Z). Since the 1970s, numerous [geoglyph](geoglyph)s have been discovered on deforested land dating between AD 1–1250, furthering claims about [Pre-Columbian](Pre-Columbian era) civilizations. Ondemar Dias is accredited with first discovering the geoglyphs in 1977, and Alceu Ranzi is credited with furthering their discovery after flying over [Acre](Acre (state)). The BBC's Unnatural Histories presented evidence that the Amazon rainforest, rather than being a pristine [wilderness](wilderness), has been shaped by man for at least 11,000 years through practices such as [gardening](forest)(forest gardening) and [preta](terra)(terra preta). Terra preta is found over large areas in the Amazon forest; and is now widely accepted as a product of indigenous [management](soil)(soil management). The development of this fertile soil allowed agriculture and [silviculture](silviculture) in the previously hostile environment; meaning that large portions of the Amazon rainforest are probably the result of centuries of human management, rather than naturally occurring as has previously been supposed.The influence of human alteration has been generally underestimated, reports Darna L. Dufour: "Much of what has been considered natural forest in Amazonia is probably the result of hundreds of years of human use and management." "Use of Tropical Rainforests by Native Amazonians," BioScience 40, no. 9 (October 1990):658. For an example of how such peoples integrated planting into their nomadic lifestyles, see In the region of the [Xingu](Xingu peoples) tribe, remains of some of these large settlements in the middle of the Amazon forest were found in 2003 by Michael Heckenberger and colleagues of the [of Florida](University)(University of Florida). Among those were evidence of roads, bridges and large plazas. ## Biodiversity, flora and fauna [[File:Giant Waxy Monkey Frog.jpg\|thumb\|[Deforestation](Deforestation) in the Amazon rainforest threatens many species of tree frogs, which are very sensitive to environmental changes (pictured: [leaf frog](giant)(Phyllomedusa bicolor))]] [[File:Bauhinia guianensis, mature liana (9340889588).jpg\|thumb\|A giant, bundled [liana](liana) in western Brazil]] Wet tropical forests are the most species-rich [biome](biome), and tropical forests in the Americas are consistently more species rich than the wet forests in Africa and Asia.Turner, I.M. (2001). The ecology of trees in the tropical rain forest. [University Press](Cambridge)(Cambridge University Press), Cambridge. As the largest tract of tropical rainforest in the Americas, the Amazonian rainforests have unparalleled [biodiversity](biodiversity). One in ten known species in the world lives in the Amazon rainforest. This constitutes the largest collection of living [plant](plant)s and [animal](animal) [species](species) in the [world](world). The region is home to about 2.5 million insect [species](species), tens of thousands of plants, and some 2,000 birds and [mammal](mammal)s. To date, at least 40,000 plant species, 2,200 [fishes](Neotropical fish), 1,294 birds, 427 mammals, 428 amphibians, and 378 reptiles have been scientifically classified in the region. One in five of all bird species are found in the Amazon rainforest, and one in five of the fish species live in Amazonian rivers and streams. Scientists have described between 96,660 and 128,843 [invertebrate](invertebrate) species in [Brazil](Brazil) alone. The biodiversity of plant species is the highest on Earth with one 2001 study finding a quarter square kilometer (62 acres) of Ecuadorian rainforest supports more than 1,100 tree species. A study in 1999 found one square kilometer (247 acres) of Amazon rainforest can contain about 90,790 tonnes of living plants. The average plant biomass is estimated at 356 ± 47 tonnes per hectare. To date, an estimated 438,000 species of plants of economic and social interest have been registered in the region with many more remaining to be discovered or catalogued. The total number of [tree](tree) species in the region is estimated at 16,000. The green leaf area of plants and trees in the rainforest varies by about 25% as a result of seasonal changes. Leaves expand during the dry season when sunlight is at a maximum, then undergo abscission in the cloudy wet season. These changes provide a balance of carbon between photosynthesis and respiration. The rainforest contains several species that can pose a hazard. Among the largest predatory creatures are the [caiman](black)(black caiman), [jaguar](South American jaguar), [cougar](South American cougar), and [anaconda](anaconda). In the river, [eel](electric)(electric eel)s can produce an electric shock that can stun or kill, while [piranha](piranha) are known to bite and injure humans. Various species of [dart frog](poison)(poison dart frog)s secrete [lipophilic](lipophilic) [alkaloid](alkaloid) toxins through their flesh. There are also numerous parasites and disease vectors. [bat](Vampire)(Vampire bat)s dwell in the rainforest and can spread the [rabies](rabies) virus. [Malaria](Malaria), [fever](yellow)(yellow fever) and [fever](dengue)(dengue fever) can also be contracted in the Amazon region. The biodiversity in the Amazon is becoming increasingly threatened, primarily by habitat loss from deforestation as well as increased frequency of fires. Over 90% of Amazonian plant and vertebrate species (13,000-14,000 in total) may have been impacted to some degree by fires. File:Hoatzins in Brazil.jpg\|[Hoatzin](Hoatzin) File:Avicularia-geroldi-subadult.jpg\|[Mygalomorphae](Mygalomorphae) File:Giant Centipede (Scolopendra gigantea) over 40 cm long - Preserved Specimen.jpg\|[Amazonian centipede](Giant)(Scolopendra gigantea) File:Purus Red Howler Monkey.jpg\|[monkey](Howler)(Howler monkey) File:Heliconia aemygdiana (14551077262).jpg\|[Heliconia](Heliconia) File:Manuel Antonio (43).JPG\|[sloth](Brown-throated)(Brown-throated sloth) File:Emperor Tamarin (EXPLORE) (9714001143).jpg\|[tamarin](Emperor)(Emperor tamarin) File:Dendrobates azureus (Dendrobates tinctorius) Edit.jpg\|[poison dart frog](Blue)(Blue poison dart frog) File:Uakari male.jpg\|[uakari](Bald)(Bald uakari) File:Eunectes murinus.jpg\|[anaconda](Green)(Green anaconda) File:Black caiman Macrofotografie 2.jpg\|[caiman](Black)(Black caiman) File:Standing jaguar.jpg\|[American jaguar](South)(South American jaguar) File:Isulas (8583611782).jpg\|[ants](Bullet)(Paraponera clavata) have an extremely painful sting File:Many parrots -Anangu, Yasuni National Park, Ecuador -clay lick-8.jpg\|Parrots at clay lick in [National Park](Yasuni)(Yasuni National Park), Ecuador File:Pipa pipa01.jpg\|[pipa](Pipa)(Common Surinam toad), a species of frog found within the Amazon. File:Ara macao - two at Lowry Park Zoo.jpg\|[macaw](Scarlet)(Scarlet macaw), indigenous to the American tropics. ## Deforestation [[File:2021 Top ten countries for tropical primary forest loss - World Resources Institute.svg \|thumb\| Home to much of the Amazon rainforest, Brazil's tropical [(old-growth)](primary)(Old-growth forest) forest loss greatly exceeds that of other countries.]] [[Amazon deforestation and degradation, by country - Amazon Watch.svg\|thumb \|Overall, 20% of the Amazon rainforest has been "transformed" (deforested) and another 6% has been "highly degraded", causing Amazon Watch to warn that the Amazonia is in the midst of a tipping point crisis.](File:20220910)] [Deforestation](Deforestation) is the conversion of forested areas to non-forested areas. The main sources of deforestation in the Amazon are human settlement and the development of the land. In 2018, about 17% of the Amazon rainforest was already destroyed. Research suggests that upon reaching about 20–25% (hence 3–8% more), the [point](tipping)(Tipping points in the climate system) to flip it into a non-forest ecosystem – degraded [savannah](savannah) – (in eastern, southern and central Amazonia) will be reached. Prior to the early 1960s, access to the forest's interior was highly restricted, and the forest remained basically intact. Farms established during the 1960s were based on crop cultivation and the [and burn](slash)(slash and burn) method. However, the colonists were unable to manage their fields and the crops because of the loss of [fertility](soil)(soil fertility) and weed invasion.Watkins and Griffiths, J. (2000). Forest Destruction and Sustainable Agriculture in the Brazilian Amazon: a Literature Review (Doctoral dissertation, The University of Reading, 2000). Dissertation Abstracts International, 15–17 The soils in the Amazon are productive for just a short period of time, so farmers are constantly moving to new areas and clearing more land. These farming practices led to deforestation and caused extensive environmental damage. Deforestation is considerable, and areas cleared of forest are visible to the naked eye from outer space. In the 1970s, construction began on the [highway](Trans-Amazonian)(Trans-Amazonian highway). This highway represented a major threat to the Amazon rainforest. The highway still has not been completed, limiting the environmental damage. Between 1991 and 2000, the total area of forest lost in the Amazon rose from , with most of the lost forest becoming pasture for cattle.Centre for International Forestry Research (CIFOR) (2004) Seventy percent of formerly forested land in the Amazon, and 91% of land deforested since 1970, have been used for livestock [pasture](ranch). Currently, Brazil is the largest global producer of [soybean](soybean)s. New research however, conducted by Leydimere Oliveira et al., has shown that the more rainforest is logged in the Amazon, the less precipitation reaches the area and so the lower the yield per hectare becomes. So despite the popular perception, there has been no economical advantage for Brazil from logging rainforest zones and converting these to pastoral fields. [[File:Indian protesters from Vale do Javarí in Belém 2009 1530FP8886.jpg\|thumb\|Indigenous protesters from [do Javari](Vale)(Vale do Javari)]] The needs of soy farmers have been used to justify many of the controversial transportation projects that are currently developing in the Amazon. The first two highways successfully opened up the rainforest and led to increased settlement and deforestation. The mean annual deforestation rate from 2000 to 2005 ( per year) was 18% higher than in the previous five years ( per year).Barreto, P.; Souza Jr. C.; Noguerón, R.; Anderson, A. & Salomão, R. 2006. [Human Pressure on the Brazilian Amazon Forests](http://www.imazon.org.br/publicacoes/publicacao.asp?id=357). [Imazon](Imazon). Retrieved 28 September 2006. (The [Imazon](http://www.imazon.org.br/) web site contains many resources relating to the Brazilian Amazonia.) Although deforestation declined significantly in the Brazilian Amazon between 2004 and 2014, there has been an increase to the present day. [[BIG MINE IN AMAZON RAINFOREST BRAZIL - panoramio.jpg\|thumb\|Brazilian mining operation in the Amazon Rainforest.](File:THE)] Brazil's President, Jair Bolsonaro, has supported the relaxation of regulations placed on agricultural land. He has used his time in office to allow for more deforestation and more exploitation of the Amazon's rich natural resources. Since the discovery of [fuel](fossil)(fossil fuel) reservoirs in the Amazon rainforest, oil drilling activity has steadily increased, peaking in the Western Amazon in the 1970s and ushering another drilling boom in the 2000s. Oil companies have to set up their operations by opening new roads through the forests, which often contributes to deforestation in the region. The [Union–Mercosur free trade agreement](European)(European Union–Mercosur free trade agreement), which would form one of the world's largest free trade areas, has been denounced by environmental activists and indigenous rights campaigners. The fear is that the deal could lead to more deforestation of the Amazon rainforest as it expands market access to Brazilian beef. According to a November 2021 report by Brazil's [INPE](National Institute for Space Research), based on [data](satellite)(Earth observation satellite#Environmental monitoring), deforestation has increased by 22% over 2020 and is at its highest level since 2006. ### 2019 fires There have been 72,843 fires in Brazil in 2019, with more than half within the Amazon region. In August 2019 there were a record number of fires. [in the Brazilian Amazon](Deforestation)(Deforestation in Brazil) rose more than 88% in June 2019 compared with the same month in 2018. File:DeforestationinBrazil2.jpg\|NASA satellite observation of deforestation in the Mato Grosso state of Brazil. The transformation from forest to farm is evident by the paler square shaped areas under development. File:Fires and Deforestation on the Amazon Frontier, Rondonia, Brazil - August 12, 2007.jpg\|Fires and deforestation in the state of [Rondônia](Rondônia) File:Fires and Deforestation on the Amazon Frontier, Rondonia, Brazil - September 30, 2007.jpg\|One consequence of forest clearing in the Amazon: thick smoke that hangs over the forest File:Deforestation of Rainforest.jpg\|Impact of deforestation on natural habitat of trees The increased area of fire-impacted forest coincided with a relaxation of environmental regulations from the Brazilian government. Notably, before those regulations were put in place in 2008 the fire-impacted area was also larger compared to the regulation period of 2009–2018. As these fire continue to move closer to the heart of the Amazon Basin, their impact on biodiversity will only increase in scale, as the cumulative fire-impacted area is correlated with the number of species impacted. ## Conservation and climate change [[CIAT (5).jpg\|thumb\|upright=1.05\|right\|Amazon rainforest](File:Amazon)] Environmentalists are concerned about [of biodiversity](loss)(loss of biodiversity) that will result from [of the forest](destruction)(forest destruction), and also about the [of the carbon](release)(Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere) contained within the vegetation, which could accelerate [warming](global)(global warming). Amazonian evergreen forests account for about 10% of the world's terrestrial primary productivity and 10% of the [stores](carbon)(carbon sink) in ecosystems – of the order of 1.1 × 1011 metric tonnes of carbon. Amazonian forests are estimated to have accumulated 0.62 ± 0.37 tons of carbon per hectare per year between 1975 and 1996. In 2021 it was reported that the Amazon for the first time emitted more greenhouse gases than it absorbed. Though often referenced as producing more than a quarter of the Earth's oxygen, this often stated, but misused statistic actually refers to oxygen turnover. The net contribution of the ecosystem is approximately zero. One [model](computer)(global climate model) of future [change](climate)(climate change) caused by [gas emissions](greenhouse)(greenhouse gas emissions) shows that the Amazon rainforest could become unsustainable under conditions of severely reduced rainfall and increased temperatures, leading to an almost complete loss of rainforest cover in the basin by 2100.Cox, Betts, Jones, Spall and Totterdell. 2000. ["Acceleration of global warming due to carbon-cycle feedbacks in a coupled climate model"](http://www.nature.com/uidfinder/10.1038/35041539) . [Nature](Nature (journal)), 9 November 2000. (subscription required)Radford, T. 2002. ["World may be warming up even faster"](https://www.theguardian.com/climatechange/story/0,,782526,00.html) . The Guardian., and severe economic, natural capital and ecosystem services impacts of not averting the tipping point. However, simulations of Amazon basin climate change across many different models are not consistent in their estimation of any rainfall response, ranging from weak increases to strong decreases.[J.T.](Houghton,)(John T. Houghton) et al. 2001. ["Climate Change 2001: The Scientific Basis"](http://www.grida.no/climate/ipcc_tar/wg1/384.htm) . Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. The result indicates that the rainforest could be threatened through the 21st century by climate change in addition to deforestation. [[File:Tatiana Espinosa y Shihuahuaco.jpg\|thumb\|Peruvian researcher with a [micrantha](Dipteryx)(Dipteryx micrantha) tree in the [Amazonia](Peruvian)(Peruvian Amazonia)]] In 1989, environmentalist C.M. Peters and two colleagues stated there is economic as well as biological incentive to protecting the rainforest. One hectare in the [Amazon](Peruvian)(Peruvian Amazon) has been calculated to have a value of $6820 if [forest](intact)(intact forest landscape) is sustainably harvested for fruits, latex, and timber; $1000 if clear-cut for commercial timber (not sustainably harvested); or $148 if used as cattle pasture. [[File:Isolierte-Völker.png\|thumb\|upright=2\|A map of [tribes](uncontacted)(Uncontacted peoples), around the start of the 21st century]] As indigenous territories continue to be destroyed by deforestation and [ecocide](ecocide), such as in the [Amazon](Peruvian)(Peruvian Amazon)Dean, Bartholomew. (2003) State Power and Indigenous Peoples in Peruvian Amazonia: A Lost Decade, 1990–2000. In The Politics of Ethnicity Indigenous Peoples in Latin American States [Maybury-Lewis](David)(David Maybury-Lewis), Ed. [University Press](Harvard)(Harvard University Press) [peoples](indigenous)(indigenous peoples)' rainforest communities continue to disappear, while others, like the [Urarina](Urarina) continue to struggle to fight for their cultural survival and the fate of their forested territories. Meanwhile, the relationship between non-human primates in the subsistence and symbolism of indigenous lowland South American peoples has gained increased attention, as have ethno-biology and [conservation](community-based)(community-based conservation) efforts. From 2002 to 2006, the conserved land in the Amazon rainforest almost tripled and deforestation rates dropped up to 60%. About have been put onto some sort of conservation, which adds up to a current amount of . In April 2019, the [Ecuador](Ecuador)ian court stopped oil exploration activities in of the Amazon rainforest. In July 2019, the Ecuadorian court forbade the government to sell territory with forests to oil companies. In September 2019, the US and Brazil agreed to promote private-sector development in the Amazon. They also pledged a $100m biodiversity conservation fund for the Amazon led by the private sector. Brazil's foreign minister stated that opening the rainforest to economic development was the only way to protect it. File:Greenhouse Gas by Sector.png\|Anthropogenic emission of greenhouse gases broken down by sector for the year 2000. File:September Smoke Over the Amazon from 2005-2008.png\|Aerosols over the Amazon each September for four burning seasons (2005 through 2008). The [aerosol](aerosol) scale (yellow to dark reddish-brown) indicates the relative amount of particles that absorb sunlight. File:Roots by cesarpb.jpg\|Aerial roots of red mangrove on an Amazonian river. File:Climate change disturbances of rainforests infographic.jpg\|Climate change disturbances of rainforests. A 2009 study found that a 4 °C rise (above pre-industrial levels) in global temperatures by 2100 would kill 85% of the Amazon rainforest while a temperature rise of 3 °C would kill some 75% of the Amazon. [[File:Parc amazonien de Guyane, une balade à Saül.jpg\|thumb\|[Amazonian Park](Guiana)(Guiana Amazonian Park) in [Guiana](French)(French Guiana)]] A new study by an international team of environmental scientists in the Brazilian Amazon shows that protection of freshwater biodiversity can be increased by up to 600% through integrated freshwater-terrestrial planning . [Deforestation](Deforestation) in the Amazon rainforest region has a negative impact on local climate. It was one of the main causes of the severe [drought](drought) of 2014–2015 in Brazil. This is because the moisture from the forests is important to the rainfall in [Brazil](Brazil), [Paraguay](Paraguay) and [Argentina](Argentina). Half of the rainfall in the Amazon area is produced by the forests. Results of a 2021 [synthesis](scientific)(scientific review) indicate that, in terms of global warming, the [basin](Amazon)(Amazon basin) with the Amazon rainforest is currently emitting more [gas](greenhouse)(greenhouse gas)es than [absorbs](it)(carbon sink) overall. Climate change impacts and human activities in the area – mainly wildfires, current land-use and [deforestation](deforestation of the Amazon rainforest) – are causing a release of forcing agents that likely result in a net warming effect. [50px](File:CC-BY icon.svg) Available under [CC BY 4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/) . In 2022 the supreme court of Ecuador decided that "“under no circumstances can a project be carried out that generates excessive sacrifices to the collective rights of communities and nature.” It also required the government to respect the opinion of [peoples of the Americas](Indigenous)(Indigenous peoples of the Americas) about different industrial projects on their land. Advocates of the decision argue that it will have consequences far beyond Ecuador. In general, ecosystems are in better shape when [peoples](indigenous)(indigenous peoples) own or manage the land. ### Remote sensing [[File:Afternoon Clouds over the Amazon Rainforest.jpg\|thumb\|This image reveals how the forest and the [atmosphere](atmosphere) interact to create a uniform layer of "popcorn-shaped" [clouds](cumulus)(Cumulus humilis cloud).]] The use of [sensed](remotely)(Remote sensing) data is dramatically improving conservationists' knowledge of the Amazon basin. Given the objectivity and lowered costs of [satellite-based](Earth observation satellite) land cover and -change analysis, it appears likely that remote sensing technology will be an integral part of assessing the extents, locations and damage of deforestation in the basin. Furthermore, remote sensing is the best and perhaps only possible way to study the Amazon on a large scale. The use of remote sensing for the conservation of the Amazon is also being used by the indigenous tribes of the basin to protect their tribal lands from commercial interests. Using handheld [GPS](Global Positioning System) devices and programs like [Earth](Google)(Google Earth), members of the Trio Tribe, who live in the rainforests of southern Suriname, map out their ancestral lands to help strengthen their territorial claims.Isaacson, Andy. 2007. With the Help of GPS, Amazonian Tribes Reclaim the Rain Forest. Wired 15.11: https://www.wired.com/science/planetearth/magazine/15-11/ps_amazon Currently, most tribes in the Amazon do not have clearly defined boundaries, making it easier for commercial ventures to target their territories. To accurately map the Amazon's biomass and subsequent carbon-related emissions, the classification of tree growth stages within different parts of the forest is crucial. In 2006, Tatiana Kuplich organized the trees of the Amazon into four categories: mature forest, regenerating forest [than three years](less), regenerating forest [three and five years of regrowth](between), and regenerating forest [to eighteen years of continued development](eleven). The researcher used a combination of [aperture radar](synthetic)(synthetic aperture radar) (SAR) and [Mapper](Thematic)(Thematic Mapper) (TM) to accurately place the different portions of the Amazon into one of the four classifications. ### In 2005, parts of the Amazon basin experienced the worst drought in one hundred years, and there were indications that 2006 may have been a second successive year of drought.[Drought Threatens Amazon Basin – Extreme conditions felt for second year running](https://www.theguardian.com/world/2006/jul/17/brazil.topstories3) , Paul Brown, The Guardian, 16 July 2006. Retrieved 23 August 2014 A 2006 article in the UK newspaper [Independent](The)(The Independent) reported the [Hole Research Center](Woods)(Woods Hole Research Center) results, showing that the forest in its present form could survive only three years of drought.["Amazon rainforest 'could become a desert'"](http://news.independent.co.uk/environment/article1191932.ece) , [Independent](The)(The Independent), 23 July 2006. Retrieved 28 September 2006.["Dying Forest: One year to save the Amazon"](https://www.independent.co.uk/environment/dying-forest-one-year-to-save-the-amazon-408926.html) , The Independent, 23 July 2006. Retrieved 23 August 2014. Scientists at the Brazilian [Institute of Amazonian Research](National)(National Institute of Amazonian Research) argued in the article that this drought response, coupled with the effects of deforestation on regional climate, are pushing the rainforest towards a "[point](tipping)(tipping point (climatology))" where it would irreversibly start to die. It concluded that the forest is on the brink of being turned into [savanna](savanna) or desert, with catastrophic consequences for the world's climate. A study published in Nature Communications in October 2020 found that about 40% of the Amazon rainforest is at risk of becoming a savanna-like ecosystem due to reduced rainfall. A study published in [climate change](Nature)(Nature climate change) provided direct empirical evidence that more than three-quarters of the Amazon rainforest has been losing resilience since the early 2000s, risking dieback with profound implications for biodiversity, carbon storage and climate change at a global scale. According to the [Wide Fund for Nature](World)(World Wide Fund for Nature), the combination of climate change and deforestation increases the drying effect of dead trees that fuels [fires](forest)(wildfire).["Climate change a threat to Amazon rainforest, warns WWF"](http://wwf.panda.org/wwf_news/?64220) , [Wide Fund for Nature](World)(World Wide Fund for Nature), 22 March 2006. Retrieved 23 August 2014. In 2010, the Amazon rainforest experienced another severe drought, in some ways more extreme than the 2005 drought. The affected region was approximately of rainforest, compared with in 2005. The 2010 drought had three epicenters where vegetation died off, whereas in 2005, the drought was focused on the southwestern part. The findings were published in the journal Science. In a typical year, the Amazon absorbs 1.5 gigatons of carbon dioxide; during 2005 instead 5 gigatons were released and in 2010 8 gigatons were released.[2010 Amazon drought record: 8 Gt extra CO2](http://www.bitsofscience.org/2010-amazon-drought-record-866/) , Rolf Schuttenhelm, Bits Of Science, 4 February 2011. Retrieved 23 August 2014["Amazon drought 'severe' in 2010, raising warming fears"](https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-12362111) , BBC News, 3 February 2011. Retrieved 23 August 2014 Additional severe droughts occurred in 2010, 2015, and 2016. In 2019 Brazil's protections of the Amazon rainforest were slashed, resulting in a severe loss of trees. According to Brazil's [Institute for Space Research](National)(National Institute for Space Research) (INPE), deforestation in the Brazilian Amazon rose more than 50% in the first three months of 2020 compared to the same three-month period in 2019. In 2020, a 17 percent rise was noted in the [wildfires](Amazon)(2019 Amazon rainforest wildfires), marking the worst start to the fire season in a decade. The first 10 days of August 2020 witnessed 10,136 fires. An analysis of the government figures reflected 81 per cent increase in fires in federal reserves, in comparison with the same period in 2019. However, President [Bolsonaro](Jair)(Jair Bolsonaro) turned down the existence of fires, calling it a "lie", despite the data produced by his own government. Satellites in September recorded 32,017 hotspots in the world's largest rainforest, a 61% rise from the same month in 2019. In addition, October saw a huge surge in the number of hotspots in the forest (more than 17,000 fires are burning in the Amazon's rainforest) - with more than double the amount detected in the same month last year. ### Possibility of forest-friendly economy In 2023 the [Bank](World)(World Bank), published a report named: "A Balancing Act for Brazil’s Amazonian States: An Economic Memorandum". The report stating that economic losses due to deforestation in Brazil could reach around 317 billion dollars per year, approximately 7 times higher in comparison to the cost of all commodities produced through deforestation, proposed non-deforestation based economic program in the region of the Amazon rainforest. [[integrates livestock, forage, and trees. (Photo: USDA NAC)](File:Silvopasture.jpg\|thumb\|Silvopasture)] [Silvopasture](Silvopasture) (integrating trees, forage and grazing) can help to stop deforestation in the region. According to WWF, [ecotourism](ecotourism) could help the Amazon to reduce deforestation and climate change. Ecotourism is currently still little practiced in the Amazon, partly due to lack of information about places where implementation is possible. Ecotourism is a sector that can also be taken up by the Indigenous community in the Amazon as a source of income and revenue. An ecotourism project in the Brazilian-section of the Amazon rainforest had been under consideration by Brazil's State Secretary for the Environment and Sustainable Development in 2009, along the [river](Aripuanã)(Aripuanã River), in the Aripuanã Sustainable Development Reserve. Also, some community-based ecotourism exists in the [Sustainable Development Reserve](Mamirauá)(Mamirauá Sustainable Development Reserve). [is also practiced in the Peruvian-section of the Amazon rainforest](Ecotourism)(Ecotourism in Peru). A few ecolodges are for instance present between Cusco and Madre de Dios. On May 2023 Brazil's bank federation decided to implement a new sustainability standard demanding from meatpackers to ensure their meat is not coming from illegally deforested area. Credits will not be given to those who will not meet the new standards. The decision came after the European Union decides to implement regulations to stop deforestation. Brazil beef exporters, said the standard is not just because it is not applied to land owners. 21 banks representing 81% of the credit market in Brazil agree to follow those rules. ## See also * [Amanyé](Amanyé) * [Forest](Atlantic)(Atlantic Forest) * [Bandeirantes](Bandeirantes) * [of the Amazon rainforest](Deforestation)(Deforestation of the Amazon rainforest) * [impact of meat production](Environmental)(Environmental impact of meat production) * [protection](Forest)(Forest protection) * [peoples in Brazil](Indigenous)(Indigenous peoples in Brazil) * [Ohara's Reserve](Tapiche)(Tapiche Ohara's Reserve) ;Organizations * [Conservation Association](Amazon)(Amazon Conservation Association) * [Conservation Team](Amazon)(Amazon Conservation Team) (ACT) * [Watch](Amazon)(Amazon Watch) * [of Indigenous Organizations of the Amazon River Basin](Coordinator)(Coordinator of Indigenous Organizations of the Amazon River Basin) (COICA) * [Action Network](Rainforest)(Rainforest Action Network) * [Alliance](Rainforest)(Rainforest Alliance) * [Foundation Fund](Rainforest)(Rainforest Foundation Fund) * Save the Amazon Rainforest Organisation (STARO) ;Technology * [Surveillance System](Amazon)(Amazon Surveillance System) (Sistema de Vigilância da Amazônia) * [Forest Watch](Global)(Global Forest Watch) ## Notes ## References ## Further reading Bunker, S.G. (1985). Underdeveloping the Amazon: Extraction, Unequal Exchange, and the Failure of the Modern State. University of Illinois Press. [Warren](Dean,)(Warren Dean) (1976). Rio Claro: A Brazilian Plantation System, 1820–1920. Stanford University Press. Dean, Warren (1997). Brazil and the Struggle for Rubber: A Study in Environmental History. Cambridge University Press. Hecht, Susanna and Alexander Cockburn (1990). The Fate of the Forest: Developers, Destroyers, and Defenders of the Amazon. New York: Harper Perennial. Hochstetler, K. and M. Keck (2007). Greening Brazil: Environmental Activism in State and Society. Duke University Press. Revkin, A. (1990). The Burning Season: The Murder of Chico Mendes and the Fight for the Amazon Rain Forest. Houghton Mifflin. Weinstein, Barbara (1983). The Amazon Rubber Boom 1850–1920. Stanford University Press. ## External links * [Journey into Amazonia](https://www.pbs.org/journeyintoamazonia/) * [The Amazon: The World's Largest Rainforest](http://rainforests.mongabay.com/amazon/) * [WWF in the Amazon rainforest](http://www.panda.org/amazon/) * [Amazonia.org.br](https://amazonia.org.br/) Good daily updated Amazon information database on the web, held by Friends of The Earth – Brazilian Amazon. * [Seasons in the Amazon and river levels](https://curassowlodge.com/en/what-is-the-best-time-to-visit-the-amazon-jungle/) * [amazonia.org](https://web.archive.org/web/20071011031047/http://www.amazonia.org/) Sustainable Development in the Extractive Reserve of the Baixo Rio Branco – Rio Jauaperi – Brazilian Amazon. * [Amazon Rainforest News](http://arquivo.pt/wayback/20090713084548/http://news.mongabay.com/news-index/amazon1.html) Original news updates on the Amazon. * [Amazon-Rainforest.org](http://www.amazon-rainforest.org/) Information about the Amazon rainforest, its people, places of interest, and how everyone can help. * [Conference: Climate change and the fate of the Amazon](https://web.archive.org/web/20090327024044/http://www.eci.ox.ac.uk/news/events/070320presentations.php). Podcasts of talks given at [College](Oriel)(Oriel College, Oxford), University of Oxford, 20–22 March 2007. * Dead [whale](humpback)(humpback whale) calf [in the Amazon](https://www.radionz.co.nz/news/world/383351/dead-humpback-whale-discovered-in-amazon-jungle) [ ](Category:Amazon rainforest) [Rainforest](Category:Amazon basin) [biome](Category:Amazon)(Category:Amazon biome) [Rainforest](Category:Amazon River) [of South America](Category:Ecoregions)(Category:Ecoregions of South America) [history of Peru](Category:Natural)(Category:Natural history of Peru) [history of Brazil](Category:Natural)(Category:Natural history of Brazil) [history of Ecuador](Category:Natural)(Category:Natural history of Ecuador) [ecoregions](Category:Neotropical)(Category:Neotropical ecoregions) [Category:Rainforests](Category:Rainforests) [of South America](Category:Regions)(Category:Regions of South America) [and subtropical moist broadleaf forests](Category:Tropical)(Category:Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests) [in South America](Category:Forestry)(Category:Forestry in South America) [Amazon](Category:Droughts in South America)
Blue-ringed octopus	blue-ringed_octopus	# Blue-ringed octopus Revision ID: 1158666208 \| Timestamp: 2023-06-05T13:47:19Z --- \| type_species = Hapalochlaena lunulata \| type_species_authority = [Quoy](Jean René Constant Quoy) & [Gaimard](Joseph Paul Gaimard), 1832 \| subdivision_ranks = Species \| subdivision = }} Blue-ringed octopuses, comprising the [genus](genus) *Hapalochlaena, are four extremely [venom](venom)ous [species](species) of [octopus](octopus) that are found in [pool](tide)(tide pool)s and [reef](coral)(coral reef)s in the [Pacific](Pacific Ocean) and [Indian](Indian Ocean) oceans, from [Japan](Japan) to [Australia](Australia). They can be identified by their yellowish skin and characteristic blue and black rings that [color dramatically](change)(#Behavior) when the animal is threatened. They eat small [crustacean](crustacean)s, including [crab](crab)s, [crab](hermit)(hermit crab)s, [shrimp](shrimp), other small sea animals. They are one of the world's most venomous marine animals. Despite their small size——and relatively docile nature, they are very dangerous to [human](human)s if provoked when handled because their venom contains the powerful neurotoxin [tetrodotoxin](tetrodotoxin). The [species](species) tend to have a lifespan of approximately two to three years. This may vary depending on factors such as [nutrition](nutrition), [temperature](temperature) and the intensity of [light](light) within its habitat. ## Classification The genus was described by British zoologist [Coburn Robson](Guy)(Guy Coburn Robson) in 1929. There are four confirmed species of Hapalochlaena, and six possible but still [species](undescribed)(undescribed species) being researched: [blue-ringed octopus](Greater)(Greater blue-ringed octopus) (Hapalochlaena lunulata) * [blue-ringed octopus](Southern)(Southern blue-ringed octopus) or lesser blue-ringed octopus (Hapalochlaena maculosa) * [octopus](Blue-lined)(Blue-lined octopus) (Hapalochlaena fasciata) * Hapalochlaena nierstraszi was documented and described in 1938 from a single specimen found in the [of Bengal](Bay)(Bay of Bengal), with a second specimen caught and described in 2013. ## Behavior Blue-ringed octopuses spend most of their time hiding in crevices while displaying effective camouflage patterns with their dermal [chromatophore](chromatophore) cells. Like all octopuses, they can change shape easily, which helps them to squeeze into crevices much smaller than themselves. This, along with piling up rocks outside the entrance to its lair, helps safeguard the octopus from predators. [[ring patterns on mantles of the blue-ringed octopus Hapalochlaena lunulata.png\|thumb\|right\|500px\|Variable ring patterns on mantles of Hapalochlaena lunulata](File:Variable)] If they are provoked, they quickly change color, becoming bright yellow with each of the 50–60 rings flashing bright [iridescent](iridescent) blue within a third of a second as an [aposematic](Aposematism) warning display. In the [blue-ringed octopus](greater)(greater blue-ringed octopus) (Hapalochlaena lunulata), the rings contain multi-layer [reflectors](light)(Structural coloration) called [iridophores](Chromatophore#Iridophores and leucophores). These are arranged to reflect blue–green light in a wide viewing direction. Beneath and around each ring there are dark pigmented chromatophores which can be expanded within 1 second to enhance the contrast of the rings. There are no chromatophores above the ring, which is unusual for cephalopods as they typically use chromatophores to cover or spectrally modify iridescence. The fast flashes of the blue rings are achieved by using muscles which are under neural control. Under normal circumstances, each ring is hidden by contraction of muscles above the iridophores. When these relax and muscles outside the ring contract, the iridescence is exposed thereby revealing the blue color. Similar to other [Octopoda](Octopoda), the blue-ringed octopus swims by expelling water from a [funnel](hyponome) in a form of [propulsion](jet)(jet propulsion). ### Feeding The blue-ringed octopus often feeds on fish and crustaceans. It pounces on its prey, seizing it with its arms and pulling it towards its mouth. It uses its [beak](horny)(cephalopod beak) to pierce through the tough crab or shrimp [exoskeleton](exoskeleton), releasing its venom. The venom paralyzes the muscles required for movement, which effectively kills the prey. ## Reproduction The mating ritual for the blue-ringed octopus begins when a male approaches a female and begins to caress her with his modified arm, the [hectocotylus](hectocotylus). A male mates with a female by grabbing her, which sometimes completely obscures the female's vision, then transferring [sperm](sperm) packets by inserting his hectocotylus into her mantle cavity repeatedly. Mating continues until the female has had enough, and in at least one species the female has to remove the over-enthusiastic male by force. Males will attempt copulation with members of their own species regardless of sex or size, but interactions between males are most often shorter in duration and end with the mounting octopus withdrawing the hectocotylus without packet insertion or struggle. Blue-ringed octopus females lay only one clutch of about 50 eggs in their lifetimes, towards the end of fall. Eggs are laid and then incubated underneath the female's arms for about six months, during this process the female does not eat. After the eggs hatch, the female dies, and the new offspring will reach maturity and be able to mate by the next year. ### Mating behavior In the [blue-ringed octopus](southern)(southern blue-ringed octopus), body mass is observed to be the strongest factor that influence copulatory rates. Evidence of female preference of larger males is apparent, although no male preference of females is shown. In this species, it is suggested that males expend more effort than females to initiate copulation. Additionally, it is unlikely that males use odor cues to identify females with which to mate. Male-male mounting attempts are common in H. maculosa, proposing that there is no discrimination between sex. Male blue-ringed octopus will adjust mating durations based on the female's recent mating history. Termination of copulation is not likely to happen with a female if she has not yet mated with another male. Duration length of mating is also found to be longer in these cases as well. ## Toxicity The blue-ringed octopus, despite its small size, carries enough venom to kill 26 adult humans within minutes. Their bites are tiny and often painless, with many victims not realizing they have been [envenomated](Envenomation) until [depression](respiratory)(respiratory depression) and [paralysis](paralysis) begins. No blue-ringed octopus [antivenom](antivenom) is available. ### Venom [[File:Blue-ringed-octopus.jpg\|thumb\|Blue-ringed octopus from [South Wales](New)(New South Wales), [Australia](Australia)]] The octopus produces venom containing [tetrodotoxin](tetrodotoxin), [histamine](histamine), [tryptamine](tryptamine), [octopamine](octopamine (drug)), [taurine](taurine), [acetylcholine](acetylcholine) and [dopamine](dopamine). The venom can result in [nausea](nausea), [arrest](respiratory)(respiratory arrest), [failure](heart)(heart failure), severe and sometimes total [paralysis](paralysis), [blindness](blindness), and can lead to death within minutes if not treated. Death is usually from suffocation due to paralysis of the diaphragm. The venom is produced in the posterior salivary gland of the octopus. The salivary glands possess a [tubuloacinar](Tubuloacinar gland) [exocrine](exocrine gland) structure and are located in the intestinal blood space. The major [neurotoxin](neurotoxin) component of the blue-ringed octopus is a compound that was originally known as maculotoxin but was later found to be identical to [tetrodotoxin](tetrodotoxin), a neurotoxin also found in [pufferfish](pufferfish), [skinned newt](rough)(rough skinned newt)s and in some [dart frog](poison)(poison dart frog)s. Tetrodotoxin blocks [channels](sodium)(sodium channels), causing [motor](motor system) [paralysis](paralysis) and [arrest](respiratory)(respiratory arrest) within minutes of exposure. The octopus's own [channels](sodium)(Sodium channel) are adapted to be resistant to tetrodotoxin. The tetrodotoxin is produced by [bacteria](bacteria) in the [glands](salivary)(salivary glands) of the octopus. Direct contact is necessary to be envenomated. Faced with danger, the octopus's first instinct is to flee. If the threat persists, the octopus will go into a defensive stance, and display its blue rings. If the octopus is cornered and touched, it may bite and envenomate its attacker. Estimates of the number of recorded fatalities caused by blue-ringed octopuses vary, ranging from seven to sixteen deaths; most scholars agree that there have been at least eleven. Tetrodotoxin can be found in nearly every organ and gland of its body. Even sensitive areas such as the [sac](Needham's)(Needham's sac), [heart](branchial)(branchial heart), nephridia, and gills, have been found to contain tetrodotoxin, and it has no effect on the octopus's normal functions. This may be possible through a unique blood transport. The mother will inject the neurotoxin into her eggs to make them generate their own venom before hatching. ### Effects Tetrodotoxin causes severe and often total body paralysis. Tetrodotoxin envenomation can result in victims being fully aware of their surroundings but unable to move. Because of the paralysis, they have no way of signaling for help or indicating distress. The victim remains conscious and alert in a manner similar to the effect of [curare](curare) or [bromide](pancuronium)(pancuronium bromide). This effect is temporary and will fade over a period of hours as the tetrodotoxin is metabolized and excreted by the body. The symptoms vary in severity, with children being the most at risk because of their small body size. ### Treatment [aid](First)(First aid) treatment is pressure on the wound and [respiration](artificial)(artificial respiration) once the paralysis has disabled the victim's respiratory muscles, which often occurs within minutes of being bitten. Because the venom primarily kills through paralysis, victims are frequently saved if artificial respiration is started and maintained before marked [cyanosis](cyanosis) and [hypotension](hypotension) develop. Respiratory support until medical assistance arrives will improve the victim's chances of survival. Definitive [hospital](hospital) treatment involves placing the patient on a [ventilator](ventilator) until the toxin is removed by the body. Victims who survive the first 24 hours usually recover completely.Lippmann, John and Bugg, Stan (2004) DAN S.E. Asia-Pacific Diving First Aid Manual, J.L. Publications, Australia. ## Conservation Currently the blue-ringed octopus population information is listed as Least Concern according to the [Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN)](International)(International Union for Conservation of Nature). However, threats such as [bioprospecting](bioprospecting), [fragmentation](habitat)(habitat fragmentation), [degradation](habitat degradation), [overfishing](overfishing), and human disturbance, as well as species collections for aquarium trade, may be threats to population numbers. It is possible that Hapalochlaena contribute to a variety of advantages to marine conservation. This genera of octopus provide stability of habitat biodiversity as well as expand the balance of marine food webs. Various species of blue-ringed octopus may help control populations of [date mussels](Asian)(Arcuatula senhousia). Additionally, future research of [tetrodotoxins](Tetrodotoxin) produced by the blue-ringed octopus may produce new medicinal discoveries. \|oclc=778566691 \|isbn=978-1-124-64712-8 }} ## In popular culture In the 1983 [Bond](James)(James Bond) film [Octopussy](Octopussy), the blue-ringed octopus is the prominent symbol of the secret order of female bandits and smugglers, appearing in an aquarium tank, on silk robes, and as a tattoo on women in the order. The animal was also featured in the book [of Fear](State)(State of Fear) by [Crichton](Michael)(Michael Crichton), where a terrorist organization utilized the animal's venom as a favored murder weapon. [Adventure Zone](The)(The Adventure Zone) featured a blue-ringed octopus in its "Petals to the Metal" series. A video, originally posted on [TikTok](TikTok), of a tourist in Australia handling a blue-ringed octopus went [viral](Viral phenomenon) in January 2019. A diner in China was accidentally served a blue-ringed octopus in January 2023. ## References ## External links * [CephBase: Hapalochlaena](http://cephbase.eol.org/taxonomy/term/178) * [Blue Ring Octopuses (Hapalochlaena spec.)](https://web.archive.org/web/20090516205657/http://www.weichtiere.at/Mollusks/Kopffuesser/blauring.html) * [Life In The Fast Lane – Toxicology Conundrum #011](https://web.archive.org/web/20091129232842/http://lifeinthefastlane.com/2009/04/toxicology-conundrum-011/) * [PBS Nature](https://web.archive.org/web/20140809205102/http://www.pbs.org/wnet/nature/interactives-extras/animal-guides/animal-guide-blue-ringed-octopus/2177/) * [Category:Octopodidae](Category:Octopodidae) [molluscs](Category:Venomous)(Category:Venomous molluscs)
Masayoshi Soken	masayoshi_soken	# Masayoshi Soken Revision ID: 1159168164 \| Timestamp: 2023-06-08T17:55:55Z --- \| birth_date = \| birth_place = [Santos, Baja California Sur](Todos)(Todos Santos, Baja California Sur), [Mexico](Mexico) \| genre = \| occupation = \| instrument = \| years_active = 2001–present }} is a Japanese [game composer](video)(video game music) and [editor](sound)(Sound editor (filmmaking)) who has worked for [Enix](Square)(Square Enix) since 2001. Soken is best known for being the lead composer and sound director of [Fantasy XIV](Final)(Final Fantasy XIV) and its expansions, as well as the composer for [Fantasy XVI](Final)(Final Fantasy XVI). ## Biography Born in [Paz, Baja California Sur](La)(La Paz, Baja California Sur), [Mexico](Mexico), Soken and his family later moved to [Tokyo](Tokyo), where he attended the [University of Science](Tokyo)(Tokyo University of Science), majoring in chemistry. He was exposed to music at a young age—his father was a professional trumpet player and his mother taught piano. Rather than pursue a career in science, he was hired as a sound editor and designer at [Konami](Konami). He joined [Square](Square (video game company)) in 1998 and his early work at the company primarily focused on sound effect design, rather than composition. He assisted [Ito](Kenji)(Kenji Ito) on [video game](sports)(sports video game)s such as Gekikuukan Pro Baseball: The End of the Century 1999. His debut as a composer came with the Japan-exclusive [game](sports)(sports game)s Nichibeikan Pro Baseball: Final League, in which he was the sole composer, and World Fantasista with [programmer](synthesizer)(synthesizer programmer) [Ishimoto](Takeharu)(Takeharu Ishimoto). In 2005, Soken worked on [2](Drakengard)(Drakengard 2) and [Mission 5: Scars of the War](Front)(Front Mission 5: Scars of the War). The following year, Soken composed and arranged the score to [Hoops 3-on-3](Mario)(Mario Hoops 3-on-3). Along with [Ito](Kenji)(Kenji Ito) and [Sekito](Tsuyoshi)(Tsuyoshi Sekito), he created the soundtrack to [of Mana](Dawn)(Dawn of Mana) (known as "Seiken Densetsu 4" in Japan), with [Award](Academy)(Academy Award)-winning composer [Sakamoto](Ryuichi)(Ryuichi Sakamoto) providing the main theme. Soken also arranged a few tracks from previous [Mana](Mana (series)) games, and performed the [guitar](electric)(electric guitar) for his arrangements. In 2007, he scored the [game](online)(online game) Elebest with Ai Yamashita. Soken has also contributed to Square Enix advertisements; [Mission 5: Scars of the War](Front)(Front Mission 5: Scars of the War) (2005) featured the sports commercial song "Blue Stream", Soken's only composition in the game. He also participated in a Square Enix advertisement for pencils where he got beaten up by two robots; the commercial featured music composed by him. Soken created the [fanfare](fanfare) for Square Enix Music TV, a monthly video feature where new album releases are discussed and interviews with Square Enix composers are conducted. For the [iTunes](iTunes)-exclusive [Enix Music Official Bootleg](Square)(List of Square Enix compilation albums#Square Enix Music Official Bootleg) collection, Soken contributed the piece "Dog Street" for the first volume in 2006, and "Languid Afternoon" for the third volume in 2007; he went under the alias "Sorbonne Soken" on the third volume. In 2008, he composed the Japan-exclusive [no Game](Nanashi)(Nanashi no Game), this time under the pseudonym "Luis Noma". In 2010, he composed another sports game for the Wii, [Sports Mix](Mario)(Mario Sports Mix). Since the 2010 development team reshuffling, he has been sound director for [Fantasy XIV](Final)(Final Fantasy XIV). Soken became primary composer for the title with the launch of A Realm Reborn and the expansions that followed. He formed a [band](rock)(rock band) called The Primals with members of the sound team to play at Final Fantasy XIV events such as Fan Festival. The Primals have since released several albums starting with Final Fantasy XIV: From Astral to Umbral. [Uematsu](Nobuo)(Nobuo Uematsu)'s illness in 2018 prevented him from contributing the main theme to [Shadowbringers](Shadowbringers) as he had for every previous expansion; Soken was tasked with the composition. Shadowbringers was the first expansion in the Final Fantasy XIV series to be written without Uematsu's direct involvement. In May 2021, during the Final Fantasy XIV Digital Fan Festival, Soken announced that he had been receiving [chemotherapy](chemotherapy) for cancer treatment throughout most of 2020, adding that the cancer was in [remission](Remission (medicine)). Soken kept the treatment hidden from most of the development team, doing some of his work for Final Fantasy XIV from hospital. In September 2020, Square Enix announced that [Fantasy XVI](Final)(Final Fantasy XVI) was in development for PlayStation 5. Though not detailed initially, in June 2022, further information was revealed, including that Soken would be the game's lead composer. ## Musical style and influences Soken primarily approaches his game composing with the player's experience in mind. When tasked with arranging Final Fantasy music originally composed by [Uematsu](Nobuo)(Nobuo Uematsu), he takes extra care to achieve this goal. Soken credits his experience as a sound designer, sound editor, and voice editor for helping him handle the pressure of the Final Fantasy XIV remake. He primarily composes using piano and keyboard but prefers playing guitar in live performances. Soken's favorite bands are [Against the Machine](Rage)(Rage Against the Machine) and [Pennywise](Pennywise (band)). ## Works ## References ## External links [Square Enix profile](https://web.archive.org/web/20170609042425/http://www.square-enix.co.jp/music/sem/page/cm/profile/soken/index.html) [births](Category:1975)(Category:1975 births) [composers](Category:Japanese)(Category:Japanese composers) [male composers](Category:Japanese)(Category:Japanese male composers) [sound designers](Category:Japanese)(Category:Japanese sound designers) [people](Category:Living)(Category:Living people) [editors](Category:Sound)(Category:Sound editors) [Enix people](Category:Square)(Category:Square Enix people) [game composers](Category:Video)(Category:Video game composers)
Russo-Japanese War	russo-japanese_war	# Russo-Japanese War Revision ID: 1160137580 \| Timestamp: 2023-06-14T16:40:30Z --- under fire at [Arthur](Port)(Siege of Port Arthur), Russian cavalry at [Mukden](Battle of Mukden), and gunboat at [Bay](Chemulpo)(Battle of Chemulpo Bay), Japanese dead at Port Arthur, Japanese infantry [the Yalu River](crossing)(Battle of Yalu River (1904)) \| date = 8 February 1904  – 5 September 1905() \| place = [Manchuria](Manchuria), [Sea](Yellow)(Yellow Sea), [Korea](Korean Peninsula), [of Japan](Sea)(Sea of Japan) \| result = Japanese victory * [of Portsmouth](Treaty)(Treaty of Portsmouth) \| combatant2 = }} \| combatant1 = }} \| commander2 = [Meiji](Emperor Meiji) * [Tarō](Katsura)(Katsura Tarō) * [Iwao](Ōyama)(Ōyama Iwao) * [Gentarō](Kodama)(Kodama Gentarō) * [Maresuke](Nogi)(Nogi Maresuke) * [Tamemoto](Kuroki)(Kuroki Tamemoto) * [Yasukata](Oku)(Oku Yasukata) * [Sukeyuki](Itō)(Itō Sukeyuki) * [Heihachirō](Tōgō)(Tōgō Heihachirō)}} \| commander1 = [II](Nicholas)(Nicholas II of Russia) * [Kuropatkin](Aleksey)(Aleksey Kuropatkin) * [Kondratenko](Roman)(Roman Kondratenko) * [Stessel](Anatoly)(Anatoly Stessel) * [Gripenberg](Oskar)(Oskar Gripenberg) * [Alekseyev](Yevgeni)(Yevgeni Ivanovich Alekseyev) * [Makarov](Stepan)(Stepan Makarov) * [Vitgeft](Wilgelm)(Wilgelm Vitgeft)}} * [Viren](Robert)(Robert Viren) * [Rozhestvensky](Zinovy)(Zinovy Rozhestvensky)}}}} \| strength2 = 1,200,000 (total) * 650,000 (peak) \| strength1 = 1,365,000 (total) * 700,000 (peak) \| casualties2 = }} \| casualties1 = }} }} }} The Russo-Japanese War (; ) was fought between the [of Japan](Empire)(Empire of Japan) and the [Empire](Russian)(Russian Empire) during 1904 and 1905 over rival [imperial](imperialism) ambitions in [Manchuria](Manchuria) and the [Empire](Korean)(Korean Empire). The major theatres of military operations were in [Peninsula](Liaodong)(Liaodong Peninsula) and [Mukden](Shenyang) in Southern Manchuria, and the [Sea](Yellow)(Yellow Sea) and the [of Japan](Sea)(Sea of Japan). [Russia](Russia) sought a [port](warm-water)(Port#Warm-water port) on the [Ocean](Pacific)(Pacific Ocean) both for its navy and for maritime trade. [Vladivostok](Vladivostok) remained ice-free and operational only during the summer; [Arthur](Port)(Lüshunkou), a naval base in Liaodong Province leased to Russia by the [dynasty](Qing)(Qing dynasty) of China from 1897, was operational year round. Russia had pursued an expansionist policy east of the Urals, in [Siberia](Siberia) and the [East](Far)(Russian Far East), since the reign of [the Terrible](Ivan)(Ivan the Terrible) in the 16th century. Since the end of the [Sino-Japanese War](First)(First Sino-Japanese War) in 1895, Japan had feared Russian encroachment would interfere with its plans to establish a [of influence](sphere)(sphere of influence) in Korea and Manchuria. Seeing Russia as a rival, Japan offered to recognize Russian dominance in [Manchuria](Manchuria) in exchange for recognition of the Korean Empire as being within the Japanese sphere of influence. Russia refused and demanded the establishment of a neutral buffer zone between Russia and Japan in Korea, north of the [parallel](39th)(39th parallel north). The Imperial Japanese Government perceived this as obstructing their plans for expansion into mainland [Asia](Asia) and chose to go to war. After negotiations broke down in 1904, the [Japanese Navy](Imperial)(Imperial Japanese Navy) opened hostilities in a surprise attack on the [Eastern Fleet](Russian)(Pacific Fleet (Russia)) at Port Arthur, China on . Although Russia suffered a number of defeats, [Nicholas II](Emperor)(Nicholas II of Russia) remained convinced that Russia could still win if it fought on; he chose to remain engaged in the war and await the outcomes of key naval battles. As hope of victory dissipated, he continued the war to preserve the dignity of Russia by averting a "humiliating peace". Russia ignored Japan's willingness early on to agree to an armistice and rejected the idea of bringing the dispute to the [Court of Arbitration](Permanent)(Permanent Court of Arbitration) at the Hague. After the decisive naval [of Tsushima](battle)(battle of Tsushima), the war was concluded with the [of Portsmouth](Treaty)(Treaty of Portsmouth) (), mediated by US President [Roosevelt](Theodore)(Theodore Roosevelt). The complete victory of the Japanese military surprised international observers and transformed the balance of power in both [Asia](East)(East Asia) and [Europe](Europe), resulting in Japan's emergence as a [power](great)(great power) and a decline in the Russian Empire's prestige and influence in Europe. Russia's incurrence of substantial casualties and losses for a cause that resulted in humiliating defeat contributed to a growing domestic unrest which culminated in the [Russian Revolution](1905)(1905 Russian Revolution), and severely damaged the prestige of the Russian autocracy. ## Historical background ### Modernization of Japan [[File:Kisaburō Ohara, Europe and Asia Octopus Map, 1904 Cornell CUL PJM 1145 01.jpg\|thumbnail\|upright=1.2\|This anti-Russian satirical map was produced by a Japanese student at [University](Keio)(Keio University) during the Russo-Japanese War. It follows the design used for a similar map first published in 1877."[war map for the year 1877](Serio-comic)(c:File:Serio-comic war map for 1877.jpg)" by Frederick W. Rose (publisher not identified).]] After the [Restoration](Meiji)(Meiji Restoration) in 1868, the Meiji government endeavoured to assimilate [Western](Western world) ideas, technological advances and ways of warfare. By the late 19th century, Japan had transformed itself into a modernized industrial state. The Japanese wanted to be recognized as equal with the Western powers. The Meiji Restoration had been intended to make Japan a modernized state, not a Westernized one, and Japan was an imperialist power, looking towards overseas expansionism. In the years 1869–73, the [Seikanron](Seikanron) ("Conquer Korea Argument") had bitterly divided the Japanese elite: one faction wanted to conquer Korea immediately, another wanted to wait until Japan was further modernized before embarking on a war to conquer Korea; significantly, no one in the Japanese elite ever accepted the idea that the Koreans had the right to be independent, with only the question of timing dividing the two factions. In much the same way that Europeans used the "backwardness" of African and Asian nations as a reason for why they had to conquer them, for the Japanese elite the "backwardness" of China and Korea was proof of the inferiority of those nations, thus giving the Japanese the "right" to conquer them.. [Count](Count) [Kaoru](Inoue)(Inoue Kaoru), the Foreign Minister, gave a speech in 1887 saying "What we must do is to transform our empire and our people, make the empire like the countries of Europe and our people like the peoples of Europe," going on to say that the Chinese and Koreans had essentially forfeited their right to be independent by not modernizing. Much of the pressure for an aggressive foreign policy in Japan came from below, with the advocates of [rights" movement]("people's)(Freedom and People's Rights Movement) calling for an elected parliament also favouring an ultra-nationalist line that took it for granted the Japanese had the "right" to annex Korea, as the "people's rights" movement was led by those who favoured invading Korea in the years 1869–73. As part of the modernization process in Japan, [Darwinist](Social)(Social Darwinism) ideas about the "[of the fittest](survival)(survival of the fittest)" were common in Japan from the 1880s onward and many ordinary Japanese resented the heavy taxes imposed by the government to modernize Japan, demanding something tangible like an overseas [colony](colony) as a reward for their sacrifices. Furthermore, the educational system of Meiji Japan was meant to train the schoolboys to be soldiers when they grew up, and as such, Japanese schools indoctrinated their students into [Bushidō](Bushido) ("way of the warrior"), the fierce code of the samurai. Having indoctrinated the younger generations into Bushidō, the Meiji elite found themselves faced with a people who clamored for war, and regarded diplomacy as a weakness. ### Pressure from the people The British Japanologist Richard Storry wrote that the biggest misconception about Japan in the West was that the Japanese people were the "docile" instruments of the elite, when in fact much of the pressure for Japan's wars from 1894 to 1941 came from the ordinary people, who demanded a "tough" foreign policy, and tended to engage in riots and assassination when foreign policy was perceived to be pusillanimous. Though the Meiji [oligarchy](oligarchy) refused to allow [democracy](liberal)(liberal democracy), they did seek to appropriate some of the demands of the "people's rights" movement by allowing an elected [Diet](Imperial)(Imperial Diet (Japan)) in 1890 (with limited powers and an equally limited franchise) and by pursuing an aggressive foreign policy towards Korea. In 1884, Japan had encouraged a coup in the [of Korea](Kingdom)(Kingdom of Korea) by a pro-Japanese reformist faction, which led to the conservative government calling upon China for help, leading to a clash between Chinese and Japanese soldiers in Seoul.. At the time, Tokyo did not feel ready to risk a war with China, and the crisis was ended by the [of Tientsin](Convention)(Convention of Tientsin), which left Korea more strongly in the Chinese sphere of influence, though it did give the Japanese the right to intervene in Korea. All through the 1880s and early 1890s, the government in Tokyo was regularly criticized for not being aggressive enough in Korea, leading Japanese historian [Maruyama](Masao)(Masao Maruyama (scholar)) to write: Just as Japan was subject to pressure from the Great Powers, so she would apply pressure to still weaker countries—a clear case of the transfer psychology. In this regard it is significant that ever since the Meiji period demands for a tough foreign policy have come from the common people, that is, from those who are at the receiving end of oppression at home. ### Russian Eastern expansion Tsarist Russia, as a major imperial power, had ambitions in the East. By the 1890s it had extended its realm across [Asia](Central)(Central Asia) to [Afghanistan](Afghanistan), absorbing local states in the process. The [Empire](Russian)(Russian Empire) stretched from Poland in the west to the [Peninsula](Kamchatka)(Kamchatka Peninsula) in the east. With its construction of the [Railway](Trans-Siberian)(Trans-Siberian Railway) to the port of [Vladivostok](Vladivostok), Russia hoped to further consolidate its influence and presence in the region. In the [incident](Tsushima)(Tsushima incident) of 1861 Russia had directly assaulted Japanese territory. ### First Sino-Japanese War (1894–95) [[File:Great Victory of Pyongyang and Capture of Chinese Qing Generals by Migita Toshihide 1894.jpg\|thumb\|Chinese generals in [Pyongyang](Pyongyang) surrender to the Japanese, October 1894.]] The first major war the Empire of Japan fought following the Meiji Restoration was [China](against)(First Sino-Japanese War), from 1894-1895. The war revolved around the issue of control and influence over Korea under the rule of the [Joseon](Joseon) dynasty. From the 1880s onward, there had been vigorous competition for influence in Korea between China and Japan.. The Korean court was prone to factionalism, and at the time was badly divided between a reformist camp that was pro-Japanese and a more conservative faction that was pro-Chinese. In 1884, a pro-Japanese coup attempt was put down by Chinese troops, and a "residency" under General [Shikai](Yuan)(Yuan Shikai) was established in Seoul. A peasant rebellion led by the [Tonghak](Donghak) religious movement led to a request by the Korean government for the [dynasty](Qing)(Qing dynasty) to send in troops to stabilize the country. The Empire of Japan responded by sending their own force to Korea to crush the Tonghak and installed a puppet government in [Seoul](Seoul). China objected and war ensued. Hostilities proved brief, with Japanese ground troops routing Chinese forces on the [Peninsula](Liaodong)(Liaodong Peninsula) and nearly destroying the Chinese [Fleet](Beiyang)(Beiyang Fleet) in the [of the Yalu River](Battle)(Battle of the Yalu River (1894)). Japan and China signed the [of Shimonoseki](Treaty)(Treaty of Shimonoseki), which ceded the Liaodong Peninsula and the island of Taiwan to Japan. After the peace treaty, Russia, Germany, and France [Japan to withdraw from the Liaodong Peninsula](forced)(Triple Intervention). The leaders of Japan did not feel that they possessed the strength to resist the combined might of Russia, Germany and France, and so gave in to the ultimatum. At the same time, the Japanese did not abandon their attempts to force Korea into the Japanese sphere of influence. On 8 October 1895, [Min](Queen)(Empress Myeongseong) of Korea, the leader of the anti-Japanese and pro-Chinese faction at the Korean court was murdered by Japanese agents within the halls of the [Gyeongbokgung](Gyeongbokgung) palace, an act that backfired badly as it turned Korean public opinion against Japan.. In early 1896, King [of Korea](Gojong)(Gojong of Korea) [to the Russian legation](fled)(Korea royal refuge at the Russian legation) in Seoul, believing that his life was in danger from Japanese agents, and Russian influence in Korea started to predominate. In the aftermath of the flight of the king, a popular uprising overthrew the pro-Japanese government and several cabinet ministers were lynched on the streets. In 1897, Russia occupied the Liaodong Peninsula, built the [Arthur](Port)(Port Arthur naval base) fortress, and based the [Pacific Fleet](Russian)(Pacific Fleet (Russia)) in the port. Russia's acquisition of Port Arthur was primarily an anti-British move to counter the British occupation of [Wei-hai-Wei](Weihai), but in Japan, this was perceived as an anti-Japanese move. Germany occupied [Bay](Jiaozhou)(Jiaozhou Bay), built the [fortress](Tsingtao)(Siege of Tsingtao), and based the [East Asia Squadron](German)(German East Asia Squadron) in this port. Between 1897 and 1903, the Russians built the [Eastern Railway](Chinese)(Chinese Eastern Railway) (CER) in Manchuria.. The Chinese Eastern Railroad was owned jointly by the Russian and Chinese governments, but the company's management was entirely Russian, the line was built to the Russian gauge and Russian troops were stationed in Manchuria to protect rail traffic on the CER from bandit attacks. The headquarters of the CER company was located in the new Russian-built city of [Harbin](Harbin), the "Moscow of the Orient". From 1897 onwards, Manchuria—while still nominally part of the "Great Qing Empire"—started to resemble more and more a Russian province. ### Russian encroachment In December 1897, a [Russian](Imperial Russian Navy) fleet appeared off Port Arthur. After three months, in 1898, China and Russia negotiated a convention by which China leased (to Russia) Port Arthur, [Talienwan](Talienwan) and the surrounding waters. The two parties further agreed that the convention could be extended by mutual agreement. The Russians clearly expected such an extension, for they lost no time in occupying the territory and in fortifying Port Arthur, their sole warm-water port on the Pacific coast and of great strategic value. A year later, to consolidate their position, the Russians began to build a new railway from [Harbin](Harbin) through [Mukden](Mukden) to Port Arthur, the South Manchurian Railroad. The development of the railway became a contributory factor to the [Rebellion](Boxer)(Boxer Rebellion), when [forces burned the railway stations](Boxer)(Boxers attacks on Chinese Eastern Railway). The Russians also began to make inroads into Korea. A large point of Russia's growing influence in Korea was [internal exile to the Russian legation](Gojong's)(Gojong's internal exile to the Russian legation). A pro-Russian cabinet emerged in the [Empire](Korean)(Korean Empire). In 1901, [Nicholas II](Tsar)(Nicholas II of Russia) told [Henry of Prussia](Prince)(Prince Henry of Prussia (1862–1929)), "I do not want to seize Korea but under no circumstances can I allow Japan to become firmly established there. That will be a [belli](casus)(casus belli)." By 1898 they had acquired mining and forestry concessions near the [Yalu](Yalu river) and [Tumen](Tumen river) rivers, causing the Japanese much anxiety. Japan decided to attack before the Russians completed the Trans-Siberian Railway. ### Boxer Rebellion [[File:Troops of the Eight nations alliance 1900.jpg\|thumb\|Troops of the [Alliance](Eight-Nation)(Eight-Nation Alliance) in 1900. Left to right: Britain, United States, Australia, India, Germany, France, Austria-Hungary, Italy, Japan.]] The Russians and the Japanese both contributed troops to the [Alliance](Eight-Nation)(Eight-Nation Alliance) sent in 1900 to quell the Boxer Rebellion and to relieve the international legations besieged in the Chinese capital, Beijing. Russia had already sent 177,000 soldiers to [Manchuria](Manchuria), nominally to protect its railways under construction. Though the Qing imperial army and the Boxer rebels united to fight against the invasion, they were quickly overrun and ejected from Manchuria. After the Boxer Rebellion, 100,000 Russian soldiers were stationed in Manchuria. The Russian troops settled in and despite assurances they would vacate the area after the crisis, by 1903 the Russians had not established a timetable for withdrawal and had actually strengthened their position in Manchuria. ### Pre-war negotiations The Japanese statesman [Hirobumi](Itō)(Itō Hirobumi) started to negotiate with the Russians. He regarded Japan as too weak to evict the Russians militarily, so he proposed giving Russia control over Manchuria in exchange for Japanese control of northern Korea. Of the five Genrō (elder statesmen) who made up the Meiji oligarchy, Itō Hirobumi and Count [Kaoru](Inoue)(Inoue Kaoru) opposed the idea of war against Russia on financial grounds, while [Tarō](Katsura)(Katsura Tarō), [Jutarō](Komura)(Komura Jutarō) and Field Marshal [Aritomo](Yamagata)(Yamagata Aritomo) favored war. Meanwhile, Japan and [Britain](British Empire) had signed the [Alliance](Anglo-Japanese)(Anglo-Japanese Alliance) in 1902 – the British seeking to restrict naval competition by keeping the Russian Pacific seaports of Vladivostok and Port Arthur from their full use. Japan's alliance with the British meant, in part, that if any nation allied itself with Russia during any war against Japan, then Britain would enter the war on Japan's side. Russia could no longer count on receiving help from either Germany or France without the danger of British involvement in the war. With such an alliance, Japan felt free to commence hostilities if necessary. The 1890s and 1900s marked the height of the "[Peril](Yellow)(Yellow Peril)" propaganda by the German government, and the German Emperor [II](Wilhelm)(Wilhelm II, German Emperor) () often wrote letters to his cousin Emperor Nicholas II of Russia, praising him as the "saviour of the white race" and urging Russia forward in Asia... From November 1894 onward, Wilhelm had been writing letters praising Nicholas as Europe's defender from the "Yellow Peril", assuring the Tsar that God Himself had "chosen" Russia to defend Europe from the alleged Asian threat. On 1 November 1902 Wilhelm wrote to Nicholas that "certain symptoms in the East seem to show that Japan is becoming a rather restless customer" and "it is evident to every unbiased mind that Korea must and will be Russian". Wilhelm ended his letter with the warning that Japan and China would soon unite against Europe, writing: "Twenty to thirty million Chinese, supported by a half dozen Japanese divisions, led by competent, intrepid Japanese officers, full of hatred for Christianity—that is a vision of the future that cannot be contemplated without concern, and it is not impossible. On the contrary, it is the realisation of the yellow peril, which I described a few years ago and I was ridiculed by the majority of people for my graphic depiction of it ... Your devoted friend and cousin, Willy, Admiral of the Atlantic". Wilhelm aggressively encouraged Russia's ambitions in Asia because [Russia's closest ally](France,)(Franco-Russian Alliance) since 1894, was less than supportive of Russian expansionism in Asia, and it was believed in Berlin that German support of Russia might break up the Franco-Russian alliance and lead to a new German–Russian alliance. The French had made it clear that they disapproved of Nicholas's forward policy in Asia; the French Premier [Rouvier](Maurice)(Maurice Rouvier) (in office: May to December 1887) publicly declaring that the Franco-Russian alliance applied only in Europe, not to Asia, and that France would remain neutral if Japan attacked Russia. The American president [Roosevelt](Theodore)(Theodore Roosevelt) (in office 1901–1909), who was attempting to mediate the Russian–Japanese dispute, complained that Wilhelm's "Yellow Peril" propaganda, which strongly implied that Germany might go to war against Japan in support of Russia, encouraged Russian intransigence. On 24 July 1905, in a letter to the British diplomat [Spring Rice](Cecil)(Cecil Spring Rice), Roosevelt wrote that Wilhelm bore partial responsibility for the war as "he has done all he could to bring it about", charging that Wilhelm's constant warnings about the "Yellow Peril" had made the Russians uninterested in compromise as Nicholas believed that Germany would intervene if Japan attacked. The implicit promise of German support suggested by Wilhelm's "Yellow Peril" speeches and letters to Nicholas led many decision-makers in [Petersburg](Saint)(Saint Petersburg) to believe that Russia's military weaknesses in the Far East (like the uncompleted Trans-Siberian railroad line) did not matter—they assumed that the Reich would come to Russia's assistance if war should come. In fact, neither Wilhelm nor his Chancellor Prince [von Bülow](Bernhard)(Bernhard von Bülow) (in office: 1900–1909) had much interest in East Asia, and Wilhelm's letters to Nicholas praising him as Europe's saviour against the "Yellow Peril" were really meant to provoke change in the [of power in Europe](balance)(European balance of power), as Wilhelm believed that any Russian entanglement with Japan would break up the Franco-Russian alliance and lead to Nicholas signing an alliance with Germany. This was especially the case as Germany had embarked upon the "[Plan](Tirpitz)(Tirpitz Plan)" and a policy of [Weltpolitik](Weltpolitik) (from 1897) meant to challenge Britain's position as the world's leading power. Since Britain was allied to Japan, then if Germany could manipulate Russia and Japan into going to war with each other, this in turn would allegedly lead to Russia turning towards Germany. Furthermore, Wilhelm believed if a Russian–German alliance emerged, France would be compelled to join it. He also hoped that having Russia pursue an expansionist policy in Asia would distract and keep Russia out of the Balkans, thus removing the main source of tension between Russia and Germany's ally [Austria-Hungary](Austria-Hungary). During the war, Nicholas, who took at face value Wilhelm's "Yellow Peril" speeches, placed much hope in German intervention on his side. More than once Nicholas chose to continue the war out of the belief that the Kaiser would come to his aid. Despite previous assurances that Russia would completely withdraw from Manchuria the forces it had sent to crush the Boxer Rebellion by 8 April 1903, that day passed with no reduction in Russian forces in that region. In Japan, university students demonstrated both against Russia and against their own government for not taking any action. On 28 July 1903 [Shin'ichirō](Kurino)(Shinichiro Kurino), the Japanese minister in Saint Petersburg, was instructed to present his country's view opposing Russia's consolidation plans in Manchuria. On 3 August 1903 the Japanese minister handed in the following document to serve as the basis for further negotiations: in . # Mutual engagement to respect the independence and territorial integrity of the Chinese and Korean empires and to maintain the principle of equal opportunity for the commerce and industry of all nations in those countries. # Reciprocal recognition of Japan's preponderating interests in Korea and Russia's special interests in railway enterprises in Manchuria, and of the right of Japan to take in Korea and of Russia to take in Manchuria such measures as may be necessary for the protection of their respective interests as above defined, subject, however, to the provisions of article I of this agreement. # Reciprocal undertaking on the part of Russia and Japan not to impede development of those industrial and commercial activities respectively of Japan in Korea and of Russia in Manchuria, which are not inconsistent with the stipulations of article I of this agreement. Additional engagement on the part of Russia not to impede the eventual extension of the Korean railway into southern Manchuria so as to connect with the East China and Shan-hai-kwan–Newchwang lines. # Reciprocal engagement that in case it is found necessary to send troops by Japan to Korea, or by Russia to Manchuria, for the purpose either of protecting the interests mentioned in article II of this agreement, or of suppressing insurrection or disorder calculated to create international complications, the troops so sent are in no case to exceed the actual number required and are to be forthwith recalled as soon as their missions are accomplished. # Recognition on the part of Russia of the exclusive right of Japan to give advice and assistance in the interest of reform and good government in Korea, including necessary military assistance. # This agreement to supplant all previous arrangements between Japan and Russia respecting Korea. On 3 October 1903 the Russian minister to Japan, [Rosen](Roman)(Roman Rosen), presented to the Japanese government the Russian counter proposal as the basis of negotiations, as follows: in . # Mutual engagement to respect the independence and territorial integrity of the Korean Empire. # Recognition by Russia of Japan's preponderating interests in Korea and of the right of Japan to give advice and assistance to Korea tending to improve the civil administration of the empire without infringing the stipulations of article I. # Engagement on the part of Russia not to impede the commercial and industrial undertakings of Japan in Korea, nor to oppose any measures taken for the purpose of protecting them so long as such measures do not infringe the stipulations of article I. # Recognition of the right of Japan to send for the same purpose troops to Korea, with the knowledge of Russia, but their number not to exceed that actually required, and with the engagement on the part of Japan to recall such troops as soon as their mission is accomplished. # Mutual engagement not to use any part of the territory of Korea for strategical purposes nor to undertake on the coasts of Korea any military works capable of menacing the freedom of navigation in the Straits of Korea. # Mutual engagement to consider that part of the territory of Korea lying to the north of the 39th parallel as a neutral zone into which neither of the contracting parties shall introduce troops. # Recognition by Japan of Manchuria and its littoral as in all respects outside her sphere of interest. # This agreement to supplant all previous agreements between Russia and Japan respecting Korea. During the Russian–Japanese talks, the Japanese historian Hirono Yoshihiko noted, "once negotiations commenced between Japan and Russia, Russia scaled back its demands and claims regarding Korea bit by bit, making a series of concessions that Japan regarded as serious compromises on Russia's part".. The war might not have broken out had not the issues of Korea and Manchuria become linked.. The Korean and Manchurian issues had become linked as the Prime Minister of Japan, [Tarō](Katsura)(Katsura Tarō) (in office 1901–1906), decided if war did come, that Japan was more likely to have the support of the United States and Great Britain if the war could be presented as a struggle for [trade](free)(free trade) against the highly protectionist Russian empire, in which case, Manchuria, which was the larger market than Korea, was more likely to engage Anglo-American sympathies. Throughout the war, Japanese propaganda presented the recurring theme of Japan as a "civilized" power (that supported free trade and would implicitly allow foreign businesses into the resource-rich region of Manchuria) vs. Russia the "uncivilized" power (that was protectionist and wanted to keep the riches of Manchuria all to itself). Emperor Gojong of Korea (King from 1864 to 1897, Emperor from 1897 to 1907) came to believe that the issue dividing Japan and Russia was Manchuria, and chose to pursue a policy of neutrality as the best way of preserving Korean independence as the crisis mounted. In a series of reports to Beijing, Hu Weide, the Chinese ambassador in Saint Petersburg from July 1902 to September 1907, looked closely at whether a Russian or a Japanese victory would be favourable to China, and argued that the latter was preferable, as he maintained a Japanese victory presented the better chance for China to regain sovereignty over Manchuria. In December 1903 China decided to remain neutral if war came, because though Japan was the only power capable of evicting Russia from Manchuria, the extent of Japanese ambitions in Manchuria was not clear to Beijing. Russian–Japanese negotiations then followed, although by early January 1904 the Japanese government had realised that Russia was not interested in settling the [Manchuria](Manchuria)n or Korean issues. Instead, Russia's goal was buying time—via diplomacy—to further build up militarily. In December 1903, Wilhelm wrote in a marginal note on a diplomatic dispatch about his role in inflaming Russo-Japanese relations:Since 97—Kiaochow—we have never left Russia in any doubt that we would cover her back in Europe, in case she decided to pursue a bigger policy in the Far East that might lead to military complications (with the aim of relieving our eastern border from the fearful pressure and threat of the massive Russian army!). Whereupon, Russia took Port Arthur and trusting us, took her fleet out of the Baltic, thereby making herself vulnerable to us by sea. In Danzig 01 and Reval 02, the same assurance was given again, with result that entire Russian divisions from Poland and European Russia were and are being sent to the Far East. This would not had happened if our governments had not been in agreement! A recurring theme of Wilhelm's letters to Nicholas was that "Holy Russia" had been "chosen" by God to save the "entire white race" from the "Yellow Peril", and that Russia was "entitled" to annex all of Korea, Manchuria, and northern China up to Beijing. Wilhelm went on to assure Nicholas that once Russia had defeated Japan, this would be a deadly blow to British diplomacy, and that the two emperors, the self-proclaimed "Admiral of the Atlantic" and the "Admiral of the Pacific", would rule Eurasia together, making them able to challenge British [power](sea)(sea power) as the resources of Eurasia would make their empires immune to a British blockade, and thus allowing Germany and Russia to "divide up the best" of the British colonies in Asia between them. Nicholas had been prepared to compromise with Japan, but after receiving a letter from Wilhelm attacking him as a coward for his willingness to compromise with the Japanese (who, Wilhelm never ceasing reminding Nicholas, represented the "Yellow Peril") for the sake of peace, became more obstinate.. Wilhelm had written to Nicholas stating that the question of Russian interests in Manchuria and Korea was beside the point, saying instead it was a matter of Russiaundertaking the protection and defence of the White Race, and with it, Christian civilization, against the Yellow Race. And whatever the Japs are determined to ensure the domination of the Yellow Race in East Asia, to put themselves at its head and organise and lead it into battle against the White Race. That is the kernel of the situation, and therefore there can be very little doubt about where the sympathies of all half-way intelligent Europeans should lie. England betrayed Europe's interests to America in a cowardly and shameful way over the Panama Canal question, so as to be left in 'peace' by the Yankees. Will the 'Tsar' likewise betray the interests of the White Race to the Yellow as to be 'left in peace' and not embarrass the Hague tribunal too much?. When Nicholas replied that he still wanted peace, Wilhelm wrote back in a telegram "You innocent angel!", telling his advisors "This is the language of an innocent angel. But not that of a White Tsar!" Nevertheless, Tokyo believed that Russia was not serious about seeking a peaceful solution to the dispute. On 13 January 1904, Japan proposed a formula by which Manchuria would remain outside Japan's sphere of influence and, reciprocally, Korea outside Russia's. On 21 December 1903, the Tarō cabinet voted to go to war against Russia. [[Kurino.jpg\|thumb\|Kurino Shin'ichirō](File:Shinichiro)] By 4 February 1904, no formal reply had been received from Saint Petersburg. On 6 February the Japanese minister to Russia, [Shin'ichirō](Kurino)(Shin'ichirō Kurino), was recalled, and Japan severed diplomatic relations with Russia. Potential diplomatic resolution of territorial concerns between Japan and Russia failed; historians have argued that this directly resulted from the actions of Emperor [II](Nicholas)(Nicholas II). Crucially, Nicholas mismanaged his government. Although certain scholars contend that the situation arose from the determination of Nicholas II to use the war against Japan to spark a revival in Russian patriotism, no historical evidence supports this claim. The Tsar's advisors did not support the war, foreseeing problems in transporting troops and supplies from European Russia to the East. The Tsar himself repeatedly delayed negotiations with the Japanese government as he believed that he was protected by God and the autocracy. The Japanese understanding of this can be seen in a telegram from Japanese minister of foreign affairs, Komura, to the minister to Russia, in which he stated: ... the Japanese government have at all times during the progress of the negotiations made it a special point to give prompt answers to all propositions of the Russian government. The negotiations have now been pending for no less than four months, and they have not yet reached a stage where the final issue can with certainty be predicted. In these circumstances the Japanese government cannot but regard with grave concern the situation for which the delays in negotiations are largely responsible. In . Some scholars have suggested that Nicholas II dragged Japan into war intentionally, in hopes of reviving Russian nationalism. This notion conflicts with a comment made by Nicholas to Kaiser Wilhelm of Germany, saying there would be no war because he "did not wish it". This does not reject the claim that Russia played an aggressive role in the East, which it did; rather, it means that Russia unwisely calculated and supposed that Japan would not go to war against Russia's far larger and seemingly superior navy and army. Nicholas held the Japanese in contempt as "yellow monkeys", and he took for granted that the Japanese would simply yield in the face of Russia's superior power, which thus explains his unwillingness to compromise. Evidence of Russia's false sense of security and superiority to Japan is seen by Russian reference to Japan's choosing war as a big mistake. ## Status of Combatants ### Japan ### Imperial Japanese Army Japan had conducted detailed studies of the Russian Far East and Manchuria prior to the war and, as it was mandatory for Japanese officers to speak one foreign language, Japan had access to superior maps during the conflict. The Japanese army relied on conscription, introduced in 1873, to maintain its military strength and to provide a large army in times of war. This system of conscription gave Japan a large pool of reserves to draw upon. The Active and 1st line reserve (the 1st line reserve was used to bring the active army to wartime strength) totalled 380,000; the 2nd line reserve contained 200,000; the conscript reserve a further 50,000; and the kokumin (akin to a national guard or militia) 220,000. This amounted to 850,000 trained troops available for service, in addition to 4,250,000 men in the untrained reserve. Immediately available to Japan on the declaration of war were 257,000 infantry, 11,000 cavalry and 894 pieces of artillery. These figures were divided between the Imperial Guards division, 12 regular divisions, 2 cavalry brigades, 2 artillery brigades, 13 reserve brigades, depot troops and the garrison of Taiwan. A regular Japanese division contained 11,400 infantry, 430 cavalry and 36 guns - the guns being organised into batteries of 6. Though another 4 divisions and 4 reserve brigades were formed in 1904, no further formations were created as the reserves were used to replace losses sustained in combat. Japanese reserves were given a full year of training before entering combat, though as the war progressed this was reduced to 6 months due to high casualties. The Japanese army did not follow the European convention of implementing Corps, thus there were no corps troops or command and the Japanese divisions were immediately subordinate to armies. Olender gives a different appraisal of Japanese strength, maintaining that there were 350,000 men of the standing army and 1st reserve, with an additional 850,000 trained men in reserve, creating a total trained force of 1,200,000 men. The breakdown of the Japanese standing army is different too, with Olender giving each Japanese division 19,000 men including auxiliary troops; he also states that the 13 reserve brigades contained 8,000 men each and mentions 20 fortress battalions, which is omitted by Connaughton. It is further stated that the Japanese army possessed 1,080 field guns and between 120-150 heavy guns at the war's commencement. Japanese cavalry was not considered the elite of the army as was the case in Russia; instead Japanese cavalry primarily acted as scouts and fought dismounted, armed with carbine and sword; this was reflected in the fact that each cavalry brigade contained 6 machine guns. ### Russia There is no consensus over how many Russian troops were present in the Far East around the time of the commencement of the war. One estimate states that the Russian army possessed 60,000 infantry 3,000 cavalry and 164 guns mostly at Vladivostok and Port Arthur with a portion at Harbin. This was reinforced by the middle of February to 95,000 with 45,000 at Vladivostok, 8,000 at Harbin, 9,000 at Haicheng, 11,000 on the Yalu River and 22,000 at Port Arthur. Olender gives the figure at 100,000 men including 8 infantry divisions, fortress troops and support troops. The entire Russian army in 1904 amounted to 1,200,000 men in 29 Corps. The Russian plan was immensely flawed as the Russians possessed only 24,000 potential reinforcements east of Lake Baikal when the war commenced. They would be reinforced by 35,000 men after 4 months and a further 60,000 men 10 months after the commencement of the war at which point they would take the offensive. This plan was based on the erroneous belief that the Japanese army could only mobilise 400,000 with them being unable to field more than 250,000 in an operational sense and 80,000-100,000 of their operational strength being necessary to secure supply lines and therefore only 150,000-170,000 Japanese soldiers would be available for field action. The possibility of Port Arthur being taken was dismissed entirely. An alternative figure for forces in the Far East is given at over 150,000 men and 266 guns with Vladivostok and Port Arthur containing a combined force of 45,000 men with an additional 55,000 engaged in guarding lines of communication leaving only 50,000 troops to take the field. Unlike the Japanese the Russians did utilise the Corps system and in fact maintained 2 distinct styles of Corps the European and the Siberian Corps. The 2 Corps both possessed 2 divisions anid their corresponding Corps troops but a Siberian Division was much smaller containing only 3,400 men and 20 guns with a Corps containing around 12,000 men including Corps troops it lacked both artillery and divisional guns. Russia only possessed 2 Siberian Corps both unprepared for war when war was declared this was raised to 7 Corps as the war progressed. The European Corps in comparison contained 28,000 soldiers and 112 guns with 6 such Corps sent to the Far East during the war (a further 3 were dispatched but did not arrive before the war ended). Russian Logistics were hampered by the fact that the only connection to European Russia was the Trans-Siberian Railway which remained incomplete as at Lake Baikal the railway was not connected. A single train would take between 15-40 days to traverse the railway with 40 days being the more common figure. A single battalion would take a month to transport from Moscow to Shenyang. Eventually the Russians did complete the railway and 20 trains rain daily (a European corps required some 267 trains) on the railway, by the conclusion of the war some 410,000 soldiers 93,000 horses and 1,000 guns had been moved across the railway. The tactics utilised by the Russians were heavily outdated as was their doctrine. The Russian infantry were holding to the maxim of [Suvorov](Alexander Suvorov) over a century after his death. The Russian command still used strategies from the [war](Crimean)(Crimean War) attacking [echelon](en)(Echelon formation) across a wide front in closed formations, it was not uncommon for Russian higher command to bypass their intermediate commanders and issue orders directly to battalions thus creating confusion during combat. ### Ship distribution ## Declaration of war Japan issued a [of war](declaration)(declaration of war) on 8 February 1904.Some scholarly researchers credit [Yamaza](Enjiro)(Enjiro Yamaza) with drafting the text of the Japanese declaration of war – see Naval Postgraduate School (US) thesis: Na, Sang Hyung. ["The Korean-Japanese Dispute over Dokdo/Takeshima," p. 62 n207](http://www.dtic.mil/cgi-bin/GetTRDoc?Location=U2&doc=GetTRDoc.pdf&AD=ADA475769) December 2007, citing Byang-Ryull Kim. (2006). ''Ilbon Gunbu'ui Dokdo Chim Talsa* (The Plunder of Dokdo by the Japanese Military''), p. 121. However, three hours before Japan's declaration of war was received by the Russian government, and without warning, the [Japanese Navy](Imperial)(Imperial Japanese Navy) attacked the [Far East Fleet](Russian)(Pacific Fleet (Russia)) at Port Arthur.["Russo-Japanese War"](https://www.history.com/topics/korea/russo-japanese-war) , [History.com](History (American TV channel)), 21 Aug. 2018 Tsar Nicholas II was stunned by news of the attack. He could not believe that Japan would commit an act of war without a formal declaration, and had been assured by his ministers that the Japanese would not fight. When the attack came, according to [Spring Rice](Cecil)(Cecil Spring Rice), first secretary at the [Embassy](British)(Embassy of the United Kingdom, Moscow), it left the Tsar "almost incredulous". Russia declared war on Japan eight days later. Japan, in response, made reference to the [attack on Sweden in 1808](Russian)(Finnish War) without declaration of war, although the requirement to mediate disputes between states [commencing hostilities](before)(Declaration of war#Agreed Procedure for the Opening of Hostilities according to the Hague Convention) was made international law in 1899, and again in 1907, with the [Conventions of 1899 and 1907](Hague)(Hague Conventions of 1899 and 1907#Hague Convention of 1899).[Hague Conventions of 1899 and 1907](https://www.britannica.com/event/Hague-Conventions) , Encyclopedia Britannica, Updated 8 June 2019Scott, James Brown, editor, The Hague Conventions and Declarations of 1899 and 1907, Oxford University Press, (1918), p. 43 (Title II – On Good Offices and Mediation) Article 2 The [Empire](Qing)(Qing dynasty) favoured the Japanese position and even offered military aid, but Japan declined it. However, [Shikai](Yuan)(Yuan Shikai) sent envoys to Japanese generals several times to deliver foodstuffs and alcoholic drinks. Native Manchurians joined the war on both sides as hired troops. ## Campaign of 1904 Port Arthur, on the Liaodong Peninsula in the south of Manchuria, had been fortified into a major naval base by the Russian Imperial Army. Since it needed to control the sea in order to fight a war on the Asian mainland, Japan's first military objective was to neutralize the Russian fleet at Port Arthur. ### Battle of Port Arthur [[File:JAPANESE OCCUPATION OF SEOUL.jpg\|thumb\|Japanese infantry during the occupation of [Seoul](Seoul), Korea, in 1904]] On the night of 8 February 1904, the Japanese fleet under Admiral [Heihachirō](Tōgō)(Tōgō Heihachirō) opened the war with a surprise [boat destroyer](torpedo)(torpedo boat destroyer) attack on the Russian ships at Port Arthur. The attack heavily damaged the and , the heaviest battleships in Russia's Far Eastern theatre, and the 6,600 ton protected cruiser . These attacks developed into the [of Port Arthur](Battle)(Battle of Port Arthur) the next morning. A series of indecisive naval engagements followed, in which Admiral Tōgō was unable to attack the Russian fleet successfully as it was protected by the shore batteries of the harbour, and the Russians were reluctant to leave the harbour for the open seas, especially after the death of Admiral [Osipovich Makarov](Stepan)(Stepan Osipovich Makarov) from a naval mine on 13 April 1904. Although the actual Battle of Port Arthur was indecisive, the initial attacks had a devastating psychological effect on Russia, which had been confident about the prospect of war. The Japanese had seized the initiative while the Russians waited in port. These engagements provided cover for a Japanese landing near [Incheon](Incheon) in Korea. From Incheon the Japanese occupied Hanseong and then the rest of Korea. After the Japanese occupation of Hanseong, [Gojong](Emperor)(Emperor Gojong) sent a detachment of 17,000 soldiers to support Russia. By the end of April, the Japanese Imperial Army under [Tamemoto](Kuroki)(Kuroki Tamemoto) was ready to cross the [River](Yalu)(Yalu River) into Russian-occupied Manchuria. ### Blockade of Port Arthur [[in the Russo Japanese War.jpg\|thumb\|Battlefields in the Russo-Japanese War](File:Battlefields)] The Japanese attempted to deny the Russians use of Port Arthur. During the night of 13–14 February, the Japanese attempted to block the entrance to Port Arthur by sinking several concrete-filled steamers in the deep water channel to the port, but they sank too deep to be effective. A similar attempt to block the harbour entrance during the night of 3–4 May also failed. In March, the charismatic Vice Admiral [Makarov](Stepan Makarov) had taken command of the First Russian Pacific Squadron with the intention of breaking out of the Port Arthur blockade. On 12 April 1904, two Russian [pre-dreadnought](pre-dreadnought) battleships, the flagship and the , slipped out of port but struck Japanese mines off Port Arthur. The Petropavlovsk* sank almost immediately, while the Pobeda had to be towed back to port for extensive repairs. Admiral Makarov, the single most effective Russian naval strategist of the war, died on the battleship Petropavlovsk. On 15 April 1904, the Russian government made overtures threatening to seize the British [correspondent](war)(war correspondent)s who were taking the ship into war zones to report for the London-based [Times](The Times) newspaper, citing concerns about the possibility of the British giving away Russian positions to the Japanese fleet. The Russians quickly learned, and soon employed, the Japanese tactic of offensive minelaying. On 15 May 1904, two Japanese battleships, the and the , were lured into a recently laid Russian minefield off Port Arthur, each striking at least two mines. The Hatsuse sank within minutes, taking 450 sailors with her, while the Yashima sank while under tow towards Korea for repairs. On 23 June 1904, a [attempt](breakout)(Battle of the Yellow Sea) by the Russian squadron, now under the command of Admiral [Vitgeft](Wilgelm)(Wilgelm Vitgeft), failed. By the end of the month, Japanese artillery were firing shells into the harbour. ### Siege of Port Arthur [[File:Fire of the Oil Depot Caused by Our Gunfire.jpg\|thumb\|Bombardment during the [of Port Arthur](siege)(siege of Port Arthur)]] The siege of Port Arthur commenced in April 1904. Japanese troops tried numerous frontal assaults on the fortified hilltops overlooking the harbour, which were defeated with Japanese casualties in the thousands. With the aid of several batteries of 11-inch (280 mm) [howitzers](28 cm howitzer L/10), the Japanese were eventually able to capture the key hilltop bastion in December 1904. With a spotter at the end of a phone line located at this vantage point, the long-range artillery was able to shell the Russian fleet, which was unable to retaliate against the land-based artillery invisible over the other side of hilltop, and was unable or unwilling to sail out against the blockading fleet. Four Russian battleships and two cruisers were sunk in succession, with the fifth and last battleship being forced to scuttle a few weeks later. Thus, all [ship](capital)(capital ship)s of the Russian fleet in the Pacific were sunk. This is probably the only example in military history when such a scale of devastation was achieved by land-based artillery against major warships. [[assault on the entrenched Russian forces, 1904](File:Assaut-Kin-Tchéou.jpg\|thumb\|Japanese)] Meanwhile, attempts to relieve the besieged city by land also failed, and, after the [of Liaoyang](Battle)(Battle of Liaoyang) in late August, the northern Russian force that might have been able to relieve Port Arthur retreated to Mukden ([Shenyang](Shenyang)). Major General [Stessel](Anatoly)(Anatoly Stessel), commander of the Port Arthur garrison, believed that the purpose of defending the city was lost after the fleet had been destroyed. In general, the Russian defenders were suffering disproportionate casualties each time the Japanese attacked. In particular, several large underground [mines](Mining (military)) were exploded in late December, resulting in the costly capture of a few more pieces of the defensive line. Stessel, therefore, decided to surrender to the surprised Japanese generals on 2 January 1905. He made his decision without consulting either the other military staff present, or the Tsar and military command, all of whom disagreed with the decision. Stessel was convicted by a [court-martial](court-martial) in 1908 and sentenced to death on account of an incompetent defense and for disobeying orders. He was later pardoned. ### Anglo–Japanese intelligence co-operation Even before the war, British and Japanese intelligence had co-operated against Russia due to the [Alliance](Anglo-Japanese)(Anglo-Japanese Alliance). During the war, [Army](Indian)(British Indian Army) stations in [Malaya](British Malaya) and China often intercepted and read wireless and telegraph cable traffic relating to the war, which was shared with the Japanese. In their turn, the Japanese shared information about Russia with the British with one British official writing of the "perfect quality" of Japanese intelligence. In particular, British and Japanese intelligence gathered much evidence that Germany was supporting Russia in the war as part of a bid to disturb the balance of power in Europe, which led to British officials increasingly perceiving that country as a threat to the international order. ### Battle of Yalu River In contrast to the Japanese strategy of rapidly gaining ground to control Manchuria, Russian strategy focused on fighting delaying actions to gain time for reinforcements to arrive via the long Trans-Siberian Railway, which was incomplete near [Irkutsk](Irkutsk) at the time. On 1 May 1904, the [of Yalu River](Battle)(Battle of Yalu River (1904)) became the first major land battle of the war; Japanese troops stormed a Russian position after crossing the river. The defeat of the Russian Eastern Detachment removed the perception that the Japanese would be an easy enemy, that the war would be short, and that Russia would be the overwhelming victor. This was also the first battle in decades to be an Asian victory over a European power and marked Russia's inability to match Japan's military prowess. Japanese troops proceeded to land at several points on the Manchurian coast, and in a series of engagements, drove the Russians back towards Port Arthur. The subsequent battles, including the [of Nanshan](Battle)(Battle of Nanshan) on 25 May 1904, were marked by heavy Japanese losses largely from attacking entrenched Russian positions. ### Battle of the Yellow Sea With the death of Admiral [Makarov](Stepan)(Stepan Makarov) during the siege of Port Arthur in April 1904, Admiral [Vitgeft](Wilgelm)(Wilgelm Vitgeft) was appointed commander of the battle fleet and was ordered to make a [sortie](sortie) from Port Arthur and deploy his force to [Vladivostok](Vladivostok). Flying his flag in the French-built pre-dreadnought , Vitgeft proceeded to lead his six battleships, four [cruiser](cruiser)s, and 14 [boat destroyers](torpedo)(torpedo boat destroyers) into the Yellow Sea in the early morning of 10 August 1904. Waiting for him was Admiral Tōgō and his fleet of four battleships, 10 cruisers, and 18 torpedo boat destroyers. At approximately 12:15, the battleship fleets obtained visual contact with each other, and at 13:00 with Tōgō [Vitgeft's T](crossing)(Crossing the T), they commenced main battery fire at a range of about eight miles, the longest ever conducted up to that time. For about thirty minutes the battleships pounded one another until they had closed to less than four miles and began to bring their secondary batteries into play. At 18:30, a hit from one of Tōgō's battleships struck Vitgeft's flagship's bridge, killing him instantly. With the Tsesarevichs helm jammed and their admiral killed in action, she turned from her battle line, causing confusion among her fleet. However, Tōgō was determined to sink the Russian flagship and continued pounding her, and it was saved only by the gallant charge of the American-built , whose captain successfully drew away Tōgō's heavy fire from the Russian flagship. Knowing of the impending battle with the battleship reinforcements arriving from Russia (the Baltic Fleet), Tōgō chose not to risk his battleships by pursuing his enemy as they turned about and headed back into Port Arthur, thus ending naval history's longest-range gunnery duel up to that time and the first modern clash of steel battleship fleets on the high seas. ### Baltic Fleet redeploys [[of Baltic Fleet](File:Russian_2nd_and_3rd_Pacific_Fleet_voyage_in_1905.svg\|thumb\|Route)] Meanwhile, the Russians were preparing to reinforce their Far East Fleet by sending the [Fleet](Baltic)(Baltic Fleet), under the command of Admiral [Rozhestvensky](Zinovy)(Zinovy Rozhestvensky). After a false start caused by engine problems and other mishaps, the squadron finally departed on 15 October 1904, and sailed halfway around the world from the [Sea](Baltic)(Baltic Sea) to the Pacific via the [Route](Cape)(Cape Route) around the [of Good Hope](Cape)(Cape of Good Hope) in the course of a seven-month odyssey that was to attract worldwide attention. The [Bank incident](Dogger)(Dogger Bank incident) on 21 October 1904, where the Russian fleet fired on British fishing boats that they mistook for enemy torpedo boats, nearly sparked a war with the United Kingdom (an ally of Japan, but neutral, unless provoked). During the voyage, the fleet separated into a portion that went through the [Canal](Suez)(Suez Canal) while the larger battleships went around the [of Good Hope](Cape)(Cape of Good Hope). ### Effects on civilians It was reported in 1905 that many Russian females were raped by Japanese troops, causing a widespread infections of venereal diseases in large number of Japanese troops.Ianfu, the Comfort Women of the Japanese Imperial Army of the Pacific War: Broken Silence: By David A. Schmidt [https://books.google.com/books?id=4ASRAAAAIAAJ&q=1905] https://books.google.com/books?id=DlPRAgAAQBAJ&dq=venereal+disease+raping+russian+women+Japanese&pg=PT158 [https://www.google.com/search?q=venereal+disease+raping+russian+women+Japanese&biw=1920&bih=937&tbm=bks&sxsrf=AOaemvKjUFnVkOWfR6HaFouJc81CA6IIxw%3A1637733413616&ei=JdSdYZ39JNuU8gLD5qbgDA&oq=venereal+disease+raping+russian+women+Japanese&gs_l=psy-ab.3...150.1243.0.1317.9.6.0.0.0.0.0.0..0.0....0...1.1.64.psy-ab..9.0.0....0.mO1FfbIEglw#:~:text=with%20huge%20numbers%20of%20Japanese%20soldiers%20afflicted] During the fighting in Manchuria, there were Russian troops that [looted](Looting) and burned some Chinese villages, raped women and often killed those who resisted or did not understand what they wanted.. The Russian justification for all this was that Chinese civilians, being Asian, must have been helping their fellow Asians (the Japanese) inflict defeat on the Russians, and therefore deserved to be punished. The Russian troops were gripped by the fear of the "[Peril](Yellow)(Yellow Peril)", and saw all Asians, not just the Japanese, as the enemy. All of the Russian soldiers were much feared by the Chinese population of Manchuria, but it was the Cossacks whom they feared the most on the account of their brutality and insatiable desire to loot. Largely because of the more disciplined behavior of the Japanese, the Han and Manchu population of Manchuria tended to be pro-Japanese. The Japanese were also prone to looting, albeit in a considerably less brutal manner than the Russians, and summarily executed any Chinese or Manchu whom they suspected of being spies. The city of Liaoyang had the misfortune to be sacked three times within three days: first by the Russians, then by the Chinese police, and finally by the Japanese. The Japanese hired Chinese bandits known variously as the [Chunguses](honghuzi), Chunchuse or khunhuzy to engage in guerrilla warfare by attacking Russian supply columns. Only once did the Chunguses attack Japanese forces, and that attack was apparently motivated by the Chunguses mistaking the Japanese forces for a Russian one.. [Zuolin](Zhang)(Zhang Zuolin), a prominent bandit leader and the future "Old Marshal" who would rule Manchuria as a warlord between 1916 and 1928, worked as a Chunguse for the Japanese. Manchuria was still officially part of the Chinese Empire, and the Chinese civil servants tried their best to be neutral as Russian and Japanese troops marched across Manchuria. In the parts of Manchuria occupied by the Japanese, Tokyo appointed "civil governors" who worked to improve health, sanitation and the state of the roads. These activities were also self-interested, as improved roads lessened Japanese logistics problems while improved health amongst the Chinese lessened the dangers of diseases infecting the Japanese troops. By contrast, the Russians made no effort to improve sanitation or health amongst the Chinese, and destroyed everything when they retreated. Many Chinese tended to see the Japanese as the lesser evil. ## Campaign of 1905 [[File:Retreat of the Russian Army after the Battle of Mukden.jpg\|thumb\|Retreat of Russian soldiers after the [of Mukden](Battle)(Battle of Mukden)]] With the fall of [Arthur](Port)(Lüshunkou), the Japanese 3rd Army could continue northward to reinforce positions south of Russian-held [Mukden](Mukden). With the onset of the severe Manchurian winter, there had been no major land engagements since the [of Shaho](Battle)(Battle of Shaho) the previous year. The two sides camped opposite each other along 60 to of front lines south of Mukden. ### Battle of Sandepu The Russian Second Army under General [Gripenberg](Oskar)(Oskar Grippenberg), between 25 and 29 January, attacked the Japanese left flank near the town of Sandepu, almost breaking through. This caught the Japanese by surprise. However, without support from other Russian units the attack stalled, Gripenberg was ordered to halt by [Kuropatkin](Aleksey Kuropatkin) and the battle was inconclusive. The Japanese knew that they needed to destroy the Russian army in Manchuria before Russian reinforcements arrived via the Trans-Siberian railroad. ### Battle of Mukden [[Japanese Assault French Papier.jpg\|thumb\|An illustration of a Japanese assault during the Battle of Mukden](File:Mukden)] The Battle of Mukden commenced on 20 February 1905. In the following days Japanese forces proceeded to assault the right and left flanks of Russian forces surrounding Mukden, along a front. Approximately half a million men were involved in the fighting. Both sides were well entrenched and were backed by hundreds of artillery pieces. After days of harsh fighting, added pressure from the flanks forced both ends of the Russian defensive line to curve backwards. Seeing they were about to be encircled, the Russians began a general retreat, fighting a series of fierce rearguard actions, which soon deteriorated in the confusion and collapse of Russian forces. On 10 March 1905, after three weeks of fighting, [Kuropatkin](General)(General Kuropatkin) decided to withdraw to the north of Mukden. The Russians suffered a estimated 90,000 casualties in the battle. The retreating Russian Manchurian Army formations disbanded as fighting units, but the Japanese failed to destroy them completely. The Japanese themselves had suffered heavy casualties and were in no condition to pursue. Although the Battle of Mukden was a major defeat for the Russians and was the most decisive land battle ever fought by the Japanese, the final victory still depended on the navy. ### Battle of Tsushima [[File:JBMikasa.jpg\|thumb\|, the flagship of Admiral [Heihachirō](Tōgō)(Tōgō Heihachirō) at the [of Tsushima](Battle)(Battle of Tsushima)]] After a stopover of several weeks at the minor port of [Nossi-Bé](Nossi-Bé), [Madagascar](Madagascar), that had been reluctantly allowed by neutral France in order not to jeopardize its relations with its Russian ally, the Russian Baltic fleet proceeded to [Ranh Bay](Cam)(Cam Ranh Bay) in [Indochina](French)(French Indochina) passing on its way through the [Strait](Singapore)(Singapore Strait) between 7 and 10 April 1905. The fleet finally reached the Sea of Japan in May 1905. The logistics of such an undertaking in the age of coal power was astounding. The squadron required approximately 500,000 tons of coal to complete the journey, yet by international law, it was not allowed to coal at neutral ports, forcing the Russian authorities to acquire a large fleet of colliers to supply the fleet at sea. The weight of the ships' stores needed for such a long journey was to be another major problem. The Russian Second Pacific Squadron (the renamed Baltic Fleet) sailed 18,000 nautical miles (33,000 km) to relieve Port Arthur only to hear the demoralizing news that Port Arthur had fallen while it was still at Madagascar. Admiral Rozhestvensky's only hope now was to reach the port of Vladivostok. There were three routes to Vladivostok, with the shortest and most direct passing through [Strait](Tsushima)(Tsushima Strait) between Korea and Japan. However, this was also the most dangerous route as it passed between the Japanese home islands and the Japanese naval bases in Korea. Admiral Tōgō was aware of Russian progress and understood that, with the fall of Port Arthur, the Second and Third Pacific squadrons would try to reach the only other Russian port in the Far East, Vladivostok. Battle plans were laid down and ships were repaired and refitted to intercept the Russian fleet. The Japanese [Fleet](Combined)(Combined Fleet), which had originally consisted of six battleships, was now down to four battleships and one second class battleship (two had been lost to mines), but still retained its cruisers, destroyers, and torpedo boats. The Russian Second Pacific Squadron contained eight battleships, including four new battleships of the , as well as cruisers, destroyers and other auxiliaries for a total of 38 ships. By the end of May, the Second Pacific Squadron was on the last leg of its journey to Vladivostok, taking the shorter, riskier route between Korea and Japan, and travelling at night to avoid discovery. Unfortunately for the Russians, while in compliance with the [of war](rules)(rules of war), the two trailing hospital ships had continued to burn their lights, which were spotted by the Japanese [merchant cruiser](armed)(armed merchant cruiser) Shinano Maru. Wireless communication was used to inform Togo's headquarters, where the Combined Fleet was immediately ordered to sortie. Still receiving reports from scouting forces, the Japanese were able to position their fleet to [the T"]("cross)(Crossing the T) of the Russian fleet. The Japanese engaged the Russians in the Tsushima Straits on 27–28 May 1905. The Russian fleet was virtually annihilated, losing eight battleships, numerous smaller vessels, and more than 5,000 men, while the Japanese lost three torpedo boats and 116 men. Only three Russian vessels escaped to Vladivostok, while six others were interned in neutral ports. After the Battle of Tsushima, a combined Japanese Army and Navy operation [Sakhalin Island](occupied)(Japanese invasion of Sakhalin) to force the Russians into [for peace](suing)(suing for peace). ## Peace and aftermath ### Treaty of Portsmouth [[File:Treaty of Portsmouth.jpg\|thumb\|Negotiating the Treaty of Portsmouth (1905). From left to right: the Russians at far side of table are Korostovetz, Nabokov, [Witte](Sergei Witte), [Rosen](Roman Rosen), Plancon; and the Japanese at near side of table are [Adachi](Mineichirō Adachi), [Ochiai](Ochiai Kentaro), [Komura](Komura Jutarō), [Takahira](Takahira Kogoro), [Satō](Aimaro Satō). The large conference table is today preserved at the Museum [Meiji-mura](Meiji-mura) in [Aichi](Inuyama,)(Inuyama, Aichi) Prefecture, Japan.]] Military leaders and senior tsarist officials agreed before the war that Russia was a much stronger nation and had little to fear from the Empire of Japan. The fanatical zeal of the Japanese infantrymen astonished the Russians, who were dismayed by the apathy, backwardness, and defeatism of their own soldiers.Donald P. Wright, "'Clouds Gathering on the Horizon': The Russian Army and the Preparation of the Imperial Population for War, 1906–1914", * Journal of Military History* 83#4 (Dec 2019 ) pp 1133 – 1160, quoting pp. 1136–37. The defeats of the Army and Navy shook Russian confidence. Throughout 1905, the Imperial Russian government was rocked by [revolution](Russian Revolution of 1905). The population was against escalation of the war. The empire was certainly capable of sending more troops but this would make little difference in the outcome due to the poor state of the economy, the embarrassing defeats of the Russian Army and Navy by the Japanese, and the relative unimportance to Russia of the disputed land made the war extremely unpopular. Tsar Nicholas II elected to negotiate peace so he could concentrate on internal matters after the disaster of [Sunday](Bloody)(Bloody Sunday (1905)) on 9 January 1905. [[Russia Treaty of Peace 5 September 1905.jpg\|thumb\|Japan-Russia Treaty of Peace, 5 September 1905](File:Japan)] Both sides accepted the offer of United States President [Roosevelt](Theodore)(Theodore Roosevelt) to mediate. Meetings were held in [New Hampshire](Portsmouth,)(Portsmouth, New Hampshire), with [Witte](Sergei)(Sergei Witte) leading the Russian delegation and [Komura](Baron)(Komura Jutarō) leading the Japanese delegation. The [of Portsmouth](Treaty)(Treaty of Portsmouth) was signed on 5 September 1905 at the [Naval Shipyard](Portsmouth)(Portsmouth Naval Shipyard). Witte became Russian Prime Minister the same year. After courting the Japanese, Roosevelt decided to support the Tsar's refusal to pay indemnities, a move that policymakers in Tokyo interpreted as signifying that the United States had more than a passing interest in Asian affairs. Russia recognized Korea as part of the Japanese sphere of influence and agreed to evacuate Manchuria. Japan would annex Korea in 1910 ([Treaty of 1910](Japan–Korea)(Japan–Korea Treaty of 1910)), with scant protest from other powers.See review (lay-summary) in . From 1910 forward, the Japanese adopted a strategy of using the Korean Peninsula as a gateway to the Asian continent and making Korea's economy subordinate to Japanese economic interests. Russia also signed over its 25-year leasehold rights to Port Arthur, including the naval base and the peninsula around it, and ceded the southern half of [Sakhalin](Sakhalin) Island to Japan. Sakhalin would be taken back by the Soviet Union following the defeat of the Japanese in World War II. Roosevelt earned the [Peace Prize](Nobel)(Nobel Peace Prize) for his effort. [E. Mowry](George)(George E. Mowry) concludes that Roosevelt handled the arbitration well, doing an "excellent job of balancing Russian and Japanese power in the Orient, where the supremacy of either constituted a threat to growing America". As Japan had won every battle on land and sea and as the Japanese people did not understand that the costs of the war had pushed their nation to the verge of bankruptcy, the Japanese public was enraged by the Treaty of Portsmouth as many Japanese had expected the war to end with Russia ceding the Russian Far East to Japan and for Russia to pay an indemnity. The United States was widely blamed in Japan for the Treaty of Portsmouth with Roosevelt having allegedly "cheated" Japan out of its rightful claims at the peace conference. On 5 September 1905 the [incendiary incident](Hibiya)(Hibiya incendiary incident) - as the anti-American riots were euphemistically described - erupted in Tokyo and lasted for three days, forcing the government to declare martial law. ### Casualties [[File:Forces returning 2.jpg\|thumb\|Japanese propaganda [print](woodcut)(Woodblock printing in Japan) showing Tsar Nicholas II waking from a nightmare of the battered and wounded Russian forces returning from battle. Artist [Kiyochika](Kobayashi)(Kobayashi Kiyochika), 1904 or 1905.]] Sources do not agree on a precise number of deaths from the war because of a lack of [count](body)(body count)s for confirmation. The number of Japanese Army dead in combat or died of wounds is put at around 59,000 with around 27,000 additional casualties from disease, and between 6,000 and 12,000 wounded. Estimates of Russian Army dead range from around 34,000 to around 53,000 men with a further 9,000–19,000 dying of disease and around 75,000 captured. The total number of dead for both sides is generally stated as around 130,000 to 170,000. China suffered 20,000 civilian deaths, and financially the loss amounted to over 69 million [tael](tael)s' worth of silver. During many of the battles at sea, several thousand soldiers being transported drowned after their ships went down. There was no consensus about what to do with transported soldiers at sea, and as a result, many of the ships failed or refused to rescue soldiers that were left shipwrecked. This led to the creation of the [Geneva Convention](second)(second Geneva Convention) in 1906, which gave protection and care for shipwrecked soldiers in armed conflict. ### Political consequences [[File:Punch- Russian Prestige 1905.jpg\|thumb\|[Punch](Punch (magazine)) cartoon, 1905; A cartoon in the British press of the times illustrating the Russian Empire's loss of prestige after the nation's defeat. The hour-glass represents Russia's prestige running out.]] This was the first major military victory in the [era](modern)(Modern history) of an Asian power over a European nation. Russia's defeat was met with shock in the West and across the Far East. Japan's prestige rose greatly as it came to be seen as a modern nation. Concurrently, Russia lost virtually its entire Pacific and Baltic fleets, and also much international esteem. This was particularly true in the eyes of Germany and [Austria-Hungary](Austria-Hungary) before World War I. Russia was France's and [Serbia](Serbia)'s ally, and that loss of prestige had a significant effect on Germany's future when planning for war with France, and in supporting Austria-Hungary's war with Serbia. In the absence of Russian competition, and with the distraction of European nations during World War I, combined with the [Depression](Great)(Great Depression) that followed, the Japanese military began efforts to dominate China and the rest of Asia, which eventually led to the [Sino-Japanese War](Second)(Second Sino-Japanese War) and the [War](Pacific)(Pacific War) theatres of World War II. #### Effects on Russia Though there had been popular support for the war among the Russian public following the Japanese attack at Port Arthur in 1904, that popular support soon turned to discontent after suffering multiple defeats at the hands of the Japanese forces. For many Russians, the immediate shock of unexpected humiliation at the hands of Japan caused the conflict to be viewed as a metaphor for the shortcomings of the Romanov autocracy.. Popular discontent in Russia after the war added more fuel to the already simmering [Revolution of 1905](Russian)(Russian Revolution of 1905), an event Nicholas II had hoped to avoid entirely by taking intransigent negotiating stances prior to coming to the table. Twelve years later, that discontent boiled over into the [Revolution](February)(February Revolution) of 1917. In Poland, which Russia [in the late 18th century](partitioned)(Partitions of Poland), and where Russian rule already caused [major uprisings](two)(List of Polish uprisings), the population was so restless that an army of 250,000–300,000—larger than the one facing the Japanese—had to be stationed to put down [unrest](the)(Revolution in the Kingdom of Poland (1905–1907)). Some political leaders of the Polish insurrection movement (in particular, [Piłsudski](Józef)(Józef Piłsudski)) sent emissaries to Japan to collaborate on sabotage and intelligence gathering within the Russian Empire and even plan a Japanese-aided uprising. In Russia, the defeat of 1905 led in the short term to a reform of the Russian military that allowed it to face Germany in World War I. However, the revolts at home following the war planted seeds that presaged the [Revolution of 1917](Russian)(Russian Revolution of 1917). This was because Tsar Nicholas II issued the [Manifesto](October)(October Manifesto), which included only limited reforms such as the Duma and failed to address the societal problems of Russia at the time. #### Effects on Japan Japan had become the rising Asian power and had proven that its military could combat the major powers in Europe with success. Most Western powers were stunned that the Japanese not only prevailed but decisively defeated Russia. In the Russo-Japanese War, Japan had also portrayed a sense of readiness in taking a more active and leading role in Asian affairs, which in turn had led to widespread nationalism throughout the region. Although the war had ended in a victory for Japan, Japanese public opinion was shocked by the very restrained peace terms which were negotiated at the war's end.. Widespread discontent spread through the populace upon the announcement of the treaty terms, causing the [incendiary incident](Hibiya)(Hibiya incendiary incident). Riots erupted in major cities in Japan following the incident, including demonstrations in front of the US Legation in Tokyo. Two specific requirements, expected after such a costly victory, were especially lacking: territorial gains and monetary reparations to Japan. The peace accord led to feelings of distrust, as the Japanese had intended to retain all of [Island](Sakhalin)(Sakhalin Island), but were forced to settle for half of it after being pressured by the United States, with President Roosevelt opting to support Nicholas II's stance on not ceding territory or paying reparations. The Japanese had wanted reparations to help families recover from lost fathers and sons as well as heavy taxation by the government to finance the war. Without them, they were at a loss. The outcome of the [peace negotiations](Portsmouth)(Portsmouth Treaty), mediated by the U.S., was received by the general Japanese population with disbelief on September 5th and 6th when all the major newspapers reported the content of the signed treaty in lengthy editorials. As a result, the wartime government, the [Katsura Cabinet](First)(First Katsura Cabinet), which remained in power for the longest period (1,681 days) in the history of Japanese democracy to date, declared [Law](Martial)(Martial Law) to suppress the riots on September 6th (one day after the official signing in Portsmouth, NH). After over 2,000 people were arrested, the Martial Law was lifted on November 29th, but the Cabinet resigned on December 22nd, after ratifying the treaty on October 10th, as if taking the responsibility for a lost war. ## Assessment ### Historical significance [[File:UM EPISODIO DA GUERRA RUSSO-JAPONEZA. Depois da Batalha de Liao-Yang - Transporte de feridos russos pela Cruz Vermelha. Situação dolorosissima. Um medico que enlouquece de tão horroroso espetaculo.jpg\|thumb\|After the [of Liaoyang](Battle)(Battle of Liaoyang): Transport of wounded Russians by the [Cross](Red)(Red Cross) ([Agostini](Angelo)(Angelo Agostini))]] The effects and impact of the Russo-Japanese War introduced a number of characteristics that came to define 20th-century politics and warfare. Many of the innovations brought by the Industrial Revolution, such as rapid-firing artillery and machine guns, as well as more accurate rifles, were first tested on a mass scale then. Military operations on both sea and land showed that modern warfare had undergone a considerable change since the [War](Franco-Prussian)(Franco-Prussian War) of 1870–71.. Most army commanders had previously envisioned using these weapon systems to dominate the battlefield on an operational and tactical level but, as events played out, the technological advances forever altered the conditions of war too. For East Asia this was the first confrontation after thirty years involving two modern armed forces. The advanced weaponry led to massive casualty counts. Neither Japan nor Russia had prepared for the number of deaths that would occur in this new kind of warfare, or had the resources to compensate for such losses. This also left its impression on society at large, with the emergence of transnational and [organization](nongovernmental)(nongovernmental organization)s, like the [Cross](Red)(Red Cross), becoming prominent after the war. The consequent identification of common problems and challenges began the slow process that came to dominate much of the 20th century. It has also been argued that the conflict had characteristics of what was later to be described as "[war](total)(total war)". These included the mass mobilization of troops into battle and the need for so extensive a supply of equipment, armaments, and supplies that both domestic support and foreign aid were required. It is also argued that domestic response in Russia to the inefficiencies of the tsarist government set in motion the eventual dissolution of the Romanov dynasty. ### Reception around the world [[러시아에 압사당하는 한국.png\|thumb\|Postcard of political satire during the Russo-Japanese War](File:일본과)] To the Western powers, Japan's victory demonstrated the emergence of a new Asian regional power. With the Russian defeat, some scholars have argued that the war had set in motion a change in the global world order with the emergence of Japan as not only a regional power, but rather, the main Asian power. Rather more than the possibilities of diplomatic partnership were emerging, however. The US and Australian reaction to the changed balance of power brought by the war was mixed with fears of a [Peril](Yellow)(Yellow Peril) eventually shifting from China to Japan. American figures such as [E. B. Du Bois](W.)(W. E. B. Du Bois) and [Stoddard](Lothrop)(Lothrop Stoddard) saw the victory as a challenge to western supremacy. This was reflected in Austria, where Baron [von Ehrenfels](Christian)(Christian von Ehrenfels) interpreted the challenge in racial as well as cultural terms, arguing that "the absolute necessity of a radical sexual reform for the continued existence of the western races of men has ... been raised from the level of discussion to the level of a scientifically proven fact". To stop the Japanese "Yellow Peril" would require drastic changes to society and sexuality in the West. Certainly the Japanese success increased self-confidence among anti-colonial nationalists in colonised Asian countries – Vietnamese, Indonesians, Indians and Filipinos – and to those in declining countries like the [Empire](Ottoman)(Ottoman Empire) and [Persia](Qajar dynasty) in immediate danger of being absorbed by the Western powers. It also encouraged the Chinese who, despite having been at war with the Japanese only a decade before, still considered Westerners the greater threat. As [Yat-sen](Sun)(Sun Yat-sen) commented, "We regarded that Russian defeat by Japan as the defeat of the West by the East. We regarded the Japanese victory as our own victory".Sun Yat-sen's speech on Pan-Asianism at [Wikisource](https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Sun_Yat-sen%27s_speech_on_Pan-Asianism) Even in far-off [Tibet](Tibet) the war was a subject of conversation when [Hedin](Sven)(Sven Hedin) visited the [Lama](Panchen)(Thubten Choekyi Nyima, 9th Panchen Lama) in February 1907.Sven Hedin, Trans-Himalaya, Asian Educational Services reprint, New Delhi 1999, [p. 320](https://books.google.com/books?id=WypeCJwf1kgC&pg=PP1) While for [Nehru](Jawaharlal)(Jawaharlal Nehru), then only an aspiring politician in British India, "Japan's victory lessened the feeling of inferiority from which most of us suffered. A great European power had been defeated, thus Asia could still defeat Europe as it had done in the past." And in the [Empire](Ottoman)(Ottoman Empire) too, the [of Union and Progress](Committee)(Committee of Union and Progress) embraced Japan as a role model. In Europe, subject populations were similarly encouraged. [Joyce](James)(James Joyce)'s novel [Ulysses](Ulysses (novel)), set in Dublin in 1904, contains hopeful Irish allusions as to the outcome of the war. And in partitioned Poland the artist [Mehoffer](Józef)(Józef Mehoffer) chose 1905 to paint his "Europa Jubilans" (Europe rejoicing), which portrays an aproned maid taking her ease on a sofa against a background of Eastern artefacts. Painted following demonstrations against the war and Russian cultural suppression, and in the year of Russia's defeat, its subtly coded message looks forward to a time when the Tsarist masters will be defeated in Europe as they had been in Asia. See also [Faktografia 4 July 2012](http://faktografia.com/2012/07/04/seeing-japan-imagining-poland-polish-art-and-the-russo-japanese-war) The significance of the war for oppressed classes as well as subject populations was clear too to Socialist thinkers. It was this realisation of the universal significance of the war that underlines the historical importance of the conflict and its outcome. ### Military results Russia had lost two of its three fleets. Only its Black Sea Fleet remained, and this was the result of an earlier treaty that had prevented the fleet from leaving the Black Sea. Japan became the sixth-most powerful naval force by combined tonnage, while the Russian Navy declined to one barely stronger than that of Austria–Hungary. The actual costs of the war were large enough to affect the Russian economy and, despite grain exports, the nation developed an external balance of payments deficit. The cost of military re-equipment and re-expansion after 1905 pushed the economy further into deficit, although the size of the deficit was obscured. The Japanese were on the offensive for most of the war and used massed infantry assaults against defensive positions, which would later become the standard of all European armies during World War I. The battles of the Russo-Japanese War, in which machine guns and artillery took a heavy toll on Russian and Japanese troops, were a precursor to the [warfare](trench)(trench warfare) of World War I. A German military advisor sent to Japan, [Meckel](Jakob)(Jakob Meckel), had a tremendous impact on the development of the Japanese military training, tactics, strategy, and organization. His reforms were credited with Japan's overwhelming victory over China in the [Sino-Japanese War](First)(First Sino-Japanese War) of 1894–1895. However, his over-reliance on infantry in [offensive](Offensive (military)) campaigns also led to a large number of Japanese casualties. [[File:Dadao map 1939.svg\|thumb\|upright=1.2\|[Empire](Japanese)(Japanese Empire)'s territorial expansion]] Military and economic exhaustion affected both countries. Japanese historians regard this war as a turning point for Japan, and a key to understanding the reasons why Japan may have failed militarily and politically later. After the war, acrimony was felt at every level of Japanese society and it became the consensus within Japan that their nation had been treated as the defeated power during the peace conference. As time went on, this feeling, coupled with the sense of "arrogance" at becoming a [Power](Great)(Great Power), grew and added to growing Japanese hostility towards the West, and fuelled Japan's military and imperial ambitions. Furthermore, Japan's substantiated interests in Korea and Liaodong led to the creation of a [Army](Kwantung)(Kwantung Army), which became an autonomous and increasingly powerful regional force. Only five years after the war, Japan de jure annexed Korea as part of its colonial empire. Two decades after that, the Kwantung Army staged an incident that led to the invasion of Manchuria in the [Incident](Mukden)(Mukden Incident); the Kwantung Army eventually came to be heavily involved in the state's politics and administration, leading to a series of localized conflicts with Chinese regional warlords that finally extended into the [Sino-Japanese War](Second)(Second Sino-Japanese War) in 1937. As a result, most Chinese historians consider the Russo-Japanese War as a key development in Japan's spiral into [militarism](Japanese militarism) in the 1920s–30s. Following the victory of the [of Tsushima](Battle)(Battle of Tsushima), Japan's erstwhile British ally presented a lock of [Nelson's](Admiral)(Horatio Nelson, 1st Viscount Nelson) hair to the Imperial Japanese Navy, judging its performance then as on a par with Britain's victory at [Trafalgar](Battle of Trafalgar) in 1805. It is still on display at Kyouiku Sankoukan, a public museum maintained by the Japan Self-Defence Force. Nevertheless, there was a consequent shift in British strategic thinking, resulting in enlargement of its naval docks at [Auckland](Auckland), New Zealand; [Bombay](Bombay), [India](British)(British Raj); [Fremantle](Fremantle) and Sydney, Australia; [Town](Simon's)(Simon's Town), [Colony](Cape)(Cape Colony); Singapore and [Hong Kong](British)(British Hong Kong). The naval war confirmed the direction of the [Admiralty](British)(British Admiralty)'s thinking in tactical terms even as it undermined its strategic grasp of a changing world. Tactical orthodoxy, for example, assumed that a naval battle would imitate the conditions of stationary combat and that ships would engage in one long line sailing on parallel courses; but more flexible tactical thinking would now be required as a firing ship and its target manoeuvred independently. ## Military attachés and observers [[File:General Kuroki and his Staffs, Foreign Officiers and Correspondents.jpg\|thumb\|upright=1.2\|Japanese general, Kuroki, and his staff, including foreign officers and war correspondents after the [of Shaho](Battle)(Battle of Shaho) (1904)]] Military and civilian observers from every major power closely followed the course of the war. Most were able to report on events from the perspective of [embedded](embedded journalist) positions within the land and naval forces of both Russia and Japan. These military attachés and other observers prepared first-hand accounts of the war and analytical papers. In-depth observer narratives of the war and more narrowly focused professional journal articles were written soon after the war; these post-war reports conclusively illustrated the battlefield destructiveness of this conflict. This was the first time the tactics of entrenched positions for infantry defended with machine guns and artillery became vitally important. Both would become dominant factors in World War I. Even though entrenched positions had already been a significant part of both the [War](Franco-Prussian)(Franco-Prussian War) and the [Civil War](American)(American Civil War), it is now apparent that the high casualty counts, and the tactical lessons readily available to observer nations, were completely disregarded in preparations for war in Europe, and during much of the course of World War I. In 1904–1905, [Standish Monteith Hamilton](Ian)(Ian Standish Monteith Hamilton) was the military attaché of the [Indian Army](British)(British Indian Army) serving with the Imperial Japanese Army in Manchuria. As one of the several military attachés from Western countries, he was the first to arrive in Japan after the start of the war. He therefore would be recognized as the dean of multi-national attachés and observers in this conflict, although out-ranked by British [marshal](field)(field marshal), [Gustavus Nicholson, 1st Baron Nicholson](William)(William Gustavus Nicholson, 1st Baron Nicholson), who was later to become chief of the [General Staff](Imperial)(Imperial General Staff). ## Economics Despite its [reserve](gold)(gold reserve)s of 106.3 million [pounds](Pound sterling#Gold standard), Russia's pre-war financial situation was not enviable. The country had large budget deficits year after year, and was largely dependent on borrowed money. Russia's war effort was funded primarily by France, in a series of loans totalling 800 million [francs](french franc#Latin Monetary Union) (£30.4 million); another loan in the amount of 600 million francs was agreed upon, but later cancelled. These loans were extended within a climate of mass bribing of the French press (made necessary by Russia's precarious economic and social situation and poor military performance). Although initially reluctant to participate in the war, the French government and major banks were co-operative since it became clear that Russian and French economic interests were tied. In addition to French money, Russia secured a loan in the amount of 500 million [marks](German gold mark) (£24.5 million) from Germany, who also financed Japan's war effort. Japan's pre-war gold reserves were a modest £11.7 million; a major portion of the total cost of the war was covered by money borrowed from the United Kingdom, Canada, and the United States. During his canvassing expedition in London, the Japanese vice-governor of the Bank of Japan [Korekiyo](Takahashi)(Takahashi Korekiyo) met [Schiff](Jacob)(Jacob Schiff), an American banker and head of [Loeb & Co.](Kuhn,)(Kuhn, Loeb & Co.) Schiff, in response to [anti-Jewish pogroms](Russia's)(Anti-Jewish pogroms in the Russian Empire) and sympathetic to Japan's cause, extended a critical series of loans to the Empire of Japan, in the amount of 200 million US dollars (£41.2 million). He also raised loans from the [family](Rothschild)(Rothschild family) in Britain."Schiff, Jacob Henry". Dictionary of American Biography. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons. 1928–1936. pp. 430–432. Japan's total war expenditure was 2,150 million yen, of which 38%, or 820 million yen, was raised overseas. ## List of battles * 8 February 1904: [of Port Arthur](Battle)(Battle of Port Arthur): [battle](naval)(naval battle), inconclusive * 9 February 1904: [of Chemulpo Bay](Battle)(Battle of Chemulpo Bay): [battle](naval)(naval battle), Japanese victory * 30 April-1 May 1904: [of Yalu River](Battle)(Battle of Yalu River (1904)), Japanese victory * 25–26 May 1904: [of Nanshan](Battle)(Battle of Nanshan): Japanese victory * 14–15 June 1904: [of Te-li-Ssu](Battle)(Battle of Te-li-Ssu): Japanese victory * 17 July 1904: [of Motien Pass](Battle)(Battle of Motien Pass): Japanese victory * 24 July 1904: [of Tashihchiao](Battle)(Battle of Tashihchiao): Japanese victory * 31 July 1904: [of Hsimucheng](Battle)(Battle of Hsimucheng): Japanese victory * 10 August 1904: [of the Yellow Sea](Battle)(Battle of the Yellow Sea),: [battle](naval)(naval battle), Japanese victory * 14 August 1904: [off Ulsan](Battle)(Battle off Ulsan): [battle](naval)(naval battle), Japanese victory * 20 August 1904: [of Korsakov](Battle)(Battle of Korsakov): [battle](naval)(naval battle), Japanese victory * 19 August 1904 – 2 January 1905: [of Port Arthur](Siege)(Siege of Port Arthur), Japanese victory * 25 August-3 September 1904: [of Liaoyang](Battle)(Battle of Liaoyang): Japanese victory * 5–17 October 1904 [of Shaho](Battle)(Battle of Shaho): Inconclusive * 26–27 January 1905: [of Sandepu](Battle)(Battle of Sandepu): Inconclusive * 21 February-10 March 1905: [of Mukden](Battle)(Battle of Mukden): Japanese victory * 27–28 May 1905: [of Tsushima](Battle)(Battle of Tsushima): [battle](naval)(naval battle), Japanese victory * 7–31 July 1905: [of Sakhalin](Invasion)(Japanese invasion of Sakhalin): Japanese victory ## Cultural legacy ### Visual arts [[of Liaoyang, woodblock print.jpg\|thumb\|upright=1.2\|Getsuzō's woodblock print of "The Battle of Liaoyang", 1904](File:Battle)] The Russo-Japanese War was covered by dozens of foreign journalists who sent back sketches that were turned into [lithograph](lithograph)s and other reproducible forms. Propaganda images were circulated by both sides, often in the form of postcards and based on insulting racial stereotypes. These were produced not only by the combatants but by those from European countries who supported one or the other side or had a commercial or colonial stake in the area. War photographs were also popular, appearing in both the press and in book form. In Russia, the war was covered by anonymous satirical graphic [luboks](Lubok#Russo-Japanese War lubok) for sale in markets, recording the war for the domestic audience. Around 300 were made before their creation was banned by the Russian government. Their Japanese equivalents were [prints](woodblock)(Ukiyo-e). These had been common during the Sino-Japanese war a decade earlier and celebrations of the new conflict tended to repeat the same imagery and situations. But by this time in Japan postcards had become the most common form of communication and they soon replaced prints as a medium for topographical imagery and war reportage. In some ways, however, they were still dependent on the print for their pictorial conventions, not least in issuing the cards in series that assembled into a composite scene or design, either as [diptychs](diptychs), [triptych](triptych)s or even more ambitious formats. However, captioning swiftly moved from the calligraphic side inscription to a printed title below, and not just in Japanese but in English and other European languages. There was a lively sense that these images served not only as mementoes but also as propaganda statements. War artists were to be found on the Russian side and even figured among the casualties. [Vereshchagin](Vasily)(Vasily Vereshchagin) went down with the Petropavlovsk, Admiral Makarov's flagship, when it was sunk by mines. However, his last work, a picture of a council of war presided over by the admiral, was recovered almost undamaged. Another artist, [Samokysh](Mykola)(Mykola Samokysh), first came to notice for his reports during the war and the paintings worked up from his diary sketch-books. Other depictions appeared after the event. The two by the Georgian [naïve](Naïve art) painter [Pirosmani](Niko)(Niko Pirosmani) from 1906See reproductions from [WikiArt](WikiArt): [1](http://www.wikiart.org/en/niko-pirosmani/the-russian-japanese-war-1906#supersized-artistPaintings-216177) and [2](http://www.wikiart.org/en/niko-pirosmani/russo-japanese-war#supersized-artistPaintings-302745) . must have been dependent on newspaper reports since he was not present. Then, in 1914 at the outset of World War I, Yury Repin made an episode during the Battle of Yalu River the subject of a broad heroic canvas.[Chuliengcheng. In a glorious death eternal life](https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Battle_of_Yalu_River_by_Repin.jpg) , oil on canvas by Juri Repin. ### Music On either side, there were lyrics lamenting the necessity of fighting in a foreign land, far from home. One of the earliest of several Russian songs still performed today was the waltz "Amur's Waves" (Amurskie volny), which evokes the melancholy of standing watch on the motherland far east frontier.[''Amur's Waves](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-qKajPAQuYo) performed by the Red Army Choir under the direction of Gennady Sachenyuk (in Russian with English subtext). Two others grew out of incidents during the war. "[the Hills of Manchuria](On)(On the Hills of Manchuria)" (Na sopkah Manchzhurii; 1906) is another waltz composed by [Shatrov](Ilya)(Ilya Shatrov), a decorated military musician whose regiment suffered badly in the Battle of Mukden. Originally only the music was published, and the words by [Petrov](Stepan)(Skitalets) were added later. The second song, "Variag", commemorates the [of Chemulpo Bay](Battle)(Battle of Chemulpo Bay) in which [cruiser](that)(Russian cruiser Varyag (1899)) and the gunboat Korietz'' steamed out to confront an encircling Japanese squadron rather than surrender. That act of heroism was first celebrated in a German song by Rudolf Greintz in 1907, which was quickly translated into Russian and sung to a martial accompaniment.German text in See also a [multimedia enactment](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=I60IrRMntWk) of the song on YouTube (in Russian). These lyrics mourned the fallen lying in their graves and threatened revenge.See some translations at [Mudcat Café](https://mudcat.org/thread.cfm?threadid=155598#3661604) , and [On The Hills of Manchuria](https://www.youtube.com/watch?annotation_id=annotation_720020&feature=iv&src_vid=fWDgs34wilk&v=6ZsK0pSbSIo) performed by Maxim Troshin (in Russian). [Rimsky-Korsakov](Nikolai)(Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov) also reacted to the war by composing the satirical opera [Golden Cockerel](The)(The Golden Cockerel), completed in 1907. Although it was ostensibly based on a verse fairy tale by [Pushkin](Alexander)(Alexander Pushkin) written in 1834, the authorities quickly realised its true target and immediately banned it from performance. The opera was premiered in 1909, after Rimsky-Korsakov's death, and even then with modifications required by the censors. ### Poetry Some Japanese poetry dealing with the war still has a high profile. General [Maresuke](Nogi)(Nogi Maresuke)'s "Outside the Goldland fortress" was learned by generations of schoolchildren and valued for its bleak stoicism. The army surgeon [Ōgai](Mori)(Mori Ōgai) kept a verse diary which tackled such themes as racism, strategic mistakes and the ambiguities of victory which can now be appreciated in historical hindsight.Collected works in , reviewed by Tim Wright in [Intersections: Gender, History and Culture in the Asian Context](http://intersections.anu.edu.au/issue4/tims_review.html) n. 4 September 2000. Nowadays too there is growing appreciation of [Akiko](Yosano)(Yosano Akiko)'s parting poem to her brother as he left for the war, which includes the critical lines. }} Even the [Meiji](Emperor)(Emperor Meiji) himself entered the poetic lists, writing in answer to all the lamentations about death in a foreign land that the patriotic soul returns to the homeland. European treatments were similarly varied. Jane H. Oakley attempted an epic treatment of the conflict in 86 cantos. The French poet [Cendrars](Blaise)(Blaise Cendrars) was later to represent himself as on a Russian train on its way to Manchuria at the time in his [prose du Transsibérien et de la Petite Jehanne de France](La)(La prose du Transsibérien et de la Petite Jehanne de France) (1913) and energetically evoked the results of the war along the way: }} Much later, the Scottish poet [Dunn](Douglas)(Douglas Dunn) devoted an [poem](epistolary)(epistolary poem) in verse to the naval war in ''The Donkey's Ears: Politovsky's Letters Home* (2000). This follows the voyage of the Russian Imperial Navy flagship Kniaz'' to its sinking at the Battle of Tsushima.See the account by ### Fiction Fictional coverage of the war in English began even before it was over. An early example was [Upward](Allen)(Allen Upward)'s The International Spy. Set in both Russia and Japan, it ends with the Dogger Bank incident involving the Baltic Fleet. The political thinking displayed there is typical of the time. There is great admiration for the Japanese, who were British allies. Russia is in turmoil, but the main impetus towards war is not imperialism as such but commercial forces. "Every student of modern history has remarked the fact that all recent wars have been promoted by great combinations of capitalists. The causes which formerly led to war between nation and nation have ceased to operate" (p. 40). The true villain plotting in the background, however, is the German Emperor, seeking to destabilise the European balance of power in his country's favour. Towards the end of the novel, the narrator steals a German submarine and successfully foils a plot to involve the British in the war. The submarine motif reappeared in [Griffith](George)(George Griffith)'s science fiction novel, The Stolen Submarine* (1904), although in this case it is a French super-submarine which its developer sells to the Russians for use against the Japanese in another tale of international intrigue.E.F. and R. Bleiler (1990), Science Fiction: The Early Years, Kent State University, [p. 308](https://books.google.com/books?id=KEZxhkG5eikC&dq=%22The+stolen+submarine%22+griffiths&pg=PA308) Though most English-language fiction of the period took the Japanese side, the Rev. W. W. Walker's Canadian novella, Alter Ego, is an exception. It features a Canadian volunteer in the Russian army who, on his return, agrees to talk about his experiences to an isolated upcountry community and relates his part in the Battle of Mukden. Though this incident only occupies two of the book's six chapters, it is used to illustrate the main message there, that war is "anti-Christian and barbarous, except in a defensive sense" (Ch.3). [[File:MIKASAPAINTING.jpg\|thumb\|Painting of Admiral [Tōgō](Heihachirō)(Heihachirō Tōgō) on the bridge of the , before the [of Tsushima](Battle)(Battle of Tsushima) in 1905]] Various aspects of the war were also common in contemporary children's fiction. Categorised as [Own](Boys')(Boys' Own) adventure stories, they offer few insights into the conflict, being generally based on news articles and sharing without any reflection in the contemporary culture of imperialism. Among these, [Strang](Herbert)(Herbert Strang) was responsible for two novels: Kobo told from the Japanese side, and Brown of Moukden viewed from the Russian side. Three more were written by the prolific American author, [Stratemeyer](Edward)(Edward Stratemeyer): ''Under the Mikado's Flag'', At the Fall of Port Arthur, and Under Togo for Japan, or Three Young Americans on Land and Sea (1906). Two other English-language stories begin with the action at Port Arthur and follow the events thereafter: A Soldier of Japan: a tale of the Russo-Japanese War by Captain [Sadleir Brereton](Frederick)(Frederick Sadleir Brereton), and The North Pacific by Willis Boyd Allen (1855–1938). Two more also involve young men fighting in the Japanese navy: Americans in For the Mikado by [Munroe](Kirk)(Kirk Munroe), and a temporarily disgraced English officer in Under the Ensign of the Rising Sun by Harry Collingwood, the pen-name of William Joseph Cosens Lancaster (1851–1922), whose speciality was [fiction](naval)(nautical fiction). Another literary genre affected by the outcome of the war was [literature](invasion)(invasion literature), either fuelled by racialist fears or generated by the international power struggle. [Oshikawa](Shunrō)(Shunrō Oshikawa)'s novel The Submarine Battleship (Kaitei Gunkan) was published in 1900 before the actual fighting began but shared the imperial tensions that produced it. It is the story of an armoured ram-armed submarine involved in a Russo-Japanese conflict.Derek Linney, Invasion-Literature, 1871–1914, [p. 95](http://www.theriddleofthesands.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/11/Invasion-Literature-1871-1914-1.pdf) Three other novels appeared in 1908 and are thought of as significant now because of their prophetic dimension. American author Arthur Wellesley Kipling (1885–1947) prefaced his ''The New Dominion – A Tale of Tomorrow's Wars'' with a note counselling future vigilance. The scenario there is an attack by German and Japanese allies which the US and British navies victoriously fend off. In Germany itself an air attack on the American fleet is described by Ferdinand Heinrich Grautoff (1871–1935), writing under the name Parabellum, in his novel Banzai!. Published in Berlin in 1908, it was translated into English the following year. An Australian author using the pseudonym Charles H. Kirmess first serialised his The Commonwealth Crisis and then revised it for book publication as The Australian Crisis in 1909. It is set in 1912 and told from the standpoint of 1922, following a military invasion of Australia's Northern Territory and colonisation by Japanese settlers. Most Russian fictional accounts of the war had a documentary element. [Novikov-Priboy](Alexey)(Alexey Novikov-Priboy) served in the Baltic Fleet and wrote about the conflict on his return, but his early work was suppressed. It was not until the changed political climate under Soviet rule that he began writing his historical epic Tsushima, based on his own experiences on board the battleship as well as on testimonies of fellow sailors and government archives. The first part was published in 1932, the second in 1935, and the whole novel was later awarded the [Prize](Stalin)(State Stalin Prize). It describes the heroism of Russian sailors and certain officers whose defeat, in accordance with the new Soviet thinking, was due to the criminal negligence of the Imperial Naval command. A German novel by [Thiess](Frank)(Frank Thiess), originally published as Tsushima in 1936 (and later translated as The Voyage of Forgotten Men), covered the same journey round the world to defeat. Later there appeared a first-hand account of the siege of Port Arthur by Alexander Stepanov (1892–1965). He had been present there as the 12-year-old son of a battery commander and his novel, Port Arthur: a historical narrative (1944), is based on his own diaries and his father's notes. The work is considered one of the best historical novels of the Soviet period. A later novel in which the war appears is [Pikul](Valentin)(Valentin Pikul)'s The Three Ages of Okini-San (1981). Centred on the life of Vladimir Kokovtsov, who rose through the ranks to admiral of the Russian fleet, it covers the period from the Russo-Japanese War through to the [February](February Revolution) and [Revolution](October)(October Revolution)s. A much later Russian genre novel uses the period of the war as background. This is [Akunin](Boris)(Boris Akunin)'s [Diamond Chariot](The)(The Diamond Chariot) (2003), in the first part of which the detective [Fandorin](Erast)(Erast Fandorin) is charged with protecting the Trans-Siberian Railway from Japanese sabotage. The main historical novel dealing with the war from the Japanese side is [Ryōtarō](Shiba)(Shiba Ryōtarō)'s [Above the Hill](Clouds)(Saka no Ue no Kumo), published serially in several volumes between 1968 and 1972, and translated in English in 2013. The closely researched story spans the decade from the Sino-Japanese War to the Russo-Japanese War and went on to become the nation's favourite book. ## Filmography * [Arthur](Port)(Port Arthur (film)) (1936) * ''[Varyag](Kreiser)(Cruiser 'Varyag')* (1946) * [sensō shōri no hishi: Tekichū ōdan sanbyaku-ri](Nichiro)(Nichiro sensō shōri no hishi: Tekichū ōdan sanbyaku-ri) (1957) * [tennô to nichiro daisenso](Meiji)(Meiji tennô to nichiro daisenso) (1958) * [Battle of the Japan Sea](The)(The Battle of the Japan Sea) (1969, , Nihonkai-Daikaisen) depicts the naval battles of the war, the attacks on the Port Arthur highlands, and the subterfuge and diplomacy of Japanese agents in Sweden. Admiral Togo is portrayed by [Mifune](Toshiro)(Toshiro Mifune). * [Battle of Tsushima](The)(The Battle of Tsushima) (1975) [documentary](documentary), depiction of the naval Battle of Tsushima * [Battle of Port Arthur](The)(The Battle of Port Arthur) (1980, sometimes referred as 203 Kochi), depiction of the Siege of Port Arthur * [daikaisen: Umi yukaba](Nihonkai)(Nihonkai daikaisen: Umi yukaba) (1983) * [Ace of Spies](Reilly,)(Reilly, Ace of Spies)'' (1983). Russian-born British spy [Reilly](Sidney)(Sidney Reilly)'s role in providing intelligence that [allowed](Sidney Reilly#Tsarist Russia and the Far East) the Japanese surprise attack that started the [of Port Arthur](Siege)(Siege of Port Arthur) is dramatised in the second episode of this TV series. [no Ue no Kumo](Saka)(Saka no Ue no Kumo (TV series)), of which the third series dealt with the war period (December 2011) * [Kamuy](Golden)(Golden Kamuy) (2018), an anime adaptation of the manga of the same name. The story takes place just after the Russo-Japanese War, and features many flashbacks and references to it. Several of its principal characters are veteran Japanese army men who fought in the [of Port Arthur](Siege)(Siege of Port Arthur). * [Prisoner of Sakura](The)(The Prisoner of Sakura) (2019, , Sorokin no mita saka, , V plenu u sakury), a joint Japan-Russia co-production, which was based on the true story of a prison camp in [Matsuyama](Matsuyama), [Prefecture](Ehime)(Ehime Prefecture), during the war. The movie is centered around the romance between a Russian officer, a [of war](prisoner)(prisoner of war), and a Japanese nurse who find themselves on opposing sides of the war. ## See also * [policy of the Russian Empire](Foreign)(Foreign policy of the Russian Empire) * [Kentarō](Kaneko)(Kaneko Kentarō) * [of war](Outline)(Outline of war) * [of warships sunk during the Russo-Japanese War](List)(List of warships sunk during the Russo-Japanese War) * [under Qing rule](Manchuria)(Manchuria under Qing rule) * [Rosen](Baron)(Baron Rosen) * [Imperialism in Asia and the Russo-Japanese War](Russian)(Russian Imperialism in Asia and the Russo-Japanese War) * [imperialism in Asia](Western)(Western imperialism in Asia) ## References ## Bibliography * * * * * [online](http://home.ku.edu.tr/mbaker/public_html/Hist440/EsthusNiKIIRusso-JapWar.pdf) * In * * * * * * Kowner, Rotem. * Historical Dictionary of the Russo-Japanese War, also published as The A to Z of the Russo-Japanese War * (2009) [excerpt](https://www.amazon.com/Russo-Japanese-War-Guide-Rotem-Kowner/dp/0810868415) * * In . * * * * * * In . * * ** * * * * * * * * * * ## Further reading * Corbett, Sir Julian. Maritime Operations in the Russo-Japanese War 1904–1905. (1994) Originally classified, and in two volumes, . * Dower, John W., Throwing off Asia III, Woodblock prints of the Russo-Japanese War, 2008, [MIT Visualizing Cultures](http://ocw.mit.edu/ans7870/21f/21f.027/throwing_off_asia_03/toa_essay01.html) * Hall, Richard C. "The Next War: The Influence of the Russo-Japanese War on Southeastern Europe and the Balkan Wars of 1912–1913." Journal of Slavic Military Studies 17.3 (2004): 563–577. * Hough, Richard A. The Fleet That Had To Die. Ballantine Books. (1960). * Japanese Ministry of Foreign Affairs, [Correspondence Regarding the Negotiations between Japan and Russia (1903–1904), Presented to the Imperial Diet, March 1904](https://archive.org/details/cu31924023034659) (Tokyo, 1904) * Jentschura, Hansgeorg; Dieter Jung, Peter Mickel. Warships of the Imperial Japanese Navy, 1869–1945. [States Naval Institute](United)(United States Naval Institute), Annapolis, Maryland, 1977. Originally published in German as Die Japanischen Kreigschiffe 1869–1945 in 1970, translated into English by David Brown and Antony Preston. . * [Rotem](Kowner,)(Rotem Kowner), ed. The Impact of the Russo-Japanese War (Routledge, 2007) * Kowner, Rotem. Historical Dictionary of the Russo-Japanese War. Scarecrow. . * Matsumura Masayoshi, Ian Ruxton (trans.), Baron Kaneko and the Russo-Japanese War (1904–05), Lulu Press 2009 * Murray, Nicholas (2013). The Rocky Road to the Great War: the Evolution of Trench Warfare to 1914. Dulles, Virginia, Potomac Books * [Edmund](Morris,)(Edmund Morris (writer)) (2002). [Rex](Theodore)(Theodore Rex (book)), [Google Books](https://books.google.com/books?id=mHWGAAAACAAJ&q=theodore+rex) . New York: Random House. * [Nish](Ian Nish), Ian Hill. (1985). The Origins of the Russo-Japanese War. London: [Longman](Longman). * [Aleksei](Novikov-Priboy,)(Alexey Novikov-Priboy). Tsushima. (An account from a seaman aboard the , which was captured at Tsushima). London: George Allen & Unwin Ltd. (1936). * Okamoto, Shumpei (1970). The Japanese Oligarchy and the Russo-Japanese War. Columbia University Press. * * * Pleshakov, Constantine. ''The Tsar's Last Armada: The Epic Voyage to the Battle of Tsushima''. . (2002). * Podalko, Petr E. "'Weak ally'or 'strong enemy?': Japan in the eyes of Russian diplomats and military agents, 1900–1907." Japan Forum 28#3 (2016). * * * * Tomitch, V. M. Warships of the Imperial Russian Navy. Volume 1, Battleships. (1968). ### Illustrations * Gerbig-Fabel, Marco. "Photographic artefacts of war 1904–1905: the Russo-Japanese war as transnational media event." ''European Review of History—Revue européenne d'histoire* 15.6 (2008): 629–642. * Saaler, Sven und Inaba Chiharu (Hg.). Der Russisch-Japanische Krieg 1904/05 im Spiegel deutscher Bilderbogen, Deutsches Institut für Japanstudien Tokyo, (2005). * Sharf, Frederick A. and James T. Ulak, eds. A Well-Watched War: Images from the Russo-Japanese Front, 1904–1905 (Newbury, MA, 2000), the catalogue of the show at the Sackler Gallery in Washington, DC, * ### Historiography * Hamby, Joel E. "Striking the Balance: Strategy and Force in the Russo-Japanese War." Armed Forces & Society 30.3 (2004): 325–356. * Seager, Robert. Alfred Thayer Mahan: The Man And His Letters. (1977) . * van der Oye, David Schimmelpenninck. "Rewriting the Russo-Japanese War: A Centenary Retrospective." The Russian Review 67.1 (2008): 78–87. [online](http://www.academia.edu/download/49091140/Rewriting_the_Russo-Japanese_War-_A_Centenary_Retrospective.pdf) * * Won-soo, Kim. "Trends in the Study of the Russo-Japanese War in Korea and Future Tasks-Third-party perspective on the origins of the war." International Journal of Korean History 7 (2005): 1–28. [online](http://ijkh.khistory.org/upload/pdf/7_01.pdf) ## External links * * * [RussoJapaneseWar.com](http://www.russojapanesewar.com/) , Russo-Japanese War research society. * [BFcollection.net](http://www.bfcollection.net/fast/rjmain.html), Database of Russian Army Jewish soldiers injured, killed, or missing in action from the war. * [BYU.edu](http://www.lib.byu.edu/~rdh/wwi/1914 m/portsmouth.html), Text of the Treaty of Portsmouth:. * [Flot.com](http://flot.com/history/steemfleet/index.htm), Russian Navy history of war. * [Frontiers.loc.gov](http://frontiers.loc.gov/intldl/mtfhtml/mfpercep/rj_mod.html), Russo-Japanese Relations in the Far East. Meeting of Frontiers ([of Congress](Library)(Library of Congress)) * [CSmonitor.com](http://www.csmonitor.com/2005/1230/p04s01-woap.html), Treaty of Portsmouth now seen as global turning point from the [Science Monitor](Christian)(Christian Science Monitor), by Robert Marquand, 30 December 2005. * * [Stanford.edu](http://www.stanford.edu/class/slavgen194a/na_sopkakh/index.htm), Lyrics, translation and melody of the song "On the hills of Manchuria" (Na sopkah Manchzhurii''). [Google Map with battles of Russo-Japanese War and other important events.](https://maps.google.com/maps/ms?ie=UTF8&t=h&om=0&oe=UTF8&msa=0&msid=105073304682538879946.000434d5252276702c956&dg=feature) * See more Russo-Japanese War Maps [at the Persuasive Cartography, The PJ Mode Collection](https://persuasivemaps.library.cornell.edu/browse-subject), [University Library](Cornell)(Cornell University Library) [ ](Category:Russo-Japanese War) [in Japan](Category:1904)(Category:1904 in Japan) [in the Russian Empire](Category:1904)(Category:1904 in the Russian Empire) [in Japan](Category:1905)(Category:1905 in Japan) [in the Russian Empire](Category:1905)(Category:1905 in the Russian Empire) [in 1904](Category:Conflicts)(Category:Conflicts in 1904) [in 1905](Category:Conflicts)(Category:Conflicts in 1905) [of Korea](Category:History)(Category:History of Korea) [of Manchuria](Category:History)(Category:History of Manchuria) [involving Japan](Category:Wars)(Category:Wars involving Japan) [involving the Russian Empire](Category:Wars)(Category:Wars involving the Russian Empire) [military relations](Category:Japan–Russia)(Category:Japan–Russia military relations) [history of Liaoning](Category:Military)(Category:Military history of Liaoning)
Arrowverse	arrowverse	# Arrowverse Revision ID: 1160314990 \| Timestamp: 2023-06-15T18:04:09Z --- \| italic_title = no \| image = DC on The CW.jpg \| imagesize = \| caption = Promotional image for the [television season](2016–17)(2016–17 United States network television schedule) \| creator = \| origin = [Arrow](Arrow (TV series)) \| years = 2012–2023 \| tv = \| wtv = \| otherlabel1 = Crossovers \| otherdata1 = }} The Arrowverse is an American [superhero](Superhero fiction) [franchise](media)(media franchise) and [universe](shared)(shared universe) that is centered on various interconnected [series](television)(television series) based on [Comics](DC)(DC Comics) [superhero](superhero) characters, primarily airing on [CW](The)(The CW) as well as [series](web)(web series) on [Seed](CW)(CW Seed). The series were developed by [Berlanti](Greg)(Greg Berlanti), [Guggenheim](Marc)(Marc Guggenheim), [Kreisberg](Andrew)(Andrew Kreisberg), [Johns](Geoff)(Geoff Johns), [Adler](Ali)(Ali Adler), [Klemmer](Phil)(Phil Klemmer), [Akil](Salim)(Salim Akil), and [Dries](Caroline)(Caroline Dries). Set in a shared fictional multiverse much like the [Universe](DC)(DC Universe) and [Multiverse](DC)(DC Multiverse) in comic books, it was established by [over](crossing)(fictional crossover) common plot elements, settings, cast and characters that span six live-action television series and two animated series. The franchise began with [Arrow](Arrow (TV series)), based on the character [Arrow](Green)(Green Arrow), which debuted in October 2012. It was followed by [Flash](The)(The Flash (2014 TV series)) in 2014, and the animated web-series [Vixen](Vixen (web series)) in 2015. The franchise was further expanded in 2016, when in January of that year a new series titled [of Tomorrow](Legends)(Legends of Tomorrow) debuted, starring characters that originally appeared on both Arrow and The Flash. Later that year, the [CBS](CBS) series [Supergirl](Supergirl (TV series)), having already crossed-over with The Flash, was moved to The CW for its second season and following seasons until its ending. A second animated web-series, [Fighters: The Ray](Freedom)(Freedom Fighters: The Ray), was released in 2017, which followed [Terrill / The Ray](Ray)(Ray Terrill (Arrowverse)), who would make a live-action appearance during that year's crossover event "[on Earth-X](Crisis)(Crisis on Earth-X)". In addition to the live-action and web-based series, the franchise has spawned three promotional tie-in live-action web series, Blood Rush, Chronicles of Cisco, and The Flash: Stretched Scenes; released in 2013, 2016, and 2017 respectively. A fifth series, [Batwoman](Batwoman (TV series)), premiered in 2019. Six ensemble crossover events involving many of the live-action series of the Arrowverse took place, beginning with "[vs. Arrow](Flash)(Flash vs. Arrow)" in 2014 and concluding with "[on Infinite Earths](Crisis)(Crisis on Infinite Earths (Arrowverse))" in-between 2019 and 2020. Additionally, [Ryan](Matt)(Matt Ryan (actor)) has reprised his role as [Constantine](John)(John Constantine (Arrowverse)) from the [NBC](NBC) series [Constantine](Constantine (TV series)), initially in guest appearances in episodes of Arrow and Legends of Tomorrow, before becoming a series regular for the latter, in addition to continuing storylines from the former series. In 2023, the franchise concluded with the [and final season](ninth)(The Flash (season 9)) of The Flash. The 2018 and 2019 crossovers, "[Elseworlds](Elseworlds (Arrowverse))" and "Crisis on Infinite Earths", respectively, saw multiple DC television series and films be retroactively added to the franchise's multiverse. "Crisis on Infinite Earths" also rebooted the multiverse, which saw Supergirl join the other live-action series on a new fictional Earth along with the series [Lightning](Black)(Black Lightning (TV series)), which had been separate up to this point. The franchise has been successful, creating a large fandom around the world and has received positive reviews, where critics have praised the themes, acting, action sequences, direction and character development. ## Development In January 2012, [CW](The)(The CW) ordered a [pilot](television pilot) for [Arrow](Arrow (TV series)), revolving around the character [Arrow](Green)(Green Arrow) and developed by [Kreisberg](Andrew)(Andrew Kreisberg), [Berlanti](Greg)(Greg Berlanti), and [Guggenheim](Marc)(Marc Guggenheim). [Amell](Stephen)(Stephen Amell) was cast in the titular role. When developing the series, Guggenheim said that the creative team wanted to "chart [their] own course, [their] own destiny", and avoid any direct connections to the series [Smallville](Smallville), which featured its own Green Arrow ([Hartley](Justin)(Justin Hartley)). In July 2013, it was announced that Berlanti, Kreisberg, and [Johns](Geoff)(Geoff Johns) would be creating a spin-off television series based on [Flash](The)(The Flash (comics)). The character, played by [Gustin](Grant)(Grant Gustin), was set to appear in three episodes of Arrows second season. The third episode was supposed to act as a [pilot](backdoor)(backdoor pilot) for the new series, but a traditional pilot was eventually ordered instead. In November 2014, Berlanti expressed interest in making his [CBS](CBS) series [Supergirl](Supergirl (TV series)) exist in the same universe as Arrow and The Flash, and in January 2015, [CW](The)(The CW) president Mark Pedowitz revealed that he was also open to a crossover among the series and networks. However, CBS president Nina Tassler stated that month that, "those two shows are on a different network. So I think we'll keep Supergirl to ourselves for a while." In August 2015, Tassler revealed that while there were no plans at the time to do story crossovers, the three series would have crossover promotions. In January 2015, the CW announced that an animated web-series featuring the DC heroine [Vixen](Vixen (comics)) would debut on [Seed](CW)(CW Seed) in late 2015 and be set in the same universe as both Arrow and The Flash. Amell and Gustin would reprise their respective roles in the series, and the character of Vixen was expected to make a live-action appearance on The Flash and/or Arrow as well. The next month, it was reported that another spin-off series, described as a superhero team-up show, was being discussed by The CW for a possible [2015–16](2015–16 United States network television schedule) midseason release. Berlanti, Kreisberg, Guggenheim and Sarah Schechter would be executive producers of the potential series, which would be headlined by several recurring characters from both Arrow and The Flash. That May, the CW officially confirmed ''DC's Legends of Tomorrow'' for a January 2016 premiere. Pedowitz later stated, "There is no intention, at this point, to spin anything else off" to add to the universe, though after Vixen was renewed for a second season he said, "Hopefully, that character could actually spin itself out, if not, maybe join as one of the Legends" in Legends of Tomorrow. In October, additional Arrow showrunner Wendy Mericle revealed that the producers had begun having someone track all the characters and plots used by each series, in order to make sure everything lines up, but the following April, The Flash executive producer [Helbing](Aaron)(Aaron and Todd Helbing) noted that "sometimes the schedules don't line up exactly...and that stuff is out of our control", such as when Barry was shown using his abilities on Arrow, while not having them the same week on The Flash. In January 2016, Tassler's successor Glenn Geller said "I have to be really careful what I say here" in regards to a potential Supergirl/Arrowverse crossover, so "Watch and wait and see what happens." The following month, it was announced that Gustin would appear on the Supergirl episode "[Finest](Worlds)(Worlds Finest)". Berlanti and Kreisberg, also Supergirl executive producers, thanked "the fans and journalists who have kept asking for this to happen. It is our pleasure and hope to create an episode worthy of everyone's enthusiasm and support." In "Worlds Finest", Supergirl is established as being in an alternate universe where the Flash helps Kara fight the Silver Banshee and Livewire in exchange for her help in returning home. The events of the episode intersect with the events of the eighteenth episode of The Flash season two, "Versus Zoom". The crossover required "a lot more logistical trickery" than the usual Arrowverse crossovers, due to Gustin filming The Flash in [Vancouver](Vancouver) alongside Arrow and Legends of Tomorrow, while Supergirl was produced in [Angeles](Los)(Los Angeles). The producers chose to use the Flash as the character to crossover, due to his ability to travel between various Earths, and because it was "a little more fun at first to bring the veteran from that show to the chemistry of a new show." Berlanti stated that "in a perfect world", the crossover would have featured both Gustin and Amell's Green Arrow, "but logistically that would have been a nightmare to try and do both shows. We had to facilitate one." Gustin was optimistic that the crossover in 2016 would allow another crossover the following year with the rest of the Arrowverse shows. In May, it was announced that Supergirl would move from CBS to The CW for its second season, and that production would move from Los Angeles to Vancouver, where the CW Arrowverse series film. The second season premiered on October 10, 2016. It was also announced that Supergirl would appear on Arrow, The Flash, and Legends of Tomorrow during the 2016–17 season crossover episodes, though Guggenheim cautioned that "She is going to be coming over but we're not going to do a full on Supergirl crossover". Kreisberg also confirmed that, despite the series moving to The CW, the title character's universe would not be integrated into Earth-1, the main universe of Arrow, The Flash and Legends of Tomorrow, and would continue to exist in a parallel universe. The Earth the Supergirl series inhabits is Earth-38 in the Arrowverse multiverse, and has been informally referred to as "Earth-CBS" by Guggenheim, named for the network where Supergirl first aired. In August, the CW announced the animated web-series [Fighters: The Ray](Freedom)(Freedom Fighters: The Ray) for CW Seed, intending that the actor cast as ["Ray" Terrill](Raymond)(Ray (Ray Terrill)) would appear in the live-action series, much like Mari McCabe / Vixen. In May 2017, The CW ordered [Lightning](Black)(Black Lightning (TV series)) to series. The series had previously been in development at [Fox](Fox Broadcasting Company), at which point Berlanti had stated Black Lightning would not crossover with his other DC Comics television properties on The CW, nor would it exist in the Arrowverse. With the move to The CW, Pedowitz said the series "at this time, is not part of the Arrowverse. It is a separate situation." Showrunners [Akil](Salim)(Salim Akil) later clarified that they were not ruling out eventual crossovers, but wanted to establish the series and its own world first. In July 2018, it was revealed that the CW was developing a script for a potential series centered on [Batwoman](Batwoman), intending to launch it after the character debuted in the "[Elseworlds](Elseworlds (Arrowverse))" crossover event. The series, if picked up, would be written by [Dries](Caroline)(Caroline Dries), with plans to air in 2019. In August, [Rose](Ruby)(Ruby Rose) was cast as Kate Kane / Batwoman. In December, it was announced that "[on Infinite Earths](Crisis)(Crisis on Infinite Earths (Arrowverse))" would be the fifth annual crossover, following the "Elseworlds" crossover. Further details explained that "Crisis" would run for five hours, marking the Arrowverse's longest crossover, and that the five parts would not air on consecutive nights, as with previous crossovers. Instead, three episodes would air in December 2019 and two in January 2020. It would also include [Batwoman](Batwoman (TV series)) and Legends, which were not part of the "Elseworlds" crossover. In January 2019, Batwoman received a pilot pick-up from the CW. On January 31, 2019, the four series already running on The CW were confirmed for further seasons, carrying them through the [television season](2019–20)(2019–20 United States network television schedule). On March 6, 2019, it was announced that the eighth season of Arrow would be the final season of the series, with an abbreviated ten-episode season. On May 7, The CW ordered Batwoman to series. Discussing a potential Black Lightning crossover with the Arrowverse in July 2019, Cress Williams revealed that "there's been lots of talk [...] nothing official, but at this point, I wouldn't be surprised." Two weeks later in August, Williams confirmed reports that characters from Black Lightning would appear in "Crisis on Infinite Earths". Also in August, it was reported that another untitled spin-off has been plotted. In September 2019, it was reported that The CW was developing a female led spin-off series with [McNamara](Katherine)(Katherine McNamara), [Cassidy](Katie)(Katie Cassidy) and [Harkavy](Juliana)(Juliana Harkavy) as the leads. The following month, Marc Guggenheim released an image indicating Green Arrow and the Canaries as a potential name for the show. The same month, a Superman & Lois spinoff series entered development with [Hoechlin](Tyler)(Tyler Hoechlin) and [Tulloch](Elizabeth)(Elizabeth Tulloch) reprising their roles as [Kent / Superman](Clark)(Clark Kent (Arrowverse)) and [Lane](Lois)(Lois Lane (Arrowverse)) from Supergirl. In January 2020, the five series running on The CW (The Flash, Supergirl, Legends of Tomorrow, Batwoman, and Black Lightning) were confirmed for further seasons, carrying them through the [television season](2020–21)(2020–21 United States network television schedule). Superman & Lois was also ordered to series. At the end of "Crisis on Infinite Earths", the new Earth-Prime was formed, which saw Black Lightnings earth merge with the former Earth-1 and Earth-38, creating a fictional universe where all of The CW series exist together. On September 22, 2020, it was announced that Supergirl would conclude after its sixth season. A backdoor pilot for a potential spinoff based on [Painkiller](Painkiller (comics)) was in development, directed by [Akil](Salim)(Salim Akil), and aired as the seventh episode of the fourth season of [Lightning](Black)(Black Lightning (TV series)) with [Calloway](Jordan)(Jordan Calloway) reprising his role from the show. On November 16, a series centered on the Yara Flor version of [Girl](Wonder)(Wonder Girl) was in development from Gerg Berlanti and Dailyn Rodriguez. On November 20, 2020, Black Lightning was announced to conclude after its fourth season. The CW officially passed on the Arrow-spinoff Green Arrow and the Canaries in January 2021, passed on Wonder Girl in February 2021, and passed on the Black Lightning-spinoff Painkiller in May 2021. In February 2021, the three remaining series that were not set to conclude at the time (The Flash, Legends of Tomorrow and Batwoman) were confirmed for further seasons, carrying them through the [television season](2021–22)(2021–22 United States network television schedule). In March 2021, Superman & Lois was renewed for a second season. In January 2022, Justice U was in development from Michael Narducci and Zoanne Clack. It would star David Ramsey reprising his role as John Diggle, in which Diggle recruits five young meta humans to live undercover as freshmen at a prestigious university, with Diggle overseeing their education and training. Ramsey would also direct the pilot if ordered, with Berlanti, Schechter, David Madden, and Johns executive producing alongside Narducci and Clack. In March 2022, The Flash and Superman & Lois were both confirmed for a ninth and third season respectively, carrying them through the [television season](2022–23)(2022–23 United States network television schedule). In April 2022, Batwoman and Legends of Tomorrow were both canceled. On August 1, 2022, it was announced that The Flash would be concluding with its upcoming ninth season, which also acted as the conclusion of the Arrowverse, due to Superman & Lois having been confirmed to take place in an adjacent universe. In May 2023, The CW officially passed on Justice U. The Arrowverse concluded with the series finale of The Flash, "[New World, Part Four](A)(A New World (The Flash))", on May 24, 2023. ### Name In August 2015, in a video about the production of Vixens first season, Guggenheim referred to the series' [universe](shared)(shared universe) as the "Arrowverse". Kreisberg confirmed that this was the name the producers used for it. The universe has also been referred to by the media as the "Flarrowverse", "Berlanti-verse" and "DC TV-verse". In September 2020, The CW released a trailer for the various series that would be airing on the network in 2021, which featured the name "The CWverse" in it. Many outlets felt the change was due to Arrow having ended and the character no longer a part of the shared universe. However, Matt Webb Mitovich of [TVLine](TVLine) felt that with the inclusion of [Stargirl](Stargirl (TV series)) in the trailer, which exists on a parallel earth to the Arrowverse, the name was perhaps a way to discuss all of the superhero series airing on network at the time. Mitovich also pointed out the term had been used a year prior in a similar trailer, which had featured the Arrowverse series plus Black Lightning, which was not part of the universe at that time. Jake Abbate of [SuperHeroHype](SuperHeroHype) also referred to the name as encompassing the "programming block" of superhero shows on the network. Daniel Gillespie from [Rant](Screen)(Screen Rant) felt if this was The CW's attempt to change the Arrowverse's name, that fans and the media would not "suddenly start" using the name, and if The CW kept using the term, could "lead to a situation where the universe is called one thing officially, but another entirely by the majority of people who watch it". In May 2021, when discussing the [season](2021–22)(2021–22 United States network television schedule) of shows, Pedowitz referred to the series as the "CWverse". ## Television series \| end1 = \| infoA1 = [Berlanti](Greg)(Greg Berlanti), [Kreisberg](Andrew)(Andrew Kreisberg) and [Guggenheim](Marc)(Marc Guggenheim) \| color2 = #424C40 \| link2 = Arrow (season 2) \| episodes2 = 23 \| start2 = \| end2 = \| color3 = #799F77 \| link3 = Arrow (season 3) \| episodes3 = 23 \| start3 = \| end3 = \| infoA3 = Marc Guggenheim \| color4 = #E7C14B \| link4 = Arrow (season 4) \| episodes4 = 23 \| start4 = \| end4 = \| infoA4 = [Mericle](Wendy)(Wendy Mericle) and Marc Guggenheim \| color5 = #405760 \| link5 = Arrow (season 5) \| episodes5 = 23 \| start5 = \| end5 = \| color6 = #4A5446 \| link6 = Arrow (season 6) \| episodes6 = 23 \| start6 = \| end6 = \| color7 = #5C5734 \| link7 = Arrow (season 7) \| episodes7 = 22 \| start7 = \| end7 = \| infoA7 = [Schwartz](Beth)(Beth Schwartz) \| color8 = #1D1C1A \| link8 = Arrow (season 8) \| episodes8 = 10 \| start8 = \| end8 = \| infoA8 = Marc Guggenheim and Beth Schwartz }} \| end1 = \| infoA1 = Andrew Kreisberg \| color2 = #1D2229 \| link2 = The Flash (season 2) \| episodes2 = 23 \| start2 = \| end2 = \| infoA2 = Andrew Kreisberg, [Stanton](Gabrielle)(Gabrielle Stanton), and [and Todd Helbing](Aaron)(Aaron and Todd Helbing) \| color3 = #A42C26 \| link3 = The Flash (season 3) \| episodes3 = 23 \| start3 = \| end3 = \| infoA3 = Andrew Kreisberg, and Aaron and Todd Helbing \| color4 = #443884 \| link4 = The Flash (season 4) \| episodes4 = 23 \| start4 = \| end4 = \| infoA4 = Andrew Kreisberg and Todd Helbing \| color5 = #712422 \| link5 = The Flash (season 5) \| episodes5 = 22 \| start5 = \| end5 = \| infoA5 = Todd Helbing \| color6 = #3D1A24 \| link6 = The Flash (season 6) \| episodes6 = 19 \| start6 = \| end6 = \| infoA6 = Eric Wallace \| color7 = #A42A17 \| link7 = The Flash (season 7) \| episodes7 = 18 \| start7 = \| end7 = \| color8 = #52373A \| link8 = The Flash (season 8) \| episodes8 = 20 \| start8 = \| end8 = \| color9 = #B06E37 \| link9 = The Flash (season 9) \| episodes9 = 13 \| start9 = \| end9 = }} \| end1 = \| infoA1 = Greg Berlanti, [Adler](Ali)(Ali Adler), Sarah Schechter and Andrew Kreisberg \| color2 = #8299A9 \| link2 = Supergirl (season 2) \| episodes2 = 22 \| start2 = \| end2 = \| color3 = #2B2D3E \| link3 = Supergirl (season 3) \| episodes3 = 23 \| start3 = \| end3 = \| infoA3 = Andrew Kreisberg, Jessica Queller and [Rovner](Robert)(Robert Rovner) \| color4 = #741316 \| link4 = Supergirl (season 4) \| episodes4 = 22 \| start4 = \| end4 = \| infoA4 = Jessica Queller and Robert Rovner \| color5 = #B4C4D6 \| link5 = Supergirl (season 5) \| episodes5 = 19 \| start5 = \| end5 = \| color6 = #734785 \| link6 = Supergirl (season 6) \| episodes6 = 20 \| start6 = \| end6 = }} \| end1 = \| infoA1 = [Klemmer](Phil)(Phil Klemmer) and Chris Fedak \| color2 = #9A3506 \| link2 = Legends of Tomorrow (season 2) \| episodes2 = 17 \| start2 = \| end2 = \| color3 = #1D2D67 \| link3 = Legends of Tomorrow (season 3) \| episodes3 = 18 \| start3 = \| end3 = \| infoA3 = Phil Klemmer and Marc Guggenheim \| color4 = #21263C \| link4 = Legends of Tomorrow (season 4) \| episodes4 = 16 \| start4 = \| end4 = \| infoA4 = Phil Klemmer and [Shimizu](Keto)(Keto Shimizu) \| color5 = #CF905C \| link5 = Legends of Tomorrow (season 5) \| episodes5 = 14 and 14 contributing towards the regular season, which officially premiered later on January 21, 2020. See and for further information.}} \| start5 = \| end5 = \| color6 = #784830 \| link6 = Legends of Tomorrow (season 6) \| episodes6 = 15 \| start6 = \| end6 = \| color7 = #EC716C \| link7 = Legends of Tomorrow (season 7) \| episodes7 = 13 \| start7 = \| end7 = }} \| end1 = \| infoA1 = [Akil](Salim)(Salim Akil) \| color2 = #F4A460 \| link2 = Black Lightning (season 2) \| episodes2 = 16 \| start2 = \| end2 = \| color3 = #2F4F4F \| link3 = Black Lightning (season 3) \| episodes3 = 16 \| start3 = \| end3 = \| color4 = #243251 \| link4 = Black Lightning (season 4) \| episodes4 = 13 \| start4 = \| end4 = }} \| end1 = \| infoA1 = [Dries](Caroline)(Caroline Dries) \| color2 = #24202A \| link2 = Batwoman (season 2) \| episodes2 = 18 \| start2 = \| end2 = \| color3 = #534C4B \| link3 = Batwoman (season 3) \| episodes3 = 13 \| start3 = \| end3 = }} }} ### Arrow (2012–2020) Billionaire playboy [Queen](Oliver)(Oliver Queen (Arrowverse)) returns home after being stranded on a deserted island for five years. Upon his return to [City](Starling)(Starling City), Oliver rekindles his relationships and spends his nights hunting down wealthy criminals as a hooded vigilante known as the Green Arrow. ### The Flash (2014–2023) Crime-scene investigator [Allen](Barry)(Barry Allen (Arrowverse)) awakens from a nine-month [coma](coma) after being struck by lightning due to the [Labs](S.T.A.R.)(S.T.A.R. Labs)' [accelerator](particle)(particle accelerator) explosion and finds himself with superhuman speed. Barry vows to use his new powers to protect [City](Central)(Central City (Arrowverse)) as the Flash, a masked superhero, while he pursues his mother's murderer, the [Reverse-Flash](Eobard Thawne (Arrowverse)). ### Supergirl (2015–2021) [Zor-El](Kara)(Kara Zor-El (Arrowverse)), who was sent to Earth from [Krypton](Krypton (comics)) as a 13-year-old and taken in by the Danvers family, must learn to embrace her powers after previously hiding them. After an unexpected disaster, Kara is forced to reveal her powers, and becomes [City](National)(National City (DC Comics))'s protector. ### Legends of Tomorrow (2016–2022) [Hunter](Rip)(Rip Hunter (Arrowverse)) travels back in time to the present day where he brings together a team of heroes and villains in an attempt to prevent [Savage](Vandal)(Vandal Savage (Arrowverse)) from destroying the world and time itself. ### Black Lightning (2018–2021) High school principal Jefferson Pierce, who retired from his [superhero](superhero) persona [Lightning](Black)(Black Lightning) nine years ago after seeing the effects it had on his family, is forced to become a [vigilante](vigilante) again when the rise of the local gang called [100](The)(100 (DC Comics)) led by [Whale](Tobias)(Tobias Whale) leads to increased crime and corruption in his community of Freeland. ### Batwoman (2019–2022) After the disappearance of Batman, [Kane](Kate)(Kate Kane (Arrowverse)) must overcome her own demons before being able to protect the streets of [Gotham](Gotham City) as [Batwoman](Batwoman) and becoming their symbol of hope. From the second season onward, after Kate's plane mysteriously crashes and she is believed to be dead, [Wilder](Ryan)(Ryan Wilder) takes up the mantle of [Batwoman](Batwoman). ## Web series \| infoA1 = Greg Berlanti, Marc Guggenheim and Andrew Kreisberg \| infoBspan1 = 4 \| color2 = #715317 \| episodes2 = 6 \| start2 = }} \| infoA1 = Greg Berlanti and Marc Guggenheim \| color2 = #FCF538 \| episodes2 = 6}} \| start2 = }} }} ### Vixen (2015–2016) After her parents were killed in Africa by local corruption, [McCabe](Mari)(Vixen (comics)) inherits her family's Tantu Totem, gaining the powers of animals, using them to fight as Vixen to stop threats like those that claimed her family. ### Freedom Fighters: The Ray (2017–2018) ["Ray" Terrill](Raymond)(Ray (Ray Terrill)) is a reporter who gains light-based powers after being exposed to a genetic light bomb. Ray discovers the bomb in his investigation of a secret government project attempting to harness the power of light and weaponize it. The Ray is a member of the Freedom Fighters on Earth-X, a world in the multiverse where the Nazis won World War II. ## Recurring cast and characters * A number beside a character's name indicates the character is from that alternate world (i.e. a indicates a character from Earth-2). After Miller's exit as a series regular during Legends of Tomorrows first season, it was revealed he signed a deal with Warner Bros. to become a series regular across any of the shows in the Arrowverse. The deal was initially focused on Miller and his characters of Leonard and Leo Snart appearing on The Flash and Legends of Tomorrow. Berlanti stated that Miller's deal was "the first contract not applicable to just one show," adding "In success we hope to continue with other characters finding their way across all the shows." Barrowman signed a similar deal to Miller in July 2016, allowing him to continue being a series regular on Arrow as well as The Flash and Legends of Tomorrow, followed by Cassidy for her character Laurel Lance. ## Expanded setting ### Official crossover events List indicators * A grey cell indicates the series was not a part of the crossover event. * The number in parentheses next to the episode title indicates which part of the crossover it is, if not clear otherwise. Yearly crossover events in the Arrowverse began in the [television season](2013–14)(2013–14 United States network television schedule), when [Allen](Barry)(Barry Allen (Arrowverse)) was introduced in the eighth episode of Arrows [season](second)(Arrow (season 2)) ahead of the debut of The Flash. The next year, the eighth episodes of the third season of Arrow and the first season of The Flash formed a two-part event known as "[vs. Arrow](Flash)(Flash vs. Arrow)". In January 2015, The CW president [Pedowitz](Mark)(Mark Pedowitz) said that there would be an Arrowverse crossover every season. In the [television season](2015–16)(2015–16 United States network television schedule), a two-part event, "[Join Forces](Heroes)(Heroes Join Forces)" between the eighth episodes of the fourth season of Arrow and the second season of The Flash was used to set up a new team-up series, Legends of Tomorrow. For the [television season](2016–17)(2016–17 United States network television schedule), the "[Invasion!](Invasion! (Arrowverse))" crossover included The Flash, Arrow, and Legends of Tomorrow, with the event beginning at the end of Supergirl. A true four-part crossover occurred in the [television season](2017–18)(2017–18 United States network television schedule) with "[on Earth-X](Crisis)(Crisis on Earth-X)", which also tied into the animated web series, [Fighters: The Ray](Freedom)(Freedom Fighters: The Ray), and featured characters and concepts from that series. The [2018–19](2018–19 United States network television schedule) crossover, "[Elseworlds](Elseworlds (Arrowverse))", included Supergirl, The Flash, and Arrow and saw the introduction of Batwoman ahead of her debut in her own series. At the end of "Elseworlds", it was revealed that the [television season](2019–20)(2019–20 United States network television schedule) crossover would be "[on Infinite Earths](Crisis)(Crisis on Infinite Earths (Arrowverse))", a five-part crossover with episodes of Supergirl, Batwoman, The Flash, Arrow, and Legends of Tomorrow. Additional crossovers include "[Finest](Worlds)(Worlds Finest)", an episode which sees Barry Allen travel to Supergirl's Earth for the first time, and "[Duet](Duet (The Flash))", a musical crossover with The Flash and Supergirl. For the 2021–22 season, the eighth season of The Flash began with a five-episode event known as "[Armageddon](Armageddon (The Flash))" that featured additional heroes and actors from other Arrowverse series. Pedowitz said the episodes would "not quite be a crossover, but it will have a crossover-type feel". The Flash showrunner Eric Wallace noted that these event episodes were meant to be a temporary replacement for the yearly crossovers because of the various COVID-19 production protocols, saying, "we want to deliver the same feeling to the audience [the event episodes](with) that you would get with a crossover kind of story". In 2022, the comic book crossover event series Earth-Prime was released. The six-issue event features five issues focusing on each current series (Batwoman, Superman & Lois, Legends of Tomorrow, Stargirl, and The Flash, respectively) with the sixth issue being a crossover between the series. Actors, writers, and executives from each of the series were involved in their creations, with the stories approved by the producers and considered in-canon to the series. The Batwoman issue, released on April 5, was written by show writers Natalie Abrams and Kelly Larson, and actor Camrus Johnson, with art by Clayton Henry. The Superman & Lois issue, released on April 19, was written by show writers Adam Mallinger, Jai Jamison, and Andrew Wong, with art by Tom Grummett and Norm Rapmund. The Legends of Tomorrow issue, released on May 3, was written by show writers Lauren Fields and Daniel Park, with art by Paul Pelletier and Andrew Hennessy. The Stargirl issue, released on May 17, was written by show writers James Robinson and Paula Sevenbergen, with art by [Ordway](Jerry)(Jerry Ordway). #### "Crisis on Infinite Earths" crossovers The 2019 crossover event "Crisis on Infinite Earths" incorporated several DC Entertainment properties into the Arrowverse multiverse, including those that had already been established in previous series and crossovers. The new properties that appeared in "Crisis on Infinite Earths" included: * [Batman](Batman (TV series)) (1966–1968 television series): [Ward](Burt)(Burt Ward) reprises his role as an aged [Grayson](Dick)(Dick Grayson). This reality is designated Earth-66 in the pre-Crisis multiverse. * [Batman](Batman (1989 film)) (1989 film): [Wuhl](Robert)(Robert Wuhl) reprises his role as Alexander Knox. This reality is designated Earth-89 in the pre-Crisis multiverse. * [Smallville](Smallville) (2001–2011 television series): [Welling](Tom)(Tom Welling) and [Durance](Erica)(Erica Durance) reprise their roles as [Kent](Clark)(Clark Kent (Smallville)) and [Lane](Lois)(Lois Lane (Smallville)), respectively. This reality is designated Earth-167 in the pre-Crisis multiverse. * [of Prey](Birds)(Birds of Prey (TV series)) (2002–2003 television series): [Scott](Ashley)(Ashley Scott) and [Meyer](Dina)(Dina Meyer) reprise their roles as [Kyle / Huntress](Helena)(Huntress (Helena Wayne)) and [Gordon / Oracle](Barbara)(Barbara Gordon), respectively. This reality is designated Earth-203 in the pre-Crisis multiverse. * [Returns](Superman)(Superman Returns) (2006 film): [Routh](Brandon)(Brandon Routh) reprises his role as [/ Clark Kent / Superman](Kal-El)(Superman), albeit as an aged incarnation inspired by the [Come* comic story](Kingdom)(Kingdom Come (comics)). This reality is designated Earth-96 in both the pre- and post-Crisis multiverse. [Lantern](Green)(Green Lantern (film)) (2011 film): This reality is designated Earth-12 in the post-Crisis multiverse. * [Extended Universe](DC)(DC Extended Universe) (2013–present film franchise): [Miller](Ezra)(Ezra Miller) reprises their role as [Allen](Barry)(Barry Allen (DC Extended Universe)), though his universe was left undesignated. * [Lucifer](Lucifer (TV series)) (2016–2021 television series): [Ellis](Tom)(Tom Ellis (actor)) reprises his role as [Morningstar](Lucifer)(Lucifer (DC Comics)). This reality is designated Earth-666 in the pre-Crisis multiverse. * [Titans](Titans (2018 TV series)) (2018–2023 television series): [Ritchson](Alan)(Alan Ritchson), [Walters](Curran)(Curran Walters), [Croft](Teagan)(Teagan Croft), [Kelly](Minka)(Minka Kelly), and [Diop](Anna)(Anna Diop) appear in their roles as ["Hank" Hall / Hawk](Henry)(Hank Hall), [Todd / Robin](Jason)(Jason Todd), [Roth](Rachel)(Raven (DC Comics)), [Granger / Dove](Dawn)(Dawn Granger), and [/ Kory Anders / Starfire](Koriand'r)(Koriand'r (Titans character)), respectively, from archive footage. This reality is designated Earth-9 in both the pre- and post-Crisis multiverse. * [Thing](Swamp)(Swamp Thing (2019 TV series)) (2019 television series): [Mears](Derek)(Derek Mears) appears in his role as [Holland / Swamp Thing](Alec)(Swamp Thing). This reality is designated Earth-19 in the post-Crisis multiverse. * [Patrol](Doom)(Doom Patrol (TV series)) (2019–present television series): [Bowlby](April)(April Bowlby), [Guerrero](Diane)(Diane Guerrero), [Wade](Joivan)(Joivan Wade), Riley Shanahan, and Matthew Zuk appear in their roles as [Farr](Rita)(Elasti-Girl), [Jane](Crazy Jane), ["Vic" Stone / Cyborg](Victor)(Cyborg (comics)), [Steele](Cliff)(Robotman (Cliff Steele)), and [Trainor](Larry)(Negative Man), respectively from archive footage. This reality is designated Earth-21 in the post-Crisis multiverse. * [Stargirl](Stargirl (TV series)) (2020–2022 television series): [Bassinger](Brec)(Brec Bassinger) debuted as [Whitmore / Stargirl](Courtney)(Courtney Whitmore), alongside [Monreal](Yvette)(Yvette Monreal) as [Montez / Wildcat](Yolanda)(Yolanda Montez), Anjelika Washington as [Chapel / Doctor Mid-Nite](Beth)(Doctor Mid-Nite#Beth Chapel), and Cameron Gellman as [Tyler / Hourman](Rick)(Hourman (Rick Tyler)) from footage from Stargirl. This reality is designated Earth-2 in the post-Crisis multiverse. #### 2021 crossovers ##### Planned By November 2019, Guggenheim, Berlanti, and Pedowitz had discussed what a 2020 crossover would entail, with Guggenheim revealing in January 2020, that a general idea had been approved by Pedowitz and Berlanti. Guggenheim confirmed they had "no intention of trying something [as] ambitious" as the previous year's "Crisis on Infinite Earths", hoping "to really go back to the basics". He felt a crossover like "Crisis on Infinite Earths" was something "you've got to build to" and the goal of the next crossover was to "return to the roots" of the Arrowverse crossovers. In May 2020, Pedowitz revealed the crossover would be two hours, occurring on episodes of Batwoman and [& Lois](Superman)(Superman & Lois), with an expected air date in Q1/Q2 of 2021. Pedowitz added that the event would also see other Arrowverse characters appear. Batwoman showrunner Caroline Dries was excited to integrate more of the Batwoman characters in this crossover after she "was really protective of them in 'Crisis' because it was like blowing open a whole genre world to our characters, but now people are a little bit more integrated" to the larger Arrowverse. In August 2020, Berlanti reiterated that "aspirations aren't quite as large" for the crossover, particularly with the [pandemic](COVID-19)(COVID-19 pandemic) necessitating additional safety precautions and guidelines for filming. However, by January 2021, the crossover was no longer moving forward because of the pandemic, with Dries explaining they could not have the crews of each series interact for fear of COVID-19 exposure. ##### John Diggle storyline In December 2020, David Ramsey was revealed to be reprising his role of John Diggle on Superman & Lois, Supergirl, The Flash, and Batwoman, as well as on Legends of Tomorrow as "a historical Western character". Ramsey directed the episodes of Legends of Tomorrow and Supergirl he starred in. According to Superman & Lois showrunner Todd Helbing, Ramsey's return was originally conceived as a five-episode story across the various series that was "pretty cool". However, because of the production difficulties that arose from the COVID-19 pandemic, his appearances were adjusted since it would have been "impossible to make it make sense", though there would still be a through-line between each appearance. The Batwoman, Flash, Superman & Lois, and Supergirl episodes explore what Diggle has been up to since the end of "Arrow" when he encountered a glowing green box. Ramsey spoke to the grounded nature of Diggle as a character, and given that, "he refused the invitation of whatever was in the box" since the last thing he would want to do is "receive an invitation from something otherworldly". However, there are consequences for Diggle with that decision. His appearance on Superman & Lois was described by Helbing as "more of a one-off" while still touching on the overall story thematically. Ramsey appeared in "[Rebirth](Rebirth (Batwoman))" on Batwoman, "[Western](Stressed)(Stressed Western)" on Legends of Tomorrow, "[P.O.W.](P.O.W. (The Flash))" on The Flash, "[the Valley of Death](Through)(Through the Valley of Death)" on Superman & Lois, and "[Spots](Blind)(Blind Spots (Supergirl))" on Supergirl. While in Gotham City for a neurological exam, Diggle crosses paths with Luke Fox and gives him some advice. Diggle then assists Team Flash in Central City with the war against Godspeed. Cecile Horton tells Diggle she senses pain in his head from an infinite presence, and during a fight, Diggle has a dizzy spell and collapses to the ground, hearing the repeated phrase "worlds await". He leaves Central City soon after. Finally, Diggle heads to National City to help Kelly Olsen with her decision to become the new Guardian, telling her he had an opportunity to become a special kind of hero and turned it down. The storyline was concluded in 2022 in The Flashs season 8 episode "[Man in the Yellow Tie](The)(The Man in the Yellow Tie)". After the revelation that Superman & Lois is set in an adjacent universe, the Diggle appearing in that series was confirmed to be an alternate version of the Arrowverse character. In the Superman & Lois episode, Diggle is seen in Smallville aiding Superman and Lois Lane. ### Multiverse In October 2014, Johns explained that DC's approach to their films and television series would be different from [Studios](Marvel)(Marvel Studios)' [universe](cinematic)(Marvel Cinematic Universe), stating that their [universe](film)(DC Extended Universe) and TV universes would be kept separate within a [multiverse](Multiverse (DC Comics)) to allow "everyone to make the best possible product, to tell the best story, to do the best world." The second season of The Flash began to explore this concept of the multiverse, by introducing Earth-2, which features [doppelgänger](doppelgänger)s of the inhabitants of Earth-1. Supergirl was confirmed as an alternate universe, later designated Earth-38, with The Flash crossover episode "Worlds Finest" (2016). Freedom Fighters: The Ray is set on Earth-X. The 2019 crossover event "Crisis on Infinite Earths", inspired by the [of the same name](comic)(Crisis on Infinite Earths), destroyed all of the universes within the Arrowverse multiverse, both on- and off-screen. At the time, the highest-numbered universe to be referenced was Earth-898, though the multiverse contained an infinite number of universes. The end of "Crisis on Infinite Earths" saw the creation of a new multiverse, most notably the new Earth-Prime, a world featuring inhabitants from the pre-Crisis Earth-1, Earth-2, Earth-38, and Black Lightnings Earth, combining all of the CW series at the time and moving forward with all of them on one fictional earth. Six additional Earths within this new multiverse were revealed in the crossover. [Miller](Ezra)(Ezra Miller)'s cameo as Barry Allen from the DC Extended Universe (DCEU) in "Crisis on Infinite Earths" opened up more possibilities for crossovers between the DC films and Arrowverse. [Films](DC)(DC Films) president [Hamada](Walter)(Walter Hamada) revealed prior to "Crisis", DC had been structured in a way that the television division had to clear the use of characters with the film division. Now, the company could "really lean into this idea of [multiverse](the) and acknowledge the fact there can be a Flash on TV and one in the movies, and you don't have to pick one or the other, and they both exist in this multiverse." Berlanti agreed, feeling that "moving forward, there's more opportunity to do more things like this". In February 2021, Casey Bloys, chief content officer for [HBO](HBO) and [Max](HBO)(HBO Max), indicated that DC and WarnerMedia were working to ensure the creative decisions for their shows on HBO Max and The CW, as well as their films, were aware of each other "so that there's nobody overlapping" and everything worked to make sense together. Bloys added everything would exist in a larger multiverse. [Muschietti](Andy)(Andy Muschietti), director of [Flash](The)(The Flash (film)) (2023), revealed that Gustin had been considered to make a cameo appearance in the film, but was ultimately cut. ### The Flash (1990–1991) In The Flash episode "[to Earth-2](Welcome)(Welcome to Earth-2)" (2016), glimpses of the multiverse are seen, including an image of [Wesley Shipp](John)(John Wesley Shipp) as the Flash from the [television series](1990)(The Flash (1990 TV series)), implying that the series exists on an alternate Earth within the Arrowverse multiverse; Shipp reprised his role as Barry Allen / The Flash from the 1990 series in the annual crossover events "[Elseworlds](Elseworlds (Arrowverse))" (2018), and "[on Infinite Earths](Crisis)(Crisis on Infinite Earths (Arrowverse))" (2019). His native universe was designated Earth-90 in the pre-Crisis multiverse. ### Constantine (2014–2015) By May 2015, Amell had had discussions with DC Entertainment about portraying Queen on [NBC](NBC)s Constantine, starring [Ryan](Matt)(Matt Ryan (actor)); saying, "The reason that I was going to guest star on Constantine...was [Constantine's] an expert when it comes to the Lazarus Pit, which is now something that is a part of and will continue to be a part of Arrow." Amell stated that, even though Constantine was not renewed for a second season, a crossover "was and is still on the table". Guggenheim revealed a desire to integrate [Constantine](John)(John Constantine) into the Arrowverse, saying, "A lot of the pieces are in place, except for that one final piece, which is what's the fate of Constantine? That's the tricky thing. But it comes up in the writers' room constantly—we have a number of ideas, one idea that's particularly exciting to me. We're in a little bit of a wait-and-see mode". In July 2015, Mericle added on the subject, "It's something we've been talking to DC about and it's just a question of some political things, but also [Ryan]'s schedule." In August 2015, it was confirmed that Ryan would appear in Arrows fourth-season episode "[Haunted](Haunted (Arrow))" for a "one-time-only-deal". Guggenheim said, "This is something the fans were clamoring for," praising DC for being so "magnanimous and generous in giving us this one-time dispensation." Due to Arrow and Constantine sharing the same studio, the producers of Arrow were able to use Ryan's original outfits: "The trench coat, the tie, the shirt...the whole wardrobe is being taken out storage and shipped up to Vancouver [Arrow shoots](where)." [Badham](John)(John Badham), a director on Constantine, directed the episode that Constantine appears in. Mericle confirmed that this version of Constantine would be the same character that had appeared in Constantine. On filming the episode, Guggenheim referred to it as "a Constantine/Arrow crossover" and felt that "we got the chance to extend Matt Ryan's run as Constantine by at least one more hour of television. I think you'll see he fits very neatly into our universe. It never feels forced". In July 2017, Guggenheim indicated that "really good conversations" had taken place with Ryan to appear again in the Arrowverse, and in October 2017, it was revealed that Ryan would appear in two episodes of the third season of Legends of Tomorrow, "[the God of War](Beebo)(Beebo the God of War)" and "[Darhkest](Daddy)(Daddy Darhkest)", with the appearance taking place chronologically after "Haunted", revisiting the setting of Arrows fourth season and the events following that season's final episode. Klemmer described the tone of the episodes as "[Exorcist](The)(The Exorcist (film)) meets ''[Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest](One)(One Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest (film))''". Ryan was made a series regular for the fourth season of Legends of Tomorrow. Jesse Schedeen of IGN felt in October 2018 that none of the character's Arrowverse appearances thus far "really directly reference the events of the Constantine series, leaving it up in the air as to whether this John Constantine is the same character from that series or if Ryan is merely playing a different, very similar version of his character." In November 2018, Ryan spoke to the relationship between the character seen in the NBC series and the one seen on Legends of Tomorrow and in the Arrowverse. He said the two were the same character with "the same DNA", and likened each appearance to that of different comic book writers and artists working with the character: "He has the same outline, but he looks different. The hair is slightly different. He has a slightly different cadence sometimes. Different artists and different writers write him in different ways." Ryan also noted that while the fourth season of Legends of Tomorrow mentions the Astra storyline from the NBC series, it would not explore the Brujeria storyline, though Constantine "still carries that baggage around with him". ### Superman & Lois (2021–present) Although initially conceived as a spin-off of Supergirl with many of the cast in the universe reprising their roles, the series' second season finale established it as set in an adjacent universe. Showrunner Todd Helbing explained his initial pilot script included multiple references to the Arrowverse, that were slowly removed. Once they were, it "became a can of worms" to try to tie into the universe, with Helbing discussing with DC during the first season that the series would instead be on an alternate earth, which he could not reveal publicly until the end of the second season, which concluded in June 2022. At that time he said, "I totally understand DC's position... This wasn't meant to alienate us from the Arrowverse, but because a lot of the other shows are sadly no longer going to be on the air, it felt like the right thing to do." ## Marketing In April 2015, to celebrate the season three finale of Arrow and season one finale of The Flash, The CW released a short promo titled "Superhero Fight Club". The short features characters from Arrow and The Flash battling each other in a hero vs. villain showdown. Characters include The Arrow, Flash, [Arsenal](Roy Harper (Arrowverse)), [Canary](Black)(Laurel Lance (Arrowverse)), [Archer](Dark)(Malcolm Merlyn (Arrowverse)), Reverse-Flash, [Cold](Captain)(Leonard Snart (Arrowverse)), [Wave](Heat)(Mick Rory (Arrowverse)), [Firestorm](Firestorm (comics)), [al Ghul](Ra's)(Ra's al Ghul (Arrowverse)), and Atom in a [match](cage)(cage match) fight, with Black Canary and Arsenal vs. Dark Archer, Arrow vs. Ra's al Ghul, Flash vs. Captain Cold and Heat Wave, which is interrupted by Reverse-Flash, until Firestorm intervenes and the Atom makes an appearance at the end. In September 2016, The CW released the promo "Superhero Fight Club 2.0" to promote the start of the 2016–17 season with the addition of Supergirl to their lineup, as well as their new mobile app, where the promo could exclusively be viewed initially. The new Superhero Fight Club sees Green Arrow, Flash, Atom, Firestorm, [Canary](White)(Sara Lance), and [Supergirl](Kara Zor-El (Arrowverse)) go up against a new fight simulator created by [Ramon](Cisco)(Cisco Ramon (Arrowverse)) and [Smoak](Felicity)(Felicity Smoak (Arrowverse)), while [Diggle](John)(John Diggle (Arrowverse)) and [Manhunter](Martian)(Martian Manhunter (Arrowverse)) observe. After defeating the simulator, Cisco releases [Grodd](Gorilla)(Gorilla Grodd) into the arena for the heroes to face. In January 2018, The CW released the promo "Suit Up", featuring the various heroes putting on their costumes in order to promote the return of Arrow, The Flash, Legends of Tomorrow, and Supergirl from their first mid-season break, as well as the premiere of Black Lightning. ## Reception ### Ratings pm \| timeslot_length1 = 5 \| episodes1 = 23 \| start1 = \| startrating1 = 4.14 \| end1 = \| endrating1 = 2.77 \| rank1 = 130 \| viewers1 = 3.68 \| 18_49_rank1 = 125 \| 18_49_rating1 = 1.2 \| n2 = 2 \| link2 = Arrow (season 2)#Ratings \| episodes2 = 23 \| start2 = \| startrating2 = 2.74 \| end2 = \| endrating2 = 2.37 \| rank2 = 138 \| viewers2 = 3.28 \| 18_49_rank2 = 119 \| 18_49_rating2 = – \| n3 = 3 \| link3 = Arrow (season 3)#Ratings \| episodes3 = 23 \| start3 = \| startrating3 = 2.83 \| end3 = \| endrating3 = 2.83 \| rank3 = 135 \| viewers3 = 3.52 \| 18_49_rank3 = 111 \| 18_49_rating3 = 1.3 \| n4 = 4 \| link4 = Arrow (season 4)#Ratings \| episodes4 = 23 \| start4 = \| startrating4 = 2.67 \| end4 = \| endrating4 = 2.19 \| rank4 = 145 \| viewers4 = 2.90 \| 18_49_rank4 = 110 \| 18_49_rating4 = 1.1 \| n5 = 5 \| link5 = Arrow (season 5)#Ratings \| episodes5 = 23 \| start5 = \| startrating5 = 1.87 \| end5 = \| endrating5 = 1.72 \| rank5 = 147 \| viewers5 = 2.21 \| 18_49_rank5 = 133 \| 18_49_rating5 = 0.8 \| n6 = 6 \| link6 = Arrow (season 6)#Ratings \| timeslot6 = Thursday 9:00pm \| episodes6 = 23 \| start6 = \| startrating6 = 1.52 \| end6 = \| endrating6 = 1.35 \| rank6 = 181 \| viewers6 = 1.76 \| 18_49_rank6 = 163 \| 18_49_rating6 = 0.6 \| n7 = 7 \| link7 = Arrow (season 7)#Ratings \| timeslot7 = Monday 8:00pm (1–17)Monday 9:00pm (18–22) \| episodes7 = 22 \| start7 = \| startrating7 = 1.43 \| end7 = \| endrating7 = 0.95 \| rank7 = 172 \| viewers7 = 1.58 \| 18_49_rank7 = 147 \| 18_49_rating7 = 0.5 \| n8 = 8 \| link8 = Arrow (season 8)#Ratings \| timeslot8 = Tuesday 9:00pm \| episodes8 = 10 \| start8 = \| startrating8 = 0.84 \| end8 = \| endrating8 = 0.73 \| rank8 = 120 \| viewers8 = 1.52 \| 18_49_rank8 = 106 \| 18_49_rating8 = 0.6 \| series9 = [Flash](The)(The Flash (2014 TV series)#Ratings) \| series_length9 = 9 \| n9 = 1 \| link9 = The Flash (season 1)#Ratings \| timeslot9 = Tuesday 8:00pm \| timeslot_length9 = 7 \| episodes9 = 23 \| start9 = \| startrating9 = 4.83 \| end9 = \| endrating9 = 3.87 \| rank9 = 118 \| viewers9 = 4.62 \| 18_49_rank9 = 90 \| 18_49_rating9 = 1.7 \| n10 = 2 \| link10 = The Flash (season 2)#Ratings \| episodes10 = 23 \| start10 = \| startrating10 = 3.58 \| end10 = \| endrating10 = 3.35 \| rank10 = 112 \| viewers10 = 4.25 \| 18_49_rank10 = 69 \| 18_49_rating10 = 1.7 \| n11 = 3 \| link11 = The Flash (season 3)#Ratings \| episodes11 = 23 \| start11 = \| startrating11 = 3.17 \| end11 = \| endrating11 = 3.04 \| rank11 = 120 \| viewers11 = 3.50 \| 18_49_rank11 = 78 \| 18_49_rating11 = 1.4 \| n12 = 4 \| link12 = The Flash (season 4)#Ratings \| episodes12 = 23 \| start12 = \| startrating12 = 2.84 \| end12 = \| endrating12 = 2.16 \| rank12 = 151 \| viewers12 = 3.04 \| 18_49_rank12 = 108 \| 18_49_rating12 = 1.1 \| n13 = 5 \| link13 = The Flash (season 5)#Ratings \| episodes13 = 22 \| start13 = \| startrating13 = 2.08 \| end13 = \| endrating13 = 1.53 \| rank13 = 153 \| viewers13 = 2.43 \| 18_49_rank13 = 102 \| 18_49_rating13 = 0.9 \| n14 = 6 \| link14 = The Flash (season 6)#Ratings \| episodes14 = 19 \| start14 = \| startrating14 = 1.62 \| end14 = \| endrating14 = 1.08 \| rank14 = 113 \| viewers14 = 2.23 \| 18_49_rank14 = 90 \| 18_49_rating14 = 0.8 \| n15 = 7 \| link15 = The Flash (season 7)#Ratings \| episodes15 = 18 \| start15 = \| startrating15 = 1.00 \| end15 = \| endrating15 = 0.70 \| rank15 = 132 \| viewers15 = 1.58 \| 18_49_rank15 = 108 \| 18_49_rating15 = 0.5 \| n16 = 8 \| link16 = The Flash (season 8)#Ratings \| timeslot16 = Tuesday 8:00pm (1–5)Wednesday 8:00pm (6–18) \| episodes16 = 20 \| start16 = \| startrating16 = 0.75 \| end16 = \| endrating16 = 0.56 \| rank16 = 122 \| viewers16 = 1.04 \| 18_49_rank16 = 111 \| 18_49_rating16 = 0.3 \| n17 = 9 \| link17 = The Flash (season 9)#Ratings \| timeslot17 = Wednesday 8:00pm \| episodes17 = 13 \| start17 = \| startrating17 = 0.51 \| end17 = \| endrating17 = 0.46 \| rank17 = \| viewers17 = \| 18_49_rank17 = \| 18_49_rating17 = \| series18 = [Supergirl](Supergirl (TV series)#Ratings) \| series_length18 = 6 \| n18 = 1 \| link18 = Supergirl (season 1)#Ratings \| timeslot18 = Monday 8:00pm \| timeslot_length18 = 3 \| episodes18 = 20 \| start18 = \| startrating18 = 12.96 \| end18 = \| endrating18 = 6.11 \| rank18 = 39 \| viewers18 = 9.81 \| 18_49_rank18 = 27 \| 18_49_rating18 = 2.4 \| n19 = 2 \| link19 = Supergirl (season 2)#Ratings \| episodes19 = 22 \| start19 = \| startrating19 = 3.06 \| end19 = \| endrating19 = 2.12 \| rank19 = 129 \| viewers19 = 3.12 \| 18_49_rank19 = 115 \| 18_49_rating19 = 1.0 \| n20 = 3 \| link20 = Supergirl (season 3)#Ratings \| episodes20 = 23 \| start20 = \| startrating20 = 1.87 \| end20 = \| endrating20 = 1.78 \| rank20 = 154 \| viewers20 = 2.82 \| 18_49_rank20 = 125 \| 18_49_rating20 = 0.9 \| n21 = 4 \| link21 = Supergirl (season 4)#Ratings \| timeslot21 = Sunday 8:00pm \| episodes21 = 22 \| start21 = \| startrating21 = 1.52 \| end21 = \| endrating21 = 1.07 \| rank21 = 169 \| viewers21 = 1.67 \| 18_49_rank21 = 147 \| 18_49_rating21 = 0.5 \| n22 = 5 \| link22 = Supergirl (season 5)#Ratings \| timeslot22 = Sunday 9:00pm \| episodes22 = 19 \| start22 = \| startrating22 = 1.26 \| end22 = \| endrating22 = 0.65 \| rank22 = 118 \| viewers22 = 1.58 \| 18_49_rank22 = 113 \| 18_49_rating22 = 0.5 \| n23 = 6 \| link23 = Supergirl (season 6)#Ratings \| timeslot23 = Tuesday 9:00pm \| episodes23 = 20 \| start23 = \| startrating23 = 0.73 \| end23 = \| endrating23 = 0.49 \| rank23 = 140 \| viewers23 = 1.17 \| 18_49_rank23 = 133 \| 18_49_rating23 = 0.3 \| series24 = [of Tomorrow](Legends)(Legends of Tomorrow#Ratings) \| series_length24 = 7 \| n24 = 1 \| link24 = Legends of Tomorrow (season 1)#Ratings \| timeslot24 = Thursday 8:00pm \| episodes24 = 16 \| start24 = \| startrating24 = 3.21 \| end24 = \| endrating24 = 1.85 \| rank24 = 135 \| viewers24 = 3.16 \| 18_49_rank24 = 104 \| 18_49_rating24 = 1.2 \| n25 = 2 \| link25 = Legends of Tomorrow (season 2)#Ratings \| timeslot25 = Thursday 8:00pm (1–8)Tuesday 9:00pm (9–17) \| episodes25 = 17 \| start25 = \| startrating25 = 1.82 \| end25 = \| endrating25 = 1.52 \| rank25 = 141 \| viewers25 = 2.57 \| 18_49_rank25 = 127 \| 18_49_rating25 = 0.9 \| n26 = 3 \| link26 = Legends of Tomorrow (season 3)#Ratings \| timeslot26 = Tuesday 9:00pm (1–9)Monday 8:00pm (10–18) \| episodes26 = 18 \| start26 = \| startrating26 = 1.71 \| end26 = \| endrating26 = 1.41 \| rank26 = 170 \| viewers26 = 2.24 \| 18_49_rank26 = 137 \| 18_49_rating26 = 0.8 \| n27 = 4 \| link27 = Legends of Tomorrow (season 4)#Ratings \| timeslot27 = Monday 9:00pm (1–8)Monday 8:00pm (9–16) \| episodes27 = 16 \| start27 = \| startrating27 = 1.00 \| end27 = \| endrating27 = 1.05 \| rank27 = 178 \| viewers27 = 1.49 \| 18_49_rank27 = 147 \| 18_49_rating27 = 0.5 \| n28 = 5 \| link28 = Legends of Tomorrow (season 5)#Ratings \| timeslot28 = Tuesday 9:00pm \| episodes28 = 14 (+1) \| start28 = \| startrating28 = 0.72 \| end28 = \| endrating28 = 0.73 \| rank28 = 122 \| viewers28 = 1.35 \| 18_49_rank28 = 122 \| 18_49_rating28 = 0.4 \| n29 = 6 \| link29 = Legends of Tomorrow (season 6)#Ratings \| timeslot29 = Sunday 8:00pm \| episodes29 = 15 \| start29 = \| startrating29 = 0.44 \| end29 = \| endrating29 = 0.39 \| rank29 = 149 \| viewers29 = 0.82 \| 18_49_rank29 = 141 \| 18_49_rating29 = 0.2 \| n30 = 7 \| link30 = Legends of Tomorrow (season 7)#Ratings \| timeslot30 = Wednesday 8:00pm \| episodes30 = 13 \| start30 = \| startrating30 = 0.59 \| end30 = \| endrating30 = 0.46 \| rank30 = 127 \| viewers30 = 0.86 \| 18_49_rank30 = 117 \| 18_49_rating30 = 0.2 \| series31 = [Lightning](Black)(Black Lightning (TV series)#Ratings) \| series_length31 = 4 \| n31 = 1 \| link31 = Black Lightning (season 1)#Ratings \| timeslot31 = Tuesday 9:00pm \| episodes31 = 13 \| start31 = \| startrating31 = 2.31 \| end31 = \| endrating31 = 1.68 \| rank31 = 160 \| viewers31 = 1.74 \| 18_49_rank31 = 109 \| 18_49_rating31 = 1.0 \| n32 = 2 \| link32 = Black Lightning (season 2)#Ratings \| timeslot32 = Tuesday 9:00pm (1–9) Monday 9:00pm (10–16) \| episodes32 = 16 \| start32 = \| startrating32 = 1.16 \| end32 = \| endrating32 = 0.85 \| rank32 = 179 \| viewers32 = 0.97 \| 18_49_rank32 = 147 \| 18_49_rating32 = 0.5 \| n33 = 3 \| link33 = Black Lightning (season 3)#Ratings \| timeslot33 = Monday 9:00pm \| timeslot_length33 = 2 \| episodes33 = 16 \| start33 = \| startrating33 = 0.89 \| end33 = \| endrating33 = 0.55 \| rank33 = 130 \| viewers33 = 1.09 \| 18_49_rank33 = 122 \| 18_49_rating33 = 0.4 \| n34 = 4 \| link34 = Black Lightning (season 4)#Ratings \| episodes34 = 13 \| start34 = \| startrating34 = 0.52 \| end34 = \| endrating34 = 0.50 \| rank34 = 151 \| viewers34 = 0.74 \| 18_49_rank34 = 141 \| 18_49_rating34 = 0.2 \| series35 = [Batwoman](Batwoman (TV series)#Ratings) \| series_length35 = 3 \| n35 = 1 \| link35 = Batwoman (season 1)#Ratings \| timeslot35 = Sunday 8:00pm \| episodes35 = 20 \| start35 = \| startrating35 = 1.86 \| end35 = \| endrating35 = 0.74 \| rank35 = 117 \| viewers35 = 1.61 \| 18_49_rank35 = 113 \| 18_49_rating35 = 0.5 \| n36 = 2 \| link36 = Batwoman (season 2)#Ratings \| timeslot36 = Sunday 8:00pm (1–11) Sunday 9:00pm (12–18) \| episodes36 = 18 \| start36 = \| startrating36 = 0.66 \| end36 = \| endrating36 = 0.41 \| rank36 = 147 \| viewers36 = 0.92 \| 18_49_rank36 = 141 \| 18_49_rating36 = 0.2 \| n37 = 3 \| link37 = Batwoman (season 3)#Ratings \| timeslot37 = Wednesday 9:00pm \| episodes37 = 13 \| start37 = \| startrating37 = 0.47 \| end37 = \| endrating37 = 0.46 \| rank37 = 129 \| viewers37 = 0.76 \| 18_49_rank37 = 117 \| 18_49_rating37 = 0.2 }} ### Critical response }} ### Commentary After the first Arrow/Flash crossover, Brian Lowry of [Variety](Variety (magazine)) talked about the spin-off series and the crossover, applauding the producers for replicating the success of Arrow but with "a lighter tone" and "a hero with genuine super powers" in The Flash, and calling the crossover an appropriate moment for everyone concerned to take a short but well-deserved victory lap." Lowry also said that the crossover "does a nifty job of bringing the two series together, although probably not in a manner likely to boost the shared audience between them much more than already exists." Meredith Borders at Birth.Movies.Death. called the crossover episodes "fun" and said positively that "too much happened that was unrelated to one show or the other – and that's a good thing. While the crossover episodes were definitely open to new viewers of either The Flash or Arrow (or both, presumably), with each episode wrapped up tidily by the end of its hour, plenty of show-specific plot stuff was advanced without spelling it out for newbies. New viewers to either show could follow along and have a good time, but veteran viewers were rewarded with major storyline motion." Following the release of the first trailer for [Supergirl](Supergirl (TV series)), Paul Tassi wrote for [Forbes](Forbes) about why he felt that series should be kept separate from the Arrowverse: He called the moment in the Arrow third-season finale where Barry Allen appears briefly, but abruptly leaves since "Arrow needs to let its own characters solve its problems", a "weird moment" that shows "the cracks [that] form when it's just two shows that have to work together on the regular." Tassi then noted the further complications of adding Supergirl, saying, "The more shows you have, the more heroes you introduce, the harder it is to keep explaining away why they're not constantly around to help each other. Supergirl already has that problem built-in with Superman, who it seems will not be a regular fixture on the show, and I'm sure there will be many excuses as to why he's too busy to help Supergirl fight her latest battle. Add in Arrow, The Flash and Legends of Tomorrow mythology, and it's probably too much to juggle....I think Supergirl deserves to launch without Arrow and The Flash on its shoulders, and be allowed to find itself before being assimilated into an existing universe." With the premiere of Legends of Tomorrow, ScreenRant's Alice Walker discussed how the series "has hurt Arrow and The Flash", noting that the latter required minimal setup when it was spun-off from the former and had an element of mystery surrounding its quality with "a "wait and see" attitude" from audiences, while Legends was instead met with much excitement long before its release leading to each piece of news concerning it being "publicized and met with fanfare – to the detriment of the other shows involved." Walker felt that audiences knowing which characters would appear in Legends, and how, took "the thrill out of the story" of the other series as such information spoiled some of their upcoming plot twists, including the resurrection of Sara Lance or the fact that Ray Palmer "could never really pose a threat to Oliver [Queen] and Felicity [Smoak]'s relationship, or run Palmer Technologies long term, since it was widely known that he would be a huge part of Legends." Additionally, the annual Arrow/The Flash crossover suffered from also trying to set up Legends, which was "too much to ask from the already crowded storylines and ended up feeling like an exercise in synchronicity, with producers planting more seeds than they could reap. The crossover event was no longer a fun way to contrast the two shows; it now had to serve the much larger purpose of setting up an entirely new world." Walker stated that the premiere of Legends "means that Arrow and The Flash can finally stop dedicating so much time and plot to laying the groundwork for the spin-off, and start focusing on the fundamentals of their own shows again." After the conclusion of the "Elseworlds" crossover revealed that the next crossover would be an adaptation of the [on Infinite Earths](Crisis)(Crisis on Infinite Earths) comic, Mike Cecchini of Den of Geek stated: "The Arrowverse is becoming the most intricate, risky live action superhero universe in history. Yes, it's at least as big and crazy (perhaps even moreso in some ways) than the [Cinematic Universe](Marvel)(Marvel Cinematic Universe), and we had best enjoy this while we have it, because it's unlikely we'll ever see this much crazy DC Comics love on screen in one place at one time ever again." Ahead of the airing of The Flashs series finale, "[New World, Part Four](A)(A New World (The Flash))", which marked the conclusion of the Arrowverse as a whole, Sam Barsanti of [A.V. Club](The)(The A.V. Club) opined: "If not for the fact that it was focused on television, the Arrowverse would be regarded as one of the only cinematic universes beyond the MCU to actually work—and if you're basing it on pure hours of content, the Arrowverse is completely unmatched. For 11 years, the Arrowverse tied together one show, then two shows, then three shows, then four, five, sometimes six, then—once the multiverse was introduced in the 'Crisis on Infinite Earths' crossover event—the entirety of all live-action DC superhero shows and movies that have ever been made." ## Other media ### Comic books ### Books #### Novels On February 23, 2016, [Books](Titan)(Titan Books) released [Vengeance](Arrow:)(Arrow: Vengeance), a tie-in novel by Oscar Balderrama and Lauren Certo, which is set before and during [second season](Arrow's)(Arrow (season 2)), which details the origins of [Wilson](Slade)(Slade Wilson (Arrowverse)), [Rochev](Isabel)(Isabel Rochev), and [Blood](Sebastian)(Sebastian Blood (Arrowverse)), and how they would all eventually meet and collaborate with each other to battle Oliver Queen / The Arrow as seen in the TV series. On November 29, 2016, Titan released [Flash: The Haunting of Barry Allen](The)(The Flash: The Haunting of Barry Allen), a tie-in novel by Susan and Clay Griffith, which is set during [Flash's second season](The)(The Flash (season 2)) and [fourth season](Arrow's)(Arrow (season 4)), which detailed that after he closed the temporal anomaly that nearly destroyed Central City, Barry an older version of himself, beaten, injured, and batter, but before he can speak, his doppelganger disappears. Barry then starts experiencing glitches in his powers, moments that leave him immobile and ghostly during missions. When a group of his worst villains, including [Piper](Pied)(Hartley Rathaway (Arrowverse)), [Wizard](Weather)(Mark Mardon (Arrowverse)), and [Peek-a-Boo](Shawna Baez), decide to launch an assault on him, so Barry decides to seek help from his most trusted ally, Oliver Queen / Green Arrow. The story continues in [A Generation of Vipers](Arrow:)(Arrow: A Generation of Vipers), by Susan and Clay Griffith, which was released by Titan on March 28, 2017, which detailed Team Flash and Team Arrow working together to eliminate the bizarre energy that threatens to kill the Flash. When their quest leads them to Markovia, they must get past an army of mercenaries and assassins to face the mysterious Count Wallenstein. A fourth novel entitled [Fatal Legacies](Arrow:)(Arrow: Fatal Legacies) was released in January 2018. It is co-authored by Arrow executive producer [Guggenheim](Marc)(Marc Guggenheim) and James R. Tuck, and is set between the fifth-season finale and sixth-season premiere of Arrow. A fifth novel, following The Flash villain Weather Wizard in his attempts at revenge, was released in May 2018. Written by [A. Knaak](Richard)(Richard A. Knaak), the novel is titled [Flash: Climate Changeling](The)(The Flash: Climate Changeling). In May 2017, it was announced that [Books](Abrams)(Abrams Books) would be releasing two trilogies of middle-grade novels for The Flash and Supergirl, written by [Lyga](Barry)(Barry Lyga) and [Whittemore](Jo)(Jo Whittemore), respectively. The first of these novels, [Flash: Hocus Pocus](The)(The Flash: Hocus Pocus), was released on October 3, 2017. The novel takes place in an alternate timeline where the show's [event]("Flashpoint")(Flashpoint (Arrowverse)) never occurred, and The Flash must fight a villain known as Hocus Pocus who can control the minds and actions of people. A sequel, [Flash: Johnny Quick](The)(The Flash: Johnny Quick) was released on April 3, 2018, as well as a third novel titled [Flash: The Tornado Twins](The)(The Flash: The Tornado Twins) released on October 2, 2018. The second of these trilogies began in November 2017, with [Age of Atlantis](Supergirl:)(Supergirl: Age of Atlantis). The novel features Supergirl dealing with a surge of new powered people in National City, as well as a mysterious humanoid sea creature captured by the DEO who is seemingly attracted by the new superpowered people. A sequel, [Curse of the Ancients](Supergirl:)(Supergirl: Curse of the Ancients), was released on May 1, 2018, with a third novel, titled [Master of Illusion](Supergirl:)(Supergirl: Master of Illusion), released on January 8, 2019. In July 2017, a third trilogy titled Crossover Crisis was announced, focusing on crossovers between characters within the universe on this alternate earth. The series is again penned by Barry Lyga. The first novel, ''The Flash: Green Arrow's Perfect Shot'', was released on August 13, 2019 with the second ''The Flash: Supergirl's Sacrifice'' released on May 26, 2020. The final novel in the series, The Flash: Legends of Forever, was published on March 23, 2021. #### Guidebooks The first guidebook to be released was [Heroes and Villains](Arrow:)(Arrow: Heroes and Villains) by Nick Aires and published by Titan Books, released in February 2015. Described as "a companion" to the series, the book features sections on the various characters of the series, along with descriptions, backgrounds, comic book origins, and "where they stand as of the end of the second season of 'Arrow.'" A follow up to Heroes and Villains by the same author and publisher, titled ''[Oliver Queen's Dossier](Arrow:)(Arrow: Oliver Queen's Dossier)'', was released in October 2016, during the series' fifth season. The book is presented as information collected by the Green Arrow and Felicity Smoak over the course of his four years of activity. Included in the book are "handwritten notes" and "police reports" regarding the Green Arrow and those he targets. In May 2018, Titan Books and Aires released a guidebook similar to ''Oliver Queen's Dossier, but for its sister series, The Flash, from the perspective of Cisco Ramon. [Labs: Cisco Ramon's Journal](S.T.A.R.)(S.T.A.R. Labs: Cisco Ramon's Journal)'' features "his confidential journal entries, covering everything from his tech designs, the villains and other heroes the team encounter, the team's personal challenges and his own Vibe abilities prior to Flashpoint." A second guidebook for The Flash was released in November 2018, this time published by Abrams Books. [Secret Files of Barry Allen: The Ultimate Guide to the Hit TV Show](The)(The Secret Files of Barry Allen: The Ultimate Guide to the Hit TV Show) features the Flash's "top-secret notes", as well as "classified S.T.A.R. Labs dossiers on everyone in Central City", an episode guide on the first four seasons of the series, and details on the life of the Flash "in Barry's own words." A similar guidebook for Supergirl was released in March 2019 from the same publisher. [The Secret Files of Kara Danvers: The Ultimate Guide to the Hit TV Show](Supergirl:)(Supergirl: The Secret Files of Kara Danvers: The Ultimate Guide to the Hit TV Show) features "detailed profiles on characters and super powers, a heroes and villains gallery, episode guide, and more" from the first three seasons of the series. ### Promotional tie-ins #### Blood Rush On November 6, 2013, a six-episode series of shorts, titled Blood Rush, premiered alongside the broadcast of Arrow, as well as online. The series, which was presented by [Bose](Bose Corporation), and features [placement](product)(product placement) for Bose products, was shot on location in Vancouver, similarly to the main show. The miniseries features Emily Bett Rickards, Colton Haynes and Paul Blackthorne reprising their roles of Felicity Smoak, [Harper](Roy)(Roy Harper (Arrowverse)) and [Lance](Quentin)(Quentin Lance), respectively. The episodes set during the course of the second season of the television series, show Roy coming to Queen Consolidated to have a meeting with Oliver. As he is out, Felicity tells Roy to go wait in the lobby. As Roy leaves, Officer Lance calls Felicity, telling her that the blood sample the Starling City police found on the vigilante, which Felicity destroyed, has resurfaced. Felicity then calls Roy, using Oliver's voice encoder, asking him to break into the lab to retrieve the sample. Felicity guides Roy through the lab, where he is able to recover the sample. As Roy is leaving, doctors enter the room, seemingly trapping him. He notifies Felicity, who then hacks into the building's PA system, and issues an evacuation notice, giving Roy a chance to escape. Roy gets out of the room before it enters into lock down, and is able to avoid two guards with the help of Felicity and exit the lab. Roy returns to Queen Consolidated, and Felicity offers to mail the acquired sample for Roy as he goes in to meet with Oliver. #### Chronicles of Cisco: Entry 0419 On April 19, 2016, a four-episode series of shorts, titled Chronicles of Cisco, premiered on [AT&T](AT&T). The series features Valdes and [Oldford](Britne)(Britne Oldford) reprising their roles as [Ramon](Cisco)(Cisco Ramon (Arrowverse)) and Peek-a-Boo respectively. Set in the second season of the television series, the series sees Cisco attempting to make the Flash suit bulletproof and body-odor proof. While working on these, he receives a late-night Meta-Human Alert within S.T.A.R. Labs, and learns that Peek-a-Boo triggered the alert. She has come to S.T.A.R. Labs to make Cisco create a weapon for her, as he did for [Glider](Golden)(Lisa Snart (Arrowverse)), Captain Cold, and Heat Wave. When he does not cooperate, she shoots him. Cisco survives being shot, realizing that the orange soda he spilled on his shirt was the missing catalyst to his bulletproof formula. Cisco tries to bring Peek-a-Boo back to the pipeline, but she locks him in the cell instead. Cisco is then seen being woken up due to a call from Barry. He believes he dreamt the whole experience, until he finds the bullet that shot him on the ground. #### Stretched Scenes On November 14, 2017, a three-episode series of shorts, known as "Stretched Scenes", premiered. The series, presented by [Surface](Microsoft)(Microsoft Surface), features [Sawyer](Hartley)(Hartley Sawyer), [Panabaker](Danielle)(Danielle Panabaker), and [Patton](Candice)(Candice Patton) as [Dibny](Ralph)(Ralph Dibny (Arrowverse)), [Snow](Cailtin)(Caitlin Snow (Arrowverse)), and [West](Iris)(Iris West (Arrowverse)) respectively. Set during the [fourth season](show's)(The Flash (season 4)), it shows Dibny as he continually bothers Cailtin and Iris for their help, or for attention. The shorts premiered online as well as during the commercial breaks of the episodes "[Harry Met Harry...](When)(When Harry Met Harry...)", "[I Am](Therefore)(Therefore I Am (The Flash))", and "[Run](Don't)(Don't Run (The Flash))". ### Christmas special The [of Tomorrow](Legends)(Legends of Tomorrow) toy character Beebo, voiced by [Diskin](Benjamin)(Benjamin Diskin), starred in his own animated Christmas special, titled Beebo Saves Christmas and aired on December 21, 2021. Narrated by [Garber](Victor)(Victor Garber) (who portrays [Stein / Firestorm](Martin)(Martin Stein (Arrowverse)) in the parent series), the special sees Diskin reprising his role, alongside [Hudson](Ernie)(Ernie Hudson) as [Claus](Santa)(Santa Claus), [Kattan](Chris)(Chris Kattan) as a [elf](Christmas)(Christmas elf) named Sprinkles, [Glenn](Kimiko)(Kimiko Glenn) as Tweebo, [Nicole Brown](Yvette)(Yvette Nicole Brown) as Turbo, and [Ferguson](Keith)(Keith Ferguson (voice actor)) as Fleabo. ## Notes ## References }} [ ](Category:Arrowverse) [media franchises introduced in 2012](Category:Mass)(Category:Mass media franchises introduced in 2012) [Comics dimensions](Category:DC)(Category:DC Comics dimensions) [Comics franchises](Category:DC)(Category:DC Comics franchises) [franchises](Category:Television)(Category:Television franchises) [universes](Category:Shared)(Category:Shared universes)
List of PAW Patrol episodes	list_of_paw_patrol_episodes	# List of PAW Patrol episodes Revision ID: 907982330 \| Timestamp: 2019-07-26T15:55:50Z --- #REDIRECT [of PAW Patrol episodes](List)(List of PAW Patrol episodes)
McDonnell Douglas F-4 Phantom II	mcdonnell_douglas_f-4_phantom_ii	# McDonnell Douglas F-4 Phantom II Revision ID: 1158961005 \| Timestamp: 2023-06-07T09:35:26Z --- F4}} The McDonnell Douglas F-4 Phantom II is an American [tandem](Tandem#Aviation) two-seat, [twin-engine](twinjet), all-weather, long-range [supersonic](supersonic aircraft) jet [interceptor](interceptor aircraft) and [fighter-bomber](fighter-bomber) originally developed by [Aircraft](McDonnell)(McDonnell Aircraft) for the [States Navy](United)(United States Navy).Swanborough and Bowers 1976, p. 301. Proving highly adaptable, it entered service with the Navy in 1961 before it was adopted by the [States Marine Corps](United)(United States Marine Corps) and the [States Air Force](United)(United States Air Force), and by the mid-1960s it had become a major part of their air arms. Phantom production ran from 1958 to 1981 with a total of 5,195 aircraft built, making it the [produced American supersonic military aircraft in history](most)(List of most produced aircraft), and cementing its position as a signature combat aircraft of the [War](Cold)(Cold War).["F-4 Phantoms Phabulous 40th"](https://web.archive.org/web/20110629034016/http://www.boeing.com/defense-space/military/f4/). Boeing. Retrieved : 27 November 2012.. The Phantom is a large fighter with a top speed of over [Mach](Mach number) 2.2. It can carry more than 18,000 pounds (8,400 kg) of weapons on nine external [hardpoint](hardpoint)s, including [missile](air-to-air)(air-to-air missile)s, [missiles](air-to-ground)(Air-to-surface missile), and various bombs. The F-4, like other interceptors of its time, was initially designed without an internal cannon. Later models incorporated an [Vulcan](M61)(M61 Vulcan) rotary cannon. Beginning in 1959, it set 15 world records for in-flight performance,. including an absolute speed record and an absolute altitude record.. The F-4 was used extensively during the [War](Vietnam)(Vietnam War). It served as the principal [superiority fighter](air)(air superiority fighter) for the U.S. Air Force, Navy, and Marine Corps and became important in the [ground-attack](attack aircraft) and [reconnaissance](aerial)(aerial reconnaissance) roles late in the war. During the Vietnam War, one U.S. Air Force pilot, two weapon systems officers (WSOs), one U.S. Navy pilot and one [intercept officer](radar)(radar intercept officer) (RIO) became [aces](Flying ace) by achieving five aerial kills against enemy fighter aircraft. The F-4 continued to form a major part of U.S. military air power throughout the 1970s and 1980s, being gradually replaced by more modern aircraft such as the [Eagle](F-15)(McDonnell Douglas F-15 Eagle) and [Fighting Falcon](F-16)(General Dynamics F-16 Fighting Falcon) in the U.S. Air Force, the [Tomcat](F-14)(Grumman F-14 Tomcat) in the U.S. Navy, and the [Hornet](F/A-18)(McDonnell Douglas F/A-18 Hornet) in the U.S. Navy and U.S. Marine Corps. The F-4 Phantom II remained in use by the U.S. in the reconnaissance and [Weasel](Wild)(Wild Weasel) ([of Enemy Air Defenses](Suppression)(Suppression of Enemy Air Defenses)) roles in the 1991 [War](Gulf)(Gulf War), finally leaving service in 1996.Donald Spring 1991, p. 26.Donald Summer 1991, p. 22. It was also the only aircraft used by both U.S. flight demonstration teams: the [States Air Force Thunderbirds](United)(United States Air Force Thunderbirds) (F-4E) and the United States Navy [Angels](Blue)(Blue Angels) (F-4J).Lake 1992, p. 190.Lake 1992, p. 203. The F-4 was also operated by the armed forces of 11 other nations. Israeli Phantoms saw extensive combat in several [conflict](Arab–Israeli)(Arab–Israeli conflict)s, while Iran used its large fleet of Phantoms, acquired before the [of the Shah](fall)(Iranian Revolution), in the [War](Iran–Iraq)(Iran–Iraq War). As of 2021, 63 years after its first flight, the F-4 remains in active service with the air forces of [Iran](Islamic Republic of Iran Air Force), [Korea](South)(Republic of Korea Air Force), [Greece](Hellenic Air Force#Equipment), and [Turkey](Turkish Air Force). The aircraft has most recently been in service against the [State](Islamic)(Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant) group in the Middle East. ## Development ### Origins In 1952, McDonnell's Chief of Aerodynamics, [Lewis](Dave)(David S. Lewis, Jr.), was appointed by CEO [McDonnell](Jim)(James S. McDonnell) to be the company's preliminary design manager.Thornborough and Davies 1994, p. 13. With no new aircraft competitions on the horizon, internal studies concluded the Navy had the greatest need for a new and different aircraft type: an attack fighter.Thornborough and Davies 1994, p. 11. [[F3H-G mockup in 1954.jpg\|thumb\|The McDonnell F3H-G/H mockup, 1954](File:McDonnell)] In 1953, McDonnell Aircraft began work on revising its [Demon](F3H)(McDonnell F3H Demon) naval fighter, seeking expanded capabilities and better performance. The company developed several projects, including a variant powered by a Wright J67 engine,Dorr 2008, p. 61. and variants powered by two [J65](Wright)(Wright J65) engines, or two [Electric J79](General)(General Electric J79) engines.["Phabulous 40th: Phantom Development."](http://www.boeing.com/defense-space/military/f4/bluebook/develop.htm) 1978 Commemorative Book. Boeing. Retrieved: 14 February 2008. The J79-powered version promised a top speed of [Mach](Mach number) 1.97. On 19 September 1953, McDonnell approached the [States Navy](United)(United States Navy) with a proposal for the "Super Demon". Uniquely, the aircraft was to be modular, as it could be fitted with one- or two-seat noses for different missions, with different nose cones to accommodate radar, photo cameras, four 20 mm (.79 in) cannon, or 56 [FFAR](Folding-Fin Aerial Rocket) unguided rockets in addition to the nine [hardpoint](hardpoint)s under the wings and the fuselage. The Navy was sufficiently interested to order a full-scale mock-up of the F3H-G/H, but felt that the upcoming [XF9F-9](Grumman)(Grumman F-11 Tiger) and [XF8U-1](Vought)(Vought F-8 Crusader) already satisfied the need for a supersonic fighter.Lake 1992, p. 15. The McDonnell design was therefore reworked into an all-weather fighter-bomber with 11 external hardpoints for weapons and on 18 October 1954, the company received a letter of intent for two YAH-1 prototypes. Then on 26 May 1955, four Navy officers arrived at the McDonnell offices and, within an hour, presented the company with an entirely new set of requirements. Because the Navy already had the [A-4 Skyhawk](Douglas)(Douglas A-4 Skyhawk) for ground attack and [Crusader](F-8)(F-8 Crusader) for dogfighting, the project now had to fulfill the need for an all-weather fleet defense interceptor. A second crewman was added to operate the powerful radar; designers believed that air combat in the next war would overload solo pilots with information. ### XF4H-1 prototype [[File:F4h-1 leadership.jpg\|thumb\|Key figures in the F-4 development: [Lewis](David)(David S. Lewis), Robert Little, and [Barkey](Herman)(Herman Barkey)]] The XF4H-1 was designed to carry four semi-recessed [Sparrow III](AAM-N-6)(AIM-7 Sparrow) radar-guided missiles, and to be powered by two J79-GE-8 engines. As in the [F-101 Voodoo](McDonnell)(McDonnell F-101 Voodoo), the engines sat low in the fuselage to maximize internal fuel capacity and ingested air through [geometry intakes](fixed)(intake ramp). The thin-section wing had a [edge](leading)(leading edge) sweep of 45° and was equipped with [flap](blown)(blown flap)s for better low-speed handling. [tunnel](Wind)(Wind tunnel) testing had revealed lateral instability, requiring the addition of 5° [dihedral](dihedral (aircraft)) to the wings. To avoid redesigning the titanium central section of the aircraft, McDonnell engineers angled up only the outer portions of the wings by 12°, which averaged to the required 5° over the entire wingspan. The wings also received the distinctive "dogtooth" for improved control at high [of attack](angles)(angle of attack). The all-moving tailplane was given 23° of [anhedral](Dihedral (aircraft)#Anhedral) to improve control at high angles of attack, while still keeping the tailplane clear of the engine exhaust. In addition, air intakes were equipped with one fixed ramp and one variable geometry ramp with angle scheduled to give maximum pressure recovery between Mach 1.4 and Mach 2.2. Airflow matching between the inlet and engine was achieved by bypassing the engine as secondary air into the exhaust nozzle. All-weather intercept capability was achieved with the [AN/APQ-50](AN/APQ-50) radar. To meet requirements for carrier operations, the landing gear was designed to withstand landings with a maximum sink rate of , while the nose strut could extend by to increase angle of attack on the catapult portion of a takeoff. [[F4H-1F Phantom II aboard USS Independence (CVA-62), in 1960.jpg\|thumb\|An F4H-1F aboard , April 1960](File:McDonnell)] On 25 July 1955, the Navy ordered two XF4H-1 test aircraft and five YF4H-1 pre-production examples. The Phantom made its maiden flight on 27 May 1958 with Robert C. Little at the controls. A hydraulic problem precluded the retraction of the landing gear, but subsequent flights went more smoothly. Early testing resulted in redesign of the air intakes, including the distinctive addition of 12,500 holes to "bleed off" the slow-moving [layer](boundary)(boundary layer) air from the surface of each [ramp](intake)(intake ramp). Series production aircraft also featured [plates](splitter)(Splitter plate (aeronautics)) to divert the [layer](boundary)(boundary layer) away from the engine intakes. The aircraft was soon in competition with the [Crusader III](XF8U-3)(XF8U-3 Crusader III). Due to cockpit workload, the Navy wanted a two-seat aircraft and on 17 December 1958 the F4H was declared the winner. Delays with the J79-GE-8 engines meant that the first production aircraft were fitted with J79-GE-2 and −2A engines, each having 16,100 lbf (71.8 kN) of [afterburning](afterburner) thrust. In 1959, the Phantom began carrier suitability trials with the first complete [cycle](launch-recovery)(launch and recovery cycle) performed on 15 February 1960 from . There were proposals to name the F4H "[Satan](Satan)" and "[Mithras](Mithras)".Donald and Lake 2002, pp. 6, 8. In the end, the aircraft was given the less controversial name "Phantom II", the first "Phantom" being another McDonnell jet fighter, the [Phantom](FH-1)(McDonnell FH Phantom). The Phantom II was briefly given the designation F-110A and named "Spectre" by the USAF, but these were not officially usedAngelucci 1987, p. 316. and the [aircraft designation system](Tri-Service)(Tri-Service aircraft designation system), F-4, was adopted in September 1962. ### Production [[VF-74 taking off 1961.jpg\|thumb\|VF-74 was the first operational U.S. Navy Phantom squadron in 1961](File:F-4B)] Early in production, the radar was upgraded to the Westinghouse [AN/APQ-72](AN/APQ-120), an [AN/APG-50](AN/APG-50) with a larger radar antenna, necessitating the bulbous nose, and the canopy was reworked to improve visibility and make the rear cockpit less [claustrophobic](claustrophobia).Lake 1992, p. 21. During its career the Phantom underwent many changes in the form of numerous variants developed. The USN operated the F4H-1 (re-designated F-4A in 1962) with J79-GE-2 and -2A engines of 16,100 lbf (71.62 kN) thrust and later builds receiving -8 engines. A total of 45 F-4As were built; none saw combat, and most ended up as test or training aircraft.Eden 2004, p. 278. The USN and USMC received the first definitive Phantom, the F-4B which was equipped with the Westinghouse APQ-72 radar (pulse only), a [Instruments](Texas)(Texas Instruments) AAA-4 [search and track](Infrared)(Infrared search and track) pod under the nose, an AN/AJB-3 bombing system and powered by J79-GE-8,-8A and -8B engines of 10,900 lbf (48.5 kN) dry and 16,950 lbf (75.4 kN) [afterburner](afterburner) (reheat) with the first flight on 25 March 1961. 649 F-4Bs were built with deliveries beginning in 1961 and [VF-121](VF-121) Pacemakers receiving the first examples at [Miramar](NAS)(NAS Miramar). The USAF received Phantoms as the result of Defense Secretary [McNamara](Robert)(Robert McNamara)'s push to create a unified fighter for all branches of the US military. After an F-4B won the "Operation Highspeed" fly-off against the [F-106 Delta Dart](Convair)(Convair F-106 Delta Dart), the USAF borrowed two Naval F-4Bs, temporarily designating them F-110A in January 1962, and developed requirements for their own version. Unlike the US Navy's focus on air-to-air interception in the Fleet Air Defense (FAD) mission, the USAF emphasized both an air-to-air and an air-to-ground fighter-bomber role. With McNamara's [of designations](unification)(1962 United States Tri-Service aircraft designation system) on 18 September 1962, the Phantom became the F-4 with the naval version designated F-4B and USAF F-4C. The first Air Force Phantom flew on 27 May 1963, exceeding Mach 2 on its maiden flight.Knaack 1978, p. 266. The F-4J improved both air-to-air and ground-attack capability; deliveries begun in 1966 and ended in 1972 with 522 built.Gunston 1979, p.246. It was equipped with J79-GE-10 engines with 17,844 lbf (79.374 kN) thrust, the Westinghouse [AN/AWG-10](AN/AWG-10) Fire Control System (making the F-4J the first fighter in the world with operational [look-down/shoot-down](look-down/shoot-down) capability), a new integrated missile control system and the AN/AJB-7 bombing system for expanded ground attack capability. The F-4N (updated F-4Bs) with smokeless engines and F-4J aerodynamic improvements started in 1972 under a U.S. Navy-initiated refurbishment program called "Project Bee Line" with 228 converted by 1978. The F-4S model resulted from the refurbishment of 265 F-4Js with J79-GE-17 smokeless engines of 17,900 lbf (79.379 kN), AWG-10B radar with digitized circuitry for improved performance and reliability, Honeywell AN/AVG-8 Visual Target Acquisition Set or VTAS (world's first operational Helmet Sighting System), classified avionics improvements, airframe reinforcement and leading edge slats for enhanced maneuvering.Gunston 1981, p. 233. The USMC also operated the RF-4B with reconnaissance cameras with 46 built;Dorr 1987, p. 39. the RF-4B flew alone and unarmed, with a requirement to fly straight and level at 5,000 feet while taking photographs. They relied on the shortcomings of the anti-aircraft defenses to survive as they were unable to make evasive maneuvers. Phantom II production ended in the United States in 1979 after 5,195 had been built (5,057 by McDonnell Douglas and 138 in Japan by Mitsubishi). Of these, 2,874 went to the USAF, 1,264 to the Navy and Marine Corps, and the rest to foreign customers. The last U.S.-built F-4 went to South Korea, while the last F-4 built was an F-4EJ built by [Heavy Industries](Mitsubishi)(Mitsubishi Heavy Industries) in Japan and delivered on 20 May 1981.[Photos: McDonnell Douglas (Mitsubishi) F-4EJ Kai Phantom II Aircraft Pictures](http://www.airliners.net/photo/Japan---Air/McDonnell-Douglas-%28Mitsubishi%29/1025718/&sid=26496b81b0e1607e000445ad9adc093a) . Airliners.net. Retrieved on 28 July 2013. As of 2008, 631 Phantoms were in service worldwide,["Directory: World Air Forces".](http://www.flightglobal.com/assets/getasset.aspx?ItemID=26061) [International](Flight)(Flight International), 11–17 November 2008, pp. 52–76. while the Phantoms were in use as a target drone (specifically QF-4Cs) operated by the U.S. military until 21 December 2016, when the Air Force officially ended use of the type. ### World records [[refueling F4H-1F during Project LANA 1961.jpeg\|thumb\|Transcontinental "Operation LANA" in 1961](File:A3D-2)] To show off their new fighter, the Navy led a series of record-breaking flights early in Phantom development: All in all, the Phantom set 16 world records. Five of the speed records remained unbeaten until the F-15 Eagle appeared in 1975. * Operation Top Flight: On 6 December 1959, the second XF4H-1 performed a [climb](zoom)(zoom climb) to a world record 98,557 ft (30,040 m).["This day in aviation: 6 December 1959"](http://www.thisdayinaviation.com/tag/lawrence-e-flint/) Bryan R. Swopes. Retrieved: 25 April 2014. Commander Lawrence E. Flint Jr., USN accelerated his aircraft to at 47,000 ft (14,330 m) and climbed to 90,000 ft (27,430 m) at a 45° angle. He then shut down the engines and glided to the peak altitude. As the aircraft fell through 70,000 ft (21,300 m), Flint restarted the engines and resumed normal flight.Lake 1992, pp. 16, 17. * On 5 September 1960, an F4H-1 averaged 1,216.78 mph (1,958.16 km/h) over a 500 km (311 mi) closed-circuit course. * On 25 September 1960, an F4H-1F averaged 1,390.24 mph (2,237.37 km/h) over a 100 km (62.1 mi) closed-circuit course. FAIRecord File Number 8898. * Operation LANA: To celebrate the 50th anniversary of Naval aviation (L is the [numeral](Roman)(Roman numeral) for 50 and ANA stood for Anniversary of Naval Aviation) on 24 May 1961, Phantoms flew across the continental United States in under three hours and included several tanker refuelings. The fastest of the aircraft averaged 869.74 mph (1,400.28 km/h) and completed the trip in 2 hours 47 minutes, earning the pilot (and future NASA Astronaut), Lieutenant“Naval Aviation News”, July 1961, p. 6 [Gordon](Richard)(Richard F. Gordon, Jr.), USN and RIO, Lieutenant Bobbie Young, USN, the 1961 [trophy](Bendix)(Bendix trophy).Stein, Alan J. ["Seattle native Dick Gordon orbits the moon on 18 November 1969."](http://www.historylink.org/essays/output.cfm?file_id=1330) HistoryLink.org, 13 June 1999. Retrieved: 13 February 2008.Grossnick, Roy A. ["Part 9 – The Sixth Decade 1960–1969."](http://www.history.navy.mil/avh-1910/PART09.PDF) history.navy.mil. Retrieved: 21 July 2010.["United States Naval Aviation 1910–1995."](http://www.history.navy.mil/avh-1910/Prelim.pdf) Naval Historical Center, 1997. Retrieved: 21 July 2010. * Operation Sageburner: On 28 August 1961, a F4H-1F Phantom II averaged 1,452.777 kilometers per hour (902.714 miles per hour) over a 3 mi (4.82 km) course flying below at all times. Commander J.L. Felsman, USN was killed during the first attempt at this record on 18 May 1961 when his aircraft disintegrated in the air after pitch damper failure.["McDonnell F-4A (F4H-1) Phantom II 'Sageburner'."](https://web.archive.org/web/20070105201321/http://www.nasm.si.edu/research/aero/aircraft/mcdonnel_F4A_sage.htm) National Air and Space Museum, Smithsonian Institution. Retrieved: 22 August 2011. * Operation Skyburner: On 22 November 1961, a modified Phantom with [injection](water)(water injection (engines)), piloted by Lt. Col. Robert B. Robinson, set an absolute world record average speed over a 20-mile (32.2 km) long 2-way straight course of 1,606.342 mph (2,585.086 km/h).. * On 5 December 1961, another Phantom set a sustained altitude record of . * Project High Jump: A series of time-to-altitude records was set in early 1962: 34.523 seconds to , 48.787 seconds to , 61.629 seconds to , 77.156 seconds to , 114.548 seconds to , 178.5 s to , 230.44 s to , and 371.43 s to .Thornborough and Davies 1994, p. 15. All High Jump records were set by F4H-1 production number 108 (Bureau Number 148423)."Naval Aviation News", April 1962, p. 12"Naval Aviation News", June 1962, p. 12 Two of the records were set by future distinguished NASA astronaut LCdr [Young](John)(John W. Young (astronaut)).“Naval Aviation News”, April 1962, p. 12”Naval Aviation News”, June 1962, p. 12 ## Design ### Overview [[of F-4 Phantom II](File:Cabinacaza.JPG\|thumb\|upright\|Cockpit)] The F-4 Phantom is a tandem-seat fighter-bomber designed as a carrier-based [interceptor](interceptor aircraft) to fill the U.S. Navy's fleet defense fighter role. Innovations in the F-4 included an advanced [radar](pulse-Doppler)(pulse-Doppler radar) and extensive use of [titanium](titanium) in its airframe.["Phabulous 40th: Current Uses of Titanium: F-4."](http://www.boeing.com/defense-space/military/f4/images/titanium.htm) Boeing, 1971. "F-4B/C 1,006 lb. 7.7% of Structure, F-J/E 1,261 lb. 8.5% of Structure". Retrieved: 14 February 2008. Despite imposing dimensions and a [takeoff weight](maximum)(maximum takeoff weight) of over 60,000 lb (27,000 kg),Donald and Lake 1996, p. 268. the F-4 has a top speed of [Mach](Mach number) 2.23 and an initial climb rate of over 41,000 ft/min (210 m/s).Dorr and Donald 1990, p. 198. The F-4's nine external [hardpoint](hardpoint)s have a capability of up to 18,650 pounds (8,480 kg) of weapons, including air-to-air and [missile](air-to-surface)(air-to-surface missile)s, and unguided, guided, and [weapon](thermonuclear)(thermonuclear weapon)s.[McDonnell Douglas F-4D "Phantom II".](http://www.nationalmuseum.af.mil/factsheets/factsheet.asp?id=2276) National Museum of the USAF. Retrieved: 20 January 2008. Like other interceptors of its day, the F-4 was designed without an internal cannon.Angelucci 1987, p. 310. The baseline performance of a Mach 2-class fighter with long-range and a bomber-sized payload would be the template for the next generation of large and light/middle-weight fighters optimized for daylight air combat.Donald, David. Warplanes of the Fleet. London: AIRtime Publishing Inc., 2004. . ### Flight characteristics "Speed is life" was F-4 pilots' slogan, as the Phantom's greatest advantage in air combat was acceleration and thrust, which permitted a skilled pilot to engage and disengage from the fight at will. MiGs usually could outturn the F-4 because of the high [drag](drag (physics)) on the Phantom's airframe,Goebel, Greg. ["Phantom Over Southeast Asia."](http://www.vectorsite.net/avf4_2.html#m3) Vectorsite.net. Retrieved: 18 January 2008. as a massive fighter aircraft designed to fire radar-guided missiles from [visual range](beyond)(Beyond-visual-range missile), the F-4 lacked the agility of its Soviet opponents and was subject to [yaw](adverse)(adverse yaw) during hard maneuvering. Although the F-4 was subject to irrecoverable spins during aileron rolls, pilots reported the aircraft to be very responsive and easy to fly on the edge of its [envelope](performance)(performance envelope). In 1972, the F-4E model was upgraded with [edge slats](leading)(leading edge slats) on the wing, greatly improving high [of attack](angle)(angle of attack) maneuverability at the expense of top speed. [[F-4 3716.ogv\|thumb\|F-4 Phantom II flight demonstration video](File:Phantom)] The J79 had a reduced time lag between the pilot advancing the throttle, from idle to maximum thrust, and the engine producing maximum thrust compared to earlier engines. While landing on John Chesire's [tailhook](tailhook) missed the [gear](arresting)(arresting gear) as he (mistakenly) reduced thrust to idle. He then slammed the throttle to full afterburner, the engine's response time being enough to return to full thrust quickly, and he was able get the Phantom airborne again successfully ([bolter](bolter (aeronautics))). The J79 produced noticeable amounts of black smoke (at mid-throttle/cruise settings), a severe disadvantage in that it made it easier for the enemy to spot the aircraft.["McDonnell Douglas F-4S Phantom"](http://www.mapsairmuseum.org/f-4_phantom.asp) MAPS Air Museum at Akron-Canton Airport. Retrieved: 28 March 2010. Two decades after the aircraft entered service this was solved on the F-4S, which was fitted with the −10A engine variant with a smokeless [combustor](combustor).Richardson and Spick 1984, p. 25. The lack of an internal gun "was the biggest mistake on the F-4", Chesire said; "Bullets are cheap and tend to go where you aim them. I needed a gun, and I really wished I had one." Marine Corps General [R. Dailey](John)(John R. Dailey) recalled that "everyone in RF-4s wished they had a gun on the aircraft." For a brief period, doctrine held that turning combat would be impossible at supersonic speeds and little effort was made to teach pilots [combat maneuvering](air)(air combat maneuvering). In reality, engagements quickly became subsonic, as pilots would slow down in an effort to get behind their adversaries. Furthermore, the relatively new heat-seeking and radar-guided missiles at the time were frequently reported as unreliable and pilots had to fire multiple missiles just to hit one enemy fighter. To compound the problem, [of engagement](rules)(rules of engagement) in Vietnam precluded long-range missile attacks in most instances, as visual identification was normally required. Many pilots found themselves on the tail of an enemy aircraft, but too close to fire short-range Falcons or Sidewinders. Although by 1965 USAF F-4Cs began carrying [SUU-16](SUU-16) external gunpods containing a 20 mm (.79 in) [Vulcan](M61A1)(M61 Vulcan) Gatling cannon, USAF cockpits were not equipped with lead-computing gunsights until the introduction of the [SUU-23](SUU-23), virtually assuring a miss in a maneuvering fight. Some Marine Corps aircraft carried two pods for strafing. In addition to the loss of performance due to drag, combat showed the externally mounted cannon to be inaccurate unless frequently [boresighted](Boresight (firearm)), yet far more cost-effective than missiles. The lack of a cannon was finally addressed by adding an internally mounted 20 mm (.79 in) M61A1 Vulcan on the F-4E.Higham and Williams 1978. ### Costs Note: Original amounts were in 1965 U.S. dollars.Knaack 1978 The figures in these tables have been adjusted for inflation to the current year. ## Operational history ### United States Air Force In USAF service, the F-4 was initially designated the F-110A["Fact sheet discussing the F-110."](http://www.nationalmuseum.af.mil/factsheets/factsheet.asp?id=2320) National Museum of the U.S. Air Force. Retrieved: 26 May 2008. prior to the introduction of the [United States Tri-Service aircraft designation system](1962)(1962 United States Tri-Service aircraft designation system). The USAF quickly embraced the design and became the largest Phantom user. The first USAF Phantoms in Vietnam were F-4Cs from the 43rd Tactical Fighter Squadron arrived in December 1964.Dorr and Bishop 1996, p. 37. Unlike the U.S. Navy and U.S. Marine Corps, which flew the Phantom with a [Aviator](Naval)(Naval Aviator) (pilot) in the front seat and a [flight officer](naval)(naval flight officer) as a radar intercept officer (RIO) in the back seat, the USAF initially flew its Phantoms with a rated [Force Pilot](Air)(USAF aeronautical rating) in front and back seats. Pilots usually did not like flying in the back seat; while the GIB, or "guy in back", could fly and ostensibly land the aircraft, he had fewer flight instruments and a very restricted forward view. The Air Force later assigned a rated [Force Navigator](Air)(Combat Systems Officer) qualified as a weapon/targeting systems officer (later designated as [systems officer](weapon)(weapon systems officer) or WSO) in the rear seat instead of another pilot. On 10 July 1965, F-4Cs of the [Tactical Fighter Squadron](45th)(45th Tactical Fighter Squadron), 15th TFW, on temporary assignment in Ubon, Thailand,Dorr and Bishop 1996, p. 38. scored the USAF's first victories against North Vietnamese MiG-17s using [Sidewinder](AIM-9)(AIM-9 Sidewinder) air-to-air missiles.Dorr and Bishop 1996, pp. 48–49. On 26 April 1966, an F-4C from the 480th Tactical Fighter Squadron scored the first aerial victory by a U.S. aircrew over a North Vietnamese ["Fishbed"](MiG-21)(Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-21).Dorr and Bishop 1996, p. 232. On 24 July 1965, another Phantom from the [Tactical Fighter Squadron](45th)(45th Fighter Squadron) became the first American aircraft to be downed by an enemy [SAM](surface-to-air missile), and on 5 October 1966 an [Tactical Fighter Wing](8th)(8th Tactical Fighter Wing) F-4C became the first U.S. jet lost to an air-to-air missile, fired by a MiG-21. Early aircraft suffered from leaks in wing fuel tanks that required re-sealing after each flight and 85 aircraft were found to have cracks in outer wing ribs and stringers. There were also problems with [aileron](aileron) control cylinders, electrical connectors, and engine compartment fires. Reconnaissance RF-4Cs made their debut in Vietnam on 30 October 1965, flying the hazardous post-strike reconnaissance missions. The USAF [Thunderbirds](U.S. Air Force Thunderbirds) used the F-4E from the 1969 season until 1974. [[File:F-4Ds 435th TFS over Vietnam.jpg\|thumb\|left\|[TFS](435th)(435th Tactical Fighter Squadron) F-4Ds over Vietnam]] Although the F-4C was essentially identical to the Navy/Marine Corps F-4B in-flight performance and carried the AIM-9 Sidewinder missiles, USAF-tailored F-4Ds initially arrived in June 1967 equipped with [Falcon](AIM-4)(AIM-4 Falcon)s. However, the Falcon, like its predecessors, was designed to shoot down heavy bombers flying straight and level. Its reliability proved no better than others and its complex firing sequence and limited seeker-head cooling time made it virtually useless in combat against agile fighters. The F-4Ds reverted to using Sidewinders under the "Rivet Haste" program in early 1968, and by 1972 the AIM-7E-2 "Dogfight Sparrow" had become the preferred missile for USAF pilots. Like other Vietnam War Phantoms, the F-4Ds were urgently fitted with [warning receiver](radar)(radar warning receiver)s to detect the Soviet-built [Dvina](S-75)(S-75 Dvina) SAMs.Knaack 1974, p. 274. From the initial deployment of the F-4C to Southeast Asia, USAF Phantoms performed both air superiority and ground attack roles, supporting not only ground troops in South Vietnam, but also conducting bombing sorties in Laos and North Vietnam. As the [F-105](Republic F-105 Thunderchief) force underwent severe attrition between 1965 and 1968, the bombing role of the F-4 proportionately increased until after November 1970 (when the last F-105D was withdrawn from combat) it became the primary USAF tactical ordnance delivery system. In October 1972 the first squadron of EF-4C [Weasel](Wild)(Wild Weasel) aircraft deployed to Thailand on temporary duty.Swanborough and Bowers 1976, p. 188. The "E" prefix was later dropped and the aircraft was simply known as the F-4C Wild Weasel. [[File:Destroyed US RF-4C Phantom II.jpg\|thumb\|USAF F-4 Phantom II destroyed on 18 February 1968, during the enemy attack against [Son Nhut](Tan)(Tan Son Nhut Air Base), during the [Offensive](Tet)(Tet Offensive)]] Sixteen squadrons of Phantoms were permanently deployed between 1965 and 1973, and 17 others deployed on temporary combat assignments.Baugher, Joe. ["Phantom Service with USAF."](http://www.joebaugher.com/usaf_fighters/f4_36.html) Joe Baugher's Home Page. Retrieved: 27 February 2010. Peak numbers of combat F-4s occurred in 1972, when 353 were based in Thailand. A total of 445 Air Force Phantom fighter-bombers were lost, 370 in combat and 193 of those over North Vietnam (33 to MiGs, 30 to SAMs, and 307 to AAA). The RF-4C was operated by four squadrons,Thornborough and Davies 1994, p. 222. and of the 83 losses, 72 were in combat including 38 over North Vietnam (seven to SAMs and 65 to AAA).Correll, John T. ["The Vietnam War Almanac", (PDF).](https://web.archive.org/web/20071127002310/http://www.afa.org/magazine/sept2004/0904vietnam.pdf) Air Force Magazine, September 2004. (with attribution to USAF Operations Report, 30 November 1973). Retrieved: 19 November 2007. By war's end, the U.S. Air Force had lost a total of 528 F-4 and RF-4C Phantoms. When combined with U.S. Navy and Marine Corps losses of 233 Phantoms, 761 F-4/RF-4 Phantoms were lost in the Vietnam War.Hobson 2001, pp. 268–270. On 28 August 1972, Captain [Ritchie](Steve)(R. Stephen Ritchie) became the first USAF ace of the war.Dorr and Bishop 1996, pp. 200–201. On 9 September 1972, WSO Capt [B. DeBellevue](Charles)(Charles B. DeBellevue) became the highest-scoring American ace of the war with six victories. and WSO Capt [Feinstein](Jeffrey)(Jeffrey Feinstein) became the last USAF ace of the war on 13 October 1972.Dorr and Bishop 1996, pp. 198–199. Upon return to the United States, DeBellevue and Feinstein were assigned to undergraduate pilot training (Feinstein was given a vision waiver) and requalified as USAF pilots in the F-4. USAF F-4C/D/E crews claimed 107.5 MiG kills in Southeast Asia (50 by Sparrow, 31 by Sidewinder, five by Falcon, 15.5 by gun, and six by other means). On 31 January 1972, the 170th Tactical Fighter Squadron/183d Tactical Fighter Group of the [Air National Guard](Illinois)(Illinois Air National Guard) became the first [National Guard](Air)(Air National Guard) unit to transition to Phantoms from [F-84F Thunderstreak](Republic)(Republic F-84F Thunderstreak)s which were found to have corrosion problems. Phantoms would eventually equip numerous tactical fighter and tactical reconnaissance units in the USAF active, National Guard, and [reserve](Air Force Reserve Command). On 2 June 1972, a Phantom flying at supersonic speed shot down a [MiG-19](MiG-19) over [Ridge](Thud)(Thud Ridge) in Vietnam with its cannon. At a recorded speed of Mach 1.2, Major Phil Handley's shoot down was the first and only recorded gun kill while flying at supersonic speeds.Kirk, R., & Lihani, R. (Producers). (8 February 29). Dogfights "Supersonic" [Television series episode](Transcript,). In Dogfights. Houston, Texas: The History Channel.Handley, Phil. [FU Hero](http://www.fighterpilotuniversity.com/history/fu-heroes/phil-handley-fu-hero/) . fighterpilotuniversity.com. Retrieved [[File:F-4Gs over Bahrain during Desert Shield.JPEG\|thumb\|F-4Gs over Bahrain during [Desert Shield](Operation)(Operation Desert Shield)]] On 15 August 1990, 24 F-4G Wild Weasel Vs and six RF-4Cs were deployed to Shaikh Isa AB, [Bahrain](Bahrain), for [Desert Storm](Operation)(Gulf War). The F-4G was the only aircraft in the USAF inventory equipped for the [of Enemy Air Defenses](Suppression)(Suppression of Enemy Air Defenses) (SEAD) role, and was needed to protect coalition aircraft from Iraq's extensive air defense system. The RF-4C was the only aircraft equipped with the ultra-long-range KS-127 LOROP (long-range oblique photography) camera, and was used for a variety of reconnaissance missions. In spite of flying almost daily missions, only one RF-4C was lost in a fatal accident before the start of hostilities. One F-4G was lost when enemy fire damaged the fuel tanks and the aircraft ran out of fuel near a friendly airbase. The last USAF Phantoms, F-4G Wild Weasel Vs from [Fighter Squadron](561st)(561st Fighter Squadron), were retired on 26 March 1996. The last operational flight of the F-4G Wild Weasel was from the [Fighter Squadron](190th)(190th Fighter Squadron), [Air National Guard](Idaho)(Idaho Air National Guard), in April 1996.["Phabulous 40th: Last to Serve."](http://www.boeing.com/defense-space/military/f4/last.htm) Boeing. Retrieved: 19 November 2007. The last operational USAF/ANG F-4 to land was flown by Maj Mike Webb and Maj Gary Leeder of the Idaho ANG. Like the Navy, the Air Force has operated QF-4 target drones, serving with the [Aerial Targets Squadron](82d)(82d Aerial Targets Squadron) at [Air Force Base](Tyndall)(Tyndall Air Force Base), Florida, and [Air Force Base](Holloman)(Holloman Air Force Base), New Mexico. It was expected that the F-4 would remain in the target role with the 82d ATRS until at least 2015, when they would be replaced by early versions of the [Fighting Falcon](F-16)(F-16 Fighting Falcon) converted to a QF-16 configuration.Carrara 2006, p. 48. Several QF-4s also retain capability as manned aircraft and are maintained in historical color schemes, being displayed as part of Air Combat Command's Heritage Flight at air shows, base open houses, and other events while serving as non-expendable target aircraft during the week.Melampy 2011, pp. 38–39. On 19 November 2013, BAE Systems delivered the last QF-4 aerial target to the Air Force. The example had been in storage for over 20 years before being converted. Over 16 years, BAE had converted 314 F-4 and RF-4 Phantom IIs into QF-4s and QRF-4s, with each aircraft taking six months to adapt. As of December 2013, QF-4 and QRF-4 aircraft had flown over 16,000 manned and 600 unmanned training sorties, with 250 unmanned aircraft being shot down in firing exercises. The remaining QF-4s and QRF-4s held their training role until the first of 126 QF-16s were delivered by Boeing.[PICTURE: US Air Force gets final QF-4 aerial target](http://www.flightglobal.com/news/articles/picture-us-air-force-gets-final-qf-4-aerial-target-393813/) – Flightglobal.com, 5 December 2013 The final flight of an Air Force QF-4 from Tyndall AFB took place on 27 May 2015 to Holloman AFB. After Tyndall AFB ceased operations, the [Weapons Evaluation Group](53d)(53d Weapons Evaluation Group) at Holloman became the fleet of 22 QF-4s' last remaining operator. The base continued using them to fly manned test and unmanned live fire test support and [Military Sales](Foreign)(Foreign Military Sales) testing, with the final unmanned flight taking place in August 2016.[Phenol unmanned Phantom Mission 31 August 2016](http://www.combataircraft.net/2016/08/31/phinal-unmanned-phantom-mission/) combataircraft.net Retrieved 20 November 2016 The type was officially retired from US military service with a four–ship flight at Holloman during an event on 21 December 2016.[http://www.holloman.af.mil/ArticleDisplay/tabid/6274/Article/1036377/final-flight-farewells-phantom.aspx] ' Retrieved 23 December 2016 The remaining QF-4s were to be demilitarized after 1 January 2017.[USAF QF-4s set for 2017 out of service date](https://www.flightglobal.com/news/articles/usaf-qf-4s-set-for-2017-out-of-service-date-418868/) – Flightglobal.com, 9 November 2015 ### United States Navy [[File:F-4B VF-111 dropping bombs on Vietnam.jpg\|thumb\|left\|A U.S. Navy F-4B from [VF-111](VF-111) dropping bombs over Vietnam, 25 November 1971]] On 30 December 1960, the ["Pacemakers"](VF-121)(VF-121) at [Miramar](NAS)(NAS Miramar) became the first Phantom operator with its F4H-1Fs (F-4As). The ["Be-devilers"](VF-74)(VF-74) at [Oceana](NAS)(NAS Oceana) became the first deployable Phantom squadron when it received its F4H-1s (F-4Bs) on 8 July 1961.Thornborough and Davies 1994, p. 260. The squadron completed carrier qualifications in October 1961 and Phantom's first full carrier deployment between August 1962 and March 1963 aboard .Lake 1992, p. 199. The second deployable [Atlantic Fleet](U.S.)(United States Fleet Forces Command) squadron to receive F-4Bs was the ["Diamondbacks"](VF-102)(VF-102), who promptly took their new aircraft on the [cruise](shakedown)(shakedown (testing)) of .Lake 1992, p. 200. The first deployable [Pacific Fleet](U.S.)(United States Pacific Fleet) squadron to receive the F-4B was the ["Aardvarks"](VF-114)(VF-114), which participated in the September 1962 cruise aboard . By the time of the [Gulf incident](Tonkin)(Tonkin Gulf incident), 13 of 31 deployable navy squadrons were armed with the type. F-4Bs from made the first Phantom combat sortie of the [War](Vietnam)(Vietnam War) on 5 August 1964, flying bomber escort in [Pierce Arrow](Operation)(Operation Pierce Arrow).Dorr 1995, p. 196. Navy fighter pilots were unused to flying with a non-pilot RIO, but learned from air combat in Vietnam the benefits of the GiB "guy in back" or "voice in the luggage compartment" helping with the workload. The first Phantom air-to-air victory of the war took place on 9 April 1965 when an F-4B from ["Fighting Falcons"](VF-96)(VF-96) piloted by Lieutenant (junior grade) Terence M. Murphy and his RIO, Ensign Ronald Fegan, shot down a Chinese ["Fresco"](MiG-17)(Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-17). The Phantom was then shot down, probably by an [Sparrow](AIM-7)(AIM-7 Sparrow) from one of its wingmen. There continues to be controversy over whether the Phantom was shot down by MiG guns or, as enemy reports later indicated, an AIM-7 Sparrow III from one of Murphy's and Fegan's wingmen.Burgess 1985, p. 388. On 17 June 1965, an F-4B from ["Freelancers"](VF-21)(VF-21) piloted by Commander Louis Page and Lieutenant John C. Smith shot down the first North Vietnamese MiG of the war.Dorr and Bishop 1996, p. 44.["Navy MiG Killers"](http://www.phantomphlyers.org/navy-mig-killers.pdf) , phantomphlyers.org On 10 May 1972, Lieutenant ["Duke" Cunningham](Randy)(Duke Cunningham) and Lieutenant (junior grade) [P. Driscoll](William)(William P. Driscoll) flying an F-4J, [sign](call)(call sign) "Showtime 100", shot down three MiG-17s to become the first American [ace](flying)(flying ace)s of the war. Their fifth victory was believed at the time to be over a mysterious North Vietnamese ace, Colonel [Toon](Nguyen)(Nguyen Toon), now considered mythical. On the return flight, the Phantom was damaged by an enemy [missile](surface-to-air)(surface-to-air missile). To avoid being captured, Cunningham and Driscoll flew their burning aircraft using only the rudder and afterburner (the damage to the aircraft rendered conventional control nearly impossible), until they could eject over water.Dorr and Bishop 1996, pp. 188–189. [[File:Blue Angels F-4J Phantoms formation from below 1969.jpg\|thumb\|The [Angels](Blue)(Blue Angels) flew the F-4J, 1969–1974]] During the war, U.S. Navy F-4 Phantom squadrons participated in 84 combat tours with F-4Bs, F-4Js, and F-4Ns. The Navy claimed 40 air-to-air victories at a cost of 73 Phantoms lost in combat (seven to enemy aircraft, 13 to [SAMs](surface-to-air missile), and 53 to [AAA](anti-aircraft warfare)). An additional 54 Phantoms were lost in mishaps.Grossnick 1997. In 1984, all Navy F-4Ns were retired from Fleet service in deployable USN squadrons and by 1987 the last F-4Ss were retired from deployable USN squadrons. On 25 March 1986, an F-4S belonging to the [VF-151](VF-151) "Vigilantes," became the last active duty U.S. Navy Phantom to launch from an aircraft carrier, in this case, . On 18 October 1986, an F-4S from the ["Superheats"](VF-202)(VF-202), a [Reserve](Naval)(United States Navy Reserve) fighter squadron, made the last-ever Phantom carrier landing while operating aboard . In 1987, the last of the Naval Reserve-operated F-4S aircraft were replaced by F-14As. The last Phantoms in service with the Navy were QF-4N and QF-4S target drones operated by the [Air Warfare Center](Naval)(Pacific Missile Test Center) at [Point Mugu](NAS)(NAS Point Mugu), California. These airframes were subsequently retired in 2004.Hunter, Jamie and Collens, Richard. ["In Relentless Pursuit of Excellence:VX-30 Bloodhounds"](http://www.history.navy.mil/content/dam/nhhc/research/histories/naval-aviation/Naval%20Aviation%20News/2000/2004/september-october/VX%2030.pdf) (PDF). Naval Aviation News, September–October 2004, pp. 26–29. Retrieved: 10 November 2015. ### United States Marine Corps [[File:F-4B VMFA-314 1968.jpg\|thumb\|left\|A U.S. Marine F-4B with [VMFA-314](VMFA-314), flies over [Vietnam](South)(South Vietnam) in September 1968]] The Marine Corps received its first F-4Bs in June 1962, with the "Black Knights" of [VMFA-314](VMFA-314) at [Corps Air Station El Toro](Marine)(Marine Corps Air Station El Toro), California becoming the first operational squadron. Marine Phantoms from [VMFA-531](VMFA-531) "Grey Ghosts" were assigned to Da Nang airbase on South Vietnam's northeast coast on 10 May 1965 and were initially assigned to provide air defense for the USMC. They soon began close air support missions (CAS) and [VMFA-314](VMFA-314) 'Black Knights', [VMFA-232](VMFA-232) 'Red Devils, [VMFA-323](VMFA-323) 'Death Rattlers', and [VMFA-542](VMFA-542) 'Bengals' soon arrived at the primitive airfield.Eden 2004, p. 276. Marine F-4 pilots claimed three enemy MiGs (two while on exchange duty with the USAF) at the cost of 75 aircraft lost in combat, mostly to ground fire, and four in accidents. The [VMCJ-1](VMCJ-1) Golden Hawks (later [VMAQ-1](VMAQ-1) and [VMAQ-4](VMAQ-4) which had the old RM tailcode) flew the first photo recon mission with an RF-4B variant on 3 November 1966 from [Nang AB](Da)(Da Nang AB), South Vietnam and remained there until 1970 with no RF-4B losses and only one aircraft damaged by anti-aircraft artillery (AAA) fire.Eden 2004, p. 277. [VMCJ-2](VMCJ-2) and VMCJ-3 (now [VMAQ-3](VMAQ-3)) provided aircraft for VMCJ-1 in Da Nang and [VMFP-3](VMFP-3) was formed in 1975 at [El Toro](MCAS)(MCAS El Toro), CA consolidating all USMC RF-4Bs in one unit that became known as "The Eyes of the Corps." VMFP-3 disestablished in August 1990 after the [Tactical Airborne Reconnaissance System](Advanced)(Advanced Tactical Airborne Reconnaissance System) was introduced for the [Hornet](F/A-18D)(F/A-18 Hornet). The F-4 continued to equip fighter-attack squadrons in both active and reserve Marine Corps units throughout the 1960s, 1970s and 1980s and into the early 1990s. In the early 1980s, these squadrons began to transition to the F/A-18 Hornet, starting with the same squadron that introduced the F-4 to the Marine Corps, VMFA-314 at MCAS El Toro, California. On 18 January 1992, the last Marine Corps Phantom, an F-4S in the [Corps Reserve](Marine)(United States Marine Corps Reserve), was retired by the "Cowboys" of [VMFA-112](VMFA-112) at [Dallas](NAS)(NAS Dallas), Texas, after which the squadron was re-equipped with F/A-18 Hornets.Crowther, M.J. and Rusty Baker. ["The History of VMFA-112."](http://www.mfr.usmc.mil/4thmaw/mag41/Header/VMFA%20History/vmfa-112%20history.pdf) Marine Fighter Attack Squadron 112, U.S. Marine Corps. Retrieved: 13 February 2008. ### Aerial combat in the Vietnam War The USAF and the US Navy had high expectations of the F-4 Phantom, assuming that the massive firepower, the best available on-board radar, the highest speed and acceleration properties, coupled with new tactics, would provide Phantoms with an advantage over the MiGs. However, in confrontations with the lighter [MiG-21](MiG-21), F-4s did not always succeed and began to suffer losses. Over the course of the air war in Vietnam, between 3 April 1965 and 8 January 1973, each side would ultimately claim favorable kill ratios.Anderton 1987, pp. 70–71. During the war, U.S. Navy F-4 Phantoms claimed 40 air-to-air victories at a loss of seven Phantoms to enemy aircraft. USMC F-4 pilots claimed three enemy MiGs at the cost of one aircraft in air-combat. USAF F-4 Phantom crews scored MiG kills (including MiG-17s, eight MiG-19s and 66 MiG-21s) at a cost of 33 Phantoms in air-combat. F-4 pilots were credited with a total of MiG kills at a cost of 42 Phantoms in air-combat. According to the [VPAF](VPAF), 103 F-4 Phantoms were shot down by MiG-21s at a cost of 54 MiG-21s downed by F-4s. During the war, the VPAF lost 131 MiGs in air combat (63 [MiG-17](MiG-17)s, eight [MiG-19](MiG-19)s and 60 [MiG-21](MiG-21)s) of which one half were by F-4s.Migs over North Vietnam: The Vietnam People's Air Force in Combat, 1965–75, Stackpole Military History From 1966 to November 1968, in 46 air battles conducted over North Vietnam between F-4s and MiG-21s, VPAF claimed 27 F-4s were shot down by MiG-21s at a cost of 20 MiG-21s In 1970, one F-4 Phantom was shot down by a MiG-21. The struggle culminated on 10 May 1972, with VPAF aircraft completing 64 sorties, resulting in 15 air battles. The VPAF claimed seven F-4s were shot down, while U.S. confirmed five F-4s were lost. The Phantoms, in turn, managed to destroy two MiG-21s, three MiG-17s, and one MiG-19. On 11 May, two MiG-21s, which played the role of "bait", brought the four F-4s to two MiG-21s circling at low altitude. The MiGs quickly engaged and shot down two F-4s. On 18 May, Vietnamese aircraft made 26 sorties in eight air engagements, which cost 4 F-4 Phantoms; Vietnamese fighters on that day did not suffer losses. ### Non-U.S. users The Phantom has served with the air forces of many countries, including [Australia](Royal Australian Air Force), [Egypt](Egyptian Air Force), Germany, [Kingdom](United)(Hawker-Siddeley/McDonnell-Douglas F-4 Phantom II), Greece, Iran, Israel, [Japan](Japan Air Self-Defense Force), Spain, South Korea and Turkey. #### Australia The [Australian Air Force](Royal)(Royal Australian Air Force) (RAAF) leased 24 USAF F-4Es from 1970 to 1973 while waiting for their order for the [Dynamics F-111C](General)(General Dynamics F-111C) to be delivered. They were so well-liked that the RAAF considered retaining the aircraft after the F-111Cs were delivered.Lake 1992, p. 209. They were operated from [Amberley](RAAF)(RAAF Amberley) by [1 Squadron](No.)(No. 1 Squadron RAAF) and [6 Squadron](No.)(No. 6 Squadron RAAF).["RAAF Aircraft Series 3 A69 Phantom".](http://www.airforce.gov.au/raafmuseum/research/aircraft/series3/A69.htm) RAAF Museum Point Cook. Retrieved: 14 November 2008. #### Egypt In 1979, the [Air Force](Egyptian)(Egyptian Air Force) purchased 35 former USAF F-4Es along with a number of Sparrow, Sidewinder, and Maverick missiles from the U.S. for $594 million as part of the "Peace Pharaoh" program.Fricker 2000, p. 59. An additional seven surplus USAF aircraft were purchased in 1988.Fricker 2000, p. 60. Three attrition replacements had been received by the end of the 1990s. Egyptian F-4Es were retired in 2020, with their former base at [West Air Base](Cairo)(Cairo West Air Base) being reconfigured for the operation of F-16C/D Fighting Falcons. #### Germany [[German McDonnell Douglas RF-4E Phantom II of AG 51 at Zweibrücken Air Base, Germany, 24 June 1980 (2193-001-075 0002).jpg\|thumb\|right\|West German RF-4E Phantom II in 1980.](File:West)] [[File:F-4Fs JG74 1998.JPEG\|thumb\|left\|F-4Fs of the [Air Force](German)(German Air Force), 21 January 1998]] The [Air Force](German)(German Air Force) (Luftwaffe) initially ordered the reconnaissance RF-4E in 1969, receiving a total of 88 aircraft from January 1971.Lake 1992, p. 210. In 1973, under the "Peace Rhine" program, the Luftwaffe purchased 175 units of the F-4F. The “F” variant was a more agile version of the “E”, due to its lower weight and slatted wings. However this was achieved at the expense of reduced fuel capacity, and the elimination of AIM-7 Sparrow capability. These purchases made Germany the largest export customer for the Phantom.Lake 1992 p. 210. In 1975, Germany also received 10 F-4Es for training in the U.S. In the late 1990s, these were withdrawn from service after being replaced by F-4Fs.Fricker 2000, p. 81. In 1982, the initially unarmed RF-4Es were given a secondary ground attack capability; these aircraft were retired in 1994.Fricker 2000, p. 80. The F-4F was upgraded in the mid-1980s.Green and Swanborough 2001. Germany also initiated the Improved Combat Efficiency (ICE) program in 1983. The 110 ICE-upgraded F-4Fs entered service in 1992, and were expected to remain in service until 2012.List 2006, p. 51. All the remaining Luftwaffe Phantoms were based at Wittmund with [71](Jagdgeschwader)(Taktisches Luftwaffengeschwader 71 "Richthofen") (fighter wing 71) in Northern GermanyJan de Ridder, Dirk. "German Phantoms still going strong." [Monthly](AirForces)(AirForces Monthly) magazine, June 2008 issue, p. 40. and [WTD61](Bundeswehr Technical and Airworthiness Center for Aircraft) at [Manching](Manching). A total of 24 German F-4F Phantom IIs were operated by the 49th Tactical Fighter Wing of the USAF at [AFB](Holloman)(Holloman AFB) to train Luftwaffe crews until December 2004. Phantoms were deployed to NATO states under the [Air Policing](Baltic)(Baltic Air Policing) starting in 2005, 2008, 2009, 2011 and 2012. The German Air Force retired its last F-4Fs on 29 June 2013. German F-4Fs flew 279,000 hours from entering service on 31 August 1973 until retirement.["German air force to bid 'Pharewell' to last F-4Fs"](http://www.flightglobal.com/news/articles/picture-german-air-force-to-bid-pharewell-to-last-f-4fs-387655/) . Flightglobal.com, 26 June 2013.["Auf Wiedersehn, Phantom!"](http://www.aviationweek.com/Blogs.aspx?plckBlogId=Blog:27ec4a53-dcc8-42d0-bd3a-01329aef79a7&plckPostId=Blog%3a27ec4a53-dcc8-42d0-bd3a-01329aef79a7Post%3a971aa875-bd7a-423e-9c7d-8a3c6e096932) Aviation Week blog, 1 July 2013. #### Greece In 1971, the [Air Force](Hellenic)(Hellenic Air Force) ordered brand new F-4E Phantoms, with deliveries starting in 1974. In the early 1990s, the Hellenic AF acquired surplus RF-4Es and F-4Es from the Luftwaffe and U.S. [ANG](Air National Guard).Dimitropoulos, K. F-4 Phantom (in Greek). Athens: Constantinidis Publications, 1997. .Manakanatas, D. and D. Stergiou. Phantom F-4 (in Greek). Athens, Epikoinonies S.A., 2002. Following the success of the German ICE program, on 11 August 1997, a contract was signed between [DASA](DaimlerChrysler Aerospace) of Germany and [Aerospace Industry](Hellenic)(Hellenic Aerospace Industry) for the upgrade of 39 aircraft to the very similar "Peace Icarus 2000" standard. On 5 May 2017, the Hellenic Air Force officially retired the RF-4E Phantom II during a public ceremony. #### Iran [[F-4 Phantom II refueling through a boom.jpg\|thumb\|Iranian F-4E Phantom refueling through a boom during Iran-Iraq war, 1982](File:Irani)] In the 1960s and 1970s when the U.S. and Iran were on friendly terms, the U.S. delivered 225 F-4D, F-4E, and RF-4E Phantoms to Iran, making it the second largest export customer.Lake 1992 p. 213 The Imperial Iranian Air Force saw at least one engagement, resulting in a loss, after an RF-4C was rammed by a Soviet MiG-21 during [Dark Gene](Project)(Project Dark Gene), an ELINT operation during the Cold War. The [Republic of Iran Air Force](Islamic)(Islamic Republic of Iran Air Force) Phantoms saw heavy action in the [War](Iran–Iraq)(Iran–Iraq War) in the 1980s and were kept operational by overhaul and servicing from Iran's aerospace industry.Fricker 2000, p. 64. Notable operations of Iranian F-4s during the war included [Scorch Sword](Operation)(Operation Scorch Sword), an attack by two F-4s against the Iraqi Osirak nuclear reactor site near Baghdad on 30 September 1980,Cooper and Bishop Air Enthusiast March/April 2004, pp. 5–6. and the [on H3](attack)(attack on H3), a 4 April 1981 strike by eight Iranian F-4s against the [complex of air bases](H-3)(H-3 Air Base) in the far west of Iraq, which resulted in many Iraqi aircraft being destroyed or damaged for no Iranian losses.Cooper and Bishop Air Enthusiast March/April 2004, pp. 7–8. On 5 June 1984, two Saudi Arabian fighter pilots shot down two Iranian F-4 fighters. The [Saudi Air Force](Royal)(Royal Saudi Air Force) pilots were flying American-built F-15s and fired air-to-air missiles to bring down the Iranian planes. The Saudi fighter pilots had [KC-135 Stratotanker](Boeing)(Boeing KC-135 Stratotanker) planes and [E-3 Sentry](Boeing)(Boeing E-3 Sentry) AWACS surveillance planes assist in the encounter. The aerial fight occurred in Saudi airspace over the Persian Gulf near the Saudi island Al Arabiyah, about 60 miles northeast of Jubail. Iranian F-4s were in use as of late 2014; the aircraft reportedly conducted air strikes on [ISIS](Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant) targets in the eastern Iraqi province of Diyala. #### Israel [[File:Israeli Air Force during the Yom Kippur War, October 1973 I.jpg\|thumb\|Israeli Air Force F-4Es taking off during the [Kippur War](Yom)(Yom Kippur War) in October 1973]] The [Air Force](Israeli)(Israeli Air Force) acquired between 212 and 222Lake 1992 p. 215 newly built and ex-USAF aircraft, and modified several as one-off special reconnaissance variants. The first F-4Es, nicknamed "Kurnass" (Sledgehammer), and RF-4Es, nicknamed "Orev" (Raven), were delivered in 1969 under the "Peace Echo I" program. Additional Phantoms arrived during the 1970s under "Peace Echo II" through "Peace Echo V" and "[Grass](Nickel)(Operation Nickel Grass)" programs. Israeli Phantoms saw extensive combat during [conflict](Arab–Israeli)(Arab–Israeli conflict)s, first seeing action during the [of Attrition](War)(War of Attrition).Nordeen 1991, p. 99. In the 1980s, Israel began the "Kurnass 2000" modernization program which significantly updated avionics. The last Israeli F-4s were retired in 2004.["Directory: World Air Forces: Israel."](https://thediplomat.com/flashpoints-blog/2011/12/14/japan-chooses-f-35/) Flight International, 16–22 November 2004. Retrieved: 14 February 2008. #### Japan From 1968, the [Air Self-Defense Force](Japan)(Japan Air Self-Defense Force) (JASDF) purchased a total of 140 F-4EJ Phantoms without aerial refueling, [Bullpup](AGM-12)(AGM-12 Bullpup) missile system, nuclear control system or ground attack capabilities.Fricker 2000, p. 85.Baugher, Joseph F. ["McDonnell F-4EJ Phantom II."](http://www.f-4.nl/f4_13.html) F-4 history. Retrieved: 31 December 2009. Mitsubishi built 138 under license in Japan and 14 unarmed reconnaissance RF-4Es were imported. One of the aircraft (17-8440) was the last of the 5,195 F-4 Phantoms to be produced. It was manufactured by [Heavy Industries](Mitsubishi)(Mitsubishi Heavy Industries) on 21 May 1981. "The Final Phantom" served with [Tactical Fighter Squadron](306th)(306th Tactical Fighter Squadron (JASDF)) and later transferred to the [Tactical Fighter Squadron](301st)(301st Tactical Fighter Squadron (JASDF)).[17-8440 McDonnell Douglas F-4EJ Kai](https://www.jetphotos.com/photo/8539462) Retrieved 28 September 2017 [[F-4 Phantoms.jpg\|thumb\|left\|JASDF F-4EJ Kais (57-8354 and 87-8407) of 8 Hikōtai in gray air superiority paint scheme, 2002](File:JASDF)] Of these, 96 F-4EJs were modified to the F-4EJ standard.Baugher, Joseph F. ["McDonnell F-4EJ Kai Phantom II."](http://www.f-4.nl/f4_14.html) F-4 history. Retrieved: 31 December 2009. 15 F-4EJ and F-4EJ Kai were converted to reconnaissance aircraft designated RF-4EJ. Japan had a fleet of 90 F-4s in service in 2007. After studying several replacement fightersGrevatt, Jon. ["Japan narrows next-generation fighter requirement choice."](https://web.archive.org/web/20071228023628/http://www.janes.com/defence/news/jdi/jdi070321_1_n.shtml) ''[Defence Industry](Jane's)(Jane's Information Group), 21 March 2007. Retrieved: 19 November 2007.["Japan likely to choose F-35 for F-X requirement – reports."](http://www.flightglobal.com/news/articles/japan-likely-to-choose-f-35-for-f-x-requirement-reports-365971/) Flight International'', 14 December 2011. Retrieved: 18 December 2011. the [Lightning II](F-35A)(Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II) was chosen in 2011.Kallender-Umezu, Paul [Japan's Fighter Procurement Crunch 6 June 2015](http://www.defensenews.com/story/defense/air-space/strike/2015/06/06/japan-fighter-f35-jasdf-f15-f2-upgrade-situational-awareness-sensors/28379749/) Defense News Retrieved 15 February 2017 The [Tactical Fighter Squadron](302nd)(302nd Tactical Fighter Squadron (JASDF)) became the first JASDF F-35 Squadron at [Air Base](Misawa)(Misawa Air Base) when it converted from the F-4EJ Kai on 29 March 2019. The JASDF's sole aerial reconnaissance unit, the [Tactical Reconnaissance Squadron](501st)(501st Tactical Reconnaissance Squadron (JASDF)), retired their RF-4Es and RF-4EJs on 9 March 2020, and the unit itself dissolved on 26 March. The 301st Tactical Fighter Squadron then became the sole user of the F-4EJ in the Air Defense Command, with their retirement originally scheduled in 2021 along with the unit's transition to the F-35A.["Japanese RF-4E Phantoms Have Just Carried Out Their Last Flight"](https://theaviationist.com/2020/03/09/japanese-rf-4e-phantoms-have-just-carried-out-their-last-flight/) . theaviationist.com, 9 March 2020. Quote: "However, the 301 Squadron, also based at Hyakuri, and equipped with the grey F-4EJ “Kai” jets with the squadron emblem, a frog, on the tail, will continue to operate the Phantom for some months..." However, on 20 November 2020, the 301st Tactical Fighter Squadron announced the earlier retirement of their remaining F-4EJs, concluding the Phantom's long-running career in the JASDF Air Defense Command. Although retirement was announced, the 301st TFS continued operations up until 10 December 2020, with the squadron's Phantoms being decommissioned on 14 December. Two F-4EJs and a F-4EJ Kai continued to be operated by the [Development and Test Wing](Air)(Air Development and Test Wing (JASDF)) in [Prefecture](Gifu)(Gifu Prefecture) until their retirement on 17 March 2021, marking an end of Phantom operations in Japan. #### South Korea The [of Korea Air Force](Republic)(Republic of Korea Air Force) purchased its first batch of secondhand USAF F-4D Phantoms in 1968 under the "Peace Spectator" program. The F-4Ds continued to be delivered until 1988. The "Peace Pheasant II" program also provided new-built and former USAF F-4Es.Lake 1992, p. 218. #### Spain The [Air Force](Spanish)(Spanish Air Force) acquired its first batch of ex-USAF F-4C Phantoms in 1971 under the "Peace Alfa" program. Designated C.12, the aircraft were retired in 1989. At the same time, the air arm received a number of ex-USAF RF-4Cs, designated CR.12. In 1995–1996, these aircraft received extensive avionics upgrades. Spain retired its RF-4s in 2002.["McDonnell Douglas F-4C -Phantom II". ](http://www.ejercitodelaire.mde.es/WebEA/static/ServContenidos?id=06903172BDAEB4E8C12570D70046523A&plantilla=generica) Ejército del Aire, Ministerio de Defensa, España. Retrieved: 19 November 2007.Wierenga, Eddy. ["Spanish Air Arms Other Air Forces, Ejército del Aire, FAMET, Armada."](http://www.scramble.nl/es.htm) Scramble (magazine). Retrieved: 19 November 2007. #### Turkey [[File:Turkish Air Force F4E Phantom II MOD 45157794.jpg\|thumb\|left\|A Turkish Air Force F-4E Phantom II aircraft armed with [missiles](Popeye)(Popeye (missile)) takes off from Third Air Force Base [Konya](Konya), Turkey, during [Anatolian Eagle](Exercise)(Anatolian Eagle).]] The [Air Force](Turkish)(Turkish Air Force) (TAF) received 40 F-4Es in 1974, with a further 32 F-4Es and 8 RF-4Es in 1977–78 under the "Peace Diamond III" program, followed by 40 ex-USAF aircraft in "Peace Diamond IV" in 1987, and a further 40 ex-U.S. Air National Guard Aircraft in 1991.Fricker 2000, p. 88. A further 32 RF-4Es were transferred to Turkey after being retired by the Luftwaffe between 1992 and 1994. In 1995, [Aerospace Industries](Israel)(Israel Aerospace Industries) (IAI) implemented an upgrade similar to Kurnass 2000 on 54 Turkish F-4Es which were dubbed the F-4E 2020 Terminator. Turkish F-4s, and more modern F-16s have been used to strike Kurdish [PKK](Kurdistan Workers' Party) bases in ongoing military operations in Northern Iraq.["Turkey kills almost 100 terrorists in offensives led by top commanders."](http://www.todayszaman.com/news-260772-turkey-kills-almost-100-terrorists-in-offensives-led-by-top-commanders.html) ''Today's Zaman,* 23 October 2011. On 22 June 2012, a Turkish RF-4E was shot down by Syrian air defenses while flying a reconnaissance flight near the Turkish-Syrian border.["Syrian military says it downed Turkish fighter jet."](https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-18561219) BBC, 23 June 2012.["Turkey to push NATO on jet downing by Syria."](http://www.cbc.ca/news/world/story/2012/06/25/syria-turkey-jet-nato.html) CBC, 25 June 2012. Turkey has stated the reconnaissance aircraft was in international [airspace](airspace) when it was [down](shot)(June 2012 interception of Turkish aircraft), while Syrian authorities stated it was inside Syrian airspace.["Turkish jet downed by Syria in international airspace."](https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-18568412) BBC''. Retrieved: 24 June 2012. Turkish F-4s remained in use as of 2020, and it plans to fly them at least until 2030. On 24 February 2015, two RF-4Es crashed in the Malatya region in the southeast of Turkey, under yet unknown circumstances, killing both crew of two each. On 5 March 2015, an F-4E-2020 crashed in [Anatolia](central)(central Anatolia) killing both crew. After the recent accidents, the TAF withdrew RF-4Es from active service. Turkey was reported to have used F-4 jets to attack PKK separatists and the ISIS capital on 19 September 2015. The Turkish Air Force has reportedly used the F-4E 2020s against the more recent [Phase](Third)(PKK rebellion (2015–present)) of the PKK conflict on heavy bombardment missions into Iraq on 15 November 2015, 12 January 2016, and 12 March 2016. #### United Kingdom [[File:F-4J F-4K CV-62 NAN6-75.jpg\|thumb\|An F-4J of the U.S. Navy (foreground), alongside an F-4K of the Fleet Air Arm (background) wait to be catapulted from , March 1975; one of the major differences can be seen by the higher degree of the British aircraft's extendable nose wheel. Both variants were eventually used by the [Air Force](Royal)(Royal Air Force)]] The United Kingdom bought versions based on the U.S. Navy's F-4J for use with the [Air Force](Royal)(Royal Air Force) and the [Navy](Royal)(Royal Navy)'s [Air Arm](Fleet)(Fleet Air Arm). The UK was the only country outside the United States to operate the Phantom at sea, with them operating from . The main differences were the use of the British [Spey](Rolls-Royce)(Rolls-Royce Spey) engines and of British-made avionics. The RN and RAF versions were given the designation F-4K and F-4M respectively, and entered service with the [military aircraft designations](British)(British military aircraft designation systems) Phantom FG.1 (fighter/ground attack) and Phantom FGR.2 (fighter/ground attack/reconnaissance).Donald 1999, p. 11.Donald 1999, p. 5. Initially, the FGR.2 was used in the ground attack and reconnaissance role, primarily with [Germany](RAF)(Royal Air Force Germany), while [Squadron](43)(No. 43 Squadron RAF) was formed in the air defense role using the FG.1s that had been intended for the Fleet Air Arm for use aboard . The superiority of the Phantom over the [Electric Lightning](English)(English Electric Lightning) in terms of both range and weapons system capability, combined with the successful introduction of the [Jaguar](SEPECAT)(SEPECAT Jaguar), meant that, during the mid-1970s, most of the ground attack Phantoms in Germany were redeployed to the UK to replace air defense Lightning squadrons. A second RAF squadron, [Squadron](111)(No. 111 Squadron RAF), was formed on the FG.1 in 1979 after the disbandment of [NAS](892)(892 Naval Air Squadron). In 1982, during the [War](Falklands)(Falklands War), three Phantom FGR2s of [29 Squadron](No.)(No. 29 Squadron RAF) were on active Quick Reaction Alert duty on [Island](Ascension)(RAF Ascension Island) to protect the base from air attack.Burden et al. 1986, pp. 417–419. After the [War](Falklands)(Falklands War), 15 upgraded ex-USN F-4Js, known as the F-4J(UK) entered RAF service to compensate for one interceptor squadron redeployed to the Falklands. Around 15 RAF squadrons received various marks of Phantom, many of them based in Germany. The first to be equipped was [228 Operational Conversion Unit](No.)(No. 228 Operational Conversion Unit) at [Coningsby](RAF)(RAF Coningsby) in August 1968. One noteworthy operator was [43 Squadron](No.)(No. 43 Squadron RAF) where Phantom FG1s remained the squadron equipment for 20 years, arriving in September 1969 and departing in July 1989. During this period the squadron was based at Leuchars.Jefford 2001. The interceptor Phantoms were replaced by the [Tornado F3](Panavia)(Panavia Tornado ADV) from the late 1980s onwards, and the last combat British Phantoms were retired in October 1992 when [74(F) Squadron](No.)(No. 74 Squadron RAF) was disbanded. Phantom FG.1 XT597* was the last British Phantom to be retired on 28 January 1994, it was used as a test jet by the [and Armament Experimental Establishment](Aeroplane)(Aeroplane and Armament Experimental Establishment) for its whole service life. ### Civilian use Sandia National Laboratories expended an F-4 mounted on a "rocket sled" in a crash test to record the results of an aircraft impacting a reinforced concrete structure, such as a nuclear power plant.[Footage of 1988 rocket-sled test](https://share.sandia.gov/news/resources/video-gallery/index.html) , ["Slow motion video."](http://sandia.gov/videos2005/f_4crash_test_slow.mpg) Sandia National Laboratories via sandia.gov. Retrieved: 2 March 2011. [[File:F-4 Phantom II Collings Foundation.jpg\|thumb\|The Collings Foundation F-4D Phantom II, with Vietnam-era "Ritchie/DeBellevue" markings, taxis at [ANGB](Selfridge)(Selfridge ANGB), May 2005]] One aircraft, an F-4D (civilian registration NX749CF), is operated by the [Massachusetts](Massachusetts)-based non-profit organization [Foundation](Collings)(Collings Foundation) as a "[history](living)(living history)" exhibit.["McDonnell Douglas Phantom II."](http://www.collingsfoundation.org/) Collings Foundation. Retrieved: 19 November 2007. Funds to maintain and operate the aircraft, which is based in [Houston](Houston), Texas, are raised through donations/sponsorships from public and commercial parties.["Collings Foundation Background."](http://www.collingsfoundation.org/in_background.htm) Collings Foundation. Retrieved 11 January 2008.["Sponsors."](http://www.collingsfoundation.org/cf_sponsors.htm) Collings Foundation. Retrieved: 11 January 2008. After finding the [F-104 Starfighter](Lockheed)(Lockheed F-104 Starfighter) inadequate, [NASA](NASA) used the F-4 to photograph and film [II](Titan)(Titan II) missiles after launch from [Canaveral](Cape)(Cape Canaveral) during the 1960s. Retired U.S. Air Force colonel Jack Petry described how he put his F-4 into a Mach 1.2 dive synchronized to the launch countdown, then "walked the (rocket's) contrail". Petry's Phantom stayed with the Titan for 90 seconds, reaching 68,000 feet, then broke away as the missile continued into space. NASA's [Flight Research Center](Dryden)(Dryden Flight Research Center) acquired an F-4A on 3 December 1965. It made 55 flights in support of short programs, chase on [X-15](North American X-15) missions and lifting body flights. The F-4 also supported a biomedical monitoring program involving 1,000 flights by NASA Flight Research Center aerospace research pilots and students of the [Aerospace Research Pilot School](USAF)(USAF Aerospace Research Pilot School) flying high-performance aircraft. The pilots were instrumented to record accurate and reliable data of electrocardiogram, respiration rate, and normal acceleration. In 1967, the Phantom supported a brief military-inspired program to determine whether an airplane's sonic boom could be directed and whether it could be used as a weapon of sorts, or at least an annoyance. NASA also flew an F-4C in a spanwise blowing study from 1983 to 1985, after which it was returned.["NASA Dryden F-4 Graphics Collection."](http://www.dfrc.nasa.gov/gallery/graphics/F-4/index.html) NASA. Retrieved: 1 August 2009. ## Variants [[File:QF-4.jpg\|thumb\|QF-4E AF Serial No. 74-1626 at [AFB](McGuire)(McGuire Air Force Base) in May 2007 with an [A-10](Fairchild Republic A-10 Thunderbolt II) in the background]] ;F-4A, B, J, N and S :Variants for the U.S. Navy and the U.S. Marine Corps. F-4B was upgraded to F-4N, and F-4J was upgraded to F-4S. ;F-110 (original USAF designation for F-4C), F-4C, D and E :Variants for the U.S. Air Force. F-4E introduced an internal M61 Vulcan cannon. The F-4D and E were the most numerously produced, widely exported, and also extensively used under the [Automatic Ground Environment](Semi)(Semi Automatic Ground Environment) (SAGE) U.S. air defense system. ;F-4G [Weasel](Wild)(Wild Weasel) V :A dedicated [SEAD](SEAD) variant for the U.S. Air Force with updated radar and avionics, converted from F-4E. The designation F-4G was applied earlier to an entirely different U.S. Navy Phantom. ; [and M](F-4K)(McDonnell Douglas F-4 Phantom II in UK service) :Variants for the [Navy](Royal)(Royal Navy) and [Air Force](Royal)(Royal Air Force), respectively, re-engined with [Spey](Rolls-Royce)(Rolls-Royce Spey) [turbofan](turbofan) engines. ;F-4EJ and RF-4EJ :Simplified F-4E exported to and license-built in Japan. Some modified for reconnaissance role, carrying photographic and/or electronic reconnaissance pods and designated RF-4EJ. ;F-4F :Simplified F-4E exported to Germany. ;QRF-4C, QF-4B, E, G, N and S :Retired aircraft converted into remote-controlled target drones used for weapons and defensive systems research by [USAF](USAF) and [USN](USN) / [USMC](United States Marine Corps). ;RF-4B, C, and E :Tactical reconnaissance variants. ## Operators [[File:greek phantom 7487 lands arp.jpg\|thumb\|[Air Force](Hellenic)(Hellenic Air Force) RF-4E Phantom II in a special color scheme, lands at [RIAT](RIAT) 2008, UK]] [[RF-4C Phantom II, Spain - Air Force AN1337858.jpg\|thumb\|Spanish Air Force RF-4C Phantom II, 15 June 1993](File:McDonnell)] [[File:F-4E Egypt 347TFW.JPEG\|thumb\|[Air Force](Egyptian)(Egyptian Air Force) F-4E Phantom IIs of the 222nd Tactical Fighter Brigade in formation with a U.S. Air Force [Tactical Fighter Wing](347th)(347th Rescue Group) F-4E Phantom II during exercise Proud Phantom]] [[File:F-4E Phantom out of RAAF Amberly at Pearce ADEX March 1971.jpg\|thumb\|A RAAF F-4E Phantom II at [Base Pearce](RAAF)(RAAF Base Pearce) in 1971]] ### Operators ; * [Air Force](Hellenic)(Hellenic Air Force) – 18 F-4E AUPs in service [Air Base](Andravida)(Andravida Air Base), Elis [Fighter-Bomber Squadron](338th)(338th Fighter-Bomber Squadron) ; [Republic of Iran Air Force](Islamic)(Islamic Republic of Iran Air Force) – 62 F-4D, F-4E, and RF-4Es in service [Abbas Air Base](Bandar)(Bandar Abbas International Airport), Hormozgan Province * 91st Tactical Fighter Squadron (F-4E) [Air Base](Bushehr)(Bushehr Airport), Bushehr Province * 61st Tactical Fighter Squadron (F-4E) [Konarak Air Base](Chabahar)(Chabahar Konarak Airport), Sistan and Baluchestan Province * 101st Tactical Fighter Squadron (F-4D) [Air Base](Hamadan)(Hamadan International Airport), Hamadan Province * 31st Tactical Reconnaissance Squadron (RF-4E) *** 31st Tactical Fighter Squadron (F-4E) ; * [of Korea Air Force](Republic)(Republic of Korea Air Force) – 27 F-4Es in service [Air Base](Suwon)(Suwon Air Base), Gyeonggi Province * 153rd Fighter Squadron ; * [Air Force](Turkish)(Turkish Air Force) – 54 F-4E 2020 Terminators in service [Air Base](Eskişehir)(Eskişehir Airport), Eskişehir Province 111 Filo ### Former operators ; [Australian Air Force](Royal)(Royal Australian Air Force) (F-4E 1970 to 1973) ; * [Air Force](Egyptian)(Egyptian Air Force) (F-4E 1977 to 2020) ; * [Air Force](German)(German Air Force) (RF-4E 1971 to 1994; F-4F 1973 to 2013; F-4E 1978 to 1992) ; * [Air Force](Hellenic)(Hellenic Air Force) (RF-4E 1978 to 2017) ; * [Iranian Air Force](Imperial)(Imperial Iranian Air Force) (F-4D 1968 to 1979; F-4E 1971 to 1979; RF-4E 1971 to 1979) ; * [Air Force](Israeli)(Israeli Air Force) (F-4E 1969 to 2004; RF-4C 1970 to 1971; RF-4E 1971 to 2004) ; * [Air Self-Defense Force](Japan)(Japan Air Self-Defense Force) (F-4EJ 1971 to 2021; RF-4E 1974 to 2020; RF-4EJ 1992 to 2020) ; * [of Korea Air Force](Republic)(Republic of Korea Air Force) (F-4D 1969 to 2010; RF-4C 1989 to 2014) ; * [Air Force](Spanish)(Spanish Air Force) (F-4C 1971 to 1990; RF-4C 1978 to 2002) ; * [Air Force](Turkish)(Turkish Air Force) (RF-4E 1980 to 2015) ; * [and Armament Experimental Establishment](Aeroplane)(Aeroplane and Armament Experimental Establishment) (F-4K 1970 to 1994) * [Air Arm](Fleet)(Fleet Air Arm) (F-4K 1968 to 1978) * [Air Force](Royal)(Royal Air Force) (F-4M 1968 to 1992; F-4K 1969 to 1990; F-4J(UK) 1984 to 1991) ; * [NASA](NASA) (F-4A 1965 to 1967; F-4C 1983 to 1985) * [States Air Force](United)(United States Air Force) (F-4B 1963 to 1964; F-4C 1964 to 1989; RF-4C 1964 to 1995; F-4D 1965 to 1992; F-4E 1967 to 1991; F-4G 1978 to 1996; QF-4 1996 to 2016) * [States Marine Corps](United)(United States Marine Corps) (F-4B 1962 to 1979; RF-4B 1965 to 1990; F-4J 1967 to 1984; F-4N 1973 to 1985; F-4S 1978 to 1992) * [States Navy](United)(United States Navy) (F-4A 1960 to 1968; F-4B 1961 to 1974; F-4J 1966 to 1982; F-4N 1973 to 1984; F-4S 1979 to 1987; QF-4 1983 to 2004) ## Culture ### Nicknames [[File:F-4 parts distribution.jpg\|thumb\|upright\|An F-4F on display described as the "World's largest distributor of [MiG](MiG) parts", because of the high number of this type of enemy aircraft shot down]] The Phantom gathered a number of nicknames during its career. Some of these names included "Snoopy", "Rhino", "Double Ugly", "Old Smokey", the "Flying Anvil", "Flying Footlocker", "Flying Brick", "Lead Sled", the "Big Iron Sled", and the "St. Louis Slugger".["Basic Aircraft Wisdom and Aircraft Nicknames."](http://www.bluejacket.com/humor_naval-aviation.html) Bluejacket.com. Retrieved: 19 November 2007. In recognition of its record of downing large numbers of Soviet-built [MiG](MiG)s,Thornborough and Davies, 1994. p. 202. it was called the "World's Leading Distributor of MiG Parts".["Phabulous 40th: Gee Whiz!"](http://www.boeing.com/defense-space/military/f4/geewhiz.htm) Boeing. Retrieved: 20 January 2008. As a reflection of excellent performance in spite of its bulk, the F-4 was dubbed "the triumph of thrust over aerodynamics."["More QF-4s – And A New Trick for Old Dogs?"](http://www.defenseindustrydaily.com/more-qf-4s-and-a-new-trick-for-old-dogs-04650/) Defense Industry Daily, 22 January 2008. Retrieved: 26 January 2008. Quote: "These large 2-seat multi-role fighters were a triumph of thrust over aerodynamics, and formed the mainstay of the USAF and U.S. Navy fleets for many years." German Luftwaffe crews called their F-4s the Eisenschwein ("Iron Pig"), Fliegender Ziegelstein ("Flying Brick") and Luftverteidigungsdiesel ("Air Defense Diesel").["Zwei Alarmrotten mit dem 'Luftverteidigungsdiesel'" ](http://www.abendblatt.de/daten/2004/11/25/368532.html) [Abendblatt](Hamburger)(Hamburger Abendblatt), 25 November 2004. Retrieved: 26 January 2008. In the RAF it was most commonly referred to as “The Toom” (not tomb).Aviation Classics, Issue 25, 3 October 2016, ### Reputation Imitating the spelling of the aircraft's name, McDonnell issued a series of patches. Pilots became "Phantom Phlyers", backseaters became "Phantom Pherrets", fans of the F-4 "Phantom Phanatics", and call it the "Phabulous Phantom". Ground crewmen who worked on the aircraft are known as "Phantom Phixers". Several active websites are devoted to sharing information on the F-4, and the aircraft is grudgingly admired as brutally effective by those who have flown it. Colonel (Ret.) Chuck DeBellevue reminisced, "The F-4 Phantom was the last plane that looked like it was made to kill somebody. It was a beast. It could go through a flock of birds and kick out barbeque from the back." It had "A reputation of being a clumsy bruiser reliant on brute engine power and obsolete weapons technology." ### The Spook [[1000.jpg\|thumb\|upright\|The Spook](File:Spook)] The aircraft's emblem is a whimsical cartoon ghost called "The Spook", which was created by McDonnell Douglas technical artist, Anthony "Tony" Wong, for shoulder patches. The name "Spook" was coined by the crews of either the 12th Tactical Fighter Wing or the 4453rd Combat Crew Training Wing at [AFB](MacDill)(MacDill AFB). The figure is ubiquitous, appearing on many items associated with the F-4. The Spook has followed the Phantom around the world adopting local fashions; for example, the British adaptation of the U.S. "Phantom Man" is a Spook that sometimes wears a bowler hat and smokes a pipe.["Phabulous 40th: UK Spook."](http://www.boeing.com/defense-space/military/f4/images/ukspook.htm) Boeing. Retrieved: 13 February 2008. ## Aircraft on display As a result of its extensive number of operators and large number of aircraft produced, there are many F-4 Phantom II of numerous variants on display worldwide. ## Notable accidents * On 6 June 1971, [Airwest Flight 706](Hughes)(Hughes Airwest Flight 706), a [Douglas DC-9](McDonnell)(McDonnell Douglas DC-9)-31 collided in mid-air with a United States Marine Corps F-4B Phantom above the [Gabriel Mountains](San)(San Gabriel Mountains), while en route from [Angeles International Airport](Los)(Los Angeles International Airport) to [Lake City](Salt)(Salt Lake City). All 49 on board the DC-9 were killed, while the pilot of the F-4B was unable to eject and died when the aircraft crashed shortly afterwards. The F-4B's Radar Intercept Officer successfully ejected from the plane and parachuted to safety, being the sole survivor of the incident. * On 9 August 1974, a [Air Force](Royal)(Royal Air Force) Phantom FGR2 was involved in a [collision](fatal)(1974 Norfolk mid-air collision) with a civilian [Pawnee](PA-25-235)(Piper PA-25 Pawnee) crop-sprayer over Norfolk, England. [Aircraft Accident Report 975](https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/5422fd5ae5274a13140008c3/9-1975_G-ASVX_and_XV493.pdf) * On 21 March 1987, Captain [Paul Martin](Dean)(Dean Paul Martin), a pilot in the [Tactical Fighter Group](163d)(163d Attack Wing) of the [Air National Guard](California)(California Air National Guard) and son of entertainer [Martin](Dean)(Dean Martin), crashed his F-4C into [Gorgonio Mountain](San)(San Gorgonio Mountain), California, shortly after departure from [Air Force Base](March)(March Air Reserve Base). Both Martin and his weapon systems officer (WSO) Captain Ramon Ortiz were killed.["The Son Of Singer Dean Martin Killed While Flying His Military Phantom Jet."](http://avstop.com/news/dm.html) avstop.com. Retrieved: 9 April 2011. * On 30 January 2023, a [Air Force](Greek)(Hellenic Air Force) F-4E Phantom II crashed into the Ionian Sea. The aircraft was conducting a training exercise when it crashed 46 km south of the [Air Base](Andravida)(Andravida Air Base). The pilot, Captain Efstathios Tsitlakidis, and co-pilot, First Lieutenant Marios Michael Touroutsikas were killed in the crash. ## Specifications (F-4E) [[DOUGLAS F-4 PHANTOM II.png\|thumb\|3-side view of the F-4E/F](File:McDONNELL)] [[Douglas F-4 Phantom II with "Spook" image (3622219586).jpg\|thumb\|Structural view of partially disassembled German F-4 Phantoms.](File:McDonnell)] [[File:F-4J VF-96 Showtime 100 armed from below.jpg\|thumb\|VF-96 F-4J "Showtime 100" armed with [Sidewinder](AIM-9 Sidewinder) and [Sparrow](AIM-7 Sparrow) missiles, 9 February 1972]] [[File:F-4D ROKAF w Sidewinders 1979.jpeg\|thumb\|A ROKAF F-4D Phantom II armed with AIM-9 missiles at [Air Base](Daegu)(Daegu International Airport) in January 1979]] Washington, DC: National Aeronautics and Space Administration, History Office, Scientific and Technical Information Branch, 1985. Retrieved: 19 November 2007. Encyclopedia of USAF Aircraft, and McDonnell F-4 Phantom: Spirit in the SkiesLake 1992, pp. 92–111. \|prime units?=kts \|genhide= \|crew=2 \|length m=19.2 \|span m=11.7 \|width m=8.4 \|width note= wing folded \|height m=5 \|wing area sqm=49.2 \|aspect ratio=2.77 \|airfoil=[0006.4–64](NACA)(NACA airfoil) root, [0003-64](NACA)(NACA airfoil) tip \|empty weight lb=30328 \|gross weight lb=41500 \|max takeoff weight lb=61795 \|max takeoff weight note= * Maximum landing weight: \|fuel capacity= internal, with 2x external tanks on the outer wing hardpoints and either a tank for the center-line station. \|more general= \|eng1 number=2 \|eng1 name=[Electric J79-GE-17A](General)(General Electric J79-GE-17A) \|eng1 type=after-burning turbojet engines \|eng1 lbf=11905 \|eng1 lbf-ab=17845 \|max speed kmh=2370 \|max speed note= at \|max speed mach=2.23 \|cruise speed kmh=940 \|stall speed kmh= \|stall speed mph= \|stall speed kts= \|stall speed note= \|never exceed speed kmh= \|never exceed speed mph= \|never exceed speed kts= \|never exceed speed note= \|range km= \|range miles= \|range nmi= \|range note= \|combat range km=680 \|ferry range km=2699 \|endurance= \|ceiling ft=60000 \|lift to drag=8.58 \|g limits= \|roll rate= \|climb rate ftmin=41300 \|time to altitude= \|wing loading lb/sqft=78 \|fuel consumption kg/km= \|fuel consumption lb/mi= \|thrust/weight=0.86 at loaded weight, 0.58 at [MTOW](MTOW) \|more performance= * Takeoff roll: at * Landing roll: at \|armament= * E-model has a [mm (0.787 in)](20)(20 mm caliber) [Vulcan](M61A1)(M61A1 Vulcan) cannon mounted internally under the nose, 640 rounds * Up to 18,650 lb (8,480 kg) of weapons on nine external hardpoints, including general-purpose bombs, cluster bombs, TV- and laser-guided bombs, rocket pods, air-to-ground missiles, anti-ship missiles, gun pods, and nuclear weapons. Reconnaissance, targeting, electronic countermeasures and baggage pods, and external fuel tanks may also be carried. * 4× [Sidewinder](AIM-9)(AIM-9 Sidewinder)s on wing pylons, Israeli F-4 Kurnass 2000 carried [Python-3](Python (missile)), Japanese F-4EJ Kai carry [AAM-3](AAM-3). * 4× [Sparrow](AIM-7)(AIM-7 Sparrow) in fuselage recesses, upgraded Hellenic F-4E and German F-4F ICE carry [AMRAAM](AIM-120)(AIM-120 AMRAAM), UK Phantoms carried [Skyflash](Skyflash) missilesFrom 1978 replacing the AIM-7 Sparrow * 6× [Maverick](AGM-65)(AGM-65 Maverick) * 4× [Walleye](AGM-62)(AGM-62 Walleye) * 4× [Shrike](AGM-45)(AGM-45 Shrike), [HARM](AGM-88)(AGM-88 HARM), [Standard ARM](AGM-78)(AGM-78 Standard ARM) * 4× [GBU-15](GBU-15) * 18× [Mk.82](Mk.82), [GBU-12](GBU-12) * 5× [Mk.84](Mark 84 bomb), [GBU-10](GBU-10), [GBU-14](GBU-14) * 18× [CBU-87](CBU-87), [CBU-89](GATOR mine system), [CBU-58](CBU-58) * Nuclear weapons, including the [B28EX](B28 nuclear bomb), [B61](B61 nuclear bomb), [B43](B43 nuclear bomb) and [B57](B57 nuclear bomb) \|avionics= }} ## See also ## References ### Notes ### Citations ### Bibliography * Angelucci, Enzo. The American Fighter. Sparkford, Somerset, UK: Haynes Publishing Group, 1987. . * Beit-Hallahmi, Benjamin. The Israeli Connection: Whom Israel Arms and Why. London: I.G. Tauris, 1987. . * Bishop, Farzad and Tom Cooper. Iranian F-4 Phantom II Units in Combat (Osprey Combat Aircraft #37). Oxford, UK: Osprey Publishing Limited, 2003. . * Bowers, Peter M. and Enzo Angellucci. The American Fighter. New York: Orion Books, 1987. . * Burden, Rodney, Michael I. Draper, Douglas A. Rough, Colin R. Smith and David L. Wilton. Falklands: The Air War. London: Arms and Armour Press, 1986. . * Burgess, Richard E. The Naval Aviation Guide, 4th ed. Annapolis, Maryland: Naval Institute Press, 1985. . * Calvert, Denis. ''Le Tigri della RAF (RAF's Tigers)(in Italian). Aerei magazine N.5, Parma, Italy: Delta editrice, 1991. Carrara, Dino. Phantom Targets: The USAFs Last F-4 Squadron. [International](Air)(Air International), Volume 71, no. 5, November 2006. Stamford, Lincolnshire, UK: Key Publishing, pp. 42–48.. * Cooper, Tom and Farzad Bishop. Target Saddam's Reactor: Israeli and Iranian Operations Against Iraqi Planes to Develop Nuclear Weapons. [Enthusiast](Air)(Air Enthusiast), No. 110, March/April 2004. pp. 2–12.. * Davies, Peter E. USAF F-4 Phantom II MiG Killers 1965-68 (Osprey Combat Aircraft #45). Oxford, UK: Osprey Publishing Limited, 2004. . * Davies, Peter E. USAF F-4 Phantom II MiG Killers 1972-73 (Osprey Combat Aircraft #55). Oxford, UK: Osprey Publishing Limited, 2005. . * Deurenberg, Rudd. Shedding Light on Iranian Phantoms. [Enthusiast](Air)(Air Enthusiast), No. 111, May/June 2004, p. 72. * Donald, David. RAF Phantoms. Wings of Fame. London: Aerospace. Volume 15, 1999. pp. 4–21. . * Donald, David and Jon Lake, eds. Desert Storm: The First Phase. * World Air Power Journal. London: Aerospace, Volume 5, Spring 1991.. Donald, David and Jon Lake, eds. Desert Storm: Gulf Victory. World Air Power Journal. London: Aerospace, Volume 6, Summer 1991.. * Donald, David and Jon Lake, eds. Encyclopedia of World Military Aircraft. London: AIRtime Publishing, 1996. . * Donald, David and Jon Lake, eds. McDonnell F-4 Phantom: Spirit in the Skies. London: AIRtime Publishing, 2002. . * [Robert F](Dorr,)(Robert F. Dorr). Navy Phantoms in Vietnam. [of Fame](Wings)(Wings of Fame), Volume 1, 1995. London: Aerospace Publishing. . * Dorr, Robert F. "McDonnell F3H Demon". [Aeroplane](Aeroplane Magazine). Volume 36, No. 3, March 2008, pp. 58–61. London: IBC. * Dorr, Robert F. and Chris Bishop, eds. Vietnam Air War Debrief. London: Aerospace Publishing, 1996. . * Dorr, Robert F. and Jon Lake. Fighters of the United States Air Force. London: Temple Press, 1990. . * Dorr, Robert F. Phantoms Forever. London: Osprey Publishing Limited, 1987. . * Eden, Paul ed. The Encyclopedia of Modern Military Aircraft. London: Amber Books Ltd, 2004. . * Elward, Brad and Peter Davies. US Navy F-4 Phantom II MiG Killers 1965-70 (Osprey Combat Aircraft #26). Oxford, UK: Osprey Publishing Limited, 2001. . * Elward, Brad and Peter Davies. US Navy F-4 Phantom II MiG Killers 1972-73 (Osprey Combat Aircraft #30). Oxford, UK: Osprey Publishing Limited, 2002. . * Freeman, CJ and Gunston, Bill Consulting ed. The Encyclopedia of World Airpower. Crown Publishers, 1979. . * Fricker, John. "Boeing /McDonnell Douglas F-4 Phantom II Current Operators". World Air Power Journal. London: Aerospace, Volume 40, Spring 2000. . * Green, William and Gordon Swanborough. The Great Book of Fighters. St. Paul, Minnesota: MBI Publishing, 2001. . * Gimmi, Russell M. Airman: The Life of Richard F. B. Gimmi. Bloomington, Indiana: iUniverse, 2009. . * * Grossnick, Roy and William J. Armstrong. United States Naval Aviation, 1910–1995. Annapolis, Maryland: Naval Historical Center, 1997. . * Gunston, Bill ed. The Illustrated History of Fighters. New York, New York: Exeter Books Div. of Simon Schuster, 1981. . * Gunston, Bill Consulting ed. The Encyclopedia of World Airpower. Crown Publishers, 1979. . * Higham, Robin and Carol Williams. Flying Combat Aircraft of USAAF-USAF (Vol.2). Manhattan, Kansas: Sunflower University Press, 1978. . * Hobson, Chris. Vietnam Air Losses, USAF, USN, USMC, Fixed-Wing Aircraft Losses in Southeast Asia 1961–1973. North Branch, Minnesota: Specialty Press, 2001. . Howarth, Alan. Spanish Phantoms and Their Legacy. [Enthusiast](Air)(Air Enthusiast) 115, January–February 2005, p. 74 Jefford, C.G. RAF Squadrons: A Comprehensive Record of the Movement and Equipment of All RAF Squadrons and Their Antecedents Since 1912:. Shrewsbury, UK: Airlife Publishing, 2nd edition, 2001. * Jones, Lloyd S. U.S. Fighters: 1925–1980s. Fallbrook, California: Aero Publishers, Inc., 1975. . * Knaack, Marcelle Size. Encyclopedia of U.S. Air Force Aircraft and Missile Systems: Volume 1 Post-World War II Fighters 1945–1973. Washington, DC: Office of Air Force History, 1978. . * Lake Jon. McDonnell F-4 Phantom: Spirit in the Skies. London: Aerospace Publishing, 1992. . * List, Friedrich. "German Air Arms Review". Air International, Volume 70, No. 5, May 2006, pp. 50–57. Stamford, Lincolnshire, UK: Key Publishing.. * Melampy, Jake. "Phantoms West". Air International, Volume 80, No. 1, January 2011, pp. 36–38. Stamford, Lincolnshire, UK: Key Publishing.. * Nordeen, Lon. Fighters Over Israel: The Story of the Israeli Air Force from the War of Independence to the Bekaa Valley. London: Guild Publishing, 1991. . * Richardson, Doug and Mike Spick. F-4 Phantom II (Modern Fighting Aircraft, Volume 4) . New York: Arco Publishing, 1984. . * Swanborough, Gordon and Peter Bowers. United States Military Aircraft Since 1909. Washington, District of Columbia: Smithsonian, 1989. . * Swanborough, Gordon and Peter Bowers. United States Navy Aircraft since 1911. London: Putnam, 1976. . * Taylor, Michael J.H. Jane's American Fighting Aircraft of the 20th century. New York: Mallard Press, 1991. . * Thetford, Owen. British Naval Aircraft since 1912. London: Putnam, Fourth Edition, 1994, pp. 254–255. . * Thornborough, Anthony M. and Peter E. Davies. The Phantom Story. London: Arms and Armour Press, 1994. . * Wagner, Ray. American Combat Planes, Third Enlarged Edition. New York: Doubleday, 1982. . * Wilson, Stewart. Phantom, Hornet and Skyhawk in Australian Service''. Weston Creek, ACT, Australia: Aerospace Publications, 1993. . ## External links [F-4 Phantom II history page on Boeing.com](http://www.boeing.com/history/products/f-4-phantom-ii.page) * [F-4 Phantom II Society site](http://www.f4phantom.com/main.html) * [PhantomF4K.org – Fleet Air Arm – Royal Navy site](http://www.phantomf4k.org/) * [F-4.nl site](http://www.f-4.nl/) * [Countering Israeli Reaction to F-4 Sales to Saudi Arabia and Kuwait](http://www.nixonlibrary.gov/virtuallibrary/documents/mr/060173_saudi.pdf) * [8th Tactical Fighter Wing site](https://web.archive.org/web/20061020130153/http://www.8tfw.com/) * [F-4 Phantom II articles and publications, theaviationindex.com](https://web.archive.org/web/20110612212239/http://www.theaviationindex.com/aircraft-types/mcdonnell-douglas-f-4-phantom-ii) * [The Phantom page with images on fas.org](https://web.archive.org/web/20131021184522/http://www.fas.org/programs/ssp/man/uswpns/air/fighter/f4phantom.html) * * ["The Phantom Turns 50" article at Fence Check site](http://www.fencecheck.com/news/The_Phantom_Turns_50/) * [F-4 Phantom page on Aerospaceweb.org](http://www.aerospaceweb.org/aircraft/fighter/f4/) * [RAF Phantom Losses](https://web.archive.org/web/20150824081714/http://www.ejection-history.org.uk/aircraft_by_type/f-4_phantom_raf.htm) * [The Phantom Zone](http://www.aviation-picture-hangar.co.uk/Phantom.html) * * [Phantom 50th Anniversary Slideshow](http://www.defensemedianetwork.com/photos/phantom-phiftieth-anniversary-photos/) [ ](Category:McDonnell Douglas F-4 Phantom II) [Phantom II](F-004)(Category:McDonnell aircraft) [United States fighter aircraft](Category:1950s)(Category:1950s United States fighter aircraft) [first flown in 1958](Category:Aircraft)(Category:Aircraft first flown in 1958) [aircraft](Category:Carrier-based)(Category:Carrier-based aircraft) [aircraft](Category:Low-wing)(Category:Low-wing aircraft) [Category:Twinjets](Category:Twinjets) [containing video clips](Category:Articles)(Category:Articles containing video clips)
Republic of China _1912–1949	republic_of_china__1912–1949	# Republic of China (1912–1949) Revision ID: 1160009807 \| Timestamp: 2023-06-13T22:10:04Z --- }}[Pinyin](Pinyin): Zhōnghuá Mínguó[Postal](Chinese postal romanization): Chunghwa Minkuo \| p1 = Qing dynasty1912:Qing Empire \| flag_p1 = Flag of China (1889–1912).svg \| year_start = 1912 \| p2 = Empire of China (1915–1916)1916:Empire of China \| flag_p2 = Flag of the Empire of China (1915–1916).svg \| p3 = Taiwan under Japanese rule1945:Japanese Taiwan & Penghu \| flag_p3 = Flag of Japan (1870–1999).svg \| s1 = Bogd Khanate of Mongolia1921:Mongolia \| flag_s1 = Flag of Bogd Khaanate Mongolia.svg \| s2 = China1949:People's Republic of China \| flag_s2 = Flag of the People's Republic of China.svg \| s3 = TaiwanRepublic of China (Taiwan) \| flag_s3 = Flag of the Republic of China.svg \| image_flag = Flag of the Republic of China 1912-1928.svg \| image_flag2 = Flag of the Republic of China.svg \| flag_type = Top: [Flag](Five Races Under One Union)(1912–1928)Bottom: [Flag](Flag of the Republic of China)(1928–1949) \| image_coat = [90px](File:Twelve Symbols national emblem of China.svg) [80px](File:National Emblem of the Republic of China.svg) \| symbol_type = Top: [Emblem](National)(Twelve Symbols national emblem)(1913–1928)Bottom: [Emblem](Blue Sky with a White Sun)(1928–1949) \| coa_size = 120px \| national_anthem = \|"[to the Auspicious Cloud](Song)(Song to the Auspicious Cloud)"(1913–1915) \|"[Heroically Stands in the Universe](China)(China Heroically Stands in the Universe)"(1915–1921) \|"[to the Auspicious Cloud](Song)(Song to the Auspicious Cloud)" (Modified)(1921–1928) \|"[Anthem of the Republic of China](National)(National Anthem of the Republic of China)" }} \| flag_anthem = "[Flag Anthem of the Republic of China](National)(National Flag Anthem of the Republic of China)"(1937–1949) \| other_symbol = National seal:"[of the Republic of China](Seal)(National seals of the Republic of China)"(1929–1949)[85px](File:中華民國之璽.svg) \| image_map = Republic of China (orthographic projection, historical).svg \| image_map_caption = Land controlled by the Republic of China (1946) shown in dark green; land claimed but uncontrolled shown in light green. \| capital = 1927–1937, 1946–1949; [jure](de)(de jure), 1927–1949)\|[Chongqing](Chongqing) (de facto, 1937–1946)}} \| largest_city = [Shanghai](Shanghai) \| government_type = See the [of the Republic of China](Government)(Government of the Republic of China) \| demonym = Chinese \| official_languages = [Chinese](Standard)(Standard Chinese) \| national_languages = \| languages_type = [script](Official)(Official script) \| languages = \| religion = See [in China](Religion)(Religion in China) \| title_leader = [President](List of Presidents of the Republic of China) \| leader1 = [Yat-sen](Sun)(Sun Yat-sen) (first, provisional) \| year_leader1 = 1912 \| leader2 = [Zongren](Li)(Li Zongren) (last in Mainland China, acting) \| year_leader2 = 1949–1950 \| title_deputy = [Premier](List of premiers of the Republic of China) \| deputy1 = [Shaoyi](Tang)(Tang Shaoyi) (first) \| year_deputy1 = 1912 \| deputy2 = [Yingqin](He)(He Yingqin) (last in Mainland China) \| year_deputy2 = 1949 \| legislature = [Assembly](National)(National Assembly (Republic of China)) \| house1 = [Yuan](Control)(Control Yuan) \| type_house1 = [house](Upper)(Upper house) \| house2 = [Yuan](Legislative)(Legislative Yuan) \| type_house2 = [house](Lower)(Lower house) \| era = \| event_pre = [Revolution](Xinhai)(1911 Revolution) \| date_pre = 10 October 1911–12 February 1912 \| event_start = [of China proclaimed](Republic)(Provisional Government of the Republic of China (1912)) \| date_start = 1 January \| event1 = [government](Beiyang)(Beiyang government) in Beijing \| date_event1 = 1912–1928 \| event2 = Admitted to the [of Nations](League)(League of Nations) \| date_event2 = 10 January 1920 \| event3 = [Expedition](Northern)(Northern Expedition) \| date_event3 = 1926–1928 \| event4 = [government](Nationalist)(Nationalist government) in [Nanjing](Nanjing) \| date_event4 = 1927–1948 \| event5 = [Civil War](Chinese)(Chinese Civil War) \| date_event5 = 1927–1936,1946–1950 \| event6 = [Sino-Japanese War](Second)(Second Sino-Japanese War) \| date_event6 = 7 July 1937–2 September 1945 \| event7 = [to the United Nations](Admitted)(Charter of the United Nations) \| date_event7 = 24 October 1945 \| event8 = [adopted](Constitution)(Constitution of the Republic of China) \| date_event8 = 25 December 1947 \| event9 = [of the People's Republic of China](Proclamation)(Proclamation of the People's Republic of China) \| date_event9 = 1 October 1949 \| event_end = [moved to Taipei](Government)(Retreat of the government of the Republic of China to Taiwan) \| date_end = 7 December \| year_end = 1949 \| event_post = [of final major territory to the Communists](Loss)(Battle of Hainan Island) \| date_post = 1 May 1950 \| drives_on = Right \| utc_offset = +5:30 to +8:30 \| time_zone = [to Changpai Standard Times](Kunlun)(Historical time zones of China) \| stat_year1 = 1912 \| stat_area1 = 11364389 \| stat_year2 = 1946 \| stat_area2 = 9665354 \| currency = \| footnotes = }} The Republic of China (ROC), or just China, was a [state](sovereign)(sovereign state) in [Asia](East)(East Asia), based in [China](Mainland)(Mainland China) before 1949, established in 1 January 1912, when it was proclaimed in the [Revolution](1911)(1911 Revolution) against the [Manchu](Manchu)-led [dynasty](Qing)(Qing dynasty), until 7 December 1949, after its ruling party [Kuomintang](Kuomintang) (KMT) was defeated by the [Communist Party](Chinese)(Chinese Communist Party) (CCP) in the [Civil War](Chinese)(Chinese Civil War), which resulted in [retreat](a)(Kuomintang's retreat to Taiwan) of its [government](central)(Government of the Republic of China) to [Taiwan](island of Taiwan). The CCP-led [Republic of China](People's)(China) (PRC) since then took over the governance of Mainland China, while the ROC remains the government of [Taiwan](Taiwan). The Republic was declared on 1 January 1912 after the [Revolution](1911)(1911 Revolution) overthrew the [dynasty](Qing)(Qing dynasty), the last [dynasty of China](imperial)(Dynasties in Chinese history). [Yat-sen](Sun)(Sun Yat-sen), its founder and provisional president, served only briefly before handing over the presidency to [Shikai](Yuan)(Yuan Shikai), the leader of the [Army](Beiyang)(Beiyang Army). Yuan quickly became authoritarian and used his military power to control the administration, which consequently became known as the "[government](Beiyang)(Beiyang government)." Yuan even attempted to replace the Republic with his own [dynasty](imperial)(Empire of China (1915–1916)) until [unrest](popular)(National Protection War) forced him to back down. When Yuan died in 1916, the country fragmented between the various local commanders of the Beiyang Army. This began the [Era](Warlord)(Warlord Era) of decentralized conflicts between rival warlord cliques. The most powerful of these cliques, notably the [Zhili](Zhili clique) and [clique](Fengtian)(Fengtian clique)s, at times used their control of [Beijing](Beijing) to assert claims to govern the entire Republic. Meanwhile, the [Kuomintang](Kuomintang) (KMT or Nationalists), under Sun's leadership, attempted [times](multiple)(Constitutional Protection Movement) to establish a rival national government in [Canton](Guangzhou). Sun was finally able to take Canton with the help of weapons, funding, and advisors from the [Union](Soviet)(Soviet Union). As a condition of Soviet support, the KMT formed the "[United Front](First)(First United Front)" with the [Communist Party](Chinese)(Chinese Communist Party) (CCP). CCP members joined the KMT and the two parties cooperated to build a revolutionary base in Canton. Sun planned to use this base to launch a military campaign northwards and reunify the rest of China. Sun's death in 1925 precipitated a power struggle that eventually resulted in the rise of General [Kai-shek](Chiang)(Chiang Kai-shek) to [Chairman](Chairman of the Kuomintang) of the KMT. Thanks to strategic alliances with warlords and help from Soviet military advisors, Chiang was able to lead a successful "[Expedition](Northern)(Northern Expedition)". By 1927, Chiang felt secure enough to end the alliance with the Soviet Union and [the Communists](purged)(Shanghai massacre) from the KMT. In 1928, the last major independent warlord [allegiance](pledged)(Northeast Flag Replacement) to the Nationalist government in [Nanjing](Nanjing). While there was relative prosperity during the [ten years](following)(Nanjing decade) under Chiang Kai-shek, the Republic of China continued to be destabilized by the [Civil War](Chinese)(Chinese Civil War), revolts by the KMT's warlord allies, and steady territorial encroachments by Japan. Although heavily damaged by the purge, the CCP gradually rebuilt its strength by focusing on organizing peasants in the countryside. Warlords who resented Chiang's attempts to take away their autonomy and incorporate their military units into the [Revolutionary Army](National)(National Revolutionary Army) repeatedly led devastating uprisings, most significantly the [Plains War](Central)(Central Plains War). In 1931, the Japanese [Manchuria](invaded)(Japanese invasion of Manchuria). They continued a series of smaller territorial encroachments until 1937, when they launched a [invasion](full-scale)(Second Sino-Japanese War) of the Republic of China. World War II devastated China, leading to enormous loss of life and material destruction. The war between China and Japan continued until the [of Japan](surrender)(surrender of Japan) at the end of [War II](World)(World War II) in 1945, which led to Taiwan being placed under Chinese administration. In the aftermath of World War II, civil war resumed between the areas liberated by the Republic of China and those liberated by the Communists. The Communist [Liberation Army](People's)(People's Liberation Army) managed to defeat the larger and better-armed National Revolutionary Army due to better military tactics and corruption of the ROC leadership. In 1949, the ROC repeatedly moved its capital to avoid the Communist advance—first to [Guangzhou](Guangzhou), followed by [Chongqing](Chongqing), [Chengdu](Chengdu), and lastly, [Taipei](Taipei). In October 1949, the CCP [the People's Republic of China](proclaimed)(Proclamation of the People's Republic of China). Remnants of the ROC government would hang on in Mainland China until late 1951. The ROC was a founding member of the [of Nations](League)(League of Nations) and later the United Nations (including its [Council](Security)(United Nations Security Council) seat) where it maintained until 1971, when the People's Republic of China [over its membership](took)(United Nations General Assembly Resolution 2758). It was also a member of the [Postal Union](Universal)(Universal Postal Union) and the [Olympic Committee](International)(International Olympic Committee). At a [population](Population history of China) of 541 million in 1949, it was the [most populous country](world's)(List of countries and dependencies by population). Covering , it consisted of 35 [provinces](provinces of China), 1 [administrative region](special)(Special administrative regions of China#ROC special administrative regions), 2 regions, 12 [municipalities](special)(special municipality (Republic of China)), 14 leagues, and 4 special banners. ## Names During the mainland period, the country was known in English as "China" or the "Republic of China". Internally, Zhongguo (), Zhonghua or Jung-hwa (), or Minguo () were used as short forms of the official country name Zhonghua Minguo () in Chinese.溫躍寬. [被西方誉成为的“民国黄金十年”](https://web.archive.org/web/20140222131118/http://img.memopool.cn/news/2013/10/17/5d670af74141a8d80141c4b430e6026d.html). [憶庫](憶庫). 2013-10-17 [2014-02-23].中华民国纪年也称“[民国纪年](民国纪年)”。 Both "[government](Beiyang)(Beiyang government)" (from 1912 to 1928), and "[government](Nationalist)(Nationalist government)" (from 1928 to 1949) used the name "Republic of China" as their official name. The [Republic of China](People's)(China) (PRC), which rules mainland China today, considers ROC as a country that ceased to exist since 1949; thus, the history of ROC before 1949 is often referred to as Republican Era () of China. The ROC, now based in Taiwan, today considers itself a continuation of the country, thus referring to the period of its mainland governance as the Mainland Period () of the Republic of China in Taiwan. ### Significance of the name The country's official Chinese name Chunghwa Minkuo, stemmed from the party manifesto of [Tongmenghui](Tongmenghui) in 1905, which says the four goals of the Chinese revolution was "to expel the [Manchu](Manchu people) rulers, to revive [Chunghwa](Names of China#Zhongguo and Zhonghua), to establish a Republic, and to distribute land equally among the people. ()." The convener of Tongmenghui and Chinese revolutionary leader [Yat-sen](Sun)(Sun Yat-sen) proposed the name Chunghwa Minkuo as the assumed name of the new country when the revolution succeeded. After the Xinhai revolution overthrew the Qing dynasty in 1911–12, Sun further explained the meaning of the country's Chinese name in detail in 1916: ) but rather Chunghwa Minkuo ()? The meaning of the Chinese character "Min" () is the result of my decade-long research. Republics in Europe and the Americas were founded before this state. With our state founded in the 20th century, we shall have the spirit of innovation but not be satisfied with mimicking those founded in the 18th and 19th centuries. A republic as a representative form of government is universal across the world. For example, despite the dichotomy of the nobles and the slaves, Greece calls its state a republican dictatorship. While the United States, with its fourteen states, sets an example of large-scale democracy, Switzerland almost practices pure democracy. As our state transforms from absolutism to representative democracy, how can we fail to innovate and fall behind other nations? Our nation should thrive to see the world, to see the brightness of democracy, to better pursue fuller democracy on our soils. Under the flag of representative systems, our people only have the right to be politically represented. If we are to pursue democracy, we will possess the rights of initiatives, nullification, and recall. But such people's rights are not appropriate to be exercised on a provincial basis but rather be on a county-wide basis. Local finance should be autonomous, while the central government's finance is funded by localities. All kinds of the rest the industries should avoid the shortcomings of American-styled trust monopolies and should be controlled by the central government. If so, within a few years, a grave, bright Republic of China will be among the top republics in the world. \| author = [Yat-Sen](Sun)(Sun Yat-Sen) }} On 20 October 1923, Sun again stressed that Chunghwa Minkuo means a state "of the people".黎民. ### Relevance in Taiwan politics The Taiwanese politician Mei Feng criticised the official English name of the state, "Republic of China," which fails to translate the Chinese character "Min" () according to Sun Yat-sen's original interpretations, and stated the name should instead be translated as "the People's Republic of China." That would be the same as the current official name of mainland China under communist rule.[梅峯](梅峯 (政治人物)).2014-07-12 To avoid confusion, the ROC government in Taiwan began to put "Taiwan" next to its official name in 2005. ## History ### Overview A republic was formally established on 1 January 1912 following the [Revolution](Xinhai)(1911 Revolution), which itself began with the [uprising](Wuchang)(Wuchang uprising) on 10 October 1911, successfully overthrowing the [dynasty](Qing)(Qing dynasty) and ending over two thousand years of [rule](imperial)(Dynasties in Chinese history) in China. From its founding until 1949, the republic was based on mainland China. Central authority waxed and waned in response to [warlordism](warlord era) (1915–1928), a [invasion](Japanese)(Second Sino-Japanese War) (1937–1945), and a [civil war](full-scale)(Chinese Civil War) (1927–1949), with central authority strongest during the [Decade](Nanjing)(Nanjing Decade) (1927–1937), when most of China came under the control of the authoritarian, [one-party](one-party state) [dictatorship](military)(military dictatorship) of the [Kuomintang](Kuomintang) (KMT). In 1945, at the end of [War II](World)(World War II), the [of Japan](Empire)(Empire of Japan) surrendered control of Taiwan and its [groups](island)(List of islands of the Republic of China) to the [Allies](Allies of World War II); and Taiwan was placed under the Republic of China's administrative control. The [takeover](communist)(Chinese Revolution (1949)) of [China](mainland)(mainland China) in 1949, after the [Civil War](Chinese)(Chinese Civil War), left the ruling Kuomintang with control over only [Penghu, Kinmen, Matsu, and other minor islands](Taiwan,)(Free area of the Republic of China). With the loss of the mainland, the ROC government retreated to [Taiwan](Taiwan) and the KMT declared [Taipei](Taipei) the [capital](provisional)(provisional capital). Meanwhile, the CCP took over all of mainland China and founded the People's Republic of China (PRC) in Beijing. ### 1912–1916: Founding [[republic forever.jpg\|thumb\|left\|alt=A drawing depicting two lions looking up in front of two flags. The flag on the left is red and blue with a white sun; while the one on the right is made of five vertical stripes (black, white, blue, yellow and red). Two circular pictures of two Chinese men stand in front of each flag.\|Yuan Shikai (left) and Sun Yat-sen (right) with flags representing the early republic](File:Chinese)] In 1912, after over two thousand years of [rule](imperial)(Imperial China), a republic was established to replace the [monarchy](Emperor of China). The [dynasty](Qing)(Qing dynasty) that preceded the republic had experienced instability throughout the 19th century and suffered from both internal rebellion and foreign imperialism. A program of institutional reform proved too little and too late. Only the lack of an alternative regime prolonged the monarchy's existence until 1912. The Chinese Republic grew out of the [Uprising](Wuchang)(Wuchang Uprising) against the Qing government, on 10 October 1911, which is now celebrated annually as the ROC's [day](national)(national day), also known as "[Ten Day](Double)(Double Ten Day)". [Yat-sen](Sun)(Sun Yat-sen) had been actively promoting revolution from his bases in exile. He then returned and on 29 December, [Yat-sen](Sun)(Sun Yat-sen) was elected president by the Nanjing assembly, which consisted of representatives from seventeen provinces. On 1 January 1912, he was officially inaugurated and pledged "to overthrow the despotic government led by the Manchu, consolidate the Republic of China and plan for the welfare of the people".Jonathan Fenby, The Penguin History of Modern China (2013) p. 123. Sun's new government lacked military strength. As a compromise, he negotiated with [Shikai](Yuan)(Yuan Shikai) the commander of the [Army](Beiyang)(Beiyang Army), promising Yuan the presidency of the republic if he were to remove the Qing emperor by force. Yuan agreed to the deal. On 12 February 1912, [regent](regent) [Dowager Longyu](Empress)(Empress Dowager Longyu) signed the [decree](abdication)(Imperial Edict of the Abdication of the Qing Emperor) on behalf of the [Emperor](Xuantong)(Puyi), ending several millennia of [monarchical rule](Chinese)(Monarchy of China). [Jiaoren](Song)(Song Jiaoren) led the Kuomintang Party to electoral victories by fashioning his party's program to appeal to the gentry, landowners, and merchants. Song was assassinated on 20 March 1913, at the behest of Yuan Shikai.Jonathan Fenby, "The silencing of Song." History Today (March 2013) 63#3 pp 5–7. Yuan was elected president of the ROC in 1913. He ruled by military power and ignored the republican institutions established by his predecessor, threatening to execute Senate members who disagreed with his decisions. He soon dissolved the ruling [Kuomintang](Kuomintang) (KMT) party, banned "secret organizations" (which implicitly included the KMT), and ignored the provisional constitution. An attempt at a [election](democratic)(1912 Republic of China National Assembly election) in 1912 ended with the assassination of the elected candidate by a man recruited by Yuan. Ultimately, Yuan declared himself [of China](Emperor)(Empire of China (1915–16)) in 1915. The new ruler of China tried to increase centralization by abolishing the provincial system; however, this move angered the gentry along with the provincial governors, who were usually military men. ### 1916–1927: Warlord Era Yuan's changes to government caused many provinces to [independence](declare)(National Protection War) and become [warlord](Warlord Era) states. Increasingly unpopular and deserted by his supporters, Yuan abdicated in 1916 and died of natural causes shortly thereafter. China then declined into a period of warlordism. Sun, having been forced into exile, returned to [Guangdong](Guangdong) in the south in 1917 and 1922, with the help of warlords, and set up successive rival governments to the [government](Beiyang)(Beiyang government) in Beijing, having re-established the KMT in October 1919. Sun's dream was to unify China by launching an expedition against the north. However, he lacked the military support and funding to turn it into a reality. Meanwhile, the Beiyang government struggled to hold onto power, and an open and wide-ranging debate evolved regarding how China should confront the West. In 1919, a student protest against the government's weak response to the [of Versailles](Treaty)(Treaty of Versailles), considered unfair by Chinese intellectuals, led to the [Fourth movement](May)(May Fourth movement), whose demonstrations were against the danger of spreading Western influence replacing Chinese culture. It was in this intellectual climate that the influence of [Marxism](Marxism) spread and became popular, leading to the founding of the CCP in 1921. After Sun's death in March 1925, [Kai-shek](Chiang)(Chiang Kai-shek) became the leader of the [Kuomintang](Kuomintang). In 1926, Chiang led the [Expedition](Northern)(Northern Expedition) with the intention of defeating the [Beiyang](Beiyang Army) warlords and unifying the country. Chiang received the help of the [Union](Soviet)(Soviet Union) and the CCP. However, he soon dismissed his Soviet advisers, being convinced that they wanted to get rid of the KMT and take control. Chiang decided to [the Communists](purge)(Shanghai massacre of 1927), killing thousands of them. At the same time, other violent conflicts were taking place in China: in the South, where the CCP had superior numbers, Nationalist supporters were being massacred. Such events eventually led to the [Civil War](Chinese)(Chinese Civil War) between the Nationalists and Communists. ### 1927–1937: Nanjing decade [[Image:Chinese civil war map 02.jpg\|left\|thumb\|Major [warlord coalitions](Chinese)(List of warlords and military cliques in the Warlord Era) during the "Nanjing Decade"]] Chiang Kai-shek pushed the CCP into the interior and established a government, with [Nanjing](Nanjing) as its capital, in 1927. By 1928, Chiang's army overthrew the [government](Beiyang)(Beiyang government) and unified the entire nation, at least nominally, beginning the so-called [decade](Nanjing)(Nanjing decade). Sun Yat-sen envisioned three phases for the KMT rebuilding of Chinamilitary rule and violent reunification; political tutelage; and finally a constitutional democracy. In 1930, after seizing power and reunifying China by force, the "tutelage" phase started with the promulgation of a provisional constitution. In an attempt to distant themselves from the Soviets, the Nationalist Government sought [from Germany](assistance)(China-Nazi Germany relations). Chiang Kai-chek was influenced by European fascist movements, and launched the [shirts](Blue)(Blue Shirts Society) and the [Life Movement](New)(New Life Movement) in conscious imitation of them. Several major government institutions were founded during this period, including the [Sinica](Academia)(Academia Sinica) and the [Bank of China](Central)(Central Bank of the Republic of China). In 1932, China sent its first team to the [Games](Olympic)(Republic of China at the 1932 Summer Olympics). Campaigns were mounted and laws passed to promote the rights of women. In the 1931 Civil Code, women were given equal inheritance rights, banned forced marriage and gave women the right to control their own money and initiate divorce.Hershatter, G. (2018). Women and China's Revolutions. US: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. No nationally unified women's movement could organize until China was unified under the [Kuomintang](Kuomintang) Government in Nanjing in 1928; women's suffrage was finally included in the new Constitution of 1936, although the constitution was not implemented until 1947.Nicola Spakowski, Cecilia Nathansen Milwertz:[Women and Gender in Chinese Studies](https://books.google.com/books?id=q4uzfrO3Cu0C&dq=women+suffrage+in+china+1947&pg=PA5) Addressing social problems, especially in remote villages, was aided by improved communications. The [Reconstruction Movement](Rural)(Rural Reconstruction Movement) was one of many that took advantage of the new freedom to raise social consciousness. The Nationalist government published a draft constitution on 5 May 1936. Continual wars plagued the government. Those in the western border regions included the [Rebellion](Kumul)(Kumul Rebellion), the [War](Sino-Tibetan)(Sino-Tibetan War), and the [Invasion of Xinjiang](Soviet)(Soviet Invasion of Xinjiang). Large areas of [proper](China)(China proper) remained under the semi-autonomous rule of local warlords such as [Yuxiang](Feng)(Feng Yuxiang) and [Xishan](Yan)(Yan Xishan), provincial military leaders, or warlord coalitions. Nationalist rule was strongest in the eastern regions around the capital Nanjing. The [Plains War](Central)(Central Plains War) in 1930, the [aggression](Japanese)(Japanese invasion of Manchuria) in 1931, and the Red Army's [March](Long)(Long March) in 1934 led to more power for the central government, but there continued to be foot-dragging and even outright defiance, as in the [Rebellion](Fujian)(Fujian People's Government) of 1933–34. Reformers and critics pushed for democracy and human rights, but the task seemed difficult if not impossible. The nation was at war and divided between Communists and Nationalists. Corruption and lack of direction hindered reforms. Chiang told the State Council: "Our organization becomes worse and worse... many staff members just sit at their desks and gaze into space, others read newspapers and still others sleep." "Nationalist disunity, political instability, civil strife, the communist challenge, the autocracy of Chiang Kai-shek, the ascendancy of the military, the escalating Japanese threat, and the "crisis of democracy" in Italy, Germany, Poland, and Spain, all contributed to a freezing of democracy by the Nationalist leadership." ### 1937–1945: Second Sino-Japanese War [[to Fight - NARA - 513567.tif\|thumb\|left\|China had been at war with Japan since 1931.](File:"China-First)] Few Chinese had any illusions about Japanese desires on China. Hungry for raw materials and pressed by a growing population, Japan initiated the seizure of [Manchuria](Japanese invasion of Manchuria) in September 1931 and established the ex-Qing emperor [Puyi](Puyi) as head of the [state](puppet)(puppet state) of [Manchukuo](Manchukuo) in 1932. The loss of Manchuria, and its potential for industrial development and war industries, was a blow to the Kuomintang economy. The [of Nations](League)(League of Nations), established at the end of World War I, was unable to act in the face of Japanese defiance. The Japanese began to push south of the [Wall](Great)(Great Wall of China) into northern China and the coastal provinces. Chinese fury against Japan was predictable, but anger was also directed against Chiang and the Nanjing government, which at the time was more preoccupied with anti-Communist extermination campaigns than with resisting the Japanese invaders. The importance of "internal unity before external danger" was forcefully brought home in December 1936, when [Kai-shek](Chiang)(Chiang Kai-shek), in an event now known as the [Incident](Xi'an)(Xi'an Incident), was kidnapped by [Xueliang](Zhang)(Zhang Xueliang) and forced to ally with the Communists against the Japanese in the [Kuomintang-CCP United Front](Second)(Second United Front (China)). Chinese resistance stiffened after 7 July 1937, when a clash occurred between Chinese and Japanese troops outside [Beiping](Beiping) (Later Beijing) near the [Polo Bridge](Marco)(Marco Polo Bridge). This skirmish led to open, although undeclared, warfare between China and Japan. Shanghai fell after a [battle](three-month)(Battle of Shanghai) during which Japan suffered extensive casualties in both its army and navy. The capital, Nanjing, fell in December 1937, which was followed by mass murders and rapes known as the [Massacre](Nanjing)(Nanjing Massacre). The national capital was briefly at [Wuhan](Wuhan), then removed in an epic retreat to [Chongqing](Chongqing), the seat of government until 1945. In 1940, the Japanese set up the [collaborationist](Collaborationism) [Jingwei regime](Wang)(Wang Jingwei regime), with its capital in Nanjing, which proclaimed itself the legitimate "Republic of China" in opposition to Chiang Kai-shek's government, although its claims were significantly hampered due to its being a [state](puppet)(puppet state) controlling limited amounts of territory. [[File:1938 June Yellow River.gif\|right\|thumb\|[Nationalist Army](Chinese)(Chinese Nationalist Army) soldiers during the [Yellow River flood](1938)(1938 Yellow River flood)]] The United Front between the Kuomintang and the CCP had salutary effects for the beleaguered CCP, despite Japan's steady territorial gains in northern China, the coastal regions and the rich [Yangtze](Yangtze) River Valley in central China. After 1940, conflicts between the Kuomintang and Communists became more frequent in the [not under Japanese control](areas)(Free China (Second Sino-Japanese War)). The Communists expanded their influence wherever opportunities presented themselves through mass organizations, administrative reforms and the land- and tax-reform measures favoring the peasants and, the spread of their organizational network, while the Kuomintang attempted to neutralize the spread of Communist influence. Meanwhile, northern China was infiltrated politically by Japanese [in Manchukuo](politicians)(Politics of Manchukuo) using facilities such as the [Huang Gong](Wei)(Wei Huang Gong). After its entry into the [War](Pacific)(Pacific War) during World War II, the United States became increasingly involved in Chinese affairs. As an ally, it embarked in late 1941 on a program of massive military and financial aid to the hard-pressed [Government](Nationalist)(Nationalist Government). In January 1943, both the United States and the United Kingdom led the way in revising their [treaties](unequal)(Unequal treaty) with China from the past.Sino-U.S. [for Relinquishment of Extraterritorial Rights in China](Treaty)(Sino-American New Equal Treaty)[Treaty for the Relinquishment of Extra-Territorial Rights in China](Sino-British)(Sino-British Treaty for the Relinquishment of Extra-Territorial Rights in China) Within a few months a new agreement was signed between the United States and the Republic of China for the stationing of American troops in China as part of the common war effort against Japan. The United States sought unsuccessfully to reconcile the rival Kuomintang and Communists, to make for a more effective anti-Japanese war effort. In December 1943, the [Exclusion Act](Chinese)(Chinese Exclusion Act)s of the 1880s, and subsequent laws, enacted by the United States Congress to restrict Chinese immigration into the United States were repealed. The wartime policy of the United States was meant to help China become a strong ally and a stabilizing force in postwar East Asia. During the war, China was one of the Big Four [of World War II](Allies)(Allies of World War II) and later one of the [Policemen](Four)(Four Policemen), which was a precursor to China having a permanent seat on the [Nations Security Council](United)(United Nations Security Council). In August 1945, with American help, Nationalist troops moved to take the Japanese surrender in North China. The Soviet Union—encouraged to [Manchuria](invade)(Soviet invasion of Manchuria) to hasten the end of the war and allowed a Soviet sphere of influence there as agreed to at the [Conference](Yalta)(Yalta Conference) in February 1945—dismantled and removed more than half the industrial equipment left there by the Japanese. Although the Chinese had not been present at Yalta, they had been consulted and had agreed to have the Soviets enter the war, in the belief that the Soviet Union would deal only with the Kuomintang government. However, the Soviet presence in northeast China enabled the Communists to arm themselves with equipment surrendered by the withdrawing Japanese army. ### 1945–1949: Defeat in the Chinese Civil War In 1945, after the end of the war, the [Government](Nationalist)(Nationalist Government) moved back to Nanjing. The Republic of China emerged from the war nominally a great military power but actually a nation economically prostrate and on the verge of all-out civil war. The problems of rehabilitating the formerly Japanese-occupied areas and of reconstructing the nation from the ravages of a protracted war were staggering. The economy deteriorated, sapped by the military demands of foreign war and internal strife, by spiraling inflation, and by Nationalist profiteering, speculation, and hoarding. Starvation came in the wake of the war, and millions were rendered homeless by floods and unsettled conditions in many parts of the country. On 25 October 1945, following the [of Japan](surrender)(surrender of Japan), the administration of [Taiwan](Taiwan (island)) and [Islands](Penghu)(Penghu Islands) were handed over from Japan to China. After the end of the war, [States Marines](United)(United States Marines) were used to hold [Beiping](Beiping) (Beijing) and [Tianjin](Tianjin) against a possible Soviet incursion, and logistic support was given to Kuomintang forces in north and northeast China. To further this end, on 30 September 1945 the [Marine Division](1st)(1st Marine Division (United States)), charged with maintaining security in the areas of the [Peninsula](Shandong)(Shandong Peninsula) and the eastern [Hebei](Hebei), arrived in China. In January 1946, through the mediation of the United States, a military truce between the Kuomintang and the Communists was arranged, but battles soon resumed. Public opinion of the administrative incompetence of the Nationalist government was incited by the Communists during the nationwide student protest against the mishandling of the [Chong rape case](Shen)(Shen Chong case) in early 1947 and during another national protest against monetary reforms later that year. The United States—realizing that no American efforts short of large-scale armed intervention could stop the coming war—withdrew Gen. [Marshall](George)(George Marshall)'s [mission](American)(Marshall Mission). Thereafter, the [Civil War](Chinese)(Chinese Civil War) became more widespread; battles raged not only for territories but also for the allegiance of sections of the population. The United States aided the Nationalists with massive economic loans and weapons but no combat support. [[File:ROC_Retreat_to_Taiwan.svg\|thumb\|left\|upright=1.15\|The Nationalists' retreat to Taipei: after the Nationalists lost [Nanjing](Nanjing) they next moved to [Guangzhou](Guangzhou), then to [Chongqing](Chongqing), [Chengdu](Chengdu), and [Xichang](Xichang) before arriving in [Taipei](Taipei).]] Belatedly, the Republic of China government sought to enlist popular support through internal reforms. However, the effort was in vain, because of rampant government corruption and the accompanying political and economic chaos. By late 1948 the Kuomintang position was bleak. The demoralized and undisciplined [Revolutionary Army](National)(National Revolutionary Army) proved to be no match for the Communists' motivated and disciplined [Liberation Army](People's)(People's Liberation Army). The Communists were well established in the north and northeast. Although the Kuomintang had an advantage in numbers of men and weapons, controlled a much larger territory and population than their adversaries, and enjoyed considerable international support, they were exhausted by the long war with Japan and in-fighting among various generals. They were also losing the propaganda war to the Communists, with a population weary of Kuomintang corruption and yearning for peace. In January 1949, Beiping was taken by the Communists without a fight, and its name changed back to Beijing. Following the capture of Nanjing on 23 April, major cities passed from Kuomintang to Communist control with minimal resistance, through November. In most cases the surrounding countryside and small towns had come under Communist influence long before the cities. Finally, on 1 October 1949, Communists led by [Zedong](Mao)(Mao Zedong) founded the [Republic of China](People's)(China). Chiang Kai-shek declared [law](martial)(martial law) in May 1949, whilst a few hundred thousand Nationalist troops and two million refugees, predominantly from the government and business community, fled from mainland China to Taiwan. There remained in China itself only isolated pockets of resistance. On 7 December 1949, Chiang proclaimed [Taipei](Taipei), Taiwan, the temporary capital of the [of China](Republic)(Republic of China). During the Chinese Civil War both the Nationalists and Communists carried out mass atrocities, with millions of non-combatants killed by both sides.Rummel, Rudolph (1994), Death by Government. Benjamin Valentino has estimated atrocities in the civil war resulted in the death of between 1.8 million and 3.5 million people between 1927 and 1949, including deaths from forced conscription and massacres.Valentino, Benjamin A. Final solutions: mass killing and genocide in the twentieth century Cornell University Press. 8 December 2005. p. 88 ## Government The first Republic of China national government was established on 1 January 1912, in [Nanjing](Nanjing), and was founded on the [of the ROC](Constitution)(Constitution of the Republic of China) and its [Principles of the People](Three)(Three Principles of the People), which state that "[ROC](the) shall be a democratic republic of the people, to be governed by the people and for the people." Sun Yat-sen was the provisional president. Delegates from the provinces sent to confirm the government's authority formed the first parliament in 1913. The power of this government was limited, with generals controlling both the central and northern [of China](provinces)(Provinces of the Republic of China), and short-lived. The number of acts passed by the government was few and included the formal abdication of the Qing dynasty and some economic initiatives. The parliament's authority soon became nominal: violations of the Constitution by Yuan were met with half-hearted motions of censure. Kuomintang members of parliament who gave up their membership in the KMT were offered 1,000 [pounds](British pound). Yuan maintained power locally by sending generals to be provincial governors or by obtaining the allegiance of those already in power. When Yuan died, the parliament of 1913 was reconvened to give legitimacy to a new government. However, the real power passed to military leaders, leading to the warlord period. The impotent government still had its use; when [War I](World)(World War I) began, several Western powers and Japan wanted China to declare war on Germany, to liquidate German holdings in China. In February 1928, the Fourth Plenary Session of the 2nd Kuomintang National Congress, held in Nanjing, passed the Reorganization of the Nationalist Government Act. This act stipulated that the Nationalist Government was to be directed and regulated under the Central Executive Committee of the Kuomintang, with the Committee of the Nationalist Government being elected by the KMT Central Committee. Under the Nationalist Government were seven ministries—Interior, Foreign Affairs, Finance, Transport, Justice, Agriculture and Mines, and Commerce, in addition to institutions such as the [Court](Supreme)(Supreme Court of the Republic of China), [Yuan](Control)(Control Yuan), and the General Academy. [[government of Nanking - nominally ruling over entire China, 1930 (2675972715).jpg\|thumb\|Nationalist government of Nanjing, which nominally ruled over all of China during 1930s](File:Nationalist)] With the promulgation of the Organic Law of the Nationalist Government in October 1928, the government was reorganized into five different branches, or yuan, namely the [Yuan](Executive)(Executive Yuan), [Yuan](Legislative)(Legislative Yuan), [Yuan](Judicial)(Judicial Yuan), [Yuan](Examination)(Examination Yuan) as well as the Control Yuan. The Chairman of the National Government was to be the head-of-state and commander-in-chief of the National Revolutionary Army. Chiang Kai-shek was appointed as the first chairman, a position he would retain until 1931. The Organic Law also stipulated that the Kuomintang, through its National Congress and Central Executive Committee, would exercise sovereign power during the period of "political tutelage", that the KMT's Political Council would guide and superintend the Nationalist Government in the execution of important national affairs, and that the Political Council has the power to interpret or amend the Organic Law.Wilbur, Clarence Martin. [The Nationalist Revolution in China, 1923–1928](https://archive.org/details/nationalistrevol00wilb_0/page/190). Cambridge University Press, 1983, p. 190. Shortly after the Second Sino-Japanese War, a long-delayed constitutional convention was summoned to meet in Nanjing in May 1946. Amidst heated debate, this convention adopted many constitutional amendments demanded by several parties, including the KMT and the Communist Party, into the Constitution. This Constitution was promulgated on 25 December 1946 and came into effect on 25 December 1947. Under it, the Central Government was divided into the presidency and the five yuans, each responsible for a part of the government. None was responsible to the other except for certain obligations such as the president appointing the head of the Executive Yuan. Ultimately, the president and the yuans reported to the National Assembly, which represented the will of the citizens. Under the new constitution the first elections for the National Assembly occurred in January 1948, and the assembly was summoned to meet in March 1948. It elected the president of the republic on 21 March 1948, formally bringing an end to the KMT party rule started in 1928, although the president was a member of the KMT. These elections, though praised by at least one US observer, were poorly received by the Communist Party, which would soon start an open, armed insurrection. ### Foreign relations Before the Nationalist government was ousted from the mainland, the Republic of China had diplomatic relations with 59 countries, including Australia, Canada, [Cuba](Republic of Cuba (1902–59)), [Czechoslovakia](Czechoslovakia), [Estonia](Estonia), [France](French Third Republic), [Germany](Nazi Germany), [Guatemala](Guatemala), [Honduras](Honduras), [Italy](Kingdom of Italy), [Japan](Empire of Japan), [Latvia](Latvia), [Lithuania](Lithuania), [Norway](Norway), [Panama](Panama), [Siam](Thailand), the [Union](Soviet)(Soviet Union), [Spain](Francoist Spain), the [Kingdom](United)(United Kingdom), the [States](United)(United States), and the [See](Holy)(Holy See). The Republic of China was able to maintain most of these diplomatic ties, at least initially following the retreat to Taiwan. Chiang Kai-shek had vowed to [return and "liberate" the mainland](quickly)(Project National Glory),Li Shui. [Chiang Kai-shek's chief bodyguard published a book revealing the 62-year history of "counterattacking the mainland"](http://2006.chinataiwan.org/web/webportal/W3799218/A376833.html) 13 November 2006. Qin Xin. Taiwan army published new book uncovering secrets of Chiang Kai-shek: Plan to retake the mainland. 28 June 2006. China News Agency. [China News](http://www.chinanews.com.cn/taiwan/lagx/news/2006/06-28/750229.shtml) an assurance that became a cornerstone of the ROC's post 1949 foreign policy. Under the [Charter](Atlantic)(Charter of the United Nations), the Republic of China was entitled to a [seat on the UN Security Council](permanent)(Permanent members of the United Nations Security Council) (UNSC).Stephen Schlesinger, "FDR's five policemen: creating the United Nations." World Policy Journal 11.3 (1994): 88-93. [online](https://www.jstor.org/stable/40209368) Though multiple objections were raised that the seat belonged to the lawful government of China, which had to many become the PRC even arguably prior to the official conclusion of the Chinese Civil War,Cook, Chris Cook. Stevenson, John. [2005] (2005). The Routledge Companion to World History Since 1914. Routledge. ISBN 0-415-34584-7. p. 376. the ROC retained the permanent seat reserved for China on the UNSC until 1971 when it was supplanted by the PRC.CHINA'S REPRESENTATION IN THE UNITED NATIONS by Khurshid Hyder - Pakistan Horizon; Vol. 24, No. 4, The Great Powers and Asia (Fourth Quarter, 1971), pp. 75-79 Published by: Pakistan Institute of International Affairs ### Administrative divisions ### Nobility The Republic of China retained hereditary nobility like the Han Chinese nobles [Yansheng](Duke)(Duke Yansheng) and [Masters](Celestial)(List of Celestial Masters) and [Tusi](Tusi) chiefdoms like the [of Mangshi](Chiefdom)(Chiefdom of Mangshi), [of Yongning](Chiefdom)(Chiefdom of Yongning), who continued possessing their titles in the Republic of China from the previous dynasties. ## Military [[Army.jpg\|thumb\|left\|upright=0.9\|Beiyang Army troops on parade](File:Beiyang)] The military power of the Republic of China was inherited from the [Army](New)(New Army), mainly the [Army](Beiyang)(Beiyang Army), which later split into many [factions](List of warlords and military cliques in the Warlord Era) and [each other](attacked)(Warlord Era). The National Revolutionary Army was established by [Yat-sen](Sun)(Sun Yat-sen) in 1925 in [Guangdong](Guangdong) with the goal of reunifying China under the Kuomintang. Originally organized with Soviet aid as a means for the KMT to unify China against warlordism, the National Revolutionary Army fought many major engagements: in the [Expedition](Northern)(Northern Expedition) against Beiyang Army [warlords](Warlord era), in the [Sino-Japanese War](Second)(Second Sino-Japanese War) against the [Japanese Army](Imperial)(Imperial Japanese Army), and in the [Civil War](Chinese)(Chinese Civil War) against the [Liberation Army](People's)(People's Liberation Army). [[NRA during World War II](File:Kmtarmy.JPG\|thumb\|right\|upright=0.9\|The)] During the Second Sino-Japanese War, the armed forces of the CCP were nominally incorporated into the National Revolutionary Army, while remaining under separate command, but broke away to form the People's Liberation Army shortly after the end of the war. With the promulgation of the [of the Republic of China](Constitution)(Constitution of the Republic of China) in 1947 and the formal end of the KMT party-state, the National Revolutionary Army was renamed the [of China Armed Forces](Republic)(Republic of China Armed Forces), with the bulk of its forces forming the [of China Army](Republic)(Republic of China Army), which retreated to Taiwan in 1949 after their defeat in the Chinese Civil War. Units which surrendered and remained in mainland China were either disbanded or incorporated into the People's Liberation Army. ## Economy [[File:SuzhouCreekOld2.jpg\|thumb\|left\|Boat traffic and development along [Creek](Suzhou)(Suzhou Creek), Shanghai, 1920]] [[Custom Gold Units 1930.JPG\|thumb\|A 10 Custom Gold Units bill, 1930](File:10)] In the early years of the Republic of China, the economy remained unstable as the country was marked by constant warfare between different regional warlord factions. The [government](Beiyang)(Beiyang government) in Beijing experienced constant changes in leadership, and this political instability led to stagnation in economic development until Chinese reunification in 1928 under the Kuomintang.Sun Jian, pp. 613–614 After this reunification, China entered a period of relative stability—despite ongoing isolated military conflicts and in the face of Japanese aggression in [Shandong](Shandong) and [Manchuria](Manchuria), in 1931—a period known as the "Nanjing Decade". Chinese industries grew considerably from 1928 to 1931. While the economy was hit by the Japanese occupation of Manchuria in 1931 and the Great Depression from 1931 to 1935, industrial output recovered to their earlier peak by 1936. This is reflected by the trends in Chinese GDP. In 1932, China's GDP peaked at 28.8 billion, before falling to 21.3 billion by 1934 and recovering to 23.7 billion by 1935.Sun Jian, pp. 1059–1071 By 1930, foreign investment in China totaled 3.5 billion, with Japan leading (1.4 billion) followed by the United Kingdom (1 billion). By 1948, however, the capital investment had halted and dropped to only 3 billion, with the US and Britain being the leading investors.Sun Jian, p. 1353 However, the rural economy was hit hard by the [Depression](Great)(Great Depression) of the 1930s, in which an overproduction of agricultural goods lead to falling prices for China as well as an increase in foreign imports (as agricultural goods produced in western countries were "dumped" in China). In 1931, Chinese imports of rice amounted to 21 million [bushel](bushel)s compared with 12 million in 1928. Other imports saw even more increases. In 1932, 15 million bushels of grain were imported compared with 900,000 in 1928. This increased competition lead to a massive decline in Chinese agricultural prices and thus the income of rural farmers. In 1932, agricultural prices were at 41 percent of 1921 levels.Sun Jian, page 1089 By 1934, rural incomes had fallen to 57 percent of 1931 levels in some areas. In 1937, [invaded China](Japan)(Second Sino-Japanese War) and the resulting warfare laid waste to China. Most of the prosperous east coast was occupied by the Japanese, who committed atrocities such as the [massacre](Nanjing)(Nanjing massacre). In one anti-guerilla sweep in 1942, the Japanese killed up to 200,000 civilians in a month. The war was estimated to have killed between 20 and 25 million Chinese, and destroyed all that Chiang had built up in the preceding decade.Sun Jian, pp. 615–616 Development of industries was severely hampered after the war by devastating civil conflict as well as the inflow of cheap American goods. By 1946, Chinese industries operated at 20% capacity and had 25% of the output of pre-war China.Sun Jian, p. 1319 One effect of the war with Japan was a massive increase in government control of industries. In 1936, government-owned industries were only 15% of GDP. However, the ROC government took control of many industries to fight the war. In 1938, the ROC established a commission for industries and mines to supervise and control firms, as well as instilling price controls. By 1942, 70% of Chinese industry was owned by the government.Sun Jian, pp. 1237–1240 Following the [of Japan](surrender)(surrender of Japan) in [War II](World)(World War II), [Taiwan](Japanese)(Japanese Taiwan) was placed under the control of the ROC. In the meantime, the KMT renewed its struggle with the communists. However, the corruption and hyperinflation as a result of trying to fight the civil war, resulted in mass unrest throughout the RepublicSun Jian, pp. 617–618 and sympathy for the communists. In addition, the communists' promise to redistribute land gained them support among the large rural population. In 1949, the communists captured Beijing and later Nanjing. The People's Republic of China was proclaimed on 1 October 1949. The Republic of China relocated to Taiwan where Japan had laid an educational groundwork. ## See also * [Union relations](China–Soviet)(China–Soviet Union relations) * [history of China (1912–1949)](Economic)(Economic history of China (1912–1949)) * [of China–United States relations to 1948](History)(History of China–United States relations to 1948) * [National Glory](Project)(Project National Glory) ## Notes ## References ### Citations ### Sources : For works on specific people and events, please see the relevant articles. * Boorman, Howard, et al., eds.,[Dictionary of Republican China](Biographical)(Biographical Dictionary of Republican China). (New York: Columbia University Press, 4 vols, 1967–1971). 600 articles. Available online at [Archive](Internet)(Internet Archive). * * * * . In the series "Inventing the Nation." * * Jowett, Philip. (2013) ''China's Wars: Rousing the Dragon 1894–1949* (Bloomsbury Publishing, 2013). * Leung, Edwin Pak-wah. Historical Dictionary of Revolutionary China, 1839–1976 (1992) [online free to borrow](https://archive.org/details/historicaldictio0000unse) * Leung, Edwin Pak-wah. Political Leaders of Modern China: A Biographical Dictionary (2002) * Li, Xiaobing. (2007) A History of the Modern Chinese Army [excerpt](https://books.google.com/books?id=svBt-hzD53AC) * Li, Xiaobing. (2012) China at War: An Encyclopedia'' [excerpt](https://books.google.com/books?id=R7qNuIJJsNEC) * * * * Vogel, Ezra F. China and Japan: Facing History (2019) [excerpt](https://www.amazon.com/China-Japan-Ezra-F-Vogel/dp/0674916573/) * Westad, Odd Arne. Restless Empire: China and the World since 1750 (2012) [Online free to borrow](https://archive.org/details/restlessempirech0000west) * Wilbur, Clarence Martin. Sun Yat-sen, frustrated patriot (Columbia University Press, 1976), a major scholarly biography [online](https://archive.org/details/sunyatsenfrustra0000wilb) ; Historiography * Yu, George T. "The 1911 Revolution: Past, Present, and Future," Asian Survey, 31#10 (1991), pp. 895–904, [online](https://www.jstor.org/stable/2645062) historiography * ## External links * * [ ](Category:Republic of China (1912–1949)) [establishments in China](Category:1912)(Category:1912 establishments in China) [disestablishments in China](Category:1949)(Category:1949 disestablishments in China) [*](Category:20th century in China) [and territories established in 1912](Category:States)(Category:States and territories established in 1912) [and territories disestablished in 1949](Category:States)(Category:States and territories disestablished in 1949) [republics](Category:Former)(Category:Former republics) [member states of the United Nations](Category:Former)(Category:Former member states of the United Nations)
Insomniac Games	insomniac_games	# Insomniac Games Revision ID: 1159654512 \| Timestamp: 2023-06-11T17:57:23Z --- \| founder = Ted Price \| hq_location_city = [California](Burbank,)(Burbank, California) \| hq_location_country = US \| num_locations = 2 studios \| key_people = Ted Price ([CEO](Chief executive officer)) \| products = \| num_employees = 400+ \| num_employees_year = 2021 \| parent = [Studios](PlayStation)(PlayStation Studios) (2019–present) \| website = }} Insomniac Games, Inc. is an American [game developer](video)(video game developer) based in [California](Burbank,)(Burbank, California) and a studio of [Studios](PlayStation)(PlayStation Studios). It was founded in 1994 by Ted Price as Xtreme Software, and was renamed Insomniac Games a year later. The company is most known for developing several early [PlayStation](PlayStation) mascots, [the Dragon](Spyro)(Spyro (character)), [Ratchet](Ratchet (Ratchet & Clank)) and [Clank](Clank (Ratchet & Clank)), as well as the [Resistance](Resistance (video game series)) franchise, 2014's [Overdrive](Sunset)(Sunset Overdrive) and the ''[Spider-Man](Marvel's)(Marvel's Spider-Man (Insomniac Games series))'' series with [Games](Marvel)(Marvel Games). In 2019, the studio was acquired by [Interactive Entertainment](Sony)(Sony Interactive Entertainment), becoming a part of [Worldwide Studios](SIE)(SIE Worldwide Studios) (now known as PlayStation Studios). The company's first project was [Disruptor](Disruptor (video game)), for [PlayStation](PlayStation (console)), whose poor sales almost led to the company's bankruptcy. Insomniac's next project was [the Dragon](Spyro)(Spyro the Dragon), a successful video game that spawned two sequels within two years. Insomniac closely collaborated with [Computer Entertainment](Sony)(Sony Computer Entertainment) (later renamed Sony Interactive Entertainment) and created two game franchises, [& Clank](Ratchet)(Ratchet & Clank), and Resistance. The two franchises proved to be both a critical and financial success for the company. The company began work on its first multiplatform game [Fuse](Fuse (video game)) in 2013 (with [Arts](Electronic)(Electronic Arts) as its publisher), but the game turned out to become one of Insomniac's worst-reviewed games. Since 2014, Insomniac has actively expanded its portfolio of games. The company worked with [Studios](Microsoft)(Microsoft Studios) on 2014's [Overdrive](Sunset)(Sunset Overdrive), partnered with [GameTrust](GameTrust) to release the underwater [Metroidvania](Metroidvania) game [of the Deep](Song)(Song of the Deep), and released several mobile games and [reality](virtual)(virtual reality) projects. In 2016, Insomniac released a [re-imagining](Ratchet & Clank (2016 video game)) of the first [& Clank](Ratchet)(Ratchet & Clank (2002 video game)), and in 2018 released its first licensed title, ''[Spider-Man](Marvel's)(Marvel's Spider-Man (video game))* for the [4](PlayStation)(PlayStation 4); an additional game, [Spider-Man: Miles Morales](Marvel's)(Marvel's Spider-Man: Miles Morales)'', was released for the PlayStation 4 and [5](PlayStation)(PlayStation 5) in 2020. The studio's most recent project is [& Clank: Rift Apart](Ratchet)(Ratchet & Clank: Rift Apart)* which released exclusively for the PlayStation 5 in June 2021. It is currently developing ''[Spider-Man 2](Marvel's)(Marvel's Spider-Man 2)* (2023) and [Wolverine](Marvel's)(Marvel's Wolverine) for the PlayStation 5. Before 2019, Insomniac remained as an independent studio working for Sony and other publishers such as Microsoft, EA, and Oculus. In August 2019, Sony announced it had agreed to acquire Insomniac as the 14th internal studio within [Worldwide Studios](SIE)(SIE Worldwide Studios). Over the years, Insomniac Games has received considerable recognition from critics as an acclaimed video game developer. It was named the twentieth-best video game developer by [IGN](IGN), and one of the best places to work in America by the [for Human Resource Management](Society)(Society for Human Resource Management). ## History ### Founding and Disruptor'' (1994–1996) [[Price, 2013.jpg\|thumb\|right\|175px\|Ted Price, founder and CEO of Insomniac Games](File:Ted)] Insomniac Games was founded by Ted Price, who was determined to work in the video game industry since the release of [2600](Atari)(Atari 2600) in 1977, when he was nine years old. The company was incorporated on February 28, 1994. Price was joined by Alex Hastings, his fellow graduate and an expert in computer programming, in June 1994. Hastings' brother Brian Hastings joined Insomniac shortly afterwards. The studio was named "Xtreme Software" for a year but in 1995 it was forced to rename itself by another company with the same name. The studio shortlisted "The Resistance Incorporated", "Ragnarok", "Black Sun Software", "Ice Nine" and "Moon Turtle" before choosing the name "Insomniac Games". According to Price, the company chose this name because "it suddenly makes sense", even though it was not their first choice. Shortly after the company's establishment, it began developing its first project. The team took inspirations from the popular [Doom](Doom (1993 video game)), and hoped to capitalize upon the industry's excitement for a [shooter](first-person)(first-person shooter). The team lacked experience and considered developing a "[clone](Doom)(Doom clone)". The game was developed for the [3DO](Panasonic)(3DO Interactive Multiplayer) because its developer kit was inexpensive, and the team had high hopes for the console. Using a time frame of one month, the team developed a functional gameplay demo for the game. It was pitched to various publishers and was later shown to [Cerny](Mark)(Mark Cerny), an executive producer from [Interactive Studios](Universal)(Universal Interactive Studios), who was impressed by the team's efforts. Universal published the game and helped with funding and marketing. Universal helped the game's development and cutscenes, and hired actors to film real-time sequences. [Hardwicke](Catherine)(Catherine Hardwicke) was hired to lead production design, and inspirations were taken from [Warhawk](Warhawk (1995 video game)). Cerny gave input and feedback on the game's level-design. However, the 3DO did not perform as they had expected, and Universal suggested that the team should switch to [Computer Entertainment](Sony)(Sony Computer Entertainment)'s [PlayStation](PlayStation (console)) to increase sales of the game. The game originally ran on a custom engine developed by Alex Hastings, and was upgraded and converted for the PlayStation within a month. The debut title was called [Disruptor](Disruptor (video game)), and was released worldwide in November 1996. Disruptor* was released to positive critical reception, and was named "Dark Horse of the Year" by various gaming publications. [Romero](John)(John Romero), founder of Doom developer [Software](id)(id Software) praised the game. Insomniac considered Disruptor a lesson about video game development. According to Price, it was "the best game that nobody ever heard of". With little marketing and advertisement, the game was a commercial failure for Insomniac. Despite the game's poor performance, Universal continued to partner with Insomniac for its next game. The team's morale was low; they decided to develop something new instead of a sequel to Disruptor. ### Spyro the Dragon (1996–2000) At that time, the demographic for the PlayStation shifted, as more children and teenagers started to use the console. As a result, the team decided not to make another violent game like Disruptor and instead develop a family-friendly game that would be suitable for every member of a family, regardless of their age. The family game market was dominated by Sony's competitor [Nintendo](Nintendo) with games like [Mario 64](Super)(Super Mario 64), while the PlayStation had no similar exclusives. Cerny pushed Insomniac Games to develop a game with a mascot and mass appeal. Craig Stitt, an environment artist of Disruptor, proposed that the game's theme and story should revolve around an anthropomorphic dragon. At the same time, Alex Hastings began developing an engine that specialized in games with [view](panoramic)(panoramic view), which is suitable for [world](open)(open world) games. The engine allowed more gameplay features including the ability for the dragon to glide through air. [the Dragon](Spyro)(Spyro the Dragon) was released in late 1998. The game received critical acclaim upon launch and received awards from publications. Sales of the game were relatively low initially, but climbed after Christmas that year, and overall sales of the game exceeded two million. The team was expanded to 13 staff members. Because of Spyro the Dragons success, the studio was requested to develop a sequel for it. The development of ''[2: Ripto's Rage!](Spyro)(Spyro 2: Ripto's Rage!)* began shortly after the launch of Spyro the Dragon. The team considered developing the sequel a challenge for them; they had to develop new ideas to "revolutionize" the franchise within a short time. The team brainstormed ideas but later chose to expand a mini-game from the original Spyro the Dragon, which they thought had offered a different experience from Spyro''. The team designed a mature story and advanced cinematics for the game. It met its target release window, and was released in late 1999. Hastings was worried about the release because the game's development cycle was rushed and truncated. The studio was asked to develop the third installment in the Spyro the Dragon* series upon the release of ''Ripto's Rage!''. To make the game more varied than its predecessors, the team introduced more special moves for [the Dragon](Spyro)(Spyro (character)) and more playable characters. The dragon's personality was made more approachable for players. The company struggled to create new ideas for the sequel. During the game's development, the team expanded to about 20 to 25 people. [Allgeier](Brian)(Brian Allgeier), who would later become Insomniac's games' director, joined the studio at that time. [Year of the Dragon](Spyro:)(Spyro: Year of the Dragon) was released worldwide in late 2000. After releasing three games in three years, the team decided to move on for a new project that had new original characters. Year of the Dragon is the last Insomniac Games-developed Spyro game. Universal retains the [property](intellectual)(intellectual property) rights to the Spyro series. This was the end of Insomniac Games' partnership with Universal as the team at Insomniac started to work directly to develop games for the PlayStation consoles. ### Ratchet & Clank (2000–2005) In 2000, Sony released its successor to the PlayStation, the [2](PlayStation)(PlayStation 2). Insomniac's ideas for its first PlayStation 2 project included Monster Knight, a concept that was designed in 1999 but the game did not get beyond its planning stage. The canceled project was revealed 13 years after the game's conception. The second title was Girl with a Stick, which took inspirations from [Legend of Zelda](The)(The Legend of Zelda) and [Raider](Tomb)(Tomb Raider). It was intended as a serious game, and to prove Insomniac's ability to create games other than platformers. Insomniac spent six months on the project, developing several prototypes and a functional demo. However, most staff members, beside Price, were not passionate about the project, and thought it was "one-dimensional". Sony thought the game would not find a market, and recommended Insomniac to "play to [their] strengths". As a result, Girl with a Stick was scrapped. According to Price, Girl with a Stick is a lesson for Insomniac and its first failure. A few weeks after the cancellation of Girl with a Stick, Brian Hastings proposed that the company should work on a space adventure game with a science fiction theme. The game originally revolved around a reptilian alien with weapons traveling across planets. The reptile character evolved into a caveman, and eventually became a fictional creature called a "Lombax". They named the creature [Ratchet](Ratchet (Ratchet & Clank)) and designed a robot companion called [Clank](Clank (Ratchet & Clank)) for Ratchet. Inspirations for the game were drawn from manga, ''[Bad Fur Day](Conker's)(Conker's Bad Fur Day)* and from Spyro the Dragon''. To differentiate the project from Insomniac's previous projects, they made the game more complex and included [shooting](shooter game) and [role-playing](role-playing video game) gameplay elements. The team was excited about this project; however, the company was unable to develop a demo for the game because it did not have a suitable engine. As a result, they developed "Art Nuevo de Flash Gordon", a Metropolis diorama, for Sony, which decided to help the game's funding and publishing. [Rubin](Jason)(Jason Rubin), on behalf of [Dog](Naughty)(Naughty Dog), lent Insomniac the engine used in [and Daxter: The Precursor Legacy](Jak)(Jak and Daxter: The Precursor Legacy). The game's title was [& Clank](Ratchet)(Ratchet & Clank); it was originally to be a [title](launch)(launch title) for the PlayStation 2 but it was delayed by two years and was released in November 2002. It was a critical success. Five months before the launch of Ratchet & Clank, Sony approved the development of its sequel. Insomniac hoped to bring new elements to the franchise; it received feedback from players and improved some features of Ratchet & Clank. About a year later, [& Clank: Going Commando](Ratchet)(Ratchet & Clank: Going Commando)* was released to critical acclaim, at which time Insomniac had finished the prototype of their next game, [& Clank: Up Your Arsenal](Ratchet)(Ratchet & Clank: Up Your Arsenal), which introduced a multiplayer mode and expanded upon Going Commandos arenas. Alex Hastings continued to optimize the engine and increase its processing power to fine-tune the game. The sales of Up Your Arsenal were considerably higher than those of its predecessors; it was the highest-rated game in the franchise's history. Insomniac released three Ratchet & Clank games within three years. As of 2005, Insomniac intended to change the direction of the franchise after Up Your Arsenal. Hastings hoped the company's next game would have a darker tone than its predecessors. As a result, the plot switched its focus to Ratchet. The developers were inspired by [Running Man](The)(The Running Man (1987 film)) and [Royale](Battle)(Battle Royale (manga)); they developed an action game with no platform elements. While the gameplay of the fourth game in the series is similar to that of its predecessors, Clank's role was significantly diminished and the character's name was removed from the game's title. [Deadlocked](Ratchet:)(Ratchet: Deadlocked) was released in 2005. ### PlayStation 3 era (2006–2012) [[File:Mark Cerny, GDCA 2014 (cropped).jpg\|right\|thumb\|160px\|[Cerny](Mark)(Mark Cerny) gave advice on multiple Insomniac games]] While Insomniac was handling the development of the Ratchet & Clank franchise, the team wanted to work on something else. With the launch of the [3](PlayStation)(PlayStation 3), the team thought users of the new console would be more mature than those of its predecessors and wanted to develop a game to cater for them. They thought the studio should not specialize in one genre. This new project was part of Insomniac's expansion; the company wanted to have multiple projects in parallel development. This project began development after the completion of Deadlocked. The team agreed to develop something different for a different platform. Inspired by [Troopers](Starship)(Starship Troopers), [Fall of Man](Resistance:)(Resistance: Fall of Man) was Insomniac's first first-person shooter after Disruptor. To make the game stand-out, they experimented with turning it into a squad-based shooter and introducing giant lizard enemies which were later scrapped. Sony recommended Insomniac to change its lizard antagonist because they were not fun to play with. Furthermore, the team disagreed about the game's setting. Cerny wanted to set the game—proposed as a "space opera" game—during [War I](World)(World War I), but this was later changed to [War II](World)(World War II) because the developers wanted to introduce extreme weaponry to the game. It was shifted to the 1950s because the team considered the market for World War II shooters was over-saturated at that time. Resistance: Fall of Man was a launch title for the PlayStation 3; the team said developing a new game for the console was a challenge because they had to work quickly to meet its target release window. The game was a financial and critical success, despite causing [over the use of Manchester Cathedral](controversy)(Controversy over the use of Manchester Cathedral in Resistance: Fall of Man). The development of the sequel soon began; the team wanted to drastically change the game, leading to internal debate between staff members. The sequel, [2](Resistance)(Resistance 2), was released in 2008. Meanwhile, development of the Ratchet & Clank franchise continued. The team decided to rewrite the characters when the franchise shifted to the PlayStation 3. They introduced the Future series, which includes [& Clank Future: Tools of Destruction](Ratchet)(Ratchet & Clank Future: Tools of Destruction) (2007), [for Booty](Quest)(Ratchet & Clank Future: Quest for Booty) (2008) and [Crack in Time](A)(Ratchet & Clank Future: A Crack in Time) (2009). In 2008, the company established a new studio of 25 to 30 developers, led by Chad Dezern and Shaun McCabe, in North Carolina. The new studio was responsible for some of Insomniac's Ratchet & Clank games. Both the Resistance franchise and the Ratchet & Clank franchise continued into the 2010s. The team in North Carolina developed [& Clank: All 4 One](Ratchet)(Ratchet & Clank: All 4 One), which received mixed reviews. The North Carolina team continued to develop the next game in the series, [& Clank: Full Frontal Assault](Ratchet)(Ratchet & Clank: Full Frontal Assault), which expanded upon levels from previous games in the series and has a structure similar to that of a [defense game](tower)(tower defense game). Meanwhile, the company developed [3](Resistance)(Resistance 3)—the sequel to Resistance 2—which was designed to be similar to Fall of Man. The team at Insomniac reviewed players' feedback regarding the negative aspects of Resistance 2, re-introduced some mechanics from Fall of Man, and focused on narrative. They considered such an approach can differentiate a franchise from other first-person shooters. Resistance 3 was regarded by the team as the best game in the series, but it sold poorly and was a financial failure. According to Price, the team was disappointed but were still proud of the project. In early 2012, Price announced that the company would not be involved in any future Resistance projects. Sony retains the intellectual property rights to the franchise. ### Diversifying portfolio (2012–2019) Insomniac had exclusively developed games for the PlayStation console until in 2010 when Insomniac announced its partnership with [Arts](Electronic)(Electronic Arts) via [Partners](EA)(EA Partners) to develop a multi-platform game for the PlayStation 3 and [Microsoft](Microsoft)'s [360](Xbox)(Xbox 360) console. The company hoped to reach a wider audience, while keeping the rights to its IP and retain full control of its franchises. The company revealed nothing about the game. The company established a new subsidiary called Insomniac Click, which focused on casual games and games for [Facebook](Facebook). Its first game was not set in any of Insomniac's existing franchises. Insomniac again partnered with Electronic Arts, which owned the casual game developer [Playfish](Playfish), to help the game to reach a broad audience. [Outernauts](Outernauts) was announced shortly after; it was released in July 2012 for browsers and mobile platforms. Click was later re-incorporated into Insomniac, and the browser version of Outernauts was canceled. The EA Partners game was revealed at [Entertainment Expo 2011](Electronic)(Electronic Entertainment Expo 2011) as Overstrike. This game was pitched by Ratchet & Clank director Brian Allgeier and it has a direction similar to that of the Ratchet & Clank series. The team thought Overstrike would appeal to teenagers. After several play-testing sessions, they realized their game was too simple for their target group. The company developed many weapons for the game, none of which related to the game's story. The developers retooled the game and changed it to attract older players and make weapons an important part of the game. The game focuses on a co-operative campaign, which the company thought was a popular trend at that time. It was renamed [Fuse](Fuse (video game)) and was released worldwide in May 2013. Fuse was one of the lowest-rated games developed by Insomniac, and was another commercial failure, debuting in 37th place in the UK in its first week of release. Fuse was considered a learning lesson for Insomniac to understand the type of game they are good at making. The reception to Fuse showed the company it should develop "colorful, playful experiences that's loaded with unusual, sometimes silly weapons". Also in 2013, the Ratchet & Clank Future game, [& Clank: Into the Nexus](Ratchet)(Ratchet & Clank: Into the Nexus), was released. Running parallel development with Fuse, and beginning soon after the completion of Resistance 3, Insomniac Games began development on [Overdrive](Sunset)(Sunset Overdrive). The game was inspired by Hyena Men of Kenya, [Girl](Tank)(Tank Girl), [Am Legend](I)(I Am Legend (film)), [Young Ones](The)(The Young Ones (TV series)), Halloween masks from the 1960s, and [Lego](Lego). Sunset Overdrive was created by Marcus Smith and Drew Murray; their first pitch to Insomniac's head was rejected as being too confusing. They were given one week to re-pitch the title, and they persuaded studio heads to begin the game's development. The game was later pitched to various publishers, which rejected them because Insomniac demanded to retain ownership of the intellectual property. The project was later pitched to Microsoft Studios, which was eager to work with Insomniac. Microsoft allowed Insomniac to own the rights to the game. Sunset Overdrive was made for Microsoft's [One](Xbox)(Xbox One) console; it was released on the 20th anniversary of Insomniac, in 2014. Insomniac announced Slow Down, Bull, a part-commercial and part-charity project for release on [Windows](Microsoft)(Microsoft Windows); it is the company's first game for Windows. Insomniac released a remake of [& Clank](Ratchet)(Ratchet & Clank (2016 video game)) for the [4](PlayStation)(PlayStation 4) in 2016. In January 2016, Insomniac announced their next game, [of the Deep](Song)(Song of the Deep), a water-based video game inspired by [Metroid](Metroid) and [Symphony of the Night](Castlevania:)(Castlevania: Symphony of the Night). The game was published by retailer [GameStop](GameStop). During [2015](E3)(E3 2015), the company announced [of Nowhere](Edge)(Edge of Nowhere), a third-person [game](action-adventure)(action-adventure game) for the [reality](virtual)(virtual reality) hardware [Rift](Oculus)(Oculus Rift). In April 2016, the company announced two new virtual reality titles: Feral Rites, a [and slash](hack)(hack and slash) game, and The Unspoken, a fantasy multiplayer game, for the Oculus Rift. According to Price, the company began focusing on virtual reality projects as the team is enthusiastic about the technology, and that it allows the company to develop an expertise in creating VR games. The studio signed an exclusive deal with [VR](Oculus)(Oculus VR) as Insomniac believed that both companies shared the same passion to "[bring] games to life", and that they allowed Insomniac to retain the rights of their intellectual properties. Price compared the agreement to their previous first-party deals, and added that having the opportunity to develop games for the first generation of VR platforms is something the team could not reject. Despite the new direction, Price added that they will not give up on making console AAA video games. At [2016](E3)(E3 2016), Insomniac announced their next AAA title, ''[Spider-Man](Marvel's)(Spider-Man (2018 video game)), developed for the [4](PlayStation)(PlayStation 4) in conjunction with [Entertainment](Marvel)(Marvel Entertainment). Bryan Intihar, producer of [Overdrive](Sunset)(Sunset Overdrive)'', was the game's creative director. [[Games logo from 2002 until 2017](File:Insomniac.png\|thumb\|right\|175px\|Insomniac)] In September 2017, Insomniac Games revealed its new brand logo, which replaced the moon image standing in for the "O" with a more stylized iconograph. The company said that part of their rebranding was to "think beyond the moon". Insomniac chief brand officer Ryan Schneider said part of the rebranding was to prevent the studio being pigeonholed; while the moon-based logo had well-represented the company for its Spyro and Ratchet & Clank cartoon-like games, it did not reflect well on the expanded directions they had moved in recent years, such as the Spider-Man game. Schneider said that along with the brand change, the company plans to be engaging with players, offering live-streaming of their work, and re-establishing a new identity, without completely eschewing their past. Schneider said they effectively "blew up the moon" to establish this new direction. ### Sony acquisition (2019–present) In August 2019, Sony announced a definitive agreement to acquire Insomniac as one of its first-party developers. This would make Insomniac the 14th internal studio with Sony's [Worldwide Studios](SIE)(SIE Worldwide Studios) division. Sony's Shawn Layden stated they had been evaluating the option of acquiring Insomniac for some time, and the success of their Spider-Man game contributed significantly towards this end, demonstrating that Insomniac was an "impact maker" and a "style-setter". Layden believed that Insomniac's working relationship with Sony would not change significantly in the acquisition, leaving the studio in its own creative control, but would allow Insomniac to have closer access to other innovative technologies throughout SIE Worldwide Studios. The acquisition, for which Sony paid (equivalent to ), was completed on November 15, 2019. At the [5](PlayStation)(PlayStation 5) reveal event on June 11, 2020, Insomniac announced two new games: ''[Spider-Man: Miles Morales](Marvel's)(Spider-Man: Miles Morales), a spin-off to Marvel's Spider-Man, and [& Clank: Rift Apart](Ratchet)(Ratchet & Clank: Rift Apart). The former was a launch title for the PS5, releasing alongside a remaster of the original Marvel's Spider-Man* for the console. The latter released on June 11, 2021, exclusively for the PS5. On September 9, 2021, at the PlayStation showcase event, a sequel to Marvel's Spider Man entitled [Spider-Man 2](Marvel's)(Spider-Man 2 (2023 video game)) was announced due to be released in 2023 for the PlayStation 5. In addition, a standalone game, [Wolverine](Marvel's)(Wolverine (upcoming video game))'', was announced for the PlayStation 5. ## Games developed ### Spyro* (1998–2000) Insomniac is the creator of the Spyro series and developed the first three games, [the Dragon](Spyro)(Spyro the Dragon) (1998), [Rage!](Ripto's)(Spyro 2: Ripto's Rage!) (1999) and [of the Dragon](Year)(Spyro: Year of the Dragon) (2000) for the first [PlayStation](PlayStation (console)) console. It is a series of platform games that follow Spyro the Dragon as he progresses through a medieval-styled world. The dragon can glide, charge and exhale fire. The original trilogy has collectively sold 8,000,000 copies. The series continued after Insomniac ceased developing further Spyro games. [Studios](Universal)(Universal Studios) outsourced the game development via [Interactive](Universal)(Universal Interactive); two subseries, [Legend of Spyro](The)(The Legend of Spyro) and [Skylanders](Skylanders), were then developed. [Blizzard](Activision)(Activision Blizzard) is now the owner of the franchise. ### Ratchet & Clank (2002–present) Ratchet & Clank is a series of action-adventure games with platform elements. Players mostly take control of Ratchet as he progresses through various planets in order to save the galaxy. Clank is playable in several segments of these games. The series is divided into two parts; the original series for the [2](PlayStation)(PlayStation 2) ([& Clank](Ratchet)(Ratchet & Clank (2002 video game)) (2002), [Commando](Going)(Ratchet & Clank: Going Commando) (2003), [Your Arsenal](Up)(Ratchet & Clank: Up Your Arsenal) (2004) and [Deadlocked](Ratchet:)(Ratchet: Deadlocked) (2005) and the Future series for the [3](PlayStation)(PlayStation 3) ([of Destruction](Tools)(Ratchet & Clank Future: Tools of Destruction) (2007), [for Booty](Quest)(Ratchet & Clank Future: Quest for Booty) (2008), [Crack in Time](A)(Ratchet & Clank Future: A Crack in Time) (2009) and [the Nexus](Into)(Ratchet & Clank: Into the Nexus) (2013). The first three titles in the series were remastered and packaged in the [& Clank Collection](Ratchet)(Ratchet & Clank Collection) for the PlayStation 3 and [Vita](PlayStation)(PlayStation Vita), with [& Clank](Ratchet)(Ratchet & Clank (2016 video game)) (2016) being the latest release on the [4](PlayStation)(PlayStation 4). A [& Clank* animated film](Ratchet)(Ratchet & Clank (film)), with screenplay and additional marketing by Insomniac, was released in 2016 as well, to coincide with the release of the video game remake. After the announcement that Sony acquired Insomniac Games, [Worldwide Studios](SIE)(SIE Worldwide Studios) boss [Layden](Shawn)(Shawn Layden) stated that the Ratchet & Clank* series will be a vital series for them in the future. The next game in development, [& Clank: Rift Apart](Ratchet)(Ratchet & Clank: Rift Apart), was first revealed at the PS5 Future of Gaming event on June 11, 2020 as a [5](PlayStation)(PlayStation 5) exclusive, and the game was released on June 11, 2021. ### Resistance (2006–2011) Resistance is a series of first-person shooter games set circa 1950 in an [history](alternate)(alternate history). An alien race called the Chimera have invaded and conquered Earth, and has turned humans into monstrous supersoldiers. Players play as Nathan Hale in [Fall of Man](Resistance:)(Resistance: Fall of Man) (2006) and [2](Resistance)(Resistance 2) (2008), and as Joseph Capelli in [3](Resistance)(Resistance 3) (2011). All three games were released for the PlayStation 3 system. The series includes the handheld games [Retribution](Resistance:)(Resistance: Retribution), developed by [Studio](Bend)(Bend Studio) for the [Portable](PlayStation)(PlayStation Portable), and [Burning Skies](Resistance:)(Resistance: Burning Skies), developed by [Software](Nihilistic)(nStigate Games) for the PlayStation Vita. ### Marvel's Spider-Man game series (2018–present) Marvel's Spider-Man is a series of action-adventure games based on the comic book superhero [Spider-Man](Spider-Man). Players play as [Parker](Peter)(Peter Parker (Insomniac Games character)) in Marvel's Spider-Man (2018), and as Miles Morales in Marvel's Spider-Man: Miles Morales (2020). The studio released [Spider-Man](Marvel's)(Spider-Man (2018 video game))'' for the PlayStation 4 on September 7, 2018. The game received widespread positive acclaim from various critics. Since its release, the game has sold over 9 million physical and digital units worldwide by November 2018, increasing to 13.2 million copies by August 2019, making it one of the [PlayStation 4 games](best-selling)(best-selling PlayStation 4 games). The game was remastered for the Ultimate Edition of Spider-Man: Miles Morales* as [Remastered](Spider-Man)(Spider-Man (2018 video game)#Spider-Man Remastered) for the PlayStation 5 in November 2020. The remaster was also released as a standalone title for [Windows](Microsoft)(Microsoft Windows) on August 12, 2022. A standalone [spin-off](Spin-off (media)) title in the series, ''[Spider-Man: Miles Morales](Marvel's)(Spider-Man: Miles Morales)'' was first revealed at the 2020 PS5 Future of Gaming event on June 11, 2020. The title released for PlayStation 4 and [5](PlayStation)(PlayStation 5). It was released starting November 12, 2020 alongside the release of the PlayStation 5. It was released for [Windows](Microsoft)(Microsoft Windows) in fall 2022. In September 2021, Insomniac announced a full sequel to ''Marvel's Spider-Man* titled [Spider-Man 2](Marvel's)(Spider-Man 2 (2023 video game)) (2023), and [Wolverine](Marvel's)(Wolverine (upcoming video game))'', a standalone game set in the same universe and based on the Marvel Comics [of the same name](character)(Wolverine (character)), both for PlayStation 5. ### Other games Other notable games developed by Insomniac include [Disruptor](Disruptor (video game))* (1996), [Outernauts](Outernauts) (2012), [Fuse](Fuse (video game)) (2013) and [Overdrive](Sunset)(Sunset Overdrive) (2014). The company has canceled several games, including Monster Knight, Girl with a Stick for the PlayStation 2, and 1080 Pinball — a [pinball](pinball) simulation downloadable game — which began development in 2007. Insomniac developed a game for [Rift](Oculus)(Oculus Rift), named [of Nowhere](Edge)(Edge of Nowhere), which was released on June 6, 2016. ## Related companies The company has a close relationship with video game developer [Dog](Naughty)(Naughty Dog) and they often share technology with each other. Some employees left Insomniac Games to form [Impact Games](High)(High Impact Games), which later collaborated with Insomniac on Ratchet & Clank projects and [and Daxter: The Lost Frontier](Jak)(Jak and Daxter: The Lost Frontier). Nathan Fouts, an ex-Insomniac employee, founded his own studio and developed [of Choice](Weapon)(Weapon of Choice (video game)). [HuniePop](HuniePop) was designed by Ryan Koons, who used to be an employee of Insomniac. ## Accolades [IGN](IGN) named Insomniac Games the 20th best video game developer of all time. The [for Human Resource Management](Society)(Society for Human Resource Management) called it one of the best places to work in America. It was listed in 2016 by [Fortune](Fortune (magazine)) as the 69th best place to work for Millennials. ## References ## External links * [ ](Category:Insomniac Games) [establishments in North Carolina](Category:1994)(Category:1994 establishments in North Carolina) [mergers and acquisitions](Category:2019)(Category:2019 mergers and acquisitions) [companies established in 1994](Category:American)(Category:American companies established in 1994) [based in Burbank, California](Category:Companies)(Category:Companies based in Burbank, California) [video game developers](Category:First-party)(Category:First-party video game developers) [Studios](Category:PlayStation)(Category:PlayStation Studios) [game companies based in California](Category:Video)(Category:Video game companies based in California) [game companies established in 1994](Category:Video)(Category:Video game companies established in 1994) [game development companies](Category:Video)(Category:Video game development companies)
Hawaiian Islands	hawaiian_islands	# Hawaiian Islands Revision ID: 1160184399 \| Timestamp: 2023-06-14T22:25:48Z --- \|native_name_link = Hawaiian language \|native_name_lang = haw \|image = Hawaje-NoRedLine.jpg \|image_size = 260px \|image_caption = The [Islands](Windward)(#Major islands) of Hawaii \|map_image = Hawaiianislandchain USGS.png \|coordinates = \|location = [Pacific Ocean](North)(Pacific Ocean) \|total_islands = 137 \|highest_mount = }} \|country = United States \|country_admin_divisions_title = State \|country_admin_divisions = [Hawaii](Hawaii) \|country_largest_city = [Honolulu](Honolulu) \|country_admin_divisions_title_1=Unincorporated territory\|country_admin_divisions_1=[Atoll](Midway)(Midway Atoll)}} The Hawaiian Islands ([Hawaiian](Hawaiian language): Nā Moku o Hawai‘i) are an [archipelago](archipelago) of eight major [island](volcanic)(volcanic island)s, several [atoll](atoll)s, and numerous smaller [islet](islet)s in the [Pacific Ocean](North)(Pacific Ocean), extending some from the [of Hawaii](island)(Hawaii (island)) in the south to northernmost [Atoll](Kure)(Kure Atoll). Formerly the group was known to Europeans and Americans as the Sandwich Islands, a name that [Cook](James)(James Cook) chose in honor of the [Earl of Sandwich](4th)(John Montagu, 4th Earl of Sandwich), the then [Lord of the Admiralty](First)(First Lord of the Admiralty). Cook came across the islands by chance when crossing the Pacific Ocean on his [Voyage](Third)(Third voyage of James Cook) in 1778, on board [Resolution](HMS)(HMS Resolution (1771)); he was later killed on the islands on a return visit. The contemporary name of the islands, dating from the 1840s, is derived from the name of the largest island, [Island](Hawaii)(Hawaii (island)). Hawaii sits on the [Plate](Pacific)(Pacific Plate) and is the only [state](U.S.)(U.S. state) that is not geographically connected to North America. It is part of the [Polynesia](Polynesia) subregion of [Oceania](Oceania). The state of [Hawaii](Hawaii) occupies the [archipelago](archipelago) almost in its entirety (including the mostly uninhabited [Hawaiian Islands](Northwestern)(Northwestern Hawaiian Islands)), with the sole exception of [Atoll](Midway)(Midway Atoll), which also belongs to the United States, as one of its [territories](unincorporated)(Unincorporated territories of the United States) within the [States Minor Outlying Islands](United)(United States Minor Outlying Islands). Hawaii is the exposed peaks of a great undersea mountain range known as the [seamount chain](Hawaiian–Emperor)(Hawaiian–Emperor seamount chain), formed by [activity](volcanic)(volcano) over a [hotspot](Hotspot (geology)) in the [mantle](Earth's)(Earth's mantle). The islands are about from the nearest continent. ## Islands and reefs The date of the first settlements of the Hawaiian Islands is a topic of continuing debate. \|year=2010 \|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media\| isbn=978-90-481-3826-5 \|page=167}} [Archaeological](Archaeology) evidence seems to indicate a settlement as early as 124 AD.\|date=1986\|publisher=Columbia University Press\|isbn=978-0-231-05316-7\|page=3}} [Captain](Captain (Royal Navy)) [Cook](James)(James Cook), [RN](Royal Navy), visited the islands on January 18, 1778, and named them the "Sandwich Islands" in honor of [4th Earl of Sandwich](The)(John Montagu, 4th Earl of Sandwich), who as the [Lord of the Admiralty](First)(First Lord of the Admiralty) was one of his sponsors. This name was in use until the 1840s, when the local name "Hawaii" gradually began to take precedence. The Hawaiian Islands have a total land area of . Except for Midway, which is an [territory](unincorporated)(unincorporated territory) of the United States, these islands and islets are administered as [Hawaii](Hawaii)—the 50th state of the [States](United)(United States). ### Major islands The eight major islands of Hawaii (Windward Islands) are listed above. All except Kaho'olawe are inhabited. ### Minor islands, islets [[Hawaiian Island chain.jpg\|thumb\|Hawaiian Islands from space.](File:ISS-38)] [[File:2003-3d-hawaiian-islands-usgs-i2809.jpg\|thumb\|right\|upright=1.35\|3-D perspective view of the southeastern Hawaiian Islands, with the white summits of [Loa](Mauna)(Mauna Loa) ( high) and [Kea](Mauna)(Mauna Kea) ( high). The islands are the tops of massive volcanoes, the bulk of which lie below the sea surface. Ocean depths are colored from violet ( deep northeast of [Maui](Maui)) and indigo to light gray (shallowest). Historical lava flows are shown in red, erupting from the summits and rift zones of Mauna Loa, [Kilauea](Kilauea), and [Hualalai](Hualalai) volcanoes on [Hawaii](Hawaii).]] The state of Hawaii counts 137 "islands" in the Hawaiian chain. This number includes all minor islands (small islands), [islet](islet)s (even smaller islands) offshore of the major islands (listed above) and individual islets in each atoll. These are just a few: * [Kaʻula](Kaʻula) * [Kāohikaipu](Kāohikaipu) * [Lehua](Lehua) * [Mānana](Mānana) * [Rock](Mōkōlea)(Mokolea Rock) * [Mokolii](Mokolii) * [Manu](Moku)(Moku Manu) * [Mokuauia](Goat Island (Hawaii)) * [o Loʻe](Moku)(Coconut Island (Oahu Island)) * [Ola](Moku)(Coconut Island (Hawaii Island)) * [Mokuʻumeʻume](Ford Island) * [Molokini](Molokini) * [Mokulua](Nā)(Nā Mokulua) ### Partial islands, atolls, reefs [[File:NASA Hawaiian Islands full quality.png\|thumb\|right\|upright=1.35\|A composite satellite image from [NASA](NASA) of the Hawaiian Islands taken from [space](outer)(outer space). Click on the image for a larger view that shows the main islands and the extended [archipelago](archipelago).]] Partial islands, atolls, reefs (west of Niihau are [uninhabited](Uninhabited island) except Midway Atoll) form the [Hawaiian Islands](Northwestern)(Northwestern Hawaiian Islands) (Leeward Islands): * [Nihoa](Nihoa) (Mokumana) * [Necker](Necker Island (Northwestern Hawaiian Islands)) (Mokumanamana) * [Frigate Shoals](French)(French Frigate Shoals) (Kānemilohai) * [Pinnacles](Gardner)(Gardner Pinnacles) (Pūhāhonu) * [Reef](Maro)(Maro Reef) (Nalukākala) * [Laysan](Laysan) (Kauō) * [Island](Lisianski)(Lisianski Island) (Papaāpoho) * [and Hermes Atoll](Pearl)(Pearl and Hermes Atoll) (Holoikauaua) * [Atoll](Midway)(Midway Atoll) (Pihemanu) * [Atoll](Kure)(Kure Atoll) (Mokupāpapa) ## Geology [[File:Hawaii hotspot.jpg\|thumb\|upright=1.2\|Eruptions from the [hotspot](Hawaii)(Hawaii hotspot) left a trail of underwater mountains across the Pacific over millions of years, called the [Seamounts](Emperor)(Emperor Seamounts).]] This chain of islands, or [archipelago](archipelago), developed as the [Plate](Pacific)(Pacific Plate) slowly moved northwestward over a [hotspot](hotspot (geology)) in the [mantle](Earth's)(Earth's mantle) at a rate of approximately per million years. Thus, the southeast island is volcanically active, whereas the islands on the northwest end of the archipelago are older and typically smaller, due to longer exposure to [erosion](erosion). The age of the archipelago has been estimated using potassium-argon dating methods. From this study and others, it is estimated that the northwesternmost island, [Atoll](Kure)(Kure Atoll), is the oldest at approximately 28 million years (Ma); while the southeasternmost island, [Hawaii](Hawaii (island)), is approximately 0.4 Ma (400,000 years). The only active volcanism in the last 200 years has been on the southeastern island, Hawaii, and on the submerged but growing volcano to the extreme southeast, [Kamaʻehuakanaloa](Kamaʻehuakanaloa Seamount) (formerly Loihi). The [Volcano Observatory](Hawaiian)(Hawaiian Volcano Observatory) of the [USGS](United States Geological Survey) documents recent volcanic activity and provides images and interpretations of the volcanism. [Kīlauea](Kīlauea) had been erupting nearly continuously since 1983 when it stopped August 2018. Almost all of the [magma](magma) of the hotspot has the composition of [basalt](basalt), and so the Hawaiian volcanoes are composed almost entirely of this igneous rock. There is very little coarser-grained [gabbro](gabbro) and [diabase](diabase). [Nephelinite](Nephelinite) is exposed on the islands but is extremely rare. The majority of eruptions in Hawaii are [eruptions](Hawaiian-type)(Hawaiian eruption) because basaltic magma is relatively fluid compared with magmas typically involved in more explosive eruptions, such as the andesitic magmas that produce some of the spectacular and dangerous eruptions around the margins of the Pacific basin. Hawaii island (the Big Island) is the biggest and youngest island in the chain, built from five volcanoes. [Loa](Mauna)(Mauna Loa), taking up over half of the Big Island, is the largest [volcano](shield)(shield volcano) on the Earth. The measurement from sea level to summit is more than , from sea level to sea floor about . ### Earthquakes The Hawaiian Islands have many [earthquake](earthquake)s, generally caused by volcanic activity. Most of the early earthquake monitoring took place in [Hilo](Hilo, Hawaii), by missionaries [Coan](Titus)(Titus Coan), Sarah J. Lyman and her family. Between 1833 and 1896, approximately 4 or 5 earthquakes were reported per year. Hawaii accounted for 7.3% of the United States' reported earthquakes with a [magnitude](Richter magnitude scale) 3.5 or greater from 1974 to 2003, with a total 1533 earthquakes. Hawaii ranked as the state with the third most earthquakes over this time period, after [Alaska](Alaska) and [California](California). [October 15, 2006, there was an earthquake](On)(2006 Kiholo Bay earthquake) with a magnitude of 6.7 off the northwest coast of the island of Hawaii, near the [Kona](Kona District, Hawaii) area of the big island. The initial earthquake was followed approximately five minutes later by a magnitude 5.7 [aftershock](aftershock). Minor-to-moderate damage was reported on most of the Big Island. Several major roadways became impassable from rock slides, and effects were felt as far away as [Honolulu](Honolulu), Oahu, nearly from the [epicenter](epicenter). Power outages lasted for several hours to days. Several water mains ruptured. No deaths or life-threatening injuries were reported. On May 4, 2018, there was a 6.9 earthquake in the zone of volcanic activity from [Kīlauea](Kīlauea). Earthquakes are monitored by the [Volcano Observatory](Hawaiian)(Hawaiian Volcano Observatory) run by the [USGS](United States Geological Survey). ### Tsunamis [[File:1960-Chilean-tsunami-Hilo-HI-USGS.jpg\|thumb\|right\|Aftermath of the [Chilean tsunami](1960)(1960 Valdivia earthquake) in [Hilo](Hilo), Hawaii, where the tsunami left 61 people dead and 282 seriously injured. The waves reached high.]] The Hawaiian Islands are subject to [tsunami](tsunami)s, great [wave](wave)s that strike the shore. Tsunamis are most often caused by [earthquake](earthquake)s somewhere in the Pacific. The waves produced by the earthquakes travel at speeds of and can affect coastal regions thousands of miles (kilometers) away. Tsunamis may also originate from the Hawaiian Islands. Explosive volcanic activity can cause tsunamis. The island of [Molokai](Molokai) had a catastrophic collapse or [avalanche](debris)(debris avalanche) over a million years ago; this underwater landslide likely caused tsunamis. The [Slump](Hilina)(Hilina Slump) on the [of Hawaii](island)(Hawaii (island)) is another potential place for a large landslide and resulting tsunami. The city of [Hilo](Hilo, Hawaii) on the Big Island has been most affected by tsunamis, where the in-rushing water is accentuated by the shape of [Bay](Hilo)(Hilo Bay). Coastal cities have tsunami warning sirens. A tsunami resulting from an [in Chile](earthquake)(2010 Chile earthquake) hit the islands on February 27, 2010. It was relatively minor, but local emergency management officials utilized the latest technology and ordered evacuations in preparation for a possible major event. The Governor declared it a "good drill" for the next major event. A tsunami resulting from an [in Japan](earthquake)(2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami) hit the islands on March 11, 2011. It was relatively minor, but local officials ordered evacuations in preparation for a possible major event. The tsunami caused about $30.1 million in damages. ### Volcanos [[From Kilauea Volcano.webp\|thumb\| Lava erupting from Kīlauea, one of six active volcanoes in the Hawaiian islands. Kīlauea is the most active, erupting nearly continuously from 1983 to 2018.](File:Lava)] Only the two Hawaiian islands furthest to the southeast have active volcanoes: [Haleakalā](Haleakalā) on Maui, and [Loa](Mauna)(Mauna Loa), [Kea](Mauna)(Mauna Kea), [Kilauea](Kīlauea), and [Hualalai](Hualālai), all on the Big Island. The volcanoes on the remaining islands are extinct as they are no longer over the Hawaii hotspot. The [Seamount](Kamaʻehuakanaloa)(Kamaʻehuakanaloa Seamount) is an active submarine volcano that is expected to become the newest Hawaiian island when it rises above the ocean's surface in 10,000-100,000 years.https://www.usgs.gov/observatories/hvo/active-volcanoes-hawaii Hazards from these volcanoes include lava flows that can destroy and bury the surrounding surface, volcanic gas emissions, earthquakes and tsunamis listed above, submarine eruptions affecting the ocean, and the possibility of an explosive eruption.https://www.usgs.gov/observatories/hvo/hazards ## History ## Ecology The islands are home to a multitude of [endemic](endemism) species. Since human settlement, first by [Polynesians](Polynesians), non native trees, plants, and animals were introduced. These included species such as rats and pigs, that have preyed on native birds and invertebrates that initially evolved in the absence of such predators. The growing population of humans has also led to deforestation, [degradation](forest)(forest degradation), treeless grasslands, and [degradation](environmental)(environmental degradation). As a result, many species which depended on forest habitats and food became extinct—with many current species facing extinction. As humans cleared land for farming, [crop production](monocultural)(Monoculture) replaced [systems](multi-species)(Polyculture). [[Creeper.jpg\|thumb\|'I'iwi (Drepanis coccinea) and other endemic species have been heavily impacted by human activity, such as invasive species and habitat loss.](File:Molokai)] The arrival of the [Europeans](Ethnic groups in Europe) had a more significant impact, with the promotion of large-scale single-species export agriculture and livestock grazing. This led to increased clearing of forests, and the development of towns, adding many more species to the [of extinct animals of the Hawaiian Islands](list)(list of extinct animals of the Hawaiian Islands). , many of the remaining endemic species are considered endangered. ## National Monument On June 15, 2006, President [W. Bush](George)(George W. Bush) issued a public proclamation creating [Marine National Monument](Papahānaumokuākea)(Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument) under the [Act](Antiquities)(Antiquities Act) of 1906. The Monument encompasses the northwestern Hawaiian Islands and surrounding waters, forming the largest marine wildlife reserve in the world. In August 2010, [UNESCO](UNESCO)'s [Heritage Committee](World)(World Heritage Committee) added Papahānaumokuākea to its [list](List of World Heritage Sites in Oceania) of [Heritage Site](World)(World Heritage Site)s. On August 26, 2016, President [Obama](Barack)(Barack Obama) greatly expanded Papahānaumokuākea, quadrupling it from its original size. ## Climate The Hawaiian Islands are [tropical](Tropical climate) but experience many different climates, depending on altitude and surroundings. The islands receive most rainfall from the [wind](trade)(trade wind)s on their north and east flanks (the windward side) as a result of [precipitation](orographic)(orographic precipitation). Coastal areas in general and especially the south and west flanks, or [leeward](Windward and leeward) sides, tend to be drier. In general, the lowlands of Hawaiian Islands receive most of their precipitation during the winter months (October to April). Drier conditions generally prevail from May to September. The [storm](tropical)(tropical storm)s, and occasional [hurricane](hurricane)s, tend to occur from July through November. During the summer months the average temperature is about 84 °F (29 °C), in the winter months it is approximately 79 °F (26 °C). As the temperature is relatively constant over the year the probability of dangerous thunderstorms is approximately low. ## See also * [Inter-Island Cable System](Hawaii)(Hawaii Inter-Island Cable System) * [of Hawaii-related articles](Index)(Index of Hawaii-related articles) * [of birds of Hawaii](List)(List of birds of Hawaii) * [of fish of Hawaii](List)(List of fish of Hawaii) * [of mountain peaks of Hawaii](List)(List of mountain peaks of Hawaii) * [of Ultras of Hawaii](List)(List of Ultras of Hawaii) * [fur trade](Maritime)(Maritime fur trade) * [of Hawaii](Outline)(Outline of Hawaii) ## References ## Further reading * * [An integrated information website focused on the Hawaiian Archipelago](http://apdrc.soest.hawaii.edu/Hawaii) from the [Pacific Region Integrated Data Enterprise (PRIDE)](http://apdrc.soest.hawaii.edu/PRIDE/). * *1970 edition: [The Ocean Atlas of Hawai‘i](http://radlab.soest.hawaii.edu/atlas/) – SOEST at University of Hawaii. * [Volcano World ; Your World is Erupting](http://volcano.oregonstate.edu) – [State University College of Science](Oregon)(Oregon State University College of Science) [ ](Category:Islands of Hawaii) [of the Pacific Ocean](Category:Archipelagoes)(Category:Archipelagoes of the Pacific Ocean) [of Oceania](Category:Archipelagoes)(Category:Archipelagoes of Oceania) [of the United States](Category:Archipelagoes)(Category:Archipelagoes of the United States) [regions](Category:Divided)(Category:Divided regions) [of Polynesia](Category:Geography)(Category:Geography of Polynesia) [Islands](Category:Geology of Hawaii) [Bay Company trading posts](Category:Hudson's)(Category:Hudson's Bay Company trading posts) [oceanography](Category:Physical)(Category:Physical oceanography) [Indo-Pacific](Category:Eastern)(Category:Eastern Indo-Pacific) [ecoregions](Category:Marine)(Category:Marine ecoregions)
Cyrillic script	cyrillic_script	# Cyrillic script Revision ID: 1160182665 \| Timestamp: 2023-06-14T22:09:45Z --- Auty, R. Handbook of Old Church Slavonic, Part II: Texts and Glossary. 1977. – \| languages = See [using Cyrillic](Languages)(Cyrillic alphabets) \| official script = \| \| \| \| \| \| }} Co-official script in: \| \| \| \| \| \| }} \| states = \| footnotes = Names: , , , , , \| fam1 = [hieroglyphs](Egyptian)(Egyptian hieroglyphs)[Oldest alphabet found in Egypt](http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/521235.stm). BBC. 1999-11-15. Retrieved 2015-01-14. \| fam2 = [Proto-Sinaitic](Proto-Sinaitic) \| fam3 = [Phoenician](Phoenician alphabet) \| fam4 = [script](Greek)(Greek script) augmented by [Glagolitic](Glagolitic script) \| fam5 = [Cyrillic script](Early)(Early Cyrillic script) \| sisters = \| children = [Permic script](Old)(Old Permic script) \| unicode = \|[U+0500–U+052F](https://www.unicode.org/charts/PDF/U0500.pdf) \|[U+2DE0–U+2DFF](https://www.unicode.org/charts/PDF/U2DE0.pdf) \|[U+A640–U+A69F](https://www.unicode.org/charts/PDF/UA640.pdf) \|[U+1C80–U+1C8F](https://www.unicode.org/charts/PDF/U1C80.pdf) \|[U+1E030–U+1E08F](https://www.unicode.org/charts/PDF/U1E030.pdf) }} \| iso15924 = Cyrl \| iso15924 note = Cyrs ([Church Slavonic](Old)(Old Church Slavonic) variant) \| sample = LordsPrayerRomanianCyr.svg \| caption = 1780s Romanian text (Lord's Prayer), written with the Cyrillic script }} The Cyrillic script ( ), Slavonic script or the Slavic script, is a [system](writing)(writing system) used for various languages across [Eurasia](Eurasia). It is the designated national script in various [Slavic](Slavic languages), [Turkic](Turkic languages), [Mongolic](Mongolic languages), [Uralic](Uralic languages), [Caucasian](Caucasian languages) and [Iranic](Iranian languages)-speaking countries in [Europe](Southeastern)(Southeastern Europe), [Europe](Eastern)(Eastern Europe), the [Caucasus](Caucasus), [Asia](Central)(Central Asia), [Asia](North)(North Asia), and [Asia](East)(East Asia), and used by many other minority languages. , around 250 million people in Eurasia use Cyrillic as the official script for their national languages, with [Russia](Russia) accounting for about half of them.[of countries by population](List)(List of countries by population) With the [of Bulgaria to the European Union](accession)(accession of Bulgaria to the European Union) on 1 January 2007, Cyrillic became the third official script of the [Union](European)(European Union), following the [Latin](Latin script) and [Greek](Greek alphabet) alphabets. The [Cyrillic alphabet](Early)(Early Cyrillic alphabet) was developed during the 9th century AD at the [Literary School](Preslav)(Preslav Literary School) in the [Bulgarian Empire](First)(First Bulgarian Empire) during the reign of [Tsar](Tsar) [I the Great](Simeon)(Simeon I of Bulgaria), probably by disciples of the two [Byzantine](Byzantine) brothersColumbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. 2001–05, s.v. "Cyril and Methodius, Saints"; Encyclopædia Britannica, Encyclopædia Britannica Incorporated, Warren E. Preece – 1972, p. 846, s.v., "Cyril and Methodius, Saints" and "Eastern Orthodoxy, Missions ancient and modern"; Encyclopedia of World Cultures, David H. Levinson, 1991, p. 239, s.v., "Social Science"; Eric M. Meyers, The Oxford Encyclopedia of Archaeology in the Near East, p. 151, 1997; Lunt, Slavic Review, June 1964, p. 216; Roman Jakobson, Crucial problems of Cyrillo-Methodian Studies; Leonid Ivan Strakhovsky, A Handbook of Slavic Studies, p. 98; V. Bogdanovich, History of the ancient Serbian literature, Belgrade, 1980, p. 119 [Cyril and Saint Methodius](Saint)(Saints Cyril and Methodius), who had previously created the [script](Glagolitic)(Glagolitic script). The script is named in honor of [Cyril](Saint)(Cyril the Philosopher). ## Etymology [[File:Cyrillic monument.jpg\|thumb\|165px\|Cyrillic Script Monument in [Antarctica](Antarctica)]] Since the script was conceived and popularised by the followers of [and Methodius](Cyril)(Cyril and Methodius), rather than by Cyril and Methodius themselves, its name denotes homage rather than authorship. The name "Cyrillic" often confuses people who are not familiar with the script's history, because it does not identify a country of origin (in contrast to the "Greek alphabet"). Among the general public, it is often called "the Russian alphabet," because Russian is the most popular and influential alphabet based on the script. Some Bulgarian intellectuals, notably [Tsanev](Stefan)(Stefan Tsanev), have expressed concern over this, and have suggested that the Cyrillic script be called the "Bulgarian alphabet" instead, for the sake of historical accuracy.Tsanev, Stefan. Български хроники, том 4 (Bulgarian Chronicles, Volume 4), Sofia, 2009, p. 165 In Bulgarian, Macedonian, Russian, Serbian, Czech and Slovak, the Cyrillic alphabet is also known as azbuka, derived from the old names of the first two letters of most Cyrillic alphabets (just as the term alphabet came from the first two Greek letters alpha and beta). In Czech and Slovak, which have never used Cyrillic, "azbuka" refers to Cyrillic and contrasts with "abeceda", which refers to the local Latin script and is composed of the names of the first letters (A, B, C, and D). In Russian, [syllabaries](Syllabary), especially the Japanese [kana](kana), are commonly referred to as 'syllabic azbukas' rather than 'syllabic scripts'. ## History [[File:Krepchanski_manastir.jpg\|thumb\|left\|View of the cave monastery near the village of [Krepcha](Krepcha), [Municipality](Opaka)(Opaka Municipality) in Bulgaria. Here is found the oldest Cyrillic inscription, dated 921.Провежда се международна конференция в гр. Опака за св. Антоний от Крепчанския манастир. [Добротолюбие - Център за християнски, църковно-исторически и богословски изследвания, 15.10.2021.](https://dobrotoliubie.com/2021/10/15/провежда-се-международна-конференци/)]] [[File:Azbuka 1574 by Ivan Fyodorov.png\|thumb\|left\|A page from Буквар (ABC (Reader)), the first Old Slavonic textbook, printed by [Fyodorov](Ivan)(Ivan Fedorov (printer)) in 1574 in Lviv. This page features the Cyrillic alphabet.]] The Cyrillic script was created during the [Bulgarian Empire](First)(First Bulgarian Empire).Paul Cubberley (1996) "The Slavic Alphabets". In Daniels and Bright, eds. ''The World's Writing Systems.* Oxford University Press. . Modern scholars believe that the [Cyrillic alphabet](Early)(Early Cyrillic alphabet) was created at the [Literary School](Preslav)(Preslav Literary School), the most important early literary and cultural center of the First Bulgarian Empire and of all [Slavs](Slavs): Unlike the Churchmen in Ohrid, Preslav scholars were much more dependent upon Greek models and quickly abandoned the [script](Glagolitic)(Glagolitic script)s in favor of an adaptation of the Greek uncial to the needs of Slavic, which is now known as the Cyrillic alphabet. A number of prominent Bulgarian writers and scholars worked at the school, including [of Preslav](Naum)(Naum of Preslav) until 893; [of Preslav](Constantine)(Constantine of Preslav); [Ekzarh](Joan)(John the Exarch) (also transcr. John the Exarch); and [Hrabar](Chernorizets)(Chernorizets Hrabar), among others. The school was also a center of translation, mostly of [Byzantine](Byzantine Empire) authors. The Cyrillic script is derived from the [uncial script](Greek)(Greek alphabet) letters, augmented by [ligature](Typographic ligature)s and consonants from the older Glagolitic alphabet for sounds not found in Greek. Glagolitic and Cyrillic were formalized by the Byzantine [Cyril and Methodius](Saints)(Saints Cyril and Methodius) and their disciples, such as Saints Naum, [Clement](Clement of Ohrid), [Angelar](Saint Angelar), and [Sava](Saint Sava (disciple of Saints Cyril and Methodius)). They spread and taught Christianity in the whole of Bulgaria.Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. 2001–05, s.v. "Cyril and Methodius, Saints"; Encyclopædia Britannica, Encyclopædia Britannica Incorporated, Warren E. Preece – 1972, p. 846, s.v., "Cyril and Methodius, Saints" and "Eastern Orthodoxy, Missions ancient and modern"; Encyclopedia of World Cultures, David H. Levinson, 1991, p. 239, s.v., "Social Science"; Eric M. Meyers, The Oxford Encyclopedia of Archaeology in the Near East, p. 151, 1997; Lunt, Slavic Review, June, 1964, p. 216; Roman Jakobson, Crucial problems of Cyrillo-Methodian Studies; Leonid Ivan Strakhovsky, A Handbook of Slavic Studies, p. 98; V. Bogdanovich, History of the ancient Serbian literature, Belgrade, 1980, p. 119The Columbia Encyclopaedia, Sixth Edition. 2001–05, O.Ed. Saints Cyril and Methodius "Cyril and Methodius, Saints) 869 and 884, respectively, "Greek missionaries, brothers, called Apostles to the Slavs and fathers of Slavonic literature."Encyclopædia Britannica, Major alphabets of the world, Cyrillic and Glagolitic alphabets'', 2008, O.Ed. "The two early Slavic alphabets, the Cyrillic and the Glagolitic, were invented by St. Cyril, or Constantine (c. 827–869), and St. Methodii (c. 825–884). These men from Thessaloniki who became apostles to the southern Slavs, whom they converted to Christianity." Paul Cubberley posits that although Cyril may have codified and expanded Glagolitic, it was his students in the First Bulgarian Empire under Tsar [the Great](Simeon)(Simeon the Great) that developed Cyrillic from the Greek letters in the 890s as a more suitable script for church books. Cyrillic spread among other Slavic peoples, as well as among non-Slavic [Vlachs](Vlachs). The earliest datable Cyrillic inscriptions have been found in the area of [Preslav](Preslav), in the medieval city itself and at nearby [Monastery](Patleina)(Patleina Monastery), both in present-day [Province](Shumen)(Shumen Province), as well as in the [Monastery](Ravna)(Ravna Monastery) and in the [Monastery](Varna)(Varna Monastery). The new script became the basis of [alphabet](alphabet)s used in various languages in [Church](Orthodox)(Eastern Orthodox Church)-dominated Eastern Europe, both Slavic and non-Slavic languages (such as [Romanian](Romanian language), until the 1860s). For centuries, Cyrillic was also used by Catholic and Muslim Slavs (see [Cyrillic](Bosnian)(Bosnian Cyrillic)). Cyrillic and Glagolitic were used for the [Slavonic language](Church)(Church Slavonic language), especially the [Church Slavonic](Old)(Old Church Slavonic) variant. Hence expressions such as "И is the tenth Cyrillic letter" typically refer to the order of the Church Slavonic alphabet; not every Cyrillic alphabet uses every letter available in the script. The Cyrillic script came to dominate Glagolitic in the 12th century. The literature produced in Old Church Slavonic soon spread north from Bulgaria and became the [franca](lingua)(lingua franca) of the Balkans and Eastern Europe."On the relationship of old Church Slavonic to the written language of early Rus'" Horace G. Lunt; Russian Linguistics, Volume 11, Numbers 2–3 / January, 1987Benjamin W. Fortson. Indo-European Language and Culture: An Introduction, p. 374 Bosnian Cyrillic, widely known as Bosančica* is an extinct variant of the [alphabet](Cyrillic)(Cyrillic alphabets) that originated in [Bosnia](medieval)(medieval Bosnia). Paleographers consider the earliest features of Bosnian Cyrillic script had likely begun to appear between the 10th or 11th century, with the [tablet](Humac)(Humac tablet) (a tablet written in Bosnian Cyrillic) to be the first such document using this type of script and is believed to date from this period. Bosnian Cyrillic was used continuously until the 18th century, with sporadic usage even taking place in the 20th century. With the orthographic reform of Saint [of Tarnovo](Evtimiy)(Patriarch Evtimiy of Bulgaria) and other prominent representatives of the [Literary School](Tarnovo)(Tarnovo Literary School) of the 14th and 15th centuries, such as [Tsamblak](Gregory)(Gregory Tsamblak) and [of Kostenets](Constantine)(Constantine of Kostenets), the school influenced Russian, Serbian, Wallachian and Moldavian medieval culture. This is known in Russia as the second [South-Slavic](South Slavs) influence. In the early 18th century, the Cyrillic script used in Russia was heavily reformed by [the Great](Peter)(Peter the Great), who had recently returned from his [Embassy](Grand)(Grand Embassy of Peter the Great) in [Europe](Western)(Western Europe). The new letterforms, called the [script](Civil)(Civil script), became closer to those of the Latin alphabet; several archaic letters were abolished and several new letters were introduced designed by Peter himself. Letters became distinguished between upper and lower case. West European typography culture was also adopted. The pre-reform letterforms, called 'Полуустав', were notably retained in Church Slavonic and are sometimes used in Russian even today, especially if one wants to give a text a 'Slavic' or 'archaic' feel. The alphabet used for the modern Church Slavonic language in Eastern Orthodox and [Catholic](Eastern)(Eastern Catholic) rites still resembles early Cyrillic. However, over the course of the following millennium, Cyrillic adapted to changes in spoken language, developed regional variations to suit the features of national languages, and was subjected to academic reform and political decrees. A notable example of such linguistic reform can be attributed to [Stefanović Karadžić](Vuk)(Vuk Karadžić), who updated the [Cyrillic alphabet](Serbian)(Serbian Cyrillic alphabet) by removing certain graphemes no longer represented in the vernacular and introducing graphemes specific to Serbian (i.e. Љ Њ Ђ Ћ Џ Ј), distancing it from the Church Slavonic alphabet in use prior to the reform. Today, [languages](many)(Languages using Cyrillic) in the [Balkans](Languages of the Balkans), Eastern Europe, and [Eurasia](northern)(Eurasiatic languages) are written in Cyrillic alphabets. ## Letters Cyrillic script spread throughout the East Slavic and some South Slavic territories, being adopted for writing local languages, such as [East Slavic](Old)(Old East Slavic). Its adaptation to local languages produced a number of Cyrillic alphabets, discussed below. Capital and lowercase letters were not distinguished in old manuscripts. [[File:Meletius Smotrisky Cyrillic Alphabet.PNG\|thumb\|A page from the Church Slavonic Grammar of [Smotrytsky](Meletius)(Meletius Smotrytsky) (1619)]] Yeri () was originally a [ligature](ligature (typography)) of Yer and I ( + = ). [Iotation](Iotation) was indicated by ligatures formed with the letter І: (not an ancestor of modern Ya, Я, which is derived from ), , (ligature of and ), , . Sometimes different letters were used interchangeably, for example = = , as were typographical variants like = . There were also commonly used ligatures like = . The letters also had numeric values, based not on Cyrillic alphabetical order, but inherited from the letters' [ancestors](Greek)(Greek numerals). The early Cyrillic alphabet is difficult to represent on computers. Many of the letterforms differed from those of modern Cyrillic, varied a great deal in [manuscript](manuscript)s, and changed over time. Few fonts include [glyph](glyph)s sufficient to reproduce the alphabet. In accordance with [Unicode](Unicode) policy, the standard does not include letterform variations or [ligatures](Ligature (typography)) found in manuscript sources unless they can be shown to conform to the Unicode definition of a character. The Unicode 5.1 standard, released on 4 April 2008, greatly improved computer support for the early Cyrillic and the modern [Slavonic](Church)(Church Slavonic) language. In Microsoft Windows, the [UI](Segoe)(Segoe UI) user interface font is notable for having complete support for the archaic Cyrillic letters since Windows 8. ### Currency signs Some [sign](currency)(currency sign)s have derived from Cyrillic letters: * The Ukrainian [sign](hryvnia)(hryvnia sign) (₴) is from the [cursive](cursive) [minuscule](minuscule) [Cyrillic letter](Ukrainian)(Ukrainian alphabet) [He](He (Cyrillic)) (г). * The Russian [sign](ruble)(ruble sign) (₽) from the majuscule Р. * The [som](Kyrgyzstani)(Kyrgyzstani som) sign (⃀) from the majuscule С (es) * The [tenge](Kazakhstani)(Kazakhstani tenge) sign (₸) from Т * The [tögrög](Mongolian)(Mongolian tögrög) sign (₮) from Т ## Letterforms and typography The development of Cyrillic [typography](typography) passed directly from the [medieval](medieval) stage to the late [Baroque](Baroque), without a [Renaissance](Renaissance) phase as in [Europe](Western)(Western Europe). Late Medieval Cyrillic letters (categorized as [vyaz'](vyaz (Cyrillic calligraphy)) and still found on many [icon](icon) inscriptions today) show a marked tendency to be very tall and narrow, with strokes often shared between adjacent letters. [the Great](Peter)(Peter the Great), Tsar of Russia, mandated the use of [letter forms](westernized)(Civil script) ([ru](:ru:Гражданский шрифт)) in the early 18th century. Over time, these were largely adopted in the other languages that use the script. Thus, unlike the majority of modern Greek fonts that retained their own set of design principles for lower-case letters (such as the placement of [serif](serif)s, the shapes of stroke ends, and stroke-thickness rules, although Greek capital letters do use Latin design principles), modern Cyrillic fonts are much the same as modern Latin fonts of the same font family. The development of some Cyrillic computer typefaces from Latin ones has also contributed to the visual Latinization of Cyrillic type. ### Lowercase forms [[upright-cursive-n.svg\|frame\|right\|Letters Ge, De, I, Short I, Em, Te, Tse, Be and Ve in upright (printed) and cursive (handwritten) variants. (Top is set in Georgia font, bottom in Odesa Script.)](File:Cyrillic)] Cyrillic [uppercase](capital letters) and [lowercase](lower case) letter forms are not as differentiated as in Latin typography. Upright Cyrillic lowercase letters are essentially [capitals](small)(small caps) (with exceptions: Cyrillic , , , , , and adopted Western lowercase shapes, lowercase is typically designed under the influence of Latin , lowercase , and are traditional handwritten forms, although a good-quality Cyrillic typeface will still include separate small-caps glyphs.Bringhurst (2002) writes "in Cyrillic, the difference between normal lower case and small caps is more subtle than it is in the Latin or Greek alphabets,..." (p 32) and "in most Cyrillic faces, the lower case is close in color and shape to Latin small caps" (p 107). Cyrillic fonts, as well as Latin ones, have [roman](roman type) and [italic](italic type) types (practically all popular modern fonts include parallel sets of Latin and Cyrillic letters, where many glyphs, uppercase as well as lowercase, are shared by both). However, the native font terminology in most Slavic languages (for example, in Russian) does not use the words "roman" and "italic" in this sense.Name ''* (Italian font) in Russian refers to a particular font family [JPG](http://citforum.univ.kiev.ua/open_source/fonts/theory/thumbs/ris320.jpg) , whereas ** (roman font) is just a synonym for Latin font, Latin alphabet. Instead, the nomenclature follows German naming patterns: [[File:Cyrillic alternates.svg\|thumb\|right\|200px\| Alternate variants of lowercase (cursive) Cyrillic letters: Б/б, Д/д, Г/г, И/и, П/п, Т/т, Ш/ш. See also: [[cursive.svg\|75px\|left](File:Cyrillic)] [[Cyrillics BGDPT.svg\|75px\|right](File:Special)] ]] * Roman type is called ("upright type")compare with ("regular type") in German * Italic type is called ("cursive") or ("cursive type")from the German word *, meaning italic typefaces and not cursive writing [Cursive](Cursive) handwriting is ("handwritten type")in German: or '', both meaning literally 'running type' A (mechanically) sloped oblique type of [sans-serif](sans-serif) faces is ** ("sloped" or "slanted type"). * A boldfaced type is called ** ("semi-bold type"), because there existed fully boldfaced shapes that have been out of use since the beginning of the 20th century. ### Italic and cursive forms Similarly to Latin fonts, italic and cursive types of many Cyrillic letters (typically lowercase; uppercase only for handwritten or stylish types) are very different from their upright roman types. In certain cases, the correspondence between uppercase and lowercase glyphs does not coincide in Latin and Cyrillic fonts: for example, italic Cyrillic is the lowercase counterpart of not of . Note: in some fonts or styles, , i.e. the lowercase italic Cyrillic , may look like Latin , and , i.e. lowercase italic Cyrillic , may look like small-capital italic . In Standard Serbian, as well as in Macedonian, some italic and cursive letters are allowed to be different, to more closely resemble the handwritten letters. The regular (upright) shapes are generally standardized in [caps](small)(small caps) form. Notes: Depending on fonts available, the Serbian row may appear identical to the Russian row. [Unicode](Unicode) approximations are used in the [faux](Faux Cyrillic) row to ensure it can be rendered properly across all systems. In [typography](Bulgarian)(Bulgarian alphabet), many lowercase letterforms may more closely resemble the cursive forms on the one hand and Latin glyphs on the other hand, e.g. by having an ascender or descender or by using rounded arcs instead of sharp corners. Sometimes, uppercase letters may have a different shape as well, e.g. more triangular, Д and Л, like Greek delta Δ and lambda Λ. Notes: Depending on fonts available, the Bulgarian row may appear identical to the Russian row. [Unicode](Unicode) approximations are used in the [faux](Faux Cyrillic) row to ensure it can be rendered properly across all systems; in some cases, such as ж with k-like ascender, no such approximation exists. ### Accessing variant forms Computer fonts typically default to the Central/Eastern, Russian letterforms, and require the use of [OpenType](OpenType) [(OTL) features](Layout)(list of typographic features) to display the Western, Bulgarian or Southern, Serbian/Macedonian forms. Depending on the choices of the font manufacturer, they may either be automatically activated by the local variant locl feature for text tagged with an appropriate [code](language)(ISO 639-1), or the author needs to opt-in by activating a stylistic set ss## or character variant cv## feature. These solutions only enjoy partial support and may render with default glyphs in certain software configurations. ## Cyrillic alphabets Among others, Cyrillic is the standard script for writing the following languages: *Slavic languages: [Belarusian](Belarusian language), [Bulgarian](Bulgarian language), [Macedonian](Macedonian language), [Russian](Russian language), [Rusyn](Rusyn language), [Serbo-Croatian](Serbo-Croatian) ([Serbian](Standard)(Serbian language), [Bosnian](Bosnian language), and [Montenegrin](Montenegrin language)), [Ukrainian](Ukrainian language) *Non-Slavic languages of Russia: [Abaza](Abaza language), [Adyghe](Adyghe language), [Avar](Avar language), [Azerbaijani](Azerbaijani language) (in [Dagestan](Dagestan)), [Bashkir](Bashkir language), [Buryat](Buryat language), [Chechen](Chechen language), [Chuvash](Chuvash language), [Erzya](Erzya language), [Ingush](Ingush language), [Kabardian](Kabardian language), [Kalmyk](Kalmyk Oirat), [Karachay-Balkar](Karachay-Balkar language), [Sami](Kildin)(Kildin Sami language), [Komi](Komi language), [Mari](Mari language), [Moksha](Moksha language), [Nogai](Nogai language), [Ossetian](Ossetian language) (in [Ossetia–Alania](North)(North Ossetia–Alania)), [Romani](Romani orthography#Cyrillic script), [Sakha/Yakut](Sakha language), [Tatar](Tatar language), [Tuvan](Tuvan language), [Udmurt](Udmurt language), [Yuit](Siberian Yupik language) (Yupik) *Non-Slavic languages in other countries: [Abkhaz](Abkhaz language), [Aleut](Aleut language) (now mostly in church texts), [Dungan](Dungan language), [Kazakh](Kazakh language) (to be replaced by Latin script by 2025), [Kyrgyz](Kyrgyz language), [Mongolian](Mongolian language) (to also be written with traditional [script](Mongolian)(Mongolian script) by 2025), [Tajik](Tajik language), [Tlingit](Tlingit alphabet#Cyrillic alphabets) (now only in church texts), [Turkmen](Turkmen language) (officially replaced by Latin script), [Uzbek](Uzbek language) (also officially replaced by Latin script, but still in wide use), [Yupik](Yupik languages#Writing systems) (in [Alaska](Alaska)) The Cyrillic script has also been used for languages of Alaska,["Orthodox Language Texts"](http://www.asna.ca/alaska/), Retrieved 2011-06-20 [Europe](Slavic)(Slavic Europe) (except for [Slavic](Western)(Western Slavs) and some [Slavic](Southern)(Southern Slavs)), the [Caucasus](Caucasus), the languages of [Idel-Ural](Idel-Ural), [Siberia](Siberia), and the [Far East](Russian)(Russian Far East). The first alphabet derived from Cyrillic was [Abur](Abur), used for the [language](Komi)(Komi language). IVAN G. ILIEV IJORS International Journal of Russian Studies \|url=https://www.ijors.net/issue2_2_2013/articles/iliev.html \|access-date=2023-02-04 \|website=www.ijors.net}} Other Cyrillic alphabets include the [alphabet](Molodtsov)(Molodtsov alphabet) for the Komi language and various alphabets for [languages](Caucasian)(Caucasian languages). ## Usage of Cyrillic versus other scripts ### Latin script A number of languages written in a Cyrillic alphabet have also been written in a [alphabet](Latin)(Latin alphabet), such as [Azerbaijani](Azerbaijani language), [Uzbek](Uzbek language), [Serbian](Serbian language) and [Romanian](Romanian language) (in the [of Moldova](Republic)(Republic of Moldova) until 1989, in the [Principalities](Danubian)(Danubian Principalities) throughout the 19th century). After the disintegration of the Soviet Union in 1991, some of the former republics officially shifted from Cyrillic to Latin. The transition is complete in most of Moldova (except the breakaway region of [Transnistria](Transnistria), where [Cyrillic](Moldovan)(Moldovan Cyrillic alphabet) is official), [Turkmenistan](Turkmenistan), and [Azerbaijan](Azerbaijan). [Uzbekistan](Uzbekistan) still uses both systems, and [Kazakhstan](Kazakhstan) has officially begun a transition from Cyrillic to Latin (scheduled to be complete by 2025). The [Russia](Russia)n government has mandated that Cyrillic must be used for all public communications in all [subjects of Russia](federal)(federal subjects of Russia), to promote closer ties across the federation. This act was controversial for speakers of many Slavic languages; for others, such as [Chechen](Chechen language) and [Ingush](Ingush language) speakers, the law had political ramifications. For example, the separatist Chechen government mandated a Latin script which is still used by many Chechens. [[alphabet world distribution.svg\|thumb\|upright=2\|Countries with widespread use of the Cyrillic script: ](File:Cyrillic)] Standard [Serbian](Serbian language) uses [the Cyrillic and Latin scripts](both)(Serbian language#Writing system). Cyrillic is nominally the official script of Serbia's administration according to the Serbian constitution; however, the law does not regulate scripts in standard language, or standard language itself by any means. In practice the scripts are equal, with Latin being used more often in a less official capacity. The [alphabet](Zhuang)(Zhuang alphabet), used between the 1950s and 1980s in portions of the People's Republic of China, used a mixture of Latin, phonetic, numeral-based, and Cyrillic letters. The non-Latin letters, including Cyrillic, were removed from the alphabet in 1982 and replaced with Latin letters that closely resembled the letters they replaced. ### Romanization There are various systems for [Romanization](Romanization) of Cyrillic text, including [transliteration](transliteration) to convey Cyrillic spelling in [Latin](Latin) letters, and [transcription](Transcription (linguistics)) to convey [pronunciation](pronunciation). Standard Cyrillic-to-Latin transliteration systems include: [transliteration](Scientific)(Scientific transliteration of Cyrillic), used in linguistics, is based on the [Latin alphabet](Serbo-Croatian)(Gaj's Latin alphabet). The Working Group on Romanization Systems of the [Nations](United)(United Nations) recommends different systems for specific languages. These are the most commonly used around the world. [9](ISO)(ISO 9):1995, from the International Organization for Standardization. American Library Association and Library of Congress Romanization tables for Slavic alphabets ([Romanization](ALA-LC)(ALA-LC Romanization)), used in North American libraries. [Romanization](BGN/PCGN)(BGN/PCGN Romanization) (1947), United States Board on Geographic Names & Permanent Committee on Geographical Names for British Official Use). [16876](GOST)(GOST 16876-71), a now defunct Soviet transliteration standard. Replaced by [7.79-2000](GOST)(GOST 7.79-2000), which is based on ISO 9. Various [romanizations of Cyrillic](informal)(informal romanizations of Cyrillic), which adapt the Cyrillic script to Latin and sometimes Greek glyphs for compatibility with small character sets. See also [of Belarusian](Romanization)(Romanization of Belarusian), [Bulgarian](Romanization of Bulgarian), [Kyrgyz](romanization of Kyrgyz), [Russian](romanization of Russian), [Macedonian](romanization of Macedonian) and [Ukrainian](romanization of Ukrainian). ### Cyrillization Representing other writing systems with Cyrillic letters is called [Cyrillization](Cyrillization). ## Summary table Letters in italics were used in Russia before the [reform of 1918](Bolshevik)(Reforms of Russian orthography#Post-revolution reform) and for decades thereafter by forces opposed to the [Bolsheviks](Bolsheviks). *Ё is a semi-official letter in Russian, Е is frequently used instead. ## Computer encoding ### Unicode As of Unicode version 15.0, Cyrillic letters, including national and historical alphabets, are encoded across several [blocks](Unicode block): [Cyrillic](Cyrillic (Unicode block)): [U+0400–U+04FF](https://www.unicode.org/charts/PDF/U0400.pdf) [Supplement](Cyrillic)(Cyrillic Supplement): [U+0500–U+052F](https://www.unicode.org/charts/PDF/U0500.pdf) [Extended-A](Cyrillic)(Cyrillic Extended-A): [U+2DE0–U+2DFF](https://www.unicode.org/charts/PDF/U2DE0.pdf) [Extended-B](Cyrillic)(Cyrillic Extended-B): [U+A640–U+A69F](https://www.unicode.org/charts/PDF/UA640.pdf) [Extended-C](Cyrillic)(Cyrillic Extended-C): [U+1C80–U+1C8F](https://www.unicode.org/charts/PDF/U1C80.pdf) [Extended-D](Cyrillic)(Cyrillic Extended-D): [U+1E030–U+1E08F](https://www.unicode.org/charts/PDF/U1E030.pdf) [Extensions](Phonetic)(Phonetic Extensions): [U+1D2B, U+1D78](https://www.unicode.org/charts/PDF/U1D00.pdf) [Half Marks](Combining)(Combining Half Marks): [U+FE2E–U+FE2F](https://www.unicode.org/charts/PDF/UFE20.pdf) The characters in the range U+0400 to U+045F are essentially the characters from [8859-5](ISO)(ISO 8859-5) moved upward by 864 positions. The characters in the range U+0460 to U+0489 are historic letters, not used now. The characters in the range U+048A to U+052F are additional letters for various languages that are written with Cyrillic script. Unicode as a general rule does not include accented Cyrillic letters. A few exceptions include: combinations that are considered as separate letters of respective alphabets, like [Й](Й), [Ў](Ў), [Ё](Ё), [Ї](Ї), [Ѓ](Ѓ), [Ќ](Ќ) (as well as many letters of non-Slavic alphabets); two most frequent combinations orthographically required to distinguish [homonym](homonym)s in Bulgarian and Macedonian: [Ѐ](Ѐ), [Ѝ](Ѝ); a few Old and New Church Slavonic combinations: [Ѷ](Ѷ), [Ѿ](Ѿ), [Ѽ](Ѽ). To indicate stressed or long vowels, [diacritical mark](combining)(combining diacritical mark)s can be used after the respective letter (for example, : е́ у́ э́ etc.). Some languages, including [Slavonic](Church)(Church Slavonic language), are still not fully supported. Unicode 5.1, released on 4 April 2008, introduces major changes to the Cyrillic blocks. Revisions to the existing Cyrillic blocks, and the addition of Cyrillic Extended A (2DE0 ... 2DFF) and Cyrillic Extended B (A640 ... A69F), significantly improve support for the [Cyrillic alphabet](early)(early Cyrillic alphabet), [Abkhaz](Abkhaz language), [Aleut](Aleut language), [Chuvash](Chuvash language), [Kurdish](Kurdish language), and [Moksha](Moksha language). ### Other Other [encoding](character)(character encoding) systems for Cyrillic: [CP866](CP866)8-bit Cyrillic character encoding established by [Microsoft](Microsoft) for use in [MS-DOS](MS-DOS) also known as GOST-alternative. Cyrillic characters go in their native order, with a "window" for pseudographic characters. [8859-5](ISO/IEC)(ISO/IEC 8859-5)8-bit Cyrillic character encoding established by [Organization for Standardization](International)(International Organization for Standardization) [KOI8-R](KOI8-R)8-bit native Russian character encoding. Invented in the USSR for use on Soviet clones of American IBM and DEC computers. The Cyrillic characters go in the order of their Latin counterparts, which allowed the text to remain readable after transmission via a 7-bit line that removed the [significant bit](most)(most significant bit) from each bytethe result became a very rough, but readable, Latin transliteration of Cyrillic. Standard encoding of early 1990s for [Unix](Unix) systems and the first Russian Internet encoding. [KOI8-U](KOI8-U)KOI8-R with addition of Ukrainian letters. [MIK](MIK Code page)8-bit native Bulgarian character encoding for use in [Microsoft](Microsoft) [DOS](DOS). [Windows-1251](Windows-1251)8-bit Cyrillic character encoding established by Microsoft for use in [Windows](Microsoft)(Microsoft Windows). The simplest 8-bit Cyrillic encoding32 capital chars in native order at 0xc0–0xdf, 32 usual chars at 0xe0–0xff, with rarely used "YO" characters somewhere else. No pseudographics. Former standard encoding in some [Linux](Linux) distributions for Belarusian and Bulgarian, but currently displaced by [UTF-8](UTF-8). GOST-main. [2312](GB)(GB 2312)Principally simplified Chinese encodings, but there are also the basic 33 Russian Cyrillic letters (in upper- and lower-case). [JIS](JIS encoding) and [JIS](Shift)(Shift JIS)Principally Japanese encodings, but there are also the basic 33 Russian Cyrillic letters (in upper- and lower-case). ### Keyboard layouts Each language has its own standard [layout](keyboard)(keyboard layout), adopted from [typewriter](typewriter)s. With the flexibility of computer input methods, there are also transliterating or phonetic/homophonic keyboard layouts made for typists who are more familiar with other layouts, like the common English [keyboard](QWERTY)(QWERTY keyboard). When practical Cyrillic keyboard layouts or fonts are unavailable, computer users sometimes use transliteration or look-alike [encoding]("volapuk")(volapuk encoding) to type in languages that are normally written with the Cyrillic alphabet. ## See also * [Alphabet Day](Cyrillic)(Cyrillic Alphabet Day) * [digraphs](Cyrillic)(Cyrillic digraphs) * [script in Unicode](Cyrillic)(Cyrillic script in Unicode) * [Cyrillic](Faux)(Faux Cyrillic), real or fake Cyrillic letters used to give Latin-alphabet text a Soviet or Russian feel * [of Cyrillic digraphs and trigraphs](List)(List of Cyrillic digraphs and trigraphs) * [Braille](Russian)(Russian Braille) * [cursive](Russian)(Russian cursive) * [manual alphabet](Russian)(Russian manual alphabet) * [Braille](Bulgarian)(Bulgarian Braille) * [the Grammarian](Vladislav)(Vladislav the Grammarian) * [Braille](Yugoslav)(Yugoslav Braille) * [manual alphabet](Yugoslav)(Yugoslav manual alphabet) ### Internet top-level domains in Cyrillic * [gTLDs](List of Internet top-level domains#Cyrillic script) * [.мон](.мон) * [.бг](.бг) * [.қаз](.қаз) * [.рф](.рф) * [.срб](.срб) * [.укр](.укр) * [.мкд](.мкд) * [.бел](.бел) ## Notes ## Footnotes ## References [Robert](Bringhurst,)(Robert Bringhurst) (2002). [Elements of Typographic Style](The)(The Elements of Typographic Style)* (version 2.5), pp. 262–264. Vancouver, Hartley & Marks. . * * Nezirović, M. (1992). Jevrejsko-španjolska književnost. Sarajevo: Svjetlost. [in Šmid, 2002](cited) Prostov, Eugene Victor. 1931. "Origins of Russian Printing". Library Quarterly 1 (January): 255–77. Šmid, Katja (2002). " ", in Verba Hispanica, vol X. Liubliana: Facultad de Filosofía y Letras de la Universidad de Liubliana. . 'The Lives of St. Tsurho and St. Strahota', Bohemia, 1495, Vatican Library Philipp Ammon: [Tractatus slavonicus.](http://sjani.ge/sjani-17/ფილიპპ%20ამონი.pdf) in: Sjani (Thoughts) Georgian Scientific Journal of Literary Theory and Comparative Literature, N 17, 2016, pp. 248–256 ## External links [The Cyrillic Charset Soup](http://czyborra.com/charsets/cyrillic.html) overview and history of Cyrillic charsets. [Transliteration of Non-Roman Scripts](http://transliteration.eki.ee/), a collection of writing systems and transliteration tables [History and development of the Cyrillic alphabet](http://www.omniglot.com/writing/cyrillic.htm) [Cyrillic Alphabets of Slavic Languages](http://localfonts.eu/cyrillic-alphabets-of-slavic-languages/) review of Cyrillic charsets in Slavic Languages. [data entry in Old Cyrillic / Стара Кирилица](https://web.archive.org/web/20140222042759/http://andregarzia.on-rev.com/richmond/LANGTOOLS.html) (archived 22 February 2014) [Cyrillic and its Long Journey East – NamepediA Blog](http://blog-en.namepedia.org/2015/04/cyrillic-and-its-long-journey-east/), article about the Cyrillic script * [Unicode collation charts](http://www.unicode.org/charts/collation/)—including Cyrillic letters, sorted by shape }} [ ](Category:Cyrillic script) [inventions](Category:Bulgarian)(Category:Bulgarian inventions) [Europe](Category:Eastern)(Category:Eastern Europe) [Asia](Category:North)(Category:North Asia) [Asia](Category:Central)(Category:Central Asia)
The Ministry of Ungentlemanly Warfare	the_ministry_of_ungentlemanly_warfare	# The Ministry of Ungentlemanly Warfare Revision ID: 1155441927 \| Timestamp: 2023-05-18T04:58:47Z --- \| screenplay = \| based_on = \| starring = \| music = \| cinematography = \| editing = \| studio = \| distributor = [Lionsgate](Lionsgate Films) \| released = \| runtime = \| country = United States \| language = English \| budget = \| gross = }} *The Ministry of Ungentlemanly Warfare* is an upcoming American [action](action film) [film](spy)(spy film) directed and co-written by [Ritchie](Guy)(Guy Ritchie), based on the 2015 book by [Lewis](Damien)(Damien Lewis (filmmaker)). It is planned to be released in 2024, by [Lionsgate](Lionsgate). ## Plot Billed as a true story about a secret [War II](World)(World War II) [organization](combat)(Special Operations Executive) founded by [Churchill](Winston)(Winston Churchill) and [Fleming](Ian)(Ian Fleming), whose fighters' ungentlemanly warfare against the [Nazis](Nazism) changed the course of the war, and gave birth to modern [operation](black)(black operation)s. ## Cast * [Cavill](Henry)(Henry Cavill) * [González](Eiza)(Eiza González) * [Ritchson](Alan)(Alan Ritchson) * [Golding](Henry)(Henry Golding) * [Pettyfer](Alex)(Alex Pettyfer) * [Fiennes Tiffin](Hero)(Hero Fiennes Tiffin) * [Olusanmokun](Babs)(Babs Olusanmokun) * [Schweiger](Til)(Til Schweiger) * [Zaga](Henry)(Henry Zaga) * [Elwes](Cary)(Cary Elwes) * [Snipes](Roger)(Roger Snipes) * [Sapani](Danny)(Danny Sapani) * [Fox](Freddie)(Freddie Fox (actor)) ## Production [Pictures](Paramount)(Paramount Pictures) acquired the rights to Damien Lewis's book ''The Ministry of Ungentlemanly Warfare: How Churchill's Secret Warriors Set Europe Ablaze and Gave Birth to Modern Black Ops'' in 2015. [Ritchie](Guy)(Guy Ritchie) signed on to direct the project in February 2021, from a script by [Amel](Arash)(Arash Amel), with [Bruckheimer](Jerry)(Jerry Bruckheimer) producing the film. In October 2022, [Cavill](Henry)(Henry Cavill) and [González](Eiza)(Eiza González) were set to star, with Paramount no longer involved. In February 2023, additional casting including [Ritchson](Alan)(Alan Ritchson), [Golding](Henry)(Henry Golding), [Pettyfer](Alex)(Alex Pettyfer) and [Elwes](Cary)(Cary Elwes) was announced. Filming began on February 13, 2023, in [Antalya](Antalya), [Turkey](Turkey). It wrapped up in April 2023. The day filming began, it was announced [Lionsgate](Lionsgate Films) had acquired U.S. distribution rights to the film, planning to give it a wide release sometime in 2024, and [Bear International](Black)(Black Bear Pictures) had sold international distribution rights for Europe, Latin America, Australia, New Zealand, Canada, South Africa, India and pan-Asian pay TV to [Video](Prime)(Prime Video). ## References ## External links * [films](Category:Upcoming)(Category:Upcoming films) [action films](Category:2024)(Category:2024 action films) [action war films](Category:2020s)(Category:2020s action war films) [American films](Category:2020s)(Category:2020s American films) [English-language films](Category:2020s)(Category:2020s English-language films) [spy films](Category:2020s)(Category:2020s spy films) [films based on actual events](Category:Action)(Category:Action films based on actual events) [action war films](Category:American)(Category:American action war films) [films based on actual events](Category:American)(Category:American films based on actual events) [spy action films](Category:American)(Category:American spy action films) [World War II films](Category:American)(Category:American World War II films) [Bear Pictures films](Category:Black)(Category:Black Bear Pictures films) [based on non-fiction books](Category:Films)(Category:Films based on non-fiction books) [directed by Guy Ritchie](Category:Films)(Category:Films directed by Guy Ritchie) [produced by Jerry Bruckheimer](Category:Films)(Category:Films produced by Jerry Bruckheimer) [shot in Turkey](Category:Films)(Category:Films shot in Turkey) [with screenplays by Guy Ritchie](Category:Films)(Category:Films with screenplays by Guy Ritchie) [films](Category:Lionsgate)(Category:Lionsgate films) [films based on actual events](Category:Spy)(Category:Spy films based on actual events) [English-language films](Category:Upcoming)(Category:Upcoming English-language films) [War II films based on actual events](Category:World)(Category:World War II films based on actual events) [War II spy films](Category:World)(Category:World War II spy films)
Amazon Freevee	amazon_freevee	# Amazon Freevee Revision ID: 1160338175 \| Timestamp: 2023-06-15T21:20:17Z --- \| area_served = United States United Kingdom Germany \| parent = [Amazon](Amazon (company)) \| url = \| current_status = Active }} Amazon Freevee is an American ad-supported [(VOD)](video-on-demand)(video on demand) streaming service owned by [Amazon](Amazon (company)), with original and licensed programming. ## Functionality Freevee content is presented to [Prime Video](Amazon)(Amazon Prime Video) users seamlessly within Prime's [TV](smart)(smart TV) app interface. Prime's suggestion algorithm includes this content throughout the browsing experience. Freevee also functions as a standalone app, for use by non-Prime users. ## History [[TV.png\|thumb\|left\|IMDb TV logo](File:IMDb)] Amazon Freevee launched as a free, ad-supported video channel by the Amazon-owned online database [IMDb](IMDb) in January 2019, under the name IMDb Freedive, before becoming IMDb TV five months later; it was rebranded to its current name on April 28, 2022. The service is available in the United States, as well as the UK and Germany through Amazon and IMDb's websites as well as on all [Fire](Amazon)(Amazon Fire TV) devices. On June 17, 2019, IMDb Freedive announced its rebranding to IMDb TV. Signing new deals with [Bros.](Warner)(Warner Bros.), [Pictures Entertainment](Sony)(Sony Pictures) and [Studios](MGM)(Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer) (which parent company Amazon later acquired on March 17, 2022), the streaming service began offering new content. Amazon announced that it would be moving IMDb TV's content team to within [Studios](Amazon)(Amazon Studios) on February 20, 2020, with the goal of developing original programming under new IMDb TV co-heads. In September 2021, Amazon announced the launch of IMDb TV in the United Kingdom; before then, it was available only in the United States. On April 13, 2022, it was announced that the service would be rebranded as Amazon Freevee beginning on April 27. It was also announced that it would launch in Germany later that year, and would expand its original programming by 70% in 2022. The rebrand occurred on April 28, 2022. Its first announced moves post-rebrand included renewing [Legacy](Bosch:)(Bosch: Legacy) pre-premiere as well as Top Class, ordering ''[Test Kitchen: The Next Generation](America's)(America's Test Kitchen)* and a new series adaptation of [Beauty](Black)(Black Beauty) and expanding [Squished](Play-Doh:)(Play-Doh)'' beyond its holiday special. On August 3, 2022, Amazon Freevee was launched in [Germany](Germany). ## Content ### Original programming A revival of the 2008 crime drama series [Leverage](Leverage (American TV series))* was ordered by IMDb TV, making it the first major original series for the streaming service. On October 3, 2019, IMDb TV announced it licensed the Canadian animated series [Gas Animated](Corner)(Corner Gas Animated) as a branded original series, joining the live-action comedy franchise [Gas](Corner)(Corner Gas) and the feature film [Gas: The Movie](Corner)(Corner Gas: The Movie), which were both on the streaming platform. IMDb TV acquired the rights to Eleventh Hour Films and [Pictures Television](Sony)(Sony Pictures Television)'s young-adult espionage series [Rider](Alex)(Alex Rider (TV series)), premiering a series adaptation on November 13, 2020. On October 29, 2020, Amazon Studios announced it would produce for the service the successor program to [Judy](Judge)(Judge Judy), entitled [Justice](Judy)(Judy Justice) and still starring former [Manhattan](Manhattan) Family Court Judge [Sheindlin](Judith)(Judy Sheindlin). Production on Judy Justice began as [CBS](CBS Media Ventures)'s long-running Judge Judy ended on July 23, 2021. Judy Justice premiered on IMDb TV on November 1, 2021. With significantly high stakes in the program, Amazon ordered 120 episodes for the first season alone which concluded on April 15, 2022, and served as the largest initial order package for a streaming series. Amazon has bargained on Sheindlin to attract her legions of viewers and fanfare from Judge Judy over to their streaming service for Judy Justice. Towards the end of the first season, Judy Justice was granted a second season after it was hailed as a big hit for Freevee with record viewership hours for the streaming service (viewership results measured by hours watched as opposed to rating numbers as [ratings](Nielsen)(Nielsen ratings) does not cover streaming services). Sheindlin's personal production team will bring another court show to Freevee, entitled Tribunal Justice. The program will feature her longtime Judge Judy program bailiff, [Hawkins-Byrd](Petri)(Petri Hawkins-Byrd). The series will be presented in the form of a 3-judge panel, like [Bench](Hot)(Hot Bench) (another production from Sheindlin, only for CBS). Tribunal will be presided over by now former Hot Bench judges, Tanya Acker and [DiMango](Patricia)(Patricia DiMango), along with Sheindlin's son, former [attorney](district)(district attorney) Adam Levy. On February 22, 2021, it was announced that [Lear](Norman)(Norman Lear) had set up two projects at IMDb TV, half-hour long comedy Clean Slate and hour-long drama Loteria. On April 13, 2022, it was announced that a spinoff of the Prime Video series [Bosch](Bosch (TV series)), titled Bosch: Legacy, would premiere on the service on May 6, 2022, and that the coming-of-age series [School](High)(High School (2022 TV series)), based on the [memoir](High School (book)) by [and Sara](Tegan)(Tegan and Sara) and adapted by [DuVall](Clea)(Clea DuVall), would premiere in 2022. It was also announced that the service would add original films to its slate, beginning with the romantic comedy Love Accidentally, starring [Song](Brenda)(Brenda Song) and [O'Connell](Aaron)(Aaron O'Connell). ### Third-party content IMDb TV announced it would begin streaming the [NBC](NBC) drama [Fire](Chicago)(Chicago Fire (TV series)) on December 6, 2019, making the deal the biggest single licensing pact to date for the streaming service. In addition, IMDb TV announced it would also begin streaming all five seasons of [Television](Universal)(Universal Television)'s [Night Lights](Friday)(Friday Night Lights (TV series)) starting on December 31, 2019. In February 2020, IMDb TV acquired the rights to more than twenty scripted TV titles controlled by [Disney Direct-to-Consumer & International](Walt)(Walt Disney Direct-to-Consumer & International) division and began streaming several [Trek](Star)(Star Trek) films in June and July 2020. Starting July 15, 2020, IMDb TV began streaming all 92 episodes of the [AMC](AMC (TV channel)) series [Men](Mad)(Mad Men) after completing a licensing deal with [Lionsgate](Lionsgate). In July 2021, Amazon and [Pictures](Universal)(Universal Pictures) reached a multi-year deal to bring Universal's films to IMDb TV. As part of the deal, titles from Universal's library would become available, making films including [Invisible Man](The)(The Invisible Man (2020 film)) eligible to stream on IMDb TV for free. Most of the studio's titles will be also available ad-free on [Video](Prime)(Prime Video), including future theatrical releases following their first pay window and four months after being released on [Peacock](Peacock (streaming service)). On November 3, 2021, IMDb TV UK began streaming content from [FilmRise](FilmRise), MovieSphere, MagellanTV and SPI's Docustream, along with program-themed channels based on shows [Women](Deadly)(Deadly Women), [We There Yet?](Are)(Are We There Yet? (TV series)), [Bridezillas](Bridezillas), [Mysteries](Unsolved)(Unsolved Mysteries), [Old House](This)(This Old House), [MythBusters](MythBusters), and ''[Kitchen](Hell's)(Hell's Kitchen (American TV series)). In November 2022, it was announced the company was entering a partnership with [Fremantle](Fremantle Media), to launch a revival of soap opera [Neighbours](Neighbours)'', which will go into filming in early 2023 and broadcast in the second half of 2023. In May 2023, Amazon announced it would make over 100 Amazon Original series and films from [Prime Video](Amazon)(Amazon Prime Video) available on Freevee also. Some shows will be available in full while others will only have a selection of episodes. ## References ## External links *[Official page](https://www.amazon.com/adlp/freevee-about) [(company)](Category:Amazon)(Category:Amazon (company)) [television streaming services](Category:Internet)(Category:Internet television streaming services) [channels and stations established in 2019](Category:Television)(Category:Television channels and stations established in 2019) [networks in the United States](Category:Television)(Category:Television networks in the United States)
Cognitive behavioral therapy	cognitive_behavioral_therapy	# Cognitive behavioral therapy Revision ID: 1158776195 \| Timestamp: 2023-06-06T04:45:20Z --- Cognitive Behaviour Therapy (journal)\|other uses of the acronym 'CBT'\|CBT (disambiguation)CBT}} Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT) is a [intervention](psycho-social)(Psychosocial) that aims to reduce symptoms of various mental health conditions, primarily depression and anxiety disorders. Cognitive behavioral therapy is one of the most effective means of treatment for substance abuse and co-occurring mental health disorders. CBT focuses on challenging and changing [distortions](cognitive)(cognitive distortions) (such as thoughts, beliefs, and attitudes) and their associated behaviors to improve [regulation](emotional)(emotional regulation) and develop personal [strategies](coping)(coping strategies) that target solving current problems. Though it was originally designed to treat [depression](Major depressive disorder), its uses have been expanded to include the treatment of many [health](mental)(mental health) conditions, including [anxiety](anxiety disorder), substance use disorders, marital problems, [ADHD](Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder), and [disorders](eating)(eating disorders). CBT includes a number of cognitive or behavioral psychotherapies that treat defined psychopathologies using evidence-based techniques and strategies. CBT is a common form of [therapy](talk)(talk therapy) based on the combination of the basic principles from [behavioral](Behaviorism) and [psychology](cognitive)(cognitive psychology). It is different from historical approaches to [psychotherapy](psychotherapy), such as the [psychoanalytic](psychoanalytic) approach where the therapist looks for the unconscious meaning behind the behaviors, and then formulates a diagnosis. Instead, CBT is a "problem-focused" and "action-oriented" form of therapy, meaning it is used to treat specific problems related to a diagnosed [disorder](mental)(mental disorder). The therapist's role is to assist the client in finding and practicing effective strategies to address the identified goals and to alleviate symptoms of the disorder. CBT is based on the belief that [distortions](thought)(Cognitive distortion) and [maladaptive](maladaptive) behaviors play a role in the development and maintenance of many [disorder](psychological)(psychological disorder)s and that symptoms and associated distress can be reduced by teaching new information-processing skills and coping mechanisms. When compared to [medication](psychoactive)(psychoactive medication)s, review studies have found CBT alone to be as effective for treating less severe forms of depression, anxiety, [stress disorder](post-traumatic)(post-traumatic stress disorder) (PTSD), [tics](tic disorder), [use disorder](substance)(substance use disorder)s, eating disorders, and [personality disorder](borderline)(borderline personality disorder). Some research suggests that CBT is most effective when combined with medication for treating mental disorders, such as [depressive disorder](major)(major depressive disorder). CBT is recommended as the first line of treatment for the majority of psychological disorders in children and adolescents, including aggression and [disorder](conduct)(conduct disorder). Researchers have found that other [fide](bona)(bona fide) therapeutic interventions were equally effective for treating certain conditions in adults. Along with [psychotherapy](interpersonal)(interpersonal psychotherapy) (IPT), CBT is recommended in treatment guidelines as a psychosocial treatment of choice. ## History ### Early roots Precursors of certain fundamental aspects of CBT have been identified in various ancient philosophical traditions, particularly [Stoicism](Stoicism). Stoic philosophers, particularly [Epictetus](Epictetus), believed logic could be used to identify and discard false beliefs that lead to destructive emotions, which has influenced the way modern cognitive-behavioral therapists identify cognitive distortions that contribute to depression and anxiety. [T. Beck](Aaron)(Aaron T. Beck)'s original treatment manual for depression states, "The philosophical origins of cognitive therapy can be traced back to the Stoic philosophers". Another example of Stoic influence on cognitive theorists is [Epictetus](Epictetus) on [Ellis](Albert)(Albert Ellis). A key philosophical figure who influenced the development of CBT was [Stuart Mill](John)(John Stuart Mill). The modern roots of CBT can be traced to the development of [therapy](behavior)(behavior therapy) in the early 20th century, the development of [therapy](cognitive)(cognitive therapy) in the 1960s, and the subsequent merging of the two. ### First wave: behavior therapy roots [[File:John Broadus Watson.JPG\|thumb\|[B. Watson](John)(John B. Watson)]] Groundbreaking work of behaviorism began with [B. Watson](John)(John B. Watson) and [Rayner](Rosalie)(Rosalie Rayner)'s studies of conditioning in 1920. Behaviorally-centered therapeutic approaches appeared as early as 1924 with [Cover Jones](Mary)(Mary Cover Jones)' work dedicated to the unlearning of fears in children. These were the antecedents of the development of [Wolpe](Joseph)(Joseph Wolpe)'s behavioral therapy in the 1950s. It was the work of Wolpe and Watson, which was based on [Pavlov](Ivan)(Ivan Pavlov)'s work on learning and conditioning, that influenced [Eysenck](Hans)(Hans Eysenck) and [Lazarus](Arnold)(Arnold Lazarus) to develop new behavioral therapy techniques based on [conditioning](classical)(classical conditioning). During the 1950s and 1960s, behavioral therapy became widely used by researchers in the United States, the United Kingdom, and South Africa. Their inspiration was by the [behaviorist](Behaviorism) learning theory of [Pavlov](Ivan)(Ivan Pavlov), [B. Watson](John)(John B. Watson), and [L. Hull](Clark)(Clark L. Hull). In Britain, [Wolpe](Joseph)(Joseph Wolpe), who applied the findings of animal experiments to his method of [desensitization](systematic)(systematic desensitization), applied behavioral research to the treatment of neurotic disorders. Wolpe's therapeutic efforts were precursors to today's fear reduction techniques. British psychologist [Eysenck](Hans)(Hans Eysenck) presented behavior therapy as a constructive alternative. At the same time as Eysenck's work, [F. Skinner](B.)(B. F. Skinner) and his associates were beginning to have an impact with their work on [conditioning](operant)(operant conditioning). Skinner's work was referred to as [behaviorism](radical)(radical behaviorism) and avoided anything related to cognition. However, [Rotter](Julian)(Julian Rotter) in 1954 and [Bandura](Albert)(Albert Bandura) in 1969 contributed behavior therapy with their respective work on [learning theory](social)(social learning theory) by demonstrating the effects of cognition on learning and behavior modification. The work of the Australian [Weekes](Claire)(Claire Weekes) dealing with anxiety disorders in the 1960s is also seen as a prototype of behavior therapy. The emphasis on behavioral factors constituted the "first wave" of CBT. ### Second wave: cognitive therapy roots One of the first therapists to address cognition in psychotherapy was [Adler](Alfred)(Alfred Adler) (1870–1937), notably with his idea of [mistakes](basic)(Classical Adlerian psychology) and how they contributed to creation of unhealthy or useless behavioral and life goals. [Low](Abraham)(Abraham Low) (1891–1954) believed that someone's thoughts were best changed by changing their actions. Adler and Low influenced the work of [Ellis](Albert)(Albert Ellis), who developed the earliest cognitive-based psychotherapy called rational emotive therapy (contemporarily known as [emotive behavioral therapy](rational)(Rational emotive behavior therapy), or REBT). The first version was announced to the public in 1956. In the late 1950s, [T. Beck](Aaron)(Aaron T. Beck) was conducting [association](free)(Free association (psychology)) sessions in his [psychoanalytic](Psychoanalysis) practice. During these sessions, Beck noticed that thoughts were not as unconscious as [Freud](Sigmund Freud) had previously theorized, and that certain types of thinking may be the culprits of emotional distress. It was from this hypothesis that Beck developed [therapy](cognitive)(cognitive therapy), and called these thoughts "automatic thoughts". He first published his new methodology in 1967, and his first treatment manual in 1979. Beck has been referred to as "the father of cognitive behavioral therapy". It was these two therapies, rational emotive therapy, and cognitive therapy, that started the "second wave" of CBT, which was the emphasis on cognitive factors. ### Third wave: behavior and cognitive therapies merge Although the early behavioral approaches were successful in many of the [disorders](neurotic)(neurotic disorders), they had little success in treating [depression](Major depressive disorder). Behaviorism was also losing in popularity due to the [revolution](cognitive)(cognitive revolution). The therapeutic approaches of [Ellis](Albert)(Albert Ellis (psychologist)) and [T. Beck](Aaron)(Aaron T. Beck) gained popularity among behavior therapists, despite the earlier behaviorist rejection of [mentalistic](Mentalism (psychology)) concepts like thoughts and cognitions. Both of these systems included behavioral elements and interventions, with the primary focus being on problems in the present. In initial studies, cognitive therapy was often contrasted with behavioral treatments to see which was most effective. During the 1980s and 1990s, cognitive and behavioral techniques were merged into cognitive behavioral therapy. Pivotal to this merging was the successful development of treatments for [disorder](panic)(panic disorder) by [M. Clark](David)(David M. Clark) in the UK and [H. Barlow](David)(David H. Barlow) in the US. Over time, cognitive behavior therapy came to be known not only as a therapy, but as an umbrella term for all cognitive-based psychotherapies. These therapies include, but are not limited to, [emotive behavior therapy (REBT)](rational)(Rational emotive behavior therapy), [therapy](cognitive)(cognitive therapy), [and commitment therapy](acceptance)(acceptance and commitment therapy), [behavior therapy](dialectical)(dialectical behavior therapy), [therapy](metacognitive)(metacognitive therapy), [training](metacognitive)(metacognitive training), [therapy](reality)(reality therapy)/[theory](choice)(Glasser's choice theory), [processing therapy](cognitive)(cognitive processing therapy), [EMDR](Eye movement desensitization and reprocessing), and [therapy](multimodal)(multimodal therapy). All of these therapies are a blending of cognitive- and behavior-based elements. This blending of theoretical and technical foundations from both [behavior](Behaviour therapy#"Third generation") and cognitive therapies constituted the "third wave" of CBT. The most prominent therapies of this third wave are [behavior therapy](dialectical)(dialectical behavior therapy) and [and commitment therapy](acceptance)(acceptance and commitment therapy). Despite the increasing popularity of third-wave treatment approaches, reviews of studies reveal there may be no difference in the effectiveness compared with non-third wave CBT for the treatment of depression. ## Description Mainstream cognitive behavioral therapy assumes that changing [maladaptive](maladaptive) thinking leads to change in [behavior](behavior) and [affect](Affect (psychology)), but recent variants emphasize changes in one's relationship to maladaptive thinking rather than changes in thinking itself. The goal of cognitive behavioral therapy is not to diagnose a person with a particular disease, but to look at the person as a whole and decide what can be altered. ### Cognitive distortions Therapists or computer-based programs use CBT techniques to help people challenge their patterns and beliefs and replace errors in thinking, known as [distortions](cognitive)(cognitive distortions), such as "overgeneralizing, magnifying negatives, minimizing positives and catastrophizing" with "more realistic and effective thoughts, thus decreasing emotional distress and self-defeating behavior". Cognitive distortions can be either a pseudo-discrimination belief or an overgeneralization of something. CBT techniques may also be used to help individuals take a more open, mindful, and aware posture toward cognitive distortions so as to diminish their impact. ### Skills Mainstream CBT helps individuals replace "maladaptive ... coping skills, cognitions, emotions and behaviors with more adaptive ones", by challenging an individual's way of thinking and the way that they react to certain habits or behaviors, but there is still controversy about the degree to which these traditional cognitive elements account for the effects seen with CBT over and above the earlier behavioral elements such as exposure and skills training. ### Phases in therapy CBT can be seen as having six phases: # Assessment or [assessment](psychological)(psychological assessment); # Reconceptualization; # Skills acquisition; # Skills consolidation and application training; # [Generalization](Generalization) and maintenance; # Post-treatment assessment follow-up. These steps are based on a system created by Kanfer and Saslow. After identifying the behaviors that need changing, whether they be in excess or deficit, and treatment has occurred, the psychologist must identify whether or not the intervention succeeded. For example, "If the goal was to decrease the behavior, then there should be a decrease relative to the baseline. If the critical behavior remains at or above the baseline, then the intervention has failed." The steps in the assessment phase include: # Identify critical behaviors; # Determine whether critical behaviors are excesses or deficits; # Evaluate critical behaviors for frequency, duration, or intensity (obtain a baseline); # If excess, attempt to decrease frequency, duration, or intensity of behaviors; if deficits, attempt to increase behaviors. The re-conceptualization phase makes up much of the "cognitive" portion of CBT. A summary of modern CBT approaches is given by Hofmann. ### Delivery protocols There are different protocols for delivering cognitive behavioral therapy, with important similarities among them. Use of the term CBT may refer to different interventions, including "self-instructions (e.g. distraction, imagery, motivational self-talk), relaxation and/or [biofeedback](biofeedback), development of adaptive coping strategies (e.g. minimizing negative or self-defeating thoughts), changing maladaptive beliefs about pain, and [setting](goal)(goal setting)". Treatment is sometimes manualized, with brief, direct, and time-limited treatments for individual psychological disorders that are specific technique-driven. CBT is used in both individual and group settings, and the techniques are often adapted for [self-help](self-help) applications. Some clinicians and researchers are cognitively oriented (e.g. [restructuring](cognitive)(cognitive restructuring)), while others are more behaviorally oriented (e.g. [vivo](in)(in vivo) [therapy](exposure)(exposure therapy)). Interventions such as imaginal exposure therapy combine both approaches. ### Related techniques CBT may be delivered in conjunction with a variety of diverse but related techniques such as [therapy](exposure)(exposure therapy), [inoculation](stress)(stress inoculation), [processing therapy](cognitive)(cognitive processing therapy), [therapy](cognitive)(cognitive therapy), [therapy](metacognitive)(metacognitive therapy), [training](metacognitive)(metacognitive training), [training](relaxation)(relaxation training), [behavior therapy](dialectical)(dialectical behavior therapy), and [and commitment therapy](acceptance)(acceptance and commitment therapy). Some practitioners promote a form of mindful cognitive therapy which includes a greater emphasis on self-awareness as part of the therapeutic process. ## Medical uses In adults, CBT has been shown to be an effective part of treatment plans for [disorder](anxiety)(anxiety disorder)s, [dysmorphic disorder](body)(body dysmorphic disorder), [depression](Depression (mood)), [disorder](eating)(eating disorder)s, chronic [back pain](low)(low back pain), [disorder](personality)(personality disorder)s, [psychosis](psychosis), [schizophrenia](schizophrenia), [use disorder](substance)(substance use disorder)s, and bipolar disorder. It is also effective as part of treatment plans in the adjustment, depression, and anxiety associated with [fibromyalgia](fibromyalgia), and with post-[cord injuries](spinal)(Spinal cord injury). In children or adolescents, CBT is an effective part of treatment plans for anxiety disorders, body dysmorphic disorder, depression and [suicidality](Suicidal ideation), eating disorders and [obesity](obesity), [disorder](obsessive–compulsive)(obsessive–compulsive disorder) (OCD), and [stress disorder](post-traumatic)(post-traumatic stress disorder) (PTSD), as well as [disorder](tic)(tic disorder)s, [trichotillomania](trichotillomania), and other repetitive behavior disorders. CBT has also been applied to a variety of childhood disorders, including depressive disorders and various anxiety disorders. CBT has shown to be the most effective intervention for people exposed to [childhood experiences](adverse)(adverse childhood experiences) in the form of abuse or neglect. Criticism of CBT sometimes focuses on implementations (such as the UK [IAPT](Improving Access to Psychological Therapies)) which may result initially in low quality therapy being offered by poorly trained practitioners. However, evidence supports the effectiveness of CBT for anxiety and depression. Evidence suggests that the addition of [hypnotherapy](hypnotherapy) as an adjunct to CBT improves treatment efficacy for a variety of clinical issues. The United Kingdom's [Institute for Health and Care Excellence](National)(National Institute for Health and Care Excellence) (NICE) recommends CBT in the treatment plans for a number of [health](mental)(mental health) difficulties, including PTSD, OCD, [nervosa](bulimia)(bulimia nervosa), and [depression](clinical)(clinical depression). ### Patient age CBT is used to help people of all ages, but the therapy should be adjusted based on the age of the patient with whom the therapist is dealing. Older individuals in particular have certain characteristics that need to be acknowledged and the therapy altered to account for these differences thanks to age. Of the small number of studies examining CBT for the management of depression in older people, there is currently no strong support. ### Depression and anxiety disorders Cognitive behavioral therapy has been shown as an effective treatment for clinical depression. The [Psychiatric Association](American)(American Psychiatric Association) Practice Guidelines (April 2000) indicated that, among psychotherapeutic approaches, cognitive behavioral therapy and [psychotherapy](interpersonal)(interpersonal psychotherapy) had the best-documented efficacy for treatment of [depressive disorder](major)(major depressive disorder). A 2001 meta-analysis comparing CBT and [psychotherapy](psychodynamic)(psychodynamic psychotherapy) suggested the approaches were equally effective in the short term for depression. In contrast, a 2013 meta-analyses suggested that CBT, [therapy](interpersonal)(interpersonal therapy), and [therapy](problem-solving)(problem-solving therapy) outperformed psychodynamic psychotherapy and [activation](behavioral)(behavioral activation) in the treatment of depression. According to a 2004 review by [INSERM](INSERM) of three methods, cognitive behavioral therapy was either proven or presumed to be an effective therapy on several [disorder](mental)(mental disorder)s. This included [depression](Depression (mood)), [disorder](panic)(panic disorder), [stress](post-traumatic)(Post-traumatic stress disorder), and other anxiety disorders. CBT has been shown to be effective in the treatment of adults with anxiety disorders. Results from a 2018 systematic review found a high strength of evidence that CBT-exposure therapy can reduce PTSD symptoms and lead to the loss of a PTSD diagnosis. CBT has also been shown to be effective for post-traumatic stress disorder in very young children (3 to 6 years of age). A Cochrane review found low quality evidence that CBT may be more effective than other psychotherapies in reducing symptoms of posttraumatic stress disorder in children and adolescents. A [review](systematic)(systematic review) of CBT in depression and anxiety disorders concluded that "CBT delivered in primary care, especially including computer- or Internet-based self-help programs, is potentially more effective than usual care and could be delivered effectively by primary care therapists." Some meta-analyses find CBT more effective than psychodynamic therapy and equal to other therapies in treating anxiety and depression. #### Theoretical approaches One [etiological](Etiology) theory of depression is [T. Beck](Aaron)(Aaron T. Beck)'s cognitive theory of depression. His theory states that depressed people think the way they do because their thinking is biased towards negative interpretations. According to this theory, depressed people acquire a negative [schema](Schema (psychology)) of the world in childhood and adolescence as an effect of stressful life events, and the negative schema is activated later in life when the person encounters similar situations. Beck also described a negative [triad](cognitive)(Beck's cognitive triad). The cognitive triad is made up of the depressed individual's negative evaluations of themselves, the world, and the future. Beck suggested that these negative evaluations derive from the negative schemata and cognitive biases of the person. According to this theory, depressed people have views such as "I never do a good job", "It is impossible to have a good day", and "things will never get better". A negative schema helps give rise to the cognitive bias, and the cognitive bias helps fuel the negative schema. Beck further proposed that depressed people often have the following cognitive biases: [inference](arbitrary)(arbitrary inference), [abstraction](selective)(selective abstraction), overgeneralization, magnification, and [minimization](Minimisation (psychology)). These cognitive biases are quick to make negative, generalized, and personal inferences of the self, thus fueling the negative schema. A basic concept in some CBT treatments used in anxiety disorders is in vivo [exposure](Exposure therapy). CBT-exposure therapy refers to the direct confrontation of feared objects, activities, or situations by a patient. For example, a woman with PTSD who fears the location where she was assaulted may be assisted by her therapist in going to that location and directly confronting those fears. Division 12\|website=div12.org/}} Likewise, a person with a social anxiety disorder who fears public speaking may be instructed to directly confront those fears by giving a speech. This "two-factor" model is often credited to [Hobart Mowrer](O.)(Orval Hobart Mowrer). Through exposure to the stimulus, this harmful conditioning can be "unlearned" (referred to as [extinction](Extinction (psychology)) and [habituation](habituation)). CBT for children with phobias is normally delivered over multiple sessions, but one-session treatment has been shown to be equally effective and is cheaper. #### Specialised forms of CBT CBT-SP, an adaptation of CBT for suicide prevention (SP), was specifically designed for treating youths who are severely depressed and who have recently attempted suicide within the past 90 days, and was found to be effective, feasible, and acceptable. [and commitment therapy](Acceptance)(Acceptance and commitment therapy) (ACT) is a specialist branch of CBT (sometimes referred to as contextual CBT). ACT uses mindfulness and acceptance interventions and has been found to have a greater longevity in therapeutic outcomes. In a study with anxiety, CBT and ACT improved similarly across all outcomes from pre- to post-treatment. However, during a 12-month follow-up, ACT proved to be more effective, showing that it is a highly viable lasting treatment model for anxiety disorders. Computerized CBT (CCBT) has been proven to be effective by randomized controlled and other trials in treating depression and anxiety disorders, including children. Some research has found similar effectiveness to an intervention of informational websites and weekly telephone calls. CCBT was found to be equally effective as face-to-face CBT in adolescent anxiety. #### Combined with other treatments Studies have provided evidence that when examining animals and humans, that [glucocorticoid](glucocorticoid)s may lead to a more successful extinction learning during exposure therapy for anxiety disorders. For instance, glucocorticoids can prevent aversive learning episodes from being retrieved and heighten reinforcement of memory traces creating a non-fearful reaction in feared situations. A combination of glucocorticoids and exposure therapy may be a better-improved treatment for treating people with anxiety disorders. #### Prevention For anxiety disorders, use of CBT with people at risk has significantly reduced the number of episodes of generalized anxiety disorder and other anxiety symptoms, and also given significant improvements in explanatory style, hopelessness, and dysfunctional attitudes. In another study, 3% of the group receiving the CBT intervention developed generalized anxiety disorder by 12 months postintervention compared with 14% in the control group. Individuals with subthreshold levels of panic disorder significantly benefitted from use of CBT. Use of CBT was found to significantly reduce social anxiety prevalence. For depressive disorders, a stepped-care intervention (watchful waiting, CBT and medication if appropriate) achieved a 50% lower incidence rate in a patient group aged 75 or older. Another depression study found a neutral effect compared to personal, social, and health education, and usual school provision, and included a comment on potential for increased depression scores from people who have received CBT due to greater self recognition and acknowledgement of existing symptoms of depression and negative thinking styles. A further study also saw a neutral result. A meta-study of the Coping with Depression course, a cognitive behavioral intervention delivered by a psychoeducational method, saw a 38% reduction in risk of major depression. ### Bipolar disorder Many studies show CBT, combined with pharmacotherapy, is effective in improving depressive symptoms, [mania](mania) severity and psychosocial functioning with mild to moderate effects, and that it is better than medication alone. [INSERM](INSERM)'s 2004 review found that CBT is an effective therapy for several mental disorders, including bipolar disorder. This included schizophrenia, [depression](Depression (mood)), [disorder](bipolar)(bipolar disorder), [disorder](panic)(panic disorder), [stress](post-traumatic)(Post-traumatic stress disorder), anxiety disorders, [bulimia](bulimia), [anorexia](Anorexia nervosa), personality disorders and [dependency](alcohol)(Alcoholism). ### Psychosis In long-term [psychoses](Psychosis), CBT is used to complement medication and is adapted to meet individual needs. Interventions particularly related to these conditions include exploring reality testing, changing delusions and hallucinations, examining factors which precipitate relapse, and managing relapses. Meta-analyses confirm the effectiveness of [training](metacognitive)(metacognitive training) (MCT) for the improvement of positive symptoms (e.g., delusions). For people at risk of [psychosis](psychosis), in 2014 the UK [Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE)](National)(National Institute for Health and Care Excellence) recommended preventive CBT. ### Schizophrenia [INSERM](INSERM)'s 2004 review found that CBT is an effective therapy for several mental disorders, including schizophrenia. A Cochrane review reported CBT had "no effect on long‐term risk of relapse" and no additional effect above standard care. A 2015 [review](systematic)(systematic review) investigated the effects of CBT compared with other psychosocial therapies for people with schizophrenia and determined that there is no clear advantage over other, often less expensive, interventions but acknowledged that better quality evidence is needed before firm conclusions can be drawn. ### Addiction and substance use disorders #### Pathological and problem gambling CBT is also used for [and problem gambling](pathological)(problem gambling). The percentage of people who problem gamble is 1–3% around the world. Cognitive behavioral therapy develops skills for relapse prevention and someone can learn to control their mind and manage high-risk cases. There is evidence of efficacy of CBT for treating pathological and problem gambling at immediate follow up, however the longer term efficacy of CBT for it is currently unknown. #### Smoking cessation CBT looks at the habit of smoking cigarettes as a learned behavior, which later evolves into a coping strategy to handle daily stressors. Since smoking is often easily accessible and quickly allows the user to feel good, it can take precedence over other coping strategies, and eventually work its way into everyday life during non-stressful events as well. CBT aims to target the function of the behavior, as it can vary between individuals, and works to inject other coping mechanisms in place of smoking. CBT also aims to support individuals with strong cravings, which are a major reported reason for relapse during treatment. In a 2008 controlled study out of Stanford University School of Medicine suggested CBT may be an effective tool to help maintain abstinence. The results of 304 random adult participants were tracked over the course of one year. During this program, some participants were provided medication, CBT, 24-hour phone support, or some combination of the three methods. At 20 weeks, the participants who received CBT had a 45% abstinence rate, versus non-CBT participants, who had a 29% abstinence rate. Overall, the study concluded that emphasizing cognitive and behavioral strategies to support smoking cessation can help individuals build tools for long term smoking abstinence. Mental health history can affect the outcomes of treatment. Individuals with a history of depressive disorders had a lower rate of success when using CBT alone to combat smoking addiction. A Cochrane review was unable to find evidence of any difference between CBT and hypnosis for smoking cessation. While this may be evidence of no effect, further research may uncover an effect of CBT for smoking cessation. #### Substance use disorders Studies have shown CBT to be an effective treatment for substance use disorders. For individuals with substance use disorders, CBT aims to reframe maladaptive thoughts, such as denial, minimizing and catastrophizing thought patterns, with healthier narratives. Specific techniques include identifying potential triggers and developing coping mechanisms to manage high-risk situations. Research has shown CBT to be particularly effective when combined with other therapy-based treatments or medication. [INSERM](INSERM)'s 2004 review found that CBT is an effective therapy for several mental disorders, including [dependency](alcohol)(Alcoholism). #### Internet addiction Research has identified [addiction](Internet)(Internet addiction disorder) as a new clinical disorder that causes relational, occupational, and social problems. Cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) has been suggested as the treatment of choice for Internet addiction, and addiction recovery in general has used CBT as part of treatment planning. ### Eating disorders Though many forms of [treatment](Eating disorder#Treatment) can support individuals with eating disorders, CBT is proven to be a more effective treatment than medications and interpersonal psychotherapy alone. CBT aims to combat major causes of distress such as negative cognitions surrounding body weight, shape and size. CBT therapists also work with individuals to regulate strong emotions and thoughts that lead to dangerous compensatory behaviors. CBT is the first line of treatment for [nervosa](bulimia)(Bulimia nervosa#Psychotherapy), and Eating Disorder Non-Specific. While there is evidence to support the efficacy of CBT for bulimia nervosa and binging, the evidence is somewhat variable and limited by small study sizes. [INSERM](INSERM)'s 2004 review found that CBT is an effective therapy for several mental disorders, including [bulimia](bulimia) and [nervosa](anorexia)(anorexia nervosa). ### With autistic adults Emerging evidence for cognitive behavioral interventions aimed at reducing symptoms of depression, anxiety, and obsessive-compulsive disorder in [autistic](Autism spectrum) adults without intellectual disability has been identified through a systematic review. While the research was focused on adults, cognitive behavioral interventions have also been beneficial to autistic children. ### Dementia and mild cognitive impairment A Cochrane review in 2022 found that adults with [dementia](dementia) and [cognitive impairment (MCI)](mild)(Mild cognitive impairment) who experience symptoms of depression may benefit from CBT, whereas other counselling or supportive interventions might not improve symptoms significantly. Across 5 different psychometric scales, where higher scores indicate severity of depression, adults receiving CBT reported somewhat lower mood scores than those receiving usual care for dementia and MCI overall. In this review, a sub-group analysis found [significant](clinically)(clinically significant) benefits only among those diagnosed with dementia, rather than MCI. The likelihood of remission from depression also appeared to be 84% higher following CBT, though the evidence for this was less certain. Anxiety, cognition and other neuropsychiatric symptoms were not significantly improved following CBT, however this review did find moderate evidence of improved quality of life and daily living activity scores in those with dementia and MCI. ### Other uses Evidence suggests a possible role for CBT in the treatment of [deficit hyperactivity disorder](attention)(attention deficit hyperactivity disorder) (ADHD), [hypochondriasis](hypochondriasis), and bipolar disorder, but more study is needed and results should be interpreted with caution. CBT has been studied as an aid in the treatment of anxiety associated with [stuttering](stuttering). Initial studies have shown CBT to be effective in reducing social anxiety in adults who stutter, but not in reducing stuttering frequency. There is some evidence that CBT is superior in the long-term to [benzodiazepine](benzodiazepine)s and the [nonbenzodiazepine](nonbenzodiazepine)s in the treatment and management of [insomnia](insomnia). Computerized CBT (CCBT) has been proven to be effective by randomized controlled and other trials in treating insomnia. Some research has found similar effectiveness to an intervention of informational websites and weekly telephone calls. CCBT was found to be equally effective as face-to-face CBT in [insomnia](insomnia). A Cochrane review of interventions aimed at preventing psychological stress in healthcare workers found that CBT was more effective than no intervention but no more effective than alternative stress-reduction interventions. Cochrane Reviews have found no convincing evidence that CBT training helps [care](foster)(foster care) providers manage difficult behaviors in the youths under their care, nor was it helpful in treating people who [abuse](Domestic violence) their intimate partners. CBT has been applied in both clinical and non-clinical environments to treat disorders such as personality disorders and behavioral problems. [INSERM](INSERM)'s 2004 review found that CBT is an effective therapy for personality disorders. #### Individuals with medical conditions In the case of people with [breast cancer](metastatic)(metastatic breast cancer), data is limited but CBT and other psychosocial interventions might help with psychological outcomes and pain management. A 2015 Cochrane review also found that CBT for symptomatic management of non-specific chest pain is probably effective in the short term. However, the findings were limited by small trials and the evidence was considered of questionable quality. [reviews](Cochrane)(Cochrane Collaboration) have found no evidence that CBT is effective for [tinnitus](tinnitus), although there appears to be an effect on management of associated depression and quality of life in this condition. CBT combined with hypnosis and distraction reduces self-reported pain in children. There is limited evidence to support its use in coping with the impact of [sclerosis](multiple)(multiple sclerosis), sleep disturbances related to aging, and [dysmenorrhea](dysmenorrhea), but more study is needed and results should be interpreted with caution. Previously CBT has been considered as moderately effective for treating [fatigue syndrome](chronic)(chronic fatigue syndrome), however a [Institutes of Health](National)(National Institutes of Health) Pathways to Prevention Workshop stated that in respect of improving treatment options for ME/CFS that the modest benefit from cognitive behavioral therapy should be studied as an adjunct to other methods. The [for Disease Control](Centres)(Centres for Disease Control) advice on the treatment of ME/CFS makes no reference to CBT while the [Institute for Health and Care Excellence](National)(National Institute for Health and Care Excellence) states that cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) has sometimes been assumed to be a cure for ME/CFS, however, it should only be offered to support people who live with ME/CFS to manage their symptoms, improve their functioning and reduce the distress associated with having a chronic illness." ## Methods of access ### Therapist A typical CBT programme would consist of face-to-face sessions between patient and therapist, made up of 6–18 sessions of around an hour each with a gap of 1–3 weeks between sessions. This initial programme might be followed by some booster sessions, for instance after one month and three months. CBT has also been found to be effective if patient and therapist type in real time to each other over computer links. Cognitive-behavioral therapy is most closely allied with the [model](scientist–practitioner)(scientist–practitioner model) in which clinical practice and research are informed by a scientific perspective, clear [operationalization](operationalization) of the problem, and an emphasis on [measurement](measurement), including measuring changes in cognition and behavior and the attainment of [goal](goal)s. These are often met through "[homework](Homework in psychotherapy)" assignments in which the patient and the therapist work together to craft an assignment to complete before the next session. The completion of these assignments – which can be as simple as a person with depression attending some kind of social event – indicates a dedication to treatment compliance and a desire to change. The therapists can then logically gauge the next step of treatment based on how thoroughly the patient completes the assignment. Effective cognitive behavioral therapy is dependent on a [alliance](therapeutic)(Therapeutic relationship) between the healthcare practitioner and the person seeking assistance. Unlike many other forms of psychotherapy, the patient is very involved in CBT. For example, an anxious patient may be asked to talk to a stranger as a homework assignment, but if that is too difficult, he or she can work out an easier assignment first. The therapist needs to be flexible and willing to listen to the patient rather than acting as an authority figure. ### Computerized or Internet-delivered (CCBT) Computerized cognitive behavioral therapy (CCBT) has been described by [NICE](National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence) as a "generic term for delivering CBT via an interactive computer interface delivered by a personal computer, internet, or interactive voice response system", instead of face-to-face with a human therapist. It is also known as internet-delivered cognitive behavioral therapy or ICBT. CCBT has potential to improve access to evidence-based therapies, and to overcome the prohibitive costs and lack of availability sometimes associated with retaining a human therapist. In this context, it is important not to confuse CBT with 'computer-based training', which nowadays is more commonly referred to as [e-Learning](e-Learning). Although improvements in both research quality and treatment adherence is required before advocating for the global dissemination of CCBT, it has been found in meta-studies to be cost-effective and often cheaper than usual care,MoodGYM was superior to informational websites in terms of psychological outcomes or service use including for anxiety and PTSD. Studies have shown that individuals with social anxiety and depression experienced improvement with online CBT-based methods. A study assessing an online version of CBT for people with mild-to-moderate PTSD found that the online approach was as effective as, and cheaper than, the same therapy given face-to-face. A review of current CCBT research in the treatment of OCD in children found this interface to hold great potential for future treatment of OCD in youths and adolescent populations. Additionally, most [interventions for post-traumatic stress disorder](internet)(Internet Interventions for Posttraumatic Stress) use CCBT. CCBT is also predisposed to treating mood disorders amongst non-heterosexual populations, who may avoid face-to-face therapy from fear of stigma. However presently CCBT programs seldom cater to these populations. In February 2006 NICE recommended that CCBT be made available for use within the [NHS](National Health Service) across England and Wales for patients presenting with mild-to-moderate depression, rather than immediately opting for antidepressant medication, and CCBT is made available by some health systems. The 2009 NICE guideline recognized that there are likely to be a number of computerized CBT products that are useful to patients, but removed endorsement of any specific product. ### Smartphone app-delivered Another new method of access is the use of [app](mobile)(mobile app) or smartphone applications to deliver self-help or guided CBT. Technology companies are developing mobile-based artificial intelligence [chatbot](chatbot) applications in delivering CBT as an early intervention to support [health](mental)(mental health), to build [resilience](psychological)(psychological resilience), and to promote [well-being](emotional)(emotional well-being). [intelligence](Artificial)(Artificial intelligence) (AI) text-based conversational application delivered securely and privately over smartphone devices have the ability to scale globally and offer contextual and always-available support. Active research is underway including real-world data studies that measure effectiveness and engagement of text-based smartphone chatbot apps for delivery of CBT using a text-based conversational interface. Recent market research and analysis of over 500 online mental healthcare solutions identified 3 key challenges in this market: quality of the content, guidance of the user and personalisation. ### Reading self-help materials Enabling patients to read self-help CBT guides has been shown to be effective by some studies. However one study found a negative effect in patients who tended to ruminate, and another meta-analysis found that the benefit was only significant when the self-help was guided (e.g. by a medical professional). ### Group educational course Patient participation in group courses has been shown to be effective. In a meta-analysis reviewing evidence-based treatment of OCD in children, individual CBT was found to be more efficacious than group CBT. ## Types ### Brief cognitive behavioral therapy Brief cognitive behavioral therapy (BCBT) is a form of CBT which has been developed for situations in which there are time constraints on the therapy sessions and specifically for those struggling with suicidal ideation and/or making suicide attempts. BCBT was based on Rudd's proposed "suicidal mode", an elaboration of Beck's modal theory.Rudd, M.D. The suicidal mode: A cognitive behavioral model of suicidality. Suicide Life Threat Behav.2000 Spring;30(1):18-33. BCBT takes place over a couple of sessions that can last up to 12 accumulated hours by design. This technique was first implemented and developed with soldiers on active duty by Dr. [David Rudd](M.)(M. David Rudd) to prevent suicide. Breakdown of treatment # Orientation ## Commitment to treatment ## Crisis response and safety planning ## Means restriction ## Survival kit ## Reasons for living card ## Model of suicidality ## Treatment journal ## Lessons learned # Skill focus ## Skill development worksheets ## Coping cards ## Demonstration ## Practice ## Skill refinement # [Relapse](Relapse) prevention ## Skill generalization ## Skill refinement ### Cognitive emotional behavioral therapy Cognitive emotional behavioral therapy (CEBT) is a form of CBT developed initially for individuals with eating disorders but now used with a range of problems including [anxiety](anxiety), [depression](Depression (mood)), [compulsive disorder](obsessive)(obsessive compulsive disorder) (OCD), [stress disorder](post-traumatic)(post-traumatic stress disorder) (PTSD) and anger problems. It combines aspects of CBT and [behavioral therapy](dialectical)(dialectical behavioral therapy) and aims to improve understanding and tolerance of emotions in order to facilitate the therapeutic process. It is frequently used as a "pretreatment" to prepare and better equip individuals for longer-term therapy. ### Structured cognitive behavioral training Structured cognitive-behavioral training (SCBT) is a cognitive-based process with core philosophies that draw heavily from CBT. Like CBT, SCBT asserts that behavior is inextricably related to beliefs, thoughts, and emotions. SCBT also builds on core CBT philosophy by incorporating other well-known modalities in the fields of [health](behavioral)(behavioral health) and [psychology](psychology): most notably, [Ellis](Albert)(Albert Ellis)'s [emotive behavior therapy](rational)(rational emotive behavior therapy). SCBT differs from CBT in two distinct ways. First, SCBT is delivered in a highly regimented format. Second, SCBT is a predetermined and finite training process that becomes personalized by the input of the participant. SCBT is designed to bring a participant to a specific result in a specific period of time. SCBT has been used to challenge addictive behavior, particularly with substances such as tobacco, alcohol and food, and to manage [diabetes](diabetes) and subdue stress and anxiety. SCBT has also been used in the field of [psychology](criminal)(criminal psychology) in the effort to reduce recidivism. ### Moral reconation therapy Moral reconation therapy, a type of CBT used to help felons overcome [personality disorder](antisocial)(antisocial personality disorder) (ASPD), slightly decreases the risk of further offending. It is generally implemented in a group format because of the risk of offenders with ASPD being given one-on-one therapy reinforces narcissistic behavioral characteristics, and can be used in correctional or outpatient settings. Groups usually meet weekly for two to six months. ### Stress inoculation training This type of therapy uses a blend of cognitive, behavioral, and certain humanistic training techniques to target the stressors of the client. This usually is used to help clients better cope with their stress or anxiety after stressful events. This is a three-phase process that trains the client to use skills that they already have to better adapt to their current stressors. The first phase is an interview phase that includes psychological testing, client self-monitoring, and a variety of reading materials. This allows the therapist to individually tailor the training process to the client. Clients learn how to categorize problems into emotion-focused or problem-focused so that they can better treat their negative situations. This phase ultimately prepares the client to eventually confront and reflect upon their current reactions to stressors, before looking at ways to change their reactions and emotions to their stressors. The focus is conceptualization. The second phase emphasizes the aspect of skills acquisition and rehearsal that continues from the earlier phase of conceptualization. The client is taught skills that help them cope with their stressors. These skills are then practised in the space of therapy. These skills involve self-regulation, problem-solving, interpersonal communication skills, etc. The third and final phase is the application and following through of the skills learned in the training process. This gives the client opportunities to apply their learned skills to a wide range of stressors. Activities include role-playing, imagery, modeling, etc. In the end, the client will have been trained on a preventive basis to inoculate personal, chronic, and future stressors by breaking down their stressors into problems they will address in long-term, short-term, and intermediate coping goals. ### Activity-guided CBT: Group-knitting A newly developed group therapy model based on CBT integrates knitting into the therapeutical process and has been proven to yield reliable and promising results. The foundation for this novel approach to CBT is the frequently emphasized notion that therapy success depends on the embeddedness of the therapy method in the patients' natural routine. Similar to standard group-based CBT, patients meet once a week in a group of 10 to 15 patients and knit together under the instruction of a trained psychologist or mental health professional. Central for the therapy is the patient's imaginative ability to assign each part of the wool to a certain thought. During the therapy, the wool is carefully knitted, creating a knitted piece of any form. This therapeutical process teaches the patient to meaningfully align thought, by (physically) creating a coherent knitted piece. Moreover, since CBT emphasizes the behavior as a result of cognition, the knitting illustrates how thoughts (which are tried to be imaginary tight to the wool) materialize into the reality surrounding us.Corkhill, B., Hemmings, J., Maddock, A., & Riley, J. (2014). "Knitting and Well-being". Textile, 12(1), 34–57."Dugas, M. J., Ladouceur, R., Léger, E., Freeston, M. H., Langolis, F., Provencher, M. D., & Boisvert, J. M. (2003). "Group cognitive-behavioral therapy for generalized anxiety disorder: treatment outcome and long-term follow-up". Journal of consulting and clinical psychology, 71(4), 821. ### Mindfulness-based cognitive behavioral hypnotherapy Mindfulness-based cognitive behavioral hypnotherapy (MCBH) is a form of CBT focusing on awareness in reflective approach with addressing of subconscious tendencies. It is more the process that contains basically three phases that are used for achieving wanted goals. ### Unified Protocol The Unified Protocol for Transdiagnostic Treatment of Emotional Disorders (UP) is a form of CBT, developed by [H. Barlow](David)(David H. Barlow) and researchers at [University](Boston)(Boston University), that can be applied to a range of and anxiety disorders. The rationale is that anxiety and depression disorders often occur together due to [underlying causes](common)(Transdiagnostic process) and can efficiently be treated together. The UP includes a common set of components: # Psycho-education # Cognitive reappraisal # Emotion regulation # Changing behaviour The UP has been shown to produce equivalent results to single-diagnosis protocols for specific disorders, such as [OCD](OCD) and [anxiety disorder](social)(social anxiety disorder). Several studies have shown that the UP is easier to disseminate as compared to single-diagnosis protocols. ## Criticisms ### Relative effectiveness The research conducted for CBT has been a topic of sustained controversy. While some researchers write that CBT is more effective than other treatments, many other researchers and practitioners have questioned the validity of such claims. For example, one study determined CBT to be superior to other treatments in treating anxiety and depression. However, researchers responding directly to that study conducted a re-analysis and found no evidence of CBT being superior to other bona fide treatments, and conducted an analysis of thirteen other CBT clinical trials and determined that they failed to provide evidence of CBT superiority. In cases where CBT has been reported to be statistically better than other psychological interventions in terms of primary outcome measures, effect sizes were small and suggested that those differences were clinically meaningless and insignificant. Moreover, on secondary outcomes (i.e., measures of general functioning) no significant differences have been typically found between CBT and other treatments. A major criticism has been that clinical studies of CBT efficacy (or any psychotherapy) are not double-blind (i.e., either the subjects or the therapists in psychotherapy studies are not blind to the type of treatment). They may be single-blinded, i.e. the rater may not know the treatment the patient received, but neither the patients nor the therapists are blinded to the type of therapy given (two out of three of the persons involved in the trial, i.e., all of the persons involved in the treatment, are unblinded). The patient is an active participant in correcting negative distorted thoughts, thus quite aware of the treatment group they are in. The importance of double-blinding was shown in a meta-analysis that examined the effectiveness of CBT when placebo control and blindedness were factored in. Pooled data from published trials of CBT in [schizophrenia](schizophrenia), [depressive disorder](major)(major depressive disorder) (MDD), and [disorder](bipolar)(bipolar disorder) that used controls for non-specific effects of intervention were analyzed. This study concluded that CBT is no better than non-specific control interventions in the treatment of schizophrenia and does not reduce relapse rates; treatment effects are small in treatment studies of MDD, and it is not an effective treatment strategy for prevention of relapse in bipolar disorder. For MDD, the authors note that the pooled effect size was very low. ### Declining effectiveness Additionally, a 2015 meta-analysis revealed that the positive effects of CBT on depression have been declining since 1977. The overall results showed two different declines in [size](effect)(effect size)s: 1) an overall decline between 1977 and 2014, and 2) a steeper decline between 1995 and 2014. Additional sub-analysis revealed that CBT studies where therapists in the test group were instructed to adhere to the Beck CBT manual had a steeper decline in effect sizes since 1977 than studies where therapists in the test group were instructed to use CBT without a manual. The authors reported that they were unsure why the effects were declining but did list inadequate therapist training, failure to adhere to a manual, lack of therapist experience, and patients' hope and faith in its efficacy waning as potential reasons. The authors did mention that the current study was limited to depressive disorders only. ### High drop-out rates Furthermore, other researchers write that CBT studies have high drop-out rates compared to other treatments. One meta-analysis found that CBT drop-out rates were 17% higher than those of other therapies. This high drop-out rate is also evident in the treatment of several disorders, particularly the [disorder](eating)(eating disorder) [nervosa](anorexia)(anorexia nervosa), which is commonly treated with CBT. Those treated with CBT have a high chance of dropping out of therapy before completion and reverting to their anorexia behaviors. Other researchers analyzing treatments for youths who self-injure found similar drop-out rates in CBT and [DBT](Dialectical behavioral therapy) groups. In this study, the researchers analyzed several clinical trials that measured the efficacy of CBT administered to youths who self-injure. The researchers concluded that none of them were found to be efficacious. ### Philosophical concerns with CBT methods The methods employed in CBT research have not been the only criticisms; some individuals have called its theory and therapy into question. Slife and Williams write that one of the hidden assumptions in CBT is that of [determinism](determinism), or the absence of [will](free)(free will). They argue that CBT holds that external stimuli from the environment enter the mind, causing different thoughts that cause emotional states: nowhere in CBT theory is agency, or free will, accounted for. Another criticism of CBT theory, especially as applied to major depressive disorder (MDD), is that it confounds the symptoms of the disorder with its causes. ### Side effects CBT is generally regarded as having very few if any side effects. Calls have been made by some for more appraisal of possible side effects of CBT. Many randomized trials of psychological interventions like CBT do not monitor potential harms to the patient. In contrast, randomized trials of pharmacological interventions are much more likely to take adverse effects into consideration. A 2017 meta-analysis revealed that adverse events are not common in children receiving CBT and, furthermore, that CBT is associated with fewer dropouts than either placebo or medications. Nevertheless, CBT therapists do sometimes report 'unwanted events' and side effects in their outpatients with "negative wellbeing/distress" being the most frequent. ### Socio-political concerns The writer and group analyst Farhad Dalal questions the socio-political assumptions behind the introduction of CBT. According to one reviewer, Dalal connects the rise of CBT with "the parallel rise of [neoliberalism](neoliberalism), with its focus on marketization, efficiency, quantification and [managerialism](managerialism)", and he questions the scientific basis of CBT, suggesting that "the 'science' of psychological treatment is often less a scientific than a political contest". In his book, Dalal also questions the ethical basis of CBT. ## Society and culture The UK's [Health Service](National)(National Health Service (England)) announced in 2008 that more therapists would be trained to provide CBT at government expense as part of an initiative called [Access to Psychological Therapies](Improving)(Improving Access to Psychological Therapies) (IAPT). The [NICE](National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence) said that CBT would become the mainstay of treatment for non-severe depression, with medication used only in cases where CBT had failed. Therapists complained that the data does not fully support the attention and funding CBT receives. Psychotherapist and professor [Samuels](Andrew)(Andrew Samuels) stated that this constitutes "a coup, a power play by a community that has suddenly found itself on the brink of corralling an enormous amount of money ... Everyone has been seduced by CBT's apparent cheapness." The [Council for Psychotherapy](UK)(UK Council for Psychotherapy) issued a press release in 2012 saying that the IAPT's policies were undermining traditional psychotherapy and criticized proposals that would limit some approved therapies to CBT, claiming that they restricted patients to "a watered down version of cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT), often delivered by very lightly trained staff". The NICE also recommends offering CBT to people with schizophrenia, as well as those at risk of a psychotic episode. ## References ## Further reading * * * * * * * ## External links * * [Association for Behavioral and Cognitive Therapies (ABCT)](http://www.abct.org/) * [British Association for Behavioural and Cognitive Psychotherapies](http://www.babcp.com/) * [National Association of Cognitive-Behavioral Therapists](http://www.nacbt.org/) * [International Association of Cognitive Psychotherapy](http://www.the-iacp.com/) * [Information on Research-based CBT Treatments](https://web.archive.org/web/20180104180430/https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/topics/psychotherapies/index.shtml) * [Associated Counsellors & Psychologists CBT Therapists](https://www.counsellingsydney.com.au/cbt-cognitive-behavioural-therapy-psychologist/) [ ](Category:Cognitive behavioral therapy) [Category:Addiction](Category:Addiction) [medicine](Category:Addiction)(Category:Addiction medicine) [of obsessive–compulsive disorder](Category:Treatment)(Category:Treatment of obsessive–compulsive disorder)
Edgar Wright	edgar_wright	# Edgar Wright Revision ID: 1159696369 \| Timestamp: 2023-06-12T00:08:33Z --- \| birth_place = [Poole](Poole), [Dorset](Dorset), England \| years_active = 1994–present \| alma_mater = [and Poole College of Art and Design](Bournemouth)(Arts University Bournemouth) \| occupation = \| partner = \| spouse = \| website = }} Edgar Howard Wright (born 18 April 1974) is an English filmmaker. He is known for his fast-paced and kinetic, satirical [film](genre)(Film genre)s, which feature extensive utilisation of expressive popular music, [Steadicam](Steadicam) [shot](tracking)(tracking shot)s, [zoom](dolly)(dolly zoom)s and a signature editing style that includes transitions, [pan](whip)(whip pan)s and wipes. He began making independent short films before making his first feature film [Fistful of Fingers](A)(A Fistful of Fingers) in 1995. Wright created and directed the comedy series [Asylum](Asylum (1996 TV series)) in 1996, written with [Walliams](David)(David Walliams). After directing several other television shows, Wright directed the sitcom [Spaced](Spaced) (1999–2001), which aired for two series and starred frequent collaborators [Pegg](Simon)(Simon Pegg) and [Frost](Nick)(Nick Frost). In 2004, Wright directed the zombie comedy [of the Dead](Shaun)(Shaun of the Dead), starring Pegg and Frost, the first film in Wright's [Flavours Cornetto* trilogy](Three)(Three Flavours Cornetto trilogy). The film was co-written with Pegg—as were the next two entries in the trilogy, the [cop](buddy)(buddy cop) film [Fuzz](Hot)(Hot Fuzz)* (2007) and the science fiction comedy ''[World's End](The)(The World's End (film))* (2013). In 2010, Wright co-wrote and directed the action comedy film [Pilgrim vs. the World](Scott)(Scott Pilgrim vs. the World), an adaptation of [graphic novel series](the)(Scott Pilgrim). Along with [Cornish](Joe)(Joe Cornish (filmmaker)) and [Moffat](Steven)(Steven Moffat), he adapted [Adventures of Tintin](The)(The Adventures of Tintin (film)) (2011) for [Spielberg](Steven)(Steven Spielberg). Wright and Cornish co-wrote the screenplay for the [Cinematic Universe](Marvel)(Marvel Cinematic Universe) film [Ant-Man](Ant-Man (film)) in 2015, which Wright intended to direct but abandoned, citing creative differences. He has also directed the action film [Driver](Baby)(Baby Driver) (2017), and recently the documentary [Sparks Brothers](The)(The Sparks Brothers) (2021), as well as the psychological horror film [Night in Soho](Last)(Last Night in Soho)'' (2021). ## Early life and education Edgar Howard Wright was born on 18 April 1974 in [Poole](Poole), [Dorset](Dorset) and grew up predominantly in [Wells](Wells, Somerset) in [Somerset](Somerset). He has an older brother, Oscar, who is an artist. Edgar Wright \|url=https://amp.theguardian.com/film/2021/aug/05/edgar-wright-teenage-obsessions-vic-and-bob-changed-my-life\|access-date=2022-02-14\|website=The Guardian}} He attended [Blue School, Wells](The)(The Blue School, Wells) from 1985 to 1992, and is honoured by a plaque at the school. His school drama teacher, Peter Wild, later played a [role](cameo)(cameo role) in [Fuzz](Hot)(Hot Fuzz). At the age of 12, Wright took a girl to the 1987 film [Mannequin](Mannequin (1987 film)), but failed to kiss her due to the presence of a group of boys. This led to the demise of their romance, and the heartbreak Wright experienced would be instrumental in his career. Throughout the late 1980s and early 1990s, he directed many short films, first on a [Super-8](Super-8) camera that was a gift from a family member and later on a [Video-8](Video-8) camcorder that he won in a competition on the television-programme [Live](Going)(Going Live). These films were mostly comedic pastiches of popular genres, such as the super hero-inspired Carbolic Soap* and [Harry](Dirty)(Dirty Harry) tribute [Right](Dead)(Dead Right (film)) (which was featured on the DVD release of Hot Fuzz). From 1992 to 1994, Wright attended the Bournemouth and Poole College of Art and Design (now [University Bournemouth](Arts)(Arts University Bournemouth)) and received an [ND](National Diploma (United Kingdom)) in Audio-Visual Design. In June 2018 Arts University Bournemouth awarded Wright an Honorary Fellowship. On receiving the award Wright said that he still thought very fondly of his time there. ## Career ### 1995–2002: Early works and Spaced Wright made his feature film debut in 1995 with a low budget, independent [spoof](Parody) [western](Western (genre)), [Fistful of Fingers](A)(A Fistful of Fingers), which was picked up for a limited theatrical release and broadcast on the [TV](satellite)(Satellite television) channel [Movies](Sky)(Sky Movies). Despite Wright's dissatisfaction with the finished product, it caught the attention of comedians [Lucas](Matt)(Matt Lucas (comedian)) and [Walliams](David)(David Walliams), who subsequently chose him as the director of their [Comedy](Paramount)(Comedy Central (British TV channel)) channel production [and Peas](Mash)(Mash and Peas). During this time he also worked on [BBC](BBC)-programmes such as [It Bill Bailey?](Is)(Is It Bill Bailey?), ''[Sayle's Merry-Go-Round](Alexei)(Alexei Sayle's Merry-Go-Round)* and [Bernard's Stately Homes](Sir)(Sir Bernard's Stately Homes). In an interview with journalist and author [K. Elder](Robert)(Robert K. Elder) for [Film That Changed My Life](The)(The Film That Changed My Life), Wright attributes his edgy and comedic style to his love for [American Werewolf in London](An)(An American Werewolf in London)''. I've always been fascinated by horror films and genre films. And horror films harboured a fascination for me and always have been something I've wanted to watch and wanted to make. Equally, I'm very fascinated by comedy. I suppose the reason that this film changed my life is that very early on in my film-watching experiences, I saw a film that was so sophisticated in its tone and what it managed to achieve.Wright, Edgar. Interview by Robert K. Elder. The Film That Changed My Life. By Robert K. Elder. Chicago: Chicago Review Press, 2011. N. p. 6. Print. In 1998 writer/actors [Pegg](Simon)(Simon Pegg) and [Hynes](Jessica)(Jessica Hynes) were in the early stages of developing their sitcom [Spaced](Spaced)* for [4](Channel)(Channel 4) and thought of asking Wright to direct, having fondly remembered working with him on the 1996 Paramount comedy [Asylum](Asylum (1996 TV series)). Wright gave Spaced an unusual look for the sitcom genre, with dramatic camera angles and movement borrowed from the visual language of [fiction](science)(science fiction film) and [film](horror)(horror film)s. Instead of shying away from these influences Wright makes an active effort to show his referencing, adding a 'Homage-O-Meter' to all of his releases, a device that displays each directorial nod he has made during shooting. In 2002, he made appearances as a scientist and a technician named Eddie Yorque during both series of [Around You](Look)(Look Around You), a BBC-programme created by a member of the Spaced cast, [Serafinowicz](Peter)(Peter Serafinowicz). He also made two brief appearances in Spaced, one in which he can be seen, along with other crew members on the series, lying asleep in Daisy Steiner's squat as she prepares to leave for her new house. The other is a brief appearance during the montage in the episode "Gone" where Daisy describes to Tim what she thinks would be a fun night out for the two. Edgar is [on the tube](sitting)(London Underground) (with a beard) next to Tim and Daisy. ### 2003–2013: The Three Flavours Cornetto trilogy and Scott Pilgrim vs The World [[Wright by Gage Skidmore 2.jpg\|thumb\|left\|Wright in 2013](File:Edgar)] The critical success of Spaced paved the way for Wright and Pegg to move to the big screen with [of the Dead](Shaun)(Shaun of the Dead), a [comedy](zombie)(zombie comedy) which mixed a "Brit flick" [comedy](romantic)(romantic comedy) style with homages to the horror classics of [A. Romero](George)(George A. Romero) and [Raimi](Sam)(Sam Raimi). The film was a success critically and financially, and its rooting in American genre cinema helped to make it an international hit. The pair subsequently planned out a trilogy of British genre-comedies which were connected not by narrative but by their shared traits and motifs. The trilogy was named "[Three-Flavours-Cornetto-Trilogy](The)(The Three Flavours Cornetto Trilogy)" by the pair due to a running joke about the British ice cream product [Cornetto](Cornetto (ice cream)) and its effectiveness as a hangover cure. Wright explained to Clark Collis in an interview for [Weekly](Entertainment)(Entertainment Weekly), "We put that joke in Shaun of the Dead where Nick asks for a Cornetto first thing in the morning. When I was at college, it was my hangover cure—probably still is my hangover cure. Then we put it into Hot Fuzz because we thought it would be a funny recurring thing. One journalist in the United Kingdom said, 'Is this going to be your theme as a trilogy?' and I said, 'Yes, it's like [Kieślowski](Krzysztof)(Krzysztof Kieślowski)'s Three Colours trilogy. This is the Three Flavours Cornetto trilogy.' It was just a joke that stuck." Collis observes that the films also feature "a running gag involving garden fences." The second instalment was the comedy action thriller [Fuzz](Hot)(Hot Fuzz). Production started in March 2006 and the film was released in February 2007 in the United Kingdom and April 2007 in the United States. It revolves around Pegg's character, Nicholas Angel, a police officer who is transferred from London to rural Sandford, where grisly events soon take place. In 2007, Wright also directed a fake trailer insert for [Tarantino](Quentin)(Quentin Tarantino) and [Rodriguez](Robert)(Robert Rodriguez)'s [Grindhouse](Grindhouse (film)), called "Don't". It was a plotless trailer that mocked horror clichés, with lines such as, "If you... are thinking... of going ... into... this... house... DON'T!". In 2010, [Pilgrim vs. the World](Scott)(Scott Pilgrim vs. the World) was released; its over-$85 million budget dwarfed the £8 million budget of Hot Fuzz. The film, based on the [novel](graphic)(graphic novel) series [Pilgrim](Scott)(Scott Pilgrim), was co-written, co-produced and directed by Wright. It took in roughly half its budget in box office, in spite of its critical reception and praise from fellow directors such as [Smith](Kevin)(Kevin Smith), [Tarantino](Quentin)(Quentin Tarantino) and [Reitman](Jason)(Jason Reitman). In November 2011, [Adventures of Tintin](The)(The Adventures of Tintin (film)), directed by [Spielberg](Steven)(Steven Spielberg), produced by [Jackson](Peter)(Peter Jackson), and based on [Hergé](Hergé)'s [Adventures of Tintin](The)(The Adventures of Tintin) was released. Wright co-wrote the film with writing partner [Cornish](Joe)(Joe Cornish) and [Moffat](Steven)(Steven Moffat). The film also co-starred Wright's frequent collaborators Simon Pegg and [Frost](Nick)(Nick Frost). The third instalment of the trilogy, ''[World's End](The)(The World's End (film)), premiered in London on 10 July 2013. The film is about several friends who reunite when one decides to repeat a pub crawl they did 20 years earlier. They have to get to The World's End'' pub without ending up in the gutter to do this, but some unusual powers are at work and what happens to them may determine what happens to humans as a species. ### 2014–2017: Ant-Man and Baby Driver Wright had been developing a [film](live-action)(Ant-Man (film)) based on the [Comics](Marvel)(Marvel Comics) superhero [Ant-Man](Ant-Man) with Joe Cornish since 2006. However, on 23 May 2014, Wright and [Studios](Marvel)(Marvel Studios) issued a joint statement announcing that Wright would exit the movie due to creative differences. According to Wright, he had been hired as writer-director but became unhappy when Marvel wanted to write a new script. In 2017, he said: "The most diplomatic answer is I wanted to make a Marvel movie but I don't think they really wanted to make an Edgar Wright movie ... having written all my other movies, that's a tough thing to move forward. Suddenly becoming a director for hire on it, you’re sort of less emotionally invested and you start to wonder why you’re there, really." He was replaced by [Reed](Peyton)(Peyton Reed) as director, with [McKay](Adam)(Adam McKay) and star [Rudd](Paul)(Paul Rudd) rewriting the screenplay. He and Cornish received both screenplay and story credits, with Wright also credited as executive producer. In July 2014, Wright announced that his next film would be [Driver](Baby)(Baby Driver). Wright has described the film as "kind of like a musical", and [Hollywood](Deadline)(Deadline Hollywood) described it as "a collision of crime, action, music, and sound". The film stars [Elgort](Ansel)(Ansel Elgort), [Spacey](Kevin)(Kevin Spacey), [James](Lily)(Lily James), [González](Eiza)(Eiza González), [Hamm](Jon)(Jon Hamm), and [Foxx](Jamie)(Jamie Foxx). The film began production on 11 February 2016 in Atlanta, and was released on 28 June 2017. ### 2018–present: The Sparks-Brothers and Last Night in Soho In June 2018, Edgar announced he would be making [documentary](a)(The Sparks Brothers) on the cult [rock](pop)(pop rock) band [Sparks](Sparks (band)). He had covered the band's concert in London in May at the [Forum Kentish Town](O2)(O2 Forum Kentish Town). This concert would be included in the documentary. The film had its world premiere at the [Sundance Film Festival](2021)(2021 Sundance Film Festival) on 30 January 2021 and was theatrically released in North America on 18 June 2021, by Focus Features. In January 2019, it was announced that his next film will be a [horror](Horror film) [film](thriller)(thriller film) set in [London](London) and inspired by films such as ''[Look Now](Don't)(Don't Look Now)* and [Repulsion](Repulsion (film))''. In February 2019, it was revealed that the title was [Night in Soho](Last)(Last Night in Soho), with [Taylor-Joy](Anya)(Anya Taylor-Joy) attached to star. In February, [Smith](Matt)(Matt Smith (actor)) and [McKenzie](Thomasin)(Thomasin McKenzie) joined the cast. Other confirmed crew members include co-screenwriter [Wilson-Cairns](Krysty)(Krysty Wilson-Cairns), editor [Machliss](Paul)(Paul Machliss) (who edited four episodes of Spaced* in 2001 and all of Wright's films since Scott Pilgrim vs. the World) and Baby Driver production designer Marcus Rowland. The film was scheduled to be released on 25 September 2020 but was pushed back to 29 October 2021 owing to the [pandemic](COVID-19)(COVID-19 pandemic). #### Upcoming projects In November 2015, it was announced that Wright would direct and co-write with [Walliams](David)(David Walliams) a [Animation](DreamWorks)(DreamWorks Animation) film centred on "the concept of shadows", that has been in development since 2010. Shadows, as the film was known, was to be Wright's animation directorial debut. The film has been in development for a long time, changing directors. [Dindal](Mark)(Mark Dindal), who created the film's original story, was involved between 2010 and 2012, was replaced by [Carloni](Alessandro)(Alessandro Carloni) from 2012 to 2015, and Wright is slated to develop the film. Three drafts of script were written but the project is on hold due to staff changes at DreamWorks. In March 2020, it was announced that Wright would be directing an adaptation of the book Set My Heart To Five by Simon Stephenson, who will be also writing the screenplay. The film follows an android dentist named Jared in the year 2054, as he undergoes an emotional awakening after he is introduced to the world of 80s and 90s movies. The film is also set to be produced by [Title Films](Working)(Working Title Films) and [Features](Focus)(Focus Features). On 19 May 2020 it was announced that Wright has formed a production company with longtime collaborators [Park](Nira)(Nira Park), [Cornish](Joe)(Joe Cornish) and Rachel Prior called Complete Fiction. That same day, it was reported that the production company had inked a deal with [Netflix](Netflix) to tackle adaptations of [& Co.](Lockwood)(Lockwood & Co.), [Murders of Molly Southbourne](The)(The Murders of Molly Southbourne), and [City of Brass](The)(The City of Brass (novel)). The production company is also set to produce another Netflix original series, albeit one that is under wraps and has several feature films in development with [Title Films](Working)(Working Title Films). In June 2020, [Hollywood](Deadline)(Deadline Hollywood) reported that Wright would direct an adaptation of the 2019 novel The Chain by [McKinty](Adrian)(Adrian McKinty) for [Pictures](Universal)(Universal Pictures), with the screenplay written by [Goldman](Jane)(Jane Goldman). On 19 February 2021, Wright signed on to direct [Pictures](Paramount)(Paramount Pictures)' new film adaptation of [King](Stephen)(Stephen King)'s [Running Man](The)(The Running Man (King novel)), which will also be a remake of the [film version](1987)(The Running Man (1987 film)). Wright and [Bacall](Michael)(Michael Bacall) will re-imagine the story for a new audience, with the latter writing the screenplay. Other potential projects that Wright has developed include an expansion of his "Don't" fake trailer, adaptations of the TV series [Night Stalker](The)(Kolchak: The Night Stalker#Film adaptation), the book [Jungle](Grasshopper)(Grasshopper Jungle#Adaptation) and the book Fortunately, the Milk, as well as a sequel to Baby Driver. On 30 March 2023, Wright announced via Twitter that Scott Pilgrim would be returning as an "anime adaptation" with the film's original actors as the voice cast. ### Recurring cast-members ## Personal life Wright has stated in [Film That Changed My Life](The)(The Film That Changed My Life)'' that the film that most influenced him was [Landis](John)(John Landis)'s [American Werewolf in London](An)(An American Werewolf in London). Wright also mentioned [Raimi](Sam)(Sam Raimi)'s [Dead II](Evil)(Evil Dead II)* and the [brothers](Coen)(Coen brothers)' [Arizona](Raising)(Raising Arizona) as films that made him want to be a director. When he met Raimi and told him so, Raimi joked to him, "Don't say that, you make me feel old." In December 2007, Wright began guest programming at [theatre](Repertory)(Repertory theatre) the [Beverly Cinema](New)(New Beverly Cinema) following a sold-out screening of his films. He curated a two-week series of his favourite films dubbed "The Wright Stuff", hosting interviews with filmmakers and performers for each screening. The festival concluded with a double-bill of Evil Dead II and Raising Arizona. Wright returned for additional "The Wright Stuff" events in January 2011 and December 2011, the third series consisting of films Wright had been recommended by friends [Hader](Bill)(Bill Hader), [Waters](Daniel)(Daniel Waters (screenwriter)), [Tarantino](Quentin)(Quentin Tarantino), [Apatow](Judd)(Judd Apatow), [Whedon](Joss)(Joss Whedon), [Landis](John)(John Landis) and [Dante](Joe)(Joe Dante), but had never seen before. Wright's attempt to narrow the list based on public comment from visitors to his blog "produced another thousand suggestions." In August 2013, Wright programmed an additional double-feature series at the theater, "The World's End is Nigh", consisting of 12 movies that he called "stepping stones to our new movie" ''The World's End''. Wright is a friend of fellow director [Jennings](Garth)(Garth Jennings), and has made cameos in all of Jennings' films. Jennings himself had cameos in Shaun of the Dead, Hot Fuzz and ''The World's End. ## Filmography ### Film Writer/executive producer* * [the Block](Attack)(Attack the Block) (2011) * [Adventures of Tintin](The)(The Adventures of Tintin (film)) (2011) * [Sightseers](Sightseers) (2012) * [Ant-Man](Ant-Man (film)) (2015) Documentary * [Sparks Brothers](The)(The Sparks Brothers) (2021) #### Acting credits ### Short films ### Television Executive producer only * [Pilgrim The Anime](Scott)(Scott Pilgrim The Anime) (TBA) #### Acting roles ### Music videos ### Video games ### Advertisements ## Awards and nominations ## References ## External links * * * * * [The Director Interviews: Edgar Wright, Hot Fuzz](http://filmmakermagazine.com/directorinterviews/2007/04/edgar-wright-hot-fuzz.php) at Filmmaker Magazine * [2004 interview with 2000ADReview](https://web.archive.org/web/20051216152034/http://www.2000adreview.co.uk/features/interviews/2004/wright/wright.shtml) * [Edgar Wright on *Hot Fuzz''](https://web.archive.org/web/20070817163559/http://www.g-wie-gorilla.de/content/view/479/18/) }} [births](Category:1974)(Category:1974 births) [people](Category:Living)(Category:Living people) [English writers](Category:21st-century)(Category:21st-century English writers) [film directors](Category:English)(Category:English film directors) [screenwriters](Category:English)(Category:English screenwriters) [male screenwriters](Category:English)(Category:English male screenwriters) [male television actors](Category:English)(Category:English male television actors) [television directors](Category:English)(Category:English television directors) [film directors](Category:Horror)(Category:Horror film directors) [from Poole](Category:People)(Category:People from Poole) [from Wells, Somerset](Category:People)(Category:People from Wells, Somerset) [film directors](Category:Action)(Category:Action film directors) [fiction film directors](Category:Science)(Category:Science fiction film directors) [of Arts University Bournemouth](Category:Alumni)(Category:Alumni of Arts University Bournemouth) [British screenwriters](Category:21st-century)(Category:21st-century British screenwriters) [English male writers](Category:21st-century)(Category:21st-century English male writers) [filmmakers](Category:Postmodernist)(Category:Postmodernist filmmakers)
1984 NBA draft	1984_nba_draft	# 1984 NBA draft Revision ID: 1159538795 \| Timestamp: 2023-06-11T00:11:31Z --- The 1984 NBA draft was the 37th annual [draft](NBA draft) of the [Basketball Association](National)(National Basketball Association) (NBA). It was held at the [Forum](Felt)(Felt Forum) at [Square Garden](Madison)(Madison Square Garden) in New York City, New York, on June 19, 1984, before the [season](1984–85)(1984–85 NBA season). The draft is generally considered to be one of the greatest in NBA history, with four Hall of Famers being drafted in the first sixteen picks and five overall. It included first pick [Olajuwon](Akeem)(Hakeem Olajuwon), [Jordan](Michael)(Michael Jordan), [Barkley](Charles)(Charles Barkley), and [Stockton](John)(John Stockton). The draft was broadcast in the United States on the [Network](USA)(NBA on USA). In this draft, 23 NBA teams took turns selecting amateur U.S. [basketball](college)(college basketball) players and other [players](eligible)(Eligibility for the NBA Draft), including international players. The [Rockets](Houston)(Houston Rockets) won the coin flip and were awarded the [overall pick](first)(List of first overall NBA draft picks), while the [Trail Blazers](Portland)(Portland Trail Blazers), who obtained the [Pacers](Indiana)(Indiana Pacers)' first-round pick in a trade, were awarded the second pick. The remaining first-round picks and the subsequent rounds were assigned to teams in reverse order of their win–loss record in the [season](previous)(1983–84 NBA season). The [Cavaliers](Cleveland)(Cleveland Cavaliers) were awarded an extra first-round draft pick as compensation for the draft picks traded away by their previous owner, [Stepien](Ted)(Ted Stepien). A player who had finished his four-year college eligibility was automatically [for selection](eligible)(Eligibility for the NBA Draft). Before the draft, five college [underclassmen](wikt:underclassman) announced that they would leave college early and would be eligible for selection. Prior to the draft, the [Diego Clippers](San)(San Diego Clippers) relocated to Los Angeles and became the [Angeles Clippers](Los)(Los Angeles Clippers). The draft consisted of 10 rounds comprising the selection of 228 players. This draft was the last to be held before the creation of the [lottery](draft)(NBA draft lottery) in [1985](1985 NBA draft). It was the first NBA draft to be overseen by [Stern](David)(David Stern), who continued as the commissioner of the league for the following 30 years. ## Draft selections ### Notable secondary picks ## Trades involving draft picks ### Draft-day trades The following [trades](Trade (sports)) involving drafted players were made on the day of the draft. * In a three-team trade, [Cleveland](Cleveland Cavaliers) acquired the draft rights to sixth pick [Turpin](Melvin)(Melvin Turpin) from [Washington](Washington Wizards), Washington acquired [Robinson](Cliff)(Clifford T. Robinson) from Cleveland and [Williams](Gus)(Gus Williams (basketball)) from [Seattle](Seattle SuperSonics), and Seattle acquired [Sobers](Ricky)(Ricky Sobers) from Washington and the draft rights to 12th pick [McCormick](Tim)(Tim McCormick) from Cleveland. * Washington acquired the draft rights to 22nd pick [Sewell](Tom)(Tom Sewell (basketball)) from [Philadelphia](Philadelphia 76ers) in exchange for a 1988 first-round pick. * The [Clippers](L.A.)(Los Angeles Clippers) acquired the draft rights to 31st pick [Murphy](Jay)(Jay Murphy) from [State](Golden)(Golden State Warriors) in exchange for [Whitehead](Jerome)(Jerome Whitehead). ### Pre-draft trades Prior to the day of the draft, the following trades were made and resulted in exchanges of picks between the teams. * On June 5, 1981, [Portland](Portland Trail Blazers) acquired a first-round pick from [Indiana](Indiana Pacers) in exchange for [Owens](Tom)(Tom Owens). Portland used the pick to draft Sam Bowie. * On September 16, 1980, [Dallas](Dallas Mavericks) acquired a first-round pick from [Cleveland](Cleveland Cavaliers) in exchange for [Bratz](Mike)(Mike Bratz). Dallas used the pick to draft Sam Perkins. * On October 12, 1978, [Philadelphia](Philadelphia 76ers) acquired a first-round pick from the [Clippers](L.A.)(Los Angeles Clippers) (as San Diego) in exchange for [B. Free](World)(World B. Free). Philadelphia used the pick to draft Charles Barkley. * On August 28, 1980, the L.A. Clippers (as San Diego) acquired [Smith](Phil)(Phil Smith (basketball)) and a first-round pick from [State](Golden)(Golden State Warriors) in exchange for World B. Free. The L.A. Clippers used the pick to draft Lancaster Gordon. * On August 16, 1978, Philadelphia acquired [Jones](Bobby)(Bobby Jones (basketball, born 1951)), [Simpson](Ralph)(Ralph Simpson) and a first-round pick from [Denver](Denver Nuggets) in exchange for [McGinnis](George)(George McGinnis) and a 1978 first-round pick. Philadelphia used the pick to draft Leon Wood. * On August 18, 1983, the L.A. Clippers (as San Diego) acquired [Donaldson](James)(James Donaldson (basketball)), [Kelser](Greg)(Greg Kelser), [Radford](Mark)(Mark Radford (basketball)), a first-round pick and a 1985 second-round pick from [Seattle](Seattle SuperSonics) in exchange for [Chambers](Tom)(Tom Chambers (basketball)), [Wood](Al)(Al Wood), a third-round pick and a 1987 second-round pick. The L.A. Clippers used the pick to draft Michael Cage. * On September 17, 1983, [Indiana](Indiana Pacers) acquired [Taylor](Vince)(Vince Taylor (basketball)) and a first-round pick from [York](New)(New York Knicks) in a three-team trade with New York and [City](Kansas)(Kansas City Kings). Indiana used the pick to draft Vern Fleming. * On August 18, 1983, [Portland](Portland Trail Blazers) acquired a second-round pick from Indiana in exchange for [Waiters](Granville)(Granville Waiters). Previously, Indiana acquired the draft rights to [Lowe](Sidney)(Sidney Lowe) and the pick on June 28, 1983 from [Chicago](Chicago Bulls) in exchange for the draft rights to [Wiggins](Mitchell)(Mitchell Wiggins). Portland used the pick to draft Victor Fleming. * On October 5, 1982, Seattle acquired a second-round pick from [Houston](Houston Rockets) in exchange for [Walker](Wally)(Wally Walker). Seattle used the pick to draft Cory Blackwell. * On February 15, 1983, Indiana acquired [Schoene](Russ)(Russ Schoene) a second-round pick and a 1983 first-round pick from [Philadelphia](Philadelphia 76ers) in exchange for [Johnson](Clemon)(Clemon Johnson) and a third-round pick. Previously, Philadelphia acquired the pick and a 1983 fourth-round pick on October 27, 1982, from the L.A. Clippers (as San Diego) in exchange for [Hollins](Lionel)(Lionel Hollins). Indiana used the pick to draft Stuart Gray. * On October 19, 1981, Golden State acquired 1982 and 1984 second-round picks from [Washington](Washington Bullets) in exchange for [Lucas](John)(John Lucas II). Golden State used the pick to draft Steve Burtt. * On February 10, 1983, [Detroit](Detroit Pistons) a second-round pick and a 1985 third-round pick from [Antonio](San)(San Antonio Spurs) in exchange for [Jones](Edgar)(Edgar Jones (basketball)). Detroit used the pick to draft Eric Turner. * On August 15, 1980, Portland acquired a second-round pick and a 1983 first-round pick from Denver in exchange for [R. Dunn](T.)(T. R. Dunn) and a 1983 first-round pick. Portland used the pick to draft Steve Colter. * On July 5, 1983, Washington acquired [McMillen](Tom)(Charles Thomas McMillen) and a second-round pick from [Atlanta](Atlanta Hawks) in exchange for [Wittman](Randy)(Randy Wittman). Previously, Atlanta acquired the pick and a 1985 second-round pick on February 13, 1983, from Detroit in a three-team trade with Detroit and Seattle. Previously, Detroit acquired the pick and a 1982 second-round pick on August 26, 1981, from [City](Kansas)(Kansas City Kings) in exchange for [Drew](Larry)(Larry Drew). Washington used the pick to draft Tony Costner. * On February 15, 1983, Golden State acquired a second-round pick from Atlanta in exchange for [Brown](Rickey)(Rickey Brown). Golden State used the pick to draft Othell Wilson. * On June 28, 1983, Chicago acquired the draft rights to [Whatley](Ennis)(Ennis Whatley), the draft rights to [McNealy](Chris)(Chris McNealy (basketball, born 1961)) and a second-round pick from Kansas City in exchange for [Olberding](Mark)(Mark Olberding) and the draft rights to [Micheaux](Larry)(Larry Micheaux). Previously, Kansas City acquired the pick on June 30, 1982, from Atlanta in exchange for the draft rights to [Johnstone](Jim)(Jim Johnstone (basketball)). Previously, Atlanta acquired the pick and a 1983 second-round pick on December 2, 1980, from Seattle in exchange for [Hill](Armond)(Armond Hill). Chicago used the pick to draft Ben Coleman. * On November 25, 1981, Seattle acquired [Tolbert](Ray)(Ray Tolbert) and a second-round pick from [Jersey](New)(New Jersey Nets) in exchange for [Bailey](James)(James Bailey (basketball)). Seattle used the pick to draft Danny Young. * On September 11, 1980, Dallas acquired a second-round pick and a 1983 second-round pick from [Utah](Utah Jazz) in exchange for [McKinney](Billy)(Billy McKinney (basketball)). Dallas used the pick to draft Anthony Teachey. * On August 12, 1983, Dallas acquired [Walker](Foots)(Foots Walker), a second-round pick and a 1985 first-round pick from New Jersey in exchange for [Ransey](Kelvin)(Kelvin Ransey). Previously, New Jersey acquired the second-round pick on June 22, 1983 from New York in exchange for [Elmore](Len)(Len Elmore). Dallas used the pick to draft Tom Sluby. * On June 7, 1984, Denver acquired [Cooper](Wayne)(Wayne Cooper (basketball)), [Lever](Lafayette)(Lafayette Lever), [Natt](Calvin)(Calvin Natt), a second-round pick and a 1985 first-round pick from Portland in exchange for [Vandeweghe](Kiki)(Kiki Vandeweghe). Denver used the pick to draft Willie White. * On February 15, 1984, Chicago acquired [Johnson](Steve)(Steve Johnson (basketball)), a second-round pick and two 1985 second-round picks from Kansas City in exchange for [Theus](Reggie)(Reggie Theus). Previously, Kansas City acquired [Knight](Billy)(Billy Knight) and the pick on September 17, 1983 from Indiana in a three-team trade with Indiana and New York. Previously, Indiana acquired the pick on September 22, 1982 from Detroit in exchange for [Owens](Tom)(Tom Owens). Chicago used the pick to draft Greg Wiltjer. * On September 30, 1983, Washington acquired a second-round pick from [Milwaukee](Milwaukee Bucks) in exchange for [Grevey](Kevin)(Kevin Grevey). Washington used the pick to draft Fred Reynolds. * On November 12, 1983, Golden State acquired a second-round pick from Philadelphia in exchange for [Williams](Sam)(Sam Williams (basketball, born 1959)). Golden State used the pick to draft Gary Plummer. * On October 8, 1980, Portland acquired a second-round pick from the [Lakers](L.A.)(Los Angeles Lakers) in exchange for [Brewer](Jim)(Jim Brewer (basketball)). Portland used the pick to draft Jerome Kersey. * On January 21, 1984, San Antonio acquired a third-round pick from Denver in exchange for [Edmonson](Keith)(Keith Edmonson). San Antonio used the pick to draft Joe Binion. * On March 8, 1984, San Antonio acquired a fourth-round pick from Milwaukee as compensation for the signing of [Dunleavy](Mike)(Mike Dunleavy, Sr.) as a free agent. San Antonio used the pick to draft Ozell Jones. * On October 5, 1983, Milwaukee acquired a sixth-round pick from Houston as compensation for the signing of [Ford](Phil)(Phil Ford (basketball)) as a free agent. Milwaukee used the pick to draft McKinley Singleton. ## Legacy The Houston Rockets used their first pick to draft [Olajuwon](Akeem)(Akeem Olajuwon), a [junior](Junior (education year)) center from the [of Houston.](University)(Houston Cougars men's basketball) The [Nigeria](Nigeria)n-born Olajuwon became the second foreign-born player to be drafted first overall, after [Thompson](Mychal)(Mychal Thompson) from [Bahamas](the)(the Bahamas) in [1978](1978 NBA draft). The Portland Trail Blazers used the second overall pick to draft [Bowie](Sam)(Sam Bowie) from the [of Kentucky](University)(Kentucky Wildcats men's basketball). The [Bulls](Chicago)(Chicago Bulls) used the third pick to draft [Naismith](Naismith College Player of the Year) and [College Player of the Year](Wooden)(John R. Wooden Award) [Jordan](Michael)(Michael Jordan) from the [of North Carolina](University)(North Carolina Tar Heels men's basketball). Jordan went on to win the [of the Year Award](Rookie)(NBA Rookie of the Year Award) and was also selected to the [Second Team](All-NBA)(All-NBA Second Team) in his rookie season. Jordan's teammate at North Carolina, [Perkins](Sam)(Sam Perkins), was drafted fourth by the [Mavericks](Dallas)(Dallas Mavericks). [Barkley](Charles)(Charles Barkley), a junior forward from [University](Auburn)(Auburn Tigers men's basketball), was drafted fifth by the [76ers](Philadelphia)(Philadelphia 76ers). Olajuwon, Jordan and Barkley, along with the 16th pick [Stockton](John)(John Stockton) and the 131st pick [Schmidt](Oscar)(Oscar Schmidt), have been inducted to the [Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame](Naismith)(Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame). The first four mentioned players were also named in the [Greatest Players in NBA History](50)(50 Greatest Players in NBA History) list announced at the league's 50th anniversary in 1996. Olajuwon's achievements include two [championships](NBA)(List of NBA champions), two [Most Valuable Player Awards](Finals)(Bill Russell NBA Finals Most Valuable Player Award), one [Valuable Player Award](Most)(NBA Most Valuable Player Award), two [Player of the Year Awards](Defensive)(NBA Defensive Player of the Year Award), twelve All-NBA Team selections, twelve [Game selections](All-Star)(List of NBA All-Stars) and nine [Team selections](All-Defensive)(NBA All-Defensive Team). Olajuwon retired as the [league leader in total blocked shots](all–time)(List of National Basketball Association career blocks leaders) with 3,830 blocks. The third pick, Jordan, achieved even greater success than Olajuwon. He won six NBA championships, six Finals Most Valuable Player Awards, five Most Valuable Player Awards, one Defensive Player of the Year Award, eleven All-NBA Team selections, fourteen All-Star Game selections, three [All Star Game MVP Awards](NBA)(NBA All-Star Game Most Valuable Player Award), and nine All-Defensive Team selections. Barkley and Stockton never won an NBA championship, but both players received numerous awards and honors. Barkley won the Most Valuable Player in [1993](1992–93 NBA season) and was selected to eleven All-NBA Teams, eleven All-Star Games, and was the MVP of the [All Star Game](1991)(1991 NBA All-Star Game). Stockton was selected to eleven All-NBA Teams, ten All-Star Games and five All-Defensive Teams before retiring as the [league leader in assists](all–time)(List of National Basketball Association career assists leaders) and [steals](List of National Basketball Association career steals leaders) and was co-MVP of the [All Star Game](1993)(1993 NBA All-Star Game) along with his Utah Jazz teammate [Malone](Karl)(Karl Malone). Jordan, Barkley and Stockton would later play as teammates for the 1992 "[Team](Dream)(1992 United States men's Olympic basketball team)". [Robertson](Alvin)(Alvin Robertson), the seventh pick, is the only other player from this draft who has won annual NBA awards as a player; he won both the Defensive Player of the Year Award and the [Improved Player Award](Most)(NBA Most Improved Player Award) in [1986](1985–86 NBA season). He was also selected to one All-NBA Team, four All-Star Games, six consecutive All-Defensive Teams. Both Robertson and Olajuwon are among only four players in NBA history who have ever achieved the extremely rare feat of recording a [double](quadruple)(Double-double (basketball)#Quadruple-double). Two other players from this draft, ninth pick [Thorpe](Otis)(Otis Thorpe) and eleventh pick [Willis](Kevin)(Kevin Willis), were also selected to one All-Star Game each. Willis also had one selection to the All-NBA Team. [Carlisle](Rick)(Rick Carlisle), the 70th pick, became a coach after ending his playing career and won the [of the Year Award](Coach)(NBA Coach of the Year Award) in [2002](2001–02 NBA season) while coaching the [Pistons](Detroit)(Detroit Pistons). In 2011, he coached the [Mavericks](Dallas)(Dallas Mavericks) to an NBA Championship. The 1984 draft class is considered to be one of the best in NBA history as it produced five Hall of Famers and seven All-Stars. However, it was also marked by the Blazers' selection of Sam Bowie, considered one of the biggest [bust](draft)(draft bust)s in NBA history. It is believed that the Blazers picked Bowie over Michael Jordan because they already had an [Star](All)(List of NBA All-Stars) shooting guard in [Paxson](Jim)(Jim Paxson) and a young shooting guard in [Drexler](Clyde)(Clyde Drexler), whom they drafted in the [draft](1983)(1983 NBA draft). Although Drexler went on to have a successful career, Bowie's career was cut short by injuries; he had missed two of the past three seasons in his college career as well. Despite having a 10-year career in the NBA and averaging 10.9 points and 7.5 rebounds per game, Bowie's career was interrupted by five leg surgeries, which limited him to 139 games in five years with the Blazers. ### Other notable selections Brazilian [Schmidt](Oscar)(Oscar Schmidt) was drafted with the 131st pick in the sixth round by the [Jersey Nets](New)(New Jersey Nets). However, Schmidt turned down the offers to play in the NBA and stayed to play in [Italy](Lega Basket Serie A) and later in [Brazil](Campeonato Brasileiro de Basquete). He played in five [Olympic](Olympic Games)s and was the top scorer in three of them. He finished his career with 49,703 points with various clubs and the [national team](Brazilian)(Brazil national basketball team), more than the [career scoring leader](NBA's)(List of National Basketball Association career scoring leaders), [Abdul-Jabbar](Kareem)(Kareem Abdul-Jabbar), who scored 38,387 points in his NBA career. In 2010, [Basketball Federation](International)(International Basketball Federation) (FIBA) honored Schmidt with an induction to the [Hall of Fame](FIBA)(FIBA Hall of Fame), and Schmidt was inducted by the Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame in 2013. University of Houston [and field](track)(track and field) Olympic Champion [Lewis](Carl)(Carl Lewis), who had never played college basketball, was drafted by the Chicago Bulls with the 208th pick in the 10th round. Lewis would dominate the Olympic Games in Los Angeles in the summer of 1984. Lewis, who had also been drafted in the NFL draft of the [year](same)(1984 NFL Draft) by the Dallas Cowboys, stayed with his athletics career and went on to win nine Olympic [medal](gold)(gold medal)s and eight [Championships](World)(IAAF World Championships in Athletics) gold medals. In the fifth round, the Portland Trail Blazers drafted [Whitmarsh](Mike)(Mike Whitmarsh), who starred for the [of San Diego](University)(San Diego Toreros) in both [basketball](San Diego Toreros men's basketball) and [volleyball](volleyball), with the 111th pick. Whitmarsh played professional basketball in Germany for three years, but never played in the NBA. He then left basketball to play [volleyball](beach)(beach volleyball), where he achieved greater success, including a [medal](silver)(silver medal) in the Olympics. The final pick in the 1984 Draft, number 228 by the [Celtics](Boston)(Boston Celtics), was [Trant](Dan)(Dan Trant) of [University](Clark)(Clark University). Trant never played in a regular season game for the Celtics. Trant was working in his office at the World Trade Center on September 11, 2001 and was killed in the terrorist attacks that day. This draft would be the last of the NBA that would be without any undrafted players entering the NBA. Starting from 1985 onward, multiple undrafted players from each year would enter the NBA, with more of them coming after the league decreased the number of rounds from the draft from 10 to the current two. ## Early entrants ### College underclassmen The following [basketball](college)(college basketball) players successfully applied for early draft entrance. * [Barkley](Charles)(Charles Barkley) – F, [Auburn](Auburn Tigers men's basketball) (junior) * [Blackwell](Cory)(Cory Blackwell) – G, [Wisconsin](Wisconsin Badgers men's basketball) (junior) * [Gray](Stuart)(Stuart Gray (basketball)) – C, [UCLA](UCLA Bruins men's basketball) (junior) * [Jordan](Michael)(Michael Jordan) – G, [Carolina](North)(North Carolina Tar Heels men's basketball) (junior) * [McCormick](Tim)(Tim McCormick) – C, [Michigan](Michigan Wolverines men's basketball) (junior) * Sam Norton – F, [Texas–Arlington](Texas–Arlington Mavericks men's basketball) (sophomore) * [Olajuwon](Akeem)(Akeem Olajuwon) – C, [Houston](Houston Cougars men's basketball) (junior) * Yommy Sangodeyi – F, [Houston State](Sam)(Sam Houston State Bearkats men's basketball) (junior) * [Turner](Eric)(Eric Turner (basketball)) – G, [Michigan](Michigan Wolverines men's basketball) (junior) ## Notes }} }} ## See also * [of first overall NBA draft picks](List)(List of first overall NBA draft picks) ## References ;General * * * ;Specific ## External links [NBA.com](http://www.nba.com/) [NBA.com: NBA Draft History](https://web.archive.org/web/20090315112610/http://www.nba.com/history/draft_index.html) [Draft](Category:1984–85 NBA season) [Basketball Association draft](Category:National)(Category:National Basketball Association draft) [draft](NBA)(Category:June 1984 sports events in the United States) [draft](NBA)(Category:1984 in sports in New York City) [in Manhattan](Category:1980s)(Category:1980s in Manhattan) [in New York City](Category:Basketball)(Category:Basketball in New York City) [events in New York City](Category:Sporting)(Category:Sporting events in New York City) [in Manhattan](Category:Sports)(Category:Sports in Manhattan) [Square Garden](Category:Madison)(Category:Madison Square Garden)
Kardashev scale	kardashev_scale	# Kardashev scale Revision ID: 1160318156 \| Timestamp: 2023-06-15T18:31:11Z --- The Kardashev Scale (album)}} [[énergétiques des trois types de l'échelle de Kardashev.svg\|thumb\|right\|upright=2\|alt=Three schematic representations: Earth, Solar System and Milky Way\|Energy consumption in three types of civilization as defined by Sagan's extended Kardashev scale](File:Consommations)] The Kardashev scale () is a method of measuring a [civilization](civilization)'s level of [technological](technology) advancement based on the amount of [energy](energy) it is able to use. The measure was proposed by [Soviet](Soviet Union) [astronomer](astronomer) [Kardashev](Nikolai)(Nikolai Kardashev) in 1964 and came to bear his name. The scale is [hypothetical](hypothesis), and regards energy consumption on a [cosmic](Cosmos) scale. Various extensions of the scale have since been proposed, including a wider range of power levels (types 0, IV to V) and the use of metrics other than pure power (e.g., [growth](computational)(Moore's Law) or [consumption](food)(bioenergetics)). Kardashev first outlined his scale in a paper presented at the 1964 [Byurakan](Byurakan) conference, a scientific meeting that reviewed the Soviet [astronomy](radio)(radio astronomy) space listening program. This paper, entitled "" ("Transmission of Information by Extraterrestrial Civilizations"), proposes a classification of civilizations into three types, based on the [postulate](Axiom) of [progression](exponential)(Exponential growth): A type I* civilization is able to access all the [energy](energy) available on its [planet](planet) and store it for consumption. A type II* civilization can directly consume the energy of a [star](star). A type III* civilization is able to capture all the energy emitted by its [galaxy](galaxy). In a second article, entitled "Strategies of Searching for Extraterrestrial Intelligence" and published in 1980, Kardashev wonders about the ability of civilization, which he defines by its capacity to access energy, to maintain itself and to integrate information from its environment. Two other articles followed: "On the Inevitability and the Possible Structure of Supercivilizations" and "Cosmology and Civilizations", published respectively in 1985 and 1997; the Soviet astronomer proposes tracks to detect super-civilizations and to direct the [SETI](SETI) (Search for ExtraTerrestrial Intelligence) programs. The scale defined by Kardashev has been the subject of two main re-evaluations: that of [Sagan](Carl)(Carl Sagan), who refines the types, and that of [Kaku](Michio)(Michio Kaku), who discards the energy postulate in favor of the [economy](knowledge)(knowledge economy). Other debates on the nature of the different types have allowed many authors to question Kardashev's original classification, either to complete it or to refute it. Two critical perspectives have thus emerged: one that questions Kardashev's postulates, judging them to be incomplete or inconsistent, and the other that establishes alternative scales. The Kardashev scale has given rise to numerous scenarios exploring the possibility of more evolved civilizations. These scenarios question, each one in its own way, the three postulates of Kardashev defining a civilization: [sources](energy)(Energy development), [technology](Technological change) and the [of interstellar messages](transmission)(Interstellar communication). The framework for the search for, and detection of, advanced civilizations was constructed and theorized during the conference held in 1964 in [Armenia](Armenia), at the [astrophysical observatory](Byurakan)(Byurakan Observatory). Starting from a functional definition of civilization, based on the immutability of [law](physical)(physical law)s and using [civilization](human)(human civilization) as a model of [extrapolation](extrapolation), the initial model of Kardashev was developed. Several scientists have conducted various searches for possible civilizations but without conclusive results. Based on these criteria, unusual objects, now known to be either [pulsar](pulsar)s or [quasar](quasar)s, were identified. Kardashev has described in his various publications a set of listening and observing parameters to be taken into account; however, some authors, notably and , consider that these are insufficient and need to be completed. ## Categories defined by Kardashev The hypothetical classification known as the Kardashev scale distinguishes three stages of the evolution of civilizations according to the double criterion of the access and the use of the [energy](energy). The purpose of this classification is to guide the search for extraterrestrial civilizations, particularly within [SETI](Search for extraterrestrial intelligence), in which Kardashev participated,Zoltan Galántai, «Long Futures and Type IV Civilizations», Periodica Polytechnica, Social and Management Sciences, vol. 12, no 1, 2004, p. 83–89 ([read online](http://mono.eik.bme.hu/~galantai/longfuture/long_futures_article1.pdf) [archive](https://web.archive.org/web/20220108222331/http://mono.eik.bme.hu/~galantai/longfuture/long_futures_article1.pdf) [PDF]) and this on the assumption that a fraction of the energy used by each type is intended to communicate with other civilizations. To make this scale more understandable, Lemarchand compares the speed of transmission across the galaxy of a volume of information equivalent to a medium-sized [library](library). A type II civilization can send this data by means of a transmission beam emitting for only 100 seconds. A similar amount of information can be sent across [intergalactic](Warm–hot intergalactic medium) distances of about ten million light years, with a transmission time of several weeks. A type III civilization can transmit this same amount of data to the entire [universe](observable)(observable universe) with a transmission time of 3 seconds. Kardashev's classification is based on the assumption of a growth rate of 1% per year. Kardashev believed that it will take humanity 3,200 years to reach Type II, and 5,800 years to reach Type III. These types are thus separated from each other by a growth rate of several billion. ### Type I A civilization "close to the level presently attained on Earth, with energy consumption at ≈4 [erg](erg)/sec" (4 watts). A Type I civilization is usually defined as one that can harness all the energy that reaches its home planet from its parent star (for Earth, this value is around 2 watts), which is about four [of magnitude](orders)(Order of magnitude) higher than the amount presently attained on Earth, with energy consumption at ≈2 watts as of 2020. The astronomer Guillermo A. Lemarchand defined Type I as a level near contemporary terrestrial civilization with an energy capability equivalent to the [insolation](solar)(Solar irradiance) on Earth, between and  watts. ### Type II A civilization capable of harnessing the energy radiated by its own large star—for example, by means of the successful completion of a [sphere](Dyson)(Dyson sphere) or [brain](Matrioshka)(Matrioshka brain)—with energy consumption at ≈4 erg/sec. Lemarchand defined civilizations of this type as being capable of using and channelling the entire radiation output of its star. The energy use would then be comparable to the luminosity of the [Sun](Sun), about 4 erg/sec (4 [watt](watt)s). ### Type III A civilization in possession of energy at the scale of its own [galaxy](galaxy), with energy consumption at ≈4 erg/sec. Lemarchand defined civilizations of this type as having access to power comparable to the luminosity of the entire [Way](Milky)(Milky Way) galaxy, about 4 erg/sec (4 watts). Kardashev believed that a Type 4 civilization was impossible, so he did not go past Type 3. However, new types (0, IV, V, VI) have been proposed. ## Current status of human civilization [[world primary energy consumption.svg\|right\|thumbnail\|250px\|Total World, Annual Primary Energy Consumption.](File:Annual)] [[File:Carl Sagan Planetary Society.JPG\|250px\|right\|thumb\|According to the astronomer [Sagan](Carl)(Carl Sagan), humanity is currently going through a phase of technical adolescence, "typical of a civilization about to integrate the type I Kardashev scale."]] At the current time, humanity has not yet reached Type I civilization status. Physicist and futurist [Kaku](Michio)(Michio Kaku) suggested that, if humans increase their energy consumption at an average rate of 3 percent each year, they may attain Type I status in 100–200 years, Type II status in a few thousand years, and Type III status in 100,000 to a million years. [Sagan](Carl)(Carl Sagan) suggested defining intermediate values (not considered in Kardashev's original scale) by [interpolating](interpolation) and [extrapolating](extrapolation) the values given above for types I ( W), II ( W) and III ( W), which would produce the formula :K = \frac{\log_{10}P - 6} {10}, where value K is a civilization's Kardashev rating and P is the power it uses, in watts. Using this extrapolation, a "Type 0" civilization, not defined by Kardashev, would control about 1 MW of power (e.g. the food consumption of about 10,000 persons), and humanity's civilization type as of 1973 was about 0.7 (apparently using 10 [terawatt](Watt#Terawatt) (TW) as the value for 1970s humanity). In 2021, the total [energy consumption](world)(world energy supply and consumption) was 595.15 [exajoules](Joule#Exajoule) (165,319 [TWh](Kilowatt-hour#Watt-hour multiples)), equivalent to an average power consumption of 18.87 TW or 0.73 (to 2 [s.f.](Significant figures)) on Sagan's interpolated Kardashev scale. ## Observational evidence In 2015, a study of galactic mid-[infrared](infrared) emissions came to the conclusion that "Kardashev Type-III civilizations are either very rare or do not exist in the [Universe](local)(Observable universe)". In 2016, Paul Gilster, author of the Centauri Dreams website, described a signal apparently from the star [164595](HD)(HD 164595) as requiring the power of a Type I or Type II civilization, if produced by extraterrestrial lifeforms. However, in August 2016 it was discovered that the signal's origin was most likely a military satellite orbiting the Earth. ## Energy development ### Type I civilization methods * Large-scale application of [power](fusion)(fusion power). According to [equivalence](mass–energy)(mass–energy equivalence), Type I implies the conversion of about 2 kg of matter to energy per second. An equivalent energy release could theoretically be achieved by fusing approximately 280 kg of [hydrogen](hydrogen) [into](Proton–proton chain reaction) [helium](helium) per second, a rate roughly equivalent to 8.9 kg/year. A cubic km of water contains about  kg of hydrogen, and the Earth's [ocean](ocean)s contain about [[properties\|1.3 cubic km of water](ocean#Physical)], meaning that humans on Earth could sustain this rate of consumption over geological time-scales, in terms of available hydrogen. * [Antimatter](Antimatter) in large quantities would provide a mechanism to produce power on a scale several magnitudes above the current level of technology. In antimatter-matter collisions, the entire [mass](rest)(rest mass) of the particles is converted to [energy](radiant)(radiant energy). Their [density](energy)(energy density) (energy released per mass) is about four orders of magnitude greater than that from using [fission](nuclear)(nuclear fission), and about two orders of magnitude greater than the best possible yield from [fusion](nuclear fusion). The reaction of 1 [kg](kilogram) of anti-matter with 1 kg of matter would produce 1.8 [J](joule) (180 [petajoules](petajoules)) of energy.By the [equivalence](mass–energy)(mass–energy equivalence) formula E = mc². See [as a fuel source](antimatter)(Antimatter fuel) for the energy comparisons. Although antimatter is sometimes proposed as a source of energy, this does not appear feasible. Artificially producing antimatter—according to current understanding of the laws of physics—involves first converting energy into mass, which yields no net energy. Artificially created antimatter is only usable as a medium of energy storage, not as an energy source, unless future technological developments (contrary to the conservation of the [number](baryon)(baryon number), such as a [violation](CP)(CP violation) in favor of antimatter) allow the conversion of ordinary matter into anti-matter. Theoretically, humans may in the future have the capability to cultivate and harvest a number of naturally occurring sources of antimatter. * [energy](Renewable)(Renewable energy) through converting sunlight into electricity—either by using [cell](solar)(solar cell)s and [solar power](concentrating)(concentrating solar power) or indirectly through [biofuel](biofuel), [wind](wind power) and [power](hydroelectric)(hydroelectric power). There is no known way for [civilization](human)(civilization) to use the equivalent of the Earth's total absorbed solar energy without completely coating the surface with human-made structures, which is not feasible with current technology. However, if a civilization constructed very large [solar power](space-based)(space-based solar power) [satellite](satellite)s, Type I power levels might become achievable—these could convert sunlight to microwave power and beam that to collectors on Earth. ### Type II civilization methods [[Image:Dyson Swarm - 2.png\|right\|thumb\|Figure of a [swarm](Dyson)(Dyson Swarm) surrounding a star\|alt=]] [[File:Michio Kaku at Miami University in 2020 (cropped).jpg\|right\|thumb\|[Kaku](Michio)(Michio Kaku) at Miami University event, 2020.]] * Type II civilizations might use the same techniques employed by a Type I civilization, but applied to a large number of planets in a large number of planetary systems. * A [sphere](Dyson)(Dyson sphere) or [swarm](Dyson)(Dyson swarm) and similar constructs are hypothetical [megastructure](megastructure)s originally described by [Dyson](Freeman)(Freeman Dyson) as a system of orbiting [power satellite](solar)(solar power satellite)s meant to enclose a [star](star) completely and capture most or all of its energy output. * Another means to generate usable energy would be to feed a stellar mass into a [hole](black)(black hole), and collect photons emitted by the [disc](accretion)(accretion disc). Less exotic means would be simply to capture photons already escaping from the accretion disc, reducing a black hole's [momentum](angular)(angular momentum); this is known as the [process](Penrose)(Penrose process). This, however, may only be possible for a Type III civilization to achieve. * [lifting](Star)(Star lifting) is a process where an advanced civilization could remove a substantial portion of a star's matter in a controlled manner for other uses. * [Antimatter](Antimatter) is likely to be produced as an industrial [byproduct](byproduct) of a number of [engineering](megascale)(megascale engineering) processes (such as the aforementioned star lifting) and, therefore, could be recycled. * In [systems](multiple-star)(star system) of a sufficiently large number of stars, absorbing a small but significant fraction of the output of each individual star. * [engine](Stellar)(Stellar engine)s can be used to move stars. ### Type III civilization methods * Type III civilizations might use the same techniques employed by a Type II civilization, but applied to all possible stars of one or more galaxies individually.[Nikolai](Kardashev,)(Nikolai Kardashev). "[On the Inevitability and the Possible Structures of Supercivilizations](http://articles.adsabs.harvard.edu/cgi-bin/nph-iarticle_query?1985IAUS..112..497K) ", The search for extraterrestrial life: Recent developments; Proceedings of the Symposium, Boston, MA, June 18–21, 1984 (A86-38126 17-88). Dordrecht, D. Reidel Publishing Co., 1985, p. 497–504. Bibcode 1985IAUS..112..497K . * They may also be able to tap into the energy released from the [black hole](supermassive)(supermassive black hole)s believed to exist at the center of most galaxies. * [holes](White)(White holes) could theoretically provide large amounts of energy from collecting the matter propelling outwards. * Capturing the energy of [burst](gamma-ray)(gamma-ray burst)s is another theoretically possible power source for a highly advanced civilization. * The emissions from [quasars](quasars) are comparable to small active galaxies and could provide a massive power source if collectable. ## Civilization implications There are many historical examples of human civilization undergoing large-scale transitions, such as the [Revolution](Industrial)(Industrial Revolution). The transition between Kardashev scale levels could potentially represent similarly dramatic periods of social upheaval since they entail surpassing the hard limits of the resources available in a civilization's existing territory. A common speculation suggests that the transition from Type 0 to Type I might carry a strong risk of self-destruction since, in some scenarios, there would no longer be room for further expansion on the civilization's home planet, as in a [catastrophe](Malthusian)(Malthusian catastrophe). Excessive use of energy without adequate heat disposal, for example, could plausibly make the planet of a civilization approaching Type I unsuitable to the biology of the [life-forms](dominant)(human) and their food sources. If Earth is an example, then sea temperatures in excess of would jeopardize marine life and make the cooling of mammals to temperatures suitable for their [metabolism](metabolism) difficult if not impossible. Of course, these [theoretical](theoretical) speculations may not become problems, possibly through the applications of future [engineering](climate engineering) and [technology](technology). Also, by the time a civilization reaches Type I it may have colonized other planets or created [colonies](O'Neill-type)(O'Neill cylinder), so that waste heat could be distributed throughout the planetary system. The limitation of biological life forms and the evolution of computing technology may lead to the transformation of the civilization through [uploading](mind)(mind uploading) and [general intelligence](artificial)(artificial general intelligence) in general during the transition from Type I to Type II, leading to a [civilization](digitalized)(Matrioshka brain). ## Extensions to the original scale Many extensions and modifications to the Kardashev scale have been proposed. * Types 0, IV, and V Kardashev rating: The most straightforward extension of the scale would include Type 0 civilizations, who do not rank on the Kardashev scale, to even more hypothetical Type IV beings who can control or use the entire universe or Type V who control [of universes](collections)(multiverse). The power output of the visible [universe](universe) is within a few orders of magnitude of 1045 W. Such a civilization approaches or surpasses the limits of speculation based on current scientific understanding and may not be possible. Zoltán Galántai has argued that such a civilization could not be detected, as its activities would be indistinguishable from the workings of nature (there being nothing to compare them to). In his books [Hyperspace](Hyperspace (book)) and Parallel Worlds, [Kaku](Michio)(Michio Kaku) has discussed a Type IV civilization that could harness "extragalactic" energy sources such as [energy](dark)(dark energy). ### Kardashev alternative rating characteristics Other proposed changes to the scale use different metrics such as 'mastery' of systems, amount of information used, or progress in control of the very small as opposed to the very large: * Planet mastery (Robert Zubrin): Metrics other than pure power usage have also been proposed. One is 'mastery' of a planet, system or galaxy rather than considering energy alone. * Information mastery (Carl Sagan): Alternatively, [Sagan](Carl)(Carl Sagan) suggested adding another dimension in addition to pure energy usage: the information available to the civilization. He assigned the letter A to represent 106 unique bits of information (less than any recorded human culture) and each successive letter to represent an order of magnitude increase so that a level Z civilization would have 1031 bits. In this classification, 1973 Earth is a 0.7 H civilization, with access to 1013 bits of information. In 2018, Earth was a 0.73 J civilization. Sagan believed that no civilization has yet reached level Z, conjecturing that so much unique information would exceed that of all the intelligent species in a [supercluster](galactic)(galactic supercluster) and observing that the universe is not old enough to exchange information effectively over larger distances. The information and energy axes are not strictly interdependent so that even a level Z civilization would not need to be Kardashev Type III. * Microdimensional mastery (John Barrow): [D. Barrow](John)(John D. Barrow) observed that humans have found it more cost-effective to extend their abilities to manipulate their environment over increasingly small scales rather than increasingly large ones. He, therefore, proposes a reverse classification downward from Type I-minus to Type Omega-minus: [I-minus](Type)(Mechanical engineering) is capable of manipulating objects over the scale of themselves: building structures, mining, joining and breaking solids; [II-minus](Type)(Medical engineering) is capable of manipulating genes and altering the development of living things, transplanting or replacing parts of themselves, reading and engineering their genetic code; [III-minus](Type)(Chemical engineering) is capable of manipulating molecules and molecular bonds, creating new materials; [IV-minus](Type)(Nanotechnology) is capable of manipulating individual atoms, creating nanotechnologies on the atomic scale, and creating complex forms of artificial life; [V-minus](Type)(Nuclear physics) is capable of manipulating the atomic nucleus and engineering the nucleons that compose it; [VI-minus](Type)(Particle physics) is capable of manipulating the most elementary particles of matter (quarks and leptons) to create organized complexity among populations of elementary particles; culminating in: Type Omega-minus** is capable of manipulating the basic structure of space and time. :: The human civilization is somewhere between type I-minus and type II-minus according to this classification. * Civilizational range (Robert Zubrin): [Zubrin](Robert)(Robert Zubrin) adapts the Kardashev scale to refer to how widespread a civilization is in space, rather than to its energy use. In his definition, a Type I civilization has spread across its planet. A Type II has extensive colonies in its respective stellar system. ** A Type III has colonized its galaxy. ## See also * [engineering](Astronomical)(Astronomical engineering) * [three laws](Clarke's)(Clarke's three laws) * [equation](Drake)(Drake equation) * [sphere](Dyson)(Dyson sphere) * [Lenski](Gerhard)(Gerhard Lenski) * [Filter](Great)(Great Filter) * [164595](HD)(HD 164595) * [of magnitude (energy)](Orders)(Orders of magnitude (energy)) * [of magnitude (power)](Orders)(Orders of magnitude (power)) * [Star](Tabby's)(Tabby's Star) (KIC 8462852) * [Terraforming](Terraforming) * [law](White's)(White's law) * [energy supply and consumption](World)(World energy supply and consumption) ## References ## Further reading * Dyson, Freeman J. Energy in the Universe Article in September 1971 [American](Scientific)(Scientific American) magazine (Special September Issue on Energy) * [Wind Powering America](http://www.hawaii.gov/dbedt/ert/femp/cannonfiles/sld006.htm) * [Clean Energy for Planetary Survival: International Development Research Centre](https://archive.today/20121206012725/http://web.idrc.ca/en/ev-64514-201-1-DO_TOPIC.html) * [LBL Scientists Research Global Warming](http://www.lbl.gov/Science-Articles/Archive/global-warming.html) * [E³ Handbook](https://web.archive.org/web/20060427053958/http://www.oit.doe.gov/e3handbook/appenf.shtml) * [Clarke H2 energy systems](https://web.archive.org/web/20061013100905/http://web.gat.com/hydrogen/images/pdf%20files/clarke_h2_energy_systems.pdf) * * * [Shkadov Thruster](http://www.daviddarling.info/encyclopedia/S/Shkadov.html) * * * Supercivilizations as Possible Products of the Progressive Evolution of Matter: also by Kardashev * Search for Artificial Stellar Sources of Infrared Radiation, by [J. Dyson](Freeman)(Freeman J. Dyson) * The Radio Search For Intelligent Extraterrestral Life, by [Drake](Frank)(Frank Drake) * * ## External links * * * by [Today](Universe)(Universe Today). * from Dr. [Kaku](Michio)(Michio Kaku). * by [Space.com](Space.com). * * * * * * by [Kurzgesagt](Kurzgesagt), explaining and [visualizing](Visualization (graphics)) the topic. * , an audio podcast by [Thoughts](SciFi)(SciFi Thoughts). [in Russia](Category:1964)(Category:1964 in Russia) [introductions](Category:1964)(Category:1964 introductions) [in science](Category:1964)(Category:1964 in science) [development](Category:Energy)(Category:Energy development) [life](Category:Extraterrestrial)(Category:Extraterrestrial life) [technology](Category:Fictional)(Category:Fictional technology) [studies](Category:Futures)(Category:Futures studies) [Category:Ontology](Category:Ontology) [Category:Scales](Category:Scales) [for extraterrestrial intelligence](Category:Search)(Category:Search for extraterrestrial intelligence) [metrics and indices](Category:Sustainability)(Category:Sustainability metrics and indices) [timelines](Category:Technology)(Category:Technology timelines) [Category:Transhumanism](Category:Transhumanism)
Earwig and the Witch	earwig_and_the_witch	# Earwig and the Witch Revision ID: 1160342615 \| Timestamp: 2023-06-15T21:53:40Z --- \| based_on = \| screenplay = \| director = [Miyazaki](Gorō)(Gorō Miyazaki) \| starring = \| music = [Takebe](Satoshi)(Satoshi Takebe) \| country = Japan \| language = Japanese \| producer = [Suzuki](Toshio)(Toshio Suzuki (producer)) \| runtime = 82 minutes \| studio = [Ghibli](Studio)(Studio Ghibli) \| distributor = [Toho](Toho) (theatrical) \| budget = \| released = \|2021\|08\|27\|theatrical}} \| gross = $842,744 }} "Āya and the Witch"\|lead=yes}} is a 2020 [Japanese](Anime) [computer-animated](Computer animation) [film](fantasy)(fantasy film) directed by [Miyazaki](Gorō)(Gorō Miyazaki) and with a screenplay by Keiko Niwa and Emi Gunji. It is based on the novel of the same name by [Wynne Jones](Diana)(Diana Wynne Jones). The original voice cast includes [Terajima](Shinobu)(Shinobu Terajima), [Toyokawa](Etsushi)(Etsushi Toyokawa), [Hamada](Gaku)(Gaku Hamada), and Kokoro Hirasawa. A co-production between [Ghibli](Studio)(Studio Ghibli), [NHK](NHK), and [Enterprises](NHK)(NHK Enterprises), Earwig and the Witch had its world premiere on October 18, 2020, at the [Film Festival](Lumière)(Lumière Film Festival), before premiering in Japan on television on December 30, 2020, on [General TV](NHK)(NHK General TV); it was later released in theatres in Japan by [Toho](Toho) on August 27, 2021. It grossed $842,744 at the worldwide box office. ## Plot In 1990s England, a witch leaves her child, Earwig, at St. Morwald's Home for Children. The matron head of the home thinks that the name is unfit for a child and changes it to Erica Wigg. Years later, Earwig is a rambunctious 10-year-old who is very comfortable in an orphanage where everyone does what she wants. She likes living there with her friend Custard and does not want to get adopted. One day, a strange couple, Bella Yaga and Mandrake, adopt Earwig against her wishes. When they get home, Bella Yaga tells Earwig that she is a witch, and that she only adopted Earwig for "an extra pair of hands" to help around the house. Earwig agrees to help, only if Bella Yaga teaches her magic in return. Earwig prepares ingredients for spells and cleans the workroom. Tired of working, she attempts to get out of the house, only to find that all the exits have been magically sealed by Mandrake. She becomes further frustrated because Bella Yaga never teaches her any magic. Earwig begins to listen to tapes from an old band called Earwig and discovers that Bella Yaga's cat familiar Thomas can talk. The two of them enter the workroom at night to create a spell that will make them resistant to magic, becoming immune to Bella Yaga's punishments. They also work on a spell to give Bella Yaga a literal "extra pair of hands" on her body so Earwig would be dismissed from her work. The spell is a success and Bella Yaga is furious at her extra pair of hands, and casts magical worms that appear in Earwig's room. Because of Earwig's magical resistance, the worms are harmless; Earwig sends the worms through a hole in the wall, but that angers Mandrake. In the ensuing chaos, Earwig breaks into Mandrake's room and discovers he and Bella Yaga were members of the band. Through her new power, Earwig is able to take over the house and have the others do what she wants. She even manages to invite her friend Custard over for Christmas. When he arrives, Earwig's mother, another member of the band, drops in for a surprise visit. ## Cast ## Production Directed by [Miyazaki](Gorō)(Gorō Miyazaki), the film was announced as the first full 3D CG animated film by [Ghibli](Studio)(Studio Ghibli) and was scheduled for a television premiere on [NHK](NHK) in late 2020. On June 19, 2020, images from the film were revealed by Miyazaki. Gorō said that [father](his)(Hayao Miyazaki) told him to go with it and [Suzuki](Toshio)(Toshio Suzuki (producer)) encouraged him, but after that he was left on his own and made the anime with young staff and "didn't consult with the old guys at all." He also said that he is the only one at the studio who knows the method of creating CG animation. ### Music [Takebe](Satoshi)(Satoshi Takebe) composed the music for the film. The theme song, "Don't Disturb Me", and ending theme, "My World Domination"}}, are performed by a specially-formed band composed of [Munaf](Sherina)(Sherina Munaf) on vocals, Hiroki Kamemoto of [Spanky](Glim)(Glim Spanky) on guitar, Kiyokazu Takano of [Green Apple](Mrs.)(Mrs. Green Apple) on bass, [Shishido](Kavka)(Kavka Shishido) on drums, and Takebe on keyboards. The film's original soundtrack album was released on January 6, 2021. The album Earwig and the Witch Songbook: 13 Lime Avenue, which is credited to the film's fictional band "Earwig", was released on January 26, 2022. In addition to the above musicians (sans Takano), the album also features Glim Spanky vocalist [Matsuo](Remi)(Remi Matsuo) and [Yoasobi](Yoasobi) support musician Hikaru Yamamoto. Glim Spanky, who contributed two songs to the record, received the offer as Miyazaki is a fan of theirs. Their track "The House in Lime Avenue" was influenced by [folk songs](Irish)(Irish folk songs) and those of England's [Drake](Nick)(Nick Drake). For their other contribution, "A Black Cat", Matsuo was conscious of the melodies and [gospel](Gospel music) harmonies of [Franklin](Aretha)(Aretha Franklin) for her vocals, while the rhythm was inspired by that of [Rolling Stones](The)(The Rolling Stones)' song "[for the Devil](Sympathy)(Sympathy for the Devil)". ## Release ### World premiere The film was scheduled to premiere at the [Cannes Film Festival](2020)(2020 Cannes Film Festival) before the event was cancelled due to the COVID-19 pandemic. It instead premiered at the [Film Festival](Lumière)(Lumière Film Festival) in [Metropolis](Lyon)(Lyon Metropolis), on October 18, 2020. ### Japan In November 2020, the cast and crew information, along with its plot details and broadcast date were announced. It aired on [General TV](NHK)(NHK General TV) on December 30, 2020. NHKアニメワールド\|website=www6.nhk.or.jp\|access-date=November 14, 2020\|archive-date=November 2, 2021\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211102102237/http://www6.nhk.or.jp/anime/topics/detail.html?i=10005\|url-status=live}} On February 11, 2021, [Toho](Toho) announced that the film was slated to be released theatrically in Japan on April 29, 2021. This version includes some scenes not shown on the TV broadcast version (but already included in releases of the film outside Japan). On April 23, 2021, the film was removed from the release calendar due to the COVID-19 pandemic. It was later announced that the new release date would be on August 27, 2021. The film was released on DVD and Blu-ray Disc by [Canyon](Pony)(Pony Canyon) on December 1, 2021, making it the first Studio Ghibli movie since the original VHS release of [of the Heart](Whisper)(Whisper of the Heart) not to have [Disney Japan](Walt)(Walt Disney Japan) as home video distributor. However, Walt Disney Japan released the film (under license from Pony Canyon) as part of a box set on the same day which contains the non–Hayao Miyazaki and Isao Takahata Studio Ghibli feature films. ### United States On July 7, 2020, Studio Ghibli's North American distributor [GKIDS](GKIDS) announced they had acquired the North American distribution rights to the film and that the film would be set for a theatrical release date of early 2021 in North America. On January 7, 2021, GKIDS announced that the film would receive a limited theatrical release beginning on February 3, while it would be added to [Max](HBO)(HBO Max) on February 5. The film was released digitally on March 23, 2021, and on Blu-ray Disc and DVD on April 6, 2021. The GKIDS release of the film is the same as the Japanese theatrical version. ### International As with Ghibli's other features, [Bunch](Wild)(Wild Bunch (company)) handles the international sales of the film. On September 11, 2020, Wild Bunch confirmed they had purchased the distribution rights to Studio Ghibli's films in France from previous distributor [Disney](Disney), and that they would handle distribution of the film both theatrically and on home media in the country. On December 3, 2020, it was announced that Elysian Film Group had acquired the British and Irish distribution rights to the film, becoming the company's very first film acquisition after it was founded in February that year. This will make it the first theatrical release of a Ghibli film since [Mononoke](Princess)(Princess Mononoke) not to be distributed by [UK](StudioCanal)(StudioCanal UK) in the region. Elysian released the film in cinemas on May 28, 2021, on over 100 screens and only dubbed into English, and later released it on DVD and Blu-ray Disc (including the Japanese audio and English subtitles as well as the English dub) on September 27, 2021. On October 13, 2021, it was announced that [Netflix](Netflix) had acquired the worldwide streaming rights to the film, except Japan and United States. It was released on the service on November 18, 2021. ## Reception ### Box office As of October 2021, Earwig and the Witch grossed $173,704 at the North American box office and $669,040 from other territories, with a worldwide total of $842,744. According to [Junpo](Kinema)(Kinema Junpo)s March 2022 issue, the film grossed [JP¥](JP¥)300 million (approximately $2.2 million) domestically.[Junpo](Kinema)(Kinema Junpo) (2022). March 2022 Special Issue. p. 22. ### Critical response On [aggregator](review)(review aggregator) website [Tomatoes](Rotten)(Rotten Tomatoes), 29% of 68 critic reviews are positive for Earwig and the Witch, and the average rating is . The critics consensus on the website is: "With a story as uninspired as its animation, Earwig and the Witch is a surprising—and near-total—misfire for Studio Ghibli." According to [Metacritic](Metacritic), which calculated a weighted average score of 46 out of 100 based on 21 reviews, the film received "mixed or average reviews". Writing for [IndieWire](IndieWire), David Ehrlich gave the film a C− and said, "While Earwig and the Witch is far from the ugliest film of its kind, there's something uniquely perverse about seeing Ghibli's signature aesthetic suffocated inside a plastic coffin and sapped of its brilliant soul; about seeing the studio's lush green worlds replaced by lifeless backdrops, and its hyper-expressive character designs swapped out for cheap dolls so devoid of human emotion that even the little kids look Botoxed with an inch of their lives. This is the cartoon equivalent of that [Jesus fresco](botched)(Ecce Homo (Martínez and Giménez)#Failed restoration attempt and internet phenomenon), only lacking the human touch that gave that debacle some perverse charm of its own." [Vox](Vox (website))s Aja Romano gave the film 3 out of 5 stars and said, "There are some moments early on when there are still shots of nature, or slow Ghibli-esque pans across landscapes. But these isolated shots don't connect to a larger overall mood, characterization, or thematic idea. They feel like pale imitations from a director who knows what Ghibli films do, but not why… And even the highly striking animation aesthetic for which Ghibli is renowned feels largely absent, due to the muted, flat palette of the film's CGI… Ultimately, Earwig and the Witch is a far cry from Studio Ghibli at its finest." ## References ## External links * (in Japanese) * at [GKIDS](GKIDS) * at [Films](Madman)(Madman Entertainment) * at Elysian Film Group * * [computer-animated films](Category:2020)(Category:2020 computer-animated films) [films](Category:2020)(Category:2020 films) [television films](Category:2020)(Category:2020 television films) [children's animated films](Category:2020s)(Category:2020s children's animated films) [films about cats](Category:Animated)(Category:Animated films about cats) [films about orphans](Category:Animated)(Category:Animated films about orphans) [films set in the United Kingdom](Category:Animated)(Category:Animated films set in the United Kingdom) [postponed due to the COVID-19 pandemic](Category:Anime)(Category:Anime postponed due to the COVID-19 pandemic) [television films](Category:Anime)(Category:Anime television films) [television films](Category:Comedy)(Category:Comedy television films) [television films](Category:Fantasy)(Category:Fantasy television films) [about adoption](Category:Films)(Category:Films about adoption) [about witchcraft](Category:Films)(Category:Films about witchcraft) [directed by Gorō Miyazaki](Category:Films)(Category:Films directed by Gorō Miyazaki) [postponed due to the COVID-19 pandemic](Category:Films)(Category:Films postponed due to the COVID-19 pandemic) [set in orphanages](Category:Films)(Category:Films set in orphanages) [set in the 1990s](Category:Films)(Category:Films set in the 1990s) [animated fantasy films](Category:Japanese)(Category:Japanese animated fantasy films) [children's fantasy films](Category:Japanese)(Category:Japanese children's fantasy films) [computer-animated films](Category:Japanese)(Category:Japanese computer-animated films) [fantasy comedy films](Category:Japanese)(Category:Japanese fantasy comedy films) [rock music films](Category:Japanese)(Category:Japanese rock music films) [television films](Category:Japanese)(Category:Japanese television films) [Ghibli animated films](Category:Studio)(Category:Studio Ghibli animated films) [films based on books](Category:Television)(Category:Television films based on books) [films](Category:Toho)(Category:Toho films) [in anime and manga](Category:Witchcraft)(Category:Witchcraft in anime and manga) [in television](Category:Witchcraft)(Category:Witchcraft in television)
Evander Holyfield	evander_holyfield	# Evander Holyfield Revision ID: 1155210336 \| Timestamp: 2023-05-17T05:24:07Z --- \| weight = \| height = 6 ft 2+1/2 in[Sports](HBO)(HBO Sports) tale of the tape prior to the [Lennox Lewis fight](second)(Lennox Lewis vs. Evander Holyfield II). \| reach = 77+1/2 in \| birth_date = \| birth_place = [Alabama](Atmore,)(Atmore, Alabama), U.S. \| style = [Orthodox](Orthodox stance) \| total = 57 \| wins = 44 \| KO = 29 \| losses = 10 \| draws = 2 \| no contests = 1 \| medaltemplates = }} }} Evander Holyfield (born October 19, 1962) is an American former [boxer](professional)(professional boxer) who competed between 1984 and 2011. He reigned as the [champion](undisputed)(Undisputed championship (boxing)) at [cruiserweight](cruiserweight (boxing)) in the late 1980s and at [heavyweight](heavyweight) in the early 1990s, and is the only boxer in history to win the undisputed championship in two [classes](weight)(weight class (boxing)) in the three belt era. Nicknamed "the Real Deal", Holyfield is the only four-time world heavyweight champion, having held the unified [WBA](World Boxing Association), [WBC](World Boxing Council), and [IBF](International Boxing Federation) titles from 1990 to 1992, the WBA and IBF titles again from 1993 to 1994, the WBA title a third time from 1996 to 1999; the IBF title a third time from 1997 to 1999 and the WBA title for a fourth time from 2000 to 2001. As an [amateur](amateur boxing), Holyfield represented the United States at the [Summer Olympics](1984)(Boxing at the 1984 Summer Olympics), winning a bronze medal in the [heavyweight](light)(light heavyweight) division. He turned professional at the age of 21, moving up to cruiserweight in 1985 and winning his first world championship the following year, defeating [Muhammad Qawi](Dwight)(Dwight Muhammad Qawi) for the WBA title. Holyfield then went on to defeat [Parkey](Ricky)(Ricky Parkey) and [de León](Carlos)(Carlos de León) to win the WBC and IBF titles, thus becoming the undisputed cruiserweight champion. He moved up to heavyweight in 1988, later defeating [Douglas](Buster)(Buster Douglas) in 1990 to claim the unified WBA, WBC and IBF heavyweight titles and the undisputed heavyweight championship. He successfully defended his titles three times, scoring victories over former champions [Foreman](George)(George Foreman) and [Holmes](Larry)(Larry Holmes), before suffering his first professional loss to [Bowe](Riddick)(Riddick Bowe) in 1992. Holyfield regained the crown in a rematch one year later, defeating Bowe for the WBA and IBF titles (Bowe having relinquished the WBC title beforehand). Holyfield later lost these titles in an upset against [Moorer](Michael)(Michael Moorer) in 1994. Holyfield was forced to retire in 1994 upon medical advice, only to return a year later with a clean bill of health. In 1996 he [defeated](Mike Tyson vs. Evander Holyfield) [Tyson](Mike)(Mike Tyson) and reclaimed the WBA title, in what was named by [Ring](The)(The Ring (magazine)) magazine as the [of the Year](Fight)(The Ring magazine Fight of the Year) and [of the Year](Upset)(The Ring magazine Upset of the Year). This made Holyfield the first boxer since [Ali](Muhammad)(Muhammad Ali) to win a world heavyweight title three times. Holyfield won a [rematch against Tyson](1997)(Evander Holyfield vs. Mike Tyson II), which saw the latter disqualified in round three for biting off part of Holyfield's ear. During this reign as champion, he also avenged his loss to Michael Moorer and reclaimed the IBF title. In 1999 he faced [Lewis](Lennox)(Lennox Lewis) in a unification fight for the undisputed WBA, WBC and IBF titles, which ended in a controversial split draw. Holyfield was defeated in a rematch eight months later. The following year, he defeated [Ruiz](John)(John Ruiz) for the vacant WBA title, becoming the first boxer in history to win a version of the heavyweight title four times. Holyfield lost a rematch against Ruiz seven months later and faced him for the third time in a draw. Holyfield retired in 2014, and is ranked number 77 on The Rings list of 100 greatest punchers of all time and in 2002 named him the 22nd greatest fighter of the past 80 years. He currently ranks No.91 in [BoxRec](BoxRec)'s ranking of the greatest [for pound](pound)(pound for pound) boxers of all time. BoxingScene ranked him the greatest cruiserweight of all time.Cliff Rold [The 20 greatest cruiserweights of all time](http://www.boxingscene.com/-20-greatest-cruiserweights-all-time--18179). boxingscene.com. Retrieved July 19, 2011. He is also the first boxer to hold world titles in three different decades, in the 1980s, 1990s and 2000s. ## Early life Evander Holyfield was born on October 19, 1962, in the mill town of [Alabama](Atmore,)(Atmore, Alabama). The youngest of nine children, Holyfield was much younger than his other siblings and was born from a different father.["Evander Holyfield and Bert Marcus", March 16, 2015](http://adamcarolla.com/evander-holyfield-and-bert-marcus/) Holyfield's family later moved to [Georgia](Atlanta,)(Atlanta, Georgia), where he was raised in the crime-ridden Bowen Homes Housing Projects. He began boxing at age seven and won the Boys Club boxing tournament. At 13, he qualified to compete in his first Junior Olympics. By age 15, Holyfield became the Southeastern Regional Champion, winning this tournament and the Best Boxer Award. By 1984 he had a record of 160 wins and 14 losses, with 76 by knockout. Holyfield describes himself as a physical "late bloomer": upon graduating from [High School](Fulton)(South Atlanta High School) in 1980, he was only tall and weighed only . By age 21, he had grown to and weighed . He grew an additional in his early 20s, finally reaching his adult height of . When he was 20 years old, Holyfield represented the U.S. in the [Pan American Games](1983)(Boxing at the 1983 Pan American Games) in [Venezuela](Caracas,)(Caracas, Venezuela), where he won a [medal](silver)(Boxing at the 1983 Pan American Games) after losing to Cuban world champion [Romero](Pablo)(Pablo Romero). The following year, he was the National Golden Gloves Champion, and won a bronze medal in the 1984 [Olympic Games](Summer)(1984 Summer Olympics) in [Angeles, California](Los)(Los Angeles, California), after a controversial disqualification in the second round of the semi-final against New Zealand's [Barry](Kevin)(Kevin Barry (boxer)). ## Professional career ### Light heavyweight Holyfield started out professionally as a [heavyweight](light)(light heavyweight) with a televised win in six rounds over Lionel Byarm at Madison Square Garden on November 15, 1984. On January 20, 1985, he won another six-round decision over Eric Winbush in Atlantic City, New Jersey. On March 13, he knocked out Fred Brown in the first round in Norfolk, Virginia, and on April 20, he knocked out Mark Rivera in two rounds in Corpus Christi, Texas. ### Cruiserweight Both he and his next opponent, [Booze](Tyrone)(Tyrone Booze), moved up to the [cruiserweight](Cruiserweight (boxing)) division for their fight on July 20, 1985, in [Virginia](Norfolk,)(Norfolk, Virginia). Holyfield won an eight-round decision over Booze. He then went on to knock out Rick Myers in the first round on August 29 in his hometown of [Atlanta](Atlanta). On October 30 in [City](Atlantic)(Atlantic City) Holyfield knocked out opponent Jeff Meachem in five rounds, and his last fight for 1985 was against Anthony Davis on December 21 in [Beach, Virginia](Virginia)(Virginia Beach, Virginia). He won by knocking out Davis in the fourth round. He began 1986 with a [knockout](knockout) in three rounds over former world cruiserweight challenger Chisanda Mutti, and proceeded to beat Jessy Shelby and Terry Mims before being given a world title try by the [WBA](World Boxing Association) Cruiserweight Champion [Muhammad Qawi](Dwight)(Dwight Muhammad Qawi). In what was called by [Ring](The)(The Ring (magazine)) as the best cruiserweight bout of the 1980s, Holyfield became world champion by defeating Qawi by a narrow 15 round split decision. He culminated 1986 with a trip to [France](Paris,)(Paris, France), where he beat Mike Brothers by a knockout in three, in a non-title bout. In 1987, he defended his title against former Olympic teammate and Gold medal winner [Tillman](Henry)(Henry Tillman), who had beaten [Tyson](Mike)(Mike Tyson) twice as an amateur. He retained his belt, winning by seventh-round knockout, and then went on to unify his WBA belt with the [IBF](International Boxing Federation) belt held by [Parkey](Ricky)(Ricky Parkey), knocking Parkey out in three rounds. For his next bout, he returned to France, where he retained the title with an eleven-round knockout against former world champion [Ocasio](Ossie)(Ossie Ocasio). In his last fight of 1987, he offered Muhammad Qawi a rematch and, this time, he beat Qawi by a knockout in only four rounds. 1988 was another productive year for Holyfield; he started by becoming the first universally recognized World Cruiserweight Champion after defeating the [Lineal](Lineal championship) & [WBC](World Boxing Council) Champion [De León](Carlos)(Carlos De León) at [Vegas](Las)(Las Vegas Valley). The fight was stopped after eight rounds. ### Heavyweight After that fight, he announced he was moving up in weight to pursue the World Heavyweight Championship held by Tyson. His first fight as a Heavyweight took place on July 16, when he beat former Tyson rival ["Quick" Tillis](James)(James "Quick" Tillis) by a knockout in five, in [Tahoe, Nevada](Lake)(Lake Tahoe, Nevada) (Tillis had gone the distance with Tyson). For his third and final bout of 1988, he beat former Heavyweight Champion [Thomas](Pinklon)(Pinklon Thomas), also by knockout, in seven rounds. Holyfield began 1989 meeting another former Heavyweight Champion, [Dokes](Michael)(Michael Dokes). This fight was named one of the best fights of the 1980s by Ring magazine, as best heavyweight bout of the 1980s. Holyfield won by a knockout in the 10th round, and then he met [Brazilian](Brazilians) Champion [Rodrigues](Adilson)(Adilson Rodrigues), who lasted two rounds. His last fight of the 1980s was against [Stewart](Alex)(Alex Stewart (boxer)), a hard punching fringe contender. Stewart shocked Holyfield early, with quick, hard punches, but eventually fell in eight. In 1990, Holyfield beat [McDonagh](Seamus)(Seamus McDonagh (boxer)), knocking him out in four rounds. By this time, Holyfield had been Ring Magazine's number-one contender for two years and had yet to receive a shot at Tyson's Heavyweight title. ### Undisputed heavyweight champion Holyfield had been promised a title shot against Tyson in 1990. Before that fight could occur, in what many consider to be the biggest upset in boxing history, relatively unknown boxer, 29-year-old, 231 lb. [Douglas](Buster)(Buster Douglas) defeated the 23-year-old, 218 lb. [Tyson](Mike)(Mike Tyson) in [rounds in Tokyo](10)(Mike Tyson vs. Buster Douglas) to become the new undisputed heavyweight champion. Instead of fighting Tyson, Holyfield was Douglas's first title defense. They met on October 25, 1990. Douglas came into the fight at 246 lb. and offered little in the fight against Holyfield, who was in ideal shape at 208 lb. In the third round Douglas tried to start a combination with a big right uppercut. Holyfield countered with a straight right hand and Douglas went down for the count. Holyfield was the new undefeated, undisputed heavyweight champion of the World. At the time of the knockout, Holyfield was ahead on all three judges' scorecards, all seeing it 20–18 for Holyfield. In his first defense, he beat former and future world champion [Foreman](George)(George Foreman) by unanimous decision. The fight was billed as a "Battle for the Ages", a reference to the age difference between the young undefeated champion (28 years old) and the much older George Foreman (42 years old). Holyfield weighed in at 208 pounds and Foreman weighed in at 257 pounds. Foreman lost the fight by a unanimous decision, but surprised many by lasting the whole 12 rounds against a much younger opponent, even staggering Holyfield a few times and knocking him off balance in the seventh round. Then a deal was signed for him to defend his crown against [Tyson](Mike)(Mike Tyson) in November 1991. Tyson delayed the fight, claiming he was injured in training, but was then convicted for the rape of [Washington](Desiree)(Desiree Washington) and sentenced to six years in prison, so the fight did not happen at that time. They fought in 1996 (Holyfield won by a TKO in 11) and a rematch in 1997 (Holyfield won by disqualification in three, after Tyson bit both of his ears). Holyfield made his next defense in Atlanta against late replacement in [Cooper](Bert)(Bert Cooper) over [Damiani](Francesco)(Francesco Damiani) who suffered a foot injury in training days before the fight, Cooper surprised Holyfield with a very good effort. Holyfield scored the first knockdown of the fight against Cooper with a powerful shot to the body, but Cooper returned the favor with a good right hand that sent Holyfield against the ropes; while not an actual knockdown, referee Mills Lane gave Holyfield a standing eight-count. Having suffered the first technical knockdown of his professional career, Holyfield regained his composure quickly and administered a beating that left Cooper still on his feet, but unable to defend himself. Holyfield landed brutal power shots, culminated by repeated vicious uppercuts that snapped Cooper's head back. Referee Mills Lane stopped the bout in the seventh. In his first fight of 1992, he faced 42 year old former world heavyweight champion [Holmes](Larry)(Larry Holmes), and had just pulled off an upset against [Mercer](Ray)(Ray Mercer). During the bout, Holyfield suffered the first scar of his career with a gash opening up over his eye, the result of Holmes' elbow. The fight ended with a unanimous decision in favor of Holyfield. ### Holyfield–Bowe rivalry In the beginning of a trilogy of bouts with the 25-year-old [Bowe](Riddick)(Riddick Bowe), who had won a silver medal in the 1988 Olympics, in the super heavyweight division, he suffered his first defeat when Bowe won the undisputed title by a 12-round unanimous decision in Las Vegas. Round ten of that bout was named the "Round of the Year" by The Ring. Holyfield was knocked down in round 11. He made the mistake of getting into a slugfest with the younger, bigger and stronger Bowe, leading to his defeat. He began 1993 by beating Alex Stewart in a rematch, but this time over the 12-round unanimous distance. Then came the rematch with Bowe on November 6, 1993. In what is considered by many sporting historians as one of the most bizarre moments in boxing's history, during round seven the crowd got off their feet and many people started to run for cover and yell. Holyfield took his eyes off Bowe for one moment and then told Bowe to look up to the skies. What they saw was [man in a parachute](a)(James Miller (parachutist)) flying dangerously close to them. The man almost entered the ring, but his parachute had gotten entangled in the lights and he landed on the ropes and apron of the ring, and he was then pulled into the crowd, where he was beaten by members of Bowe's entourage. Bowe's pregnant wife, Judy, fainted and had to be taken to the hospital from the arena. Twenty minutes later, calm was restored and Holyfield went on to recover his world heavyweight titles with a close 12 round majority decision. The man who parachuted down to the middle of the ring became known as [Fan Man](The)(Fan Man) and the fight itself became known as the Fan Man Fight. His victory over Bowe that year helped Holyfield being named as [ABC](American Broadcasting Company)'s [World of Sports](Wide)(Wide World of Sports (U.S. TV series)) Athlete of the Year for 1993. ### Holyfield vs. Moorer, Holyfield vs. Bowe III His next fight, April 1994, he met former [WBO](World Boxing Organization) light heavyweight [Moorer](Michael)(Michael Moorer), who was attempting to become the first southpaw to become the universally recognised world heavyweight champion. He dropped Moorer in round two, but lost a twelve-round majority decision. When he went to the hospital to have his shoulder checked, he was diagnosed with a heart condition and had to announce his retirement from boxing. It later surfaced that the chairman of the medical advisory board for the [State Athletic Commission](Nevada)(Nevada State Athletic Commission) believed his condition to be consistent with [HGH](HGH) use. However, watching a television show hosted by preacher [Hinn](Benny)(Benny Hinn), Holyfield says he felt his heart heal. He and Hinn subsequently became friends and he became a frequent visitor to Hinn's crusades. In fact, during this time, Holyfield went to a Benny Hinn crusade in Philadelphia, had Hinn lay hands on him and gave Hinn a check for $265,000 after he was told he was healed. He then passed his next examination by the boxing commission. Holyfield later stated that his heart was misdiagnosed due to the morphine pumped into his body. In 1995, Holyfield returned to the ring with a ten-round decision win versus former Olympic gold medalist, [Mercer](Ray)(Ray Mercer). He was the first man to knock down Mercer. Holyfield and Bowe then had their rubber match. Holyfield knocked Bowe down with a single left hook but Bowe prevailed by a knockout in eight. Holyfield later claimed that he contracted [hepatitis](hepatitis) before the fight.[Trilogies filled with triumphs, tragedies – boxing – ESPN](http://sports.espn.go.com/sports/boxing/news/story?id=2172860). Sports.espn.go.com (September 29, 2005). Retrieved on October 3, 2011. ### Holyfield–Tyson rivalry #### Holyfield vs. Tyson In 1996, Holyfield met former world champion [Czyz](Bobby)(Bobby Czyz), beating him by a knockout in six. Afterwards, he and [Tyson](Mike)(Mike Tyson) met. Tyson had recovered the WBC and WBA Heavyweight Championship and, after being stripped of the WBC title for not facing [Lewis](Lennox)(Lennox Lewis), defended the WBA title against Holyfield on November 9 of that year. Tyson was heavily favored to win, but Holyfield made history by [Tyson](defeating)(Tyson-Holyfield I) in an 11th round [TKO](technical knockout). This was the third occasion on which Holyfield won the WBA Heavyweight title. However, the fight was not recognized as being for the [championship](lineal)(lineal championship), which was held by [Foreman](George)(George Foreman) at the time. #### Holyfield vs. Tyson II: The Bite Fight Holyfield's rematch with Tyson took place on June 28, 1997. Known as "The Bite Fight", it went into the annals of boxing as one of the most bizarre fights in history. The infamous incident occurred in the third round, when Tyson bit Holyfield on one of his ears and had two points deducted. Referee Mills Lane decided to disqualify Tyson initially, but after Holyfield and the ringside doctor intervened and said Holyfield could continue, he relented and allowed the fight to go on. Tyson bit Holyfield again, this time on the other ear. Tyson's teeth tore off a small section of the top of his opponent's ear, known as the [helix](Helix (ear)), and spat that bit of flesh out onto the canvas. The immediate aftermath of the incident was bedlam. Tyson was disqualified and a melee ensued. Tyson claimed his bites were a retaliation to Holyfield's unchecked [headbutt](headbutt)s, which had cut him in both fights. Others argued that Tyson, knowing he was on his way to another knockout loss, was looking for a way out of the fight. [Atlas](Teddy)(Teddy Atlas), who had briefly trained Tyson seventeen years earlier, predicted that Tyson would get himself disqualified, calling Tyson "a very weak and flawed person"."Atlas Shrugged, He Knows What's Eating Tyson," Michael Katz, New Daily News, June 30, 1997 ### Holyfield vs. Moorer II, Bean Next came another rematch, this time against Michael Moorer, who had recovered the IBF's world title. Holyfield knocked Moorer to the canvas five times and referee Mitch Halpern stopped the fight between the eighth and ninth rounds under the advice of physician Flip Homansky. Holyfield once again unified his WBA belt with the IBF belt by avenging his defeat by Moorer. In 1998 Holyfield had only one fight, making a [defense](mandatory)(mandatory challenger) against [Bean](Vaughn)(Vaughn Bean), who was defeated by decision at the [Dome](Georgia)(Georgia Dome) in the champion's hometown. For the first time, Holyfield's performance called into question whether age was diminishing his ability to continue as a championship fighter. ### Holyfield–Lewis rivalry #### Holyfield vs. Lewis By 1999, the public was clamoring for a unification bout versus the WBC World Champion, [Lewis](Lennox)(Lennox Lewis) of the [Kingdom](United)(United Kingdom). That bout happened in March of that year. The bout was declared a controversial draw after twelve rounds, where it appeared to most that Lewis dominated the fight. Holyfield claimed his performance was hindered by stomach and leg cramps. Holyfield and Lewis were ordered by the three leading organizations of which they were champions to have an immediate rematch. #### Holyfield vs. Lewis II The second time around, in November of that year, Lewis became the Undisputed Champion by beating Holyfield via unanimous decision by three American judges. "I haven't felt this good after a fight since I was a cruiserweight," Holyfield said; "It makes me think I should have fought a little harder against Lennox. Maybe I'd be sore and sick, but I'd have the victory." ### Holyfield–John Ruiz trilogy In 2000, Lewis was stripped of the WBA belt for failing to meet lightly regarded Don King fighter [Ruiz](John)(John Ruiz), having fought Ruiz's conqueror [Tua](David)(David Tua), and the WBA ordered Holyfield and Ruiz to meet for that organization's world title belt. Holyfield and Ruiz began their trilogy in August of that year, with Holyfield making history by winning on a controversial, but unanimous 12-round decision to become the first boxer in history to be the World Heavyweight Champion four times. Holyfield blamed his lackluster performance on a perforated (broken) eardrum.[Las Vegas Review-Journal: Sports](http://www.reviewjournal.com/lvrj_home/2001/Mar-01-Thu-2001/sports/15546647.html). Reviewjournal.com (March 1, 2001). Retrieved on October 3, 2011. Seven months later, in March 2001, it was Ruiz's turn to make history at Holyfield's expense when he surprisingly managed to knock Holyfield down and beat him by a 12-round decision to become the first [Hispanic](Hispanic) ever to win a Heavyweight title. On December 15 of that year, Holyfield challenged Ruiz for the title, in an attempt to become champion again. The fight was declared a draw and John Ruiz maintained the WBA Championship title. ### Holyfield vs. Byrd 2002 began as a promising year for Holyfield: in June, he met former World Heavyweight Champion [Rahman](Hasim)(Hasim Rahman), to determine who would face Lewis next. Holyfield was leading on two of the three scorecards when the fight was stopped in the eighth round due to a severe [hematoma](hematoma) on Rahman's forehead above his left eye that was caused by a headbutt earlier in the fight. Holyfield was ahead, so he was declared the winner by a technical decision. The IBF decided to strip Lewis of his belt after he didn't want to fight Don King-promoted fighter [Byrd](Chris)(Chris Byrd), instead going after Tyson, and declared that the winner of the fight between Holyfield and former WBO Heavyweight Champion Byrd would be recognized as their Heavyweight Champion. On December 14, 2002, Holyfield once again tried to become the first man ever to be Heavyweight Champion five times when he and Byrd met, but Byrd came out as the winner by a 12-round unanimous decision. ### Consecutive losses, New York suspension On October 4, 2003, Holyfield lost to [Toney](James)(James Toney) by TKO when his corner threw in the towel in the ninth round. At age 42, Holyfield returned to the ring to face [Donald](Larry)(Larry Donald) on November 13, 2004. He lost his third consecutive match in a twelve-round unanimous decision. In August 2005 it had been reported that the [York State Athletic Commission](New)(New York State Athletic Commission) had banned Evander Holyfield from boxing in [York](New)(New York (state)) due to "diminishing skills" despite the fact that Holyfield had passed a battery of medical tests. ### Comeback [[File:EHolyfield.jpg\|thumb\|Holyfield vs. [Savarese](Lou Savarese), 2007]] Holyfield was initially criticized for his ongoing comeback; but he was adamant that his losses to Toney and Donald were the result of a shoulder injury, not of old age. Holyfield had looked better in his first four fights since Donald and appeared to have answered the critics who say that he lacked the cutting edge and ability to follow up on crucial openings that he had in his youth. Holyfield defeated [Bates](Jeremy)(Jeremy Bates (boxer)) by TKO on August 18, 2006, in a 10-round bout at [Airlines Center](American)(American Airlines Center) in [Dallas](Dallas), [Texas](Texas). Holyfield dominated the fight which was stopped in the second round after he landed roughly twenty consecutive punches on Bates. Holyfield defeated [Oquendo](Fres)(Fres Oquendo) by unanimous decision on November 10, 2006, in [Antonio, Texas](San)(San Antonio, Texas). Holyfield knocked Oquendo down in the first minute of the first round and continued to be the aggressor throughout the fight, winning a unanimous decision by scores of 116–111 and 114–113 twice. On March 17, 2007, Holyfield defeated [Maddalone](Vinny)(Vinny Maddalone) by TKO when Maddalone's corner threw in the towel to save their man from serious injury in the ring. On June 30, 2007, Holyfield defeated [Savarese](Lou)(Lou Savarese), knocking the bigger and heavier Savarese down in the fourth and again in the ninth round, en route to a unanimous decision win. This was Holyfield's fourth win in ten months, two of them by KO. This victory finally set the stage for Holyfield's title fight against [Ibragimov](Sultan)(Sultan Ibragimov), for the WBO Heavyweight title. #### Holyfield vs. Ibragimov On October 13, 2007, Holyfield was defeated by Sultan Ibragimov. Although unable to defy his critics by winning a fifth Heavyweight title, Holyfield refused to be backed up by the young champion and even rattled him in the closing part of the 12th round. The fight was mostly uneventful, however, with neither fighter being truly staggered or knocked down. In most exchanges, Sultan was able to land two punches to Holyfield's one. The result was a unanimous decision for Ibragimov, with scores of 118–110 and 117–111 twice. #### Holyfield vs. Valuev He told [Scotland](BBC)(BBC Scotland)'s Sports Weekly "I'm gonna fight, be the heavyweight champion of the world one more time. Then I'm gonna write another book and tell everybody how I did it." On December 20, 2008, he fought, at the [Hallenstadion](Hallenstadion) in [Zürich](Zürich), [Switzerland](Switzerland), the WBA Heavyweight Champion [Valuev](Nikolai)(Nikolai Valuev) for a paycheck of $600,000, the lowest amount he has ever received for a championship fight. At the weigh-in, he weighed 214 pounds, Valuev weighed a career low of 310 pounds. Valuev defeated Holyfield by a highly controversial majority decision after a relatively uneventful bout. One judge scored the bout a draw 114–114, while the others had Valuev winning 116–112 and 115–114. Many analysts were outraged at the decision, thinking Holyfield had clearly won.[Dan Rafael Breaks Down Valuev's Win – ESPN Video – ESPN](http://sports.espn.go.com/broadband/video/videopage?categoryId=2491554&brand=null&videoId=3784246&n8pe6c=2) . Sports.espn.go.com (December 20, 2008). Retrieved on October 3, 2011. There was talk of a rematch in 2009. The WBA did their own investigation into the controversial decision;[Nikolai Valuev Win Over Evander Holyfield Under Investigation](https://web.archive.org/web/20090729165421/http://sports-odds.com/fight/123008-nikolai-valuev-win-over-evander-holyfield-under-investigation.html) "As the World Boxing Association (WBA) always cares about and respects the fans' and the media's opinion, the Championship Committee has ordered a panel of judges to review the tape of the fight between Nikolai Valuev and Evander Holyfield, for the WBA heavyweight title" read a statement from the WBA. The organization also expressed that they "will give a decision accordingly in the following weeks." Many speculated that an immediate rematch would be the most likely scenario, but this never materialised. Valuev lost the WBA title in his next fight against [British](Great Britain) boxer [Haye](David)(David Haye). ### Holyfield vs. Botha After the loss to Valuev, Holyfield took a period of inactivity. He reportedly agreed to fight [African](South)(Sport in South Africa#Boxing) boxer [Botha](Francois)(Francois Botha) on January 16, 2010; it was agreed that the venue for the fight would be the [Mandela Memorial Stadium](Nelson)(National Stadium (Uganda)) in [Kampala](Kampala), Uganda. A few weeks before the fight, it was revealed that the bout would be postponed to February 20, 2010.[Thanksgiving offers no rest for busy boxing folks – ESPN](http://sports.espn.go.com/espn/blog/index?entryID=4686941&name=rafael_dan). Sports.espn.go.com. Retrieved on October 3, 2011. The match was put in jeopardy due to economic disagreements but was later confirmed to be on April 10, 2010, at the [& Mack Center](Thomas)(Thomas & Mack Center) in [Vegas](Las)(Las Vegas Valley). When asked about his upcoming bout, the four-time world heavyweight champion said: "I've been hearing for a while that I can't do it. All it does is light a fire under me to prove people wrong." He added: "I can still fight. I don't want to leave until I've become the undisputed heavyweight champion one more time. That's been my goal the entire time." The American boxer scored an eighth-round knockout of Botha to win the vacant World Boxing Federation (WBF) Heavyweight title. Holyfield started slowly as usual in the early going. Botha held and hit Holyfield, and took the control of the fight for the first three rounds. However, the South African could not slow down Holyfield, though he did hurt him, and the American boxer slowly began to punch him more to take control of the bout in the later rounds. In the seventh round Holyfield stunned Botha and knocked him down in the eighth round. Though he beat the count, Holyfield cornered him and landed many punches that forced the referee Russell Mora to stop the bout. At the time of the stoppage, Holyfield was behind on two judges' cards, 67–66, while the third judge had it 69–64 for the American boxer. Only 3,127 attended the fight. ### Holyfield vs. Williams After the Botha fight, Holyfield said he was interested in fighting either [Klitschko](Vitali)(Vitali Klitschko), the current WBC champion, or his younger brother [Klitschko](Wladimir)(Wladimir Klitschko).Rosenthal, Michael. (April 11, 2010) [Weekend Review: Berto's big night](http://www.ringtv.com/blog/1809/weekend_review_bertos_big_night/) . RingTV. Retrieved on October 3, 2011. Holyfield's next bout against ["The Tank" Williams](Sherman)(Sherman Williams (boxer)) on November 5, 2010, at [Louis Arena](Joe)(Joe Louis Arena) in [Detroit](Detroit), Michigan, was then postponed twice before finally being rescheduled to January 22, 2011, and moved to The Greenbrier in White Sulphur Springs, West Virginia. Holyfield started the bout slowly and in the second round, he was cut in the left eye following an accidental clash of heads. In round three as he took several combinations. After the end of the round, Holyfield told his corner that he was unable to see due to the cut. Consequently, the bout was ruled a [contest](no)(No contest (boxing)). The [WBC](World Boxing Council) had allegedly agreed to match Holyfield up with [Klitschko](Vitali)(Vitali Klitschko) after fights with Williams and Nielsen. ### Holyfield vs. Nielsen A fight with [Nielsen](Brian)(Brian Nielsen (boxer)), the most popular Danish heavyweight in that country's history, was scheduled for March 5, 2011, in Denmark, but needed to be postponed to May 7, 2011, due to a cut Holyfield received in the Williams fight. The official weigh-in was held on Friday night in Denmark, with Holyfield at 225 pounds, while his opponent Nielsen, with his shorts on, weighed 238 pounds. Nielsen had never been this light in his career. Nielsen had said that although it would be mighty difficult for him to beat Holyfield, he promised it would not be a one sided affair. Holyfield said that if he won he would move to next level and challenge for major titles. Holyfield started the fight aggressively, pressing the 46-year-old Nielsen into the ropes and landing several hard jabs and hooks, knocking him down in the 3rd round. Despite getting a swollen eye in the 4th round, Nielsen kept on clowning to provoke Holyfield throughout the bout, prompting his trainer, Paul Duvill, to beg him to stop fooling around and focus on Holyfield. In round 10, Nielsen pushed a tired-looking Holyfield into the ropes with a series of combinations, before Holyfield turned it around. Holyfield pushed Nielsen into a corner and battered him with combinations until the referee stopped the contest.[Nielsen vs Holyfield: Omgang for omgang – TV 2 Sporten](http://sporten.tv2.dk/article.php/id-39595795:nielsen-vs-holyfield-omgang-for-omgang.html). Sporten.tv2.dk. Retrieved on October 3, 2011.[Boksebamsen fik med bjørnekloen – TV 2 Sporten](http://sporten.tv2.dk/article.php/id-39599628:boksebamsen-fik-med-bj%C3%B8rnekloen.html). Sporten.tv2.dk. Retrieved on October 3, 2011. ### Retirement After the Nielsen fight, Holyfield attempted to land a shot at a world heavyweight title (all major belts were held by Wladimir and Vitali Klitschko, at that time). However, after more than a year of trying to land this fight, Yahoo News reported his intention to retire in 2012, with Holyfield stating, "The game's been good to me and I hope I've been good to the game. ... I'm 50 years old (on Friday) and I've pretty much did everything that I wanted to do in boxing." Later that same month, however, Holyfield seemed to change his mind, saying that he still considers himself a "serious contender." Unable to secure a title shot, his career went into limbo for several months. However, In June 2014, after not fighting in over three years, Holyfield announced his final retirement. He is currently a boxing adviser to heavyweight prospect [Zhilei](Zhang)(Zhang Zhilei). ## Exhibition bout On April 16, 2021, it was announced that Holyfield would return to the ring on June 5, 2021, to face [McBride](Kevin)(Kevin McBride) (most widely known for defeating former undisputed heavyweight champion [Tyson](Mike)(Mike Tyson)) in an exhibition bout on the undercard of [López vs. George Kambosos Jr.](Teófimo)(Teófimo López vs. George Kambosos Jr.) However, after the López vs. Kambosos card was postponed multiple times, the fight against McBride ultimately did not materialize, leading Holyfield to file a demand for [arbitration](arbitration) against [Triller](Triller (app)). On September 3, 2021, it was reported that [De La Hoya](Oscar)(Oscar De La Hoya), who had been slated to headline a Triller PPV show against [Belfort](Vitor)(Vitor Belfort) on September 11, had been hospitalized with [COVID-19](COVID-19), and that Holyfield would be stepping in for De La Hoya. The event was originally scheduled to take place in California, however, the [State Athletic Commission](California)(California State Athletic Commission) refused to sanction a bout with Holyfield in any capacity–exhibition or professional. The bout was subsequently moved to Florida after the Florida State Athletic Commission agreed to sanction the bout as an exhibition. Holyfield lost via first-round technical knockout. ## Personal life [[File:Evander Holyfield 2010 Indy 500 Pole Day.JPG\|thumb\|Holyfield at the [Motor Speedway](Indianapolis)(Indianapolis Motor Speedway) in 2010]] [[File:Evander Holyfield and Karyn Marshall at the Association of Oldtime Barbell & Strongmen Reunion cropped.jpg\|thumb\|right\|Holyfield with Olympic weightlifting champion [Marshall](Karyn)(Karyn Marshall) at a ceremony honoring him in 2016]] Holyfield is the younger brother of actor and dancer, Bernard Holyfield, and currently lives and trains in [County](Fayette)(Fayette County, Georgia), [Georgia](Georgia (U.S. state)). He is separated from his third wife Candi,[Big Brother 13](Celebrity)(Celebrity Big Brother 13), 5 January 2014, when asked if he's married, he said "no". with whom he has two children. Holyfield has eleven children with six different women. One of his sons, [Evan](Evan Holyfield), followed in his father's footsteps and became a professional boxer. Another son, [Elijah](Elijah Holyfield), plays football for the [Bengals](Cincinnati)(Cincinnati Bengals). He is a [Christian](born-again)(Born again Christianity). He founded [Deal Records](Real)(Real Deal Records) which signed the briefly successful group Exhale. In late 2007 and early 2008, Holyfield was among a number of celebrities to be doing television ads for the restaurant chain [Zaxby's](Zaxby's). In 2017, a [of Evander Holyfield](statue)(statue of Evander Holyfield) designed by sculptor [Hanlon](Brian)(Brian Hanlon) was commissioned by the city of Atlanta for installation in [Atlanta](Downtown)(Downtown Atlanta). ### Advertising By 1992, Holyfield was already a household name, endorsing multiple products on television, such as [Coca-Cola](Coca-Cola) and [Coke](Diet)(Diet Coke). He also had a [game](video)(video game) released for the [Genesis](Sega)(Sega Genesis) and the [Game Gear](Sega)(Sega Game Gear): ''[Holyfield's Real Deal Boxing](Evander)(Evander Holyfield's Real Deal Boxing)''. In 1996 Holyfield was given the opportunity to carry the [torch](Olympic)(Olympic torch) when it was on its way to his hometown of Atlanta for that year's Olympics. On September 22, 2007, Holyfield released the Real Deal Grill cooking appliance via TV infomercials. The Real Deal Grill is manufactured by Cirtran Corp. ### Celebrity appearances Holyfield's popularity has led to numerous television appearances for the boxer. His first television show appearance was the Christmas special of the [Prince of Bel-Air](Fresh)(Fresh Prince of Bel-Air) in 1990, playing himself. Holyfield had minor roles in three movies during the 1990s, [of Sam](Summer)(Summer of Sam), [Roughness](Necessary)(Necessary Roughness (film)), and Blood Salvage (which he also produced). He made a guest appearance on [Nickelodeon's](Nickelodeon (TV Channel)) [GUTS](Nickelodeon)(Nickelodeon GUTS) during its third season in 1994. He appeared once in an episode of children animated series [and Ferb](Phineas)(Phineas and Ferb). In the episode, he is an animated character but the producers wanted to make the most of Holyfield's ear, so his animated character was only given half an ear. In 2005, Holyfield came in fifth place on ABC's [with the Stars](Dancing)(Dancing with the Stars (U.S. TV series)) with his partner [Sliwinska](Edyta)(Edyta Sliwinska). He also made an appearance on the original BBC [Come Dancing](Strictly)(Strictly Come Dancing) "Champion of Champions" showdown, which featured the final four teams from the 2005 edition of the British series, plus two celebrities from spinoff versions, paired with British professional dancers, one featuring Holyfield paired with Karen Hardy, and Rachel Hunter paired with Brendan Cole. On August 13, 2007, Holyfield was confirmed to participate in a boxing match at [Wrestling Entertainment](World)(World Wrestling Entertainment)'s ''[Night's Main Event XXXV](Saturday)(Saturday Night's Main Event XXXV)* against [Hardy](Matt)(Matt Hardy). He replaced [Vontavious Porter](Montel)(Montel Vontavious Porter), who had to pull out after being legitimately diagnosed with a heart condition that was not part of a storyline. Holyfield appeared as himself in the 2011 [remake](Arthur (2011 film)) of [Arthur](Arthur (1981 film)). On January 3, 2014, Holyfield became the 12th housemate to enter the [series](13th)(Celebrity Big Brother (British series 13)) of [Big Brother (UK)](Celebrity)(Celebrity Big Brother (British TV series))''. On January 6, 2014, he was reprimanded by the show after saying in a conversation with another housemate that gayness is abnormal and can be fixed. On January 10, 2014, he became the first housemate to be evicted. In 2015, Evander Holyfield and [Romney](Mitt)(Mitt Romney) participated in a friendly bout for charity; the event took place in Utah to help the organization CharityVisionAP '' 'Sting like a butterfly': Holifield jabs Romeny for charity 2015 May 16 [https://abc13.com/mitt-romney-evander-holyfield-fight-boxing-match/726257/] Retrieved 2021 January 3. In May 2016, Holyfield entered the Argentine dancing reality show [2016](Bailando)(Bailando 2016)''.[The 30 official pictures of "Bailando 2016"](http://www.infobae.com/2016/05/30/1815028-las-30-fotos-oficiales-del-bailando-2016) ### Financial difficulties In June 2008 a legal notice was placed by [Mutual Bank](Washington)(Washington Mutual Bank) stating that Holyfield's $10 million, , 109-room, 17-bathroom suburban Atlanta estate would be auctioned off on July 1, 2008, due to [foreclosure](foreclosure), shortly before that bank's insolvency. Rapper [Ross](Rick)(Rick Ross) ended up acquiring the house. Adding to his financial problems, Toi Irvin, mother of his then 10-year-old son, filed suit for non-payment of two months child support (he was paying $3,000 per month for this child). A Utah landscaping firm also went to court seeking $550,000 in unpaid debt for services. His fortune was drained by frivolous spending, multiple failed business ventures, constant child support payments, and his three divorces, among other things. In 2012 [Independent](The)(The Independent)* described Holyfield as "flat broke and bankrupt" despite having earned £350 million (US$513 million) over his boxing career. As of 2019, Holyfield was earning about $1.2 million a year, mostly through personal appearances.["Where did $312 million go? Boxing champ Evander Holyfield on his lost fortune"](https://www.stuff.co.nz/sport/combat-sports/117488748/where-did-312-million-go-boxing-champ-evander-holyfield-on-his-lost-fortune). November 17, 2019. ### Allegations of steroid and HGH use On February 28, 2007, Holyfield was anonymously linked to Applied Pharmacy Services, a pharmacy in Alabama that was under investigation for supplying athletes with illegal steroids and [growth hormone](human)(Growth hormone) (HGH). He denied ever using performance enhancers.["Report: Athletes received illegal 'roids via online ring"](http://sports.espn.go.com/espn/news/story?id=2782741). Sports.espn.go.com (March 1, 2007). Retrieved on October 3, 2011. Holyfield's name does not appear in the law enforcement documents reviewed. However, a patient by the name of "Evan Fields" caught investigators' attention. "Fields" shares the same birth date as Holyfield, October 19, 1962. The listed address for "Fields" was 794 Evander, Fairfield, Ga. 30213. Holyfield has a very similar address. When the phone number that, according to the documents, was associated with the "Fields" prescription, was dialed, Holyfield answered.["Holyfield allegedly received steroids, HGH via alias"](http://sportsillustrated.cnn.com/2007/more/02/28/holyfield/index.html). Sportsillustrated.cnn.com. Retrieved on October 3, 2011. On March 10, 2007, Holyfield made a public announcement that he would be pursuing his own investigation into the steroid claims in order to clear his name.["Holyfield plans own steroid investigation"](http://sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/chronicle/archive/2007/03/10/SPGDLOJ2I71.DTL). Sfgate.com (March 10, 2007). Retrieved on October 3, 2011. Holyfield was again linked to HGH in September 2007, when his name came up following a raid of Signature Pharmacy in Orlando, Florida. Signature Pharmacy was under investigation for illegally supplying several professional athletes with steroids and HGH. ## Professional boxing record ## Exhibition boxing record ## Pay-per-view bouts } \|Holyfield vs. Douglas \|[Moment of Truth](The)(Buster Douglas vs. Evander Holyfield) \|1,000,000[Douglas-Holyfield Draws Record Pay-per-view Fans](http://articles.orlandosentinel.com/1990-10-27/sports/9010270154_1_holyfield-douglas-evander) , Orlando Sentinel article, 1990-10-12, Retrieved on 2014-03-15 \|[HBO](HBO) \|- \|align=center\|2 \|}} \|Holyfield vs. Foreman \|[Battle of the Ages](The)(Evander Holyfield vs. George Foreman) \|1,400,000 \|HBO \|- \|align=center\|3 \|}} \|Holyfield vs. Holmes \|[of Champions](Class)(Evander Holyfield vs. Larry Holmes) \|730,000[Pay-per-view Sales High For Holyfield-Bowe](http://articles.philly.com/1992-11-13/sports/26007949_1_duva-and-finkel-tvko-holyfield-foreman-bout), Philadelphia Daily News article, 1992-11-13, Retrieved on 2013-11-16 \|HBO \|- \|align=center\|4 \|}} \|Holyfield vs. Bowe \|[Holyfield vs. Riddick Bowe](Evander)(Evander Holyfield vs. Riddick Bowe) \|900,000[http://boxrec.com/media/index.php/Evander_Holyfield_vs._Riddick_Bowe_(1st_meeting)], Box Rec, Retrieved on 2014-03-15 \|HBO \|- \|align=center\|5 \|}} \|Holyfield vs. Bowe II \|[or Revenge](Repeat)(Riddick Bowe vs. Evander Holyfield II) \|950,000[http://boxrec.com/media/index.php/Riddick_Bowe_vs._Evander_Holyfield_(2nd_meeting)], Box Rec, Retrieved on 2014-03-15 \|HBO \|- \|align=center\|6 \|}} \|Holyfield vs. Bowe III \|[Final Chapter](The)(Riddick Bowe vs. Evander Holyfield III) \|650,000 \|HBO \|- \|align=center\|7 \|}} \|Tyson vs. Holyfield \|[Finally](Mike Tyson vs. Evander Holyfield) \|1,590,000 \|[Showtime](Showtime (TV network)) \|- \|align=center\|8 \|}} \|Holyfield vs. Tyson II \|[Sound and the Fury](The)(Evander Holyfield vs. Mike Tyson II) \|1,990,000 \|Showtime \|- \|align=center\|9 \|}} \|Holyfield vs. Moorer II \|[to Glory](Return)(Evander Holyfield vs. Michael Moorer II) \|550,000 \|Showtime \|- \|align=center\|10 \|}} \|Holyfield vs. Lewis \|[Undisputed](Evander Holyfield vs. Lennox Lewis) \|1,200,000 \|HBO \|- \|align=center\|11 \|}} \|Holyfield vs. Lewis II \|[Business](Unfinished)(Evander Holyfield vs. Lennox Lewis II) \|850,000 \|HBO \|- \|align=center\|12 \|}} \|Holyfield vs. Ruiz \|[Justice](Evander Holyfield vs. John Ruiz) \|185,000 \|Showtime \|- \|align=center\|13 \|}} \|Toney vs. Holyfield \|[War on October 4](The)(Evander Holyfield vs. James Toney) \|150,000 \|Showtime \|- \|align=center\|14 \|}} \|Holyfield vs. Belfort \|[Holds Barred](No)(Evander Holyfield vs. Vitor Belfort) \|150,000 \|Triller \|- ! ! ! colspan="2" \| Total sales ! 12,295,000 ! \|} ## See also [of cruiserweight boxing champions](List)(List of cruiserweight boxing champions) [of heavyweight boxing champions](List)(List of heavyweight boxing champions) [of WBA world champions](List)(List of WBA world champions) [of WBC world champions](List)(List of WBC world champions) [of IBF world champions](List)(List of IBF world champions) [of undisputed boxing champions](List)(List of undisputed boxing champions) ## References ## External links * * [Evander Holyfield profile](http://www.cyberboxingzone.com/boxing/holy.htm) at Cyber Boxing Zone [Boxing Hall of Fame](http://www.ibhof.com/pages/about/inductees/modern/holyfield.html) [ESPN.com](http://www.espn.com/sportscentury/features/00014242.html) * * *[Article about Holyfield vs. Ibragimov](https://sports.yahoo.com/box/news?slug=txholyfieldtitle) at [Sports](Yahoo)(Yahoo Sports) }} [Anifowoshe](Akeem)(Akeem Anifowoshe)}} \|years=1992}} [Breland](Mark)(Mark Breland) }} \|years=1992}} [Waters](Troy)(Troy Waters) }} Humberto González}} \|years=1996}} [Ruelas](Gabriel)(Gabriel Ruelas)}} }} \|years=1996}} }} [births](Category:1962)(Category:1962 births) [boxers](Category:African-American)(Category:African-American boxers) [Christians](Category:African-American)(Category:African-American Christians) [sportspeople in doping cases](Category:American)(Category:American sportspeople in doping cases) [at the 1983 Pan American Games](Category:Boxers)(Category:Boxers at the 1983 Pan American Games) [at the 1984 Summer Olympics](Category:Boxers)(Category:Boxers at the 1984 Summer Olympics) [from Alabama](Category:Boxers)(Category:Boxers from Alabama) [from Georgia (U.S. state)](Category:Boxers)(Category:Boxers from Georgia (U.S. state)) [cases in boxing](Category:Doping)(Category:Doping cases in boxing) [boxers](Category:Heavyweight)(Category:Heavyweight boxers) [Boxing Federation champions](Category:International)(Category:International Boxing Federation champions) [boxers](Category:Light-heavyweight)(Category:Light-heavyweight boxers) [people](Category:Living)(Category:Living people) [Golden Gloves champions](Category:National)(Category:National Golden Gloves champions) [bronze medalists for the United States in boxing](Category:Olympic)(Category:Olympic bronze medalists for the United States in boxing) [in American reality television series](Category:Participants)(Category:Participants in American reality television series) [from Atmore, Alabama](Category:People)(Category:People from Atmore, Alabama) [from Fayette County, Georgia](Category:People)(Category:People from Fayette County, Georgia) [Boxing Association champions](Category:World)(Category:World Boxing Association champions) [Boxing Council champions](Category:World)(Category:World Boxing Council champions) [cruiserweight boxing champions](Category:World)(Category:World cruiserweight boxing champions) [heavyweight boxing champions](Category:World)(Category:World heavyweight boxing champions) [male boxers](Category:American)(Category:American male boxers) [at the 1984 Summer Olympics](Category:Medalists)(Category:Medalists at the 1984 Summer Olympics) [American Games silver medalists for the United States](Category:Pan)(Category:Pan American Games silver medalists for the United States) [Boxing Hall of Fame inductees](Category:International)(Category:International Boxing Hall of Fame inductees) [American Games medalists in boxing](Category:Pan)(Category:Pan American Games medalists in boxing) [Christians](Category:American)(Category:American Christians) [autobiographers](Category:American)(Category:American autobiographers) [Sports Personality World Sport Star of the Year winners](Category:BBC)(Category:BBC Sports Personality World Sport Star of the Year winners) [from the Atlanta metropolitan area](Category:Sportspeople)(Category:Sportspeople from the Atlanta metropolitan area) [at the 1983 Pan American Games](Category:Medalists)(Category:Medalists at the 1983 Pan American Games) [African-American people](Category:21st-century)(Category:21st-century African-American people) [African-American sportspeople](Category:20th-century)(Category:20th-century African-American sportspeople) [in Argentine reality television series](Category:Participants)(Category:Participants in Argentine reality television series) [por un Sueño (Argentine TV series) participants](Category:Bailando)(Category:Bailando por un Sueño (Argentine TV series) participants)
Bluetooth	bluetooth	# Bluetooth Revision ID: 1159079776 \| Timestamp: 2023-06-08T03:09:00Z --- \| hardware = \| range = Typically less than , up to .Bluetooth 5.0: \| website = }} Bluetooth is a short-range [wireless](wireless) technology standard that is used for exchanging data between fixed and mobile devices over short distances and building [area network](personal)(personal area network)s (PANs). In the most widely used mode, transmission power is limited to 2.5 [milliwatt](milliwatt)s, giving it a very short range of up to . It employs [UHF](Ultra high frequency) [wave](radio)(radio wave)s in the [band](ISM)(ISM band)s, from 2.402[GHz](GHz) to 2.48GHz. It is mainly used as an alternative to wire connections, to exchange files between nearby portable devices and connect [phone](cell)(cell phone)s and music players with [headphone](wireless)(wireless headphone)s. Bluetooth is managed by the [Special Interest Group](Bluetooth)(Bluetooth Special Interest Group) (SIG), which has more than 35,000 member companies in the areas of telecommunication, computing, networking, and consumer electronics. The [IEEE](Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers) standardized Bluetooth as IEEE 802.15.1, but no longer maintains the standard. The Bluetooth SIG oversees development of the specification, manages the qualification program, and protects the trademarks. A manufacturer must meet [SIG standards](Bluetooth)(Bluetooth Special Interest Group#Qualification) to market it as a Bluetooth device. A network of [patent](patent)s apply to the technology, which are licensed to individual qualifying devices. , 4.7 billion Bluetooth [circuit](integrated)(integrated circuit) chips are shipped annually. ## Etymology The name "Bluetooth" was proposed in 1997 by [Kardach](Jim)(Jim Kardach) of [Intel](Intel), one of the founders of the Bluetooth SIG. The name was inspired by a conversation with Sven Mattisson who related Scandinavian history through tales from [G. Bengtsson](Frans)(Frans G. Bengtsson)'s [Long Ships](The)(The Long Ships), a historical novel about Vikings and the 10th-century Danish king [Bluetooth](Harald)(Harald Bluetooth). Upon discovering a picture of the [of Harald Bluetooth](runestone)(Jelling stones#Runestone of Harald Bluetooth) in the book A History of the Vikings by [Jones](Gwyn)(Gwyn Jones (author)), Kardach proposed Bluetooth as the codename for the short-range wireless program which is now called Bluetooth. According to Bluetooth's official website, }} Bluetooth is the [Anglicised](Anglicised) version of the Scandinavian Blåtand/Blåtann (or in [Norse](Old)(Old Norse) blátǫnn). It was the [epithet](epithet) of King Harald Bluetooth, who united the disparate Danish tribes into a single kingdom; Kardach chose the name to imply that Bluetooth similarly unites communication protocols. The Bluetooth logo [20px](File:Bluetooth.svg) is a [rune](bind)(bind rune) merging the [Futhark](Younger)(Younger Futhark) [runes](runes) [8px](File:Runic letter ior.svg) (ᚼ, [Hagall](Haglaz)) and [8px](File:Runic letter berkanan.svg) (ᛒ, [Bjarkan](Berkanan)), Harald's initials. ## History [[Bluetooth module.jpg\|thumb\|Ericsson Bluetooth module PBA 313 01/2S R2A manufactured in week 22, 2001.](File:Ericsson)] The development of the "short-link" radio technology, later named Bluetooth, was initiated in 1989 by Nils Rydbeck, CTO at [Mobile](Ericsson)(Ericsson Mobile) in [Lund](Lund), Sweden. The purpose was to develop wireless headsets, according to two inventions by [Ullman](Johan)(Johan Ullman), and . Nils Rydbeck tasked Tord Wingren with specifying and Dutchman [Haartsen](Jaap)(Jaap Haartsen) and Sven Mattisson with developing. Both were working for Ericsson in Lund. Principal design and development began in 1994 and by 1997 the team had a workable solution. From 1997 Örjan Johansson became the project leader and propelled the technology and standardization. In 1997, Adalio Sanchez, then head of [IBM](IBM) [ThinkPad](ThinkPad) product R&D, approached Nils Rydbeck about collaborating on integrating a [phone](mobile)(mobile phone) into a ThinkPad notebook. The two assigned engineers from [Ericsson](Ericsson) and [IBM](IBM) studied the idea. The conclusion was that power consumption on cellphone technology at that time was too high to allow viable integration into a notebook and still achieve adequate battery life. Instead, the two companies agreed to integrate Ericsson's short-link technology on both a ThinkPad notebook and an Ericsson phone to accomplish the goal. Since neither IBM ThinkPad notebooks nor Ericsson phones were the market share leaders in their respective markets at that time, Adalio Sanchez and Nils Rydbeck agreed to make the short-link technology an open industry standard to permit each player maximum market access. Ericsson contributed the short-link radio technology, and IBM contributed patents around the logical layer. Adalio Sanchez of IBM then recruited Stephen Nachtsheim of Intel to join and then Intel also recruited [Toshiba](Toshiba) and [Nokia](Nokia). In May 1998, the Bluetooth SIG was launched with IBM and Ericsson as the founding signatories and a total of five members: Ericsson, Intel, Nokia, Toshiba and IBM. The first Bluetooth device was revealed in 1999. It was a hands-free mobile headset that earned the "Best of show Technology Award" at [COMDEX](COMDEX). The first Bluetooth mobile phone was the Ericsson T36, but it was the revised [T39](Ericsson T39) model that actually made it to store shelves in 2001. In parallel, IBM introduced the IBM ThinkPad A30 in October 2001 which was the first notebook with integrated Bluetooth. Bluetooth's early incorporation into consumer electronics products continued at Vosi Technologies in Costa Mesa, California, USA, initially overseen by founding members Bejan Amini and Tom Davidson. Vosi Technologies had been created by real estate developer Ivano Stegmenga, with United States Patent 608507, for communication between a cellular phone and a vehicle's audio system. At the time, Sony/Ericsson had only a minor market share in the cellular phone market, which was dominated in the US by Nokia and Motorola. Due to ongoing negotiations for an intended licensing agreement with Motorola beginning in the late 1990s, Vosi could not publicly disclose the intention, integration, and initial development of other enabled devices which were to be the first "[Home](Smart)(Home automation)" internet connected devices. Vosi needed a means for the system to communicate without a wired connection from the vehicle to the other devices in the network. Bluetooth was chosen, since [Wi-Fi](Wi-Fi) was not yet readily available or supported in the public market. Vosi had begun to develop the Vosi Cello integrated vehicular system and some other internet connected devices, one of which was intended to be a table-top device named the Vosi Symphony, networked with Bluetooth. Through the negotiations with [Motorola](Motorola), Vosi introduced and disclosed its intent to integrate Bluetooth in its devices. In the early 2000s a [legal battle](https://casetext.com/case/motorola-inc-v-vosi-technologies-inc) ensued between Vosi and Motorola, which indefinitely suspended release of the devices. Later, Motorola implemented it in their devices which initiated the significant propagation of Bluetooth in the public market due to its large market share at the time. In 2012, Jaap Haartsen was nominated by the [Patent Office](European)(European Patent Office) for the [Inventor Award](European)(European Inventor Award). ## Implementation Bluetooth operates at frequencies between 2.402 and 2.480GHz, or 2.400 and 2.4835GHz, including [band](guard)(guard band)s 2MHz wide at the bottom end and 3.5MHz wide at the top. This is in the globally unlicensed (but not unregulated) industrial, scientific and medical ([ISM](ISM band)) 2.4GHz short-range radio frequency band. Bluetooth uses a radio technology called [spread spectrum](frequency-hopping)(frequency-hopping spread spectrum). Bluetooth divides transmitted data into packets, and transmits each packet on one of 79 designated Bluetooth channels. Each channel has a bandwidth of 1MHz. It usually performs 1600hops per second, with [frequency-hopping](adaptive)(adaptive frequency-hopping spread spectrum) (AFH) enabled. [Low Energy](Bluetooth)(Bluetooth Low Energy) uses 2MHz spacing, which accommodates 40 channels. Originally, [frequency-shift keying](Gaussian)(Gaussian frequency-shift keying) (GFSK) modulation was the only modulation scheme available. Since the introduction of Bluetooth 2.0+EDR, π/4-[DQPSK](DQPSK) (differential quadrature phase-shift keying) and 8-DPSK modulation may also be used between compatible devices. Devices functioning with GFSK are said to be operating in basic rate (BR) mode, where an instantaneous [rate](bit)(bit rate) of 1[Mbit/s](Mbit/s) is possible. The term Enhanced Data Rate (EDR) is used to describe π/4-DPSK (EDR2) and 8-DPSK (EDR3) schemes, each giving 2 and 3Mbit/s respectively. The combination of these (BR and EDR) modes in Bluetooth radio technology is classified as a BR/EDR radio. In 2019, Apple published an extension called HDR which supports data rates of 4 (HDR4) and 8 (HDR8) Mbit/s using π/4-[DQPSK](DQPSK) modulation on 4 MHz channels with forward error correction (FEC). Bluetooth is a [protocol](packet-based)(packet switching) with a [architecture](master/slave)(master/slave (technology)). One master may communicate with up to seven slaves in a [piconet](piconet). All devices within a given piconet use the clock provided by the master as the base for packet exchange. The master clock ticks with a period of 312.5[μs](μs), two clock ticks then make up a slot of 625µs, and two slots make up a slot pair of 1250µs. In the simple case of single-slot packets, the master transmits in even slots and receives in odd slots. The slave, conversely, receives in even slots and transmits in odd slots. Packets may be 1, 3, or 5 slots long, but in all cases, the master's transmission begins in even slots and the slave's in odd slots. The above excludes Bluetooth Low Energy, introduced in the 4.0 specification, which [the same spectrum but somewhat differently](uses)(Bluetooth Low Energy#Radio interface). ### Communication and connection A master BR/EDR Bluetooth device can communicate with a maximum of seven devices in a piconet (an ad hoc computer network using Bluetooth technology), though not all devices reach this maximum. The devices can switch roles, by agreement, and the slave can become the master (for example, a headset initiating a connection to a phone necessarily begins as master—as an initiator of the connection—but may subsequently operate as the slave). The Bluetooth Core Specification provides for the connection of two or more piconets to form a [scatternet](scatternet), in which certain devices simultaneously play the master/leader role in one piconet and the slave role in another. At any given time, data can be transferred between the master and one other device (except for the little-used broadcast mode). The master chooses which slave device to address; typically, it switches rapidly from one device to another in a [round-robin](round-robin scheduling) fashion. Since it is the master that chooses which slave to address, whereas a slave is (in theory) supposed to listen in each receive slot, being a master is a lighter burden than being a slave. Being a master of seven slaves is possible; being a slave of more than one master is possible. The specification is vague as to required behavior in scatternets. ## Uses Bluetooth is a standard wire-replacement communications protocol primarily designed for low power consumption, with a short range based on low-cost [transceiver](transceiver) [microchips](integrated circuit) in each device. Because the devices use a radio (broadcast) communications system, they do not have to be in visual line of sight of each other; however, a [optical](quasi)(Quasi-optical) wireless path must be viable. ### Bluetooth Classes and power use Historically, the Bluetooth range was defined by the radio class, with a lower class (and higher output power) having larger range. The actual range achieved by a given link will depend on the qualities of the devices at both ends of the link, as well as the [and obstacles in between](air)(Path loss). The primary hardware attributes affecting range are the data rate, protocol (Bluetooth Classic or Bluetooth Low Energy), the transmitter power, the receiver sensitivity, and the gain of both antennas. The effective range varies depending on propagation conditions, material coverage, production sample variations, antenna configurations and battery conditions. Most Bluetooth applications are for indoor conditions, where attenuation of walls and signal fading due to signal reflections make the range far lower than specified line-of-sight ranges of the Bluetooth products. Most Bluetooth applications are battery-powered Class 2 devices, with little difference in range whether the other end of the link is a Class 1 or Class 2 device as the lower-powered device tends to set the range limit. In some cases the effective range of the data link can be extended when a Class 2 device is connecting to a Class 1 transceiver with both higher sensitivity and transmission power than a typical Class 2 device. Mostly, however, the Class 1 devices have a similar sensitivity to Class 2 devices. Connecting two Class 1 devices with both high sensitivity and high power can allow ranges far in excess of the typical 100m, depending on the throughput required by the application. Some such devices allow open field ranges of up to 1 km and beyond between two similar devices without exceeding legal emission limits. ### Bluetooth profile To use Bluetooth wireless technology, a device must be able to interpret certain Bluetooth profiles, which are definitions of possible applications and specify general behaviors that Bluetooth-enabled devices use to communicate with other Bluetooth devices. These profiles include settings to parameterize and to control the communication from the start. Adherence to profiles saves the time for transmitting the parameters anew before the bi-directional link becomes effective. There are a wide range of Bluetooth profiles that describe many different types of applications or use cases for devices. ### List of applications [[File:Bluetooth headset.jpg\|thumb\|250px\|right\|A typical Bluetooth mobile phone [headset](headset (audio)) from early 2000's]] [[File:JBL GO2 Bluetooth speaker 00 10 27 681000.jpeg\|thumb\|A handheld, waterproof JBL [speaker](Bluetooth)(Bluetooth speaker) with a rechargeable battery, made in the late 2010s.]] * Wireless control and communication between a mobile phone and a [handsfree](handsfree) [headset](headset (audio)). This was one of the earliest applications to become popular. * Wireless control of audio and communication functions between a mobile phone and a Bluetooth compatible car stereo system (and sometimes [the SIM card and the car phone](between)(SIM Access Profile)). Wireless communication between a smartphone and a [lock](smart)(smart lock) for unlocking doors. Wireless control of and communication with iOS and Android device phones, tablets and portable [speaker](wireless)(wireless speaker)s. * Wireless [headset](Bluetooth)(Bluetooth headset) and [intercom](intercom). Idiomatically, a headset is sometimes called "a Bluetooth". * Wireless streaming of audio to [headphones](headphones) with or without communication capabilities. * Wireless streaming of data collected by Bluetooth-enabled fitness devices to phone or PC. * Wireless networking between PCs in a confined space and where little bandwidth is required. * Wireless communication with PC input and output devices, the most common being the [mouse](computer mouse), [keyboard](keyboard technology) and [printer](computer printer). * Transfer of files, contact details, calendar appointments, and reminders between devices with [OBEX](OBEX) and sharing directories [FTP](via)(FTP server). * Triggering the camera shutter of a [smartphone](smartphone) using a Bluetooth controlled [stick](selfie)(selfie stick). * Replacement of previous wired [RS-232](RS-232) serial communications in test equipment, [receivers](GPS)(Global Positioning System), medical equipment, bar code scanners, and traffic control devices. * For controls where [infrared](infrared) was often used. * For low bandwidth applications where higher [USB](USB) bandwidth is not required and cable-free connection desired. * Sending small advertisements from Bluetooth-enabled advertising hoardings to other, discoverable, Bluetooth devices. * Wireless bridge between two Industrial Ethernet (e.g., [PROFINET](PROFINET)) networks. * Game consoles have been using Bluetooth as a wireless communications protocol for peripherals since the [generation](seventh)(History of video game consoles (seventh generation)), including [Nintendo](Nintendo)'s [Wii](Wii) and [Sony](Sony)'s [3](PlayStation)(PlayStation 3) which use Bluetooth for their respective controllers. * Dial-up internet access on personal computers or PDAs using a data-capable mobile phone as a wireless modem. * Short-range transmission of health sensor data from medical devices to mobile phone, [box](set-top)(set-top box) or dedicated [telehealth](telehealth) devices. * Allowing a [DECT](DECT) phone to ring and answer calls on behalf of a nearby mobile phone. [location systems](Real-time)(Real-time locating system) (RTLS) are used to track and identify the location of objects in real time using "Nodes" or "tags" attached to, or embedded in, the objects tracked, and "Readers" that receive and process the wireless signals from these tags to determine their locations. Personal security application on mobile phones for prevention of theft or loss of items. The protected item has a Bluetooth marker (e.g., a tag) that is in constant communication with the phone. If the connection is broken (the marker is out of range of the phone) then an alarm is raised. This can also be used as a [overboard](man)(man overboard) alarm. * [Calgary](Calgary), [Alberta](Alberta), Canada's Roads Traffic division uses data collected from travelers' Bluetooth devices to predict travel times and road congestion for motorists. * Wireless transmission of audio (a more reliable alternative to [transmitters](FM)(FM transmitter (personal device))) * Live video streaming to the visual cortical implant device by Nabeel Fattah in Newcastle university 2017. * Connection of [controller](motion)(motion controller)s to a PC when using VR headsets ### Bluetooth vs Wi-Fi (IEEE 802.11) Bluetooth and [Wi-Fi](Wi-Fi) (Wi-Fi is the brand name for products using [802.11](IEEE)(IEEE 802.11) standards) have some similar applications: setting up networks, printing, or transferring files. Wi-Fi is intended as a replacement for high-speed cabling for general [area network](local)(local area network) access in work areas or home. This category of applications is sometimes called [local area network](wireless)(wireless local area network)s (WLAN). Bluetooth was intended for portable equipment and its applications. The category of applications is outlined as the wireless [area network](personal)(personal area network) (WPAN). Bluetooth is a replacement for cabling in various personally carried applications in any setting and also works for fixed location applications such as smart energy functionality in the home (thermostats, etc.). Wi-Fi and Bluetooth are to some extent complementary in their applications and usage. Wi-Fi is usually access point-centered, with an asymmetrical client-server connection with all traffic routed through the access point, while Bluetooth is usually symmetrical, between two Bluetooth devices. Bluetooth serves well in simple applications where two devices need to connect with a minimal configuration like a button press, as in headsets and speakers. ### Devices [[File:Drone 4.jpg\|thumb\|250px\|right\|A Bluetooth [USB](USB) dongle with a range]] Bluetooth exists in numerous products such as telephones, [speakers](Wireless speaker), tablets, media players, robotics systems, laptops, and game console equipment as well as some high definition [headsets](Headset (audio)), [modem](modem)s, [aid](hearing)(hearing aid)s and even watches. Given the variety of devices which use Bluetooth, coupled with the contemporary deprecation of headphone [jack](Phone connector (audio))s by Apple, Google, and other companies, and the lack of regulation by the FCC, the technology is prone to interference. Nonetheless, Bluetooth is useful when transferring information between two or more devices that are near each other in low-bandwidth situations. Bluetooth is commonly used to transfer sound data with telephones (i.e., with a Bluetooth headset) or byte data with hand-held computers (transferring files). Bluetooth protocols simplify the discovery and setup of services between devices. Bluetooth devices can advertise all of the services they provide. This makes using services easier, because more of the security, [address](network)(network address) and permission configuration can be automated than with many other network types. ## Computer requirements [[File:BluetoothUSB.jpg\|thumb\|250px\|right\|A typical Bluetooth [USB](USB) dongle]] [[TrueMobile 350 Bluetooth card.jpg\|thumb\|250px\|right\|An internal notebook Bluetooth card (14×36×4mm)](File:DELL)] A personal computer that does not have embedded Bluetooth can use a Bluetooth adapter that enables the PC to communicate with Bluetooth devices. While some [computer](desktop)(desktop computer)s and most recent laptops come with a built-in Bluetooth radio, others require an external adapter, typically in the form of a small USB "[dongle](dongle)." Unlike its predecessor, [IrDA](Infrared Data Association), which requires a separate adapter for each device, Bluetooth lets multiple devices communicate with a computer over a single adapter. ### Operating system implementation For [Microsoft](Microsoft) platforms, [XP Service Pack 2](Windows)(Windows XP Service Pack 2) and SP3 releases work natively with Bluetooth v1.1, v2.0 and v2.0+EDR.– 2010 \|access-date=4 September 2010 \|archive-date=23 December 2018 \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181223163558/http://download.microsoft.com/download/9/c/5/9c5b2167-8017-4bae-9fde-d599bac8184a/Bth_FAQ.docx \|url-status=live }} Previous versions required users to install their Bluetooth adapter's own drivers, which were not directly supported by Microsoft. Microsoft's own Bluetooth dongles (packaged with their Bluetooth computer devices) have no external drivers and thus require at least Windows XP Service Pack 2. Windows Vista RTM/SP1 with the Feature Pack for Wireless or Windows Vista SP2 work with Bluetooth v2.1+EDR. Windows 7 works with Bluetooth v2.1+EDR and Extended Inquiry Response (EIR). The Windows XP and Windows Vista/Windows 7 Bluetooth stacks support the following Bluetooth profiles natively: PAN, SPP, [DUN](Dial-up Internet access), HID, HCRP. The Windows XP stack can be replaced by a third party stack that supports more profiles or newer Bluetooth versions. The Windows Vista/Windows 7 Bluetooth stack supports vendor-supplied additional profiles without requiring that the Microsoft stack be replaced. Windows 8 and later support Bluetooth Low Energy (BLE). It is generally recommended to install the latest vendor driver and its associated stack to be able to use the Bluetooth device at its fullest extent. [Apple](Apple Inc.) products have worked with Bluetooth since [OSX v10.2](Mac)(Mac OS X v10.2), which was released in 2002. [Linux](Linux) has two popular [stack](Bluetooth)(Bluetooth stack#Linux)s, BlueZ and Fluoride. The BlueZ stack is included with most Linux kernels and was originally developed by [Qualcomm](Qualcomm). Fluoride, earlier known as Bluedroid is included in Android OS and was originally developed by [Broadcom](Broadcom). There is also Affix stack, developed by [Nokia](Nokia). It was once popular, but has not been updated since 2005. [FreeBSD](FreeBSD) has included Bluetooth since its v5.0 release, implemented through [netgraph](netgraph). [NetBSD](NetBSD) has included Bluetooth since its v4.0 release. Its Bluetooth stack was ported to [OpenBSD](OpenBSD) as well, however OpenBSD later removed it as unmaintained. [BSD](DragonFly)(DragonFly BSD) has had NetBSD's Bluetooth implementation since 1.11 (2008). A [netgraph](netgraph)-based implementation from [FreeBSD](FreeBSD) has also been available in the tree, possibly disabled until 2014-11-15, and may require more work. ## Specifications and features The specifications were formalized by the [Special Interest Group](Bluetooth)(Bluetooth Special Interest Group) (SIG) and formally announced on 20 May 1998. Today it has a membership of over 30,000 companies worldwide. It was established by [Ericsson](Ericsson), [IBM](IBM), [Intel](Intel), [Nokia](Nokia) and [Toshiba](Toshiba), and later joined by many other companies. All versions of the Bluetooth standards support [compatibility](backwards)(Backward compatibility). That lets the latest standard cover all older versions. The Bluetooth Core Specification Working Group (CSWG) produces mainly 4 kinds of specifications: * The Bluetooth Core Specification, release cycle is typically a few years in between * Core Specification Addendum (CSA), release cycle can be as tight as a few times per year * Core Specification Supplements (CSS), can be released very quickly * Errata (Available with a user account: [Errata login](https://www.bluetooth.com/log-in?btorgReturnURL=/errata/index.cfm?_ga=1.184939692.467079692.1485266743)) ### Bluetooth 1.0 and 1.0B * Products weren't interoperable * Anonymity wasn't possible, preventing certain services from using Bluetooth environments ### Bluetooth 1.1 * Ratified as [Standard 802.15.1–2002](IEEE)(IEEE 802.15#IEEE 802.15.1: WPAN / Bluetooth) * Many errors found in the v1.0B specifications were fixed. * Added possibility of non-encrypted channels. * Received Signal Strength Indicator ([RSSI](RSSI)). ### Bluetooth 1.2 Major enhancements include: * Faster Connection and Discovery * Adaptive [spread spectrum](frequency-hopping)(frequency-hopping spread spectrum) (AFH), which improves resistance to [frequency interference](radio)(radio frequency interference) by avoiding the use of crowded frequencies in the hopping sequence. * Higher transmission speeds in practice than in v1.1, up to 721 kbit/s. * Extended Synchronous Connections (eSCO), which improve voice quality of audio links by allowing retransmissions of corrupted packets, and may optionally increase audio latency to provide better concurrent data transfer. * [Controller Interface](Host)(Bluetooth protocols#Host/controller interface (HCI)) (HCI) operation with three-wire [UART](Universal asynchronous receiver/transmitter). * Ratified as [Standard 802.15.1–2005](IEEE)(IEEE 802.15#IEEE 802.15.1: WPAN / Bluetooth)– IEEE Standard for Information technology – Telecommunications and information exchange between systems – Local and metropolitan area networks – Specific requirements Part 15.1: Wireless Medium Access Control (MAC) and Physical Layer (PHY) Specifications for Wireless Personal Area Networks (W Pans) \|doi=10.1109/IEEESTD.2005.96290 \|isbn=978-0-7381-4708-6 }} * Introduced Flow Control and Retransmission Modes for L2CAP. ### Bluetooth 2.0 + EDR This version of the Bluetooth Core Specification was released before 2005. The main difference is the introduction of an Enhanced Data Rate (EDR) for faster [transfer](data)(Bit rate). The bit rate of EDR is 3Mbit/s, although the maximum data transfer rate (allowing for inter-packet time and acknowledgements) is 2.1Mbit/s. EDR uses a combination of [GFSK](Gaussian frequency-shift keying) and [keying](phase-shift)(phase-shift keying) modulation (PSK) with two variants, π/4-[DQPSK](DQPSK) and 8-[DPSK](DPSK). EDR can provide a lower power consumption through a reduced [cycle](duty)(duty cycle). The specification is published as Bluetooth v2.0 + EDR, which implies that EDR is an optional feature. Aside from EDR, the v2.0 specification contains other minor improvements, and products may claim compliance to "Bluetooth v2.0" without supporting the higher data rate. At least one commercial device states "Bluetooth v2.0 without EDR" on its data sheet. ### Bluetooth 2.1 + EDR Bluetooth Core Specification Version 2.1 + EDR was adopted by the Bluetooth SIG on 26 July 2007. The headline feature of v2.1 is [simple pairing](secure)(#Pairing) (SSP): this improves the pairing experience for Bluetooth devices, while increasing the use and strength of security. Version 2.1 allows various other improvements, including extended inquiry response (EIR), which provides more information during the inquiry procedure to allow better filtering of devices before connection; and sniff subrating, which reduces the power consumption in low-power mode. ### Bluetooth 3.0 + HS Version 3.0 + HS of the Bluetooth Core Specification was adopted by the Bluetooth SIG on 21 April 2009. Bluetooth v3.0 + HS provides theoretical data transfer speeds of up to 24 Mbit/s, though not over the Bluetooth link itself. Instead, the Bluetooth link is used for negotiation and establishment, and the high data rate traffic is carried over a colocated [802.11](IEEE 802.11) link. The main new feature is AMP (Alternative MAC/PHY), the addition of [802.11](IEEE 802.11) as a high-speed transport. The high-speed part of the specification is not mandatory, and hence only devices that display the "+HS" logo actually support Bluetooth over 802.11 high-speed data transfer. A Bluetooth v3.0 device without the "+HS" suffix is only required to support features introduced in Core Specification Version 3.0 or earlier Core Specification Addendum 1. ; [L2CAP](#Logical Link Control and Adaptation Protocol) Enhanced modes: Enhanced Retransmission Mode (ERTM) implements reliable L2CAP channel, while Streaming Mode (SM) implements unreliable channel with no retransmission or flow control. Introduced in Core Specification Addendum 1. ; Alternative MAC/PHY: Enables the use of alternative [MAC](Media Access Control) and [PHY](PHY)s for transporting Bluetooth profile data. The Bluetooth radio is still used for device discovery, initial connection and profile configuration. However, when large quantities of data must be sent, the high-speed alternative MAC PHY 802.11 (typically associated with Wi-Fi) transports the data. This means that Bluetooth uses proven low power connection models when the system is idle, and the faster radio when it must send large quantities of data. AMP links require enhanced L2CAP modes. ; Unicast Connectionless Data: Permits sending service data without establishing an explicit L2CAP channel. It is intended for use by applications that require low latency between user action and reconnection/transmission of data. This is only appropriate for small amounts of data. ; Enhanced Power Control: Updates the power control feature to remove the open loop power control, and also to clarify ambiguities in power control introduced by the new modulation schemes added for EDR. Enhanced power control removes the ambiguities by specifying the behavior that is expected. The feature also adds closed loop power control, meaning RSSI filtering can start as the response is received. Additionally, a "go straight to maximum power" request has been introduced. This is expected to deal with the headset link loss issue typically observed when a user puts their phone into a pocket on the opposite side to the headset. #### Ultra-wideband The high-speed (AMP) feature of Bluetooth v3.0 was originally intended for [UWB](Ultra-wideband), but the WiMedia Alliance, the body responsible for the flavor of UWB intended for Bluetooth, announced in March 2009 that it was disbanding, and ultimately UWB was omitted from the Core v3.0 specification. On 16 March 2009, the [Alliance](WiMedia)(WiMedia Alliance) announced it was entering into technology transfer agreements for the WiMedia [Ultra-wideband](Ultra-wideband) (UWB) specifications. WiMedia has transferred all current and future specifications, including work on future high-speed and power-optimized implementations, to the Bluetooth Special Interest Group (SIG), [USB](Wireless)(Wireless USB) Promoter Group and the [Implementers Forum](USB)(USB Implementers Forum). After successful completion of the technology transfer, marketing, and related administrative items, the WiMedia Alliance ceased operations. In October 2009, the [Special Interest Group](Bluetooth)(Bluetooth Special Interest Group) suspended development of UWB as part of the alternative MAC/PHY, Bluetooth v3.0 + HS solution. A small, but significant, number of former [WiMedia](WiMedia Alliance) members had not and would not sign up to the necessary agreements for the [IP](intellectual property) transfer. As of 2009, the Bluetooth SIG was in the process of evaluating other options for its longer term roadmap. ### Bluetooth 4.0 The Bluetooth SIG completed the Bluetooth Core Specification version 4.0 (called Bluetooth Smart) and has been adopted . It includes Classic Bluetooth, Bluetooth high speed and [Low Energy](Bluetooth)(Bluetooth Low Energy) (BLE) protocols. Bluetooth high speed is based on Wi-Fi, and Classic Bluetooth consists of legacy Bluetooth protocols. [Low Energy](Bluetooth)(Bluetooth Low Energy), previously known as Wibree, is a subset of Bluetooth v4.0 with an entirely new protocol stack for rapid build-up of simple links. As an alternative to the Bluetooth standard protocols that were introduced in Bluetooth v1.0 to v3.0, it is aimed at very low power applications powered by a [cell](coin)(Button cell). Chip designs allow for two types of implementation, dual-mode, single-mode and enhanced past versions. The provisional names Wibree and Bluetooth ULP (Ultra Low Power) were abandoned and the BLE name was used for a while. In late 2011, new logos "Bluetooth Smart Ready" for hosts and "Bluetooth Smart" for sensors were introduced as the general-public face of BLE. Compared to Classic Bluetooth, Bluetooth Low Energy is intended to provide considerably reduced power consumption and cost while maintaining a [communication range](similar)(#Radio interface). In terms of lengthening the battery life of Bluetooth devices, represents a significant progression. * In a single-mode implementation, only the low energy protocol stack is implemented. [Semiconductor](Dialog)(Dialog Semiconductor), [STMicroelectronics](STMicroelectronics), AMICCOM, [CSR](CSR plc), [Semiconductor](Nordic)(Nordic Semiconductor) and [Instruments](Texas)(Texas Instruments) have released single mode Bluetooth Low Energy solutions. * In a dual-mode implementation, Bluetooth Smart functionality is integrated into an existing Classic Bluetooth controller. , the following semiconductor companies have announced the availability of chips meeting the standard: [Qualcomm-Atheros](Qualcomm Atheros), [CSR](CSR plc), [Broadcom](Broadcom) and [Instruments](Texas)(Texas Instruments). The compliant architecture shares all of Classic Bluetooth's existing radio and functionality resulting in a negligible cost increase compared to Classic Bluetooth. Cost-reduced single-mode chips, which enable highly integrated and compact devices, feature a lightweight Link Layer providing ultra-low power idle mode operation, simple device discovery, and reliable point-to-multipoint data transfer with advanced power-save and secure encrypted connections at the lowest possible cost. General improvements in version 4.0 include the changes necessary to facilitate BLE modes, as well the Generic Attribute Profile (GATT) and Security Manager (SM) services with [AES](Advanced Encryption Standard) Encryption. Core Specification Addendum 2 was unveiled in December 2011; it contains improvements to the audio Host Controller Interface and to the High Speed (802.11) Protocol Adaptation Layer. Core Specification Addendum 3 revision 2 has an adoption date of 24 July 2012. Core Specification Addendum 4 has an adoption date of 12 February 2013. ### Bluetooth 4.1 The Bluetooth SIG announced formal adoption of the Bluetooth v4.1 specification on 4 December 2013. This specification is an incremental software update to Bluetooth Specification v4.0, and not a hardware update. The update incorporates Bluetooth Core Specification Addenda (CSA 1, 2, 3 & 4) and adds new features that improve consumer usability. These include increased co-existence support for LTE, bulk data exchange rates—and aid developer innovation by allowing devices to support multiple roles simultaneously. New features of this specification include: * Mobile Wireless Service Coexistence Signaling * Train Nudging and Generalized Interlaced Scanning * Low Duty Cycle Directed Advertising * L2CAP Connection Oriented and Dedicated Channels with Credit-Based Flow Control * Dual Mode and Topology * LE Link Layer Topology * 802.11n PAL * Audio Architecture Updates for Wide Band Speech * Fast Data Advertising Interval * Limited Discovery Time Notice that some features were already available in a Core Specification Addendum (CSA) before the release of v4.1. ### Bluetooth 4.2 Released on 2 December 2014, it introduces features for the [of things](Internet)(Internet of things). The major areas of improvement are: * [Energy](Low)(Bluetooth Low Energy) [Connection](Secure)(Cryptographic protocol) with [Packet](Data)(Data packet) Length Extension * [Layer](Link)(Link layer) Privacy with Extended Scanner Filter Policies * [Protocol Support Profile](Internet)(Internet Protocol Support Profile) (IPSP) [6](version)(IPv6) ready for [Smart](Bluetooth)(Bluetooth Low Energy) [things](Internet of things) to support connected home Older Bluetooth hardware may receive 4.2 features such as Data Packet Length Extension and improved privacy via firmware updates. ### Bluetooth 5 The Bluetooth SIG released Bluetooth 5 on 6 December 2016. Its new features are mainly focused on new [of Things](Internet)(Internet of Things) technology. Sony was the first to announce Bluetooth 5.0 support with its [XZ Premium](Xperia)(Xperia XZ Premium) in Feb 2017 during the Mobile World Congress 2017. The Samsung [S8](Galaxy)(Galaxy S8) launched with Bluetooth 5 support in April 2017. In September 2017, the [8](iPhone)(iPhone 8), 8 Plus and [X](iPhone)(iPhone X) launched with Bluetooth 5 support as well. [Apple](Apple Inc.) also integrated Bluetooth 5 in its new [HomePod](HomePod) offering released on 9 February 2018. Marketing drops the point number; so that it is just "Bluetooth 5" (unlike Bluetooth 4.0); the change is for the sake of "Simplifying our marketing, communicating user benefits more effectively and making it easier to signal significant technology updates to the market." Bluetooth 5 provides, for [BLE](Bluetooth Low Energy), options that can double the speed (2Mbit/s burst) at the expense of range, or provide up to four times the range at the expense of data rate. The increase in transmissions could be important for Internet of Things devices, where many nodes connect throughout a whole house. Bluetooth 5 increases capacity of connectionless services such as location-relevant navigation of low-energy Bluetooth connections. The major areas of improvement are: * Slot Availability Mask (SAM) * 2 Mbit/s PHY for * LE Long Range * High Duty Cycle Non-Connectable Advertising * LE Advertising Extensions * LE Channel Selection Algorithm #2 Features Added in CSA5 – Integrated in v5.0: * Higher Output Power The following features were removed in this version of the specification: * Park State ### Bluetooth 5.1 The Bluetooth SIG presented Bluetooth 5.1 on 21 January 2019. The major areas of improvement are: * [of Arrival](Angle)(Angle of Arrival) (AoA) and Angle of Departure (AoD) which are used for locating and tracking of devices * Advertising Channel Index * GATT Caching * Minor Enhancements batch 1: HCI support for debug keys in LE Secure Connections Sleep clock accuracy update mechanism ADI field in scan response data Interaction between QoS and Flow Specification Block Host channel classification for secondary advertising Allow the SID to appear in scan response reports ** Specify the behavior when rules are violated * Periodic Advertising Sync Transfer Features Added in Core Specification Addendum (CSA) 6 – Integrated in v5.1: * Models * [model](Mesh-based)(Bluetooth mesh#Mesh models) hierarchy The following features were removed in this version of the specification: * Unit keys ### Bluetooth 5.2 On 31 December 2019, the Bluetooth SIG published the Bluetooth Core Specification Version 5.2. The new specification adds new features: * Enhanced Attribute Protocol (EATT), an improved version of the Attribute Protocol (ATT) * LE Power Control * LE Isochronous Channels * [Audio](LE)(Bluetooth Low Energy#Audio) that is built on top of the new 5.2 features. BT LE Audio was announced in January 2020 at [CES](Consumer Electronics Show) by the [SIG](Bluetooth)(Bluetooth Special Interest Group). Compared to regular Bluetooth Audio, Bluetooth Low Energy Audio makes lower battery consumption possible and creates a standardized way of transmitting audio over BT LE. Bluetooth LE Audio also allows one-to-many and many-to-one broadcasts, allowing multiple receivers from one source or one receiver for multiple sources, known as Auracast. It uses a new [codec](LC3)(LC3 (codec)). BLE Audio will also add support for hearing aids. On 12 July 2022, the Bluetooth SIG announced the completion of Bluetooth LE Audio. The standard has a lower minimum latency claim of 20-30 ms vs Bluetooth Classic audio of 100-200 ms. ### Bluetooth 5.3 The Bluetooth SIG published the Bluetooth Core Specification Version 5.3 on 13 July 2021. The feature enhancements of Bluetooth 5.3 are: * Connection Subrating * Periodic Advertisement Interval * Channel Classification Enhancement * Encryption Key Size Control Enhancements The following features were removed in this version of the specification: * Alternate MAC and PHY (AMP) Extension ### Bluetooth 5.4 The Bluetooth SIG released the Bluetooth Core Specification Version 5.4 on 7 February 2023. This new version adds the following features: * Periodic Advertising with Responses (PAwR) * Encrypted Advertising Data * LE GATT Security Levels Characteristic * Advertising Coding Selection ## Technical information ### Architecture #### Software Seeking to extend the compatibility of Bluetooth devices, the devices that adhere to the standard use an interface called HCI (Host Controller Interface) between the host device (e.g. laptop, phone) and the Bluetooth device (e.g. Bluetooth wireless headset). High-level protocols such as the SDP (Protocol used to find other Bluetooth devices within the communication range, also responsible for detecting the function of devices in range), RFCOMM (Protocol used to emulate serial port connections) and TCS (Telephony control protocol) interact with the baseband controller through the L2CAP (Logical Link Control and Adaptation Protocol). The L2CAP protocol is responsible for the segmentation and reassembly of the packets. #### Hardware The hardware that makes up the Bluetooth device is made up of, logically, two parts; which may or may not be physically separate. A radio device, responsible for modulating and transmitting the signal; and a digital controller. The digital controller is likely a CPU, one of whose functions is to run a Link Controller; and interfaces with the host device; but some functions may be delegated to hardware. The Link Controller is responsible for the processing of the baseband and the management of ARQ and physical layer FEC protocols. In addition, it handles the transfer functions (both asynchronous and synchronous), audio coding (e.g. [(codec)](SBC)(SBC (codec))) and data encryption. The CPU of the device is responsible for attending the instructions related to Bluetooth of the host device, in order to simplify its operation. To do this, the CPU runs software called Link Manager that has the function of communicating with other devices through the LMP protocol. A Bluetooth device is a [short-range](short-range device) [wireless](wireless) device. Bluetooth devices are [fabricated](semiconductor device fabrication) on [CMOS](RF)(RF CMOS) [circuit](integrated)(integrated circuit) ([circuit](RF)(RF circuit)) chips. ### Bluetooth protocol stack [[protokoly.svg\|thumb\|250px\|right\|Bluetooth Protocol Stack](File:Bluetooth)] Bluetooth is defined as a layer protocol architecture consisting of core protocols, cable replacement protocols, telephony control protocols, and adopted protocols. Mandatory protocols for all Bluetooth stacks are LMP, L2CAP and SDP. In addition, devices that communicate with Bluetooth almost universally can use these protocols: [HCI](Bluetooth protocols#Host Controller Interface (HCI)) and RFCOMM. #### Link Manager The Link Manager (LM) is the system that manages establishing the connection between devices. It is responsible for the establishment, authentication and configuration of the link. The Link Manager locates other managers and communicates with them via the management protocol of the LMP link. To perform its function as a service provider, the LM uses the services included in the Link Controller (LC). The Link Manager Protocol basically consists of several PDUs (Protocol Data Units) that are sent from one device to another. The following is a list of supported services: * Transmission and reception of data. * Name request * Request of the link addresses. * Establishment of the connection. * Authentication. * Negotiation of link mode and connection establishment. #### Host Controller Interface The Host Controller Interface provides a command interface for the controller and for the link manager, which allows access to the hardware status and control registers. This interface provides an access layer for all Bluetooth devices. The HCI layer of the machine exchanges commands and data with the HCI firmware present in the Bluetooth device. One of the most important HCI tasks that must be performed is the automatic discovery of other Bluetooth devices that are within the coverage radiux. #### Logical Link Control and Adaptation Protocol The Logical Link Control and Adaptation Protocol (L2CAP) is used to multiplex multiple logical connections between two devices using different higher level protocols. Provides segmentation and reassembly of on-air packets. In Basic mode, L2CAP provides packets with a payload configurable up to 64 kB, with 672 bytes as the default [MTU](Maximum transmission unit), and 48 bytes as the minimum mandatory supported MTU. In Retransmission and Flow Control modes, L2CAP can be configured either for isochronous data or reliable data per channel by performing retransmissions and CRC checks. Bluetooth Core Specification Addendum 1 adds two additional L2CAP modes to the core specification. These modes effectively deprecate original Retransmission and Flow Control modes: ; Enhanced Retransmission Mode (ERTM): This mode is an improved version of the original retransmission mode. This mode provides a reliable L2CAP channel. ; Streaming Mode (SM): This is a very simple mode, with no retransmission or flow control. This mode provides an unreliable L2CAP channel. Reliability in any of these modes is optionally and/or additionally guaranteed by the lower layer Bluetooth BDR/EDR air interface by configuring the number of retransmissions and flush timeout (time after which the radio flushes packets). In-order sequencing is guaranteed by the lower layer. Only L2CAP channels configured in ERTM or SM may be operated over AMP logical links. #### Service Discovery Protocol The Service Discovery Protocol (SDP) allows a device to discover services offered by other devices, and their associated parameters. For example, when you use a mobile phone with a Bluetooth headset, the phone uses SDP to determine which [profile](Bluetooth)(Bluetooth profile)s the headset can use (Headset Profile, Hands Free Profile (HFP), [Audio Distribution Profile (A2DP)](Advanced)(Advanced Audio Distribution Profile) etc.) and the protocol multiplexer settings needed for the phone to connect to the headset using each of them. Each service is identified by a [Unique Identifier](Universally)(Universally Unique Identifier) (UUID), with official services (Bluetooth profiles) assigned a short form UUID (16 bits rather than the full 128). #### Radio Frequency Communications Radio Frequency Communications (RFCOMM) is a cable replacement protocol used for generating a virtual serial data stream. RFCOMM provides for binary data transport and emulates [EIA-1325 ](EIA-1325 ) (formerly RS-232) control signals over the Bluetooth baseband layer, i.e., it is a serial port emulation. RFCOMM provides a simple, reliable, data stream to the user, similar to TCP. It is used directly by many telephony related profiles as a carrier for AT commands, as well as being a transport layer for OBEX over Bluetooth. Many Bluetooth applications use RFCOMM because of its widespread support and publicly available API on most operating systems. Additionally, applications that used a serial port to communicate can be quickly ported to use RFCOMM. #### Bluetooth Network Encapsulation Protocol The Bluetooth Network Encapsulation Protocol (BNEP) is used for transferring another protocol stack's data via an L2CAP channel. Its main purpose is the transmission of IP packets in the Personal Area Networking Profile. BNEP performs a similar function to [SNAP](Subnetwork Access Protocol) in Wireless LAN. #### Audio/Video Control Transport Protocol The Audio/Video Control Transport Protocol (AVCTP) is used by the remote control profile to transfer AV/C commands over an L2CAP channel. The music control buttons on a stereo headset use this protocol to control the music player. #### Audio/Video Distribution Transport Protocol The Audio/Video Distribution Transport Protocol (AVDTP) is used by the advanced audio distribution ([A2DP](A2DP)) profile to stream music to stereo headsets over an [L2CAP](List of Bluetooth protocols#Logical link control and adaptation protocol (L2CAP)) channel intended for video distribution profile in the Bluetooth transmission. #### Telephony Control Protocol The Telephony Control Protocol– Binary (TCS BIN) is the bit-oriented protocol that defines the call control signaling for the establishment of voice and data calls between Bluetooth devices. Additionally, "TCS BIN defines mobility management procedures for handling groups of Bluetooth TCS devices." TCS-BIN is only used by the cordless telephony profile, which failed to attract implementers. As such it is only of historical interest. #### Adopted protocols Adopted protocols are defined by other standards-making organizations and incorporated into Bluetooth's protocol stack, allowing Bluetooth to code protocols only when necessary. The adopted protocols include: ;[Protocol](Point-to-Point)(Point-to-Point Protocol) (PPP): Internet standard protocol for transporting [datagram](IP)(IP datagram)s over a point-to-point link. ;[TCP/IP](TCP/IP)/UDP: Foundation Protocols for TCP/IP protocol suite ;[Exchange Protocol](Object)(OBject EXchange) (OBEX): Session-layer protocol for the exchange of objects, providing a model for object and operation representation ;[Application Environment/Wireless Application Protocol](Wireless)(Wireless Application Protocol) (WAE/WAP): WAE specifies an application framework for wireless devices and WAP is an open standard to provide mobile users access to telephony and information services. ### Baseband error correction Depending on packet type, individual packets may be protected by [correction](error)(error correction), either 1/3 rate [error correction](forward)(forward error correction) (FEC) or 2/3 rate. In addition, packets with CRC will be retransmitted until acknowledged by [repeat request](automatic)(automatic repeat request) (ARQ). ### Setting up connections Any Bluetooth device in discoverable mode transmits the following information on demand: * Device name * Device class * List of services * Technical information (for example: device features, manufacturer, Bluetooth specification used, clock offset) Any device may perform an inquiry to find other devices to connect to, and any device can be configured to respond to such inquiries. However, if the device trying to connect knows the address of the device, it always responds to direct connection requests and transmits the information shown in the list above if requested. Use of a device's services may require pairing or acceptance by its owner, but the connection itself can be initiated by any device and held until it goes out of range. Some devices can be connected to only one device at a time, and connecting to them prevents them from connecting to other devices and appearing in inquiries until they disconnect from the other device. Every device has a [48-bit address](unique)(MAC address). However, these addresses are generally not shown in inquiries. Instead, friendly Bluetooth names are used, which can be set by the user. This name appears when another user scans for devices and in lists of paired devices. Most cellular phones have the Bluetooth name set to the manufacturer and model of the phone by default. Most cellular phones and laptops show only the Bluetooth names and special programs are required to get additional information about remote devices. This can be confusing as, for example, there could be several cellular phones in range named [T610](Sony Ericsson T610) (see [Bluejacking](Bluejacking)). ### Pairing and bonding #### Motivation Many services offered over Bluetooth can expose private data or let a connecting party control the Bluetooth device. Security reasons make it necessary to recognize specific devices, and thus enable control over which devices can connect to a given Bluetooth device. At the same time, it is useful for Bluetooth devices to be able to establish a connection without user intervention (for example, as soon as in range). To resolve this conflict, Bluetooth uses a process called bonding, and a bond is generated through a process called pairing. The pairing process is triggered either by a specific request from a user to generate a bond (for example, the user explicitly requests to "Add a Bluetooth device"), or it is triggered automatically when connecting to a service where (for the first time) the identity of a device is required for security purposes. These two cases are referred to as dedicated bonding and general bonding respectively. Pairing often involves some level of user interaction. This user interaction confirms the identity of the devices. When pairing completes, a bond forms between the two devices, enabling those two devices to connect in the future without repeating the pairing process to confirm device identities. When desired, the user can remove the bonding relationship. #### Implementation During pairing, the two devices establish a relationship by creating a [secret](shared)(shared secret) known as a link key. If both devices store the same link key, they are said to be paired or bonded. A device that wants to communicate only with a bonded device can [cryptographically](cryptography) [authenticate](authentication) the identity of the other device, ensuring it is the same device it previously paired with. Once a link key is generated, an authenticated [ACL](Asynchronous connection-oriented logical transport) link between the devices may be [encrypted](encryption) to protect exchanged data against [eavesdropping](eavesdropping). Users can delete link keys from either device, which removes the bond between the devices—so it is possible for one device to have a stored link key for a device it is no longer paired with. Bluetooth services generally require either encryption or authentication and as such require pairing before they let a remote device connect. Some services, such as the Object Push Profile, elect not to explicitly require authentication or encryption so that pairing does not interfere with the user experience associated with the service use-cases. #### Pairing mechanisms Pairing mechanisms changed significantly with the introduction of Secure Simple Pairing in Bluetooth v2.1. The following summarizes the pairing mechanisms: * Legacy pairing: This is the only method available in Bluetooth v2.0 and before. Each device must enter a [code](PIN)(Personal identification number); pairing is only successful if both devices enter the same PIN code. Any 16-byte UTF-8 string may be used as a PIN code; however, not all devices may be capable of entering all possible PIN codes. ** Limited input devices: The obvious example of this class of device is a Bluetooth Hands-free headset, which generally have few inputs. These devices usually have a fixed PIN, for example "0000" or "1234", that are hard-coded into the device. ** Numeric input devices: Mobile phones are classic examples of these devices. They allow a user to enter a numeric value up to 16 digits in length. ** Alpha-numeric input devices: PCs and smartphones are examples of these devices. They allow a user to enter full UTF-8 text as a PIN code. If pairing with a less capable device the user must be aware of the input limitations on the other device; there is no mechanism available for a capable device to determine how it should limit the available input a user may use. * Secure Simple Pairing (SSP): This is required by Bluetooth v2.1, although a Bluetooth v2.1 device may only use legacy pairing to interoperate with a v2.0 or earlier device. Secure Simple Pairing uses a form of [cryptography](public-key)(public-key cryptography), and some types can help protect against [in the middle](man)(Man-in-the-middle attack), or MITM attacks. SSP has the following authentication mechanisms: ** Just works: As the name implies, this method just works, with no user interaction. However, a device may prompt the user to confirm the pairing process. This method is typically used by headsets with minimal IO capabilities, and is more secure than the fixed PIN mechanism this limited set of devices uses for legacy pairing. This method provides no man-in-the-middle (MITM) protection. ** Numeric comparison: If both devices have a display, and at least one can accept a binary yes/no user input, they may use Numeric Comparison. This method displays a 6-digit numeric code on each device. The user should compare the numbers to ensure they are identical. If the comparison succeeds, the user(s) should confirm pairing on the device(s) that can accept an input. This method provides MITM protection, assuming the user confirms on both devices and actually performs the comparison properly. ** Passkey Entry: This method may be used between a device with a display and a device with numeric keypad entry (such as a keyboard), or two devices with numeric keypad entry. In the first case, the display presents a 6-digit numeric code to the user, who then enters the code on the keypad. In the second case, the user of each device enters the same 6-digit number. Both of these cases provide MITM protection. ** Out of band (OOB): This method uses an external means of communication, such as [communication](near-field)(near-field communication) (NFC) to exchange some information used in the pairing process. Pairing is completed using the Bluetooth radio, but requires information from the OOB mechanism. This provides only the level of MITM protection that is present in the OOB mechanism. SSP is considered simple for the following reasons: * In most cases, it does not require a user to generate a passkey. * For use cases not requiring MITM protection, user interaction can be eliminated. * For numeric comparison, MITM protection can be achieved with a simple equality comparison by the user. * Using OOB with NFC enables pairing when devices simply get close, rather than requiring a lengthy discovery process. #### Security concerns Prior to Bluetooth v2.1, encryption is not required and can be turned off at any time. Moreover, the encryption key is only good for approximately 23.5 hours; using a single encryption key longer than this time allows simple [attacks](XOR)(Stream cipher attack) to retrieve the encryption key. * Turning off encryption is required for several normal operations, so it is problematic to detect if encryption is disabled for a valid reason or a security attack. Bluetooth v2.1 addresses this in the following ways: * Encryption is required for all non-SDP (Service Discovery Protocol) connections * A new Encryption Pause and Resume feature is used for all normal operations that require that encryption be disabled. This enables easy identification of normal operation from security attacks. * The encryption key must be refreshed before it expires. Link keys may be stored on the device file system, not on the Bluetooth chip itself. Many Bluetooth chip manufacturers let link keys be stored on the device—however, if the device is removable, this means that the link key moves with the device. ## Security ### Overview Bluetooth implements [confidentiality](confidentiality), [authentication](authentication) and [key](key (cryptography)) derivation with custom algorithms based on the [SAFER+](SAFER) [cipher](block)(block cipher). Bluetooth key generation is generally based on a Bluetooth PIN, which must be entered into both devices. This procedure might be modified if one of the devices has a fixed PIN (e.g., for headsets or similar devices with a restricted user interface). During pairing, an initialization key or master key is generated, using the E22 algorithm. The [E0](E0 (cipher)) stream cipher is used for encrypting packets, granting confidentiality, and is based on a shared cryptographic secret, namely a previously generated link key or master key. Those keys, used for subsequent encryption of data sent via the air interface, rely on the Bluetooth PIN, which has been entered into one or both devices. An overview of Bluetooth vulnerabilities exploits was published in 2007 by Andreas Becker. In September 2008, the [Institute of Standards and Technology](National)(National Institute of Standards and Technology) (NIST) published a Guide to Bluetooth Security as a reference for organizations. It describes Bluetooth security capabilities and how to secure Bluetooth technologies effectively. While Bluetooth has its benefits, it is susceptible to denial-of-service attacks, eavesdropping, man-in-the-middle attacks, message modification, and resource misappropriation. Users and organizations must evaluate their acceptable level of risk and incorporate security into the lifecycle of Bluetooth devices. To help mitigate risks, included in the NIST document are security checklists with guidelines and recommendations for creating and maintaining secure Bluetooth piconets, headsets, and smart card readers. Bluetooth v2.1 – finalized in 2007 with consumer devices first appearing in 2009 – makes significant changes to Bluetooth's security, including pairing. See the [mechanisms](pairing)(#Pairing mechanisms) section for more about these changes. ### Bluejacking Bluejacking is the sending of either a picture or a message from one user to an unsuspecting user through Bluetooth wireless technology. Common applications include short messages, e.g., "You've just been bluejacked!" Bluejacking does not involve the removal or alteration of any data from the device.Kaviarasu, S., & Muthupandian, P. (2016). Bluejacking Technology: A Review. International Journal of Trend in Research and Development, 3(6), 1. Retrieved October 2018, from https://www.researchgate.net/publication/314233155_Bluejacking_Technology_A_Review Some form of [DoS](Denial-of-service attack) is also possible, even in modern devices, by sending unsolicited pairing requests in rapid succession; this becomes disruptive because most systems display a full screen notification for every connection request, interrupting every other activity, especially on less powerful devices. ### History of security concerns #### 2001–2004 In 2001, Jakobsson and Wetzel from [Laboratories](Bell)(Bell Laboratories) discovered flaws in the Bluetooth pairing protocol and also pointed to vulnerabilities in the encryption scheme. In 2003, Ben and Adam Laurie from A.L. Digital Ltd. discovered that serious flaws in some poor implementations of Bluetooth security may lead to disclosure of personal data. In a subsequent experiment, Martin Herfurt from the trifinite.group was able to do a field-trial at the [CeBIT](CeBIT) fairgrounds, showing the importance of the problem to the world. A new attack called [BlueBug](Bluebugging) was used for this experiment. In 2004 the first purported [virus](computer virus) using Bluetooth to spread itself among mobile phones appeared on the [OS](Symbian)(Symbian OS). The virus was first described by [Lab](Kaspersky)(Kaspersky Lab) and requires users to confirm the installation of unknown software before it can propagate. The virus was written as a proof-of-concept by a group of virus writers known as "29A" and sent to anti-virus groups. Thus, it should be regarded as a potential (but not real) security threat to Bluetooth technology or [OS](Symbian)(Symbian OS) since the virus has never spread outside of this system. In August 2004, a world-record-setting experiment (see also [sniping](Bluetooth)(Bluetooth sniping)) showed that the range of Class 2 Bluetooth radios could be extended to with directional antennas and signal amplifiers. This poses a potential security threat because it enables attackers to access vulnerable Bluetooth devices from a distance beyond expectation. The attacker must also be able to receive information from the victim to set up a connection. No attack can be made against a Bluetooth device unless the attacker knows its Bluetooth address and which channels to transmit on, although these can be deduced within a few minutes if the device is in use. #### 2005 In January 2005, a mobile [malware](malware) worm known as Lasco surfaced. The worm began targeting mobile phones using [OS](Symbian)(Symbian OS) ([60 platform](Series)(S60 (software platform))) using Bluetooth enabled devices to replicate itself and spread to other devices. The worm is self-installing and begins once the mobile user approves the transfer of the file (Velasco.sis) from another device. Once installed, the worm begins looking for other Bluetooth enabled devices to infect. Additionally, the worm infects other [.SIS](.SIS) files on the device, allowing replication to another device through the use of removable media ([Digital](Secure)(Secure Digital), [CompactFlash](CompactFlash), etc.). The worm can render the mobile device unstable. In April 2005, [University](Cambridge)(University of Cambridge) security researchers published results of their actual implementation of passive attacks against the [PIN-based](Personal identification number) pairing between commercial Bluetooth devices. They confirmed that attacks are practicably fast, and the Bluetooth symmetric key establishment method is vulnerable. To rectify this vulnerability, they designed an implementation that showed that stronger, asymmetric key establishment is feasible for certain classes of devices, such as mobile phones. In June 2005, Yaniv Shaked and Avishai Wool published a paper describing both passive and active methods for obtaining the PIN for a Bluetooth link. The passive attack allows a suitably equipped attacker to eavesdrop on communications and spoof if the attacker was present at the time of initial pairing. The active method makes use of a specially constructed message that must be inserted at a specific point in the protocol, to make the master and slave repeat the pairing process. After that, the first method can be used to crack the PIN. This attack's major weakness is that it requires the user of the devices under attack to re-enter the PIN during the attack when the device prompts them to. Also, this active attack probably requires custom hardware, since most commercially available Bluetooth devices are not capable of the timing necessary. In August 2005, police in [Cambridgeshire](Cambridgeshire), England, issued warnings about thieves using Bluetooth enabled phones to track other devices left in cars. Police are advising users to ensure that any mobile networking connections are de-activated if laptops and other devices are left in this way. #### 2006 In April 2006, researchers from [Network](Secure)(Secure Network) and [F-Secure](F-Secure) published a report that warns of the large number of devices left in a visible state, and issued statistics on the spread of various Bluetooth services and the ease of spread of an eventual Bluetooth worm. In October 2006, at the Luxemburgish Hack.lu Security Conference, Kevin Finistere and Thierry Zoller demonstrated and released a remote root shell via Bluetooth on Mac OS X v10.3.9 and v10.4. They also demonstrated the first Bluetooth PIN and Linkkeys cracker, which is based on the research of Wool and Shaked. #### 2017 In April 2017, security researchers at Armis discovered multiple exploits in the Bluetooth software in various platforms, including [Windows](Microsoft)(Microsoft Windows), [Linux](Linux), Apple [iOS](iOS), and Google [Android](Android (operating system)). These vulnerabilities are collectively called "[BlueBorne](BlueBorne)". The exploits allow an attacker to connect to devices or systems without authentication and can give them "virtually full control over the device". Armis contacted Google, Microsoft, Apple, Samsung and Linux developers allowing them to patch their software before the coordinated announcement of the vulnerabilities on 12 September 2017. #### 2018 In July 2018, Lior Neumann and Eli Biham, researchers at the Technion – Israel Institute of Technology identified a security vulnerability in the latest Bluetooth pairing procedures: Secure Simple Pairing and LE Secure Connections. Also, in October 2018, Karim Lounis, a network security researcher at Queen's University, identified a security vulnerability, called CDV (Connection Dumping Vulnerability), on various Bluetooth devices that allows an attacker to tear down an existing Bluetooth connection and cause the deauthentication and disconnection of the involved devices. The researcher demonstrated the attack on various devices of different categories and from different manufacturers. #### 2019 In August 2019, security researchers at the [University of Technology and Design](Singapore)(Singapore University of Technology and Design), Helmholtz Center for Information Security, and [of Oxford](University)(University of Oxford) discovered a vulnerability, called KNOB (Key Negotiation Of Bluetooth) in the key negotiation that would "brute force the negotiated encryption keys, decrypt the eavesdropped ciphertext, and inject valid encrypted messages (in real-time)". Google released an [Android](Android (operating system)) security patch on 5 August 2019, which removed this vulnerability. ## Health concerns Bluetooth uses the [frequency](radio)(radio frequency) spectrum in the 2.402GHz to 2.480GHz range, which is [radiation](non-ionizing)(non-ionizing radiation), of similar bandwidth to that used by wireless and mobile phones. No specific harm has been demonstrated, even though wireless transmission has been included by [IARC](International Agency for Research on Cancer) in the possible [carcinogen](carcinogen) list. Maximum power output from a Bluetooth radio is 100[mW](Milliwatt#Multiples) for class 1, 2.5mW for class 2, and 1mW for class 3 devices. Even the maximum power output of class1 is a lower level than the lowest-powered mobile phones. [UMTS](UMTS) and [W-CDMA](W-CDMA) output 250mW, [GSM1800/1900](GSM frequency bands) outputs 1000mW, and [GSM850/900](GSM frequency bands) outputs 2000mW. ## Award programs The Bluetooth Innovation World Cup, a marketing initiative of the Bluetooth Special Interest Group (SIG), was an international competition that encouraged the development of innovations for applications leveraging Bluetooth technology in sports, fitness and health care products. The competition aimed to stimulate new markets. The Bluetooth Innovation World Cup morphed into the Bluetooth Breakthrough Awards in 2013. Bluetooth SIG subsequently launched the Imagine Blue Award in 2016 at Bluetooth World. The Bluetooth Breakthrough Awards program highlights the most innovative products and applications available today, prototypes coming soon, and student-led projects in the making. ## See also * [ANT+](ANT (network)) * [stack](Bluetooth)(Bluetooth stack) – building blocks that make up the various implementations of the Bluetooth protocol * [of Bluetooth profiles](List)(List of Bluetooth profiles) – features used within the Bluetooth stack * [Bluesniping](Bluesniping) * [BlueSoleil](BlueSoleil) – proprietary Bluetooth driver * [Low Energy beacon](Bluetooth)(Bluetooth Low Energy beacon)s ([AltBeacon](Types of beacons#AltBeacon (Radius Networks)), [iBeacon](iBeacon), [Eddystone](Eddystone (Google))) * [mesh networking](Bluetooth)(Bluetooth mesh networking) * [Health Alliance](Continua)(Continua Health Alliance) * [DASH7](DASH7) * [(audio)](Headset)(Headset (audio)) * [hotspot](Wi-Fi)(Wi-Fi hotspot) * [APIs for Bluetooth](Java)(Java APIs for Bluetooth) * [finder](Key)(Key finder) * [Li-Fi](Li-Fi) * [of Bluetooth protocols](List)(List of Bluetooth protocols) * [MyriaNed](MyriaNed) * [communication](Near-field)(Near-field communication) * [RuBee](RuBee) – secure wireless protocol alternative * [Tethering](Tethering) * [(network protocol)](Thread)(Thread (network protocol)) * [HaLow](Wi-Fi)(IEEE 802.11ah) * [Zigbee](Zigbee) – low-power lightweight wireless protocol in the [band](ISM)(ISM band) based on [802.15.4](IEEE)(IEEE 802.15.4) ## Notes ## References ## External links * * [Specifications](https://www.bluetooth.org/en-us/specification/adopted-specifications) at [SIG](Bluetooth)(Bluetooth Special Interest Group) [Category:Bluetooth](Category:Bluetooth) [computers](Category:Mobile)(Category:Mobile computers) [standards](Category:Networking)(Category:Networking standards) [communication systems](Category:Wireless)(Category:Wireless communication systems) [introductions in 1989](Category:Telecommunications-related)(Category:Telecommunications-related introductions in 1989) [inventions](Category:Swedish)(Category:Swedish inventions)
Dissociative identity disorder	dissociative_identity_disorder	# Dissociative identity disorder Revision ID: 1160258968 \| Timestamp: 2023-06-15T10:46:17Z --- \| synonyms = Multiple personality disorderSplit personality disorder \| image = \| caption = \| pronounce = \| field = [Psychiatry](Psychiatry), [psychology](clinical)(clinical psychology) \| symptoms = At least two distinct and relatively enduring [states](personality)(personality), recurrent episodes of [amnesia](dissociative)(dissociative amnesia), inexplicable intrusions into consciousness (e.g., voices, intrusive thoughts, impulses, trauma-related beliefs), alterations in sense of self, [depersonalization](depersonalization) and [derealization](derealization), intermittent functional neurological symptoms, emotion and behavior dysregulation, \|pmid=33760527 }} [first-rank symptoms](Schneiderian)(Kurt Schneider#Schizophrenia) \| complications = Trauma and shame-based beliefs, [fugue](Dissociative)(Fugue state), [disorders](Eating)(Eating disorders), [Fibromyalgia](Fibromyalgia), [Depression](Depression (mood)), [Anxiety](Anxiety), [disturbances](sleep)(sleep disturbances) (eg. [terrors](Sleep)(Sleep terrors), nightmares, sleepwalking, insomnia, [hypersomnia](hypersomnia)), [suicidality](Suicide), [self-harm](self-harm) \| onset = \| duration = Long-term \| types = \| causes = [trauma](Childhood)(Childhood trauma) \| risks = Suicide, Interpersonal problems, aggressive behaviors \| differential = [specified dissociative disorder](Other)(Other specified dissociative disorder), [disorder](psychotic)(psychotic disorder), [personality disorder](Schizotypal)(Schizotypal personality disorder), [lobe epilepsy](Temporal)(Temporal lobe epilepsy),[brain injury](Traumatic)(Traumatic brain injury), [disorder](seizure)(seizure disorder), [disorder](personality)(personality disorder) \| prevention = \| treatment = [education](Patient)(Patient education), [support](Peer)(Peer support), Safety planning, Grounding techniques, [care](Supportive)(Supportive care), [psychotherapy](psychotherapy) \| medication = \| prognosis = \| frequency = ~1.5–2% of general population \| deaths = \| alt = }} Dissociative identity disorder (DID), formerly known as multiple personality disorder, and commonly referred to as split personality disorder or dissociative personality disorder, is a member of the family of [disorder](dissociative)(dissociative disorder)s classified by the [DSM-5](DSM-5), [DSM-5-TR](DSM-5-TR), [ICD-10](ICD 10), [ICD-11](ICD-11), and [Manual](Merck)(Merck Manual) for diagnosis. It remains a controversial diagnosis. Dissociative identity disorder is characterized by the presence of at least two distinct and relatively enduring [states](personality)(personality). The disorder is accompanied by [gaps](memory)(Psychogenic amnesia) more severe than could be explained by ordinary forgetfulness. The personality states alternately show in a person's behavior; however, presentations of the disorder vary. Other conditions that often occur in people with DID include [stress disorder](post-traumatic)(post-traumatic stress disorder), [disorders](personality)(personality disorders) (especially [borderline](borderline personality disorder), [Schizotypal](Schizotypal personality disorder) and [avoidant](avoidant personality disorder)), [depression](Major depressive disorder), [use disorders](substance)(substance use disorders), [disorder](conversion)(conversion disorder), [symptom disorder](somatic)(somatic symptom disorder), [disorders](eating)(eating disorders), [disorder](obsessive–compulsive)(obsessive–compulsive disorder), and [disorders](sleep)(sleep disorders). [Self-harm](Self-harm), [seizures](non-epileptic)(Psychogenic non-epileptic seizure), [flashbacks](Flashback (psychology)) with amnesia for content of flashbacks, [disorders](anxiety)(anxiety disorders), and [suicidality](suicidality) are also common. DID requires an unintegrated mind to form. Genetic and biological factors are also believed to play a role.}} The diagnosis should not be made if the person's condition is better accounted for by [use disorder](substance)(substance use disorder), [seizure](seizure)s, other medical problems, [imaginative](imaginative) play in children, or [practice](religious)(religious practice)s. According to the DSM-5-TR, early life trauma, typically before the age of 10, can place someone at risk of developing dissociative identity disorder.Across diverse geographic regions, 90% of individuals diagnosed with dissociative identity disorder report experiencing multiple forms of [abuse](childhood)(Child abuse), such as neglect or severe bullying. Other traumatic childhood experiences that have been reported include painful medical or surgical procedures, war, terrorism, attachment disturbance, natural disaster, [cult](cult), and [occult](occult) abuse, loss of a loved one or loved ones, [trafficking](human)(human trafficking), and dysfunctional family dynamics. There is no medication to treat DID directly. [Medication](Psychiatric medication)s can be used for [comorbid](Comorbidity) disorders or targeted symptom relief, for example [antidepressant](antidepressant)s or treatments to improve sleep, however. Treatment generally involves [care](supportive)(supportive care) and [psychotherapy](psychotherapy). The condition usually persists without treatment. It is believed to affect about 1.5% of the general population (based on a small US community sample) and 3% of those admitted to hospitals with mental health issues in Europe and North America. DID is diagnosed about six times more often in women than in men. The number of recorded cases increased significantly in the latter half of the 20th century, along with the number of identities reported by those affected. It is unclear whether increased rates of the disorder are due to better recognition or sociocultural factors such as [media](mass)(mass media) portrayals. The typical presenting symptoms in different regions of the world may also vary depending on culture, such as alter identities taking the form of possessing spirits, [deities](deities), ghosts, or mythical creatures and figures in cultures where normative possession states are common. The possession form of dissociative identity disorder is involuntary and distressing, and occurs in a way that violates cultural or religious norms. ## Definitions [Dissociation](Dissociation (psychology)), the term that underlies [disorder](dissociative)(dissociative disorder)s including DID, lacks a precise, empirical, and generally agreed upon definition. A large number of diverse experiences have been termed dissociative, ranging from normal failures in [attention](attention) to the breakdowns in memory processes characterized by the dissociative disorders. It is therefore unknown if there is a commonality between all dissociative experiences, or if the range of mild to severe symptoms is a result of different etiologies and biological structures. Other terms used in the literature, including [personality](personality), personality state, [identity](Identity (social science)), ego state, and [amnesia](amnesia), also have no agreed upon definitions. Multiple competing models exist that incorporate some non-dissociative symptoms while excluding dissociative ones. Due to the lack of consensus regarding terminology in the study of DID, several terms have been proposed. One is [state](ego)(Alter ego) (behaviors and experiences possessing permeable boundaries with other such states but united by a common sense of self), while the other term is [alters](Alter ego) (each of which may have a separate [memory](autobiographical)(autobiographical memory), independent initiative and a sense of ownership over individual behavior). Ellert Nijenhuis and colleagues suggest a distinction between personalities responsible for day-to-day functioning (associated with blunted physiological responses and [emotional reactivity](reduced)(Blunted affect), referred to as the "apparently normal part of the personality" or ANP) and those emerging in survival situations (involving [response](fight-or-flight)(fight-or-flight response)s, vivid traumatic memories and strong, painful emotions – the "emotional part of the personality" or EP). "Structural dissociation of the personality" is used by Onno van der Hart and colleagues to distinguish dissociation they attribute to traumatic or pathological causes, which in turn is divided into primary, secondary and tertiary dissociation. According to this theory, primary dissociation prototypically involves one ANP and one EP, while secondary dissociation prototypically involves an ANP and at least two EPs, and tertiary dissociation, typically characterized in DID, is described as having at least two ANPs and at least two EPs. Others have suggested dissociation can be separated into two distinct forms, [detachment](Emotional detachment) and [compartmentalization](compartmentalization (psychology)), the latter of which, involving a failure to control normally controllable processes or actions, is most evident in DID. Efforts to [psychometrically](Psychometrics) distinguish between normal and pathological dissociation have been made. ## Signs and symptoms The full presentation of dissociative identity disorder can onset at any age, although symptoms typically begin at ages 5–10. According to the fifth edition of the [and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders](Diagnostic)(Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders) (DSM-5), symptoms of DID include "the presence of two or more distinct personality states" accompanied by the inability to recall personal information beyond what is expected through normal memory issues. Other DSM-5 symptoms include a loss of identity as related to individual distinct personality states, loss of one's subjective experience of the passage of time, and degradation of a sense of self and consciousness. In each individual, the clinical presentation varies and the level of functioning can change from severe impairment to minimal impairment. The symptoms of [amnesia](dissociative)(dissociative amnesia) are subsumed under a DID diagnosis, and thus should not be diagnosed separately if DID criteria are met. Individuals with DID may experience distress from both the symptoms of DID (intrusive thoughts or emotions) and the consequences of the accompanying symptoms (dissociation rendering them unable to remember specific information). The majority of patients with DID report childhood [sexual](sexual abuse) or [abuse](physical)(physical abuse). Amnesia between identities may be asymmetrical; identities may or may not be aware of what is known by another. Individuals with DID may be reluctant to discuss symptoms due to associations with abuse, shame, and fear. DID patients may also frequently and intensely experience time disturbances. Around half of people with DID have fewer than 10 identities and most have fewer than 100; although as many as 4,500 have been reported. The average number of identities has increased over the past few decades, from two or three to now an average of approximately 16. However, it is unclear whether this is due to an actual increase in identities, or simply that the psychiatric community has become more accepting of a high number of compartmentalized memory components. ### Comorbid disorders The [history](psychiatric)(psychiatric history) frequently contains multiple previous diagnoses of various disorders and [treatment](therapy) failures. The most common presenting complaint of DID is [depression](depression (mood)), with [headache](headache)s being a common neurological symptom. Comorbid disorders can include [use disorder](substance)(substance use disorder), [disorder](eating)(eating disorder)s, [disorder](anxiety)(anxiety disorder)s, [disorder](bipolar)(bipolar disorder), and [disorders](personality)(personality disorders). A significant percentage of those diagnosed with DID have histories of [personality disorder](borderline)(borderline personality disorder) and [stress disorder](post-traumatic)(post-traumatic stress disorder) (PTSD). Presentations of dissociation in people with [schizophrenia](schizophrenia) differ from those with DID as not being rooted in trauma, and this distinction can be effectively tested, although both conditions share a high rate of dissociative auditory hallucinations. Other disorders that have been found to be comorbid with DID are somatization disorders, [depressive disorder](major)(major depressive disorder), as well as history of a past suicide attempt, in comparison to those without a DID diagnosis. Disturbed and altered [sleep](sleep) has also been suggested as having a role in dissociative disorders in general and specifically in DID, alterations in environments also largely affecting the DID patient. Individuals diagnosed with DID demonstrate the highest [hypnotizability](hypnosis) of any clinical population. Although DID has high comorbidity and its development is related to trauma, there exists evidence to suggest that DID merits a separate diagnosis from other conditions like PTSD. ## Causes ### General There are two competing theories on what causes dissociative identity disorder to develop. The trauma-related model suggests that trauma or severe adversity in childhood, also known as developmental trauma, increases the risk of someone developing dissociative identity disorder. The non-trauma related model, also referred to as the Sociocognitive model or the fantasy model, suggests that dissociative identity disorder is developed through high fantasy-proneness or suggestibility, roleplaying, or sociocultural influences. The DSM-5-TR states that "early life trauma (e.g., neglect and physical, sexual, and emotional abuse, usually before ages 5-6 years) represents a risk factor for dissociative identity disorder." Other risk factors reported include painful medical procedures, war, terrorism, or being trafficked in childhood. Dissociative disorders frequently occur after trauma, and the DSM-5-TR places them after the trauma- and stressor-related disorders to reflect this close relationship. ### Trauma-related model Dissociative identity disorder is often conceptualized as "the most severe form of a childhood onset post-traumatic stress disorder." According to many researchers, the etiology of dissociative identity is multifactorial, involving a complex interaction between developmental trauma, sociocultural influences, and biological factors. People diagnosed with dissociative identity disorder often report that they have experienced [physical](physical abuse) or [abuse](sexual)(sexual abuse) during childhood (although the accuracy of these reports has been disputed); others report overwhelming stress, serious medical illness, or other traumatic events during childhood. They also report more historical psychological trauma than those diagnosed with any other mental illness. See also §5.3, Childhood Psychological Trauma, p. 5.}} Severe sexual, physical, or psychological trauma in childhood has been proposed as an explanation for its development; awareness, memories, and emotions of harmful actions or events caused by the trauma are removed from consciousness, and alternate personalities or subpersonalities form with differing memories, emotions and behavior. Dissociative identity disorder is attributed to extremes of [stress](Stress (psychological)) or disorders of [attachment](attachment theory). What may be expressed as post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) in adults may become dissociative identity disorder when occurring in children, possibly due to their greater use of [imagination](imagination) as a form of [coping](coping (psychology)). Possibly due to developmental changes and a more coherent sense of self past the age of six, the experience of extreme trauma may result in different, though also complex, dissociative symptoms and identity disturbances. A specific relationship between childhood abuse, [attachment](disorganized)(disorganized attachment), and lack of social support are thought to be a necessary component of dissociative identity disorder. Although what role a child's biological capacity to dissociate to an extreme level remains unclear, some evidence indicates a neurobiological impact of developmental stress. Delinking early trauma from the etiology of dissociation has been explicitly rejected by those supporting the early trauma model. However, a 2012 review article supports the hypothesis that current or recent trauma may affect an individual's assessment of the more distant past, changing the experience of the past and resulting in dissociative states. Giesbrecht et al. have suggested there is no actual [evidence](empirical)(Empirical research) linking early trauma to dissociation, and instead suggest that problems with [functioning](neuropsychological)(Neuropsychology), such as increased distractibility in response to certain emotions and contexts, account for dissociative features. A middle position hypothesizes that trauma, in some situations, alters neuronal mechanisms related to memory. Evidence is increasing that dissociative disorders are related both to a trauma history and to "specific neural mechanisms". It has also been suggested that there may be a genuine but more modest link between trauma and dissociative identity disorder, with early trauma causing increased [fantasy](Fantasy (psychology))-proneness, which may in turn render individuals more vulnerable to socio-cognitive influences surrounding the development of dissociative identity disorder. Another suggestion made by Hart indicates that there are triggers in the brain that can be the catalyst for different self-states, and that victims of trauma are more susceptible to these triggers than non-victims of trauma; these triggers are said to be related to dissociative identity disorder. Paris states that the trauma model of dissociative identity disorder increased the appeal of the diagnosis among health care providers, patients and the public as it validated the idea that child abuse had lifelong, serious effects. Paris asserts that there is very little experimental evidence supporting the trauma-dissociation hypothesis, and no research showing that dissociation consistently links to long-term memory disruption. ### Non-trauma-related model The prevailing trauma-related model of dissociation and dissociative disorders is contested. It has been hypothesized that symptoms of dissociative identity disorder may be created by therapists using [to "recover" memories](techniques)(recovered-memory therapy) (such as the use of [hypnosis](hypnosis) to "access" alter identities, facilitate [regression](age)(Age regression in therapy) or retrieve memories) on suggestible individuals. Referred to as the non-trauma-related model, or the sociocognitive model or fantasy model, it proposes that dissociative identity disorder is due to a person consciously or unconsciously behaving in certain ways promoted by cultural stereotypes, with unwitting therapists providing cues through improper therapeutic techniques. This model posits that behavior is enhanced by media portrayals of dissociative identity disorder. Proponents of the non-trauma-related model note that the dissociative symptoms are rarely present before intensive therapy by specialists in the treatment of dissociative identity disorder who, through the process of eliciting, conversing with, and identifying alters, shape or possibly create the diagnosis. While proponents note that dissociative identity disorder is accompanied by genuine suffering and the distressing symptoms, and can be diagnosed reliably using the DSM criteria, they are skeptical of the trauma-related etiology suggested by proponents of the trauma-related model. Proponents of non-trauma-related dissociative identity disorder are concerned about the possibility of hypnotizability, suggestibility, frequent fantasization and mental absorption predisposing individuals to dissociation. \|url=https://cdn.mdedge.com/files/s3fs-public/Document/September-2017/0705CP_Article3.pdf}} They note that a small subset of doctors are responsible for diagnosing the majority of individuals with dissociative identity disorder. Psychologist [Spanos](Nicholas)(Nicholas Spanos) and others have suggested that in addition to therapy caused cases, dissociative identity disorder may be the result of [role-playing](role-playing), though others disagree, pointing to a lack of incentive to manufacture or maintain separate identities and point to the claimed histories of abuse. Other arguments that therapy can cause dissociative identity disorder include the lack of children diagnosed with DID, the sudden spike in [of diagnosis](rates)(incidence (epidemiology)) after 1980 (although dissociative identity disorder was not a diagnosis until DSM-IV, published in 1994), the absence of evidence of increased rates of child abuse, the appearance of the disorder almost exclusively in individuals undergoing psychotherapy, particularly involving [hypnosis](hypnosis), the presences of bizarre alternate identities (such as those claiming to be animals or mythological creatures) and an increase in the number of alternate identities over time (as well as an initial increase in their number as psychotherapy begins in DID-oriented therapy). These various cultural and therapeutic causes occur within a context of pre-existing psychopathology, notably [personality disorder](borderline)(borderline personality disorder), which is commonly comorbid with dissociative identity disorder. In addition, presentations can vary across cultures, such as [India](India)n patients who only switch alters after a period of sleep – which is commonly how dissociative identity disorder is presented by the media within that country. Proponents of non-trauma-related dissociative identity disorder state that the disorder is strongly linked to (possibly suggestive) psychotherapy, often involving [memories](recovered)(Repressed memory) (memories that the person previously had amnesia for) or [memories](false)(False memory), and that such therapy could cause additional identities. Such memories could be used to make an allegation of [sexual abuse](child)(child sexual abuse). There is little agreement between those who see therapy as a cause and trauma as a cause. Supporters of therapy as a cause of dissociative identity disorder suggest that a small number of clinicians diagnosing a disproportionate number of cases would provide evidence for their position though it has also been claimed that higher rates of diagnosis in specific countries like the United States may be due to greater awareness of DID. Lower rates in other countries may be due to artificially low recognition of the diagnosis. However, false memory syndrome per se is not regarded by mental health experts as a valid diagnosis, and has been described as "a non-psychological term originated by a private foundation whose stated purpose is to support accused parents," and critics argue that the concept has no empirical support, and further describe the [Memory Syndrome Foundation](False)(False Memory Syndrome Foundation) as an advocacy group that has distorted and misrepresented memory research. ### Children The rarity of dissociative identity disorder diagnosis in children is cited as a reason to doubt the validity of the disorder, and proponents of both etiologies believe that the discovery of dissociative identity disorder in a child who had never undergone treatment would critically undermine the non-trauma related model. Conversely, if children are found to develop dissociative identity disorder only after undergoing treatment it would challenge the trauma-related model. , approximately 250 cases of dissociative identity disorder in children have been identified, though the data does not offer unequivocal support for either theory. While children have been diagnosed with dissociative identity disorder before therapy, several were presented to clinicians by parents who were themselves diagnosed with dissociative identity disorder; others were influenced by the appearance of dissociative identity disorder in popular culture or due to a diagnosis of psychosis due to hearing voices – a symptom also found in dissociative identity disorder. No studies have looked for children with dissociative identity disorder in the general population, and the single study that attempted to look for children with dissociative identity disorder not already in therapy did so by examining siblings of those already in therapy for dissociative identity disorder. An analysis of diagnosis of children reported in scientific publications, 44 case studies of single patients were found to be evenly distributed (i.e., each case study was reported by a different author) but in articles regarding groups of patients, four researchers were responsible for the majority of the reports. The initial theoretical description of dissociative identity disorder was that dissociative symptoms were a means of [coping](coping (psychology)) with extreme stress (particularly childhood sexual and physical abuse), but this belief has been challenged by the data of multiple research studies. Proponents of the trauma-related model claim the high [correlation](correlation and dependence) of child sexual and physical abuse reported by adults with dissociative identity disorder corroborates the link between trauma and dissociative identity disorder. However, the link between dissociative identity disorder and maltreatment has been questioned for several reasons. The studies reporting the links often rely on self-report rather than independent corroborations, and these results may be worsened by [selection](selection bias) and referral bias. Most studies of trauma and dissociation are [cross-sectional](cross-sectional study) rather than [longitudinal](longitudinal study), which means researchers can not attribute [causation](correlation does not imply causation), and studies avoiding [bias](recall)(recall bias) have failed to corroborate such a causal link. In addition, studies rarely [for](control)(Scientific control) the many [comorbid with dissociative identity disorder](disorders)(#Comorbid disorders), or [maladjustment](family)(Dysfunctional family) (which is itself highly correlated with dissociative identity disorder). The popular association of dissociative identity disorder with childhood abuse is relatively recent, occurring only after the publication of [Sybil](Sybil (Schreiber book)) in 1973. Most previous examples of "multiples" such as [Costner Sizemore](Chris)(Chris Costner Sizemore), whose life was depicted in the book and film [Three Faces of Eve](The)(The Three Faces of Eve), disclosed no history of child abuse. ## Pathophysiology Despite research on DID including structural and functional [resonance imaging](magnetic)(magnetic resonance imaging), [emission tomography](positron)(positron emission tomography), [emission computed tomography](single-photon)(single-photon emission computed tomography), [potential](event-related)(event-related potential), and [electroencephalography](electroencephalography), no convergent [neuroimaging](neuroimaging) findings have been identified regarding DID, making it difficult to hypothesize a biological basis for DID. In addition, many of the studies that do exist were performed from an explicitly trauma-based position, and did not consider the possibility of therapy as a cause of DID. There is no research to date regarding the neuroimaging and introduction of false memories in DID patients, though there is evidence of changes in visual parameters and support for amnesia between alters. DID patients also appear to show deficiencies in tests of conscious control of attention and memorization (which also showed signs of compartmentalization for [memory](implicit)(implicit memory) between alters but no such compartmentalization for [memory](verbal)(verbal memory)) and increased and persistent vigilance and [response](startle)(startle response)s to sound. DID patients may also demonstrate altered [neuroanatomy](neuroanatomy). Experimental tests of memory suggest that patients with DID may have improved memory for certain tasks, which has been used to criticize the hypothesis that DID is a means of forgetting or suppressing memory. Patients also show experimental evidence of being more fantasy-prone, which in turn is related to a tendency to over-report false memories of painful events. ## Diagnosis ### General The fifth, revised edition of the [Psychiatric Association](American)(American Psychiatric Association)'s [and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders](Diagnostic)(Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders) (DSM-5) diagnoses DID according to the diagnostic criteria found under [300.14 (dissociative disorders)](code)(DSM-5 codes#Dissociative disorders). DID is often initially misdiagnosed because clinicians receive little training about [disorders](dissociative)(dissociative disorders) or DID, and often use standard diagnostic interviews that do not include questions about trauma, dissociation, or post-traumatic symptoms. This contributes to difficulties diagnosing the disorder, and clinician bias. DID is rarely diagnosed in children, despite the average age of appearance of the first alter being three years old. The criteria require that an individual be recurrently controlled by two or more discrete [identities](identity (social science)) or [personality](Personality psychology) states, accompanied by [lapses](memory)(amnesia) for important information that is not caused by alcohol, drugs or medications and other medical conditions such as [partial seizure](complex)(complex partial seizure)s. In children the symptoms must not be better explained by "imaginary playmates or other fantasy play". Diagnosis is normally performed by a clinically trained mental health professional such as a [psychiatrist](psychiatrist) or [psychologist](psychologist) through clinical evaluation, interviews with family and friends, and consideration of other ancillary material. Specially designed interviews (such as the [SCID-D](SCID-D)) and personality assessment tools may be used in the evaluation as well. Since most of the symptoms depend on self-report and are not concrete and observable, there is a degree of subjectivity in making the diagnosis. People are often disinclined to seek treatment, especially since their symptoms may not be taken seriously; thus dissociative disorders have been referred to as "diseases of hiddenness". The diagnosis has been criticized by supporters of therapy as a cause or the sociocognitive hypothesis as they believe it is a [culture-bound](culture-bound syndrome) and often health care induced condition. The social cues involved in diagnosis may be instrumental in shaping patient behavior or attribution, such that symptoms within one context may be linked to DID, while in another time or place the diagnosis could have been something other than DID. Other researchers disagree and argue that the existence of the condition and its inclusion in the DSM is supported by multiple lines of reliable evidence, with diagnostic criteria allowing it to be clearly discriminated from conditions it is often mistaken for (schizophrenia, borderline personality disorder, and seizure disorder). That a large proportion of cases are diagnosed by specific health care providers, and that symptoms have been created in nonclinical research subjects given appropriate cueing has been suggested as evidence that a small number of clinicians who specialize in DID are responsible for the creation of alters through therapy. The condition may be under-diagnosed due to skepticism and lack of awareness from mental health professionals, made difficult due to the lack of specific and reliable criteria for diagnosing DID as well as a lack of prevalence rates due to the failure to examine systematically selected and representative populations. ### Differential diagnoses People with DID are diagnosed with five to seven comorbid disorders on average – much higher than other mental illnesses. Due to overlapping symptoms, the differential diagnosis includes [schizophrenia](schizophrenia), normal and rapid-cycling [disorder](bipolar)(bipolar disorder), [epilepsy](epilepsy), [personality disorder](borderline)(borderline personality disorder), and [spectrum disorder](autism)(autism spectrum disorder). Delusions or auditory hallucinations can be mistaken for speech by other personalities. Persistence and consistency of identities and behavior, amnesia, measures of dissociation or hypnotizability and reports from family members or other associates indicating a history of such changes can help distinguish DID from other conditions. A diagnosis of DID takes precedence over any other dissociative disorders. Distinguishing DID from [malingering](malingering) is a concern when financial or legal gains are an issue, and [disorder](factitious)(factitious disorder) may also be considered if the person has a history of help or attention-seeking. Individuals who state that their symptoms are due to external spirits or entities entering their bodies are generally diagnosed with [disorder not otherwise specified](dissociative)(dissociative disorder not otherwise specified) rather than DID due to the lack of identities or personality states. Most individuals who enter an [department](emergency)(emergency department) and are unaware of their names are generally in a psychotic state. Although auditory hallucinations are common in DID, complex visual hallucinations may also occur. Those with DID generally have adequate reality testing; they may have positive [symptoms of schizophrenia](Schneiderian)(Kurt Schneider#Contributions to psychiatry) but lack the negative symptoms. They perceive any voices heard as coming from inside their heads (patients with schizophrenia experience them as external). In addition, individuals with psychosis are much less susceptible to hypnosis than those with DID. Difficulties in differential diagnosis are increased in children. DID must be distinguished from, or determined if comorbid with, a variety of disorders including [disorder](mood)(mood disorder)s, [psychosis](psychosis), [disorder](anxiety)(anxiety disorder)s, PTSD, [disorders](personality)(personality disorders), [disorder](cognitive)(cognitive disorder)s, [disorder](neurological)(neurological disorder)s, [epilepsy](epilepsy), [disorder](somatoform)(somatoform disorder), [disorder](factitious)(factitious disorder), [malingering](malingering), other dissociative disorders, and [trance](trance) states. An additional aspect of the controversy of diagnosis is that there are many forms of dissociation and memory lapses, which can be common in both stressful and nonstressful situations and can be attributed to much less controversial diagnoses. Individuals faking or mimicking DID due to factitious disorder will typically exaggerate symptoms (particularly when observed), lie, blame bad behavior on symptoms and often show little distress regarding their apparent diagnosis. In contrast, genuine people with DID typically exhibit confusion, distress, and shame regarding their symptoms and history. A relationship between DID and borderline personality disorder has been posited, with various clinicians noting overlap between symptoms and behaviors and it has been suggested that some cases of DID may arise "from a substrate of borderline traits". Reviews of DID patients and their [record](medical)(medical record)s concluded that the majority of those diagnosed with DID would also meet the criteria for either borderline personality disorder or more generally borderline personality. The DSM-5 elaborates on cultural background as an influence for some presentations of DID. ## Controversy DID is among the most controversial of the dissociative disorders and among the most controversial disorders found in the DSM-5. The primary dispute is between those who believe DID is caused by traumatic stresses forcing the mind to split into [identities](multiple)(Multiplicity (psychology)), each with a separate set of memories, and the belief that the symptoms of DID are produced [artificially](Iatrogenesis#Psychology) by certain [psychotherapeutic](psychotherapy) practices or patients playing a role they believe appropriate for a person with DID. The debate between the two positions is characterized by intense disagreement. Research into this [hypothesis](hypothesis) has been characterized by poor [methodology](Scientific method). Psychiatrist Joel Paris notes that the idea that a personality is capable of splitting into independent alters is an unproven assertion that is at odds with research in [psychology](cognitive)(cognitive psychology). Some people, such as Russell A. Powell and Travis L. Gee, believe that DID is caused by health care, i.e. symptoms of DID are created by therapists themselves via hypnosis. This belief also implies that those with DID are more susceptible to manipulation by hypnosis and suggestion than others. The iatrogenic model also sometimes states that treatment for DID is harmful. According to Brand, Loewenstein, and Spiegel, "[t]he claims that DID treatment is harmful are based on anecdotal cases, opinion pieces, reports of damage that are not substantiated in the scientific literature, misrepresentations of the data, and misunderstandings about DID treatment and the phenomenology of DID". Their claim is evidenced by the fact that only 5%–10% of people receiving treatment worsen in their symptoms. Psychiatrists August Piper and Harold Merskey have challenged the trauma hypothesis, arguing that [does not imply causation](correlation)(correlation does not imply causation) – the fact that people with DID report childhood trauma does not mean trauma causes DID – and point to the rareness of the diagnosis before 1980 as well as a failure to find DID as an outcome in [studies](longitudinal)(longitudinal study) of traumatized children. They assert that DID cannot be accurately diagnosed because of vague and unclear diagnostic criteria in the DSM and undefined concepts such as "personality state" and "identities", and question the evidence for childhood abuse beyond self-reports, the lack of definition of what would indicate a threshold of abuse sufficient to induce DID and the extremely small number of cases of children diagnosed with DID despite an average age of appearance of the first alter of three years. Psychiatrist Colin Ross disagrees with Piper and Merskey's conclusion that DID cannot be accurately diagnosed, pointing to internal consistency between different structured dissociative disorder interviews (including the [Experiences Scale](Dissociative)(Dissociative Experiences Scale), Dissociative Disorders Interview Schedule and Structured Clinical Interview for Dissociative Disorders) that are in the internal validity range of widely accepted mental illnesses such as schizophrenia and [depressive disorder](major)(major depressive disorder). In his opinion, Piper and Merskey are setting the standard of proof higher than they are for other diagnoses. He also asserts that Piper and Merskey have [cherry-picked](cherry picking (fallacy)) data and not incorporated all relevant [literature](scientific)(scientific literature) available, such as independent corroborating evidence of trauma. A study in 2018 revealed that the phenomena of pathological dissociation (including identity alteration) had been portrayed in the ancient Chinese medicine literature, suggesting that pathological dissociation is a cross-cultural condition.Fung, H. W. (2018). The phenomenon of pathological dissociation in the ancient Chinese medicine literature. Journal of Trauma & Dissociation, 19(1), 75-87. A paper published in 2022 in the journal [Psychiatry](Comprehensive)(Comprehensive Psychiatry) described how prolonged social media use, especially on video-sharing platforms including [TikTok](TikTok), has exposed young people, largely adolescent females, a core user group of TikTok, to a growing number of content creators making videos about their self-diagnosed disorders. "An increasing number of reports from the US, UK, Germany, Canada, and Australia have noted an increase in functional tic-like behaviors prior to and during the Covid-19 pandemic, coinciding with an increase in social media content related to[…]dissociative identity disorder." The paper concluded by saying there "is an urgent need for focused empirical research investigation into this concerning phenomenon that is related to the broader research and discourse examining social media influences on mental health". ## Screening Perhaps due to their perceived rarity, the dissociative disorders (including DID) were not initially included in the [Clinical Interview for DSM-IV](Structured)(Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-IV) (SCID), which is designed to make psychiatric diagnoses more rigorous and reliable. Instead, shortly after the publication of the initial SCID a freestanding protocol for dissociative disorders (SCID-D) was published. This interview takes about 30 to 90 minutes depending on the subject's experiences. An alternative diagnostic instrument, the Dissociative Disorders Interview Schedule, also exists but the SCID-D is generally considered superior. The Dissociative Disorders Interview Schedule (DDIS) is a highly structured interview that discriminates among various DSM-IV diagnoses. The DDIS can usually be administered in 30–45 minutes. Other questionnaires include the [Experiences Scale](Dissociative)(Dissociative Experiences Scale) (DES), Perceptual Alterations Scale, Questionnaire on Experiences of Dissociation, Dissociation Questionnaire, and the Mini-SCIDD. All are strongly intercorrelated and except the Mini-SCIDD, all incorporate [absorption](Flow (psychology)), a normal part of personality involving narrowing or broadening of attention. The DES is a simple, quick, and validated questionnaire that has been widely used to screen for dissociative symptoms, with variations for children and adolescents. Tests such as the DES provide a quick method of screening subjects so that the more time-consuming structured clinical interview can be used in the group with high DES scores. Depending on where the cutoff is set, people who would subsequently be diagnosed can be missed. An early recommended cutoff was 15–20. The reliability of the DES in non-clinical samples has been questioned. ## Treatment Treatment aims to increase integrated functioning. The [Society for the Study of Trauma and Dissociation](International)(International Society for the Study of Trauma and Dissociation) has published guidelines for phase-oriented treatment in adults as well as children and adolescents that are widely used in the field of DID treatment. The guidelines state that "a desirable treatment outcome is a workable form of integration or harmony among alternate identities". Some experts in treating people with DID use the techniques recommended in the 2011 treatment guidelines. The [research](empirical)(empirical research) includes the longitudinal TOP DD treatment study, which found that patients showed "statistically significant reductions in dissociation, PTSD, distress, depression, hospitalisations, suicide attempts, self-harm, dangerous behaviours, drug use, and physical pain" and improved overall functioning. Treatment effects have been studied for over thirty years, with some studies having a follow-up of ten years. Adult and child treatment guidelines exist that suggest a three-phased approach, and are based on expert consensus. Highly experienced therapists have few patients that achieve a unified identity. Common treatment methods include an eclectic mix of [psychotherapy](psychotherapy) techniques, including [behavioral therapy](cognitive)(cognitive behavioral therapy) (CBT), [therapy](insight-oriented)(insight-oriented therapy), [behavioral therapy](dialectical)(dialectical behavioral therapy) (DBT), [hypnotherapy](hypnotherapy), and [movement desensitization and reprocessing](eye)(eye movement desensitization and reprocessing) (EMDR). * }} Hypnosis should be carefully considered when choosing both treatment and provider practitioners because of its dangers. For example, hypnosis can sometimes lead to false memories and false accusations of abuse by family, loved ones, friends, providers, and community members. Those who suffer from dissociative identity disorder have commonly been subject to actual abuse (sexual, physical, emotional, financial) by therapists, family, friends, loved ones, and community members. Some [therapists](behavior)(Behaviour therapy) initially use behavioral treatments such as only responding to a single identity, and then use more traditional therapy once a consistent response is established. Brief treatment due to [care](managed)(managed care) may be difficult, as individuals diagnosed with DID may have unusual difficulties in trusting a therapist and take a prolonged period to form a comfortable [alliance](therapeutic)(therapeutic alliance). Regular contact (at least weekly) is recommended, and treatment generally lasts years – not weeks or months. [hygiene](Sleep)(Sleep hygiene) has been suggested as a treatment option, but has not been tested. In general there are very few [trial](clinical)(clinical trial)s on the treatment of DID, none of which were [controlled trial](randomized)(randomized controlled trial)s. Therapy for DID is generally phase oriented. Different alters may appear based on their greater ability to deal with specific situational stresses or threats. While some patients may initially present with a large number of alters, this number may reduce during treatment – though it is considered important for the therapist to become familiar with at least the more prominent personality states as the "host" personality may not be the "true" identity of the patient. Specific alters may react negatively to therapy, fearing the therapist's goal is to eliminate the alter (particularly those associated with illegal or violent activities). A more realistic and appropriate goal of treatment is to integrate adaptive responses to abuse, injury, or other threats into the overall personality structure. There is debate over issues such as whether [therapy](exposure)(exposure therapy) (reliving traumatic memories, also known as abreaction), engagement with alters and physical contact during therapy are appropriate and there are clinical opinions both for and against each option with little high-quality evidence for any position. Brandt et al., commenting on the lack of empirical studies of treatment effectiveness, conducted a survey of 36 clinicians expert in treating dissociative disorder (DD) who recommended a three-stage treatment. They agreed that skill building in the first stage is important so the patient can learn to handle high risk, potentially dangerous behavior, as well as emotional regulation, interpersonal effectiveness and other practical behaviors. In addition, they recommended "trauma-based cognitive therapy" to reduce cognitive distortions related to trauma; they also recommended that the therapist deal with the dissociated identities early in treatment. In the middle stage, they recommended graded exposure techniques, along with appropriate interventions as needed. The treatment in the last stage was more individualized; few with DD became integrated into one identity. The first phase of therapy focuses on symptoms and relieving the distressing aspects of the condition, ensuring the safety of the individual, improving the patient's capacity to form and maintain healthy relationships, and improving general daily life functioning. Comorbid disorders such as [use disorder](substance)(substance use disorder) and [disorders](eating)(eating disorders) are addressed in this phase of treatment. The second phase focuses on stepwise exposure to traumatic memories and prevention of re-dissociation. The final phase focuses on reconnecting the identities of disparate alters into a single functioning identity with all its memories and experiences intact. A study was conducted to develop an "expertise-based prognostic model for the treatment of complex post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and dissociative identity disorder (DID)". Researchers constructed a two-stage survey and factor analyses performed on the survey elements found 51 factors common to [PTSD](complex)(Complex post-traumatic stress disorder) and DID. The authors concluded from their findings: "The model is supportive of the current phase-oriented treatment model, emphasizing the strengthening of the therapeutic relationship and the patient's resources in the initial stabilization phase. Further research is needed to test the model's statistical and clinical validity." ## Prognosis Little is known about prognosis of untreated DID. It rarely, if ever, goes away without treatment, but symptoms may resolve from time to time or wax and wane spontaneously. Patients with mainly dissociative and post-traumatic symptoms face a better prognosis than those with comorbid disorders or those still in contact with abusers, and the latter groups often face lengthier and more difficult treatment. [ideation](Suicidal)(Suicidal ideation), [attempt](suicide)(suicide attempt)s, and [self-harm](self-harm) also may occur. Duration of treatment can vary depending on patient goals, which can range from merely improving inter-alter communication and cooperation, to reducing inter-alter amnesia, to integration of all alters, but generally takes years. ## Epidemiology ### General According to the American Psychiatric Association, the 12-month prevalence of DID among adults in the US is 1.5%, with similar prevalence between women and men. Population prevalence estimates have been described to widely vary, with some estimates of DID in inpatient settings suggesting 1-9.6%." Reported rates in the community vary from 1% to 3% with higher rates among psychiatric patients. As of 2017, evidence suggested a prevalence of DID of 2–5% among psychiatric inpatients, 2–3% among outpatients, and 1% in the general population, with rates reported as high as 16.4% for teenagers in psychiatric outpatient services. [disorder](Dissociative)(Dissociative disorder)s in general have a prevalence of 12.0%–13.8% for psychiatric outpatients. As of 2012, DID was diagnosed 5 to 9 times more common in women than men during young adulthood, although this may have been due to selection bias as men meeting DID diagnostic criteria were suspected to end up in the criminal justice system rather than hospitals. In children, rates among men and women are approximately the same (5:4). DID diagnoses are extremely rare in children; much of the research on childhood DID occurred in the 1980s and 1990s and does not address ongoing controversies surrounding the diagnosis. DID occurs more commonly in young adults and declines in prevalence with age. There is a poor awareness of DID in the clinical settings and the general public. Poor clinical education (or lack thereof) for DID and other dissociative disorders has been described in literature: "most clinicians have been taught (or assume) that DID is a rare disorder with a florid, dramatic presentation." Symptoms in patients are often not easily visible, which complicates diagnosis. DID has a high correlation with, and has been described as a form of, [post-traumatic stress disorder](complex)(complex post-traumatic stress disorder). There is a significant overlap of symptoms between [personality disorder](borderline)(borderline personality disorder) and DID, although symptoms are understood to originate from different underlying causes. ### Historical prevalence Rates of diagnosed DID were increasing in the late 20th century, reaching a peak of diagnoses at approximately 40,000 cases by the end of the 20th century, up from less than 200 diagnoses before 1970. Initially DID along with the rest of the [disorders](dissociative)(dissociative disorders) were considered the rarest of psychological conditions, diagnosed in less than 100 by 1944, with only one further case reported in the next two decades. In the late 1970s and '80s, the number of diagnoses rose sharply. An estimate from the 1980s placed the incidence at 0.01%. Accompanying this rise was an increase in the number of alters, rising from only the primary and one alter personality in most cases, to an average of 13 in the mid-1980s (the increase in both number of cases and number of alters within each case are both factors in professional skepticism regarding the diagnosis). Others explain the increase as being due to the use of inappropriate therapeutic techniques in highly suggestible individuals, though this is itself controversial while proponents of DID claim the increase in incidence is due to increased recognition of and ability to recognize the disorder. Figures from psychiatric populations (inpatients and outpatients) show a wide diversity from different countries. A 1996 essay suggested three possible causes for the sudden increase of DID diagnoses, among which the author suspects the first being most likely: # The result of therapist suggestions to suggestible people, much as [Charcot](Jean-Martin Charcot)'s hysterics acted in accordance with his expectations. # Psychiatrists' past failure to recognize dissociation being redressed by new training and knowledge. # Dissociative phenomena are actually increasing, but this increase only represents a new form of an old and protean entity: "hysteria". Dissociative disorders were excluded from the [Catchment Area Project](Epidemiological)(Psychiatric epidemiology#Example: The Epidemiological Catchment Area Project). ### North America DID is considered a controversial diagnosis and condition, with much of the literature on DID still being generated and published in North America, to the extent that it was once regarded as a phenomenon confined to that continent. Although research has appeared discussing the appearance of DID in other countries and cultures and the condition has been described in non-English speaking nations and non-Western cultures, these reports all occur in English-language journals authored by international researchers who cite Western scientific literature and are therefore not isolated from Western influences. [Cardeña](Etzel)(Etzel Cardeña) and David Gleaves believed the overrepresentation of DID in North America was the result of increased awareness and training about the condition. ## History [[File:Vivé.jpg\|thumb\|left\|One of ten photogravure portraits of [Vivet](Louis)(Louis Vivet) published in Variations de la personnalité by [Bourru](Henri)(Henri Bourru) and [Ferdinand Burot](Prosper)(Prosper Ferdinand Burot)]] ### Early references In the 19th century, "dédoublement", or "double consciousness", the historical precursor to DID, was frequently described as a state of [sleepwalking](sleepwalking), with scholars hypothesizing that the patients were switching between a normal consciousness and a "somnambulistic state". An intense interest in [spiritualism](spiritualism), [parapsychology](parapsychology) and [hypnosis](hypnosis) continued throughout the 19th and early 20th centuries, running in parallel with [Locke](John)(John Locke)'s views that there was an [of ideas](association)(association of ideas) requiring the coexistence of feelings with awareness of the feelings. [Hypnosis](Hypnosis), which was pioneered in the late 18th century by [Mesmer](Franz)(Franz Mesmer) and [Jacques de Chastenet, Marques de Puységur](Armand-Marie)(Armand-Marie-Jacques de Chastenet, Marques of Puységur), challenged Locke's association of ideas. Hypnotists reported what they thought were second personalities emerging during hypnosis and wondered how two minds could coexist. [[File:Plaque Pierre Janet, 54 rue de Varenne, Paris 7.jpg\|thumb\|The plaque on the former house of [Marie Félix Janet](Pierre)(Pierre Janet) (1859–1947), the philosopher and psychologist who first alleged a connection between events in the subject's past and present mental health, also coining the words "dissociation" and "subconscious"]] In the 19th century, there were a number of reported cases of multiple personalities which Rieber estimated would be close to 100. [Epilepsy](Epilepsy) was seen as a factor in some cases, and discussion of this connection continues into the present era. By the late 19th century, there was a general acceptance that emotionally traumatic experiences could cause long-term disorders which might display a variety of symptoms. These [disorder](conversion)(conversion disorder)s were found to occur in even the most resilient individuals, but with profound effect in someone with emotional instability like [Vivet](Louis)(Louis Vivet) (1863–?), who had a traumatic experience as a 17-year-old when he encountered a viper. Vivet was the subject of countless medical papers and became the most studied case of dissociation in the 19th century. Between 1880 and 1920, various international medical conferences devoted time to sessions on dissociation. It was in this climate that [Charcot](Jean-Martin)(Jean-Martin Charcot) introduced his ideas of the impact of nervous shocks as a cause for a variety of neurological conditions. One of Charcot's students, [Janet](Pierre)(Pierre Janet), took these ideas and went on to develop his own theories of dissociation. One of the first individuals diagnosed with multiple personalities to be scientifically studied was Clara Norton Fowler, under the [pseudonym](pseudonym) [Beauchamp](Christine)(Christine Beauchamp (pseudonym)); American [neurologist](neurology) [Prince](Morton)(Morton Prince) studied Fowler between 1898 and 1904, describing her [study](case)(case study) in his 1906 [monograph](monograph), Dissociation of a Personality. ### 20th century In the early 20th century, interest in dissociation and multiple personalities waned for several reasons. After Charcot's death in 1893, many of his so-called hysterical patients were exposed as frauds, and Janet's association with Charcot tarnished his theories of dissociation. [Freud](Sigmund)(Sigmund Freud) recanted his earlier emphasis on dissociation and childhood trauma. In 1908, [Bleuler](Eugen)(Eugen Bleuler) introduced the term "schizophrenia" to represent a revised disease concept for Emil Kraepelin's [praecox](dementia)(dementia praecox). Whereas Kraepelin's natural disease entity was anchored in the metaphor of progressive deterioration and mental weakness and defect, Bleuler offered a reinterpretation based on dissociation or "splitting" (Spaltung) and widely broadened the inclusion criteria for the diagnosis. A review of the [medicus](Index)(Index medicus) from 1903 through 1978 showed a dramatic decline in the number of reports of multiple personality after the diagnosis of schizophrenia became popular, especially in the United States. The rise of the broad diagnostic category of dementia praecox has also been posited in the disappearance of "hysteria" (the usual diagnostic designation for cases of multiple personalities) by 1910. A number of factors helped create a large climate of skepticism and disbelief; paralleling the increased suspicion of DID was the decline of interest in dissociation as a laboratory and clinical phenomenon. Starting in about 1927, there was a large increase in the number of reported cases of schizophrenia, which was matched by an equally large decrease in the number of multiple personality reports. With the rise of a uniquely American reframing of dementia praecox/schizophrenia as a functional disorder or "reaction" to psychobiological stressors – a theory first put forth by [Meyer](Adolf)(Adolf Meyer (psychiatrist)) in 1906—many trauma-induced conditions associated with dissociation, including "shell shock" or "war neuroses" during World War I, were subsumed under these diagnoses. It was argued in the 1980s that DID patients were often misdiagnosed with schizophrenia. The public, however, was exposed to psychological ideas which took their interest. [Shelley](Mary)(Mary Shelley)'s [Frankenstein](Frankenstein), [Louis Stevenson](Robert)(Robert Louis Stevenson)'s [Case of Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde](Strange)(Strange Case of Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde), and many [stories](short)(short story) by [Allan Poe](Edgar)(Edgar Allan Poe) had a formidable impact. #### The Three Faces of Eve In 1957, with the publication of the bestselling book The Three Faces of Eve by psychiatrists [H. Thigpen](Corbett)(Corbett H. Thigpen) and [M. Cleckley](Hervey)(Hervey M. Cleckley), based on a [study](case)(case study) of their patient [Costner Sizemore](Chris)(Chris Costner Sizemore), and the subsequent popular [of the same name](movie)(The Three Faces of Eve), the American public's interest in multiple personality was revived. More cases of dissociative identity disorder were diagnosed in the following years. The cause of the sudden increase of cases is indefinite, but it may be attributed to the increased awareness, which revealed previously undiagnosed cases or new cases may have been induced by the influence of the media on the behavior of individuals and the judgement of therapists. During the 1970s an initially small number of clinicians campaigned to have it considered a legitimate diagnosis. ### History in the DSM The DSM-II used the term hysterical neurosis, dissociative type. It described the possible occurrence of alterations in the patient's state of consciousness or identity, and included the symptoms of "amnesia, somnambulism, fugue, and multiple personality". The DSM-III grouped the diagnosis with the other four major [disorders](dissociative)(dissociative disorders) using the term "multiple personality disorder". The [DSM-IV](Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders) made more changes to DID than any other dissociative disorder, and renamed it DID. The name was changed for two reasons: First, the change emphasizes the main problem is not a multitude of personalities, but rather a lack of a single, unified identity and an emphasis on "the identities as centers of information processing". Second, the term "personality" is used to refer to "characteristic patterns of thoughts, feelings, moods, and behaviors of the whole individual", while for a patient with DID, the switches between identities and behavior patterns is the personality. It is, for this reason, the DSM-IV-TR referred to "distinct identities or personality states" instead of personalities. The diagnostic criteria also changed to indicate that while the patient may name and personalize alters, they lack independent, objective existence. The changes also included the addition of amnesia as a symptom, which was not included in the DSM-III-R because despite being a core symptom of the condition, patients may experience "amnesia for the amnesia" and fail to report it. Amnesia was replaced when it became clear that the risk of [negative](false)(Type II error) diagnoses was low because amnesia was central to DID. The [ICD-10](ICD-10) places the diagnosis in the category of "dissociative disorders", within the subcategory of "other dissociative (conversion) disorders", but continues to list the condition as multiple personality disorder. The DSM-IV-TR criteria for DID have been criticized for failing to capture the clinical complexity of DID, lacking usefulness in diagnosing individuals with DID (for instance, by focusing on the two least frequent and most subtle symptoms of DID) producing a high rate of [negatives](false)(Type II error) and an excessive number of DDNOS diagnoses, for excluding [possession](Spirit possession) (seen as a cross-cultural form of DID), and for including only two "core" symptoms of DID (amnesia and self-alteration) while failing to discuss hallucinations, trance-like states, [somatoform](somatoform disorder), [depersonalization](depersonalization), and [derealization](derealization) symptoms. Arguments have been made for allowing diagnosis through the presence of some, but not all of the characteristics of DID rather than the current exclusive focus on the two least common and noticeable features. The DSM-IV-TR criteria have also been criticized for being [tautological](tautology (logic)), using imprecise and undefined language and for the use of instruments that give a false sense of validity and empirical certainty to the diagnosis. The [DSM-5](DSM-5) updated the definition of DID in 2013, summarizing the changes as: Between 1968 and 1980, the term that was used for dissociative identity disorder was "Hysterical neurosis, dissociative type". The APA wrote in the second edition of the DSM: "In the dissociative type, alterations may occur in the patient's state of consciousness or in his identity, to produce such symptoms as amnesia, somnambulism, fugue, and multiple personality." The number of cases sharply increased in the late 1970s and throughout the 80s, and the first scholarly [monograph](monograph)s on the topic appeared in 1986. #### Book and film Sybil In 1974, the highly influential book [Sybil](Sybil (Schreiber book)) was published, and later made into a [miniseries](miniseries) in [1976](Sybil (1976 film)) and [in 2007](again)(Sybil (2007 film)). Describing what Robert Rieber called "the third most famous of multiple personality cases," it presented a detailed discussion of the problems of treatment of "Sybil Isabel Dorsett", a [pseudonym](pseudonym) for [Ardell Mason](Shirley)(Shirley Ardell Mason). Though the book and subsequent films helped popularize the diagnosis and trigger an epidemic of the diagnosis, later analysis of the case suggested different interpretations, ranging from Mason's problems having been caused by the therapeutic methods and [pentathol](sodium)(Sodium thiopental) injections used by her psychiatrist, [B. Wilbur](C.)(Cornelia B. Wilbur), or an inadvertent hoax due in part to the lucrative publishing rights, though this conclusion has itself been challenged. David Spiegel, a Stanford psychiatrist whose father treated Shirley Ardell Mason on occasion, says that his father described Mason as "a brilliant hysteric. He felt that Wilbur tended to pressure her to exaggerate on the dissociation she already had." As media attention on DID increased, so too did the controversy surrounding the diagnosis. #### Re-classifications The publication DSM-III omitted the terms "hysteria" and "neurosis", naming those as Dissociative Disorders, which included Multiple Personality Disorder, and also added Post-traumatic Stress Disorder in Anxiety Disorders section. In the opinion of [University](McGill)(McGill University) psychiatrist Joel Paris, this inadvertently legitimized them by forcing textbooks, which mimicked the structure of the DSM, to include a separate chapter on them and resulted in an increase in diagnosis of dissociative conditions. Once a rarely occurring spontaneous phenomenon (research in 1944 showed only 76 cases), the diagnosis became "an artifact of bad (or naïve) psychotherapy" as patients capable of dissociating were accidentally encouraged to express their symptoms by "overly fascinated" therapists. In a 1986 book chapter (later reprinted in another volume), philosopher of science [Hacking](Ian)(Ian Hacking) focused on multiple personality disorder as an example of "making up people" through the untoward effects on individuals of the "dynamic nominalism" in medicine and psychiatry. With the invention of new terms, entire new categories of "natural kinds" of people are assumed to be created, and those thus diagnosed respond by re-creating their identity in light of the new cultural, medical, scientific, political and moral expectations. Hacking argued that the process of "making up people" is historically contingent, hence it is not surprising to find the rise, fall, and resurrection of such categories over time. Hacking revisited his concept of "making up people" in a 2006. "Interpersonality amnesia" was removed as a diagnostic feature from the DSM III in 1987, which may have contributed to the increasing frequency of the diagnosis. There were 200 reported cases of DID as of 1980, and 20,000 from 1980 to 1990. [Acocella](Joan)(Joan Acocella) reports that 40,000 cases were diagnosed from 1985 to 1995. Scientific publications regarding DID peaked in the mid-1990s then rapidly declined. There were several contributing factors to the rapid decline of reports of multiple personality disorder/dissociative identity disorder. One was the discontinuation in December 1997 of Dissociation: Progress in the Dissociative Disorders, the journal of The International Society for the Study of Multiple Personality and Dissociation. The society and its journal were perceived as uncritical sources of legitimacy for the extraordinary claims of the existence of intergenerational satanic cults responsible for a "hidden holocaust" of [ritual abuse](Satanic)(Satanic ritual abuse) that was linked to the rise of MPD reports. In an effort to distance itself from the increasing skepticism regarding the clinical validity of MPD, the organization dropped "multiple personality" from its official name in 1993, and then in 1997 changed its name again to the [Society for the Study of Trauma and Dissociation](International)(International Society for the Study of Trauma and Dissociation). In 1994, the fourth edition of the DSM replaced the criteria again and changed the name of the condition from "multiple personality disorder" to the current "dissociative identity disorder" to emphasize the importance of changes to consciousness and identity rather than personality. The inclusion of interpersonality amnesia helped to distinguish DID from [disorder not otherwise specified](dissociative)(dissociative disorder not otherwise specified) (DDNOS), but the condition retains an inherent subjectivity due to difficulty in defining terms such as personality, identity, ego-state, and even [amnesia](amnesia). The [ICD-10](ICD-10) classified DID as a "Dissociative [conversion] disorder" and used the name "multiple personality disorder" with the classification number of F44.81. In the [ICD-11](ICD-11), the [Health Organization](World)(World Health Organization) have classified DID under the name "dissociative identity disorder" (code 6B64), and most cases formerly diagnosed as DDNOS are classified as "partial dissociative identity disorder" (code 6B65). ### 21st century A 2006 study compared scholarly research and publications on DID and [amnesia](dissociative)(dissociative amnesia) to other mental health conditions, such as [nervosa](anorexia)(anorexia nervosa), [use disorder](alcohol)(alcohol use disorder), and [schizophrenia](schizophrenia) from 1984 to 2003. The results were found to be unusually distributed, with a very low level of publications in the 1980s followed by a significant rise that peaked in the mid-1990s and subsequently rapidly declined in the decade following. Compared to 25 other diagnosis, the mid-1990s "bubble" of publications regarding DID was unique. In the opinion of the authors of the review, the publication results suggest a period of "fashion" that waned, and that the two diagnoses "[did] not command widespread scientific acceptance." ## Society and culture ### General The public's long fascination with DID has led to a number of different books and films, with many representations described as increasing stigma by perpetuating the myth that people with mental illness are usually dangerous. Movies about DID have been also criticized for poor representation of both DID and its treatment, including "greatly overrepresenting" the role of hypnosis in therapy, showing a significantly smaller number of personalities than many people with DID have, and misrepresenting people with DID as having flamboyant and obvious personalities. Some movies are parodies and ridicule DID, for instance, [Myself & Irene](Me,)(Me, Myself & Irene), which also incorrectly states that DID is [schizophrenia](schizophrenia). In some stories DID is used as a plot device, e.g. in [Club](Fight)(Fight Club), and in [whodunnit](whodunnit) stories like [Window](Secret)(Secret Window). [States of Tara](United)(United States of Tara) was reported to be the first US television series with DID as its focus, and a professional commentary on each episode was published by the [Society for the Study of Trauma and Dissociation](International)(International Society for the Study of Trauma and Dissociation). More recently, the award winning Korean TV series [Me, Heal Me](Kill)(Kill Me, Heal Me) () featured a wealthy young man with seven identities, one of whom falls in love with the beautiful psychiatry resident who tries to help him. In a Dissociative Identity Disorder documentary by A&E named, Many Sides Of Jane, it follows a young mom struggling to be a single mom with Dissociative Identity Disorder. Jane wants to bring awareness to the disorder. Most people with DID are believed to downplay or minimize their symptoms rather than seeking fame, often due to shame or fear of the effects of stigma. Therapists may discourage people with DID from media work due to concerns that they may feel exploited or traumatized, for example as a result of demonstrating switching between personality states to entertain others. However, a number of people with DID have publicly spoken about their experiences, including comedian and talk show host [Barr](Roseanne)(Roseanne Barr), who interviewed [Chase](Truddi)(Truddi Chase), author of When Rabbit Howls; [Costner Sizemore](Chris)(Chris Costner Sizemore), the subject of [Three Faces of Eve](The)(The Three Faces of Eve), Cameron West, author of [Person Plural: My life as a multiple](First)(First Person Plural), and [NFL](National Football League) player [Walker](Herschel)(Herschel Walker), author of Breaking Free: My life with dissociative identity disorder. In The Three Faces of Eve (1957) hypnosis is used to identify a childhood trauma which then allows her to fuse from three identities into just one. However, Sizemore's own books ''I'm Eve* and A Mind of My Own revealed that this did not last; she later attempted suicide, sought further treatment, and actually had twenty-two personalities rather than three. Sizemore re-entered therapy and by 1974 had achieved a lasting recovery. [Within: The Lives of Truddi Chase](Voices)(Voices Within: The Lives of Truddi Chase) portrays many of the 92 personalities Chase described in her book When Rabbit Howls, and is unusual in breaking away from the typical ending of integrating into one. [& Alice](Frankie)(Frankie & Alice) (2010), starring [Berry](Halle)(Halle Berry); and the TV mini-series Sybil were also based on real people with DID. In popular culture dissociative identity disorder is often confused with [schizophrenia](schizophrenia), and some movies advertised as representing dissociative identity disorder may be more representative of [psychosis](psychosis) or [schizophrenia](schizophrenia), for example [Psycho](Psycho (1960 film)) (1960). In his book The C.I.A. Doctors: Human Rights Violations by American Psychiatrists, psychiatrist [A. Ross](Colin)(Colin A. Ross) states that based on documents obtained through [of information legislation](freedom)(freedom of information legislation), a psychiatrist linked to [MKULTRA](Project)(Project MKULTRA) reported being able to deliberately induce dissociative identity disorder using a variety of aversive or abusive techniques, creating a [Candidate](Manchurian)(The Manchurian Candidate) for military purposes. A DID community exists on [media](social)(social media), including [YouTube](YouTube), [Reddit](Reddit), [Discord](Discord), and [TikTok](TikTok). However, numerous high-profile members of this community have been criticized for faking their condition for views, or for portraying the disorder lightheartedly.s booming dissociative identity disorder community \|work=Input \|url=https://www.inputmag.com/culture/dissociative-identity-disorder-did-tiktok-influencers-multiple-personalities \|access-date=6 July 2021 \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220429013048/https://www.inputmag.com/culture/dissociative-identity-disorder-did-tiktok-influencers-multiple-personalities \|archive-date=29 April 2022}} Conversely, psychologist Naomi Torres-Mackie, head of research at The Mental Health Coalition, has stated "All of a sudden, all of my adolescent patients think that they have this, and they don't ... Folks start attaching clinical meaning and feeling like, 'I should be diagnosed with this. I need medication for this', when actually a lot of these experiences are normative and don't need to be pathologized or treated." In the [Network](USA)(USA Network) television production [Robot](Mr.)(Mr. Robot), the protagonist Elliot Alderson was created using anecdotal experiences of DID of the show's creator's friends. [Esmail](Sam)(Sam Esmail) said he consulted with a psychologist who "concretized" the character's mental health conditions, especially his plurality. In [Night Shyamalan](M.)(M. Night Shyamalan)'s [Unbreakable](Unbreakable (film series)) superhero film series (specifically the films, [Split](Split (2016 American film)) and [Glass](Glass (2019 film))), one character is diagnosed with DID, and that some of the personalities have super-human powers. Some advocates believe that the films are a negative portrayal and promote the stigmatization of the disorder. Bollywood thriller [Bhulaiyaa](Bhool)(Bhool Bhulaiyaa) (2007) featured [Balan](Vidya)(Vidya Balan) as Avni, an individual diagnosed with DID who associated herself with Manjulika, a deceased dancer in a royal palace. Although the movie was criticised for being insensitive, it was also lauded for spreading awareness about DID and contributing towards removing stigma around mental health. In [Comics](Marvel)(Marvel Comics), the character of [Knight](Moon)(Moon Knight) is shown to have DID. In the TV series [Knight](Moon)(Moon Knight (TV series)) based on the comic book character, protagonist [Spector](Marc)(Marc Spector (Marvel Cinematic Universe)) is depicted with DID; the website for the [Alliance on Mental Illness](National)(National Alliance on Mental Illness) appears in the series' end credits. Another Marvel character, [Legion](Legion (Marvel Comics)), has DID in the comics, although he has schizophrenia in the [show version](TV)(Legion (TV series)). ### Legal issues People with dissociative identity disorder may be involved in legal cases as a witness, defendant, or as the victim/injured party. Claims of DID have been used only rarely to argue [insanity](criminal)(Insanity defense) in court. In the United States dissociative identity disorder has previously been found to meet the [test](Frye)(Frye standard) as a generally accepted medical condition, and the newer [standard](Daubert)(Daubert standard). Within legal circles, DID has been described as one of the most disputed psychiatric diagnoses and [assessments](forensic)(forensic psychology) are needed. For defendants whose defense states they have a diagnosis of DID, courts must distinguish between those who genuinely have DID and those who are [malingering](malingering) to avoid responsibility. Expert witnesses are typically used to assess defendants in such cases, although some of the standard assessments like the [MMPI-2](Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory) were not developed for people with a trauma history and the validity scales may incorrectly suggest malingering. The Multiscale Dissociation Inventory (Briere, 2002) is well suited to assessing malingering and dissociative disorders, unlike the self-report Dissociative Experiences Scale. In DID, evidence about the altered states of consciousness, actions of alter identities and episodes of amnesia may be excluded from a court if they not considered relevant, although different countries and regions have different laws. A diagnosis of DID may be used to claim a defense of [guilty by reason of insanity](not)(not guilty by reason of insanity), but this very rarely succeeds, or of diminished capacity, which may reduce the length of a sentence. DID may also affect competency to stand trial. A not guilty by reason of insanity plea was first used successfully in an American court in 1978, in the [of Ohio v. Milligan](State)(Billy Milligan) case. However, a DID diagnosis is not automatically considered a justification for an insanity verdict, and since Milligan the few cases claiming insanity have largely been unsuccessful. ### Advocacy movement In the context of [neurodiversity](neurodiversity), the experience of dissociative identities has been called [multiplicity](Multiplicity (psychology)) and has led to advocacy for the recognition of 'positive plurality' and the use of plural pronouns such as "we" and "our". [Fong-Jones](Liz)(Liz Fong-Jones) states those with this condition might have fear in regard to "coming out" about their DID, as it could put them in a vulnerable position. In particular, advocates have challenged the necessity of integration. Timothy Baynes argues that alters have full moral status, just as their host does. He states that as integration may entail the (involuntary) elimination of such an entity, forcing people to undergo it as a therapeutic treatment is "seriously immoral". A DID (or Dissociative Identities) Awareness Day takes place on March 5 annually, and a multicolored awareness ribbon is used, based on the idea of a "crazy quilt". ## Explanatory notes ## References ## External links * \| ICD10 = \| ICD10CM = \| ICD9 = \| ICDO = \| OMIM = \| MedlinePlus = \| eMedicineSubj = article \| eMedicineTopic = 916186 \| MeshID = D009105 \| SNOMED CT = 31611000 }} [disorders](Category:Dissociative)(Category:Dissociative disorders) [disorders](Category:Memory)(Category:Memory disorders) [medicine articles ready to translate](Category:Wikipedia)(Category:Wikipedia medicine articles ready to translate)
Hanson _band	hanson__band	# Hanson (band) Revision ID: 1159530182 \| Timestamp: 2023-06-10T22:52:11Z --- Hanson information on [Facebook](https://www.facebook.com/hansonmusic/info) }} \| label = \| current_members = * Isaac Hanson * [Hanson](Taylor)(Taylor Hanson) * Zac Hanson \| website = }} Hanson is an American [rock](pop)(pop rock) band from [Oklahoma](Tulsa,)(Tulsa, Oklahoma), formed by brothers Isaac Hanson (guitar, vocals, bass, piano), [Hanson](Taylor)(Taylor Hanson) (keyboards, vocals, percussion), and Zac Hanson (drums, vocals, piano). Supporting members include Dimitrius Collins (guitar) and Andrew Perusi (bass), who have toured and performed live with the band since 2007. Hanson are best known for the 1997 hit song "[MMMBop](MMMBop)" from their debut album released through [Mercury](Mercury Records)/[Records](Polygram)(Polygram Records), entitled [of Nowhere](Middle)(Middle of Nowhere (Hanson album)), which earned three [Grammy](Grammy) nominations. At the time of the music video the boys were 16, 14 and 11 years old. The group's label Mercury Records was merged with its sister labels and the band were moved to [Def Jam Music Group](Island)(Island Def Jam Music Group). After releasing one album on Island Def Jam, the label and the group parted ways. Hanson have sold over 16 million records worldwide and have had three top 20 albums in the United States. They have had three top 20 US Hot 100 singles and eight UK top 40 singles. The band now record under their own [record label](independent)(independent record label), [Records](3CG)(3CG Records). ## History ### 1992–1996: Early years In the early to mid-1990s, Isaac, [Taylor](Taylor Hanson), and Zac sang [cappella](a)(a cappella) and recorded such classic songs as "[Robin](Rockin')(Rockin' Robin (song))", "[Splash](Splish)(Splish Splash (song))", and "[B. Goode](Johnny)(Johnny B. Goode)", as well as their own material. Their first performance as a professional group took place in 1992 at the Mayfest Arts Festival in [Tulsa](Tulsa, Oklahoma). They were known as the Hanson Brothers, before shortening the name to Hanson in 1993. Hanson also appeared on [Carman](Carman (singer))'s Yo! Kidz: The Vidz, which cast Taylor as a young Biblical [David](David) facing [Goliath](Goliath), Isaac as an event announcer, and Zac and other members of the family in the stands cheering on this "sporting event". All three boys started their musical careers as pianists, but Isaac eventually started playing guitar and Zac started playing drums, while Taylor continued as the keyboard player. The band recorded two independent albums in their hometown of Tulsa, [Boomerang](Boomerang (Hanson album)) (recorded in autumn 1994, released in 1995) and [MMMBop](MMMBop (album)) (released in 1996). The latter featured the original version of the song "MMMBop", which later became the runaway single on their debut commercial record [of Nowhere](Middle)(Middle of Nowhere (Hanson album)). The band played in Austin during the [By Southwest](South)(South By Southwest) music festival in [Texas](Austin,)(Austin, Texas), which led to them being signed by manager [Sabec](Christopher)(Christopher Sabec). He shopped them to several record companies, most of which dismissed the band as a novelty before [Greenberg](Steve)(Steve Greenberg (record producer)), an A&R representative for [Records](Mercury)(Mercury Records), heard them play a set at the [State Fair](Wisconsin)(Wisconsin State Fair). After this performance, they were signed almost immediately by Mercury. They soon became a worldwide sensation with the release of their first major-label album, [of Nowhere](Middle)(Middle of Nowhere (Hanson album)), which was produced by Stephen Lironi and the [Brothers](Dust)(Dust Brothers). ### 1997–2000: Commercial success [[File:Taylor in Madrid.jpg\|180px\|right\|thumb\|Taylor in concert in [Madrid](Madrid), 2000]] [of Nowhere](Middle)(Middle of Nowhere (Hanson album)) was released in the US on May 6, 1997, selling 10 million copies worldwide. [6](May)(May 6) was declared 'Hanson Day' in Tulsa by Oklahoma's then-governor [Keating](Frank)(Frank Keating). Although 'Hanson Day' was originally intended to be a one-time occurrence, many Hanson fans all over the world still recognize May 6 as Hanson Day every year. Hanson's popularity exploded during the summer of 1997, and [Records](Mercury)(Mercury Records) released Hanson's first documentary Tulsa, Tokyo, and the Middle of Nowhere and their Christmas album [In](Snowed)(Snowed In) in the wake of their success. Hanson also launched MOE (which stood for Middle of Everywhere), a fan club magazine that ran for 12 issues. After numerous unauthorized biographies of each of the brothers were published, Hanson turned to their close friend, Jarrod Gollihare of Admiral Twin, to write their authorized biography. Hanson: The Official Book reached number 9 on the New York Times Best Sellers List (nonfiction) on February 1, 1998. The band was nominated for three [Award](Grammy)(Grammy Award)s in [1998](40th Annual Grammy Awards): [of the Year](Record)(Grammy Award for Record of the Year), [New Artist](Best)(Grammy Award for Best New Artist), and [Pop Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocal](Best)(Grammy Award for Best Pop Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocal). During the summer of 1998, Hanson began a highly successful concert tour, the [Tour](Albertane)(Albertane Tour). They performed a string of shows throughout stadiums and arenas across North America and Europe, targeting young audiences with a playful and energetic style. A live album, titled [From Albertane](Live)(Live From Albertane), was released the following fall, as well as their second documentary [Road to Albertane](The)(The Road to Albertane). In response to the demand for their earlier work, Hanson re-released [MMMBop](MMMBop (album)) as [Car Garage](3)(3 Car Garage), minus four tracks, in May 1998. Three tracks from [Boomerang](Boomerang (Hanson album)) ("Boomerang", "More Than Anything", and "Rain (Falling Down)") and two of the remaining tracks from [MMMBop](MMMBop (album)) ("Incredible" and "Baby (You're So Fine)") were released on the first MOE CD sent to fan club members. During the Albertane Tour, Hanson wrote and demoed what became the songs for their second major studio album, [Time Around](This)(This Time Around (Hanson album)). During this time period, Mercury Records, the band's label, had been merged with Island Def Jam. In May 2000, Hanson released their second album, [Time Around](This)(This Time Around (Hanson album)), but due to lack of promotional funding, sales were low and the label eventually pulled funding for their tour. The band toured the Americas through the summer and fall of 2000 on their own funds. ### 2001–2005: Independent career After a three-year struggle, the brothers left [Def Jam Records](Island)(The Island Def Jam Music Group) to seek more creative freedom. Label executives had refused over 80 songs from the band, believing new material lacked marketability. The documentary film [Enough to Break](Strong)(Strong Enough to Break) follows these events. Hanson now records for their own [label](independent)(Independent record label), [Records](3CG)(3CG Records). The label has distribution deals through [Distribution Alliance](Alternative)(Alternative Distribution Alliance) in the United States, [Vinyl](Cooking)(Cooking Vinyl) in Europe, [Music](Sony)(Sony Music) in Asia and with various other distributors throughout the world. During the dispute with their former label, Hanson signed with the management company, 10th Street Entertainment, which also manages artists such as [Loaf](Meat)(Meat Loaf) and [Blondie](Blondie (band)). The band's Underneath Acoustic tour took place during the Summer and Fall of 2003 across the US, with one show in Canada and one in the UK. Music included acoustic versions of songs from the then-forthcoming release, [Underneath](Underneath (Hanson album)). The tour ended November 5, 2003 with a performance at [Hall](Carnegie)(Carnegie Hall). Released on April 20, 2004, Underneath sold 37,500 copies in the first week of release in the US alone. The album debuted at No. 1 on the Billboard Top Independent Albums chart and No. 25 on the [200](Billboard)(Billboard 200) album chart, making Underneath one of the most successful self-released albums of all time. Hanson's The Underneath Tour took them across the globe for nearly a full year (July - December 2004; March - June 2005). In autumn 2005, Hanson toured in the US and Canada to support [Best of Hanson: Live & Electric](The)(The Best of Hanson: Live & Electric). They also visited colleges to showcase [Enough to Break](Strong)(Strong Enough to Break), the documentary chronicling difficulties with and departure from Island Def Jam. During college visits, the band held question-and-answer sessions about independent artists' role in the music industry. ### 2006–2008: The Walk and tenth anniversary [[and fans\|thumb\|Hanson leading fans as part of their "Take the Walk" initiative in 2008.](File:Hansonmadison.JPG\|alt=Hanson)]On January 15, 2007, Hanson released on iTunes the first episode of their documentary podcast "Taking the Walk", detailing production of the studio album. The first episode of the band's documentary [Enough to Break](Strong)(Strong Enough to Break) was also released on iTunes. The program is edited into 13 episodes for release as a podcast. In March 2007, Hanson began a "preview tour" to promote The Walk and give fans a taste of recent work. Over six days, Hanson performed at the Starland Ballroom in Sayreville, New Jersey, Toad's Place in New Haven, Connecticut, The Crocodile Rock in Allentown, Pennsylvania, and The Supper Club in New York City. On March 30, Taylor and Zac appeared in [TX](Dallas,)(Dallas) to screen their documentary at the [Film Festival](AFI)(AFI Fest). Afterward, the brothers held a Q&A session along with director [Greyson](Ashley)(Ashley Greyson). Hanson performed in the UK during April 2007, playing songs from The Walk. They also promoted the release of the single "[Go](Go (Hanson song))" and the UK release of the album. [Walk](The)(The Walk (Hanson album)), Hanson's second studio album with 3CG Records, was released in the US, Mexico and Canada on July 24. It was released in Japan on February 21 and in the UK on April 30. As part of this album's tour and promo, the band hosted "Take the Walk" events where fans were encouraged to walk one mile to raise money and awareness of AIDS/HIV in Africa. The band partnered with [Shoes](Tom's)(Toms Shoes) to give shoes to children in Africa. In support of The Walk album, the band toured extensively throughout 2007-2008, predominantly in the US, with some shows in Canada, the UK, and Ireland. The tours were called The Walk Tour, and The Walk Around the World Tour. On May 6, 2007, the 10th anniversary of Hanson Day, the band re-recorded their first major label album, [Of Nowhere](Middle)(Middle of Nowhere (Hanson album)), at The Blank Slate bar in their hometown of [Oklahoma](Tulsa,)(Tulsa, Oklahoma). The band invited fan club members to attend, causing hundreds to fly to Oklahoma for the acoustic event. The record [of Nowhere Acoustic](Middle)(Middle of Nowhere Acoustic) was released at the end of that year, exclusively on Hanson.net. The record included all but three songs of those originally in [of Nowhere](Middle)(Middle of Nowhere (Hanson album)) ("Speechless", "Thinking of You" and "With You in Your Dreams") and featured the song Yearbook, never performed live before. ### 2009–2012: Shout It Out In June 2009, Hanson completed the album [It Out](Shout)(Shout It Out (Hanson album)) and planned to release it on June 8, 2010. The band also announced that they would be co-headlining a tour with [Hellogoodbye](Hellogoodbye). The tour, called Use Your Sole, started in Hanson's hometown of [Tulsa](Tulsa), [Oklahoma](Oklahoma), on September 30, 2009 and finished November 11, 2009 in [Anaheim](Anaheim), California. [[Walker Hanson (7991662365).jpg\|left\|thumb\|Zac Hanson playing in Sydney, Australia during the Shout It Out tour.](File:Zachary)] Hanson also released a five-song EP titled [Up, Stand Up](Stand)(Stand Up, Stand Up (Hanson EP)) that was available at shows and on the band's official website. The tracks are acoustic versions of four new Hanson songs, plus the album version of "World's on Fire" which was originally going to be on their album Shout It Out but was ultimately left off the album. It was released worldwide on iTunes on December 8, 2009. In December 2009, Hanson announced they would play five consecutive concerts at New York's [Theater](Gramercy)(Gramercy Theater). Each concert featured one of the band's four previous albums in its entirety, and the premiere of their upcoming Spring 2010 release. Dubbed 'Five of Five', the engagement began with a performance of Hanson's major label debut, [of Nowhere](Middle)(Middle of Nowhere (Hanson album)), on April 26, 2010 and then moved onto 2000's This Time Around on April 27, 2004's Underneath followed on April 28 with 2007's The Walk on April 29. On April 30, the band unveiled their new album, Shout It Out. The concert series was also streamed live on band's official website, Hanson.net, and included an exclusive "Backstage Pass" stream for fan club members. On March 6, 2010, Hanson shot dance and other sequences for their upcoming music video of their new single, "['Bout Somethin'](Thinking)(Thinking 'Bout Somethin')", at Greenwood Avenue in [Tulsa](Tulsa). Hanson recruited professional dancers for the shoot and also invited fans and local residents to take part in the video, which is an homage to the [Brothers](Blues)(Blues Brothers (film)). The video was directed by Todd Edwards, co-founder of Blue Yonder Films. It was released for public viewing on their [MySpace](MySpace) channel on April 15, 2010. [Al" Yankovic]("Weird)("Weird Al" Yankovic) has a cameo appearance as the tambourine player. On June 8, 2010, Hanson's fifth studio record was released. [It Out](Shout)(Shout It Out (Hanson album)) debuted at number 30 on the Billboard 200, number 2 on the Indie chart, and No. 16 on the digital chart. On June 15, 2010, the band's free concert at the [Street Seaport](South)(South Street Seaport) in New York City rather incongruously ended in a riot after an estimated 20,000 fans showed up at a venue which could only accommodate half that many people. The rapper [Drake](Drake (entertainer)) was also on the bill. Hanson offered a "platinum package" of their Shout it Out record which included artwork hand-painted by band member Zac Hanson. In October 2010, Hanson released "The 113 Painting Book" which includes the paintings created for these packages. To promote their new album, [It Out](Shout)(Shout It Out (Hanson album)), Hanson toured from July 2010 through November 2010. The tour kicked off in [NY](Buffalo,)(Buffalo, New York) on July 21, with the final show in [ON](Toronto,)(Toronto), on November 23. Throughout the tour, the band broadcast live streams from their website. The footage included introducing the local musician winners of their opening band contest, a few full length concerts, and walks with fans to fight AIDS and poverty in Africa for their Take the Walk Campaign. One of the most notable concerts included two days in November at Walt Disney World Resort's Food and Wine Festival for the Eat to the Beat concert series. The band released a second single from Shout It Out in 2011. "Give a Little" reached Top 40 on the US Hot AC charts, making it the first top 40 hit for the band since their 2000 single "If Only". The band resumed their touring activity in September 2011. The US Musical Ride Tour lasted from September 4 to November 1. Starting on November 6 in [Paulo](Sao)(Sao Paulo), [Brazil](Brazil), they proceeded to tour Latin America and Europe in order to promote their Shout It Out album internationally. In early 2012, they toured Canada with [Rae Jepsen](Carly)(Carly Rae Jepsen). Later in 2012, they took the Shout It Out world Tour to Philippines and Australia as well. [[File:Hanson Melbourne Zoo.jpg\|thumb\|Hanson perform in Australia at the [Zoo](Melbourne)(Melbourne Zoo) Twilight Concert in March 2019]] ### 2013–2020: Anthem, ''Finally It's Christmas* and String Theory Their sixth album [Anthem](Anthem (Hanson album)) was released on June 18, 2013. The album charted at number 22 on the US Billboard 200, making it their eighth album to reach the top 40 of the Billboard 200; the album also peaked at number 5 on the US Independent Albums chart. The first single is titled "[the Girl Back](Get)(Get the Girl Back)", which was released on April 9, 2013. The single charted at number 39 on the Billboard Adult Pop Songs. On October 23, 2013, Hanson served as guest judges on the popular show [Wars](Cupcake)(Cupcake Wars)''. Four cupcake bakers fought to the finish for the chance at having their cupcakes at a concert and an after party with the band, and a $10,000 prize. On March 16, 2017, Hanson announced their 25th anniversary tour called "[of Everywhere: 25th Anniversary Tour](Middle)(Middle of Everywhere: 25th Anniversary Tour)" to celebrate the band's first signed album release. Hanson released their second Christmas album, ''[It's Christmas](Finally)(Finally It's Christmas), on October 27, 2017. They also performed a Finally It's Christmas'' special, which can be found on YouTube. In 2018, they performed backing vocals on the title song for [Love](Mike)(Mike Love)'s solo album [for the Season](Reason)(Reason for the Season). In July 2018, Hanson announced a symphonic tour and accompanying album, titled [Theory](String)(String Theory (Hanson album)),* inspired by their bucket list desire to play with a symphony orchestra at iconic venues such as the [Opera House](Sydney)(Sydney Opera House) and the [Theatre](Greek)(Greek Theatre (Los Angeles)). The tour began in August 2018 and saw them touring the world performing with the backing of local symphony orchestras. The album was released on November 9, 2018 with the symphonic composition recorded in Prague, led by [award](Academy)(Academy Awards) winning arranger [Campbell](David)(David Campbell (composer)). Hanson performed their highlight shows at the [Opera House](Sydney)(Sydney Opera House) in Australia over the two nights of March 4th and 5th 2019. Their parents, Walker and Diana, flew to Australia to see their sons perform in the hallowed space. Whilst in Australia, the band played some side gigs at The Melbourne Zoo without the orchestra backing. On September 13, 2019, Hanson announced their [Wintry Mix](https://hanson.net/news/wintry-mix-tour) tour in North America, featuring Paul McDonald and [Joshua and the Holy Rollers](https://www.joshuaandtheholyrollers.com/), led by the youngest Hanson brother, Mac Hanson. During the Wintry Mix tour, Zac Hanson was injured in a motorcycle accident on October 2, 2019. Despite the incident, the tour continued, with Zac on percussions and former [HAIM](Haim (band)) drummer Dash Hutton filling in for him. Hanson faced backlash after a copy of Zac's [Pinterest](Pinterest) account leaked in 2020, which contained "a trove of pro-gun memes, many of which were racist, transphobic, homophobic, and sexist." Examples of the posts on the now-deleted account include [meme](meme)s supporting [Zimmerman](George)(George Zimmerman) in the [of Trayvon Martin](killing)(killing of Trayvon Martin), others comparing the right to use an [rifle](AR-15)(AR-15 style rifle) with [Parks](Rosa)(Rosa Parks)'s right to sit on a bus, as well as posts suggesting that any "man wanting to dress like a woman" must be mentally ill. After first defending the posts, Zac apologized, saying, "The leaked Pinterest page provided a distorted view of the issues surrounding race and social justice, which do not reflect my personal beliefs. I apologize for the hurt my actions caused." In November 2020, Isaac posted on Instagram that our governments' want to cancel Thanksgiving, Christmas, and Easter in the face of COVID," adding "I for one will not comply." He later apologized, saying, "What I shared was driven by an emotional reaction to a recent personal experience. ... I'm sorry for the pain and worry that my posts caused. I don't believe there is a group conspiring against Christmas, only that I hope value is placed on both practices of safety and of faith." The band held a series of in-person concerts with accompanying livestreams in Tulsa, Oklahoma, from October 2020 to January 2021. At each show, 180 in person tickets were available, making up 10% of the usual capacity of the venue. The theme in October was Live & Electric Revisited, in November it was Perennial Live, in December The Christmas Ball, and in January ''Listener's Choice. Some fans took issue with the band holding these concerts amid the [pandemic](COVID-19)(COVID-19 pandemic). During the concert series, the band also released Perennial, a compilation album with a selection of 20 songs previously only released to fan club members, plus one new song, "Nothing Like a Love Song". ### 2021: Against the World* The seven-track album, Against the World'' was released officially in November 2021 after the band released a song a month with a corresponding video over the course of seven months in 2021. The album was recorded at the legendary [studios](FAME)(FAME Studios) in Muscle Shoals, AL. The album's theme is about facing adversity in its many forms, and seeking a way forward. ### 2022: Red Green Blue (RGB)* [[2022 Toronto RGB Tour.jpg\|thumb\|Hanson performing on the RGB tour, August 3rd 2022. The Danforth Music Hall in Toronto, Canada.](File:Hanson)] The album RGB (Red Green Blue) was released in 2022. Red Green Blue is a blend of a 5-song mini album crafted by each individual brother: RED for Taylor, GREEN for Isaac and BLUE for Zac. Each brother produced their third of the album individually with the help of award-winning producers [Scott](Jim)(Jim Scott (producer)) and [Garza](David)(David Garza (musician)), with two of the three band members, Zac and Taylor, writing all their songs, whereas Isaac wrote a couple of songs, covered a song of their younger brother Mac's band, and co-wrote the remaining songs. Each portion is unique to the individual brother, but doesn't stick to one genre. Taylor Hanson’s Red portion tends to lean more toward a rootsy Americana sound. For Isaac's Green portion, there’s more of an intimate and vintage sound. Zac’s Blue has a more contemporary sound, mixing in pop, rock and alt-country. The three released singles from the album. Taylor's "Child At Heart" depicts a series of inflicted wounds and tragedies as a metaphor for the pain of life and love. It sees Taylor getting punched and a glass of water thrown on him in the video clip. Isaac's "Write You A Song" was written for his daughter, Odette who requested he write a song for her. She features in the clip that was premiered on [CMT](CMT (American TV channel)). Zac's song "Don't Let Me Down" features [Muniz](Frankie)(Frankie Muniz) and a cast of others in the beefcake fun video. Hanson set out on a world tour from June to November 2022. The brothers were featured in the July 18th 2022 [Magazine](People)(People (magazine)) edition discussing their career thus far, family commitments and being on the road. The article also showcased photos of their individual family members. On 26 May 2023, English band [Busted](Busted (band)) released a cover version of MMMBop", in collaboration with Hanson and titled "MMMBop 2.0". ## Other projects and appearances Hanson occasionally host a song writing retreat known as Fools Banquet (sporadically between 2004–2015), where they invite musician friends to spend a week collaborating on writing and recording new songs. In the early years, most of the songs that came from Fools Banquet collaborations featured on Hanson's fan club only albums. Artists that have attended over the years include [W.K.](Andrew)(Andrew W.K.), [Kweller](Ben)(Ben Kweller), [Coppola](Imani)(Imani Coppola), [McCracken](Sandra)(Sandra McCracken), [Al" Yankovic]("Weird)("Weird Al" Yankovic), [Green](Adam)(Adam Green (musician)) and [Yanowitz](Pedro)(Pedro Yanowitz). Some songs that have been born and released as a result of Fools Banquet collaborations have been: We are All Women released by [W.K.](Andrew)(Andrew W.K.) and Battle Cry released by both Hanson and [Else](Everybody)(Everybody Else). Back to the Island (BTTI) is a week long destination concert event for fans that is held annually at a resort in Jamaica. During BTTI, attendees have the opportunity to participate in exclusive events with each member of the band, obtain exclusive merchandise, plus see the band give live performances. In early 2009, [Hanson](Taylor)(Taylor Hanson) launched a separate project including members of [Pumpkins](Smashing)(Smashing Pumpkins), [of Wayne](Fountains)(Fountains of Wayne) and [Trick](Cheap)(Cheap Trick) called [Windows](Tinted)(Tinted Windows (band)), a [pop](power)(power pop) quartet whose debut album quickly earned critical praise and repeat airplay on leading syndicated FM radio programs. Hanson was the musical guest at the Tulsa stop of [Legally Prohibited from Being Funny on Television Tour](The)(The Legally Prohibited from Being Funny on Television Tour) starring [O'Brien](Conan)(Conan O'Brien) on May 15, 2010. Conan accompanied the band in playing a cover of the song "[Been to Spain](Never)(Never Been to Spain)" by American rock legends [Dog Night](Three)(Three Dog Night). In June 2010, Hanson performed with former [Idol](American)(American Idol) contestant [Magnus](Siobhan)(Siobhan Magnus). As an [Fools' Day](April)(April Fools' Day) joke in 2011, Hanson covered the song "[and Bleed](Wait)(Wait and Bleed)" by the [metal](heavy)(Heavy metal music) band [Slipknot](Slipknot (band)), and the website [Shockhound](Shockhound) claimed that Hanson would record an entire album of Slipknot covers. On April 25, 2011, Hanson sang their hit "MMMBop" on the US version of [with the Stars](Dancing)(Dancing with the Stars (American TV series)). The band also makes a cameo in [Perry](Katy)(Katy Perry)'s music video for her song "[Friday Night (T.G.I.F.)](Last)(Last Friday Night (T.G.I.F.))". In May 2013, they launched their own beer: Mmmhops. The Hanson brothers partnered with craft beer company Mustang Brewing to create the drink as their way of raising a toast to their 21st anniversary. Hanson shared the first taste of the beer with those attending the premiere of The Hangover Part 3. Hanson appeared as dining room guests in the 15th episode of ''[Kitchen](Hell's)(Hell's Kitchen (American TV series))* [13](Season)(Hell's Kitchen (American season 13))''. In 2015, Hanson appeared on [Traveler](Blues)(Blues Traveler)'s album [Up the Moon](Blow)(Blow Up the Moon), co writing the song "Top of the World". In June 2015, they appeared on [City](Owl)(Owl City)'s fifth studio album, [Orchestra](Mobile)(Mobile Orchestra), in the song "Unbelievable" as his third single for the album. In July 2016, the group performed on ABC's [Hits](Greatest)(Greatest Hits (TV series)). In 2016, the band performed the song "Him or Me", a cover of the song by [Revere & the Raiders](Paul)(Paul Revere & the Raiders), on [E. Carlos](Bun)(Bun E. Carlos)' solo album called "Greetings From Bunezuela!" On May 29, 2017 (Memorial Day), Hanson performed live on ABC's [Morning America](Good)(Good Morning America)* to commemorate their 25th year together and promote their new song. In 2019, the band made a cameo appearance in Australian soap opera [Neighbours](Neighbours). In 2021, Hanson competed in [five](season)(The Masked Singer (American season 5)) of [Masked Singer](The)(The Masked Singer (American TV series)) as the "Russian Dolls", being the first band to compete on the series. The character performed in two costumes during the first and fifth performances and performed in three costumes for the second and third performances. Performances that utilized four costumes had one of them being used as a prop. When unmasked by [Cannon](Nick)(Nick Cannon) and the Men in Black on Week 9 of the fifth season, Taylor, Isaac, and Zac Hanson were underneath the main [Doll](Russian)(Russian Doll) costume. Their elimination in May 2021 coincided with the release of "Annalie", the first single from their 2021 seven-single album, Against the World.s Russian Dolls reveal the secrets to their deceptive costumes\|magazine=[Weekly](Entertainment)(Entertainment Weekly)\|author=Lauren Huff\|date=May 12, 2021\|access-date=May 13, 2021}} ## Philanthropy In July 2006, the band recorded with a school choir in [Soweto](Soweto), South Africa to create "[Divide](Great)(Great Divide (song))", which was released in the UK and U.S. through [iTunes](iTunes) in December 2006. All proceeds from the song were directed towards research and prevention of [AIDS](AIDS) in Africa. On September 10, 2007, Hanson began "The Walk Tour" in Nashville. During the tour, Hanson continued their work against poverty and AIDS in Africa, partnering with an American company, [Shoes](TOMS)(TOMS Shoes). As part of TOMS' "Shoe Drop", for every pair of shoes sold, the company donated another pair for a child in Africa. The Walk tour was suspended after Isaac underwent lifesaving surgery for a [embolism](pulmonary)(pulmonary embolism). Doctors treated his condition by relieving blood flow restrictions caused by excess chest muscle and scar tissue from the repetitive motions of guitar playing. The tour resumed with Midwest and East Coast dates March through May 2008. Hanson embarked on the "Walk Around the World Tour" starting on September 7, 2008, in Portland, Oregon, and ending November 16, 2008, in San Diego, California. Once again Hanson continued to help fight [in Africa](poverty)(poverty in Africa) by continuing their walks before the shows. A [table book](coffee)(coffee table book) titled "Take the Walk" was released in late 2008 to coincide with their "Walk Around the World Tour". This book presents the band's story behind their inspiration for their fight on poverty in Africa. The book also features a special EP with new tracks recorded especially for the project. Both the music and the book will raise further funds for aid groups in Africa. Hanson also joined the 9th annual Independent Music Awards judging panel to assist independent musicians' careers. ## Members ### Isaac Hanson [[Hanson.jpg\|thumb\|85px\|Lead guitarist and bassist Isaac Hanson](File:Isaac)] Clarke Isaac Hanson was born on , in Tulsa, Oklahoma. He is the eldest of the three brothers in Hanson, and was eleven when the band started in 1992. He sings both backing and lead vocals and plays electric and [guitar](acoustic)(acoustic guitar), as well as the piano, [bass](Bass (instrument)) and the [synthesizer](synthesizer). Isaac married Nikki DufresneA namesake, not the victim of the [of Nicole duFresne](Murder)(Murder of Nicole duFresne) on September 30, 2006, in Tulsa at the [Museum of Art](Philbrook)(Philbrook Museum of Art). Isaac met Dufresne after spotting her in the fifth row of a crowd at their 2003 New Orleans concert. They have three children. ### Taylor Hanson [[singer and keyboardist Taylor Hanson](File:TaylorHanson.jpg\|85px\|thumb\|Lead)] Jordan Taylor Hanson was born on , in Tulsa, Oklahoma. Taylor was nine when Hanson started in 1992. In Hanson, he sings both lead and backup vocals, and plays keyboard, percussion (including drums, [bongo](Bongo drum)s and the [tambourine](tambourine)), guitar, harmonica, and piano. He is also the lead singer of [supergroup](supergroup (music)) [Windows](Tinted)(Tinted Windows (band)). On June 8, 2002, Taylor married Natalie Anne Bryant, whom he had first met in 2000. They have seven children. ### Zac Hanson [[Hanson live in Paris.jpg\|thumb\|85x85px\|Drummer Zac Hanson](File:Zac)] Zachary Walker Hanson was born on , in Arlington, Virginia, but raised in Tulsa, Oklahoma. He is the youngest of the three brothers in Hanson, and was six when the band started in 1992. He plays drums, percussion, piano, guitar and also sings backup and lead vocals in the band. Zac, at age 12 years and 126 days, is the [Grammy nominee](seventh-youngest)(Grammy Award records#Youngest nominees) of all time. He holds the title of youngest songwriter nominated for a [Award](Grammy)(Grammy Award) (same year). Zac married Kate Tucker on June 3, 2006. They have five children. On October 2, 2019, Zac was involved in a motorcycle accident in Tulsa, Oklahoma, which resulted in five broken bones: three broken ribs, a broken [clavicle](clavicle), and a cracked [scapula](scapula). Zac and his family are also gamers, and currently run a gaming channel on YouTube named "Zaccidental Gamer", where they play such games as [Dungeons](Minecraft)(Minecraft Dungeons), [Infinite](Halo)(Halo Infinite), and more. In February 2023, Zac was ordained as a [deacon](deacon) in the [Orthodox Church](Eastern)(Eastern Orthodox Church). ## Discography * Daydreams In The Night (1992) * The Beginning (1993) * Trinity Of The Christ (1994) * Hanson Live In 94 (1994) * [Boomerang](Boomerang (Hanson album)) (1995) * [MMMBop](MMMBop (album)) (1996) * [of Nowhere](Middle)(Middle of Nowhere (Hanson album)) (1997) * [In](Snowed)(Snowed In) (1997) * [Car Garage](3)(3 Car Garage) (1998) * [From Albertane](Live)(Live From Albertane) (1998) * [Time Around](This)(This Time Around (Hanson album)) (2000) * [Acoustic](Underneath)(Underneath Acoustic) (2003) * [Underneath](Underneath (Hanson album)) (2004) * [Best of Hanson: Live & Electric](The)(The Best of Hanson: Live & Electric) (2005) * Loud / Play EPs (2016) * [Walk](The)(The Walk (album)) (2007) * [Up, Stand Up](Stand)(Stand Up, Stand Up) (2009) * [It Out](Shout)(Shout It Out (Hanson album)) (2010) * [Anthem](Anthem (Hanson album)) (2013) * [of Everywhere: The Greatest Hits](Middle)(Middle of Everywhere: The Greatest Hits) (2017) * ''[It's Christmas](Finally)(Finally It's Christmas)* (2017) * [Theory](String)(String Theory (Hanson album)) (2018) * Perennial - A Hanson Net Collection (2020) * Against the World (2021) * Red Green Blue'' (2022) ## Tours [Tour](Albertane)(Albertane Tour) * [Time Around Tour](This)(This Time Around Tour) * Underneath Acoustic Tour * Underneath Tour * Live and Electric Tour * The Walk Tour * The Walk Around the World Tour * Use Your Sole Tour * Shout It Out Tour * 5 of 5 * The Musical Ride Tour * Shout It Out World Tour * [World Tour](Anthem)(Anthem World Tour) * Roots & Rock 'N' Roll Tour * [of Everywhere: 25th Anniversary Tour](Middle)(Middle of Everywhere: 25th Anniversary Tour) * Finally, It's Christmas Tour * String Theory Tour * Wintry Mix Tour * Streaming Concert Series * Against the World+ * Red Green Blue Tour ## Filmography * Yo! Kidz: The Vidz (1994) * [Weird Al Show](The)(The Weird Al Show) – S01E06 (October 18, 1997) * Tulsa, Tokyo & the Middle of Nowhere (November 18, 1997) * [Road to Albertane](The)(The Road to Albertane) (November 3, 1998) * Buddy Faro — S01E08 (December 4, 1998) * Melrose Place (S07E19 – Usual Santas) (1999) * [Ghost Coast to Coast](Space)(Space Ghost Coast to Coast) – S06E03 – Girl Hair (October 22, 1999) * [Knows Best](Noah)(Noah Knows Best) (November 18, 2000) * [The Fillmore](At)(At the Fillmore (Hanson concert)) (April 24, 2001) * [McKlusky, C.I.](Frank)(Frank McKlusky, C.I.) (2002) * [the Teenage Witch](Sabrina)(Sabrina the Teenage Witch (1996 TV series)) (2002) * Underneath Acoustic Live (July 27, 2004) * [Enough to Break](Strong)(Strong Enough to Break) (2006) * Taking The Walk (2008) * 5 of 5 (November 30, 2010) * [Friday Night (T.G.I.F.)](Last)(Last Friday Night (T.G.I.F.)), [Perry](Katy)(Katy Perry)'s Music Video (2011) * Re:Made in America (2013) * [Masked Singer](The)(The Masked Singer (American season 5)) (2021) - Russian Dolls ## Awards and nominations {\| class=wikitable \|- ! Year !! Awards !! Work !! Category !! Result \|- \| rowspan="8"\| 1997 \| rowspan="3"\| [Europe Music Awards](MTV)(1997 MTV Europe Music Awards) \| "[the Love](Where's)(Where's the Love)" \| [Select](MTV)(MTV Europe Music Award for MTV Select) \| \|- \| "[MMMBop](MMMBop)" \| [Song](Best)(MTV Europe Music Award for Best Song) \| \|- \| rowspan="15"\| Themselves \| [New Act](Best)(MTV Europe Music Award for Best New Act) \| \|- \| [GAFFA Awards](Denmark)(Gaffa (magazine)) \| Foreign New Act \| \|- \| rowspan="5"\| [Music Awards](Billboard)(Billboard Music Awards) \| Top Pop Artist – Duo/Group \| \|- \| Top New Pop Artist \| \|- \| Top Hot 100 Artist – Duo/Group \| \|- \| rowspan="2"\| Top Billboard 200 Artist – Duo/Group \| \|- \| rowspan="15"\| 1998 \| \|- \| [Gold Disc Awards](Japan)(Japan Gold Disc Awards) \| New Artist of the Year \| \|- \| [Awards](ECHO)(ECHO Awards) \| Best International Newcomer \| \|- \| [Music Awards](World)(World Music Awards) \| World's Best Selling New Artist \| \|- \| rowspan="2"\| [Awards](Brit)(1998 Brit Awards) \| [International Group](Best)(Brit Award for International Group) \| \|- \| [Breakthrough Act](International)(Brit Award for International Breakthrough Act) \| \|- \| rowspan="2"\| [Entertainment Awards](Blockbuster)(4th Annual Blockbuster Entertainment Awards) \| Favorite Group – Pop \| \|- \| Favorite Group – New Artist \| \|- \| rowspan="2"\| [Choice Awards](Kids')(1998 Kids' Choice Awards) \| [Music Group](Favorite)(Kids' Choice Award for Favorite Music Group) \| \|- \| "[MMMBop](MMMBop)" \| Favorite Song \| \|- \| rowspan="2"\| [Awards](NARM)(NARM) \| [In](Snowed)(Snowed In) \| Best Selling Holiday Album \| \|- \| [from Albertane](Live)(Live from Albertane) \| Best Selling Music Video \| \|- \| rowspan="3"\| [Awards](Grammy)(40th Annual Grammy Awards) \|Themselves \| [New Artist](Best)(Grammy Award for Best New Artist) \| \|- \| [of the Year](Record)(Grammy Award for Record of the Year) \| rowspan="2"\|”MMMBop” \| \|- \|[ Best Pop Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocals](Grammy Award for Best Pop Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocals) \| \|- \| rowspan="2"\| 2005 \| [Video Music Brazil](MTV)(MTV Video Music Brazil) \| "[& Me](Penny)(Penny & Me)" \| Best International Video \| \|- \| rowspan="2"\| Lunas del Auditorio \| rowspan="2"\| Themselves \| rowspan="2"\| Best Foreign Pop Artist \| \|- \| 2012 \| ## References ## External links * }} [ ](Category:Hanson (band)) [Records artists](Category:Mercury)(Category:Mercury Records artists) [boy bands](Category:American)(Category:American boy bands) [pop rock music groups](Category:American)(Category:American pop rock music groups) [pop music groups](Category:American)(Category:American pop music groups) [musical groups](Category:Family)(Category:Family musical groups) [musical trios](Category:Sibling)(Category:Sibling musical trios) [groups established in 1992](Category:Musical)(Category:Musical groups established in 1992) [musical groups](Category:Child)(Category:Child musical groups) [pop groups](Category:Teen)(Category:Teen pop groups) [Europe Music Award winners](Category:MTV)(Category:MTV Europe Music Award winners) [activists](Category:HIV/AIDS)(Category:HIV/AIDS activists) [groups from Oklahoma](Category:Musical)(Category:Musical groups from Oklahoma) [from Oklahoma](Category:Singers)(Category:Singers from Oklahoma) [musical trios](Category:American)(Category:American musical trios) [Da Records artists](Category:Love)(Category:Love Da Records artists) [Vinyl artists](Category:Cooking)(Category:Cooking Vinyl artists)
Anson Mount	anson_mount	# Anson Mount Revision ID: 1160281672 \| Timestamp: 2023-06-15T13:39:16Z --- \| birth_place = \| occupation = [Actor](Actor) \| education = \|[University](Columbia)(Columbia University) }} \| years_active = 1999–present \| spouse = \| children = 1 }} Anson Adams Mount IV (born February 25, 1973) is an American actor. He is known for his television roles as Cullen Bohannon in the [AMC](AMC (TV network)) [western](western (genre)) [drama](drama) series [on Wheels](Hell)(Hell on Wheels (TV series)), as Jim Steele on the [NBC](NBC) series [Conviction](Conviction (2006 TV series)) (2006), as the [Comics](Marvel)(Marvel Comics) superhero [Bolt](Black)(Black Bolt (Marvel Cinematic Universe)) in the [Cinematic Universe](Marvel)(Marvel Cinematic Universe) (MCU) media franchise (appearing in [Inhumans](Inhumans (TV series)) and [Strange in the Multiverse of Madness](Doctor)(Doctor Strange in the Multiverse of Madness)), and as Captain ["Chris" Pike](Christopher)(Christopher Pike (Star Trek)) in the [Trek](Star)(Star Trek) television series [Discovery](Star Trek: Discovery), [Treks](Short)(Star Trek: Short Treks) (2019), and [New Worlds](Strange)(Star Trek: Strange New Worlds) (2022present). He also starred opposite [Spears](Britney)(Britney Spears) in the coming-of-age film [Crossroads](Crossroads (2002 film)) (2002). He is a member of the board of directors of [(Messaging Extraterrestrial Intelligence)](METI)(METI (Messaging Extraterrestrial Intelligence)). ## Early life Mount's father, Anson Adams Mount II, was one of the original contributing editors to [Playboy](Playboy) magazine. His mother, Nancy Smith, is a former professional golfer. From his father's first marriage, Mount has an older brother (Anson Adams III) and two sisters. Mount attended Dickson County High School in [Tennessee](Dickson,)(Dickson, Tennessee), [The University of the South](Sewanee:)(Sewanee: The University of the South), and [University](Columbia)(Columbia University). ## Career ### Stage In 1998, Mount starred in [McNally](Terrence)(Terrence McNally)'s [Christi](Corpus)(Corpus Christi (play)), for which he was honored by the Drama League. In 2008, he was a finalist for the American Playwrights Conference at the O'Neill Center in 2008 for his full-length play Atomic City, and won the Maxim Mazumdar New Play Prize for his one-act play Love Liza? In 2010 he appeared in [Chekhov](Anton)(Anton Chekhov)'s [Sisters](Three)(Three Sisters (play)) at [Stage Company](Classic)(Classic Stage Company). In 2018 he appeared in [O'Hara](Robert)(Robert O'Hara)'s Mankind at [Horizons](Playwrights)(Playwrights Horizons). ### Film Mount made his feature film debut in 2000 as Tully Coats in the independent film [Tully](Tully (2000 film)). In 2009, he produced and starred in the independent film [County](Cook)(Cook County (film)), which earned awards at several major film festivals, including Hollywood, AFI Dallas, Nashville and [SXSW](SXSW). In 2022, Mount portrayed [Boltagon / Black Bolt](Blackagar)(Black Bolt) in the [Cinematic Universe](Marvel)(Marvel Cinematic Universe) (MCU) film [Strange in the Multiverse of Madness](Doctor)(Doctor Strange in the Multiverse of Madness), reprising his role from 2017's [Inhumans](Inhumans (TV series)). ### Television Mount is widely known for his role as Cullen Bohannan on [AMC](AMC (TV channel))'s hit series [on Wheels](Hell)(Hell on Wheels (TV series)), which he also produced from 2014–2016. In 2017, he starred as [Boltagon / Black Bolt](Blackagar)(Black Bolt) in the [Cinematic Universe](Marvel)(Marvel Cinematic Universe) (MCU) [television series](ABC)(Marvel's ABC television series) [Inhumans](Inhumans (TV series)). In 2018, he was cast as Captain [Pike](Christopher)(Christopher Pike (Star Trek)) of the [Enterprise](Starship)(Starship Enterprise) in the [CBS](CBS) series [Trek: Discovery](Star)(Star Trek: Discovery (season 2)). His performance was well received, and inspired a popular petition for a Pike [spin-off](Spin-off (media)) series. In 2019, he reprised his role as Pike in a few [Trek: Short Treks](Star)(Star Trek: Short Treks) episodes. In May 2020 it was announced that, due in part to fans' requests, he would star as Pike in the new series [Trek: Strange New Worlds](Star)(Star Trek: Strange New Worlds), which premiered on May 5, 2022. ### Academic Mount is an adjunct [professor](assistant)(Professors in the United States) at [University](Columbia)(Columbia University School of the Arts), teaching audition technique for graduate actors. His non-fiction pieces have been published in the magazines Mosaic, [Daily Beast](The)(The Daily Beast) and [& Indians](Cowboys)(Cowboys & Indians (magazine)), and in the [Herald](Calgary)(Calgary Herald) newspaper. ## Personal life On July 8, 2017, Mount announced his engagement to his longtime girlfriend, photographer Darah Trang. They were married on February 20, 2018 and welcomed their first child, a daughter, in December 2021. He is an Episcopalian. ## Credits ### Film ### Television ### Theater ### As producer/director/writer ### Podcast Mount writes, produces, and hosts The Well podcast with his longtime friend Branan Edgens. He has served as a narrator on the [podcast](Pseudopod)(Pseudopod (podcast)), reading the [Ligotti](Thomas)(Thomas Ligotti) story "The Town Manager." ### Video games ## References ## External links * * * *[The Well Podcast](https://thewellpod.com/) [births](Category:1973)(Category:1973 births) [people](Category:Living)(Category:Living people) [male film actors](Category:American)(Category:American male film actors) [male television actors](Category:American)(Category:American male television actors) [podcasters](Category:American)(Category:American podcasters) [University alumni](Category:Columbia)(Category:Columbia University alumni) [from Dickson County, Tennessee](Category:People)(Category:People from Dickson County, Tennessee) [The University of the South alumni](Category:Sewanee:)(Category:Sewanee: The University of the South alumni) [actors from Tennessee](Category:Male)(Category:Male actors from Tennessee) [actors from Los Angeles](Category:Male)(Category:Male actors from Los Angeles) [American male actors](Category:20th-century)(Category:20th-century American male actors) [American male actors](Category:21st-century)(Category:21st-century American male actors) [University faculty](Category:Columbia)(Category:Columbia University faculty) [on Wheels (TV series)](Category:Hell)(Category:Hell on Wheels (TV series)) [American Episcopalians](Category:20th-century)(Category:20th-century American Episcopalians) [American Episcopalians](Category:21st-century)(Category:21st-century American Episcopalians)
The King in Yellow	the_king_in_yellow	# The King in Yellow Revision ID: 1151356992 \| Timestamp: 2023-04-23T14:39:43Z --- \| author = [W. Chambers](Robert)(Robert W. Chambers) \| country = United States \| language = English \| genre = [literature](Decadent)(Decadent movement), [horror](Horror fiction), [supernatural](Supernatural fiction) \| publisher = F. Tennyson Neely \| pub_date = 1895 \| media_type = Print \| pages = 316 \| congress = PZ3. C355 \| dewey = 813.4 \| wikisource = The King in Yellow \| orig_lang_code = en \| followed_by = [Maker of Moons](The)(The Maker of Moons) }} *The King in Yellow* is a book of short stories by the American writer [W. Chambers](Robert)(Robert W. Chambers), first published by F. Tennyson Neely in 1895. The book is named for the fictional play with the same title which recurs as a [motif](motif (narrative)) through some of the stories. The first half of the book features highly esteemed horror stories, and the book has been described by critics such as [F. Bleiler](E.)(E. F. Bleiler) and [E. D. Klein](T.)(T. E. D. Klein) as a classic in the field of the [supernatural](supernatural). [Carter](Lin)(Lin Carter) called it "an absolute masterpiece, probably the single greatest book of weird fantasy written in this country between the death of [Poe](Edgar Allan Poe) and the rise of [Lovecraft](H. P. Lovecraft)".Carter, Lin, editor. Great Short Novels of Adult Fantasy, Volume II, New York: Ballantine Books, 1973, p.26. There are 10 stories, the first four of which ("The Repairer of Reputations", "The Mask", "In the Court of the Dragon", and "The Yellow Sign") mention The King in Yellow, a forbidden play which induces despair or madness in those who read it. The British first edition was published by [& Windus](Chatto)(Chatto & Windus) in 1895 (316 pages). ## Stories The first four stories are loosely connected by three main devices: * A play in book form entitled The King in Yellow * A mysterious and malevolent supernatural and gothic entity known as the King in Yellow * An eerie symbol called the Yellow Sign These stories are macabre in tone, centering, in keeping with the other tales, on characters who are often artists or [decadents](decadence), inhabitants of the [demi-monde](Demimonde). The first and fourth stories, "The Repairer of Reputations" and "The Yellow Sign", are set in an imagined future 1920s America, whereas the second and third stories, "The Mask" and "In the Court of the Dragon", are set in Paris. These stories are haunted by the theme: "Have you found the Yellow Sign?" The macabre character gradually fades away during the remaining stories, and the last three are written in the romantic fiction style common to Chambers' later work. They are all linked to the preceding stories by their Parisian setting and their artistic protagonists. ### List of stories [[of Tessie in "The Yellow Sign", from a 1902 edition of the book.](File:King-in-Yellow-Yellow-Sign-Tessie.JPG\|thumb\|upright=0.75\|Illustration)] The stories in the book are: * "[Repairer of Reputations](The)(The Repairer of Reputations)" – a story of egotism and paranoia which carries the imagery of the book's title. * "The Mask" – a dream story of art, love, and uncanny science. * "In the Court of the Dragon" – a man is pursued by a sinister church organist who is after his soul. * "The Yellow Sign" – an artist is troubled by a sinister churchyard watchman who resembles a coffin worm. * "The Demoiselle d'Ys" – a time travel love story. * "The Prophets' Paradise" – a sequence of eerie prose poems that develop the style and theme of a quote from the fictional play The King in Yellow which introduces "The Mask". * "The Street of the Four Winds" – an atmospheric tale of an artist in Paris who is drawn to a neighbor's room by a cat; the story ends with a tragic touch. * "The Street of the First Shell" – a war story set in the [Siege](Paris)(Siege of Paris (1870–71)) of 1870. * "The Street of Our Lady of the Fields" – romantic American bohemians in Paris. * "Rue Barrée" – romantic American bohemians in Paris, with a discordant ending that playfully reflects some of the tone of the first story. ## The play called The King in Yellow The fictional play The King in Yellow has at least two acts and at least three characters: Cassilda, Camilla and "the Stranger", who may or may not be the titular character. Chambers' story collection excerpts some sections from the play to introduce the book as a whole, or individual stories. For example, "Cassilda's Song" comes from Act 1, Scene 2 of the play:"The King in Yellow" in e.g. The short story "The Mask" is introduced by an excerpt from Act 1, Scene 2d:"The Mask" in e.g. It is also stated, in "The Repairer of Reputations", that the final moment of the first act involves the character Camilla's "agonized scream and [...] awful words echoing through the dim streets of Carcosa". All of the excerpts come from Act I. The stories describe Act I as quite ordinary, but reading Act II drives the reader mad with the "irresistible" revealed truths: "The very banality and innocence of the first act only allowed the blow to fall afterward with more awful effect". Even seeing the first page of the second act is enough to draw the reader in: "If I had not caught a glimpse of the opening words in the second act I should never have finished it" ("[Repairer of Reputations](The)(The Repairer of Reputations)"). Chambers usually gives only scattered hints of the contents of the full play, as in this extract from "The Repairer of Reputations": He mentioned the establishment of the Dynasty in Carcosa, the lakes which connected Hastur, Aldebaran and the mystery of the Hyades. He spoke of Cassilda and Camilla, and sounded the cloudy depths of Demhe, and the Lake of Hali. "The scolloped tatters of the King in Yellow must hide Yhtill forever", he muttered, but I do not believe Vance heard him. Then by degrees he led Vance along the ramifications of the Imperial family, to Uoht and Thale, from Naotalba and Phantom of Truth, to Aldones, and then tossing aside his manuscript and notes, he began the wonderful story of the Last King. A similar passage occurs in "The Yellow Sign", in which two protagonists have read The King in Yellow: Night fell and the hours dragged on, but still we murmured to each other of the King and the Pallid Mask, and midnight sounded from the misty spires in the fog-wrapped city. We spoke of Hastur and of Cassilda, while outside the fog rolled against the blank window-panes as the cloud waves roll and break on the shores of Hali. ## Inspirations for The King in Yellow Chambers borrowed the names Carcosa, Hali and [Hastur](Hastur) from [Bierce](Ambrose)(Ambrose Bierce): specifically, his [stories](short)(Short story) "[Inhabitant of Carcosa](An)(An Inhabitant of Carcosa)" and "Haïta the Shepherd". There is no strong indication that Chambers was influenced beyond liking the names. For example, Hastur is a god of shepherds in "Haïta the Shepherd", but is implicitly a location in "The Repairer of Reputations", listed alongside the Hyades and Aldebaran. The Mask that the Stranger is instructed to remove but turns out not to exist at all in the excerpt from The King in Yellow play (in Chambers' short story "The Mask") evokes the scene in [Allan Poe's "The Masque of the Red Death"](Edgar)(The Masque of the Red Death) where Prince Prospero demands that the stranger dressed as the Red Death should remove his mask and robes, only to find nothing underneath. Given the recognition of that short story, this might be an inspiration or even a tribute from Chambers to Poe. [Stableford](Brian)(Brian Stableford) has pointed out that the story "[Demoiselle d'Ys](The)(The Demoiselle d'Ys)" was influenced by the stories of [Gautier](Théophile)(Théophile Gautier), such as "Arria Marcella" (1852); both Gautier and Chambers' stories feature a love affair enabled by a supernatural [slip](time)(time travel).Brian Stableford, "The King in Yellow" in Frank N. Magill, ed. Survey of Modern Fantasy Literature, Vol 2. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Salem Press, Inc., 1983. (pp. 844-847). ## Influence on Cthulhu Mythos [[File:King-in-Yellow-Earl-Geier.jpg\|thumb\|"The King in Yellow", illustration by Earl Geier in Richard Watts' scenario "Tatterdemalion" for the [of Cthulhu](Call)(Call of Cthulhu (role-playing game)) [game](role-playing)(role-playing game) published by [Chaosium](Chaosium). The Yellow Sign adorning the back of the throne was designed by Kevin A. Ross for the scenario "Tell Me, Have You Seen the Yellow Sign?"]] [P. Lovecraft](H.)(H. P. Lovecraft) read The King in Yellow in early 1927 and included passing references to various things and places from the book — such as the [of Hali](Lake)(Carcosa#Associated names) and the Yellow Sign — in "[Whisperer in Darkness](The)(The Whisperer in Darkness)" (1931), one of his main [Mythos](Cthulhu)(Cthulhu Mythos) stories. Lovecraft borrowed Chambers' method of only vaguely referring to supernatural events, entities, and places, thereby allowing his readers to imagine the horror for themselves. The play The King in Yellow effectively became another piece of [literature in the Cthulhu Mythos](occult)(Cthulhu Mythos arcane literature) alongside the [Necronomicon](Necronomicon) and others. ## References ## Further reading * * * The Hastur Cycle, edited by [M. Price](Robert)(Robert M. Price), [Chaosium](Chaosium), 1993 * The Yellow Sign and Other Stories, edited by [Joshi](S.T.)(S.T. Joshi), [Chaosium](Chaosium), 2004 * Rehearsals for Oblivion: Act 1 - Tales of The King in Yellow, edited by Peter A. Worthy, [Signs Press](Elder)(Elder Signs Press), 2007 * Strange Aeons 3 (an issue dedicated to The King in Yellow, edited by Rick Tillman and K.L. Young, Autumn 2010 * A Season in Carcosa, edited by [S. Pulver](Joseph)(Joseph S. Pulver), Miskatonic River Press, 2012 * New Tales of the Yellow Sign by [D. Laws](Robin)(Robin D. Laws), Atomic Overmind Press, 2012 * Lovecraft eZine King in Yellow Tribute Issue, edited by [S. Pulver](Joseph)(Joseph S. Pulver), Lovecraft eZine Press, 2014 * ''Cassilda's Song: Tales Inspired by Robert W. Chambers' King in Yellow Mythos, edited by [S. Pulver](Joseph)(Joseph S. Pulver), [Chaosium](Chaosium), 2015 The King in Yellow Tales: Volume 1 by [S. Pulver](Joseph)(Joseph S. Pulver), Lovecraft eZine Press, 2015 * The Egg by Hildred Rex, 2017 * ["The King in Yellow": An Introduction by Christophe Thill](https://web.archive.org/web/20010813205603/http://home.worldnet.fr/~c_thill/chambers/presgb.html) ## External links * * [The King in Yellow'' at sff.net](http://www.sff.net/people/DoyleMacdonald/l_kiy.htm) * [short story collections](Category:1895)(Category:1895 short story collections) [short story collections](Category:American)(Category:American short story collections) [& Windus books](Category:Chatto)(Category:Chatto & Windus books) [plays](Category:Fictional)(Category:Fictional plays) [short story collections](Category:Horror)(Category:Horror short story collections) [short stories](Category:Gothic)(Category:Gothic short stories) [adapted into films](Category:Books)(Category:Books adapted into films)
Barbara O'Neill	barbara_o'neill	# Barbara O'Neill Revision ID: 1160321706 \| Timestamp: 2023-06-15T19:01:59Z --- \| education = \| alma_mater = \| occupation = [Naturopath](Naturopath) and Lecturer \| years_active = 2004-present \| known_for = A naturopath banned from providing health services in Australia \| notable_works = }} '''Barbara O'Neill''' is an Australian [naturopath](naturopathy) and lecturer on health issues who, in 2019, was banned for life by the New South Wales [Care Complaints Commission](Health)(Health Care Complaints Commission) (HCCC) from providing free or paid health services. The ban followed an HCCC investigation which found she lacked any health related qualifications, a degree, diploma, or membership in an accredited health organisation. It also found that she provided dangerous, unsupported health advice to vulnerable groups. This included advising parents to feed their infants raw [milk](goat)(goat milk) or [milk](almond)(almond milk) blended with dates or banana instead of formula, and recommending that cancer patients forgo chemotherapy in favour of [soda](baking)(baking soda) wraps and dietary changes. She is married to Michael O'Neill, the founder of the [Medical Options Party](Informed)(Informed Medical Options Party). ## Activities Although O'Neill has promoted her services as a naturopath, nutritionist, and health educator since at least 2004, she lacks relevant credentials. She has rejected the claim that her health advice is not evidence-based. She ran the Misty Mountain Health Retreat near [NSW](Kempsey,)(Kempsey, NSW) with her husband, charging clients up to [AUD](Australian dollar)$3,100 per week for treatments and health retreats. She also provided for-fee telephone consultations. According to O'Neill's website, she provided detox services claiming to aid in recovery from heart disease, diabetes, hormonal imbalance, chronic fatigue, candida/fungus, drug addiction, cancer, heartburn, and obesity. Her [YouTube](YouTube) videos were viewed about 700,000 times as of mid-October 2019. As a member of the [Adventist Church](Seventh-day)(Seventh-day Adventist Church), she has spoken at many church venues. She has previously provided health retreats and wellness programs in [Australia](Australia) and the [Islands](Cook)(Cook Islands) and continues to conduct them in [Zealand](New)(New Zealand) and the [U.S.](U.S.) ## Questionable claims ### Cancer According to the HCCC investigation, O'Neill falsely claimed to be able to cure [cancer](cancer) and urged patients not to use [chemotherapy](chemotherapy). O'Neill promoted the discredited claim that cancer is a [fungus](fungus). She urged her clients to treat their cancer with [soda](baking)(baking soda) wraps and claimed, without evidence, that one doctor had cured 90% of his patients' cancer with baking soda injections. She also encouraged her clients to treat their cancer with probiotics and by avoiding fruit and wheat for six weeks. ### Anti-vaccination O'Neill discouraged immunisation, claiming that vaccines are unnecessary. In one of her YouTube videos, she stated that "children can be naturally vaccinated against tetanus by drinking plenty of water, going to bed early, not eating junk food and running around the hills". She further claimed, without evidence, that "neurotoxins in vaccines have caused an epidemic of ADHD, autism, epilepsy and cot death". O'Neill has campaigned against the Australian [Jab No Pay](No)(No Jab No Pay) pro-immunisation initiative. ### Antibiotics In several of her YouTube videos, O'Neill discourages the use of antibiotics, claiming, without evidence, that they cause cancer. She has told pregnant women it is unnecessary to take antibiotics for [B](Strep)(Strep B) because "no baby has ever died from Strep B catching out of birth". However, the Royal Australian College of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists' statistics show that 14% of newborns who contract early-onset Strep B die, and that antibiotics can reduce this risk dramatically. ### Dietary Advice for Infants O'Neill has recommended that parents who are unable to [breastfeed](breastfeeding) their infant use substitutes besides formula. These have included unpasteurised goat milk and a mix of almond milk and dates or bananas. Co-author of the [Health and Medical Research Council](National)(National Health and Medical Research Council)'s Australian infant feeding guidelines, Professor Jane Scott, has stated this advice is "definitely not safe," and that "there is a real danger here for infants as these will not support healthy growth and development". In O'Neill's opinion, parents should not feed their children solid food or grains until their [molars](molars) have emerged. She has stated this nutrition advice is based solely on her personal experience. ## HCCC Investigation Between October 2018 and January 2019, the New South Wales [Care Complaints Commission](Health)(Health Care Complaints Commission) (HCCC) received many complaints about O'Neill's health advice. These included a complaint that the advice she provided regarding infant nutrition could cause death if followed, where she disclosed her directives were not based on any official guidance or evidence. The Commission found that some of her recommendations were based on ideas espoused by [Simoncini](Tullio)(Tullio Simoncini), an Italian former oncologist and [medicine](alternative)(alternative medicine) advocate incarcerated following a conviction for fraud and manslaughter following the death of one of his patients. Some of her guidance was based on the views of doctors who were sued by patients for not providing appropriate treatment. When the HCCC noted these facts to O'Neill, she stated that she still intended to use their advice. The HCCC also found that O'Neill cannot recognise and provide health advice within the limits of her training and experience and had not maintained records of the advice she provided to clients. While O'Neill has claimed to have received diplomas in naturopathy, nutrition, and dietetics from two now defunct organisations, the HCCC found that she did not have any health related degree or diploma. O'Neill claimed that she was merely providing clients with information, rather than advice. She further stated that the advice provided was evidence-based, and that she had not claimed to be able to cure cancer. The HCCC ultimately found the O'Neill's actions had breached five clauses of the Code of Conduct for Unregistered Health Practitioners. On September 24, 2019, The HCCC indefinitely banned O'Neill from providing health services, regardless of whether or not she accepted payment for doing so. This precludes her from giving lectures, public speaking or seeing clients. A HCCC spokesperson said that O'Neill's activities were being monitored closely and the prohibition order applies in the Australian states of New South Wales, Victoria, Queensland and South Australia. He also stated, "In general, if the material is accessible in [jurisdictions](those) online, then it is considered to be delivering a health service", and that "Presenting health education in any form or delivering health services, would be a breach of her prohibition order." Following the decision, a petition was circulated calling for the HCCC to reverse its decision. As of October 2019, the petition had gained 36,000 signatures. Accompanying the petition, is a statement from O'Neill: “It looks a bit dark now, but the Great God of the Universe will not let His wonderful health truth to be eliminated, regardless of how men and women may try.” Since the ban, O'Neill has claimed she is a victim of a [Nazi](Nazism)-style propaganda campaign. ### Investigation into charity In late 2019, O’Neill and her husband's Misty Mountain Health Retreat came under investigation by the [Charities and Not-for-profits Commission](Australian)(Australian Charities and Not-for-profits Commission) (ACNC) for alleged breaches of charity law. Under its health promotion charity status, the Retreat had received government grants and various tax concessions. In defending its status, the Retreat had claimed it had provided diet, exercise and health advice to [Australians](indigenous)(indigenous Australians) and people with chronic and terminal illnesses. The Retreat had previously been called 'The Aboriginal Healing Centre'. The retreat charges up to AUD$3,100 a week for health and cancer "treatments". Although she has been banned from providing health advice in Australia, O'Neill's website states that "Barbara O’Neill, author, educator, naturopath and nutritionist (retired), is… available for public speaking to companies, community groups, or churches outside of Australia and is sure to please those looking for motivation to live a longer, healthier and happier life." The month following the HCCC's decision, O'Neill was scheduled to conduct a wellness program in the US at a cost of $2,350 per person. ### Cook Islands In October 2019, the [Islands](Cook)(Cook Islands) Secretary of Health [Aumea Herman](Josephine)(Josephine Aumea Herman) expressed concern after learning O’Neill had been running health workshops in [Rarotonga](Rarotonga), and referred the matter onto the chief medical officer of the Cook Islands. Herman said: "We will follow up on this with her [O’Neill], so in the future she cannot practise healthcare here without the proper registration – which means an annual practising certificate in her country of origin, and other documentation. We must ensure the Cook Islands population remains safe." ## References }} ## External links * HCCC - [Statement of decision (pdf)](https://www.hccc.nsw.gov.au/ArticleDocuments/216/Statement%20of%20Decision%20-%20Mrs%20Barbara%20ONeill.pdf.aspx) on Mrs Barbara O’Neill - 24 September 2019 [medicine](Category:Alternative)(Category:Alternative medicine) [anti-vaccination activists](Category:Australian)(Category:Australian anti-vaccination activists) [fraudsters](Category:Australian)(Category:Australian fraudsters) [Seventh-day Adventists](Category:Australian)(Category:Australian Seventh-day Adventists) [of birth missing (living people)](Category:Date)(Category:Date of birth missing (living people)) [people](Category:Living)(Category:Living people) [controversies in Australia](Category:Medical)(Category:Medical controversies in Australia) [of birth missing (living people)](Category:Place)(Category:Place of birth missing (living people)) [of birth missing (living people)](Category:Year)(Category:Year of birth missing (living people))
Goldman Sachs	goldman_sachs	# Goldman Sachs Revision ID: 1160151639 \| Timestamp: 2023-06-14T18:11:52Z --- \| [DJIA](DJIA) component \| [100](S&P)(S&P 100) component \| [500](S&P)(S&P 500) component }} \| ISIN = \| industry = [services](Financial)(Financial services) \| founders = \| foundation = \| location = [West Street](200)(200 West Street) \| location_city = [York City](New)(New York City), [York](New)(New York (state)) \| location_country = U.S. \| area_served = Worldwide \| key_people = \| products = \| revenue = (2022) \| operating_income = (2022) \| net_income = (2022) \| aum = (2022) \| assets = (2022) \| equity = (2022) \| num_employees = 48,500 (2022) \| divisions = \| subsid = \| ratio = [1](Tier)(Tier 1 capital) 15.0% (2022; Basel III Advanced) \| rating = \| website = \| footnotes = }} The Goldman Sachs Group, Inc. ( ) is an American multinational [bank](investment)(Investment banking) and [services](financial)(financial services) company. Founded in 1869, Goldman Sachs is headquartered at [West Street](200)(200 West Street) in [Manhattan](Lower)(Lower Manhattan), with regional [headquarters](headquarters) in [London](London), [Warsaw](Warsaw), [Bangalore](Bangalore), [Kong](Hong)(Hong Kong), [Tokyo](Tokyo), [Dallas](Dallas) and [Lake City](Salt)(Salt Lake City), and additional offices in other international financial centers. Goldman Sachs is the [largest investment bank](second)(list of investment banks) in the world by revenue and is ranked 55th on the [Fortune 500](Fortune 500) list of the largest United States corporations by total revenue. It is considered a [important financial institution](systemically)(systemically important financial institution) by the [Stability Board](Financial)(Financial Stability Board). The company has been criticized for lack of ethical standards, working with dictatorial regimes, close relationships with the U.S. federal government via a "[door](revolving)(Revolving door (politics))" of former employees, and driving up prices of [commodities](Commodity market) through [futures](Futures exchange) speculation. While the company has appeared on the [Best Companies to Work For](100)(100 Best Companies to Work For) list compiled by [Fortune](Fortune (magazine)), primarily due to its high compensation levels, it has also been criticized by its employees for 100-hour work weeks, high levels of employee dissatisfaction among first-year analysts, abusive treatment by superiors, a lack of mental health resources, and extremely high levels of stress in the workplace leading to physical discomfort. The company invests in and arranges financing for startups, and in many cases gets additional business when the companies launch [public offering](initial)(initial public offering)s. Notable [public offering](initial)(initial public offering)s for which Goldman Sachs was the lead [bookrunner](bookrunner) include those of [Twitter](Twitter), [Bumble](Bumble), [Markets](Robinhood)(Robinhood Markets). Startups in which the company or its funds have invested include [Spotify](Spotify), [Foodpanda](Foodpanda), and [Dropbox](Dropbox), among others. It is a partner organization of the [Economic Forum](World)(World Economic Forum). ## History ### Founding and establishment Goldman Sachs was founded in New York City in 1869 by [Goldman](Marcus)(Marcus Goldman). In 1882, Goldman's son-in-law [Sachs](Samuel)(Samuel Sachs) joined the firm. In 1885, Goldman took his son Henry and his son-in-law Ludwig Dreyfuss into the business and the firm adopted its present name, Goldman Sachs & Co. The company pioneered the use of [paper](commercial)(commercial paper) for entrepreneurs and joined the [York Stock Exchange](New)(New York Stock Exchange) (NYSE) in 1896. By 1898, the firm's capital stood at $1.6 million. Goldman entered the [public offering](initial)(initial public offering) market in 1906 when it took [Roebuck and Company](Sears,)(Sears, Roebuck and Company) public. The deal was facilitated by Henry Goldman's personal friendship with [Rosenwald](Julius)(Julius Rosenwald), an owner of Sears. Other IPOs followed, including [W. Woolworth](F.)(F. W. Woolworth Company) and [Can](Continental)(Continental Can). In 1912, Henry S. Bowers became the first non-member of the founding family to become a partner of the company and share in its profits. In 1917, under growing pressure from the other partners in the firm due to his pro-German stance, Henry Goldman resigned. The Sachs family gained full control of the firm until [Catchings](Waddill)(Waddill Catchings) joined the company in 1918. By 1928, Catchings was the Goldman partner with the single largest stake in the firm. On December 4, 1928, the firm launched the Goldman Sachs Trading Corp, a [fund](closed-end)(closed-end fund). The fund failed during the [Market Crash of 1929](Stock)(Stock Market Crash of 1929), amid accusations that Goldman had engaged in share price manipulation and [trading](insider)(insider trading). ### Mid-20th century In 1930, the firm ousted Catchings, and [Weinberg](Sidney)(Sidney Weinberg) assumed the role of senior partner and shifted Goldman's focus away from trading and toward [banking](investment)(investment banking). Weinberg's actions helped to restore some of Goldman's tarnished reputation. Under Weinberg's leadership, Goldman was the lead advisor on the [Motor Company](Ford)(Ford Motor Company)'s IPO in 1956, a major coup on Wall Street at the time. Under Weinberg's reign, the firm started an investment research division and a [bond](municipal)(municipal bond) department, and it became an early innovator in [arbitrage](risk)(risk arbitrage). In the 1950s, [Levy](Gus)(Gus Levy) joined the firm as a securities trader, where two powers fought for supremacy, one from investment banking and one from securities trading. Levy was a pioneer in [trading](block)(block trade) and the firm established this trend under his guidance. Due to Weinberg's heavy influence, the firm formed an investment banking division in 1956 in an attempt to shift focus off Weinberg. In 1957, the company's headquarters were relocated to 20 [Street](Broad)(Broad Street (Manhattan)), New York City. In 1969, Levy took over Weinberg's role as Senior Partner and built Goldman's trading franchise once again. Levy is credited with Goldman's famous philosophy of being "long-term greedy," which implied that as long as money is made over the long term, short-term losses are bearable. At the same time, partners reinvested nearly all of their earnings in the firm. Weinberg remained a senior partner of the firm and died in July of that year. Another financial crisis for the firm occurred in 1970, when the [Central Transportation Company](Penn)(Penn Central Transportation Company) went bankrupt with over $80 million in [paper](commercial)(commercial paper) outstanding, most of it issued through Goldman Sachs. The bankruptcy was large, and the resulting lawsuits, notably by the [SEC](U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission), threatened the partnership capital, survival, and reputation of the firm. It was this bankruptcy that resulted in [rating](credit)(credit rating)s for every issuer of commercial paper today by several credit rating services. Under the direction of Senior Partner Stanley R. Miller, the firm opened its first international office in London in 1970 and created a [Wealth Management](Private)(Private Wealth Management) division along with a [income](fixed)(fixed income) division in 1972. It pioneered the "[knight](white)(white knight (business))" strategy in 1974 during its attempts to defend Electric Storage Battery against a [takeover](hostile)(hostile takeover) bid from International Nickel and Goldman's rival, [Stanley](Morgan)(Morgan Stanley). [L. Weinberg](John)(John Weinberg) (the son of Sidney Weinberg), and [C. Whitehead](John)(John C. Whitehead) assumed the roles of co-senior partners in 1976, once again emphasizing the co-leadership at the firm. One of their initiatives was the establishment of 14 business principles that the firm still claims to apply. ### Late 20th century On November 16, 1981, the firm acquired J. Aron & Company, a [trading](commodities)(commodities trading) firm that merged with the Fixed Income division to become known as Fixed Income, Currencies, and Commodities. J. Aron was involved in the coffee and gold markets, and the former CEO of Goldman, [Blankfein](Lloyd)(Lloyd Blankfein), joined the firm as a result of this merger. In 1983, the firm moved into a newly constructed global headquarters at 85 Broad Street and occupied that building until it moved to its current headquarters in 2009. In 1985, it underwrote the public offering of the [estate investment trust](real)(real estate investment trust) that owned [Center](Rockefeller)(Rockefeller Center), then the largest [REIT](Real estate investment trust) offering in history. In accordance with the beginning of the [of the Soviet Union](dissolution)(dissolution of the Soviet Union), the firm also became involved in facilitating the global privatization movement by advising companies that were spinning off from their parent governments. In 1986, the firm formed Goldman Sachs Asset Management, which manages the majority of its mutual funds and [fund](hedge)(hedge fund)s. In the same year, the firm also underwrote the IPO of [Microsoft](Microsoft), advised [Electric](General)(General Electric) on its acquisition of [RCA](RCA), joined the [London](London Stock Exchange) and [stock exchange](Tokyo)(Tokyo stock exchange)s, and became the first United States bank to rank in the top 10 of [and acquisitions](mergers)(mergers and acquisitions) in the United Kingdom. During the 1980s, the firm became the first bank to distribute its investment research electronically and created the first public offering of original issue deep-discount [bond](bond (finance)). [Rubin](Robert)(Robert Rubin) and [Friedman](Stephen)(Stephen Friedman (PFIAB)) assumed the co-senior partnership in 1990 and pledged to focus on globalization of the firm to strengthen the merger & acquisition and trading business lines. During their tenure as co-senior partners, the firm introduced paperless trading to the New York Stock Exchange and lead-managed the first-ever global [offering](debt)(Corporate bond) by a U.S. corporation. In 1994, it also launched the [Sachs Commodity Index](Goldman)(Goldman Sachs Commodity Index) (GSCI) and opened its first office in China in [Beijing](Beijing). That same year, [Corzine](Jon)(Jon Corzine) became CEO, following the departure of Rubin and Friedman. Rubin had drawn criticism in Congress for using a Treasury Department account under his personal control to distribute $20 billion to bail out Mexican bonds, of which Goldman was a key distributor. On November 22, 1994, the Mexican Bolsa stock market admitted Goldman Sachs and one other firm to operate on that market. The [economic crisis in Mexico](1994)(1994 economic crisis in Mexico) threatened to wipe out the value of Mexico's bonds held by Goldman Sachs. In 1994, Goldman financed [Center](Rockefeller)(Rockefeller Center) in a deal that allowed it to take an ownership interest in 1996, and sold [Center](Rockefeller)(Rockefeller Center) to [Speyer](Tishman)(Tishman Speyer) in 2000. In April 1996, Goldman was the lead underwriter of the [Yahoo!](Yahoo!) IPO. In 1998, it was the co-lead manager of the ¥2 trillion (yen) [DoCoMo](NTT)(NTT DoCoMo) IPO. In 1999, Goldman acquired [Trading Company](Hull)(Hull Trading Company) for $531 million. After decades of debate among the partners, the company became a [company](public)(public company) via an [public offering](initial)(initial public offering) in May 1999. Goldman sold 12.6% of the company to the public, and after the IPO, 48.3% of the company was held by 221 former partners, 21.2% of the company was held by non-partner employees, and the remaining 17.9% was held by retired Goldman partners and two long-time investors, [Bank Ltd.](Sumitomo)(Sumitomo Bank Ltd.) and Assn, the investing arm of [Schools](Kamehameha)(Kamehameha Schools). The shares were priced at $53 each at listing. After the IPO, [Paulson](Henry)(Henry Paulson) became Chairman and Chief Executive Officer, succeeding Jon Corzine. ### 21st century In September 2000, Goldman Sachs purchased Spear, Leeds, & Kellogg, one of the largest specialist firms on the New York Stock Exchange, for $6.3 billion. In January 2000, Goldman, along with [Brothers](Lehman)(Lehman Brothers), was the lead manager for the first internet bond offering for the [Bank](World)(World Bank). In March 2003, the firm took a 45% stake in a joint venture with JBWere, the Australian investment bank. In April 2003, Goldman acquired The Ayco Company L.P., a fee-based financial counseling service. In December 2005, four years after its report on the emerging "[BRIC](BRIC)" economies (Brazil, Russia, India, and China), Goldman Sachs named its "[Eleven](Next)(Jim O'Neill, Baron O'Neill of Gatley#Next Eleven)" list of countries, using macroeconomic stability, political maturity, openness of trade and investment policies and quality of education as criteria: Bangladesh, Egypt, Indonesia, Iran, Mexico, Nigeria, Pakistan, the Philippines, Turkey, South Korea and Vietnam. In May 2006, Paulson left the firm to serve as [States Secretary of the Treasury](United)(United States Secretary of the Treasury), and [Blankfein](Lloyd)(Lloyd Blankfein) was promoted to Chairman and Chief Executive Officer. In January 2007, Goldman, along with [Global Communications](CanWest)(CanWest Global Communications), acquired [Atlantis](Alliance)(Alliance Atlantis), the company with the broadcast rights to the [franchise](CSI)(CSI (franchise)). ### Subprime mortgage crisis: 2007–2008 As a result of its involvement in securitization during the [mortgage crisis](subprime)(subprime mortgage crisis), Goldman Sachs suffered during the [crisis of 2007–2008](financial)(financial crisis of 2007–2008), and it received a $10 billion investment from the [States Department of the Treasury](United)(United States Department of the Treasury) as part of the [Asset Relief Program](Troubled)(Troubled Asset Relief Program), a financial [bailout](bailout) created by the [Economic Stabilization Act of 2008](Emergency)(Emergency Economic Stabilization Act of 2008). The investment was made in November 2008 and was repaid with [interest](interest) in June 2009. During the 2007 [mortgage crisis](subprime)(subprime mortgage crisis), Goldman profited from the collapse in subprime mortgage bonds in summer 2007 by [short-selling](short (finance)) subprime [securities](mortgage-backed)(Mortgage-backed security). Two Goldman traders, Michael Swenson and [Birnbaum](Josh)(Josh Birnbaum), are credited with being responsible for the firm's large profits during the crisis. The pair, members of Goldman's [product](structured)(structured product)s group in [York City](New)(New York City), made a profit of $4 billion by "betting" on a collapse in the subprime market and shorting mortgage-related securities. By summer 2007, they persuaded colleagues to see their point of view and convinced skeptical risk management executives. The firm initially avoided large subprime write-downs and achieved a net profit due to significant losses on non-prime [securitized](securitization) loans being offset by gains on short mortgage positions. The firm's viability was later called into question as the crisis intensified in September 2008. On October 15, 2007, as the crisis had begun to unravel, [Sloan](Allan)(Allan Sloan), a senior editor for [Fortune](Fortune (magazine)) magazine, wrote: So let's reduce this macro story to human scale. Meet GSAMP Trust 2006-S3, a $494 million drop in the junk-mortgage bucket, part of the more than half-a-trillion dollars of mortgage-backed securities issued last year. We found this issue by asking mortgage mavens to pick the worst deal they knew of that had been floated by a top-tier firm – and this one's pretty bad. It was sold by Goldman Sachs – GSAMP originally stood for Goldman Sachs Alternative Mortgage Products but now has become a name itself, like [AT&T](AT&T Inc.) and [3M](3M). This issue, which is backed by ultra-risky second-mortgage loans, contains all the elements that facilitated the housing bubble and bust. It's got speculators searching for quick gains in hot housing markets; it's got loans that seem to have been made with little or no serious analysis by lenders; and finally, it's got Wall Street, which churned out mortgage "product" because buyers wanted it. As they say on the Street, "When the ducks quack, feed them." On September 21, 2008, Goldman Sachs and Morgan Stanley, the last two major investment banks in the United States, both confirmed that they would become traditional [holding companies](bank)(bank holding company). The Federal Reserve's approval of their bid to become banks ended the business model of an independent securities firm, 75 years after Congress separated them from deposit-taking lenders, and capped weeks of chaos that sent [Brothers](Lehman)(Lehman Brothers) into bankruptcy and led to the rushed sale of [Lynch](Merrill)(Merrill Lynch) to [of America Corp.](Bank)(Bank of America Corp.) On September 23, 2008, [Hathaway](Berkshire)(Berkshire Hathaway) agreed to purchase $5 billion in Goldman's preferred stock, and also received [warrants](Warrant (finance)) to buy another $5 billion in Goldman's [stock](common)(common stock) within five years. The company also raised $5 billion via a public offering of shares at $123 per share. Goldman also received a $10 billion [stock](preferred)(preferred stock) investment from the [Treasury](U.S.)(U.S. Treasury) in October 2008, as part of the [Asset Relief Program](Troubled)(Troubled Asset Relief Program) (TARP). [Cuomo](Andrew)(Andrew Cuomo), then [York Attorney General](New)(New York Attorney General), questioned Goldman's decision to pay 953 employees bonuses of at least $1 million each after it received TARP funds in 2008. In that same period, however, CEO Lloyd Blankfein and six other senior executives opted to forgo bonuses, stating they believed it was the right thing to do, in light of "the fact that we are part of an industry that's directly associated with the ongoing economic distress". Cuomo called the move "appropriate and prudent", and urged the executives of other banks to follow the firm's lead and refuse bonus payments. In June 2009, Goldman Sachs repaid the U.S. Treasury's TARP investment, with 23% interest (in the form of $318 million in [dividend](preferred)(preferred stock) payments and $1.418 billion in warrant redemptions). On March 18, 2011, Goldman Sachs received [Reserve](Federal)(Federal Reserve) approval to buy back Berkshire's preferred stock in Goldman. In December 2009, Goldman announced that its top 30 executives would be paid year-end bonuses in restricted stock that they cannot sell for five years, with [clawback](clawback) provisions. During the 2008 financial crisis, the [Reserve](Federal)(Federal Reserve) introduced a number of short-term credit and liquidity facilities to help stabilize markets. Some of the transactions under these facilities provided liquidity to institutions whose disorderly failure could have severely stressed an already fragile financial system. Goldman Sachs was one of the heaviest users of these loan facilities, taking out many loans between March 18, 2008, and April 22, 2009. The [Dealer Credit Facility](Primary)(Primary Dealer Credit Facility) (PDCF), the first Fed facility ever to provide overnight loans to investment banks, loaned Goldman Sachs a total of $589 billion against collateral such as corporate market instruments and [securities](mortgage-backed)(Mortgage-backed security). The [Securities Lending Facility](Term)(Term Securities Lending Facility) (TSLF), which allows primary dealers to borrow liquid Treasury securities for one month in exchange for less liquid collateral, loaned Goldman Sachs a total of $193 billion. Goldman Sachs's borrowings totaled $782 billion in hundreds of revolving transactions over these months. The loans were fully repaid in accordance with the terms of the facilities. In 2008, Goldman Sachs started a "Returnship" [internship](internship) program after research and consulting with other firms led them to understand that career breaks happen and that returning to the workforce was difficult, especially for women. The goal of the Returnship program was to offer a chance at temporary employment for workers. Goldman Sachs holds the trademark for the term 'Returnship'. According to a 2009 BrandAsset Valuator survey taken of 17,000 people nationwide, the firm's reputation suffered in 2008 and 2009, and rival Morgan Stanley was respected more than Goldman Sachs, a reversal of the sentiment in 2006. Goldman refused to comment on the findings. In 2011, Goldman took full control of JBWere in a $1 billion buyout. ### Global Alpha According to [Wall Street Journal](The)(The Wall Street Journal), in September 2011, Goldman Sachs, announced that it was shutting down its largest hedge fund—Global Alpha Fund LP—which had been housed under Goldman Sachs Asset Management (GSAM). Global Alpha, which was created in the mid-1990s with $10 million, was once "one of the biggest and best performing hedge funds in the world" with more than $12 billion [under management](assets)(assets under management) (AUM) at its peak in 2007. Global Alpha, which used computer-driven models to invest, became known for [trading](high-frequency)(high-frequency trading) and furthered the career of [analysts](quantitative)(Quantitative analysis (finance))—'quants'—such as [Asness](Cliff)(Cliff Asness) and [Carhart](Mark)(Mark Carhart), who were the quant fund's founding fathers and had developed the statistical models that drove the trading. [Wall Street Journal](The)(The Wall Street Journal) described Asness and Carhart as managers of Global Alpha, a "big, secretive hedge fund"—the "Cadillac of a fleet of alternative investments" that had made millions for Goldman Sachs by 2006. By mid-2008 the quant fund had declined to 2.5 billion, by June 2011, it was less than $1.7 billion, and by September 2011, after suffering losses that year, it had "about $1 billion AUM. ### 2013 onwards In 2013, Goldman underwrote the $2.913 billion Grand Parkway System Toll Revenue Bond offering for the Houston, Texas area, one of the fastest-growing areas in the United States. The bond will be repaid from toll revenue. In April 2013, together with [Bank](Deutsche)(Deutsche Bank), Goldman led a $17 billion bond offering by [Inc.](Apple)(Apple Inc.), the largest corporate-bond deal in history and Apple's first since 1996. Goldman Sachs managed both of Apple's previous bond offerings in the 1990s. In June 2013, Goldman Sachs purchased the loan portfolio from Brisbane-based [Group](Suncorp)(Suncorp Group), one of Australia's largest banks and insurance companies. The [A$](Australian dollar)1.6 billion face amount loan portfolio was purchased for A$960 million. In September 2013, Goldman Sachs Asset Management announced it had entered into an agreement with Deutsche Asset & Wealth Management to acquire its stable value business, with total assets under supervision of $21.6 billion . In August 2015, Goldman Sachs agreed to acquire [Electric](General)(General Electric)'s GE Capital Bank on-line deposit platform, including US$8-billion of on-line deposits and another US$8-billion of brokered certificates of deposit. ### Move into consumer financial products (2016–present) [[by Goldman Sachs Logo.svg\|thumb\|200px\|Logo of Marcus by Goldman Sachs](File:Marcus)] Starting in 2016, Goldman Sachs has started to move into consumer financial products after spending most of its prior 150 years catering to institutional investors, corporations and governments. In April 2016, Goldman Sachs launched GS Bank, a [bank](direct)(direct bank). In October 2016, Goldman Sachs Bank USA started offering no-fee [unsecured](Unsecured debt) personal loans under the brand Marcus by Goldman Sachs. In March 2016, Goldman Sachs agreed to acquire [technology](financial)(financial technology) startup [Dollar](Honest)(Whurley#Honest Dollar (2014-present)), a digital retirement savings tool founded by American entrepreneur [Whurley](Whurley), focused on helping small-business employees and self-employed workers obtain affordable retirement plans. Terms of the deal were not disclosed. In May 2017, Goldman Sachs purchased $2.8 billion of [PDVSA](PDVSA) 2022 bonds from the [Bank of Venezuela](Central)(Central Bank of Venezuela) during the [Venezuelan protests](2017)(2017 Venezuelan protests). In April 2018, Goldman Sachs acquired Clarity Money, a personal finance startup. On September 10, 2018, Goldman Sachs acquired Boyd Corporation from [Capital](Genstar)(Genstar Capital) for $3 billion. On May 16, 2019, Goldman Sachs acquired [Capital](United)(United Capital) Financial Advisers, LLC for $750 million. [[File:Apple Card.png\|thumb\|Example of physical [Card](Apple)(Apple Card), issued by Goldman Sachs]] In March 2019, Apple, Inc. announced that it would partner with Goldman Sachs to launch the [Card](Apple)(Apple Card), the bank's first credit card offering. The card features a number of consumer-friendly features including no fees, software that encourages users to avoid debt or pay it down quickly, the industry's lowest interest rate range for comparable cards, and a mandate to approve as many iPhone users as possible. These features are seen as being risky for a bank to take on, and led other banks with established consumer credit card operations including Apple's long time partner [Barclays](Barclays), along with [Citigroup](Citigroup), [Chase](JPMorgan)(JPMorgan Chase) and [Synchrony](Synchrony Financial), to turn down Apple's proposal. Goldman Sachs defended the terms of the deal saying they were "thrilled" with the partnership and seeking "to disrupt consumer finance by putting the customer first." Also in March 2019, Goldman Sachs was fined £34.4 million by the City (London) regulator for misreporting millions of transactions over a decade.[City watchdog fines Goldman Sachs £34.4m for misreporting](https://www.theguardian.com/business/2019/mar/28/city-watchdog-fines-goldman-sachs-misreporting-transactions) , Guardian, March 28, 2019. In December 2019, the company pledged to give $750 billion to climate transition projects and to stop financing for oil exploration in the Arctic and for some projects related to coal. In June 2020, Goldman Sachs introduced a new corporate typeface, Goldman Sans, and made it freely available. After Internet users discovered that the terms of the license prohibited the disparagement of Goldman Sachs, the bank was much mocked and disparaged in its own font, until it eventually changed the license to the standard [Open Font License](SIL)(SIL Open Font License). Goldman Sachs was embroiled in [major scandal](a)(1Malaysia Development Berhad scandal) related to Malaysia's sovereign wealth fund, [Development Berhad](1Malaysia)(1Malaysia Development Berhad) (1MDB). The bank paid a fine of $2.9 billion under the [Corrupt Practices Act](Foreign)(Foreign Corrupt Practices Act), the largest such fine of all time. In July 2020, Goldman Sachs agreed on a $3.9 billion settlement in Malaysia for criminal charges related to the 1MDB scandal. For charges brought for the same case in other countries, Goldman Sachs agreed in October of the same year to pay more than $2.9 billion, with over $2 billion going to fines imposed in the US. In August 2021, Goldman Sachs announced that it had agreed to acquire [Investment Partners](NN)(NN Investment Partners), which had 335 billion in [under management](assets)(assets under management), for €1.7 billion from [Group](NN)(NN Group). In September 2021, Goldman Sachs announced to acquire [GreenSky](GreenSky) for about $2.24 billion and completed the acquisition in March 2022. In March 2022, Goldman Sachs announced it was winding down its business in Russia in compliance with regulatory and licensing requirements. Also during that same month, Goldman Sachs announced it had acquired the [Chicago](Chicago)-based open-architecture digital retirement advice provider, NextCapital Group. In June 2022, Goldman Sachs offered its first ever [derivative](Derivative (finance))s product linked to [Ether](Ethereum#Ether) (ETH). Goldman Sachs was announced as an official partner of McLaren. In September 2022, Goldman Sachs announced the layoff of hundreds of employees across the company, apparently as a result of the earnings report from July the same year that showed significantly reduced earnings. ## Services offered Goldman Sachs offers services in [banking](investment)(investment banking) (advisory for [and acquisitions](mergers)(mergers and acquisitions) and [restructuring](restructuring)), [underwriting](securities)(securities underwriting), [management](asset)(asset management) and [management](investment)(investment management), and [brokerage](prime)(prime brokerage). It is a [maker](market)(market maker) and brokers [credit](credit (finance)) products, [securities](mortgage-backed)(Mortgage-backed security), [securities](insurance-linked)(Insurance-Linked Securities (ILS)), [securities](Security (finance)), [currencies](currencies), [commodities](commodities), [equities](equities), [derivative](equity)(equity derivative)s, [product](structured)(structured product)s, [options](option (finance)), and [contract](futures)(futures contract)s. It is a [dealer](primary)(primary dealer) in the [States Treasury security](United)(United States Treasury security) market. It provides [clearing](clearing (finance)) and [bank](custodian)(custodian bank) services. It provides [management](wealth)(wealth management) services via [Sachs Personal Financial Management](Goldman)(Goldman Sachs Personal Financial Management). It operates [fund](private-equity)(private-equity fund)s, credit and real estate funds, and [fund](hedge)(hedge fund)s. It structures complex and tailor-made financial products. As of July 1, 2020, the firm would no longer [a company public](take)(Initial public offering) without "at least one diverse board candidate, with a focus on women" in the U.S. and in Europe. It also owns Goldman Sachs Bank USA, a [bank](direct)(direct bank). It trades both on behalf of its clients ([trading](flow)(flow trading)) and for its own account ([trading](proprietary)(proprietary trading)). ## Philanthropy According to its website, Goldman Sachs has committed in excess of $1.8 billion to philanthropic initiatives. Goldman Sachs reports its environmental and social performance in an annual report on [social responsibility](Corporate)(Corporate social responsibility) that follows the [Reporting Initiative](Global)(Global Reporting Initiative) protocol. The company offers a [advised fund](donor)(donor advised fund) (DAF) called Goldman Sachs Gives that donates to charitable organizations with an employee donation match of up to $20,000. A 2019 investigation by Sludge of DAFs and [group](hate)(hate group)s found that Goldman Sachs's donor advised fund had not been used to fund any SPLC hate groups, but that the fund did not have any explicit policy preventing such donations. ## Controversies and legal issues ### Role in the financial crisis of 2007-2008 Goldman has been criticized in the aftermath of the [crisis of 2007–2008](financial)(financial crisis of 2007–2008), where some alleged that it misled its investors and profited from the collapse of the mortgage market. This situation brought investigations from the [States Congress](United)(United States Congress), the [States Department of Justice](United)(United States Department of Justice), and a lawsuit from the [Securities and Exchange Commission](U.S.)(U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission) that resulted in Goldman paying a $550 million settlement. Goldman received $12.9 billion from [AIG](AIG) [counterparty](counterparty) payments provided by the AIG bailout, $10 billion in [TARP](Troubled Asset Relief Program) money from the government, which it paid back to the government, and a record $11.4 billion set aside for employee bonuses in the first half of 2009. In 2011, a Senate panel released a report accusing Goldman Sachs of misleading clients and engaging in conflicts of interest. In a story in [Stone](Rolling)(Rolling Stone), [Taibbi](Matt)(Matt Taibbi) characterized Goldman Sachs as a "great vampire squid" sucking money instead of blood, allegedly engineering "every major market manipulation since the [Depression](Great)(Great Depression) ... from tech stocks to high gas prices". In June 2009, after the firm repaid the TARP investment from the U.S. Treasury, Goldman made some of the largest bonus payments in its history due to its strong financial performance. [Cuomo](Andrew)(Andrew Cuomo), then [York Attorney General](New)(New York Attorney General), questioned Goldman's decision to pay 953 employees bonuses of at least $1 million each after it received TARP funds in 2008. That same period, however, CEO Lloyd Blankfein and 6 other senior executives opted to forgo bonuses, stating they believed it was the right thing to do, in light of "the fact that we are part of an industry that's directly associated with the ongoing economic distress". Goldman Sachs maintained that its net exposure to AIG was 'not material', and that the firm was protected by [hedges](hedge (finance)) (in the form of CDSs with other counterparties) and $7.5 billion of [collateral](collateral (finance)). The firm stated the cost of these hedges to be over $100 million. According to Goldman, both the collateral and CDSs would have protected the bank from incurring an economic loss in the event of an AIG bankruptcy (however, because AIG was bailed out and not allowed to fail, these hedges did not pay out). CFO [Viniar](David)(David Viniar) stated that profits related to AIG in the first quarter of 2009 "rounded to zero", and profits in December were not significant. He went on to say that he was "mystified" by the interest the government and investors have shown in the bank's trading relationship with AIG. Some have said, incorrectly according to others,["Another Dishonest NYT Editorial on AIG"](http://economicsofcontempt.blogspot.com/2009/03/another-dishonest-nyt-editorial-on-aig.html) , Economics of Contempt (blog). Retrieved April 29, 2009. that Goldman Sachs received preferential treatment from the government by being the only Wall Street firm to have participated in the crucial September meetings at the New York Fed, which decided AIG's fate. Much of this has stemmed from an inaccurate but often quoted New York Times article. The article was later corrected to state that Blankfein, CEO of Goldman Sachs, was "one of the Wall Street chief executives at the meeting". [Bloomberg](Bloomberg L.P.) has also reported that representatives from other firms were indeed present at the September AIG meetings. Furthermore, Goldman Sachs CFO [Viniar](David)(David Viniar) stated that CEO Blankfein had never "met" with his predecessor and then-US Treasury Secretary Henry Paulson to discuss AIG; however, there were frequent phone calls between the two of them. Paulson was not present at the September meetings at the New York Fed. [Stanley](Morgan)(Morgan Stanley) was hired by the Federal Reserve to advise on the AIG bailout. ### Sale of Dragon Systems to Lernout & Hauspie despite accounting issues In 2000, Goldman Sachs advised [Systems](Dragon)(Dragon NaturallySpeaking) on its sale to [& Hauspie](Lernout)(Lernout & Hauspie) of Belgium for $580 million in L&H stock. L&H later collapsed due to accounting fraud and its stock price declined significantly. Jim and Janet Baker, founders and together 50% owners of Dragon, filed a lawsuit against Goldman Sachs, alleging negligence, intentional and negligent misrepresentation, and breach of fiduciary duty since Goldman did not warn Dragon or the Bakers of the accounting problems of the acquirer, L&H. On January 23, 2013, a federal jury rejected the Bakers' claims and found Goldman Sachs not liable to the Bakers. ### Stock price manipulation Goldman Sachs was charged for repeatedly issuing research reports with extremely inflated financial projections for [Communications](Exodus)(Exodus Communications) and Goldman Sachs was accused of giving Exodus its highest stock rating even though Goldman knew Exodus did not deserve such a rating. On July 15, 2003, Goldman Sachs, [Brothers](Lehman)(Lehman Brothers) and [Stanley](Morgan)(Morgan Stanley) were sued for artificially inflating the stock price of RSL Communications by issuing untrue or materially misleading statements in research analyst reports, and paid $3,380,000 for settlement. Goldman Sachs is accused of asking for [bribes](kickback)(kickback (bribery)) from institutional clients who made large profits [flipping](flipping) stocks which Goldman had intentionally undervalued in [public offering](initial)(initial public offering)s it was underwriting. Documents [seal](under)(under seal) in a decade-long lawsuit concerning [eToys.com](eToys.com)'s [public offering](initial)(initial public offering) (IPO) in 1999 but released accidentally to the New York Times show that IPOs managed by Goldman were underpriced and that Goldman asked clients able to profit from the prices to increase business with it. The clients willingly complied with these demands because they understood it was necessary in order to participate in further such undervalued IPOs. Companies going public and their initial consumer stockholders are both defrauded by this practice. ### Use of offshore tax havens A 2016 report by [for Tax Justice](Citizens)(Citizens for Tax Justice) stated that "Goldman Sachs reports having 987 subsidiaries in offshore tax havens, 537 of which are in the [Islands](Cayman)(Cayman Islands), despite not operating a single legitimate office in that country, according to its own website. The group officially holds $28.6 billion offshore." The report also noted several other major U.S. banks and companies use the same tax-avoidance tactics. In 2008, Goldman Sachs had an effective tax rate of only 1%, down from 34% the year before, and its tax liability decreased to $14 million in 2008, compared to $6 billion in 2007. Critics have argued that the reduction in Goldman Sachs's tax rate was achieved by shifting its earnings to subsidiaries in low or no-tax nations, such as the Cayman Islands. ### Involvement in the European sovereign debt crisis [[Papademos 2011-11-11.jpg\|thumb\|upright\|Former Prime Minister of Greece Lucas Papademos](File:Lucas)] Goldman is being criticized for its involvement in the 2010 [sovereign debt crisis](European)(European sovereign debt crisis). Goldman Sachs is reported to have systematically helped the Greek government mask the true facts concerning its national debt between the years 1998 and 2009. In September 2009, Goldman Sachs, among others, created a special [default swap](credit)(credit default swap) (CDS) index to cover the high risk of Greece's national debt. The interest-rates of Greek national bonds soared, leading the Greek economy very close to bankruptcy in 2010 and 2011. Ties between Goldman Sachs and European leadership positions were another source of controversy. [Papademos](Lucas)(Lucas Papademos), Greece's former prime minister, ran the Central Bank of Greece at the time of the controversial derivatives deals with Goldman Sachs that enabled Greece to hide the size of its debt. [Christodoulou](Petros)(Petros Christodoulou), General Manager of the Greek [Debt Management Agency](Public)(Public Debt Management Agency (Greece)) is a former employee of Goldman Sachs. [Monti](Mario)(Mario Monti), Italy's former prime minister and finance minister, who headed the new government that took over after [Berlusconi](Silvio Berlusconi)'s resignation, is an international adviser to Goldman Sachs. [Issing](Otmar)(Otmar Issing), former board member of the Bundesbank and the Executive Board of the European Bank also advised Goldman Sachs. [Draghi](Mario)(Mario Draghi), head of the [Central Bank](European)(European Central Bank) and since 2021 prime minister of Italy, is the former managing director of Goldman Sachs International. [Borges](António)(António Borges (economist)), Head of the European Department of the [Monetary Fund](International)(International Monetary Fund) in 2010-2011 and responsible for most of enterprise [privatization](privatization)s in Portugal since 2011, is the former Vice Chairman of Goldman Sachs International. [Moedas](Carlos)(Carlos Moedas), a former Goldman Sachs employee, was the Secretary of State to the [Minister of Portugal](Prime)(Prime Minister of Portugal) and Director of ESAME, the agency created to monitor and control the implementation of the structural reforms agreed by the government of Portugal and the [troika](troika (triumvirate)) composed of the [Commission](European)(European Commission), the European Central Bank and the International Monetary Fund. [Sutherland](Peter)(Peter Sutherland), former Attorney General of Ireland was a non-executive director of Goldman Sachs International. ### Employees' views In March 2012, Greg Smith, then-head of Goldman Sachs U.S. equity derivatives sales business in [the Middle East and Africa](Europe,)(Europe, the Middle East and Africa) (EMEA), resigned his position via a critical letter printed as an [op-ed](op-ed) in [New York Times](The)(The New York Times). In the letter, he attacked Goldman Sachs CEO and Chairman Lloyd Blankfein for losing touch with the company's culture, which he described as "the secret sauce that made this place great and allowed us to earn our clients' trust for 143 years". Smith said that advising clients "to do what I believe is right for them" was becoming increasingly unpopular. Instead there was a "toxic and destructive" environment in which "the interests of the client continue to be sidelined", senior management described clients as "[muppets](Wikt:muppet)" and colleagues callously talked about "ripping their clients off". In reply, Goldman Sachs said that "we will only be successful if our clients are successful", claiming "this fundamental truth lies at the heart of how we conduct ourselves", and that "we don't think [comments](Smith's) reflect the way we run our business". Later that year, Smith published a book titled Why I left Goldman Sachs. According to research by [New York Times](The)(The New York Times) after the op-ed was printed, almost all the claims made in Smith's incendiary Op-Ed about Goldman Sachs turned out to be "curiously short" on evidence. The New York Times never issued a retraction or admitted to any error in judgment in initially publishing Smith's op-ed. [[Mandis photo.jpg\|thumb\|upright\|Steven Mandis](File:Steven)] In 2014, a book by former Goldman portfolio manager [George Mandis](Steven)(Steven George Mandis) was published entitled ''What Happened to Goldman Sachs: An Insider's Story of Organizational Drift and Its Unintended Consequences''. Mandis left in 2004 after working for the firm for 12 years. In an interview, Mandis said, "You read about Goldman Sachs, and it's either the bank is the best or the bank is the worst, this is not one of those books – things are never black or white." According to Mandis, there was an "organizational drift" in the company's evolution. Mandis also wrote and defended a PhD dissertation about Goldman at [University](Columbia)(Columbia University). ### Gender bias lawsuit In 2010, two former female employees filed a lawsuit against Goldman Sachs for gender discrimination. Cristina Chen-Oster and Shanna Orlich claimed that the firm fostered an "uncorrected culture of sexual harassment and assault" causing women to either be "sexualized or ignored". The suit cited both cultural and pay discrimination including frequent client trips to strip clubs, client golf outings that excluded female employees, and the fact that female vice presidents made 21% less than their male counterparts. In March 2018, the judge ruled that the female employees may pursue their claims as a group in a class-action lawsuit against Goldman on gender bias, but the class action excludes their claim on sexual harassment. In May 2023, Goldman Sachs agreed to pay $215m (£170.5m) to resolve claims made by nearly 2800 female staff. This settlement was made over accusations of the company’s discriminatory practices, allegedly providing women with lower salaries and lesser opportunities. Government records have revealed that female employees at Goldman Sachs earned 20% less than their male counterparts, which is significantly higher than the 9.4% national gender pay gap. The settlement was reached a month before the scheduled trial of the class-action lawsuit. ### Advice to short California bonds underwritten by the firm On November 11, 2008, the [Angeles Times](Los)(Los Angeles Times) reported that Goldman Sachs had both earned $25 million from underwriting California bonds, and advised other clients to [short](Short (finance)) those bonds. While some journalists criticized the contradictory actions, others pointed out that the opposite investment decisions undertaken by the underwriting side and the trading side of the bank were normal and in line with regulations regarding [walls](Chinese)(Chinese wall#Finance), and in fact critics had demanded increased independence between underwriting and trading. ### Personnel "revolving-door" with U.S. government Several people on the [of former employees of Goldman Sachs](list)(list of former employees of Goldman Sachs) [later worked in government positions](have)(Revolving door (politics)). Notable examples include [Prime Minister](British)(British Prime Minister) [Sunak](Rishi)(Rishi Sunak), former U.S. Secretaries of the Treasury [Mnuchin](Steven)(Steven Mnuchin), [Rubin](Robert)(Robert Rubin), and [Paulson](Henry)(Henry Paulson); U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission Chairman [Gensler](Gary)(Gary Gensler); former Under Secretary of State [C. Whitehead](John)(John C. Whitehead); former chief economic advisor [Cohn](Gary)(Gary Cohn (investment banker)); [of New Jersey](Governor)(Governor of New Jersey) [Murphy](Phil)(Phil Murphy) and former [of New Jersey](Governor)(Governor of New Jersey) [Corzine](Jon)(Jon Corzine); former [Minister of Italy](Prime)(Prime Minister of Italy) [Monti](Mario)(Mario Monti); former [Central Bank](European)(European Central Bank) President and former Prime Minister of Italy [Draghi](Mario)(Mario Draghi); former [of Canada](Bank)(Bank of Canada) and Bank of England Governor [Carney](Mark)(Mark Carney); and the former [Minister of Australia](Prime)(Prime Minister of Australia) [Turnbull](Malcolm)(Malcolm Turnbull). In addition, former Goldman employees have headed the [York Stock Exchange](New)(New York Stock Exchange), the [Stock Exchange Group](London)(London Stock Exchange Group), the [Bank](World)(World Bank), and competing banks such as [Citigroup](Citigroup) and [Lynch](Merrill)(Merrill Lynch). During 2008 Goldman Sachs received criticism for an apparent [door](revolving)(Revolving door (politics)) relationship, in which its employees and consultants moved in and out of high-level U.S. Government positions, creating the potential for conflicts of interest and leading to the moniker "Government Sachs". Former Treasury Secretary [Paulson](Henry)(Henry Paulson) and former [States Senator](United)(United States Senator) and former [of New Jersey](Governor)(Governor of New Jersey) [Corzine](Jon)(Jon Corzine) are former CEOs of Goldman Sachs along with current governor Murphy. Additional controversy attended the selection of former Goldman Sachs [lobbyist](lobbyist) [A. Patterson](Mark)(Mark A. Patterson) as chief of staff to Treasury Secretary [Geithner](Timothy)(Timothy Geithner), despite President [Obama](Barack)(Barack Obama)'s campaign promise that he would limit the influence of lobbyists in his administration. In February 2011, the [Examiner](Washington)(Washington Examiner) reported that Goldman Sachs was "the company from which Obama raised the most money in 2008", and that its "CEO [Blankfein](Lloyd)(Lloyd Blankfein) has visited the White House 10 times". ### Insider trading cases In 1986, Goldman Sachs investment banker David Brown pleaded guilty to charges of passing inside information on a takeover deal that eventually was provided to [Boesky](Ivan)(Ivan Boesky). In 1989, [M. Freeman](Robert)(Robert M. Freeman), who was a senior Partner, who was the Head of Risk Arbitrage, and who was a protégé of [Rubin](Robert)(Robert Rubin), pleaded guilty to [trading](insider)(insider trading), for his own account and for the firm's account. #### Rajat Gupta insider trading case [[Kumar Gupta - World Economic Forum Annual Meeting Davos 2010 crop.jpg\|thumb\|Rajat Gupta](File:Rajat)] In April 2010, Goldman director [Gupta](Rajat)(Rajat Gupta) was named in an insider-trading case. It was said Gupta had "tipped off a hedge-fund billionaire", [Rajaratnam](Raj)(Raj Rajaratnam) of [Group](Galleon)(Galleon Group), about the $5 billion Berkshire Hathaway investment in Goldman during the [crisis of 2007-2008](financial)(Financial crisis of 2007–2008#Impacts on financial institutions). According to the report, Gupta had told Goldman the month before his involvement became public that he wouldn't seek re-election as a director.James, Frank, ["Goldman Sachs Director Tied To Insider-Trading Scandal"](https://www.npr.org/blogs/thetwo-way/2010/04/goldman_sachs_director_linked.html) , [NPR](NPR), April 23, 2010. Retrieved March 1, 2011. In early 2011, with the delayed Rajaratnam criminal trial about to begin, the [States Securities and Exchange Commission](United)(United States Securities and Exchange Commission) (SEC) announced civil charges against Gupta covering the Berkshire investment as well as confidential quarterly earnings information from Goldman and [& Gamble](Procter)(Procter & Gamble) (P&G). Gupta was a board member at P&G until voluntarily resigning the day of the SEC announcement after the charges were announced. "Gupta was an investor in some of the Galleon hedge funds when he passed the information along, and he had other business interests with Rajaratnam that were potentially lucrative... Rajaratnam used the information from Gupta to illegally profit in hedge fund trades... The information on Goldman made Rajaratnam's funds $17 million richer... The Procter & Gamble data created illegal profits of more than $570,000 for Galleon funds managed by others, the SEC said." Gupta was said to have "vigorously denied the SEC accusations". He was also a board member of [Corporation](AMR)(AMR Corporation). Gupta was convicted in June 2012 on [trading](insider)(insider trading) charges stemming from [Group case](Galleon)(Raj Rajaratnam/Galleon Group, Anil Kumar, and Rajat Gupta insider trading cases) on [criminal felony counts](four)(#Insider trading conviction) of [conspiracy](conspiracy (crime)) and [fraud](securities)(securities fraud). He was sentenced in October 2012 to two years in prison, an additional year on supervised release and ordered to pay $5 million in fines. ### Abacus synthetic CDOs and SEC lawsuit Unlike many investors and investment bankers, Goldman Sachs anticipated the [mortgage crisis](subprime)(subprime mortgage crisis) that developed in 2007-8. (This article describes the intricate links between Goldman Sachs trader, Jonathan M. Egol, synthetic collateralized debt obligations, or C.D.O., ABACUS, and asset-backed securities index (ABX)) Some of its traders became "bearish" on the housing boom beginning in 2004 and developed mortgage-related securities, originally intended to protect Goldman from investment losses in the housing market. In late 2006, Goldman management changed the firm's overall stance on the mortgage market from positive to negative. As the market began its downturn, Goldman "created even more of these securities", no longer just hedging or satisfying investor orders but, according to business journalist Gretchen Morgenson, "enabling it to pocket huge profits" from the mortgage defaults and that Goldman "used the C.D.O.'s to place unusually large negative bets that were not mainly for hedging purposes". Authors Bethany McLean and Joe Nocera stated that "the firm's later insistence that it was merely a 'market maker' in these transactions – implying that it had no stake in the economic performance of the securities it was selling to clients – became less true over time"- The investments were called [CDO](synthetic)(synthetic CDO)s because unlike regular [debt obligation](collateralized)(collateralized debt obligation)s, the principal and interest they paid out came not from mortgages or other loans, but from premiums to pay for insurance against mortgage defaults – the insurance known as "[default swap](credit)(credit default swap)s". Goldman and some other hedge funds held a "short" position in the securities, paying the premiums, while the investors (insurance companies, pension funds, etc.) receiving the premiums were the "long" position. The longs were responsible for paying the insurance "claim" to Goldman and any other shorts if the mortgages or other loans defaulted. Through April 2007, Goldman issued over 20 CDOs in its "Abacus" series worth a total of $10.9 billion. All together Goldman packaged, sold, and shorted a total of 47 synthetic CDOs, with an aggregate face value of $66 billion between July 1, 2004, and May 31, 2007.FCIR p. 145 But while Goldman was praised for its foresight, some argued its bets against the securities it created gave it a vested interest in their failure. These securities performed very poorly for the long investors and by April 2010, at least US$5 billion worth of the securities either carried "junk" ratings or had defaulted. One CDO examined by critics which Goldman bet against but also sold to investors, was the $800 million Hudson Mezzanine CDO issued in 2006. In the Senate Permanent Subcommittee hearings, Goldman executives stated that the company was trying to remove subprime securities from its books. Unable to sell them directly, it included them in the underlying securities of the CDO and took the short side, but critics McLean and Nocera complained the CDO prospectus did not explain this but described its contents as "'assets sourced from the Street', making it sound as though Goldman randomly selected the securities, instead of specifically creating a hedge for its own book". The CDO did not perform well, and by March 2008 – just 18 months after its issue – so many borrowers had defaulted that holders of the security paid out "about US$310 million to Goldman and others who had bet against it". Goldman's head of European fixed-income sales lamented in an e-mail made public by the Senate Permanent Subcommittee on Investigations, the "real bad feeling across European sales about some of the trades we did with clients" who had invested in the CDO. "The damage this has done to our franchise is very significant." #### 2010 SEC civil fraud lawsuit In April 2010, the [Securities and Exchange Commission](U.S.)(U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission) (SEC) charged Goldman Sachs and one of its vice-presidents, Fabrice Tourre, with securities fraud. The SEC alleged that Goldman had told buyers of a [CDO](synthetic)(synthetic CDO), a type of investment, that the underlying assets in the investment had been picked by an independent CDO manager, ACA Management. In fact, [& Co.](Paulson)(Paulson & Co.) a [fund](hedge)(hedge fund) that wanted to bet against the investment had played a "significant role" in the selection,[Financial Crisis Inquiry Report](http://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/GPO-FCIC/pdf/GPO-FCIC.pdf) , by the Financial Crisis Inquiry Commission, 2011, p.192 and the package of securities turned out to become "one of the worst-performing mortgage deals of the housing crisis" because "less than a year after the deal was completed, 100% of the bonds selected for Abacus had been downgraded". The particular synthetic CDO that the SEC's 2010 fraud suit charged Goldman with misleading investors with was called Abacus 2007-AC1. Unlike many of the Abacus securities, 2007-AC1 did not have Goldman Sachs as a short seller, in fact, Goldman Sachs lost money on the deal. That position was taken by the customer ([Paulson](John)(John Paulson)) who hired Goldman to issue the security (according to the SEC's complaint). Paulson and his employees selected 90 BBB-rated mortgage bonds that they believed were most likely to lose value and so the best bet to buy insurance for. Paulson and the manager of the CDO, ACA Management, worked on the portfolio of 90 bonds to be insured (ACA allegedly unaware of Paulson's short position), coming to an agreement in late February 2007. Paulson paid Goldman approximately US$15 million for its work in the deal.The $15 million has been described as "rent" for the Abacus name. Paulson ultimately made a US$1 billion profit from the short investments, the profits coming from the losses of the investors and their insurers. These were primarily [Deutsche Industriebank](IKB)(IKB Deutsche Industriebank) (US$150 million loss), and the investors and insurers of another US$900 million – ACA Financial Guaranty Corp, [AMRO](ABN)(ABN AMRO), and the [Bank of Scotland](Royal)(Royal Bank of Scotland). The SEC alleged that Goldman "materially misstated and omitted facts in disclosure documents" about the financial security, including the fact that it had "permitted a client that was betting against the mortgage market [hedge fund manager Paulson & Co.](the) to heavily influence which mortgage securities to include in an investment portfolio, while telling other investors that the securities were selected by an independent, objective third party", ACA Management. The SEC further alleged that "Tourre also misled ACA into believing ... that Paulson's interests in the collateral section [sic] process were aligned with ACA's, when, in reality, Paulson's interests were sharply conflicting". In reply, Goldman issued a statement saying the SEC's charges were "unfounded in law and fact", and in later statements maintained that it had not structured the portfolio to lose money, that it had provided extensive disclosure to the long investors in the CDO, that it had lost $90 million, that ACA selected the portfolio without Goldman suggesting Paulson was to be a long investor, that it did not disclose the identities of a buyer to a seller, and vice versa, as it was not normal business practice for a market maker, and that ACA was itself the largest purchaser of the Abacus pool, investing US$951 million. Goldman also stated that any investor losses resulted from the overall negative performance of the entire sector, rather than from a particular security in the CDO. While some journalists and analysts have called these statements misleading, others believed Goldman's defense was strong and the SEC's case was weak. Some experts on securities law such as [University](Duke)(Duke University School of Law) law professor James Cox, believed the suit had merit because Goldman was aware of the relevance of Paulson's involvement and took steps to downplay it. Others, including [State University Law School](Wayne)(Wayne State University Law School) law professor Peter Henning, noted that the major purchasers were sophisticated investors capable of accurately assessing the risks involved, even without knowledge of the part played by Paulson. Critics of Goldman Sachs point out that Paulson went to Goldman Sachs after being turned down for ethical reasons by another investment bank, [Stearns](Bear)(Bear Stearns) who he had asked to build a CDO. Ira Wagner, the head of Bear Stearns's CDO Group in 2007, told the [Crisis Inquiry Commission](Financial)(Financial Crisis Inquiry Commission) that having the short investors select the referenced collateral as a serious conflict of interest and the structure of the deal Paulson was proposing encouraged Paulson to pick the worst assets.Federal Crisis Inquiry Report, p.193 Describing Bear Stearns's reasoning, one author compared the deal to "a bettor asking a football owner to bench a star quarterback to improve the odds of his wager against the team". Goldman claimed it lost $90 million, critics maintain it was simply unable (not due to a lack of trying) to shed its position before the underlying securities defaulted. Critics also question whether the deal was ethical, even if it was legal. Goldman had considerable advantages over its long customers. According to McLean and Nocera, there were dozens of securities being insured in the CDO – for example, another ABACUScalled ABACUS 2005-3 – had 130 credits from several different mortgage originators, commercial mortgage-backed securities, debt from Sallie Mae, credit cards, etc. Goldman bought mortgages to create securities, which made it "far more likely than its clients to have early knowledge" that the [bubble](housing)(housing bubble) was deflating and the mortgage originators like [Century](New)(New Century) had begun to falsify documentation and sell mortgages to customers unable to pay the mortgage-holders back – which is why the fine print on at least one ABACUS prospectus warned long investors that the 'Protection Buyer' (Goldman) 'may have information, including material, non-public information' which it was not providing to the long investors.McLean and Nocera, All the Devils Are Here, 2010, p.272 According to an article in the [Chronicle](Houston)(Houston Chronicle), critics also worried that Abacus might undermine the position of the United States "as a safe harbor for the world's investors" and that "The involvement of European interests as losers in this allegedly fixed game has attracted the attention of that region's political leaders, most notably British Prime Minister Gordon Brown, who has accused Goldman of "moral bankruptcy". This is, in short, a big global story ... Is what Goldman Sachs did with its Abacus investment vehicle illegal? That will be for the courts to decide, ... But it doesn't take a judge and jury to conclude that, legalities aside, this was just wrong." On July 15, 2010, Goldman settled out of court, agreeing to pay the SEC and investors US$550 million, including $300 million to the U.S. government and $250 million to investors, one of the largest penalties ever paid by a Wall Street firm. In August 2013, Tourre was found liable on 6 of 7 counts by a federal jury. The company did not admit or deny wrongdoing, but did admit that its marketing materials for the investment "contained incomplete information", and agreed to change some of its business practices regarding mortgage investments. #### Tourre defense of ABACUS lawsuit The 2010 Goldman settlement did not cover charges against Goldman vice president and salesman for ABACUS, Fabrice Tourre. Tourre unsuccessfully sought a dismissal of the suit, which then went to trial in 2013. On August 1, a federal jury found Tourre liable on six of seven counts, including that he misled investors about the mortgage deal. He was found not liable on the charge that he had deliberately made an untrue or misleading statement. ### Alleged commodity price manipulation A provision of the 1999 financial deregulation law, the [Act](Gramm-Leach-Bliley)(Gramm-Leach-Bliley Act), allows commercial banks to enter into any business activity that is "complementary to a financial activity and does not pose a substantial risk to the safety or soundness of depository institutions or the financial system generally". In the years since the laws passing, Goldman Sachs and other investment banks (Morgan Stanley, JPMorgan Chase) have branched out into ownership of a wide variety of enterprises including raw materials, such as food products, zinc, copper, tin, nickel and, aluminum. Some critics, such as Matt Taibbi, believe that allowing a company to both "control the supply of crucial physical commodities, and also trade in the financial products that might be related to those markets", is "akin to letting casino owners who take book on NFL games during the week also coach all the teams on Sundays". ### Unauthorized trades by Goldman Sachs trader Matthew Marshall Taylor Former Goldman Sachs trader Matthew Marshall Taylor was convicted of hiding $8.3 billion worth of unauthorized trades involving derivatives on the [500](S&P)(S&P 500) index by making "multiple false entries" into a Goldman trading system, with the objective of protecting his year-end bonus of $1.5 million. When Goldman Sachs management uncovered the trades, Taylor was immediately fired. The trades cost the company $118 million, which Taylor was ordered to repay. In 2013, Taylor plead guilty to charges and was sentenced to 9 months in prison in addition to the monetary damages. #### Goldman Sachs Commodity Index and the 2005-2008 Food Bubble Frederick Kaufman, a contributing editor of ''[Magazine](Harper's)(Harper's Magazine)'', argued in a 2010 article that Goldman's creation of the Goldman Sachs Commodity Index (now the [GSCI](S&P)(S&P GSCI)) helped passive investors such as pension funds, mutual funds and others engage in food price [speculation](speculation) by betting on financial products based on the commodity index. These financial products disturbed the normal relationship between [and demand](supply)(supply and demand), making prices more volatile and defeating the price stabilization mechanism of the futures exchange. A June 2010 article in [Economist](The)(The Economist) defended commodity investors and oil index-tracking funds, citing a report by the [for Economic Co-operation and Development](Organisation)(Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development) that found that commodities without futures markets and ignored by index-tracking funds also saw price rises during the period. #### Aluminum price and supply In a July 2013 article, [Kocieniewski](David)(David Kocieniewski), a journalist with [New York Times](The)(The New York Times) accused Goldman Sachs and other Wall Street firms of "capitalizing on loosened federal regulations" to manipulate "a variety of commodities markets", particularly aluminum, citing "financial records, regulatory documents, and interviews with people involved in the activities". After Goldman Sachs purchased aluminum warehousing company Metro International in 2010, the wait of warehouse customers for delivery of aluminum supplies to their factories – to make beer cans, home siding, and other products – went from an average of 6 weeks to more than 16 months, "according to industry records". "Aluminum industry analysts say that the lengthy delays at Metro International after Goldman took over are a major reason the premium on all aluminum sold in the spot market has doubled since 2010." The price increase has cost "American consumers more than $5 billion" from 2010 to 2013 according to former industry executives, analysts and consultants. The cause of this was alleged to be Goldman's ownership of a quarter of the national supply of aluminum – a million and a half tons – in network of 27 Metro International warehouses Goldman owns in Detroit, Michigan. To avoid hoarding and price manipulation, the London Metal Exchange requires that "at least 3,000 tons of that metal must be moved out each day". Goldman has dealt with this requirement by moving the aluminum – not to factories, but "from one warehouse to another" – according to the Times. In August 2013, Goldman Sachs was subpoenaed by the federal [Futures Trading Commission](Commodity)(Commodity Futures Trading Commission) as part of an investigation into complaints that Goldman-owned metals warehouses had "intentionally created delays and inflated the price of aluminum". In December 2013, it was announced that 26 cases accusing Goldman Sachs and JPMorgan Chase, the two investment banks' warehousing businesses, and the London Metal Exchange in various combinations – of violating U.S. anti-trust laws, would be assigned to [States District Court for the Southern District of New York](United)(United States District Court for the Southern District of New York) Judge [B. Forrest](Katherine)(Katherine B. Forrest) in [Manhattan](Manhattan). According to Lydia DePillis of Wonkblog, when Goldman bought the warehouses it "started paying traders extra to bring their metal" to Goldman's warehouses "rather than anywhere else. The longer it stays, the more rent Goldman can charge, which is then passed on to the buyer in the form of a premium." The effect is "amplified" by another company, [Glencore](Glencore), which is "doing the same thing in its warehouse in [Vlissingen](Vlissingen)". Michael DuVally, a spokesman for Goldman Sachs, said the cases are without merit. Columnist Matt Levine, writing for [News](Bloomberg)(Bloomberg News), described the conspiracy theory as "pretty silly", but said that it was a rational outcome of an irrational and inefficient system which Goldman Sachs may not have properly understood. In December 2014, Goldman Sachs sold its aluminum warehousing business to Ruben Brothers. #### Oil futures speculation Investment banks, including Goldman, have also been accused of driving up the price of [gasoline](gasoline) by speculating on the oil [exchange](futures)(futures exchange). In August 2011, "confidential documents" were leaked "detailing the positions" in the oil futures market of several investment banks, including Goldman Sachs, [Stanley](Morgan)(Morgan Stanley), [Chase](JPMorgan)(JPMorgan Chase), [Bank](Deutsche)(Deutsche Bank), and [Barclays](Barclays), just before the peak in gasoline prices in the summer of 2008. The presence of positions by investment banks on the market was significant for the fact that the banks have deep pockets, and so the means to significantly sway prices, and unlike traditional market participants, neither produced oil nor ever took physical possession of actual barrels of oil they bought and sold. Journalist Kate Sheppard of [Jones](Mother)(Mother Jones (magazine)) called it "a development that many say is artificially raising the price of crude". However, another source stated that, "Just before crude oil hit its record high in mid-2008, 15 of the world's largest banks were betting that prices would fall, according to private trading data..." In April 2011, a couple of observers – Brad Johnson of the blog Climate Progress, founded by [J. Romm](Joseph)(Joseph J. Romm), and Alain Sherter of [MoneyWatch](CBS)(CBS MoneyWatch) – noted that Goldman Sachs was warning investors of a dangerous spike in the [of oil](price)(price of oil). Climate Progress quoted Goldman as warning "that the price of oil has grown out of control due to excessive speculation" in petroleum futures, and that "net speculative positions are four times as high as in June 2008", when the price of oil peaked. It stated that, "Goldman Sachs told its clients that it believed speculators like itself had artificially driven the price of oil at least $20 higher than supply and demand dictate." Sherter noted that Goldman's concern over speculation did not prevent it (along with other speculators) from lobbying against regulations by the Commodity Futures Trading Commission to establish "position limits", which would cap the number of futures contracts a trader can hold, and thus prevent speculation. According to [P. Kennedy II](Joseph)(Joseph P. Kennedy II), by 2012, prices on the oil commodity market had become influenced by "hedge funds and bankers" pumping "billions of purely speculative dollars into commodity exchanges, chasing a limited number of barrels and driving up the price". The problem started, according to Kennedy, in 1991, when just a few years after oil futures began trading on the [York Mercantile Exchange](New)(New York Mercantile Exchange), Goldman Sachs made an argument to the [Futures Trading Commission](Commodity)(Commodity Futures Trading Commission) that Wall Street dealers who put down big bets on oil should be considered legitimate hedgers and granted an exemption from regulatory limits on their trades. The commission granted an exemption that ultimately allowed Goldman Sachs to process billions of dollars in speculative oil trades. Other exemptions followed, and "by 2008, eight investment banks accounted for 32% of the total oil futures market". ### Danish utility sale (2014) Goldman Sachs's purchase of an 18% stake in state-owned [Energy](DONG)(DONG Energy) (now [A/S](Ørsted)(Ørsted (company))) – Denmark's largest electric utility – set off a "political crisis" in Denmark. The sale – approved on January 30, 2014 – sparked protest in the form of the resignation of six cabinet ministers and the withdrawal of a party ([People's Party](Socialist)(Socialist People's Party (Denmark))) from Prime Minister [Thorning-Schmidt](Helle)(Helle Thorning-Schmidt)'s leftist governing coalition. According to [Businessweek](Bloomberg)(Bloomberg Businessweek), "the role of Goldman in the deal struck a nerve with the Danish public, which is still suffering from the after-effects of the global financial crisis". Protesters in [Copenhagen](Copenhagen) gathered around a banner "with a drawing of a vampire squid – the description of Goldman used by Matt Taibbi in Rolling Stone in 2009". Opponents expressed concern that Goldman would have some say in DONG's management, and that Goldman planned to manage its investment through "subsidiaries in Luxembourg, the Cayman Islands, and Delaware, which made Danes suspicious that the bank would shift earnings to tax havens". Goldman purchased the 18% stake in 2014 for 8 billion kroner and sold just over a 6% stake in 2017 for 6.5 billion kroner. ### Libya investment losses (2013) In January 2014, the [Investment Authority](Libyan)(Libyan Investment Authority) (LIA) filed a lawsuit against Goldman for $1 billion after the firm lost 98% of the $1.3 billion the LIA invested with Goldman in 2007. Goldman made more than $1 billion in derivatives trades with the LIA funds, which lost almost all their value but earned Goldman $350 million in profit. In court documents the firm has admitted to having used small gifts, occasional travel and an internship in order to gain access to Libya's sovereign wealth fund. In August 2014, Goldman dropped a bid to end the suit in a London court. In October 2016, after trial, the court entered a judgment in Goldman Sachs's favor. ### Improper securities lending practices In January 2016, Goldman Sachs agreed to pay $15 million after it was found that a team of Goldman employees, between 2008 and 2013, "granted locates" by arranging to borrow securities to settle short sales without adequate review. However, U.S. regulation for short selling requires brokerages to enter an agreement to borrow securities on behalf of customers or to have "reasonable grounds" for believing that it can borrow the security before entering contracts to complete the sale. Additionally, Goldman Sachs gave "incomplete and unclear" responses to information requests from SEC compliance examiners in 2013 about the firm's securities lending practices. ### Conspiring to allow $1 billion in bribes to obtain business from 1MDB Malaysian sovereign wealth fund (2015-2020) In July 2009, [Minister of Malaysia](Prime)(Prime Minister of Malaysia) [Razak](Najib)(Najib Razak) set up a sovereign wealth fund, [Development Berhad](1Malaysia)(1Malaysia Development Berhad) (1MDB). In 2015, U.S. prosecutors began examining the role of Goldman in helping 1MDB raise more than $6 billion. The 1MDB bond deals were said to generate "above-average" commissions and fees for Goldman amounting close to $600 million or more than 9% of the proceeds. Beginning in 2016, Goldman was investigated for a $3 billion bond created by the bank for 1MDB. U.S. Prosecutors investigated whether the bank failed to comply with the [Secrecy Act](Bank)(Bank Secrecy Act), which requires financial institutions to report suspicious transactions to regulators. In November 2018, Goldman's former chairman of Southeast Asia, Tim Leissner, admitted that more than US$200 million in proceeds from 1MDB bonds went into the accounts controlled by him and a relative, bypassing the company's compliance rules. Leissner and another former Goldman banker, Roger Ng, together with Malaysian financier [Low](Jho)(Jho Low) were charged with money laundering. Goldman chief executive David Solomon felt "horrible" about the ex-staff breaking the law by going around the policies and apologized to Malaysians for Leissner's role in the 1MDB scandal. On December 17, 2018, Malaysia filed criminal charges against subsidiaries of Goldman and their former employees Leissner and Ng, alleging their commission of misleading statements in order to dishonestly misappropriate US$2.7 billion from the proceeds of 1MDB bonds arranged and underwritten by Goldman in 2012 and 2013. The Star Online\|date=December 17, 2018\|website=www.thestar.com.my\|access-date=December 17, 2018\|archive-date=December 17, 2018\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181217120523/https://www.thestar.com.my/news/nation/2018/12/17/agc-files-criminal-charges-against-subsidiaries-of-goldman-sachs-and-employees/ \| url-status=live}} On July 24, 2020, it was announced that the Malaysian government would receive US$2.5 billion in cash from Goldman Sachs, and a guarantee from the bank they would also return US$1.4 billion in assets linked to 1MDB bonds. Put together this was substantially less than the US$7.5 billion that had been previously demanded by the Malaysian finance minister. At the same time, the Malaysian government agreed to drop all criminal charges against the bank and that it would cease legal proceedings against 17 current and former Goldman directors. Some commentators argued that Goldman secured a very favorable deal. In October 2020, the Malaysian subsidiary of Goldman Sachs admitted to mistakes in auditing its subsidiary and agreed to pay more then $2.9 billion in fines. ### Purchase Petróleos de Venezuela bonds (2017) In May 2017, Goldman Sachs purchased $2.8 billion of PDVSA 2022 bonds from the [Bank of Venezuela](Central)(Central Bank of Venezuela) during the [Venezuelan protests](2017)(2017 Venezuelan protests), when the country was suffering from malnutrition and hyperinflation. In its original statement, Goldman stated that "We recognize that the situation is complex and evolving and that Venezuela is in crisis. We agree that life there has to get better, and we made the investment in part because we believe it will.". Venezuelan politicians and protesters in New York opposed to Maduro accused the bank of being of complicit of human rights abuses under the government and declared that the operation would fuel hunger in Venezuela by depriving the government of foreign exchange to import food, leading the securities to be dubbed "hunger bonds." The opposition-led [Assembly](National)(National Assembly (Venezuela)) voted to ask the [Congress](U.S.)(United States Congress) to investigate the deal, which they called "immoral, opaque, and hypocritical given the socialist government's anti-Wall Street rhetoric". In a public letter to the bank's chief executive, [Blankfein](Lloyd)(Lloyd Blankfein), the National Assembly president [Borges](Julio)(Julio Borges) said that "Goldman Sachs's financial lifeline to the regime will serve to strengthen the brutal repression unleashed against the hundreds of thousands of Venezuelans peacefully protesting for political change in the country." Sheila Patel, CEO of Goldman Sachs Asset Management's international division, said in an interview that the incident "turned into a teachable moment within the firm" and "helped sharpen its focus on investing with an eye toward environmental, social and governance policies". ### Work culture In 2021, Goldman faced scrutiny after a group of first year bankers told managers that they are working 100 hours a week with 5 hours sleep at night. They also said that they have been constantly experiencing workplace abuse that has seriously affected their mental health. In May 2022, Goldman Sachs announced that they would be implementing a more flexible vacation policy to help their employees 'rest and recharge' where they give senior bankers unlimited vacation days, and all employees are expected to have a minimum of 15 days vacation every year. ## Political contributions Goldman Sachs employees have donated to both major American political parties, as well as candidates and [PAC](super)(super PAC)s belonging to both parties. According to [OpenSecrets](OpenSecrets), Goldman Sachs and its employees collectively gave $4.7 million in the [elections](2014)(2014 United States elections) to various candidates, [PAC](leadership)(leadership PAC)s, political parties, [group](527)(527 group)s, and outside spending entities.[Goldman Sachs: Profile for 2014 Election Cycle](https://www.opensecrets.org/orgs/summary.php?id=d000000085) , [OpenSecrets](OpenSecrets). In 2010, the [and Exchange Commission](Securities)(Securities and Exchange Commission) issued regulations that limit asset managers' donations to state and local officials, and prohibit certain top-level employees from donating to such officials.Sara Sjolin, [Why Goldman Sachs staff can donate to Hillary Clinton but not Donald Trump](http://www.marketwatch.com/story/goldman-sachs-bans-top-staff-from-donating-to-trump-reports-2016-09-07-91031857) , MarketWatch (September 7, 2016). This SEC regulation is an anti-"pay-to-play" measure, intended to avoid the creation of a [of interest](conflict)(conflict of interest), or the appearance of a conflict of interest, as Goldman Sachs has business in managing state [fund](pension)(pension fund)s and municipal debt. In 2016, Goldman Sachs's compliance department barred the firm's 450 partners (its most senior employees) from making donations to state or local officials, as well as "any federal candidate who is a sitting state or local official". One effect of this rule was to bar Goldman partners from directly donating to [Trump](Donald)(Donald Trump)'s [campaign](presidential)(Donald Trump 2016 presidential campaign), since Trump's running mate, [Pence](Mike)(Mike Pence), was the sitting [of Indiana](governor)(governor of Indiana). Donations to [Clinton](Hillary)(Hillary Clinton)'s [campaign](presidential)(Hillary Clinton 2016 presidential campaign) were not barred by the policy, since neither Clinton nor her running mate [Kaine](Tim)(Tim Kaine) was a sitting state or local official. In the 2016 election cycle, Goldman employees were reported () to have donated $371,245 to the [National Committee](Republican)(Republican National Committee) and $301,119 to the [Clinton presidential campaign](Hillary)(Hillary Clinton 2016 presidential campaign). ## Management ### Officers and directors Non-employee members of the [of directors](board)(board of directors) of the company as of 2022 are [Michele Burns](M.)(M. Michele Burns), [Faust](Drew)(Drew Faust), Mark Flaherty, Kimberley Harris, [Johnson](Kevin)(Kevin Johnson (businessman)), [J. Kullman](Ellen)(Ellen J. Kullman), [Mittal](Lakshmi)(Lakshmi Mittal), [Ogunlesi](Adebayo)(Adebayo Ogunlesi), [Oppenheimer](Peter)(Peter Oppenheimer), [Tighe](Jan)(Jan E. Tighe), [Uhl](Jessica)(Jessica Uhl), [Viniar](David)(David Viniar), and Mark Winkelman. Stock Price & Latest News Reuters \|url=https://www.reuters.com/markets/companies/GS/ \|access-date=2023-03-14 \|website=www.reuters.com \|archive-date=March 14, 2023 \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230314153341/https://www.reuters.com/markets/companies/GS/ \|url-status=live }} Non-employee directors receive annual compensation of $450,000-$475,000. The company's officers are listed on its website as follows: ### List of chairmen and CEOs # [Goldman](Marcus)(Marcus Goldman) (1869–1894) # [Sachs](Samuel)(Samuel Sachs) (1894–1928) # [Catchings](Waddill)(Waddill Catchings) (1928–1930) # [Weinberg](Sidney)(Sidney Weinberg) (1930–1969) # [Levy](Gus)(Gus Levy) (1969–1976) # [C. Whitehead](John)(John C. Whitehead) and [L. Weinberg](John)(John L. Weinberg) (1976–1985) # [L. Weinberg](John)(John L. Weinberg) (1985–1990) # [Rubin](Robert)(Robert Rubin) (1990–1992) # [Friedman](Stephen)(Stephen Friedman (PFIAB)) (1992–1994) # [Corzine](Jon)(Jon Corzine) (1994–1998) # [Paulson](Henry)(Henry Paulson) (1999–2006) # [Blankfein](Lloyd)(Lloyd Blankfein) (2006–2018); Senior Chairman (2019–present) # [M. Solomon](David)(David M. Solomon) (2018–present) ## Goldman Sachs research papers The following are notable Goldman Sachs research papers: * Global Economics Paper No: 93 (South Africa Growth and Unemployment: A Ten-Year Outlook): Makes economic projections for [Africa](South)(South Africa) for the next 10 years. Published on May 13, 2003. * Global Economics Paper No: 99 (Dreaming With BRICs: The Path to 2050): Introduced the [BRIC](BRIC) concept, which became highly popularized in the media and in economic research from this point on. It also made economic projections for 2050 for the [G7](G7) and South Africa as well. These were the first long-term economic projections covering the GDP of numerous countries. Published on October 1, 2003. * Global Economics Paper No: 134 (How Solid are the BRICs): Introduced the [Eleven](Next)(Jim O'Neill, Baron O'Neill of Gatley#Next Eleven) concept. Published on December 1, 2005. * Global Economics Paper No: 173 (New EU Member States – A Fifth BRIC?): Makes 2050 economic projections for the new [EU](European Union) member states as a whole. Published on September 26, 2008. * Global Economics Paper No: 188 (A United Korea; Reassessing North Korea Risks (Part I)): Makes 2050 economic projections for North Korea in the hypothetical event that North Korea makes large free-market reforms right now. Published on September 21, 2009. * The Olympics and Economics 2012: Makes projections for the number of gold medals and told Olympic medals that each country wins at the [Olympics](2012)(2012 Olympics) using economic data and previous Olympic data. Published in 2012. ## See also * [of former employees of Goldman Sachs](List)(List of former employees of Goldman Sachs) ## References ## Further reading * * [William D.](Cohan,)(William D. Cohan) (2011). [and Power: How Goldman Sachs Came to Rule the World](Money)(Money and Power). * * * * * * * ## External links * * Archived at [Ghostarchive](https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211211/PXgUea6JVcI) and the [Wayback Machine](https://web.archive.org/web/20190503134313/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PXgUea6JVcI&gl=US&hl=en): [ ](Category:Goldman Sachs) [listed on the New York Stock Exchange](Category:Companies)(Category:Companies listed on the New York Stock Exchange) [establishments in New York (state)](Category:1869)(Category:1869 establishments in New York (state)) [established in 1869](Category:Banks)(Category:Banks established in 1869) [services companies established in 1869](Category:Financial)(Category:Financial services companies established in 1869) [based in New York City](Category:Banks)(Category:Banks based in New York City) [important financial institutions](Category:Systemically)(Category:Systemically important financial institutions) [based in Manhattan](Category:Companies)(Category:Companies based in Manhattan) [in the Dow Jones Industrial Average](Category:Companies)(Category:Companies in the Dow Jones Industrial Average) [banks in the United States](Category:Investment)(Category:Investment banks in the United States) [companies based in New York City](Category:Multinational)(Category:Multinational companies based in New York City) [dealers](Category:Primary)(Category:Primary dealers) [traded companies based in New York City](Category:Publicly)(Category:Publicly traded companies based in New York City) [mortgage crisis](Category:Subprime)(Category:Subprime mortgage crisis) [mortgage lenders](Category:Subprime)(Category:Subprime mortgage lenders) [initial public offerings](Category:1999)(Category:1999 initial public offerings)
Tokugawa shogunate	tokugawa_shogunate	# Tokugawa shogunate Revision ID: 1160287112 \| Timestamp: 2023-06-15T14:19:11Z --- \|}} \| conventional_long_name = Tokugawa shogunate \| common_name = Tokugawa Shogunate\| \| era = [period](Edo)(Edo period) \| status = \| government_type = hereditary [dictatorship](military)(military dictatorship)}}\| \| year_start = 1600 \| year_end = 1868 \| life_span = 1603–1868 \| event_start = \| date_start = 21 October \| event_end = [Restoration](Meiji)(Meiji Restoration) \| date_end = 3 January \| event1 = [of Osaka](Siege)(Siege of Osaka) \| date_event1 = 8 November 1614 \| event2 = [Edict of 1635](Sakoku)(Sakoku Edict of 1635) \| date_event2 = 1635 \| event3 = [Treaty](Kanagawa)(Convention of Kanagawa) \| date_event3 = 31 March 1854 \| event4 = [Treaty](Harris)(Treaty of Amity and Commerce (United States–Japan)) \| date_event4 = 29 July 1858\| \| p1 = Azuchi–Momoyama period \| flag_p1 = Toyotomi_mon.png \| border_p1 = no \| p2 = Tokugawa clan \| flag_p2 = Tokugawa family crest.svg \| border_p2 = no \| s1 = Empire of Japan \| s2 = Republic of Ezo \| flag_s1 = Merchant_flag_of_Japan_(1870).svg \| flag_s2 = Seal_of_Ezo.svg \| image_coat = Mitsubaaoi.svg \| image_flag = Flag_of_the_Tokugawa_Shogunate.svg \| flag_type = Naval ensign \| symbol_type = [Mon](Mon (emblem)) of the [clan](Tokugawa)(Tokugawa clan) \| other_symbol = [seal](National)(Seal (East Asia)#Government authorities)[85px](File:經文緯武 (1858) 東方日報.png)(from 1857) \| image_map = Map of Japan in Provinces in time of Iyeyasu.jpg \| map_width = 220px \| capital = [Edo](Edo)(Shōgun's residence)[Heian-kyō](Heian-kyō)(Emperor's palace) \| largest_city = [Osaka](Osaka) (1600–1613)[Heian-kyō](Heian-kyō) (1613–1638)[Edo](Edo) (1638–1867) \| national_motto = \| national_anthem = \| common_languages = [Modern Japanese](Early)(Early Modern Japanese) Origin, History, Grammar, & Writing \|website=britannica.com \|publisher=[Britannica, Inc.](Encyclopædia)(Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.) \|access-date=June 15, 2021 }}[Japanese](Modern)(Modern Japanese) \| religion = [religions](State)(State religions):[Buddhism](Japanese)(Japanese Buddhism)[Confucianism](Confucianism)Others:[Shinto](Shinto)[Shinbutsu-shūgō](Shinbutsu-shūgō)[Buddhism](Japanese)(Japanese Buddhism)[Christianity](Christianity in Japan) religion \|website=britannica.com \|publisher=[Britannica, Inc.](Encyclopædia)(Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.) \|access-date=June 15, 2021 }} (banned, until 1853) \| currency = The tri-metallic [coinage](Tokugawa)(Tokugawa coinage) system based on copper [Mon](Japanese mon (currency)), silver Bu and Shu, as well as gold [Ryō](Ryō).\| \| leader1 = [Go-Yōzei](Emperor Go-Yōzei)[Go-Yōzei](Emperor)(Emperor Go-Yōzei) started reigning in 1586, after the abdication of [Ōgimachi](Emperor)(Emperor Ōgimachi). \| leader2 = [Meiji](Emperor Meiji)[Meiji](Emperor)(Emperor Meiji) reigned until his death in 1912. \| year_leader1 = 1600–1611 (first) \| year_leader2 = 1867–1868 (last) \| title_leader = [Emperor](list of Emperors of Japan#Emperors of Japan)\| \| representative1 = [Ieyasu](Tokugawa)(Tokugawa Ieyasu) \| representative2 = [Yoshinobu](Tokugawa)(Tokugawa Yoshinobu) \| year_representative1 = 1603–1605 (first) \| year_representative2 = 1866–1868 (last) \| title_representative = [Shōgun](Shōgun)\| \| deputy1 = \| deputy2 = \| year_deputy1 = 1600–1614 (first) \| year_deputy2 = 1868 (last) \| title_deputy = \| \| legislature = \| \| stat_year1 = \| stat_area1 = \| stat_pop1 = \| stat_year2 = \| stat_area2 = \| today = [Japan](Japan) \| footnotes = \| demonym = \| area_km2 = \| area_rank = \| GDP_PPP = \| GDP_PPP_year = \| HDI = \| HDI_year = }} The Tokugawa shogunate ( ; , ), also known as the , was the [government](military)(military government) of [Japan](Japan) during the [period](Edo)(Edo period) from 1603 to 1868.[Louis-Frédéric](Nussbaum,)(Louis-Frédéric). (2005). ["Tokugawa-jidai"](https://books.google.com/books?id=p2QnPijAEmEC&pg=PA978&dq=) in Japan Encyclopedia, p. 978.Nussbaum, ["Edo-jidai"](https://books.google.com/books?id=p2QnPijAEmEC&pg=PA167&dq=) at p. 167.Nussbaum, ["Kinsei"](https://books.google.com/books?id=p2QnPijAEmEC&pg=PA525&dq=) at p. 525. The Tokugawa [shogun](shogun)ate was established by [Ieyasu](Tokugawa)(Tokugawa Ieyasu) after victory at the [of Sekigahara](Battle)(Battle of Sekigahara), ending the civil wars of the [period](Sengoku)(Sengoku period) following the collapse of the [shogunate](Ashikaga)(Ashikaga shogunate). Ieyasu became the [shōgun](shōgun), and the [clan](Tokugawa)(Tokugawa clan) governed Japan from [Castle](Edo)(Edo Castle) in the eastern city of [Edo](Edo) ([Tokyo](Tokyo)) along with the [daimyō](daimyō) lords of the [samurai](samurai) class.Nussbaum, ["Shogun"](https://books.google.com/books?id=p2QnPijAEmEC&pg=PA878&dq=) at pp. 878–879.Nussbaum, ["Tokugawa"](https://books.google.com/books?id=p2QnPijAEmEC&pg=PA976&dq=) at p. 976. The Tokugawa shogunate organized Japanese society under the strict [class system](Tokugawa)(Edo society) and banned most foreigners under the [isolationist](isolationist) policies of [Sakoku](Sakoku) to promote political stability. The Tokugawa shoguns governed Japan in a feudal system, with each daimyō administering a [han](Han system) (feudal domain), although the country was still nominally organized as imperial [provinces](provinces of Japan). Under the Tokugawa shogunate, Japan experienced rapid [economic](economy of Japan) growth and [urbanization](urbanization), which led to the rise of the [merchant](Chōnin) class and [Ukiyo](Ukiyo) culture. The Tokugawa shogunate declined during the [Bakumatsu](Bakumatsu) ("final act of the shogunate") period from 1853 and was overthrown by supporters of the [Court](Imperial)(Imperial Court in Kyoto) in the [Restoration](Meiji)(Meiji Restoration) in 1868. The [of Japan](Empire)(Empire of Japan) was established under the [government](Meiji)(Government of Meiji Japan), and Tokugawa loyalists continued to fight in the [War](Boshin)(Boshin War) until the defeat of the [of Ezo](Republic)(Republic of Ezo) at the [of Hakodate](Battle)(Battle of Hakodate) in June 1869. ## History [[mon of the Tokugawa clan. The Tokugawa shogunate (1600-1868) preserved 250 years of peace.](File:Tokugawa_shogunate.jpg\|alt=\|thumb\|220x220px\|The)] Following the Sengoku period ("warring states period"), the central government had been largely re-established by [Nobunaga](Oda)(Oda Nobunaga) during the [period](Azuchi–Momoyama)(Azuchi–Momoyama period). After the Battle of Sekigahara in 1600, central authority fell to Tokugawa Ieyasu. While many daimyos who fought against Tokugawa Ieyasu were extinguished or had their holdings reduced, Ieyasu was committed to retaining the daimyos and the han (domains) as components under his new shogunate. Indeed, daimyos who sided with Ieyasu were rewarded, and some of Ieyasu's former vassals were made daimyos and were located strategically throughout the country. [in the Tokugawa period](Society)(Edo society), unlike in previous shogunates, was supposedly based on the strict class hierarchy originally established by [Hideyoshi](Toyotomi)(Toyotomi Hideyoshi). The daimyō (lords) were at the top, followed by the warrior-caste of samurai, with the farmers, artisans, and traders ranking below. In some parts of the country, particularly smaller regions, daimyō, and samurai were more or less identical, since daimyō might be trained as samurai, and samurai might act as local rulers. Otherwise, the largely inflexible nature of this social stratification system unleashed disruptive forces over time. Taxes on the peasantry were set at fixed amounts that did not account for inflation or other changes in monetary value. As a result, the tax revenues collected by the samurai landowners were worth less and less over time. This often led to numerous confrontations between noble but impoverished samurai and well-to-do peasants, ranging from simple local disturbances to much larger rebellions. None, however, proved compelling enough to seriously challenge the established order until the arrival of foreign powers. A 2017 study found that peasant rebellions and collective desertion ("flight") lowered tax rates and inhibited state growth in the Tokugawa shogunate. In the mid-19th century, an alliance of several of the more powerful daimyō, along with the titular [of Japan](Emperor)(Emperor of Japan), succeeded in overthrowing the shogunate, which came to an official end in 1868 with the resignation of the 15th Tokugawa shogun, [Yoshinobu](Tokugawa)(Tokugawa Yoshinobu), leading to the "restoration" ([王政復古](:ja:王政復古 (日本)), Ōsei fukko) of imperial rule. Some loyal retainers of the shogun continued to fight during the [war](Boshin)(Boshin War) that followed but were eventually defeated. Notwithstanding its eventual overthrow in favour of the more modernized, less feudal form of governance of the Meiji Restoration, the Tokugawa shogunate oversaw the longest period of peace and stability in Japan's history, lasting well over 260 years. ## Government ===Shogunate and domains=== The bakuhan system (bakuhan taisei ) was the [feudal](Feudalism) political system in the Edo period of Japan. Baku is an abbreviation of bakufu, meaning "[government](military)(Military dictatorship)"—that is, the shogunate. The han were the domains headed by daimyō. Beginning from Ieyasu's appointment as shogun in 1603, but especially after the Tokugawa [in Osaka](victory)(Siege of Osaka) in 1615, various policies were implemented to assert the shogunate's control, which severely curtailed the daimyos' independence. The number of daimyos varied but stabilized at around 270. The bakuhan system split feudal power between the shogunate in Edo and the daimyōs with domains throughout Japan. The shōgun and lords were all daimyōs: feudal lords with their own bureaucracies, policies, and territories. Provinces had a degree of sovereignty and were allowed an independent administration of the han in exchange for loyalty to the shōgun, who was responsible for foreign relations, national security, coinage, weights, measures, and transportation. The shōgun also administered the most powerful han, the hereditary fief of the House of Tokugawa, which also included many gold and silver mines. Towards the end of the shogunate, the Tokugawa clan held around 7 million [koku](koku) of land (天領 tenryō), including 2.6–2.7 million koku held by direct vassals, out of 30 million in the country. The other 23 million koku were held by other daimyos. The number of han (roughly 270) fluctuated throughout the Edo period. They were ranked by size, which was measured as the number of koku of rice that the domain produced each year. One koku was the amount of rice necessary to feed one adult male for one year. The minimum number for a daimyō was ten thousand koku; the largest, apart from the shōgun, was more than a million koku. #### Policies to control the daimyos The main policies of the shogunate on the daimyos included: * The principle was that each daimyo (including those who were previously independent of the Tokugawa family) submitted to the shogunate, and each han required the shogunate's recognition and was subject to its land redistributions. Daimyos swore allegiance to each shogun and acknowledged the Laws for Warrior Houses or buke shohatto. * The [sankin-kōtai](sankin-kōtai) (参勤交代 "alternate attendance") system, required daimyos to travel to and reside in Edo every other year, and for their families to remain in Edo during their absence. * The ikkoku ichijyō rei (一国一城令), allowed each daimyo's han to retain only one fortification, at the ''daimyo's* residence. * The [for the Military Houses](Laws)(Buke shohatto) (武家諸法度, buke shohatto), the first of which is 1615 forbade the building of new fortifications or repairing existing ones without bakufu'' approval, admitting fugitives of the shogunate, and arranging marriages of the daimyos' families without official permission. Additional rules on the samurai were issued over the years. Although the shogun issued certain laws, such as the [shohatto](buke)(buke shohatto)* on the daimyōs and the rest of the samurai class, each han administered its autonomous system of laws and [taxation](taxation). The shōgun did not interfere in a han's governance unless major incompetence (such as large rebellions) is shown, nor were central taxes issued. Instead, each han provided feudal duties, such as maintaining roads and official courier stations, building canals and harbors, providing troops, and relieving famines. Daimyōs were strategically placed to check each other, and the sankin-kōtai system ensured that daimyōs or their family are always in Edo, observed by the shogun. [[File:Edo P2.jpg\|thumb\|[Castle](Edo)(Edo Castle), 17th century]] The shogunate had the power to discard, annex, and transform domains, although they were rarely and carefully exercised after the early years of the Shogunate, to prevent daimyōs from banding together. The [sankin-kōtai](sankin-kōtai) system of alternative residence required each daimyō to reside in alternate years between the han and the court in Edo. During their absences from Edo, it was also required that they leave their family as hostages until their return. The hostages and the huge expenditure sankin-kōtai imposed on each han helped to ensure loyalty to the shōgun. By the 1690s, the vast majority of daimyos would be born in Edo, and most would consider it their homes. Some daimyos had little interest in their domains and needed to be begged to return "home". In return for the centralization, peace among the daimyos was maintained; unlike in the [period](Sengoku)(Sengoku period), daimyos no longer worried about conflicts with one another. In addition, hereditary succession was guaranteed as internal usurpations within domains were not recognized by the shogunate. #### Classification of daimyos The Tokugawa clan further ensured loyalty by maintaining a dogmatic insistence on loyalty to the shōgun. Daimyos were classified into three main categories: * [Shinpan](Shinpan) ("relatives" 親藩) were six clans established by sons of Ieyasu, as well as certain sons of the 8th and 9th shoguns, who were made daimyos. They would provide an heir to the shogunate if the shogun didn't have an heir. * [Fudai](Fudai daimyō) ("hereditary" 譜代) were mostly vassals of Ieyasu and the Tokugawa clan before the [of Sekigahara](Battle)(Battle of Sekigahara). They ruled their han (estate) and served as high officials in the shogunate, although their han tended to be smaller compared to the tozama domains. * [Tozama](Tozama daimyō) ("outsiders" 外様) were around 100 daimyos, most of whom became vassals of the Tokugawa clan after the Battle of Sekigahara. Some fought against Tokugawa forces, although some were neutral or even fought on the side of the Tokugawa clan, as allies rather than vassals. The tozama daimyos tend to have the largest han, with 11 of the 16 largest daimyos in this category. The tozama daimyos who fought against the Tokugawa clan in the Battle of Sekigahara had their estate reduced substantially. They were often placed in mountainous or far away areas, or placed between most trusted daimyos. Early in the Edo period, the shogunate viewed the tozama as the least likely to be loyal; over time, strategic marriages and the entrenchment of the system made the tozama less likely to rebel. In the end, however, it was still the great tozama of [Satsuma](Satsuma Province), [Chōshū](Chōshū Province) and [Tosa](Tosa Domain), and to a lesser extent [Hizen](Hizen), that brought down the shogunate. These four states are called the Four Western Clans, or [Satchotohi](Satchotohi) for short.Nussbaum, ["Satchotohi"](https://books.google.com/books?id=p2QnPijAEmEC&pg=PA826&dq=), pp. 826–827. ### Relations with the Emperor Regardless of the political title of the Emperor, the shōguns of the Tokugawa family controlled Japan.Jansen 2002, pp. 144–148. The shogunate secured a nominal grant of by the [Court in Kyoto](Imperial)(Imperial Court in Kyoto) to the Tokugawa family. While the Emperor officially had the prerogative of appointing the shōgun and received generous subsidies, he had virtually no say in state affairs. The shogunate issued the [for the Imperial and Court Officials](Laws)(Kinchu narabini kuge shohatto) (kinchu narabini kuge shohatto 禁中並公家諸法度) to set out its relationship with the [family](Imperial)(Imperial House of Japan) and the [kuge](kuge) (imperial court officials), and specified that the Emperor should dedicate to scholarship and poetry. The shogunate also appointed a liaison, the [Shoshidai](Kyoto)(Kyoto Shoshidai) (''Shogun's Representative in Kyoto), to deal with the Emperor, court and nobility. Towards the end of the shogunate, however, after centuries of the Emperor having very little say in state affairs and being secluded in his [palace](Kyoto)(Kyoto Imperial Palace), and in the wake of the reigning shōgun, [Iemochi](Tokugawa)(Tokugawa Iemochi), marrying the sister of [Kōmei](Emperor)(Emperor Kōmei) (r. 1846–1867), in 1862, the Imperial Court in Kyoto began to enjoy increased political influence.Keene, Donald Emperor of Japan: Meiji and His World, 1852–1912* (2005, Columbia University Press) p. 62 The Emperor would occasionally be consulted on various policies and the shogun even made a visit to Kyoto to visit the Emperor. Government administration would be formally returned from the shogun to the Emperor during the [Restoration](Meiji)(Meiji Restoration) in 1868. ### Shogun and foreign trade [[File:Grote partij bij het opperhoofd van Dejima.jpg\|thumb\|Dutch trading post in [Dejima](Dejima), c. 1805]] Foreign affairs and trade were monopolized by the shogunate, yielding a huge profit. Foreign trade was also permitted to the [Satsuma](Satsuma Domain) and the [domain](Tsushima)(Tsushima Fuchū Domain)s. [Rice](Rice) was the main trading product of Japan during this time. [Isolationism](Isolationism) was the foreign policy of Japan and trade was strictly controlled. Merchants were outsiders to the [hierarchy](social)(social hierarchy) of Japan and were thought to be greedy. The visits of the [Nanban](Nanban trade) ships from Portugal were at first the main vector of trade exchanges, followed by the addition of Dutch, English, and sometimes Spanish ships. From 1603 onward, Japan started to participate actively in foreign trade. In 1615, an embassy and trade mission under [Tsunenaga](Hasekura)(Hasekura Tsunenaga) was sent across the Pacific to [España](Nueva)(Nueva España) (New Spain) on the Japanese-built galleon [Juan Bautista](San)(Japanese warship San Juan Bautista). Until 1635, the Shogun issued numerous permits for the so-called "[seal ships](red)(red seal ships)" destined for the Asian trade. After 1635 and the introduction of [laws](seclusion)(Sakoku) (sakoku), inbound ships were only allowed from China, [Korea](Korea), and the [Netherlands](Netherlands). ### Shogun and Christianity Followers of [Christianity](Christianity) first began appearing in Japan during the 16th century. [Nobunaga](Oda)(Oda Nobunaga) embraced Christianity and the Western technology that was imported with it, such as the musket. He also saw it as a tool he could use to suppress Buddhist forces.Chie Nakane and Shinzaburou Oishi (1990). Tokugawa Japan – The Social and Economic Antecedents of Modern Japan. University of Tokyo Press. pp.12. Though Christianity was allowed to grow until the 1610s, [Ieyasu](Tokugawa)(Tokugawa Ieyasu) soon began to see it as a growing threat to the stability of the shogunate. As Ōgosho ("Cloistered Shōgun"),Nussbaum, ["Ogosho''"](https://books.google.com/books?id=p2QnPijAEmEC&pg=PA738&dq=) at p. 738. he influenced the implementation of laws that banned the practice of Christianity. His successors followed suit, compounding upon Ieyasu's laws. The ban of Christianity is often linked with the creation of the Seclusion laws, or [Sakoku](Sakoku), in the 1630s.Chie Nakane and Shinzaburou Oishi (1990). Tokugawa Japan: The Social and Economic Antecedents of Modern Japan. University of Tokyo Press. pp.24–28. ### The Shogunate's income The primary source of the shogunate's income was the tax (around 40%) levied on harvests in the Tokugawa clan's personal domains (tenryō). No taxes were levied on domains of daimyos, who instead provided military duty, public works and [corvee](Corvée). The shogunate obtained loans from merchants, which were sometimes seen as forced donations, although commerce was often not taxed. Special levies were also imposed for infrastructure-building. ## Institutions of the shogunate The personal vassals of the Tokugawa shoguns were classified into two groups: the [bannermen](Hatamoto) (hatamoto 旗本) had the privilege to directly approach the shogun; * the [housemen](Gokenin) (gokenin 御家人) did not have the privilege of the shogun's audience. By the early 18th century, out of around 22,000 personal vassals, most would have received stipends rather than domains. ### Rōjū and wakadoshiyori The [rōjū](rōjū) () were normally the most senior members of the shogunate. Normally, four or five men held the office, and one was on duty for a month at a time on a rotating basis. They supervised the [ōmetsuke](ōmetsuke) (who checked on the daimyos), machi-bugyō (commissioners of administrative and judicial functions in major cities, especially Edo), ** (遠国奉行, the commissioners of other major cities and shogunate domains) and other officials, oversaw relations with the [Court in Kyoto](Imperial)(Imperial Court in Kyoto), [kuge](kuge) (members of the nobility), daimyō, [temples](Buddhist)(Buddhist temples in Japan) and [shrine](Shinto)(Shinto shrine)s, and attended to matters like divisions of [fief](fief)s. Other bugyō (commissioners) in charge of finances, monasteries and shrines also reported to the rōjū. The roju conferred on especially important matters. In the administrative reforms of 1867 ([Reforms](Keiō)(Keiō Reforms)), the office was eliminated in favor of a bureaucratic system with ministers for the interior, finance, foreign relations, army, and navy. [[File:SakuradaGate2.jpg\|thumb\|Sakuradamon Gate of [Castle](Edo)(Edo Castle) where [Naosuke](Ii)(Ii Naosuke) was assassinated in 1860]] In principle, the requirements for appointment to the office of rōjū were to be a [daimyō](fudai)(fudai daimyō) and to have a fief assessed at [koku](koku) or more. However, there were exceptions to both criteria. Many appointees came from the offices close to the shōgun, such as ** (側用人), [Shoshidai](Kyoto)(Kyoto Shoshidai), and [jōdai](Osaka)(Osaka jōdai). Irregularly, the shōguns appointed a rōjū to the position of [tairō](tairō) (great elder). The office was limited to members of the [Ii](Ii clan), [Sakai](Sakai clan), [Doi](Doi clan), and [clan](Hotta)(Hotta clan)s, but [Yoshiyasu](Yanagisawa)(Yanagisawa Yoshiyasu) was given the status of tairō as well. Among the most famous was [Naosuke](Ii)(Ii Naosuke), who was assassinated in 1860 outside the Sakuradamon Gate of [Castle](Edo)(Edo Castle) ([incident](Sakuradamon)(Sakuradamon Incident (1860))). Three to five men titled the [wakadoshiyori](wakadoshiyori) (若年寄) were next in status below the rōjū. An outgrowth of the early six-man [rokuninshū](rokuninshū) (六人衆, 1633–1649), the office took its name and final form in 1662. Their primary responsibility was management of the affairs of the [hatamoto](hatamoto) and [gokenin](gokenin), the direct vassals of the shōgun. Under the wakadoshiyori were the [metsuke](metsuke). Some shōguns appointed a soba yōnin. This person acted as a liaison between the shōgun and the rōjū. The soba yōnin increased in importance during the time of the fifth shōgun [Tsunayoshi](Tokugawa)(Tokugawa Tsunayoshi), when a wakadoshiyori, [Masayasu](Inaba)(Inaba Masayasu), assassinated [Masatoshi](Hotta)(Hotta Masatoshi), the tairō. Fearing for his personal safety, Tsunayoshi moved the rōjū to a more distant part of the castle. Some of the most famous soba yōnin were [Yoshiyasu](Yanagisawa)(Yanagisawa Yoshiyasu) and [Okitsugu](Tanuma)(Tanuma Okitsugu). ### Ōmetsuke and metsuke The ōmetsuke and [metsuke](metsuke) were officials who reported to the rōjū and wakadoshiyori. The five ōmetsuke were in charge of monitoring the affairs of the daimyōs, kuge and imperial court. They were in charge of discovering any threat of rebellion. Early in the Edo period, daimyōs such as [Munefuyu](Yagyū)(Yagyū Munefuyu) held the office. Soon, however, it fell to [hatamoto](hatamoto) with rankings of 5,000 koku or more. To give them authority in their dealings with daimyōs, they were often ranked at 10,000 koku and given the title of [kami](Kokushi (official)) (an ancient title, typically signifying the governor of a [province](Provinces of Japan)) such as Bizen-no-kami. As time progressed, the function of the ōmetsuke evolved into one of passing orders from the shogunate to the daimyōs, and of administering to ceremonies within Edo Castle. They also took on additional responsibilities such as supervising religious affairs and controlling firearms. The metsuke, reporting to the wakadoshiyori, oversaw the affairs of the vassals of the shōgun. They were the police force for the thousands of hatamoto and [gokenin](gokenin) who were concentrated in Edo. Individual han had their own metsuke who similarly policed their samurai. ### San-bugyō The san-[bugyō](bugyō) (三奉行 "three administrators") were the jisha, kanjō, and [machi-bugyō](machi-bugyō), which respectively oversaw [temples](Buddhist temples in Japan) and [shrines](Shinto shrine), accounting, and the cities. The [jisha-bugyō](jisha-bugyō) had the highest status of the three. They oversaw the administration of Buddhist temples (ji) and Shinto shrines (sha), many of which held fiefs. Also, they heard lawsuits from several land holdings outside the eight [Kantō](Kantō region) provinces. The appointments normally went to daimyōs; [Tadasuke](Ōoka)(Ōoka Tadasuke) was an exception, though he later became a daimyō. The [kanjō-bugyō](kanjō-bugyō) were next in status. The four holders of this office reported to the rōjū. They were responsible for the finances of the shogunate.Nussbaum, ["Kanjō bugyō"](https://books.google.com/books?id=p2QnPijAEmEC&pg=PA473&dq=) at p. 473. The machi-bugyō were the chief city administrators of Edo and other cities. Their roles included mayor, chief of the police (and, later, also of the fire department), and judge in criminal and civil matters not involving samurai. Two (briefly, three) men, normally hatamoto, held the office, and alternated by month. Three Edo machi bugyō have become famous through [jidaigeki](jidaigeki) (period films): [Tadasuke](Ōoka)(Ōoka Tadasuke) and [Kagemoto](Tōyama)(Tōyama Kagemoto) (Kinshirō) as heroes, and [Yōzō](Torii)(Torii Yōzō) ([:ja:鳥居耀蔵](:ja:鳥居耀蔵)) as a villain. ### Tenryō, gundai and daikan The san-bugyō together sat on a council called the [hyōjōsho](hyōjōsho) (評定所). In this capacity, they were responsible for administering the tenryō (the shogun's estates), supervising the gundai ([郡代](:ja:郡代)), the [daikan](daikan) ([代官](:ja:代官)) and the kura bugyō ([蔵奉行](:ja:蔵奉行)), as well as hearing cases involving samurai. The gundai managed Tokugawa domains with incomes greater than 10,000 koku while the daikan managed areas with incomes between 5,000 and 10,000 koku. The shogun directly held lands in various parts of Japan. These were known as shihaisho (支配所); since the Meiji period, the term tenryō ([天領](:ja:天領), literally "Emperor's land") has become synonymous, because the shogun's lands were returned to the emperor.Nussbaum, ["Tenryō"](https://books.google.com/books?id=p2QnPijAEmEC&pg=PA9610&dq=), p. 961. In addition to the territory that Ieyasu held prior to the Battle of Sekigahara, this included lands he gained in that battle and lands gained as a result of the [and Winter Sieges of Osaka](Summer)(Siege of Osaka). Major cities as Nagasaki and Osaka, and [mine](mining)s, including the [Sado](Sado Province) [mine](gold)(gold mine), also fell into this category. ### Gaikoku bugyō The [bugyō](gaikoku)(gaikoku bugyō) were administrators appointed between 1858 and 1868. They were charged with overseeing trade and diplomatic relations with foreign countries, and were based in the [ports](treaty)(treaty ports) of Nagasaki and Kanagawa (Yokohama). ## Late Tokugawa shogunate (1853–1867) [[File:Satsuma-samurai-during-boshin-war-period.jpg\|thumb\|[Samurai](Samurai) of the [clan](Shimazu)(Shimazu clan)]] The late Tokugawa shogunate ( Bakumatsu) was the period between 1853 and 1867, during which Japan ended its [foreign policy](isolationist)(isolationist foreign policy) called [sakoku](sakoku) and modernized from a [feudal](feudal) shogunate to the [government](Meiji)(Meiji period). It is at the end of the [period](Edo)(Edo period) and preceded the Meiji era. The major ideological and political factions during this period were divided into the pro-imperialist [Shishi](Ishin)(Ishin Shishi) ([nationalist](nationalist) [patriots](Patriotism)) and the shogunate forces, including the elite [shinsengumi](shinsengumi) ("newly selected corps") swordsmen. Although these two groups were the most visible powers, many other factions attempted to use the chaos of the Bakumatsu era to seize personal power.Shinsengumi, The Shogun's Last Samurai Corps, Romulus, Hillsborough, Tuttle Publishing, 2005 Furthermore, there were two other main driving forces for dissent; first, growing resentment of [daimyō](tozama)(tozama daimyō)s, and second, growing [sentiment](anti-Western)(anti-Western sentiment) following the arrival of a [Navy](U.S.)(United States Navy) fleet under the command of [C. Perry](Matthew)(Matthew C. Perry) (which led to the forced opening of Japan). The first related to those lords who had fought against Tokugawa forces at [Sekigahara](Sekigahara) (in 1600) and had from that point on been exiled permanently from all powerful positions within the shogunate. The second was to be expressed in the phrase [jōi](sonnō)(sonnō jōi) ("revere the Emperor, expel the barbarians"). The end for the [Bakumatsu](Bakumatsu) was the [War](Boshin)(Boshin War), notably the [of Toba–Fushimi](Battle)(Battle of Toba–Fushimi), when pro-shogunate forces were defeated.Ravina, Mark (2004).Last Samurai: The Life and Battles of Saigo Takamori. John Wiley & Sons, 2004 ## List of Tokugawa shōguns ### Family Tree Over the course of the Edo period, influential relatives of the shogun included: * [Mitsukuni](Tokugawa)(Tokugawa Mitsukuni) of the [Domain](Mito)(Mito Domain)Nussbaum, ["Tokugawa Mitsukuni"](https://books.google.com/books?id=p2QnPijAEmEC&pg=PA979&dq=) at p. 979. * [Nariaki](Tokugawa)(Tokugawa Nariaki) of the [Domain](Mito)(Mito Domain)Nussbaum, ["Tokugawa Nariaki"](https://books.google.com/books?id=p2QnPijAEmEC&pg=PA979&dq=) at p. 979. * [Mochiharu](Tokugawa)(Tokugawa Mochiharu) of the [Hitotsubashi](Gosankyō) branch * [Munetake](Tokugawa)(Tokugawa Munetake) of the [Tayasu](Gosankyō) branch.Nussbaum, ["Tayasu"](https://books.google.com/books?id=p2QnPijAEmEC&pg=PA954&dq=) at p. 954. * [Katamori](Matsudaira)(Matsudaira Katamori) of the [Aizu](Aizu) branch.Nussbaum, ["Matsudaira Katamori"](https://books.google.com/books?id=p2QnPijAEmEC&pg=PA616&dq=) at p. 616. * [Sadanobu](Matsudaira)(Matsudaira Sadanobu), born into the [Tayasu](Gosankyō) branch, adopted into the [Hisamatsu-Matsudaira](Hisamatsu clan) of [Shirakawa](Shirakawa han).Nussbaum, ["Matsudaira Sadanobu"](https://books.google.com/books?id=p2QnPijAEmEC&pg=PA617&dq=) at p. 617. * [Mochiharu](Tokugawa)(Tokugawa Mochiharu) of the [Hitotsubashi](Gosankyō) branch. ## See also * [uprising](Keian)(Keian uprising) ## Notes ## References * [Louis-Frédéric](Nussbaum,)(Louis-Frédéric) and Käthe Roth. (2005). Japan Encyclopedia. Cambridge: [University Press](Harvard)(Harvard University Press). ; [OCLC 48943301](http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/48943301/editions?editionsView=true&referer=br) ## Further reading * [Harold](Bolitho,)(Harold Bolitho). (1974). Treasures Among Men: The Fudai Daimyo in Tokugawa Japan. New Haven: Yale University Press. ; [OCLC 185685588](https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/185685588) * Haga, Tōru, translated by [Winters Carpenter](Juliet)(Juliet Winters Carpenter). Pax Tokugawana: The Cultural Flowering of Japan, 1603–1853. Tokyo: Japan Publishing Industry Foundation for Culture. * Totman, Conrad. The Collapse of the Tokugawa Bakufu, 1862–1868. Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press, 1980. * Totman, Conrad. Politics in the Tokugawa Bakufu, 1600–1843. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1967. * Waswo, Ann Modern Japanese Society 1868–1994 * The Center for East Asian Cultural Studies Meiji Japan Through Contemporary Sources, Volume Two 1844–1882 ## External links * [Japan](http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/jptoc.html) * [Tokugawa Political System ](https://web.archive.org/web/20080504211250/http://hkuhist2.hku.hk/nakasendo/tokupols.htm) * [SengokuDaimyo.com](http://www.sengokudaimyo.com/) The website of Samurai Author and Historian [J. Bryant](Anthony)(Anthony J. Bryant) * [Narrative of the Expedition of an American Squadron to the China Seas and Japan](https://archive.org/details/narrativeofexped03perr), by M.C. Perry, at [archive.org](archive.org) [and territories established in 1600](Category:States)(Category:States and territories established in 1600) [and territories disestablished in 1868](Category:States)(Category:States and territories disestablished in 1868) [](Category:Edo period) [](Category:Tokugawa shōguns) [establishments in Japan](Category:1600)(Category:1600 establishments in Japan) [disestablishments in Japan](Category:1868)(Category:1868 disestablishments in Japan) [century in Japan](Category:17th)(Category:17th century in Japan) [century in Japan](Category:18th)(Category:18th century in Japan) [century in Japan](Category:19th)(Category:19th century in Japan)
M270 Multiple Launch Rocket System	m270_multiple_launch_rocket_system	# M270 Multiple Launch Rocket System Revision ID: 1159534995 \| Timestamp: 2023-06-10T23:34:53Z --- \| designer = [Ling-Temco-Vought](Ling-Temco-Vought) \| design_date = 1977 \| manufacturer = \| production_date = 1980–2003 \| number = \| variants = M270, M270A1, M270A2, [II](MARS)(MARS II (military vehicle)), LRU, MLRS-I \| weight = (combat loaded w/ 12 rockets) \| length = \| part_length = \| width = \| height = (launcher stowed) \| crew = 3 \| cartridge = \| caliber = \| action = \| rate = \| velocity = \| range = \|M26A1/A2: \|M30/31: }} \| max_range = }} \| feed = \| sights = \| breech = \| recoil = \| carriage = \| elevation = \| traverse = \| diameter = \| filling = \| filling_weight = \| detonation = \| yield = \| armour = [aluminum](5083)(5083 aluminum alloy) hull, [aluminum](7039)(7039 aluminum alloy) cab \| primary_armament = or 4 x [PrSM](Precision Strike Missile) \| secondary_armament = \| engine = [Cummins](Cummins) VTA-903 [engine](diesel)(diesel engine) \| engine_power = at 2600 rpm (M270A1) \| pw_ratio = (M270) \| suspension = [bar](Torsion)(Torsion bar) \| vehicle_range = \| speed = }} The M270 Multiple Launch Rocket System (M270 MLRS) is an American-developed [armored](armoured fighting vehicle), [self-propelled](self-propelled artillery), [rocket launcher](multiple)(multiple rocket launcher). The [Army](U.S.)(U.S. Army) variant of the MLRS vehicle is based on the chassis of the [Fighting Vehicle](Bradley)(Bradley Fighting Vehicle). The first M270s were delivered in 1983. The MLRS were subsequently adopted by several [countries](NATO)(Member states of NATO) and other countries. The MLRS first saw service with the United States in the 1991 [War](Gulf)(Gulf War). The MLRS has been upgraded to fire guided missiles, and has been used by Ukraine in the [Russian invasion of Ukraine](2022)(2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine). ## Description ### Background In the early 1970s, the Soviet Union had a clear advantage over U.S. and NATO forces in terms of rocket artillery. Soviet tactics of bombardment by large numbers of truck-mounted [rocket launcher](multiple)(multiple rocket launcher)s (MRLs), such as the [BM-21](BM-21), would saturate a target area with thousands of rockets, ensuring some would hit specific targets while delivering a psychological impact. By contrast, U.S. artillerists favored cannon artillery for its relative accuracy and ammunition conservation over "area fire" rockets, and as a result were left with only a small amount of [War II](World)(World War II) vintage rocket artillery.[The Multiple Launch Rocket System](https://warfarehistorynetwork.com/daily/military-history/multiple-launch-rocket-system/) . Warfare History Network. 30 October 2018. This mindset began to change following the [Yom Kippur War](1973)(1973 Yom Kippur War), which saw high loss rates, especially from rear-area weapons like [missile](surface-to-air)(surface-to-air missile)s (SAMs), as well as the effective Israeli tactic of hitting such sites with MRLs. This combined with the realization that such an experience would happen on a larger scale in the event of war in Europe. It would be used to engage enemy air defenses and for [fire](counterbattery)(counterbattery fire), freeing cannon units to provide close support for ground forces. The MLRS was conceived as the General Support Rocket System (GSRS). In December 1975, the [Army Missile Command](U.S.)(U.S. Army Missile Command) issued a request for proposal to industry to assist in determining the best technical approach for the GSRS. In March 1976, the Army awarded contracts to [Boeing](Boeing), [Electric](Emerson)(Emerson Electric), [Marietta](Martin)(Martin Marietta), [Northrop](Northrop Corporation) and [Vought](Vought) to explore the concept definition of the GSRS. In September 1977, Boeing Aerospace and Vought were awarded contracts to develop prototypes of the GSRS. In 1978, the U.S. Army Aviation and Missile Command made changes to the program so that the GSRS could be manufactured in Europe. This was to allow European nations, who had been independently pursuing their own MLRS programs, to buy in to the program. In July 1979, the United States, [Germany](West)(West Germany), France and the United Kingdom signed a memorandum of understanding for joint development and production of GSRS. In November 1979, GSRS was accordingly redesignated the Multiple Launch Rocket System. Both competitors delivered three MLRS prototypes to the Army. The Army evaluated the MLRS prototypes from December 1979 – February 1980. The Army selected the Vought system in May 1980. Vought began low-rate initial production in early 1982. The first production models were delivered in August 1982. The first units were delivered to the [Infantry Division](1st)(1st Infantry Division (United States)) in early 1983. The first operational M270 battery was formed in March 1983, and the first unit was sent to West Germany that September. European nations produced 287 MLRS systems, with the first being delivered in 1989. Some 1,300 M270 systems have been manufactured in the United States and in Western Europe, along with more than 700,000 [rocket](rocket)s. ### Overview The M270 MLRS weapons system is collectively known as the M270 MLRS Self-Propelled Loader/Launcher (SPLL). The SPLL is composed of three primary subsystems: the M269 Loader Launcher Module (LLM), which also houses the electronic Fire Control System, is mated to the M993 Carrier Vehicle. [[Force XXI Armored Treatment and Transport Vehicle ATTP.jpg\|thumb\|Task Force XXI Armored Treatment and Transport Vehicle (ATTP)](File:Task)] The M993 is the designation of the M987 carrier when it is used in the MLRS. The M987/M993 is a lengthened derivative of the [Fighting Vehicle](Bradley)(Bradley Fighting Vehicle) chassis. The ground contact length is increased from to . Originally called the Fighting Vehicle System, the M987 chassis was designed to serve as the basis for many other vehicles. These included the XM1070 Electronic Fighting Vehicle, the M4 Command and Control Vehicle, the Armored Treatment and Transport Vehicle and the Forward Area Armored Logistics System (encompassing three vehicles including the XM1007 AFARV rearm vehicle. The original GSRS plan called for 210 mm diameter rockets. After European allies became involved with the project, these were replaced with 227 mm rockets in order to accommodate the [mine](AT2)(AT2 mine). [War](Cold)(Cold War) doctrine for the M270 was for the vehicles to spread out individually and hide until needed, then move to a firing position and launch their rockets, immediately move away to a reloading point, then move to a completely new hiding position near a different firing point. These [shoot-and-scoot](shoot-and-scoot) tactics were planned to avoid susceptibility to Soviet [fire](counterbattery)(counterbattery fire). One M270 firing 12 [M26](M26 artillery rocket) rockets would drop 7,728 bomblets, and one MLRS battery of nine launchers firing 108 rockets had the equivalent firepower of 33 battalions of cannon artillery. The system can fire rockets or [ATACMS](MGM-140)(MGM-140 ATACMS) missiles, which are contained in interchangeable pods. Each pod contains six standard rockets or one guided ATACMS missile; the two types cannot be mixed. The LLM can hold two pods at a time, which are hand-loaded using an integrated winch system. All twelve rockets or two ATACMS missiles can be fired in under a minute. One launcher firing twelve rockets can completely blanket one square [kilometer](kilometer) with [submunitions](cluster bomb). A typical MLRS cluster salvo consisted of three M270 vehicles each firing all 12 rockets. With each rocket containing 644 [grenades](M77)(Dual-Purpose Improved Conventional Munition), the entire salvo would drop 23,184 grenades in the target area. However, with a two percent dud rate, that would leave approximately 400 undetonated bombs scattered over the area, which could endanger friendly troops and civilians.[After Cluster Bombs: Raining Nails](https://www.wired.com/2008/05/after-cluster-b/) , Wired, 30 May 2008 Production of the M270 ended in 2003, when a last batch was delivered to the [Army](Egyptian)(Egyptian Army). In 2003, the U.S. Army began low-rate production of the [HIMARS](M142)(M142 HIMARS). The HIMARS fires all of the munitions of the MLRS, but is based on the chassis of the [of Medium Tactical Vehicles](Family)(Family of Medium Tactical Vehicles). As of 2012, BAE Systems still had the capability to restart production of the MLRS. In 2006, MLRS was upgraded to fire guided rounds. Phase I testing of a guided unitary round (XM31) was completed on an accelerated schedule in March 2006. Due to an Urgent Need Statement, the guided unitary round was quickly fielded and used in action in [Iraq](Iraq War).["Guided MLRS Unitary Rocket Successfully Tested"](http://www.mwjournal.com/journal/article.asp?HH_ID=AR_609) , Microwave Journal, Vol. 49, No. 3 (March 2006), p. 39. [Martin](Lockheed)(Lockheed Martin) also received a contract to convert existing M30 [Improved Conventional Munition (DPICM)](Dual-Purpose)(Dual-Purpose Improved Conventional Munition) GMLRS rockets to the XM31 unitary variant. The M31 GMLRS Unitary rocket transformed the M270 into a point target artillery system for the first time. Due to [Positioning System](Global)(Global Positioning System) (GPS) guidance and a single high-explosive warhead, the M31 could hit targets accurately with less chance of collateral damage while needing fewer rockets to be fired, reducing logistical requirements. The unitary warhead also made the MLRS able to be used in urban environments. The M31 had a dual-mode fuse with point detonation and delay options to defeat soft targets and lightly fortified bunkers respectively, with the upgraded M31A1 equipped with a multi-mode fuse adding a [proximity](proximity fuze) [airburst](air burst) mode for use against personnel in the open; proximity mode can be set for Height Of Burst (HOB). The GMLRS has a minimum engagement range of and can hit a target out to , impacting at a speed of Mach 2.5.[M31 GMLRS Unitary](http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/systems/munitions/m31.htm) , Global security.[Precision Fires Rocket & Missile Systems](http://www.msl.army.mil/Pages/PFRMS/pgmr.html) , MSL Army. In 2009 Lockheed Martin announced that a GMLRS had been successfully test fired out to . A German developmental artillery system, called the [Gun Module](Artillery)(Artillery Gun Module), has used the MLRS chassis on its developmental vehicles. In 2012, a contract was issued to improve the armor of the M270s and improve the fire control to the standards of the M142 HIMARS. In June 2015, the M270A1 conducted tests of firing rockets after upgrades from the Improved Armored Cab project, which provides the vehicle with an enhanced armored cab and windows.[Improved Multiple Launch Rocket System tested at White Sands Missile Range](http://www.army.mil/article/153172/Improved_Multiple_Launch_Rocket_System_tested_at_White_Sands_Missile_Range/) , Army, 31 July 2015 In early March 2021, Lockheed announced they had successfully fired an extended-range version of the GMLRS out to , part of an effort to increase the rocket's range to . Later in March the ER-GMLRS was fired out to . ## Service history [[mlrs 1982 02.jpg\|thumb\|upright\|left\|The M270 MLRS conducts a rocket launch.](File:Army)] When first deployed with the U.S. Army, the MLRS was used in a composite battalion consisting of two batteries of traditional artillery ([howitzer](howitzer)s) and one battery of MLRS SPLLs (self-propelled loader/launchers). The first operational Battery was C Battery, 3rd Battalion, 6th Field Artillery, 1st Infantry Division (Ft. Riley, Kansas) in 1982. The first operational organic or "all MLRS" unit was 6th Battalion, [Field Artillery](27th)(27th Field Artillery Regiment (United States)). Originally, a battery consisted of three platoons with three launchers each for nine launchers per battery; by 1987, 25 MLRS batteries were in service. In the 1990s, a battery was reduced to six launchers. The 6th Battalion, 27th Field Artillery was reactivated as the Army's first Multiple Launch Rocket System (MLRS) battalion in October 1984, and became known as the "Rocket Busters". In March 1990, the unit deployed to White Sands Missile Range, New Mexico to conduct the Initial Operational Test and Evaluation of the Army Tactical Missile System. The success of the test provided the Army with a highly accurate, long range fire support asset. ### Gulf War The first combat use of the MLRS occurred in the Gulf War. The U.S. deployed over 230 MLRS systems during Operation Desert Storm, and the UK an additional 16. In September 1990, the 6th Battalion, 27th Field Artillery deployed to Saudi Arabia in support of [Desert Shield](Operation)(Operation Desert Shield). Assigned to the XVIII Airborne Corps Artillery, the unit played a critical role in the early defense of Saudi Arabia. As Desert Shield turned into [Storm](Desert)(Operation Desert Storm), the Battalion was the first U.S. Field Artillery unit to fire into Iraq. Over the course of the war, the 6th Battalion, 27th Field Artillery provided timely and accurate rocket and missile fires for both U.S. corps in the theater, the 82nd Airborne Division, the 6th French Light Armored Division, the 1st Armored, 1st Infantry Division, the 101st Airborne Division, and the 24th Infantry Division (Mechanized). A Battery [Field Artillery](92nd)(92nd Field Artillery Regiment (United States)) (MLRS) was deployed to the Gulf War in 1990 from Ft. Hood Texas. 3/27th FA (MLRS) out of Fort Bragg deployed in support of Operation Desert Shield in August 1990. A/[Field Artillery](21st)(21st Field Artillery Regiment (United States)) (MLRS) – 1st Cavalry Division Artillery deployed in support of Operation Desert Shield in September 1990. In December 1990, A-[Field Artillery](40th)(40th Field Artillery Regiment (United States)) (MLRS) – 3rd Armored Division Artillery (Hanau), 1/27th FA (MLRS) part of the 41st Field Artillery Brigade (Babenhausen) and 4/27th FA (MLRS) (Wertheim) deployed in support of [Desert Shield](Operation)(Operation Desert Shield) from their bases in Germany and 1/[Field Artillery](158th)(158th Field Artillery Regiment (United States)) from the Oklahoma Army National Guard deployed in January 1991. [[with launch vehicle, loader and a command center inside an M577 command vehicle.](File:MLRS-system.JPEG\|thumb\|right\|MLRS-System)] MLRS launchers were deployed during Operation Desert Storm. Its first use was on 18 January 1991, when Battery A of the 6th Battalion, 27th Field Artillery fired eight ATACMS missiles at Iraqi SAM sites. In one engagement, three MLRS batteries fired 287 rockets at 24 separate targets in less than five minutes, an amount that would have taken a cannon battalion over an hour to fire. In early February 1991, [FA](4-27)(4th Battalion 27th Field Artillery Regiment (United States Army)) launched the biggest MLRS night fire mission in history, firing 312 rockets in a single mission. When ground operations began on 24 February 1991, 414 rockets were fired as the U.S. VII Corps advanced. Out of the 57,000 artillery rounds fired by the end of the war, 6,000 were MLRS rockets plus 32 ATACMS. ### Middle East The MLRS has since been used in numerous military engagements, including the [invasion of Iraq](2003)(2003 invasion of Iraq). In March 2007, the British [of Defence](Ministry)(Ministry of Defence (UK)) decided to send a [troop](troop) of MLRS to support ongoing operations in Afghanistan's southern province of [Helmand](Helmand); they would use newly developed guided munitions. The first use of the GMLRS was in September 2005 in Iraq, when two rockets were fired in [Afar](Tal)(Tal Afar) over and hit insurgent strongholds, killing 48 Iraqi fighters. In April 2011, the first modernized MLRS II and M31 GMLRS rocket were handed over to the German Army's Artillery School in Idar Oberstein. The German Army operates the M31 rocket up to a range of . ### Ukraine During the [Russian invasion of Ukraine](2022)(2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine), the United States considered sending the MLRS as part of military aid to Ukraine. Concerns were raised that this system could be used to hit targets inside Russia. US President [Biden](Joe)(Joe Biden) initially declined to send it to Ukraine, but on May 31 he announced that the [HIMARS](M142)(M142 HIMARS), another vehicle capable of firing GMLRS rockets, would be supplied. On 7 June 2022, British defence secretary [Wallace](Ben)(Ben Wallace (politician)) announced that the UK would send three (later increased to six) MLRS to aid Ukrainian forces. On 15 June, Germany announced it would send three of its MARS vehicles from [Army](German)(Bundeswehr) stocks. Ukraine announced they had received the first M270s on 15 July.[Ukraine Gets First M270 Multiple Launch Rocket Systems](https://www.thedrive.com/the-war-zone/ukraine-gets-first-m270-multiple-launch-rocket-systems). The Drive/The War Zone. 15 July 2022. The [defence secretary](German)(Federal Ministry of Defence (Germany)) [Lambrecht](Christine)(Christine Lambrecht) announced the arrival of the vehicles they contributed on 26 July 2022,tagesschau.de 26 July 2022: [Mehrfachraketenwerfer in Ukraine eingetroffen](https://www.tagesschau.de/inland/innenpolitik/lambrecht-mehrfachraketenwerfer-101.html) and on 15 September Lambrecht announced that Germany would transfer two more.[Under pressure, Germany pledges more military aid to Ukraine](https://www.defensenews.com/global/europe/2022/09/15/under-pressure-germany-pledges-more-military-aid-to-ukraine/). [News](Defense)(Defense News). 15 September 2022. ## Variants [[File:MLRS (Multiple Launch Rocket System) Vehicles at Camp Bastion, Afghanistan MOD 45148148.jpg\|thumb\|right\|A British M270 MLRS in 2008 in [Bastion](Camp)(Camp Bastion), Afghanistan (right vehicle)]] [[File:MLRS firing on the ranges at Otterburn. MOD 45158572.jpg\|thumb\|British M270 firing at [Training Area](Otterburn)(Otterburn Training Area) in 2015]] [[File:MARS (MLRS) Bundeswehr.jpg\|thumb\|right\|A [II](MARS)(MARS II (military vehicle)) of the [Army](German)(German Army)]] * M270 is the original version, which carries a weapon load of 12 rockets in two six-pack pods. This armored, tracked mobile launcher uses a stretched Bradley chassis and has a high cross-country capability. * M270A1 was the result of a 2005 upgrade program for the U.S. Army, and later on for several other states. The launcher appears identical to M270, but incorporates the Improved Fire Control System (IFCS) and an improved launcher mechanical system (ILMS). This allows for significantly faster launch procedures and the firing of GMLRS rockets with GPS-aided guidance. The US Army updated 225 M270 to this standard. When Bahrain ordered an upgrade of nine to "A1 minimum configuration" in 2022, it was stated to include CFCS. * M270B1 [Army](British)(British Army) variant of the M270A1, which includes an enhanced armor package to give the crew better protection against IED attacks. Following an agreement struck with the United States Department of Defense, the British Army will be embarking on a five-year programme to update the M270B1 to the M270A2 standard. They are developing some UK-specific systems, including Composite Rubber Tracks (CRT), and a vehicle camera and radar system. Upgrade of the first tranche of launchers started in March 2022, with the fleet going through production over a four-year period. A new Fire Control System will be developed collaboratively with the US, the UK, Italy, and Finland. * M270C1 was an upgrade proposal from Lockheed Martin involving the [M142](M142)'s Universal Fire Control System (UFCS) instead of IFCS. * M270D1 [Army](Finnish)(Finnish Army) variant of the M270A1 that uses the M142's Universal Fire Control System (UFCS). * MARS II / LRU / MLRS-I is a European variant of the M270A1 involving Germany, France, and Italy. The launchers are equipped with the [Fire Control System](European)(European Fire Control System) (EFCS) designed by [Defense and Space](Airbus)(Airbus Defence and Space). The EFCS disables the firing of submunitions-carrying rockets to ensure full compliance with the [on Cluster Munitions](Convention)(Convention on Cluster Munitions). * M270A2 is a 2019 upgrade program to the US Army variant, which includes the new Common Fire Control System (CFCS) to allow the use of the [Strike Missile](Precision)(MGM-140 ATACMS#Precision Strike Missile) (PrSM). The update also includes a new 600 hp engine, upgraded and rebuilt transmission, and improved cabin armor protection. The U.S. Army will eventually upgrade its entire fleet of 225 M270A1 and an additional 160 decommissioned M270A0 launchers. ## Rockets and missiles [[File:M77 Cluster Munition With Hand.jpg\|right\|thumb\|"Steel Rain" – M77 [DPICM](Dual-Purpose Improved Conventional Munition) submunition of type used by the [rocket](M26)(M26 artillery rocket). The M77 was developed from the M483A1 that was developed for artillery shells.]] The M270 system can fire MLRS Family Of Munition (MFOM) rockets and artillery missiles, which are manufactured and used by a number of platforms and countries. These include: ### MLRS M26 and M28 rocket production began in 1980. Until 2005 they were the only rockets available for the M270 system. When production of the M26 series ceased in 2001 a total of 506,718 rockets had been produced. Each rocket pod contains 6 identical rockets. M26 rockets and its derivatives were removed from the US Army's active inventory in June 2009, due to their submunitions not satisfying a July 2008 Department of Defense policy directive on cluster munitions issued under President George W. Bush that US cluster munitions that result in a rate of more than a 1% of unexploded ordnance must be destroyed by the end of 2018. (The United States is not a party to the [on Cluster Munitions](Convention)(Convention on Cluster Munitions) which prohibits them). In November 2017, the Trump administration replaced the July 2008 policy directive on cluster munitions with a new policy directive, which abandoned the requirement to destroy cluster munitions by the end of 2018 and gave [Combatant Command](Unified)(Unified Combatant Command) commanders the authority to approve employing cluster munitions. The last use of the M26 rocket prior to its use with the [ GLSDB](Ground Launched Small Diameter Bomb ) occurred during [Iraqi Freedom](Operation)(Operation Iraqi Freedom) in 2003. * M26 rockets carrying 644 DPICM M77 submunitions. Range: . When used to launch a glider that uses the wings that deploy from the [ GLSDB](Ground Launched Small Diameter Bomb ), the range of the M26 is extended to . The submunitions that were used in these rockets prior to their use with the GLSDB covered an area of 0.23 km. Dubbed "Steel Rain" by Iraqi soldiers, M26 rockets were used extensively during [Storm](Desert)(Desert Storm) and [Iraqi Freedom](Operation)(Operation Iraqi Freedom). Initially fielded in 1983, the rockets have a shelf life of 25 years. M26 rockets were removed from the US Army's active inventory in June 2009 and the remaining rockets were being destroyed as of 2009, Italy destroyed its stock of 3,894 M26 rockets by 31 October 2015. but the US requirement was removed in 2017. The UK and the Netherlands destroyed their stock of 60,000 M26 rockets by 2013, while France destroyed its stock of 22,000 M26 rockets by 2017. Germany destroyed its stock of 26,000 M26 rockets by 25 November 2015. The US commenced the destruction of its M26 stocks in 2007, when the US Army requested $109 million for the destruction of 98,904 M26 MLRS rockets from fiscal year 2007 to fiscal year 2012. * M26A1 ER rockets carrying 518 M85 submunitions. Range: . The M85 submunitions are identical to the M77 submunitions, with the exception of the fuze. The M85 use the M235 mechanical/electronic self-destruct fuze to reduce hazardous duds and the potential for fratricide or collateral damage. * M26A2 ER rockets carrying 518 M77 submunitions. Interim solution until the M26A1 ER entered service. Range: . The M26A2 ER rockets have been retired from US Army service and the remaining rockets are being destroyed. * M28 practice rockets. A M26 variant with three ballast containers and three smoke marking containers in place of the submunition payload. Production ceased in favor of the M28A1. * M28A1 Reduced Range Practice Rocket (RRPR) with blunt nose. Range reduced to . Production ceased in favor of the M28A2. * M28A2 Low Cost Reduced Range Practice Rocket (LCRRPR) with blunt nose. Range reduced to . * AT2 German M26 variant carrying 28 [AT2](AT2 mine) anti-tank mines. Range: ### GMLRS Guided Multiple Launch Rocket System (GMLRS) rockets have an extended range and add [GPS](GPS)-aided guidance to their [navigation system](inertial)(inertial navigation system) (INS). Flight control is accomplished by four forward-mounted canards driven by electromechanical actuators. GMLRS rockets were introduced in 2005 and can be fired from the M270A1 and M270A2, the European M270A1 variants ([Army](British)(British Army) M270B1, [Army](German)(German Army) MARS II, [Army](French)(French Army) Lance Roquette Unitaire (LRU), [Army](Italian)(Italian Army) MLRS Improved (MLRS-I), [Army](Finnish)(Finnish Army) M270D1), and the lighter [HIMARS](M142)(M142 HIMARS) launchers. The M30 and M31 rockets are, except for their warheads, identical. By December 2021, 50,000 GMLRS rockets had been produced, with yearly production then exceeding 9,000 rockets. Each rocket pod contains 6 identical rockets. The cost of an M31 missile is estimated at $500,000, though this may be the "export price", always higher than the amount charged to the U.S. Army. According to the U.S. Army's budget, it will pay about $168,000 for each GMLRS in 2023.Jen Judson [(27 Apr 2023) Lockheed wins $4.8B guided rockets contract](https://www.defensenews.com/digital-show-dailies/aaaa/2023/04/27/lockheed-wins-48b-guided-rockets-contract/) completion date: 30 Oct 2026. Both Lockheed Martin and the U.S. Army report that the GMLRS has a maximum range of 70+ km (43+ mi). According to a U.S. Department of Defense document the maximum demonstrated performance of a GMLRS is , a figure also reported elsewhere. Another source reports a maximum range of about . In 2009 Lockheed Martin announced that a GMLRS had been successfully test fired . During the [War](Russo-Ukrainian)(Russo-Ukrainian War), Russian forces have relied on [warfare](electronic)(electronic warfare) to jam GPS signals. The INS is immune to jamming but less accurate than when paired with GPS coordinates. Ukraine mitigates the jamming by making changes to their software and destroying Russian jamming systems. * M30 rockets carrying 404 DPICM M101 submunitions. Range: . 3,936 produced between 2004 and 2009, production ceased in favor of the M30A1. The remaining M30 rockets has been converted at [Army](US)(US Army) to M31 (Unitary warhead) variant. * M30A1 rockets with Alternative Warhead (AW). Range: . GMLRS rocket that replaces the M30's submunitions with approximately 182,000 pre-formed tungsten fragments for area effects without unexploded ordnance. Entered production in 2015. * M30A2 rockets with Alternative Warhead (AW). Range: . Improved M30A1 with [Munition](Insensitive)(Insensitive munition) Propulsion System (IMPS). Only M30 variant in production since 2019. * M31 rockets with high-explosive unitary warhead. Range: . Entered production in 2005. The warhead is produced by [Dynamics](General)(General Dynamics) and contains of PBX-109 high explosive in a steel blast-fragmentation case. * M31A1 rockets with high-explosive unitary warhead. Range: . Improved M31 with new multi-mode fuze that added airburst to the M31's fuze point detonation and delay. * M31A2 rockets with high-explosive unitary warhead. Range: . Improved M31A1 with Insensitive Munition Propulsion System (IMPS). Only M31 variant in production since 2019. * M32 SMArt German GMLRS variant produced by [Defence](Diehl)(Diehl Defence) carrying 4 [SMArt](SMArt 155) anti-tank submunitions and a new flight software. Developed for MARS II but has not been ordered yet and therefore not in service as of 2019. * ER GMLRS rockets with extended range of up to .[Army Building 1,000-Mile Supergun](https://breakingdefense.com/2018/10/army-builds-1000-mile-supergun/). . Breaking Defense. 11 October 2018. Rockets use a slightly increased rocket motor size, a newly designed hull, and tail-driven guidance, while still containing six per pod. It will come in unitary and AW variants. The first successful test flight of a ER GMLRS occurred in March 2021. In early 2021, Lockheed Martin anticipated putting the ER into its production line in the fiscal year 2023 contract award and was planning to produce the new rockets at its [Camden](Camden, Arkansas) facility. In 2022 Finland became the first foreign customer to order ER GMLRS. ### GLSDB The Ground Launched Small Diameter Bomb is a weapon made by [Boeing](Boeing) and the [Group](Saab)(Saab Group), who modified Boeing's [Small Diameter Bomb](GBU-39)(GBU-39 Small Diameter Bomb) (SDB) with the addition of a rocket motor. It has a range of up to . ### ATACMS The Army Tactical Missile System (ATACMS) is a series of 610 mm [missile](surface-to-surface)(surface-to-surface missile) (SSM) with a range of up to . Each rocket pod contains one ATACMS missile. As of 2022 only the M48, M57, and M57E1 remain in the US military's active inventory. * M39 (ATACMS BLOCK I) missile with inertial guidance. The missile carries 950 M74 Anti-personnel and Anti‑materiel (APAM) bomblets. Range: . 1,650 M39 were produced between 1990 and 1997, when production ceased in favor of the M39A1. During [Storm](Desert)(Desert Storm) 32 M39 were fired at Iraqi targets and during [Iraqi Freedom](Operation)(Operation Iraqi Freedom) a further 379 M39 were fired. The remaining M39 missiles are being updated since 2017 to M57E1 missiles. The M39 is the only ATACMS variant which can be fired by all M270 and M142 variants. * M39A1 (ATACMS BLOCK IA) missile with GPS-aided guidance. The missile carries 300 M74 Anti-personnel and Anti‑materiel (APAM) bomblets. Range: . 610 M39A1 were produced between 1997 and 2003. During Operation Iraqi Freedom 74 M39A1 were fired at Iraqi targets. The remaining M39A1 missiles are being updated since 2017 to M57E1 missiles. The M39A1 and all subsequently introduced ATACMS missiles can only be used with the M270A1 (or variants thereof) and the M142. * M48 (ATACMS Quick Reaction Unitary (QRU) missile with GPS-aided guidance. It carries the WDU-18/B penetrating high explosive blast fragmentation warhead of the [Navy](US)(US Navy)'s [Harpoon](Harpoon (missile)) anti-ship missile, which was packaged into the newly designed WAU-23/B warhead section. Range: . 176 M48 were produced between 2001 and 2004, when production ceased in favor of the M57. During Operation Iraqi Freedom 16 M48 were fired at Iraqi targets a further 42 M48 were fired during [Enduring Freedom](Operation)(Operation Enduring Freedom). The remaining M48 missiles remain in the [Army](US)(US Army) and [Marine Corps](US)(US Marine Corps)' arsenal. * M57 (ATACMS TACMS 2000) missile with GPS-aided guidance. The missile carries the same WAU-23/B warhead section as the M48. Range: . 513 M57 were produced between 2004 and 2013. * M57E1 (ATACMS Modification (MOD) missile with GPS-aided guidance. The M57E1 is the designation for upgraded M39 and M39A1 with re-grained motor, updated navigation and guidance software and hardware, and a WAU-23/B warhead section instead of the M74 APAM bomblets. The M57E1 ATACMS MOD also includes a proximity sensor for airburst detonation. Production commenced in 2017 with an initial order for 220 upgraded M57E1. The program is slated to end in 2024 with the introduction of the Precision Strike Missile (PrSM), which will replace the ATACMS missiles in the US arsenal. ### PrSM The Precision Strike Missile (PrSM) is a new series of GPS-guided missiles, which will begin to replace ATACMS missiles from 2024. PrSM carries a newly designed area-effects warhead and has a range of . PrSM missiles can be launched from the M270A2 and the M142, with rockets pods containing 2 missiles. As of 2022 the PrSM is in [rate initial production](low)(low rate initial production) with 110 missiles being delivered to the US military over the year. PrSM will enter operational service in 2023. ### Reverse engineering Turkey, in order to obtain M26 supplies without the agreement of the U.S. and because the U.S. was reluctant to share technologies, started reverse-engineering M26 rockets under the SAGE 227 project in order to have its own supply of rockets. During the SAGE-227 project A/B/C/D medium-range composite-fuel artillery rocket and SAGE-227 F experimental guided rocket were developed. * PARS SAGE-227 F (Turkey): Experimental Guided MLRS (GMLRS) developed by [TUBITAK-SAGE](TUBITAK-SAGE) to replace the M26 rockets. ### Israeli rockets [Israel](Israel) developed its own rockets to be used in the "Menatetz", an upgraded version of the M270 MLRS. The rockets are developed and manufactured by [Systems](IMI)(IMI Systems). * Trajectory Corrected Rocket (TCS/RAMAM): In-flight trajectory corrected for enhanced accuracy. * [Romach](Romach): GPS-guided rocket with range, warhead, and accuracy of less than 10 meters.["Israel's new guided missiles system Romah will soon be operational"](http://armyrecognition.com/january_2016_global_defense_security_news_industry/israel_s_new_guided_missiles_system_romah_will_soon_be_operational_31501161.html). . Army Recognition, 15 January 2016 * '''Ra'am Eithan''' ("Strong Thunder"): an improved version of the TCS/RAMAM (in-flight trajectory corrected for enhanced accuracy) with significantly decreased percentage of [dud](dud)s. ### Alternative Warhead Program In April 2012, Lockheed Martin received a $79.4 million contract to develop a GMLRS incorporating an [Techsystems](Alliant)(Alliant Techsystems)-designed alternative warhead to replace [DPICM](DPICM) cluster warheads. The AW version is designed as a drop-in replacement with little modification needed to existing rockets. An Engineering and Manufacturing Development (EMD) program was to last 36 months, with the alternative warhead GMLRS expected to enter service in late 2016.[GMLRS to Get a New Warhead](http://defense-update.com/20120424_gmlrs-to-get-a-new-warhead.html#.U2LjicJOUdU) - Defense-Update.com, 24 April 2012 The AW warhead is a large [airburst](airburst round) fragmentation warhead that explodes over a target area to disperse penetrating projectiles. Considerable damage is caused to a large area while leaving behind only solid metal penetrators and inert rocket fragments[Army tests safer warhead](http://armytechnology.armylive.dodlive.mil/index.php/2014/09/02/army-tests-safer-warhead/) - Armytechnology.Armylive.DoDlive.mil, 2 September 2014 from a warhead containing approximately 182,000 preformed [tungsten](tungsten) fragments.[Guided Multiple Launch Rocket System (GMLRS) Alternative Warhead (GMLRS-AW) M30A1](http://www.dote.osd.mil/pub/reports/FY2015/pdf/army/2015gmlrs.pdf) - Office of the Director, Operational Test & Evaluation. 2015 The unitary GMLRS also has an airburst option, but while it produces a large blast and pieces of shrapnel, the AW round's small pellets cover a larger area.[The new M30A1 GMLRS Alternate Warhead to replace cluster bombs for US Army Central](https://www.armyrecognition.com/weapons_defence_industry_military_technology_uk/the_new_m30a1_gmlrs_alternate_warhead_to_replace_cluster_bombs_for_us_army_central_71601171.html). Army Recognition. 16 January 2017. On 22 May 2013, Lockheed and ATK test fired a GMLRS rocket with a new cluster munition warhead developed under the Alternative Warhead Program (AWP), aimed at producing a drop-in replacement for DPICM bomblets in M30 guided rockets. It was fired by an M142 HIMARS and traveled before detonating. The AWP warhead will have equal or greater effect against materiel and personnel targets, while leaving no unexploded ordnance behind. In October 2013, Lockheed conducted the third and final engineering development test flight of the GMLRS alternative warhead. Three rockets were fired from away and destroyed their ground targets. The Alternative Warhead Program then moved to production qualification testing.[Alternative GMLRS Warhead Completes Third Successful Fight Test](http://www.deagel.com/news/Altenative-GMLRS-Warhead-Completes-Third-Successful-Fight-Test_n000012053.aspx) - Deagel.com, 23 October 2013 The fifth and final Production Qualification Test (PQT) for the AW GMLRS was conducted in April 2014, firing four rockets from a HIMARS at targets away.[Lockheed Martin GMLRS Alternative Warhead Logs Successful Flight-Test Series, Shifts To Next Testing Phase](http://www.lockheedmartin.com/us/news/press-releases/2014/april/mfc-041614-lm-gmlrs-alternative-warhead-logs-successful.html) - Lockheed news release, 16 April 2014 In July 2014, Lockheed successfully completed all Developmental Test/Operational Test (DT/OT) flight tests for the AW GMLRS. They were the first tests conducted with soldiers operating the fire control system, firing rockets at mid and long-range from a HIMARS. The Initial Operational Test and Evaluation (IOT&E) exercise was to be conducted in fall 2014.[Lockheed Martin Completes Successful Operational Flight Tests of GMLRS Alternative Warhead](http://www.deagel.com/news/Lockheed-Martin-Completes-Successful-Operational-Flight-Tests-of-GMLRS-Alternative-Warhead_n000013017.aspx) - Deagel.com, 28 July 2014 In September 2015, Lockheed received a contract for Lot 10 production of the GMLRS unitary rocket, which includes the first order for AW production.[Lockheed Martin GMLRS Alternative Warhead Gets First Order](http://www.marketwatch.com/story/lockheed-martin-gmlrs-alternative-warhead-gets-first-order-2015-09-15) - Marketwatch.com, 15 September 2015 ## Specifications [[File:IDF-M270-MLRS-Israel-60.jpg\|thumb\|"Menatetz" (מנתץ), an Israeli upgraded version of the M270 MLRS used by the [Defense Forces](Israel)(Israel Defense Forces) Artillery Corps]] * Entered service: 1982 (U.S. Army) * First used in action: 1991 (First Gulf War) * Crew: 3 * Weight loaded: * Length: * Width: * Height (stowed): 2.57 m (8 ft 5 in) * Height (max. elevation): not available * Max. road speed: * Cruise range: * Reload time: 4 min (M270) 3 min (M270A1) * Engine: Turbo-charged V8 Cummins VTA903 diesel 500 hp ver2. * [Cross-drive](Cross-drive steering transmission) turbo transmission, fully electronically controlled * Average unit cost: $2.3 million per one launcher (FY 1990), $168,000 per one M31 GMLRS (FY 2023) ## Operators [[operators.png\|thumb\|400px\|Map of M270 operators in blue with former operators in red](File:M270)] [[File:IDF-MLRS-66-IndependenceDay 0055.jpg\|thumb\|[Defense Forces](Israel)(Israel Defense Forces) M270 MLRS "Menatetz" on display]] [[File:多連装ロケットシステム_自走発射機Ｍ２７０008b_装備_167.jpg\|thumb\|[Ground Self-Defense Force](Japan)(Japan Ground Self-Defense Force) M270]] ### Current operators #### M270 * : [Army](Egyptian)(Egyptian Army) (42) * : [Army](Hellenic)(Hellenic Army) (36) ATACMS operational. * : [Ground Self-Defense Force](Japan)(Japan Ground Self-Defense Force) (99). * : [Arabian Army](Saudi)(Saudi Arabian Army) (180) * : [Army](Turkish)(Turkish Army) (12) ATACMS BLK 1A operational. #### M270A1 * : [Bahraini Army](Royal)(Royal Bahraini Army) (9) [ATACMS](ATACMS) operational. * : [Army](Finnish)(Finnish Army) (40), M270D1 called 298 RsRakH 06. 22 M270 were bought from the Netherlands in 2006 and upgraded to M270D1 in 2011. The M270D1 use the M142's Universal Fire Control System instead of the standard M270A1 Improved Fire Control System. A further 6 refurbished M270D1 were obtained from the US in 2014. The remaining 12 former Danish M270 are used for driver training only. * : [Army](French)(French Army) (13), European M270A1 variant called . * : [Army](German)(German Army) (114 M270 stored, 40 MARS II), European M270A1 variant called * : [Ground Forces](Israeli)(Israeli Ground Forces) (64), called "Menatetz" מנתץ, "Smasher" * : [Army](Italian)(Italian Army) (22), European M270A1 variant called MLRS Improved (MLRS-I). * : [of Korea Army](Republic)(Republic of Korea Army) (58) 48 M270s and 10 M270A1s. ATACMS operational. * : [Army](British)(British Army) (44), M270A1 variant called M270B1, which includes an enhanced armor package. The UK intends to double its fleet in the coming years. * : The United Kingdom, Norway, France, Germany and Italy provided more than ten systems to Ukraine in 2022. #### M270A2 * : [States Army](United)(United States Army) (840+151), 225 M270A1 and 160 M270A2 being delivered. The first M270A2 launcher was delivered 9 July 2022.Magnolia Reporter, Camden [ AR](Arkansas ), [(9 Jul 2022) U.S. Army will receive first of upgraded missile launchers Tuesday in Camden](http://www.magnoliareporter.com/news_and_business/local_business/article_99384a02-ff4e-11ec-81a4-731e1962f699.html) GMLRS and ATACMS operational. ### Former operators #### M270 * : [Danish Army](Royal)(Royal Danish Army) (12); sold to Finland * : [Netherlands Army](Royal)(Royal Netherlands Army) (23); retired from service in 2004; 22 sold to Finland in 2006, 1 displayed in a museum * : [Army](Norwegian)(Norwegian Army) (12), put in storage in 2005. Three donated to the United Kingdom to support the corresponding transfer of three British M270B1 MLRS to Ukraine. Another 8 donated in May 2023. * : [States Marine Corps](United)(United States Marine Corps) replaced by [HIMARS](M142)(M142 HIMARS) ## See also * [HIMARS](M142)(M142 HIMARS), which utilize the same pod as MLRS does * [Chunmoo](K239)(K239 Chunmoo), same ammo pod as M270, Korea version * [Sakarya](T-122)(T-122 Sakarya) * [Fajr-5](Fajr-5) * [LAR-160](LAR-160) * [II MLRS](Astros)(Astros II MLRS) * [multi-barrel rocket launcher](Pinaka)(Pinaka multi-barrel rocket launcher) * [Fath-360](Fath 360) * [Smerch](BM-30)(BM-30 Smerch) ## References ## Sources * ## External links * [British MLRS](http://www.army.mod.uk/equipment/23276.aspx) * [Designation Systems](http://www.designation-systems.net/dusrm/app4/mlrs.html) * [Diehl BGT—German developer and manufacturer of GMLRS (site in English)](https://web.archive.org/web/20090126094414/http://www.diehl-bgt.de/index.php?id=551&L=1) * [Danish M270 MLRS](https://web.archive.org/web/20081023141714/http://www.danskpanser.dk/Baeltekoretojer/M270A1.htm) [artillery of the United States](Category:Self-propelled)(Category:Self-propelled artillery of the United States) [self-propelled rocket launchers](Category:Tracked)(Category:Tracked self-propelled rocket launchers) [weapons](Category:Salvo)(Category:Salvo weapons) [rocket launchers of the United States](Category:Multiple)(Category:Multiple rocket launchers of the United States) [rocket launchers](Category:Modular)(Category:Modular rocket launchers) [munition](Category:Cluster)(Category:Cluster munition) [vehicles introduced in the 1980s](Category:Military)(Category:Military vehicles introduced in the 1980s)
Neal Mohan	neal_mohan	# Neal Mohan Revision ID: 1159977657 \| Timestamp: 2023-06-13T19:05:46Z --- \| birth_place = [Indiana](Lafayette,)(Lafayette, Indiana), U.S. \| education = [University](Stanford)(Stanford University) ([BS](Bachelor of Science), [MBA](Master of Business Administration)) \| predecessor = [Wojcicki](Susan)(Susan Wojcicki) \| occupation = Business executive \| title = CEO of YouTube \| boards = \| spouse = \| module = }} Neal Mohan (born 1973) is an [American](United States) business executive who is the current CEO of [YouTube](YouTube). Mohan was born in [Indiana](Lafayette,)(Lafayette, Indiana). He spent most of his childhood growing up in the United States before moving to India during adolescence. By the 1990s, he moved back to the US and attended [University](Stanford)(Stanford University). Following his graduation in 1996, he worked at [Accenture](Accenture), before joining a [startup](Startup company) called NetGravity. He swiftly became a prominent figure within the company. After returning to Stanford in 2003 to pursue his [MBA](Master of Business Administration), Net Gravity's parent company, [DoubleClick](DoubleClick), which had acquired the company in 1997, began to undergo serious issues stemming from another 1999 acquisition of Abacus Direct; this ultimately led to the merger being effectively annulled. Mohan was enlisted by David Rosenblatt, who had become DoubleClick's new CEO in the wake of the split, to work at the company in 2005. Together, they reoriented the company, devising a plan said to still have an influence on [Google's](Google) operations. DoubleClick was acquired by Google in 2007, an acquisition largely oriented by Google executive [Wojcicki](Susan)(Susan Wojcicki). She and Mohan extensively worked together for the next fifteen years. In 2015, Mohan became CPO of YouTube, which Wojcicki headed as CEO. Throughout the late 2010s and early 2020s, he spearheaded much of the company's ventures, such as [TV](YouTube)(YouTube TV), [Music](YouTube)(YouTube Music), [Premium](YouTube)(YouTube Premium), [Shorts](YouTube)(YouTube Shorts), and YouTube [NFTs](Non-fungible token). Upon Wojcicki's resignation in February 2023, he succeeded her as CEO of YouTube. ## Early life Neal Mohan was born in 1973 in [Indiana](Lafayette,)(Lafayette, Indiana) into a [Hindu](Hindus) family of [Indian](Indian people) origin.https://geniuscelebs.com/neal-mohan-parents-religion-family-and-ethnicity/ He grew up in the U.S state of [Michigan](Michigan), as well as in [Florida](Florida), before briefly spending a few more years in India during high school at [Francis' College](St.)(St. Francis' College). At some point between then and the 1990s, Mohan moved back to the United States. He attended [University](Stanford)(Stanford University), graduating in 1996 with a [degree](Academic degree) in [engineering](electrical)(electrical engineering). ## Career ### Accenture and NetGravity After graduation, Mohan worked at [Accenture](Accenture), then owned by [Andersen](Arthur)(Arthur Andersen). In 1997, he joined a [startup](Startup company) called NetGravity, becoming a key figure in the company's operations and greatly expanding its prominence. ### DoubleClick In 1997, NetGravity was acquired by [DoubleClick](DoubleClick). Mohan moved from California to the company's headquarters in New York. In the next several years, he gradually became more involved in central business affairs within the company, with DoubleClick relying on him for cutting costs in the wake of the burst of the [bubble](dot-com)(dot-com bubble). He became the vice president of business operations. In 2003, he returned to Stanford to pursue his [MBA](MBA). While he was at Stanford, DoubleClick began to face serious issues stemming from its acquisition of Abacus Direct in 1999. The merger was [facto](de)(de facto) annulled by [& Friedman](Hellman)(Hellman & Friedman), who acquired DoubleClick and split off Abacus Direct from it. Hellman & Friedman requested that longtime executive David Rosenblatt become CEO of DoubleClick in the wake of the company's partition. Rosenblatt accepted this offer and also enlisted Mohan after he acquired his MBA in 2005, under Mohan's conditions that he would stay in California. Together, Rosenblatt and Mohan devised a plan to orient DoubleClick towards being a company vested upon advertising exchange, core ad technology situations, and an extensive ad network. This plan was outlined in a 400-slide PowerPoint presentation, said by those who created or have seen it to still have influence on current business plans by [Google](Google). The plan was presented to the board of DoubleClick and Hellman & Friedman in December 2005, who approved it. ### Google [[Disrupt NY 2013 Day Two ft Neal Mohan (cropped).jpg\|thumb\|Mohan at the 2013 Tech Crunch Disrupt conference](File:TechCrunch)] On April 13, 2007, Google agreed to [DoubleClick](acquire)(DoubleClick#Acquisition) for US$3.1 billion. Google executive [Wojcicki](Susan)(Susan Wojcicki) largely orchestrated this action. For the next 15 years, she worked extensively with Mohan, who formally joined Google in 2007, playing a key role in the integration process with DoubleClick While at Google, Mohan managed the company's 2010 US$85 million acquisition of [Media](Invite)(Invite Media). Before moving to YouTube, he was senior vice president of display and video ads at Google. In 2011, Rosenblatt, who was now a board member of [Twitter](Twitter, Inc.), attempted to hire Mohan as chief product officer. Though Mohan nearly accepted, Google paid him US$ 100 million in order to remain at the company. A former [Facebook](Meta Platforms) senior executive also stated that he attempted to hire Mohan while he was at Google. ### YouTube [[File:SM0 7311.jpg\|thumb\|Mohan at Collision 2017 in [Orleans](New)(New Orleans), [Louisiana](Louisiana)]] Mohan joined YouTube (a Google subsidiary) in 2015 as Chief Product Officer. During his time at the company, he managed a number of its marquees throughout the late 2010s and early 2020s, including [Music](YouTube)(YouTube Music), [TV](YouTube)(YouTube TV), [Premium](YouTube)(YouTube Premium), [Shorts](YouTube)(YouTube Shorts), and YouTube NFTs. Following September 2020, Mohan appeared before Congress and participated in a White House summit, during which he introduced a new content moderation policy for YouTube aimed at addressing violent extremist content on the platform. This policy expanded upon previous ones targeting groups such as ISIS, by prohibiting content that glorified violence or sought to recruit or fundraise for extremist organizations, regardless of whether the content was directly associated with a designated terrorist group. Concurrently, YouTube initiated a media literacy campaign to assist viewers, particularly younger ones, in recognizing manipulation techniques employed in the dissemination of misinformation. On February 16, 2023, Mohan was selected to succeed [Wojcicki](Susan)(Susan Wojcicki) as YouTube's CEO. ## Other ventures Mohan has also worked with [Microsoft](Microsoft) and currently sits on the boards of [Fix](Stitch)(Stitch Fix) and [23andMe](23andMe). ## Personal life Mohan is married to Hema Sareen Mohan, who has worked in the [non-profit](Nonprofit organization) and [welfare](public)(public welfare) sectors for two decades. He married his wife while in New York during his time working for DoubleClick. ## References ## External links * [Neal Mohan](https://twitter.com/nealmohan) on [Twitter](Twitter) [chief executives](Category:American)(Category:American chief executives) [people of Indian descent](Category:American)(Category:American people of Indian descent) [people](Category:Living)(Category:Living people) [of birth missing (living people)](Category:Place)(Category:Place of birth missing (living people)) [births](Category:1973)(Category:1973 births) [University School of Engineering alumni](Category:Stanford)(Category:Stanford University School of Engineering alumni)
Singular value decomposition	singular_value_decomposition	# Singular value decomposition Revision ID: 1152545459 \| Timestamp: 2023-04-30T21:56:09Z --- [[of the singular value decomposition UΣV⁎ of a real 2×2 matrix M. ](File:Singular-Value-Decomposition.svg\|thumb\|Illustration)] In [algebra](linear)(linear algebra), the singular value decomposition (SVD) is a [factorization](Matrix decomposition) of a [real](real number) or [complex](complex number) [matrix](matrix (mathematics)). It generalizes the [eigendecomposition](eigendecomposition) of a square [matrix](normal)(normal matrix) with an orthonormal eigenbasis to any \ m \times n\ matrix. It is related to the [decomposition](polar)(polar decomposition#Matrix polar decomposition). Specifically, the singular value decomposition of an \ m \times n\ complex matrix is a factorization of the form \ \mathbf{M} = \mathbf{U\Sigma V^}\ , where is an \ m \times m\ complex [matrix](unitary)(unitary matrix), \ \mathbf{\Sigma}\ is an \ m \times n\ [diagonal matrix](rectangular)(rectangular diagonal matrix) with non-negative real numbers on the diagonal, is an n \times n complex unitary matrix, and \ \mathbf{V^}\ is the [transpose](conjugate)(conjugate transpose) of . Such decomposition always exists for any complex matrix. If is real, then and can be guaranteed to be real [orthogonal](orthogonal matrix) matrices; in such contexts, the SVD is often denoted \ \mathbf{ U\Sigma V}^\mathsf{T}\ . The diagonal entries \ \sigma_i = \Sigma_{i i}\ of \ \mathbf{\Sigma}\ are uniquely determined by and are known as the [value](singular)(singular value)s of . The number of non-zero singular values is equal to the [rank](rank of a matrix) of . The columns of and the columns of are called left-singular vectors and right-singular vectors of , respectively. They form two sets of [bases](orthonormal)(orthonormal basis) , ..., u }} and , ..., v }}, and if they are sorted so that the singular values \ \sigma_i\ with value zero are all in the highest-numbered columns (or rows), the singular value decomposition can be written as \ \mathbf{M} = \sum_{i=1}^{r}\sigma_i\mathbf{u}_i\mathbf{v}_i^{}\ , where \ r \leq \min\{m,n\}\ is the rank of . The SVD is not unique. It is always possible to choose the decomposition so that the singular values \Sigma_{i i} are in descending order. In this case, \mathbf{\Sigma} (but not and ) is uniquely determined by . The term sometimes refers to the compact SVD, a similar decomposition \ \mathbf{M} = \mathbf{U\Sigma V^}\ in which \ \mathbf{\Sigma}\ is square diagonal of size r \times r, where \ r \leq \min\{m,n\}\ is the rank of , and has only the non-zero singular values. In this variant, is an m \times r [matrix](semi-unitary)(semi-orthogonal matrix) and \ \mathbf{V}\ is an n \times r [matrix](semi-unitary)(semi-orthogonal matrix), such that \ \mathbf{U^* U} = \mathbf{V^* V} = \mathbf{I}_r\ . Mathematical applications of the SVD include computing the [pseudoinverse](Moore–Penrose pseudoinverse), matrix approximation, and determining the rank, [range](range of a matrix), and [space](null)(kernel (matrix)) of a matrix. The SVD is also extremely useful in all areas of science, [engineering](engineering), and [statistics](statistics), such as [processing](signal)(signal processing), [squares](least)(least squares) fitting of data, and [control](process)(process control). ## Intuitive interpretations [[File:Singular value decomposition.gif\|thumb\|right\|280px\|Animated illustration of the SVD of a 2D, real [matrix](shearing)(Shear mapping) . First, we see the [disc](unit)(unit disc) in blue together with the two [unit vectors](canonical)(standard basis). We then see the actions of , which distorts the disk to an [ellipse](ellipse). The SVD decomposes into three simple transformations: an initial [rotation](Rotation matrix) , a [scaling](Scaling matrix) \mathbf{\Sigma} along the coordinate axes, and a final rotation . The lengths and of the [semi-axes](Ellipse#Elements of an ellipse) of the ellipse are the [value](singular)(singular value)s of , namely and .]] [[of the matrix multiplications in singular value decomposition](File:Singular_value_decomposition_visualisation.svg\|thumb\|Visualization)] ### Rotation, coordinate scaling, and reflection In the special case when is an real [matrix](square)(square matrix), the matrices and can be chosen to be real matrices too. In that case, "unitary" is the same as "[orthogonal](orthogonal matrix)". Then, interpreting both unitary matrices as well as the diagonal matrix, summarized here as , as a [transformation](linear)(linear transformation) of the space , the matrices and represent [rotations](rotation (geometry)) or [reflection](reflection (geometry)) of the space, while \mathbf{\Sigma} represents the [scaling](scaling matrix) of each coordinate by the factor . Thus the SVD decomposition breaks down any linear transformation of into a [composition](function composition) of three geometrical [transformations](transformation (geometry)): a rotation or reflection (), followed by a coordinate-by-coordinate [scaling](scaling (geometry)) (\mathbf{\Sigma}), followed by another rotation or reflection (). In particular, if has a positive determinant, then and can be chosen to be both rotations with reflections, or both rotations without reflections. If the determinant is negative, exactly one of them will have a reflection. If the determinant is zero, each can be independently chosen to be of either type. If the matrix is real but not square, namely with , it can be interpreted as a linear transformation from to . Then and can be chosen to be rotations/reflections of and , respectively; and \mathbf{\Sigma}, besides scaling the first \min\{m,n\} coordinates, also extends the vector with zeros, i.e. removes trailing coordinates, so as to turn into . ### Singular values as semiaxes of an ellipse or ellipsoid As shown in the figure, the [values](singular)(singular values) can be interpreted as the magnitude of the semiaxes of an [ellipse](ellipse) in 2D. This concept can be generalized to -dimensional [space](Euclidean)(Euclidean space), with the singular values of any [matrix](square)(square matrix) being viewed as the magnitude of the semiaxis of an -dimensional [ellipsoid](ellipsoid). Similarly, the singular values of any matrix can be viewed as the magnitude of the semiaxis of an -dimensional [ellipsoid](ellipsoid) in -dimensional space, for example as an ellipse in a (tilted) 2D plane in a 3D space. Singular values encode magnitude of the semiaxis, while singular vectors encode direction. See [below](#Geometric meaning) for further details. ### The columns of and are orthonormal bases Since and are unitary, the columns of each of them form a set of [vectors](orthonormal)(orthonormal vectors), which can be regarded as [vectors](basis)(basis vectors). The matrix maps the basis vector to the stretched unit vector . By the definition of a unitary matrix, the same is true for their conjugate transposes and , except the geometric interpretation of the singular values as stretches is lost. In short, the columns of , and are [bases](orthonormal)(Orthonormal basis). When \mathbf{M} is a [positive-semidefinite](Definite matrix) [matrix](Hermitian)(Hermitian matrix), and are both equal to the unitary matrix used to diagonalize \mathbf{M}. However, when \mathbf{M} is not positive-semidefinite and Hermitian but still [diagonalizable](diagonalizable), its [eigendecomposition](eigendecomposition) and singular value decomposition are distinct. ### Geometric meaning Because and are unitary, we know that the columns of yield an [basis](orthonormal)(orthonormal basis) of and the columns of yield an orthonormal basis of (with respect to the standard [product](scalar)(scalar product)s on these spaces). The [transformation](linear)(linear transformation) :T \colon \left\{\begin{aligned} K^n &\to K^m \\ x &\mapsto \mathbf{M}x \end{aligned}\right. has a particularly simple description with respect to these orthonormal bases: we have :T(\mathbf{V}_i) = \sigma_i \mathbf{U}_i, \qquad i = 1, \ldots, \min(m, n), where is the -th diagonal entry of \mathbf{\Sigma}, and for . The geometric content of the SVD theorem can thus be summarized as follows: for every linear map one can find orthonormal bases of and such that maps the -th basis vector of to a non-negative multiple of the -th basis vector of , and sends the left-over basis vectors to zero. With respect to these bases, the map is therefore represented by a diagonal matrix with non-negative real diagonal entries. To get a more visual flavor of singular values and SVD factorization – at least when working on real vector spaces – consider the sphere of radius one in . The linear map maps this sphere onto an [ellipsoid](ellipsoid) in . Non-zero singular values are simply the lengths of the [semi-axes](Semi-minor axis) of this ellipsoid. Especially when , and all the singular values are distinct and non-zero, the SVD of the linear map can be easily analyzed as a succession of three consecutive moves: consider the ellipsoid and specifically its axes; then consider the directions in sent by onto these axes. These directions happen to be mutually orthogonal. Apply first an isometry sending these directions to the coordinate axes of . On a second move, apply an [endomorphism](endomorphism) diagonalized along the coordinate axes and stretching or shrinking in each direction, using the semi-axes lengths of as stretching coefficients. The composition then sends the unit-sphere onto an ellipsoid isometric to . To define the third and last move, apply an isometry to this ellipsoid to obtain . As can be easily checked, the composition coincides with . ## Example Consider the matrix :\mathbf{M} = \begin{bmatrix} 1 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 2 \\ 0 & 0 & 3 & 0 & 0 \\ 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 \\ 0 & 2 & 0 & 0 & 0 \end{bmatrix} A singular value decomposition of this matrix is given by :\begin{align} \mathbf{U} &= \begin{bmatrix} \color{Green}0 & \color{Blue}-1 & \color{Cyan}0 & \color{Emerald}0 \\ \color{Green}-1 & \color{Blue}0 & \color{Cyan}0 & \color{Emerald}0 \\ \color{Green}0 & \color{Blue}0 & \color{Cyan}0 & \color{Emerald}-1 \\ \color{Green}0 & \color{Blue}0 & \color{Cyan}-1 & \color{Emerald}0 \end{bmatrix} \\[6pt] \boldsymbol{\Sigma} &= \begin{bmatrix} 3 & 0 & 0 & 0 & \color{Gray}\mathit{0} \\ 0 & \sqrt{5} & 0 & 0 & \color{Gray}\mathit{0} \\ 0 & 0 & 2 & 0 & \color{Gray}\mathit{0} \\ 0 & 0 & 0 & \color{Red}\mathbf{0} & \color{Gray}\mathit{0} \end{bmatrix} \\[6pt] \mathbf{V}^* &= \begin{bmatrix} \color{Violet}0 & \color{Violet}0 & \color{Violet}-1 & \color{Violet}0 &\color{Violet}0 \\ \color{Plum}-\sqrt{0.2}& \color{Plum}0 & \color{Plum}0 & \color{Plum}0 &\color{Plum}-\sqrt{0.8} \\ \color{Magenta}0 & \color{Magenta}-1 & \color{Magenta}0 & \color{Magenta}0 &\color{Magenta}0 \\ \color{Orchid}0 & \color{Orchid}0 & \color{Orchid}0 & \color{Orchid}1 &\color{Orchid}0 \\ \color{Purple} - \sqrt{0.8} & \color{Purple}0 & \color{Purple}0 & \color{Purple}0 & \color{Purple}\sqrt{0.2} \end{bmatrix} \end{align} The scaling matrix \mathbf{\Sigma} is zero outside of the diagonal (grey italics) and one diagonal element is zero (red bold, light blue bold in dark mode). Furthermore, because the matrices and are [unitary](unitary matrix), multiplying by their respective conjugate transposes yields [matrices](identity)(identity matrix), as shown below. In this case, because and are real valued, each is an [matrix](orthogonal)(orthogonal matrix). :\begin{align} \mathbf{U} \mathbf{U}^* &= \begin{bmatrix} 1 & 0 & 0 & 0 \\ 0 & 1 & 0 & 0 \\ 0 & 0 & 1 & 0 \\ 0 & 0 & 0 & 1 \end{bmatrix} = \mathbf{I}_4 \\[6pt] \mathbf{V} \mathbf{V}^* &= \begin{bmatrix} 1 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 \\ 0 & 1 & 0 & 0 & 0 \\ 0 & 0 & 1 & 0 & 0 \\ 0 & 0 & 0 & 1 & 0 \\ 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 1 \end{bmatrix} = \mathbf{I}_5 \end{align} This particular singular value decomposition is not unique. Choosing \mathbf V such that :\mathbf{V}^* = \begin{bmatrix} \color{Violet}0 & \color{Violet}1 & \color{Violet}0 & \color{Violet}0 & \color{Violet}0 \\ \color{Plum}0 & \color{Plum}0 & \color{Plum}1 & \color{Plum}0 & \color{Plum}0 \\ \color{Magenta}\sqrt{0.2} & \color{Magenta}0 & \color{Magenta}0 & \color{Magenta}0 & \color{Magenta}\sqrt{0.8} \\ \color{Orchid}\sqrt{0.4} & \color{Orchid}0 & \color{Orchid}0 & \color{Orchid}\sqrt{0.5} & \color{Orchid}-\sqrt{0.1} \\ \color{Purple}-\sqrt{0.4} & \color{Purple}0 & \color{Purple}0 & \color{Purple}\sqrt{0.5} & \color{Purple}\sqrt{0.1} \end{bmatrix} is also a valid singular value decomposition. ## SVD and spectral decomposition ### Singular values, singular vectors, and their relation to the SVD A non-negative real number is a [value](singular)(singular value) for if and only if there exist unit-length vectors \mathbf{u} in Km and \mathbf{v} in Kn such that :\mathbf{M v} = \sigma \mathbf{u} \,\text{ and } \mathbf{M}^\mathbf{u} = \sigma \mathbf{v}. The vectors \mathbf{u} and \mathbf{v} are called left-singular* and right-singular vectors for , respectively. In any singular value decomposition :\mathbf{M} = \mathbf{U} \boldsymbol{\Sigma} \mathbf{V}^* the diagonal entries of \mathbf{\Sigma} are equal to the singular values of . The first columns of and are, respectively, left- and right-singular vectors for the corresponding singular values. Consequently, the above theorem implies that: * An matrix has at most distinct singular values. * It is always possible to find a [basis](unitary)(orthogonal basis) for with a subset of basis vectors spanning the left-singular vectors of each singular value of . * It is always possible to find a unitary basis for with a subset of basis vectors spanning the right-singular vectors of each singular value of . A singular value for which we can find two left (or right) singular vectors that are linearly independent is called degenerate. If \mathbf{u}_1 and \mathbf{u}_2 are two left-singular vectors which both correspond to the singular value σ, then any normalized linear combination of the two vectors is also a left-singular vector corresponding to the singular value σ. The similar statement is true for right-singular vectors. The number of independent left and right-singular vectors coincides, and these singular vectors appear in the same columns of and corresponding to diagonal elements of \mathbf{\Sigma} all with the same value σ. As an exception, the left and right-singular vectors of singular value 0 comprise all unit vectors in the [cokernel](cokernel) and [kernel](Kernel (linear algebra)), respectively, of , which by the [theorem](rank–nullity)(rank–nullity theorem) cannot be the same dimension if . Even if all singular values are nonzero, if then the cokernel is nontrivial, in which case is padded with orthogonal vectors from the cokernel. Conversely, if , then is padded by orthogonal vectors from the kernel. However, if the singular value of 0 exists, the extra columns of or already appear as left or right-singular vectors. Non-degenerate singular values always have unique left- and right-singular vectors, up to multiplication by a unit-phase factor eiφ (for the real case up to a sign). Consequently, if all singular values of a square matrix are non-degenerate and non-zero, then its singular value decomposition is unique, up to multiplication of a column of by a unit-phase factor and simultaneous multiplication of the corresponding column of by the same unit-phase factor. In general, the SVD is unique up to arbitrary unitary transformations applied uniformly to the column vectors of both and spanning the subspaces of each singular value, and up to arbitrary unitary transformations on vectors of and spanning the kernel and cokernel, respectively, of . ### Relation to eigenvalue decomposition The singular value decomposition is very general in the sense that it can be applied to any matrix, whereas [decomposition](eigenvalue)(eigenvalue decomposition) can only be applied to [matrices](diagonalizable)(Diagonalizable matrix). Nevertheless, the two decompositions are related. Given an SVD of , as described above, the following two relations hold: :\begin{align} \mathbf{M}^* \mathbf{M} &= \mathbf{V} \boldsymbol{\Sigma}^* \mathbf{U}^\, \mathbf{U} \boldsymbol{\Sigma} \mathbf{V}^ = \mathbf{V} (\boldsymbol{\Sigma}^* \boldsymbol{\Sigma}) \mathbf{V}^* \\ \mathbf{M} \mathbf{M}^* &= \mathbf{U} \boldsymbol{\Sigma} \mathbf{V}^\, \mathbf{V} \boldsymbol{\Sigma}^ \mathbf{U}^* = \mathbf{U} (\boldsymbol{\Sigma} \boldsymbol{\Sigma}^) \mathbf{U}^ \end{align} The right-hand sides of these relations describe the eigenvalue decompositions of the left-hand sides. Consequently: * The columns of (right-singular vectors) are [eigenvectors](eigenvectors) of . * The columns of (left-singular vectors) are eigenvectors of . * The non-zero elements of \mathbf{\Sigma} (non-zero singular values) are the square roots of the non-zero [eigenvalues](eigenvalues) of or . In the special case that is a [matrix](normal)(normal matrix), which by definition must be square, the [theorem](spectral)(Spectral theorem#Finite-dimensional case) says that it can be [unitarily](Unitary transform) [diagonalized](Diagonalizable matrix) using a basis of [eigenvector](eigenvector)s, so that it can be written for a unitary matrix and a diagonal matrix with complex elements along the diagonal. When is [semi-definite](positive)(Positive-definite matrix), will be non-negative real numbers so that the decomposition is also a singular value decomposition. Otherwise, it can be recast as an SVD by moving the phase of each to either its corresponding or . The natural connection of the SVD to non-normal matrices is through the [decomposition](polar)(polar decomposition) theorem: , where is positive semidefinite and normal, and is unitary. Thus, except for positive semi-definite matrices, the eigenvalue decomposition and SVD of , while related, differ: the eigenvalue decomposition is , where is not necessarily unitary and is not necessarily positive semi-definite, while the SVD is , where \mathbf{\Sigma} is diagonal and positive semi-definite, and and are unitary matrices that are not necessarily related except through the matrix . While only [non-defective](defective matrix) square matrices have an eigenvalue decomposition, any m \times n matrix has a SVD. ## Applications of the SVD ### Pseudoinverse The singular value decomposition can be used for computing the [pseudoinverse](Moore–Penrose pseudoinverse) of a matrix. (Various authors use different notation for the pseudoinverse; here we use .) Indeed, the pseudoinverse of the matrix with singular value decomposition is : where is the pseudoinverse of , which is formed by replacing every non-zero diagonal entry by its [reciprocal](Multiplicative inverse) and transposing the resulting matrix. The pseudoinverse is one way to solve [least squares](linear)(linear least squares (mathematics)) problems. ### Solving homogeneous linear equations A set of [linear equation](homogeneous)(homogeneous linear equation)s can be written as for a matrix and vector . A typical situation is that is known and a non-zero is to be determined which satisfies the equation. Such an belongs to 's [space](null)(Kernel (matrix)) and is sometimes called a (right) null vector of . The vector can be characterized as a right-singular vector corresponding to a singular value of that is zero. This observation means that if is a [matrix](square)(square matrix) and has no vanishing singular value, the equation has no non-zero as a solution. It also means that if there are several vanishing singular values, any linear combination of the corresponding right-singular vectors is a valid solution. Analogously to the definition of a (right) null vector, a non-zero satisfying , with denoting the conjugate transpose of , is called a left null vector of . ### Total least squares minimization A [least squares](total)(total least squares) problem seeks the vector that minimizes the [2-norm](Vector norm#p-norm) of a vector under the constraint x = 1}}. The solution turns out to be the right-singular vector of corresponding to the smallest singular value. ### Range, null space and rank Another application of the SVD is that it provides an explicit representation of the [range](Column space) and [space](null)(null space) of a matrix . The right-singular vectors corresponding to vanishing singular values of span the null space of and the left-singular vectors corresponding to the non-zero singular values of span the range of . For example, in the above [example](#Example) the null space is spanned by the last two rows of and the range is spanned by the first three columns of . As a consequence, the [rank](rank of a matrix) of equals the number of non-zero singular values which is the same as the number of non-zero diagonal elements in \mathbf{\Sigma}. In numerical linear algebra the singular values can be used to determine the effective rank of a matrix, as [error](rounding)(rounding error) may lead to small but non-zero singular values in a rank deficient matrix. Singular values beyond a significant gap are assumed to be numerically equivalent to zero. ### Low-rank matrix approximation Some practical applications need to solve the problem of [approximating](Low-rank_approximation) a matrix with another matrix \tilde{\mathbf{M}}, said to be [truncated](#Truncated SVD), which has a specific rank . In the case that the approximation is based on minimizing the [norm](Frobenius)(Frobenius norm) of the difference between and \tilde{\mathbf{M}} under the constraint that \operatorname{rank}\left(\tilde{\mathbf{M}}\right) = r, it turns out that the solution is given by the SVD of , namely : \tilde{\mathbf{M}} = \mathbf{U} \tilde{\boldsymbol{\Sigma}} \mathbf{V}^, where \tilde{\boldsymbol{\Sigma}} is the same matrix as \mathbf{\Sigma} except that it contains only the largest singular values (the other singular values are replaced by zero). This is known as the [theorem](Eckart–Young)(Low-rank_approximation), as it was proved by those two authors in 1936 (although it was later found to have been known to earlier authors; see ). ### Separable models The SVD can be thought of as decomposing a matrix into a weighted, ordered sum of separable matrices. By separable, we mean that a matrix can be written as an [product](outer)(outer product) of two vectors , or, in coordinates, A_{ij} = u_i v_j. Specifically, the matrix can be decomposed as : \mathbf{M} = \sum_i \mathbf{A}_i = \sum_i \sigma_i \mathbf U_i \otimes \mathbf V_i. Here and are the -th columns of the corresponding SVD matrices, are the ordered singular values, and each is separable. The SVD can be used to find the decomposition of an image processing filter into separable horizontal and vertical filters. Note that the number of non-zero is exactly the rank of the matrix. Separable models often arise in biological systems, and the SVD factorization is useful to analyze such systems. For example, some visual area V1 simple cells' receptive fields can be well described by a [filter](Gabor)(Gabor filter) in the space domain multiplied by a modulation function in the time domain. Thus, given a linear filter evaluated through, for example, [correlation](reverse)(Spike-triggered average), one can rearrange the two spatial dimensions into one dimension, thus yielding a two-dimensional filter (space, time) which can be decomposed through SVD. The first column of in the SVD factorization is then a Gabor while the first column of represents the time modulation (or vice versa). One may then define an index of separability : \alpha = \frac{\sigma_1^2}{\sum_i \sigma_i^2}, which is the fraction of the power in the matrix M which is accounted for by the first separable matrix in the decomposition. ### Nearest orthogonal matrix It is possible to use the SVD of a square matrix to determine the [matrix](orthogonal)(orthogonal matrix) closest to . The closeness of fit is measured by the [norm](Frobenius)(Frobenius norm) of . The solution is the product .[The Singular Value Decomposition in Symmetric (Lowdin) Orthogonalization and Data Compression](http://www.wou.edu/~beavers/Talks/Willamette1106.pdf) This intuitively makes sense because an orthogonal matrix would have the decomposition where is the identity matrix, so that if then the product amounts to replacing the singular values with ones. Equivalently, the solution is the unitary matrix of the Polar Decomposition R}} in either order of stretch and rotation, as described above. A similar problem, with interesting applications in [analysis](shape)(shape analysis (digital geometry)), is the [Procrustes problem](orthogonal)(orthogonal Procrustes problem), which consists of finding an orthogonal matrix which most closely maps to . Specifically, : \mathbf{O} = \underset\Omega\operatorname{argmin} \\|\mathbf{A}\boldsymbol{\Omega} - \mathbf{B}\\|_F \quad\text{subject to}\quad \boldsymbol{\Omega}^\textsf{T}\boldsymbol{\Omega} = \mathbf{I}, where \\| \cdot \\|_F denotes the Frobenius norm. This problem is equivalent to finding the nearest orthogonal matrix to a given matrix B}}. ### The Kabsch algorithm The [algorithm](Kabsch)(Kabsch algorithm) (called [problem](Wahba's)(Wahba's problem) in other fields) uses SVD to compute the optimal rotation (with respect to least-squares minimization) that will align a set of points with a corresponding set of points. It is used, among other applications, to compare the structures of molecules. ### Signal processing The SVD and pseudoinverse have been successfully applied to [processing](signal)(signal processing), [processing](image)(image processing) and [data](big)(big data) (e.g., in genomic signal processing). ### Astrodynamics In [Astrodynamics](Astrodynamics), the SVD and its variants are used as an option to determine suitable maneuver directions for transfer trajectory design and [station-keeping](Orbital)(Orbital station-keeping). ### Other examples The SVD is also applied extensively to the study of linear [problem](inverse)(inverse problem)s and is useful in the analysis of regularization methods such as that of [Tikhonov](Tikhonov regularization). It is widely used in statistics, where it is related to [component analysis](principal)(principal component analysis) and to [analysis](correspondence)(correspondence analysis), and in [processing](signal)(signal processing) and [recognition](pattern)(pattern recognition). It is also used in output-only [analysis](modal)(modal analysis), where the non-scaled [shape](mode)(mode shape)s can be determined from the singular vectors. Yet another usage is [semantic indexing](latent)(latent semantic indexing) in natural-language text processing. In general numerical computation involving linear or linearized systems, there is a universal constant that characterizes the regularity or singularity of a problem, which is the system's "condition number" \kappa := \sigma_\text{max} / \sigma_\text{min}. It often controls the error rate or convergence rate of a given computational scheme on such systems. The SVD also plays a crucial role in the field of [information](quantum)(quantum information), in a form often referred to as the [decomposition](Schmidt)(Schmidt decomposition). Through it, states of two quantum systems are naturally decomposed, providing a necessary and sufficient condition for them to be [entangled](Quantum entanglement): if the rank of the \mathbf{\Sigma} matrix is larger than one. One application of SVD to rather large matrices is in [weather prediction](numerical)(numerical weather prediction), where [methods](Lanczos)(Lanczos algorithm) are used to estimate the most linearly quickly growing few perturbations to the central numerical weather prediction over a given initial forward time period; i.e., the singular vectors corresponding to the largest singular values of the linearized propagator for the global weather over that time interval. The output singular vectors in this case are entire weather systems. These perturbations are then run through the full nonlinear model to generate an [forecast](ensemble)(ensemble forecasting), giving a handle on some of the uncertainty that should be allowed for around the current central prediction. SVD has also been applied to reduced order modelling. The aim of reduced order modelling is to reduce the number of degrees of freedom in a complex system which is to be modeled. SVD was coupled with [basis functions](radial)(radial basis functions) to interpolate solutions to three-dimensional unsteady flow problems. Interestingly, SVD has been used to improve gravitational waveform modeling by the ground-based gravitational-wave interferometer aLIGO. SVD can help to increase the accuracy and speed of waveform generation to support gravitational-waves searches and update two different waveform models. Singular value decomposition is used in [systems](recommender)(recommender systems) to predict people's item ratings. Distributed algorithms have been developed for the purpose of calculating the SVD on clusters of commodity machines. Low-rank SVD has been applied for hotspot detection from spatiotemporal data with application to disease [outbreak](outbreak) detection. A combination of SVD and [SVD](higher-order)(Higher-order singular value decomposition) also has been applied for real time event detection from complex data streams (multivariate data with space and time dimensions) in [surveillance](disease)(disease surveillance). ## Proof of existence An eigenvalue of a matrix is characterized by the algebraic relation . When is [Hermitian](Hermitian matrix), a variational characterization is also available. Let be a real [matrix](symmetric)(symmetric matrix). Define :\begin{cases} f : \R^n \to \R \\ f : \mathbf{x} \mapsto \mathbf{x}^\textsf{T} \mathbf{M} \mathbf{x} \end{cases} By the [value theorem](extreme)(extreme value theorem), this continuous function attains a maximum at some u* when restricted to the unit sphere {\|\|x\|\| = 1}. By the [multipliers](Lagrange)(Lagrange multipliers) theorem, u necessarily satisfies :\nabla \mathbf{u}^\textsf{T} \mathbf{M} \mathbf{u} - \lambda \cdot \nabla \mathbf{u}^\textsf{T} \mathbf{u} = 0 for some real number . The nabla symbol, , is the [del](del) operator (differentiation with respect to x). Using the symmetry of we obtain :\nabla \mathbf{x}^\textsf{T} \mathbf{M} \mathbf{x} - \lambda \cdot \nabla \mathbf{x}^\textsf{T} \mathbf{x} = 2(\mathbf{M}-\lambda \mathbf{I})\mathbf{x}. Therefore , so u is a unit length eigenvector of . For every unit length eigenvector v of its eigenvalue is f(v), so is the largest eigenvalue of . The same calculation performed on the orthogonal complement of u gives the next largest eigenvalue and so on. The complex Hermitian case is similar; there is a real-valued function of real variables. Singular values are similar in that they can be described algebraically or from variational principles. Although, unlike the eigenvalue case, Hermiticity, or symmetry, of is no longer required. This section gives these two arguments for existence of singular value decomposition. ### Based on the spectral theorem Let \mathbf{M} be an complex matrix. Since \mathbf{M}^* \mathbf{M} is positive semi-definite and Hermitian, by the [theorem](spectral)(spectral theorem), there exists an unitary matrix \mathbf{V} such that : \mathbf{V}^* \mathbf{M}^* \mathbf{M} \mathbf{V} = \bar\mathbf{D} = \begin{bmatrix} \mathbf{D} & 0 \\ 0 & 0\end{bmatrix}, where \mathbf{D} is diagonal and positive definite, of dimension \ell\times \ell, with \ell the number of non-zero eigenvalues of \mathbf{M}^* \mathbf{M} (which can be shown to verify \ell\le\min(n,m)). Note that \mathbf{V} is here by definition a matrix whose i-th column is the i-th eigenvector of \mathbf{M}^* \mathbf{M}, corresponding to the eigenvalue \bar{\mathbf{D}}_{ii}. Moreover, the j-th column of \mathbf{V}, for j>\ell, is an eigenvector of \mathbf{M}^* \mathbf{M} with eigenvalue \bar{\mathbf{D}}_{jj}=0. This can be expressed by writing \mathbf{V} as \mathbf{V}=\begin{bmatrix}\mathbf{V}_1 &\mathbf{V}_2\end{bmatrix}, where the columns of \mathbf{V}_1 and \mathbf{V}_2 therefore contain the eigenvectors of \mathbf{M}^* \mathbf{M} corresponding to non-zero and zero eigenvalues, respectively. Using this rewriting of \mathbf{V}, the equation becomes: : \begin{bmatrix} \mathbf{V}_1^* \\ \mathbf{V}_2^* \end{bmatrix} \mathbf{M}^* \mathbf{M} \begin{bmatrix} \mathbf{V}_1 & \mathbf{V}_2 \end{bmatrix} = \begin{bmatrix} \mathbf{V}_1^* \mathbf{M}^* \mathbf{M} \mathbf{V}_1 & \mathbf{V}_1^* \mathbf{M}^* \mathbf{M} \mathbf{V}_2 \\ \mathbf{V}_2^* \mathbf{M}^* \mathbf{M} \mathbf{V}_1 & \mathbf{V}_2^* \mathbf{M}^* \mathbf{M} \mathbf{V}_2 \end{bmatrix} = \begin{bmatrix} \mathbf{D} & 0 \\ 0 & 0 \end{bmatrix}. This implies that : \mathbf{V}_1^* \mathbf{M}^* \mathbf{M} \mathbf{V}_1 = \mathbf{D}, \quad \mathbf{V}_2^* \mathbf{M}^* \mathbf{M} \mathbf{V}_2 = \mathbf{0}. Moreover, the second equation implies \mathbf{M}\mathbf{V}_2 = \mathbf{0}.To see this, we just have to notice that \operatorname{Tr}(\mathbf{V}_2^* \mathbf{M}^* \mathbf{M} \mathbf{V}_2) = \\|\mathbf{M} \mathbf{V}_2\\|^2, and remember that \\|A\\| = 0 \Leftrightarrow A = 0. Finally, the unitary-ness of \mathbf{V} translates, in terms of \mathbf{V}_1 and \mathbf{V}_2, into the following conditions: : \begin{align} \mathbf{V}_1^* \mathbf{V}_1 &= \mathbf{I}_1, \\ \mathbf{V}_2^* \mathbf{V}_2 &= \mathbf{I}_2, \\ \mathbf{V}_1 \mathbf{V}_1^* + \mathbf{V}_2 \mathbf{V}_2^* &= \mathbf{I}_{12}, \end{align} where the subscripts on the identity matrices are used to remark that they are of different dimensions. Let us now define : \mathbf{U}_1 = \mathbf{M} \mathbf{V}_1 \mathbf{D}^{-\frac{1}{2}}. Then, : \mathbf{U}_1 \mathbf{D}^\frac{1}{2} \mathbf{V}_1^* = \mathbf{M} \mathbf{V}_1 \mathbf{D}^{-\frac{1}{2}} \mathbf{D}^\frac{1}{2} \mathbf{V}_1^* = \mathbf{M} (\mathbf{I} - \mathbf{V}_2\mathbf{V}_2^) = \mathbf{M} - (\mathbf{M}\mathbf{V}_2)\mathbf{V}_2^ = \mathbf{M}, since \mathbf{M}\mathbf{V}_2 = \mathbf{0}. This can be also seen as immediate consequence of the fact that \mathbf{M}\mathbf{V}_1\mathbf{V}_1^* = \mathbf{M}. This is equivalent to the observation that if \{\boldsymbol v_i\}_{i=1}^\ell is the set of eigenvectors of \mathbf{M}^* \mathbf{M} corresponding to non-vanishing eigenvalues \{\lambda_i\}_{i=1}^\ell, then \{\mathbf M \boldsymbol v_i\}_{i=1}^\ell is a set of orthogonal vectors, and \{\lambda_i^{-1/2}\mathbf M \boldsymbol v_i\}_{i=1}^\ell is a (generally not complete) set of orthonormal vectors. This matches with the matrix formalism used above denoting with \mathbf{V}_1 the matrix whose columns are \{\boldsymbol v_i\}_{i=1}^\ell, with \mathbf{V}_2 the matrix whose columns are the eigenvectors of \mathbf{M}^* \mathbf{M} with vanishing eigenvalue, and \mathbf{U}_1 the matrix whose columns are the vectors \{\lambda_i^{-1/2}\mathbf M \boldsymbol v_i\}_{i=1}^\ell. We see that this is almost the desired result, except that \mathbf{U}_1 and \mathbf{V}_1 are in general not unitary, since they might not be square. However, we do know that the number of rows of \mathbf{U}_1 is no smaller than the number of columns, since the dimensions of \mathbf{D} is no greater than m and n. Also, since : \mathbf{U}_1^\mathbf{U}_1 = \mathbf{D}^{-\frac{1}{2}}\mathbf{V}_1^\mathbf{M}^\mathbf{M} \mathbf{V}_1 \mathbf{D}^{-\frac{1}{2}}=\mathbf{D}^{-\frac{1}{2}}\mathbf{D}\mathbf{D}^{-\frac{1}{2}} = \mathbf{I_1}, the columns in \mathbf{U}_1 are orthonormal and can be extended to an orthonormal basis. This means that we can choose \mathbf{U}_2 such that \mathbf{U} = \begin{bmatrix} \mathbf{U}_1 & \mathbf{U}_2 \end{bmatrix} is unitary. For we already have to make it unitary. Now, define : \boldsymbol{\Sigma} = \begin{bmatrix} \begin{bmatrix} \mathbf{D}^\frac{1}{2} & 0 \\ 0 & 0 \end{bmatrix} \\ 0 \end{bmatrix}, where extra zero rows are added or removed* to make the number of zero rows equal the number of columns of , and hence the overall dimensions of \boldsymbol{\Sigma} equal to m\times n. Then : \begin{bmatrix} \mathbf{U}_1 & \mathbf{U}_2 \end{bmatrix} \begin{bmatrix} \begin{bmatrix} \mathbf{}D^\frac{1}{2} & 0 \\ 0 & 0 \end{bmatrix} \\ 0 \end{bmatrix} \begin{bmatrix} \mathbf{V}_1 & \mathbf{V}_2 \end{bmatrix}^* = \begin{bmatrix} \mathbf{U}_1 & \mathbf{U}_2 \end{bmatrix} \begin{bmatrix} \mathbf{D}^\frac{1}{2} \mathbf{V}_1^* \\ 0 \end{bmatrix} = \mathbf{U}_1 \mathbf{D}^\frac{1}{2} \mathbf{V}_1^* = \mathbf{M}, which is the desired result: : \mathbf{M} = \mathbf{U} \boldsymbol{\Sigma} \mathbf{V}^. Notice the argument could begin with diagonalizing rather than (This shows directly that and have the same non-zero eigenvalues). ### Based on variational characterization The singular values can also be characterized as the maxima of Mv}}, considered as a function of and , over particular subspaces. The singular vectors are the values of and where these maxima are attained. Let denote an matrix with real entries. Let be the unit (k-1)-sphere in \mathbb{R}^k , and define \sigma(\mathbf{u}, \mathbf{v}) = \mathbf{u}^\textsf{T} \mathbf{M} \mathbf{v},\ \mathbf{u} \in S^{m-1}, \mathbf{v} \in S^{n-1}. Consider the function restricted to . Since both and are [compact](compact space) sets, their [product](Product topology) is also compact. Furthermore, since is continuous, it attains a largest value for at least one pair of vectors and . This largest value is denoted and the corresponding vectors are denoted and . Since is the largest value of it must be non-negative. If it were negative, changing the sign of either or would make it positive and therefore larger. Statement.* are left and right-singular vectors of with corresponding singular value σ1. Proof. Similar to the eigenvalues case, by assumption the two vectors satisfy the Lagrange multiplier equation: :\nabla \sigma = \nabla \mathbf{u}^\textsf{T} \mathbf{M} \mathbf{v} - \lambda_1 \cdot \nabla \mathbf{u}^\textsf{T} \mathbf{u} - \lambda_2 \cdot \nabla \mathbf{v}^\textsf{T} \mathbf{v} After some algebra, this becomes :\begin{align} \mathbf{M} \mathbf{v}_{1} &= 2 \lambda_1 \mathbf{u}_1 + 0 \\ \mathbf{M}^\textsf{T} \mathbf{u}_{1} &= 0 + 2 \lambda_2 \mathbf{v}_1 \end{align} Multiplying the first equation from left by \mathbf{u}_1^\textsf{T} and the second equation from left by \mathbf{v}_1^\textsf{T} and taking u = v = 1}} into account gives :\sigma_1 = 2\lambda_1 = 2\lambda_2. Plugging this into the pair of equations above, we have :\begin{align} \mathbf{M} \mathbf{v}_1 &= \sigma_1 \mathbf{u}_1\\ \mathbf{M}^\textsf{T} \mathbf{u}_1 &= \sigma_1 \mathbf{v}_1 \end{align} This proves the statement. More singular vectors and singular values can be found by maximizing over normalized which are orthogonal to and , respectively. The passage from real to complex is similar to the eigenvalue case. ## Calculating the SVD The singular value decomposition can be computed using the following observations: * The left-singular vectors of are a set of [orthonormal](orthonormal) [eigenvectors](eigenvectors) of . * The right-singular vectors of are a set of orthonormal eigenvectors of . * The non-zero singular values of (found on the diagonal entries of \mathbf{\Sigma}) are the square roots of the non-zero [eigenvalues](eigenvalues) of both and . ### Numerical approach The SVD of a matrix is typically computed by a two-step procedure. In the first step, the matrix is reduced to a [matrix](bidiagonal)(bidiagonal matrix). This takes [O](big O notation)(mn2) floating-point operations (flop), assuming that m ≥ n. The second step is to compute the SVD of the bidiagonal matrix. This step can only be done with an [method](iterative)(iterative method) (as with [algorithm](eigenvalue)(eigenvalue algorithm)s). However, in practice it suffices to compute the SVD up to a certain precision, like the [epsilon](machine)(machine epsilon). If this precision is considered constant, then the second step takes O(n) iterations, each costing O(n) flops. Thus, the first step is more expensive, and the overall cost is O(mn2) flops . The first step can be done using [reflection](Householder)(Householder reflection)s for a cost of 4mn2 − 4n3/3 flops, assuming that only the singular values are needed and not the singular vectors. If m is much larger than n then it is advantageous to first reduce the matrix to a triangular matrix with the [decomposition](QR)(QR decomposition) and then use Householder reflections to further reduce the matrix to bidiagonal form; the combined cost is 2mn2 + 2n3 flops . The second step can be done by a variant of the [algorithm](QR)(QR algorithm) for the computation of eigenvalues, which was first described by . The [LAPACK](LAPACK) subroutine DBDSQR[Netlib.org](http://www.netlib.org/lapack/double/dbdsqr.f) implements this iterative method, with some modifications to cover the case where the singular values are very small . Together with a first step using Householder reflections and, if appropriate, QR decomposition, this forms the DGESVD[Netlib.org](http://www.netlib.org/lapack/double/dgesvd.f) routine for the computation of the singular value decomposition. The same algorithm is implemented in the [Scientific Library](GNU)(GNU Scientific Library) (GSL). The GSL also offers an alternative method that uses a one-sided [orthogonalization](Jacobi)(Jacobi orthogonalization) in step 2 . This method computes the SVD of the bidiagonal matrix by solving a sequence of 2 × 2 SVD problems, similar to how the [eigenvalue algorithm](Jacobi)(Jacobi eigenvalue algorithm) solves a sequence of 2 × 2 eigenvalue methods . Yet another method for step 2 uses the idea of [eigenvalue algorithm](divide-and-conquer)(divide-and-conquer eigenvalue algorithm)s . There is an alternative way that does not explicitly use the eigenvalue decomposition.[mathworks.co.kr/matlabcentral/fileexchange/12674-simple-svd](http://www.mathworks.co.kr/matlabcentral/fileexchange/12674-simple-svd) Usually the singular value problem of a matrix is converted into an equivalent symmetric eigenvalue problem such as , , or : \begin{bmatrix} \mathbf{O} & \mathbf{M} \\ \mathbf{M}^* & \mathbf{O} \end{bmatrix}. The approaches that use eigenvalue decompositions are based on the [algorithm](QR)(QR algorithm), which is well-developed to be stable and fast. Note that the singular values are real and right- and left- singular vectors are not required to form similarity transformations. One can iteratively alternate between the [decomposition](QR)(QR decomposition) and the [decomposition](LQ)(LQ decomposition) to find the real diagonal [matrices](Hermitian)(Hermitian matrix). The [decomposition](QR)(QR decomposition) gives and the [decomposition](LQ)(LQ decomposition) of gives . Thus, at every iteration, we have , update and repeat the orthogonalizations. Eventually, this iteration between [decomposition](QR)(QR decomposition) and [decomposition](LQ)(LQ decomposition) produces left- and right- unitary singular matrices. This approach cannot readily be accelerated, as the QR algorithm can with spectral shifts or deflation. This is because the shift method is not easily defined without using similarity transformations. However, this iterative approach is very simple to implement, so is a good choice when speed does not matter. This method also provides insight into how purely orthogonal/unitary transformations can obtain the SVD. ### Analytic result of 2 × 2 SVD The singular values of a 2 × 2 matrix can be found analytically. Let the matrix be \mathbf{M} = z_0\mathbf{I} + z_1\sigma_1 + z_2\sigma_2 + z_3\sigma_3 where z_i \in \mathbb{C} are complex numbers that parameterize the matrix, is the identity matrix, and \sigma_i denote the [matrices](Pauli)(Pauli matrices). Then its two singular values are given by :\begin{align} \sigma_\pm &= \sqrt{\|z_0\|^2 + \|z_1\|^2 + \|z_2\|^2 + \|z_3\|^2 \pm \sqrt{(\|z_0\|^2 + \|z_1\|^2 + \|z_2\|^2 + \|z_3\|^2)^2 - \|z_0^2 - z_1^2 - z_2^2 - z_3^2\|^2}} \\ &= \sqrt{\|z_0\|^2 + \|z_1\|^2 + \|z_2\|^2 + \|z_3\|^2 \pm 2\sqrt{(\operatorname{Re}z_0z_1^)^2 + (\operatorname{Re}z_0z_2^)^2 + (\operatorname{Re}z_0z_3^)^2 + (\operatorname{Im}z_1z_2^)^2 + (\operatorname{Im}z_2z_3^)^2 + (\operatorname{Im}z_3z_1^)^2}} \end{align} ## Reduced SVDs [[Singular Value Decompositions.svg\|thumb\|Visualization of Reduced SVD variants. From top to bottom: 1: Full SVD, 2: Thin SVD (remove columns of U not corresponding to rows of V), 3: Compact SVD (remove vanishing singular values and corresponding columns/rows in U and V), 4: Truncated SVD (keep only largest t singular values and corresponding columns/rows in U and V)](File:Reduced)] In applications it is quite unusual for the full SVD, including a full unitary decomposition of the null-space of the matrix, to be required. Instead, it is often sufficient (as well as faster, and more economical for storage) to compute a reduced version of the SVD. The following can be distinguished for an m×n* matrix M of rank r: ### Thin SVD The thin, or economy-sized, SVD of a matrix M is given by :\mathbf{M} = \mathbf{U}_k \boldsymbol{\Sigma}_k \mathbf{V}^_k, where :k = \operatorname{min}(m, n), the matrices U*k and Vk contain only the first k columns of U and V, and Σk contains only the first k singular values from Σ. The matrix Uk is thus m×k, Σk is k×k diagonal, and Vk* is k×n. The thin SVD uses significantly less space and computation time if k ≪ max(m, n). The first stage in its calculation will usually be a [decomposition](QR)(QR decomposition) of M, which can make for a significantly quicker calculation in this case. ### Compact SVD :\mathbf{M} = \mathbf{U}_r \boldsymbol{\Sigma}_r \mathbf{V}_r^* Only the r column vectors of U and r row vectors of V* corresponding to the non-zero singular values Σr are calculated. The remaining vectors of U and V* are not calculated. This is quicker and more economical than the thin SVD if r ≪ min(m, n). The matrix Ur is thus m×r, Σr is r×r diagonal, and Vr* is r×n. ### Truncated SVD In many applications the number r of the non-zero singular values is large making even the Compact SVD impractical to compute. In such cases, the smallest singular values may need to be truncated to compute only t ≪ r non-zero singular values. The truncated SVD is no longer an exact decomposition of the original matrix M, but rather provides the optimal [matrix approximation](low-rank)(#Low-rank matrix approximation) \tilde{\mathbf{M}} by any matrix of a fixed rank t :\tilde{\mathbf{M}} = \mathbf{U}_t \boldsymbol{\Sigma}_t \mathbf{V}_t^, where matrix U*t is m×t, Σt is t×t diagonal, and Vt* is t×n. Only the t column vectors of U and t row vectors of V* corresponding to the t largest singular values Σt are calculated. This can be much quicker and more economical than the compact SVD if t≪r, but requires a completely different toolset of numerical solvers. In applications that require an approximation to the [inverse](Moore–Penrose)(Moore–Penrose inverse) of the matrix M, the smallest singular values of M are of interest, which are more challenging to compute compared to the largest ones. Truncated SVD is employed in [semantic indexing](latent)(latent semantic indexing). ## Norms ### Ky Fan norms The sum of the k largest singular values of M is a [norm](matrix)(matrix norm), the [Fan](Ky)(Ky Fan) k-norm of M. The first of the Ky Fan norms, the Ky Fan 1-norm, is the same as the [norm](operator)(operator norm) of M as a linear operator with respect to the Euclidean norms of Km and Kn. In other words, the Ky Fan 1-norm is the operator norm induced by the standard ℓ2 Euclidean inner product. For this reason, it is also called the operator 2-norm. One can easily verify the relationship between the Ky Fan 1-norm and singular values. It is true in general, for a bounded operator M on (possibly infinite-dimensional) Hilbert spaces :\\| \mathbf{M} \\| = \\| \mathbf{M}^* \mathbf{M} \\|^\frac{1}{2} But, in the matrix case, (M M)1/2 is a [matrix](normal)(normal matrix), so \|\|M* M\|\|1/2 is the largest eigenvalue of (M* M)1/2, i.e. the largest singular value of M. The last of the Ky Fan norms, the sum of all singular values, is the [norm](trace)(trace class) (also known as the 'nuclear norm'), defined by \|\|M\|\| = Tr[M)1/2]((M) (the eigenvalues of M M* are the squares of the singular values). ### Hilbert–Schmidt norm The singular values are related to another norm on the space of operators. Consider the [Hilbert–Schmidt](Hilbert–Schmidt operator) inner product on the matrices, defined by :\langle \mathbf{M}, \mathbf{N} \rangle = \operatorname{tr} \left (\mathbf{N}^\mathbf{M} \right ). So the induced norm is :\\| \mathbf{M} \\| = \sqrt{\langle \mathbf{M}, \mathbf{M}\rangle} = \sqrt{\operatorname{tr} \left (\mathbf{M}^\mathbf{M} \right )}. Since the trace is invariant under unitary equivalence, this shows :\\| \mathbf{M} \\| = \sqrt{\sum_i \sigma_i ^2} where are the singular values of . This is called the [norm](Frobenius)(Frobenius norm), Schatten 2-norm, or Hilbert–Schmidt norm of . Direct calculation shows that the Frobenius norm of coincides with: :\sqrt{\sum_{ij} \| m_{ij} \|^2}. In addition, the Frobenius norm and the trace norm (the nuclear norm) are special cases of the [norm](Schatten)(Schatten norm). ## Variations and generalizations ### Scale-invariant SVD The singular values of a matrix A are uniquely defined and are invariant with respect to left and/or right unitary transformations of A. In other words, the singular values of UAV, for unitary U and V, are equal to the singular values of A. This is an important property for applications in which it is necessary to preserve Euclidean distances and invariance with respect to rotations. The Scale-Invariant SVD, or SI-SVD, is analogous to the conventional SVD except that its uniquely-determined singular values are invariant with respect to diagonal transformations of A. In other words, the singular values of DAE, for invertible diagonal matrices D and E, are equal to the singular values of A. This is an important property for applications for which invariance to the choice of units on variables (e.g., metric versus imperial units) is needed. ### Bounded operators on Hilbert spaces The factorization can be extended to a [operator](bounded)(bounded operator) M on a separable Hilbert space H. Namely, for any bounded operator M, there exist a [isometry](partial)(partial isometry) U, a unitary V, a measure space (X, μ), and a non-negative measurable f such that :\mathbf{M} = \mathbf{U} T_f \mathbf{V}^* where T_f is the [by f](multiplication)(multiplication operator) on L2(X, μ). This can be shown by mimicking the linear algebraic argument for the matricial case above. VTfV* is the unique positive square root of MM, as given by the [functional calculus](Borel)(Borel functional calculus) for [operator](self-adjoint)(self-adjoint operator)s. The reason why U* need not be unitary is because, unlike the finite-dimensional case, given an isometry U1 with nontrivial kernel, a suitable U2 may not be found such that :\begin{bmatrix} U_1 \\ U_2 \end{bmatrix} is a unitary operator. As for matrices, the singular value factorization is equivalent to the [decomposition](polar)(polar decomposition) for operators: we can simply write :\mathbf{M} = \mathbf{U} \mathbf{V}^* \cdot \mathbf{V} T_f \mathbf{V}^* and notice that U V* is still a partial isometry while VTfV* is positive. ### Singular values and compact operators The notion of singular values and left/right-singular vectors can be extended to [operator on Hilbert space](compact)(compact operator on Hilbert space) as they have a discrete spectrum. If is compact, every non-zero in its spectrum is an eigenvalue. Furthermore, a compact self-adjoint operator can be diagonalized by its eigenvectors. If is compact, so is . Applying the diagonalization result, the unitary image of its positive square root has a set of orthonormal eigenvectors {{math\|{ei}}} corresponding to strictly positive eigenvalues {{math\|{σi}}}. For any , : \mathbf{M} \psi = \mathbf{U} T_f \mathbf{V}^* \psi = \sum_i \left \langle \mathbf{U} T_f \mathbf{V}^* \psi, \mathbf{U} e_i \right \rangle \mathbf{U} e_i = \sum_i \sigma_i \left \langle \psi, \mathbf{V} e_i \right \rangle \mathbf{U} e_i, where the series converges in the norm topology on . Notice how this resembles the expression from the finite-dimensional case. are called the singular values of . {{math\|{Uei}}} (resp. {{math\|{Vei}}}) can be considered the left-singular (resp. right-singular) vectors of . Compact operators on a Hilbert space are the closure of [operator](finite-rank)(finite-rank operator)s in the uniform operator topology. The above series expression gives an explicit such representation. An immediate consequence of this is: :Theorem. is compact if and only if is compact. ## History The singular value decomposition was originally developed by [geometers](differential)(differential geometry), who wished to determine whether a real [form](bilinear)(bilinear form) could be made equal to another by independent orthogonal transformations of the two spaces it acts on. [Beltrami](Eugenio)(Eugenio Beltrami) and [Jordan](Camille)(Camille Jordan) discovered independently, in 1873 and 1874 respectively, that the singular values of the bilinear forms, represented as a matrix, form a [set](complete)(Complete set of invariants) of [invariant](invariant (mathematics))s for bilinear forms under orthogonal substitutions. [Joseph Sylvester](James)(James Joseph Sylvester) also arrived at the singular value decomposition for real square matrices in 1889, apparently independently of both Beltrami and Jordan. Sylvester called the singular values the canonical multipliers of the matrix A. The fourth mathematician to discover the singular value decomposition independently is [Autonne](Léon Autonne) in 1915, who arrived at it via the [decomposition](polar)(polar decomposition). The first proof of the singular value decomposition for rectangular and complex matrices seems to be by [Eckart](Carl)(Carl Eckart) and [J. Young](Gale)(Gale J. Young) in 1936; they saw it as a generalization of the [axis](principal)(Principal axis theorem) transformation for [matrices](Hermitian)(Hermitian matrix). In 1907, [Schmidt](Erhard)(Erhard Schmidt) defined an analog of singular values for [operator](integral)(integral operator)s (which are compact, under some weak technical assumptions); it seems he was unaware of the parallel work on singular values of finite matrices. This theory was further developed by [Picard](Émile)(Émile Picard) in 1910, who is the first to call the numbers \sigma_k singular values (or in French, valeurs singulières). Practical methods for computing the SVD date back to [Kogbetliantz](Ervand Kogbetliantz) in 1954–1955 and [Hestenes](Magnus Hestenes) in 1958, resembling closely the [eigenvalue algorithm](Jacobi)(Jacobi eigenvalue algorithm), which uses plane rotations or [rotation](Givens)(Givens rotation)s. However, these were replaced by the method of [Golub](Gene)(Gene H. Golub) and [Kahan](William)(William Kahan) published in 1965, which uses [transformation](Householder)(Householder transformation)s or reflections. In 1970, Golub and Christian Reinsch published a variant of the Golub/Kahan algorithm that is still the one most-used today. ## See also ## Notes ## References * * * * * * * * Halldor, Bjornsson and Venegas, Silvia A. (1997). ["A manual for EOF and SVD analyses of climate data"](http://brunnur.vedur.is/pub/halldor/TEXT/eofsvd.html). McGill University, CCGCR Report No. 97-1, Montréal, Québec, 52pp. * * * * * * * * ## External links * [Online SVD calculator](http://engineerjs.com/doc/ejs/engine/linalg-1/_svd.html) [ ](Category:Singular value decomposition) [algebra](Category:Linear)(Category:Linear algebra) [linear algebra](Category:Numerical)(Category:Numerical linear algebra) [theory](Category:Matrix)(Category:Matrix theory) [decompositions](Category:Matrix)(Category:Matrix decompositions) [analysis](Category:Functional)(Category:Functional analysis)
Xinjiang	xinjiang	# Xinjiang Revision ID: 1160113123 \| Timestamp: 2023-06-14T13:52:36Z --- \| translit_lang1_info = () \| translit_lang1_type1 = \| translit_lang1_info1 = )}} \| translit_lang1_type2 = \| translit_lang1_info2 = XJ / () \| image_skyline = }} }} \| image_alt = \| image_caption = \| image_map = Xinjiang in China (de-facto) (+all claims hatched).svg \| map_alt = \| map_caption = Location of Xinjiang within China \| coordinates = \| named_for = \| subdivision_type = [Country](Sovereign state) \| subdivision_name = [China](China) \| seat_type = Capitaland largest city \| seat = [Ürümqi](Ürümqi) \| parts_type = Divisions - [Prefecture-level](Prefecture-level divisions of China) - [County-level](County-level division) - [/>level](Township-[prefectures](14)(List of administrative divisions of Xinjiang)95 counties1142 towns and subdistricts \| government_type = [region](Autonomous)(Autonomous regions of China) \| governing_body = Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Regional People's Congress \| leader_title = [Secretary](CCP)(Chinese Communist Party Committee Secretary) \| leader_name = [Xingrui](Ma)(Ma Xingrui) \| leader_title1 = Congress Chairwoman \| leader_name1 = [Obul](Zumret)(Zumret Obul) \| leader_title2 = Government Chairman \| leader_name2 = [Tuniyaz](Erkin)(Erkin Tuniyaz) \| leader_title3 = Regional [CPPCC](Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference) Chairman \| leader_name3 = [Abilmazhinuly](Nurlan)(Nurlan Abilmazhinuly) \| leader_title4 = [People's Congress](National)(National People's Congress) Representation \| leader_name4 = 60 deputies \| area_footnotes = \| area_total_km2 = 1664897 \| area_rank = [1st](List of Chinese administrative divisions by area) \| elevation_max_m = 8,611 \| elevation_max_point = [K2](Mount)(Mount K2) \| elevation_min_m = −154 \| elevation_min_point = [Ayding](Lake)(Lake Ayding) \| population_footnotes = \| population_total = 25,890,000 \| population_as_of = 2021 \| population_rank = [21st](List of Chinese administrative divisions by population) \| population_density_km2 = auto \| population_density_rank = [29th](List of Chinese administrative divisions by population density) \| demographics_type1 = Demographics \| demographics1_footnotes = \| demographics1_title1 = Ethniccomposition ([Census](2020)(Seventh National Population Census of the People's Republic of China)) \| demographics1_info1 = \| demographics1_title2 = and dialects}} \| demographics1_info2 = \|[Mandarin](Mandarin Chinese) (official)\|[Kazakh](Kazakh language)\|[Kyrgyz](Kyrgyz language)\|[Mongolian](Mongolian language)\|[Oirat](Oirat language)\|43 other languages}} \| iso_code = CN-XJ \| blank_name_sec1 = GDP \| blank_info_sec1 = 2022 \| blank1_name_sec1 =  – Total \| blank1_info_sec1 = ¥1.7 trillion ([23rd](List of Chinese administrative divisions by GDP))$263 billion (nominal) \| blank2_name_sec1 =  – Per capita \| blank2_info_sec1 = ¥68,552 ([19th](List of Chinese administrative divisions by GDP per capita))$10,190 (nominal) \| blank3_name_sec1 =  – Growth \| blank3_info_sec1 = 3.2% \| blank4_name_sec2 = [HDI](Human Development Index) (2021) \| blank4_info_sec2 = 0.738 ([24th](List of Chinese administrative divisions by HDI)) – \| website = \| footnotes = }} Xinjiang\|p=Xīnjiāng}}; , [SASM/GNC](SASM/GNC romanization): }} (, ), officially the '''Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region (XUAR'''), is an [region](autonomous)(Autonomous regions of China) of the [Republic of China](People's)(China) (PRC), located in the [of the country](northwest)(Northwest China) at the crossroads of [Asia](Central)(Central Asia) and [Asia](East)(East Asia). Being the [province-level division of China by area](largest)(List of Chinese administrative divisions by area) and the [country subdivision](8th-largest)(List of the largest country subdivisions by area) in the world, Xinjiang spans over and has about 25 million inhabitants. Xinjiang [borders](Borders of China) the countries of [Mongolia](Mongolia), [Russia](Russia), [Kazakhstan](Kazakhstan), [Kyrgyzstan](Kyrgyzstan), [Tajikistan](Tajikistan), [Afghanistan](Afghanistan), [Pakistan](Pakistan) and [India](India). The rugged [Karakoram](Karakoram), [Kunlun](Kunlun Mountains) and [Shan](Tian)(Tian Shan) mountain ranges occupy much of Xinjiang's borders, as well as its western and southern regions. The [Chin](Aksai)(Aksai Chin) and [Tract](Trans-Karakoram)(Trans-Karakoram Tract) regions, both administered by China, are claimed by India. Xinjiang also borders the [Autonomous Region](Tibet)(Tibet Autonomous Region) and the provinces of [Gansu](Gansu) and [Qinghai](Qinghai). The most well-known route of the historic [Road](Silk)(Silk Road) ran through the territory from the east to its northwestern border. Xinjiang is divided into the [Basin](Dzungarian)(Dzungaria) in the north and the [Basin](Tarim)(Tarim Basin) in the south by a mountain range and only about 9.7% of Xinjiang's land area is fit for human habitation. It is home to a number of ethnic groups, including the [Uyghurs](Uyghurs), [Kazakhs](Kazakhs), [Kyrgyz](Kyrgyz people), the [Chinese](Han)(Han Chinese), [Tibetans](Tibetan people), [Hui](Hui people), [Tajiks](Chinese)(Chinese Tajiks) ([Pamiris](Pamiris)), [Mongols](Mongols in China), [Russians](Russians in China) and [Sibe](Sibe people). There are more than a dozen autonomous prefectures and counties for minorities in Xinjiang. Older English-language reference works often refer to the area as Chinese Turkestan, East Turkestan and East Turkistan. With a documented history of at least 2,500 years, a succession of people and empires have vied for control over all or parts of this territory. The territory came under the rule of the [dynasty](Qing)(Qing dynasty) in the 18th century, which was later replaced by the [of China](Republic)(Republic of China (1912–1949)). Since 1949 and the [Civil War](Chinese)(Chinese Civil War), it has been part of the People's Republic of China. In 1954, the [Communist Party](Chinese)(Chinese Communist Party) (CCP) established the [Production and Construction Corps](Xinjiang)(Xinjiang Production and Construction Corps) (XPCC) to strengthen border defense against the Soviet Union and promote the local economy by settling soldiers into the region. In 1955, Xinjiang was administratively changed from a [province](Xinjiang Province) into an [region](autonomous)(Autonomous regions of China). In recent decades, abundant oil and mineral reserves have been found in Xinjiang and it is currently China's largest natural gas-producing region. From the 1990s to the 2010s, the [Turkestan independence movement](East)(East Turkestan independence movement), [conflict](separatist)(Xinjiang conflict) and the influence of [Islam](radical)(Islamic extremism) have resulted in unrest in the region with [terrorist attacks](occasional)(Terrorism in China#Xinjiang) and clashes between separatist and government forces. These conflicts prompted the [government](Chinese)(Government of China) to commit a [of ongoing human rights abuses](series)(Uyghur genocide) against Uyghurs and other ethnic and religious minorities in the province including, according to some, [genocide](Uyghur genocide). ## Names \| l = "New Frontier" \| p = Xīnjiāng \| w = Hsin1-chiang1 \| mi = \| bpmf = ㄒㄧㄣ   ㄐㄧㄤ \| gr = Shinjiang \| mps = Shinjihang \| tp = Sinjiang \| myr = Syīnjyāng \| showflag = p \| xej = ثٍ‌ڭِیَانْ \| zh-dungan = Щинҗён \| psp = Sinkiang \| j = San1goeng1 \| y = Sān'gēung \| ci = \| poj = Sin-kiong \| buc = Sĭng-giŏng \| teo = Sing-kiang \| h = Sîn-kiông \| altname = Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region \| psp2 = Sinkiang Uyghur Autonomous Region \| s2 = }} \| t2 = }} \| p2 = \| bpmf2 = ㄒㄧㄣ   ㄐㄧㄤㄨㄟˊ   ㄨˊ   ㄦˇㄗˋ   ㄓˋ   ㄑㄩ \| w2 = Hsin1-chiang1 Wei2-wu2-êrh3 Tzŭ4-chih4-chʻü1 \| mi2 = \| gr2 = Shinjiang Weiwueel Tzyhjyhchiu \| mps2 = Shinjiang Wheihuel Tzyhgukhickhu \| myr2 = Syīnjyāng Wéiwúěr Dz̀jr̀chyū \| tp2 = Sinjiang Wéiwú'ěr Zìhjhìhcyu \| wuu2 = \| poj2 = (Classical) (Khalkha) \| uig = \| uly = \| uyy = \| sgs = \| usy = \|\| \|\| \|\| BaíYáng Shì \|} ### Urban areas ## Geography and geology [[File:Karakorum-d04.jpg\|thumb\|Close to [Highway](Karakoram)(Karakoram Highway) in Xinjiang.]] Xinjiang is the largest [subdivision of China](political)(Administrative divisions of the People's Republic of China), accounting for more than one sixth of China's total territory and a quarter of its boundary length. Xinjiang is mostly covered with uninhabitable deserts and dry grasslands, with dotted oases conducive to habitation accounting for 9.7% of Xinjiang's total area by 2015 at the foot of Tian Shan, [Mountains](Kunlun)(Kunlun Mountains) and [Mountains](Altai)(Altai Mountains), respectively. ### Mountain systems and basins Xinjiang is split by the Tian Shan mountain range (, Tengri Tagh, Тәңри Тағ), which divides it into two large basins: the [Basin](Dzungarian)(Dzungarian Basin) in the north and the Tarim Basin in the south. A small V-shaped wedge between these two major basins, limited by the Tian Shan's main range in the south and the [Mountains](Borohoro)(Borohoro Mountains) in the north, is the basin of the [River](Ili)(Ili River), which flows into Kazakhstan's [Balkhash](Lake)(Lake Balkhash); an even smaller wedge farther north is the [Valley](Emin)(Emin Valley). [[File:Fly over Pamir Mountains and Karakoram Highway.jpg\|thumb\|upright\|left\|[Mountains](Pamir)(Pamir Mountains) and [Ata](Muztagh)(Muztagh Ata).]] Other major mountain ranges of Xinjiang include the [Mountains](Pamir)(Pamir Mountains) and [Karakoram](Karakoram) in the southwest, the [Mountains](Kunlun)(Kunlun Mountains) in the south (along the border with [Tibet](Tibet Autonomous Region)) and the [Mountains](Altai)(Altai Mountains) in the northeast (shared with [Mongolia](Mongolia)). The region's highest point is the mountain [K2](K2), an [eight-thousander](eight-thousander) located above sea level in the Karakoram Mountains on the border with [Pakistan](Pakistan). [[File:Taklamakan desert.jpg\|thumb\|[Desert](Taklamakan)(Taklamakan Desert)]] Much of the Tarim Basin is dominated by the [Desert](Taklamakan)(Taklamakan Desert). North of it is the [Depression](Turpan)(Turpan Depression), which contains the lowest point in Xinjiang and in the entire PRC, at below sea level. The Dzungarian Basin is slightly cooler, and receives somewhat more precipitation, than the Tarim Basin. Nonetheless, it, too, has a large [Desert](Gurbantünggüt)(Gurbantünggüt Desert) (also known as Dzoosotoyn Elisen) in its center. The Tian Shan mountain range marks the Xinjiang-Kyrgyzstan border at the [Pass](Torugart)(Torugart Pass) (3752 m). The [highway](Karakorum)(Karakorum highway) (KKH) links [Islamabad](Islamabad), Pakistan with [Kashgar](Kashgar) over the [Pass](Khunjerab)(Khunjerab Pass). ### Mountain passes From south to north, the mountain passes bordering Xinjiang are: \|} ### Geology Xinjiang is geologically young. Collision of the Indian and the Eurasian plates formed the Tian Shan, [Shan](Kunlun)(Kunlun Shan), and Pamir mountain ranges; said tectonics render it a very active earthquake zone. Older geological formations are located in the far north, where the [Block](Junggar)(Junggar Block) is geologically part of [Kazakhstan](Kazakhstan), and in the east, where is part of the [China Craton](North)(North China Craton). ### Center of the continent Xinjiang has within its borders, in the [Elisen Desert](Dzoosotoyn)(Dzoosotoyn Elisen Desert), the location in [Eurasia](Eurasia) that is furthest from the sea in any direction (a [pole of inaccessibility](continental)(continental pole of inaccessibility)): . It is at least (straight-line distance) from any coastline. In 1992, local geographers determined another point within Xinjiang in the southwestern suburbs of [Ürümqi](Ürümqi), [County](Ürümqi)(Ürümqi County)to be the "center point of Asia". A [to this effect](monument)(Geographical Center of Asian Continent) was then erected there and the site has become a local tourist attraction. ### Rivers and lakes [[File:Tianchi Lake.jpg\|thumb\|left\|[Lake](Tianchi)(Tianchi Lake (Tianshan))]] [[File:ColourfulBeach.jpg\|thumb\|Black [Irtysh](Irtysh) river in [County](Burqin)(Burqin County) is a famous spot for [sightseeing](sightseeing).]] Having hot summer and low precipitation, most of Xinjiang is [endorheic](endorheic). Its rivers either disappear in the desert, or terminate in salt lakes (within Xinjiang itself, or in neighboring Kazakhstan), instead of running towards an ocean. The northernmost part of the region, with the [River](Irtysh)(Irtysh River) rising in the Altai Mountains, that flows (via Kazakhstan and Russia) toward the [Ocean](Arctic)(Arctic Ocean), is the only exception. But even so, a significant part of the Irtysh's waters were artificially diverted via the [Canal](Irtysh–Karamay–Ürümqi)(Irtysh–Karamay–Ürümqi Canal) to the drier regions of southern [Basin](Dzungarian)(Dzungarian Basin). [[File:LakeKanas.jpg\|thumb\|[Lake](Kanas)(Kanas Lake)]] Elsewhere, most of Xinjiang's rivers are comparatively short streams fed by the snows of the several ranges of the Tian Shan. Once they enter the populated areas in the mountains' foothills, their waters are extensively used for irrigation, so that the river often disappears in the desert instead of reaching the lake to whose basin it nominally belongs. This is the case even with the main river of the [Basin](Tarim)(Tarim Basin), the [Tarim](Tarim River), which has been dammed at a number of locations along its course, and whose waters have been completely diverted before they can reach the [Lake](Lop)(Lop Lake). In the Dzungarian basin, a similar situation occurs with most rivers that historically flowed into [Manas](Lake)(Lake Manas). Some of the salt lakes, having lost much of their fresh water inflow, are now extensively use for the production of mineral salts (used e.g., in the manufacturing of [potassium](potassium) fertilizers); this includes the Lop Lake and the Manas Lake. ### Time Despite the province's easternmost point being more than west of Beijing, Xinjiang, like the rest of China, is officially in the [UTC+8](UTC+8) time zone, known by residents as Beijing Time. Despite this, some residents, local organizations and governments observe [UTC+6](UTC+6) as the standard time and refer to this zone as [Time](Xinjiang)(Xinjiang Time). Han people tend to use Beijing Time, while Uyghurs tend to use Xinjiang Time as a form of resistance to Beijing. Time zones notwithstanding, most schools and businesses open and close two hours later than in the other regions of China. ### Deserts Deserts include: * [Desert](Gurbantünggüt)(Gurbantünggüt Desert), also known as Dzoosotoyn Elisen * [Desert](Taklamakan)(Taklamakan Desert) * [Desert](Kumtag)(Kumtag Desert), east of Taklamakan ### Major cities Due to water scarcity, most of Xinjiang's population lives within fairly narrow belts that are stretched along the foothills of the region's mountain ranges in areas conducive to irrigated agriculture. It is in these belts where most of the region's cities are found. [[map.png\|right\|thumb\|Largest cities and towns of Xinjiang](File:Xinjiang)] * [Ürümqi](Ürümqi) * [Turpan](Turpan) * [Kashgar](Kashgar) * [Karamay](Karamay) * [Ghulja](Ghulja) * [Shihezi](Shihezi) * [Hotan](Hotan) * [Atush](Atush) * [Aksu](Aksu, Xinjiang) * [Korla](Korla) ### Climate A semiarid or desert climate ([Köppen](Köppen climate classification) BSk or BWk, respectively) prevails in Xinjiang. The entire region has great seasonal differences in temperature with cold winters. The [Depression](Turpan)(Turpan Depression) often records some of the hottest temperatures nationwide in summer, with air temperatures easily exceeding . Winter temperatures regularly fall below in the far north and highest mountain elevations. Continuous [permafrost](permafrost) is typically found in the Tian Shan starting at the elevation of about 3,500–3,700 m above sea level. Discontinuous [permafrost](alpine)(alpine permafrost) usually occurs down to 2,700–3,300 m, but in certain locations, due to the peculiarity of the [aspect](Aspect (geography)) and the microclimate, it can be found at elevations as low as 2,000 m. ## Politics [[File:Kashgar (23968353536).jpg\|thumb\|Statue of [Zedong](Mao)(Mao Zedong) in Kashgar]] ; Secretaries of the [Communist Party](Chinese)(Chinese Communist Party) Xinjiang Regional Committee # 1949–1952: [Zhen](Wang)(Wang Zhen (general)) () # 1952–1967: [Enmao](Wang)(Wang Enmao) () # 1970–1972: [Shujin](Long)(Long Shujin) () # 1972–1978: [Azizi](Saifuddin)(Saifuddin Azizi) (; ) # 1978–1981: [Feng](Wang)(Wang Feng (politician)) () # 1981–1985: [Enmao](Wang)(Wang Enmao) () # 1985–1994: [Hanliang](Song)(Song Hanliang) () # 1994–2010: [Lequan](Wang)(Wang Lequan) () # 2010–2016: [Chunxian](Zhang)(Zhang Chunxian) () # 2016–2021: [Quanguo](Chen)(Chen Quanguo) () # Since 2021: [Xingrui](Ma)(Ma Xingrui) () ; Chairmen of the Xinjiang Government [[File:艾尔肯·吐尼亚孜.jpg\|thumb\|upright=0.8\|right\|[Tuniyaz](Erkin)(Erkin Tuniyaz), the incumbent Chairman of the Xinjiang Government]] # 1949–1955: [Shahidi](Burhan)(Burhan Shahidi) (; ) # 1955–1967: [Azizi](Saifuddin)(Saifuddin Azizi) (; ) # 1968–1972: [Shujin](Long)(Long Shujin) () # 1972–1978: [Azizi](Saifuddin)(Saifuddin Azizi) (; ) # 1978–1979: [Feng](Wang)(Wang Feng (politician)) () # 1979–1985: [Amat](Ismail)(Ismail Amat) (; ) # 1985–1993: [Dawamat](Tömür)(Tömür Dawamat) (; ) # 1993–2003: [Abdulrixit](Abdul'ahat)(Ablet Abdureshit) (; ) # 2003–2007: [Tiliwaldi](Ismail)(Ismail Tiliwaldi) (; ) # 2007–2015: [Bekri](Nur)(Nur Bekri) (; ) # 2015–2021: [Zakir](Shohrat)(Shohrat Zakir) (; ) # Since 2021: [Tuniyaz](Erkin)(Erkin Tuniyaz) (; ) ### Human rights abuses [Rights Watch](Human)(Human Rights Watch) has documented the denial of due legal process and fair trials and failure to hold genuinely open trials as mandated by law e.g. to suspects arrested following ethnic violence in the city of Ürümqi's 2009 riots. The Chinese government under Chinese Communist Party general secretary [Jinping's administration](Xi)(Xi Jinping Administration) launched the [Hard Campaign Against Violent Terrorism](Strike)(Strike Hard Campaign Against Violent Terrorism) in 2014, which involved mass detention, and surveillance of ethnic [Uyghurs](Uyghurs) there; the program was massively expanded by [Quanguo](Chen)(Chen Quanguo) when he was appointed as CCP Xinjiang secretary in 2016. The campaign included the detainment of 1.8 million people in [camps](internment)(Xinjiang internment camps), mostly Uyghurs but also including other ethnic and religious minorities, by 2020. An October 2018 [exposé](Investigative journalism) by [News](BBC)(BBC News) claimed based on analysis of [imagery](satellite)(satellite imagery) collected over time that hundreds of thousands of Uyghurs were likely interned in the camps, and they are rapidly being expanded. In 2019, [Art Newspaper](The)(The Art Newspaper) reported that "hundreds" of writers, artists, and academics had been imprisoned, in what the magazine qualified as an attempt to "punish any form of religious or cultural expression" among Uyghurs. This program has been called a [genocide](Uyghur genocide) by some observers, while [report](a)(UN Human Rights Office report on Xinjiang) by the [Human Rights Office](UN)(Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights) said they may amount to crimes against humanity. On 28 June 2020, the [Press](Associated)(Associated Press) published a report which stated the Chinese government was taking draconian measures to slash birth rates among Uyghurs and other Muslim minorities in Xinjiang, even as it encouraged some of the country's Han majority to have more children. While individual women have spoken out before about forced birth control, the practice was far more widespread and systematic than previously known, according to an AP investigation based on government statistics, state documents and interviews with 30 ex-detainees, family members and a former detention camp instructor. The campaign over the past four years in Xinjiang has been labeled by some experts as a form of "demographic genocide." ### East Turkestan independence movement [[File:Kokbayraq flag.svg\|thumb\|This flag ([Bayraq](Kök)(Kokbayraq)) has become a symbol of the East Turkestan independence movement.]] Some factions in Xinjiang, most prominently [nationalists](Uyghur)(Uyghur nationalism), advocate establishing an independent country named [Turkestan](East)(East Turkestan) (also sometimes called "Uyghuristan"), which has led to tension, [conflict](Xinjiang conflict),[The Xinjiang Conflict: Uyghur Identity, Language, Policy, and Political Discourse](http://www.eastwestcenter.org/fileadmin/stored/pdfs/PS015.pdf) [Center](East–West)(East–West Center), and ethnic strife in the region.[Deaths From Clashes in China's Xinjiang Area Rises to 35](https://www.bloomberg.com/news/2013-06-27/deaths-from-clashes-in-china-s-xinjiang-area-rises-to-35.html) . Bloomberg. Retrieved on 12 July 2013.Rémi Castets. [The Uyghurs in Xinjiang – The Malaise Grows](http://chinaperspectives.revues.org/648) . [Perspectives](China)(China Perspectives). Retrieved on 12 July 2013. Autonomous regions in China do not have a legal right to secede, and each one is considered to be an "inseparable part of the People's Republic of China" by the government. The separatist movement claims that the region is not part of China, but was invaded by the CCP in 1949 and has been under occupation since then. The Chinese government asserts that the region has been part of China since ancient times,[History and Development of Xinjiang](http://news.xinhuanet.com/zhengfu/2003-06/12/content_916306.htm) . News.xinhuanet.com. Retrieved on 12 July 2013. and has engaged in "strike hard" campaigns targeted at separatists.[Uyghur Muslim Ethnic Separatism in Xinjiang, China](http://www.apcss.org/college/publications/uyghur-muslim-ethnic-separatism-in-xinjiang-china/) [Center for Security Studies](Asia-Pacific)(Asia-Pacific Center for Security Studies) The movement has been supported by both militant Islamic extremist groups such as the [Islamic Party](Turkistan)(Turkistan Islamic Party), as well as certain advocacy groups with no connection to extremist groups. According to the Asia-Pacific Center for Security Studies, the two main sources for [separatism](separatism) in the Xinjiang Province are religion and ethnicity. Religiously, the most Uyghur peoples of Xinjiang follow [Islam](Islam); in the rest of China, many are [Buddhist](Buddhism), [Taoist](Taoism) and [Confucian](Confucianism), although many follow Islam as well, such as the [Hui](Hui people) ethnic subgroup of the Han ethnicity, comprising some 10 million people. Thus, the major difference and source of friction with eastern China is ethnicity and religious doctrinal differences that differentiate them politically from other Muslim minorities elsewhere in the country. ## Economy [[distribution map of Xinjiang's GDP per person (2011)](File:新疆各地人均GDP.jpg\|thumb\|The)] [[city ZT plaza.jpg\|thumb\|Ürümqi is a major industrial center within Xinjiang.](File:Urumq)] [[File:Wind farm xinjiang.jpg\|thumb\|[farm](Wind)(Wind farm) in Xinjiang]] [[File:Khotan-mercado-d09.jpg\|thumb\|Sunday market in [Khotan](Hotan)]] Economic development of Xinjiang is a priority for China. In 2000, the government articulated its strategy for developing the [regions](western)(Western China) of the country, and that plan made Xinjiang a major focus. Accelerating development in Xinjiang is intended by China to achieve a number of objectives, including narrowing the economic gap between Xinjiang and the more developed eastern provinces, as well as alleviating political discontent and security problems by alleviating poverty and raising the standard of living in order to increase stability. The GDP of Xinjiang was about 1.774 trillion [RMB](Renminbi) (US$263 billion) as of 2022. Economic growth has been fuelled by to discovery of the abundant reserves of coal, oil, gas as well as the [Western Development](China)(China Western Development) policy introduced by the State Council to boost economic development in Western China. Its [capita GDP](per)(List of Chinese administrative divisions by GDP per capita) for 2022 was 68,552 RMB (US$10,191). Southern Xinjiang, with 95% non-Han population, has an average per capita income half that of Xinjiang as a whole. In July 2010, [media](state)(state media) outlet [Daily](China)(China Daily) reported that: Local governments in China's 19 [provinces](Provinces of China) and [municipalities](Direct-controlled municipality#People's Republic of China), including Beijing, Shanghai, [Guangdong](Guangdong), Zhejiang and [Liaoning](Liaoning), are engaged in the commitment of "pairing assistance" support projects in Xinjiang to promote the development of agriculture, industry, technology, education and health services in the region.[Xinhua](Xinhua) \|date=5 July 2010 \|access-date=14 July 2010 \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100723193952/http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/china/2010-07/05/content_10058467.htm \|archive-date=23 July 2010 \|url-status=live}} Xinjiang has traditionally been an agricultural region, but is also rich in [mineral](mineral)s and [oil](Petroleum). Xinjiang is a major producer of [panel](solar)(solar panel) components due to its large production of the base material [polysilicon](polysilicon). In 2020 45% of global production of solar-grade polysilicon occurred in Xinjiang. Concerns have been raised both within the solar industry and outside it that forced labor may occur in the Xinjiang part of the supply chain. The global solar panel industry are under pressure to move sourcing away from the region due to human rights and liability concerns. China's solar association claimed the allegations were baseless and unfairly stigmatized firms with operations there. A 2021 investigation in the United Kingdom (UK) found that 40% of solar farms in the UK had been built using panels from Chinese companies linked to forced labor in Xinjiang. ### Agriculture and fishing Main area is of irrigated agriculture. By 2015, the agricultural land area of the region is 631 thousand km2 or 63.1 million ha, of which 6.1 million ha is arable land. In 2016, the total cultivated land rose to 6.2 million ha, with the crop production reaching 15.1 million tons. [Wheat](Wheat) was the main staple crop of the region, [maize](maize) grown as well, [millet](millet) found in the south, while only a few areas (in particular, [Aksu](Aksu, Xinjiang)) grew [rice](rice). [Cotton](Cotton) became an important crop in several oases, notably [Khotan](Hotan), [Yarkand](Yarkant County) and [Turpan](Turpan) by the late 19th century. [Sericulture](Sericulture) is also practiced. The [cotton industry](Xinjiang)(Xinjiang cotton industry) is the world's largest cotton exporter, producing 84% of Chinese cotton while the country provides 26% of global cotton export. Xinjiang also produces [peppers](Capsicum) and pepper pigments used in cosmetics such lipstick for export. Xinjiang is famous for its grapes, melons, pears, [walnut](walnut)s, particularly [melon](Hami)(Hami melon)s and [Turpan](Turpan) [raisin](raisin)s. The region is also a leading source for [paste](tomato)(tomato paste), which it supplies for international brands. The main livestock of the region have traditionally been sheep. Much of the region's pasture land is in its northern part, where more precipitation is available, but there are mountain pastures throughout the region. Due to the lack of access to the ocean and limited amount of inland water, Xinjiang's fish resources are somewhat limited. Nonetheless, there is a significant amount of fishing in [Ulungur](Lake)(Lake Ulungur) and [Bosten](Lake)(Lake Bosten) and in the [River](Irtysh)(Irtysh River). A large number of fish ponds have been constructed since the 1970s, their total surface exceeding 10,000 hectares by the 1990s. In 2000, the total of 58,835 tons of fish was produced in Xinjiang, 85% of which came from [aquaculture](aquaculture in China).Guo Yan, [Fisheries Development in Xinjiang, China](http://www.fao.org/docrep/007/y5082e/y5082e0c.htm) The Sayram Lake is both the largest alpine lake and highest altitude lake in Xinjiang, and is the location of a major cold-water fishery. Originally Sayram had no fish but in 1998, [whitefish](northern)(Peled (fish)) (Coregonus peled) from Russia were introduced and investment in breeding infrastructure and technology has consequently made Sayram into the country's largest exporter of northern whitefish with an annual output of over 400 metric tons. ### Mining and minerals Xinjiang was known for producing salt, [soda](Sodium), [borax](borax), gold, and [jade](jade) in the 19th century. The [Lake](Lop)(Lop Nur) was once a large brackish lake during the end of the [Pleistocene](Pleistocene) but has slowly dried up in the [Holocene](Holocene) where average annual precipitation in the area has declined to just 31.2 millimeters (1.2 inches), and experiences annual evaporation rate of 2,901 millimeters (114 inches). The area is rich in brine [Potash](Potash), a key ingredient in [fertilizer](fertilizer) and is the second-largest source of potash in the country. Discovery of potash in the mid-1990s, has transformed [Nur](Lop)(Lop Nur) into a major Potash mining industry. The oil and [gas](natural gas) extraction industry in [Aksu](Aksu City) and [Karamay](Karamay) is growing, with the [Gas Pipeline](West–East)(West–East Gas Pipeline) linking to Shanghai. The oil and petrochemical sector get up to 60 percent of Xinjiang's economy. The region contains over a fifth of China's hydrocarbon resources and has the highest concentration of fossil fuel reserves of any region in the country. The region is rich in coal and contains 40 percent of the country's coal reserves or around 2.2 trillion tonnes, which is enough to supply China's thermal coal demand for more than 100 years even if only 15 percent of the estimated coal reserve prove recoverable. China SignPost™\|url=https://www.chinasignpost.com/2012/09/21/xinjiang-poised-to-become-chinas-largest-coal-producer-will-move-global-coal-natural-gas-and-crude-oil-markets/\|access-date=2021-10-06\|website=www.chinasignpost.com}} [basin](Tarim)(Tarim Basin) is the largest oil and gas bearing area in the country with about 16 billion tonnes of oil and gas reserves discovered. The area is still actively explored and in 2021, China National Petroleum Corporation found a new oil field reserve of 1 billion tons (about 907 million tonnes). That find is regarded as being the largest one in recent decades. As of 2021, the basin produces hydrocarbons at an annual rate of 2 million tons, up from 1.52 million tons from 2020. ### Foreign trade Trade with Central Asian countries is crucial to Xinjiang's economy. Most of the overall import/export volume in Xinjiang was directed to and from [Kazakhstan](Kazakhstan) through Ala Pass. China's first border [trade zone](free)(free trade zone) (Horgos Free Trade Zone) was located at the Xinjiang-Kazakhstan border city of Horgos. Horgos is the largest "land port" in China's western region and it has easy access to the Central Asian market. Xinjiang also opened its second border trade market to Kazakhstan in March 2006, the Jeminay Border Trade Zone. ### Economic and Technological Development Zones * Bole Border Economic Cooperation Area * Shihezi Border Economic Cooperation Area * Tacheng Border Economic Cooperation Area [[File:China Xinjiang Airlines Boeing 757-200 Newton-1.jpg\|thumb\|right\|[Diwopu International Airport](Ürümqi)(Ürümqi Diwopu International Airport)]] * Ürümqi Economic & Technological Development Zone is northwest of Ürümqi. It was approved in 1994 by the State Council as a national level economic and technological development zones. It is from the Ürümqi International Airport, from the North Railway Station and from the city center. Wu Chang Expressway and 312 National Road passes through the zone. The development has unique resources and geographical advantages. Xinjiang's vast land, rich in resources, borders eight countries. As the leading economic zone, it brings together the resources of Xinjiang's industrial development, capital, technology, information, personnel and other factors of production. Ürümqi Economic & Technological Development Zone \|access-date=22 July 2010 \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120509205242/http://rightsite.asia/en/industrial-zone/ulumuqi-economic-technology-development-zone \|archive-date=9 May 2012 \|url-status=live }} * Ürümqi Export Processing Zone is in Urumuqi Economic and Technology Development Zone. It was established in 2007 as a state-level export processing zone. Ürümqi Export Processing Zone \|access-date=22 July 2010 \|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20120509205519/http://rightsite.asia/en/industrial-zone/ulumuqi-export-processing-zone \|archive-date=9 May 2012 \|url-status=live }} * Ürümqi New & Hi-Tech Industrial Development Zone was established in 1992 and it is the only high-tech development zone in Xinjiang, China. There are more than 3470 enterprises in the zone, of which 23 are Fortune 500 companies. It has a planned area of and it is divided into four zones. There are plans to expand the zone. Urumuqi Hi-Tech Industrial Development Zone \|access-date= 22 July 2010 \|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20120509205546/http://rightsite.asia/en/industrial-zone/ulumuqi-hi-tech-industrial-development-zone \|archive-date=9 May 2012 \|url-status=live }} * Yining Border Economic Cooperation Area Yining Border Economic Cooperation Area \|access-date=22 July 2010 \|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20120509205757/http://rightsite.asia/en/industrial-zone/yining-border-economic-cooperation-zone \|archive-date= 9 May 2012 \|url-status=live}} ## Culture ### Media The [Networking Transmission Limited](Xinjiang)(Xinjiang Networking Transmission Limited) operates the [People's Broadcasting Station](Urumqi)(Urumqi People's Broadcasting Station) and the [People Broadcasting Station](Xinjiang)(Xinjiang People's Broadcasting Station), broadcasting in [Mandarin](Standard Chinese), [Uyghur](Uyghur language), [Kazakh](Kazakh language) and [Mongolian](Mongolian language). , there were 50 minority-language newspapers published in Xinjiang, including the [News](Qapqal)(Qapqal News), the world's only [language](Xibe)(Xibe language) newspaper. The [Economic Daily](Xinjiang)(Xinjiang Economic Daily) is considered one of China's most dynamic newspapers. For a time after the [2009 riots](July)(July 2009 Ürümqi riots), authorities placed restrictions on the internet and [messaging](text)(text messaging), gradually permitting access to state-controlled websites like [Xinhua](Xinhua News Agency)'s, until restoring Internet to the same level as the rest of China on 14 May 2010. As reported by the [BBC](BBC), "China strictly controls media access to Xinjiang so reports are difficult to verify." ## Demographics [[language geographical extent.svg\|thumb\|left\|Distribution of ethnic Uyghurs in Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region](File:Uyghur)] \|2,098,000 \|1928 \|2,552,000 \|1936–37 \|4,360,000 \|1947 \|4,047,000 \|1954 \|4,873,608 \|1964 \|7,270,067 \|1982 \|13,081,681 \|1990 \|15,155,778 \|2000 \|18,459,511 \|2010 \|21,813,334 \|2020 \| 25,852,345 }} The earliest Tarim mummies, dated to 1800 BC, are of a [Caucasoid](Caucasian race) physical type. East Asian migrants arrived in the eastern portions of the Tarim Basin about 3000 years ago and the Uyghur peoples appeared after the collapse of the Orkon Uyghur Kingdom, based in modern-day Mongolia, around 842 AD.[A meeting of civilisations: The mystery of China's Celtic mummies](https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/asia/a-meeting-of-civilisations-the-mystery-of-chinas-celtic-mummies-413638.html) . The Independent. 28 August 2006. The Islamization of Xinjiang started around 1000 AD. Xinjiang Muslim [peoples](Turkic)(Turkic peoples) contain [Uyghurs](Uyghurs), [Kazaks](Kazakhs), [Kyrgyz](Kyrgyz people), [Tatars](Tatars), [Uzbeks](Uzbeks); Muslim [peoples](Iranian)(Iranian peoples) comprise [Tajiks](Tajiks), [Sarikolis](Tajiks of Xinjiang)/[Wakhis](Wakhi people) (often conflated as Tajiks); Muslim [Sino-Tibetan](Sino-Tibetan languages) peoples are such as the [Hui](Hui people). Other [groups](ethnic)(list of ethnic groups in China) in the region are [Hans](Han Chinese), [Mongols](Mongols) ([Oirats](Oirats), [Daurs](Daur people), [Dongxiangs](Dongxiangs)), [Russians](Russians), [Xibes](Sibe people), [Manchus](Manchu people). Around 70,000 [Russian](Russians in China) immigrants were living in Xinjiang in 1945. The [Chinese](Han)(Han Chinese) of Xinjiang arrived at different times from different directions and social backgrounds. There are now descendants of criminals and officials who had been exiled from China during the second half of the 18th and the first half of the 19th centuries; descendants of families of military and civil officers from [Hunan](Hunan), Yunnan, [Gansu](Gansu) and [Manchuria](Manchuria); descendants of merchants from [Shanxi](Shanxi), Tianjin, [Hubei](Hubei) and [Hunan](Hunan); and descendants of peasants who started immigrating into the region in 1776. [[areas of East-Turkistan.png\|thumb\|left\|The languages of Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region](File:Languages)] [[File:Uyghur-redhead.jpg\|thumb\|upright\|Uyghur girl in [Kashgar](Kashgar)]] [[File:Xinjiang County-Level Ethnicity Map (2018 data).svg\|thumb\|left\|[County-level](County-level division) ethnicity map of Xinjiang as of 2018]] Some Uyghur scholars claim descent from both the Turkic Uyghurs and the pre-Turkic [Tocharians](Tocharians) (or Tokharians, whose language was [Indo-European](Indo-European languages)); also, Uyghurs often have relatively-fair skin, hair and eyes and other [Caucasoid](Caucasoid) physical traits. In 2002, there were 9,632,600 males (growth rate of 1.0%) and 9,419,300 females (growth rate of 2.2%). The population overall growth rate was 1.09%, with 1.63% of [rate](birth)(birth rate) and 0.54% [rate](mortality)(mortality rate). [[File:Khotan-mercado-chicas-d01.jpg\|thumb\|right\|Three Uyghur girls at a Sunday market in the oasis city [Khotan](Khotan).]] The Qing began a [of settling Han, Hui, and Uyghur settlers into Northern Xinjiang (Dzungaria) in the 18th century](process)(migration to Xinjiang). At the start of the 19th century, 40 years after the Qing reconquest, there were around 155,000 Han and Hui Chinese in northern Xinjiang and somewhat more than twice that number of Uyghurs in Southern Xinjiang. A census of Xinjiang under Qing rule in the early 19th century tabulated ethnic shares of the population as 30% [Han](Han Chinese) and 60% [Turkic](Turkic peoples) and it dramatically shifted to 6% Han and 75% Uyghur in the 1953 census. However, a situation similar to the Qing era's demographics with a large number of Han had been restored by 2000, with 40.57% Han and 45.21% Uyghur. Professor Stanley W. Toops noted that today's demographic situation is similar to that of the early Qing period in Xinjiang. Before 1831, only a few hundred Chinese merchants lived in Southern Xinjiang oases (Tarim Basin), and only a few Uyghurs lived in Northern Xinjiang ([Dzungaria](Dzungaria)). After 1831, the Qing encouraged Han Chinese migration into the Tarim Basin, in southern Xinjiang, but with very little success, and permanent troops were stationed on the land there as well. Political killings and expulsions of non-Uyghur populations during the uprisings in the 1860s and the 1930s saw them experience a sharp decline as a percentage of the total population though they rose once again in the periods of stability from 1880, which saw Xinjiang increase its population from 1.2 million, to 1949. From a low of 7% in 1953, the Han began to return to Xinjiang between then and 1964, where they comprised 33% of the population (54% Uyghur), like in Qing times. A decade later, at the beginning of the [economic reform](Chinese)(Chinese economic reform) in 1978, the demographic balance was 46% Uyghur and 40% Han, which did not change drastically until the 2000 Census, when the Uyghur population had reduced to 42%. In 2010, the population of Xinjiang was 45.84% Uyghur and 40.48% Han. The 2020 Census showed the share of the Uyghur population decline slightly to 44.96%, and the Han population rise to 42.24% Military personnel are not counted and [minorities](national)(ethnic minorities in China) are undercounted in the Chinese census, as in some other censuses. While some of the shift has been attributed to an increased Han presence, Uyghurs have also emigrated to other parts of China, where their numbers have increased steadily. Uyghur independence activists express concern over the Han population changing the Uyghur character of the region though the Han and Hui Chinese mostly live in Northern Xinjiang [Dzungaria](Dzungaria) and are separated from areas of historic Uyghur dominance south of the [Shan](Tian)(Tian Shan) mountains (Southwestern Xinjiang), where Uyghurs account for about 90% of the population. In general, [Uyghurs](Uyghurs) are the majority in Southwestern Xinjiang, including the prefectures of [Kashgar](Kashgar Prefecture), [Khotan](Hotan Prefecture), [Kizilsu](Kizilsu Kirghiz Autonomous Prefecture) and [Aksu](Aksu Prefecture) (about 80% of Xinjiang's Uyghurs live in those four prefectures) as well as [Prefecture](Turpan)(Turpan), in Eastern Xinjiang. The [Han](Han Chinese) are the majority in Eastern and Northern Xinjiang (Dzungaria), including the cities of [Ürümqi](Ürümqi), [Karamay](Karamay), [Shihezi](Shihezi) and the prefectures of [Changjyi](Changji Hui Autonomous Prefecture), [Bortala](Börtala Mongol Autonomous Prefecture), [Bayin'gholin](Bayin'gholin Mongol Autonomous Prefecture), [Ili](Ili Kazakh Autonomous Prefecture) (especially the cities of [Kuitun](Kuytun)) and [Kumul](Hami). [Kazakhs](Kazakhs) are mostly concentrated in [Prefecture](Ili)(Ili Kazakh Autonomous Prefecture) in Northern Xinjiang. Kazakhs are the majority in the northernmost part of Xinjiang. ### Religion The major religions in Xinjiang are [Islam](Islam in China), practiced largely by Uyghurs and the Hui Chinese minority, as well as [folk religion](Chinese)(Chinese folk religion)s, [Confucianism](Confucianism), [Taoism](Taoism) and [Buddhism](Buddhism), practiced essentially by the Han Chinese. According to a demographic analysis of the year 2010, Muslims formed 58% of the province's population.Min Junqing. The Present Situation and Characteristics of Contemporary Islam in China. JISMOR, 8. [2010 Islam by province, page 29](https://doors.doshisha.ac.jp/duar/repository/ir/18185/r002000080004.pdf) . Data from Yang Zongde, Study on Current Muslim Population in China, Jinan Muslim, 2, 2010. In 1950, there were 29,000 mosques and 54,000 imams in Xinjiang, which fell to 14,000 mosques and 29,000 imams by 1966. Following the [Revolution](Cultural)(Cultural Revolution), there were only about 1,400 remaining mosques. By the mid-1980's, the number of mosques had returned to 1950 levels. According to a 2020 report by the [Strategic Policy Institute](Australian)(Australian Strategic Policy Institute), since 2017, Chinese authorities have destroyed or damaged 16,000 mosques in Xinjiang – 65% of the region's total. [in Xinjiang](Christianity)(Christianity in Xinjiang) is the religion of 1% of the population according to the Chinese General Social Survey of 2009. A majority of the Uyghur Muslims adhere to [Islam](Sunni)(Sunni Islam) of the [Hanafi](Hanafi) school of jurisprudence or [madhab](madhab). A minority of [Shias](Shia Islam), almost exclusively of the [Ismaili](Nizari)(Nizari Isma'ilism) (Seveners) rites are located in the higher mountains of Tajik and [Shan](Tian)(Tian Shan). In the western mountains (the Tajiks), almost the entire population of [Tajiks](Tajiks) ([Sarikolis](Tajiks of Xinjiang) and [Wakhis](Wakhi people)), are [Nizari](Nizari Isma'ilism) [Shia](Ismaili)(Isma'ilism). In the north, in the [Shan](Tian)(Tian Shan), the [Kazakhs](Kazakhs) and [Kyrgyz](Kyrgyz people) are Sunni. [Khoja Mausoleum](Afaq)(Afaq Khoja Mausoleum) and [Kah Mosque](Id)(Id Kah Mosque) in [Kashgar](Kashgar) are most important Islamic Xinjiang sites. [Minaret](Emin)(Emin Minaret) in [Turfan](Turpan) is a key Islamic site. [Thousand Buddha Caves](Bezeklik)(Bezeklik Thousand Buddha Caves) is a notable Buddhist site. ## Sports Xinjiang is home to the [Guanghui Flying Tigers](Xinjiang)(Xinjiang Guanghui Flying Tigers) professional basketball team of the [Basketball Association](Chinese)(Chinese Basketball Association), and to [Tianshan Leopard F.C.](Xinjiang)(Xinjiang Tianshan Leopard F.C.), a football team that plays in [League One](China)(China League One). The capital, Ürümqi, is home to the [University](Xinjiang)(Xinjiang University) baseball team, an integrated Uyghur and Han group profiled in the documentary film [in the Dunes](Diamond)(Diamond in the Dunes). ## Transportation ### Roads [[File:Karakorum-carretera-d08.jpg\|thumb\|right\|[highway](Karakorum)(Karakorum highway)]] In 2008, according to the Xinjiang Transportation Network Plan, the government has focused construction on State Road 314, Alar-Hotan Desert Highway, State Road 218, Qingshui River Line-Yining Highway and State Road 217, as well as other roads. The construction of the first expressway in the mountainous area of Xinjiang began a new stage in its construction on 24 July 2007. The highway linking [Lake](Sayram)(Sayram Lake) and Guozi Valley in Northern Xinjiang area had cost 2.39 billion yuan. The expressway is designed to improve the speed of national highway 312 in northern Xinjiang. The project started in August 2006 and several stages have been fully operational since March 2007. Over 3,000 construction workers have been involved. The 700 m-long Guozi Valley Cable Bridge over the expressway is now currently being constructed, with the 24 main pile foundations already completed. Highway 312 national highway Xinjiang section, connects Xinjiang with China's east coast, [Central](Central Asia) and [Asia](West)(West Asia), plus some parts of [Europe](Europe). It is a key factor in Xinjiang's [development](economic)(economic development). The population it covers is around 40% of the overall in Xinjiang, who contribute half of the GDP in the area. The [of the Transport Department](head)(Zulfiya Abdiqadir) was quoted as saying that 24,800,000,000 [RMB](Renminbi) had been invested into Xinjiang's road network in 2010 alone and, by this time, the roads covered approximately .) \|title=祖丽菲娅·阿不都卡德尔代表：见证新疆交通事业的日益腾飞 \|trans-title=Representative Zulfiya Abdiqadir: evidence that Xinjiang's transport projects are developing more with each passing day \|url=http://news.ts.cn/content/2011-03/03/content_5636418.htm \|url-status=live \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170224215419/http://news.ts.cn/content/2011-03/03/content_5636418.htm# \|archive-date=24 February 2017 \|access-date=24 February 2017 \|website=[Tianshannet](Tianshannet) \|language=zh-hans}} ### Rail Xinjiang's rail hub is Ürümqi. To the east, [conventional](a)(Lanzhou–Xinjiang railway) and [high-speed rail](a)(Lanzhou–Xinjiang high-speed railway) line runs through [Turpan](Turpan) and [Hami](Hami) to [Lanzhou](Lanzhou) in [Province](Gansu)(Gansu). A [outlet to the east](third)(Ejin–Hami railway) connects Hami and Inner Mongolia. To the west, the [Xinjiang](Northern)(Northern Xinjiang Railway) runs along the northern footslopes of the Tian Shan range through [Changji](Changji), [Shihezi](Shihezi), [Kuytun](Kuytun) and [Jinghe](Jinghe County) to the [Kazakh](Kazakhstan) border at [Alashankou](Alashankou), where it links up with the [Railway](Turkestan–Siberia)(Turkestan–Siberia Railway). Together, the Northern Xinjiang and the Lanzhou-Xinjiang lines form part of the [Continental Railway](Trans-Eurasian)(Eurasian Land Bridge), which extends from [Rotterdam](Rotterdam), on the [Sea](North)(North Sea), to [Lianyungang](Lianyungang), on the [China Sea](East)(East China Sea). The [Ürümqi-Jinghe Railway](Second)(Second Ürümqi-Jinghe Railway) provides additional rail transport capacity to Jinghe, from which the [Railway](Jinghe-Yining-Horgos)(Jinghe-Yining-Horgos Railway) heads into the [River](Ili)(Ili River) Valley to [Yining](Yining (city)), [Huocheng](Huocheng) and [Khorgos](Khorgos), a second rail border crossing with Kazakhstan. The [Railway](Kuytun-Beitun)(Kuytun-Beitun Railway) runs from Kuytun north into the [Basin](Junggar)(Junggar Basin) to [Karamay](Karamay) and Beitun, near [Altay](Altay City). In the south, the [Xinjiang Line](Southern)(Southern Xinjiang Railway) from Turpan runs southwest along the southern footslopes of the [Shan](Tian)(Tian Shan) into the [Basin](Tarim)(Tarim Basin), with stops at [Yanqi](Karasahr), [Korla](Korla), [Kuqa](Kuqa, Xinjiang), [Aksu](Aksu City), [(Bachu)](Maralbexi)(Maralbexi County), [Artux](Artux) and [Kashgar](Kashgar). From Kashgar, the [railway](Kashgar–Hotan)(Kashgar–Hotan railway), follows the southern rim of the Tarim to [Hotan](Hotan), with stops at [Shule](Shule County), [Akto](Akto), [Yengisar](Yengisar), [(Yarkant)](Shache)(Shache), [(Karghilik)](Yecheng)(Kargilik Town), [(Karakax)](Moyu)(Moyu County). The [Railway](Ürümqi-Dzungaria)(Ürümqi-Dzungaria Railway) connects Ürümqi with coal fields in the eastern Junggar Basin. The [Nur Railway](Hami–Lop)(Hami–Lop Nur Railway) connects Hami with [salt](potassium)(potash) mines in and around [Nur](Lop)(Lop Nur). The [Railway](Golmud-Korla)(Golmud-Korla Railway), opened in 2020, provides an outlet to [Qinghai](Qinghai). Planning is underway on additional intercity railways. Railways [Pakistan](to)(Khunjerab Railway) and Kyrgyzstan have been proposed. ## See also * [Turkestan](East)(East Turkestan) * [divisions of China](Administrative)(Administrative divisions of China) ## Notes ## References ### Citations ### Sources * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * [(Another online copy)](https://books.google.com/books?id=jOA5NxDIbfYC) * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * }} * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * Reprint of: * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * (pbk.). * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * ## Further reading * * * * Hierman, Brent. "The Pacification of Xinjiang: Uighur Protest and the Chinese State, 1988–2002." Problems of Post-Communism, May/June 2007, Vol. 54 Issue 3, pp. 48–62. * * * (set); (v. 1); (v. 2); (ebk.). * Norins, Martin R. [to Asia : Sinkiang, Frontier of the Chinese Far West](Gateway)(iarchive:gatewaytoasiasin00nori/) (1944) * Yap, Joseph P. (2009). Wars With The Xiongnu – A translation From Zizhi Tongjian. AuthorHouse. * * * * * * ## External links * * * * \|North = , \|Northeast = , and Provinces, \|West = [Kul](Issyk)(Issyk Kul Region), [Naryn](Naryn Region) and [Region](Osh)(Osh Region)s, [Autonomous Province](Gorno-Badakhshan)(Gorno-Badakhshan Autonomous Province), [Province](Badakhshan)(Badakhshan Province), \|Centre = Xinjiang \|East = [Gansu](Gansu) \|Southwest = , , [region of Aksai Chin](Disputed)(Aksai Chin) \|South = [Autonomous Region](Tibet)(Tibet Autonomous Region) \|Southeast = [Qinghai](Qinghai) }} [ ](Category:Xinjiang) [regions of China](Category:Autonomous)(Category:Autonomous regions of China) [China](Category:Western)(Category:Western China) [Asia](Category:East)(Category:East Asia) [Asia](Category:Inner)(Category:Inner Asia) [and territories established in 1955](Category:States)(Category:States and territories established in 1955) [establishments in China](Category:1955)(Category:1955 establishments in China) [languages regions](Category:Iranian)(Category:Iranian languages regions) [containing video clips](Category:Articles)(Category:Articles containing video clips) [regions](Category:Historical)(Category:Historical regions) [autonomous regions in China](Category:Turkic)(Category:Turkic autonomous regions in China)
Confucius	confucius	# Confucius Revision ID: 1159397798 \| Timestamp: 2023-06-10T02:23:57Z --- \| region = [philosophy](Chinese)(Chinese philosophy) \| era = [Schools of Thought](Hundred)(Hundred Schools of Thought)([philosophy](Ancient)(Ancient philosophy)) \| image = Confucius Tang Dynasty.jpg \| caption = Imaginary portrait by [Daozi](Wu)(Wu Daozi) (685–758), [dynasty](Tang)(Tang dynasty) \| birth_name = Kǒng Qiū \| birth_date = \| birth_place = Zou, [of Lu](State)(Lu (state))(modern-day , [Qufu](Qufu), [Shandong](Shandong), [China](China)) \| death_date = (aged 71–72) \| death_place = [River](Si)(Si River), [of Lu](State)(Lu (state)) \| death_cause = \| resting_place = [of Confucius](Cemetery)(Cemetery of Confucius), [of Lu](State)(Lu (state)) \| resting_place_coordinates = \| spouse = [Qiguan](Lady)(Lady Qiguan) \| partner = \| children = [Li](Kong)(Kong Li) (son) Kong Jiao (daughter) \| family = [He](Shuliang)(Shuliang He) (father) [Zhengzai](Yan)(Yan Zhengzai) (mother) \| school_tradition = [Confucianism](Confucianism) \| notable_students = [Hui](Yan)(Yan Hui), [Zengzi](Zengzi)[of Confucius](Disciples)(Disciples of Confucius) \| main_interests = [Ethics](Moral philosophy), [education](education), [music](music), [poetry](poetry), [philosophy](political)(political philosophy), [philosophy](Social)(Social philosophy) \| influences = * [Ching](I)(I Ching) * [of Rites](Book)(Book of Rites) * [of Poetry](Classic)(Classic of Poetry) }} \| influenced = [Franklin](Benjamin)(Benjamin Franklin), [Ginsberg](Allen)(Allen Ginsberg), [Jefferson](Thomas)(Thomas Jefferson), [Wilhelm Leibniz](Gottfried)(Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz), [Cummings Neville](Robert)(Robert Cummings Neville), [Pope](Alexander)(Alexander Pope), [Pound](Ezra)(Ezra Pound), [Quesnay](François)(François Quesnay), [Schiller](Friedrich)(Friedrich Schiller), [Voltaire](Voltaire), and [Wolff](Christian)(Christian Wolff (philosopher))}} \| notable_ideas = [Confucianism](Confucianism), [Rule](Silver)(Silver Rule) }} \| l = "Master Kǒng" \| p = Kǒngzǐ \| bpmf = ㄎㄨㄥˇ   ㄗˇ \| w = Kʻung3-tzŭ3 \| mi = \| gr = Koongtzyy \| myr = Kǔngd\| \| j = Hung2zi2 \| y = Húngjí \| ci = \| wuu = Khon-tzy \| poj = Khóng-chú \| tl = Khóng-tsú \| mc = khúwng tsí \| oc-b92 = * \| oc-bs = * \| altname = Kong Qiu \| c2 = \| p2 = Kǒng Qiū \| bpmf2 = ㄎㄨㄥˇ   ㄑㄧㄡ \| w2 = Kʻung3 Chʻiu1 \| mi2 = \| gr2 = Koong Chiou \| myr2 = Kǔng Chyōu \| j2 = Hung2 Jau1 \| ci2 = \| y2 = Húng Yāu \| h2 = Kung3 Hiu1 \| poj2 = Khóng Khiu \| tl2 = Khóng Khiu \| wuu2 = Khon Chieu \| mc2 = Khúwng Khjuw \| oc-bs2 = * \| showflag = p \| hanja = \| hangul = \| rr = \| mr = \| koreanipa = \| kanji = \| hiragana = \| romaji = \| vie = \| hn = 孔子 }} Confucius ( ; \|p=Kǒng Fūzǐ}}, "Master Kǒng"; or commonly \|p=Kǒngzǐ\|labels=no}}; – ) was a [philosopher](Chinese)(Chinese philosophy) and politician of the [and Autumn period](Spring)(Spring and Autumn period) who is traditionally considered the paragon of Chinese sages. Confucius's teachings and philosophy underpin [Asian culture and society](East)(East Asian cultural sphere), remaining influential across [China](China) and [Asia](East)(East Asia) to this day. Confucius considered himself a transmitter for the values of [periods](earlier)(Ancient China) which he claimed had been abandoned in his time. His philosophical teachings, called [Confucianism](Confucianism), emphasized personal and governmental morality, correctness of [relationships](social)(social relationships), justice, kindness, and sincerity. His followers competed with many other schools during the [Schools of Thought](Hundred)(Hundred Schools of Thought) era, only to be [suppressed](Suppression of monasteries) in favor of the [Legalists](Legalism (Chinese philosophy)) during the [dynasty](Qin)(Qin dynasty). After the collapse of Qin and the victory of [Han](Han dynasty) over [Chu](Chu-Han Contention), Confucius's thoughts received official sanction in the new government. During the [Tang](Tang Dynasty) and [Song](Song Dynasty) dynasties, Confucianism developed into a system known in the West as [Neo-Confucianism](Neo-Confucianism), and later as [Confucianism](New)(New Confucianism). Confucianism was part of the Chinese social fabric and way of life; to Confucians, everyday life was the arena of religion. Confucius is traditionally credited with having authored or edited many of the [classic texts](Chinese)(Chinese classics), including all of the [Classics](Five)(Five Classics), but modern scholars are cautious of attributing specific assertions to Confucius himself. At least some of the texts and philosophy he taught were already ancient. [Aphorism](Aphorism)s concerning his teachings were compiled in the [Analects](Analects), but only many years after his death. Confucius's principles have commonality with Chinese tradition and belief. With [piety](filial)(filial piety), he championed strong family loyalty, [veneration](ancestor)(Ancestor veneration in China), and respect of elders by their children and of husbands by their wives, recommending family as a basis for ideal government. He espoused the [Rule](Silver)(Silver Rule), "Do not do unto others what you do not want done to yourself". ## Name The name "Confucius" is a [Latinized](Latinisation of names) form of the [Chinese](Mandarin)(Standard Chinese) (, "Master Kong"), and was coined in the late 16th century by the early [missionaries to China](Jesuit)(Jesuit China missions). Confucius's [name](clan)(Chinese surname#Xing) was Kong () and his given name was Qiu (). His "[name](courtesy)(courtesy name)", a capping (guan: ) given at [coming of age ceremony](his)(Coming of age), and by which he would have been known to all but his older family members, was Zhongni (), the "Zhòng" indicating that he was the second son in his family. ## Life ### Early life [[plain 5c. BC-en.svg\|thumb\|left\|300px\|Lu can be seen in China's northeast.](File:Chinese)] It is thought that Confucius was born on September 28, 551 BCE, in Zou (}}, in modern [Shandong](Shandong) province). The area was notionally controlled by the [kings](list of Zhou kings) of [Zhou](Zhou dynasty) but effectively independent under the local lords of [Lu](Lu (state)), who ruled from the nearby city of Qufu. His father [He](Kong)(Kong He) (or Shuliang He) was an elderly commandant of the local Lu garrison. [ancestry](His)(Family tree of Confucius in the main line of descent) traced back through the [of Song](dukes)(Song (state)) to the [dynasty](Shang)(Shang dynasty) which had preceded the Zhou. Traditional accounts of Confucius's life relate that Kong He's grandfather had migrated the family from Song to Lu. Not all modern scholars accept Confucius's descent from Song nobility. Eno concludes of Confucius's ancestry that the descent from Song nobility has been constructed to serve an ideological purpose. However he rejects the stronger statement that Confucius's immediate parentage is also fabricated, as proposed by Creel and Jensen. p. 409, cited in Eno. Kong He died when Confucius was three years old, and Confucius was raised by his mother [Zhengzai](Yan)(Yan Zhengzai) (}}) in poverty. His mother later died at less than 40 years of age. At age 19 he married [Qiguan](Lady)(Lady Qiguan) (), and a year later the couple had their first child, their son [Li](Kong)(Kong Li) (). Qiguan and Confucius later had two daughters together, one of whom is thought to have died as a child and one was named Kong Jiao (). Confucius was educated at schools for commoners, where he studied and learned the [Arts](Six)(Six Arts). Confucius was born into the class of [shi](Four occupations) (), between the aristocracy and the common people. He is said to have worked in various government jobs during his early 20s, and as a bookkeeper and a caretaker of sheep and horses, using the proceeds to give his mother a proper burial. When his mother died, Confucius (aged 23) is said to have [for three years](mourned)(Ancestor veneration in China#Mourning), as was the tradition. ### Political career In Confucius's time, the state of [Lu](Lu (state)) was headed by a ruling ducal house. Under the duke were [aristocratic families](three)(Three Huan), whose heads bore the title of viscount and held hereditary positions in the Lu bureaucracy. The Ji family held the position "Minister over the Masses", who was also the "Prime Minister"; the Meng family held the position "Minister of Works"; and the Shu family held the position "Minister of War". In the winter of , Yang Hu—a retainer of the Ji family—rose up in rebellion and seized power from the Ji family. However, by the summer of , the three hereditary families had succeeded in expelling Yang Hu from Lu. By then, Confucius had built up a considerable reputation through his teachings, while the families came to see the value of proper conduct and righteousness, so they could achieve loyalty to a legitimate government. Thus, that year (), Confucius came to be appointed to the minor position of governor of a town. Eventually, he rose to the position of Minister of Crime. Confucius desired to return the authority of the state to the duke by dismantling the fortifications of the city—strongholds belonging to the three families. This way, he could establish a centralized government. However, Confucius relied solely on diplomacy as he had no military authority himself. In , Hou Fan—the governor of Hou—revolted against his lord of the Shu family. Although the Meng and Shu families unsuccessfully besieged Hou, a loyalist official rose up with the people of Hou and forced Hou Fan to flee to the [state](Qi)(Qi (state)). The situation may have been in favor for Confucius as this likely made it possible for Confucius and his disciples to convince the aristocratic families to dismantle the fortifications of their cities. Eventually, after a year and a half, Confucius and his disciples succeeded in convincing the Shu family to raze the walls of Hou, the Ji family in razing the walls of Bi, and the Meng family in razing the walls of Cheng. First, the Shu family led an army towards their city Hou and tore down its walls in . – ) [fresco](fresco) depicting Confucius (and [Laozi](Laozi)), from a tomb of [County](Dongping)(Dongping County), [province](Shandong)(Shandong province), China }} Soon thereafter, Gongshan Furao (also known as Gongshan Buniu), a retainer of the Ji family, revolted and took control of the forces at Bi. He immediately launched an attack and entered the capital Lu. Earlier, Gongshan had approached Confucius to join him, which Confucius considered as he wanted the opportunity to put his principles into practice but he gave up on the idea in the end. Confucius disapproved the use of a violent revolution by principle, even though the Ji family dominated the Lu state by force for generations and had exiled the previous duke. Creel (1949) states that, unlike the rebel Yang Hu before him, Gongshan may have sought to destroy the three hereditary families and restore the power of the duke. However, Dubs (1946) is of the view that Gongshan was encouraged by Viscount Ji Huan to invade the Lu capital in an attempt to avoid dismantling the Bi fortified walls. Whatever the situation may have been, Gongshan was considered an upright man who continued to defend the state of Lu, even after he was forced to flee. During the revolt by Gongshan, [You](Zhong)(Zhong You) had managed to keep the duke and the three viscounts together at the court. Zhong You was one of the disciples of Confucius and Confucius had arranged for him to be given the position of governor by the Ji family. When Confucius heard of the raid, he requested that Viscount Ji Huan allow the duke and his court to retreat to a stronghold on his palace grounds. Thereafter, the heads of the three families and the duke retreated to the Ji's palace complex and ascended the Wuzi Terrace.. Confucius ordered two officers to lead an assault against the rebels. At least one of the two officers was a retainer of the Ji family, but they were unable to refuse the orders while in the presence of the duke, viscounts, and court. The rebels were pursued and defeated at Gu. Immediately after the revolt was defeated, the Ji family razed the Bi city walls to the ground. The attackers retreated after realizing that they would have to become rebels against the state and their lord. Through Confucius' actions, the Bi officials had inadvertently revolted against their own lord, thus forcing Viscount Ji Huan's hand in having to dismantle the walls of Bi (as it could have harbored such rebels) or confess to instigating the event by going against proper conduct and righteousness as an official. Dubs (1949) suggests that the incident brought to light Confucius' foresight, practical political ability, and insight into human character. When it was time to dismantle the city walls of the Meng family, the governor was reluctant to have his city walls torn down and convinced the head of the Meng family not to do so. The [Zuozhuan](Zuozhuan) recalls that the governor advised against razing the walls to the ground as he said that it made Cheng vulnerable to the [state](Qi)(Qi (state)) and cause the destruction of the Meng family. Even though Viscount Meng Yi gave his word not to interfere with an attempt, he went back on his earlier promise to dismantle the walls. Later in , Duke Ding personally went with an army to lay siege to Cheng in an attempt to raze its walls to the ground, but he did not succeed. Thus, Confucius could not achieve the idealistic reforms that he wanted including restoration of the legitimate rule of the duke. He had made powerful enemies within the state, especially with Viscount Ji Huan, due to his successes so far.. According to accounts in the [Zuozhuan](Zuozhuan) and [Shiji](Shiji), Confucius departed his homeland in after his support for the failed attempt of dismantling the fortified city walls of the powerful Ji, Meng, and Shu families. He left the state of Lu without resigning, remaining in self-exile and unable to return as long as Viscount Ji Huan was alive. ### Exile [[of Confucius.png\|thumb\|left\|300px\|Map showing the journey of Confucius to various states between 497 BCE and 484 BCE](File:Journey)] The [Shiji](Shiji) stated that the neighboring [state](Qi)(Qi (state)) was worried that Lu was becoming too powerful while Confucius was involved in the government of the Lu state. According to this account, Qi decided to sabotage Lu's reforms by sending 100 good horses and 80 beautiful dancing girls to the duke of Lu. The duke indulged himself in pleasure and did not attend to official duties for three days. Confucius was disappointed and resolved to leave Lu and seek better opportunities, yet to leave at once would expose the misbehavior of the duke and therefore bring public humiliation to the ruler Confucius was serving. Confucius therefore waited for the duke to make a lesser mistake. Soon after, the duke neglected to send to Confucius a portion of the sacrificial meat that was his due according to custom, and Confucius seized upon this pretext to leave both his post and the Lu state. After Confucius's resignation, he travelled around the [states](principality)(ancient Chinese states) of north-east and central China including [Wey](Wei (Spring and Autumn Period)), [Song](Song (state)), [Zheng](Zheng (state)), [Cao](Cao (state)), [Chu](Chu (state)), [Qi](Qi (state)), [Chen](Chen (state)), and [Cai](Cai (state)) (and a failed attempt to go to [Jin](Jin (Chinese state))). At the courts of these states, he expounded his political beliefs but did not see them implemented. ### Return home [[File:Confuciustombqufu.jpg\|thumb\|upright\|Tomb of Confucius in [Lin cemetery](Kong)(Cemetery of Confucius), [Qufu](Qufu), [Province](Shandong)(Shandong Province)]] According to the [Zuozhuan](Zuozhuan), Confucius returned home to his native Lu when he was 68, after he was invited to do so by Ji Kangzi, the chief minister of Lu. The Analects depict him spending his last years teaching 72 or 77 [disciples](disciples of Confucius) and transmitting the old wisdom via a set of texts called the [Classics](Five)(Five Classics). During his return, Confucius sometimes acted as an advisor to several government officials in Lu, including Ji Kangzi, on matters including governance and crime. Burdened by the loss of both his son and his favorite disciples, he died at the age of 71 or 72 from natural causes. Confucius was buried in [Lin cemetery](Kong)(Cemetery of Confucius) which lies in the historical part of [Qufu](Qufu) in the Shandong Province. The original tomb erected there in memory of Confucius on the bank of the [River](Sishui)(Si River) had the shape of an axe. In addition, it has a raised brick platform at the front of the memorial for offerings such as [sandalwood](sandalwood) incense and fruit. ## Philosophy Although Confucianism is often followed in a religious manner by the Chinese, many argue that its values are secular and that it is, therefore, less a religion than a secular morality. Proponents argue, however, that despite the secular nature of Confucianism's teachings, it is based on a worldview that is religious. Confucianism discusses elements of the [afterlife](Diyu) and views concerning [Heaven](Tian), but it is relatively unconcerned with some spiritual matters often considered essential to religious thought, such as the nature of [souls](Chinese soul).) that opens the text. Far from trying to build a systematic or [formalist](Religious formalism) theory, he wanted his disciples to master and internalize older classics, so that their deep thought and thorough study would allow them to relate the moral problems of the present to past political events (as recorded in the Annals) or the past expressions of commoners' feelings and noblemen's reflections (as in the poems of the [of Odes](Book)(Shi Jing)). ### Ethics [[File:Rongo Analects 02.jpg\|thumb\|left\|The [Analects](Analects)]] One of the deepest teachings of Confucius may have been the superiority of personal exemplification over explicit rules of behavior. His moral teachings emphasized self-cultivation, emulation of moral exemplars, and the attainment of skilled judgment rather than knowledge of rules. Confucian ethics may, therefore, be considered a type of [ethics](virtue)(virtue ethics). His teachings rarely rely on reasoned argument, and ethical ideals and methods are conveyed indirectly, through [allusion](allusion), [innuendo](innuendo), and even [tautology](tautology (rhetoric)). His teachings require examination and context to be understood. A good example is found in this famous anecdote: When the stables were burnt down, on returning from court Confucius said, "Was anyone hurt?" He did not ask about the horses.\|Analects X.11 (tr. [Waley](Arthur Waley)), 10–13 (tr. [Legge](James Legge)), or X-17 (tr. [Lau](D.C. Lau))}} By not asking about the horses, Confucius demonstrates that the sage values human beings over property (which animals seem to represent in this example); readers are led to reflect on whether their response would follow Confucius's and to pursue self-improvement if it would not have. One of his teachings was a variant of the [Rule](Golden)(Golden Rule), sometimes called the "[Rule](Silver)(Silver Rule)" owing to its negative form: Zi Gong [disciple](a) asked: "Is there any one word that could guide a person throughout life?" The Master replied: "How about 'reciprocity'! Never impose on others what you would not choose for yourself."\|Analects XV.24, tr. David Hinton}} Often overlooked in Confucian ethics are the virtues to the self: sincerity and the cultivation of knowledge. Virtuous action towards others begins with virtuous and sincere thought, which begins with knowledge. A virtuous disposition without knowledge is susceptible to corruption, and virtuous action without sincerity is not true righteousness. Cultivating knowledge and sincerity is also important for one's own sake; the superior person loves learning for the sake of learning and righteousness for the sake of righteousness. The Confucian theory of ethics as exemplified in [lǐ](Li (Confucian)) () is based on three important conceptual aspects of life: (a) ceremonies associated with sacrifice to ancestors and deities of various types, (b) social and political institutions, and (c) the etiquette of daily behavior. Some believed that lǐ originated from the heavens, but Confucius stressed the development of lǐ through the actions of sage leaders in human history. His discussions of lǐ seem to redefine the term to refer to all actions committed by a person to build the ideal society, rather than those conforming with canonical standards of ceremony. In the early Confucian tradition, lǐ was doing the proper thing at the proper time; balancing between maintaining existing norms to perpetuate an ethical social fabric, and violating them in order to accomplish ethical good. Training in the lǐ of past sages, cultivates virtues in people that include ethical judgment about when lǐ must be adapted in light of situational contexts. In Confucianism, the concept of li is closely related to yì (), which is based upon the idea of reciprocity. Yì can be translated as [righteousness](righteousness), though it may mean what is ethically best to do in a certain context. The term contrasts with action done out of [self-interest](selfishness). While pursuing one's own self-interest is not necessarily bad, one would be a better, more righteous person if one's life was based upon following a path designed to enhance the greater good. Thus an outcome of yì is doing the right thing for the right reason. Just as action according to [lǐ](Li (Confucian)) should be adapted to conform to the aspiration of adhering to yì, so yì is linked to the core value of rén (). [Rén](Ren (Confucianism)) consists of five basic virtues: seriousness, generosity, sincerity, diligence, and kindness.. Rén is the virtue of perfectly fulfilling one's responsibilities toward others, most often translated as "benevolence", "humaneness", or "empathy"; translator [Waley](Arthur)(Arthur Waley) calls it "Goodness" (with a capital G), and other translations that have been put forth include "authoritativeness" and "selflessness". Confucius's moral system was based upon [empathy](empathy) and understanding others, rather than divinely ordained rules. To develop one's spontaneous responses of rén so that these could guide action intuitively was even better than living by the rules of yì. Confucius asserts that virtue is a mean between extremes. For example, the properly generous person gives the right amount – not too much and not too little. ### Politics Confucius's political thought is based upon his ethical thought. He argued that the best government is one that rules through "rites" (lǐ) and people's [morality](natural)(natural morality), and not by using bribery and coercion. He explained that this is one of the most important analects: "If the people be led by laws, and uniformity sought to be given them by punishments, they will try to avoid the punishment, but have no sense of shame. If they be led by virtue, and uniformity sought to be given them by the rules of propriety, they will have the sense of the shame, and moreover will become good." (Analects 2.3, tr. Legge). This "sense of shame" is an internalisation of [duty](duty), where the punishment precedes the evil action, instead of following it in the form of laws as in [Legalism](Legalism (Chinese philosophy)). Confucius looked nostalgically upon earlier days, and urged the Chinese, particularly those with political power, to model themselves on earlier examples. In times of division, chaos, and endless wars between feudal states, he wanted to restore the [of Heaven](Mandate)(Mandate of Heaven) () that could unify the "world" (, "all under Heaven") and bestow peace and prosperity on the people. Because his vision of personal and social perfections was framed as a revival of the ordered society of earlier times, Confucius is often considered a great proponent of [conservatism](conservatism), but a closer look at what he proposes often shows that he used (and perhaps twisted) past institutions and rites to push a new political agenda of his own: a revival of a unified royal state, whose rulers would succeed to power on the basis of their moral merits instead of lineage. These would be rulers devoted to their people, striving for personal and social [perfection](perfection), and such a ruler would spread his own virtues to the people instead of imposing proper behavior with laws and rules. While Confucius supported the idea of government ruling by a virtuous king, his ideas contained a number of elements to limit the power of rulers. He argued for representing [truth](truth) in language, and [honesty](honesty) was of paramount importance. Even in [expression](facial)(facial expression), truth must always be represented. Confucius believed that if a ruler is to lead correctly, by action, that orders would be unnecessary in that others will follow the proper actions of their ruler. In discussing the relationship between a king and his subject (or a father and his son), he underlined the need to give due respect to superiors. This demanded that the subordinates must advise their superiors if the superiors are considered to be taking a course of action that is wrong. Confucius believed in ruling by example, if you lead correctly, orders by force or punishment are not necessary. ### Music and poetry [[File:Manuscript from Shanghai Museum 1.jpg\|thumb\|left\|The [Shijing](Classic of Poetry) or Classic of Poetry]] Confucius heavily promoted the use of music with rituals or the rites order. The scholar [Zehou](Li)(Li Zehou) argued that Confucianism is based on the idea of rites. Rites serve as the starting point for each individual and that these sacred social functions allow each person's human nature to be harmonious with reality. Given this, Confucius believed that "music is the harmonization of heaven and earth; the rites is the order of heaven and earth". Thus the application of music in rites creates the order that makes it possible for society to prosper. The Confucian approach to music was heavily inspired by the [Shijing](Classic of Poetry) and the [of Music](Classic)(Classic of Music), which was said to be the sixth Confucian classic until it was lost during the [Dynasty](Han)(Han Dynasty). The Shijing serves as one of the current Confucian classics and is a book on poetry that contains a diversified variety of poems as well as folk songs. Confucius is traditionally ascribed with compiling these classics within his school. In the Analects, Confucius described the importance of the art in the development of society: ## Legacy [[File:Louvre Conseil Etat Confucius.jpg\|thumb\|Confucius together with [Moses](Moses) and [Muhammad](Muhammad) among the greatest legislators of the past, by [Mauzaisse](Jean-Baptiste)(Jean-Baptiste Mauzaisse) (1827), [Palace](Louvre)(Louvre Palace)]] Confucius's teachings were later turned into an elaborate set of rules and practices by his numerous disciples and followers, who organized his teachings into the Analects. Confucius's disciples and his only grandson, [Zisi](Zisi), continued his philosophical school after his death. These efforts spread Confucian ideals to students who then became officials in many of the royal courts in China, thereby giving Confucianism the first wide-scale test of its [dogma](dogma). Two of Confucius's most famous later followers emphasized radically different aspects of his teachings. In the centuries after his death, [Mencius](Mencius) () and [Xunzi](Xun Kuang) () both composed important teachings elaborating in different ways on the fundamental ideas associated with Confucius. [Mencius](Mencius) () articulated the innate goodness in human beings as a source of the ethical intuitions that guide people towards rén, yì, and lǐ, while Xunzi () underscored the realistic and materialistic aspects of Confucian thought, stressing that morality was inculcated in society through tradition and in individuals through training. In time, their writings, together with the Analects and other core texts came to constitute [philosophical corpus of Confucianism](the)(Four Books and Five Classics). This realignment in Confucian thought was parallel to the development of [Legalism](Legalism (Chinese philosophy)), which saw filial piety as self-interest and not a useful tool for a ruler to create an effective state. A disagreement between these two political philosophies came to a head in when the [state](Qin)(Qin (state)) conquered all of China. [Si](Li)(Li Si), Prime Minister of the [dynasty](Qin)(Qin dynasty), convinced [Shi Huang](Qin)(Qin Shi Huang) to abandon the Confucians' recommendation of awarding fiefs akin to the [Dynasty](Zhou)(Zhou Dynasty) before them which he saw as being against to the Legalist idea of centralizing the state around the ruler. When the Confucian advisers pressed their point, Li Si had many Confucian scholars killed and [books burned](their)(Qin Shi Huang's biblioclasm)—considered a huge blow to the philosophy and Chinese scholarship. Under the succeeding [Han](Han dynasty) and [Tang](Tang dynasty) dynasties, Confucian ideas gained even more widespread prominence. Under [Wudi](Emperor Wu of Han), the [attributed to Confucius](works)(Four Books and Five Classics#Five Classics) were made the official imperial philosophy and required reading for civil service examinations in which was continued nearly unbroken until the end of the 19th century. As [Mohism](Mohism) lost support by the time of the Han, the main philosophical contenders were Legalism, which Confucian thought somewhat absorbed, the teachings of [Laozi](Laozi), whose focus on more spiritual ideas kept it from direct conflict with Confucianism, and the new [Buddhist](Buddhist) religion, which gained acceptance during the [and Northern Dynasties](Southern)(Southern and Northern Dynasties) era. Both Confucian ideas and Confucian-trained officials were relied upon in the [Dynasty](Ming)(Ming Dynasty) and even the [Dynasty](Yuan)(Yuan Dynasty), although [Khan](Kublai)(Kublai Khan) distrusted handing over provincial control to them. During the [dynasty](Song)(Song dynasty), the scholar [Xi](Zhu)(Zhu Xi) () added ideas from [Daoism](Daoism) and [Buddhism](Buddhism) into Confucianism. In his life, Zhu Xi was largely ignored, but not long after his death, his ideas became the new orthodox view of what Confucian texts actually meant. Modern historians view Zhu Xi as having created something rather different and call his way of thinking [Neo-Confucianism](Neo-Confucianism). Neo-Confucianism held sway in China, Japan, Korea, and Vietnam until the 19th century. [[File:LifeAndWorksOfConfucius1687.jpg\|thumb\|Confucius, Philosopher of the Chinese, published by [missionaries](Jesuit)(Jesuit China missions) at Paris in 1687]] The works of Confucius were first translated into European languages by [missionaries](Jesuit)(Jesuit China missions) in the 16th century during the late [dynasty](Ming)(Ming dynasty). The first known effort was by [Ruggieri](Michele)(Michele Ruggieri), who returned to Italy in 1588 and carried on his translations while residing in [Salerno](Salerno). [Ricci](Matteo)(Matteo Ricci) started to report on the thoughts of Confucius, and a team of Jesuits—[Intorcetta](Prospero)(Prospero Intorcetta), [Couplet](Philippe)(Philippe Couplet), and two others—published a translation of several [works](Confucian)(Confucian canon) and an overview of [history](Chinese)(history of China) in Paris in 1687. \|date=1687 \|location=Paris \|publisher=Daniel Horthemels }}. . [Noël](François)(François Noël (missionary)), after failing to persuade [ClementXI](Pope Clement XI) that [veneration of ancestors](Chinese)(Chinese ancestral veneration) and [Confucius](Confucianism) [not constitute idolatry](did)(Chinese Rites controversy), completed the Confucian canon at [Prague](Prague) in 1711, with more scholarly treatments of the other works and the first translation of the [works](collected)(Mengzi (book)) of [Mencius](Mencius).. It is thought that such works had considerable importance on European thinkers of the period, particularly among the [Deists](Deists) and other philosophical groups of the [Enlightenment](Age of Enlightenment) who were interested by the integration of the system of morality of Confucius into [civilization](Western)(western world). In the modern era Confucian movements, such as [Confucianism](New)(New Confucianism), still exist, but during the [Revolution](Cultural)(Cultural Revolution), Confucianism was frequently attacked by leading figures in the [Communist Party](Chinese)(Chinese Communist Party). This was partially a continuation of the condemnations of Confucianism by intellectuals and activists in the early 20th century as a cause of the ethnocentric close-mindedness and refusal of the [Dynasty](Qing)(Qing Dynasty) to modernize that led to the tragedies that befell China in the 19th century. Confucius's works are studied by scholars in many other Asian countries, particularly those in the [cultural sphere](Chinese)(Chinese cultural sphere), such as Korea, Japan, and Vietnam. Many of those countries still hold the traditional memorial ceremony every year. Among [Tibetans](Tibetans), Confucius is often worshipped as a holy king and master of magic, divination and astrology. [Buddhists](Tibetan)(Tibetan Buddhists) see him as learning divination from the Buddha [Manjushri](Manjushri) (and that knowledge subsequently reaching Tibet through [Wencheng](Princess)(Princess Wencheng)), while [Bon](Bon) practitioners see him as being a reincarnation of [Shenrab Miwoche](Tonpa)(Tonpa Shenrab Miwoche), the legendary founder of Bon. The [Muslim Community](Ahmadiyya)(Ahmadiyya Muslim Community) believes Confucius was a [Prophet](Divine)(Prophets of Islam) of God, as were [Lao-Tzu](Lao-Tzu) and other eminent Chinese personages.. According to the [Siddhar](Siddhar) tradition of [Nadu](Tamil)(Tamil Nadu), [Confucius](Confucius) is one of the 18 esteemed [Siddhars](Siddhar) of yore, and is better known as [Nathar](Kalangi)(Kalangi Nathar) or Kamalamuni. The [Temple](Thyagaraja)(Thyagaraja Temple, Tiruvarur) in [Thiruvarur](Thiruvarur), [Nadu](Tamil)(Tamil Nadu) is home to his [Jeeva](Jiva) [Samadhi](Samadhi). In modern times, [7853](Asteroid)(7853 Confucius), "Confucius", was named after the Chinese thinker.[IAU Minor Planet Center](https://minorplanetcenter.net/db_search/show_object?object_id=7853IAU) . International Astronomical Union Minor Planet Center. Accessed 12 September 2018. ### Disciples [[File:The Classic of Filial Piety (開宗明義章畫).jpg\|thumb\|[Zengzi](Zengzi) (right) kneeling before Confucius (center), as depicted in a painting from the Illustrations of the [of Filial Piety](Classic)(Classic of Filial Piety), [dynasty](Song)(Song dynasty)]] Confucius began teaching after he turned 30, and taught more than 3,000 students in his life, about 70 of whom were considered outstanding. His disciples and the early Confucian community they formed became the most influential intellectual force in the [States period](Warring)(Warring States period). The [dynasty](Han)(Han dynasty) historian [Qian](Sima)(Sima Qian) dedicated a chapter in his [of the Grand Historian](Records)(Records of the Grand Historian) to the biographies of Confucius's disciples, accounting for the influence they exerted in their time and afterward. Sima Qian recorded the names of 77 disciples in his collective biography, while [Jiayu](Kongzi)(Kongzi Jiayu), another early source, records 76, not completely overlapping. The two sources together yield the names of 96 disciples. Twenty-two of them are mentioned in the [Analects](Analects), while the [Mencius](Mencius (book)) records 24. Confucius did not charge any tuition, and only requested a symbolic gift of a bundle of dried meat from any prospective student. According to his disciple [Zigong](Duanmu Ci), his master treated students like doctors treated patients and did not turn anybody away. Most of them came from [Lu](Lu (state)), Confucius's home state, with 43 recorded, but he accepted students from all over China, with six from the state of [Wey](Wey (state)) (such as Zigong), three from [Qin](Qin (state)), two each from [Chen](Chen (state)) and [Qi](Qi (state)), and one each from [Cai](Cai (state)), [Chu](Chu (state)), and [Song](Song (state)). Confucius considered his students' personal background irrelevant, and accepted noblemen, commoners, and even former criminals such as Yan Zhuoju and [Chang](Gongye)(Gongye Chang). His disciples from richer families would pay a sum commensurate with their wealth which was considered a ritual donation. Confucius's favorite disciple was [Hui](Yan)(Yan Hui), most probably one of the most impoverished of them all. Sima Niu, in contrast to Yan Hui, was from a hereditary noble family hailing from the Song state. Under Confucius's teachings, the disciples became well learned in the principles and methods of government. He often engaged in discussion and debate with his students and gave high importance to their studies in history, poetry, and ritual. Confucius advocated loyalty to principle rather than to individual acumen, in which reform was to be achieved by persuasion rather than violence. Even though Confucius denounced them for their practices, the aristocracy was likely attracted to the idea of having trustworthy officials who were studied in morals as the circumstances of the time made it desirable. In fact, the disciple [Zilu](Zhong You) even died defending his ruler in [Wey](Wey (state)). Yang Hu, who was a subordinate of the Ji family, had dominated the Lu government from 505 to 502 and even attempted a coup, which narrowly failed. As a likely consequence, it was after this that the first disciples of Confucius were appointed to government positions. A few of Confucius's disciples went on to attain official positions of some importance, some of which were arranged by Confucius. By the time Confucius was 50 years old, the Ji family had consolidated their power in the Lu state over the ruling ducal house. Even though the Ji family had practices with which Confucius disagreed and disapproved, they nonetheless gave Confucius's disciples many opportunities for employment. Confucius continued to remind his disciples to stay true to their principles and renounced those who did not, all the while being openly critical of the Ji family. ### Visual portraits [[File:孔子聖蹟圖.png\|thumb\|Portrait by [Ying](Qiu)(Qiu Ying) (1494–1552), [dynasty](Ming)(Ming dynasty)]] No contemporary painting or sculpture of Confucius survives, and it was only during the [Dynasty](Han)(Han Dynasty) that he was portrayed visually. Carvings often depict his legendary meeting with [Laozi](Laozi). Since that time there have been many portraits of Confucius as the ideal philosopher. An early verbal portrayal of Confucius is found in the chapter "External Things" () of the book [Zhuangzi](Zhuangzi (book)) (), finished in about 3rd BCE, long after Confucius's death.Zhuangzi, "External Things". [Chinese original](https://ctext.org/zhuangzi/what-comes-from-without#n2947) : 「老萊子之弟子出薪，遇仲尼，反以告曰：『有人於彼，修上而趨下，末僂而後耳，視若營四海，不知其誰氏之子。』老萊子曰：『是丘也，召而來！』」. [Watson](Burton)(Burton Watson)'s [translation](https://terebess.hu/english/chuangtzu3.html#26) : "A disciple of Lao Lai-tzu was out gathering firewood when he happened to meet Confucius. He returned and reported, 'There's a man over there with a long body and short legs, his back a little humped and his ears set way back, who looks as though he were trying to attend to everything within the four seas. I don't know who it can be.' Lao Lai-tzu said, 'That's Kung Ch'iu. Tell him to come over here!'" The oldest known portrait of Confucius has been unearthed in the tomb of the [dynasty](Han)(Han dynasty) ruler [of Haihun](Marquis)(Marquis of Haihun) (died ). The picture was painted on the wooden frame to a polished bronze mirror. In former times, it was customary to have a portrait in [Temples](Confucius)(Temple of Confucius); however, during the reign of [Emperor](Hongwu)(Hongwu Emperor) (Taizu) of the [dynasty](Ming)(Ming dynasty), it was decided that the only proper portrait of Confucius should be in the [temple](Temple of Confucius, Qufu) in his home town, [Qufu](Qufu) in Shandong. In other temples, Confucius is represented by a memorial tablet. In 2006, the China Confucius Foundation commissioned a standard portrait of Confucius based on the [dynasty](Tang)(Tang dynasty) portrait by [Daozi](Wu)(Wu Daozi). The South Wall [Frieze](Frieze) in the courtroom of the [Court of the United States](Supreme)(Supreme Court of the United States) depicts Confucius as a teacher of harmony, learning, and virtue. ### Fictional portrayals There have been two film adaptations of Confucius' life: the 1940 film [Confucius](Confucius (1940 film)) starring Tang Huaiqiu, and the 2010 film [Confucius](Confucius (2010 film)) starring [Yun-fat](Chow)(Chow Yun-fat). ### Memorials [[File:First Entrance Gate of the Temple of Confucius, Ching-hai.jpg\|thumb\|First entrance gate of the [of Confucius](Temple)(Temple of Confucius) in [Zhenhai](Zhenhai)]] [[File:20130918-嘉定孔庙-2.jpg\|thumb\|The [of Confucius](Temple)(Temple of Confucius) in [Jiading](Jiading District), now a suburb of [Shanghai](Shanghai). The Jiading Temple of Confucius now operates a museum devoted to the [exam](imperial)(imperial exam) formerly administered at the temples.]] Soon after Confucius's death, [Qufu](Qufu), his home town, became a place of devotion and remembrance. The [dynasty](Han)(Han dynasty) [of the Grand Historian](Records)(Records of the Grand Historian) records that it had already become a place of pilgrimage for ministers. It is still a major destination for cultural tourism, and many people visit his grave and the surrounding temples. In Sinic cultures, there are many temples where representations of the [Buddha](Gautama Buddha), [Laozi](Laozi), and Confucius are found together. There are also many [temples](Temple of Confucius) dedicated to him, which have been used for Confucian ceremonies. Followers of Confucianism have a tradition of holding spectacular memorial ceremonies of Confucius () every year, using ceremonies that supposedly derived from Zhou Li () as recorded by Confucius, on the date of Confucius's birth. In the 20th century, this tradition was interrupted for several decades in mainland China, where the official stance of the Communist Party and the State was that Confucius and Confucianism represented reactionary [feudalist](Feudalism) beliefs which held that the subservience of the people to the [aristocracy](Aristocracy (class)) is a part of the natural order. All such ceremonies and rites were therefore banned. Only after the 1990s did the ceremony resume. As it is now considered a veneration of Chinese history and tradition, even Communist Party members may be found in attendance. In Taiwan, where the Nationalist Party ([Kuomintang](Kuomintang)) strongly promoted Confucian beliefs in ethics and behavior, the tradition of the memorial ceremony of Confucius () is supported by the government and has continued without interruption. While not a national holiday, it does appear on all printed calendars, much as [Day](Father's)(Father's Day) or [Day](Christmas)(Christmas) do in the Western world. In [Korea](South)(South Korea), a grand-scale memorial ceremony called [Daeje](Seokjeon)(Seokjeon Daeje) is held twice a year on Confucius's birthday and the anniversary of his death, at [academies](Confucian)(Hyanggyo) across the country and [Sungkyunkwan](Sungkyunkwan) in Seoul. ### Descendants Confucius's descendants were repeatedly identified and honored by successive imperial governments with titles of nobility and official posts. They were honored with the rank of a [marquis](marquess) 35 times since [Gaozu](Gaozu of Han) of the [dynasty](Han)(Han dynasty), and they were promoted to the rank of [duke](duke) 42 times from the [dynasty](Tang)(Tang dynasty) to the [dynasty](Qing)(Qing dynasty). [Xuanzong of Tang](Emperor)(Emperor Xuanzong of Tang) first bestowed the title of "Duke Wenxuan" on Kong Suizhi of the 35th generation. In 1055, [Renzong of Song](Emperor)(Emperor Renzong of Song) first bestowed the title of "[Yansheng](Duke)(Duke Yansheng)" on Kong Zongyuan of the 46th generation. During the [Song dynasty](Southern)(Southern Song dynasty), the Duke Yansheng Kong Duanyou fled south with the Song Emperor to [Quzhou](Quzhou) in Zhejiang, while the newly established [dynasty (1115–1234)](Jin)(Jin dynasty (1115–1234)) in the north appointed Kong Duanyou's brother Kong Duancao who remained in Qufu as Duke Yansheng. From that time up until the [dynasty](Yuan)(Yuan dynasty), there were two Duke Yanshengs, one in the north in Qufu and the other in the south at Quzhou. An invitation to come back to Qufu was extended to the southern Duke Yansheng Kong Zhu by the Yuan-dynasty Emperor Kublai Khan. The title was taken away from the southern branch after Kong Zhu rejected the invitation, so the northern branch of the family kept the title of Duke Yansheng. The southern branch remained in Quzhou where they live to this day. Confucius's descendants in Quzhou alone number 30,000. The [Academy](Hanlin)(Hanlin Academy) rank of Wujing boshi [五經博士](w:zh:五經博士) was awarded to the southern branch at Quzhou by a Ming Emperor while the northern branch at Qufu held the title Duke Yansheng. The leader of the southern branch is 孔祥楷 Kong Xiangkai. In 1351, during the reign of Emperor [Temür](Toghon)(Toghon Temür) of the [dynasty](Yuan)(Yuan dynasty), 53rd-generation descendant Kong Huan ()'s second son Kong Shao () moved from China to Korea during the [Dynasty](Goryeo)(Goryeo), and was received courteously by [Noguk](Princess)(Queen Noguk) (the Mongolian-born wife of the future king [Gongmin](Gongmin of Goryeo)). After being naturalized as a Korean citizen, he changed the [hanja](hanja) of his name from "昭" to "紹" (both pronounced so in Korean),Due to a [taboo](naming)(naming taboo) regarding the birth name of the fourth king of Goryeo [Gwangjong](Gwangjong of Goryeo), born "Wang So" (). married a Korean woman and bore a son (Gong Yeo (), 1329–1397), therefore establishing the Changwon Gong clan (), whose ancestral seat was located in [Changwon](Changwon), [Gyeongsang Province](South)(South Gyeongsang Province). The clan then received an [rank](aristocratic)(Korean nobility) during the succeeding [dynasty](Joseon)(Joseon). In 1794, during the reign of King [Jeongjo](Jeongjo of Joseon), the clan then changed its name to [Gong clan](Gokbu)(Qufu Kong clan) () in honor of Confucius's birthplace [Qufu](Qufu) (). Famous descendants include actors such as [Yoo](Gong)(Gong Yoo) (real name Gong Ji-cheol (공지철)) and [Hyo-jin](Gong)(Gong Hyo-jin) (공효진); and artists such as male idol group [B1A4](B1A4) member [Gongchan](Gongchan) (real name Gong Chan-sik (공찬식)), singer-songwriter [Minzy](Minzy) (real name Gong Min-ji (공민지)), as well as her great aunt, traditional folk dancer (공옥진). Despite repeated dynastic change in China, the title of Duke Yansheng was bestowed upon successive generations of descendants until it was abolished by the [government](Nationalist)(Nationalist government) in 1935. The last holder of the title, [Te-cheng](Kung)(Kung Te-cheng) of the 77th generation, was appointed [Official to Confucius](Sacrificial)(Sacrificial Official to Confucius). Kung Te-cheng died in October 2008, and his son, Kung Wei-yi, the 78th lineal descendant, died in 1989. Kung Te-cheng's grandson, [Tsui-chang](Kung)(Kung Tsui-chang), the 79th lineal descendant, was born in 1975; his great-grandson, Kung Yu-jen, the 80th lineal descendant, was born in Taipei on January 1, 2006. Te-cheng's sister, Kong Demao, lives in mainland China and has written a book about her experiences growing up at the family estate in Qufu. Another sister, Kong Deqi, died as a young woman.. Many descendants of Confucius still live in Qufu today. A descendant of Confucius, [H. Kung](H.)(H. H. Kung), was the [of the Republic of China](Premier)(Premier of the Republic of China). One of his sons, (孔令傑), married [Paget](Debra)(Debra Paget) who gave birth to Gregory Kung (). Confucius's family, the Kongs, have the longest recorded extant pedigree in the world today. The father-to-son family tree, now in its 83rd generation,. has been recorded since the death of Confucius. According to the [Genealogy Compilation Committee](Confucius)(Confucius Genealogy Compilation Committee) (CGCC), he has two million known and registered descendants, and there are an estimated three million in all.. Of these, several tens of thousands live outside of China. In the 14th century, a Kong descendant went to Korea, where an estimated 34,000 descendants of Confucius live today. One of the main lineages fled from the Kong ancestral home in [Qufu](Qufu) during the [Civil War](Chinese)(Chinese Civil War) in the 1940s and eventually settled in Taiwan. There are also branches of the Kong family who have converted to Islam after marrying Muslim women, in Dachuan in Gansu province in the 1800s, and in 1715 in [Xuanwei](Xuanwei) in Yunnan province. Many of the Muslim Confucius descendants are descended from the marriage of Ma Jiaga (), a Muslim woman, and Kong Yanrong (), 59th generation descendant of Confucius in the year 1480, and are found among the [Hui](Hui people) and [Dongxiang](Dongxiang people) peoples. The new genealogy includes the Muslims.[rmhb.com.cn](http://www.rmhb.com.cn/chpic/htdocs/english/200704/9-1.htm) () Kong Dejun () is a prominent Islamic scholar and Arabist from Qinghai province and a 77th generation descendant of Confucius. Because of the huge interest in the Confucius family tree, there was a project in China to test the DNA of known family members of the collateral branches in mainland China.. Among other things, this would allow scientists to identify a common Y chromosome in male descendants of Confucius. If the descent were truly unbroken, father-to-son, since Confucius's lifetime, the males in the family would all have the same Y chromosome as their direct male ancestor, with slight mutations due to the passage of time. The aim of the genetic test was to help members of collateral branches in China who lost their genealogical records to prove their descent. However, in 2009, many of the collateral branches decided not to agree to DNA testing.. [Sykes](Bryan)(Bryan Sykes), professor of genetics at [University](Oxford)(Oxford University), understands this decision: "The Confucius family tree has an enormous cultural significance ... It's not just a scientific question." The DNA testing was originally proposed to add new members, many of whose family record books were lost during 20th century upheavals, to the Confucian family tree.. The main branch of the family which fled to Taiwan was never involved in the proposed DNA test at all. In 2013, a DNA test performed on multiple different families who claimed descent from Confucius found that they shared the same Y chromosome as reported by [University](Fudan)(Fudan University). The fifth and most recent edition of the Confucius genealogy was printed by the CGCC. It was unveiled in a ceremony at Qufu on September 24, 2009.. Women are now included for the first time.. ## References ### Citations ### Bibliography * * * * \| url-status=dead \| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110707013208/http://eng.bandao.cn/newsdetail.asp?id=4644 \| archive-date=7 July 2011 }} * \| access-date=30 May 2009 \| archive-date=2 June 2013 \| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130602095336/http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/china/2007-02/02/content_800011.htm \| url-status=live }} * \| access-date=24 September 2009 \| archive-date=24 October 2012 \| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121024075013/http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/china/2009-09/24/content_8733256.htm \| url-status=live }} * * * * * * * \| access-date=30 May 2009 \| archive-date=1 November 2012 \| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121101092536/http://en.ce.cn/National/culture/200901/04/t20090104_17866318.shtml \| url-status=live }} * * * * * * * . * \| access-date=31 May 2009 \| archive-date=7 July 2011 \| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110707040804/http://ye2.mofcom.gov.cn/aarticle/chinanews/200606/20060602462372.html \| url-status=dead }} * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * ## Further reading See and for extensive bibliographies * [Jonathan](Clements,)(Jonathan Clements) (2008). Confucius: A Biography. Stroud, Gloucestershire, England: Sutton Publishing. . * Confucius (1997). Lun yu, (in English The Analects of Confucius). Translation and notes by Simon Leys. New York: W.W. Norton. . * Confucius (2003). Confucius: Analects – With Selections from Traditional Commentaries. Translated by E. Slingerland. Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing. (Original work published c. ) . * [Herrlee Glessner](Creel,)(Herrlee Glessner Creel) (1949). Confucius and the Chinese Way. New York: Harper. * * Csikszentmihalyi, M. (2005). "Confucianism: An Overview". In Encyclopedia* of Religion* (Vol. C, pp. 1890–1905). Detroit: MacMillan Reference * * * * * Sterckx, Roel. Chinese Thought. From Confucius to Cook Ding. London: Penguin, 2019. * Van Norden, B.W., ed. (2001). Confucius and the Analects: New Essays. New York: Oxford University Press. . ## External links * * * * [Multilingual web site on Confucius and the Analects](https://web.archive.org/web/20130124210603/http://confucius.org/) * [The Dao of Kongzi](https://web.archive.org/web/20171020011747/http://faculty.vassar.edu/brvannor/Mypapers/DaoofKongzi.pdf), introduction to the thought of Confucius. * * * * [Confucian Analects](http://digital.library.upenn.edu/webbin/gutbook/lookup?num=4094) (Project Gutenberg release of James Legge's Translation) * [Core philosophical passages](http://www.wfu.edu/~moran/zhexuejialu/Analects_PEM.html) in the Analects of Confucius. }} [ ](Category:Confucius) [BC births](Category:551)(Category:551 BC births) [BC deaths](Category:479)(Category:479 BC deaths) [BC historians](Category:6th-century)(Category:6th-century BC historians) [BC Chinese philosophers](Category:6th-century)(Category:6th-century BC Chinese philosophers) [BC Chinese writers](Category:6th-century)(Category:6th-century BC Chinese writers) [BC historians](Category:5th-century)(Category:5th-century BC historians) [BC Chinese philosophers](Category:5th-century)(Category:5th-century BC Chinese philosophers) [BC Chinese writers](Category:5th-century)(Category:5th-century BC Chinese writers) [Category:Aphorists](Category:Aphorists) [educational theorists](Category:Chinese)(Category:Chinese educational theorists) [ethicists](Category:Chinese)(Category:Chinese ethicists) [logicians](Category:Chinese)(Category:Chinese logicians) [political philosophers](Category:Chinese)(Category:Chinese political philosophers) [humanists](Category:Classical)(Category:Classical humanists) [Category:Confucianism](Category:Confucianism) [Chinese people](Category:Deified)(Category:Deified Chinese people) [theory](Category:Education)(Category:Education theory) [from Shandong](Category:Educators)(Category:Educators from Shandong) [of religions](Category:Founders)(Category:Founders of religions) [clan of Qufu](Category:Gong)(Category:Gong clan of Qufu) [players](Category:Guqin)(Category:Guqin players) [from Shandong](Category:Historians)(Category:Historians from Shandong) [from Qufu](Category:People)(Category:People from Qufu) [from Jining](Category:Politicians)(Category:Politicians from Jining) [from Lu (state)](Category:Philosophers)(Category:Philosophers from Lu (state)) [from Shandong](Category:Philosophers)(Category:Philosophers from Shandong) [of culture](Category:Philosophers)(Category:Philosophers of culture) [of education](Category:Philosophers)(Category:Philosophers of education) [of law](Category:Philosophers)(Category:Philosophers of law) [philosophers](Category:Social)(Category:Social philosophers) [from Jining](Category:Writers)(Category:Writers from Jining) [dynasty historians](Category:Zhou)(Category:Zhou dynasty historians) [dynasty philosophers](Category:Zhou)(Category:Zhou dynasty philosophers) [dynasty government officials](Category:Zhou)(Category:Zhou dynasty government officials) [BC Chinese musicians](Category:5th-century)(Category:5th-century BC Chinese musicians) [BC Chinese musicians](Category:6th-century)(Category:6th-century BC Chinese musicians) [BC religious leaders](Category:6th-century)(Category:6th-century BC religious leaders) [BC religious leaders](Category:5th-century)(Category:5th-century BC religious leaders)
Norah Jones	norah_jones	# Norah Jones Revision ID: 1159922185 \| Timestamp: 2023-06-13T11:07:26Z --- \| birth_place = [York City](New)(New York City), U.S. \| origin = [Texas](Grapevine,)(Grapevine, Texas), U.S. \| occupation = \| instrument = \| genre = }} \| years_active = 2000–present \| label = [Note](Blue)(Blue Note Records) \| associated_acts = \| spouse = Pete Remm \| website = }} Norah Jones (born Geethali Norah Jones Shankar; March 30, 1979) is an American singer, songwriter, and pianist. She has won several awards for her music and, as of 2023, had sold more than 50 million records worldwide. [Billboard](Billboard (magazine)) named her the top [jazz](jazz) artist of the 2000's decade. She has won nine [Awards](Grammy)(Grammy Awards) and was ranked 60th on Billboard magazine's artists of the 2000s decade chart. In 2002, Jones launched her solo music career with the release of [Away with Me](Come)(Come Away with Me), which was a fusion of jazz with [country](Country music), [blues](blues), [folk](Folk music) and [pop](Pop music). It was certified [diamond](RIAA Certification#List of certifications), selling over 27 million copies. The record earned Jones five [Awards](Grammy)(Grammy Awards), including the [of the Year](Album)(Grammy Award for Album of the Year), [of the Year](Record)(Grammy Award for Record of the Year), and [New Artist](Best)(Grammy Award for Best New Artist). Her subsequent studio albums—[Like Home](Feels)(Feels Like Home (Norah Jones album)) (2004), [Too Late](Not)(Not Too Late (album)) (2007), and [Fall](The)(The Fall (Norah Jones album)) (2009)—all gained [platinum](RIAA Certification) status, selling over a million copies each. They were also generally well received by critics. Jones's fifth studio album, [Broken Hearts](Little)(Little Broken Hearts), was released on April 27, 2012; her sixth, [Breaks](Day)(Day Breaks), was released on October 7, 2016. Her seventh studio album, [Me Up Off the Floor](Pick)(Pick Me Up Off the Floor), was released on June 12, 2020. Jones made her feature film debut as an actress in [Blueberry Nights](My)(My Blueberry Nights), which was released in 2007 and was directed by [Kar-Wai](Wong)(Wong Kar-Wai). Jones is the daughter of Indian [sitar](sitar)ist and composer [Shankar](Ravi)(Ravi Shankar) and concert producer [Jones](Sue)(Sue Jones (Ravi Shankar)), and is the half-sister of fellow musicians [Shankar](Anoushka)(Anoushka Shankar) and [Shankar](Shubhendra)(Shubhendra Shankar). ## Early life Jones was born Geethali Norah Jones Shankar on March 30, 1979, in [Manhattan](Manhattan), New York City, to American concert producer Sue Jones and Indian Bengali musician [Shankar](Ravi)(Ravi Shankar). After her parents separated in 1986, Jones lived with her mother, growing up in [Texas](Grapevine,)(Grapevine, Texas). As a child, Jones began singing in church and also took piano and voice lessons. She attended Colleyville Middle School and [High School](Grapevine)(Grapevine High School) before transferring to [T. Washington High School for the Performing and Visual Arts](Booker)(Booker T. Washington High School for the Performing and Visual Arts) in [Dallas](Dallas). Her music took its first form early on in the local Methodist Church where she regularly sang solos. While in high school, she sang in the school choir, participated in band, and played the alto saxophone. At the age of 16, with both parents' consent, she officially changed her name to Norah Jones, removing the Indian elements from her name. Jones always had an affinity for the music of [Evans](Bill)(Bill Evans) and [Holiday](Billie)(Billie Holiday), among other "oldies". She once said, "My mom had this eight-album Billie Holiday set; I picked out one disc that I liked and played that over and over again". She attended [Center for the Arts](Interlochen)(Interlochen Center for the Arts) during the summers. While at high school, she won the [Beat](Down)(Down Beat) Student Music Awards for Best Jazz Vocalist (twice, in 1996 and 1997) and Best Original Composition (1996).\|title=Norah Jones\|magazine=[Billboard](Billboard (magazine))}} Jones attended the [of North Texas](University)(University of North Texas) (UNT), where she majored in jazz piano and sang with the UNT Jazz Singers. During this time, she had a chance meeting with future collaborator [Harris](Jesse)(Jesse Harris). She gave a ride to a band playing at the university whose members happened to be friends of Harris. He was on a cross-country [trip](road)(road trip) with friend and future [Willies](Little)(The Little Willies) member Richard Julian, and stopped to see the band play. After meeting Jones, Harris started sending her [sheet](lead)(lead sheet)s of his songs. In 1999, Jones left Texas for New York City. Less than a year later, she started a band with Harris, and her recordings with them were bestsellers. ## Musical career Jones was a [singer](lounge)(lounge music) before becoming a recording artist. Before releasing her first studio album, she performed with [Poetic](Wax)(Wax Poetic), [Malick](Peter)(Peter Malick), and jazz guitarist [Hunter](Charlie)(Charlie Hunter). ### 2000–2001: New York City, First Sessions As Peter Malick states in the liner notes, "I started looking for a singer who might be open to recording [latest songs](my) for me. On a Tuesday night, I walked into the Living Room just as the singer announced the last song of the set. The Dinah Washington classic 'Since I Fell for You' filled the room and I was struck breathless. Here, in the tradition of Billie Holiday, was a stunningly beautiful, blues infused voice. This was my first contact with Norah Jones." Malick asked her to participate in sessions at Room 9 from Outer Space in [Boston](South)(South Boston), during August and September 2000. They recorded Malick's songs "New York City", "Strange Transmissions", "Deceptively Yours" and "Things You Don't Have to Do" in addition to cover versions of "All Your Love" by Sam Maghett and "Heart of Mine" by Bob Dylan. These songs became the album New York City ([Koch](Koch Records), 2003) by the Peter Malick Group Featuring Norah Jones. After moving to New York City, Jones signed to [Note](Blue)(Blue Note Records), a label owned by [Group](EMI)(EMI Group). The signing came as an indirect result of her performing as lead singer for the JC Hopkins Biggish Band. Shell White, who was the wife of [C. Hopkins](J.)(J. C. Hopkins), worked for [Publishing](EMI)(EMI Publishing) and gave Jones's three-track demo to [Lundvall](Bruce)(Bruce Lundvall), the label's president, and Brian Bacchus, its artists and repertoire agent ([A&R](artists and repertoire)). The demo contained two jazz standards and a song by [Harris](Jesse)(Jesse Harris). The two executives agreed that Jones had potential. Despite their misgivings about the direction of her music, they signed her to the label. Bacchus told [HitQuarters](HitQuarters), "We let her find her own direction ... We knew that if she could develop her songwriting and we could find great songs, it would work." ### 2002: Come Away with Me Bacchus thought producer and engineer [Newland](Jay)(Jay Newland)'s experience in jazz, blues, rock, country, and folk music would give a "feeling for her sound." Jones and Newland recorded nine demo tracks. Four appeared on the sampler [Sessions](First)(First Sessions) (2001). The rest were set aside for her debut album. [Away with Me](Come)(Come Away with Me) (2002) was praised for its blend of acoustic pop with soul and jazz. Debuting at No. 139, it reached No. 1 on the U.S. [200](Billboard)(Billboard 200). The single "[Know Why](Don't)(Don't Know Why)" hit No. 1 on the [40 Adult](Top)(Top 40 Adult) Recurrents in 2003 and No. 30 in the Billboard Hot 100 Singles Chart. At the 45th Grammy Awards in 2003, Jones was nominated for eight Grammy Awards and won five: [New Artist](Best)(Grammy Award for Best New Artist), [of the Year](Album)(Grammy Award for Album of the Year), [Pop Vocal Album](Best)(Grammy Award for Best Pop Vocal Album), [of the Year](Record)(Grammy Award for Record of the Year), and [Female Pop Vocal Performance](Best)(Grammy Award for Best Female Pop Vocal Performance) for "Don't Know Why". This tied [Hill](Lauryn)(Lauryn Hill) and [Keys](Alicia)(Alicia Keys) for most Grammy Awards received by a female artist in one night. Jesse Harris won Song of the Year for "Don't Know Why" while [Mardin](Arif)(Arif Mardin) won [of the Year](Producer)(Grammy Award for Producer of the Year, Non-Classical). The album won [Engineered Album, Non-Classical](Best)(Grammy Award for Best Engineered Album, Non-Classical). Come Away with Me was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ([RIAA](Recording Industry Association of America)) for having sold one million copies. In February 2005, it was certified diamond for selling ten million copies. ### 2004: Feels like Home [[File:Norah Jones Cannes 1.jpg\|right\|thumb\|upright\|Jones at the premiere of My Blueberry Nights at the [Cannes Film Festival](2007)(2007 Cannes Film Festival)]] [like Home](Feels)(Feels like Home (Norah Jones album)) (2004) debuted at No. 1 in at least 16 countries. At the [Grammy Awards](47th)(47th Grammy Awards) in 2005, the album was nominated for three Grammys, winning one, Best Female Pop Vocal Performance for "[Sunrise](Sunrise (Norah Jones song))". For "[We Go Again](Here)(Here We Go Again (Ray Charles song))", a duet with Ray Charles, she won Record of the Year and Best Pop Collaboration with Vocals. [Time](Time (magazine)) magazine named Jones one of the most influential people of 2004. ### 2007: Not Too Late Jones released her third album, [Too Late](Not)(Not Too Late (album)), on January 30, 2007. The album was the first for which she wrote or co-wrote every song. She has said some of these songs are much darker than those on her previous albums. Not Too Late was mostly recorded at Jones's home studio. It is her first album without producer Arif Mardin, who died in the summer of 2006. Jones described the sessions as "fun, relaxed and easy" and without a deadline; Blue Note executives reportedly did not know she was recording an album. The song "My Dear Country" is political commentary; she wrote it before the United States Presidential election day in 2004. Not Too Late reached the No. 1 position in twenty countries. Not Too Late had the third-best first week of sales in 2007, behind [Lavigne](Avril)(Avril Lavigne)'s [Best Damn Thing](The)(The Best Damn Thing) and [Park](Linkin)(Linkin Park)'s [to Midnight](Minutes)(Minutes to Midnight (Linkin Park album)). It reached No. 1 in the U.S., selling 405,000 copies. EMI announced that Not Too Late reached [gold](gold album), [platinum](platinum album) or multi-platinum in 21 countries as of February 2007. The album has sold 4 million copies worldwide. That same year she sang "American Anthem" for the [Burns](Ken)(Ken Burns) documentary [War](The)(The War (2007 film)). ### 2009: The Fall Jones's fourth studio album, [Fall](The)(The Fall (Norah Jones album)), debuted at No. 3 on the [200](Billboard)(Billboard 200) in November 2009, selling 180,000 copies in its first week. Although it was her first album that did not reach No. 1 in the United States it did receive critical acclaim. As part of the promotional drive for the album, Jones performed on [with the Stars](Dancing)(Dancing with the Stars), [Show with David Letterman](Late)(Late Show with David Letterman), [Morning America](Good)(Good Morning America) and other television programs. The Fall featured a [Bernard](St.)(St. Bernard (dog)) on the cover; his name is Ben. The album's [single](lead)(lead single), "[Pirates](Chasing)(Chasing Pirates)", peaked at No. 13 on [Adult Contemporary Tracks](Hot)(Hot Adult Contemporary Tracks) and No. 7 on Jazz Songs. Billboards 2000–2009 decade awards ranked Jones as the top jazz recording artist, at No. 60 best Artist. Come Away With Me was elected the No. 4 album and No. 1 jazz album. Jones earned a platinum certification by the [RIAA](RIAA) for sales of 1 million copies of The Fall. The album sold 1.5 million copies worldwide and was certified gold or platinum in 14 countries as of 2010. "[It's Cold Outside](Baby,)(Baby, It's Cold Outside)", a duet with [Nelson](Willie)(Willie Nelson), was nominated in the Best Pop Collaboration with Vocals category. In 2009, Jones performed "Come Away With Me" and "Young Blood" at the end of the [Inc.](Apple)(Apple Inc.)'s It's Only Rock and Roll press conference on September 9 in San Francisco, for the release of iTunes 9 and video camera-equipped [iPod](iPod)s, among other items She also made a guest appearance and performed with other artists on the season three finale of the [NBC](NBC) series [Rock](30)(30 Rock) Jones started her fourth world tour on March 5, 2010. ### 2012: Little Broken Hearts After working with [Mouse](Danger)(Danger Mouse (music producer)) and [Luppi](Daniele)(Daniele Luppi) on some of the tracks for their album [Rome](Rome (Danger Mouse and Daniele Luppi album)), Jones worked with Danger Mouse again on her fifth studio album, [Broken Hearts](Little)(Little Broken Hearts), which was released on May 1, 2012. She played the album in its entirety at [SXSW](South by Southwest) 2012. [Songwriter](American)(American Songwriter) called Little Broken Hearts the "most dramatic and rewarding departure she's made in her career." On May 25, 2012, she began her fifth world tour in Paris, with performances in Europe, North America, Asia, South America, and Australia. She performed in London at the [Roundhouse](Roundhouse (venue)) on September 10, 2012, as part of the [Festival](iTunes)(iTunes Festival) which was broadcast on the internet. She toured three cities in India for the first time because her father wanted her to do so. She also performed a headlining performance at Summer's Day, music festival produced by Only Much Louder. The tour started at Summer's Day in Mumbai on March 3 and included stops in New Delhi on March 5 and Bangalore on March 8. ### 2016: Day Breaks Her sixth studio album, [Breaks](Day)(Day Breaks), which included nine new songs and three [versions](cover)(cover versions), was released on October 7, 2016. "Carry On", the album's lead single, was released to digital outlets on the same day. The album marked a return to her piano after dabbling in folk and pop on the last two records. Jones said the goal of this record was to do everything live. She said in an interview with Billboard, "When you have great musicians, there's no reason to overdub. That strips the soul out of the music." ### 2020-present: Pick Me Up Off the Floor and I Dream of Christmas Her seventh studio album, [Me Up Off the Floor](Pick)(Pick Me Up Off the Floor), was released on June 12, 2020. It debuted at number 87 on the US Billboard 200, making it Jones's first album not to debut in the top three. In 2023, Jones was featured on rapper [Logic](Logic (rapper))’s song “Paradise II” from his first independent studio album [Park](College)(College Park (album)). ## Additional projects and collaborations Jones made a cameo appearance as herself in the 2002 movie [Weeks Notice](Two)(Two Weeks Notice), which starred [Grant](Hugh)(Hugh Grant) and [Bullock](Sandra)(Sandra Bullock). The film shows her briefly at the piano, singing for a charity benefit. In 2003, [Peter Malick Group](The)(Peter Malick) and Jones released an album, [York City](New)(New York City (The Peter Malick Group album)). Jones appeared on [OutKast](OutKast)'s [Love Below](Speakerboxxx/The)(Speakerboxxx/The Love Below) album, on "Take Off Your Cool". This album won the Grammy Award for Album of the Year (Jones was not credited). Also in 2003, Jones appeared on [Harrison](Joel)(Joel Harrison)'s album of jazz interpretations of country and folk songs, [Country](Free)(Free Country (album)), as lead vocalist on "[Walk the Line](I)(I Walk the Line)" and "[Waltz](Tennessee)(Tennessee Waltz)". Jones formed [Little Willies](The)(The Little Willies) in 2003, alongside Richard Julian on vocals, Jim Campilongo on guitar, Lee Alexander on bass, and Dan Rieser on drums. The [country](alt)(country music) band released its eponymous first album in 2006 and [the Good Times](For)(For The Good Times (The Little Willies album)) in 2012. \|title=The Little Willies > Overview \|website=[AllMusic](AllMusic) \|access-date=August 19, 2010}} Jones appeared in the 2004 special, [Street](Sesame)(Sesame Street) Presents: The Street We Live On. Jones appeared in the concert and DVD "Return to Sin City – A Tribute to Gram Parsons". Jones performed the song "She" and then, together with [Richards](Keith)(Keith Richards) of [Rolling Stones](The)(The Rolling Stones), sang "Love Hurts". In 2005, Jones appeared on the [Fighters](Foo)(Foo Fighters)' album [Your Honor](In)(In Your Honor), performing piano and vocals on the song "Virginia Moon". The track was nominated for a Grammy for [Pop Collaboration with Vocals](Best)(Best Pop Collaboration with Vocals), in 2006. Jones appeared on [Adams](Ryan)(Ryan Adams)' & [Cardinals](The)(The Cardinals (rock band))' 2005 album, [City Nights](Jacksonville)(Jacksonville City Nights), on the track "Dear John", which she co-wrote with Adams. In 2011, Jones also played piano and vocals on numerous tracks on Ryan Adams' 2011 studio album [& Fire](Ashes)(Ashes & Fire). Jones worked with [Patton](Mike)(Mike Patton) in 2006, providing vocals on the track "Sucker" on the [Tom](Peeping)(Peeping Tom (band)) project. The song attracted attention as it was the first time Jones used profanity in a recording. In 2007, Jones made her acting debut as the protagonist in a film directed by [Kar-wai](Wong)(Wong Kar-wai). The film, [Blueberry Nights](My)(My Blueberry Nights), opened for the [Cannes Film Festival](2007)(2007 Cannes Film Festival) as one of the 22 films in competition. She wrote and performed a song, "The Story", for the movie. In January 2007, Jones recorded a live session at [Road Studios](Abbey)(Abbey Road Studios) for [from Abbey Road](Live)(Live from Abbey Road). The episode, on which [Mayer](John)(John Mayer) and [Ashcroft](Richard)(Richard Ashcroft) also appeared, was aired on UK [4](Channel)(Channel 4) and on the [Channel](Sundance)(Sundance Channel (United States)). She appeared twice on the [PBS](Public Broadcasting Service) series [City Limits](Austin)(Austin City Limits), on November 2, 2002, and October 6, 2007. The latter appearance was the season opener. [[File:NorahJones Parque Independencia 2010.jpg\|thumb\|left\|upright\|Jones performing at [Independência](Parque)(Museu Paulista) in 2010]] In a change of direction predating The Fall, Jones (referring to herself as "Maddie" and virtually anonymous in a blond wig) sang and played guitar with rock band El Madmo. The band consists of Jones, [Oda](Daru)(Daru Oda) and [Julian](Richard)(Richard Julian (Musician)) and released an eponymous album on May 20, 2007. In 2008, she recorded a duet with [Tribe Called Quest](A)(A Tribe Called Quest) front man Q-Tip, titled "Life Is Better" from his "Renaissance" LP. Jones appears in [Hancock](Herbie)(Herbie Hancock)'s 2007 release [The Joni Letters](River:)(River: The Joni Letters), singing the first track, "[and Spark](Court)(Court and Spark)". This album won the Grammy Award for Album of the Year at the [Grammy Awards](50th)(50th Grammy Awards) in 2008; Jones was credited as a featured artist, her ninth Grammy win. [[File:Norah Jones sings during Congressional Gold Medal Ceremony.jpg\|thumb\|Jones singing "America The Beautiful" during a Congressional Gold Medal Ceremony at the [Capitol](U.S.)(U.S. Capitol), November 16, 2011.]] Jones is one of the participants in the so-called "[Williams](Hank)(Hank Williams) Project" overseen by [Dylan](Bob)(Bob Dylan), and reportedly including contributions from Willie Nelson, [White](Jack)(Jack White (musician)), [Williams](Lucinda)(Lucinda Williams), and [Jackson](Alan)(Alan Jackson). On March 31, 2008, Jones commemorated the 20th anniversary of [Living Room](The)(The Living Room) with a midnight performance at the intimate [Manhattan](Manhattan) music venue where the singer got her start. She played a new song entitled "How Many Times Have You Broken My Heart" and explained that it originated from newly found Hank Williams lyrics she was asked to put to music. Jones also performed the song in late 2008 on [Costello](Elvis)(Elvis Costello)'s talk/music television series, [Elvis Costello with...](Spectacle:)(Spectacle: Elvis Costello with...). Jones was a judge for the 5th annual Independent Music Awards, supporting independent artists' careers. In 2010, Jones contributed "World of Trouble" to the [Project](Enough)(Enough Project) and [Records](Downtown)(Downtown Records)' [Raise Hope for Congo](https://web.archive.org/web/20120118191106/http://www.raisehopeforcongomusic.org/) compilation. Proceeds from the compilation fund efforts to make the protection and empowerment of Congo's women a priority, as well as inspire individuals around the world to raise their voices for peace in Congo. Jones released [...Featuring](...Featuring (Norah Jones album)), a compilation album of collaborations she has done with well-known musicians, including the [Fighters](Foo)(Foo Fighters), Willie Nelson, [Dozen Brass Band](Dirty)(Dirty Dozen Brass Band), [Outkast](Outkast), [Q-Tip](Q-Tip (rapper)), [Kweli](Talib)(Talib Kweli), [and Sebastian](Belle)(Belle and Sebastian), [Charles](Ray)(Ray Charles), [Adams](Ryan)(Ryan Adams), Dolly Parton, [Hancock](Herbie)(Herbie Hancock), [Ward](M.)(M. Ward), and others. Jones said, "It's so exciting and flattering and fun when I get asked to sing with somebody that I admire.... It takes you a little bit out of your comfort zone when you're doing something with another artist. You don't know what to expect—it's kind of like being a little kid and having a playdate." The 18-track Blue Note disc was released on November 16, 2010. Jones recorded a Christmas duet, "[for the Holidays](Home)(Home for the Holidays (song))", with [Lauper](Cyndi)(Cyndi Lauper). As a tribute to [Jobs](Steve)(Steve Jobs), Jones appeared on the Apple Campus in October 2011, performing "Nearness of You" and "Painter Song". She finished her live, three-song set by performing Bob Dylan's "[Young](Forever)(Forever Young (Bob Dylan song))" in honor of Jobs, because "he liked Bob Dylan". Jones collaborated with [Guy](Family)(Family Guy) creator [MacFarlane](Seth)(Seth MacFarlane) on his Grammy-nominated 2011 debut studio album [Is Better Than Words](Music)(Music Is Better Than Words) on the song "[Sleepy People](Two)(Two Sleepy People)". Jones also had a cameo appearance in MacFarlane's 2012 feature film [Ted](Ted (film)). Additionally for the film, she collaborated with MacFarlane and Family Guy composer [Murphy](Walter)(Walter Murphy) on the song "[Needs a Best Friend](Everybody)(Everybody Needs a Best Friend)", recorded on the motion picture soundtrack album and nominated for the [Award for Best Original Song](Academy)(Academy Award for Best Original Song). Jones would later collaborate with MacFarlane on his second studio album [for Swing](Holiday)(Holiday for Swing) on the song "Little Jack Frost Get Lost". Jones sang "It Came Upon Midnight Clear", "Silent Night" and "Pooping Log (Caga Tió)" on the Holiday Special 2011 of [Bourdain: No Reservations](Anthony)(Anthony Bourdain: No Reservations). In September 2012, she appeared in "30 Songs/30 Days" to support [the Sky: Turning Oppression into Opportunity for Women Worldwide](Half)(Half the Sky: Turning Oppression into Opportunity for Women Worldwide), a multi-platform media project inspired by Nicholas Kristof and Sheryl WuDunn's book. Jones is featured on [Glasper](Robert)(Robert Glasper)'s 2013 album [Radio 2](Black)(Black Radio 2), singing "Let It Ride". In October 2013, it was revealed that Jones and [Day](Green)(Green Day) front man [Joe Armstrong](Billie)(Billie Joe Armstrong) would be releasing a duets LP. The album, consisting of covers from the [Brothers](Everly)(The Everly Brothers)' album [Our Daddy Taught Us](Songs)(Songs Our Daddy Taught Us), was titled [Foreverly](Foreverly) and released on November 25, 2013. Jones collaborated with her half-sister, [Shankar](Anoushka)(Anoushka Shankar), on Shankar's album [of You](Traces)(Traces of You), released on October 22, 2013. She contributed vocals to three songs on the album. Jones recorded an album with her country music project, an all-female trio called [n Boots](Puss)(Puss n Boots), which consists of Jones, [Dobson](Sasha)(Sasha Dobson) and [Popper](Catherine)(Catherine Popper). The album, titled [Fools, No Fun](No)(No Fools, No Fun), was released on July 15, 2014, through Blue Note Records. In 2014, Jones played with her label-mates including [Moran](Jason)(Jason Moran (musician)), [Patitucci](John)(John Patitucci), [Blade](Brian)(Brian Blade) and [Shorter](Wayne)(Wayne Shorter) in celebration of the 75th anniversary of Blue Note Records in the Concert Hall of [F. Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts](John)(John F. Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts). Later, Jones joined [Staples](Mavis)(Mavis Staples) for two songs at the [Folk Festival](Newport)(Newport Folk Festival) to celebrate Staples' 75th birthday. Jones is featured on [Mabern](Harold)(Harold Mabern)'s 2014 album Afro Blue, singing "[Rush In](Fools)(Fools Rush In (Where Angels Fear to Tread))" and "Don't Misunderstand". On September 28, 2014, she appeared at the [Fest](George)(George Fest) tribute concert to [Harrison](George)(George Harrison) in Los Angeles, where she sang "[Something](Something (Beatles song))" and "[That Locked Door](Behind)(Behind That Locked Door)". Three days beforehand, Jones performed "Behind That Locked Door" live on the [TBS](TBS (U.S. TV channel)) television show [Conan](Conan (talk show)). Her performance at George Fest was included on the 2016 album and film release of the event. Jones duets with The Rolling Stones' Keith Richards on the song "Illusions", from his 2015 album [Heart](Crosseyed)(Crosseyed Heart). On May 6, 2015, Jones sang "Don't Know Why" on The Late Show with David Letterman, as she had thirteen years before for her first appearance on the Letterman show. The episode was broadcast within two weeks of Letterman's retirement as host. During the same year, she sang "[Bird](Little)(Little Bird (The Beach Boys song))" and "[Only Knows](God)(God Only Knows)" at Brian Fest. Jones donated her voice to the end credits song from the film [Dog Named Gucci](A)(A Dog Named Gucci), on the song "One Voice". The song also features singers [Mann](Aimee)(Aimee Mann), [Hoffs](Susanna)(Susanna Hoffs), [Loveless](Lydia)(Lydia Loveless), [Case](Neko)(Neko Case), [Calder](Kathryn)(Kathryn Calder) and [May](Brian)(Brian May). It was produced by Dean Falcone, who wrote the film's score. "One Voice" was released on [Store Day](Record)(Record Store Day), April 16, 2016, with profits from the sale of the single going to benefit animal charities. In 2017, Jones recorded a rendition of "[Melody](Unchained)(Unchained Melody)", a song made famous by [Righteous Brothers](The)(The Righteous Brothers), for Resistance Radio: The Man in the High Castle Album, a soundtrack to [Amazon](Amazon.com)'s [Man in the High Castle](The)(The Man in the High Castle (TV series)) TV series. The song and soundtrack were produced by [Mouse](Danger)(Danger Mouse (musician)), with whom Jones worked on her 2012 album, [Broken Hearts](Little)(Little Broken Hearts). Begin Again was released through [Note Records](Blue)(Blue Note Records) on April 12, 2019. The collection is a compilation of singles Jones recorded from 2018 to 2019, and includes collaborations with [Tweedy](Jeff)(Jeff Tweedy) and [Bartlett](Thomas)(Doveman). Jones planned to tour Australia and the US in support of the album, before cancelling shows due to the [pandemic](COVID-19)(COVID-19 pandemic). In 2020, Jones duetted with US jazz star [Springs](Kandace)(Kandace Springs) on the song "[Eyes](Angel)(Angel Eyes (1946 song))" from her covers album The Women Who Raised Me. In 2023, Jones was featured on the single “Paradise II” off of rapper [Logic](Logic (rapper))’s eighth studio album College Park. ## Tours * Come Away with Me Tour (2002–04) * Norah Jones & The Handsome Band Tour (2004–05) * Not Too Late Tour (2007–08) * The Fall Tour (2010) * [Broken Hearts Tour](Little)(Little Broken Hearts Tour) (2012–13) * Daybreaks World Tour (2016–17) * North American Tour (2019) * Summer Tour (2022) ## Personal life Jones was in a relationship with bassist [Alexander](Lee)(Lee Alexander (musician)) from 2000 to 2007. After a period of estrangement from her father, [Shankar](Ravi)(Ravi Shankar), Jones traveled to [Delhi](New)(New Delhi) to spend time with him and wrote some material that was later recorded for the album The Fall. Jones has two children with her husband, keyboardist Pete Remm. ## Discography Studio albums * [Away with Me](Come)(Come Away with Me) (2002) * [like Home](Feels)(Feels like Home (Norah Jones album)) (2004) * [Too Late](Not)(Not Too Late (album)) (2007) * [Fall](The)(The Fall (Norah Jones album)) (2009) * [Broken Hearts](Little)(Little Broken Hearts) (2012) * [Breaks](Day)(Day Breaks) (2016) * [Me Up Off the Floor](Pick)(Pick Me Up Off the Floor) (2020) * [Dream of Christmas](I)(I Dream of Christmas) (2021) Collaborative albums * [York City](New)(New York City (The Peter Malick Group album)) (2003) * [We Go Again: Celebrating the Genius of Ray Charles](Here)(Here We Go Again: Celebrating the Genius of Ray Charles) (2011) * [Rome](Rome (Danger Mouse and Daniele Luppi album)) (2011) * [Foreverly](Foreverly) (2013) ## Filmography ## Awards and nominations ## See also * [Street Fire](Fry)(Fry Street Fire) – Norah Jones was an honorary Chairwoman of "Save Fry Street". * [in the New York City metropolitan area](Indians)(Indians in the New York City metropolitan area) ## References ## External links * * }} [Jones](Category:Norah)(Category:Norah Jones) [births](Category:1979)(Category:1979 births) [people](Category:Living)(Category:Living people) [people of Bengali descent](Category:American)(Category:American people of Bengali descent) [Hindus](Category:American)(Category:American Hindus) [American keyboardists](Category:21st-century)(Category:21st-century American keyboardists) [American singers](Category:21st-century)(Category:21st-century American singers) [American women singers](Category:21st-century)(Category:21st-century American women singers) [actresses of Indian descent](Category:American)(Category:American actresses of Indian descent) [country singer-songwriters](Category:American)(Category:American country singer-songwriters) [women country singers](Category:American)(Category:American women country singers) [women jazz singers](Category:American)(Category:American women jazz singers) [women musicians of Indian descent](Category:American)(Category:American women musicians of Indian descent) [women pop singers](Category:American)(Category:American women pop singers) [women singers of Indian descent](Category:American)(Category:American women singers of Indian descent) [women singer-songwriters](Category:American)(Category:American women singer-songwriters) [folk singers](Category:American)(Category:American folk singers) [jazz pianists](Category:American)(Category:American jazz pianists) [jazz singers](Category:American)(Category:American jazz singers) [musicians of Indian descent](Category:American)(Category:American musicians of Indian descent) [pop keyboardists](Category:American)(Category:American pop keyboardists) [pop pianists](Category:American)(Category:American pop pianists) [street performers](Category:American)(Category:American street performers) [women pianists](Category:American)(Category:American women pianists) [musicians](Category:Ballad)(Category:Ballad musicians) [Note Records artists](Category:Blue)(Category:Blue Note Records artists) [Award winners](Category:Brit)(Category:Brit Award winners) [Award winners](Category:Grammy)(Category:Grammy Award winners) [musicians from New York (state)](Category:Jazz)(Category:Jazz musicians from New York (state)) [musicians from Texas](Category:Jazz)(Category:Jazz musicians from Texas) [pianists](Category:Jazz-pop)(Category:Jazz-pop pianists) [singers](Category:Jazz-pop)(Category:Jazz-pop singers) [from Dallas](Category:Musicians)(Category:Musicians from Dallas) [musicians](Category:Bengali)(Category:Bengali musicians) [from Grapevine, Texas](Category:People)(Category:People from Grapevine, Texas) [from New York City](Category:Singers)(Category:Singers from New York City) [from Texas](Category:Singer-songwriters)(Category:Singer-songwriters from Texas) [of North Texas College of Music alumni](Category:University)(Category:University of North Texas College of Music alumni) [Music Awards winners](Category:World)(Category:World Music Awards winners) [from Dallas](Category:Writers)(Category:Writers from Dallas) [from Manhattan](Category:Writers)(Category:Writers from Manhattan) [from New York (state)](Category:Singer-songwriters)(Category:Singer-songwriters from New York (state))
Henry IV of England	henry_iv_of_england	# Henry IV of England Revision ID: 1159530572 \| Timestamp: 2023-06-10T22:56:26Z --- \| succession = [of England](King)(King of England) \| moretext = [(more...)](Styles of English sovereigns) \| reign = 30 September 1399 – \| coronation = 13 October 1399. \| predecessor = [II](Richard)(Richard II) \| successor = [V](Henry)(Henry V of England) \| birth_date = April 1367 \| birth_place = [Castle](Bolingbroke)(Bolingbroke Castle), Lincolnshire, England \| death_date = 20 March 1413 (aged 45) \| death_place = [Chamber](Jerusalem)(Jerusalem Chamber), Westminster, England \| burial_date = \| burial_place = [Cathedral](Canterbury)(Canterbury Cathedral), Kent, England \| spouses = \|}} \| issue = \| issue-link = #Marriages and issue \| issue-pipe = more... \| house = [Lancaster](House of Lancaster) ([Plantagenet](House of Plantagenet)) \| father = [of Gaunt](John)(John of Gaunt) \| mother = [of Lancaster](Blanche)(Blanche of Lancaster) \| signature = Henry IV Signature.svg }} Henry IV ( – 20 March 1413), also known as Henry Bolingbroke, was [of England](King)(King of England) from 1399 to 1413. His grandfather King [III](Edward)(Edward III) had [the French throne](claimed)(English claims to the French throne) as a grandson of [IV of France](Philip)(Philip IV of France), and Henry continued this claim. He was the first English ruler since the [Conquest](Norman)(Norman Conquest), over three hundred years prior, whose mother tongue was English rather than French. Henry was the son of [of Gaunt, Duke of Lancaster](John)(John of Gaunt, Duke of Lancaster), himself the son of Edward III. John of Gaunt was a power in England during the reign of his own nephew, [II](Richard)(Richard II). Henry was involved in the revolt of the [Appellant](Lords)(Lords Appellant) against Richard in 1388, resulting in his exile. After Gaunt died in 1399, Richard blocked Henry's inheritance of his father's duchy. That year, Henry rallied a group of supporters, overthrew and imprisoned Richard II, and usurped the throne, actions that later would lead to what is termed the [of the Roses](Wars)(Wars of the Roses) and a more stabilized monarchy. As king, Henry faced a number of rebellions, most seriously those of [Glyndŵr](Owain)(Owain Glyndŵr), the self-proclaimed ruler of Wales, and the English knight [Percy (Hotspur)](Henry)(Henry Percy (Hotspur)), who was killed in the [of Shrewsbury](Battle)(Battle of Shrewsbury) in 1403. The king suffered from poor health in the latter part of his reign, and his eldest son, [of Monmouth](Henry)(Henry of Monmouth), assumed the reins of government in 1410. Henry IV died in 1413, and his son succeeded him as King Henry V. ## Early life Henry was born at [Castle](Bolingbroke)(Bolingbroke Castle), in [Lincolnshire](Lincolnshire), to [of Gaunt](John)(John of Gaunt) and [of Lancaster](Blanche)(Blanche of Lancaster). His epithet "Bolingbroke" was derived from his birthplace. Gaunt was the third son of King Edward III. Blanche was the daughter of the wealthy royal politician and nobleman [Duke of Lancaster](Henry,)(Henry, Duke of Lancaster). Gaunt enjoyed a position of considerable influence during much of the reign of his own nephew, King [II](Richard)(Richard II). Henry's elder sisters were [Queen of Portugal](Philippa,)(Philippa, Queen of Portugal), and [Duchess of Exeter](Elizabeth,)(Elizabeth, Duchess of Exeter). His younger half-sister, the daughter of his father's second wife, [of Castile](Constance)(Constance of Castile, Duchess of Lancaster), was [Queen of Castile](Katherine,)(Katherine, Queen of Castile). He also had four natural half-siblings born of [Swynford](Katherine)(Katherine Swynford), originally his sisters' governess, then his father's longstanding mistress and later third wife. These illegitimate children were given the surname [Beaufort](House of Beaufort) from their birthplace at the [de Beaufort](Château)(Château de Beaufort) in [France](Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes,)(Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes, France). Henry's relationship with his stepmother, Katherine Swynford, was a positive one, but his relationship with the Beauforts varied. In his youth, he seems to have been close to all of them, but rivalries with [Henry](Henry Beaufort) and [Beaufort](Thomas)(Thomas Beaufort, Duke of Exeter) proved problematic after 1406. [Neville, 4th Baron Neville](Ralph)(Ralph Neville, 4th Baron Neville), married Henry's half-sister [Beaufort](Joan)(Joan Beaufort, Countess of Westmorland). Neville remained one of his strongest supporters, and so did his eldest half-brother [Beaufort](John)(John Beaufort, 1st Earl of Somerset), even though Henry revoked [II](Richard)(Richard II)'s grant to John of a [marquess](marquess)ate. Thomas Swynford, a son from Katherine's first marriage, was another loyal companion. Thomas was Constable of [Castle](Pontefract)(Pontefract Castle), where Richard II is said to have died. Henry's half-sister Joan was the mother of [Neville](Cecily)(Cecily Neville). Cecily married [3rd Duke of York](Richard,)(Richard, 3rd Duke of York), and had several offspring, including [IV](Edward)(Edward IV) and [III](Richard)(Richard III), making Joan the grandmother of two [Yorkist](Yorkist) kings of England. ## Conflict at Court ### Relationship with Richard II [[File:HenryBolingbrokeClaimsThrone.jpg\|thumb\|Henry of Bolingbroke, flanked by the lords spiritual and temporal, claims the throne in 1399. From a contemporary manuscript, British Library, [Collection](Harleian)(Harleian Collection)]] Henry experienced a more inconsistent relationship with King Richard II than his father had. First cousins and childhood playmates, they were admitted together as knights of the [of the Garter](Order)(Order of the Garter) in 1377, but Henry participated in the [Appellant](Lords)(Lords Appellant)s' rebellion against the king in 1387. After regaining power, Richard did not punish Henry, although he did execute or exile many of the other rebellious barons. In fact, Richard elevated Henry from [of Derby](Earl)(Earl of Derby) to [of Hereford](Duke)(Duke of Hereford). Henry spent the full year of 1390 supporting the unsuccessful siege of [Vilnius](Vilnius) (capital of the [Duchy of Lithuania](Grand)(Grand Duchy of Lithuania)) by [Knights](Teutonic)(Teutonic Knights) with 70 to 80 household knights. During this campaign, he bought captured [Lithuania](Lithuania)n women and children and took them back to [Königsberg](Königsberg) to be converted, despite Lithuanians being baptised by Polish priests for a decade at this point. Henry's second expedition to Lithuania in 1392 illustrates the financial benefits to the Order of these guest crusaders. His small army consisted of over 100 men, including [longbow](longbow) archers and six minstrels, at a total cost to the Lancastrian purse of £4,360. Despite the efforts of Henry and his English crusaders, two years of attacks on Vilnius proved fruitless. In 1392–93 Henry undertook a pilgrimage to [Jerusalem](Jerusalem), where he made offerings at the [Sepulchre](Holy)(Holy Sepulchre) and at the [of Olives](Mount)(Mount of Olives). Later he vowed to lead a crusade to 'free Jerusalem from the infidel', but he died before this could be accomplished. The relationship between Henry and the king met with a second crisis. In 1398, a remark regarding Richard II's rule by [de Mowbray, 1st Duke of Norfolk](Thomas)(Thomas de Mowbray, 1st Duke of Norfolk), was interpreted as treason by Henry who reported it to the king.A. Lyon, Constitutional History of the UK, London – Sydney – Portland, 2003, p. [122](https://books.google.com/books?id=yiqrD_b_EGkC&pg=PA122) The two dukes agreed to undergo a duel of honour (called by Richard II) at Gosford Green near [Castle](Caludon)(Caludon Castle), Mowbray's home in [Coventry](Coventry). Yet before the duel could take place, Richard decided to banish Henry from the kingdom (with the approval of Henry's father, John of Gaunt) to avoid further bloodshed. Mowbray was exiled for life.H. Barr, Signes and Sothe: Language in the Piers Plowman Tradition, Cambridge, 1994, p. [146](https://books.google.com/books?id=RPNVlYhWBqEC&pg=PA146). John of Gaunt died in February 1399. Without explanation, Richard cancelled the legal documents that would have allowed Henry to inherit Gaunt's land automatically. Instead, Henry would be required to ask for the lands from Richard. ## Accession After some hesitation, Henry met the exiled [Arundel](Thomas)(Thomas Arundel), former [of Canterbury](archbishop)(archbishop of Canterbury), who had lost his position because of his involvement with the [Appellant](Lords)(Lords Appellant). Henry and Arundel returned to England while Richard was on a military campaign in [Ireland](Ireland). With Arundel as his advisor, Henry began a military campaign, confiscating land from those who opposed him and ordering his soldiers to destroy much of [Cheshire](Cheshire). Henry initially announced that his intention was to reclaim his rights as [of Lancaster](Duke)(Duke of Lancaster), though he quickly gained enough power and support to have himself declared King Henry IV, imprison King Richard (who died in prison, most probably forcibly starved to death) and bypass Richard's 7-year-old [heir-presumptive](heir-presumptive), [de Mortimer, 5th Earl of March](Edmund)(Edmund de Mortimer, 5th Earl of March). Henry's coronation, on 13 October 1399 at Westminster Abbey, may have marked the first time since the [Conquest](Norman)(Norman Conquest) that the monarch made an address in English. In January 1400, he quashed a rebellion by Richard's supporters, who plotted to assassinate the king. It was known as the Epiphany Rising. Henry was forewarned and raised an army in London, at which the conspirators fled. They were apprehended and executed without trial. ## Reign [[File:Henry IV Coronation.jpg\|thumb\|left\|upright\|The coronation of Henry IV of England, from a 15th-century manuscript of [Froissart](Jean)(Jean Froissart)'s ''[Chronicles](Froissart's Chronicles)'']] Henry procured an Act of Parliament to ordain that the [of Lancaster](Duchy)(Duchy of Lancaster) would remain in the personal possession of the reigning monarch. The [of Halton](Barony)(Barony of Halton) was vested in that dukedom. Henry consulted with Parliament frequently, but was sometimes at odds with the members, especially over ecclesiastical matters. On Arundel's advice, Henry obtained from Parliament the enactment of [heretico comburendo](De)(De heretico comburendo) in 1401, which prescribed the burning of [heretics](heretics), an act done mainly to suppress the [Lollard](Lollard) movement. In 1410, Parliament suggested confiscating church land. Henry refused to attack the Church that had helped him to power, and the House of Commons had to beg for the bill to be struck off the record. ### Rebellions [[File:Silver half groat of Henry IV (YORYM 1994 151 102) obverse.jpg\|thumb\|Silver [half-groat](half-groat) of Henry IV, York Museums Trust]] Henry spent much of his reign defending himself against plots, rebellions, and assassination attempts. Henry's first major problem as monarch was what to do with the deposed Richard. After the early [plot](assassination)(Epiphany Rising) was foiled in January 1400, Richard died in prison aged 33, probably of starvation on Henry's order.Bevan, Bryan (2016). Henry IV. p. 72: "Suggestive evidence that Richard's murder was carefully planned is contained among the exchequer payments. 'To William Loveney, Clerk of the Great Wardrobe, sent to Pontefract Castle on secret business by order of the King (Henry IV).'" Some chroniclers claimed that the despondent Richard had starved himself, which would not have been out of place with what is known of Richard's character. Though council records indicate that provisions were made for the transportation of the deposed king's body as early as 17 February, there is no reason to believe that he did not die on 14 February, as several chronicles stated. It can be positively said that he did not suffer a violent death, for his skeleton, upon examination, bore no signs of violence; whether he did indeed starve himself or whether that starvation was forced upon him are matters for lively historical speculation. After his death, Richard's body was put on public display in the [St Paul's Cathedral](old)(old St Paul's Cathedral), both to prove to his supporters that he was truly dead and also to prove that he had not suffered a violent death. This did not stop rumours from circulating for years after that he was still alive and waiting to take back his throne, and that the body displayed was that of Richard's chaplain, a priest named Maudelain, who greatly resembled him. Henry had the body discreetly buried in the [Priory](Dominican)(King's Langley Priory) at [Langley](Kings)(Kings Langley), [Hertfordshire](Hertfordshire), where he remained until King Henry V brought the body back to London and buried it in the tomb that Richard had commissioned for himself in [Abbey](Westminster)(Westminster Abbey). Rebellions continued throughout the first 10 years of Henry's reign, including the [of Owain Glyndŵr](revolt)(Glyndŵr Rising), who declared himself [of Wales](Prince)(Prince of Wales) in 1400, and the rebellions led by [Percy, 1st Earl of Northumberland](Henry)(Henry Percy, 1st Earl of Northumberland), from 1403. The first Percy rebellion ended in the [of Shrewsbury](Battle)(Battle of Shrewsbury) in 1403 with the death of the earl's son [Henry](Henry Percy (Hotspur)), a renowned military figure known as "Hotspur" for his speed in advance and readiness to attack. Also in this battle, Henry IV's eldest son, [of Monmouth](Henry)(Henry of Monmouth), later King Henry V, was wounded by an arrow in his face. He was cared for by royal physician [Bradmore](John)(John Bradmore). Despite this, the Battle of Shrewsbury was a royalist victory. Monmouth's military ability contributed to the king's victory (though Monmouth seized much effective power from his father in 1410). In the last year of Henry's reign, the rebellions picked up speed. "The old fable of a living Richard was revived", notes one account, "and emissaries from Scotland traversed the villages of England, in the last year of Henry's reign, declaring that Richard was residing at the Scottish Court, awaiting only a signal from his friends to repair to London and recover his throne." A suitable-looking impostor was found and King Richard's old groom circulated word in the city that his master was alive in Scotland. "Southwark was incited to insurrection" by Sir Elias Lyvet ([Levett](Levett)) and his associate Thomas Clark, who promised Scottish aid in carrying out the insurrection. Ultimately, the rebellion came to naught. Lyvet was released and Clark thrown into the [of London](Tower)(Tower of London). ### Foreign relations [[II Palaiologos with Henry IV of England.png\|thumb\|Manuel II Palaiologos (left) with Henry IV (right) in London, December 1400](File:Manuel)] Early in his reign, Henry hosted the visit of [II Palaiologos](Manuel)(Manuel II Palaiologos), the only [emperor](Byzantine)(Byzantine emperor) ever to visit England, from December 1400 to February 1401 at [Palace](Eltham)(Eltham Palace), with a [joust](joust) being given in his honour. Henry also sent monetary support with Manuel upon his departure to aid him against the [Empire](Ottoman)(Ottoman Empire). In 1406, English pirates captured the future [I of Scotland](James)(James I of Scotland), aged eleven, off the coast of [Head](Flamborough)(Flamborough Head) as he was sailing to France. James was delivered to Henry IV and remained a prisoner for the rest of Henry's reign. ### Final illness and death The later years of Henry's reign were marked by serious health problems. He had a disfiguring skin disease and, more seriously, suffered acute attacks of a grave illness in June 1405; April 1406; June 1408; during the winter of 1408–09; December 1412; and finally a fatal bout in March 1413. In 1410, Henry had provided his royal surgeon [Morstede](Thomas)(Thomas Morstede) with an annuity of £40 p.a. which was confirmed by Henry V immediately after his succession. This was so that Morstede would "not be retained by anyone else". Medical historians have long debated the nature of this affliction or afflictions. The skin disease might have been [leprosy](leprosy) (which did not necessarily mean precisely the same thing in the 15th century as it does to modern medicine), perhaps [psoriasis](psoriasis), or a different disease. The acute attacks have been given a wide range of explanations, from [epilepsy](epilepsy) to a form of cardiovascular disease. Some medieval writers felt that he was struck with leprosy as a punishment for his treatment of [le Scrope](Richard)(Richard Scrope (bishop)), [of York](Archbishop)(Archbishop of York), who was executed in June 1405 on Henry's orders after a failed coup. According to [Holinshed](Holinshed), it was predicted that Henry would die in Jerusalem, and [play](Shakespeare's)(Henry IV, Part 2) repeats this prophecy. Henry took this to mean that he would die on [crusade](crusade). In reality, he died in the [Chamber](Jerusalem)(Jerusalem Chamber) in the abbot's house of Westminster Abbey, on 20 March 1413 during a [of Parliament](convocation)(Legislative session). His [executor](executor), [Langley](Thomas)(Thomas Langley), was at his side. #### Burial [[File:Canterbury Cathedral 26.jpg\|thumb\|left\|Henry IV and Joan of Navarre, detail of their effigies in [Cathedral](Canterbury)(Canterbury Cathedral)]] [[File:King Henry IV from NPG (2).jpg\|thumb\|upright\|16th-century imaginary painting of Henry IV, [Portrait Gallery, London](National)(National Portrait Gallery, London)]] Despite the example set by most of his recent predecessors, Henry and his second wife, [of Navarre, Queen of England](Joan)(Joan of Navarre, Queen of England), were not buried at Westminster Abbey but at [Cathedral](Canterbury)(Canterbury Cathedral), on the north side of Trinity Chapel and directly adjacent to the shrine of St [Becket](Thomas)(Thomas Becket). Becket's cult was then still thriving, as evidenced in the monastic accounts and in literary works such as [Canterbury Tales](The)(The Canterbury Tales), and Henry seemed particularly devoted to it, or at least keen to be associated with it. Reasons for his interment in Canterbury are debatable, but it is highly likely that Henry deliberately associated himself with the martyr saint for reasons of political expediency, namely, the legitimisation of his dynasty after seizing the throne from Richard II. Significantly, at his coronation, he was anointed with holy oil that had reportedly been given to Becket by the Virgin Mary shortly before his death in 1170; this oil was placed inside a distinct eagle-shaped container of gold. According to one version of the tale, the oil had then passed to Henry's maternal grandfather, [of Grosmont, 1st Duke of Lancaster](Henry)(Henry of Grosmont, 1st Duke of Lancaster). Proof of Henry's deliberate connection to Becket lies partially in the structure of the tomb itself. The wooden panel at the western end of his tomb bears a painting of the martyrdom of Becket, and the tester, or wooden canopy, above the tomb is painted with Henry's personal motto, 'Soverayne', alternated by crowned golden eagles. Likewise, the three large coats of arms that dominate the tester painting are surrounded by collars of SS, a golden eagle enclosed in each tiret. The presence of such eagle motifs points directly to Henry's coronation oil and his ideological association with Becket. Sometime after Henry's death, an imposing tomb was built for him and his queen, probably commissioned and paid for by Queen Joan herself. Atop the tomb chest lie detailed [alabaster](alabaster#Gypsum alabaster) effigies of Henry and Joan, crowned and dressed in their ceremonial robes. Henry's body was evidently well embalmed, as an exhumation in 1832 established, allowing historians to state with reasonable certainty that the effigies do represent accurate portraiture. ## Titles and arms ### Titles * Styled [of Derby](Earl)(Earl of Derby) (1377–97) Biography, Accomplishments, & Facts \|url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Henry-IV-king-of-England \|url-status=live \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191228003957/https://www.britannica.com/biography/Henry-IV-king-of-England \|archive-date=28 December 2019 \|access-date=7 November 2019 \|website=[Online](Britannica)(Encyclopedia Britannica) \|language=en}} * [of Northampton](Earl)(Earl of Northampton) and [Hereford](Earl of Hereford) (22 December 1384 – 30 September 1399) * [of Hereford](Duke)(Duke of Hereford) (29 September 1397 – 30 September 1399) * [of Lancaster](Duke)(Duke of Lancaster) (3 February – 30 September 1399) * [of England](King)(King of England) and [of Ireland](Lord)(Lord of Ireland) (30 September 1399 – 20 March 1413) ### Arms Before his father's death in 1399, Henry bore the arms of the kingdom, differenced by a label of five points ermine. After his father's death, the difference changed to a label of five points per pale ermine and France. Upon his accession as king, Henry updated the arms of the kingdom to match an update in those of royal France—from a field of [fleur-de-lys](fleur-de-lys) to just three. ## Genealogy ## Marriages and issue ### First marriage: Mary de Bohun The date and venue of Henry's first marriage to [de Bohun](Mary)(Mary de Bohun) (died 1394) are uncertain but her marriage licence, purchased by Henry's father [of Gaunt](John)(John of Gaunt) in June 1380, is preserved at the [Archives](National)(National Archives (United Kingdom)). The accepted date of the ceremony is 5 February 1381, at Mary's family home of [Hall](Rochford)(Rochford Hall), Essex. The near-contemporary chronicler [Froissart](Jean)(Jean Froissart) reports a rumour that Mary's sister [de Bohun](Eleanor)(Eleanor de Bohun) kidnapped Mary from [Castle](Pleshey)(Pleshey Castle) and held her at [Castle](Arundel)(Arundel Castle), where she was kept as a novice nun; Eleanor's intention was to control Mary's half of the Bohun inheritance (or to allow her husband, [Duke of Gloucester](Thomas,)(Thomas, Duke of Gloucester), to control it).; There Mary was persuaded to marry Henry. They had six children: Henry had four sons from his first marriage, which was undoubtedly a clinching factor in his acceptability for the throne. By contrast, Richard II had no children and Richard's heir-presumptive [Mortimer](Edmund)(Edmund Mortimer, 5th Earl of March) was only seven years old. The only two of Henry's six children who produced legitimate children to survive to adulthood were Henry V and Blanche, whose son, Rupert, was the heir to the [of the Palatinate](Electorate)(Electorate of the Palatinate) until his death at 20. All three of his other sons produced illegitimate children. Henry IV's male Lancaster line ended in 1471 during the [of the Roses](War)(War of the Roses), between the Lancastrians and the Yorkists, with the deaths of his grandson Henry VI and Henry VI's son [Prince of Wales](Edward,)(Edward of Westminster, Prince of Wales). ### Second marriage: Joanna of Navarre Mary de Bohun died in 1394, and on 7 February 1403 Henry married [Joanna](Joan of Navarre, Queen of England), the daughter of [II of Navarre](Charles)(Charles II of Navarre), at [Winchester](Winchester). She was the widow of [IV, Duke of Brittany](John)(John IV, Duke of Brittany) (known in traditional English sources as John V), with whom she had had four daughters and four sons; however, her marriage to King Henry was childless. ### Mistresses By an unknown mistress, Henry IV had one illegitimate child: * Edmund Leboorde (1401 – shortly before 19 December 1419) ## See also [depictions of Henry IV of England](Cultural)(Cultural depictions of Henry IV of England) [Priory](Naish)(Naish Priory) in Somerset contains corbelled heads of Henry IV and Joanna celebrating their marriage, at the manor of Mary de Bohun's late and powerful great-aunt, [de Bohun](Margaret)(Margaret de Bohun, Countess of Devon) * [of earls in the reign of Henry IV of England](List)(List of earls in the reign of Henry IV of England) * [Mouldwarp](Mouldwarp) ## Notes ## References ### Works cited * * * * * \|title=The French in London: From William the Conqueror to Charles de Gaulle \|last2=Rawlinson \|first2=Catherine \|date=6 June 2016 \|publisher=Wilmington Square Books \|isbn=978-1-908524-65-2 \|page=16 \|translator-last=Emily Read }} * \|title=Henry IV \|date=26 April 2016 \|publisher=Yale University Press \|isbn=978-0-300-15419-1 \|series=[Monarchs series](English)(English Monarchs series) \|author-link=Chris Given-Wilson }} * * * * * * * ## External links [Henry IV](https://www.royal.uk/henry-iv) at the official website of the British monarchy [Henry IV](https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/historic_figures/henry_iv_king.shtml) at BBC History * \|1367\|20 March\|1413\|[of Plantagenet](House)(House of Plantagenet)}} \|- [ ](Category:Henry IV of England) [births](Category:1367)(Category:1367 births) [deaths](Category:1413)(Category:1413 deaths) [English nobility](Category:14th-century)(Category:14th-century English nobility) [English monarchs](Category:14th-century)(Category:14th-century English monarchs) [English monarchs](Category:15th-century)(Category:15th-century English monarchs) [from skin disease](Category:Deaths)(Category:Deaths from skin disease) [of Lancaster](Category:Dukes)(Category:Dukes of Lancaster) [of Derby](Category:Earls)(Category:Earls of Derby) [expatriates](Category:English)(Category:English expatriates) [expatriates in Lithuania](Category:English)(Category:English expatriates in Lithuania) [people of French descent](Category:English)(Category:English people of French descent) [pretenders to the French throne](Category:English)(Category:English pretenders to the French throne) [at Canterbury Cathedral](Category:Burials)(Category:Burials at Canterbury Cathedral) [of Lancaster](Category:House)(Category:House of Lancaster) [of the Garter](Category:Knights)(Category:Knights of the Garter) [High Stewards](Category:Lord)(Category:Lord High Stewards) [from East Lindsey District](Category:People)(Category:People from East Lindsey District) [of the Hundred Years' War](Category:People)(Category:People of the Hundred Years' War) [of Halton](Category:Barons)(Category:Barons of Halton) [created by Richard II](Category:Peers)(Category:Peers created by Richard II)
Transmission Control Protocol	transmission_control_protocol	# Transmission Control Protocol Revision ID: 1159621600 \| Timestamp: 2023-06-11T13:52:15Z --- The Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) is one of the main [protocol](communications protocol)s of the [protocol suite](Internet)(Internet protocol suite). It originated in the initial network implementation in which it complemented the [Protocol](Internet)(Internet Protocol) (IP). Therefore, the entire suite is commonly referred to as [TCP/IP](TCP/IP). TCP provides [reliable](reliability (computer networking)), ordered, and [error-checked](error detection and correction) delivery of a [stream](reliable byte stream) of [octets](octet (computing)) (bytes) between applications running on hosts communicating via an IP network. Major internet applications such as the [Wide Web](World)(World Wide Web), [email](email), [administration](remote)(remote administration), and [transfer](file)(file transfer) rely on TCP, which is part of the [Layer](Transport)(Transport layer) of the TCP/IP suite. [SSL/TLS](Transport Layer Security) often runs on top of TCP. TCP is [connection-oriented](Connection-oriented communication), and a connection between client and server is established before data can be sent. The server must be listening (passive open) for connection requests from clients before a connection is established. Three-way handshake (active open), [retransmission](Retransmission (data networks)), and error detection adds to reliability but lengthens [latency](Network latency). Applications that do not require reliable [stream](data)(data stream) service may use the [Datagram Protocol](User)(User Datagram Protocol) (UDP) instead, which provides a [connectionless](connectionless communication) [datagram](datagram) service that prioritizes time over reliability. TCP employs [congestion avoidance](network)(TCP congestion control). However, there are vulnerabilities in TCP, including [of service](denial)(Denial-of-service attack), [hijacking](connection)(TCP sequence prediction attack), TCP veto, and [attack](reset)(TCP reset attack). ## Historical origin In May 1974, [Cerf](Vint)(Vint Cerf) and [Kahn](Bob)(Bob Kahn) described an [internetworking](internetworking) protocol for sharing resources using [switching](packet)(packet switching) among network nodes. The authors had been working with [Le Lann](Gérard)(Gérard Le Lann) to incorporate concepts from the French [CYCLADES](CYCLADES) project into the new network. The [specification](Specification (technical standard)) of the resulting protocol, (Specification of Internet Transmission Control Program), was written by Vint Cerf, [Dalal](Yogen)(Yogen Dalal), and Carl Sunshine, and published in December 1974. It contains the first attested use of the term [internet](internet), as a shorthand for internetwork. A central control component of this model was the Transmission Control Program that incorporated both connection-oriented links and datagram services between hosts. The monolithic Transmission Control Program was later divided into a modular architecture consisting of the Transmission Control Protocol and the Internet Protocol. This resulted in a networking model that became known informally as TCP/IP, although formally it was variously referred to as the Department of Defense (DOD) model, and [ARPANET](ARPANET) model, and eventually also as the Internet Protocol Suite. In 2004, [Cerf](Vint)(Vint Cerf) and [Kahn](Bob)(Bob Kahn) received the [Award](Turing)(Turing Award) for their foundational work on TCP/IP. ## Network function The Transmission Control Protocol provides a communication service at an intermediate level between an application program and the Internet Protocol. It provides host-to-host connectivity at the [layer](transport)(transport layer) of the [model](Internet)(Internet model). An application does not need to know the particular mechanisms for sending data via a link to another host, such as the required [fragmentation](IP)(IP fragmentation) to accommodate the [transmission unit](maximum)(maximum transmission unit) of the transmission medium. At the transport layer, TCP handles all handshaking and transmission details and presents an abstraction of the network connection to the application typically through a [socket](network)(network socket) interface. At the lower levels of the protocol stack, due to [congestion](network)(network congestion), traffic [balancing](load)(load balancing (computing)), or unpredictable network behaviour, IP packets may be [lost](packet loss), duplicated, or [out of order](delivered)(out-of-order delivery). TCP detects these problems, requests [re-transmission](retransmission (data networks)) of lost data, rearranges out-of-order data and even helps minimize network congestion to reduce the occurrence of the other problems. If the data still remains undelivered, the source is notified of this failure. Once the TCP receiver has reassembled the sequence of octets originally transmitted, it passes them to the receiving application. Thus, TCP [abstracts](Abstraction (computer science)) the application's communication from the underlying networking details. TCP is used extensively by many internet applications, including the [Wide Web](World)(World Wide Web) (WWW), [email](email), [Transfer Protocol](File)(File Transfer Protocol), [Shell](Secure)(Secure Shell), [file sharing](peer-to-peer)(peer-to-peer file sharing), and [media](streaming)(streaming media). TCP is optimized for accurate delivery rather than timely delivery and can incur relatively long delays (on the order of seconds) while waiting for out-of-order messages or re-transmissions of lost messages. Therefore, it is not particularly suitable for real-time applications such as [over IP](voice)(voice over IP). For such applications, protocols like the [Transport Protocol](Real-time)(Real-time Transport Protocol) (RTP) operating over the [Datagram Protocol](User)(User Datagram Protocol) (UDP) are usually recommended instead. TCP is a [byte stream](reliable)(reliable byte stream) delivery service which guarantees that all bytes received will be identical and in the same order as those sent. Since packet transfer by many networks is not reliable, TCP achieves this using a technique known as positive acknowledgement with re-transmission. This requires the receiver to respond with an [acknowledgement](acknowledgement (data networks)) message as it receives the data. The sender keeps a record of each packet it sends and maintains a timer from when the packet was sent. The sender re-transmits a packet if the timer expires before receiving the acknowledgement. The timer is needed in case a packet gets lost or corrupted. While IP handles actual delivery of the data, TCP keeps track of segments - the individual units of data transmission that a message is divided into for efficient routing through the network. For example, when an HTML file is sent from a web server, the TCP software layer of that server divides the file into segments and forwards them individually to the [layer](internet)(internet layer) in the [stack](network)(network stack). The internet layer software encapsulates each TCP segment into an IP packet by adding a header that includes (among other data) the destination [address](IP)(IP address). When the client program on the destination computer receives them, the TCP software in the transport layer re-assembles the segments and ensures they are correctly ordered and error-free as it streams the file contents to the receiving application. ## TCP segment structure Transmission Control Protocol accepts data from a data stream, divides it into chunks, and adds a TCP header creating a TCP segment. The TCP segment is then [encapsulated](encapsulation (networking)) into an Internet Protocol (IP) datagram, and exchanged with peers. The term TCP packet appears in both informal and formal usage, whereas in more precise terminology segment refers to the TCP [data unit](protocol)(protocol data unit) (PDU), datagram to the IP PDU, and frame to the [link layer](data)(data link layer) PDU: Processes transmit data by calling on the TCP and passing buffers of data as arguments. The TCP packages the data from these buffers into segments and calls on the internet module [IP](e.g.) to transmit each segment to the destination TCP. A TCP segment consists of a segment header and a data section. The segment header contains 10 mandatory fields, and an optional extension field (Options, pink background in table). The data section follows the header and is the payload data carried for the application. The length of the data section is not specified in the segment header; it can be calculated by subtracting the combined length of the segment header and IP header from the total IP datagram length specified in the IP header. ;Source port (16 bits): Identifies the sending port. ;Destination port (16 bits): Identifies the receiving port. ;Sequence number (32 bits): Has a dual role: :If the SYN flag is set (1), then this is the initial sequence number. The sequence number of the actual first data byte and the acknowledged number in the corresponding ACK are then this sequence number plus 1. :If the SYN flag is unset (0), then this is the accumulated sequence number of the first data byte of this segment for the current session. ;Acknowledgment number (32 bits): If the ACK flag is set then the value of this field is the next sequence number that the sender of the ACK is expecting. This acknowledges receipt of all prior bytes (if any). The first ACK sent by each end acknowledges the other end's initial sequence number itself, but no data. ;Data offset (4 bits): Specifies the size of the TCP header in 32-bit [words](word (computer architecture)). The minimum size header is 5 words and the maximum is 15 words thus giving the minimum size of 20 bytes and maximum of 60 bytes, allowing for up to 40 bytes of options in the header. This field gets its name from the fact that it is also the offset from the start of the TCP segment to the actual data. ;Reserved (4 bits):For future use and should be set to zero. :From 2003–2017, the last bit (bit 103 of the header) was defined as the NS (Nonce Sum) flag by the experimental RFC 3540, ECN-nonce. ECN-nonce never gained widespread use and the RFC was moved to Historic status. ;Flags (8 bits):Contains 8 1-bit flags (control bits) as follows: :CWR (1 bit): Congestion window reduced (CWR) flag is set by the sending host to indicate that it received a TCP segment with the ECE flag set and had responded in congestion control mechanism. :ECE (1 bit): ECN-Echo has a dual role, depending on the value of the SYN flag. It indicates: ::If the SYN flag is set (1), the TCP peer is [ECN](Explicit Congestion Notification) capable. ::If the SYN flag is unset (0), a packet with the Congestion Experienced flag set (ECN=11) in its IP header was received during normal transmission. This serves as an indication of network congestion (or impending congestion) to the TCP sender. :URG (1 bit): Indicates that the Urgent pointer field is significant :ACK (1 bit): Indicates that the Acknowledgment field is significant. All packets after the initial SYN packet sent by the client should have this flag set. :PSH (1 bit): Push function. Asks to push the buffered data to the receiving application. :RST (1 bit): Reset the connection :SYN (1 bit): Synchronize sequence numbers. Only the first packet sent from each end should have this flag set. Some other flags and fields change meaning based on this flag, and some are only valid when it is set, and others when it is clear. :FIN (1 bit): Last packet from sender ;Window size (16 bits):The size of the receive window, which specifies the number of window size units that the sender of this segment is currently willing to receive. (See and .) ;Checksum (16 bits):The 16-bit [checksum](checksum) field is used for error-checking of the TCP header, the payload and an IP pseudo-header. The pseudo-header consists of the [IP address](source)(IPv4#Source address), the [IP address](destination)(IPv4#Destination address), the [number](protocol)(List of IP protocol numbers) for the TCP protocol (6) and the length of the TCP headers and payload (in bytes). ;Urgent pointer (16 bits):If the URG flag is set, then this 16-bit field is an offset from the sequence number indicating the last urgent data byte. ;Options (Variable 0–320 bits, in units of 32 bits):The length of this field is determined by the data offset field. Options have up to three fields: Option-Kind (1 byte), Option-Length (1 byte), Option-Data (variable). The Option-Kind field indicates the type of option and is the only field that is not optional. Depending on Option-Kind value, the next two fields may be set. Option-Length indicates the total length of the option, and Option-Data contains data associated with the option, if applicable. For example, an Option-Kind byte of 1 indicates that this is a no operation option used only for padding, and does not have an Option-Length or Option-Data fields following it. An Option-Kind byte of 0 marks the end of options, and is also only one byte. An Option-Kind byte of 2 is used to indicate Maximum Segment Size option, and will be followed by an Option-Length byte specifying the length of the MSS field. Option-Length is the total length of the given options field, including Option-Kind and Option-Length fields. So while the MSS value is typically expressed in two bytes, Option-Length will be 4. As an example, an MSS option field with a value of 0x05B4 is coded as (0x02 0x04 0x05B4) in the TCP options section. :Some options may only be sent when SYN is set; they are indicated below as [SYN]. Option-Kind and standard lengths given as (Option-Kind, Option-Length). : :The remaining Option-Kind values are historical, obsolete, experimental, not yet standardized, or unassigned. Option number assignments are maintained by the IANA. ;Padding:The TCP header padding is used to ensure that the TCP header ends, and data begins, on a 32-bit boundary. The padding is composed of zeros. ## Protocol operation [[File:Tcp state diagram fixed new.svg\|right\|thumbnail\|250px\|A Simplified TCP State Diagram. See [TCP EFSM diagram](https://web.archive.org/web/20110719035445/http://www.medianet.kent.edu/techreports/TR2005-07-22-tcp-EFSM.pdf) for more detailed diagrams, including detail on the ESTABLISHED state.]] TCP protocol operations may be divided into three phases. Connection establishment is a multi-step handshake process that establishes a connection before entering the data transfer phase. After data transfer is completed, the connection termination closes the connection and releases all allocated resources. A TCP connection is managed by an operating system through a resource that represents the local end-point for communications, the [socket](Internet)(Internet socket). During the lifetime of a TCP connection, the local end-point undergoes a series of [state](state (computer science)) changes: ### Connection establishment Before a client attempts to connect with a server, the server must first bind to and listen at a port to open it up for connections: this is called a passive open. Once the passive open is established, a client may establish a connection by initiating an active open using the three-way (or 3-step) handshake: # SYN: The active open is performed by the client sending a SYN to the server. The client sets the segment's sequence number to a random value A. # SYN-ACK: In response, the server replies with a SYN-ACK. The acknowledgment number is set to one more than the received sequence number i.e. A+1, and the sequence number that the server chooses for the packet is another random number, B. # ACK: Finally, the client sends an ACK back to the server. The sequence number is set to the received acknowledgment value i.e. A+1, and the acknowledgment number is set to one more than the received sequence number i.e. B+1. Steps 1 and 2 establish and acknowledge the sequence number for one direction. Steps 2 and 3 establish and acknowledge the sequence number for the other direction. Following the completion of these steps, both the client and server have received acknowledgments and a full-duplex communication is established. ===Connection termination=== [[CLOSE.svg\|right\|thumbnail\|260px\|Connection termination](File:TCP)] The connection termination phase uses a four-way handshake, with each side of the connection terminating independently. When an endpoint wishes to stop its half of the connection, it transmits a FIN packet, which the other end acknowledges with an ACK. Therefore, a typical tear-down requires a pair of FIN and ACK segments from each TCP endpoint. After the side that sent the first FIN has responded with the final ACK, it waits for a timeout before finally closing the connection, during which time the local port is unavailable for new connections; this state lets the TCP client resend the final acknowledgement to the server in case the ACK is lost in transit. The time duration is implementation-dependent, but some common values are 30 seconds, 1 minute, and 2 minutes. After the timeout, the client enters the CLOSED state and the local port becomes available for new connections. It is also possible to terminate the connection by a 3-way handshake, when host A sends a FIN and host B replies with a FIN & ACK (combining two steps into one) and host A replies with an ACK. Some operating systems, such as [Linux](Linux) and [HP-UX](HP-UX), implement a half-duplex close sequence. If the host actively closes a connection, while still having unread incoming data available, the host sends the signal RST (losing any received data) instead of FIN. This assures that a TCP application is aware there was a data loss. A connection can be in a [half-open](TCP half-open) state, in which case one side has terminated the connection, but the other has not. The side that has terminated can no longer send any data into the connection, but the other side can. The terminating side should continue reading the data until the other side terminates as well. ### Resource usage Most implementations allocate an entry in a table that maps a session to a running operating system process. Because TCP packets do not include a session identifier, both endpoints identify the session using the client's address and port. Whenever a packet is received, the TCP implementation must perform a lookup on this table to find the destination process. Each entry in the table is known as a Transmission Control Block or TCB. It contains information about the endpoints (IP and port), status of the connection, running data about the packets that are being exchanged and buffers for sending and receiving data. The number of sessions in the server side is limited only by memory and can grow as new connections arrive, but the client must allocate an [port](ephemeral)(ephemeral port) before sending the first SYN to the server. This port remains allocated during the whole conversation and effectively limits the number of outgoing connections from each of the client's IP addresses. If an application fails to properly close unrequired connections, a client can run out of resources and become unable to establish new TCP connections, even from other applications. Both endpoints must also allocate space for unacknowledged packets and received (but unread) data. ### Data transfer The Transmission Control Protocol differs in several key features compared to the [Datagram Protocol](User)(User Datagram Protocol): * Ordered data transfer: the destination host rearranges segments according to a sequence number * Retransmission of lost packets: any cumulative stream not acknowledged is retransmitted * Error-free data transfer: corrupted packets are treated as lost and are retransmitted * Flow control: limits the rate a sender transfers data to guarantee reliable delivery. The receiver continually hints the sender on how much data can be received. When the receiving host's buffer fills, the next acknowledgment suspends the transfer and allows the data in the buffer to be processed. * Congestion control: lost packets (presumed due to congestion) trigger a reduction in data delivery rate #### Reliable transmission TCP uses a sequence number to identify each byte of data. The sequence number identifies the order of the bytes sent from each computer so that the data can be reconstructed in order, regardless of any [delivery](out-of-order)(out-of-order delivery) that may occur. The sequence number of the first byte is chosen by the transmitter for the first packet, which is flagged SYN. This number can be arbitrary, and should, in fact, be unpredictable to defend against [sequence prediction attack](TCP)(TCP sequence prediction attack)s. Acknowledgements (ACKs) are sent with a sequence number by the receiver of data to tell the sender that data has been received to the specified byte. ACKs do not imply that the data has been delivered to the application, they merely signify that it is now the receiver's responsibility to deliver the data. Reliability is achieved by the sender detecting lost data and retransmitting it. TCP uses two primary techniques to identify loss. Retransmission timeout (RTO) and duplicate cumulative acknowledgements (DupAcks). When a TCP segment is retransmitted, it retains the same sequence number as the original delivery attempt. This conflation of delivery and logical data ordering means that, when acknowledgement is received after a retransmission, the sender cannot tell whether the original transmission or the retransmission is being acknowledged, the so-called retransmission ambiguity. TCP incurs complexity due to retransmission ambiguity. ##### Dupack-based retransmission If a single segment (say segment number 100) in a stream is lost, then the receiver cannot acknowledge packets above that segment number (100) because it uses cumulative ACKs. Hence the receiver acknowledges packet 99 again on the receipt of another data packet. This duplicate acknowledgement is used as a signal for packet loss. That is, if the sender receives three duplicate acknowledgements, it retransmits the last unacknowledged packet. A threshold of three is used because the network may reorder segments causing duplicate acknowledgements. This threshold has been demonstrated to avoid spurious retransmissions due to reordering. Some TCP implementations use [acknowledgement](selective)(selective acknowledgement)s (SACKs) to provide explicit feedback about the segments that have been received. This greatly improves TCP's ability to retransmit the right segments. Retransmission ambiguity can cause spurious fast retransmissions and congestion avoidance if there is reordering beyond the duplicate acknowledgement threshold. ##### Timeout-based retransmission When a sender transmits a segment, it initializes a timer with a conservative estimate of the arrival time of the acknowledgement. The segment is retransmitted if the timer expires, with a new timeout threshold of twice the previous value, resulting in [backoff](exponential)(exponential backoff) behavior. Typically, the initial timer value is \text{smoothed RTT} + \max(G, 4\times\text{RTT variation}), where G is the clock granularity. This guards against excessive transmission traffic due to faulty or malicious actors, such as [man-in-the-middle](man-in-the-middle attack) [of service attack](denial)(denial of service attack)ers. Accurate RTT estimates are important for loss recovery, as it allows a sender to assume an unacknowledged packet to be lost after sufficient time elapses (i.e., determining the RTO time). Retransmission ambiguity can lead a sender's estimate of RTT to be imprecise. In an environment with variable RTTs, spurious timeouts can occur: if the RTT is under-estimated, then the RTO fires and triggers a needless retransmit and slow-start. After a spurious retransmission, when the acknowledgements for the original transmissions arrive, the sender may believe them to be acknowledging the retransmission and conclude, incorrectly, that segments sent between the original transmission and retransmission have been lost, causing further needless retransmissions to the extent that the link truly becomes congested; selective acknowlegement can reduce this effect. RFC 6298 specifies that implementations must not use retransmitted segments when estimating RTT. [algorithm](Karn's)(Karn's algorithm) ensures that a good RTT estimate will be produced—eventually—by waiting until there is an unambiguous acknowledgement before adjusting the RTO. After spurious retransmissions, however, it may take significant time before such an unambiguous acknowledgement arrives, degrading performance in the interim. TCP timestamps also resolve the retransmission ambiguity problem in setting the RTO, though they do not necessarily improve the RTT estimate. #### Error detection Sequence numbers allow receivers to discard duplicate packets and properly sequence out-of-order packets. Acknowledgments allow senders to determine when to retransmit lost packets. To assure correctness a checksum field is included; see for details. The TCP checksum is a weak check by modern standards and is normally paired with a [CRC](cyclic redundancy check) integrity check at [2](layer)(layer 2), below both TCP and IP, such as is used in [PPP](Point-to-Point Protocol) or the [Ethernet](Ethernet) frame. However, introduction of errors in packets between CRC-protected hops is common and the 16-bit TCP checksum catches most of these. #### Flow control TCP uses an end-to-end [control](flow)(flow control (data)) protocol to avoid having the sender send data too fast for the TCP receiver to receive and process it reliably. Having a mechanism for flow control is essential in an environment where machines of diverse network speeds communicate. For example, if a PC sends data to a smartphone that is slowly processing received data, the smartphone must be able to regulate the data flow so as not to be overwhelmed. TCP uses a [window](sliding)(sliding window) flow control protocol. In each TCP segment, the receiver specifies in the receive window field the amount of additionally received data (in bytes) that it is willing to buffer for the connection. The sending host can send only up to that amount of data before it must wait for an acknowledgement and receive window update from the receiving host. [[sequence numbers and receive windows behave very much like a clock. The receive window shifts each time the receiver receives and acknowledges a new segment of data. Once it runs out of sequence numbers, the sequence number loops back to 0.](File:Tcp.svg\|right\|thumbnail\|250px\|TCP)] When a receiver advertises a window size of 0, the sender stops sending data and starts its persist timer. The persist timer is used to protect TCP from a [deadlock](deadlock) situation that could arise if a subsequent window size update from the receiver is lost, and the sender cannot send more data until receiving a new window size update from the receiver. When the persist timer expires, the TCP sender attempts recovery by sending a small packet so that the receiver responds by sending another acknowledgement containing the new window size. If a receiver is processing incoming data in small increments, it may repeatedly advertise a small receive window. This is referred to as the [window syndrome](silly)(silly window syndrome), since it is inefficient to send only a few bytes of data in a TCP segment, given the relatively large overhead of the TCP header. #### Congestion control The final main aspect of TCP is [control](congestion)(congestion control). TCP uses a number of mechanisms to achieve high performance and avoid [collapse](congestive)(congestive collapse), a gridlock situation where network performance is severely degraded. These mechanisms control the rate of data entering the network, keeping the data flow below a rate that would trigger collapse. They also yield an approximately [fair](max-min)(max-min fair) allocation between flows. Acknowledgments for data sent, or the lack of acknowledgments, are used by senders to infer network conditions between the TCP sender and receiver. Coupled with timers, TCP senders and receivers can alter the behavior of the flow of data. This is more generally referred to as congestion control or congestion avoidance. Modern implementations of TCP contain four intertwined algorithms: [start](slow)(TCP congestion control#Slow start), [avoidance](congestion)(TCP congestion avoidance algorithm), [retransmit](fast)(fast retransmit), and [recovery](fast)(fast recovery). In addition, senders employ a retransmission timeout (RTO) that is based on the estimated [time](round-trip)(round-trip time) (RTT) between the sender and receiver, as well as the variance in this round-trip time. There are subtleties in the estimation of RTT. For example, senders must be careful when calculating RTT samples for retransmitted packets; typically they use [Algorithm](Karn's)(Karn's Algorithm) or TCP timestamps. These individual RTT samples are then averaged over time to create a smoothed round trip time (SRTT) using [algorithm](Jacobson's)(Jacobson's algorithm). This SRTT value is what is used as the round-trip time estimate. Enhancing TCP to reliably handle loss, minimize errors, manage congestion and go fast in very high-speed environments are ongoing areas of research and standards development. As a result, there are a number of [congestion avoidance algorithm](TCP)(TCP congestion avoidance algorithm) variations. ### Maximum segment size The [segment size](maximum)(maximum segment size) (MSS) is the largest amount of data, specified in bytes, that TCP is willing to receive in a single segment. For best performance, the MSS should be set small enough to avoid [fragmentation](IP)(IP fragmentation), which can lead to packet loss and excessive retransmissions. To accomplish this, typically the MSS is announced by each side using the MSS option when the TCP connection is established. The option value is derived from the [transmission unit](maximum)(MTU (networking)) (MTU) size of the data link layer of the networks to which the sender and receiver are directly attached. TCP senders can use [MTU discovery](path)(path MTU discovery) to infer the minimum MTU along the network path between the sender and receiver, and use this to dynamically adjust the MSS to avoid IP fragmentation within the network. MSS announcement may also be called MSS negotiation but, strictly speaking, the MSS is not negotiated. Two completely independent values of MSS are permitted for the two directions of data flow in a TCP connection, so there is no need to agree on a common MSS configuration for a bidirectional connection. ### Selective acknowledgments Relying purely on the cumulative acknowledgment scheme employed by the original TCP can lead to inefficiencies when packets are lost. For example, suppose bytes with sequence number 1,000 to 10,999 are sent in 10 different TCP segments of equal size, and the second segment (sequence numbers 2,000 to 2,999) is lost during transmission. In a pure cumulative acknowledgment protocol, the receiver can only send a cumulative ACK value of 2,000 (the sequence number immediately following the last sequence number of the received data) and cannot say that it received bytes 3,000 to 10,999 successfully. Thus the sender may then have to resend all data starting with sequence number 2,000. To alleviate this issue TCP employs the selective acknowledgment (SACK) option, defined in 1996 in RFC 2018, which allows the receiver to acknowledge discontinuous blocks of packets that were received correctly, in addition to the sequence number immediately following the last sequence number of the last contiguous byte received successively, as in the basic TCP acknowledgment. The acknowledgment can include a number of SACK blocks, where each SACK block is conveyed by the Left Edge of Block (the first sequence number of the block) and the Right Edge of Block (the sequence number immediately following the last sequence number of the block), with a Block being a contiguous range that the receiver correctly received. In the example above, the receiver would send an ACK segment with a cumulative ACK value of 2,000 and a SACK option header with sequence numbers 3,000 and 11,000. The sender would accordingly retransmit only the second segment with sequence numbers 2,000 to 2,999. A TCP sender may interpret an out-of-order segment delivery as a lost segment. If it does so, the TCP sender will retransmit the segment previous to the out-of-order packet and slow its data delivery rate for that connection. The duplicate-SACK option, an extension to the SACK option that was defined in May 2000 in RFC 2883, solves this problem. The TCP receiver sends a D-ACK to indicate that no segments were lost, and the TCP sender can then reinstate the higher transmission rate. The SACK option is not mandatory and comes into operation only if both parties support it. This is negotiated when a connection is established. SACK uses a TCP header option (see for details). The use of SACK has become widespread—all popular TCP stacks support it. Selective acknowledgment is also used in [Control Transmission Protocol](Stream)(Stream Control Transmission Protocol) (SCTP). Selective acknowledgements can be 'reneged', where the receiver unilaterally discards the selectively acknowledged data. RFC 2018 discouraged such behaviour, but did not prohibit it to allow receivers the option of reneging if they, for example, ran out of buffer space. The possibility of reneging leads to implementation complexity for both senders and receivers, and also imposes memory costs on the sender. ### Window scaling For more efficient use of high-bandwidth networks, a larger TCP window size may be used. A 16-bit TCP window size field controls the flow of data and its value is limited to 65,535 bytes. Since the size field cannot be expanded beyond this limit, a scaling factor is used. The [window scale option](TCP)(TCP window scale option), as defined in RFC 1323, is an option used to increase the maximum window size to 1 gigabyte. Scaling up to these larger window sizes is necessary for [tuning](TCP)(TCP tuning). The window scale option is used only during the TCP 3-way handshake. The window scale value represents the number of bits to left-shift the 16-bit window size field when interpreting it. The window scale value can be set from 0 (no shift) to 14 for each direction independently. Both sides must send the option in their SYN segments to enable window scaling in either direction. Some routers and packet firewalls rewrite the window scaling factor during a transmission. This causes sending and receiving sides to assume different TCP window sizes. The result is non-stable traffic that may be very slow. The problem is visible on some sites behind a defective router. ### TCP timestamps TCP timestamps, defined in RFC 1323 in 1992, can help TCP determine in which order packets were sent. TCP timestamps are not normally aligned to the system clock and start at some random value. Many operating systems will increment the timestamp for every elapsed millisecond; however, the RFC only states that the ticks should be proportional. There are two timestamp fields: * a 4-byte sender timestamp value (my timestamp) * a 4-byte echo reply timestamp value (the most recent timestamp received from you). TCP timestamps are used in an algorithm known as Protection Against Wrapped Sequence numbers, or PAWS. PAWS is used when the receive window crosses the sequence number wraparound boundary. In the case where a packet was potentially retransmitted, it answers the question: "Is this sequence number in the first 4 GB or the second?" And the timestamp is used to break the tie. Also, the Eifel detection algorithm uses TCP timestamps to determine if retransmissions are occurring because packets are lost or simply out of order. TCP timestamps are enabled by default in Linux, and disabled by default in Windows Server 2008, 2012 and 2016. Recent Statistics show that the level of TCP timestamp adoption has stagnated, at ~40%, owing to Windows Server dropping support since Windows Server 2008. ### Out-of-band data It is possible to interrupt or abort the queued stream instead of waiting for the stream to finish. This is done by specifying the data as urgent. This marks the transmission as [data](out-of-band)(out-of-band data) (OOB) and tells the receiving program to process it immediately. When finished, TCP informs the application and resumes the stream queue. An example is when TCP is used for a remote login session where the user can send a keyboard sequence that interrupts or aborts the remotely-running program without waiting for the program to finish its current transfer. The urgent pointer only alters the processing on the remote host and doesn't expedite any processing on the network itself. The capability is implemented differently or poorly on different systems or may not be supported. Where it is available, it is prudent to assume only single bytes of OOB data will be reliably handled. Since the feature is not frequently used, it is not well tested on some platforms and has been associated with [vulnerabilities](Vulnerability (computing)), [WinNuke](WinNuke) for instance. ### Forcing data delivery Normally, TCP waits for 200 ms for a full packet of data to send ([Algorithm](Nagle's)(Nagle's Algorithm) tries to group small messages into a single packet). This wait creates small, but potentially serious delays if repeated constantly during a file transfer. For example, a typical send block would be 4 KB, a typical MSS is 1460, so 2 packets go out on a 10 Mbit/s Ethernet taking ~1.2 ms each followed by a third carrying the remaining 1176 after a 197 ms pause because TCP is waiting for a full buffer. In the case of telnet, each user keystroke is echoed back by the server before the user can see it on the screen. This delay would become very annoying. Setting the [socket](network socket) option TCP_NODELAY overrides the default 200 ms send delay. Application programs use this socket option to force output to be sent after writing a character or line of characters. The RFC defines the PSH push bit as "a message to the receiving TCP stack to send this data immediately up to the receiving application". There is no way to indicate or control it in [space](user)(user space) using [sockets](Berkeley)(Berkeley sockets); it is controlled by the [stack](protocol)(protocol stack) only. ## Vulnerabilities TCP may be attacked in a variety of ways. The results of a thorough security assessment of TCP, along with possible mitigations for the identified issues, were published in 2009, and was pursued within the [IETF](IETF) through 2012.[Survey of Security Hardening Methods for Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) Implementations](https://tools.ietf.org/html/draft-ietf-tcpm-tcp-security) ### Denial of service By using a [IP address](spoofed)(IP address spoofing) and repeatedly sending [assembled](purposely)(mangled packet) SYN packets, followed by many ACK packets, attackers can cause the server to consume large amounts of resources keeping track of the bogus connections. This is known as a [flood](SYN)(SYN flood) attack. Proposed solutions to this problem include [cookies](SYN)(SYN cookies) and cryptographic puzzles, though SYN cookies come with their own set of vulnerabilities. [Sockstress](Sockstress) is a similar attack, that might be mitigated with system resource management. An advanced DoS attack involving the exploitation of the TCP persist timer was analyzed in [Phrack](Phrack) #66. [and ACK floods](PUSH)(PUSH and ACK floods) are other variants. ### Connection hijacking An attacker who is able to eavesdrop on a TCP session and redirect packets can hijack a TCP connection. To do so, the attacker learns the sequence number from the ongoing communication and forges a false segment that looks like the next segment in the stream. A simple hijack can result in one packet being erroneously accepted at one end. When the receiving host acknowledges the false segment, synchronization is lost. Hijacking may be combined with [spoofing](ARP)(ARP spoofing) or other routing attacks that allow an attacker to take permanent control of the TCP connection. Impersonating a different IP address was not difficult prior to RFC 1948, when the initial sequence number was easily guessable. That allowed an attacker to blindly send a sequence of packets that the receiver would believe to come from a different IP address, without the need to deploy ARP or routing attacks: it is enough to ensure that the legitimate host of the impersonated IP address is down, or bring it to that condition using [attack](denial-of-service)(denial-of-service attack)s. This is why the initial sequence number is now chosen at random. ### TCP veto An attacker who can eavesdrop and predict the size of the next packet to be sent can cause the receiver to accept a malicious payload without disrupting the existing connection. The attacker injects a malicious packet with the sequence number and a payload size of the next expected packet. When the legitimate packet is ultimately received, it is found to have the same sequence number and length as a packet already received and is silently dropped as a normal duplicate packet—the legitimate packet is "vetoed" by the malicious packet. Unlike in connection hijacking, the connection is never desynchronized and communication continues as normal after the malicious payload is accepted. TCP veto gives the attacker less control over the communication, but makes the attack particularly resistant to detection. The large increase in network traffic from the ACK storm is avoided. The only evidence to the receiver that something is amiss is a single duplicate packet, a normal occurrence in an IP network. The sender of the vetoed packet never sees any evidence of an attack. Another vulnerability is the [reset attack](TCP)(TCP reset attack). ## TCP ports A TCP connection is identified by a four-[tuple](tuple) of the source address, source [port](port (computer networking)), destination address, and destination port (or, equivalently, a pair of [sockets](network)(network sockets) for the source and destination, each of which is made up of an address and a port). Port numbers are used to identify different services, and to allow multiple connections between hosts to be multiplexed. TCP uses [16-bit](16-bit) port numbers, providing a space of 65,536 possible values for each of the source and destination ports. The dependency of connection identity on addresses means that TCP connections are bound to a single network path; TCP cannot utilise other routes that [host](multihomed)(multihomed host)s have available, and connections break if an endpoint's address changes. Port numbers are categorized into three basic categories: well-known, registered, and dynamic/private. The well-known ports are assigned by the [Assigned Numbers Authority](Internet)(Internet Assigned Numbers Authority) (IANA) and are typically used by system-level or root processes. Well-known applications running as servers and passively listening for connections typically use these ports. Some examples include: [FTP](File Transfer Protocol) (20 and 21), [SSH](Secure Shell) (22), [TELNET](TELNET) (23), [SMTP](SMTP) (25), [over SSL/TLS](HTTP)(HTTPS) (443), and [HTTP](HTTP) (80). Note, as of the latest standard, [HTTP/3](HTTP/3), [QUIC](QUIC) is used as a transport instead of TCP. Registered ports are typically used by end user applications as [ephemeral](Ephemeral port) source ports when contacting servers, but they can also identify named services that have been registered by a third party. Dynamic/private ports can also be used by end user applications, but are less commonly so. Dynamic/private ports do not contain any meaning outside of any particular TCP connection. [Address Translation](Network)(Network Address Translation) (NAT), typically uses dynamic port numbers, on the ("Internet-facing") public side, to [disambiguate](disambiguation) the flow of traffic that is passing between a public network and a private [subnetwork](subnetwork), thereby allowing many IP addresses (and their ports) on the subnet to be serviced by a single public-facing address. ## Development TCP is a complex protocol. However, while significant enhancements have been made and proposed over the years, its most basic operation has not changed significantly since its first specification RFC 675 in 1974, and the v4 specification RFC 793, published in September 1981. RFC 1122, Host Requirements for Internet Hosts, clarified a number of TCP protocol implementation requirements. A list of the 8 required specifications and over 20 strongly encouraged enhancements is available in RFC 7414. Among this list is RFC 2581, TCP Congestion Control, one of the most important TCP-related RFCs in recent years, describes updated algorithms that avoid undue congestion. In 2001, RFC 3168 was written to describe Explicit Congestion Notification ([ECN](Explicit Congestion Notification)), a congestion avoidance signaling mechanism. The original [congestion avoidance algorithm](TCP)(TCP congestion avoidance algorithm) was known as "TCP Tahoe", but many alternative algorithms have since been proposed (including [Reno](TCP)(TCP Reno), [Vegas](TCP)(TCP Vegas), [TCP](FAST)(FAST TCP), [New Reno](TCP)(TCP New Reno), and [Hybla](TCP)(TCP Hybla)). [Interactive](TCP)(TCP Interactive) (iTCP) is a research effort into TCP extensions that allows applications to subscribe to TCP events and register handler components that can launch applications for various purposes, including application-assisted congestion control. [TCP](Multipath)(Multipath TCP) (MPTCP) is an ongoing effort within the IETF that aims at allowing a TCP connection to use multiple paths to maximize resource usage and increase redundancy. The redundancy offered by Multipath TCP in the context of wireless networks enables the simultaneous utilization of different networks, which brings higher throughput and better handover capabilities. Multipath TCP also brings performance benefits in datacenter environments. The reference implementation of Multipath TCP is being developed in the Linux kernel. [TCP](Multipath)(Multipath TCP) is used to support the Siri voice recognition application on iPhones, iPads and Macs [tcpcrypt](tcpcrypt) is an extension proposed in July 2010 to provide transport-level encryption directly in TCP itself. It is designed to work transparently and not require any configuration. Unlike [TLS](Transport Layer Security) (SSL), tcpcrypt itself does not provide authentication, but provides simple primitives down to the application to do that. , the first tcpcrypt IETF draft has been published and implementations exist for several major platforms. [Fast Open](TCP)(TCP Fast Open) is an extension to speed up the opening of successive TCP connections between two endpoints. It works by skipping the three-way handshake using a cryptographic "cookie". It is similar to an earlier proposal called [T/TCP](T/TCP), which was not widely adopted due to security issues. TCP Fast Open was published as RFC 7413 in 2014. Proposed in May 2013, [Rate Reduction](Proportional)(Proportional Rate Reduction) (PRR) is a TCP extension developed by [Google](Google) engineers. PRR ensures that the TCP window size after recovery is as close to the [start](slow)(TCP congestion control#Slow start) threshold as possible. The algorithm is designed to improve the speed of recovery and is the default congestion control algorithm in Linux 3.2+ kernels. ### Deprecated proposals [Cookie Transactions](TCP)(TCP Cookie Transactions) (TCPCT) is an extension proposed in December 2009 to secure servers against denial-of-service attacks. Unlike SYN cookies, TCPCT does not conflict with other TCP extensions such as [scaling](window)(window scaling). TCPCT was designed due to necessities of [DNSSEC](DNSSEC), where servers have to handle large numbers of short-lived TCP connections. In 2016, TCPCT was deprecated in favor of [Fast Open](TCP)(TCP Fast Open). Status of the original RFC was changed to "historic". ## Hardware implementations One way to overcome the processing power requirements of TCP is to build hardware implementations of it, widely known as [offload engine](TCP)(TCP offload engine)s (TOE). The main problem of TOEs is that they are hard to integrate into computing systems, requiring extensive changes in the operating system of the computer or device. One company to develop such a device was [Alacritech](Alacritech). ## Wire image and ossification The [image](wire)(wire image (networking)) of TCP provides significant information-gathering and modification opportunities to on-path observers, as the protocol metadata is transmitted in [cleartext](cleartext). While this transparency is useful to network operators and researchers, information gathered from protocol metadata may reduce the end-user's privacy. This visibility and malleability of metadata has led to TCP being difficult to extend—a case of [ossification](protocol)(protocol ossification)—as any intermediate node (a '[middlebox](middlebox)') can make decisions based on that metadata or even modify it, breaking the [principle](end-to-end)(end-to-end principle). One measurement found that a third of paths across the Internet encounter at least one intermediary that modifies TCP metadata, and 6.5% of paths encounter harmful ossifying effects from intermediaries. Avoiding extensibility hazards from intermediaries placed significant constraints on the design of [MPTCP](MPTCP), and difficulties caused by intermediaries have hindered the deployment of [Fast Open](TCP)(TCP Fast Open) in [browsers](web)(web browsers). Another source of ossification is the difficulty of modification of TCP functions at the endpoints, typically in the [system kernel](operating)(operating system kernel) or in hardware with a [offload engine](TCP)(TCP offload engine). ## Performance As TCP provides applications with the abstraction of a [byte stream](reliable)(reliable byte stream), it can suffer from [blocking](head-of-line)(head-of-line blocking): if [are reordered](packets)(packet reordering) or [lost](packet loss) and need to be retransmitted (and thus arrive out-of-order), data from sequentially later parts of the stream may be received before sequentially earlier parts of the stream; however, the later data cannot typically be used until the earlier data has been received, incurring [latency](network)(network latency). If multiple independent higher-level messages are [encapsulated](encapsulation (networking)) and [multiplexed](time-division multiplexing) onto a single TCP connection, then head-of-line blocking can cause processing of a fully-received message that was sent later to wait for delivery of a message that was sent earlier. [browsers](Web)(Web browsers) attempt to mitigate head-of-line blocking by opening multiple parallel connections. This incurs the cost of connection establishment repeatedly, as well as multiplying the resources needed to track those connections at the endpoints. Parallel connections also have congestion control operating independently of each other, rather than being able to pool information together and respond more promptly to observed network conditions; TCP's aggressive initial sending patterns can cause congestion if multiple parallel connections are opened; and the per-connection fairness model leads to a monopolisation of resources by applications that take this approach. Connection establishment is a major contributor to latency as experienced by Web users. TCP's three-way handshake introduces one RTT of latency during connection establishment before data can be sent. For short flows, these delays are very significant. [Layer Security](Transport)(Transport Layer Security) (TLS) requires a handshake of its own for [exchange](key)(key exchange) at connection establishment. Because of the layered design, the TCP handshake and the TLS handshake proceed serially: the TLS handshake cannot begin until the TCP handshake has concluded. Two RTTs are required for connection establishment with [1.3](TLS)(TLS 1.3) over TCP. TLS 1.3 allows for zero RTT connection resumption in some circumstances, but, when layered over TCP, one RTT is still required for the TCP handshake, and this cannot assist the initial connection; zero RTT handshakes also present cryptographic challenges, as efficient, [replay-safe](replay-safe) and [secure](forward)(forward secure) [key exchange](non-interactive)(non-interactive key exchange) is an open research topic. [Fast Open](TCP)(TCP Fast Open) allows the transmission of data in the initial (i.e, SYN and SYN-ACK) packets, removing one RTT of latency during connection establishment. However, TCP Fast Open has been difficult to deploy due to protocol ossification; in 2020, no [browser](Web)(Web browser)s used it by default. TCP throughput is affected by [reordering](packet)(packet reordering). Reordered packets can cause duplicate acknowledgements to be sent, which, if they cross the threshold, will then trigger a spurious retransmission and congestion control. Transmission behaviour can also become less smooth and more bursty, as large ranges are acknowledged all at once when a reordered packet at the range's start is received (in a similar manner to how head-of-line blocking affects applications). found that throughput was inversely related to the amount of reordering, up to a limit where all reordering triggers spurious retransmission. Mitigating reordering depends on a sender's ability to determine that it has sent a spurious retransmission, and hence on resolving retransmission ambiguity. Reducing reordering-induced spurious retransmissions trades off against speedy recovery from genuine loss. Selective acknowledgement can provide a significant benefit to throughput; measured gains of up to 45%. An important factor in the improvement is that selective acknowledgement can more often avoid going into slow start after a loss and can hence better utilise available bandwidth. However, TCP can only selectively acknowledge a maximum of three blocks of sequence numbers. This can limit the retransmission rate and hence loss recovery or cause needless retransmissions, especially in high-loss environments. TCP was originally designed for wired networks. Packet loss is considered to be the result of [congestion](network)(network congestion) and the congestion window size is reduced dramatically as a precaution. However, wireless links are known to experience sporadic and usually temporary losses due to fading, shadowing, hand off, [interference](interference (communication)), and other radio effects, that are not strictly congestion. After the (erroneous) back-off of the congestion window size, due to wireless packet loss, there may be a congestion avoidance phase with a conservative decrease in window size. This causes the radio link to be underutilized. Extensive research on combating these harmful effects has been conducted. Suggested solutions can be categorized as end-to-end solutions, which require modifications at the client or server, link layer solutions, such as Radio Link Protocol ([RLP](Radio Link Protocol)) in cellular networks, or proxy-based solutions which require some changes in the network without modifying end nodes. A number of alternative congestion control algorithms, such as [Vegas](TCP Vegas), [Westwood](TCP Westwood), Veno, and Santa Cruz, have been proposed to help solve the wireless problem. ## Acceleration The idea of a TCP accelerator is to terminate TCP connections inside the network processor and then relay the data to a second connection toward the end system. The data packets that originate from the sender are buffered at the accelerator node, which is responsible for performing local retransmissions in the event of packet loss. Thus, in case of losses, the feedback loop between the sender and the receiver is shortened to the one between the acceleration node and the receiver which guarantees a faster delivery of data to the receiver. Since TCP is a rate-adaptive protocol, the rate at which the TCP sender injects packets into the network is directly proportional to the prevailing load condition within the network as well as the processing capacity of the receiver. The prevalent conditions within the network are judged by the sender on the basis of the acknowledgments received by it. The acceleration node splits the feedback loop between the sender and the receiver and thus guarantees a shorter round trip time (RTT) per packet. A shorter RTT is beneficial as it ensures a quicker response time to any changes in the network and a faster adaptation by the sender to combat these changes. Disadvantages of the method include the fact that the TCP session has to be directed through the accelerator; this means that if routing changes, so that the accelerator is no longer in the path, the connection will be broken. It also destroys the end-to-end property of the TCP ack mechanism; when the ACK is received by the sender, the packet has been stored by the accelerator, not delivered to the receiver. ## Debugging A [sniffer](packet)(packet sniffer), which intercepts TCP traffic on a network link, can be useful in debugging networks, network stacks, and applications that use TCP by showing the user what packets are passing through a link. Some networking stacks support the SO_DEBUG socket option, which can be enabled on the socket using setsockopt. That option dumps all the packets, TCP states, and events on that socket, which is helpful in debugging. [Netstat](Netstat) is another utility that can be used for debugging. ## Alternatives For many applications TCP is not appropriate. One problem (at least with normal implementations) is that the application cannot access the packets coming after a lost packet until the retransmitted copy of the lost packet is received. This causes problems for real-time applications such as streaming media, real-time multiplayer games and [over IP](voice)(voice over IP) (VoIP) where it is generally more useful to get most of the data in a timely fashion than it is to get all of the data in order. For historical and performance reasons, most [area network](storage)(storage area network)s (SANs) use [Channel Protocol](Fibre)(Fibre Channel Protocol) (FCP) over [Channel](Fibre)(Fibre Channel) connections. Also, for [system](embedded)(embedded system)s, [booting](network)(network booting), and servers that serve simple requests from huge numbers of clients (e.g. [DNS](Domain name system) servers) the complexity of TCP can be a problem. Finally, some tricks such as transmitting data between two hosts that are both behind [NAT](network address translation) (using [STUN](STUN) or similar systems) are far simpler without a relatively complex protocol like TCP in the way. Generally, where TCP is unsuitable, the [Datagram Protocol](User)(User Datagram Protocol) (UDP) is used. This provides the application [multiplexing](multiplexing) and checksums that TCP does, but does not handle streams or retransmission, giving the application developer the ability to code them in a way suitable for the situation, or to replace them with other methods like [error correction](forward)(forward error correction) or [interpolation](Interpolation (computer programming)). [Control Transmission Protocol](Stream)(Stream Control Transmission Protocol) (SCTP) is another protocol that provides reliable stream oriented services similar to TCP. It is newer and considerably more complex than TCP, and has not yet seen widespread deployment. However, it is especially designed to be used in situations where reliability and near-real-time considerations are important. [Transport Protocol](Venturi)(Venturi Transport Protocol) (VTP) is a patented [protocol](proprietary)(proprietary protocol) that is designed to replace TCP transparently to overcome perceived inefficiencies related to wireless data transport. TCP also has issues in high-bandwidth environments. The [congestion avoidance algorithm](TCP)(TCP congestion avoidance algorithm) works very well for ad-hoc environments where the data sender is not known in advance. If the environment is predictable, a timing based protocol such as [Transfer Mode](Asynchronous)(Asynchronous Transfer Mode) (ATM) can avoid TCP's retransmits overhead. [Data Transfer Protocol](UDP-based)(UDP-based Data Transfer Protocol) (UDT) has better efficiency and fairness than TCP in networks that have high [product](bandwidth-delay)(bandwidth-delay product).Yunhong Gu, Xinwei Hong, and Robert L. Grossman. ["An Analysis of AIMD Algorithm with Decreasing Increases"](http://udt.sourceforge.net/doc/gridnet-v8.pdf) . 2004. [Transaction Protocol](Multipurpose)(Multipurpose Transaction Protocol) (MTP/IP) is patented proprietary software that is designed to adaptively achieve high throughput and transaction performance in a wide variety of network conditions, particularly those where TCP is perceived to be inefficient. ## Checksum computation ### TCP checksum for IPv4 When TCP runs over [IPv4](IPv4), the method used to compute the checksum is defined as follows: ''The checksum field is the 16-bit ones' complement of the ones' complement sum of all 16-bit words in the header and text. The checksum computation needs to ensure the 16-bit alignment of the data being summed. If a segment contains an odd number of header and text octets, alignment can be achieved by padding the last octet with zeros on its right to form a 16-bit word for checksum purposes. The pad is not transmitted as part of the segment. While computing the checksum, the checksum field itself is replaced with zeros.'' In other words, after appropriate padding, all 16-bit words are added using [complement arithmetic](one's)(end-around carry). The sum is then bitwise complemented and inserted as the checksum field. A pseudo-header that mimics the IPv4 packet header used in the checksum computation is shown in the table below. The source and destination addresses are those of the IPv4 header. The protocol value is 6 for TCP (cf. [of IP protocol numbers](List)(List of IP protocol numbers)). The TCP length field is the length of the TCP header and data (measured in octets). ### TCP checksum for IPv6 When TCP runs over [IPv6](IPv6), the method used to compute the checksum is changed: Any transport or other upper-layer protocol that includes the addresses from the IP header in its checksum computation must be modified for use over IPv6, to include the 128-bit IPv6 addresses instead of 32-bit IPv4 addresses. A pseudo-header that mimics the IPv6 header for computation of the checksum is shown below. Source address: the one in the IPv6 header Destination address: the final destination; if the IPv6 packet doesn't contain a Routing header, TCP uses the destination address in the IPv6 header, otherwise, at the originating node, it uses the address in the last element of the Routing header, and, at the receiving node, it uses the destination address in the IPv6 header. TCP length: the length of the TCP header and data Next Header: the protocol value for TCP ### Checksum offload Many TCP/IP software stack implementations provide options to use hardware assistance to automatically compute the checksum in the [adapter](network)(network adapter) prior to transmission onto the network or upon reception from the network for validation. This may relieve the OS from using precious CPU cycles calculating the checksum. Hence, overall network performance is increased. This feature may cause [analyzer](packet)(packet analyzer)s that are unaware or uncertain about the use of checksum offload to report invalid checksums in outbound packets that have not yet reached the network adapter. This will only occur for packets that are intercepted before being transmitted by the network adapter; all packets transmitted by the network adaptor on the wire will have valid checksums. This issue can also occur when monitoring packets being transmitted between virtual machines on the same host, where a virtual device driver may omit the checksum calculation (as an optimization), knowing that the checksum will be calculated later by the VM host kernel or its physical hardware. ## RFC documents * – Specification of Internet Transmission Control Program, December 1974 Version * – TCP v4 * – includes some error corrections for TCP * – TCP Extensions for High Performance [by RFC 7323](Obsoleted) * – Extending TCP for Transactions—Concepts [by RFC 6247](Obsoleted) * – Defending Against Sequence Number Attacks * – TCP Selective Acknowledgment Options * – TCP Congestion Control * – Moving the Undeployed TCP Extensions to Historic Status * – Computing TCP's Retransmission Timer * – TCP Extensions for Multipath Operation with Multiple Addresses * – TCP Extensions for High Performance * – A Roadmap for TCP Specification Documents * – Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) ## See also * [communication](Connection-oriented)(Connection-oriented communication) * [of TCP and UDP port numbers](List)(List of TCP and UDP port numbers) (a long list of ports and services) * [(networking)](Micro-bursting)(Micro-bursting (networking)) * [T/TCP](T/TCP) variant of TCP * [global synchronization](TCP)(TCP global synchronization) * [pacing](TCP)(TCP pacing) * * [WTCP](WTCP) a proxy-based modification of TCP for wireless networks ## Notes ## References ## Bibliography * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * ## Further reading * * *** ## External links [Oral history interview with Robert E. Kahn](http://purl.umn.edu/107387) [IANA Port Assignments](https://www.iana.org/assignments/port-numbers) [IANA TCP Parameters](https://www.iana.org/assignments/tcp-parameters/tcp-parameters.xhtml) [John Kristoff's Overview of TCP (Fundamental concepts behind TCP and how it is used to transport data between two endpoints)](http://condor.depaul.edu/~jkristof/technotes/tcp.html) *[Checksum example](http://mathforum.org/library/drmath/view/54379.html) [ ](Category:Transmission Control Protocol) [layer protocols](Category:Transport)(Category:Transport layer protocols)
Megadeth	megadeth	# Megadeth Revision ID: 1158680723 \| Timestamp: 2023-06-05T15:44:42Z --- \| image = Megadeth_Live_at_The_O2_2018-06-16.jpg \| caption = Megadeth performing in London in 2018. From left to right: [Ellefson](David)(David Ellefson), [Verbeuren](Dirk)(Dirk Verbeuren), [Mustaine](Dave)(Dave Mustaine) and [Loureiro](Kiko)(Kiko Loureiro). \| alt = A four-piece band performing onstage \| landscape = yes \| background = group_or_band \| origin = [Angeles](Los)(Los Angeles), [California](California), U.S. \| genre = \|[metal](speed)(speed metal)\|[metal](heavy)(Heavy metal music)}} \| years_active = \| label = \| website = \| current_members = * [Mustaine](Dave)(Dave Mustaine) * [LoMenzo](James)(James LoMenzo) * [Loureiro](Kiko)(Kiko Loureiro) * [Verbeuren](Dirk)(Dirk Verbeuren) \| past_members = [list](Full)(List of Megadeth band members#Former) }} Megadeth is an American [metal](thrash)(thrash metal) band formed in [Angeles](Los)(Los Angeles) in 1983 by vocalist/guitarist [Mustaine](Dave)(Dave Mustaine). Known for their technically complex guitar work and musicianship, Megadeth is one of the "big four" of American [metal](thrash)(thrash metal) along with [Metallica](Metallica), [Anthrax](Anthrax (American band)), and [Slayer](Slayer), responsible for the genre's development and popularization. Their music features complex arrangements and fast [section](rhythm)(rhythm section)s, dual lead guitars, and lyrical themes of war, politics, religion, death, and personal relationships. In 1985, Megadeth released their debut album, [Is My Business... and Business Is Good!](Killing)(Killing Is My Business... and Business Is Good!), on the independent record label [Records](Combat)(Combat Records), to moderate success. It caught the attention of bigger labels, which led to Megadeth signing with [Records](Capitol)(Capitol Records). Their first major-label album, ''[Sells... but Who's Buying?](Peace)(Peace Sells... but Who's Buying?)'', was released in 1986 and was a major hit with the underground metal scene. Band members' [abuse](substance)(substance abuse) issues and personal disputes had brought Megadeth negative publicity during the late 1980s. Nonetheless, the band went on to release a number of [albums](platinum-selling)(Music recording sales certification), including [Far, So Good... So What!](So)(So Far, So Good... So What!) (1988), [in Peace](Rust)(Rust in Peace) (1990), and [to Extinction](Countdown)(Countdown to Extinction) (1992). These albums, along with worldwide tours, brought them public recognition. Megadeth has undergone multiple lineup changes throughout its -year career, with Mustaine being the sole consistent member of the band. The band temporarily disbanded in 2002 when Mustaine suffered an arm injury and re-established in 2004 without longtime bassist [Ellefson](David)(David Ellefson), who had taken legal action against Mustaine. Ellefson settled out of court and rejoined the band in 2010, but was fired in 2021 amid allegations of sexual misconduct. Megadeth's current lineup includes Mustaine, bassist [LoMenzo](James)(James LoMenzo), guitarist [Loureiro](Kiko)(Kiko Loureiro) and drummer [Verbeuren](Dirk)(Dirk Verbeuren). Megadeth earned platinum certifications in the United States for five of its sixteen studio albums, and [received twelve Grammy nominations](has)(List of awards and nominations received by Megadeth). Megadeth won its first Grammy Award in [2017](59th Annual Grammy Awards) for the song "[Dystopia](Dystopia (song))" in the [Metal Performance](Best)(Grammy Award for Best Metal Performance) category. The band's mascot, [Rattlehead](Vic)(Vic Rattlehead), regularly appears on album artwork and live shows. Megadeth has hosted its own music festival, [Gigantour](Gigantour), several times since July 2005, and held its first MegaCruise in October 2019. ## History ### 1983–1985: Formation and Killing Is My Business [[File:Megadeth performing in San Antonio, Texas (27457595376).jpg\|thumb\|upright\|[Mustaine](Dave)(Dave Mustaine) formed Megadeth in 1983, after being fired from [Metallica](Metallica).]] On April 11, 1983, [Mustaine](Dave)(Dave Mustaine) was fired from [Metallica](Metallica) just prior to the band recording their debut album ''['Em All](Kill)(Kill 'Em All)'' due to substance abuse and personal conflicts with [Hetfield](James)(James Hetfield) and [Ulrich](Lars)(Lars Ulrich). As Metallica's lead guitarist since 1981, Mustaine had composed some of the group's early songs and helped hone the band into a tight live unit. Afterward, Mustaine vowed revenge by forming a band that was faster and heavier than Metallica. On the bus trip back to Los Angeles, Mustaine found a pamphlet by California senator [Cranston](Alan)(Alan Cranston) that read: "The arsenal of megadeath can't be rid no matter what the peace treaties come to." The term "Megadeath" stuck with Mustaine and he wrote [song](a)(Set the World Afire) with the spelling slightly changed to Megadeth, which, according to Mustaine, represented the annihilation of power. After arriving back in Los Angeles, Mustaine began the search for new bandmates for his band. He formed the band Fallen Angels, and after numerous band members, the band's name was changed to Megadeth. As the founder of the band, he added to the band his new neighbors [Ellefson](David)(David Ellefson) and Greg Handevidt, who had moved from Minnesota to Los Angeles and played bass and guitar.• Laydon, Page 103. Layden, Joe (2011). Mustaine: A Heavy Metal Memoir. HarperCollins Publishers. . While Handevidt would only last a few months, Mustaine and Ellefson formed a tight musical bond. Despite his enthusiasm, Mustaine had trouble finding other members to fill out the lineup. He and Ellefson auditioned about 15 drummers, hoping to find one who understood [meter](Metre (music)) changes in music. After briefly playing with Dijon Carruthers, they selected [Rausch](Lee)(Lee Rausch). Following six months of trying to find a lead singer, Mustaine decided to perform lead vocals himself. Singers who temporarily joined the band included Billy Bonds and John Cyriis, who would found [Steel](Agent)(Agent Steel) after his firing from Megadeth. In 1984, Megadeth recorded a three-song [demo](demo (music)) tape featuring Mustaine, Ellefson, and Rausch. The demo tape, [Rites](Last)(Last Rites/Loved to Death#Demo tape), was released on March 9, 1984. It featured early versions of "[Rites/Loved to Death](Last)(Last Rites/Loved to Death)", "The Skull Beneath the Skin", and "[Mechanix](Mechanix)", all of which appeared on the band's debut album. The band was unable to find a compatible second guitarist. [King](Kerry)(Kerry King) of [Slayer](Slayer) filled in on rhythm guitar for several shows in the San Francisco area in the spring of 1984. Afterwards, King went back to Slayer and Megadeth replaced Rausch with [fusion](jazz)(jazz fusion) drummer [Samuelson](Gar)(Gar Samuelson); he officially joined Megadeth on October 24, 1984. Samuelson had previously been in the jazz band the New Yorkers with guitarist [Poland](Chris)(Chris Poland). After seeing Samuelson perform with Megadeth as a trio, Poland went backstage and suggested an impromptu audition as lead guitarist for the band; he joined Megadeth in December 1984. After considering several labels, Mustaine signed the band to [Records](Combat)(Combat Records), a New York-based [record label](Independent)(Independent record label) that offered Megadeth the highest budget to record and tour. In 1985, Combat Records gave the band $8,000 to record and produce its debut album. After spending $4,000 of the budget on drugs, alcohol, and food, the band fired the original producer and finished the recording themselves. Despite its low-[fidelity](fidelity) sound, [Is My Business... and Business Is Good!](Killing)(Killing Is My Business... and Business Is Good!) was relatively successful in underground metal circles and attracted major-label interest. Music writer [McIver](Joel)(Joel McIver) praised its "blistering technicality" and stated that the album "raised the bar for the whole thrash metal scene, with guitarists forced to perform even more accurately and powerfully". The front cover marked the debut of band mascot [Rattlehead](Vic)(Vic Rattlehead), who regularly appeared on subsequent album artwork. Killing Is My Business... and Business Is Good! features "Mechanix", a song Mustaine wrote during his time with Metallica. Though Mustaine told the band after his dismissal not to use the music he had written, Metallica recorded a different version of the song, "The Four Horsemen", with a slower tempo and a melodic middle section. The album also included a cover of [Sinatra](Nancy)(Nancy Sinatra)'s "[Boots Are Made for Walkin'](These)(These Boots Are Made for Walkin')," at a faster tempo and with altered lyrics. Megadeth's version generated controversy during the 1990s, when its writer, [Hazlewood](Lee)(Lee Hazlewood), called Mustaine's changes "vile and offensive". Under threat of legal action, the song was removed from pressings released from 1995 to 2001. In mid-1985, on a bill with Canadian speed metal band [Exciter](Exciter (band)), Megadeth played its first North American tour: the Killing for a Living Tour. Guitarist [Albert](Mike)(Mike Albert) replaced Poland, who was battling drug addiction. Although Albert was originally supposed to be a permanent replacement, Poland rejoined Megadeth in October 1985, shortly before the group began recording its second album for Combat. ### 1986–1987: ''Peace Sells... but Who's Buying?'' According to Mustaine, Megadeth was under pressure to deliver another successful album: "That sophomore offering is the 'be-all or end-all' of any band. You either go to the next level, or it's the beginning of the nadir." Mustaine composed the music for the album, with the other members adding arrangement ideas. \| pos = right }} The album was produced on a $25,000 budget from Combat Records. Dissatisfied with its financial limitations, the band left Combat and signed with [Records](Capitol)(Capitol Records). Capitol bought the rights to the album, and hired producer Paul Lani to remix the earlier recordings. Released in late 1986, ''[Sells... but Who's Buying?](Peace)(Peace Sells... but Who's Buying?)'' has clearer production and more sophisticated songwriting. Mustaine wanted to write socially conscious lyrics, unlike mainstream heavy metal bands who sang about "hedonistic pleasures". The album was noted for its political commentary and helped Megadeth expand its fanbase. The [track](title)(Peace Sells) was the album's second single, and was accompanied by a music video that received regular airplay on [MTV](MTV). In February 1987, Megadeth was the opening act on [Cooper](Alice)(Alice Cooper)'s Constrictor tour, and the following month began its first headlining world tour in the United Kingdom. The 72-week tour was supported by [Overkill](Overkill (band)) and [Necros](Necros), and continued in the United States. During the tour, Mustaine and Ellefson considered firing Samuelson for his drug abuse. According to Mustaine, Samuelson had become too much to handle when intoxicated. Drummer [Behler](Chuck)(Chuck Behler) traveled with Megadeth for the last dates of the tour as the other band members feared Samuelson would not be able to continue. Poland quarreled with Mustaine, and was accused of selling band equipment to buy heroin. As a result, Samuelson and Poland were asked to leave Megadeth in 1987, with Behler becoming the band's full-time drummer. Poland was initially replaced by Jay Reynolds of [Malice](Malice (American band)), but as the band began working on its next record, Reynolds was replaced by his guitar teacher, [Young](Jeff)(Jeff Young), when Megadeth was six weeks into the recording of its third album. ### 1988–1989: So Far, So Good... So What! With a major-label budget, the Paul Lani-produced [Far, So Good... So What!](So)(So Far, So Good... So What!) took over five months to record. The production was plagued with problems, partially due to Mustaine's struggle with drug addiction. Mustaine later said: "The production of So Far, So Good... So What! was horrible, mostly due to substances and the priorities we had or didn't have at the time." Mustaine clashed with Lani, beginning with Lani's insistence that the drums be recorded separately from the cymbals, an unheard-of process for rock drummers. Mustaine and Lani became estranged during the mixing, and Lani was replaced by [Wagener](Michael)(Michael Wagener), who remixed the album. So Far, So Good... So What! was released in January 1988 and was well received by fans and critics. The album featured a cover version of the [Pistols](Sex)(Sex Pistols)' "[in the U.K.](Anarchy)(Anarchy in the U.K.)"; Mustaine changed the lyrics, later saying that he had simply heard them incorrectly. To support the album, Megadeth embarked on a [tour](world)(So Far, So Good...So What! Tour) that lasted for nearly eight months. The band (along with [Savatage](Savatage)) opened for [Dio](Dio (band)) on the [Evil](Dream)(Dream Evil (album)) tour and supported [Maiden](Iron)(Iron Maiden) on their [Son of a Seventh Son](Seventh)(Seventh Son of a Seventh Son) [tour](Seventh Tour of a Seventh Tour), both in the United States. They also headlined a North American tour with [Warlock](Warlock (band)) and [Sanctuary](Sanctuary (band)) (whose debut album [Denied](Refuge)(Refuge Denied) was produced by Mustaine), and a European trek with [Testament](Testament (band)), [Assault](Nuclear)(Nuclear Assault), [and Jetsam](Flotsam)(Flotsam and Jetsam (band)) and Sanctuary. In June 1988, Megadeth appeared in [Spheeris](Penelope)(Penelope Spheeris)' documentary [Decline of Western Civilization Part II: The Metal Years](The)(The Decline of Western Civilization Part II: The Metal Years). The documentary chronicled the Los Angeles heavy metal scene of the late 1980s, and Spheeris, who had directed Megadeth in the video for "[Up Dead](Wake)(Wake Up Dead)", decided to include them to feature a more serious band in contrast to the [metal](glam)(glam metal) groups. Mustaine remembered the film as a disappointment, as it aligned Megadeth with "a bunch of shit bands". In August, the band appeared at the [of Rock](Monsters)(Monsters of Rock) festival at [Donington](Castle)(Castle Donington) in the United Kingdom, performing to an audience of more than 100,000. One show featured a guest appearance by Metallica drummer (and Mustaine's former bandmate) Lars Ulrich. The band was added to the Monsters of Rock European tour, but left after the first show due to Ellefson's drug problems, for which he was treated immediately. Megadeth was replaced by Testament. Shortly after the Monsters of Rock appearance, Mustaine fired Behler and Young and canceled Megadeth's Australian tour. "On the road, things escalated from a small border skirmish into a full-on raging war," Mustaine later recalled. "I think a lot of us were inconsistent because of [drugs]." During the tour, Mustaine noticed problems developing with Behler and brought in drummer [Menza](Nick)(Nick Menza) as Behler's [technician](drum)(Road crew). As with Samuelson, Menza was expected to take over if Behler could not continue the tour. Menza replaced Behler in 1989. Young's dismissal resulted from Mustaine's suspicions that he was having an affair with Mustaine's girlfriend, an allegation Young denied. The band was unable to quickly find a suitable replacement for Young. Although 1989 marked the first time since its inception that Megadeth did not tour nor perform at least one show, they recorded a cover version of Alice Cooper's "[More Mr. Nice Guy](No)(No More Mr. Nice Guy (song))" which appeared on the soundtrack to the [Craven](Wes)(Wes Craven) horror movie [Shocker](Shocker (film)). The video was directed by [Spheeris](Penelope)(Penelope Spheeris), who recalled the filming as a "Herculean task" as Mustaine was unable to play guitar because of his drug addiction. During the March 1989 auditions for a new lead guitarist, Mustaine was arrested for [under the influence](driving)(driving under the influence) and possession of narcotics after crashing into a parked vehicle occupied by an off-duty police officer. Mustaine entered court-ordered [rehabilitation](drug)(drug rehabilitation) shortly afterwards, and became drug-free for the first time in ten years. ### 1990–1991: Rust in Peace With Mustaine sober, Megadeth continued searching for a new lead guitarist. [N' Roses](Guns)(Guns N' Roses) guitarist [Slash](Slash (musician)) had been jamming with Mustaine and Ellefson, and although it seemed that he might join Megadeth, he remained with Guns N' Roses. [Darrell](Dimebag)(Dimebag Darrell) of [Pantera](Pantera) was offered the job, but the deal fell through after Mustaine refused his request to recruit his brother, Pantera drummer [Paul](Vinnie)(Vinnie Paul), as he had already hired Menza. The offer was also extended to [Oliva](Criss)(Criss Oliva) who also declined as he did not want to leave [Savatage](Savatage). [Loomis](Jeff)(Jeff Loomis), who would later go on to form progressive metal titans [Nevermore](Nevermore), also auditioned though Mustaine deemed him too young to join as Loomis was only 18 at the time. [[File:Megadeth1991AL.jpg\|thumb\|Megadeth performing at the [Furnaces](Sloss)(Sloss Furnaces) in [Alabama](Birmingham,)(Birmingham, Alabama) in July 1991.]] [Friedman](Marty)(Marty Friedman) filled the guitarist position at the recommendation of Ron Laffitte, a member of Capitol management. Laffitte had heard ''[Kiss](Dragon's)(Dragon's Kiss)'', a solo recording by Friedman when he was in [Cacophony](Cacophony (band)). Mustaine and Ellefson were satisfied with Friedman's style and thought that he understood Megadeth's music. With Friedman in the group, the band completed what fans consider the definitive Megadeth lineup. The revitalized band entered the studio at [Recorders](Rumbo)(Rumbo Recorders) in March 1990 with co-producer [Clink](Mike)(Mike Clink) to begin Megadeth's most critically acclaimed album, [in Peace](Rust)(Rust in Peace). Clink was the first producer to complete a Megadeth album without being fired. Its recording was documented in [Pieces](Rusted)(Rusted Pieces), a home video released in 1991 with six music videos and an interview with the band. Released in September 1990, Rust in Peace debuted at number 23 in the United States and number eight in the United Kingdom. Mustaine had developed a writing style with a rhythmically complex, progressive edge, and the songs featured longer guitar solos and frequent tempo changes. Described as a genre-defining work by [Decibel](Decibel (magazine)), the album solidified Megadeth's reputation in the music industry. It features the singles "[Wars... The Punishment Due](Holy)(Holy Wars... The Punishment Due)" and "[18](Hangar)(Hangar 18 (song))", both of which were accompanied by music videos and became live staples. Rust in Peace received a Grammy nomination in 1991 for [Metal Performance](Best)(Grammy Award for Best Metal Performance), and was the group's third platinum album, certified in December 1994. Early in 1990, Megadeth joined [Slayer](Slayer), [Testament](Testament (band)), and [Tendencies](Suicidal)(Suicidal Tendencies) for the successful European [of the Titans](Clash)(Clash of the Titans (tour)) tour, featuring several American thrash metal bands. An American leg began the following year featuring Megadeth, Slayer, and [Anthrax](Anthrax (American band)), with [in Chains](Alice)(Alice in Chains) as a supporting act. The tour was considered a multi-headliner, as the three main bands alternated time slots. In addition to the [of the Titans](Clash)(Clash of the Titans (tour)) tour, Megadeth (along with Testament) supported [Priest](Judas)(Judas Priest) on their [Painkiller](Painkiller (Judas Priest album)) [tour](Painkiller Tour) in North America late in 1990 and appeared at the second [in Rio](Rock)(Rock in Rio) festival in January 1991. In July 1991 the song "Go to Hell" was featured in the film ''[& Ted's Bogus Journey](Bill)(Bill & Ted's Bogus Journey)'' and on its soundtrack. ### 1992–1993: Countdown to Extinction The music for Megadeth's fifth studio album was written in two different sessions. The first session occurred after the conclusion of the [of the Titans](Clash)(Clash of the Titans (tour)) tour, while the second session happened in the fall of 1991 following a one-month break. Recording sessions for the album began in January 1992 at Enterprise Studios in [California](Burbank,)(Burbank, California). [Norman](Max)(Max Norman) was chosen to produce, as the band was pleased with his mixing of Rust in Peace. Megadeth spent nearly four months in the studio with Norman, writing and recording what became the band's most commercially successful album, [to Extinction](Countdown)(Countdown to Extinction). The album, whose title was suggested by Menza, features songwriting contributions from each band member. Ellefson explained that the band changed its approach to songwriting for this album, beginning to write more melodic songs. s first single, "[of Destruction](Symphony)(Symphony of Destruction)", has become one of Megadeth's best-known songs with its concise structure and memorable [hooks](hook (music)). \| pos = right }} Released in July 1992, Countdown to Extinction entered the [200](Billboard)(Billboard 200) chart at number two and was certified double platinum in the United States. It received a nomination for Best Metal Performance at the [Grammy Awards](1993)(35th Annual Grammy Awards), and its title track won a [Award](Genesis)(Genesis Award) from the [Society](Humane)(Humane Society of the United States) in 1993 for raising awareness for animal rights issues. Ellefson later said that he and Friedman were disappointed that Megadeth did not win the Grammy: "It was such a bizarre moment, because it was as if the amount of work it had taken to ramp up to that hopeful night was literally gone in a second." A world tour in support of the album was launched in late 1992, with [Pantera](Pantera) and [Zombie](White)(White Zombie (band)) as supporting acts. The tour included a North American leg in early 1993, with [Temple Pilots](Stone)(Stone Temple Pilots) as the opening act. One month into the leg, the remaining shows, including dates in Japan, were canceled when Mustaine returned to substance abuse, ending up in a hospital emergency room. After seven weeks in rehab, Mustaine emerged sober again and the band returned to the studio to record "[Again](Angry)(Angry Again)". The song is featured on the soundtrack of the 1993 film [Action Hero](Last)(Last Action Hero) and received a Grammy nomination in 1994. During mid-1993, Megadeth performed at a number of shows with Metallica in Europe. The first was at [Keynes Bowl](Milton)(National Bowl) in England, and included [Head](Diamond)(Diamond Head (English band)). In July, Megadeth was added as the opening act for [Aerosmith](Aerosmith)'s [a Grip Tour](Get)(Get a Grip Tour), but was removed from the bill after three shows. Aerosmith said that Megadeth was "dumped" because of Mustaine's erratic behavior, while Capitol Records said it was due to "artistic restrictions". After the canceled US tour, Megadeth returned to the studio to record "[Ways to Die](99)(99 Ways to Die (song))", which appeared on [Beavis and Butt-Head Experience](The)(The Beavis and Butt-Head Experience), a compilation album released in November featuring songs interspersed with commentary by the main characters of the animated series [and Butt-Head](Beavis)(Beavis and Butt-Head). The song was nominated for Best Metal Performance at the [Grammy Awards](1995)(37th Annual Grammy Awards). During these sessions, Megadeth recorded a cover version of [Sabbath](Black)(Black Sabbath)'s "[Paranoid](Paranoid (Black Sabbath song))", which appeared on the Black Sabbath tribute album [in Black](Nativity)(Nativity in Black); it was nominated for a Grammy the following year. ### 1994–1995: Youthanasia In early 1994, Megadeth reunited with producer Max Norman for the follow-up to Countdown to Extinction. With three band members living in [Arizona](Arizona), initial work began at Phase Four Studios in [Phoenix](Phoenix, Arizona). A few days into pre-production, problems with Phase Four's equipment forced the band to look for another studio. Mustaine insisted on recording in Arizona, but no suitable recording facility could be found. At Norman's request, the band built its own recording studio in Phoenix in a rented warehouse, later called "Fat Planet in Hangar 18". During the studio's construction, much of the pre-production songwriting and arrangements were done at Vintage Recorders in Phoenix. At Norman's suggestion, the tracks on Youthanasia had a slower tempo than previous albums, at about 120 [per minute](beats)(beats per minute). The band abandoned the progressive approach from its previous albums and focused on stronger vocal melodies and more accessible, radio-friendly arrangements. For the first time, Megadeth wrote and arranged the entire album in the studio, including basic tracks recorded live by the entire band. The album's recording was video recorded and released as Evolver: The Making of Youthanasia in 1995. After eight months of studio work, [Youthanasia](Youthanasia) was released in November 1994. It debuted at number four on the Billboard 200 and charted in several European countries. The album was certified gold in Canada the day it was released, and was certified platinum in the US two months later. Megadeth hired fashion photographer [Avedon](Richard)(Richard Avedon) to enhance the band's image. Avedon had the band members exchange their jeans and T-shirts for a more conscious appearance. To promote Youthanasia, the band played a Halloween show in [York City](New)(New York City) called "Night of the Living Megadeth", which was broadcast live on MTV. In November, the band performed twice on the [Show with David Letterman](Late)(Late Show with David Letterman), playing "[of Consequences](Train)(Train of Consequences)" on the first appearance and "[Tout le Monde](A)(A Tout le Monde)" on the second. An eleven-month tour began in South America in November 1994. In 1995, Megadeth played in Europe and North America with several opening acts, including [of Conformity](Corrosion)(Corrosion of Conformity), [Korn](Korn) and [Factory](Fear)(Fear Factory). The tour culminated with an appearance at the Monsters of Rock festival in Brazil, co-headlining with Alice Cooper and [Osbourne](Ozzy)(Ozzy Osbourne). In January 1995, Megadeth appeared on the soundtrack of the horror movie [Knight](Demon)(Demon Knight) with the song "Diadems". In July, Megadeth released [Treasures](Hidden)(Hidden Treasures (EP)), an [play](extended)(extended play) featuring songs which originally appeared on movie soundtracks and tribute albums. ### 1996–1999: Cryptic Writings and Risk After completing the extensive world tour in support of Youthanasia, Megadeth took time off in most of 1996, making it the second time in their career, following 1989, that the band had not done any live shows in a single year. During this hiatus, Mustaine began work on [MD.45](MD.45), a side project with vocalist [Ving](Lee)(Lee Ving) of [Fear](Fear (band)). The duo hired drummer [DeGrasso](Jimmy)(Jimmy DeGrasso), who had played with Alice Cooper on the South American Monsters of Rock tour earlier that year. Marty Friedman built a studio in his new home in Phoenix and completed his fourth solo album, released in April 1996. In September 1996, Megadeth went to London to work on songs for the next album. The songwriting was closely supervised by new manager Bud Prager, who contributed musical ideas and lyrics; many lyrics and song titles were changed at his request. Regarding Prager's influence, Mustaine later wrote: "I figured maybe this guy [Prager] could help me get that intangible number one record I so badly wanted." The album, recorded in [Nashville](Nashville, Tennessee), was Megadeth's first collaboration with [pop](country)(country pop) producer [Huff](Dann)(Dann Huff), who had met Mustaine in 1990. [Writings](Cryptic)(Cryptic Writings) was released in June 1997. The album peaked at number ten on the Billboard 200, and was eventually certified gold in the United States. Its lead single, "[Trust](Trust (Megadeth song))", became Megadeth's highest charting song on the [Rock Tracks](Mainstream)(Mainstream Rock (chart)) at number five, and was nominated for Best Metal Performance at the [Grammy Awards](1998)(40th Annual Grammy Awards). Although all four singles from the album entered the top 20 on Billboards Mainstream Rock Tracks chart, press response to the album was mixed. The album featured a diverse set of songs which the [Angeles Times](Los)(Los Angeles Times) described as a "rousing balance" between older material and experimental songs. Asked about the album's eclecticism, Mustaine said that Cryptic Writings was divided into thirds. One part was based around faster, more aggressive material, another was "radio-orientated music like Youthanasia", and the final third was more melodic. After more than a year since the band's last concert, Megadeth returned as a live act in June 1997, beginning a world tour with the [Misfits](Misfits (band)) and touring in the United States with [of Agony](Life)(Life of Agony) and [Chamber](Coal)(Coal Chamber). In July, the band participated in [Ozzfest](Ozzfest) '98 but, halfway through the tour, Menza reportedly discovered a tumor on his knee and left to undergo surgery. Jimmy DeGrasso, who had collaborated with Mustaine in MD.45, was hired to replace Menza for the remainder of the tour. Though initially meant to be a temporary replacement, DeGrasso joined the band permanently after the tour. Mustaine later said that he dismissed Menza from the band because he believed the drummer had lied about having cancer. Following the band's mainstream radio success with Cryptic Writings, Megadeth again worked with Dann Huff on its eighth studio album. The band began writing in January 1999, supervised by manager Bud Prager, who was credited with co-writing five of the album's twelve songs. With high expectations following the chart success of "Trust", Prager convinced Mustaine to grant Huff even more control over the album's recording, a decision Mustaine later regretted. [Risk](Risk (Megadeth album)), released in August 1999, was a critical and commercial failure and led to backlash from many longtime fans. Although its two predecessors incorporated rock elements alongside a more traditional heavy metal sound, Risk was virtually devoid of metal. About the band's musical direction, Dave Mustaine said: "We hit the nadir of our career with Risk, and I vowed after that we were going to get back to our roots. It took a little bit of time to do that." Despite this, Risk was certified gold in the United States. The album's lead single, "['Em](Crush)(Crush 'Em)", appeared on the soundtrack for [Soldier: The Return](Universal)(Universal Soldier: The Return) and was used as an entrance theme for [NHL](NHL) hockey games and professional wrestling events. [[File:Marty Friedman - 01.jpg\|thumb\|right\|Guitarist [Friedman](Marty)(Marty Friedman) left Megadeth at the end of 1999, citing "musical differences."]] On July 14, 1999, former drummer Gar Samuelson died of [failure](liver)(liver failure) at age 41 in [City, Florida](Orange)(Orange City, Florida). Eleven days later, during Megadeth's performance at [1999](Woodstock)(Woodstock 1999), Mustaine dedicated "Peace Sells" to Samuelson's memory. That month, Megadeth also recorded a cover version of the Black Sabbath's "[Say Die](Never)(Never Say Die (Black Sabbath song))" for the second Nativity in Black tribute album. The band began a world tour in support of Risk in September, playing with Iron Maiden during the European leg. Three months into the tour, Friedman announced his resignation from Megadeth, citing musical differences. Mustaine later said: "I told [Marty] after Risk that we had to go back to our roots and play metal, and he quit." ### 2000–2003: The World Needs a Hero, breakup, and hiatus In January 2000, guitarist [Pitrelli](Al)(Al Pitrelli), formerly of [Savatage](Savatage) and the [Orchestra](Trans-Siberian)(Trans-Siberian Orchestra), became Friedman's replacement. Megadeth returned to the studio in April to work on its ninth studio album. A month into production, the band received an offer to join the Maximum Rock tour with Anthrax and [Crüe](Mötley)(Mötley Crüe). Megadeth put the recording on hold and toured North America during the second quarter of 2000. Early in the tour, Anthrax was removed from the bill, allowing Megadeth to play an extended co-headlining set. The tour, however, had poor ticket sales. After 15 years with Capitol Records, Megadeth left the label in July 2000. According to Mustaine, the departure was due to ongoing tensions with Capitol management. Capitol returned the band's newest recordings and released a greatest hits album, [Punishment: The Megadeth Years](Capitol)(Capitol Punishment: The Megadeth Years), with two new tracks: "Kill the King" and "Dread and the Fugitive Mind". In November, Megadeth signed with [Records](Sanctuary)(Sanctuary Records). The band returned to the studio in October to finish its next album, [World Needs a Hero](The)(The World Needs a Hero), which was near completion when Megadeth joined the Maximum Rock tour six months earlier. Following the negative response to Risk,\|website=[AllMusic](AllMusic)\|access-date=December 7, 2013}} Mustaine fired Bud Prager and produced the album himself. The songs were written by Mustaine alone, except for "Promises", which had contributions from Pitrelli. Two days before the release of The World Needs a Hero, Megadeth appeared in an episode of [VH1](VH1)'s [the Music](Behind)(Behind the Music) showcasing Mustaine, Ellefson, several past members, and Mustaine's old Metallica bandmates James Hetfield and Lars Ulrich. The World Needs a Hero was released in May 2001 and debuted at number sixteen on the Billboard 200. It was banned in Malaysia when the national government determined that the album's artwork was "unsuitable for the nation's youth". Consequently, the band canceled its concert of August 2 in [Lumpur](Kuala)(Kuala Lumpur). The album marked Megadeth's return to a more aggressive sound after the stylistic variations of its previous two albums, but critics felt it fell short of expectations. Mustaine compared the album to a huge ship at sea, turning and trying to right itself to get back on course. Its lead single, "Moto Psycho", reached number 22 on the Billboard Mainstream Rock chart. [[Summer Breeze Open Air 2017 18.jpg\|thumb\|left\|Mustaine dissolved Megadeth in 2002, following an arm injury that prevented him from playing guitar.](File:Megadeth)] A European tour with [AC/DC](AC/DC) in support of The World Needs a Hero began in mid-2001, followed by an American tour with [Earth](Iced)(Iced Earth) and [Endo](Endo (band)) in September. Mustaine allowed fans to choose the setlist in each American city. However, the tour was cut short following the [11 attacks](September)(September 11 attacks); all dates were canceled, including a DVD shoot in Argentina. The band instead played two shows in Arizona on November 16 and 17, which were filmed and released as Megadeth's first live release, [Awakening](Rude)(Rude Awakening (Megadeth album)). That year, Killing Is My Business... and Business Is Good! was remixed and remastered; the reissue featured modified artwork and several bonus tracks. In January 2002, Mustaine was hospitalized for the removal of a [stone](kidney)(kidney stone) and was administered pain medication that triggered a relapse of his drug addiction. Following his stay, Mustaine checked himself into a treatment center in Texas. While there, Mustaine fell asleep with his left arm over the back of a chair, causing compression of the [nerve](radial)(radial nerve). He was subsequently diagnosed with [neuropathy](radial)(radial neuropathy), which left him unable to grasp or make a fist with his left hand. On April 3, Mustaine announced in a press release that he was disbanding Megadeth, as his arm injury rendered him unable to play guitar. For the next four months, he had physical therapy five days a week, and slowly began to "re-teach" his left hand. To fulfill contract obligations to Sanctuary, Megadeth released the compilation album [Alive... and Well?](Still)(Still Alive... and Well?). The first half of the album contains live tracks recorded at the Web Theatre in Phoenix, and the second half has studio recordings from The World Needs a Hero. Following nearly a year of recovery, including physical and [therapy](electroshock)(electroshock therapy), Mustaine began work on what was to have been his first solo album. The new material was recorded with session musicians [Colaiuta](Vinnie)(Vinnie Colaiuta) and [Lee Sloas](Jimmie)(Jimmie Lee Sloas) in October 2003. The project was put on hold when Mustaine agreed to remix and remaster Megadeth's eight-album back catalog on Capitol Records, re-recording portions that were missing or altered without his knowledge in the original mixing. ### 2004–2005: Reformation and The System Has Failed In May 2004, Mustaine returned to his solo project. Contractual obligations to the band's European label, [EMI](EMI), resulted in the recording's release as a Megadeth album. Mustaine reformed the band and contacted the fan-favorite Rust in Peace lineup to re-record backing tracks. While drummer Nick Menza agreed to return, both Marty Friedman and David Ellefson were unable to come to an agreement with Mustaine. Menza was sent home shortly after rehearsals began, a few days before the start of a tour supporting Megadeth's upcoming album. Mustaine said Menza was insufficiently prepared for the physical demands of a US tour, and "it just didn't work out". This was the first album without Ellefson. Chris Poland, who played lead guitar on Megadeth's first two albums, was hired to contribute guitar solos to the new album, working with Mustaine for the first time since the 1980s. Poland opted to serve only as a session musician, wanting to remain focused on his jazz fusion project [OHM](OHM (band)). [[File:Megadeth at Sauna crop.jpg\|thumb\|right\|alt=A four-piece band cheering the audience at the end of a concert\|Megadeth's 2004–2006 lineup at [Open Air Metal Festival](Sauna)(Sauna Open Air Metal Festival) 2005: From left to right: [Drover](Shawn)(Shawn Drover), [MacDonough](James)(James MacDonough), Dave Mustaine, and [Drover](Glen)(Glen Drover).]] [System Has Failed](The)(The System Has Failed) was released in September 2004. Critics heralded it as a return to form; [Revolver](Revolver (magazine)) gave the album a favorable review, calling it "Megadeth's most vengeful, poignant and musically complex offering since 1992's Countdown to Extinction". The album marked a shift toward the band's earlier sound; journalist Amy Sciarretto of [New Music Report](CMJ)(CMJ New Music Report) wrote that the album contained "[neo-thrash](neo-thrash) riffing with biting, politically charged lyrics". The System Has Failed debuted at number eighteen on the Billboard 200 and was led by "Die Dead Enough", which reached number 21 on the US [Rock chart](Mainstream)(Mainstream Rock (chart)). Mustaine announced that the album would be the band's last and would be followed by a farewell tour, after which he would focus on a solo career. Megadeth began the Blackmail the Universe world tour in October, enlisting touring bassist [MacDonough](James)(James MacDonough) of Iced Earth and guitarist [Drover](Glen)(Glen Drover) of [Eidolon](Eidolon (band)) and [Diamond](King)(King Diamond). Five days before the first show, Menza was replaced by [Drover](Shawn)(Shawn Drover), who remained with the band as a regular member. The band toured the US with [Exodus](Exodus (band)) and Europe with Diamond Head and [Dungeon](Dungeon (band)). In June 2005, Capitol released a greatest-hits compilation, [Hits: Back to the Start](Greatest)(Greatest Hits: Back to the Start), featuring remixed and remastered versions of songs chosen by fans from Megadeth's Capitol albums. In mid-2005, Mustaine organized an annual thrash metal festival tour, [Gigantour](Gigantour). Megadeth headlined the inaugural tour with acts such as [Theater](Dream)(Dream Theater), [Nevermore](Nevermore), Anthrax, and Fear Factory. Performances at the [Montreal](Montreal) and [Vancouver](Vancouver) shows were filmed and recorded for a live DVD-and-CD set released in the second quarter of 2006. On October 9, following the successes of The System Has Failed and the Blackmail the Universe world tour, Mustaine announced to a sold-out crowd at the [Music Rock Festival](Pepsi)(Pepsi Music Festival) in Argentina that Megadeth would continue to record and tour. The concert, held at [Sanitarias](Obras)(Estadio Obras Sanitarias) stadium in [Aires](Buenos)(Buenos Aires) in front of 25,000 fans, was filmed and released on DVD as [One Night: Live in Buenos Aires](That)(That One Night: Live in Buenos Aires) in 2007. ### 2006–2008: United Abominations In February 2006, bassist James MacDonough left the band over "personal differences". He was replaced by [LoMenzo](James)(James LoMenzo), who had worked with [Lee Roth](David)(David Lee Roth), [Lion](White)(White Lion), and [Label Society](Black)(Black Label Society). The new Megadeth lineup made its live debut headlining the [Desert Rock Festival](Dubai)(Dubai Desert Rock Festival) in the [Arab Emirates](United)(United Arab Emirates) with Testament. In March, Capitol released a two-disc DVD, [of Megadeth](Arsenal)(Arsenal of Megadeth), which included archive footage, interviews, live shows, and many of the band's music videos. Due to licensing issues, soundtrack and non-Capitol videos were not included. The second Gigantour began during the third quarter of 2006; Megadeth again headlined, this time with [of God](Lamb)(Lamb of God (band)), [Opeth](Opeth), [Enemy](Arch)(Arch Enemy (band)) and Overkill. The 2006 tour included three dates in Australia, supported by [Soulfly](Soulfly), [Enemy](Arch)(Arch Enemy), and [Caliban](Caliban (band)). In May 2006, Megadeth announced that its eleventh studio album, [Abominations](United)(United Abominations), was near completion. Originally scheduled for release in October, Mustaine said that the band was "putting the finishing touches on it" and postponed its release to May of the following year. He commented on the release: "Metal needs a really good old-school record again. I believe I have delivered." United Abominations was the band's first album to feature Glen Drover, Shawn Drover, and James Lomenzo. It also has a newer version of "A Tout le Monde" entitled "[Tout le Monde (Set Me Free)](À)(A Tout le Monde#2007 version)". The 2007 version is a duet with [Scabbia](Cristina)(Cristina Scabbia) of [Coil](Lacuna)(Lacuna Coil); it was recorded at a slightly faster tempo than the original and contains an extended solo. Released in May 2007, United Abominations debuted at number eight on the Billboard 200, selling 54,000 copies in the first week. In March, Megadeth began a North American tour opening for the newly reformed [& Hell](Heaven)(Heaven & Hell (band)). The band played with [Down](Down (band)) for Canadian shows and with [Head](Machine)(Machine Head (band)) for the US dates. A European summer festival tour followed. Late in the year, Megadeth returned to the United States to headline its Tour of Duty. In November, the band brought Gigantour to Australia with a lineup including [Static-X](Static-X), [DevilDriver](DevilDriver) and Lacuna Coil. [[File:ChrisBroderickbyTannerWolff.jpg\|thumb\|upright\|Guitarist [Broderick](Chris)(Chris Broderick) joined Megadeth in 2008, replacing Glen Drover.]] In January 2008, Glen Drover quit Megadeth, stating that he was tired of the frequent touring and wanted to spend more time with his family. He also cited personal issues with other band members. Drover was replaced by [Broderick](Chris)(Chris Broderick), formerly of [Nevermore](Nevermore) and [Panzer](Jag)(Jag Panzer). Broderick was initially asked by Mustaine's management company at the end of 2007 if he would be interested in auditioning for Megadeth. After an informal meeting at Mustaine's house, Broderick was introduced as the band's new guitarist. Mustaine complimented Broderick's playing skills and called him "the best guitarist Megadeth has ever had". Broderick's former Nevermore bandmate, [Williams](Van)(Van Williams (musician)), congratulated Megadeth on "getting one hell of a good player, more importantly they're getting a great guy to hang out with and a true friend". The new lineup made its live debut at the [Ice Hall](Helsinki)(Helsinki Ice Hall) on February 4. The 2008 Gigantour, with 29 North American dates, began shortly afterwards. Mustaine wanted a shorter lineup, allowing each band a chance to perform well. The third tour featured [Flames](In)(In Flames), [of Bodom](Children)(Children of Bodom), [for a Cowboy](Job)(Job for a Cowboy) and [on Fire](High)(High on Fire). Megadeth continued the Tour of Duty in South America and Mexico in May and June. A compilation album, [Set the World Afire](Anthology:)(Anthology: Set the World Afire), was released in September 2008. ### 2009–2010: Endgame In February 2009, Megadeth and Testament were scheduled on the European "Priest Feast" tour, with Judas Priest as headliners. At this time, Metallica, who had been inducted into the [and Roll Hall of Fame](Rock)(Rock and Roll Hall of Fame), invited Mustaine to attend the ceremony. Mustaine was informed that he would not be inducted to the Hall of Fame because such honors were granted only to those members who received recording credit on a Metallica album. Mustaine congratulated the group respectfully, and honored his commitment to the European tour with Judas Priest. In April, Megadeth and Slayer co-headlined the Canadian Carnage. This was the first time they had performed together in more than 15 years. Machine Head and [Silence](Suicide)(Suicide Silence) opened for the four shows that occurred later in June. In May, Megadeth finished recording its twelfth album, [Endgame](Endgame (Megadeth album)). The release date for Endgame was announced on the Megadeth official website, and [Hammer](Metal)(Metal Hammer) was the first to review the album track-by-track. Megadeth began its Endgame tour in October, and finished it in December. The tour featured a number of supporting acts, including Machine Head, Suicide Silence, and [Warbringer](Warbringer). In January 2010, Megadeth was set to embark on the American Carnage tour with Slayer and Testament, but the tour was postponed due to [Araya](Tom)(Tom Araya)'s back surgery. Several weeks later, Megadeth's "[Crusher](Head)(Head Crusher)" was nominated for Best Metal Performance at the [Grammy Awards](2010)(52nd Annual Grammy Awards), the band's eighth Grammy nomination in 19 years. [[- 2017216231435 2017-08-04 Wacken - Sven - 1D X MK II - 1221 - AK8I0437.jpg\|thumb\|left\|Original bassist David Ellefson rejoined Megadeth in 2010 after an eight year hiatus and remained in the band until 2021.](File:Megadeth)] In March, Megadeth embarked on the Rust in Peace 20th Anniversary Tour, which took place in North America and had support from Testament and Exodus. During the tour, Megadeth played Rust in Peace in its entirety. Prior to the start of the tour, original bassist Ellefson rejoined Megadeth after eight years. In an interview for [Rock](Classic)(Classic Rock (magazine)), he stated that Shawn Drover contacted him, informing him that bassist LoMenzo was leaving the band, saying "if ever there was a time for you and Dave [Mustaine] to talk, now is it". Megadeth, along with Metallica, Slayer, and Anthrax, collectively known as the "big four" of thrash metal, agreed to perform on the same bill during mid-2010. These performances were part of the [Festival](Sonisphere)(Sonisphere Festival) and were held in a number of European countries. One such performance in [Sofia](Sofia), Bulgaria, was filmed and released as a video album entitled [Big Four: Live from Sofia, Bulgaria](The)(The Big Four: Live from Sofia, Bulgaria). These shows continued the following year in the United States. The first took place in [California](Indio,)(Indio, California), and was the only scheduled show in the United States at the time, although a second American production was held at [Stadium](Yankee)(Yankee Stadium) in New York City shortly afterwards. In July 2010, after the European "big four" shows, Megadeth and Slayer commenced the first leg of the [Carnage Tour](American)(American Carnage Tour), where Megadeth played Rust in Peace in its entirety, while Slayer performed its album [in the Abyss](Seasons)(Seasons in the Abyss), both of which were released in 1990. From these shows onward, Vic Rattlehead started making sustained onstage appearances, to improve the visual facet of Megadeth's live performances. Shortly afterward, the two bands united with Anthrax for the [Music Tour](Jägermeister)(Jägermeister Music Tour) in late 2010. During the final show of the tour, Kerry King joined Megadeth on stage at the [Amphitheatre](Gibson)(Gibson Amphitheatre) in Hollywood to perform Megadeth's "Rattlehead". It was the first time that King had performed onstage with Megadeth since 1984. Megadeth and Slayer again shared the stage for the [Carnage Tour](European)(European Carnage Tour) in March and April 2011. Megadeth also headlined the fourth annual [Mayhem Festival](Rockstar)(Rockstar Mayhem Festival) in July and August the same year. In September, the band released the DVD album [in Peace Live](Rust)(Rust in Peace Live), recorded at the [Palladium](Hollywood)(Hollywood Palladium) in Los Angeles. Later that month, Megadeth released "[Death](Sudden)(Sudden Death (song))" for the video game [Hero: Warriors of Rock](Guitar)(Guitar Hero: Warriors of Rock). The song was commissioned by the publishers of the [Hero](Guitar)(Guitar Hero) franchise, who wanted the track to feature dark lyrics and multiple guitar solos. It was nominated for Best Metal Performance at the [Grammy ceremony](2011)(53rd Annual Grammy Awards). ### 2011–2014: Thirteen and Super Collider Megadeth returned to its own Vic's Garage studio in 2011 to record its thirteenth album, to be produced by [K](Johnny)(Johnny K), because Andy Sneap, the producer of Megadeth's previous two albums, was unavailable. The album was titled [Thirteen](Thirteen (Megadeth album)) and featured previously released tracks such as "Sudden Death" and "Never Dead". The album was released in November 2011, and charted at number eleven on the Billboard 200; its lead single "[Enemy No. 1](Public)(Public Enemy No. 1 (Megadeth song))" received a Grammy nomination for [Hard Rock/Metal Performance](Best)(Best Hard Rock/Metal Performance), but did not win. Shortly after the album was released, Dave Mustaine stated that, after a four-year hiatus, there would be a new Gigantour tour in early 2012. The lineup consisted of [Motörhead](Motörhead), [Volbeat](Volbeat), and Lacuna Coil alongside Megadeth. After the conclusion of Gigantour, [Zombie](Rob)(Rob Zombie) and Megadeth embarked on a nine-date co-headlining US tour in the summer of 2012. In September 2012, it was announced that Megadeth would re-release Countdown to Extinction in honor of the album's 20th anniversary. To mark the occasion, Megadeth launched a tour in which the band performed the album live in its entirety. One performance, filmed at the [Fox Theater](Pomona)(Pomona Fox Theater), was released as a live album, [to Extinction: Live](Countdown)(Countdown to Extinction: Live), the following year. Another track from Thirteen, "[Life (Is It Anyways?)](Whose)(Whose Life (Is It Anyways?))", was nominated for Best Hard Rock/Metal Performance at the [Grammy Awards](2013)(55th Annual Grammy Awards), but lost to [Halestorm](Halestorm)'s "[Bites (So Do I)](Love)(Love Bites (So Do I))". [[File:Flickr - Official U.S. Navy Imagery - Shawn Drover and Chris Broderick, members of the band Megadeth, sign autographs in the crew mess aboard USS Helena.jpg\|thumb\|left\|alt=Two men signing autographs in a crowded submarine\|Shawn Drover and Chris Broderick sign autographs aboard the Los Angeles-class attack submarine [Helena (SSN-725)](USS)(USS Helena (SSN-725)).]] In August, Megadeth announced the recording of its fourteenth album with producer Johnny K. At the start of 2013, Megadeth left [Records](Roadrunner)(Roadrunner Records) for Mustaine's newly founded label, Tradecraft, distributed through [Music Group](Universal)(Universal Music Group). The album, [Collider](Super)(Super Collider (album)), was released in June and debuted at number six on the Billboard 200, the band's highest chart position since 1994's Youthanasia. Critical reaction to the album, however, was largely negative. Shortly after the release of Super Collider, Mustaine stated that he had already started thinking about a fifteenth Megadeth album. He said this had been spurred by the death of Slayer guitarist [Hanneman](Jeff)(Jeff Hanneman), which gave him a sense of mortality. Mustaine elaborated: "You know, time is short. Nobody knows how long they're gonna live. You see what happened with Jeff Hanneman, so I wanna write as much as I can while I can." The 2013 edition of Gigantour featured [Label Society](Black)(Black Label Society), [Hellyeah](Hellyeah), [Device](Device (metal band)), and [Newsted](Newsted) as opening bands. At the final show, [Newsted](Jason)(Jason Newsted), Metallica's former bassist, joined Megadeth onstage to perform "Phantom Lord", a song Mustaine had co-written during his stint with Metallica. Early in 2014, Megadeth was slated to play the [Soundwave](Soundwave (Australian music festival)) festival in Australia, but pulled out over a disagreement with tour promoter A. J. Maddah concerning the band's sideshows with Newsted. [Icon](Icon (Megadeth album)), an eleven-song compilation of Megadeth's Capitol-era material, was released as part of Universal Music's [series](Icon)(Icon (album series)) in February. The band encountered several setbacks through the second half of 2014. The August concert in [Aviv](Tel)(Tel Aviv) was canceled due to an [conflict between Israel and Gaza](armed)(2014 Israel–Gaza conflict). Megadeth was scheduled to appear on [Motörhead](Motörhead)'s Motörboat cruise in late September, but withdrew because of Mustaine's complications following his cervical spine surgery. In late November, Drover quit the band after ten years, wanting to pursue his own musical interests. This was quickly followed by the departure of Broderick, due to artistic and musical differences. Ellefson denied rumors that Megadeth would disband, and said he and Mustaine would continue working on new music. Mustaine said that one of the reasons for Broderick's and Drover's departure was the frustration caused by Megadeth's fan base demanding a reunion with Friedman and Menza. ### 2015–2018: Dystopia [of God](Lamb)(Lamb of God (band)) drummer [Adler](Chris)(Chris Adler) and guitarist [Loureiro](Kiko)(Kiko Loureiro) of [Angra](Angra (band)) were brought in to perform on Megadeth's fifteenth studio album after Mustaine unsuccessfully attempted to reunite the Rust in Peace lineup. In October 2015, Megadeth streamed "[Illusion](Fatal)(Fatal Illusion)" off the album [Dystopia](Dystopia (Megadeth album)), which was released in January 2016. In support of Dystopia, Megadeth embarked on a North American tour in February and March with [Tendencies](Suicidal)(Suicidal Tendencies), [of Bodom](Children)(Children of Bodom) and [Havok](Havok (band)) (though Havok was soon removed from the tour by Megadeth's management following a dispute over a contract). Mustaine announced that Adler, who was performing with both Lamb of God and Megadeth, was no longer in the band due to scheduling conflicts between the two bands. He was replaced by [Verbeuren](Dirk)(Dirk Verbeuren) from [Soilwork](Soilwork), on Adler's recommendation. A second US tour took place in September and October, with support from [Amarth](Amon)(Amon Amarth), [Tendencies](Suicidal)(Suicidal Tendencies), [Church](Metal)(Metal Church), and [Babies](Butcher)(Butcher Babies). Former drummer Menza died of a heart attack on May 21, 2016, while performing with OHM at a [club](jazz)(The Baked Potato) in Los Angeles. Asked about any further Big Four gigs, Mustaine called for "the powers-that-be" to help put together a new Big Four tour in 2017 as all the respective bands were promoting new albums. [Dystopia](Dystopia (song))'s title track won the [Award for Best Metal Performance](Grammy)(Grammy Award for Best Metal Performance) at the [Grammy Awards](2017)(2017 Grammy Awards), the band's first win after 12 nominations. Mustaine, Loureiro, Ellefson, and Verbeuren attended the ceremony; however, album drummer and award recipient Chris Adler did not. While accepting the award, the house band played Mustaine's former band Metallica's "[of Puppets](Master)(Master of Puppets (song))" causing some controversy among fans. In a June 2017 interview with No Brown M&Ms, Mustaine said that Megadeth would enter the studio at the end of the year to begin working on their sixteenth studio album. A month later, Mustaine stated on Twitter that he had begun "collecting ideas" for the new album, but stated that they would "probably" enter the studio in mid-2018 to begin recording it for a 2019 release. The band joined with [Scorpions](Scorpions (band)) for a co-headlining tour in the fall of 2017. In 2018, Megadeth marked their 35th anniversary by re-releasing their 1985 debut album Killing Is My Business... And Business Is Good!, dubbed Killing Is My Business... and Business Is Good! - The Final Kill on June 8, 2018, as a deluxe package containing remastered versions of all songs to Mustaine's intended vision, a re-cut version of "[Boots](These)(These Boots Are Made for Walkin')" lyrically adjusted to [Hazlewood](Lee)(Lee Hazlewood)'s version, rare live performances of songs off the album during Alice Cooper's Live in the Flesh Tour and the 1984 three song demo. ### 2019–present: Ellefson's second departure and The Sick, the Dying... and the Dead! The band was originally scheduled to perform on the first-ever MegaCruise to coincide with the release of the next album, due to sail on October 13, 2019, from [Angeles](Los)(Los Angeles) and hit ports of [Diego](San)(San Diego) and [Ensenada](Ensenada, Baja California) before returning on October 18, including performances by heavy metal acts such as [of God](Lamb)(Lamb of God (band)), [Anthrax](Anthrax (American band)), [Testament](Testament (band)), [Overkill](Overkill (band)), [of Conformity](Corrosion)(Corrosion of Conformity), [Queensrÿche](Queensrÿche), [Saint](Armored)(Armored Saint), [Church](Metal)(Metal Church), [Tendencies](Suicidal)(Suicidal Tendencies), [DragonForce](DragonForce), [Doro](Doro (musician)), [5](John)(John 5 (guitarist)), [Angel](Death)(Death Angel) and [Toothgrinder](Toothgrinder), however, Mustaine was not present due to his illness. It was instead a live performance featuring members of each respective band playing [Kiss](Kiss (band)) songs. On May 10, 2019, Megadeth entered the studio in [Tennessee](Franklin,)(Franklin, Tennessee) to begin pre-production of the next album, once again teaming up with Dystopia co-producer Chris Rakestraw. On June 17, the band announced that all shows scheduled in 2019 (with the exception of the MegaCruise) would be cancelled due to Mustaine being diagnosed with throat cancer; of all the cancelled dates, the band was scheduled to support [Osbourne](Ozzy)(Ozzy Osbourne) on the North American leg of the [More Tours II](No)(No More Tours II) tour, which had been postponed from the summer of 2019 to the summer of 2020 due to Osbourne sustaining an injury while dealing with pneumonia. They were replaced by [Manson](Marilyn)(Marilyn Manson) instead. Despite Mustaine's illness, the band vowed to continue working on their new album. On November 6, Mustaine shared a video on [Instagram](Instagram) teasing a track from the band's upcoming album, which was originally set for release in 2019. On July 17, Megadeth announced their partnership with [Radio](Gimme)(Gimme Radio) and [Childress Racing](Richard)(Richard Childress Racing) on the No. 2 Gimme Radio [Camaro](Chevrolet)(Chevrolet Camaro), which was driven by [Series](Xfinity)(Xfinity Series) driver [Reddick](Tyler)(Tyler Reddick) at the [Hampshire 200](New)(New Hampshire 200) on July 20. On August 21, the band announced that they would embark on their first tour since Mustaine's illness in January and February 2020, with [Finger Death Punch](Five)(Five Finger Death Punch) and [Wolves](Bad)(Bad Wolves) supporting on the European tour. [[5.jpg\|thumb\|left\|Bassist James LoMenzo rejoined Megadeth in 2022, after his replacement David Ellefson was dismissed from the group the previous year.](File:HF2022Megadeth)] Megadeth was originally scheduled to embark on a co-headlining tour in North America with Lamb of God dubbed "The Metal Tour of the Year" in the summer of 2020, with [Trivium](Trivium (band)) and [Flames](In)(In Flames) as support acts, but was postponed due to the [pandemic](COVID-19)(COVID-19 pandemic). The tour was rescheduled for the summer of 2021, with [Hatebreed](Hatebreed) replacing In Flames due to the latter being forced to withdraw from the line-up due to international visa issues caused by the pandemic. Megadeth re-entered the studio in Nashville in mid-2020 to resume recording their new album, tentatively planned for release in 2021. While hosting a Masterclass "Front Row Live" for fans via [Zoom](Zoom (software)) on January 9, 2021, Mustaine announced the title of the band's sixteenth album would be called [Sick, the Dying... and the Dead!](The)(The Sick, the Dying... and the Dead!), however he indicated that the title might be subject to change. In May 2021, sexually explicit videos of Ellefson were leaked to social media. The videos, reportedly recorded by a 19-year-old fan whom Ellefson was in correspondence with, led to initial accusations of child grooming. Ellefson and the fan denied these claims in separate statements and maintained their encounters were consensual. On May 24, Megadeth issued a statement announcing Ellefson's dismissal from the band. Ellefson later confirmed that he had actually been dismissed ten days earlier on May 14; the videos originally surfaced on May 10. Following the controversy, Mustaine stated that there would be no chance for Ellefson to rejoin the band. On Mustaine's Gimme Radio program The Dave Mustaine Show on June 17, he said that the bass tracks recorded by Ellefson in May 2020 would not appear on the upcoming album and would be re-recorded by a different bassist, which was completed a short time later, but did not say who it was. He also revealed a song title from the album called "The Dogs of Chernobyl". Mustaine confirmed soon after that a new bassist was chosen with a picture showing the neck of the bass guitar and the unknown member being shown on the floor behind a chair, however, he did not reveal the name, but would announce it soon. Former bassist [LoMenzo](James)(James LoMenzo) filled in for the band's tour, while [Di Giorgio](Steve)(Steve Di Giorgio) of [Testament](Testament (band)) performed as a session bassist on The Sick, the Dying... and the Dead!, which was released in September 2022. LoMenzo was announced as the band's official bassist in May 2022. After several teasers, "[Be Back](We'll)(We'll Be Back)", the first single from the record, was released on June 23, along with the tracklist, followed by next singles "Night Stalkers" and "[On!](Soldier)(Soldier On!)", released on July 22 and August 12 respectively. On February 27th, 2023, Marty Friedman performed three songs with Megadeth at the Budokan in Japan. This marked his first performance with the band in 23 years. ## Controversies Mustaine has made numerous inflammatory statements in the press, usually regarding issues with former Metallica bandmates. The feud stemmed from his ejection from the band, how it was conducted, and disagreements on songwriting credits. Mustaine expressed his anger in the movie [Some Kind of Monster](Metallica:)(Metallica: Some Kind of Monster), in a scene he later disapproved of as he felt he was mischaracterized, and that it did not represent the full extent of what happened during the meeting. During a live performance of "Anarchy in the U.K." at a 1988 show in [Antrim](Antrim (borough)), [Ireland](Northern)(Northern Ireland), Mustaine dedicated the song to "the cause" of "giving Ireland back to the Irish!"\|group=nb}} Before the final song, Mustaine said, "This one's for the cause! Give Ireland back to the Irish!" This elicited a riot and fighting between Catholics and Protestants among the audience. The band had to travel in a bulletproof bus back to [Dublin](Dublin). This incident served as inspiration for the song "Holy Wars... The Punishment Due". Controversial and misinterpreted lyrics have caused complications for the band. In 1988, [MTV](MTV) deemed that the song "[My Darkest Hour](In)(In My Darkest Hour)" encouraged suicide and banned the video. The station banned the video for "[Tout le Monde](A)(A Tout le Monde)" for the same reason, though Mustaine said the song was written from the perspective of a dying man saying his last words to his loved ones. According to him, MTV considered the videos for "[o' My Teeth](Skin)(Skin o' My Teeth)" and "[of Destruction](Symphony)(Symphony of Destruction)" a "little bit too harsh" and refused to play them. During a world tour in 2001, the Malaysian government canceled the band's show in the nation's capital because the authorities had a negative perception of the group's image and music. The government deemed the band's mascot, Vic Rattlehead, as inappropriate and told the members that they would be arrested if they performed. Dave Mustaine responded: "I recognize what the Malaysian government is trying to do, and it is admirable of them trying to protect the young people in the country. But it just shows the degree of ignorance and apathy that the government has toward the problem." In 2003, after recovering from an arm injury that threatened to end his career, Mustaine became a [born-again](born again) Christian. Minor controversy was sparked by Mustaine's announcement that Megadeth would not play certain songs live due to his conversion. In May 2005, Mustaine allegedly threatened to cancel shows in Greece and Israel with [metal](extreme)(extreme metal) bands [Christ](Rotting)(Rotting Christ) and [Dissection](Dissection (band)) due to the bands' anti-Christian beliefs. This caused the two bands to cancel appearances. In July 2004, former bassist Ellefson sued Mustaine for $18.5 million in the [States District Court for the Southern District of New York](United)(United States District Court for the Southern District of New York). Ellefson alleged that Mustaine short-changed him on profits including tour merchandise and publishing royalties. The suit was dismissed in 2005, and Mustaine filed a countersuit alleging that Ellefson had used the band's name in an advertisement for musical equipment; the suit was settled out of court. On May 10, 2021, sexually explicit videos of Ellefson were posted on Twitter. The videos, reportedly recorded by a fan that Ellefson was in correspondence with, initially led to accusations of child grooming. However, Ellefson and the other party both denied the accusations, and the fan publicly claimed they were a consenting adult and the videos were unknowingly released by a third party. The Scottsdale Police Department (SPD) was contacted by Ellefson, who sought charges for revenge porn. Ellefson took a polygraph test to affirm his claims and presented police with a photo of the fan's driver's license to prove their age. He also shared screen shots of Snapchat and WhatsApp messages related to the allegations. Ellefson's partner admitted that she had shared the video with some friends but wasn't sure how it got leaked out to others. The SPD report states the fan "was remorseful and agreed to send out a social media statement on...Instagram" that they were "a willing consenting adult during their mutual virtual sexual encounter." Ellefson then posted her statement and one of his own on May 10, asserting that the allegations of grooming were false. Ellefson stated he has not been extorted in any way, and he believes the videos of their consensual adult encounter were not intentionally leaked. An official statement released the next day from Megadeth stated that the situation was being "watched closely". Mustaine announced on May 24, 2021, that Ellefson was fired from the band. ## Artistry ### Influences and style Traditional [metal](heavy)(heavy metal music) bands such as [UFO](UFO (band)), [Sabbath](Black)(Black Sabbath), [Budgie](Budgie (band)), [wave of British heavy metal](new)(new wave of British heavy metal) (NWOBHM) bands such as [Raven](Raven (British band)), [Priest](Judas)(Judas Priest), [Motörhead](Motörhead), [Maiden](Iron)(Iron Maiden), [Head](Diamond)(Diamond Head (English band)), and [Venom](Venom (band)), and [rock](punk)(punk rock) bands such as the [Pistols](Sex)(Sex Pistols) and [Ramones](Ramones) had a significant influence on Megadeth's sound. [rock](Hard)(Hard rock) bands such as [AC/DC](AC/DC), [Queen](Queen (band)), and [Zeppelin](Led)(Led Zeppelin), as well as German acts like [Scorpions](Scorpions (band)) and [Accept](Accept (band)), were also influential on the group's guitar style. Although the music has roots in punk, university professor Jason Bivins wrote that Megadeth followed the basic blueprint of Motörhead and Iron Maiden. He described the style as a mix of "the instrumental virtuosity of the NWOBHM with the speed and aggression of [punk](hardcore)(hardcore punk)", while also drawing lyrical inspiration from the horror-obsessed punk band [Misfits](Misfits (band)). Mustaine has also listed albums by [Beatles](the)(the Beatles) and [Bowie](David)(David Bowie) as recordings that influenced him. Mustaine is the band's primary songwriter. He develops songs starting with a particular riff that, with modifications, becomes the central part of the song. He has said that song fragments are composed separately, and then the band makes a compact structure from them. Drummer Shawn Drover stated that Mustaine had saved many riffs over the years and that some recent material is based on those demo recordings. Ellefson stated that the band constantly creates new material, and that making a recording begins with exchanging ideas after which the band enters the studio and discusses the concept, direction, artwork, and song titles. The lyrics are usually written after the music is arranged. Discussing the band's lyrics, Mustaine said that many of the themes are derived from literature, such as the novels of [Orwell](George)(George Orwell). The music of Megadeth and its underground metal contemporaries from the 1980s featured harsh vocals, [bass drum](double)(double bass drum) patterns, [staccato](staccato) riffing, [chords](power)(power chords), [picking](tremolo)(tremolo picking), and screeching lead guitar work; albums from this period were produced on low budgets. After forming Megadeth, Mustaine followed the thrash metal style of his previous band, Metallica, with more emphasis on speed and intensity. When asked to describe Megadeth's guitar style, Mustaine answered: "When you go to a show and see a guitar player who just stands there, that's a guitar player. A thrash guitar player is a guy who plays like he wants to beat the guitar's guts out." Most of the songs are recorded in standard [tuning](guitar)(guitar tuning) as Mustaine believes it to provide a superior melody to alternative methods of tuning. In 2017, David Ellefson talked in an interview about how the band recently started to use a lower tuning saying: "it's just natural with age, for singers it can be a struggle, so rather than quit, than not play, how do you work it around? Well, let's drop the guitars, let's find a way to work around it." During the band's early days, Mustaine was the rhythm guitarist, while Chris Poland played lead. Poland performed only on Megadeth's first two albums at the time of the book's release; (he would go on to play on the 2004 album [System Has Failed](The)(The System Has Failed)); music journalists Pete Prown and Harvey P. Newquist credit him with making the music more colorful because of his [jazz](jazz) influences. According to former [Maniacs](Metal)(Metal Maniacs) editor Jeff Wagner, the band's songwriting techniques peaked with the fourth album, Rust in Peace, which he described as a "flurry of precision and fluidity, making good on Megadeth's claim to being the world's state-of-the-art [metal](speed)(speed metal) band". Musicologist Glenn Pillsbury stated the guitar work on the album was a mixture of Mustaine's "controlled chaos" and the "technical brilliance" of Marty Friedman. Studio efforts released in the mid- and late 1990s featured songs with compact structures and less complicated riffing. Megadeth's lyrics often focus on death, war, politics, and religion. The lyricism centers on nihilistic themes, but occasionally deals with topics such as alienation and social problems. The earliest releases featured themes such as occultism, graphic violence, and Satanism. [warfare](Nuclear)(Nuclear warfare) and government conspiracy were preoccupations on albums such as Rust in Peace and Countdown to Extinction. During Megadeth's commercial peak, Mustaine elaborated on more personal themes such as addiction and intimate relationships. For the lyrics on Cryptic Writings, Mustaine said that he wanted to write songs that had more appeal to a wider audience. The title of United Abominations is a satiric play on the name of the [Nations](United)(United Nations); Mustaine criticized the organization's ineffectiveness on a number of songs on that album. ### Legacy Having sold about 38 million units worldwide, Megadeth is one of the few bands from the 1980s American underground metal scene to have achieved mass commercial success. Along with contemporaries Metallica, Slayer, and Anthrax, Megadeth is regarded as one of the core founding groups of thrash metal. These bands are often referred to as the "big four" of thrash metal, responsible for the genre's development and popularization. [Loudwire](Loudwire) ranked Megadeth the third best thrash metal band of all time, praising the group's "provoking lyrics and mind-warping virtuosity". CMJ New Music Report called the band's debut album a seminal release and a representative of "the golden age of speed metal". [Billboard](Billboard (magazine)) called the band's second album ''Peace Sells... but Who's Buying?'' a "landmark of the thrash movement" whose lyrics it found still relevant. MTV also recognized the band as an influential metal act, highlighting the technical aspect of the early albums. Megadeth is considered one of the most musically influential groups that originated in the 1980s. As part of the early American thrash metal movement, the band's music was a direct influence on [metal](death)(death metal). Sociologist [Kahn-Harris](Keith)(Keith Kahn-Harris) wrote that the mainstream success of Megadeth was one of the reasons for the expansion of [metal](extreme)(extreme metal) to countries where it had previously been unknown. The band's sound and album artwork influenced a number of thrash metal bands in the 21st century, including [Holocaust](Toxic)(Toxic Holocaust) and [Warbringer](Warbringer). According to [SoundScan](Nielsen)(Nielsen SoundScan), Megadeth has sold 9.2 million copies of its albums in the United States between 1991 and 2014. ## Band members Current members * [Mustaine](Dave)(Dave Mustaine) – guitars, lead vocals (1983–2002, 2004–present) * [LoMenzo](James)(James LoMenzo) – bass, backing vocals (2006–2010, 2022–present) * [Loureiro](Kiko)(Kiko Loureiro) – guitars, backing vocals (2015–present) * [Verbeuren](Dirk)(Dirk Verbeuren) – drums (2016–present) ## Discography * [Is My Business... and Business Is Good!](Killing)(Killing Is My Business... and Business Is Good!) (1985) * ''[Sells... but Who's Buying?](Peace)(Peace Sells... but Who's Buying?)* (1986) * [Far, So Good... So What!](So)(So Far, So Good... So What!) (1988) * [in Peace](Rust)(Rust in Peace) (1990) * [to Extinction](Countdown)(Countdown to Extinction) (1992) * [Youthanasia](Youthanasia) (1994) * [Writings](Cryptic)(Cryptic Writings) (1997) * [Risk](Risk (Megadeth album)) (1999) * [World Needs a Hero](The)(The World Needs a Hero) (2001) * [System Has Failed](The)(The System Has Failed) (2004) * [Abominations](United)(United Abominations) (2007) * [Endgame](Endgame (Megadeth album)) (2009) * [Thirteen](Thirteen (Megadeth album)) (2011) * [Collider](Super)(Super Collider (album)) (2013) * [Dystopia](Dystopia (Megadeth album)) (2016) * [Sick, the Dying... and the Dead!](The)(The Sick, the Dying... and the Dead!)'' (2022) ## Accolades [Rock Roll of Honour Awards](Classic)(Classic Rock Roll of Honour Awards): 2014: Metal Guru – Dave Mustaine [Awards](Clio)(Clio Awards): * 2016: Silver Winner – "The Megadeth VR Experience" [Awards](Genesis)(Genesis Awards): * 1993: Doris Day Music Award – [to Extinction](Countdown)(Countdown to Extinction) [Awards](Grammy)(Grammy Awards): * 2017: [Metal Performance](Best)(Grammy Award for Best Metal Performance) – "[Dystopia](Dystopia (song))" [Music Awards](Loudwire)(Loudwire): * 2011: Metal Album of the Year – [Thirteen](Thirteen (Megadeth album)) * 2011: Metal Song of the Year – "[Enemy No. 1](Public)(Public Enemy No. 1 (Megadeth song))" [Hammer* Golden Gods Awards](Metal)(Metal Hammer): 2007: Riff Lord – Dave Mustaine * 2015: Golden God – Dave Mustaine [Golden Gods Awards](Revolver)(Revolver (magazine)): * 2009: Golden God – Dave Mustaine ## Footnotes ## References ## Bibliography * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * ## External links * * [Megadeth, Arizona](https://www.megadetharizona.com) – Reconstructed site from circa 2000 * * * * [ ](Category:Megadeth) [establishments in California](Category:1983)(Category:1983 establishments in California) [Records artists](Category:Capitol)(Category:Capitol Records artists) [Award winners](Category:Grammy)(Category:Grammy Award winners) [metal musical groups from California](Category:Heavy)(Category:Heavy metal musical groups from California) [groups established in 1983](Category:Musical)(Category:Musical groups established in 1983) [groups disestablished in 2002](Category:Musical)(Category:Musical groups disestablished in 2002) [groups reestablished in 2004](Category:Musical)(Category:Musical groups reestablished in 2004) [groups from Los Angeles](Category:Musical)(Category:Musical groups from Los Angeles) [quartets](Category:Musical)(Category:Musical quartets) [Records artists](Category:Roadrunner)(Category:Roadrunner Records artists) [speed metal musical groups](Category:American)(Category:American speed metal musical groups) [metal musical groups from California](Category:Thrash)(Category:Thrash metal musical groups from California) [Records artists](Category:Universal)(Category:Universal Records artists)
Lonnie Hammargren	lonnie_hammargren	# Lonnie Hammargren Revision ID: 1160281087 \| Timestamp: 2023-06-15T13:34:45Z --- \|birth_place=[Minnesota](Harris,)(Harris, Minnesota), U.S. \|death_date= \|profession=Neurosurgeon \|spouse = }} Lonnie Lee Hammargren (December 25, 1937 – June 13, 2023) was an American politician and [neurosurgeon](neurosurgeon). He was elected a member of the non-partisan [of regents](board)(board of regents) for the [System of Higher Education](Nevada)(Nevada System of Higher Education), an office he held from 1988 to 1994; he was the former 31st [governor of Nevada](lieutenant)(lieutenant governor of Nevada), serving from 1995 to 1999 as a member of the [Party](Republican)(Republican Party (United States)). As of 2022, he is the most recent Nevada lieutenant governor to have served under a governor from the opposing party, having served with Democrat [Miller](Bob)(Bob Miller (Nevada governor)). He was also known for his "eclectic collection of artifacts, including old casino signs, and an [space capsule](Apollo)(Apollo Command/Service Module)". ## Career ### Medical career Hammargren was a neurosurgeon who was first licensed in 1971 as the first neurosurgeon in the state of Nevada. Lonnie spent several years as a [NASA](NASA) [surgeon](flight)(flight surgeon). He also operated on boxer [Koo Kim](Duk)(Duk Koo Kim) in November 1982, following [loss to Ray Mancini](Kim's)(Ray Mancini#Kim match); Kim died as a result of his injuries in the fight. Following [Horn](Roy)(Roy Horn)'s near-fatal tiger attack in 2003, Hammargren spoke up to correct misinformation in the press about the procedure Horn (of [& Roy](Siegfried)(Siegfried & Roy)) had received. Hammargren has collected some of the skulls and brains of his former patients. According to Hammargren, he gave up surgery in 2005, when the cost for his [insurance](malpractice)(malpractice insurance) was raised to $275,000/year; in 2009, as part of a medical malpractice settlement, he agreed to give up surgery permanently, though he retained his [license](medical)(medical license). Hammargren's Nevada medical license expired in 2017. According to the Nevada State Board of Medical Examiners, Hammargren had 4 medical malpractice judgments against him that were $5,000 or more each. ### Political career From 1988 to 1994, Hammargren was a member of the board of regents for the Nevada System of Higher Education. Hammargren was the [governor of Nevada](lieutenant)(lieutenant governor of Nevada) from 1995 to 1999. He lost his election bid in the primaries for that office again in 2006. As of 2008, Hammargren was the honorary [consul](consul (representative)) for [Belize](Belize). ## Personal life [[Castle, the home of neurosurgeon and longtime Nevada lieutenant governor Lonnie Hammargren, Las Vegas, Nevada LCCN2011634443.tif\|thumb\|upright\|Hammargren's Las Vegas home in 1980](File:"Lonnie's)] Hammargren built his house, Castillo del Sol, in 1969, which he filled with various artifacts relating to Las Vegas history, and regularly opened it to public tours. Among his acquisitions were the [Roller](High)(High Roller (Stratosphere)) [coaster](roller)(roller coaster) from the [Stratosphere](The STRAT Hotel, Casino, and SkyPod). His home has been featured on the [Channel](Travel)(Travel Channel)'s show Vegas VIP Homes. His collections eventually occupied two neighboring houses as well. In 2016, Hammargren and his collections were featured on an episode of the [A&E](A&E (TV channel)) series [Hoarders](Hoarders (TV series)). In the episode, it was revealed Hammargren had spent an estimated $10 million acquiring the artifacts and was $750,000 in debt. He sold some items at auction for a net gain of slightly over $4,000, which he planned to use to write his autobiography. Hammargren married his wife Sandy in 1989, an event which in part was filmed for [of the Rich and Famous](Lifestyles)(Lifestyles of the Rich and Famous). On March 31, 2007, Hammargren held an "Awake [Wake](Wake (ceremony))" for himself, in which he had a mock funeral service, a New Orleans style [Funeral](Jazz)(Jazz Funeral) March back to his house, and buried himself in a [sarcophagus](sarcophagus) in the Egyptian tomb in his garage. He emerged an hour later. In 2008, he began building a replica [spacecraft](Orion)(Orion (Constellation program)) to add to the collection. Hammargren died on June 13, 2023, at the age of 85. ## References ## External links [births](Category:1937)(Category:1937 births) [deaths](Category:2023)(Category:2023 deaths) [American physicians](Category:20th-century)(Category:20th-century American physicians) [American politicians](Category:20th-century)(Category:20th-century American politicians) [Governors of Nevada](Category:Lieutenant)(Category:Lieutenant Governors of Nevada) [neurosurgeons](Category:American)(Category:American neurosurgeons) [Republicans](Category:Nevada)(Category:Nevada Republicans) [from Harris, Minnesota](Category:People)(Category:People from Harris, Minnesota) [from the Las Vegas Valley](Category:People)(Category:People from the Las Vegas Valley) [from Nevada](Category:Physicians)(Category:Physicians from Nevada) [in the 2006 United States elections](Category:Candidates)(Category:Candidates in the 2006 United States elections) [surgeons](Category:20th-century)(Category:20th-century surgeons) [from Minnesota](Category:Physicians)(Category:Physicians from Minnesota)
John Pinette	john_pinette	# John Pinette Revision ID: 1146713890 \| Timestamp: 2023-03-26T14:39:23Z --- \| birth_place = [Boston](Boston), [Massachusetts](Massachusetts), US \| death_date = \| death_place = [Pittsburgh](Pittsburgh), [Pennsylvania](Pennsylvania), US \| medium = Stand-up, television, film \| nationality = American \| genre = [comedy](Observational)(Observational comedy) \| subject = [Impressions](Impressionist (entertainment)), [self-deprecation](self-deprecation), [life](everyday)(everyday life), [obesity](obesity), world travel, food }} John Paul Pinette ( ) (March 23, 1964 – April 5, 2014) was an American [comedian](stand-up)(stand-up comedian), actor, and [Broadway](Broadway theatre) performer. He toured the comedy club circuit beginning in the 1980s and appeared in cinema and on television. Besides stand-up, Pinette did impressions of [Jackson](Michael)(Michael Jackson), [Chipmunks](The)(Alvin and the Chipmunks), [Presley](Elvis)(Elvis Presley), [Gollum](Gollum) from [Lord of the Rings](The)(The Lord of the Rings), [Villechaize](Hervé)(Hervé Villechaize) (Tattoo from [Island](Fantasy)(Fantasy Island)), an [Ewok](Ewok), actor [Brando](Marlon)(Marlon Brando) (notably Brando's role in [Godfather](The)(The Godfather)), as well as various ethnic accents. He occasionally sang in his stand-up routines; for example "[the Rainbow](Over)(Over the Rainbow)" from [Wizard of Oz](The)(The Wizard of Oz (1939 film)), "[You Be There](Will)(Will You Be There)" from [Willy](Free)(Free Willy), and "[Cry for Me Argentina](Don't)(Don't Cry for Me Argentina)". ## Early life Pinette was born in [Boston](Boston), [Massachusetts](Massachusetts), on March 23, 1964, the son of Robert Pinette Sr. and Louise Pitre (Petrie). His mother was of [Acadian](Acadian) ancestry, with both her parents from the [Canadian](Canada) province of [Brunswick](New)(New Brunswick). He graduated from [Catholic High School](Malden)(Malden Catholic High School) in 1982. He graduated from the [of Massachusetts Lowell](University)(University of Massachusetts Lowell) in 1986 with a degree in [accounting](accounting). ## Career He started a six-month career in accounting but, on the advice of friends, left to pursue a career in comedy. An early break for Pinette was being asked to tour with [Sinatra](Frank)(Frank Sinatra). Pinette was a regular guest on [Tonight Show](The)(The Tonight Show) and [View](The)(The View (talk show)). Pinette appeared in the films [Duets](Duets (film)), [Sez](Simon)(Simon Sez), [Last Godfather](The)(The Last Godfather), [God](Dear)(Dear God (film)), and [Junior](Junior (1994 film)). In 2004, Pinette played Bumpo in [Entertainment](Artisan)(Artisan Entertainment)'s [Punisher](The)(The Punisher (2004 film)), starring [Jane](Thomas)(Thomas Jane) and [Travolta](John)(John Travolta). In 1991, he was a regular cast member on the reality show The Grudge Match as the referee on the series. He was a regular on the series ''[Lewis Can't Lose](Parker)(Parker Lewis Can't Lose)* and, in 1998, played the [carjacking](carjacking) victim in the [episode](final)(The Finale (Seinfeld)) of the sitcom [Seinfeld](Seinfeld)''. Pinette was named Stand-Up Comedian of the Year by the [Comedy Awards](American)(American Comedy Awards) in 1999 and received a [Award](Gemini)(Gemini Awards) nomination for his televised performance at [Montreal](Montreal)'s [for Laughs](Just)(Just for Laughs) Comedy Festival in 2000. At the time of his death, he still held the record for the highest-selling one-person show in the history of Just for Laughs. In 2004, Pinette joined the touring cast of the [musical](Musical theatre) [Hairspray](Hairspray (musical))* in the role of Edna Turnblad. He later went on to the [Broadway](Broadway theatre) production in 2005, and continued in the role until May 28, 2006. In his 2006 concert ''I'm Starvin'', he said it was the first musical theater production he had been in since high school. In 2004, Pinette's stand-up material was featured in Comedy Central's animated series ''[Watchin' Shorties](Shorties)(Shorties Watchin' Shorties). In 2007, Pinette performed at the 42nd annual [Lewis MDA Telethon](Jerry)(The Jerry Lewis MDA Labor Day Telethon). He performed at the [Comedy Festival](Edinburgh)(Edinburgh Comedy Festival) in [Edinburgh](Edinburgh), Scotland, in 2008, and toured in cities in 2010 beginning in April. During this tour, Pinette recorded a [Central](Comedy)(Comedy Central) special titled John Pinette: Still Hungry. The taping took place at the [Theatre](Vic)(The Vic Theatre) in [Chicago](Chicago). The world premiere of Still Hungry'' was on July 29, 2011, on Comedy Central. Pinette was a host of the E4 Laughs at Edinburgh podcasts, showcasing comedians from the [Festival](Edinburgh)(List of Edinburgh festivals) in 2008. In 2012, Pinette was one of the comedy acts in [White](Ron)(Ron White)'s Comedy Salute to the Troops on [CMT](CMT (U.S. TV channel)). He was the host of All You Can Eat, a [series](TV)(TV series) taking a humorous look at [cuisine](American)(American cuisine). The show debuted on the [H2](H2 (TV network)) network in the United States in late June 2013. ## Death Pinette died on April 5, 2014, in [Pittsburgh](Pittsburgh), [Pennsylvania](Pennsylvania), at the age of 50. Pinette's personal doctor signed off on his cause of death as [embolism](pulmonary)(pulmonary embolism). Pinette's funeral services were held near his home in [Pennsylvania](Springfield,)(Springfield, Delaware County, Pennsylvania). ## Discography * [Me the Buffet](Show)(Show Me the Buffet) (CD, 1998) * I Say Nay Nay (DVD, 2005) * ''I'm Starvin'!* (DVD, 2006) * [Lite of Myself](Making)(Making Lite of Myself) (CD, 2007) * [Hungry](Still)(Still Hungry (John Pinette album)) (DVD/CD, 2011) ## Filmography * [ALF](ALF (TV series))'' - as Howie Anderson in Season 4 Episode 14, "Make 'em Laugh" (1990) [Grudge Match](The)(The Grudge Match) (1991) - as himself, the Referee * [& Bobby](Vinnie)(Vinnie & Bobby) (1992) - as William 'Bill' Melvin Belli * [of the Nerds III: The Next Generation](Revenge)(Revenge of the Nerds III: The Next Generation) (1992) - as Trevor Gulf * ''[Lewis Can't Lose](Parker)(Parker Lewis Can't Lose)* (1993) - as Coach Hank Kohler * [Kelly](Reckless)(Reckless Kelly) (1993) - as Sam Delance * [Junior](Junior (1994 film)) (1994) - as [Clerk](Clerk (position)) * [of the Nerds IV: Nerds in Love](Revenge)(Revenge of the Nerds IV: Nerds in Love) (1994) - as Trevor Gulf * [to Hart: Secrets of the Hart](Hart)(Hart to Hart) (1995) * [Tide](High)(High Tide (TV series)) (1995) - Bob-O DiBella * [God](Dear)(Dear God (film)) (1996) - as Junior * [Seinfeld](Seinfeld) (1998) - as Howie in "[Finale](The)(The Finale (Seinfeld))" * [Katz, Professional Therapist](Dr.)(Dr. Katz, Professional Therapist) (1998) - as John * [Sez](Simon)(Simon Sez) (1999) - as Micro * [Duets](Duets (film)) (2000) - as Finale Singer * [5 Wives](My)(My 5 Wives) (2000) - as Stewart * Do It for Uncle Manny (2002) - as Sammy Levine * [Hairspray](Hairspray (musical)) (2004-2006) - as Edna Turnblad * Piece a' Cake (2003) - as Sammy * [Punisher](The)(The Punisher (2004 film)) (2004) - as [Bumpo](Nathaniel Bumpo) * [Last Godfather](The)(The Last Godfather) (2010 film) - as Macho * All You Can Eat'' (2013 television series) - Host ## See also [of stand-up comedians](List)(List of stand-up comedians) ## References ## External links * [Official website](http://www.johnpinette.com/) * * [births](Category:1964)(Category:1964 births) [deaths](Category:2014)(Category:2014 deaths) [American comedians](Category:20th-century)(Category:20th-century American comedians) [American comedians](Category:21st-century)(Category:21st-century American comedians) [actors from Boston](Category:Male)(Category:Male actors from Boston) [male comedians](Category:American)(Category:American male comedians) [people of Canadian descent](Category:American)(Category:American people of Canadian descent) [stand-up comedians](Category:American)(Category:American stand-up comedians) [male television actors](Category:American)(Category:American male television actors) [from pulmonary embolism](Category:Deaths)(Category:Deaths from pulmonary embolism) [Catholic High School alumni](Category:Malden)(Category:Malden Catholic High School alumni) [of Massachusetts Lowell alumni](Category:University)(Category:University of Massachusetts Lowell alumni)
Oleksandr Zinchenko _footballer	oleksandr_zinchenko__footballer	# Oleksandr Zinchenko (footballer) Revision ID: 1160155877 \| Timestamp: 2023-06-14T18:40:18Z --- \| birth_date = \| birth_place = [Radomyshl](Radomyshl), Ukraine \| height = 1.75 m \| position = [Left-back](Left-back) \| currentclub = [Arsenal](Arsenal F.C.) \| clubnumber = 35 \| youthyears1 = 2004–2008 \| youthclubs1 = Youth Sportive School Karpatia \| youthyears2 = 2008–2009 \| youthclubs2 = Monolit Illichivsk \| youthyears3 = 2010–2014 \| youthclubs3 = [Donetsk](Shakhtar)(FC Shakhtar Donetsk) \| years1 = 2015–2016 \| clubs1 = [Ufa](FC Ufa) \| caps1 = 31 \| goals1 = 2 \| years2 = 2016–2022 \| clubs2 = [City](Manchester)(Manchester City F.C.) \| caps2 = 76 \| goals2 = 0 \| years3 = 2016–2017 \| clubs3 = → [PSV](PSV Eindhoven) (loan) \| caps3 = 12 \| goals3 = 0 \| years4 = 2017 \| clubs4 = → [PSV](Jong)(Jong PSV) (loan) \| caps4 = 7 \| goals4 = 0 \| years5 = 2022– \| clubs5 = [Arsenal](Arsenal F.C.) \| caps5 = 27 \| goals5 = 1 \| nationalyears1 = 2011–2012 \| nationalteam1 = [U16](Ukraine)(Ukraine national under-16 football team) \| nationalcaps1 = 2 \| nationalgoals1 = 0 \| nationalyears2 = 2012–2013 \| nationalteam2 = [U17](Ukraine)(Ukraine national under-17 football team) \| nationalcaps2 = 6 \| nationalgoals2 = 1 \| nationalyears3 = 2013 \| nationalteam3 = [U18](Ukraine)(Ukraine national under-18 football team) \| nationalcaps3 = 6 \| nationalgoals3 = 1 \| nationalyears4 = 2014–2015 \| nationalteam4 = [U19](Ukraine)(Ukraine national under-19 football team) \| nationalcaps4 = 6 \| nationalgoals4 = 1 \| nationalyears5 = 2015–2017 \| nationalteam5 = [U21](Ukraine)(Ukraine national under-21 football team) \| nationalcaps5 = 8 \| nationalgoals5 = 1 \| nationalyears6 = 2015– \| nationalteam6 = [Ukraine](Ukraine national football team) \| nationalcaps6 = 53 \| nationalgoals6 = 8 \| club-update = 22:36, 7 May 2023 (UTC) \| nationalteam-update = 23:40, 26 March 2023 (UTC) }} Oleksandr Volodymyrovych Zinchenko (; born 15 December 1996) is a Ukrainian professional [footballer](association football) who plays as a [left-back](left-back) for club [Arsenal](Arsenal F.C.) and the [national team](Ukraine)(Ukraine national football team). Zinchenko began his career at [Premier League](Russian)(Russian Premier League) team [Ufa](FC Ufa) before joining [City](Manchester)(Manchester City F.C.) in 2016 for a fee around £1.7 million. A versatile player, he started his career as an attacking midfielder, but eventually converted into a left back or wing back under [Guardiola](Pep)(Pep Guardiola). He has since won four Premier League titles, four [Cups](League)(EFL Cup) and an [Cup](FA)(FA Cup) with the club. A full Ukrainian international since 2015, Zinchenko represented his country at [Euro 2020](UEFA)(UEFA Euro 2020). ## Club career ### Early career Zinchenko was born in [Radomyshl](Radomyshl), Zhytomyr Oblast. He is a product of Youth Sporitve School Karpatiya of his native Radomyshl (with first coach Serhiy Boretskyi), FC Monolit Illichivsk and [Donetsk](Shakhtar)(FC Shakhtar Donetsk), where he became the captain of the [team](youth)(FC Shakhtar Donetsk junior squads and academy). On 9 December 2013, he scored a goal in a 1–1 draw with [United](Manchester)(Manchester United F.C. Reserves and Academy) in the [UEFA Youth League](2013–14)(2013–14 UEFA Youth League). He moved with his parents to Russia due to the [in Donbas](war)(War in Donbas (2014–2022)). Shakhtar Donetsk wanted him back despite offering no playing time, but he did not return for security reasons. He spent between five and six months in the amateur leagues in [Moscow](Moscow). He then trained with [Kazan](Rubin)(FC Rubin Kazan) but the club did not sign him to a contract since Zinchenko was still under contract to Shakhtar, and Rubin would risk incurring a transfer ban if they attempted to sign him. On 12 February 2015, he signed a contract with [Ufa](FC Ufa).}} He made his [Premier League](Russian)(Russian Premier League) debut for Ufa on 20 March 2015 in a match against [Krasnodar](FC)(FC Krasnodar). On 25 July 2015, he scored his first goal in a 1–2 defeat against [Rostov](FC)(FC Rostov). ### Manchester City #### 2016–2019 [[File:Zinchenko 2018.jpg\|thumb\|upright\|Zinchenko playing for [City](Manchester)(Manchester City F.C.) in 2018]] On 4 July 2016, Zinchenko signed for [League](Premier)(Premier League) club [City](Manchester)(Manchester City F.C.) for an undisclosed fee believed to be around £1.7 million. The move surprised some. However, he was described by a Russian football scout as a "real talent", with Bundesliga club [Dortmund](Borussia)(Borussia Dortmund) also monitoring him. Zinchenko was loaned to [Eredivisie](Eredivisie) club [PSV](PSV Eindhoven) on 26 August, for the [season](2016–17)(2016–17 PSV Eindhoven season). He made his debut on 1 October, as a substitute in a 1–1 draw against [Heerenveen](SC)(SC Heerenveen). Zinchenko returned to Manchester City for the [season](2017–18)(2017–18 Manchester City F.C. season), and made his debut on 24 October 2017, playing the full match including extra time in a 0–0 draw with [Wanderers](Wolverhampton)(Wolverhampton Wanderers F.C.) in the [Cup](EFL)(2017–18 EFL Cup). He made his first Premier League appearance on 13 December 2017, coming off the bench in a 4–0 away win at [City](Swansea)(Swansea City A.F.C.). On 18 December 2017, Zinchenko scored the winning penalty kick against [City](Leicester)(Leicester City F.C.) after a 1–1 stalemate in regulation time, sending Manchester City through to the semi-finals of the [Cup](EFL)(EFL Cup). Zinchenko gained an extended run in the side following injuries to left backs [Mendy](Benjamin)(Benjamin Mendy) and [Delph](Fabian)(Fabian Delph), putting in a number of consistent performances in the position. Zinchenko made his first appearance of the [season](2018–19)(2018-19 Manchester City F.C. season) in a 3–0 away win at [United](Oxford)(Oxford United F.C.) in the [Cup](EFL)(EFL Cup). In the same week, he made his first league start of the season in a 2–0 home win against [& Hove Albion](Brighton)(Brighton & Hove Albion F.C.), due to injuries to Mendy and Delph. #### 2019–2022 Zinchenko scored his first goal for Manchester City in the EFL Cup semi-final against [Albion](Burton)(Burton Albion F.C.) on 9 January 2019, a 9–0 home win. In June 2019, he signed a new contract with the club, to keep him with them until 2024. On 25 October 2019, Zinchenko had a knee surgery in Barcelona. Manchester City coach [Guardiola](Pep)(Pep Guardiola) told that the recovery from the injury would take from 5 to 6 weeks: "He had a contact with a knee. He felt something in the bone and had to stop. He had something to clean up the knee. It was not a big issue. Five or six weeks." At the beginning of December 2019, Zinchenko returned to full training. On 11 December 2019, he played his first game after the injury against [Zagreb](Dinamo)(GNK Dinamo Zagreb). On 4 January 2020, he scored his second goal for Manchester City in a 4–1 win over [Vale](Port)(Port Vale F.C.) in the [Cup](FA)(2019–20 FA Cup). On 4 May 2021, Zinchenko was a part of the starting XI that saw Manchester City qualify for their first [Champions League final](UEFA)(2021 UEFA Champions League final), after beating [Saint-Germain](Paris)(Paris Saint-Germain F.C.) 2–0 on the night and 4–1 on aggregate. On 29 May, he later started that Champions League Final, which his team lost 1–0 against [Chelsea](Chelsea F.C.). ### Arsenal On 22 July 2022, Zinchenko signed for Premier League club [Arsenal](Arsenal F.C.) on a long-term contract for a reported fee of £30 million, potentially rising to £32 million in add-ons. On 5 August, he made his club debut and registered his first assist with the club, in a 2–0 away win against [Palace](Crystal)(Crystal Palace F.C.) in the Premier League. On 18 February 2023, Zinchenko scored his first Arsenal and Premier League goal, which was Arsenal's second in an eventual 4–2 win away at [Villa](Aston)(Aston Villa F.C.). This result helped Zinchenko's Gunners build their lead at the top of the Premier League. ## International career He made his international debut in a [Euro 2016 qualifying](UEFA)(UEFA Euro 2016 qualifying) match against [Spain](Spain national football team) on 12 October 2015. Zinchenko scored his first international goal in a friendly against neighbours [Romania](Romania national football team) in [Turin](Turin), which Ukraine won 4–3 on 29 May 2016. He also became Ukraine's youngest player to score an international goal at the age of 19 years and 165 days, beating a record held since 1996 by [Shevchenko](Andriy)(Andriy Shevchenko). Zinchenko was included in Ukraine's squad for [2016](Euro)(UEFA Euro 2016), appearing as a substitute for [Kovalenko](Viktor)(Viktor Kovalenko (footballer)) in both of Ukraine's first two matches, against [Germany](Germany national football team) and [Ireland](Northern)(Northern Ireland national football team) as Ukraine failed to score and were the first team eliminated. On 24 March 2021, in a match against [France](France national football team), he became Ukraine's youngest player captain in their history at the age 24 years and 98 days. Later on, he was included in the squad for [2020](Euro)(UEFA Euro 2020). On 29 June 2021, he scored the first goal and assisted the second goal in the Euro 2020 round of 16 match against [Sweden](Sweden national football team), which ended in a 2–1 win for Ukraine after extra time, for which he was awarded the Star of the Match. ## Personal life In August 2020, Zinchenko married journalist Vlada Sedan. They have one daughter born in August 2021. Zinchenko identifies as an [Orthodox](Eastern)(Eastern Orthodox) Christian. Zinchenko is a native Russian-speaker. He replies in Russian when asked in Ukrainian by Ukrainian journalists. He is a vocal opponent of the [Russian invasion of Ukraine](2022)(2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine). On 24 February 2022, he wrote on his Instagram that he wished for [Putin](Vladimir)(Vladimir Putin), the President of [Russia](Russia), to die the most painful of deaths. The post was later deleted. ## Career statistics ### Club ### International :''Scores and results list Ukraine's goal tally first, score column indicates score after each Zinchenko goal.'' ## Honours Manchester City [League](Premier)(Premier League): [2017–18](2017–18 Premier League), [2018–19](2018–19 Premier League), [2020–21](2020–21 Premier League), [2021–22](2021–22 Premier League) [Cup](FA)(FA Cup): [2018–19](2018–19 FA Cup) [Cup](EFL)(EFL Cup): [2017–18](2017–18 EFL Cup), [2018–19](2018–19 EFL Cup), [2019–20](2019–20 EFL Cup), [2020–21](2020–21 EFL Cup) [Community Shield](FA)(FA Community Shield): [2019](2019 FA Community Shield) [Champions League](UEFA)(UEFA Champions League) runner-up: [2020–21](2020–21 UEFA Champions League) Individual* [Footballer of the Year](Ukrainian)(Ukrainian Footballer of the Year): 2019 [Analyst](Opta)(OptaJoe) Premier League Team of the Season: 2022-23 ## Notes ## References ## External links [Official website](https://alexzinchenko.com/landing) [Oleksandr Zinchenko](https://www.arsenal.com/men/players/oleksandr-zinchenko) at the Arsenal F.C. website [Oleksandr Zinchenko](https://www.premierleague.com/players/19620/) at the Premier League website * * }} [births](Category:1996)(Category:1996 births) [people](Category:Living)(Category:Living people) [from Zhytomyr Oblast](Category:Sportspeople)(Category:Sportspeople from Zhytomyr Oblast) [footballers](Category:Ukrainian)(Category:Ukrainian footballers) [association football defenders](Category:Men's)(Category:Men's association football defenders) [association football midfielders](Category:Men's)(Category:Men's association football midfielders) [Shakhtar Donetsk players](Category:FC)(Category:FC Shakhtar Donetsk players) [Ufa players](Category:FC)(Category:FC Ufa players) [City F.C. players](Category:Manchester)(Category:Manchester City F.C. players) [PSV players](Category:Jong)(Category:Jong PSV players) [Eindhoven players](Category:PSV)(Category:PSV Eindhoven players) [F.C. players](Category:Arsenal)(Category:Arsenal F.C. players) [Premier League players](Category:Russian)(Category:Russian Premier League players) [League players](Category:Premier)(Category:Premier League players) [players](Category:Eredivisie)(Category:Eredivisie players) [Divisie players](Category:Eerste)(Category:Eerste Divisie players) [Cup final players](Category:FA)(Category:FA Cup final players) [men's youth international footballers](Category:Ukraine)(Category:Ukraine men's youth international footballers) [men's under-21 international footballers](Category:Ukraine)(Category:Ukraine men's under-21 international footballers) [men's international footballers](Category:Ukraine)(Category:Ukraine men's international footballers) [Euro 2016 players](Category:UEFA)(Category:UEFA Euro 2016 players) [Euro 2020 players](Category:UEFA)(Category:UEFA Euro 2020 players) [expatriate footballers](Category:Ukrainian)(Category:Ukrainian expatriate footballers) [footballers in Russia](Category:Expatriate)(Category:Expatriate footballers in Russia) [footballers in the Netherlands](Category:Expatriate)(Category:Expatriate footballers in the Netherlands) [footballers in England](Category:Expatriate)(Category:Expatriate footballers in England) [expatriate sportspeople in Russia](Category:Ukrainian)(Category:Ukrainian expatriate sportspeople in Russia) [expatriate sportspeople in the Netherlands](Category:Ukrainian)(Category:Ukrainian expatriate sportspeople in the Netherlands) [expatriate sportspeople in England](Category:Ukrainian)(Category:Ukrainian expatriate sportspeople in England) [sportspeople in Russia during the Russo-Ukrainian War](Category:Ukrainian)(Category:Ukrainian sportspeople in Russia during the Russo-Ukrainian War)
Fifty Shades of Grey _film	fifty_shades_of_grey__film	# Fifty Shades of Grey (film) Revision ID: 1159249399 \| Timestamp: 2023-06-09T06:02:29Z --- \| producer = \| starring = \| narrator = \| cinematography = [McGarvey](Seamus)(Seamus McGarvey) \| editing = \| music = [Elfman](Danny)(Danny Elfman) \| production_companies = * [De Luca Productions](Michael)(Michael De Luca Productions) * [Street Productions](Trigger)(Trigger Street Productions) }} \| distributor = [Pictures](Universal)(Universal Pictures) \| released = \| runtime = 125 minutes \| country = United States \| language = English \| budget = $40 million \| gross = $569.7 million }} *Fifty Shades of Grey* is a 2015 American [erotic](sex in film) [drama film](romantic)(romantic drama film) directed by [Taylor-Johnson](Sam)(Sam Taylor-Johnson) with screenplay by [Marcel](Kelly)(Kelly Marcel). The film is based on [L. James](E.)(E. L. James)' [novel of the same name](2011)(Fifty Shades of Grey) and stars [Johnson](Dakota)(Dakota Johnson), [Dornan](Jamie)(Jamie Dornan), [Ehle](Jennifer)(Jennifer Ehle) and [Gay Harden](Marcia)(Marcia Gay Harden). It is the first installment in the [Shades* film series](Fifty)(Fifty Shades (film series)). The story follows Anastasia Steele (Johnson), a college graduate who begins a [sadomasochistic](sadomasochism) relationship with young business magnate Christian Grey (Dornan). Development of the film commenced in March 2012, where [Pictures](Universal)(Universal Pictures) secured the rights to the trilogy following a bidding war. Taylor-Johnson was confirmed as the director in June 2013. She cited [Weeks](9½)(9½ Weeks), [Tango in Paris](Last)(Last Tango in Paris), and [Is the Warmest Colour](Blue)(Blue Is the Warmest Colour)* as her inspirations for the film. The main cast joined the project between October and December 2013. [photography](Principal)(Principal photography) commenced in December 2013 and concluded on February 2014. Reshoots involving scenes between Dornan and Johnson took place in Vancouver during the week of October 2014. Fifty Shades of Grey premiered at the [Berlin International Film Festival](69th)(69th Berlin International Film Festival) on February 11, 2015, and was released on February 13, 2015, in [IMAX](IMAX) formats by Universal Pictures and [Features](Focus)(Focus Features). Despite receiving generally negative reviews, it was an immediate [office](box)(box office) success, breaking numerous box office records and earning over US$570 million worldwide. The [album](soundtrack)(Fifty Shades of Grey (soundtrack)) was also successful; "[Me Like You Do](Love)(Love Me Like You Do)", by English singer [Goulding](Ellie)(Ellie Goulding), was nominated for the [Globe Award for Best Original Song](Golden)(Golden Globe Award for Best Original Song), while "[It](Earned)(Earned It)", by Canadian singer [Weeknd](the)(the Weeknd), was nominated for the [Award for Best Original Song](Academy)(Academy Award for Best Original Song) at the [Academy Awards](88th)(88th Academy Awards). The film was the most awarded at the [Golden Raspberry Awards](36th)(36th Golden Raspberry Awards), winning five of six nominations, including [Picture](Worst)(Golden Raspberry Award for Worst Picture) (tied with [Four](Fantastic)(Fantastic Four (2015 film))) and both leading roles. Firty Shades of Grey was succeeded by two sequels: [Shades Darker](Fifty)(Fifty Shades Darker (film)), and [Shades Freed](Fifty)(Fifty Shades Freed (film)), released in 2017 and 2018, respectively, both of which received similar reception and commercial success. ## Plot 21-year-old Anastasia "Ana" Steele is an English literature major at [State University](Washington)(Washington State University)'s satellite campus near [Vancouver](Vancouver, Washington), [Washington](Washington (state)). When her roommate, Kate Kavanagh, becomes ill and is unable to interview Christian Grey, a 27-year-old billionaire entrepreneur, for the college newspaper, Ana agrees to take her place. At Christian's Seattle headquarters she stumbles her way through the meeting. Christian, who is that year's WSU [commencement](Graduation) speaker, takes an interest in her; soon after, he visits the [hardware](Hardware store) store where Ana works, and offers to do a photo shoot to accompany the article she had interviewed him for. Christian invites Ana for coffee, but leaves abruptly after she confesses to being a romantic, saying he is not the man for her. He later sends her first edition copies of two [Hardy](Thomas)(Thomas Hardy) novels, including ''[of the d'Urbervilles](Tess)(Tess of the d'Urbervilles)'', as a gift, with a quote from the latter book about the dangers of relationships, on an accompanying card. Ana and her friends celebrate graduation at a local bar. After drinking too much, she spontaneously calls Christian, saying she is returning the books, and berating his behavior towards her. He goes to the bar to find her, arriving just as her photographer friend, José Rodriquez, attempts to kiss her against her will. Ana is suddenly sick. The next morning, she wakes up in Christian's hotel room, relieved that they were not intimate. Ana and Christian begin seeing each other, though he insists that she sign a [agreement](non-disclosure)(non-disclosure agreement) preventing her from revealing details about their dalliance. He explains that he engages in sexual [bondage](Bondage (BDSM)) relationships, but only as clearly defined in a contract between the participants. Ana reveals that she is a [virgin](virgin). While considering the agreement and negotiating her own terms, and after visiting his "playroom", a room stocked with a variety of [BDSM](BDSM) toys, furniture and gear, she and Christian have conventional sex (Ana loses her [virginity](virginity)). The next morning, before being taken home, she meets Christian's adoptive mother, Grace, who unexpectedly arrives. Christian bestows a series of gifts and favors upon Ana, including a new car and a laptop. After she and Kate move to Seattle, she continues seeing him. During dinner at his parents' home, Ana suddenly mentions she is leaving the next day to visit her mother in [Georgia](Georgia (U.S. state)). Later, Christian becomes frustrated when she says she wants more than the one-sided relationship he proposes. She is shocked when Christian shows up in Georgia; he takes her air gliding, then returns to Seattle to tend to a business emergency. After returning home, Ana continues seeing Christian, who wants further sexual experimentation. She initially consents, but he remains emotionally distant, upsetting her. While still considering the contract, and in an effort to understand Christian's psychology, Ana asks him to demonstrate how he would "punish" her for rule-breaking. He whips her buttocks with a belt, making her count each strike out loud. Upset and disgusted, Ana leaves Christian, concluding he is wrong for her and his practices are deviant and excessive. ## Cast * [Johnson](Dakota)(Dakota Johnson) as Anastasia "Ana" Steele, a 21-year-old English Literature student attending [State University](Washington)(Washington State University). * [Dornan](Jamie)(Jamie Dornan) as Christian Grey, a 27-year-old billionaire, entrepreneur, and CEO of Grey Enterprises Holdings Inc. * [Mumford](Eloise)(Eloise Mumford) as Katherine "Kate" Kavanagh, Anastasia's best friend/roommate who begins a relationship with Christian's older brother, Elliot Grey. * [Ehle](Jennifer)(Jennifer Ehle) as Carla Wilks, Anastasia's mother. * [Gay Harden](Marcia)(Marcia Gay Harden) as Dr. Grace Trevelyan-Grey, Christian Grey's adoptive mother. * [Rasuk](Victor)(Victor Rasuk) as Jose Rodriguez, one of Anastasia's close friends. * [Grimes](Luke)(Luke Grimes) as Elliot Grey, Christian's adopted older brother. * [Ora](Rita)(Rita Ora) as Mia Grey, Christian's adopted younger sister. * [Martini](Max)(Max Martini) as Jason Taylor, Christian's bodyguard and head of his security. * [Keith Rennie](Callum)(Callum Keith Rennie) as Ray Steele, Anastasia's father. * [Airlie](Andrew)(Andrew Airlie) as Carrick Grey, Christian's adoptive father. * [Neal](Dylan)(Dylan Neal) as Bob Adams, Anastasia's stepfather. * Anthony Konechny as Paul Clayton, the brother of the owner of Clayton's Hardware Store. * Emily Fonda as Martina * [Skarsten](Rachel)(Rachel Skarsten) as Andrea, Christian's assistant ## Production ### Development By early 2012, several Hollywood studios were keen to obtain film rights to [New York Times* bestselling](The)(The New York Times Best Seller list) Fifty Shades* trilogy of novels. [Bros.](Warner)(Warner Bros.), [Sony](Sony Pictures Entertainment), [Paramount](Paramount Pictures), [Universal](Universal Studios), and [Wahlberg](Mark)(Mark Wahlberg)'s production company submitted bids for the film rights. Universal Pictures and [Features](Focus)(Focus Features) secured the rights to the trilogy in March 2012. Author James sought to retain some control during the movie's creative process.\|work=[Hollywood Reporter](The)(The Hollywood Reporter)}} James chose [Social Network](The)(The Social Network) producers [De Luca](Michael)(Michael De Luca) and [Brunetti](Dana)(Dana Brunetti) to produce the film. Although [Psycho](American)(American Psycho) writer [Easton Ellis](Bret)(Bret Easton Ellis) publicly expressed his desire to write the screenplay for Fifty Shades of Grey, [Marcel](Kelly)(Kelly Marcel), screenwriter of [Mr. Banks](Saving)(Saving Mr. Banks), was hired for the job. [Marber](Patrick)(Patrick Marber) was brought in by Taylor-Wood to polish the screenplay, specifically to do some "character work". Universal hired [Bomback](Mark)(Mark Bomback) for [doctor](script)(script doctor)ing. [Bridges](Mark)(Mark Bridges (costume designer)) served as the costume designer. [Weekly](Entertainment)(Entertainment Weekly) estimated the film's budget as "$40 million-or-so". ### Direction [[File:Sam Taylor-Wood & Aaron Johnson (cropped).jpg\|thumb\|upright\|Director [Taylor-Johnson](Sam)(Sam Taylor-Johnson) expressed that she found the novel's author [L. James](E.)(E. L. James) difficult to work with.]] By May 9, 2013, the studio was considering [Wright](Joe)(Joe Wright) to direct, but this proved unworkable due to Wright's schedule. Other directors who had been under consideration included [Jenkins](Patty)(Patty Jenkins), [Condon](Bill)(Bill Condon), [Miller](Bennett)(Bennett Miller), and [Soderbergh](Steven)(Steven Soderbergh). In June 2013, E. L. James announced [Taylor-Johnson](Sam)(Sam Taylor-Johnson) would direct the film adaptation. Johnson was paid over US$2 million for directing the film. [Weeks](9½)(9½ Weeks), [Tango in Paris](Last)(Last Tango in Paris), and [Is the Warmest Colour](Blue)(Blue Is the Warmest Colour) were all cited by Taylor-Johnson as inspirations for the film. In an interview in June 2017, Taylor-Johnson cited difficulties working with author E. L. James, causing her to leave the series. She said: "I can never say I regret it because that would just finish me off. With the benefit of hindsight would I go through it again? Of course I wouldn't. I'd be mad." ### Casting [Easton Ellis](Bret)(Bret Easton Ellis) stated that [Pattinson](Robert)(Robert Pattinson) had been James' first choice for the role of Christian Grey, but James felt that casting Pattinson and his [Twilight](The Twilight Saga (film series)) co-star [Stewart](Kristen)(Kristen Stewart) in the film would be "weird". [Somerhalder](Ian)(Ian Somerhalder) and [Crawford](Chace)(Chace Crawford) both expressed interest in the role of Christian. Somerhalder later admitted if he had been considered, the filming process would ultimately have conflicted with his shooting schedule for [CW](The)(The CW)'s series [Vampire Diaries](The)(The Vampire Diaries). On September 2, 2013, James revealed that [Hunnam](Charlie)(Charlie Hunnam) and [Johnson](Dakota)(Dakota Johnson) had been cast as Christian Grey and Anastasia Steele, respectively. The short list of other actresses considered for the role of Anastasia included [Vikander](Alicia)(Alicia Vikander), [Poots](Imogen)(Imogen Poots), [Olsen](Elizabeth)(Elizabeth Olsen), [Woodley](Shailene)(Shailene Woodley), and [Jones](Felicity)(Felicity Jones). [Hazell](Keeley)(Keeley Hazell) auditioned for an unspecified role. [Hale](Lucy)(Lucy Hale) also auditioned for the film. [Clarke](Emilia)(Emilia Clarke) was also offered the role of Anastasia but turned down the part because of the nudity required. Taylor-Johnson would give every actress who auditioned for the role of Anastasia four pages to read of a monologue from [Bergman](Ingmar)(Ingmar Bergman)'s [Persona](Persona (1966 film)). The studio originally wanted [Gosling](Ryan)(Ryan Gosling) for Christian, but he was not interested in the role. [Hedlund](Garrett)(Garrett Hedlund) was also considered, but he could not connect with the character. [Amell](Stephen)(Stephen Amell) said he would not have wanted to play the role of Grey because "I actually didn't find him to be that interesting ... nothing about Christian Grey really spoke to me." Hunnam initially turned down the role of Christian but later reconsidered it, following a meeting with studio heads. Hunnam said of the audition process: "I felt really intrigued and excited about it so I went and read the first book to get a clearer idea of who this character was, and I felt even more excited at the prospect of bringing him to life. We [and I](Taylor-Johnson) kind of both suggested I do a reading with Dakota, who was her favorite, and as soon as we got in the room and I started reading with Dakota I knew that I definitely wanted to do it. There's just like a tangible chemistry between us. It felt exciting and fun and weird and compelling." In response to the negative reaction that the casting drew from fans, producer Dana Brunetti said: "There is a lot that goes into casting that isn't just looks. Talent, availability, their desire to do it, chemistry with other actor, etc. So if your favorite wasn't cast, then it is most likely due to something on that list. Keep that in mind while hating and keep perspective." During October 2013, actress [Ehle](Jennifer)(Jennifer Ehle) was in talks for the role of Anastasia's mother Carla. On October 12, 2013, Universal Pictures announced that Hunnam had exited the film due to conflicts with the schedule of his [FX](FX (TV channel)) series [of Anarchy](Sons)(Sons of Anarchy). [Skarsgård](Alexander)(Alexander Skarsgård), [Dornan](Jamie)(Jamie Dornan), [Cooke](Christian)(Christian Cooke), [James](Theo)(Theo James), [Arnaud](François)(François Arnaud (actor)), [Eastwood](Scott)(Scott Eastwood), [Bracey](Luke)(Luke Bracey), and [Magnussen](Billy)(Billy Magnussen) were at the top of the list to replace Hunnam as Christian Grey. Finally, on October 23, 2013, Dornan was cast as Christian Grey. On October 31, 2013, [Rasuk](Victor)(Victor Rasuk) was cast as José Rodriguez, Jr. On November 22, 2013, [Mumford](Eloise)(Eloise Mumford) was cast as Kate Kavanagh. On December 2, 2013, singer [Ora](Rita)(Rita Ora) was cast as Christian's younger sister Mia. Ora originally wanted to work on the soundtrack. On December 3, 2013, [Gay Harden](Marcia)(Marcia Gay Harden) was cast as Christian's mother, Grace. ### Filming In September, filming was scheduled to start on November 5, 2013, in [Vancouver](Vancouver), [Columbia](British)(British Columbia). The following month, producer [De Luca](Michael)(Michael De Luca) announced filming would begin on November 13, 2013. [photography](Principal)(Principal photography) was again delayed and eventually started on December 1, 2013. Scenes were filmed in the [Gastown](Gastown) district of Vancouver. [5](Bentall)(Bentall 5) was used as the Grey Enterprises building. The [of British Columbia](University)(University of British Columbia) serves as [State University Vancouver](Washington)(Washington State University Vancouver), from which Ana graduates. The [Hotel Vancouver](Fairmont)(Hotel Vancouver) was used as the [Hotel](Heathman)(Heathman Hotel). The film was also shot at the [Shore Studios](North)(North Shore Studios). The production officially ended on February 21, 2014. Reshoots involving scenes between Dornan and Johnson took place in Vancouver during the week of October 13, 2014. The film was shot under the working title "The Adventures of Max and Banks." Uncredited screenwriter Mark Bomback said he "had never been on a project with that much secrecy around it...The set was on lockdown". The film was the last project worked on by prolific [Award](Academy)(Academy Award)-winning editor [V. Coates](Anne)(Anne V. Coates) before her death in 2018. In an [ending](alternative)(alternative ending), both Ana and Christian experience flashbacks. Christian jogs in the rain, while Ana sobs in her apartment. Christian encounters a gift Ana gave him with the note: "This reminded me of a happy time. —Ana". ## Music The [soundtrack](film's)(Fifty Shades of Grey (soundtrack)) was released on February 10, 2015. "[It](Earned)(Earned It)", by Canadian singer [Weeknd](the)(the Weeknd), was released as the [single](lead)(lead single) on December 24, 2014. The second single, "[Me like You Do](Love)(Love Me like You Do)", by English singer [Goulding](Ellie)(Ellie Goulding), was released on January 7, 2015. Both singles reached the top three of the [Hot 100](Billboard)(Billboard Hot 100). The promotional single, "Salted Wound", by Australian singer [Sia](Sia), was released on January 27, 2015. As of May 2018, the soundtrack has sold 516,000 copies in the United States. ## Release ### Theatrical [[- Jamie Dornan at Berlinale by sebaso.jpg\|thumb\|upright\|Jamie Dornan at the world premiere of Fifty Shades of Grey, Berlinale 2015](File:20150211)] In February 2013, Universal chairman Adam Fogelson said the film "could be ready to release ... as early as next summer." The studio initially announced an August 1, 2014, release. However, in November 2013, it was pushed back to February 13, 2015, in time for [Day](Valentine's)(Valentine's Day). Fifty Shades of Grey was first screened at the [Berlin International Film Festival](65th)(65th Berlin International Film Festival) on February 11, 2015. The film was released in 75 [IMAX](IMAX) screens across the US on February 13, 2015. ### Marketing On January 25, 2014, more than a year prior to release, Universal displayed posters with the phrase, "Mr. Grey will see you now", in five locations across the United States. On July 9, 2014, the book's author, E. L. James, said on Twitter that the film's [trailer](Trailer (promotion)) would be released on July 24, 2014. [Beyoncé](Beyoncé) debuted a teaser for the trailer on her [Instagram](Instagram) account five days before the trailer's release. On July 24, Dornan and Johnson were on [Today Show](The)(Today (U.S. TV program)) to present part of the trailer appropriate for morning television; the full trailer, which contained more racy scenes, was released later the same day on the internet (200 days before its initial theatrical release). The trailer featured a new version of "[in Love](Crazy)(Crazy in Love)" by Beyoncé, which was scored and arranged by her frequent collaborator [Boots](Boots (musician)). The trailer was viewed 36.4 million times in the week after its July 24 release. This made it the most viewed trailer on [YouTube](YouTube) in 2014, until it was surpassed in October by the trailer for [Age of Ultron](Avengers:)(Avengers: Age of Ultron). However, in mid-December the trailer reached 93 million views and was again the most viewed of 2014. The trailer accumulated over 100 million views in its first week of release through different channels and websites, becoming the biggest trailer ever released in history. By February 2015, the trailer had been viewed more than 193 million times on YouTube alone. And, by late February, Fifty Shades of Grey–related material garnered over 329 million views, including 113 million views for its official trailer. A second trailer was released on November 13, 2014. A third trailer aired during [Bowl XLIX](Super)(Super Bowl XLIX), on February 1, 2015. The film was promoted through an ad campaign that asked people whether they were "curious". Nick Carpou, Universal's president of domestic distribution, said: "Our campaign gave people permission to see the film." "Valentines is a big deal for couples and a great relationship event, and the date with the long Presidents Day weekend created a perfect storm for us. This date positioned us to take full advantage of the romance angle, which is how we sold the film in our marketing campaign," he said. ### Rating and censorship There was initial speculation that the film could receive an [NC-17](Motion Picture Association film rating system#X replaced by NC-17) rating in the United States. Studios typically steer away from the adults-only rating due to the impact the classification has on a film's commercial viability, with some theater chains refusing to exhibit NC-17-rated films. While screenwriter Marcel said she expected the film to be NC-17-rated, producer De Luca anticipated the less restrictive R rating. On January 5, 2015, the [MPAA](Motion Picture Association) did give the film an R rating, basing its decision on "strong sexual content including dialogue, some unusual behavior and graphic nudity, and language." On January 30, in [Australia](Australia), the film was rated MA15+ by the [ACB](Australian Classification Board) for "strong sex scenes, sexual themes and nudity". On February 2, 2015, the British [BBFC](British Board of Film Classification) classified the film an [certificate](18)(18 (British Board of Film Classification)), mentioning "strong sex". In [Canada](Canada), [Ontario](Ontario), [Manitoba](Manitoba), [Alberta](Alberta), and British Columbia, the film was rated at 18A by the [OFRB](Ontario Film Review Board), [MFCB](Manitoba Film Classification Board), AFR, and [BCFCO](British Columbia Film Classification Office), respectively, due to its "occasional upsetting or disturbing scenes, and partial or full nudity in a brief sexual situation." In [Quebec](Quebec), the [du cinéma](Régie)(Régie du cinéma (Quebec)) rated the movie under the 16+ category for its eroticism. In [France](France), the film earned a 12 rating. In [Lebanon](Lebanon), the film earned an NC-21 rating. In [Argentina](Argentina), the [Commission of Cinematographic Exhibition](Advisory)(National Institute of Cinema and Audiovisual Arts#Ratings) (the rating arm of the [INCAA](National Institute of Cinema and Audiovisual Arts)) rated the film SAM16/R. In [Mexico](Mexico), the film earned a C rating, which is equivalent to that no person under the age of 18 could enter to see the feature film for any reason. Anti-pornography watchdog group [in Media](Morality)(Morality in Media) argued that the film's R rating "severely undermines the violent themes in the film and does not adequately inform parents and patrons of the film's content", and that the [MPAA](Motion Picture Association of America) was encouraging sexual violence by letting the film by without an NC-17 rating. The film was scheduled for a February 12, 2015, release in [Malaysia](Malaysia), but it was denied a certificate by the [Film Censorship Board](Malaysian)(Film Censorship Board of Malaysia) (LPF) for its "unnatural" and "sadistic" content. The LPF chairman, Abdul Halim Abdul Hamid, said Fifty Shades was "more pornography than a movie." The film was also banned in [Indonesia](Indonesia), [Kenya](Kenya), Russia's [Caucasus](North)(North Caucasus), the [Arab Emirates](United)(United Arab Emirates) (UAE), [New Guinea](Papua)(Papua New Guinea), [Cambodia](Cambodia), and [India](India). The film was released in [Nigeria](Nigeria) for a week, before being removed from cinemas by the National Film and Video Censors Board (NFVCB). Studios will not pursue a theatrical release in [China](China). The sex scenes were censored after protests from various religious groups in the [Philippines](Philippines), and as a result it is in limited release in that country with an R-18 rating from the [MTRCB](Movie and Television Review and Classification Board). A similarly cut version was released in [Zimbabwe](Zimbabwe). Roughly 20 minutes were cut from the film for screening in [Vietnam](Vietnam), leaving no sex scenes. The scene in which Ana is beaten with a belt is skipped entirely. ### Opposition campaign On February 2, in [Michigan](Michigan), a man petitioned to halt the film's release at a local [Cinema](Celebration!)(Loeks Theatres, Inc.). Despite the man's efforts, the president of the cinemas declined to cancel the release of the film. He said, "We've been in business for 70 years and people often times object to content, and it's not our job to censor the content of a widespread movie. It's not in our best interest. It's not in the community's best interest." The film sold 3,000 tickets before the release and was expected to sell a total of 10,000 tickets. Thomas Williams of the [Dame Center for Ethics and Culture](Notre)(University of Notre Dame) commented on the release of the film in the United States on [Day](Valentine's)(Valentine's Day), stating "The irony of Universal Pictures' decision to release its bondage-erotica film Fifty Shades of Grey on the day dedicated to honoring a Christian martyr has not gone unnoticed to many observers, who seem to find the choice unclassy at best." ### Home media Fifty Shades of Grey was released via [DVD](DVD) and [Blu-ray](Blu-ray) on May 8, 2015. The Blu-ray edition features an unrated cut of the film; the version includes an additional three minutes of footage, the bulk of which are in the form of an alternative ending. Upon its release on home media in the U.S., the film topped both the Nielsen VideoScan First Alert chart, which tracks combined Blu-ray Disc and DVD sales, as well as the Blu-ray Disc sales chart for two consecutive weeks up to the week ending May 17, 2015. ## Reception ### Box office Fifty Shades of Grey grossed US$166.2 million in the US and Canada and US$403.5 million in other countries, for a worldwide total of US$569.7 million against a budget of US$40 million. It is currently the fourth-highest-grossing film directed by a woman (behind [Mia!](Mamma)(Mamma Mia! (film)), [Fu Panda 2](Kung)(Kung Fu Panda 2), and [Woman](Wonder)(Wonder Woman (2017 film))), and at the time of the end of its theatrical run, it was the fourth-highest-grossing R-rated film of all time (behind [Hangover Part II](The)(The Hangover Part II), [Passion of the Christ](The)(The Passion of the Christ), and [Matrix Reloaded](The)(The Matrix Reloaded)). [Hollywood](Deadline)(Deadline Hollywood) calculated the net profit of the film to be US$256.55 million, when factoring together all expenses and revenues for the film. Tickets went on sale in the United States from January 11, 2015. According to ticket-selling site [Fandango](Fandango (ticket service)), Fifty Shades of Grey is the fastest-selling R-rated title in the site's 15-year history, surpassing [and the City 2](Sex)(Sex and the City 2). It also had the biggest first week of ticket sales on Fandango for a non-sequel film, surpassing 2012's [Hunger Games](The)(The Hunger Games (film)). It is fourth overall on Fandango's list of top advance ticket sales behind [Twilight Saga: New Moon](The)(The Twilight Saga: New Moon), [Potter and the Deathly Hallows – Part 2](Harry)(Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows – Part 2), and [Hunger Games](The)(The Hunger Games (film)). The demand prompted US theater owners to add new showtimes. Weeks before the film's release, several box office analysts suggested as much as a US$60 million domestic four-day opening while [Office Mojo](Box)(Box Office Mojo) reported that a US$100 million opening could be possible. Outside the United States, Fifty Shades of Grey pre-sold 4.5 million tickets in 39 markets. In the UK, it sold £1.3 million (US$1.9 million) worth of tickets a week before release. On release, it set several records at the box office, including: #### United States and Canada In the US and Canada, it is the highest-grossing sex film, the [film of 2015](seventeenth-highest-grossing)(2015 in film), and the fourth-highest-grossing romantic film of all time. It opened in the US and Canada simultaneously with [The Secret Service](Kingsman:)(Kingsman: The Secret Service) on Thursday, February 12, 2015, across 2,830 theaters and was widened to 3,646 theaters the next day making it the widest R-rated opening (surpassed by [Max: Fury Road](Mad)(Mad Max: Fury Road)), and the fourth-widest R-rated release of all time. It earned US$8.6 million from Thursday night previews which is the second-highest late-night gross for a film released in February (behind [Deadpool](Deadpool (film))) and the third-highest for an R-rated film (behind Deadpool and [Hangover Part II](The)(The Hangover Part II)). The film topped the box office on its opening day grossing US$30.2 million (including Thursday previews) from 3,646 theaters setting a record for highest February opening day (previously held by [Passion of the Christ](The)(The Passion of the Christ)) and fourth-highest overall among R-rated films. During its traditional three-day opening the film opened at No. 1 at the box office earning US$85.1 million, setting records for the biggest opening weekend for a film released in February (a record previously held by The Passion of the Christ). Women comprised 82% of the total audiences during its opening day, and 68% on Valentine's Day. Revenue from the second weekend dropped massively by 73.9% to US$22.25 million, which is the second-biggest drop for a 3,000-plus-screen release (only behind [the 13th](Friday)(Friday the 13th (2009 film))s 80.4% drop) and the biggest for a 3,500-plus-screen release. It is just the eighth film to open on more than 3,000 screens to drop by 70% or more. The film topped the box office for two consecutive weekends before falling to No. 4 in its third weekend while [Focus](Focus (2015 film)) took the top spot. #### Other countries Outside the US and Canada, box-office analysts were predicting as much as US$158 million opening. It opened Wednesday, February 11, 2015, in 4 countries, earning US$3.7 million. It opened in 34 more countries on February 12, earning US$28.6 million in two days. The film set opening-day records for Universal Pictures in 25 markets and opening day records for an R-rated film in 34 territories. Through Sunday, February 15, it earned an opening-weekend total of US$156 million from 58 countries from 10,979 screens (US$173.6 million through Monday) where it opened at No. 1 in 54 of the 58 countries, marking the biggest overseas opening for an R-rated film, the fourth-biggest of 2015, and Universal's third-biggest overseas opening weekend ever. The film set an all-time opening record in 13 markets, Universal's biggest opening weekend ever in 30 markets and biggest opening for any R-rated film in 31 markets. The biggest opener outside of the United States was witnessed in the UK, Ireland and Malta, where it earned £13.55 million (US$20.8 million) in its opening weekend, which is the biggest debut ever for an 18-rated film and the second-biggest for a non-sequel film (behind [Am Legend](I)(I Am Legend (film))). In just 10 days of release it became the highest-grossing 18-rated film of all time. It topped the UK box office for two consecutive weekends. Other high openings include Germany (US$14.1 million), France (US$12.3 million), Russia (US$11 million), Italy (US$10.1 million), Spain (US$8.7 million), Brazil (US$8.3 million), Mexico (US$8.1 million), Australia (US$8 million). In Japan, the film was unsuccessful opening at No. 5 with $682,000 but falling out of the top 10 the following week. [Hollywood Reporter](The)(The Hollywood Reporter) cited out possible reasons for the film's failure, attributing it to the "delayed release of the new Japanese-language editions of the books, poor timing for the film release and an R-15, re-edit blurring out parts of the sex scenes." It topped the box office outside of the US for three consecutive weekends until it was overtaken by [Bros.](Warner)(Warner Bros.)' [Ascending](Jupiter)(Jupiter Ascending) in its fourth weekend. It became Universal Pictures' highest-grossing R-rated film of all time overseas (breaking [Ted](Ted (film))s record), Universal Pictures' highest-grossing film in 14 countries, and Universal Pictures' eighth-highest-grossing film overseas. In total earnings, its largest markets overseas are the UK, Ireland and Malta (US$52.5 million), Germany (US$43.7 million), Brazil (US$31.3 million), France (US$29.5 million), and Spain (US$22.6 million). ### Critical response Fifty Shades of Grey received generally negative reviews, with criticism of its acting, screenplay, and pacing; however, some critics noted it as an improvement over the book, and others praised the cinematography and set design as well as soundtrack. The [aggregator](review)(review aggregator) website [Tomatoes](Rotten)(Rotten Tomatoes) reported a 24% approval rating with an average rating of 4.20/10 based on 282 reviews. The website's critical consensus reads, "While creatively better endowed than its print counterpart, Fifty Shades of Grey is a less than satisfying experience on the screen." [Metacritic](Metacritic) gave the film a score of 46 out of 100, based on reviews from 46 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews". In [CinemaScore](CinemaScore) polls conducted during the opening weekend, cinema audiences gave the film an average grade of "C+" on an A+ to F scale. Claudia Puig of [Today](USA)(USA Today) wrote that "the dialogue is laughable, the pacing is sluggish and the performances are one-note."> Moira Macdonald of [Seattle Times](The)(The Seattle Times) wrote: "Fifty Shades of Grey the movie, for the record, is not quite as bad as Fifty Shades of Grey the book. But that's not saying much".> We Got This Covered critic Isaac Feldberg gave the film one and a half stars out of five and wrote that it "feels like two, distinct films grappling for dominance over the screen: one a sensual and stylish romance, and the other a numbingly explicit Harlequin bodice-ripper brought to life. Regrettably, the latter and lesser of the two ends up on top". [Guardian](The)(The Guardian) lead film critic [Bradshaw](Peter)(Peter Bradshaw) gave the film one star out of five, calling it "the most purely tasteful and softcore depiction of sadomasochism in cinema history" with "strictly daytime [soap](soap opera)" performances. [O. Scott](A.)(A. O. Scott) of [New York Times](The)(The New York Times) called the film "terrible", but wrote that "it might nonetheless be a movie that feels good to see, whether you squirm or giggle or roll your eyes or just sit still and take your punishment." In a positive review for [Daily Telegraph](The)(The Daily Telegraph), [Collin](Robbie)(Robbie Collin) called the film "sexy, funny and self-aware in every way the original book isn't." Elizabeth Weitzman of New York's [News](Daily)(New York Daily News) praised the directing, screenplay, and Johnson's performance, but called Dornan's performance, the leads' chemistry, and the supporting cast "underused". She praised the film for honoring the essence of its source and the director's way of balancing "atmosphere with action". In The Guardian, Jordan Hoffmann awarded the film three out of five stars, writing, "this big screen adaptation still manages to be about people, and even a little bit sweet", and that the sex scenes "are there to advance the plot, and only the most buttoned-up prude will be scandalised." [Schwarzbaum](Lisa)(Lisa Schwarzbaum) of [Weekly](Entertainment)(Entertainment Weekly) gave the film a B−, writing: "This perfectly normal way of consuming erotica suggests that the movie Fifty Shades of Grey will work better as home entertainment, when each viewer can race past the blah-blah about how well Christian plays the piano and pause on the fleeting image of the man minus his pants."> In [Sydney Morning Herald](The)(The Sydney Morning Herald), Timothy Laurie and Jessica Kean argue that "the film provides a language for decision-making around violence more developed than most Hollywood fodder", and that "film fleshes out an otherwise legalistic concept like 'consent' into a living, breathing, and at times, uncomfortable interpersonal experience. It dramatises the dangers of unequal negotiation and the practical complexity of identifying one's limits and having them respected." February 19 Various critics noted similarities between Fifty Shades of Grey and [Lyne](Adrian)(Adrian Lyne)'s [Weeks](9½)(9½ Weeks) (1986). Both films are literary adaptations, centering on a [sadomasochistic](sadomasochistic) affair. ## Pornographic-adaptation lawsuit In June 2012, the film company [Pictures](Smash)(Smash Pictures) announced its intent to film a [pornographic](pornographic) version of the Fifty Shades trilogy, entitled Fifty Shades of Grey: An XXX Adaptation. A release date of January 10, 2013 was announced. In November 2012, Universal, which had secured the Fifty Shades film rights, filed a lawsuit against Smash Pictures, stating that the film violated its copyright in that it was not filmed as a [adaptation](parody)(Parody#Copyright issues) but "copies without reservation from the unique expressive elements of the Fifty Shades trilogy, progressing through the events of Fifty Shades of Grey and into the second book, [Shades Darker](Fifty)(Fifty Shades Darker)". The lawsuit asked for an injunction, for the profits from all sales of the film, as well as damages, saying that "a quickly and cheaply produced pornographic work [...] is likely to cause Plaintiffs irreparable harm by poisoning public perception of the Fifty Shades Trilogy and the forthcoming Universal films." Smash Pictures responded to the lawsuit by issuing a counterclaim and requesting a continuance, stating that "much or all" of the Fifty Shades material was part of the [domain](public)(public domain) because it was originally published in various venues as a [fiction](fan)(fan fiction) based on the Twilight series. A lawyer for Smash Pictures further commented that the federal copyright registrations for the books were "invalid and unenforceable" and that the film "did not violate copyright or trademark laws". The lawsuit was eventually [out of court](settled)(settled out of court) for an undisclosed sum and Smash Pictures agreed to stop any further production or promotion of the film. ## Sequels In April 2015, [Hollywood Reporter](The)(The Hollywood Reporter) reported that E. L. James' husband, Niall Leonard, was enlisted to write the script for the film's sequel. In the same month, at the 2015 Universal [CinemaCon](CinemaCon) in [Vegas](Las)(Las Vegas), Universal announced the release dates of the sequels, with [Shades Darker](Fifty)(Fifty Shades Darker (film)) being released on February 10, 2017, and [Shades Freed](Fifty)(Fifty Shades Freed (film)) was released on February 9, 2018. However, the sequels did not see [Taylor-Johnson](Sam)(Sam Taylor-Johnson) returning as director. On August 20, 2015, the U.S. [of Cards](House)(House of Cards (U.S. TV series)) director [Foley](James)(James Foley (director)) was a frontrunner to direct the sequel. In November 2015, Universal Studios announced that both films will be shot [back-to-back](back to back film production). ## Parody A spoof version of the film, [Shades of Black](Fifty)(Fifty Shades of Black), was released on January 29, 2016, in North America. [Wayans](Marlon)(Marlon Wayans) and Rick Alvarez wrote the script, in which Wayans stars as [Black](Christian)(Christian Grey). The film was distributed by SquareOne Entertainment in Germany and [Road Films](Open)(Open Road Films) in the United States; [Global](IM)(IM Global) produce and finance it, as well as handling international releases. [Hawk](Kali)(Kali Hawk) parodied the role of Anastasia Steele, with supporting cast including [Crockett](Affion)(Affion Crockett), [Epps](Mike)(Mike Epps), [Seymour](Jane)(Jane Seymour (actress)), [Bachelor](Andrew)(Andrew Bachelor) and [Willard](Fred)(Fred Willard). It was released theatrically on January 29, 2016 and described as less funny "than the unintentionally-funny film it's trying to lampoon." ## See also * [in film](Sex)(Sex in film) * [Orchid* (film)](Wild)(Wild Orchid (film)), 1989 ## Notes ## References ## External links * * }} [Shades](Category:Fifty)(Category:Fifty Shades) [films](Category:2015)(Category:2015 films) [romantic drama films](Category:2015)(Category:2015 romantic drama films) [erotic drama films](Category:2010s)(Category:2010s erotic drama films) [erotic drama films](Category:American)(Category:American erotic drama films) [erotic romance films](Category:American)(Category:American erotic romance films) [romantic drama films](Category:American)(Category:American romantic drama films) [in films](Category:BDSM)(Category:BDSM in films) [controversies](Category:Film)(Category:Film controversies) [controversies in India](Category:Film)(Category:Film controversies in India) [controversies in film](Category:Obscenity)(Category:Obscenity controversies in film) [controversies in film](Category:Rating)(Category:Rating controversies in film) [films](Category:Censored)(Category:Censored films) [English-language films](Category:2010s)(Category:2010s English-language films) [censorship in India](Category:Film)(Category:Film censorship in India) [based on British novels](Category:Films)(Category:Films based on British novels) [based on romance novels](Category:Films)(Category:Films based on romance novels) [directed by Sam Taylor-Wood](Category:Films)(Category:Films directed by Sam Taylor-Wood) [produced by Michael De Luca](Category:Films)(Category:Films produced by Michael De Luca) [scored by Danny Elfman](Category:Films)(Category:Films scored by Danny Elfman) [set in Seattle](Category:Films)(Category:Films set in Seattle) [shot in Vancouver](Category:Films)(Category:Films shot in Vancouver) [with screenplays by Kelly Marcel](Category:Films)(Category:Films with screenplays by Kelly Marcel) [Features films](Category:Focus)(Category:Focus Features films) [Pictures films](Category:Universal)(Category:Universal Pictures films) [based on Twilight (novel series)](Category:Works)(Category:Works based on Twilight (novel series)) [Raspberry Award winning films](Category:Golden)(Category:Golden Raspberry Award winning films) [American films](Category:2010s)(Category:2010s American films)
List of Outlander episodes	list_of_outlander_episodes	# List of Outlander episodes Revision ID: 1159441259 \| Timestamp: 2023-06-10T09:55:12Z --- [Outlander](Outlander (TV series)) is a television drama series based on the [series](Outlander)(Outlander (book series)) of historical [travel](time)(time travel) novels by [Gabaldon](Diana)(Diana Gabaldon). Developed by [D. Moore](Ronald)(Ronald D. Moore) and produced by [Pictures Television](Sony)(Sony Pictures Television) and [Bank Pictures](Left)(Left Bank Pictures) for [Starz](Starz), the show premiered on August 9, 2014. It stars [Balfe](Caitríona)(Caitríona Balfe) as [Randall](Claire)(Claire Fraser (character)), a married former [War II](World)(World War II) nurse, later surgeon, who in 1946 finds herself transported back to the Scotland of 1743 where she meets and falls in love with the dashing [Highland](Scottish Highlands) warrior [Fraser](Jamie)(Jamie Fraser (character)) ([Heughan](Sam)(Sam Heughan)) and becomes embroiled in the [risings](Jacobite)(Jacobite risings). The seventh season will consist of 16 episodes and premiere on June 16, 2023. In January 2023, the series was renewed for a 10-episode eighth and final season. ## Series overview \| end1A = \| color1B = #8FBC8F \| episodes1B = 8 \| start1B = \| end1B = \| color2 = #DAA520 \| link2 = List of Outlander episodes#Season 2 (2016) \| episodes2 = 13 \| start2 = \| end2 = \| color3 = #ABAC89 \| link3 = List of Outlander episodes#Season 3 (2017) \| episodes3 = 13 \| start3 = \| end3 = \| color4 = #B5BDBA \| link4 = List of Outlander episodes#Season 4 (2018–19) \| episodes4 = 13 \| start4 = \| end4 = \| color5 = #6F3826 \| link5 = List of Outlander episodes#Season 5 (2020) \| episodes5 = 12 \| start5 = \| end5 = \| color6 = #334643 \| link6 = List of Outlander episodes#Season 6 (2022) \| episodes6 = 8 \| start6 = \| end6 = \| color7 = #8F9DB7 \| link7 = List of Outlander episodes#Season 7 \| linkR7 = \| episodes7 = 16 \| episodes7A = 8 \| start7A = \| end7A = \| episodes7B = 8 \| start7B = \| end7B = }} ## Episodes ### Season 1 (2014–15) \| Viewers = 0.72 \| ShortSummary = In 1945, Claire Randall is a former [WWII](WWII) combat nurse visiting [Inverness](Inverness), Scotland, with her husband Frank, getting to know each other again after their wartime separation. Frank is researching his family history, in particular his 18th Century ancestor Jonathan "Black Jack" Randall. The morning after observing a modern [Druid](Druid) ritual at [standing stones](the)(Stonehenge) on the hill of Craigh na Dun, Claire touches one of the stones, and wakes up lying on the ground. Soon she is in the middle of a skirmish between English [redcoats](red coat (British army)) and rebel Highlanders, and comes face to face with Frank's double, Randall, who is captain of the [Dragoons](Dragoon Guards). A Scotsman rescues Claire and she meets Jamie Fraser. As they flee, she sets his dislocated arm and later treats his bullet wound. Claire is brought to Castle Leoch, and realizes that she has somehow traveled back in time. \| LineColor = 40611E }} \| Viewers = 0.90 \| ShortSummary = Claire is presented to Colum MacKenzie, laird of Castle Leoch, where she learns she has landed in 1743. After a while, she realises she is suspected of being an English spy. She meets Geillis Duncan, and witnesses Jamie doing a kindness for Laoghaire, the pretty young granddaughter of Mrs. Fitzgibbons. As Claire plans to return to Inverness and the standing stones, Colum decides it is best to keep her at Leoch, against her will, as healer to the [clan](Clan Mackenzie). \| LineColor = 40611E }} \| Viewers = 1.00 \| ShortSummary = Claire hopes that her medical skills will earn her the trust of the MacKenzies, and her eventual freedom, but manages only to make herself indispensable. By saving Mrs. Fitzgibbons's nephew from poisoning, which the fanatical Father Bain had declared as demonic possession, Claire makes a new enemy, and even though she earns some trust from the MacKenzies she is called a miracle-worker and is therefore presumed too valuable to let go. After she and Jamie collude to help a youth punished for stealing, Claire is given renewed hope of being able to travel home when she hears a folk tale about a time-traveller and the standing stones. \| LineColor = 40611E }} \| Viewers = 0.84 \| ShortSummary = Claire plots her escape during a clan gathering at Leoch, but Jamie convinces her that she would fail. Escorting her back, he finds himself in a dangerous position with Colum that he had been trying to avoid, but manages to make an oath of loyalty while manoeuvering himself out of trouble with his kinsman. Claire earns Dougal's respect while tending a dying man on a boar hunt, and he decides to take her with him on his rent-collecting tour. \| LineColor = 40611E }} \| Viewers = 0.95 \| ShortSummary = Claire clashes with Dougal and his men on the rent-collecting journey, especially when Dougal uses Jamie's scars to collect more money from the villagers. A young man, who would turn out to be a red coat, tries to "free" her from the Scots, unsuccessfully. Later, she realises that they are collecting funds for the prospective [Jacobite](Jacobism) army, an army they would use to achieve Scotland's independence from England. Knowing from history that their cause is doomed, she tries to warn them off. The episode ends with the young red coat returning with more of his kin to retrieve young Claire from the Highlanders. \| LineColor = 40611E }} \| Viewers = 1.10 \| ShortSummary = The redcoats take Claire to meet Brigadier-General Lord Thomas, who promises her safe passage to Inverness in the company of Black Jack Randall. When the General leaves, Randall tries to discover why she is in Scotland. She concocts a story and he describes in detail his vicious whipping of young Jamie. Dougal comes to take her away, but Randall insists that he has to deliver Claire to Fort William the following day. They leave, and Dougal tells Claire he does not have to turn her in if she marries Jamie and as a consequence becomes Scottish. \| LineColor = 40611E }} \| Viewers = 1.23 \| ShortSummary = Claire and Jamie marry to protect her from Randall, and try to get to know each other better afterwards to make the consummation less awkward. They realise their feelings for each other, but Claire is still torn thinking about Frank. \| LineColor = 40611E }} \| Viewers = 1.42 \| ShortSummary = In 1946, Frank is losing hope of finding Claire, but goes to the standing stones one last time. In the past, Claire finds herself nearby to the stones and runs for them. She hears Frank calling, and he hears her as well. But Claire is captured by English troops before she can reach the stones, and a despondent Frank leaves as she is taken to Fort William. Claire nearly talks her way out of being interrogated by Randall, but he turns the tables on her. Just as he is about to rape her at knifepoint, Jamie appears in the window. \| LineColor = 40611E }} \| Viewers = 1.22 \| ShortSummary = Jamie saves Claire from Black Jack Randall, but the dynamic of their marriage is tested. Jamie tries to ease the conflict between Colum and Dougal sparked by Claire's rescue. Jamie rebuffs a seduction by Laoghaire, who then leaves a bad luck charm under Claire and Jamie's bed. \| LineColor = 8FBC8F }} \| Viewers = 0.86 \| ShortSummary = Claire confronts a spiteful Laoghaire, but is surprised to learn that the charm came from Geillis. Jamie petitions the Duke of Sandringham for help to rid himself of Randall and the price on his head, while Claire secretly uses her historical knowledge to leverage his help in Jamie's favour. Dougal is inconsolable after his wife's death from an illness, but Geillis, pregnant with his child, is pleased. When Geillis's husband dies at a banquet for the Duke, Claire realises that Geillis poisoned him. Colum forbids Dougal from pursuing a relationship with Geillis, exiling Dougal to his estate with Jamie in tow. Claire and Geillis are arrested for witchcraft. \| LineColor = 8FBC8F }} \| Viewers = 1.09 \| ShortSummary = Claire and Geillis face charges of witchcraft. Ned Gowan comes to their defence, but witnesses, including Laoghaire and Father Bain, testify against them, and they are found guilty. Before Jamie can fight his way out of the courtroom with his wife, Geillis confesses and exonerates Claire. Claire recognises from the [vaccine](smallpox)(smallpox vaccine) scar on Geillis's shoulder that she too is from the future; 1968 to be exact. Geillis is taken to be burned at the stake. When Jamie asks Claire about her scar, she tells him of her time travel. He believes her, takes her back to Craigh na Dun, and wishes her well in returning to her own time. But Claire decides not to go back. \| LineColor = 8FBC8F }} \| Viewers = 1.11 \| ShortSummary = Jamie takes Claire to his family home of Lallybroch, where he clashes with his strong-willed sister Jenny. Taking up his role as laird, he disrupts the household until Claire sets him straight. After Jamie narrowly avoids a run-in with passing redcoats, he and Jenny make amends. \| LineColor = 8FBC8F }} \| Viewers = 1.05 \| ShortSummary = The men of the [Watch](42nd Regiment of Foot) arrive at Lallybroch, and Jamie pretends to be a Fraser cousin. Claire realises that Jenny's impending childbirth will be a dangerous, breech birth, but Jenny swears her to secrecy. The redcoat defector Horrocks appears, and threatens to reveal that Jamie has a price on his head unless Jamie pays him. Jenny's husband Ian kills Horrocks. Coming clean to the Watch leader MacQuarrie, Jamie agrees to join their raid. Jenny gives birth to a daughter with Claire's help. Meanwhile, the raiding party is ambushed, with Jamie captured by the redcoats. \| LineColor = 8FBC8F }} \| Viewers = 1.08 \| ShortSummary = Claire and Jenny set out to find Jamie. They learn he has escaped his captors, and a newly-arrived Murtagh takes Claire on a journey to find him. Their plan is to have Jamie find them by touring the countryside with Claire as a singer called "The Sassenach". They attract Dougal's attention, and he tells them that Jamie has been recaptured and tried, and is awaiting execution at Wentworth Prison. Claire makes a deal with Dougal that she will marry him if she couldn't save Jamie from execution. She then convinces three of Dougal's men, including Willie, to help her rescue Jamie. \| LineColor = 8FBC8F }} \| Viewers = 1.01 \| ShortSummary = Randall appears at Wentworth Prison and tortures Jamie, seeking his submission. Meanwhile, Claire gets into the prison to save her husband. When Randall catches her, Jamie submits to rape by Randall in exchange for her freedom. Before she leaves, Claire "curses" Randall and tells him what will be the date of his death. When all seems lost, Murtagh comes up with a plan to rescue Jamie. \| LineColor = 8FBC8F }} \| Viewers = 0.98 \| ShortSummary = Murtagh's rescue is successful and Randall left for dead, but Jamie remains tortured by his ordeal. As Claire tends to his injuries, Jamie is tormented by memory of his rape and torture. He asks for Willie's blade to end his life. Claire convinces Jamie by reminding the promise he made when they got married and tells him that she will have him in any way that she can and if he wishes to die she will die with him. Murtagh accompanies them as they set sail for safety in [France](France), where Claire hopes to meet [Stuart](Charles)(Charles Edward Stuart) and somehow prevent the catastrophic [of Culloden](Battle)(Battle of Culloden). As they set sail, Claire tells Jamie that she is pregnant. \| LineColor = 8FBC8F }} }} ### Season 2 (2016) \| Viewers = 1.46 \| ShortSummary = Claire awakes at Craigh Na Dun in 1948. Grieving over Jamie's assumed death in battle, she is reunited with Frank, who cannot understand her reappearance but is desperate to reconcile. Claire explains where and when she has been, including her marriage with Jamie and that she is carrying his child. Initially furious and heartbroken, Frank promises that they will raise the child together and resume married life. She later recalls her arrival with Jamie to France, where they make contact with Jamie's Jacobite cousin Jared Fraser, and make an enemy of the . \| LineColor = DAA520 }} \| Viewers = 1.24 \| ShortSummary = In 1744, Claire and Jamie have settled in [Paris](Paris), ostensibly working for Jared but actually seeking to foil the Jacobite rebellion. Jared arranges for Jamie to meet with Prince [Stuart](Charles)(Charles Edward Stuart) himself, but Jamie cannot deter him from planning to seize the English throne for his father. Claire secures an invitation to the [of Versailles](Palace)(Palace of Versailles), where she hopes to meet King [XV of France](Louis)(Louis XV of France) and thwart his funding of the Stuart cause. The Frasers make an impression, and are reunited with the Duke of Sandringham. Claire is shocked to learn that Randall is still alive, and is not sure if she should tell Jamie. \| LineColor = DAA520 }} \| Viewers = 1.21 \| ShortSummary = While Jamie continues to try and sour the financing of Prince Charles's rebellion, Claire makes herself useful at , a charity hospital run by the imperious Mother Hildegarde. Jamie meets a 10-year-old boy at a brothel, hires him to pick messages from pockets, adopts him, and names him Fergus. Claire and Jamie discover that Sandringham is helping Charles secure funds from English nobles, which Jamie hopes to thwart. Though spending time with Sandringham will surely reveal to Jamie that Randall is alive, Claire cannot bear to tell Jamie herself. \| LineColor = DAA520 }} \| DirectedBy = [Mackinnon](Douglas)(Douglas Mackinnon) \| WrittenBy = [Graphia](Toni)(Toni Graphia) \| OriginalAirDate = \| Viewers = 1.17 \| ShortSummary = Claire finally tells Jamie about Randall, and the potential for vengeance reinvigorates Jamie. Claire suspects the Comte St. Germain when an attempt is made on her life, and she and Jamie plan a dinner party to paint Charles and his cause in a bad light to Sandringham. Murtagh, Claire and the young Mary Hawkins are attacked on their way to the party, and Mary is raped. Back at the house, the party goes as planned until a misunderstanding sparks a brawl. \| LineColor = DAA520 }} \| Viewers = 1.13 \| ShortSummary = The disastrous dinner party has discouraged Charles's investors, but the prince finds a new one in Jamie's enemy, . Charles puts Jamie and into business together, to their concern. Trying to preserve Frank's lineage, Claire sabotages the blossoming relationship between Mary Hawkins and Alex Randall. Randall appears at Versailles, and Jamie challenges him to a duel. Jamie is angry when Claire forces him to swear that he will not harm Randall until he has conceived a child with Mary. \| LineColor = DAA520 }} \| Viewers = 1.03 \| ShortSummary = Jamie tells Murtagh the truth about Claire's past. Claire uses her medical knowledge to give 's men symptoms that resemble those of [smallpox](smallpox). Jamie and Murtagh then steal the 's wine shipment, seemingly dashing Charles's hopes. Fate brings Jamie and Randall face to face, and Claire arrives just in time to see them duelling. As Jamie stabs Randall and gendarmes arrive to arrest them, a pregnant Claire collapses, bleeding. \| LineColor = DAA520 }} \| Viewers = 1.10 \| ShortSummary = Claire and Jamie's daughter is stillborn, and a devastated Claire nearly dies from fever. With Jamie in the [Bastille](Bastille), Claire discovers that he duelled with Randall because he had discovered the English captain raping Fergus. Claire seeks mercy for Jamie from the king, who forces her to decide the fates of suspected "sorcerers" Master Raymond and . She contrives to save them, but Raymond poisons . Claire submits sexually to the king in exchange for Jamie's freedom. She and Jamie reconcile, and they visit their daughter Faith's grave before leaving Paris for Scotland. \| LineColor = DAA520 }} \| Viewers = 1.06 \| ShortSummary = In Scotland, Jamie finds himself compelled to support the Jacobite rebellion. He and Claire seek military assistance from his grandfather, [Lovat](Lord)(Lord Lovat), and are reunited with Colum and . Colum hopes to discourage the rebellion, which he is certain will fail. begs Claire's forgiveness, and later agrees to help Claire and Jamie manipulate Lovat. Playing both sides, Lovat promises peace to Colum, but also sends Jamie some troops as reinforcements. \| LineColor = DAA520 }} \| DirectedBy = [John](Philip)(Philip John) \| WrittenBy = Matthew B. Roberts \| OriginalAirDate = \| Viewers = 0.94 \| ShortSummary = Claire and Jamie are reunited with Angus, Rupert and Dougal. As Jamie and Murtagh attempt to train Lovat's men, the camps remind Claire of her traumatic experiences in [War II](World)(World War II). She and Jamie later coerce young English scout [Grey](William)(Lord John Grey (character)) to reveal vital information about the English army that is nearby. \| LineColor = DAA520 }} \| Viewers = 0.82 \| ShortSummary = Jamie and the Jacobite army undertake their first [against the English](battle)(Battle of Prestonpans) at [Prestonpans](Prestonpans). Surprising them in the fog, the Highlanders are victorious, but Angus later dies of his injuries. \| LineColor = DAA520 }} \| Viewers = 0.86 \| ShortSummary = When Claire, Jamie and their party are surrounded by redcoats, Claire pretends to be an English hostage so Dougal can negotiate the Highlanders' safe passage. Taken to 'safety', Claire finds herself face to face with the Duke of Sandringham and his goddaughter Mary Hawkins. She also recognises Sandringham's valet, Danton, as the man who had raped Mary. Sandringham intends to lure "Red Jamie" to save Claire, and then turn them both over to the redcoats. Forewarned, Jamie and Murtagh slip into the castle. Mary kills Danton, and Murtagh beheads Sandringham to fulfill his promise to Claire and Mary to avenge their attack in Paris. \| LineColor = DAA520 }} \| Viewers = 1.05 \| ShortSummary = Jamie tries to avoid the [of Culloden](Battle)(Battle of Culloden) with a preemptive strike against the English while they are celebrating the [of Cumberland](Duke)(Prince William, Duke of Cumberland)'s birthday, but the Prince gets lost in the dark. Claire finds herself trying to convince Randall to marry Mary, who is pregnant with a dying Alex's child. A dying Colum asks Claire to help him end his life painlessly. Before she does, he tells her that Geillis was not burned at the stake until after her child with Dougal was born, and that the child was adopted into the MacKenzie clan. \| LineColor = DAA520 }} \| Viewers = 1.15 \| ShortSummary = In 1968, fifty-year-old Claire is reunited with Reverend Wakefield's adopted son, Roger, in Inverness. Her twenty-year-old daughter, Brianna, discovers that she is not Frank's biological daughter, but refuses to believe her mother's tale of time travel. Meanwhile, Brianna meets [Independence](Scottish)(Scottish Independence) activist Gillian Edgars, whom Claire later recognises is Geillis Duncan. Before the battle of Culloden in 1746, Jamie and Claire are forced to kill Dougal when he overhears their last-ditch plot to kill the Prince. Jamie insists that Claire save herself and their unborn child by travelling back through the stones, and she is utterly heartbroken at the thought of leaving him. They arrive at the stones as the battle begins, and bid each other an emotional farewell. Back in 1968, Claire realises Roger is a descendant of Geillis and Dougal. To prevent Gillian's death, they try to stop her from travelling back through time. They arrive too late, but seeing Gillian disappear into the stone convinces Brianna that her mother is telling the truth. Roger reveals to Claire that Jamie did not die at Culloden. \| LineColor = DAA520 }} }} ### Season 3 (2017) \| Viewers = 1.49 \| ShortSummary = In 1948, a pregnant Claire moves to [Boston](Boston) with Frank. Their relationship is tense, and she struggles to adjust to her new life as a housewife. She gives birth to Jamie's daughter. In 1746, Jamie finally kills Jack Randall at the battle of Culloden. Jamie and Rupert survive the battle and take refuge in a farm house with other Jacobites, but Jamie's wounds are grave. They are caught by redcoats, and Rupert is executed. Just as Jamie's turn comes, he is recognised by Lord Melton, the elder brother of the boy—John Grey—whose life Jamie spared before Prestonpans. Bound by honour, Melton secretly removes Jamie from the farm house and sends him home to Broch Tuarach, expecting him to die en route. \| LineColor = ABAC89 }} \| Viewers = 1.40 \| ShortSummary = Baby Brianna has brought Claire and Frank closer, but the memory of Jamie stands between them. Searching for fulfillment, Claire enrolls in medical school as the only woman in her class. Jamie, still struggling to come to terms with life without Claire, has survived for six years at Lallybroch, but with the English still searching for him, he lives in a cave as an outlaw. Soldiers come to Lallybroch repeatedly, harassing Jenny and Ian for information about Jamie's whereabouts. When Fergus loses a hand in a run-in with redcoats, Jamie arranges to be "caught", so that Jenny can claim the reward and the English will leave his family alone. \| LineColor = ABAC89 }} \| Viewers = 1.55 \| ShortSummary = Claire graduates from medical school. Years later as Brianna graduates high school, Frank tells Claire he wants a divorce so he can marry his mistress and return to England. They are poised to argue over where Brianna will live, but Frank is killed in a car accident. Jamie is serving time in Ardsmuir Prison, where he is the leader and spokesman for the Scottish prisoners. His uneasy relationship with the new governor, an adult Lord John Grey, evolves into friendship. When the prison is shuttered, Murtagh and the rest of the prisoners are sent to the American colonies as indentured servants, while John paroles Jamie to work at a private estate called Helwater. \| LineColor = ABAC89 }} \| Viewers = 1.59 \| ShortSummary = Claire and Brianna, with the help of Roger Mackenzie, research history to track Jamie to Ardsmuir, but when the trail runs cold, they return to America. Serving as a groom for the Dunsany family, Jamie is blackmailed into sex by heiress Geneva. When she and her earl husband die, leaving their newborn son Willie an orphan, Geneva's sister Isobel keeps the secret that the child is really Jamie's. Years later, when the young earl's resemblance to him is becoming obvious, Jamie leaves Helwater, with Willie in the care of Isobel and Lord John, who are engaged to be married. \| LineColor = ABAC89 }} \| Viewers = 1.60 \| ShortSummary = In December 1968, Roger arrives in Boston having discovered a clue to Jamie's whereabouts in 1765. Brianna urges Claire to go back and reunite with Jamie, and mother and daughter have a tearful farewell. In [Edinburgh](Edinburgh) in 1765, Claire finds Jamie in a print shop. \| LineColor = ABAC89 }} \| Viewers = 1.72 \| ShortSummary = Claire and Jamie are reunited. She shares photos of Brianna, and he tells Claire about his son Willie. She also learns that Jamie prints subversive material, smuggles wine and spirits, and lives in a brothel owned by his associate, Madame Jeanne. Claire is reunited with an adult Fergus and delighted to meet Jenny's son, Young Ian. Claire and Jamie spend the night at the brothel, re-consummating their marriage and their love for each other. While Jamie is out on a business errand, Claire finds herself in danger from a rummaging intruder who threatens to have his way with her. Claire fights back, resulting in a sudden "catastrophe". \| LineColor = ABAC89 }} \| DirectedBy = Norma Bailey \| WrittenBy = [Campbell](Karen)(Karen Campbell) \| OriginalAirDate = \| Viewers = 1.52 \| ShortSummary = Dodging a blade, Claire's attacker trips and falls, suffering a critical head injury. Refusing to let him die, Claire insists an attempted [trepanation](Trepanning) but is unable to save his life. Ian arrives desperately looking for his son, Young Ian. Jamie claims he has not seen the boy, though young Ian has surreptitiously been working for him smuggling alcohol. Interrupting his very first romp with a lass, Young Ian is confronted by an intruder at the print shop, who discovers Jamie's treasonous pamphlets. In the melee, the shop is soon consumed by fire, but Jamie saves the boy. \| LineColor = ABAC89 }} \| Viewers = 1.64 \| ShortSummary = Jamie takes Claire and young Ian home to Lallybroch. Claire is enraged and threatens to leave when she discovers that Jamie has married a twice widowed Laoghaire. She also struggles to regain the trust of Jenny, who is suspicious of her return and still oblivious to the truth of Claire's origins. Laoghaire accidentally shoots Jamie during a confrontation with him and Claire. Jamie recovers thanks to the penicillin that Claire has brought, and he explains to her his reasons for marrying Laoghaire. Ned Gowan negotiates a settlement with Laoghaire, and Jamie decides to retrieve the treasure on Silky Isle to pay for it. Young Ian swims to the island in an injured Jamie's place. Jamie and Claire are horrified to see the boy forcibly taken aboard a ship and carried away after finding the treasure. \| LineColor = ABAC89 }} \| Viewers = 1.49 \| ShortSummary = Learning in France that young Ian's ship is heading for Jamaica, Claire and Jamie pursue it on a trading ship, the Artemis. At sea, Fergus reveals that Laoghaire's daughter Marsali is aboard, and they seek Jamie's approval for their marriage. The ship loses wind and the crew is about to kill one of Jamie's men as a "[Jonah](Jonah#Cultural influence)" (man of bad luck) when the wind returns. The British [man-of-war](man-of-war) Porpoise stops them and seeks help, her crew stricken with a plague. Claire determines that the disease is [fever](typhoid)(typhoid fever) and trains them to stop its spread, but the ship carries her off with the captain's promise to leave her in [Jamaica](Jamaica) to wait for the Artemis. \| LineColor = ABAC89 }} \| Viewers = 1.23 \| ShortSummary = On the Porpoise, Claire struggles against suspicion from some of the crew, but eventually manages to stop the spread of the disease. She discovers that the captain knows Jamie's true identity and plans to have him arrested in Jamaica for treason and murder. When they go ashore, she tries to escape but is apprehended by the captain. That night at sea, a woman named Annejke encourages Claire to jump overboard using an empty barrel as a raft, as the current will carry her towards land. Meanwhile, on the Artemis, Jamie is confined after threatening the captain, wanting him to sail faster in pursuit of the Porpoise. He tries to get Fergus to help him take control of the ship, but Fergus instead persuades the captain to let Jamie rejoin the crew after he promises not to mutiny again. \| LineColor = ABAC89 }} \| Viewers = 1.40 \| ShortSummary = Claire swims ashore, and walks inland, struggling to survive the harsh tropical environment. She is found and taken in by Father Fogden, a runaway priest. In passing, he tells her of a cave in Jamaica where people have been known to disappear. A few days later, the Artemis reaches the island, needing to make repairs after a storm, her captain having died. As the ship is about to sail, Claire attracts Jamie's attention from the beach using a mirror, and they are reunited. Back on the island, Fogden marries Fergus and Marsali. The next day, Jamie, Claire and the crew set sail for Jamaica. \| LineColor = ABAC89 }} \| Viewers = 1.51 \| ShortSummary = Geillis is holding Young Ian prisoner in Jamaica. She makes him drink tea that compels him to tell the truth about Jamie and the treasure. Jamie and Claire reach the island, and Claire gets into an altercation at the slave market. Jamie buys her the slave, Temeraire, to defuse the situation. They attend a ball thrown by the new governor, who they discover is Lord John. Claire is reunited with Geillis, who offers to help with their search. At the ball, Margaret Campbell prophesies that a king will rule Scotland again when a two-hundred-year-old child is killed. Fergus sees Captain Leonard arrive, and warns Jamie, who flees. Temeraire tells Claire and Jamie that Geillis is holding Ian. On their way to Geillis's villa, Jamie is arrested by Leonard. \| LineColor = ABAC89 }} \| Viewers = 1.43 \| ShortSummary = Claire is captured whilst searching Geillis's slave houses for Ian. The governor's troops recover Jamie from Captain Leonard, and Lord John sets Jamie free after Leonard is unable to produce any evidence of his alleged crimes. Meanwhile, Claire tells Geillis about her return to the 20th century, and Geillis realises that it is Claire's child who must die before Scotland wins its new king. Jamie frees Claire, and they rescue Ian from Geillis, who is killed by Claire during the struggle. The group sets sail from Jamaica, but are shipwrecked in a storm. Jamie saves Claire from drowning, and they are washed up together on the shore of the American colony [Georgia](Province of Georgia). \| LineColor = ABAC89 }} }} ### Season 4 (2018–19) \| Viewers = 1.08 \| ShortSummary = In [Carolina](North)(Province of North-Carolina), Jamie and Claire plan to sell Geillis's gemstones to pay for everyone's passage back to Scotland. They help thief Stephen Bonnet, who has fled his execution, escape recapture. Jamie and Claire decide to stay in America to start a new life; Fergus and Marsali, who is pregnant, decide to stay as well. En route to visit Jamie's aunt, he and Claire are attacked and robbed by Stephen and his gang of bandits. Stephen takes the jewels, as well as Claire's wedding ring, and kills Jamie's associate Lesley. \| LineColor = B5BDBA }} \| Viewers = 0.87 \| ShortSummary = Jamie, Claire, and Young Ian arrive at River Run, the sprawling plantation of Jamie's maternal aunt, Jocasta MacKenzie Cameron. Claire is uncomfortable that Jocasta owns slaves, and when she names Jamie as her heir, he reveals his intent to somehow free them. Jocasta's friend Farquard tries to convince him of the futility of such an attempt. A slave attacks a white overseer; Claire and Jamie save the critically injured slave from immediate execution, but an angry mob demands they hand him over. Forced to comply, Claire euthanises him first. \| LineColor = B5BDBA }} \| Viewers = 0.86 \| ShortSummary = To Jocasta's disappointment, Jamie and Claire decide to leave River Run and make a life of their own elsewhere. Lost in the woods during a storm, Claire finds a human skull and a stone pendant, and sees a ghost of an Indian. She and Jamie follow mysterious footprints that lead them back together. Claire notices modern silver fillings in the skull, which means the deceased had been a time traveler as well. They come to a beautiful stretch of land and decide to claim it. Back in 1970, Brianna and Roger reunite to take a trip to North Carolina. He proposes but she is not ready, a response that sparks an argument between them. \| LineColor = B5BDBA }} \| Viewers = 0.96 \| ShortSummary = Accepting Governor [Tryon](William)(William Tryon)'s [of land](offer)(Headright), Jamie and Claire settle in what Jamie has named Fraser's Ridge. They are hassled by a group of [Cherokee](Cherokee) warriors, and a bear. Jamie is attacked by the bear and kills it, learning that it is actually a Cherokee banished for rape. He and the tribe agree to live with each other in peace. In 1971, Roger learns of Jamie and Claire's settlement in North Carolina and calls Brianna to tell her that her parents found each other. He later learns that the Frasers had perished in a fire, but decides not to tell Brianna. Meanwhile, she has traveled to Scotland without telling Roger, to "see her mother" while, in truth, she is determined to finally meet her biological Scottish father. \| LineColor = B5BDBA }} \| Viewers = 0.96 \| ShortSummary = Claire delivers Petronella Mueller's baby, but Petronella, her baby, and her brother-in-law soon die of the measles. Believing the Cherokee cursed him, a distraught Gerhard Mueller scalps the healer Adawehi, Claire's friend, in revenge. The Indians retaliate, killing Gerhard and his wife and burning their house. Meanwhile, Jamie is reunited with Murtagh, who is now a blacksmith in a nearby town. In 1971, Roger tracks Brianna to Inverness, where she has gone through the standing stones of Craig Na Dunn to warn her parents of their imminent destiny. \| LineColor = B5BDBA }} \| Viewers = 1.04 \| ShortSummary = Lord John comes to Fraser's Ridge with young William. Murtagh learns that William is Jamie's son, but agrees to keep the secret. Jamie takes the fully grown William hunting and fishing in the forest while Claire nurses John, who has contracted measles. William angers the Cherokee by taking a fish from one of their traps, and Jamie is willing to sacrifice himself to protect his illegitimate son. John recovers, and Jamie is pained to see William leave thereafter. \| LineColor = B5BDBA }} \| Viewers = 1.12 \| ShortSummary = Brianna makes her way across Scotland, twisting her ankle and collapsing in the cold until she is found and taken in by none other than Laoghaire. Roger follows Brianna through the standing stones, and joins the crew of Stephen Bonnet's ship to follow her to America. Brianna remembers the days before Frank's death. Laoghaire realises that Brianna is Claire and Jamie's daughter, and is furious and spiteful. Laoghaire's red-haired youngest daughter, Joan, takes Brianna to Lallybroch before Laoghaire can have her arrested and destroyed as a sorceress like her mother. During the crossing, Roger tries to help his ancestor, Morag MacKenzie, avoid Stephen's cruelty. After being taken to a harbor town by her uncle, Brianna is approached by an indentured servant Joseph Wemyss, who begs Brianna to take his daughter, Elizabeth, as her servant so she doesn't become his master's concubine. Brianna agrees and books passage to America for them both. \| LineColor = B5BDBA }} \| Viewers = 0.91 \| ShortSummary = Roger and Brianna are reunited in [Wilmington](Wilmington, North Carolina) and exchange [handfasting](Handfasting (Great Britain and Ireland)) vows, but she learns that he knew that her parents would die and did not tell her, and pushes him away. Claire and Jamie are introduced to [Washington](George)(George Washington), and Jamie is alerted to an ambush set for Murtagh and his fellow insurgents. Claire performs emergency surgery on [Fanning](Edmund)(Edmund Fanning (colonial administrator)) while Jamie secretly sends Fergus to warn Murtagh. Brianna is brutally raped by Stephen as she attempts to recover her mother's wedding ring. \| LineColor = B5BDBA }} \| Viewers = 1.01 \| ShortSummary = Brianna finds Jamie in Wilmington, and is reunited with Claire. Roger is forced to rejoin Stephen's crew for the rest of his voyage, but is determined to return to Brianna. Claire guesses that Brianna is pregnant, and Brianna admits that she was raped. Claire tells Jamie. Roger comes to Fraser's Ridge, but Lizzie mistakenly identifies Roger to Jamie as Brianna's attacker. Jamie beats Roger senseless and leaves him for dead. Claire finds the ring, and realises that Stephen is Brianna's rapist. \| LineColor = B5BDBA }} \| Viewers = 1.16 \| ShortSummary = Roger is a prisoner of the [Mohawk](Mohawk people), and vows to escape them and reunite with Brianna. Meanwhile, she considers an abortion, which Claire warns would be dangerous. Brianna learns what Jamie did, and realises that thanks to Lizzie's misidentification, he had beaten Roger and not the real rapist, whom Jamie learns is Stephen. Jamie, Claire, and Young Ian set out to recover Roger, while Murtagh brings Brianna and Lizzie to Jocasta's plantation. Roger escapes in the woods, stumbles upon a standing stone, and considers whether to return to his own time. \| LineColor = B5BDBA }} \| Viewers = 1.27 \| ShortSummary = Roger has stayed in the past, and has been recaptured by the Mohawk. At River Run, Jocasta holds a dinner party of unmarried men as potential suitors for Brianna. Lord John arrives and learns that Brianna is pregnant, and she later spies him having sex with another male guest, Judge Alderdyce. Knowing that Gerald Forbes plans to propose, Brianna asks John to marry her, believing she will be safe with him. He refuses, but then relents after she tells him about her assault and her current predicament. Murtagh and Fergus capture Stephen at Jamie's request, but Murtagh and Stephen are caught by the authorities. As Jamie tracks Roger, he feels guilty for beating him, and for the harsh things he said to Brianna. \| LineColor = B5BDBA }} \| Viewers = 1.27 \| ShortSummary = While Fergus plots to break Murtagh out of jail in Wilmington, Brianna insists that Lord John bring her to confront Stephen, who has been incarcerated in the same place. She confronts Stephen and offers her forgiveness, though swearing that her baby will never know he existed. A badly injured Roger meets Father Alexandre Ferigault, another captive. He had lived among the Mohawk and fathered a child with one of them, Johiehon, but due to his sin felt unworthy to baptise the baby. Alexandre is tortured but will not perform the ritual, and is finally subjected to the painfully slow and deadly burning of his feet at the stake. Roger escapes, but comes back to throw accelerant on the fire to put Alexandre out of his misery. Johiehon puts down her baby and joins Alexandre in the flames. As a chained Stephen scrambles to reach a dropped set of keys, Fergus and Murtagh send Brianna and John away and then flee the jail, which they destroy with explosives to cover their flight. \| LineColor = B5BDBA }} \| Viewers = 1.45 \| ShortSummary = Brianna gives birth to a boy at River Run. Jamie, Claire, and Young Ian arrive at the Mohawk settlement in the [of New York](Province)(Province of New York), but the natives are alarmed by the stone pendant Claire is wearing and send the Frasers away. A group of Mohawk come to Jamie and Claire's camp seeking the stone, which belonged to a former member of their tribe who had prophesied the destruction of the Mohawk. Claire had previously determined from his skull that the man was also a time traveller. The Frasers convince the group to help them free Roger. They are caught in the attempt, but ultimately Young Ian offers himself as a replacement for Roger. On the journey back to North Carolina, Claire tells Roger about Brianna's rape and pregnancy, giving him the chance to decide if he can raise a child that may not be his. Brianna is devastated when Claire and Jamie return to River Run alone, but Roger appears before they depart for Fraser's Ridge and declares his love for Brianna. Jamie receives a letter from Governor Tryon telling him to find and kill the leader of the [Regulators](War of the Regulation): Murtagh. \| LineColor = B5BDBA }} }} ### Season 5 (2020) }} \| Viewers = 0.82 \| ShortSummary = After the celebrations in honor of Brianna and Roger's wedding, Governor Tryon reminds Jamie of his obligation to persecute and kill Murtagh Fitzgibbons. He also expects him to raise a militia to subdue the Regulators if necessary. Meanwhile, Brianna is reminded of her trauma when she inadvertently hears some devastating news. Roger is tested by Jocasta, who implies he should remember that even though he is not his blood relative, Brianna's young son is the heir to River Run, and his marriage to her will eventually pay off. To Jocasta's pleasure, he tells her off. Jamie, now a colonel in the English King's army, takes the pledges of Scots to serve in his Army and appoints Roger as captain. Jamie tells Murtagh to flee, as Jamie is obligated by honor to fulfill the governor's order. \| LineColor = 6F3826 }} \| Viewers = 0.79 \| ShortSummary = As Jamie continues to hunt Murtagh with the aid of the zealous Lieutenant Knox, he is forced to consider whether or not he is on the right side of history. When a resident of Fraser's Ridge dies from a preventable ailment, exacerbated by ill-informed use of folk medicine, Claire considers using modern methods to keep the settlers safe. \| LineColor = 6F3826 }} \| Viewers = 0.77 \| ShortSummary = The growing Regulator threat forces Jamie, Claire and Roger to embark on a mission to raise a militia. Jamie and Claire are forced to make a difficult decision when one of their settlers reveals he is a bondservant and asks for help freeing himself and his identical twin brother from their master who abused them and his wife Frances. At the shack, Jamie and Claire discover that a pregnant Frances has been subjecting her husband, who is barely alive, to gruesome tortures in retribution for what he had done to her and the twins over the years. She delivers a [biracial](biracial) illegitimate daughter. After Jamie secretly ends the husband's life by shooting him, Frances leaves the deed to her newborn child, whom Claire and Jamie decide to take with them. \| LineColor = 6F3826 }} \| Viewers = 0.76 \| ShortSummary = Roger leads Jamie's militia to the trading post of Brownsville and finds himself embroiled in a bitter feud. Jamie and Claire arrive to find that Roger's unusual strategy may have cost them the loyalty of the militia. Claire learns that her "modern" medical advice has spread further than she intended. \| LineColor = 6F3826 }} \| Viewers = 0.73 \| ShortSummary = Jamie and his militia arrive at Hillsborough to learn that Governor Tryon has proposed a rather unorthodox solution to deal with the threat posed by the Regulators and to resolve the growing political crisis. Jamie takes drastic action when Murtagh being his godfather is at risk of being revealed. While busy with life at the Ridge, Roger and Brianna must come to terms with their past when Roger learns new information about Stephen Bonnet. Meanwhile, Claire recalls an episode from her past in her own time that had led her back to Jamie. \| LineColor = 6F3826 }} \| Viewers = 0.82 \| ShortSummary = At Jocasta's wedding, Jamie learns Governor Tryon's true motivation for ending the Regulator threat. Claire discovers a lead on the whereabouts of a former enemy from an unexpected source, but the price for the information is far higher than she anticipates. Roger and Brianna must save Fraser's Ridge from an imminent threat in Jamie and Claire's absence. \| LineColor = 6F3826 }} \| Viewers = 0.81 \| ShortSummary = The Regulator Rebellion reaches a boiling point, forcing Jamie to face his fears and confront the consequences of his divided loyalties. Brianna remembers crucial details about the battle, causing Roger to go behind enemy lines. Jamie enters the [of Alamance](Battle)(Battle of Alamance) in a British uniform. When a Regulator tries to shoot him, Murtagh saves his life, only for one of Jamie's soldiers to shoot Murtagh immediately afterwards. Jamie brings Murtagh to Claire, but he is already beyond her help. A furious and brokenhearted Jamie declares his obligation to the British Crown finished, and hands in his redcoat to the British. The episode ends on a cliffhanger with Roger possibly having been hanged. \| LineColor = 6F3826 }} \| Viewers = 0.78 \| ShortSummary = The Frasers must come to terms with all that has changed in the aftermath of the Battle of Alamance. Roger was hanged but survives, albeit traumatized, and Brianna tries to help him heal both physically and mentally. While Claire and Jamie are playing with Jemmy in the woods near the Ridge, an unexpected visitor and close relative appears. Ian and Roger deal with the grief/pain together and assist each other in coping. \| LineColor = 6F3826 }} \| Viewers = 0.84 \| ShortSummary = When Jamie is bitten by a venomous snake, Claire fears she may not have the resources to save him; Jamie asks Roger to complete an important task in the event of his death. \| LineColor = 6F3826 }} \| Viewers = 0.85 \| ShortSummary = Jamie and Roger implement their plan to eliminate the threat looming over them, but it goes awry. Meanwhile, Brianna is forced to confront her greatest fear and fight for her and her young son's lives. \| LineColor = 6F3826 }} \| Viewers = 0.87 \| ShortSummary = A revelation about their son, Jeremiah "Jemmy", forces Roger and Brianna to decide if they want to stay in the 18th century or return to the early 1970s. Jamie finds that unrest in the backcountry has given rise to a new power: An organization led by the unpredictable Brown brothers. Meanwhile, Claire finds that her attempts to make this time safer for her family have dire, unintended consequences. \| LineColor = 6F3826 }} \| Viewers = 0.86 \| ShortSummary = Claire struggles to survive brutal treatment from her captors, as Jamie gathers a group of loyal men to help him rescue his wife. Roger and Brianna's journey takes a surprising turn. \| LineColor = 6F3826 }} }} ### Season 6 (2022) \| Viewers = 0.64 \| ShortSummary = Jamie's authority is tested when an old rival from Ardsmuir shows up to settle on the Ridge. Claire finds a new way to cope with the trauma of her assault by Lionel Brown. \| LineColor = 334643 }} \| Viewers = 0.56 \| ShortSummary = Jamie struggles with his first request as Indian Agent. Roger presides over an unusual funeral. Marsali gives birth. However, the joy is short lived when a discovery is made. \| LineColor = 334643 }} \| Viewers = 0.58 \| ShortSummary = Fergus worries about his new son's quality of life when the baby is bullied by superstitious Protestants. Claire performs surgery on Tom's hand. \| LineColor = 334643 }} \| Viewers = 0.48 \| ShortSummary = While visiting the Cherokee, Ian encounters a man from his past who dredges up painful memories of his time with the [people](Mohawk)(Mohawk people). Jamie meets an Indian Agent who challenges his convictions, causing him to re-evaluate. \| LineColor = 334643 }} \| Viewers = 0.49 \| ShortSummary = Claire and Jamie experience the rising tensions in the colonies first-hand when they attend a [Loyalist](Loyalist) event in Wilmington in honor of the Scottish heroine, [MacDonald](Flora)(Flora MacDonald). \| LineColor = 334643 }} \| Viewers = 0.53 \| ShortSummary = A dysentery epidemic spreads on the Ridge, and Claire falls deathly ill. She is almost recovered when the Christies arrive and drop a bombshell. As nefarious rumors spread like wildfire on the Ridge, tragedy strikes. \| LineColor = 334643 }} \| Viewers = 0.47 \| ShortSummary = Claire struggles with her demons as a nefarious rumor begins to spread on the Ridge. Tensions rise as the residents fear there is a dangerous person in their midst. \| LineColor = 334643 }} \| Viewers = 0.44 \| ShortSummary = Richard Brown and his Committee of Safety arrive to arrest Claire for murder. However, due to the rising political tensions in the colonies, Brown's plan to find a judge for a trial does not go as expected. \| LineColor = 334643 }} }} ### Season 7 \|director=18 \|writer=24 \|airdate=19 \|viewers=10 \|country=U.S. \|writerR= \|airdateR= \|episodes= \| Viewers = \| ShortSummary = \| LineColor = 334643 }} \| Viewers = \| ShortSummary = \| LineColor = 334643 }} \| Viewers = \| ShortSummary = \| LineColor = 334643 }} \| Viewers = \| ShortSummary = \| LineColor = 334643 }} \| Viewers = \| ShortSummary = \| LineColor = 334643 }} \| Viewers = \| ShortSummary = \| LineColor = 334643 }} \| Viewers = \| ShortSummary = \| LineColor = 334643 }} \| Viewers = \| ShortSummary = \| LineColor = 334643 }} \| Viewers = \| ShortSummary = \| LineColor = 334643 }} \| Viewers = \| ShortSummary = \| LineColor = 334643 }} \| Viewers = \| ShortSummary = \| LineColor = 334643 }} \| Viewers = \| ShortSummary = \| LineColor = 334643 }} \| Viewers = \| ShortSummary = \| LineColor = 334643 }} \| Viewers = \| ShortSummary = \| LineColor = 334643 }} \| Viewers = \| ShortSummary = \| LineColor = 334643 }} \| Viewers = \| ShortSummary = \| LineColor = 334643 }} }} The ninth through sixteenth episodes were written by Barbara Stepansky, Luke Schelhaas, Sarah H. Haught, Toni Graphia, Madeline Brestal & Evan McGahey, [Gabaldon](Diana)(Diana Gabaldon), Danielle Berrow, and Matthew B. Roberts & Toni Graphia, respectively. ## Viewership ---- For the second season, see ---- For the third season, see ---- For the fourth season, see ---- For the fifth season, see ---- For the sixth season, see \| - \| 0.72 \| 0.90 \| 1.00 \| 0.84 \| 0.95 \| 1.10 \| 1.23 \| 1.42 \| 1.22 \| 0.86 \| 1.09 \| 1.11 \| 1.05 \| 1.08 \| 1.01 \| 0.98 \| 1.04 \|- \| 1.46 \| 1.24 \| 1.21 \| 1.17 \| 1.13 \| 1.03 \| 1.10 \| 1.06 \| 0.94 \| 0.82 \| 0.86 \| 1.05 \| 1.15 \| 1.09 \|- \| 1.49 \| 1.40 \| 1.55 \| 1.59 \| 1.60 \| 1.72 \| 1.52 \| 1.64 \| 1.49 \| 1.23 \| 1.40 \| 1.51 \| 1.43 \| 1.51 \|- \| 1.08 \| 0.87 \| 0.86 \| 0.96 \| 0.96 \| 1.04 \| 1.12 \| 0.91 \| 1.01 \| 1.16 \| 1.27 \| 1.27 \| 1.45 \| 1.07 \|- \| 0.82 \| 0.79 \| 0.77 \| 0.76 \| 0.73 \| 0.82 \| 0.81 \| 0.78 \| 0.84 \| 0.85 \| 0.87 \| 0.86 \| 0.81 \|- \| 0.64 \| 0.56 \| 0.58 \| 0.48 \| 0.49 \| 0.53 \| 0.47 \| 0.44 \| 0.52 }} ## Notes ## References ## External links * * [of American drama television series episodes](Category:Lists)(Category:Lists of American drama television series episodes) [of British drama television series episodes](Category:Lists)(Category:Lists of British drama television series episodes) [Episodes](Category:Outlander (franchise))
Barbara Muschietti	barbara_muschietti	# Barbara Muschietti Revision ID: 1160340396 \| Timestamp: 2023-06-15T21:36:55Z --- \| birth_place = [López, Buenos Aires](Vicente)(Vicente López, Buenos Aires), [Argentina](Argentina) \| nationality = Argentine \| other_names = \| occupation = \| relatives = [Muschietti](Andy)(Andy Muschietti) (brother) \| yearsactive = 1996–present \| known_for = Mamá (short film)[Mama](Mama (2013 film))[It](It (2017 film)) }} Bárbara Muschietti (born 22 December 1971) is an Argentine film producer and screenwriter, best known for producing the 2013 horror film [Mama](Mama (2013 film)) and the 2017 and 2019 adaptations of [King](Stephen)(Stephen King)'s [It](It (2017 film)), all of which were directed by her brother, [Muschietti](Andy)(Andy Muschietti). ## Personal life She is of [Italian](Italian Argentines) descent. She is married to writer [Phillips](Arthur)(Arthur Phillips). ## Producer credits ## References ## External links * [people](Category:Living)(Category:Living people) [film producers](Category:Argentine)(Category:Argentine film producers) [screenwriters](Category:Argentine)(Category:Argentine screenwriters) [film directors](Category:Horror)(Category:Horror film directors) [of birth missing (living people)](Category:Place)(Category:Place of birth missing (living people)) [people of Italian descent](Category:Argentine)(Category:Argentine people of Italian descent) [births](Category:1971)(Category:1971 births)
The Facts of Life _TV series	the_facts_of_life__tv_series	# The Facts of Life (TV series) Revision ID: 1157082977 \| Timestamp: 2023-05-26T05:03:04Z --- \| developer = \| starring = \| theme_music_composer = \| opentheme = "The Facts of Life" \| composer = \| country = United States \| language = English \| num_seasons = 9 \| num_episodes = 201 \| list_episodes = List of The Facts of Life episodes \| executive_producer = \| producer = \| camera = [Videotape](Videotape); [Multi-camera](Multiple-camera setup) \| runtime = 22 minutes \| company = \| network = [NBC](NBC) \| picture_format = [NTSC](NTSC) \| audio_format = \| first_aired = \| last_aired = \| related = }} *The Facts of Life* is an American television sitcom created by [Clair](Dick)(Dick Clair) and [McMahon](Jenna)(Jenna McMahon) and a spin-off of [Strokes](Diff'rent)(Diff'rent Strokes) that originally aired on [NBC](NBC) from August 24, 1979, to May 7, 1988, making it one of the longest-running sitcoms of the 1980s. The series focuses on [Garrett](Edna)(List of The Facts of Life characters#Edna Garrett) ([Rae](Charlotte)(Charlotte Rae)), as she becomes a housemother (and from the second season onward, a [dietitian](dietitian) as well) at the fictional Eastland School, an all-girls boarding school in [New York](Peekskill,)(Peekskill, New York). ## Plot ### Season 1 A spin-off of [Strokes](Diff'rent)(Diff'rent Strokes)'', the series featured the Drummonds' former housekeeper Edna Garrett ([Rae](Charlotte)(Charlotte Rae)) working in a new job as the housemother of a dormitory at Eastland School, a private [school](all-girls)(Single-sex education) in [New York](Peekskill,)(Peekskill, New York). The girls in her care included spoiled rich girl [Warner](Blair)(List of The Facts of Life characters#Blair Warner) ([Whelchel](Lisa)(Lisa Whelchel)); the youngest, gossipy ["Tootie" Ramsey](Dorothy)(List of The Facts of Life characters#Tootie Ramsey) ([Fields](Kim)(Kim Fields)), and impressionable [Green](Natalie)(List of The Facts of Life characters#Natalie Green) ([Cohn](Mindy)(Mindy Cohn)). The pilot for the show was [aired as the last episode](originally)(Television pilot#Backdoor pilot) of the first season of ''Diff'rent Strokes'' and was called "The Girls' School (a.k.a. Garrett's Girls)." The plot line for the pilot had Kimberly Drummond ([Plato](Dana)(Dana Plato)) requesting that Mrs. Garrett help her sew costumes for a student play at East Lake School for Girls, the school Kimberly attended in Upstate New York, as her dorm's housemother had recently quit. Mrs. Garrett agrees to help, puts on a successful play and also solves a problem for the boyfriend-obsessed Nancy Olsen ([Schachter](Felice)(Felice Schachter)) as she also meets Blair, Tootie, the small-town girl from [Kansas](Kansas), Sue Ann Weaver ([Piekarski](Julie)(Julie Piekarski)), and the budding activist Molly Parker ([Ringwald](Molly)(Molly Ringwald)). Mrs. Garrett is asked to stay on as the new housemother but says she would rather continue working for the Drummonds at the end of the pilot. After the pilot, the name of the school was changed to Eastland and characters were replaced with Natalie, athletic tomboy Cindy Webster ([Anne Haddock](Julie)(Julie Anne Haddock)), and Mr. Bradley becoming part of the main group featured. Although Kimberly Drummond is featured as a student at East Lake, her character did not cross over to the spinoff series with Mrs. Garrett. In the show's first season, episodes focus on the issues of seven girls, with the action usually set in a large, wood-paneled common room of a girls' dormitory. Also appearing was the school's headmaster, Mr. Steven Bradley ([Lawlor](John)(John Lawlor (actor))) and Miss Emily Mahoney ([O'Hara](Jenny)(Jenny O'Hara)), an Eastland teacher who was dropped after the first four episodes. Early episodes of the show typically revolve around a central morality-based or "lesson teaching" theme. The show's pilot episode plot included a storyline in which Blair Warner insinuates that her schoolmate Cindy Webster is a lesbian, because she is a tomboy and frequently shows affection for other girls. Other season one episodes deal with issues including [use](drug)(Substance abuse), sex, [disorder](eating)(eating disorder), parental relationships, and [pressure](peer)(peer pressure). ### Seasons 2–8 The producers felt that there were too many characters given the limitations of the half-hour sitcom format and that the plotlines should be more focused to give the remaining girls more room for character development. Four of the original actresses—[Anne Haddock](Julie)(Julie Anne Haddock) (Cindy), [Piekarski](Julie)(Julie Piekarski) (Sue Ann), [Schachter](Felice)(Felice Schachter) (Nancy) and [Ringwald](Molly)(Molly Ringwald) (Molly)—were written out of the show, although the four did make periodic guest appearances in the second and third seasons, and all but Molly Ringwald appeared in one "reunion" episode in the eighth season. Mr. Bradley's character was also dropped and replaced by Mr. Charles Parker ([Perry](Roger)(Roger Perry)). Mr. Parker appeared in episodes through the beginning of season 5. In addition to being housemother to the remaining girls, Mrs. Garrett became the school [dietitian](dietitian) as the second season began. [Polniaczek](Jo)(List of The Facts of Life characters#Jo Polniaczek) ([McKeon](Nancy)(Nancy McKeon)), a new student originally from [Bronx](the)(the Bronx), arrived at Eastland on scholarship. A run-in with the law forced the four to be separated from the other girls and work in the cafeteria, living together in a spare room next to Mrs. Garrett's bedroom. The season two premiere of the retooled series saw an immediate ratings increase. By its third season (1981–82), Facts of Life* had become NBC's No. 1 comedy and No. 2 overall NBC program, beating its predecessor, ''Diff'rent Strokes'', for the first time. In 1983, Jo and Blair graduated Eastland Academy in the highly anticipated season four finale "Graduation". Keeping the four girls under one roof the season five premiere which was an hour long, "Brave New World", shows Mrs. Garrett going into business for herself and opening a gourmet food venture named Edna's Edibles. The four girls came to live and work with Mrs. Garrett in the new refreshed space. In September 1985, NBC moved the seventh season of the series to its burgeoning Saturday night lineup at 8:30, as a lead-in for the new series [Golden Girls](The)(The Golden Girls) at 9 pm. In an attempt to refresh the "ratings work horse" and increase ratings, [Clooney](George)(George Clooney) was added to the regular cast and Mrs. Garrett's store was gutted by fire in the season seven premiere "Out of the Fire". The follow-up episodes "Into the Frying Pan" and "Grand Opening" had the girls join together to rebuild the store with a pop culture-influenced gift shop, called Over Our Heads. The changes proved successful as all three episodes placed in the top ten ratings each week. By the end of the season, TV Guide reported, "Facts success has been so unexpected that scions of Hollywood are still taken aback by it... Facts has in fact been among NBC's top-ranked comedies for the past five years. It finished twenty-seven overall for the 1985–1986 season, handily winning its time slot against its most frequent competitors, [Airwolf](Airwolf) and [Benson](Benson (TV series)). Lisa Whelchel stated, 'We're easily overlooked because we've never been a huge hit; we just sort of snuck in there.'"TV Guide July 5–11, 1985 Charlotte Rae initially reduced her role in seasons six and seven and later decided to leave the series altogether, believing she had done all she could do with her character and desired to move on to other projects. In season eight's heavily promoted one-hour premiere, "Out of Peekskill" Mrs. Garrett married the man of her dreams and joined him in Africa while he worked for the [Corps](Peace)(Peace Corps). Mrs. Garrett convinces her sister, Beverly Ann Stickle ([Leachman](Cloris)(Cloris Leachman)), to take over the shop and look after the girls. The character of Beverly Ann had a similar personality to Leachman's previous Emmy-winning role as Phyllis Lindstrom on two 1970s CBS sitcoms–[Mary Tyler Moore Show](The)(The Mary Tyler Moore Show) and [Phyllis](Phyllis (TV series)). Beverly Ann later legally adopted Over Our Heads worker Andy Moffett ([Astin](Mackenzie)(Mackenzie Astin)) in the episode "A Boy About the House". Describing the new changes to The Facts of Life, [Tartikoff](Brandon)(Brandon Tartikoff), the president of [Entertainment](NBC)(NBC Entertainment), said he "was surprised that The Facts of Life performed well this season, as, with a major cast change and all, I thought it might not perform as it had in the past. Facts has been renewed for next season.""Web Brass Dissect Past Season" Variety April 22, 1987 ### Final season In the ninth and final season, the series aired on NBC's Saturday lineup at 8 pm, NBC still had confidence in the series, making it the 8 p.m. anchor, kicking off the network's second-highest rated night (after Thursdays). For the February [rating sweeps](Nielsen)(Nielsen ratings#Sweeps), the writers created a controversial storyline in this season for the episode titled "The First Time". Natalie became the first of the girls to lose her [virginity](virginity). [Whelchel](Lisa)(Lisa Whelchel) refused this storyline that would have made her character, not Natalie, the first among the four young women in the show to lose her virginity. Having become a [Christian](Christians) when she was 10, Whelchel would not say the lines because of her religious convictions. Whelchel appeared in every episode of the show but asked to be written out of "The First Time". The episode ran a parental advisory before it began and placed 22nd in the ratings for the week. With the show still easily winning its timeslot, NBC had made plans to renew The Facts of Life for a 10th season but two castmates–Mindy Cohn and Nancy McKeon–chose to leave at the conclusion of season nine. ## Cast ### Main characters ### Recurring characters A key recurring character was Geri Tyler ([Jewell](Geri)(Geri Jewell)), Blair's cousin who has [palsy](cerebral)(cerebral palsy). Jewell's character primarily was created in order to show Blair's more sympathetic side but Cousin Geri eventually inspired many other people with disabilities interested in the entertainment industry. Other recurring characters included the judgment-impaired Miko Wakamatsu ([Tom](Lauren)(Lauren Tom)), the delivery boy Roy ([Lester](Loren)(Loren Lester)) who was enamored with Jo, the royal princess Alexandra ([McAdam](Heather)(Heather McAdam)) and the snobbish Boots St. Clair ([Gertz](Jami)(Jami Gertz)). Shoplifter Kelly ([Segall](Pamela)(Pamela Adlon)) was billed as a regular during the fifth season. Other guest roles included the boyfriends of the girls; Jo's parents, played by [Rocco](Alex)(Alex Rocco) and [Malis](Claire)(Claire Malis); Blair's parents, played by [Coster](Nicolas)(Nicolas Coster) and [Dusay](Marj)(Marj Dusay); Tootie's parents, played by [Fields](Chip)(Chip Fields) (Kim Fields's real-life mother) and [Hooks](Robert)(Robert Hooks) and Natalie's parents, played by [Burton](Norman)(Norman Burton) and [Hoag](Mitzi)(Mitzi Hoag). Characters from ''Diff'rent Strokes'' also appeared in some episodes of both season one and season two. Other recurring characters included Tootie's boyfriend Jeff Williams (Todd Hollowell), Blair's boyfriend Cliff ([Brown](Woody)(Woody Brown (actor))), and Charles Parker ([Perry](Roger)(Roger Perry)), who served as headmaster of Eastland following Lawlor's exit from the show. ## Production ### Development The Facts of Life was produced first by [Communications Company](T.A.T.)(T.A.T. Communications Company), later known as Embassy Television (Norman Lear's production companies) and then as Embassy Communications and [Pictures Television](Columbia)(Columbia Pictures Television) (through ELP Communications) on January–May 1988 episodes of the series. [Pictures Television](Sony)(Sony Pictures Television) currently owns the distribution rights to the sitcom. From 1979 until 1982 the show was produced at [Square](Metromedia)(Metromedia Square) in Los Angeles. In 1982, production moved to [City Studios](Universal)(Universal Pictures) and then to [Gower Studios](Sunset)(Sunset Gower Studios) in 1985. ### Theme music The show's theme was composed by Al Burton, [Loring](Gloria)(Gloria Loring) and her then-husband, [Thicke](Alan)(Alan Thicke). The well-known opening lyric "You take the good, you take the bad..." came later as the first season lyrics, some of them performed by Rae and the original cast differed from those that followed, later sung by Loring. The original lyrics eventually shifted to the closing credits before being dropped entirely. Burton, Loring, and Thicke had previously composed the theme to ''Diff'rent Strokes, which was sung by Thicke. ## Episodes ### Television films #### The Facts of Life Goes to Paris* [Facts of Life Goes to Paris](The)(The Facts of Life Goes to Paris), a two-hour TV movie in which Mrs. Garrett and the girls travel to France, aired September 25, 1982. It scored 18.1/31 in the Nielsen Ratings. The movie was later added to the American syndication package, separated into four half-hour episodes; however, the original cut of the film appears on the Season 4 DVD set in 2010. The TV movie was directed by [Kelada](Asaad)(Asaad Kelada). #### The Facts of Life Down Under [Facts of Life Down Under](The)(The Facts of Life Down Under)'', another two-hour TV movie, aired Sunday, February 15, 1987 placing a strong No. 13 for the week garnering 21.4/32.Variety Feb 18 1987, Weekly Ratings Scorecard, page 112 This was strategic [counterprogramming](Counterprogramming (television)) by NBC, which placed the movie against the conclusion of [ABC](American Broadcasting Company)'s highly publicized [miniseries](miniseries) [Amerika](Amerika (miniseries)). The Telemovie was also syndicated as four half-hour episodes in later U.S. airings.Ed. Scott Murray, Australia on the Small Screen 1970–1995, Oxford University Press, 1996 p55 #### The Facts of Life Reunion* [Facts of Life Reunion](The)(The Facts of Life Reunion), a two-hour TV movie reunion aired on ABC November 18, 2001, in which Mrs. Garrett and the girls are reunited in Peekskill, New York, for the Thanksgiving holiday. It occasionally aired in the United States on [Family](ABC)(Freeform (TV channel)#Sale to Disney and rebranding as ABC Family (2001–2006)). Nancy McKeon (Jo) did not appear in the movie; her character's absence is explained as being on assignment as a police officer. ## Syndication NBC aired daytime reruns of The Facts of Life from December 13, 1982 until June 28, 1985 at 10 a.m. (and later noon) on the daytime schedule. Episodes aired on television stations nationwide from September 15, 1986 to September 10, 1993, then aired on the [Network](USA)(USA Network) on and off from September 13, 1993The Intelligencer – September 13, 1993 to September 11, 1998.TV Guide – September 5–11, 1998 In August 1994, the network celebrated the show's 15th anniversary with a day-long marathon of 14 episodes featuring new interviews with Rae, Whelchel and Cohn. Episodes aired on [at Nite](Nick)(Nick at Nite) from September 4, 2000 to June 28, 2001, although the network did not air certain episodes that contained highly mature content during primetime (including the first-season episode "Dope"), instead opting to air episodes with more serious topics at late night/early morning times. [Land](TV)(TV Land) aired 48 hours of The Facts of Life episodes on its "Fandemonium Marathon Weekend" on November 17–19, 2001. The [Channel](Hallmark)(Hallmark Channel) aired The Facts of Life from July 1 to November 1, 2002. Episodes were available on [Comcast](Comcast)'s [Video-On-Demand](video on demand) service from August 8, 2005 to July 31, 2006 and again from the August 6, 2007 until Tube Time's shutdown date on December 31, 2009. On July 16, 2008 full episodes and short "minisodes" of The Facts of Life became available online via Hulu. On March 12, 2012, [TeenNick](TeenNick) added the series to their morning lineup; however, the series' addition to the channel was short-lived, as it left the schedule on April 3, 2012. The series premiered on [Hub](The)(Discovery Family) on April 2, 2012, where it rerun until March 22, 2013 and later moved to [TV](Logo)(Logo TV). Most recently, [TV](Antenna)(Antenna TV) started airing The Facts of Life on January 2, 2020. The series also airs on Logo TV in various time slots. As of March 2022, the series has also been airing in daily blocks and on Saturdays in day long marathons on the [Family](GAC)(GAC Family) cable network. Also as of March 30, 2023, seasons one through nine are available on Tubi. ## International airings * In Brazil, the show aired on [at Nite](Nick)(Nick at Nite) as Vivendo e Aprendendo (Living and Learning in English). * In Latin America and Mexico, the show aired as [Hechos de la Vida](Los)(:es:The Facts of Life) aired on [Warner Channel](The)(Warner TV) and [at Nite](Nick)(Nick at Nite). * In Italy, seasons one through nine were aired in 1983–1992 (dubbed as usual in Italian), on the terrestrial television network [5](Canale)(Canale 5), the first Italian commercial network, and later on other local commercial television networks. The Italian version was named ''[delle mele](L'albero)(:it:L'albero delle mele), which means The apple tree* (the word "apple" is popularly used euphemistically in Italian as a reference to teenage girls). * In France, seasons one to nine (dubbed in French and titled [de vie](Drôle)(:fr:Drôle de vie (série télévisée))) which means Funny Life, aired in 1987 until 1988 on the terrestrial television network [Cinq](La)(La Cinq), and seasons one to nine aired on [TF1](TF1) from 1991 until 1996 as part of a block called [Dorothée](Club)(:fr:Club Dorothée). In the United Kingdom, unlike ''[Strokes](Diff'rent)(Diff'rent Strokes), The Facts of Life* has never aired on terrestrial television. A few seasons aired on the UK [BSB](British Satellite Broadcasting) satellite channels, and after BSB merged with [Television](Sky)(Sky Television (1984–1990)), the entire series was shown on [One](Sky)(Sky One). * In Canada, The Facts of Life was a mainstay on [Television](CBC)(CBC Television)–the Canadian public broadcaster, airing concurrently with the NBC airings as well as weekdays in [stripped](Strip programming) reruns at 4:00 p.m. (4:30 p.m. in Newfoundland) until April 1992. [Television System](Crossroads)(Yes TV) (CTS), a Christian-based network, aired it from September 2006 to 2009. Beginning on September 15, 2007, The Facts of Life'' aired weekends at 10:00 a.m. and 2:00 p.m. on [Canwest](Canwest)'s digital specialty channel, [DejaView](DejaView), which later moved it to weekdays at 4:00 p.m. and 4:30 p.m. in March 2010. As of 2019, Hamilton, Ontario-based [CHCH](CHCH-DT) currently airs the series on weekdays at 4:00 p.m. (Eastern Time). The entire series is also currently available for online streaming on [CTV.ca](CTV Television Network), as part of an ad-supported [on demand](video)(video on demand) service called CTV Throwback. ## Reception ### Ratings The Facts of Life* was originally not a ratings winner on Friday nights in its summer debut in 1979 or in its second tryout in the spring of 1980. It ranked 74th of 79 shows on the air in the year-end Nielsen ratings and was NBC's lowest-rated series. The show was put on hiatus and extensively retooled in preparation for season two. In November 1980, season two of The Facts of Life premiered in a Wednesday 9:30 p.m. time slot, where it immediately flourished, peaking in January 1981 with a 27.4 rating and 41 share; it ranked No. 4 for the week. The program became NBC's fourth highest-rated scripted series, after Little House on the Prairie, ''Diff'rent Strokes* and CHiPs''. By the third season, the series moved time slots to 9:00 pm. Wednesdays and soon became NBC's highest-rated comedy series and NBC's No. 2 overall series, after [People](Real)(Real People).https://classictvguide.com/tvratings/1981.htm 1981–82 television ratings For its seventh season, it moved to Saturdays at 8:30 p.m., to bolster the premiering series [Golden Girls](The)(The Golden Girls)* at 9 p.m. in the newly formed Saturday night comedy block. At the start of the eighth season, the series was moved forward a half-hour to the toughest time slot on television–Saturday at 8 pm, which brought the ratings down from its season seven high. Still, the series easily won its time slot and garnered high numbers in the coveted teen and 18–49 demographics. One of the highest rated season eight episodes saw the original season one cast return for a mini-reunion. Titled "The Little Chill", it placed No. 19 for the week with an 18.2 rating and 31 share. In the article "Ratings Top with Teens" appearing in the January 19, 1988 edition of [Today](USA)(USA Today), The Facts of Life was ranked as one of the top 10 shows in a survey of 2,200 American teenagers.USA Today Information Network, Jan 19, 1988 When teenagers watch TV, they like to laugh. ### Nielsen Ratings 1979–1980 – #74 1980–1981 – #26 1981–1982 – #24 (Tied with [House on the Prairie](Little)(Little House on the Prairie (TV series))) 1982–1983 – #32 1983–1984 – #24 1984–1985 – #34 1985–1986 – #27 1986–1987 – #31 1987–1988 – #37 (Tied with [to Heaven](Highway)(Highway to Heaven)) ### Awards [Award](Emmy)(Emmy Award) nomination for Best Actress (1982) – [Rae](Charlotte)(Charlotte Rae) * Emmy Award nomination for Outstanding Technical Direction/Electronic Camerawork/Video Control for a Series (1986) – for episode "Come Back to the Truck Stop, Natalie Green, Natalie Green". * Emmy Award nomination for Outstanding Achievement in Hairstyling for a Series (1987) – for episode "'62 Pickup". * [Land Award](TV)(TV Land Award) for Pop Culture Icon in 2011. ## Home media On April 21 and 22, 2001, [House](Columbia)(Columbia House) released ''The Facts of Life: The Collector's Edition'', a 10-volume "Best of" the series on [VHS](VHS) (40 episodes in all). With the advent shortly thereafter of TV on DVD and Columbia House's eventual move from the [marketing](direct)(direct marketing) model of exclusive series, the tapes were discontinued. [Pictures Home Entertainment](Sony)(Sony Pictures Home Entertainment) released the first two seasons on DVD in [1](Region)(DVD region code#1) on May 9, 2006 with new interviews with most of the cast, including first season regulars Felice Schachter and Julie Anne Haddock. To promote the DVD's release, McKeon, Whelchel and Cohn appeared together on various TV shows such as [Tonight](Entertainment)(Entertainment Tonight), [Today](Today (American TV program)), and [CNN](CNN) Showbiz to reminisce about their time on the show and talk about their lives presently; unfortunately, Fields was unable to take part due to other commitments. The third season was released on October 24, 2006. This release failed to match the success of the first and second seasons, sales-wise. The first and second seasons were also released in Region 4 on March 7, 2007. In 2010, [Factory](Shout!)(Shout! Factory) acquired the rights to the series and released the fourth season on Region 1 DVD on May 4, 2010. Special features include The Facts of Life Goes To Paris, a made-for-TV-movie (which originally aired a few days prior to the fourth season debut) and a "Know The Facts: Trivia Game." They have subsequently released seasons five through nine on DVD. Mill Creek Entertainment re-released the first and second seasons on DVD on May 20, 2014. It is unknown as to whether or not Mill Creek will release any further seasons. On January 13, 2015, [Factory](Shout!)(Shout! Factory) released The Facts of Life – The Complete Series on DVD in Region 1. The 26-disc set contains all 201 episodes of the series as well as the two made-for-TV films ([Facts of Life Goes to Paris](The)(The Facts of Life (TV series)#The Facts of Life Goes to Paris) and [Facts of Life Down Under](The)(The Facts of Life (TV series)#The Facts of Life Down Under)) and other bonus features including an all-new cast reunion. [Facts of Life Reunion](The)(The Facts of Life Reunion) film is not included in this collection and has yet to be released on DVD. ## Attempted spin-offs The various attempts at spin-offs were [pilots](backdoor)(Television pilot#Backdoor pilot), which were shown as episodes of The Facts of Life. "Brian & Sylvia" – A season two episode in which Tootie and Natalie go to Buffalo, New York to visit Tootie's Aunt Sylvia, a black woman (played by [Katon](Rosanne)(Rosanne Katon)) who has recently married a white man, played by [Dean Anderson](Richard)(Richard Dean Anderson) (the future star of MacGyver* and Stargate SG-1). [DuBois](Ja'Net)(Ja'Net DuBois) of [Times](Good)(Good Times) played Ethel, who was both Tootie's grandmother and Sylvia's mother. The episode never developed into a series and in the season five episode "Crossing the Line", Tootie mentions Brian's and Sylvia's interracial marriage and says that the two have recently gotten divorced. "The Academy" – A season three episode set at Stone Academy, an all-boys military school that was near Eastland. In this episode, the girls at Eastland attended a dance with the boys from the military school. The boys included actors [Baio](Jimmy)(Jimmy Baio), Ben Marley, [Ackroyd](David)(David Ackroyd), [Frechette](Peter)(Peter Frechette), and [P. Navin Jr.](John)(John P. Navin Jr.) "Jo's Cousin" – Another season three episode, in which Jo visits her family in the Bronx, including her cousin Terry, a fourteen-year-old girl (played by [Follows](Megan)(Megan Follows)) going through adolescence in a family full of men. The family included actors [Cramer](Grant)(Grant Cramer), [Mengatti](John)(John Mengatti), [Rhodes](Donnelly)(Donnelly Rhodes), and [Brown](D.W.)(D.W. Brown). "The Big Fight" – A season four episode set at Stone Academy, a boys' military school. Natalie comes to visit a boy who tries to impress her with his boxing. This episode includes the same cast from the season three episode "The Academy", with the addition of '80s 'nerd' icon [Deezen](Eddie)(Eddie Deezen). "Graduation" – This spin-off was to revolve around Blair and Jo's life at Langley College. "Big Apple Blues" – A season nine episode in which Natalie spends the night with a group of eccentric young people living in a [SoHo](SoHo, Manhattan) loft, and decides to remain in New York to begin her life. Two of the tenants in the loft were played by [Spade](David)(David Spade) and [Grieco](Richard)(Richard Grieco). "The Beginning of the End/Beginning of the Beginning" – The two-part series finale sees Blair buying Eastland to prevent its closing. Blair finds that the school is in such dire financial straits that she is forced to make the school co-ed. Blair then essentially adopts the Mrs. Garrett role as she presides over the school and is forced to deal with the trouble-making students in a plot line that is highly reminiscent of the season two premiere. The new Eastland students included [Green](Seth)(Seth Green), [Bialik](Mayim)(Mayim Bialik), [Scott Lynn](Meredith)(Meredith Scott Lynn), and future Oscar-nominee [Lewis](Juliette)(Juliette Lewis). ## Notes ## References ## External links * * * [The Facts of Life site](https://folbartman2.tripod.com/factsoflife/) at: Extensive site for the television series. [ ](Category:The Facts of Life (TV series)) [American school television series](Category:1970s)(Category:1970s American school television series) [American sitcoms](Category:1970s)(Category:1970s American sitcoms) [American television series debuts](Category:1979)(Category:1979 American television series debuts) [American school television series](Category:1980s)(Category:1980s American school television series) [American teen sitcoms](Category:1980s)(Category:1980s American teen sitcoms) [American television series endings](Category:1988)(Category:1988 American television series endings) [television spin-offs](Category:American)(Category:American television spin-offs) [television shows](Category:English-language)(Category:English-language television shows) [original programming](Category:NBC)(Category:NBC original programming) [series about teenagers](Category:Television)(Category:Television series about teenagers) [series by Sony Pictures Television](Category:Television)(Category:Television series by Sony Pictures Television) [shows set in New York (state)](Category:Television)(Category:Television shows set in New York (state))
Guinness World Records	guinness_world_records	# Guinness World Records Revision ID: 1158884997 \| Timestamp: 2023-06-06T21:09:45Z --- \| image = Guinness World Records logo.svg \| language = \| subject = World records \| country = United Kingdom \| publisher = [Pattison Group](Jim)(Jim Pattison Group) \| english_pub_date = 27 August 1955 – present \| media_type = \| oclco = \| website = }} *Guinness World Records, known from its inception in 1955 until 1999 as The Guinness Book of Records* and in previous United States editions as *The Guinness Book of World Records, is a British [book](reference)(reference book) published annually, listing [record](world)(world record)s both of human achievements and the extremes of the natural world. The brainchild of Sir [Beaver](Hugh)(Hugh Beaver), the book was co-founded by twin brothers [Norris](Norris McWhirter) and [McWhirter](Ross)(Ross McWhirter) in [Street](Fleet)(Fleet Street), [London](London), in August 1955. The first edition topped the bestseller list in the United Kingdom by Christmas 1955. The following year the book was launched internationally, and as of the 2022 edition, it is now in its 67th year of publication, published in 100 countries and 23 languages, and maintains over 53,000 records in its database. The international [franchise](Franchising) has extended beyond print to include television series and museums. The popularity of the franchise has resulted in Guinness World Records* becoming the primary international source for cataloguing and verification of a huge number of world records. The organisation employs record adjudicators to verify the authenticity of the setting and breaking of records. Following a series of owners, the franchise has been owned by the [Pattison Group](Jim)(Jim Pattison Group) since 2008, with its headquarters moved to [Quay Plaza](South)(South Quay Plaza), [Wharf](Canary)(Canary Wharf), London in 2017. Since 2008, Guinness World Records has orientated its business model toward inventing new world records as publicity stunts for companies and individuals, which has attracted criticisms as it appears to offend some . ## History [[File:Norris McWhirter (1977).jpg\|thumb\|left\|upright\|[McWhirter](Norris)(Norris McWhirter) co-founded the book with his twin brother [Ross](Ross McWhirter) at 107 [Street](Fleet)(Fleet Street), London, in August 1955]] On 10 November 1951, Sir [Beaver](Hugh)(Hugh Beaver), then the managing director of the [Breweries](Guinness)(Guinness Breweries), went on a shooting party in the [Slob](North)(North Slob), by the [Slaney](River)(River Slaney) in [Wexford](County)(County Wexford), Ireland. After missing a shot at a [plover](golden)(European golden plover), he became involved in an argument over which was the fastest [bird](game)(Game (food)) in Europe, the golden plover or the [grouse](red)(red grouse) (it is the plover). That evening at [Castlebridge](Castlebridge) House, he realised that it was impossible to confirm in reference books whether or not the golden plover was Europe's fastest game bird. Beaver knew that there must have been numerous other questions debated nightly among the public, but there was no book in the world with which to settle arguments about records. He realised then that a book supplying the answers to this sort of question might prove successful. Beaver's idea became reality when Guinness employee [Chataway](Christopher)(Christopher Chataway) recommended university friends [Norris](Norris McWhirter) and [McWhirter](Ross)(Ross McWhirter), who had been running a fact-finding agency in London. The twin brothers were commissioned to compile what became The Guinness Book of (Superlatives and now) Records, in August 1954. A thousand copies were printed and given away. [[File:Kobayashi Takeru, Japanese competitive eater 2.jpg\|thumb\|upright\|Japanese competitive eater [Kobayashi](Takeru)(Takeru Kobayashi) with two Guinness World Record certificates]] After the founding of The Guinness Book of Records office at the top of Ludgate House, 107 [Street](Fleet)(Fleet Street), London, the first 198-page edition was bound on 27 August 1955 and went to the top of the British best-seller list by Christmas. The following year, it was introduced into the United States by New York publisher [Boehm](David)(David A. Boehm) and sold 70,000 copies. Since then, Guinness World Records has sold more than 100 million copies in 100 countries and 37 languages. Because the book became a surprise hit, many further editions were printed, eventually settling into a pattern of one revision a year, published in September/October, in time for Christmas. The McWhirters continued to compile it for many years. Both brothers had an encyclopedic memory; on the [BBC](BBC) television series [Breakers](Record)(Record Breakers), based upon the book, they would take questions posed by children in the audience on various world records and were able to give the correct answer. [McWhirter was assassinated](Ross)(Ross McWhirter#Assassination) by two members of the [Irish Republican Army](Provisional)(Provisional Irish Republican Army) in 1975, in response to offering a £50,000 reward for information that would lead to capture of members of the organisation. Following Ross's assassination, the feature in the show where questions about records posed by children were answered was called Norris on the Spot. Norris carried on as the book's sole editor. [[File:Can you see the surfer? (33988985575).jpg\|thumb\|right\|The North Beach ([Portugal](Nazaré,)(Nazaré, Portugal)), listed on the Guinness World Records for the biggest waves ever surfed]] Guinness Superlatives, later Guinness World Records Limited, was formed in 1954 to publish the first book. [Publishing](Sterling)(Sterling Publishing) owned the rights to the Guinness book in the US for decades until it was repurchased by Guinness in 1989 after an 18-month long lawsuit. The group was owned by Guinness PLC and subsequently [Diageo](Diageo) until 2001, when it was purchased by [Entertainment](Gullane)(Gullane Entertainment) for $65 million. Gullane was itself purchased by [Entertainment](HIT)(HIT Entertainment) in 2002. In 2006, [Partners](Apax)(Apax Partners) purchased HIT and subsequently sold Guinness World Records in early 2008 to the [Pattison Group](Jim)(Jim Pattison Group), the parent company of [Entertainment](Ripley)(Ripley Entertainment), which is licensed to operate Guinness World Records' Attractions. With offices in New York City and Tokyo, Guinness World Records' global headquarters remain in London, specifically [Quay Plaza](South)(South Quay Plaza), [Wharf](Canary)(Canary Wharf), while its museum attractions are based at Ripley headquarters in [Florida](Orlando,)(Orlando, Florida), US. ### Evolution [[File:Lucky Diamond Rich face.jpg\|left\|upright\|thumb\|[Diamond Rich](Lucky)(Lucky Diamond Rich) is "the world's most tattooed person", and has tattoos covering his entire body. He holds the Guinness World Records title .]] Recent editions have focused on record feats by individuals. Competitions range from obvious ones such as [weightlifting](Olympic)(Olympic weightlifting) to the longest [tossing](egg)(egg tossing) distances, or for longest time spent playing [Theft Auto IV](Grand)(Grand Theft Auto IV) or the number of [dog](hot)(hot dog)s that can be consumed in three minutes. Besides records about competitions, it contains such facts such as the heaviest tumour, the most poisonous fungus, the longest-running soap opera and the most valuable life-insurance policy, among others. Many records also relate to the youngest people to have achieved something, such as the youngest person to visit all nations of the world, currently held by [Giuliano](Maurizio)(Maurizio Giuliano). Each edition contains a selection of the records from the Guinness World Records database, as well as select new records, with the criteria for inclusion changing from year to year. The retirement of Norris McWhirter from his consulting role in 1995 and the subsequent decision by Diageo Plc to sell The Guinness Book of Records brand have shifted the focus of the books from text-oriented to illustrated reference. A selection of records are curated for the book from the full archive but all existing Guinness World Records titles can be accessed by creating a login on the company's website. Applications made by individuals for existing record categories are free of charge. There is an administration fee of $5 to propose a new record title. A number of spin-off books and television series have also been produced. Guinness World Records bestowed the record of "Person with the most records" on [Furman](Ashrita)(Ashrita Furman) of Queens, NY, in April 2009; at that time, he held 100 records, while he currently holds over 220. In 2005, Guinness designated 9 November as International Guinness World Records Day to encourage breaking of world records. In 2006, an estimated 100,000 people participated in over 10 countries. Guinness reported 2,244 new records in 12 months, which was a 173% increase over the previous year. In February 2008, [NBC](NBC) aired The Top 100 Guinness World Records of All Time and Guinness World Records made the complete list available on their website.[Guinness World Records Live: Top 100](http://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/news/2008/01/080128.aspx) . Guinness World Records. Retrieved on 6 November 2008. The popularity of the franchise has resulted in Guinness World Records becoming the primary international authority on the cataloguing and verification of a huge number of world records. ## Defining records [[File:Fingerprint (4045876833).jpg\|left\|thumb\|[Kösen](Sultan)(Sultan Kösen) (Turkey) is the tallest living person, at , as verified by Guinness World Records.]] [[File:Chandra_04.jpg\|left\|upright\|thumb\|[Bahadur Dangi](Chandra)(Chandra Bahadur Dangi) (Nepal), recognised as the world's shortest man ever by Guinness World Records]] [[File:Cracking a Parmesan Wheel-9MAR2013.ogv\|thumb\|right\|Cracking open a wheel of [Parmigiano-Reggiano](Parmigiano-Reggiano) cheese as a part of a 2013 world record by [Foods Market](Whole)(Whole Foods Market)]] [[File:Fiann Paul, Alex Gregory, Carlo Facchino, Arctic Ocean Rowing, Northernmost latitude.jpg\|alt=The team achieved 14 performance based Guinness World Records and other records.\|thumb\|[Paul](Fiann)(Fiann Paul), [Gregory](Alex)(Alex Gregory) and Carlo Facchino aboard Polar Row, the most record-breaking expedition in history]] For many records, Guinness World Records is the effective authority on the exact requirements for them and with whom records reside, the company providing adjudicators to events to determine the veracity of record attempts. The list of records which the Guinness World Records covers is not fixed, records may be added and also removed for various reasons. The public is invited to submit applications for records, which can be either the bettering of existing records or substantial achievements which could constitute a new record. The company also provides corporate services for companies to "harness the power of record-breaking to deliver tangible success for their businesses." ### Ethical and safety issues Guinness World Records states several types of records it will not accept for ethical reasons, such as those related to the killing or harming of animals. Several world records that were once included in the book have been removed for ethical reasons, including concerns for the well-being of potential record breakers. For example, following publication of the "heaviest fish" record, many fish owners overfed their pets beyond the bounds of what was healthy, and therefore such entries were removed. The Guinness Book also dropped records within their "eating and drinking records" section of Human Achievements in 1991 over concerns that potential competitors could harm themselves and expose the publisher to potential [litigation](lawsuit). These changes included the removal of all [spirit](distilled beverage), wine and beer drinking records, along with other unusual records for consuming such unlikely things as bicycles and trees. Other records, such as [swallowing](sword)(sword swallowing) and rally driving (on public roads), were closed from further entry as the current holders had performed beyond what are considered safe human tolerance levels. There have been instances of closed categories being reopened. For example, the sword swallowing category was listed as closed in the 1990 Guinness Book of World Records, but has since been reopened with [Strange](Johnny)(Johnny Strange) breaking a sword swallowing record on Guinness World Records Live. Similarly, the speed beer drinking records which were dropped from the book in 1991, reappeared 17 years later in the 2008 edition, but were moved from the "Human Achievements" section of the older book to the "Modern Society" section of the newer edition. , it is required in the guidelines of all "large food" type records that the item be fully edible, and distributed to the public for consumption, to prevent food wastage. [letter](Chain)(Chain letter)s are also not allowed: "Guinness World Records does not accept any records relating to chain letters, sent by post or e-mail." At the request of the [Mint](U.S.)(U.S. Mint), in 1984, the book stopped accepting claims of large hoardings of pennies or other currency. Environmentally unfriendly records (such as the releasing of [lanterns](sky)(sky lanterns) and [balloons](party)(party balloons)) are no longer accepted or monitored, in addition to records relating to [tobacco](tobacco) or [cannabis](cannabis) consumption or preparation. ### Difficulty in defining records For some potential categories, Guinness World Records has declined to list some records that are too difficult or impossible to determine. For example, its website states: "We do not accept any claims for beauty as it is not [objectively](Objectivity (science)) measurable." However, other categories of human skill relating to measurable speed such as "Worlds Fastest Clapper" were instated. On 27 July 2010, Connor May (NSW, Australia) set the record for claps, with 743 in 1 minute. On 10 December 2010, Guinness World Records stopped accepting submissions for the "[dreadlock](dreadlock)" category after investigation of its first and only female title holder, Asha Mandela, determining it was impossible to judge this record accurately. ## Change in business model Traditionally, the company made a large amount of its revenue via book sales to interested readers, especially children. The rise of the Internet began to cut into book sales starting in the 2000s, part of a general decline in the book industry. According to a 2017 story by [Money](Planet)(Planet Money) of [NPR](NPR), Guinness began to realise that a lucrative new revenue source to replace falling book sales was the would-be record-holders themselves. While any person can theoretically send in a record to be verified for free, the approval process is slow. Would-be record breakers that paid fees ranging from US$12,000 to US$500,000 would be given advisors, adjudicators, help in finding good records to break as well as suggestions for how to do it, prompt service, and so on. In particular, corporations and celebrities seeking a [stunt](publicity)(publicity stunt) to launch a new product or draw attention to themselves began to hire Guinness World Records, paying them for finding a record to break or to create a new category just for them. Since 2008, Guinness World Records has orientated its business model toward inventing new world records as publicity stunts for companies and individuals, which has attracted criticism. ### Criticism Guinness World Records was criticised by television talk show host [Oliver](John)(John Oliver) on the program [Week Tonight with John Oliver](Last)(Last Week Tonight with John Oliver) in August 2019. Oliver criticised Guinness for taking money from [governments](authoritarian)(Authoritarianism) for pointless vanity projects as it related to the main focus of his story, [of Turkmenistan](President)(President of Turkmenistan) [Berdimuhamedow](Gurbanguly)(Gurbanguly Berdimuhamedow). Oliver asked Guinness to work with Last Week Tonight to adjudicate a record for "Largest cake featuring a picture of someone falling off a horse," but according to Oliver, the offer did not work out after Guinness insisted on a non-disparagement clause. Guinness World Records denied the accusations and stated that they declined Oliver's offer to participate because "it was merely an opportunity to mock one of our record-holders," and that Oliver did not specifically request the record for the largest marble cake. As of 2021, the Guinness World Record for "Largest marble cake" remains with [Crocker Middle East](Betty)(Betty Crocker) in Saudi Arabia. Following Oliver's episode, Guinness World Records' ethics were subsequently called into question by human rights groups. ## Museums [[Guinness.JPG\|thumb\|Guinness Museum in Hollywood](File:6764)] In 1976, a Guinness Book of World Records museum opened in the [State Building](Empire)(Empire State Building). Speed shooter [Munden](Bob)(Bob Munden) then went on tour promoting The Guinness Book of World Records by performing his record fast draws with a standard weight single-action revolver from a Western movie-type holster. His fastest time for a draw was 0.02 seconds. Among exhibits were life-size statues of the world's tallest man, [Wadlow](Robert)(Robert Wadlow), and world's largest [earthworm](earthworm), an X-ray photo of a sword swallower, repeated lightning strike victim [Sullivan](Roy)(Roy Sullivan)'s hat complete with lightning holes and a pair of gem-studded golf shoes on sale for $6,500.In Praise of Facts, by John Leonard, the introduction to the New York Times Desk Reference The museum closed in 1995. In more recent years, the Guinness company has permitted the [franchising](franchising) of small museums with displays based on the book, all currently () located in towns popular with tourists: [Tokyo](Tokyo), [Copenhagen](Copenhagen), [Antonio](San)(San Antonio). There were once Guinness World Records museums and exhibitions at the [Trocadero](London)(London Trocadero), [Bangalore](Bangalore), [Francisco](San)(San Francisco), [Beach](Myrtle)(Myrtle Beach, South Carolina), [Orlando](Orlando, Florida), [City](Atlantic)(Atlantic City, New Jersey), New Jersey, and [Vegas](Las)(Las Vegas Valley), [Nevada](Nevada). The Orlando museum, which closed in 2002, was branded The Guinness Records Experience; the Hollywood, [Falls](Niagara)(Niagara Falls), Copenhagen, and [Gatlinburg](Gatlinburg, Tennessee), Tennessee museums also previously featured this branding. ## Television series Guinness World Records has commissioned various television series documenting world record breaking attempts, including: Specials: * Guinness World Records: 50 Years, 50 Records – on ITV (UK), 11 September 2004 With the popularity of reality television, Guinness World Records began to market itself as the originator of the television genre, with slogans such as "we wrote the book on Reality TV." [[File:Ironing guinness 0357.JPG\|right\|thumb\|[Joachim Arulanantham](Suresh)(Suresh Joachim) is an [Indo-Canadian](Indo-Canadian) film actor and producer who has broken over 50 world records in attempts to benefit underprivileged children. He is pictured here during his successful [ironing](ironing) world record attempt of 2 days, 7 hours, and 5 minutes at [World Brampton](Shoppers)(Shoppers World Brampton).]] ## Gamer's edition In 2008, Guinness World Records released its gamer's edition, a branch that keeps records for popular video game high scores, codes and feats in association with [Galaxies](Twin)(Twin Galaxies). The Gamer's Edition contains 258 pages, over 1,236 video game related world records and four interviews including one with Twin Galaxies founder [Day](Walter)(Walter Day). The most recent edition is the ''Guinness World Records Gamer's Edition 2020,* which was released 5 September 2019. ## The Guinness Book of British Hit Singles The Guinness Book of British Hit Singles was a music reference book first published in 1977. It was compiled by BBC Radio 1 DJs Paul Gambaccini and Mike Read with brothers Tim Rice and Jonathan Rice. It was the first in a number of music reference books that were to be published by Guinness Publishing with sister publication The Guinness Book of British Hit Albums'' coming in 1983. After being sold to Hit Entertainment, the data concerning the Official Chart Company's singles and albums charts were combined under the title [Hit Singles & Albums](British)(British Hit Singles & Albums), with Hit Entertainment publishing the book from 2003 to 2006 (under the Guinness World Records brand). After Guinness World Records was sold to The Jim Pattison Group, it was effectively replaced by a series of books published by Ebury Publishing/Random House with the [Book of British Hit Singles](Virgin)(The Virgin Book of British Hit Singles)* first being published in 2007 and with a Hit Albums book following two years later.}}The Virgin Book of British Hit Albums by Martin Roach (Ebury Publishing/Random House ) ## Other media and products ### Board game In 1975, [Brothers](Parker)(Parker Brothers) marketed a board game, The Guinness Game of World Records, based on the book. Players compete by setting and breaking records for activities such as the longest streak of rolling dice before rolling doubles, stacking plastic pieces, and bouncing a ball off alternating sides of a card, as well as answering trivia questions based on the listings in the Guinness Book of World Records. ### Video games A [game](video)(video game), [World Records: The Videogame](Guinness)(Guinness World Records: The Videogame), was developed by [Fusion](TT)(TT Fusion) and released for [DS](Nintendo)(Nintendo DS), [Wii](Wii) and [iOS](iOS) in November 2008. ### Film In 2012, [Bros.](Warner)(Warner Bros.) announced the development of a live-action film version of Guinness World Records with [Chun](Daniel)(Daniel Chun) as scriptwriter. The film version will apparently use the heroic achievements of record holders as the basis for a narrative that should have global appeal. ## References ## External links * * [ ](Category:Guinness World Records) [series introduced in 1955](Category:Book)(Category:Book series introduced in 1955) [established in 1955](Category:Publications)(Category:Publications established in 1955) [books](Category:Trivia)(Category:Trivia books) [record databases](Category:World)(Category:World record databases) [publishers](Category:Reference)(Category:Reference publishers) [containing video clips](Category:Articles)(Category:Articles containing video clips) [(superlatives)](Category:Records)(Category:Records (superlatives)) [publications](Category:Annual)(Category:Annual publications) [non-fiction books](Category:1955)(Category:1955 non-fiction books) [establishments in the United Kingdom](Category:1955)(Category:1955 establishments in the United Kingdom) [Entertainment](Category:Gullane)(Category:Gullane Entertainment)
Frederick the Great	frederick_the_great	# Frederick the Great Revision ID: 1159330602 \| Timestamp: 2023-06-09T17:33:34Z --- \| reign = \| predecessor = [William I](Frederick)(Frederick William I of Prussia) \| successor = [William II](Frederick)(Frederick William II of Prussia) \| spouse = \| house = [Hohenzollern](House of Hohenzollern) \| father = [William I of Prussia](Frederick)(Frederick William I of Prussia) \| mother = [Dorothea of Hanover](Sophia)(Sophia Dorothea of Hanover) \| birth_date = \| birth_place = [Berlin](Berlin), [of Prussia](Kingdom)(Kingdom of Prussia) \| death_date = \| death_place = [Potsdam](Potsdam), Kingdom of Prussia \| place of burial = [Sanssouci](Sanssouci), Potsdam \| signature = Friedrich II signature.png }} Frederick II (; 24 January 171217 August 1786) was [in Prussia](King)(King in Prussia) from 1740 until 1772, and [of Prussia](King)(List of monarchs of Prussia) from 1772 until his death in 1786. His most significant accomplishments include his military successes in the [wars](Silesian)(Silesian Wars), his reorganisation of the [Army](Prussian)(Prussian Army), the [Partition of Poland](First)(First Partition of Poland), and his patronage of the arts and [Enlightenment](the)(the Enlightenment). Frederick was the last [Hohenzollern](Hohenzollern) monarch titled King in Prussia, declaring himself King of [Prussia](Prussia) after [annexing](annexation) [Prussia](Royal)(Royal Prussia) from the [Commonwealth](Polish–Lithuanian)(Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth) in 1772. Prussia greatly increased its territories and became a major military power in Europe under his rule. He became known as Frederick the Great () and was nicknamed "Old Fritz" (). In his youth, Frederick was more interested in music and philosophy than in the art of war, which led to clashes with his authoritarian father, [William I of Prussia](Frederick)(Frederick William I of Prussia). However, upon ascending to the Prussian throne, he attacked and annexed the rich [Austrian](Habsburg monarchy) province of [Silesia](Silesia) in 1742, winning military acclaim for himself and Prussia. He became an influential military theorist whose analyses emerged from his extensive personal battlefield experience and covered issues of strategy, tactics, mobility and logistics. Frederick was a supporter of [absolutism](enlightened)(enlightened absolutism), stating that the ruler should be the first servant of the state. He modernised the Prussian bureaucracy and civil service, and pursued religious policies throughout his realm that ranged from tolerance to segregation. He reformed the judicial system and made it possible for men of lower status to become judges and senior bureaucrats. Frederick also encouraged immigrants of various nationalities and faiths to come to Prussia, although he enacted oppressive measures against Catholics in Silesia and Polish Prussia. He supported the arts and philosophers he favoured, and allowed freedom of the press and literature. Frederick was almost certainly [homosexual](Homosexuality), and [sexuality](his)(Sexuality of Frederick the Great) has been the subject of much study. Because he died childless, he was succeeded by his nephew, [William II](Frederick)(Frederick William II of Prussia). He is buried at his favourite residence, [Sanssouci](Sanssouci) in [Potsdam](Potsdam). Nearly all 19th-century German historians made Frederick into a romantic model of a glorified warrior, praising his leadership, administrative efficiency, devotion to duty and success in building Prussia into a great power in Europe. Frederick remained an admired historical figure through [Germany](German Empire)'s defeat in [War I](World)(World War I), and the [Nazis](Nazi Party) glorified him as a great German leader prefiguring [Hitler](Adolf)(Adolf Hitler), who personally idolised him. His reputation became less favourable in Germany after [War II](World)(World War II), partly due to his status as a Nazi symbol. Historians in the 21st century tend to view Frederick as an outstanding military leader and capable monarch, whose commitment to enlightenment culture and administrative reform built the foundation that allowed the Kingdom of Prussia to contest the Austrian [Habsburgs](House of Habsburg) for leadership among the German states. ## Early life Frederick was the son of then-Crown Prince [William of Prussia](Frederick)(Frederick William I of Prussia) and his wife, [Dorothea of Hanover](Sophia)(Sophia Dorothea of Hanover). He was born sometime between 11 and 12 p.m. on 24 January 1712 in the [Palace](Berlin)(Berlin Palace) and was baptised with the single name Friedrich by [Ursinus von Bär](Benjamin)(Benjamin Ursinus von Bär) on 31 January. The birth was welcomed by his grandfather, [Frederick I](Frederick I of Prussia), as his two previous grandsons had both died in infancy. With the death of Frederick I in 1713, his son Frederick William I became King in Prussia, thus making young Frederick the crown prince. Frederick had nine siblings who lived to adulthood. He had six sisters. The eldest was [Wilhelmine](Wilhelmine of Bayreuth), who became his closest sibling. He also had three younger brothers, including [William](Augustus)(Prince Augustus William of Prussia) and [Henry](Prince Henry of Prussia (1726–1802)). The new king wished for his children to be educated not as royalty, but as simple folk. They were tutored by a French woman, [de Montbail](Madame)(Madame de Rocoulle), who had also educated Frederick William. Frederick William I, popularly dubbed the "Soldier King", had created a large and powerful army that included a regiment of his famous "[Giants](Potsdam)(Potsdam Giants)"; he carefully managed the kingdom's wealth and developed a strong centralised government. He also had a violent temper and ruled [Brandenburg-Prussia](Brandenburg-Prussia) with absolute authority. In contrast, Frederick's mother Sophia, whose father, [Louis of Brunswick-Lüneburg](George)(George I of Great Britain), had succeeded to the [throne](British)(Monarchy of the United Kingdom) as King George I in 1714, was polite, charismatic and learned. The political and personal differences between Frederick's parents created tensions, which affected Frederick's attitude toward his role as a ruler, his attitude toward culture, and his relationship with his father. During his early youth, Frederick lived with his mother and sister Wilhelmine, although they regularly visited their father's hunting lodge at [Wusterhausen](Königs)(Königs Wusterhausen). Frederick and his older sister formed a close relationship, which lasted until her death in 1758. Frederick and his sisters were brought up by a [Huguenot](Huguenots) [governess](governess) and [tutor](Tutoring) and learned French and German simultaneously. Undeterred by his father's desire that his education be entirely religious and pragmatic, the young Frederick developed a preference for music, literature, and French culture. Frederick Wilhelm thought these interests were effeminate, as they clashed with his militarism, resulting in his frequent beating and humiliation of Frederick. Nevertheless, Frederick, with the help of his tutor in Latin, [Duhan](Jacques)(Jacques Duhan de Jandun), procured for himself a 3,000 volume secret library of poetry, [Greek](Ancient Greece) and [Roman](Ancient Rome) classics, and philosophy to supplement his official lessons. Although his father, Frederick William I, had been raised a [Calvinist](Calvinism) in spite of the [Lutheran](Lutheranism) state faith in Prussia, he feared he was not one of God's [elect](Unconditional election). To avoid the possibility of his son Frederick being motivated by the same concerns, the king ordered that his heir not be taught about [predestination](predestination). Despite his father's intention, Frederick appeared to have adopted a sense of predestination for himself. ## Crown Prince [[File:Crown prince Friedrich II, by Antoine Pesne.jpg\|thumb\|alt=Painting of a young Frederick in robes and armour, with a baton\|Portrait of 24-year-old Frederick as the Crown Prince of Prussia by [Pesne](Antoine)(Antoine Pesne) (1736, [Doorn](Huis)(Huis Doorn), Netherlands)]] At age 16, Frederick formed an attachment to the king's 17-year-old [page](Page (servant)), [Karl Christoph von Keith](Peter)(Peter Karl Christoph von Keith). Wilhelmine recorded that the two "soon became inseparable. Keith was intelligent, but without education. He served my brother from feelings of real devotion, and kept him informed of all the king's actions." Wilhelmine would further record that "Though I had noticed that he was on more familiar terms with this page than was proper in his position, I did not know how intimate the friendship was." As Frederick was almost certainly homosexual, 193]( 428–429]( his relationship with Keith may have been homoerotic, although the extent of their intimacy remains ambiguous. When Frederick William heard rumours of their relationship, Keith was sent away to an unpopular regiment near the Dutch frontier. In the mid-1720s, Queen Sophia Dorothea attempted to [the marriage](arrange)(Arranged marriage) of Frederick and his sister Wilhelmine to her brother [George II](King)(George II of Great Britain)'s children [Amelia](Princess Amelia of Great Britain) and [Frederick](Frederick, Prince of Wales), who was the [apparent](heir)(heir apparent). Fearing an alliance between Prussia and [Britain](Great)(Kingdom of Great Britain), Field Marshal von [Seckendorff](Friedrich Heinrich von Seckendorff), the [Austrian](Habsburg Empire) ambassador in [Berlin](Berlin), bribed the Prussian Minister of War, Field Marshal von [Grumbkow](Friedrich Wilhelm von Grumbkow), and the Prussian ambassador in [London](London), Benjamin Reichenbach. The pair undermined the relationship between the British and Prussian courts using bribery and slander. Eventually Frederick William became angered by the idea of the effete Frederick being married to an English wife and under the influence of the British court. Instead, he signed a treaty with Austria, which vaguely promised to acknowledge Prussia's rights to the principalities of [Jülich](Duchy of Jülich)-[Berg](Berg (state)), which led to the collapse of the marriage proposal. ### Katte affair Soon after his relationship with Keith ended, Frederick became close friends with [Hermann von Katte](Hans)(Hans Hermann von Katte), a Prussian officer several years older than Frederick who became one of his boon companions and may have been his lover. After the English marriages became impossible, Frederick plotted to flee to England with Katte and other junior army officers. While the royal retinue was near [Mannheim](Mannheim) in the [of the Palatinate](Electorate)(Electorate of the Palatinate), Robert Keith, who was Peter Keith's brother and also one of Frederick's companions, had an attack of conscience when the conspirators were preparing to escape and begged Frederick William for forgiveness on 5 August 1730. Frederick and Katte were subsequently arrested and imprisoned in [Küstrin](Küstrin). Because they were army officers who had tried to flee Prussia for Great Britain, Frederick William levelled an accusation of [treason](treason) against the pair. The king briefly threatened the crown prince with [execution](execution), then considered forcing Frederick to renounce the succession in favour of his brother, Augustus William, although either option would have been difficult to justify to the [Diet](Imperial)(Imperial Diet (Holy Roman Empire)) of the [Roman Empire](Holy)(Holy Roman Empire). The king condemned Katte to death and forced Frederick to watch his [beheading](decapitation) at Küstrin on 6 November, leading the crown prince to faint just before the fatal blow. Frederick was granted a royal pardon and released from his cell on 18 November 1730, although he remained stripped of his military rank. Rather than being permitted to return to Berlin, he was forced to remain in Küstrin and began rigorous schooling in statecraft and administration for the War and Estates Departments. Tensions eased slightly when Frederick William visited Küstrin a year later, and Frederick was allowed to visit Berlin on the occasion of his sister Wilhelmine's marriage to Margrave [Frederick](Frederick, Margrave of Brandenburg-Bayreuth) of [Bayreuth](Principality of Bayreuth) on 20 November 1731. The crown prince returned to Berlin after finally being released from his tutelage at Küstrin on 26 February 1732 on condition that he marry [Christine of Brunswick-Bevern](Elisabeth)(Elisabeth Christine of Brunswick-Bevern). ### Marriage and War of the Polish Succession [[File:Arolsen Klebeband 15 259.jpg\|thumb\|alt=Engraving of a royal wedding with courtiers\|Frederick's marriage to Elisabeth Christine at [Salzdahlum](Schloss)(Schloss Salzdahlum) by (1733)]] Initially, Frederick William considered marrying Frederick to [of Mecklenburg-Schwerin](Elisabeth)(Anna Leopoldovna), the niece of [Anna of Russia](Empress)(Anna of Russia), but this plan was ardently opposed by [Eugene of Savoy](Prince)(Prince Eugene of Savoy). Frederick himself also proposed marrying [Theresa of Austria](Maria)(Maria Theresa of Austria) in return for renouncing the succession. Instead, Eugene persuaded Frederick William, through Seckendorff, that the crown prince should marry [Christine](Elisabeth)(Elisabeth Christine of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel-Bevern), who was a Protestant relative of the Austrian [Habsburgs](House of Habsburg). Frederick wrote to his sister that, "There can be neither love nor friendship between us", and he threatened suicide, but he went along with the wedding on 12 June 1733. He had little in common with his bride, and the marriage was resented as an example of the Austrian political interference that had plagued Prussia. Nevertheless, during their early married life, the royal couple resided at the [Prince's Palace](Crown)(Kronprinzenpalais) in Berlin. Later, Elisabeth Christine accompanied Frederick to Schloss Rheinsberg, where at this time she played an active role in his social life. After his father died and he had secured the throne, Frederick separated from Elisabeth. He granted her the [Palace](Schönhausen)(Schönhausen Palace) and apartments at the [Stadtschloss](Berliner)(Berliner Stadtschloss), but he prohibited Elisabeth Christine from visiting his court in [Potsdam](Potsdam). Frederick and Elisabeth Christine had no children, and Frederick bestowed the title of the heir to the throne, "Prince of Prussia", on his brother Augustus William. Nevertheless, Elisabeth Christine remained devoted to him. Frederick gave her all the honours befitting her station, but never displayed any affection. After their separation, he would only see her on state occasions. These included visits to her on her birthday and were some of the rare occasions when Frederick did not wear military uniform. [[File:Rheinsberg Castle.jpg\|thumb\|left\|alt=Photograph of the front elevation of a palace\|[Palace](Rheinsberg)(Rheinsberg Palace), Frederick's residence from 1736 to 1740]] In 1732, Frederick was restored to the [Army](Prussian)(Prussian Army) as Colonel of the Regiment von der Goltz, stationed near [Nauen](Nauen) and [Neuruppin](Neuruppin). When Prussia provided a contingent of troops to aid the [of the Holy Roman Empire](Army)(Army of the Holy Roman Empire) during the [of the Polish Succession](War)(War of the Polish Succession), Frederick studied under Prince Eugene of Savoy during the campaign against [France](Kingdom of France#Dissent and revolution) on the [Rhine](Rhine); he noted the weakness of the [Army](Imperial)(Imperial Army (Holy Roman Empire)) under Eugene's command, something that he would capitalise on at Austria's expense when he later took the throne. Frederick William, weakened by [gout](gout) and seeking to reconcile with his heir, granted Frederick [Rheinsberg](Schloss)(Schloss Rheinsberg) in [Rheinsberg](Rheinsberg), north of Neuruppin. At Rheinsberg, Frederick assembled a small number of musicians, actors and other artists. He spent his time reading, watching and acting in dramatic plays, as well as composing and playing music. Frederick formed the Bayard Order to discuss warfare with his friends; [August de la Motte Fouqué](Heinrich)(Heinrich August de la Motte Fouqué) was made the grand master of the gatherings. Later, Frederick regarded this time as one of the happiest of his life. Reading and studying the works of [Machiavelli](Niccolò)(Niccolò Machiavelli), such as [Prince](The)(The Prince), was considered necessary for any king in Europe to rule effectively. In 1739, Frederick finished his [Anti-Machiavel](Anti-Machiavel), an idealistic rebuttal of Machiavelli. It was written in French—as were all of Frederick's works—and published anonymously in 1740, but [Voltaire](Voltaire) distributed it in Amsterdam to great popularity. Frederick's years dedicated to the arts instead of politics ended upon the 1740 death of Frederick William and his inheritance of the Kingdom of Prussia. Frederick and his father were more or less reconciled at the latter's death, and Frederick later admitted, despite their constant conflict, that Frederick William had been an effective ruler: "What a terrible man he was. But he was just, intelligent, and skilled in the management of affairs... it was through his efforts, through his tireless labour, that I have been able to accomplish everything that I have done since." ## Inheritance [[1740 en.png\|thumb\|alt=Political map of Europe in 1740\|Europe at the time when Frederick came to the throne in 1740, with Brandenburg–Prussia in violet](File:Europe)] [[File:Europe 1783-1792 en.png\|thumb\|alt=Political map of Europe in 1786\|Europe at the time of Frederick's death in 1786. Prussia's territory has been greatly extended by his [Wars](Silesian)(Silesian Wars), his inheritance of [Frisia](East)(East Frisia) and the [Partition of Poland](First)(First Partition of Poland).]] In one defining respect Frederick would come to the throne with an exceptional inheritance. Frederick William I had left him with a highly militarised state. Prussia was the twelfth largest country in Europe in terms of population, but its army was the fourth largest: only the armies of France, [Russia](Russian Empire#Eighteenth Century) and Austria were larger. 38]( Prussia had one soldier for every 28 citizens, whereas Great Britain only had one for every 310, and the military absorbed 86% of Prussia's state budget. [Frederick II's accession to the throne Prussia had one soldier for every 28 inhabitants, Great Britain for every 310. Since Prussia had only 2.24 million residents the army was still relatively small with 80,000 men, but devoured 86% of the state budget.](Upon)}} Moreover, the Prussian infantry trained by Frederick William I were, at the time of Frederick's accession, arguably unrivalled in discipline and firepower. By 1770, after two decades of punishing war alternating with intervals of peace, Frederick had doubled the size of the huge army he had inherited. The situation is summed up in a widely translated and quoted aphorism attributed to [Mirabeau](Victor de Riqueti, marquis de Mirabeau), who asserted in 1786 that "" ("Prussia was not a state in possession of an army, but an army in possession of a state"). 17]( By using the resources his frugal father had cultivated, Frederick was eventually able to establish Prussia as the fifth and smallest European [power](great)(great power). Prince Frederick was twenty-eight years old when his father Frederick William I died and he ascended to the throne of Prussia. Before his accession, Frederick was told by [D'Alembert](Jean le Rond D'Alembert), "The philosophers and the men of letters in every land have long looked upon you, Sire, as their leader and model." Such devotion, consequently, had to be tempered by political realities. When Frederick ascended the throne as the third "King in Prussia" in 1740, his realm consisted of scattered territories, including [Cleves](Duchy of Cleves), [Mark](County of Mark), and [Ravensberg](County of Ravensberg) in the west of the Holy Roman Empire; [Brandenburg](Margraviate of Brandenburg), [Pomerania](Hither)(Vorpommern), and [Pomerania](Farther)(Farther Pomerania) in the east of the Empire; and the Kingdom of Prussia, the former [of Prussia](Duchy)(Duchy of Prussia), outside of the Empire bordering the [Commonwealth](Polish–Lithuanian)(Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth). He was titled King in Prussia because his kingdom included only part of historic Prussia; he was to declare himself King of Prussia after the [Partition of Poland](First)(First Partition of Poland) in 1772. ## Reign \| zoom = 5 \| float = right \| nolabels = 1 \| width = 220 \| height = 160 \| title = The major battles of Frederick the Great \| caption = \| shapeD = n-circle \| shape-colorD = navy \| shape-outlineD = white \| label-colorD = navy \| label-sizeD = 12 \| label-posD = left \| label-offset-xD = 0 \| label-offset-yD = 0 \| label1 = \| mark-coord1 = \| mark-title1 = [of Mollwitz](Battle)(Battle of Mollwitz) on 10 April 1741 \| mark-description1 = [Małujowice](Małujowice) \| shape-color1 = olive \| label-color1 = olive \| label2 = \| mark-coord2 = \| mark-title2 = [of Chotusitz](Battle)(Battle of Chotusitz) on 17 May 1742 \| mark-description2 = [Chotusice](Chotusice) \| shape-color2 = olive \| label-color2 = olive \| label3 = \| mark-coord3 = \| mark-title3 = [of Hohenfriedberg](Battle)(Battle of Hohenfriedberg) on 4 June 1745 \| mark-description3 = [Strzegom](Strzegom) \| shape-color3 = maroon \| label-color3 = maroon \| label4 = \| mark-coord4 = \| mark-title4 = [of Hennersdorf](Battle)(Battle of Hennersdorf) on 23 November 1745 \| mark-description4 = [Lubański](Henryków)(Henryków Lubański) \| shape-color4 = maroon \| label-color4 = maroon \| label5 = \| mark-coord5 = \| mark-title5 = [of Lobositz](Battle)(Battle of Lobositz) on 1 October 1756 \| mark-description5 = [Lovosice](Lovosice) \| label6 = \| mark-coord6 = \| mark-title6 = [of Pirna](Siege)(Siege of Pirna) from 10 September to 14 October 1756 \| mark-description6 = [Pirna](Pirna) \| label7 = Prague \| mark-coord7 = \| mark-title7 = [of Prague (1757)](Battle)(Battle of Prague (1757)) on 6 May 1757 \| mark-description7 = [Prague](Prague) \| label8 = \| mark-coord8 = \| mark-title8 = [of Kolín](Battle)(Battle of Kolín) on 18 June 1757 \| mark-description8 = [Kolín](Kolín) \| label9 = Berlin \| mark-coord9 = \| mark-title9 = [raid on Berlin](1757)(1757 raid on Berlin) on 16 October 1757 \| mark-description9 = [Berlin](Berlin) \| label10 = \| mark-coord10 = \| mark-title10 = [of Rossbach](Battle)(Battle of Rossbach) on 5 November 1757 \| mark-description10 = [Braunsbedra](Braunsbedra) \| label11 = \| mark-coord11 = \| mark-title11 = [of Leuthen](Battle)(Battle of Leuthen) on 5 December 1757 \| mark-description11 = [Środa Śląska County](Lutynia,)(Lutynia, Środa Śląska County) \| label12 = \| mark-coord12 = \| mark-title12 = [of Breslau (1757)](Siege)(Siege of Breslau (1757)) from 7 December 1757 to 20 December 1757 \| mark-description12 = [Wrocław](Wrocław) \| label13 = \| mark-coord13 = \| mark-title13 = [of Olomouc](Siege)(Siege of Olomouc) from 4 May to 2 July 1758 \| mark-description13 = [Olomouc](Olomouc) \| label14 = \| mark-coord14 = \| mark-title14 = [of Zorndorf](Battle)(Battle of Zorndorf) on 25 August 1758 \| mark-description14 = [Gmina Dębno](Sarbinowo,)(Sarbinowo, Gmina Dębno) \| label15 = \| mark-coord15 = \| mark-title15 = [of Hochkirch](Battle)(Battle of Hochkirch) on 14 October 1758 \| mark-description15 = [Hochkirch](Hochkirch) \| label16 = \| mark-coord16 = \| mark-title16 = [of Kunersdorf](Battle)(Battle of Kunersdorf) on 12 August 1759 \| mark-description16 = [Kunowice](Kunowice) \| label17 = Dresden \| mark-coord17 = \| mark-title17 = [of Dresden](Siege)(Siege of Dresden) from 13 to 22 July 1760 \| mark-description17 = [Dresden](Dresden) \| label-offset-x17 = 5 \| label-offset-y16 = 5 \| label18 = \| mark-coord18 = \| mark-title18 = [of Liegnitz (1760)](Battle)(Battle of Liegnitz (1760)) on 15 August 1760 \| mark-description18 = [Legnica](Legnica) \| label19 = \| mark-coord19 = \| mark-title19 = [of Torgau](Battle)(Battle of Torgau) on 3 November 1760 \| mark-description19 = [Torgau](Torgau) \| label120 = \| mark-coord20 = \| mark-title20 = [of Burkersdorf (1762)](Battle)(Battle of Burkersdorf (1762)) on 21 July 1762 \| mark-description120 = [Burkatów](Burkatów) \| label21 = \| mark-coord21 = \| mark-title21 = [of Schweidnitz (1762)](Siege)(Siege of Schweidnitz (1762)) from 7 August to 9 October 1762 \| mark-description21 = [Świdnica](Świdnica) }} ### War of the Austrian Succession When Frederick became king, he was faced with the challenge of overcoming Prussia's weaknesses, vulnerably disconnected holdings with a weak economic base. To strengthen Prussia's position, he fought wars mainly against Austria, whose [Habsburg](Habsburg) dynasty had reigned as [Roman Emperor](Holy)(Holy Roman Emperor)s continuously since the 15th century. Thus, upon succeeding to the throne on 31 May 1740, Frederick declined to endorse the [Sanction of 1713](Pragmatic)(Pragmatic Sanction of 1713), a legal mechanism to ensure the inheritance of the Habsburg domains by Maria Theresa of Austria, daughter of Holy Roman [Charles VI](Emperor)(Emperor Charles VI). Upon the death of Charles VI on 29 October 1740, Frederick disputed the 23-year-old Maria Theresa's right of succession to the Habsburg lands, while simultaneously asserting his own right to the Austrian province of [Silesia](Silesia) based on a number of old, though ambiguous, Hohenzollern claims to parts of Silesia. Accordingly, the [Silesian War](First)(First Silesian War) (1740–1742, part of the [of the Austrian Succession](War)(War of the Austrian Succession)) began on 16 December 1740 when Frederick invaded and quickly occupied almost all of Silesia within seven weeks. Though Frederick justified his occupation on dynastic grounds, the invasion of this militarily and politically vulnerable part of the Habsburg empire also had the potential to provide substantial long-term economic and strategic benefits. The occupation of Silesia added one of the most densely industrialised German regions to Frederick's kingdom and gave it control over the navigable [River](Oder)(Oder River). It nearly doubled Prussia's population and increased its territory by a third. It also prevented [Augustus III](Augustus III), [of Poland](King)(King of Poland) and Elector of [Saxony](Electorate of Saxony), from seeking to connect his own disparate lands through Silesia. [[File:Fredrik II, 1712-1786, kung av Preussen (Antoine Pesne) - Nationalmuseum - 15767.tif\|thumb\|right\|Portrait of Frederick during his early reign by [Pesne](Antoine)(Antoine Pesne) (, [Castle](Gripsholm)(Gripsholm Castle), Sweden)]] In late March 1741, Frederick set out on campaign again to capture the few remaining fortresses within the province that were still holding out. He was surprised by the arrival of an Austrian army, which he fought at the [of Mollwitz](Battle)(Battle of Mollwitz) on 10 April 1741. Though Frederick had served under Prince Eugene of Savoy, this was his first major battle in command of an army. In the course of the fighting, Frederick's cavalry was disorganised by a charge of the Austrian horse. Believing his forces had been defeated, Frederick galloped away to avoid capture, leaving Field Marshal [Schwerin](Kurt)(Kurt Christoph Graf von Schwerin) in command to lead the disciplined Prussian infantry to victory. Frederick would later admit to humiliation at his abdication of command and would state that Mollwitz was his school. Disappointed with the performance of his [cavalry](cavalry), whose training his father had neglected in favour of the infantry, Frederick spent much of his time in Silesia establishing a new [doctrine](military doctrine) for them. Encouraged by Frederick's victory at Mollwitz, the French and their ally, the [of Bavaria](Electorate)(Electorate of Bavaria), entered the war against Austria in early September 1741 and marched on [Prague](Prague). Meanwhile, Frederick, as well as other members of the [of Nymphenburg](League)(Treaty of Nymphenburg#League of Nymphenburg), sponsored the candidacy of his ally [of Bavaria](Charles)(Charles VII, Holy Roman Emperor) to be elected Holy Roman Emperor. In late November, the Franco-Bavarian forces took Prague, and Charles was crowned King of Bohemia. Subsequently, he was elected as the Holy Roman Emperor Charles VII on 24 January 1742. After the Austrians pulled their army out of Silesia to defend Bohemia, Frederick pursued them and blocked their path to Prague. The Austrians counter-attacked on 17 May 1742, initiating the [of Chotusitz](Battle)(Battle of Chotusitz). In this battle, Frederick's retrained cavalry proved more effective than at Mollwitz, but once more it was the discipline of the Prussian infantry that won the field and allowed Frederick to claim a major victory. This victory, along with the Franco-Bavarian forces capturing Prague, forced the Austrians to seek peace. The terms of the [of Breslau](Treaty)(Treaty of Breslau) between Austria and Prussia, negotiated in June 1742, gave Prussia all of Silesia and Glatz County, with the Austrians retaining only the portion called [or Czech Silesia](Austrian)(Czech Silesia). [[File:Hohenfriedeberg - Attack of Prussian Infantry - 1745.jpg\|thumb\|alt=Painting of Prussian infantry marching in ranks across a field\|Attack of Prussian Infantry, [Hohenfriedberg](Battle of Hohenfriedberg) by [Röchling](Carl)(Carl Röchling) (1913)]] By 1743, the Austrians had subdued Bavaria and driven the French out of Bohemia. Frederick strongly suspected Maria Theresa would resume war in an attempt to recover Silesia. Accordingly, he renewed his alliance with France and preemptively invaded [Bohemia](Bohemia) in August 1744, beginning the [Silesian War](Second)(Second Silesian War). In late August 1744, Frederick's army had crossed the Bohemian frontier, marched directly to Prague, and laid siege to the city, which surrendered on 16 September 1744 after a three-day bombardment. Frederick's troops immediately continued marching into the heart of central Bohemia, but Saxony had now joined the war against Prussia. Although the combined Austrian and Saxon armies outnumbered Frederick's forces, they refused to directly engage with Frederick's army, harassing his supply lines instead. Eventually, Frederick was forced to withdraw to Silesia as winter approached. In the interim, Frederick also successfully claimed his inheritance to the minor territory of East Frisia on the North Sea coast of Germany, occupying the territory after its last ruler died without issue in 1744. In January 1745, the Holy Roman Emperor Charles VII of Bavaria died, taking Bavaria out of the war and allowing Maria Theresa's husband [of Lorraine](Francis)(Francis of Lorraine) to be eventually elected Holy Roman Emperor. Now able to focus solely on Frederick's army, the Austrians, who were reinforced by the Saxons, crossed the mountains to invade Silesia. After allowing them across," ("My friend, when you want to catch mice, you have to keep the mousetrap open, they will enter and I will batter them.") }} Frederick pinned them down and decisively defeated them at the [of Hohenfriedberg](Battle)(Battle of Hohenfriedberg) on 4 June 1745. Frederick subsequently advanced into Bohemia and defeated a counterattack by the Austrians at the [of Soor](Battle)(Battle of Soor). 120–123]( Frederick then turned towards [Dresden](Dresden) when he learned the Saxons were preparing to march on Berlin. However, on 15 December 1745, Prussian forces under the command of [of Anhalt-Dessau](Leopold)(Leopold I of Anhalt-Dessau) soundly defeated the Saxons at the [of Kesselsdorf](Battle)(Battle of Kesselsdorf). After linking up his army with Leopold's, Frederick occupied the Saxon capitol of Dresden, forcing the Saxon elector, Augustus III, to capitulate. Once again, Frederick's victories on the battlefield compelled his enemies to sue for peace. Under the terms of the [of Dresden](Treaty)(Treaty of Dresden), signed on 25 December 1745, Austria was forced to adhere to the terms of the Treaty of Breslau giving Silesia to Prussia. It was after the signing of the treaty that Frederick, then 33 years old, first became known as "the Great". ### Seven Years' War Though Frederick had withdrawn from the War of the Austrian Succession once Austria guaranteed his possession of Silesia, Austria remained embroiled in the war until the [of Aix-la-Chapelle](Treaty)(Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle (1748)) in 1748. Less than a year after the treaty was signed, Maria Theresa was once more seeking allies, particularly Russia and France, to eventually renew the war with Prussia to regain Silesia. In preparation for a new confrontation with Frederick, the Empress reformed Austria's tax system and military. During the ten years of peace that followed the signing of the Treaty of Dresden, Frederick also prepared to defend his claim on Silesia by further fortifying the province and expanding his army, as well as reorganising his finances. In 1756, Frederick attempted to forestall Britain's financing of a Russian army on Prussia's border by negotiating an [alliance](Anglo-Prussian Alliance (1756)) with Britain at the [of Westminster](Convention)(Diplomatic Revolution#Westminster Convention), by which Prussia would protect Hanover against French attack, and Britain would no longer subsidise Russia. This treaty triggered the [Revolution](Diplomatic)(Diplomatic Revolution) in which Habsburg Austria and [Bourbon](House of Bourbon) France, who had been traditional enemies, allied together with Russia to defeat the Anglo-Prussian coalition. To strengthen his strategic position against this coalition, on 29 August 1756, Frederick's well-prepared army preemptively invaded Saxony. His invasion triggered the [Silesian War](Third)(Third Silesian War) and the larger [Years' War](Seven)(Seven Years' War), both of which lasted until 1763. He quickly captured Dresden, besieged the trapped Saxon army in [Pirna](Siege of Pirna), and continued marching the remainder of his army toward North Bohemia, intending to winter there. At the [of Lobositz](Battle)(Battle of Lobositz) he claimed a close victory against an Austrian army that was aiming to relieve Pirna, but afterward withdrew his forces back to Saxony for the winter. When the Saxon forces in Pirna finally capitulated in October 1756, Frederick forcibly incorporated them into his own army. This action, along with his initial invasion of neutral Saxony brought him widespread international criticism; but the conquest of Saxony also provided him with significant financial, military, and strategic assets that helped him sustain the war. [[File:Bataille de Zorndorf.jpg\|thumb\|left\|alt=Painting of Frederick marching ahead of Prussian troops with a banner\|Frederick the Great at the [of Zorndorf](Battle)(Battle of Zorndorf) by [Röchling](Carl)(Carl Röchling) (1904)]] In the early spring of 1757, Frederick once more invaded Bohemia. He was victorious against the Austrian army at the [of Prague](Battle)(Battle of Prague (1757)) on 6 May 1757, but his losses were so great he was unable to take the city itself, and settled for besieging it instead. A month later on 18 June 1757, Frederick suffered his first major defeat at the [of Kolín](Battle)(Battle of Kolín), which forced him to abandon his invasion of Bohemia. When the French and the Austrians pursued him into Saxony and Silesia in the fall of 1757, Frederick defeated and repulsed a much larger Franco-Austrian army at the [of Rossbach](Battle)(Battle of Rossbach) and another Austrian army at the [of Leuthen](Battle)(Battle of Leuthen). Frederick hoped these two victories would force Austria to negotiate, but Maria Theresa was determined not to make peace until she had recovered Silesia, and the war continued. Despite its strong performance, the losses suffered from combat, disease and desertion had severely reduced the quality of the Prussian army. 171]( In the remaining years of the war, Frederick faced a coalition of enemies including Austria, France, Russia, [Sweden](Sweden), and the Holy Roman Empire, supported only by Great Britain and its allies [Hesse](Landgraviate of Hesse-Kassel), [Brunswick](Principality of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel), and [Hanover](Electorate of Hanover). In 1758 Frederick once more took the initiative by invading Moravia. By May, he had laid [to Olomouc](siege)(Siege of Olomouc); but, the Austrians were able to hold the town and destroyed Frederick's supply train, forcing him to retreat into Silesia. In the meantime, the Russian army had advanced within east of Berlin. In August, he fought the Russian forces to a draw at the [of Zorndorf](Battle)(Battle of Zorndorf), in which nearly a third of Frederick's soldiers were casualties. He then headed south to face the Austrian army in Saxony. There, he was defeated at the [of Hochkirch](Battle)(Battle of Hochkirch) on 14 October, although the Austrian forces were not able to exploit their victory. [[File:Frederick the Great after the Battle of Hochkirch in 1758 by Carl Röchling.jpg\|thumb\|alt=Painting of Frederick by a campfire with wounded Prussian soldiers\|Frederick the Great after the defeat at the [of Hochkirch](Battle)(Battle of Hochkirch) by [Röchling](Carl)(Carl Röchling) ()]] During the 1759 campaign, the Austrian and Russian forces took the initiative, which they kept for the remainder of the war. They joined and once more advanced on Berlin. Frederick's army, which consisted of a substantial number of quickly recruited, half-trained soldiers, attempted to check them at the [of Kunersdorf](Battle)(Battle of Kunersdorf) on 12 August, where he was defeated and his troops were routed. Almost half his army was destroyed, and Frederick almost became a casualty when a bullet smashed a snuffbox he was carrying. Nevertheless, the Austro-Russian forces hesitated and stopped their advance for the year, an event Frederick later called the "[of the House of Brandenburg](Miracle)(Miracle of the House of Brandenburg)". Frederick spent the remainder of the year in a futile attempt to manoeuvre the Austrians out of Saxony, where they had recaptured Dresden. His effort cost him further losses when his general [August von Finck](Friedrich)(Friedrich August von Finck) capitulated at [Maxen](Battle of Maxen) on 20 November. At the beginning of 1760, the Austrians moved to retake Silesia, where Frederick defeated them at the [of Liegnitz](Battle)(Battle of Liegnitz (1760)) on 15 August. The victory did not allow Frederick to regain the initiative or prevent Russian and Austrian troops from [Berlin](raiding)(Raid on Berlin) in October to extort a ransom from the city. At the end of the campaign season, Frederick fought his last major engagement of the war. He won a marginal victory at the [of Torgau](Battle)(Battle of Torgau) on 3 November, which secured Berlin from further raids. In this battle, Frederick became a casualty when he was hit in the chest by a spent bullet. By 1761, both the Austrian and Prussian military forces were so exhausted that no major battles were fought between them. Frederick's position became even more desperate in 1761 when Britain, having achieved victory in the American and Indian theatres of the war, ended its financial support for Prussia after the death of King George II, Frederick's uncle. The Russian forces also continued their advance, occupying [Pomerania](Pomerania) and parts of Brandenburg. With the Russians slowly advancing towards Berlin, it looked as though Prussia was about to collapse. On 6 January 1762, Frederick wrote to [Karl-Wilhelm Finck von Finckenstein](Count)(Count Karl-Wilhelm Finck von Finckenstein), "We ought now to think of preserving for my nephew, by way of negotiation, whatever fragments of my territory we can save from the avidity of my enemies". [[File:Friedrich ii campenhausen.jpg\|thumb\|upright=0.8\|Portrait of Frederick by [Camphausen](Wilhelm)(Wilhelm Camphausen) (1870). One of many [portraits of Frederick.](idealized)(Portraits of Frederick the Great)]] The sudden death of Empress [of Russia](Elizabeth)(Elizabeth of Russia) in January 1762 led to the succession of the Prussophile [Peter III](Peter III of Russia), her German nephew, who was also the Duke of [Holstein-Gottorp](Holstein-Gottorp). This led to the collapse of the anti-Prussian coalition; Peter immediately promised to end the Russian occupation of East Prussia and Pomerania, returning them to Frederick. One of Peter III's first diplomatic endeavours was to seek a Prussian title; Frederick obliged. Peter III was so enamoured of Frederick that he not only offered him the full use of a Russian corps for the remainder of the war against Austria, he also wrote to Frederick that he would rather have been a general in the Prussian army than Tsar of Russia. More significantly, Russia's about-face from an enemy of Prussia to its patron rattled the leadership of Sweden, who hastily made peace with Frederick as well. With the threat to his eastern borders over, and France also seeking peace after its defeats by Britain, Frederick was able to fight the Austrians to a stalemate and finally brought them to the peace table. While the ensuing [of Hubertusburg](Treaty)(Treaty of Hubertusburg) simply returned the European borders to what they had been before the Seven Years' War, Frederick's ability to retain Silesia in spite of the odds earned Prussia admiration throughout the German-speaking territories. A year following the Treaty of Hubertusburg, [the Great](Catherine)(Catherine the Great), Peter III's widow and usurper, signed an eight-year alliance with Prussia, albeit with conditions that favoured the Russians. Frederick's ultimate success in the Seven Years' War came at a heavy financial cost to Prussia. Part of the burden was covered by the [Convention](Anglo-Prussian)(Anglo-Prussian Convention), which gave Frederick an annual £670,000 in British subsidies from 1758 till 1762. 99]( These subsidies ceased when Frederick allied with Peter III, partly because of the changed political situation and also because of Great Britain's decreasing willingness to pay the sums Frederick wanted. Frederick also financed the war by devaluing the Prussian coin five times; [coins](debased)(Ephraimiten) were produced with the help of Leipzig [mintmasters](Münzmeister), [Heine Ephraim](Veitel)(Veitel Heine Ephraim), [Itzig](Daniel)(Daniel Itzig) and Moses Isaacs. He also debased the coinage of Saxony and [Poland](Crown of the Kingdom of Poland). This debasement of the currency helped Frederick cover over 20 per cent of the cost of the war, but at the price of causing massive inflation and economic upheaval throughout the region. Saxony, occupied by Prussia for most of the conflict, was left nearly destitute as a result. While Prussia lost no territory, the population and army were severely depleted by constant combat and invasions by Austria, Russia and Sweden. The best of Frederick's officer corps were also killed in the conflict. Although Frederick managed to bring his army up to 190,000 men by the time the economy had largely recovered in 1772, which made it the third-largest army in Europe, almost none of the officers in this army were veterans of his generation and the King's attitude towards them was extremely harsh. During this time, Frederick also suffered a number of personal losses. Many of his closest friends and family members—including his brother Augustus William, his sister Wilhelmine, and his mother—had died while Frederick was engaged in the war. ### First Partition of Poland [[File:Rzeczpospolita Rozbiory 1.png\|thumb\|alt=Political map of the border changes due to the First Partition of Poland\|The [Commonwealth](Polish–Lithuanian)(Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth) after the First Partition in 1772]] [[File:portraitoffrederickthegreat.jpg\|thumb\|alt=Full-length portrait painting of Frederick as an older man\|Portrait of Frederick by [Dorothea Therbusch](Anna)(Anna Dorothea Therbusch) (1772, [of Versailles](Palace)(Palace of Versailles), France)]] Frederick sought to acquire and economically exploit [Prussia](Polish)(Royal Prussia) as part of his wider aim of enriching his kingdom. 176]( As early as 1731 Frederick had suggested that his country would benefit from annexing Polish territory, and had described Poland as an "artichoke, ready to be consumed leaf by leaf". By 1752, he had prepared the ground for the partition of Poland–Lithuania, aiming to achieve his goal of building a territorial bridge between Pomerania, Brandenburg, and his East Prussian provinces. 189]( The new territories would also provide an increased tax base, additional populations for the Prussian military, and serve as a surrogate for the other overseas colonies of the other great powers. Poland was vulnerable to partition due to poor governance, as well as the interference of foreign powers in its internal affairs. Frederick himself was partly responsible for this weakness by opposing attempts at financial and political reform in Poland, 176]( and undermining the Polish economy by inflating its currency by his use of Polish coin dies. The profits exceeded 25 million [thaler](thaler)s, twice the peacetime national budget of Prussia. He also thwarted Polish efforts to create a stable economic system by building a customs fort at [Marienwerder](Kwidzyn) on the Vistula, Poland's major trade artery, 176]( and by bombarding Polish customs ports on the Vistula. 663]( Frederick also used Poland's religious dissension to keep the kingdom open to Prussian control. Poland was predominantly Roman Catholic, but approximately ten per cent of Poland's population, 600,000 Eastern Orthodox and 250,000 Protestants, were non-Catholic dissenters. During the 1760s, the dissenters' political importance was out of proportion to their numbers. Although dissenters still had substantial rights, the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth had increasingly been reducing their civic rights after a period of considerable religious and political freedom. 177]( Soon Protestants were barred from public offices and the (Polish Parliament). 57–58]( Frederick took advantage of this situation by becoming the protector of Protestant interests in Poland in the name of religious freedom. 177–178]( Frederick further opened Prussian control by signing an alliance with Catherine the Great who placed [August Poniatowski](Stanisław)(Stanisław August Poniatowski), a former lover and favourite, on the Polish throne. After Russia occupied the [Principalities](Danubian)(Danubian Principalities) in 1769–70, Frederick's representative in Saint Petersburg, his brother Prince Henry, convinced Frederick and Maria Theresa that the balance of power would be maintained by a tripartite division of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth instead of Russia taking land from the Ottomans. They agreed to the [Partition of Poland](First)(First Partition of Poland) in 1772, which took place without war. Frederick acquired most of Royal Prussia, annexing and 600,000 inhabitants. Although Frederick's share of the partition was the smallest of the partitioning powers, the lands he acquired had roughly the same economic value as the others and had great strategic value. The newly created province of [Prussia](West)(West Prussia) connected [Prussia](East)(East Prussia) and Farther Pomerania and granted Prussia control of the mouth of the [River](Vistula)(Vistula River), as well as cutting off Poland's sea trade. Maria Theresa had only reluctantly agreed to the partition, to which Frederick sarcastically commented, "she cries, but she takes". Frederick undertook the exploitation of Polish territory under the pretext of an enlightened civilising mission that emphasised the supposed cultural superiority of Prussian ways. He saw Polish Prussia as barbaric and uncivilised, 36]( describing the inhabitants as "slovenly Polish trash" 213]( and comparing them unfavourably with the [Iroquois](Iroquois). His long-term goal was to remove the Poles through [Germanisation](Germanisation of Poles during the Partitions), which included appropriating Polish Crown lands and monasteries, introducing a military draft, encouraging German settlement in the region, and implementing a tax policy that disproportionately impoverished Polish nobles. ### War of the Bavarian Succession [[File:Frederick II of Prussia Coloured drawing.png\|thumb\|alt=Portrait painting of Frederick as an old man in military uniform\|upright=0.9\|Colorized engraving of Frederick in a [Waffenrock](Waffenrock) (1873)]] Late in his life Frederick involved Prussia in the low-scale [of the Bavarian Succession](War)(War of the Bavarian Succession) in 1778, in which he stifled Austrian attempts to exchange the [Netherlands](Austrian)(Austrian Netherlands) for [Bavaria](Bavaria). 130]( For their part, the Austrians tried to pressure the French to participate in the War of Bavarian Succession since there were guarantees under consideration related to the [of Westphalia](Peace)(Peace of Westphalia), clauses which linked the Bourbon dynasty of France and the Habsburg-Lorraine dynasty of Austria. Unfortunately for the Austrian Emperor [II](Joseph)(Joseph II, Holy Roman Emperor), the French were unwilling to provide manpower and resources to the endeavour since they were already [support](providing)(Franco-American alliance) to the [revolutionaries](American)(American Revolution) on the North American continent. Frederick ended up as a beneficiary of the [Revolutionary War](American)(American Revolutionary War), as Austria was left more or less isolated. Moreover, Saxony and Russia, both of which had been Austria's allies in the Seven Years' War, were now allied with Prussia. Although Frederick was weary of war in his old age, he was determined not to allow Austrian dominance in German affairs. Frederick and Prince Henry marched the Prussian army into Bohemia to confront Joseph's army, but the two forces ultimately descended into a stalemate, largely living off the land and skirmishing rather than actively attacking each other. Frederick's longtime rival Maria Theresa, who was Joseph's mother and his co-ruler, did not want a new war with Prussia, and secretly sent messengers to Frederick to discuss peace negotiations. Finally, [II of Russia](Catherine)(Catherine II of Russia) threatened to enter the war on Frederick's side if peace was not negotiated, and Joseph reluctantly dropped his claim to Bavaria. When Joseph tried the scheme again in 1784, Frederick created the (League of Princes), allowing himself to be seen as a defender of German liberties, in contrast to his earlier role of attacking the imperial Habsburgs. To stop Joseph II's attempts to acquire Bavaria, Frederick enlisted the help of the Electors of Hanover and Saxony along with several other minor German princes. Perhaps even more significant, Frederick benefited from the defection of the senior prelate of the German Church, the Archbishop of Mainz, who was also the arch-chancellor of the Holy Roman Empire, which further strengthened Frederick and Prussia's standing amid the German states. 339]( ## Policies ### Administrative modernisation [[File:Friedrich Zweite Alt.jpg\|thumb\|alt=Portrait painting of Frederick as an old man\|upright=.90\|[portrait](Idealized)(Portraits of Frederick the Great) of Frederick by [Graff](Anton)(Anton Graff) (1781, [Charlottenburg](Schloss)(Schloss Charlottenburg), Berlin).]] In his earliest published work, the Anti-Machiavel, and his later (Political Testament), Frederick wrote that the sovereign was the first servant of the state. (first servant) to (first magistrate). Compare Frederick's words from the handwritten manuscript[turns out that the sovereign, far from being the absolute master of the peoples who are under his domination, is himself only the first servant.](It)}} to Voltaire's edited 1740 version.}} Acting in this role, Frederick helped transform Prussia from a European backwater to an economically strong and politically reformed state. He protected his industries with high tariffs and minimal restrictions on domestic trade. He increased the freedom of speech in press and literature, abolished most uses of judicial [torture](torture), and reduced the number of crimes that could be punished by the death sentence. Working with his Grand Chancellor [von Cocceji](Samuel)(Samuel von Cocceji), he reformed the judicial system and made it more efficient, and he moved the courts toward greater legal equality of all citizens by removing special courts for special social classes. The reform was completed after Frederick's death, resulting in the [Law Code](Prussian)(General State Laws for the Prussian States) of 1794, which balanced absolutism with human rights and corporate privilege with equality before the law. Reception to the law code was mixed as it was often viewed as contradictory. Frederick strove to put Prussia's fiscal system in order. In January 1750, [Philipp Graumann](Johann)(Johann Philipp Graumann) was appointed as Frederick's confidential adviser on finance, military affairs, and royal possessions, as well as the Director-General of all [facilities](mint)(Mint (facility)). Graumann's currency reform slightly lowered the silver content of [thaler](Prussian)(Prussian thaler) from Cologne mark of silver to , which brought the metal content of the thaler into alignment with its face value, and it standardised the Prussian coinage system. As a result, Prussian coins, which had been leaving the country nearly as fast as they were minted, remained in circulation in Prussia. In addition, Frederick estimated that he earned about one million thalers in profits on the [seignorage](seignorage). The coin eventually became universally accepted beyond Prussia and helped increase industry and trade. A gold coin, the [d'or](Friedrich)(Friedrich d'or), was also minted to oust the [ducat](Dutch)(Ducat#Ducats of Netherlands) from the Baltic trade. 120]( However, the fixed ratio between gold and silver led to the gold coins being perceived as more valuable, which caused them to leave circulation in Prussia. Being unable to meet Frederick's expectations for profit, Graumann was removed in 1754. 120]( Although Frederick's debasement of the coinage to fund the Seven Years' War left the Prussian monetary system in disarray, the Mint Edict of May 1763 brought it back to stability by fixing rates at which depreciated coins would be accepted and requiring tax payments in currency of prewar value. This resulted in a shortage of ready money, but Frederick controlled prices by releasing the grain stocks he held in reserve for military campaigns. Many other rulers soon followed the steps of Frederick in reforming their own currencies. The functionality and stability of the reform made the Prussian monetary system the standard in Northern Germany. Around 1751 Frederick founded the [Company](Emden)(Emden Company) to promote trade with China. He introduced the [lottery](lottery), [insurance](fire)(fire insurance), and a giro discount and credit bank to stabilise the economy. One of Frederick's achievements after the Seven Years' War included the control of grain prices, whereby government storehouses would enable the civilian population to survive in needy regions, where the harvest was poor. He commissioned [Ernst Gotzkowsky](Johann)(Johann Ernst Gotzkowsky) to promote the trade and – to take on the competition with France – put a [silk](silk) factory where soon 1,500 people found employment. Frederick followed Gotzkowsky's recommendations in the field of toll levies and import restrictions. When Gotzkowsky asked for a [deferral](deferral) during the [banking crisis of 1763](Amsterdam)(Amsterdam banking crisis of 1763), Frederick took over his [porcelain](porcelain) factory, now known as [KPM](Royal Porcelain Factory, Berlin). Frederick modernised the Prussian civil service and promoted religious tolerance throughout his realm to attract more settlers in East Prussia. With the help of French experts, he organised a system of [taxation](indirect)(indirect taxation), which provided the state with more revenue than direct taxation; though French officials administering it may have pocketed some of the profit. In 1781, Frederick made coffee a royal monopoly and employed disabled soldiers, the [sniffers](coffee)(coffee sniffers), to spy on citizens illegally roasting coffee, much to the annoyance of the general population. 29]( Though Frederick started many reforms during his reign, his ability to see them to fulfilment was not as disciplined or thorough as his military successes. ### Religion [[File:Berlin, Mitte, Bebelplatz, Hedwigskathedrale 02.jpg\|thumb\|alt=Photograph of the front elevation of a domed cathedral\|[Hedwig's Cathedral](St.)(St. Hedwig's Cathedral), the first Roman Catholic church built in Berlin since the Reformation, was erected by the sanction of Frederick, who also sketched its design. [Hedwig Church...was the first Roman Catholic church that was allowed to be built in the royal seat of Frederick the Great after the Reformation...The construction was carried out with the sanction of Frederick the Great.](The)}}]] In contrast to his devoutly Calvinist father, Frederick was a [sceptic](religious)(Religious skepticism), who has been described as a [deist](Deism). 154]( See Frederick's (Superstition and Religion) in which he says in the context of Christianity in Brandenburg: "It is a shame to human understanding, that at the beginning of so learned an age as the XVIIIth [century](18th) all manner of superstitions were yet subsisting."}} Frederick was pragmatic about religious faith. Three times during his life, he presented his own confession of Christian faith: during his imprisonment after Katte's execution in 1730, after his conquest of Silesia in 1741, and just before the start of the Seven Years' War in 1756; in each case, these confessions also served personal or political goals. He tolerated all faiths in his realm, but Protestantism remained the favoured religion, and Catholics were not chosen for higher state positions. 274]( Frederick wanted development throughout the country, adapted to the needs of each region. He was interested in attracting a diversity of skills to his country, whether from Jesuit teachers, Huguenot citizens, or Jewish merchants and bankers. Frederick retained [Jesuits](Society of Jesus) as teachers in Silesia, [Warmia](Warmia), and the [District](Netze)(Netze District), recognising their educational activities as an asset for the nation. He continued to support them after their suppression by [Clement XIV](Pope)(Pope Clement XIV). He befriended the Roman Catholic Prince-Bishop of Warmia, [Krasicki](Ignacy)(Ignacy Krasicki), whom he asked to consecrate St. Hedwig's Cathedral in 1773. He also accepted countless Protestant weavers from Bohemia, who were fleeing from the devoutly Catholic rule of Maria Theresa, granting them freedom from taxes and military service. Constantly looking for new colonists to settle his lands, he encouraged immigration by repeatedly emphasising that nationality and religion were of no concern to him. This policy allowed Prussia's population to recover very quickly from its considerable losses during Frederick's three wars. Though Frederick was known to be more tolerant of Jews and Roman Catholics than many neighbouring German states, his practical-minded tolerance was not fully unprejudiced. Frederick wrote in his : We have too many Jews in the towns. They are needed on the Polish border because in these areas Hebrews alone perform trade. As soon as you get away from the frontier, the Jews become a disadvantage, they form cliques, they deal in contraband and get up to all manner of rascally tricks which are detrimental to Christian burghers and merchants. I have never persecuted anyone from this or any other sect; I think, however, it would be prudent to pay attention, so that their numbers do not increase. The success in integrating the Jews into areas of society where Frederick encouraged them can be seen by [von Bleichröder](Gerson)(Gerson von Bleichröder)'s role during the 19th century in financing [von Bismarck](Otto)(Otto von Bismarck)'s efforts to unite Germany. 19]( Frederick was also less tolerant of Catholicism in his occupied territories. In Silesia, he disregarded [law](canon)(Canon law of the Catholic Church) to install clergy who were loyal to him. In Polish Prussia, he confiscated the Roman Catholic Church's goods and property, making clergy dependent on the government for their pay and defining how they were to perform their duties. Like many leading figures in the Age of Enlightenment, Frederick was a [Freemason](Freemasonry), having joined during a trip to Brunswick in 1738. His membership legitimised the group's presence in Prussia and protected it against charges of subversion. In 1786, he became the First Sovereign Grand Commander of the Supreme Council of the 33rd Degree, his [eagle](double-headed)(double-headed eagle) emblem was also used for 32nd and 33rd degree Masons following the adoption of seven additional degrees to the Masonic Rite. Frederick's religious views were sometimes criticised. His views resulted in his condemnation by the anti-revolutionary French Jesuit, [Barruel](Augustin)(Augustin Barruel). In his 1797 book, ([Illustrating the History of Jacobinism](Memoirs)(Memoirs Illustrating the History of Jacobinism)), Barruel described an influential [theory](conspiracy)(conspiracy theory) that accused King Frederick of taking part in a plot which led to the outbreak of the [Revolution](French)(French Revolution) and having been the secret "protector and adviser" of fellow-conspirators Voltaire, Jean le Rond d'Alembert, and [Diderot](Denis)(Denis Diderot), who all sought "to destroy Christianity" and foment "rebellion against Kings and Monarchs". ### Environment and agriculture [[File:Der König überall2.JPG\|thumb\|alt=Painting of Frederick on a farm with peasants\|The King Everywhere by 1886, [Historical Museum](German)(German Historical Museum), Berlin). Frederick is depicted inspecting a potato harvest.]] Frederick was keenly interested in land use, especially [draining](drainage) [swamp](swamp)s and opening new [farmland](farmland) for colonisers who would increase the kingdom's food supply. He called it (peopling policy). About 1,200 new villages were founded in his reign. He told Voltaire, "Whoever improves the [soil](soil quality), cultivates [lying waste](land)(Barren vegetation) and drains swamps, is making conquests from barbarism". Using improved technology enabled him to create new farmland through a massive drainage programme in the country's [Oderbruch](Oderbruch) [marsh](marsh)land. This programme created roughly of new farmland, but also [eliminated](habitat loss) vast swaths of [habitat](natural)(natural habitat), destroyed the region's [biodiversity](biodiversity), and displaced numerous native plant and animal communities. Frederick saw this project as the "taming" and "conquering" of nature, considering uncultivated land "useless", an attitude that reflected his enlightenment era, [rationalist](rationalist) sensibilities. He presided over the construction of canals for bringing crops to market, and introduced new crops, especially the [potato](potato) and the [turnip](turnip), to the country. For this, he was sometimes called Der Kartoffelkönig (the Potato King). [to popular opinion, Friedrich II did not introduce the potato in Prussia...However, Frederick took great care in spreading it.](Contrary)}} Frederick's interest in [reclamation](land)(land reclamation) may have resulted from his upbringing. As a child, his father, Frederick William I, made young Frederick work in the region's provinces, teaching the boy about the area's agriculture and geography. This created an interest in [cultivation](agriculture) and development that the boy retained when he became ruler. Frederick founded the first [school](veterinary)(veterinary school) in Prussia. Unusually for the time and his aristocratic background, he criticised [hunting](hunting) as cruel, rough and uneducated. When someone once asked Frederick why he did not wear [spur](spur)s when riding his horse, he replied, "Try sticking a fork into your naked stomach, and you will soon see why." He loved dogs and his horse and wanted to be buried with his greyhounds. In 1752 he wrote to his sister Wilhelmine that people indifferent to loyal animals would not be devoted to their human comrades either, and that it was better to be too sensitive than too harsh. He was also close to nature and issued decrees to protect plants. ### Arts and education [[File:Adolph Menzel - Flötenkonzert Friedrichs des Großen in Sanssouci - Google Art Project.jpg\|thumb\|left\|alt=Painting of Frederick playing the flute with court musicians\|[Flute Concert of Sanssouci](The)(Frederick the Great Playing the Flute at Sanssouci) by [Menzel](Adolph)(Adolph Menzel) (1852, [Nationalgalerie](Alte)(Alte Nationalgalerie), Berlin). Frederick is depicted playing the flute in his music room at [Sanssouci](Sanssouci) as [P. E. Bach](C.)(Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach) accompanies him on a fortepiano by [Silbermann](Gottfried)(Gottfried Silbermann).]] Frederick was a patron of music, and the court musicians he supported included [P. E. Bach](C.)(Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach), [Heinrich Graun](Carl)(Carl Heinrich Graun) and [Benda](Franz)(Franz Benda). A meeting with [Sebastian Bach](Johann)(Johann Sebastian Bach) in 1747 in Potsdam led to Bach's writing [Musical Offering](The)(The Musical Offering). He was also a talented musician and composer in his own right, playing the [flute](transverse)(Western concert flute), as well as composing 121 [sonata](sonata)s for flute and [continuo](Basso continuo), four [concerto](concerto)s for flute and [strings](String orchestra), four [sinfonia](sinfonia)s, three [marches](military)(March (music)) and seven arias. Additionally, the [Marsch](Hohenfriedberger)(Hohenfriedberger Marsch) was allegedly written by Frederick to commemorate his victory in the Battle of Hohenfriedberg during the Second Silesian War. His flute sonatas were often composed in collaboration with [Joachim Quantz](Johann)(Johann Joachim Quantz), who was Frederick's occasional music tutor in his youth and joined his court as composer and flute maker in 1741. Frederick's flute sonatas are written in the [style](Baroque)(Baroque music) in which flute plays the melody, sometimes imitating operatic vocal styles like the [aria](aria) and [recitative](recitative), while the accompaniment was usually played by just one instrument per part to highlight the delicate sound of the flute. Frederick also wrote sketches, outlines and libretti for opera that were included as part of the repertoire for the Berlin Opera House. These works, which were often completed in collaboration with Graun,}} included the operas Coriolano (1749), Silla (1753), [Montezuma](Montezuma (Graun)) (1755), and ''Il tempio d'Amore* (1756). Frederick saw opera as playing an important role in imparting enlightenment philosophy, using it to critique superstition and the [Pietism](Pietism) that still held sway in Prussia. He also attempted to broaden access to opera by making admission to it free.[The new Berlin building [Opera House](The) was intended for all Berliners and foreign visitors to the Prussian capital...Admission to the opera was free...]}} Frederick also wrote philosophical works, vii–xlii]( publishing some of his writings under the title of The Works of a Sans-Souci Philosopher''. 63–64]( Frederick corresponded with key French [Enlightenment](Age of Enlightenment) figures, including Voltaire, who at one point declared Frederick to be a [philosopher-king](Philosopher king), 75–76]( and the [d'Argens](Marquis)(Jean-Baptiste de Boyer, Marquis d'Argens), whom he appointed as [Chamberlain](Royal)(Chamberlain (office)) in 1742 and later as the Director of the [Academy of Arts](Prussian)(Prussian Academy of Arts) and [State Opera](Berlin)(Berlin State Opera). His openness to philosophy had its limits. He did not admire the [encyclopédistes](Encyclopédie) or the French intellectual avant-garde of his time, though he did shelter [Rousseau](Jean-Jacques Rousseau) from persecution for a number of years. Moreover, once he ascended the Prussian throne, he found it increasingly difficult to apply the philosophical ideas of his youth to his role as king. 13–14]( Like many European rulers of the time who were influenced by the prestige of [XIV of France](Louis)(Louis XIV) and his court, Frederick adopted French tastes and manners, though in Frederick's case, the extent of his [Francophile](Francophile) tendencies might also have been a reaction to the austerity of the family environment created by his father, who had a deep aversion for France and promoted an austere culture for his state. He was educated by French tutors, and almost all the books in his library, which covered topics as diverse as mathematics, art, politics, the classics, and literary works by 17th century French authors, were written in French. French was Frederick's preferred language for speaking and writing, though he had to rely on proofreaders to correct his difficulties with its spelling. Though Frederick used German as his working language with his administration and with the army, he claimed to have never learned it properly and never fully mastered speaking or writing it. He also disliked the German language, thinking it was inharmonious and awkward. He once commented that German authors "pile parenthesis upon parenthesis, and often you find only at the end of an entire page the verb on which depends the meaning of the whole sentence". He considered the German culture of his time, particularly literature and theatre, to be inferior to that of France; believing that it had been hindered by the devastation of the [Years' War](Thirty)(Thirty Years' War). He suggested that it could eventually equal its rivals, but this would require a complete codification of the German language, the emergence of talented German authors and extensive patronage of the arts by Germanic rulers. This was a project he believed would take a century or more. Frederick's love of French culture was not without limits either. He disapproved of the luxury and extravagance of the French royal court. He also ridiculed German princes, especially the Elector of Saxony and King of Poland, Augustus III, who imitated French sumptuousness. His own court remained quite Spartan, frugal and small and restricted to a limited circle of close friends, a layout similar to his father's court, though Frederick and his friends were far more culturally inclined than Frederick William. Despite his distaste for the German language, Frederick did sponsor the (Royal German Society), founded in Königsberg in 1741, the aim of which was to promote and develop the German language. He allowed the association to be titled "royal" and have its seat at the [Castle](Königsberg)(Königsberg Castle), but he does not seem to have taken much interest in the work of the society. Frederick also promoted the use of German instead of Latin in the field of law, as in the legal document (Project of the Frederician Body of Laws), which was written in German with the aim of being clear and easily understandable. Moreover, it was under his reign that Berlin became an important centre of German enlightenment. #### Architecture and the fine arts [[File:Potsdam - Schloss Sanssouci.jpg\|thumb\|alt=Photograph of the rear of a palace\|South, or garden façade and [de logis](corps)(corps de logis)* of [Sanssouci](Sanssouci)]] Frederick had many famous buildings constructed in his capital, Berlin, most of which still stand today, such as the Berlin State Opera, the Royal Library (today the [Library Berlin](State)(Staatsbibliothek zu Berlin)), St. Hedwig's Cathedral, and Prince Henry's Palace (now the site of [University](Humboldt)(Humboldt University of Berlin)). 53]( A number of the buildings, including the Berlin State Opera House, a wing of [Charlottenburg](Schloss)(Schloss Charlottenburg), and the renovation of Rheinsburg during Frederick's residence were built in a unique [Rococo](Rococo) style that Frederick developed in collaboration with [Wenzeslaus von Knobelsdorff](Georg)(Georg Wenzeslaus von Knobelsdorff). This style became known as [Rococo](Frederician)(Frederician Rococo) and is epitomised by Frederick's summer palace, Sanssouci (French for "carefree" or "without worry"), 400]( which served as his primary residence and private refuge. As a great patron of the arts, Frederick was a collector of paintings and ancient sculptures; his favourite artist was [Watteau](Jean-Antoine)(Jean-Antoine Watteau). His sense of aesthetics can be seen in the picture gallery at Sanssouci, which presents architecture, painting, sculpture and the decorative arts as a unified whole. The gilded stucco decorations of the ceilings were created by Johann Michael Merck (1714–1784) and Carl Joseph Sartori (1709–1770). Both the wall panelling of the galleries and the diamond shapes of the floor consist of white and yellow marble. Paintings by different schools were displayed strictly separately: 17th-century Flemish and Dutch paintings filled the western wing and the gallery's central building, while Italian paintings from the High Renaissance and Baroque were exhibited in the eastern wing. Sculptures were arranged symmetrically or in rows in relation to the architecture. #### Science and the Berlin Academy [[File:Adolph-von-Menzel-Tafelrunde2 (cropped).jpg\|thumb\|alt=Painting of Frederick and companions seated around a table\|The Round Table of King Frederick II in Sanssouci by [Menzel](Adolph)(Adolph Menzel) (1849,[Nationalgalerie](Alte)(Alte Nationalgalerie), Berlin). Frederick is seated at the center with [Voltaire](Voltaire) (leaning forward in a purple coat), [d'Argens](Marquis)(Jean-Baptiste de Boyer, Marquis d'Argens), [Keith](George)(George Keith, 10th Earl Marischal), They are unrelated to the Keith brothers, Peter and Robert, who were Frederick's companions when he was Crown Prince.}} [Algarotti](Francesco Algarotti), [Mettrie](La)(Julien Offray de La Mettrie), and [d'Argens.](Marquis)(Jean-Baptiste de Boyer, Marquis d'Argens) ]] When Frederick ascended the throne in 1740, he reinstituted the [Academy of Sciences](Prussian)(Prussian Academy of Sciences) (Berlin Academy), which his father had closed down as an economy measure. Frederick's goal was to make Berlin a European cultural centre that rivalled London and Paris in the arts and sciences. To accomplish this goal, he invited numerous intellectuals from across Europe to join the academy, made French the official language and made speculative philosophy the most important topic of study. The membership was strong in mathematics and philosophy and included [Kant](Immanuel)(Immanuel Kant), D'Alembert, [Louis de Maupertuis](Pierre)(Pierre Louis de Maupertuis), and [de Condillac](Étienne)(Étienne de Condillac). However the Academy was in a crisis for two decades at mid-century, due in part to scandals and internal rivalries such as the debates between Newtonianism and Leibnizian views, and the personality conflict between Voltaire and Maupertuis. At a higher level Maupertuis, director of the Berlin Academy from 1746 to 1759 and a monarchist, argued that the action of individuals was shaped by the character of the institution that contained them, and they worked for the glory of the state. By contrast d' Alembert took a republican rather than monarchical approach and emphasised the international [of Letters](Republic)(Republic of Letters) as the vehicle for scientific advance. By 1789, the academy had gained an international repute while making major contributions to German culture and thought. For example, the mathematicians he recruited for the Berlin Academy – including [Euler](Leonhard)(Leonhard Euler), [Lagrange](Joseph-Louis)(Joseph-Louis Lagrange), [Heinrich Lambert](Johann)(Johann Heinrich Lambert), and [Castillon](Johann)(Giovanni Salvemini) – made it a world-class centre for mathematical research. Other intellectuals attracted to the philosopher's kingdom were [Algarotti](Francesco)(Francesco Algarotti), d'Argens, and [Offray de La Mettrie](Julien)(Julien Offray de La Mettrie). ## Military theory [[the Great and his staff at the Battle of Leuthen by Hugo Ungewitter.jpg\|thumb\|alt=Painting of Frederick and Prussian officers on horseback before a battle\|Frederick the Great Surveying the Field of Battle by (1906)](File:Frederick)] Contrary to his father's fears, Frederick became a capable military commander. With the exception of his first battlefield experience at the Battle of Mollwitz, Frederick proved himself courageous in battle. He frequently led his military forces personally and had a number of horses shot from under him during battle. During his reign he commanded the Prussian Army at sixteen major battles and various sieges, skirmishes and other actions, ultimately obtaining almost all his political objectives. He is often admired for his [tactical](Military tactics) skills, especially for his use of the [order](oblique)(oblique order) of battle, an attack focused on one flank of the opposing line, allowing a local advantage even if his forces were outnumbered overall. Even more important were his operational successes, especially the use of [lines](interior)(interior lines) to prevent the unification of numerically superior opposing armies and defend the Prussian core territory. [Bonaparte](Napoleon)(Napoleon Bonaparte) saw the Prussian king as a military commander of the first rank; after Napoleon's victory over the [Coalition](Fourth)(Fourth Coalition) in 1807, he visited Frederick's tomb in Potsdam and remarked to his officers, "Gentlemen, if this man were still alive I would not be here". Napoleon frequently "pored through Frederick's campaign narratives and had a statuette of him placed in his personal cabinet". Frederick's most notable military victories on the battlefield were the Battle of Hohenfriedberg, a tactical victory, fought during the War of Austrian Succession in June 1745; the Battle of Rossbach, where Frederick defeated a combined Franco-Austrian army of 41,000 with only 21,000 soldiers (10,000 dead for the Franco-Austrian side with only 550 casualties for Prussia); and the Battle of Leuthen, a follow-up victory to Rossbach in which Frederick's 39,000 troops inflicted 22,000 casualties, including 12,000 prisoners, on Charles of Lorraine's Austrian force of 65,000. Frederick the Great believed that creating alliances was necessary, as Prussia did not have the resources of nations like France or Austria. Though his reign was regularly involved in war, he did not advocate for protracted warfare. He stated that for Prussia, wars should be short and quick: long wars would destroy the army's discipline, depopulate the country, and exhaust its resources. Frederick was an influential military theorist whose analysis emerged from his extensive personal battlefield experience and covered issues of strategy, tactics, mobility and logistics. Austrian co-ruler, Emperor Joseph II wrote, "When the King of Prussia speaks on problems connected with the art of war, which he has studied intensively and on which he has read every conceivable book, then everything is taut, solid and uncommonly instructive. There are no circumlocutions, he gives factual and historical proof of the assertions he makes, for he is well versed in history." [Citino](Robert)(Robert M. Citino) describes Frederick's strategic approach: In war ... he usually saw one path to victory, and that was fixing the enemy army in place, maneuvering near or even around it to give himself a favorable position for the attack, and then smashing it with an overwhelming blow from an unexpected direction. He was the most aggressive field commander of the century, perhaps of all time, and one who constantly pushed the limits of the possible. The historian Dennis Showalter argues: "The King was also more consistently willing than any of his contemporaries to seek decision through offensive operations." 67]( Yet, these offensive operations were not acts of blind aggression; Frederick considered foresight to be among the most important attributes when fighting an enemy, stating that the discriminating commander must see everything before it takes place, so nothing will be new to him. Much of the structure of the more modern [General Staff](German)(German General Staff) owed its existence and extensive structure to Frederick, along with the accompanying power of autonomy given to commanders in the field. According to Citino, "When later generations of Prussian-German staff officers looked back to the age of Frederick, they saw a commander who repeatedly, even joyfully, risked everything on a single day's battle – his army, his kingdom, often his very life." As far as Frederick was concerned, there were two major battlefield considerations – speed of march and speed of fire. So confident in the performance of men he selected for command when compared to those of his enemy, Frederick once quipped that a general considered audacious in another country would be ordinary in Prussia because Prussian generals will dare and undertake anything that is possible for men to execute. After the Seven Years' War, the Prussian military acquired a formidable reputation across Europe. Esteemed for their efficiency and success in battle, the Prussian army of Frederick became a model emulated by other European powers, most notably by Russia and France. To this day, Frederick continues to be held in high regard as a military theorist and has been described as representing the embodiment of the art of war. 83]( ## Later years and death [[File:Friedrich der grosse grab hg.jpg\|thumb\|alt=Photograph of Frederick's headstone\|Grave of Frederick at [Sanssouci](Sanssouci) with potatoes, where he was buried only after the [reunification](German)(German reunification). (He wished to rest next to his dogs, but this was originally ignored.)]] Near the end of his life, Frederick grew increasingly solitary. His circle of close friends at Sanssouci gradually died off with few replacements, and Frederick became increasingly critical and arbitrary, to the frustration of the civil service and officer corps. Frederick was immensely popular among the Prussian people because of his enlightened reforms and military glory; the citizens of Berlin always cheered him when he returned from administrative or military reviews. Over time, he was nicknamed (The Old Fritz) by the Prussian people, and this name became part of his legacy. Frederick derived little pleasure from his popularity with the common people, preferring instead the company of his pet [greyhound](Italian)(Italian greyhound)s, whom he referred to as his "[de Pompadour](marquises)(Madame de Pompadour)" as a jibe at the French royal mistress. Even in his late 60s and early 70s when he was increasingly crippled by [asthma](asthma), [gout](gout) and other ailments, he rose before dawn, drank six to eight cups of coffee a day, "laced with mustard and peppercorns", and attended to state business with characteristic tenacity. On the morning of 17 August 1786, Frederick died in an armchair in his study at Sanssouci, aged 74. He left instructions that he should be buried next to his greyhounds on the vineyard terrace, on the side of the corps de logis of Sanssouci. His nephew and successor Frederick William II instead ordered Frederick's body to be entombed next to his father, Frederick William I, in the [Garrison Church](Potsdam)(Garrison Church (Potsdam)). Near the end of [War II](World)(World War II), German dictator [Hitler](Adolf)(Adolf Hitler) ordered Frederick's coffin to be hidden in a salt mine to protect it from destruction. The [States Army](United)(United States Army) relocated the remains to [Marburg](Marburg) in 1946; in 1953, the coffins of Frederick and his father were moved to [Hohenzollern](Burg)(Hohenzollern Castle). On the 205th anniversary of his death, on 17 August 1991, Frederick's coffin lay in state in the court of honour at Sanssouci, covered by a Prussian flag and escorted by a [Bundeswehr](Bundeswehr) guard of honour. After nightfall, Frederick's body was interred in the terrace of the vineyard of Sanssouci—in the still existing crypt he had built there—without pomp, in accordance with his will.}} Visitors to his grave often place potatoes on the gravestone in honour of his role in promoting the use of the potato in Prussia. 54]( ## Historiography and legacy [[File:Wochenspruch der NSDAP 24 August 1941.jpg\|thumb\|left\|upright=0.8\|alt=Nazi German poster with Frederick's face and quotation\|Frederick quoted by the Nazi propaganda poster [der NSDAP](Wochenspruch)(Wochenspruch der NSDAP) on 24 August 1941.]] Frederick's legacy has been subject to a wide variety of interpretations. For instance, [Carlyle](Thomas)(Thomas Carlyle)'s [of Frederick the Great](History)(History of Friedrich II. of Prussia, Called Frederick the Great) (8 vol. 1858–1865) emphasised the power of one great "hero", in this case Frederick, to shape history. In German memory, Frederick became a great national icon and many Germans said he was the greatest monarch in modern history. These claims particularly were popular in the 19th century. For example, German historians often made him the romantic model of a glorified warrior, praising his leadership, administrative efficiency, devotion to duty and success in building up Prussia to a leading role in Europe. Frederick's popularity as a heroic figure remained high in Germany even after [War I](World)(World War I). Between 1933 and 1945, the Nazis glorified Frederick as a precursor to Adolf Hitler and presented Frederick as holding out hope that another miracle would again save Germany at the last moment. In an attempt to legitimise the Nazi regime, Propaganda Minister [Goebbels](Joseph)(Joseph Goebbels) commissioned artists to render fanciful images of Frederick, [Bismarck](Otto Von Bismarck), and Hitler together in order to create a sense of a historical continuum amongst them. Throughout World War II, Hitler often compared himself to Frederick the Great, and he kept a copy of [Graff](Anton)(Anton Graff)'s portrait of Frederick with him to the end in the [Führerbunker](Führerbunker) in Berlin. After the defeat of Germany after 1945, the role of Prussia in German history was minimised. Compared to the pre-1945 period, Frederick's reputation was downgraded in both [East](East Germany) and [Germany](West)(West Germany), partly due to the Nazis' fascination with him and his supposed connection with Prussian militarism. [consensus of the anti-Hitler coalition of the Second World War and the victorious powers over Prussia was summarized in their memorandum of August 8, 1946 in the Allied Control Council: "It goes without saying that Prussia has been a threat to security for the past 200 years"...](The)\|Munn\|2014\|2p=[12](https://web.archive.org/web/20201126001117/https://academiccommons.columbia.edu/doi/10.7916/D8QV3JNF)}} During the second half of the 20th century, political attitudes towards Frederick's image were ambivalent, particularly in communist East Germany. [GDR's official view of Frederick II and Prussia was by no means a one-way street.](The)\|Munn\|2014\|2p=[6](https://web.archive.org/web/20201126001117/https://academiccommons.columbia.edu/doi/10.7916/D8QV3JNF)}} For example, immediately after World War II images of Prussia were removed from public spaces, [the Soviet Zone / GDR the symbols of "reactionary Prussia" were allowed to have no place in public space.](...in)}} including [equestrian statue](Frederick's)(Equestrian statue of Frederick the Great) on the [den Linden](Unter)(Unter den Linden), but in 1980 his statue was once more re-erected on its original location. 10–11]( Since the end of the [War](Cold)(Cold War), Frederick's reputation has continued to grow in the now reunified Germany. In the 21st century, the view of Frederick as a capable and effective leader also remains strong among military historians. However, the originality of his achievements remains a topic of debate, 2]( as many were based on developments already under way. He has also been studied as a model of [leadership](servant)(servant leadership) in management research and is held in high regard for his patronage of the arts. He has been seen as an exemplar of enlightened absolutism, 431]( though this label has been questioned in the 21st century as many enlightenment principles directly contrast with his military reputation. ## Works by Frederick the Great Selected works in English * * * * * * Collections * (31 vols.) * (46 vols.) Editions of music * * ## References ### Informational notes ### Citations ### Sources #### Books * \|isbn=978-3-030-31006-6\|oclc=1144785160 }} * * * * * * * * * \|publisher=E.J.Brill\|location=Leiden, Netherlands\|isbn=978-90-04-10177-7\|oclc=465569961}} * * * * * * }} * * * * * * \|publisher=Oxford University Press\|isbn=978-0-19-820171-7\|oclc=851818872}} * \|isbn=0-8090-4678-4\|oclc=1147898734}} * * * * \|isbn=978-1-135-83505-7\|oclc= 230766184}} * \|publisher=Borodino Books\|orig-date=1941\|ref=\|isbn=978-1-78720-424-9\|oclc=982450924}} * * \|date=2000\|publisher=Cambridge University Press\|isbn=978-0-521-58335-0\|oclc=827756844}} * . * * \|isbn=0-88029-481-7\|oclc=945677799}} * * * * * * * * * \|date=2013\|publisher=Springer\|location=New York\|isbn=978-1-137-39169-8\|oclc=865160408}} \|pages=[books\|id=YrXOCwAAQBAJ\|page=428\|plainurl=yes}} 428–429]( * * \|publisher=University of Chicago Press\|location=Chicago\|isbn=978-0-226-42729-4\|oclc=904781018}} * * * * * \|location=Rochester, N.Y.\|publisher=Camden House\|isbn=978-1-282-99415-7\|oclc=642845346}} * \|oclc=249507287}} * * \|publisher=University of Chicago Press\|location=Chicago\|isbn=978-0-226-55872-1\|oclc=1039503412}} * * * \|location=Princeton, NJ\|publisher=Princeton University Press\|isbn=9780691176420\|oclc=1151104252}} * * * * * \|oclc=1023180593}} * * * \|isbn=978-0-521-26546-1\|oclc=185308412}} * \|url-access=registration}} * * * * }} * * * * }} * * \|isbn=0-582-01768-8\|oclc=50663120}} * * * \|isbn=978-0-521-79269-1\|oclc=45888917}} * * * * \|isbn=978-1-78303-479-6\|oclc=848270249}} * * * * * * \|location=Oxford, UK\|publisher=Oxford University Press\|isbn=978-0-19-285371-4\|oclc=1264970240}} * \|isbn=978-0-582-29272-7\|oclc=470987920}} * \|isbn=978-0-521-85673-7\|oclc=1264880635}} * * \|publisher=Wings Books\|isbn=978-0-517-19148-4\|oclc=777435960}} #### Journal articles * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * }} * }} * * * * * * #### Dissertations and theses * * * * * #### Online * * }} * * * }} * * * * }} * * }} * * * * \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210102092732/https://www.welt.de/geschichte/article160307743/Der-preussische-Kartoffelkoenig.html\|archive-date=2 January 2021}} * }} * #### Audiovisual * #### Primary sources * }} * * }} * }} * }} ** \|pages=69–73}} * \|pages=[280–281](https://archive.org/details/memoirsofbranden00freduoft/page/280)}} * \|page=[239](https://archive.org/details/memoirsofbranden00freduoft/page/239)}} * \|chapter-url=https://germanhistorydocs.ghi-dc.org/pdf/eng/4_PrussianMonarchy_Doc.8_English.pdf\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210224063022/https://germanhistorydocs.ghi-dc.org/pdf/eng/4_PrussianMonarchy_Doc.8_English.pdf\|archive-date=24 February 2021\|via=German History in Documents and Images}} * \|url=https://archive.org/details/memoiresnegoc01valo/page}} * }} ## External links Writings of Frederick the Great * * * [''Digital edition of Frederick the Great's Works](http://friedrich.uni-trier.de/) at the [of Trier](University)(University of Trier) Music of Frederick the Great* * * * * [Free scores](http://www.mutopiaproject.org/cgibin/make-table.cgi?Composer=FriedrichII) at the [Project](Mutopia)(Mutopia Project) Writings about Frederick the Great * [History of Frederick II of Prussia](http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/25808) by Thomas Carlyle at [Gutenberg](Project)(Project Gutenberg) * [and Frederick the Great](https://archive.org/details/bookscharactersf00straiala/page/165/mode/2up''Voltaire) by Lytton Strachey at the [Archive](Internet)(Internet Archive) \|- \|- \|- [ ](Category:Frederick the Great) [births](Category:1712)(Category:1712 births) [deaths](Category:1786)(Category:1786 deaths) [art collectors](Category:18th-century)(Category:18th-century art collectors) [classical composers](Category:18th-century)(Category:18th-century classical composers) [German composers](Category:18th-century)(Category:18th-century German composers) [German LGBT people](Category:18th-century)(Category:18th-century German LGBT people) [kings of Prussia](Category:18th-century)(Category:18th-century kings of Prussia) [male musicians](Category:18th-century)(Category:18th-century male musicians) [of Enlightenment](Category:Age)(Category:Age of Enlightenment) [Princes of Prussia](Category:Crown)(Category:Crown Princes of Prussia) [composers](Category:Gay)(Category:Gay composers) [military personnel](Category:Gay)(Category:Gay military personnel) [art collectors](Category:German)(Category:German art collectors) [Calvinist and Reformed Christians](Category:German)(Category:German Calvinist and Reformed Christians) [classical composers](Category:German)(Category:German classical composers) [classical flautists](Category:German)(Category:German classical flautists) [critics of Christianity](Category:German)(Category:German critics of Christianity) [deists](Category:German)(Category:German deists) [Freemasons](Category:German)(Category:German Freemasons) [gay musicians](Category:German)(Category:German gay musicians) [gay writers](Category:German)(Category:German gay writers) [landowners](Category:German)(Category:German landowners) [male classical composers](Category:German)(Category:German male classical composers) [military personnel of the Seven Years' War](Category:German)(Category:German military personnel of the Seven Years' War) [military personnel of the War of the Austrian Succession](Category:German)(Category:German military personnel of the War of the Austrian Succession) [military writers](Category:German)(Category:German military writers) [opera librettists](Category:German)(Category:German opera librettists) [of Hohenzollern](Category:House)(Category:House of Hohenzollern) [Calvinist and Reformed Christians](Category:LGBT)(Category:LGBT Calvinist and Reformed Christians) [classical composers](Category:LGBT)(Category:LGBT classical composers) [heads of state](Category:LGBT)(Category:LGBT heads of state) [royalty](Category:LGBT)(Category:LGBT royalty) [of the Silesian Wars](Category:People)(Category:People of the Silesian Wars) [of the War of the Bavarian Succession](Category:People)(Category:People of the War of the Bavarian Succession) [of Brandenburg](Category:Prince-electors)(Category:Prince-electors of Brandenburg) [of Neuchâtel](Category:Princes)(Category:Princes of Neuchâtel) [of the Order of the White Eagle (Poland)](Category:Recipients)(Category:Recipients of the Order of the White Eagle (Poland)) [reburials](Category:Royal)(Category:Royal reburials) [from Berlin](Category:Writers)(Category:Writers from Berlin)
Straight Outta Compton _film	straight_outta_compton__film	# Straight Outta Compton (film) Revision ID: 1159829986 \| Timestamp: 2023-06-12T20:13:08Z --- \| screenplay = \| story = \| starring = \| music = [Trapanese](Joseph)(Joseph Trapanese) \| cinematography = [Libatique](Matthew)(Matthew Libatique) \| editing = \| production_companies = * [Vision](Cube)(Cube Vision) * [Films](Crucial)(Dr. Dre#Film career) * Broken Chair Flickz }} \| distributor = [Pictures](Universal)(Universal Pictures) \| released = \| runtime = 147 minutes \| country = United States \| language = English \| budget = $28–50 million \| gross = $201.6 million }} *Straight Outta Compton* is a 2015 American [biographical](biographical film) [film](drama)(drama (film and television)) directed by [Gary Gray](F.)(F. Gary Gray), depicting the rise and fall of the [hop](hip)(Hip hop music) group [N.W.A](N.W.A) and its members [Eazy-E](Eazy-E), [Cube](Ice)(Ice Cube), [Dre](Dr.)(Dr. Dre), [Ren](MC)(MC Ren), and [Yella](DJ)(DJ Yella). Members of [N.W.A](N.W.A) were involved in the production of the film, including Ice Cube and Dr. Dre as [producers](film producer), as was Eazy-E's widow, Tomica Woods-Wright. MC Ren and DJ Yella served as creative consultants. Ice Cube is played by his real-life son, [Jackson Jr.](O'Shea)(O'Shea Jackson Jr.), who made his film debut. [Hawkins](Corey)(Corey Hawkins) portrays Dr. Dre, [Mitchell](Jason)(Jason Mitchell) is Eazy-E, [Brown Jr.](Neil)(Neil Brown Jr.) is DJ Yella, and [Hodge](Aldis)(Aldis Hodge) is MC Ren. [Giamatti](Paul)(Paul Giamatti) stars as N.W.A's manager [Heller](Jerry)(Jerry Heller). Talks of an N.W.A biopic began in 2010 by [Line Cinema](New)(New Line Cinema). Several directors were approached including [Brewer](Craig)(Craig Brewer), [Berg](Peter)(Peter Berg), and [Singleton](John)(John Singleton) before Gray was eventually confirmed in April 2012. Much of the cast signed on in June 2014 and [photography](principal)(principal photography) began that August, taking place around [Angeles](Los)(Los Angeles) and [California](Compton,)(Compton, California). The production faced several controversies, including casting call issues and several acts of violence on set. The film is dedicated to Eazy-E who died from [HIV](HIV) in 1995, twenty years before the release of the film. Released on August 14, 2015, Straight Outta Compton received positive reviews from critics with praise for its performances (particularly Jackson's and Mitchell's), direction, screenplay and musical sequences, though many criticized the historical inaccuracies. The film was also a box office success, making over $201 million on a production budget of $28–$50 million. Straight Outta Compton was chosen by the [Board of Review](National)(National Board of Review) as one of the [ten films of 2015](top)(National Board of Review Awards 2015#Top 10 Films) and was nominated for the [Award for Best Original Screenplay](Academy)(Academy Award for Best Original Screenplay). Additionally, the film won the [Image Award for Outstanding Motion Picture](NAACP)(NAACP Image Award for Outstanding Motion Picture) at the [NAACP Image Awards](47th)(47th NAACP Image Awards). It inspired Dr. Dre's third studio album, [Compton](Compton (album)), which debuted at no. 2 on the US [200](Billboard)(Billboard 200) album chart a week prior to the film's release. The [album](soundtrack)(soundtrack album), featuring music by N.W.A, debuted at no. 1 on the [Albums](Rap)(Rap Albums) chart and reached no. 1 on the [R&B/Hip-Hop Albums](Top)(Top R&B/Hip-Hop Albums) chart. Heller filed a lawsuit against the filmmakers, protesting his depiction and claiming that parts were taken from his autobiography without permission. ## Plot In 1986, [California](Compton,)(Compton, California) has become a chaotic dystopia due to street gangs, drug dealers, and police brutality. One night, [Eazy-E](Eazy-E) narrowly evades a police raid at a crack house. The following day, [Dre](Dr.)(Dr. Dre) is struggling with what he wants to do in life and is confronted by his mother for missing a job interview. Meanwhile, [Cube](Ice)(Ice Cube) is a high school senior aspiring to become a [rapper](rapping). Intrigued by Cube's "reality raps" reflecting on the crime, gang violence, and police harassment that they and other [Americans](African)(African Americans) have endured recently, Dre convinces Eazy to fund a startup [label](record)(record label), [Records](Ruthless)(Ruthless Records), with Dre as [producer](record)(record producer). When their song "[Boyz-n-the-Hood](Boyz-n-the-Hood)" is rejected by a [York](New)(New York City) rap group, Dre convinces Eazy to perform it instead. It becomes a local hit, and Eazy, Cube, Dre, [Yella](DJ)(DJ Yella), and [Ren](MC)(MC Ren) form the group [N.W.A](N.W.A) ("Niggaz Wit Attitudes"). Eazy accepts [Heller](Jerry)(Jerry Heller)'s offer to manage N.W.A and co-run Ruthless, and [Records](Priority)(Priority Records) offers N.W.A a [deal](record)(record deal). While recording their debut album, [Outta Compton](Straight)(Straight Outta Compton) (1988), the group is harassed by police due to their race and appearance, prompting Cube to compose a diss track—"[tha Police](Fuck)(Fuck tha Police)"—towards the police. Heller, having witnessed the altercation and being disgusted by the officers, allows the track without hesitation. The album becomes a controversial hit due to its explicit lyrics, and the group's style is dubbed [rap](gangsta)(gangsta rap) by the press. During a 1989 concert tour, the [FBI](Federal Bureau of Investigation) demands N.W.A to not perform "Fuck tha Police" because it encourages violence against law enforcement. Police in [Detroit](Detroit) forbid them from performing the song, but they perform it anyway. The concert stalls, and the police arrest the group, resulting in a riot. Heller delays the individual members' contracts with Ruthless, and when he insists that Cube should sign without legal representation, Cube quits the group. His debut solo album, ''[Most Wanted](AmeriKKKa's)(AmeriKKKa's Most Wanted)'' (1990), is released, but when Priority Records is unable to pay him his advance on his next album, he wrecks the label head's office. When N.W.A heavily insults Cube on their next record, ''[Miles and Runnin'](100)(100 Miles and Runnin')'' (1990), he responds with the [track](diss)(Diss (music)) "[Vaseline](No)(No Vaseline)," criticizing them and Heller. This, combined with Cube's association with the [of Islam](Nation)(Nation of Islam), outspoken criticism of the [Angeles Police Department](Los)(Los Angeles Police Department) in the wake of the beating of [King](Rodney)(Rodney King), and a starring role in the 1991 film [n the Hood](Boyz)(Boyz n the Hood), make him even more famous and controversial. Dre hires the imposing [Bloods](Bloods) gang member [Knight](Suge)(Suge Knight) as his manager after Knight proves that Heller has been underpaying him. Dre leaves N.W.A to form [Row Records](Death)(Death Row Records) with Knight, who has his men threaten Heller and beat Eazy-E to pressure them to release Dre from his contract with Ruthless. Dre enjoys his newfound freedom and begins working with other rappers, including then-newcomer [Dogg](Snoop)(Snoop Dogg). His debut solo album, [Chronic](The)(The Chronic) (1992), sells over five million copies and is critically acclaimed, even as he becomes concerned about Knight's violent behavior and the community is rocked by the [Los Angeles riots](1992)(1992 Los Angeles riots). Eazy, whose fortunes and health have declined, is devastated by the comparative success of his former bandmates. Learning that Heller has been embezzling money from Ruthless from the beginning, he fires him and decides to rekindle his friendships with Cube and Dre, who agree to an N.W.A reunion. During the reunion, Eazy collapses and is admitted to the hospital, where he is diagnosed with [HIV/AIDS](HIV/AIDS). Amid emotional visits from his bandmates, Eazy dies on March 26, 1995, and is mourned by fans. Dre parted ways with Knight and Death Row a year later to form his own label, [Entertainment](Aftermath)(Aftermath Entertainment). Clips shown during the film's credits highlight Cube's subsequent roles as a film actor and Dre's career as a producer and entrepreneur. Several famous rappers credit Dre with helping to launch their careers, and [Electronics](Beats)(Beats Electronics), which he co-founded, was bought by [Inc.](Apple)(Apple Inc.) in 2014 for $3 billion. ## Cast * [Jackson Jr.](O'Shea)(O'Shea Jackson Jr.) as ["Ice Cube" Jackson](O'Shea)(Ice Cube) * [Hawkins](Corey)(Corey Hawkins) as ["Dr. Dre" Young](Andre)(Dr. Dre) * [Mitchell](Jason)(Jason Mitchell) as ["Eazy-E" Wright](Eric)(Eazy-E) * [Brown Jr.](Neil)(Neil Brown Jr.) as ["DJ Yella" Carraby](Antoine)(DJ Yella) * [Hodge](Aldis)(Aldis Hodge) as ["MC Ren" Patterson](Lorenzo)(MC Ren) * [Giamatti](Paul)(Paul Giamatti) as [Heller](Jerry)(Jerry Heller) * Marlon Yates Jr. as ["The D.O.C." Curry](Tracy)(The D.O.C.) * R. Marcos Taylor (credited as R. Marcus Taylor) as ["Suge" Knight](Marion)(Suge Knight) * [Stanfield](Lakeith)(Lakeith Stanfield) as ["Snoop Dogg" Broadus](Calvin)(Snoop Dogg) * [Shipp](Alexandra)(Alexandra Shipp) as Kimberly Woodruff * [Reynolds](Corey)(Corey Reynolds) as [Williams](Alonzo)(DJ Alonzo Williams), club owner and member of Dr. Dre and DJ Yella's pre-N.W.A group [Class Wreckin' Cru](World)(World Class Wreckin' Cru) * [Ellington](Tate)(Tate Ellington) as [Turner](Bryan)(Bryan Turner (businessman)), head of [Records](Priority)(Priority Records) * Sheldon A. Smith as [G" Griffin III]("Warren)(Warren G) * [Goode](Elena)(Elena Goode) as Nicole Threatt, Dr. Dre's wife * [Powers](Keith)(Keith Powers) as Tyree Crayon, Dr. Dre's half-brother * Mark Sherman as [Iovine](Jimmy)(Jimmy Iovine), CEO of [Records](Interscope)(Interscope Records) LaDell Preston plays ["Shorty" Muhammad](Jerome)(Shorty from Da Lench Mob), member of Ice Cube's post-N.W.A group [Lench Mob](Da)(Da Lench Mob) Cleavon McClendon as ["Sir Jinx" Wheaton](Anthony)(Sir Jinx), a member of Ice Cube's pre-N.W.A group [C.I.A.](C.I.A. (band)) * Rogelio Douglas, Jr. as ["Chuck D" Ridenhour](Carlton)(Chuck D) of [Bomb Squad](The)(The Bomb Squad), producers of Ice Cube's solo album ''AmeriKKKa's Most Wanted'' * Steve Turner as [Shocklee" Boxley]("Keith)(Keith Shocklee), member of The Bomb Squad * [Woodley](Tyron)(Tyron Woodley) as Terry "T-Bone" Gray, member of Ice Cube's post-N.W.A group [Lench Mob](Da)(Da Lench Mob) * Marcc Rose as [Shakur](Tupac)(Tupac Shakur), with [Love](Darris)(Darris Love) providing the character's voice * [Gary Gray](F.)(F. Gary Gray) as [KDAY](KDAY) disc jockey Greg Mack * Brandon Lafourche as ["Arabian Prince" Nazel](Kim)(Arabian Prince) * [Grosse](Demetrius)(Demetrius Grosse) as Rock ## Production ### Development In March 2009, it was announced that the film was in development at [Line Cinema](New)(New Line Cinema), with [Leigh Savidge](S.)(S. Leigh Savidge) and [Wenkus](Alan)(Alan Wenkus) writing, and Tomica Woods-Wright, Ice Cube, and Dr. Dre set to produce the film. In May 2010, it was announced [Berloff](Andrea)(Andrea Berloff) would write a draft of the screenplay. In September 2011, [Singleton](John)(John Singleton) told [Playlist](The)(The Playlist) that he was in talks to direct the film, saying: "I can’t talk about it too prematurely about the stuff I'm doing because nothing’s come to fruition yet, but Cube and I are talking about doing the N.W.A. story. The script is really, really good, and so we're just figuring it out. New Line really wants to make it." Also in September 2011, [Gary Gray](F.)(F. Gary Gray), [Brewer](Craig)(Craig Brewer), and [Berg](Peter)(Peter Berg) were reportedly in talks to direct the film. In April 2012, Gray was selected as director. Gray had worked with Ice Cube on the film [Friday](Friday (1995 film)) and Dr. Dre on the film [It Off](Set)(Set It Off (film)). He has also directed some of their music videos. By 2013 the film was picked up by [Studios](Universal)(Universal Studios), who, in December of that year, hired Jonathan Herman to write a new draft of the script and brought in [Packer](Will)(Will Packer) to executive produce, alongside Adam Merims, [Wenkus](Alan)(Alan Wenkus) David Engel, Bill Straus, Thomas Tull, and [Jashni](Jon)(Jon Jashni). ### Casting [call](Casting)(Casting call)s began in the middle of 2010. There had been rumors of [Eazy-E](Lil)(Lil Eazy-E) playing his late father Eazy-E, and Ice Cube's son and fellow rapper [Jackson Jr.](O'Shea)(O'Shea Jackson Jr.) playing his father as well. Ice Cube said of the movie, "We're taking it to the nooks and crannies, I think deeper than any other article or documentary on the group," he said. "These are the intimate conversations that helped forge N.W.A. To me, I think it's interesting to anybody who loves that era and I don't know any other movie where you can mix [Rap](Gangster)(Gangster Rap), the [F.B.I.](F.B.I.), [Riots](L.A.)(L.A. Riots), [HIV](HIV), and fucking feuding with each other. This movie has everything from [Gates](Daryl)(Daryl Gates) and [battering ram](the)(V-100 Commando#Operational use)." On February 21, 2014, director Gray announced a March 9, 2014 open casting call for the film in [California](Gardena,)(Gardena, California), via his [Twitter](Twitter) account. There were also open casting calls in [Atlanta](Atlanta) and [Chicago](Chicago). Rapper [YG](YG (rapper)) auditioned to play MC Ren in the film. The project was scheduled to start filming in April 2014, but was pushed back due to casting delays.[Ice Cube: NWA biopic set for shooting in April](http://www.voice-online.co.uk/article/ice-cube-nwa-biopic-set-shooting-april) . The Voice Online (2014-02-20). Retrieved on 2014-04-11. On June 18, 2014, Universal officially announced that the N.W.A biopic Straight Outta Compton would be released theatrically on August 14, 2015. It was also confirmed that Ice Cube's son, O'Shea Jackson Jr., would play a younger version of his father in the film. O'Shea Jr. joined Jason Mitchell and Corey Hawkins who portrayed group members Eazy-E and Dr. Dre respectively. In early July 2014, casting directors for the film issued a casting call for extras and vintage cars in the [Angeles](Los)(Los Angeles) area. The casting call release stated that filming would begin in August 2014. In July 2014, it was confirmed [Hodge](Aldis)(Aldis Hodge) would portray MC Ren and [Brown Jr.](Neil)(Neil Brown Jr.) would play [Yella](DJ)(DJ Yella). On August 15, 2014, [Giamatti](Paul)(Paul Giamatti) joined the cast to play N.W.A's manager [Heller](Jerry)(Jerry Heller). On August 26, 2014, [Stanfield](LaKeith)(Keith Stanfield) joined the cast to play [Dogg](Snoop)(Snoop Dogg). On June 16, 2015, Ice Cube revealed that a "Tupac scene" had been shot for the film. [Weekly](Entertainment)(Entertainment Weekly) reported that the role of [Shakur](Tupac)(Tupac Shakur) in the film would be played by newcomer Marcc Rose who was once rumored to be cast by [Singleton](John)(John Singleton) in his unmade Tupac biopic. Rose later reprised the role of Tupac in the first and only season of the true crime drama series [Unsolved](Unsolved (American TV series)). #### Casting call controversy On July 16, 2014, a casting call for extras for Straight Outta Compton was released on the Sande Alessi Casting [Facebook](Facebook) page. The casting call was looking for African-American girls for the film using an A-D ranking scale. Though the "A girls" category was looking for "classy" women of all colors, the "B through D" categories were very explicitly linked with skin-tone. As the women get less attractive, the casting call wants the women's flesh tone to be darker, with the lowest listing calling for "African American girls. Poor, not in good shape. Medium to dark skin tone." The casting call post went viral as people expressed their outrage of what they call [colorism](colorism), [sexism](sexism), and [racism](racism) in the categorizing of black women. A representative for Sande Alessi Casting said the ad was an "innocent mistake" and when it comes to casting "poor" people, they are also looking for women of various skin tones and body types. As for the A, B, C, D grouping system, Sande Alessi Casting says "it's the usual method [they] use to look for different types of people for any project and it wasn't meant to offend anyone." ### Filming Straight Outta Compton was filmed in Compton, California and Los Angeles, California. [photography](Principal)(Principal photography) began on location in Compton on August 5, 2014. In early September 2014, principal exterior shooting on a large post-riot set was observed on Laurel Canyon Boulevard in North Hollywood. While shooting in California, the production spent $50 million in the state and received the California Film & Television Tax Credit. Costume designer Kelli Jones says "the script was literally changing the entire time we were shooting, I mean literally the entire time. There would be days where I would get a call on Friday and they were like ‘oh by the way we’ve moved the pool party scene to Monday’ and the pool party scene had like 400 people and I needed to get '80s bathing suits, so there wasn't a single weekend where were not working. It was insane!" Production Designer Shane Valentino says "We had 130 sets which is a lot of sets to try and deal with." #### Violence on set On August 12, 2014, [TMZ](TMZ) reported that just seven days into filming in Compton, a [shooting](drive-by)(drive-by shooting) took place directly in front of the cast and crew members while they were on the set. A group of men standing outside the Compton Courthouse flashed [signs](gang)(Gang signal#Hand signs) at a passing car and passengers in the car opened fire on the group. No one affiliated with the film was injured, but one other person near the set was shot. Despite the incident, it was announced that filming would continue to take place as planned in the city. On January 29, 2015, [Knight](Suge)(Suge Knight) was involved in a [hit-and-run](hit-and-run) incident that left one man dead and another hospitalized. After an argument on the Straight Outta Compton film set, witnesses claim that Knight followed the men to a burger stand parking lot in Compton, and that the collisions looked intentional. Security footage video was released online in early March showing Knight running over both men but which Knight's attorney said helps his client's self-defense claim. Terry Carter, co-founder (along with [Cube](Ice)(Ice Cube)) of Heavyweight Records and a friend of Knight, was the man killed. The second victim, filmmaker [Sloan](Cle)(Cle Shaheed Sloan), suffered a mangled foot and [injuries](head)(Head injury). Knight was arrested for the incident. In October 2018, he pleaded no contest to voluntary manslaughter in the case in a Los Angeles courtroom and was sentenced to 28 years in prison. In October 2017, transcripts from a grand jury hearing earlier in the year indicated Knight allegedly gave multiple menacing warnings to director F. Gary Gray during filming. Although Gray would testify he did not recall any calls or texts threatening his safety (a move Deputy District Attorney Cynthia Barnes referred to as intentional perjury out of fear), Knight was allegedly angry at his depiction in the film and that he was not compensated for his portrayal. ## Release ### Marketing In December 2014, during a show in [Australia](Sydney,)(Sydney, Australia), Ice Cube gave concertgoers a sneak peek at a trailer for Straight Outta Compton. When an executive producer of the film, [Packer](Will)(Will Packer), was asked if Cube told him he was going to show the trailer or did he "just put it out there?", Packer responded, "Cube does what he does." He added, "Cube is the man. We back him. And I love the fact that it's out there and it's getting the response that it's getting, that's what I'll say." On February 8, 2015, Universal released the first official [trailer](Trailer (promotion)) for Straight Outta Compton. The [band](red)(red band) trailer was preceded by an introduction featuring N.W.A members Dr. Dre and Ice Cube. A second global trailer for Straight Outta Compton was released on April 1, 2015, and was attached with theatrical screenings of Universal's [7](Furious)(Furious 7). On August 7, 2015, to help promote the film, [by Dre](Beats)(Beats by Dre) launched a new app through the website StraightOuttaSomewhere.com. The app allows users to create a [meme](Internet meme) by uploading a picture with the "Straight Outta" logo and fill in the blank with a location of their choice. Some people did proclaim that they were "Straight Outta" a certain city or locale, while others uploaded funny images and phrases. In under 24 hours, over 78,000 "Straight Outta" images were downloaded on social media sites and over 6 million downloads were generated before the film's opening day. Inquisitr.com proclaimed, "It’s a successful viral photo campaign that is definitely bringing attention to the movie Straight Outta Compton." ### Security concerns Straight Outta Compton premiered on August 10, 2015, at the entertainment complex [Live](LA)(LA Live) in Los Angeles, California. An earlier report by [Weekly](LA)(LA Weekly) said that the [LAPD](LAPD) was "beefing up its presence" for the event; [Hollywood Reporter](The)(The Hollywood Reporter) said that organizers had tripled security. Due to concerns surrounding the violence in the film, it was reported that movie theaters hired extra security during the film's opening weekend and Universal Studios would reimburse them. Universal denied that it would reimburse them, but would partner with theaters seeking "support". No major incidents were reported at showings during the film's opening weekend. Some critics said it was because of the extra security at some theaters, while others argued that it showed the extra security was unnecessary. ### Home media Straight Outta Compton was released on [HD](Digital)(Digital distribution) on January 5, 2016, by [Pictures Home Entertainment](Universal)(Universal Pictures Home Entertainment) and on [Blu-ray](Blu-ray) and [DVD](DVD) on January 19, 2016. The Blu-ray and DVD includes both the theatrical version and an Unrated Director's Cut which featured 20 additional minutes of the film. Universal Pictures announced a [Blu-ray](4K)(Ultra HD Blu-ray) release including both cuts of the film to be released on February 6, 2018. ## Reception ### Box office Straight Outta Compton grossed $161.2 million in the United States and Canada and $40.4 million in other territories for a worldwide total of $201.6 million. [Hollywood](Deadline)(Deadline Hollywood) calculated the net profit of the film to be $91.1 million, when factoring together all expenses and revenues for the film. In the United States and Canada, the opening weekend projections were continuously revised upwards, starting from $25 million and going as high as $45 million. The film made $5 million from Thursday night shows, which began at 7 p.m. in 2,264 theaters. After its strong Thursday night showing, Universal was able to add nearly 500 theaters for the film's opening weekend. Straight Outta Compton made $24.1 million on its opening day, the fourth biggest August opening in history. It [first at the box office](finished)(List of 2015 box office number-one films in the United States) in its opening weekend earning $60.2 million from 2,757 theaters and ahead of the week's other new release [Man from U.N.C.L.E.](The)(The Man from U.N.C.L.E. (film)) 46% of its opening weekend audience was African American while 23% was non-Hispanic White and 21% Hispanic. Its opening weekend total was the fifth-best August opening weekend of all time (behind [of the Galaxy](Guardians)(Guardians of the Galaxy (film)), [Bourne Ultimatum](The)(The Bourne Ultimatum (film)), [Hour 2](Rush)(Rush Hour 2) and [Mutant Ninja Turtles](Teenage)(Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles (2014 film))) the highest in August for an [R-rated](Motion Picture Association of America film rating system) film (surpassing [Pie 2](American)(American Pie 2)) and the highest for a musical biopic. It also set the record for best opening by a film with an African American director, until it was passed by Gray's own [Fate of the Furious](The)(The Fate of the Furious) in April 2017. After a strong first full week showing ($84.7 million), Universal added the film to over 200 additional theaters. The film grossed $26.4 million in its [weekend](second)(second weekend in box office performance) and again finished first at the box office, ahead of the week's new releases [2](Sinister)(Sinister 2), [Agent 47](Hitman:)(Hitman: Agent 47), and [Ultra](American)(American Ultra). On August 27, 2015, Straight Outta Compton became the highest grossing [musical](Musical film) [biopic](biographical film) of all time in the United States with $120.9 million, passing the 2005 [Cash](Johnny)(Johnny Cash) biopic [the Line](Walk)(Walk the Line (film))s $119.5 million total (it was then passed itself on December 1, 2018, by [Rhapsody](Bohemian)(Bohemian Rhapsody (film))s $162 million). The film grossed $13.1 million in its third weekend and, once again, finished first at the box office ahead of the week's new releases [Room](War)(War Room (film)), [Escape](No)(No Escape (2015 film)) and [Are Your Friends](We)(We Are Your Friends (film)). On September 18, 2015, the film's domestic gross crossed $157.5 million, surpassing [Ivory Wayans](Keenen)(Keenen Ivory Wayans)' [Movie](Scary)(Scary Movie) ($157 million) to become the all-time highest domestic grossing film from a [black](Black people) director in the United States. This record was surpassed by Gray's own [Fate of the Furious](The)(The Fate of the Furious) in April 2017. By September 21, 2015, the film had grossed $188 million worldwide to become the all-time highest grossing music biopic, surpassing [the Line'''s](Walk)(Walk the Line) $186.4 million worldwide gross, again, past itself by Bohemian Rhapsody'' in November 2018. ### Critical response On [aggregator](review)(review aggregator) [Tomatoes](Rotten)(Rotten Tomatoes) the film has an approval rating of 89% based on 248 reviews with an average rating of 7.40/10. The site's consensus reads, "Straight Outta Compton is a biopic that's built to last, thanks to F. Gary Gray's confident direction and engaging performances from a solid cast." On [Metacritic](Metacritic), it has a weighted average score of 72 out of 100, based on 41 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews". [Roeper](Richard)(Richard Roeper) of the [Sun-Times](Chicago)(Chicago Sun-Times) awarded the film 3.5 stars out of 4, calling the film "enthralling" and "energized", praising the cast for delivering "strong, memorable work that transcends mere imitation." He called the film "one of the better musical biopics of the last 20 years". Lou Lumenick of the [York Post](New)(New York Post), also awarding the film a 3.5 out of 4, called it "one of the summer's most entertaining and provocative movies", finding it "surprisingly candid" about the negatives in N.W.A's career for a film produced by Ice Cube and Dr. Dre themselves. [Travers](Peter)(Peter Travers) of [Stone](Rolling)(Rolling Stone), also giving the film 3.5 out of 4 stars, praised the picture for its honesty in its portrayal of the group and complemented Jackson's performance as Ice Cube, as well as the supporting cast, finding Mitchell's Eazy-E "award-caliber". He did wish that the film elaborated more on the group's troubles involving misogyny, [homophobia](homophobia), and the media. Joe Morgenstern of [Wall Street Journal](The)(The Wall Street Journal) found the group's musical performances to be "far and away the most appealing parts of the picture." However, he criticized the film for slowing down towards the end, particularly when it gets "ploddingly sentimental" once it focuses on the decline and death of Eazy-E. Scott Foundas of [Variety](Variety (magazine)) praised director Gray for taking familiar biopic paces and bringing a "richness of observation to the table that transcends cliche." He also praised the film for its "high but never overindulgent" style and the attention to detail in the production, ranging from the "exhaustively researched" screenplay to the "meticulous care" involved in assembling the film's soundtrack. He stated, "if Compton is undeniably of the moment, it’s also timeless in its depiction of how artists and writers transform the world around them into angry, profane, vibrant and singular personal expression." Michael Phillips of the [Tribune](Chicago)(Chicago Tribune) stated, "Straight Outta Compton at its best evokes the heady atmosphere of Crenshaw Boulevard and what the group’s success meant to Compton, and vice versa. When the songs themselves take center stage the movie works. What remains in the wings constitutes another, fuller story." In a mixed review, [Turan](Kenneth)(Kenneth Turan) of the [Angeles Times](Los)(Los Angeles Times) felt that the film attempted to take on more storylines than it could handle, also criticizing how bloated it becomes towards the end regarding Heller, though he did praise Giamatti's performance. Jordan Hoffman of [Guardian](The)(The Guardian) also criticized the film's second half for being "cheesy" and "[playing] it too safe". [Vishnevetsky](Ignatiy)(Ignatiy Vishnevetsky) of [A.V. Club](The)(The A.V. Club) gave the film a C, feeling it had to rely on its timeliness for its thematic weight, and saying the film "simplifies N.W.A.’s arc to a gangster-movie knock-off about three friends from way back when who are driven apart by bad influences." Alyssa Rosenberg of [Washington Post](The)(The Washington Post) noted the film's "lack of interest in process and personality" compared to the concurrently-released music biopic [& Mercy](Love)(Love & Mercy (film)), writing: "it’s no contest as to which Giamatti picture is the better depiction of the actual music-making process." ### Historical accuracy Compared to the biopic [Rhapsody](Bohemian)(Bohemian Rhapsody (film)) (2018), which took major liberties with [Mercury](Freddie)(Freddie Mercury)'s life, and [Queen](Queen (band))'s career, Straight Outta Compton stays fairly close to the overall truth of how N.W.A. came together, while the exact details are sometimes re-arranged. * In the film, the formation of N.W.A happens after Dre punches a man who attacks his little brother one night. He is arrested, and Eazy bails him out of jail. According to recorded N.W.A lore, Dre did land in jail, but it was over unpaid tickets on his [RX7](Mazda)(Mazda RX7). He paged Eazy to bail him out and, to return the favor, agreed to produce a track for a record label Eazy wanted to start. * In the film, Cube and Dre's first show together takes place at local club. Dre is [DJing](DJing) there with Yella in a puffy, lavender jacket and warns Cube that the crowd will be tough. Cube wins over the crowd with "Gangsta Gangsta." Eazy and MC Ren are the only Crips in a crowd of mostly Bloods. The show actually happened at a Compton skating rink in which there was an overwhelming presence of Bloods. Cube did perform "Gangsta Gangsta," but mostly did dirty parodies of popular tracks. Dre's costumes were reserved for his first group World Class Wreckin’ Cru. * In the film, “Boyz-n-the-Hood” almost doesn't happen because HBO doesn't like the lyrics. In real life, HBO did recoil at the song and walked out on the session. * In the film, Heller hears "Boyz-in-the-Hood" and asks Eazy to go into business together. They later form Ruthless Records and Heller lands N.W.A a deal with Priority Records after a show in a roller rink. In his 2007 memoir "Ruthless," Heller (who was not involved with the film) says that it was Eazy who sought him out, not the other way around, and he even paid a mutual acquaintance $750 to make an introduction. The Priority deal went down the week after N.W.A played a successful show at a local roller rink. * In the film, NWA is brutally harassed by racist cops who hate rappers for looking like gangbangers as an outraged Heller looks on in shock. Soon afterward Cube writes some lyrics, Dre gives his approval, and they quickly begin recording "Fuck tha Police". In real life, members of N.W.A did get harassed by cops outside of Audio Achievements while recording Straight Outta Compton in 1987. But Cube had the concept for "Fuck tha Police" long before Dre was on board, despite Dre's own frustrations with law enforcement. * In the film, Ice Cube finally quits N.W.A after voicing his displeasure over his contract status with Heller and Eazy. In his book, Heller claims the group voted Cube out at the end of their first tour because of his griping about proper compensation. Ice Cube has said he thought it was ridiculous that Eazy and Heller were driving luxury cars and living in mansions while he still lived with his parents. But departing N.W.A. was not an easy decision. He secretly consulted with publicist Pat Charbonnet (who isn't portrayed in the film), who facilitated his solo deal with Priority Records. * In the film, Knight and his goons beat up Eazy to get him to release Dre from the label. Dre has denied knowing of Knight's plans that night in 1991. In real life, Suge Knight told Eazy-E that he had kidnapped Jerry Heller and was holding him prisoner in a van. This did not convince Eazy-E to release Dr. Dre and The D.O.C. from Ruthless, and Suge Knight threatened Eazy-E's family. He gave Eazy-E a piece of paper that contained Eazy's mother's address, telling him, "I know where your mama stays." Eazy-E finally signed Dr. Dre and The D.O.C.'s releases, officially ending N.W.A.Borgmeyer, Jon; Lang, Holly (2006). Dr. Dre: A Biography. Greenwood Publishing Group. pp. 52–55. . In his book, Heller corroborates the movie's assertion that Eazy-E wanted to retaliate by killing Knight. He also claims that Knight wanted three Ruthless artists—Dre, D.O.C., and Dre's girlfriend Michel’le (whom Knight later married)—released from their contracts so they could sign with Knight and Sony. A lawsuit against Dre, Knight, and Sony was later settled out of court. * Dre witnesses Knight and his gangbanger buddies intimidating a man in his underwear with a dog in the Death Row Records offices, then leaves in protest and leads cops on a dramatic high-speed chase that ends with his arrest. Dre told The Hollywood Reporter that the scene really happened: "I was like, 'What the f— is going on?' I was ready to leave anyways. This was the extra push. The guy in the underwear? All this shit actually happened." Dre was sentenced to eight months in prison for drunk-driving his Ferrari through Beverly Hills in the late-night, 90-mph chase. * In the film, Eazy is visited in the hospital by Dr. Dre. Ice Cube arrives to see him too, but can't bring himself to enter Eazy's room. In real life, DJ Yella remained close to Eazy throughout the post-N.W.A breakup. Yella was also the only member of N.W.A to attend Eazy's funeral. * In the film, Cube and his new group [Lench Mob](Da)(Da Lench Mob) are suddenly attacked by unidentified assailants. In reality, Cube's dispute was with [the Law](Above)(Above the Law (group)). He and their rapper/producer [187um](Cold)(Cold 187um) had already fought at an Anaheim show earlier that year, and Cube brought along Da Lench Mob partly as protection. [from Da Lench Mob](Shorty)(Shorty from Da Lench Mob) threw the first blow. It was a wild showdown, with tables flying and shiners administered. But, Cube wasn't involved. When it began, he was speaking on a panel. * Towards the movie's end, Eazy asks Cube about reuniting NWA. Cube says he's down if Jerry Heller isn't involved, and Eazy fires the manager shortly after. Eazy then brings the reunion idea to Dre, who is 100% on board. In reality, Eazy and Cube did speak of an NWA reunion not long before Eazy was diagnosed with AIDS. But, Dre hadn't committed to it. In fact, Cold 187um says he wasn't planning on producing any new NWA tracks. #### Reactions from the depicted On June 10, 2015, [Ren](MC)(MC Ren) took to [Twitter](Twitter) to voice his displeasure at the lack of exposure his character had in the Straight Outta Compton trailer, saying "Man fuck these bitches at universal pictures leaving me out the movie trailers to rewrite history" and "When you have bitches work on a hip hop film that don't know shit about hip hop this is what happens. How the hell leave me out after all the work I put into them records." After the film's release, Ren tweeted, "True fans know my role in the group as far as lyrics are concerned, don't let the movie fool you about my contribution to the group." He later praised the filmmakers saying, "Congrats to the cast and crew. Great job of telling our story." Despite being a founding member, [Prince](Arabian)(Arabian Prince)'s contribution to the group has been ignored in the movie, and his character has a brief, uncredited cameo in the film when the album cover for 'Straight Outta Compton' is shown momentarily. While going on record that he personally harbored no ill will towards the producers, Arabian Prince did note that it led to numerous inquiries and interview requests as to the possible reasons for such a revisionist approach. According to Arabian Prince, "Maybe for 50% of the [movie] scenes, I was there in real life, on stage, or in the studio. A lot of N.W.A's early music production was done with my equipment." On August 24, 2015, [Williams](Alonzo)(Alonzo Williams) referred to the film as "a great fusion of fantasy and reality", after admitting that he enjoyed the film. He disputed the accuracy of the scenes where he forbade gangsta rap from being played at his club, saying that the members of N.W.A had not started gangsta rap at that point. He also commented on the scene when Dr. Dre was bailed out of jail by Eazy-E, saying that Dr. Dre had been jailed several times for non-payment of parking fees and that he had an argument with Dre after having bailed him out of jail numerous times. When Alonzo refused to bail Dre out another time, Eazy-E bailed him out instead. Alonzo claimed that it was he who introduced Eazy-E to Jerry Heller and that contrary to how it was depicted in the movie, he was supportive of Boyz-n-the-Hood, unlike most others at the time. #### Lawsuit from Heller On August 27, 2015, Heller reported to the Los Angeles Times that he had seen the film: "I'm still not willing to comment right now on that movie because I think sooner or later it may be part of an ongoing litigation." On October 30, 2015, Heller filed a 12-claim lawsuit in the Superior Court of Los Angeles against NBCUniversal, director F. Gary Gray, Legendary Pictures, the screenwriters of the film, Ice Cube, Dr. Dre and the estate of Eazy-E. As well as protesting his depiction in the film, Heller claimed that a significant amount of the film's content had been taken from his autobiography without permission. The defendants countered with a request that Heller's defamation charges be dismissed. In December 2018, two years after Heller's death, a judge dismissed the lawsuit. #### Omissions On August 17, 2015, [Michel'le](Michel'le), [Dre](Dr.)(Dr. Dre)'s former girlfriend and mother of one of his children, did an exclusive interview with [TV](Vlad)(DJ Vlad). In the interview, the former Ruthless and Death Row Records artist ponders her and Dre's abusive relationship and she states that she was aware she was not included in the Straight Outta Compton film. "Why would Dre put me in it? I mean 'cause if they start from where they start from I was just a quiet girlfriend who got beat up and told to shut up." On August 18, 2015, [Gawker](Gawker) published an editorial by [Barnes](Dee)(Dee Barnes) titled "Here's What's Missing from Straight Outta Compton: Me and the Other Women Dr. Dre Beat Up." Barnes notes that Dr. Dre had repeated instances of physical abuse to female associates during his time in N.W.A, including the infamous January 1991 beating of Barnes in the bathroom of Po Na Na Souk nightclub. In the film, these incidents were never acknowledged. She further notes that important women from the era with close and historically important ties to N.W.A ([J. Fad](J.)(J. J. Fad), [Yo](Yo)(Yo Yo (rapper)), [B](Tairrie)(Tairrie B), etc.) were absent from the film. In the end, most women portrayed in the film are partying [groupie](groupie)s, and Barnes felt that it could have also acknowledged the female MCs who contributed to N.W.A's and individual members' successes. Gerrick D. Kennedy of the [Angeles Times](Los)(Los Angeles Times) revealed the Barnes incident was originally included in an earlier version of the film's script. On August 21, 2015, Dr. Dre responded, apologizing to "the women I’ve hurt. I deeply regret what I did and know that it has forever impacted all of our lives." The next day, [Inc.](Apple)(Apple Inc.), which bought [Electronics](Beats)(Beats Electronics) for $3 billion in 2014 from Dr. Dre and made him an executive, weighed in on the abuse allegations to offer their support to Dre. The company said in a statement, "Dre has apologized for the mistakes he's made in the past and he's said that he's not the same person that he was 25 years ago." On August 26, 2015, Randall Roberts of the [Angeles Times](Los)(Los Angeles Times) criticized the film for leaving out the story of the all-female rap group J. J. Fad and how some in the media claim the group was responsible for "forging a path for the breakout success of N.W.A". Dr. Dre and Snoop Dogg dissing Eazy-E in "[Day](Dre)(Fuck wit Dre Day (And Everybody's Celebratin'))," Eazy-E's retaliation "[Muthaphuckkin G's](Real)(Real Muthaphuckkin G's)" and its guest rappers [Dresta](Dresta) and [Knocc Out](B.G.)(B.G. Knocc Out) are never portrayed in the film. ### Accolades The film received numerous award nominations, including one for [Original Screenplay](Best)(Academy Award for Best Original Screenplay) at the [Oscars](88th Academy Awards). ## Music ### Compton On August 7, 2015, Dr. Dre released the album [A Soundtrack by Dr. Dre](Compton:)(Compton: A Soundtrack by Dr. Dre) exclusively on [Music](Apple)(Apple Music) and the [Store](iTunes)(iTunes Store) at first and later released on other digital music platforms and in CD and vinyl form. Though not an official soundtrack to the film Straight Outta Compton, Dr. Dre said this album would be "inspired by the movie". Dre said on The Pharmacy (his [1](Beats)(Beats 1) radio show) that during principal photography of Straight Outta Compton, "I felt myself going to the studio and being so inspired by the movie that I started recording an album." He added, "It's an 'inspired by' album. It's inspired by Straight Outta Compton." Part of ''Straight Outta Compton's* successful opening has been attributed to Compton: A Soundtrack'', Dr. Dre's first collection of original music since his 1999's [2001](2001 (Dr. Dre album))* album, which was released a week prior to the film's premiere and debuted at No. 2 on the US [200](Billboard)(Billboard 200) charts and No. 1 on the [iTunes](iTunes) charts. Dr. Dre said he would donate royalties from his album to the city of Compton for a new performing arts facility. ### Soundtrack An official soundtrack album to the film entitled [Outta Compton: Music from the Motion Picture](Straight)(Straight Outta Compton: Music from the Motion Picture) was released on January 8, 2016 by [Music Enterprises](Universal)(Universal Music Enterprises). It features songs mainly by [N.W.A](N.W.A), but also has songs by [Cube](Ice)(Ice Cube), [Eazy-E](Eazy-E), [Dre](Dr.)(Dr. Dre) featuring [Dogg](Snoop)(Snoop Dogg), and others. ## See also [of black films of the 2010s](List)(List of black films of the 2010s) [of films that most frequently use the word "fuck"](List)(List of films that most frequently use the word "fuck") [of hood films](List)(List of hood films) [Defiant Ones](The)(The Defiant Ones (TV series)), topic-related 2017 documentary ## Notes ## References ## External links * * * * * * [Official screenplay](https://web.archive.org/web/20160203225651/http://www.universalpicturesawards.com/site-content/uploads/2015/08/Straight-Outta-Compton-Screenplay.pdf) }} [biographical drama films](Category:2015)(Category:2015 biographical drama films) [crime drama films](Category:2015)(Category:2015 crime drama films) [gangster films](Category:American)(Category:American gangster films) [films](Category:2015)(Category:2015 films) [films](Category:African-American)(Category:African-American films) [biographical dramas](Category:African-American)(Category:African-American biographical dramas) [musical drama films](Category:2010s)(Category:2010s musical drama films) [crime drama films](Category:American)(Category:American crime drama films) [musical drama films](Category:American)(Category:American musical drama films) [films about musicians](Category:Biographical)(Category:Biographical films about musicians) [films based on actual events](Category:Crime)(Category:Crime films based on actual events) [Vision films](Category:Cube)(Category:Cube Vision films) [California in fiction](Category:Compton,)(Category:Compton, California in fiction) [films based on actual events](Category:Drama)(Category:Drama films based on actual events) [scored by Joseph Trapanese](Category:Films)(Category:Films scored by Joseph Trapanese) [about drugs](Category:Films)(Category:Films about drugs) [about music and musicians](Category:Films)(Category:Films about music and musicians) [about musical groups](Category:Films)(Category:Films about musical groups) [about race and ethnicity](Category:Films)(Category:Films about race and ethnicity) [about racism in the United States](Category:Films)(Category:Films about racism in the United States) [set in the 1980s](Category:Films)(Category:Films set in the 1980s) [set in 1986](Category:Films)(Category:Films set in 1986) [set in 1987](Category:Films)(Category:Films set in 1987) [set in 1988](Category:Films)(Category:Films set in 1988) [set in 1989](Category:Films)(Category:Films set in 1989) [set in the 1990s](Category:Films)(Category:Films set in the 1990s) [set in 1990](Category:Films)(Category:Films set in 1990) [set in 1991](Category:Films)(Category:Films set in 1991) [set in 1992](Category:Films)(Category:Films set in 1992) [set in 1993](Category:Films)(Category:Films set in 1993) [set in 1995](Category:Films)(Category:Films set in 1995) [set in Los Angeles](Category:Films)(Category:Films set in Los Angeles) [shot in Los Angeles](Category:Films)(Category:Films shot in Los Angeles) [hip hop films](Category:2010s)(Category:2010s hip hop films) [films](Category:Hood)(Category:Hood films) [gang films](Category:American)(Category:American gang films) [in American films](Category:HIV/AIDS)(Category:HIV/AIDS in American films) [Pictures films](Category:Legendary)(Category:Legendary Pictures films) [Category:N.W.A](Category:N.W.A) [Line Cinema films](Category:New)(Category:New Line Cinema films) [about police misconduct](Category:Films)(Category:Films about police misconduct) [Pictures films](Category:Universal)(Category:Universal Pictures films) [Packer Productions films](Category:Will)(Category:Will Packer Productions films) [directed by F. Gary Gray](Category:Films)(Category:Films directed by F. Gary Gray) [produced by Ice Cube](Category:Films)(Category:Films produced by Ice Cube) [with screenplays by Andrea Berloff](Category:Films)(Category:Films with screenplays by Andrea Berloff) [of police brutality](Category:Criticism)(Category:Criticism of police brutality) [Coast hip hop](Category:West)(Category:West Coast hip hop) [controversies in film](Category:Obscenity)(Category:Obscenity controversies in film) [subject to a lawsuit](Category:Works)(Category:Works subject to a lawsuit) [English-language films](Category:2010s)(Category:2010s English-language films) [American films](Category:2010s)(Category:2010s American films)
Billy the Kid	billy_the_kid	# Billy the Kid Revision ID: 1158255174 \| Timestamp: 2023-06-02T22:36:34Z --- \| birth_name = Henry McCarty \| birth_date = September 17 or November 23, 1859 \| alias = William H. Bonney, Henry Antrim, Kid Antrim \| birth_place = New York City, U.S. \| death_date = \| death_cause = Gunshot wound \| death_place = [Sumner](Fort)(Fort Sumner), New Mexico \| restingplace = Old Fort Sumner Cemetery \| resting_place_coordinates = \| occupation = }} Henry McCarty (September 17 or November 23, 1859July 14, 1881), [alias](Pseudonym) William H. Bonney, better known as Billy the Kid, was an American outlaw and gunfighter of the [West](Old)(American frontier) who is alleged to have killed 21 men before he was shot and killed at the age of 21. He is also known for his involvement in [Mexico](New)(New Mexico)'s [County War](Lincoln)(Lincoln County War), during which he allegedly committed three murders. McCarty was orphaned at the age of 15. His first arrest was for stealing food at the age of 16 in 1875. Ten days later, he robbed a Chinese laundry and was arrested again but escaped shortly afterwards. He fled from [Mexico Territory](New)(New Mexico Territory) into neighboring [Territory](Arizona)(Arizona Territory), making himself both an outlaw and a federal fugitive. In 1877, he began to call himself "William H. Bonney". After killing a blacksmith during an altercation in August 1877, McCarty became a wanted man in Arizona and returned to New Mexico, where he joined a group of [rustlers](cattle)(Cattle raiding). He became well known in the region when he joined the [Regulators](Lincoln County Regulators) and took part in the Lincoln County War of 1878. He and two other Regulators were later charged with killing three men, including Lincoln County Sheriff [J. Brady](William)(William J. Brady) and one of his deputies. McCarty's notoriety grew in December 1880 when the Las Vegas Gazette, in [Vegas, New Mexico](Las)(Las Vegas, New Mexico), and [Sun](The)(The Sun (New York City)), in New York City, carried stories about his crimes. Sheriff [Garrett](Pat)(Pat Garrett) captured McCarty later that month. In April 1881, McCarty was tried for and convicted of Brady's murder, and was sentenced to hang in May of that year. He escaped from jail on April 28, killing two sheriff's deputies in the process, and evaded capture for more than two months. Garrett shot and killed McCarty, by then aged 21, in [Sumner](Fort)(Fort Sumner, New Mexico) on July 14, 1881. During the decades following his death, legends grew that McCarty had survived, and a number of men claimed to be him. Billy the Kid remains one of the most notorious figures from the era, whose life and likeness have been [dramatized](frequently)(List of works about Billy the Kid) in [Western](Western genre) popular culture. He has been a feature of more than 50 movies and several television series. ## Early life Henry McCarty was born to parents of [Catholic](Irish)(Irish Catholic) ancestry, Catherine () and Patrick McCarty, in [York City](New)(New York City). A theory suggests that he was born on September 17, 1859, in New York City. He was baptized "Patrick Henry McCarthy" at the Church of St. Peter on September 28, 1859.Transcript of "Certificate of Baptism", Church of St. Peter, Barclay Street, New York. "This is to certify that Patrick Henry McCarthy, child of Patrick and Catherine Devine, born in NY on the 17 day of September 1859, was baptized on the 28 day of September 1859 according to the rite of the Roman Catholic Church, by the Rev. J. Conron. The sponsors being Thomas Cooney and Mary Clark, as appears from the Baptismal Register of this Church."An image of the Certificate of Baptism was published in the May 1969 issue of Real West magazine, in an article entitled: "What was Billy the Kid's real name?", by William J. Carson. It indicates that the person's name was "Patrick Henry McCarthy", not Henry McCarty. While his birth year has been confirmed as 1859, the exact date of his birth has been disputed as either September 17 or November 23 of that year. A letter from an official of [Peter's Church](Saint)(St. Peter's Roman Catholic Church (Manhattan)) in [Manhattan](Manhattan) states it is in possession of records showing McCarty was baptized there on September 28, 1859.}} Census records indicate his younger brother, Joseph McCarty, was born in 1863. Following the death of her husband Patrick, Catherine McCarty and her sons moved to [Indiana](Indianapolis,)(Indianapolis, Indiana), where she met William Henry Harrison Antrim. The McCarty family moved with Antrim to [Kansas](Wichita,)(Wichita, Kansas), in 1870. After moving again a few years later, Catherine married Antrim on March 1, 1873, at the First Presbyterian Church in [Fe, New Mexico Territory](Santa)(Santa Fe, New Mexico); McCarty and his brother Joseph were witnesses to the ceremony. Shortly afterward, the family moved from Santa Fe to [City, New Mexico](Silver)(Silver City, New Mexico), and Joseph McCarty began using the name Joseph Antrim. Shortly before McCarty's mother, Catherine, died of [tuberculosis](tuberculosis), then called "consumption", on September 16, 1874, William Antrim abandoned the McCarty boys, leaving them orphans. ### First crimes [[File:Rancher Henry C Hooker retouched cropped.jpg\|thumb\|upright=0.8\|[Hooker](Henry)(Henry Hooker), one-time employer of Billy the Kid, at his [Bonita Ranch](Sierra)(Sierra Bonita Ranch) in southeast Arizona]] McCarty was 14 years old when his mother died. Sarah Brown, the owner of a [house](boarding)(boarding house), gave him room and board in exchange for work. On September 16, 1875, McCarty was caught stealing food.Grant County Herald (Silver City, New Mexico), September 26, 1875. Ten days later, McCarty and George Schaefer robbed a [laundry](Chinese)(Chinese laundry), stealing clothing and two pistols. McCarty was charged with theft and was jailed. He escaped two days later and became a fugitive, as reported in the Silver City Herald the next day, the first story published about him. McCarty located his stepfather and stayed with him until Antrim threw him out; McCarty stole clothing and guns from him. It was the last time the two saw each other. After leaving Antrim, McCarty traveled to southeastern [Territory](Arizona)(Arizona Territory), where he worked as a ranch hand and gambled his wages in nearby gaming houses. In 1876, he was hired as a ranch hand by well-known rancher [Hooker](Henry)(Henry Hooker). During this time, McCarty became acquainted with John R. Mackie, a [Scottish](Scottish people)-born criminal and former [Cavalry](U.S.)(United States Cavalry) private who, following his discharge, remained near the U.S. Army post at [Grant](Camp)(Fort Grant, Arizona) in Arizona. The two men soon began stealing horses from local soldiers. McCarty became known as "Kid Antrim" because of his youth, slight build, clean-shaven appearance, and personality. On August 17, 1877, McCarty was at a saloon in the village of [Bonita](Bonita, Arizona) when he got into an argument with Francis P. "Windy" Cahill, a blacksmith who reportedly had bullied McCarty and on more than one occasion called him a "[pimp](pimp)". McCarty in turn called Cahill a "[of a bitch](son)(Bitch (slang)#Son of a bitch)", whereupon Cahill threw McCarty to the floor and the two struggled for McCarty's revolver. McCarty shot and mortally wounded Cahill. A witness said, "[Billy] had no choice; he had to use his equalizer." Cahill died the following day. McCarty fled but returned a few days later and was apprehended by Miles Wood, the local [of the peace](justice)(justice of the peace). McCarty was detained and held in the Camp Grant guardhouse but escaped before law enforcement could arrive. McCarty stole a horse and fled Arizona Territory for New Mexico Territory, but [Apache](Apache)s took the horse from him, leaving him to walk many miles to the nearest settlement. At [Stanton](Fort)(Fort Stanton) in the Pecos Valley, McCarty—starving and near death—went to the home of friend and [Rivers Warriors](Seven)(Seven Rivers Warriors) gang member John Jones, whose mother Barbara nursed him back to health. After regaining his health, McCarty went to Apache Tejo, a former army post, where he joined a band of rustlers who raided herds owned by cattle magnate [Chisum](John)(John Chisum) in [County](Lincoln)(Lincoln County, New Mexico). After McCarty was spotted in Silver City, his involvement with the gang was mentioned in a local newspaper. At some point in 1877, McCarty began to refer to himself by the name "William H. Bonney". ## Lincoln County War ### Prelude [[File:John Tunstall seated pose cropped and retouched.jpg\|thumb\|upright=0.7\|[Henry Tunstall](John)(John Henry Tunstall), 1872\|left]] After returning to New Mexico, McCarty worked as a cowboy for English businessman and rancher [Henry Tunstall](John)(John Henry Tunstall) (1853–1878), near the Rio Felix, a tributary of the [River](Pecos)(Pecos River), in Lincoln County (now in [County](Chaves)(Chaves County)). Tunstall and his business partner and lawyer [McSween](Alexander)(Alexander McSween) were opponents of an alliance formed by [Irish-American](Irish-American) businessmen [Murphy](Lawrence)(Lawrence Murphy), [Dolan](James)(James Dolan (Lincoln County War)), and John Riley. The three men had wielded an economic and political hold over Lincoln County since the early 1870s, due in part to their ownership of a beef contract with nearby [Stanton](Fort)(Fort Stanton) and a well-patronized dry goods store in the town of [Lincoln](Lincoln, New Mexico). By February 1878, McSween owed $8,000 to Dolan, who obtained a court order and asked Lincoln County Sheriff [J. Brady](William)(William J. Brady) to [attach](Attachment (law)) nearly $40,000 worth of Tunstall's property and livestock. Tunstall put Bonney in charge of nine prime horses and told him to relocate them to his ranch for safekeeping. Meanwhile, Sheriff Brady assembled a large posse to seize Tunstall's cattle. On February 18, 1878, Tunstall learned of the posse's presence on his land and rode out to intervene. During the encounter, one member of the posse shot Tunstall in the chest, knocking him off his horse. Another posse member took Tunstall's gun and killed him with a shot to the back of his head. Tunstall's murder ignited the conflict between the two factions that became known as the [County War](Lincoln)(Lincoln County War). ### Build-up [[File:Dick Brewer cropped b&w.jpg\|thumb\|upright=0.7\|[Brewer](Dick)(Richard M. Brewer), ]] After Tunstall was killed, McCarty and [Brewer](Dick)(Richard M. Brewer) swore affidavits against Brady and those in his posse, and obtained murder warrants from Lincoln County justice of the peace John B. Wilson. On February 20, 1878, while attempting to arrest Brady, the sheriff and his deputies found and arrested McCarty and two other men riding with him. Deputy [Marshal](U.S.)(United States Marshal Service) [Widenmann](Robert)(Robert Widenmann), a friend of McCarty, and a detachment of soldiers captured Sheriff Brady's jail guards, put them behind bars, and released McCarty and Brewer. McCarty then joined the [County Regulators](Lincoln)(Lincoln County Regulators); on March 9 they captured Frank Baker and William Morton, both of whom were accused of killing Tunstall. Baker and Morton were killed while allegedly trying to escape. On April 1, the Regulators ambushed Sheriff Brady and his deputies; McCarty was wounded in the thigh during the battle. Brady and Deputy Sheriff [W. Hindman](George)(George W. Hindman) were killed. On the morning of April 4, 1878, [Roberts](Buckshot)(Buckshot Roberts) and Dick Brewer were killed during [shootout at Blazer's Mill](a)(Gunfight at Blazer's Mill).Rickards, Colin. ''The Gunfight at Blazer's Mill'', 1974 – pp. 36–37. Warrants were issued for several participants on both sides, and McCarty and two others were charged with killing Brady, Hindman and Roberts.Wroth, William H. [Billy the Kid](http://newmexicohistory.org/people/billy-the-kid) . Retrieved January 9, 2016. #### Battle of Lincoln (1878) On the night of Sunday, July 14, McSween and the Regulators—now a group of fifty or sixty men—went to Lincoln and stationed themselves in the town among several buildings. At the McSween residence were McCarty, Florencio Chavez, [Chavez y Chavez](Jose)(Jose Chavez y Chavez), Jim French, Harvey Morris, [O'Folliard](Tom)(Tom O'Folliard), and [Salazar](Yginio)(Yginio Salazar), among others. Another group led by Marin Chavez and [Scurlock](Doc)(Doc Scurlock) positioned themselves on the roof of a saloon. [Newton Brown](Henry)(Henry Newton Brown), Dick Smith, and [Coe](George)(George Coe (Lincoln County War)) defended a nearby adobe bunkhouse. On Tuesday, July 16, newly appointed sheriff [Peppin](George)(George Peppin) sent sharpshooters to kill the McSween defenders at the saloon. Peppin's men retreated when one of the snipers, Charles Crawford, was killed by Fernando Herrera. Peppin then sent a request for assistance to Colonel [Dudley](Nathan)(Nathan Dudley), commandant of nearby [Stanton](Fort)(Fort Stanton). In a reply to Peppin, Dudley refused to intervene but later arrived in Lincoln with troops, turning the battle in favor of the Murphy-Dolan faction. people \|url=http://newmexicohistory.org/people/billy-the-kid \|url-status=live \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170629050035/http://newmexicohistory.org/people/billy-the-kid \|archive-date=June 29, 2017 \|access-date=July 19, 2017 \|website=newmexicohistory.org \|language=en}} A gunfight broke out on Friday, July 19. McSween's supporters gathered inside his house; when Buck Powell and Deputy Sheriff Jack Long set fire to the building, the occupants began shooting. McCarty and the other men fled the building when all rooms but one were burning. During the confusion, McSween was shot and killed by Robert W. Beckwith, who was then shot and killed by McCarty. ## Outlaw [[File:Gov Lew Wallace in 1893 cropped lightened.jpg\|upright\|thumb\|left\|New Mexico Territorial Governor [Wallace](Lew)(Lew Wallace) in 1893]] McCarty and three other survivors of the [of Lincoln](Battle)(Battle of Lincoln (1878)) were near the Mescalero Indian Agency when the agency bookkeeper, Morris Bernstein, was murdered on August 5, 1878. All four were indicted for the murder, despite conflicting evidence that Bernstein had been killed by Constable Atanacio Martinez. All of the indictments, except McCarty's, were later quashed. On October 5, 1878, [Marshal](U.S.)(United States Marshal Service) John Sherman informed newly appointed Territorial Governor and former Union Army general [Wallace](Lew)(Lew Wallace) that he held warrants for several men, including "William H. Antrim, alias Kid, alias Bonny" but was unable to execute them "owing to the disturbed condition of affairs in that county, resulting from the acts of a desperate class of men." Wallace issued an amnesty proclamation on November 13, 1878, which pardoned anyone involved in the Lincoln County War since Tunstall's murder. It specifically excluded persons who had been convicted of or indicted for a crime, and therefore excluded McCarty. On February 18, 1879, McCarty and friend [O'Folliard](Tom)(Tom O'Folliard) were in Lincoln and watched as attorney Huston Chapman was shot and his corpse set on fire. According to eyewitnesses, the pair were innocent bystanders forced at gunpoint by [Evans](Jesse)(Jesse Evans) to witness the murder. McCarty wrote to Governor Wallace on March 13, 1879, with an offer to provide information on the Chapman murder in exchange for amnesty. On March 15, Governor Wallace replied, agreeing to a secret meeting to discuss the situation. McCarty met with Wallace in Lincoln on March 17, 1879. During the meeting and in subsequent correspondence, Wallace promised McCarty protection from his enemies and clemency if he would offer his testimony to a [jury](grand)(grand jury). }} On March 20, Wallace wrote to McCarty, "to remove all suspicion of understanding, I think it better to put the arresting party in charge of Sheriff Kimbrell [sic] who shall be instructed to see that no violence is used." }} McCarty responded on the same day, agreeing to testify and confirming Wallace's proposal for his arrest and detention in a local jail to assure his safety. On March 21, McCarty let himself be captured by a posse led by Sheriff George Kimball of Lincoln County. As agreed, McCarty provided a statement about Chapman's murder and testified in court. However, after McCarty's testimony, the local district attorney refused to set him free. Still in custody several weeks later, McCarty began to suspect Wallace had used subterfuge and would never grant him amnesty. McCarty escaped from the Lincoln County jail on June 17, 1879.[[File:Tom O'Folliard circa 1875 retouched and cropped.jpg\|thumb\|upright\|[O'Folliard](Tom)(Tom O'Folliard), ]] McCarty avoided further violence until January 10, 1880, when he shot and killed Joe Grant, a newcomer to the area, at Hargrove's Saloon in [Sumner, New Mexico](Fort)(Fort Sumner, New Mexico). The Santa Fe Weekly New Mexican reported, "Billy Bonney, more extensively known as 'the Kid,' shot and killed Joe Grant. The origin of the difficulty was not learned."Santa Fe Weekly New Mexican, January 17, 1880. According to other contemporary sources, McCarty had been warned Grant intended to kill him. He walked up to Grant, told him he admired his revolver, and asked to examine it. Grant handed it over. Before returning the pistol, which he noticed contained only three cartridges, McCarty positioned the cylinder so the next hammer fall would land on an empty chamber. Grant suddenly pointed his pistol at McCarty's face and pulled the trigger. When it failed to fire, McCarty drew his own weapon and shot Grant in the head. A reporter for the Las Vegas Optic quoted McCarty as saying the encounter "was a game of two and I got there first." In 1880, McCarty formed a friendship with a rancher named Jim Greathouse, who later introduced him to [Rudabaugh](Dave)(Dave Rudabaugh). On November 29, 1880, McCarty, Rudabaugh, and [Wilson](Billy)(Billy Wilson (outlaw)) ran from a posse led by sheriff's deputy James Carlysle. Cornered at Greathouse's ranch, McCarty told the posse they were holding Greathouse as a hostage. Carlysle offered to exchange places with Greathouse, and McCarty accepted the offer. Carlysle later attempted to escape by jumping through a window but he was shot three times and killed. The shootout ended in a standoff; the posse withdrew and McCarty, Rudabaugh, and Wilson rode away. A few weeks after the Greathouse incident, McCarty, Rudabaugh, Wilson, O'Folliard, [Bowdre](Charlie)(Charlie Bowdre), and [Pickett](Tom)(Tom Pickett (outlaw)) rode into Fort Sumner. Unbeknownst to McCarty and his companions, a posse led by [Garrett](Pat)(Pat Garrett) was waiting for them. The posse opened fire, killing O'Folliard; the rest of the outlaws escaped unharmed. ### Capture and escape [[Garrett2.jpg\|thumb\|upright\|Sheriff Pat Garrett, \|left](File:Pat)] On December 13, 1880, Governor Wallace posted a $500 bounty for McCarty's capture. Pat Garrett continued his search for McCarty; on December 23, following the siege in which Bowdre was killed, Garrett and his posse captured McCarty along with Pickett, Rudabaugh, and Wilson at Stinking Springs. The prisoners, including McCarty, were shackled and taken to Fort Sumner, then later to [Vegas, New Mexico](Las)(Las Vegas, New Mexico). When they arrived on December 26, they were met by crowds of curious onlookers. The following day, an armed mob gathered at the train depot before the prisoners, who were already on board the train with Garrett, departed for Santa Fe. Deputy Sheriff Romero, backed by the angry group of men, demanded custody of Dave Rudabaugh, who during an unsuccessful escape attempt on April 5, 1880 shot and killed deputy Antonio Lino Valdez in the process. Garrett refused to surrender the prisoner, and a tense confrontation ensued until he agreed to let the sheriff and two other men accompany the party to Santa Fe, where they would petition the governor to release Rudabaugh to them. In a later interview with a reporter, McCarty said he was unafraid during the incident, saying, "if I only had my Winchester I'd lick the whole crowd." The Las Vegas Gazette ran a story from a jailhouse interview following McCarty's capture; when the reporter said Bonney appeared relaxed, he replied, "What's the use of looking on the gloomy side of everything? The laugh's on me this time." During his short career as an outlaw, McCarty was the subject of numerous U.S. newspaper articles, some as far away as New York. After arriving in Santa Fe, McCarty, seeking clemency, sent Governor Wallace four letters over the next three months. Wallace refused to intervene, and McCarty went to trial in April 1881 in [New Mexico](Mesilla,)(Mesilla, New Mexico). Following two days of testimony, McCarty was found guilty of Sheriff Brady's murder; it was the only conviction secured against any of the combatants in the Lincoln County War. On April 13, Judge Warren Bristol sentenced McCarty to [hang](hanging), with his execution scheduled for May 13, 1881. According to legend, upon sentencing, the judge told McCarty he was going to hang until he was "dead, dead, dead"; McCarty's response was, "you can go to hell, hell, hell." According to the historical record, he did not speak after the reading of his sentence. [[File:LincolnNM Jail and Courthouse.jpg\|thumb\|Courthouse and jail, [New Mexico](Lincoln,)(Lincoln, New Mexico)]] Following his sentencing, McCarty was moved to Lincoln, where he was held under guard on the top floor of the town courthouse. On the evening of April 28, 1881, while Garrett was in [Oaks](White)(White Oaks, New Mexico) collecting taxes, Deputy [Olinger](Bob)(Bob Olinger) took five other prisoners across the street for a meal, leaving James Bell, another deputy, alone with McCarty at the jail. McCarty asked to be taken outside to use the [outhouse](outhouse) behind the courthouse; on their return to the jail, McCarty—who was walking ahead of Bell up the stairs to his cell—hid around a blind corner, slipped out of his handcuffs, and beat Bell with the loose end of the cuffs. During the ensuing scuffle, McCarty grabbed Bell's revolver and fatally shot him in the back as Bell tried to get away. McCarty, with his legs still shackled, broke into Garrett's office and took a loaded shotgun left behind by Olinger. McCarty waited at the upstairs window for Olinger to respond to the gunshot that killed Bell and called out to him, "Look up, old boy, and see what you get." When Olinger looked up, McCarty shot and killed him. After about an hour, McCarty freed himself from the leg irons with an axe. He obtained a horse and rode out of town; according to some stories he was singing as he left Lincoln. ### Recapture and death While McCarty was on the run, Governor Wallace placed a new $500 bounty on the fugitive's head. Almost three months after his escape, Garrett, responding to rumors that McCarty was in the vicinity of Fort Sumner, left Lincoln with two deputies on July 14, 1881, to question resident Pete Maxwell, a friend of McCarty's. Maxwell, son of land baron [Maxwell](Lucien)(Lucien Maxwell), spoke with Garrett the same day for several hours. Around midnight, the pair sat in Maxwell's darkened bedroom when McCarty unexpectedly entered. Accounts vary as to the course of events. According to the canonical version, as he entered the room, McCarty failed to recognize Garrett due to the poor lighting. Drawing his revolver and backing away, McCarty asked "¿Quién es? ¿Quién es?" (Spanish for "Who is it? Who is it?"). Recognizing McCarty's voice, Garrett drew his revolver and fired twice. The first bullet struck McCarty in the chest just above his heart, while the second missed. Garrett's account leaves it unclear whether McCarty was killed instantly or took some time to die. A few hours after the shooting, a local justice of the peace assembled a [jury](coroner's)(coroner's jury) of six people. The jury members interviewed Maxwell and Garrett, and McCarty's body and the location of the shooting were examined. The jury certified the body as McCarty's and, according to a local newspaper, the jury foreman said, "It was the Kid's body that we examined." McCarty was given a wake by candlelight; he was buried the next day and his grave was denoted with a wooden marker. Five days after McCarty's killing, Garrett traveled to [Fe, New Mexico](Santa)(Santa Fe, New Mexico), to collect the $500 reward offered by Governor Lew Wallace for his capture, dead or alive. William G. Ritch, the acting New Mexico governor, refused to pay the reward. Over the next few weeks, the residents of Las Vegas, Mesilla, Santa Fe, White Oaks, and other New Mexico cities raised over $7,000 in reward money for Garrett. A year and four days after McCarty's death, the New Mexico territorial legislature passed a special act to grant Garrett the $500 bounty reward promised by Governor Wallace. Because people had begun to claim Garrett unfairly ambushed McCarty, Garrett felt the need to tell his side of the story and called upon his friend, journalist [Upson](Marshall)(Marshall Ashmun Upson), to [ghostwrite](ghostwrite) a book for him. The book, [Authentic Life of Billy, the Kid](The)(The Authentic Life of Billy, the Kid),}} was first published in April 1882. Although only a few copies sold following its release, in time, it became a reference for later historians who wrote about McCarty's life. ## Rumors of survival Over time, legends grew claiming that McCarty was not killed, and that Garrett staged the incident and death out of friendship so that McCarty could evade the law. During the next 50 years, a number of men claimed they were Billy the Kid. Most of these claims were easily disproven, but two have remained topics of discussion and debate. In 1948, a central Texas man, Ollie P. Roberts, also known as [Bill Roberts](Brushy)(Brushy Bill Roberts), began claiming he was Billy the Kid and went before New Mexico Governor [J. Mabry](Thomas)(Thomas J. Mabry) seeking a pardon. Mabry dismissed Roberts' claims, and Roberts died shortly afterward. Nevertheless, [Texas](Hico,)(Hico, Texas), Roberts' town of residence, capitalized on his claim by opening a Billy the Kid museum.Texas Department of Transportation, Texas State Travel Guide, 2008, pp. 200–201 John Miller, an Arizona man, also claimed he was McCarty. This was unsupported by his family until 1938, some time after his death. Miller's body was buried in the state-owned Arizona Pioneers' Home Cemetery in [Arizona](Prescott,)(Prescott, Arizona); in May 2005, Miller's teeth and bones were exhumed and examined, without permission from the state.Associated Press (October 24, 2006) [2 won't face charges in Billy the Kid quest](http://www.deseretnews.com/article/650201170/2-wont-face-charges-in-Billy-the-Kid-quest.html) , Deseret News. Retrieved August 29, 2008. DNA samples from the remains were sent to a laboratory in [Dallas](Dallas) and tested to compare Miller's DNA with blood samples obtained from floorboards in the [Lincoln County courthouse](old)(Lincoln Historic Site) and a bench where McCarty's body allegedly was placed after he was shot. According to a July 2015 article in The Washington Post, the lab results were "useless". In 2004, researchers sought to [exhume](exhume) the remains of Catherine Antrim, McCarty's mother, whose DNA would be tested and compared with that of the body buried in William Bonney's grave. , her body had not been exhumed. In 2007, author and amateur historian Gale Cooper filed a lawsuit against the Lincoln County Sheriff's Office under the state Inspection of Public Records Act to produce records of the results of the 2006 DNA tests and other forensic evidence collected in the Billy the Kid investigations.Associated Press (August 28, 2008) [Lawsuit seeks DNA evidence for 1881 death of Billy the Kid](http://www.foxnews.com/story/2008/08/28/lawsuit-seeks-dna-evidence-for-1881-death-billy-kid.html) , Fox News Channel. Retrieved August 29, 2008. In April 2012, 133 pages of documents were provided; they offered no conclusive evidence confirming or disproving the generally accepted story of Garrett's killing of McCarty, but confirmed the records' existence, and that they could have been produced earlier. In 2014, Cooper was awarded $100,000 in punitive damages but the decision was later overturned by the New Mexico Court of Appeals. The lawsuit ultimately cost Lincoln County nearly $300,000. In February 2015, historian Robert Stahl petitioned a district court in Fort Sumner asking the state of New Mexico to issue a death certificate for McCarty. In July 2015, Stahl filed suit in the New Mexico Supreme Court. The suit asked the court to order the state's Office of the Medical Investigator to officially certify McCarty's death under New Mexico state law. ## Photographs , only one authenticated photograph showing Billy exists; others thought to depict him are disputed. ### Dedrick ferrotype [[File:Billy the Kid tintype, Fort Sumner, 1879-80.jpg\|thumb\|Unretouched original [ferrotype](ferrotype) of McCarty, \|227x227px]] One of the few remaining artifacts of McCarty's life is a [ferrotype](tintype) photograph of McCarty by an unknown portrait photographer in late 1879 or early 1880. The image shows McCarty wearing a vest under a sweater, a [hat](slouch)(slouch hat) and a bandana, while holding an [Winchester](1873)(1873 Winchester) rifle with its butt resting on the floor. For years, this was the only photograph scholars and historians agreed showed McCarty. The ferrotype survived because McCarty's friend Dan Dedrick kept it after the outlaw's death. It was passed down through Dedrick's family, and was copied several times, appearing in numerous publications during the 20th century. In June 2011, the original plate was bought at auction for $2.3 million by businessman [Koch](William)(Bill Koch (businessman)). The image shows McCarty wearing his holstered Colt revolver on his left side. This led to the belief that he was left-handed, without taking into account that the ferrotype process produces reversed images. In 1954, western historians James D. Horan and Paul Sann wrote that McCarty was right-handed and carried his pistol on his right hip.Horan, James D. and Sann, Paul. Pictorial History of the Wild West, New York: Crown Publishers, Inc., 1954 – p. 57. The opinion was confirmed by Clyde Jeavons, a former curator of the [Film and Television Archive](National)(BFI National Archive). Several historians have written that McCarty was [ambidextrous](ambidexterity).Gardner, Mark Lee: To Hell on a Fast Horse: The Untold Story of Billy the Kid and Pat Garrett (2011), pp. 91, 277 ### Croquet tintype [[of Billy the Kid (left).JPG\|thumb\|Detail from photograph purporting to show McCarty (left) playing croquet in 1878\|left](File:Photo)] A ferrotype purchased at a memorabilia shop in [California](Fresno,)(Fresno, California), in 2010 has been claimed to show McCarty and members of the Regulators playing croquet. If authentic, it is the only known photo of Billy the Kid and the Regulators together and the only image to feature their wives and female companions. Collector RobertG. McCubbin and outlaw historian John Boessenecker concluded in 2013 that the photograph does not show McCarty. [Braun](Whitny)(Whitny Braun), a professor and researcher, located an advertisement for croquet sets sold at Chapman's General Store in Las Vegas, New Mexico, dated to June 1878. Kent Gibson, a forensic video and still image expert, offered the services of his facial recognition software, and stated that McCarty is indeed one of the individuals in the image. In August 2015, [State Monument](Lincoln)(Lincoln State Monument) officials and the [Mexico Department of Cultural Affairs](New)(New Mexico Department of Cultural Affairs) said that despite the new research, they could not confirm that the image showed McCarty or others from the Lincoln County War era, according to Monument manager Gary Cozzens. A photograph curator at the [of the Governors](Palace)(Palace of the Governors) archives, Daniel Kosharek, said the image is "problematic on a lot of fronts," including the small size of the figures and the lack of resemblance of the background landscape to Lincoln County or the state in general. Editors from the [West Magazine](True)(True West Magazine) staff said, "no one in our office thinks this photo is of the Kid [the Regulators](and)." In early October 2015, Kagin's, Inc., a [numismatic](numismatic) authentication firm, said the image was authentic after a number of experts, including those associated with a recent [Geographic Channel](National)(National Geographic Channel) program, examined it. ## Posthumous pardon request In 2010, New Mexico Governor [Richardson](Bill)(Bill Richardson) turned down a request for a posthumous pardon of McCarty for the murder of Sheriff William Brady. The pardon considered was to fulfill Governor Lew Wallace's 1879 promise to Bonney. Richardson's decision, citing "historical ambiguity," was announced on December 31, 2010, his last day in office. ## Grave markers [[marker for Billy The Kid, also at Fort Sumner, New Mexico](File:Billy-The-Kid-Individual-Tombstone.jpg\|thumb\|Grave)] [[File:Billy the Kid Headstone.jpg\|thumb\|The "PALs" gravemarker for Tom O'Folliard, William H. Bonney, alias Billy the Kid, and Charlie Bowdre, at [Sumner, New Mexico](Fort)(Fort Sumner, New Mexico)]] In 1931, CharlesW.Foor, an unofficial tour guide at Fort Sumner Cemetery, campaigned to raise funds for a permanent marker for the graves of McCarty, O'Folliard, and Bowdre. As a result of his efforts, a stone memorial marked with the names of the three men and their death dates beneath the word "Pals" was erected in the center of the burial area. In 1940, stone cutter James N. Warner of [Colorado](Salida,)(Salida, Colorado), made and donated to the cemetery a new marker for Bonney's grave. It was stolen on February 8, 1981, but recovered days later in [Beach, California](Huntington)(Huntington Beach, California). New Mexico Governor [King](Bruce)(Bruce King) arranged for the county sheriff to fly to California to return it to Fort Sumner, where it was reinstalled in May 1981. Although both markers are behind iron fencing, a group of vandals entered the enclosure at night in June 2012 and tipped the stone over. ## Popular culture The life and likeness of Billy the Kid have been frequently represented in comics, literature, film, music, theater, radio, television, and video games. ## See also * [of the United States](Folklore)(Folklore of the United States) * [of Old West gunfighters](List)(List of Old West gunfighters) * [of Old West lawmen](List)(List of Old West lawmen) ## Notes ## References ### Sources * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * }} * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * ## External links * [Billy the Kid Territory](https://web.archive.org/web/20090727111307/http://www.newmexico.org/billythekid/) – guide by New Mexico Tourism Department * [Letter, 15 March 1879, Lew Wallace to W. H. Bonney](http://images.indianahistory.org/cdm/compoundobject/collection/M0292/id/56/rec/14), at the [Historical Society](Indiana)(Indiana Historical Society), Indianapolis * [Letter, 20 March 1879, W. H. Bonney to Lew Wallace](http://images.indianahistory.org/cdm/compoundobject/collection/M0292/id/57/rec/16), at the Indiana Historical Society, Indianapolis }} [births](Category:1859)(Category:1859 births) [deaths](Category:1881)(Category:1881 deaths) [American criminals](Category:19th-century)(Category:19th-century American criminals) [escapees](Category:American)(Category:American escapees) [male criminals](Category:American)(Category:American male criminals) [people convicted of murder](Category:American)(Category:American people convicted of murder) [people convicted of murdering police officers](Category:American)(Category:American people convicted of murdering police officers) [people convicted of theft](Category:American)(Category:American people convicted of theft) [ ](Category:Billy the Kid) [Category:Cowboys](Category:Cowboys) [from New York City](Category:Criminals)(Category:Criminals from New York City) [by firearm in New Mexico](Category:Deaths)(Category:Deaths by firearm in New Mexico) [from Arizona detention](Category:Escapees)(Category:Escapees from Arizona detention) [from New Mexico detention](Category:Escapees)(Category:Escapees from New Mexico detention) [Roman Catholics](Category:Former)(Category:Former Roman Catholics) [Category:Fugitives](Category:Fugitives) [of the American Old West](Category:Gunslingers)(Category:Gunslingers of the American Old West) [County Wars](Category:Lincoln)(Category:Lincoln County Wars) [Category:Nicknames](Category:Nicknames) [in crime](Category:Nicknames)(Category:Nicknames in crime) [from De Baca County, New Mexico](Category:People)(Category:People from De Baca County, New Mexico) [of the Arizona Territory](Category:People)(Category:People of the Arizona Territory) [of the New Mexico Territory](Category:People)(Category:People of the New Mexico Territory) [shot dead by law enforcement officers in the United States](Category:People)(Category:People shot dead by law enforcement officers in the United States)
Slave states and free states	slave_states_and_free_states	# Slave states and free states Revision ID: 1157081991 \| Timestamp: 2023-05-26T04:49:44Z --- [[File:US Slave Free 1789-1861.gif\|right\|300px\|thumb\|upright=1.8\|An animation showing the free/slave status of U.S. states and territories, 1789–1861 (see separate yearly maps below). The [Civil War](American)(American Civil War) began in 1861. The 13th Amendment, effective December 1865, abolished slavery in the U.S.]] In the United States before 1865, a slave state was a [state](U.S. state) in which [and the internal or domestic slave trade](slavery)(Slavery in the United States) were legal, while a free state was one in which they were prohibited. Between 1812 and 1850, it was considered by the slave states to be politically imperative that the number of free states not exceed the number of slave states, so new states were admitted in slave–free pairs. There were, nonetheless, some slaves in most free states up to the 1840 census, and the [Slave Act of 1850](Fugitive)(Fugitive Slave Act of 1850) specifically stated that a slave did not become free by entering a free state. Although Native Americans had small-scale slavery, slavery in what would become the United States was established as part of [colonization](European)(European colonization of the Americas). By the 18th century, slavery was legal throughout the [Colonies](Thirteen)(Thirteen Colonies), after which [colonies](rebel)(American Revolution) started to abolish the practice. Pennsylvania abolished slavery in 1780, and about half of the states had abolished slavery by the end of the [War](Revolutionary)(American Revolutionary War) or in the first decades of the new country, although this did not always mean that existing slaves became free. [Vermont](Vermont) – having declared its independence from [Britain](Kingdom of Great Britain) in 1777 and thus not being one of the Thirteen Colonies – banned slavery in the same year, before being admitted as a state in 1791. Slavery was a divisive issue in the United States. It was a major issue during the writing of the [Constitution](U.S.)(Constitution of the United States) in 1787 and was the primary [of the American Civil War](cause)(Origins of the American Civil War) in 1861. Just before the Civil War, there were 19 free states and 15 slave states. During the war, slavery was abolished in some of these jurisdictions, and the [Amendment to the United States Constitution](Thirteenth)(Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution), ratified in December 1865, finally abolished [slavery](slavery) throughout the United States. ## Early history [[SlaveFree1789.gif\|upright=1.40\|right\|thumb\|During the American Revolution (1775-1783) some of the 13 British colonies seeking independence to become states began to abolish slavery. The U.S. Constitution ratified in 1789, left the matter in the hands of each state.](File:US)] [[SlaveFree1800.gif\|upright=1.40\|right\|thumb\|In the early years of the new United States, a north/south divide became evident](File:US)] [Slavery](Slavery in the colonial history of the United States) was established as a legal institution in each of the [Colonies](Thirteen)(Thirteen Colonies), starting from 1619 onwards with the arrival of [and odd"]("twenty)(First Africans in Virginia) enslaved Africans in [Virginia](Colony of Virginia). Although [peoples](indigenous)(Indigenous peoples of the Americas) were also sold into slavery, the vast majority of the enslaved population consisted of Africans brought to the Americas via the [slave trade](Atlantic)(Atlantic slave trade). Due to a lower prevalence of [disease](tropical)(tropical disease)s and better [treatment](Treatment of the enslaved in the United States), the enslaved population in the colonies had a higher life expectancy than in the [Indies](West)(West Indies) and South America, leading to a rapid increase in population in the decades prior to the [Revolution](American)(American Revolution).[Wood](Betty)(Betty Wood), Slavery in Colonial America, 1619–1776 (2013) [excerpt and text search](https://www.amazon.com/Slavery-Colonial-1619-1776-American-ebook/dp/B00C0WEEUS/) Organized political and social movements to [slavery](end)(Abolitionism in the United States) began in the mid-18th century. The sentiments of the [Revolution](American)(American Revolution) and the promise of equality evoked by the [of Independence](Declaration)(United States Declaration of Independence) stood in contrast to the status of most blacks, either [free](Free negro) or enslaved, in the colonies. Despite this, thousands of black Americans [for](fought)(Black Patriot) the [cause](Patriot)(Patriot (American Revolution)) for a combination of reasons. Thousands also [joined](Black Loyalist) the British, encouraged by offers of freedom such as the [Proclamation](Philipsburg)(Philipsburg Proclamation). In the 1770s, enslaved black people throughout [England](New)(New England) began sending petitions to northern [legislatures](State legislature (United States)) demanding freedom. Five of the Northern self-declared states adopted policies to at least [abolish slavery](gradually)(Gradual emancipation (United States)): [Pennsylvania](Pennsylvania) in 1780, [Hampshire](New)(New Hampshire) and [Massachusetts](Massachusetts) in 1783, and [Connecticut](Connecticut) and [Island](Rhode)(Rhode Island) in 1784. The [of Vermont](Republic)(Republic of Vermont) had limited slavery in 1777, while it was still independent before it joined the United States as the 14th state in 1791. These state jurisdictions thus enacted the first abolition laws in the [World](Atlantic)(Atlantic World). By 1804 (including New York (1799) and New Jersey (1804)), all of the Northern states had abolished slavery or set measures in place to gradually abolish it,Wilson, Black Codes (1965), p. 15. "By 1775, inspired by those 'self-evident' truths which were to be expressed by the [of Independence](Declaration)(United States Declaration of Independence), a considerable number of colonists felt that the time had come to end slavery and give the free Negroes some fruits of liberty. This sentiment, added to economic considerations, led to the immediate or gradual abolition of slavery in six Northern states, while there was a swelling flood of private [manumission](manumission)s in the South. Little actual gain was made by the free Negro even in this period, and by the turn of the century the downward trend had begun again. Thereafter the only important change in that trend before the Civil War was that after 1831 the decline in the status of the free Negro became more precipitate." although there were still hundreds of ex-slaves working without pay as indentured servants in Northern states as late as the 1840 census (see [in the United States#Abolitionism in the North](Slavery)(Slavery in the United States#Abolitionism in the North)). In the South, [Kentucky](Kentucky) was created a slave state from Virginia (1792), and [Tennessee](Tennessee) was created a slave state from [Carolina](North)(North Carolina) (1796). By 1804, before the creation of new states from the federal western territories, the number of slave and free states was 8 each. By the time of [Compromise](Missouri)(Missouri Compromise) of 1820, the dividing line between the slave and free states was called the [line](Mason-Dixon)(Mason-Dixon line) (between [Maryland](Maryland) and Pennsylvania), with its westward extension being the [River](Ohio)(Ohio River). The 1787 [Convention](Constitutional)(Constitutional Convention (United States)) debated slavery, and for a time slavery was a major impediment to passage of the [constitution](new)(Constitution of the United States). As a compromise, slavery was acknowledged but never mentioned explicitly in the Constitution. The [Slave Clause](Fugitive)(Fugitive Slave Clause), Article 4, section 2, clause 3, for example, refers to a "Person held to Service or Labour." In addition, [1, section 9, clause 1 of the Constitution](Article)(Article 1 of the United States Constitution#section 9) prohibited Congress from abolishing the [of slaves](importation)(Atlantic slave trade), but in a compromise, the prohibition could be lifted by Congress in 20 years, and slaves were referred to as "Persons." The [Prohibiting Importation of Slaves](Act)(Act Prohibiting Importation of Slaves) passed easily in 1807, effective in 1808. However, the ban on importation spurred an expansion in the [slave trade](domestic)(Slave trade in the United States), which remained legal until slavery was banned entirely in 1865 by the [Amendment](13th)(Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution). [[SlaveFree1821.gif\|upright=1.40\|right\|thumb\|The Missouri Compromise of 1820, trading the admission of Missouri (a slave state) for Maine (a free state), drew a line extending west from Missouri's southern border, which was intended to divide any new territory into slave (south of the line) and free (north of the line).](File:US)] In the late 1850s an unsuccessful campaign was launched by several southern states to resume the international slave trade, to restock their slave populations, but this met with strong opposition.William W. Freehling. The Road to Disunion, Volume II : Secessionists Triumphant Volume II: Secessionists Triumphant, 1854–1861: Secessionists Triumphant Volume II: Secessionists Triumphant, 1854–1861. Oxford University Press, 2007. p.168-85 However, there was large natural increase in the slave population throughout the late 18th and 19th centuries, while some illegal smuggling of African slaves continued via [Cuba](Spanish)(Captaincy General of Cuba). One of the other compromises of the Constitution was the creation of the [clause](three-fifths)(Three-fifths Compromise) by which slave states acquired increased representation in the [of Representatives](House)(United States House of Representatives) and [College](Electoral)(United States Electoral College) equivalent to 60 percent of their [disenfranchised](disenfranchised) slave populations. Slave states had wanted 100 percent of their slaves to be counted, whereas Northern states argued that none should be. ## New territories [[SlaveFree1837.gif\|upright=1.40\|right\|thumb\|With the statehood of Arkansas in 1836, the number of slave states grew to 13, but the statehood of Michigan in 1837 maintained the balance between slave and free states.](File:US)] The [Ordinance](Northwest)(Northwest Ordinance) of 1787, passed just before the [Constitution](U.S.)(U.S. Constitution) was ratified, had prohibited slavery in the federal [Territory](Northwest)(Northwest Territory). The southern boundary of the territory was the [River](Ohio)(Ohio River), which was regarded as a westward extension of the [line](Mason-Dixon)(Mason–Dixon line). The territory was generally settled by [England](New)(New England)ers and [Revolutionary War](American)(American Revolutionary War) veterans granted land there. The 6 states created from the territory were all free states: [Ohio](Ohio) (1803), [Indiana](Indiana) (1816), [Illinois](Illinois) (1818), [Michigan](Michigan) (1837), [Wisconsin](Wisconsin) (1848), and [Minnesota](Minnesota) (1858). By 1815, the momentum for antislavery reform, state by state, appeared to run out of steam, with half of the states having already abolished slavery ([Northeast](the Northeastern United States)), prohibited from the start ([Midwest](Midwest)) or committed to eliminating slavery, and half committed to continuing the institution indefinitely ([South](Southern United States)). [[SlaveFree1846 Wilmot.gif\|upright=1.40\|right\|thumb\|By 1845, with Texas and Florida in the Union as slave states, slave states once again outnumbered the free states for a year until Iowa was admitted as a free state in 1846.](File:US)] The potential for political conflict over slavery at a federal level made politicians concerned about the balance of power in the [Senate](United States Senate), where each State was represented by two senators. With an equal number of slave states and free states, the Senate was equally divided on issues important to the [South](Southern United States). As the population of the free states began to outstrip the population of the slave states, leading to control of the [of Representatives](House)(United States House of Representatives) by free states, the Senate became the preoccupation of slave-state politicians interested in maintaining a congressional veto over federal policy in regard to slavery and other issues important to the South. As a result of this preoccupation, slave states and free states were often admitted into the Union in opposite pairs to maintain the existing Senate balance between slave and free states. [[SlaveFree1858.gif\|upright=1.40\|right\|thumb\|By 1858, 17 free states, which included California (1850), and Minnesota (1858), outnumbered the 15 slave states.](File:US)] ### Missouri Compromise Controversy over whether [Missouri](Missouri) should be admitted as a slave state resulted in the [Compromise](Missouri)(Missouri Compromise) of 1821, which specified that territory acquired in the [Purchase](Louisiana)(Louisiana Purchase) north of latitude 36° 30', which described most of Missouri's southern border, would, except for Missouri, be organized as free states, and territory south of that line would be reserved for organization as slave states. As part of the compromise, [Maine](Maine), on August 19, 1821, was admitted as a free state.[Ken S. Mueller, review of Wolf by the Ears: The Missouri Crisis, 1819–1821, by John R. Van Atta](https://muse.jhu.edu/article/649287/pdf), Journal of the Early Republic 37.1 (2017): 173–175 ### Texas and the Mexican Cession The [of Texas](admission)(Texas annexation) (1845) and the acquisition of the vast new [Cession](Mexican)(Mexican Cession) territories (1848), after the [War](Mexican–American)(Mexican–American War), created further North-South conflict. Although the settled portion of Texas was an area rich in [plantations](cotton)(Plantation complexes in the Southern United States) and dependent on slave labor, the territory acquired in the [West](Mountain)(Mountain states) did not seem hospitable to [cotton](Cotton production in the United States) or slavery.Michael A. Morrison, "Westward the Curse of Empire: Texas Annexation and the American Whig Party.” Journal of the Early Republic 10#2 (1990): 221–249 [online](https://www.jstor.org/stable/3123558) As part of the [of 1850](Compromise)(Compromise of 1850), California was admitted as a free state without a slave state pair; California's admission also meant there would be no slave state on the Pacific Ocean. To avoid creating a free state majority in the Senate, California agreed to send one pro-slavery and one anti-slavery senator to Congress.Michael E. Woods, "The Compromise of 1850 and the Search for a Usable Past." Journal of the Civil War Era 9.3 (2019): 438–456. ### Last battles The difficulty of identifying territory that could be organized into additional slave states stalled the process of opening the western territories to settlement, while slave-state politicians sought a solution, with efforts being made to acquire [Cuba](Cuba) (see: [Expedition](Lopez)(Lopez Expedition) and [Manifesto](Ostend)(Ostend Manifesto), 1852) and to annex [Nicaragua](Nicaragua) (see: [affair](Walker)(Walker affair), 1856–57), both to be slave states. Parts of [Mexico](Northern)(Northern Mexico) were also coveted, with Senator [Brown](Albert)(Albert G. Brown) declaring "I want [Tamaulipas](Tamaulipas), [Potosi](San Luis Potosí), and one or two other [States](Mexican)(Mexican States); and I want them all for the same reason – for the plantation and spreading of slavery".McPherson, James M. Battle Cry of Freedom: The Civil War Era. Oxford University Press, 2003. p.105 ### Kansas In 1854, the Missouri Compromise of 1820 was superseded by the [Act](Kansas–Nebraska)(Kansas–Nebraska Act), which allowed white male settlers in the new territories to determine, by vote ([sovereignty](popular)(Popular sovereignty in the United States)), whether they would allow slavery within each territory. The result was that pro- and anti-slavery elements flooded into Kansas with the goal of voting slavery up or down, leading to [fighting](bloody)(Bleeding Kansas).Nicole Etcheson. Bleeding Kansas: Contested Liberty in the Civil War Era (2006). ch 1. An effort was initiated to organize [Kansas](Kansas) for admission as a slave state, paired with [Minnesota](Minnesota), but the admission of Kansas as a slave state was blocked because its proposed pro-slavery constitution (the [Constitution](Lecompton)(Lecompton Constitution)) had not been approved in an honest election. Anti-slavery proponents during the "[Kansas](Bleeding)(Bleeding Kansas)" period of the later 1850s were called [Free-Staters](Free-Stater (Kansas)) and Free-Soilers, and fought against pro-slavery [Ruffian](Border)(Border Ruffian)s from Missouri. The animosity escalated throughout the 1850s, culminating in numerous skirmishes and devastation on both sides of the question. Nevertheless, the North prevented Kansas Territory from becoming a slave state, and when Southern members of Congress departed en masse in early 1861, Kansas was immediately admitted to the Union as a free state. When the admission of Minnesota proceeded unimpeded in 1858, the balance in the Senate ended; this was compounded by the subsequent admission of [Oregon](Oregon) as a free state in 1859. ### Slave and free state pairs The following table shows the balance between slave and free states that began in 1812. The Statehood columns provide the year the state either ratified the U.S. Constitution or was admitted to the Union.Leonard L. Richards, The Slave Power: The Free North and Southern Domination, 1780—1860 (LSU Press, 2000). The date ranges in the Abolition column for Free States indicate when gradual abolition laws were adopted and when slavery finally ended, except for states where slavery was outlawed in a specific year. [[SlaveFree1861.gif\|upright=1.40\|right\|thumb\|By the eve of the Civil War in mid-1861, with the addition of Oregon (1859) and Kansas (1861), the number of free states had grown to 19 while the number of slave states remained at 15.](File:US)] From 1812 through 1850, maintaining the balance of free and slave state votes in the Senate was considered of paramount importance if the Union were to be preserved, and states were typically admitted in pairs: California was admitted as a free state in 1850 without an accompanying slave state, though certain concessions were made to the slave states as part of the [of 1850](Compromise)(Compromise of 1850). Three more free states were admitted in the final years before the Civil War, disrupting the balance that the slave states had tried to maintain. ### Civil War [[File:USA Map 1864 including Civil War Divisions.png\|thumb\|upright=1.35\|Division of states during the Civil War. Blue represents [Union](Union (American Civil War)) states, including those admitted during the war; light blue represents border states some of which had both Confederate and Unionist governments; red represents [Confederate](the Confederate States of America) states. Unshaded areas were not states before or during the Civil War.]] The [Civil War](American)(American Civil War) (1861–1865) disrupted and eventually ended slavery. Eleven slave states joined the [Confederacy](Confederate States of America), while the [states](border)(Border states (American Civil War)) of Delaware, Maryland, Kentucky, and Missouri—all slave states—remained in the Union, although Kentucky and Missouri also had competing Confederate state governments. In 1863 western Virginia, much of which had remained loyal to the Union, was admitted as the new state of [Virginia](West)(West Virginia) with a commitment to gradual emancipation. The following year [Nevada](Nevada), a free state in the West, was also admitted. ## Special cases ### West Virginia During the Civil War, a [government](Unionist)(Restored Government of Virginia) in [Virginia](Wheeling,)(Wheeling, West Virginia), presented a statehood bill to Congress to create a new state from 48 counties in western Virginia. The new state would eventually incorporate 50 counties. The issue of slavery in the new state delayed approval of the bill. In the Senate [Sumner](Charles)(Charles Sumner) objected to the admission of a new slave state, while [Wade](Benjamin)(Benjamin Wade) defended statehood as long as a gradual emancipation clause would be included in the new state constitution.James Oakes, Freedom National: The Destruction of Slavery in the United States, 1861–1865, W.W. Norton, 2012, pgs. 296-97 Two senators represented the Unionist Virginia government, [S. Carlile](John)(John S. Carlile) and [T. Willey](Waitman)(Waitman T. Willey). Senator Carlile objected that Congress had no right to impose emancipation on [Virginia](West)(West Virginia), while Willey proposed a compromise amendment to the state constitution for gradual abolition. Sumner attempted to add his own amendment to the bill, which was defeated, and the statehood bill passed both houses of Congress with the addition of what became known as the Willey Amendment. President Lincoln signed the bill on December 31, 1862. Voters in western Virginia approved the Willey Amendment on March 26, 1863. President Lincoln had issued the [Proclamation](Emancipation)(Emancipation Proclamation) on January 1, 1863, which exempted from emancipation the [states](border)(Border states (American Civil War)) (four slave states loyal to the [Union](Union (American Civil War))) as well as some territories occupied by Union forces within Confederate states. Two additional counties were added to West Virginia in late 1863, [Berkeley](Berkeley County, West Virginia) and [Jefferson](Jefferson County, West Virginia). The slaves in Berkeley were also under exemption but not those in Jefferson County. As of the census of 1860, the 49 exempted counties held some 6000 slaves over 21 years of age who would not have been emancipated, about 40% of the total slave population. The terms of the Willey Amendment only freed children, at birth or as they came of age, and prohibited the importation of slaves. West Virginia became the 35th state on June 20, 1863, and the last slave state admitted to the Union.Alton Hornsby, Jr.,Black America, A State-by-State Historical Encyclopedia, Greenwood, 2011, vol. 2, pg. 922 Eighteen months later, the West Virginia legislature completely abolished slavery, and also ratified the [Amendment](13th)(Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution) on February 3, 1865. ### Washington D.C. In the [of Columbia](District)(District of Columbia (until 1871)), formed with land from two slave states, Maryland and Virginia, the trade was abolished by the [of 1850](Compromise)(Compromise of 1850). So as to avoid losing the profitable slave trading businesses in Alexandria (one was [and Armfield](Franklin)(Franklin and Armfield)), Alexandria County, D.C., requested that it be returned to Virginia, where the slave trade was legal; this took place in 1847. Slavery in the District of Columbia remained legal until 1862, when the walkout of all the Southern legislators permitted those remaining to pass the ban, which [abolitionists](abolitionism in the United States) had been seeking for decades. ### Utah Territory Although it did not become a state until 1896, as an [territory](organized)(Territories of the United States#Organized vs. unorganized territories), Utah legalized slavery under the 1852 territorial [in Relation to Service](Act)(Act in Relation to Service) and similar [for the Relief of Indian Slaves and Prisoners](Act)(Act_for_the_relief_of_Indian_Slaves_and_Prisoners). [Young](Brigham)(Brigham Young) and his group of [Mormon](Mormon) pioneers had arrived in Utah in 1847, during the [War](Mexican–American)(Mexican–American War), when [Territory](Utah)(Utah Territory) was Mexican territory. They ignored the Mexican ban on slavery. [viewed slavery](They)(Mormonism_and_slavery) as consistent with the Mormon view on Black people.. On June 19, 1862, fulfilling a part of his [campaign](1860)(1860 United States presidential election) platform, President Lincoln signed the law ending slavery in Utah Territory and all other territories. ## End of slavery At the start of the Civil War, there were 34 states in the United States, 15 of which were slave states. Eleven of these slave states, after conventions devoted to the topic, issued declarations of secession from the United States, created the [States of America](Confederate)(Confederate States of America), and were represented in the [Congress](Confederate)(Confederate States Congress).Only Virginia, Tennessee and Texas held referendums to ratify their [Fire-Eater](Fire-Eaters) declarations of secession, and Virginia's excluded Unionist county votes and included Confederate troops in Richmond voting as regiments [voce](viva)(Voice vote). The slave states that stayed in the Union — Maryland, Missouri, Delaware, and Kentucky (called [states](border)(Border states (American Civil War))) — retained their representatives in the U.S. Congress. By the time the [Proclamation](Emancipation)(Emancipation Proclamation) was issued in 1863, Tennessee was already under Union control.[Eleven states had seceded, but Tennessee was under Union control.](https://www.nps.gov/anjo/learn/historyculture/johnson-and-tn-emancipation.htm#:~:text=On%20January%201%2C%201863%2C%20Abraham,was%20serving%20as%20Military%20Governor.) Accordingly, the Proclamation applied only in the 10 remaining Confederate states. During the war, abolition of slavery was required by President [Lincoln](Abraham)(Abraham Lincoln) for readmission of Confederate states. The [Congress](U.S.)(United States Congress), after the departure of the powerful Southern contingent in 1861, was generally abolitionist: In a plan endorsed by Abraham Lincoln, slavery in the [of Columbia](District)(District of Columbia), which the Southern contingent had protected, was abolished in 1862.American Memory "[Abolition in the District of Columbia](http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/today/apr16.html)", Today in History, Library of Congress, viewed December 15, 2014. On April 16, 1862, Lincoln signed a congressional act abolishing slavery in the District of Columbia with compensation for slave owners, five months before the victory at Antietam led to the Emancipation Proclamation. In Southern states, the legal elimination of slavery typically followed Union control. The [Proclamation](Emancipation)(Emancipation Proclamation) declared all enslaved people in areas then under Confederate control free, but, in practice, freedom required either slaves reaching Union lines or Union forces reaching their area. As Union forces advanced from January 1, 1863 to [19, 1865](June)(Juneteenth), slaves were freed. West Virginia did not abolish slavery in its first proposed constitution of 1861, though it did ban the importation of slaves. In 1863, voters approved the Willey Amendment, which provided for gradual abolition of slavery, with the last enslaved people scheduled to be freed in 1884. On February 3, 1865, the state legislature approved immediate abolition. The [Government of Virginia](Restored)(Restored Government of Virginia) — the Unionist government that governed the limited territory then under Union control that had not left to form [Virginia](West)(West Virginia) — voted to end slavery at a constitutional convention on March 10, 1864. Arkansas, part of which came under Union control by 1864, adopted an anti-slavery constitution on March 16, 1864. Louisiana — much of which had been under Union control since 1862 — abolished slavery through a new state constitution approved by voters September 5, 1864. The border states of Maryland (November 1, 1864) and Missouri (January 11, 1865) abolished slavery before the war's end. The Union-occupied state of Tennessee abolished slavery by popular vote on a constitutional amendment that took effect February 22, 1865. However, slavery legally persisted in Delaware, Kentucky, and (to a very limited extent) New Jersey, until the [Amendment to the United States Constitution](Thirteenth)(Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution) abolished slavery throughout the United States on December 18, 1865, ending the distinction between slave and free states. ## See also * [states (American Civil War)](Border)(Border states (American Civil War)) * [Circle (proposed country)](Golden)(Golden Circle (proposed country)) * [Quilombo](Quilombo) * [in the colonial United States](Slavery)(Slavery in the colonial United States) * [in the United States](Slavery)(Slavery in the United States) * [Proviso](Wilmot)(Wilmot Proviso) ## References ## Further reading * [Don E. Fehrenbacher and Ward M. Mcafee; ''The Slaveholding Republic: An Account of the United States Government's Relations to Slavery* (2002)](https://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=106431178) * Rodriguez, Junius P. Slavery in the United States: A social, political, and historical encyclopedia'' (2 vol Abc-clio, 2007). ## External links [Slavery in the North](http://www.slavenorth.com/index.html) [history of the United States](Category:Political)(Category:Political history of the United States) [history of the United States](Category:Geographic)(Category:Geographic history of the United States) [ Slave states](Category:Slavery in the United States by state) [of slavery in the United States](Category:Expansion)(Category:Expansion of slavery in the United States) [rivalries](Category:Regional)(Category:Regional rivalries) [geography of the United States](Category:Electoral)(Category:Electoral geography of the United States)
Helen Keller	helen_keller	# Helen Keller Revision ID: 1159372312 \| Timestamp: 2023-06-09T22:20:50Z --- \| birth_name = Helen Adams Keller \| birth_date = \| birth_place = [Alabama](Tuscumbia,)(Tuscumbia, Alabama), U.S. \| death_date = \| death_place = [Connecticut](Easton,)(Easton, Connecticut), U.S. \| resting_place = [National Cathedral](Washington)(Washington National Cathedral) \| occupation = \| education = [College](Radcliffe)(Radcliffe College) ([BA](Bachelor of Arts)) \| notableworks = [Story of My Life](The)(The Story of My Life (biography)) (1903) \| signature = helen_keller_signature.svg }} Helen Adams Keller (June 27, 1880 – June 1, 1968) was an American author, [rights](disability)(disability rights) advocate, political activist and lecturer. Born in West [Alabama](Tuscumbia,)(Tuscumbia, Alabama), she [her sight](lost)(Visual impairment) and [hearing](her)(Deafness) after a bout of illness when she was 19 months old. She then communicated primarily using [sign](home)(home sign)s until the age of seven, when she met her first teacher and life-long companion [Sullivan](Anne)(Anne Sullivan). Sullivan taught Keller language, including reading and writing. After an education at both specialist and mainstream schools, Keller attended [College](Radcliffe)(Radcliffe College) of [University](Harvard)(Harvard University) and became the first [deafblind](deaf-blindness) person in the United States to earn a Bachelor of Arts degree. She was named one of Time magazine's 100 Most Important People of the 20th Century. Keller worked for the [Foundation for the Blind](American)(American Foundation for the Blind) (AFB) from 1924 until 1968. During this time, she toured the United States and traveled to 35 countries around the globe advocating for those with vision loss. Keller was also a prolific author, writing 14 books and hundreds of speeches and essays on topics ranging from animals to [Gandhi](Mahatma)(Mahatma Gandhi). Keller campaigned for those with [disabilities](Disability), for [suffrage](women's)(women's suffrage), [rights](labor)(labor rights), and [peace](world)(world peace). In 1909, she joined the [Party of America](Socialist)(Socialist Party of America). She was a founding member of the [Civil Liberties Union](American)(American Civil Liberties Union). Keller's autobiography, [Story of My Life](The)(The Story of My Life (biography)) (1903), publicized her education and life with Sullivan. It was adapted as a play by [Gibson](William)(William Gibson (playwright)), and this was also adapted as a film under the same title, [Miracle Worker](The)(The Miracle Worker). Her birthplace has been designated and preserved as a [Historic Landmark](National)(National Historic Landmark). Since 1954 it has been operated as a house museum and sponsors an annual "Helen Keller Day". Keller was inducted into the [Women's Hall of Fame](Alabama)(Alabama Women's Hall of Fame) in 1971. She was one of twelve inaugural inductees to the Alabama Writers Hall of Fame on June 8, 2015. ## Early childhood and illness [[File:Helen Keller Birthplace House in Tuscumbia, Alabama.jpg\|thumb\|upright=1.2\|Keller's birthplace in [Alabama](Tuscumbia,)(Tuscumbia, Alabama)]] [[File:Helen Keller with Anne Sullivan in July 1888.jpg\|thumb\|upright=1.2\|right\|Keller (left) with [Sullivan](Anne)(Anne Sullivan Macy) vacationing on [Cod](Cape)(Cape Cod) in July 1888]] Keller was born on June 27, 1880, in [Alabama](Tuscumbia,)(Tuscumbia, Alabama), the daughter of Arthur Henley Keller (1836–1896), and Catherine Everett (Adams) Keller (1856–1921), known as "Kate". Her family lived on a homestead, [Green](Ivy)(Ivy Green), that Helen's paternal grandfather had built decades earlier. She had four siblings: two full siblings, Mildred Campbell (Keller) Tyson and Phillip Brooks Keller; and two older half-brothers from her father's first marriage, James McDonald Keller and William Simpson Keller. Keller's father worked for many years as an editor of the Tuscumbia North Alabamian. He had served as a captain in the [Army](Confederate)(Confederate Army). The family were part of the [slaveholding](slavery in the United States) elite before [war](the)(American Civil War), but lost status later. Her mother was the daughter of [W. Adams](Charles)(Charles W. Adams (Confederate general)), a Confederate general. Keller's paternal lineage was traced to Casper Keller, a native of Switzerland. One of Helen's Swiss ancestors was the first teacher for the deaf in [Zurich](Zurich). Keller reflected on this fact in her first autobiography, asserting that "there is no king who has not had a slave among his ancestors, and no slave who has not had a king among his". At 19 months old, Keller contracted an unknown illness described by doctors as "an acute congestion of the stomach and the brain". Contemporary doctors believe it might have been [meningitis](meningitis), caused by the bacterium [meningitidis](Neisseria)(Neisseria meningitidis) (meningococcus), or possibly [influenzae](Haemophilus)(Haemophilus influenzae). (This could have caused the same symptoms, but is a less likely cause due to its 97% juvenile mortality rate at that time.) The illness left Keller both deaf and blind. She lived, as she recalled in her autobiography, "at sea in a dense fog". At that time, Keller was able to communicate somewhat with Martha Washington, who was two years older and the daughter of the family cook, and understood the girl's signs; by the age of seven, Keller had more than 60 [sign](home)(home sign)s to communicate with her family, and could distinguish people by the vibration of their footsteps. In 1886, Keller's mother, inspired by an account in [Dickens](Charles)(Charles Dickens)' [Notes](American)(American Notes) of the successful education of [Bridgman](Laura)(Laura Bridgman), a deaf and blind woman, dispatched the young Keller and her father to consult physician J. Julian Chisolm, an eye, ear, nose, and throat specialist in [Baltimore](Baltimore), for advice. Chisholm referred the Kellers to [Graham Bell](Alexander)(Alexander Graham Bell), who was working with deaf children at the time. Bell advised them to contact the [Institute for the Blind](Perkins)(Perkins Institute for the Blind), the school where Bridgman had been educated. It was then located in [Boston](South)(South Boston, Boston, Massachusetts). Michael Anagnos, the school's director, asked [Sullivan](Anne)(Anne Sullivan Macy), a 20-year-old alumna of the school who was visually impaired, to become Keller's instructor. It was the beginning of a nearly 50-year-long relationship: Sullivan developed as Keller's [governess](governess) and later her [companion](lady's companion). Sullivan arrived at Keller's house on March 5, 1887, a day Keller would forever remember as "my soul's birthday". Sullivan immediately began to teach Helen to communicate by spelling words into her hand, beginning with "d-o-l-l" for the doll that she had brought Keller as a present. Keller initially struggled with lessons since she could not comprehend that every object had a word identifying it. When Sullivan was trying to teach Keller the word for "mug", Keller became so frustrated she broke the mug. Keller remembered how she soon began imitating Sullivan's hand gestures: "I did not know that I was spelling a word or even that words existed. I was simply making my fingers go in monkey-like imitation." The next month Keller made a breakthrough, when she realized that the motions her teacher was making on the palm of her hand, while running cool water over her other hand, symbolized the idea of "water". Writing in her autobiography, The Story of My Life, Keller recalled the moment: Keller quickly demanded that Sullivan sign the names of all the other familiar objects in her world. Helen Keller was viewed as isolated but was very in touch with the outside world. She was able to enjoy music by feeling the beat and she was able to have a strong connection with animals through touch. She was delayed at picking up language, but that did not stop her from having a voice. ## Formal education In May 1888, Keller started attending the Perkins Institute for the Blind. In 1894, Keller and Sullivan moved to New York to attend the [School for the Deaf](Wright-Humason)(Wright-Humason School for the Deaf), and to learn from [Fuller](Sarah)(Sarah Fuller (educator)) at the [Mann School for the Deaf](Horace)(Horace Mann School for the Deaf). In 1896, they returned to Massachusetts, and Keller entered [Cambridge School for Young Ladies](The)(The Cambridge School of Weston) before gaining admittance, in 1900, to [College](Radcliffe)(Radcliffe College) of [University](Harvard)(Harvard University), where she lived in Briggs Hall, [House](South)(Cabot House). Her admirer, [Twain](Mark)(Mark Twain), had introduced her to [Oil](Standard)(Standard Oil) magnate [Huttleston Rogers](Henry)(Henry H. Rogers), who, with his wife Abbie, paid for her education. In 1904, at the age of 24, Keller graduated as a member of [Beta Kappa](Phi)(Phi Beta Kappa)["Phi Beta Kappa Members"](https://www.pbk.org/Members) . The Phi Beta Kappa Society (PBK.org). Retrieved March 25, 2020. from Radcliffe, becoming the first deaf-blind person to earn a Bachelor of Arts degree. She maintained a correspondence with the Austrian philosopher and [pedagogue](pedagogue) [Jerusalem](Wilhelm)(Wilhelm Jerusalem), who was one of the first to discover her literary talent.[Gantschacher](Herbert)(Herbert Gantschacher) "Back from History! – The correspondence of letters between the Austrian-Jewish philosopher Wilhelm Jerusalem and the American [deafblind](deafblind) writer Helen Keller", Gebärdensache, Vienna 2009, p. 35ff. Determined to communicate with others as conventionally as possible, Keller learned to speak and spent much of her life giving speeches and lectures on aspects of her life. She learned to "hear" people's speech using the [Tadoma](Tadoma) method, which means using her fingers to feel the lips and throat of the speaker. She became proficient at using [braille](braille)Specifically, the reordered alphabet known as [Braille](American)(American Braille) and using [fingerspelling](fingerspelling) to communicate. Shortly before World War I, with the assistance of the [Quartet](Zoellner)(Zoellner Quartet), she determined that by placing her fingertips on a resonant tabletop she could experience music played close by.["First Number Citizens Lecture Course Monday, November Fifth", The Weekly Spectrum](https://web.archive.org/web/20131110155416/http://library.ndsu.edu/tools/dspace/load/?file=%2Frepository%2Fbitstream%2Fhandle%2F10365%2F21055%2Fnds-1917-10-31-0.pdf%3Fsequence%3D1), North Dakota Agricultural College, Volume XXXVI no. 3, November 7, 1917. ## Companions [[File:PSM V63 D081 Helen keller and miss sullivan.png\|thumb\|Helen Keller in 1899 with lifelong companion and teacher Anne Sullivan. Photo taken by [Graham Bell](Alexander)(Alexander Graham Bell) at his School of Vocal Physiology and Mechanics of Speech.]] [Sullivan](Anne)(Anne Sullivan) stayed as a companion to Helen Keller long after she taught her. Sullivan married John Macy in 1905, and her health started failing around 1914. Polly Thomson (February 20, 1885 – March 21, 1960) was hired to keep house. She was a young woman from Scotland who had no experience with deaf or blind people. She progressed to working as a secretary as well, and eventually became a constant companion to Keller. Keller moved to [Hills, Queens](Forest)(Forest Hills, Queens), together with Sullivan and Macy, and used the house as a base for her efforts on behalf of the [Foundation for the Blind](American)(American Foundation for the Blind). "While in her thirties Helen had a love affair, became secretly engaged, and defied her teacher and family by attempting an elopement with the man she loved." He was the [fingerspelling](fingerspelling) socialist "Peter Fagan, a young [Herald](Boston)(Boston Herald) reporter who was sent to Helen's home to act as her private secretary when lifelong companion, Anne, fell ill." At the time, her father had died and Sullivan was recovering in [Placid](Lake)(Lake Placid, New York) and [Rico](Puerto)(Puerto Rico). Keller had moved with her mother in [Alabama](Montgomery,)(Montgomery, Alabama). Anne Sullivan died in 1936, with Keller holding her hand, after falling into a coma as a result of [thrombosis](coronary)(coronary thrombosis). Keller and Thomson moved to [Connecticut](Connecticut). They traveled worldwide and raised funds for the blind. Thomson had a stroke in 1957 from which she never fully recovered and died in 1960. Winnie Corbally, a nurse originally hired to care for Thomson in 1957, stayed on after Thomson's death and was Keller's companion for the rest of her life. ## Career, writing and political activities [[File:Helen KellerA.jpg\|thumb\|left\|Helen Keller portrait, 1904. Due to a protruding left eye, Keller was usually photographed in profile until she had her eyes replaced with [replicas](glass)(Ocular prosthesis) for "medical and cosmetic reasons".]] \| width = 25% \| align = right }} On January 22, 1916, Keller and Sullivan traveled to the small town of [Menomonie](Menomonie, Wisconsin) in western [Wisconsin](Wisconsin) to deliver a lecture at the [Tainter Memorial Building](Mabel)(Mabel Tainter Memorial Building). Details of her talk were provided in the weekly Dunn County News on January 22, 1916: }} Keller became a world-famous speaker and author. She was an [for people with disabilities](advocate)(List of disability rights activists), amid numerous other causes. She traveled to twenty-five different countries giving motivational speeches about Deaf people's conditions. She was a [suffragist](Women's suffrage), [pacifist](pacifist), [radical](radical politics) socialist, [control](birth)(birth control) supporter, and opponent of [Wilson](Woodrow)(Woodrow Wilson). In 1915, she and George A. Kessler founded the [Keller International](Helen)(Helen Keller International) (HKI) organization. This organization is devoted to research in vision, health, and nutrition. In 1916, she sent money to the [NAACP](NAACP), as she was ashamed of the Southern un-Christian treatment of "[people](colored)(African Americans)". In 1920, Keller helped to found the [Civil Liberties Union](American)(American Civil Liberties Union) (ACLU). She traveled to over 40 countries with Sullivan, making several trips to Japan and becoming a favorite of the Japanese people. Keller met every U.S. president from [Cleveland](Grover)(Grover Cleveland) to [B. Johnson](Lyndon)(Lyndon B. Johnson) and was friends with many famous figures, including [Graham Bell](Alexander)(Alexander Graham Bell), [Chaplin](Charlie)(Charlie Chaplin) and [Twain](Mark)(Mark Twain). Keller and Twain were both considered [radical](political)(political radical)s allied with leftist politics. Keller, who believed that the poor were "ground down by industrial oppression", wanted children born into poor families to have the same opportunities to succeed that she had enjoyed. She wrote, "I owed my success partly to the advantages of my birth and environment. I have learned that the power to rise is not within the reach of everyone." In 1909 Keller became a member of the [Party](Socialist)(Socialist Party of America); she actively campaigned and wrote in support of the working class from 1909 to 1921. Many of her speeches and writings were about women's right to vote and the effects of war; in addition, she supported causes that opposed [intervention](military)(Interventionism (politics)).Davis, Mark J. ["Examining the American peace movement prior to World War I"](https://www.americamagazine.org/arts-culture/2017/04/06/examining-american-peace-movement-prior-world-war-i) , America Magazine, April 17, 2017 She had speech therapy to have her voice understood better by the public. When the Rockefeller-owned press refused to print her articles, she protested until her work was finally published. She supported Socialist Party candidate [V. Debs](Eugene)(Eugene V. Debs) in each of his campaigns for the presidency. Before reading [and Poverty](Progress)(Progress and poverty) by [George](Henry)(Henry George), Helen Keller was already a socialist who believed that [Georgism](Georgism) was a good step in the right direction. She later wrote of finding "in Henry George's philosophy a rare beauty and power of inspiration, and a splendid faith in the essential nobility of human nature". Keller claimed that newspaper columnists who had praised her courage and intelligence before she expressed her socialist views now called attention to her disabilities. The editor of the [Eagle](Brooklyn)(Brooklyn Eagle) wrote that her "mistakes sprung out of the manifest limitations of her development". Keller responded to that editor, referring to having met him before he knew of her political views: }} In 1912, Keller joined the [Workers of the World](Industrial)(Industrial Workers of the World) (the IWW, known as the Wobblies), saying that parliamentary socialism was "sinking in the political bog". She wrote for the IWW between 1916 and 1918. In Why I Became an IWW, Keller explained that her motivation for activism came in part from her concern about blindness and other disabilities: The last sentence refers to prostitution and [syphilis](syphilis), the former a "life of shame" that women used to support themselves, which contributed to their contracting syphilis. Untreated, it was a leading cause of blindness. In the same interview, Keller also cited the [strike of textile workers](1912)(1912 Lawrence Textile Strike) in [Massachusetts](Lawrence,)(Lawrence, Massachusetts) for instigating her support of socialism. Keller supported [eugenics](eugenics) which had become popular with new understandings (as well as misapprehensions) of principles of biological inheritance. In 1915, she wrote in favor of refusing life-saving medical procedures to infants with severe mental impairments or physical deformities, saying that their lives were not worthwhile and they would likely become criminals. Keller also expressed concerns about [overpopulation](human)(human overpopulation). From 1946 to 1957 Keller visited 35 countries.["Helen Keller Biography"](http://www.afb.org/info/about-us/helen-keller/biography-and-chronology/biography/1235) . American Foundation for the Blind (AFB.org). Retrieved March 31, 2020. In 1948 she went to New Zealand and visited deaf schools in [Christchurch](Christchurch) and [Auckland](Auckland). She met Deaf Society of Canterbury Life Member Patty Still in [Christchurch](Christchurch). ## Works [[Keller13.jpg\|thumb\|right\|Helen Keller, c. November 1912](File:Helen)] Keller wrote a total of 12 published books and several articles. One of her earliest pieces of writing, at age 11, was [Frost King](The)(The Frost King) (1891). There were allegations that this story had been [plagiarized](plagiarized) from The Frost Fairies by Margaret Canby. An investigation into the matter revealed that Keller may have experienced a case of [cryptomnesia](cryptomnesia), which was that she had Canby's story read to her but forgot about it, while the memory remained in her subconscious. At age 22, Keller published her autobiography, [Story of My Life](The)(The Story of My Life (biography)) (1903), with help from Sullivan and Sullivan's husband, John Macy. It recounts the story of her life up to age 21 and was written during her time in college. In an article Keller wrote in 1907, she brought to public attention the fact that many cases of childhood blindness could be prevented by washing the eyes of every newborn baby with a disinfectant solution. At the time, only a fraction of doctors and midwives were doing this. Thanks to Keller's advocacy, this commonsense public health measure was swiftly and widely adopted. Keller wrote The World I Live In in 1908, giving readers an insight into how she felt about the world. Out of the Dark, a series of essays on socialism, was published in 1913. When Keller was young, Anne Sullivan introduced her to [Brooks](Phillips)(Phillips Brooks), who introduced her to Christianity, Keller famously saying: "I always knew He was there, but I didn't know His name!" Her [spiritual](Spirituality) autobiography, My Religion, was published in 1927 and then in 1994 extensively revised and re-issued under the title [in My Darkness](Light)(Light in My Darkness). It advocates the teachings of [Swedenborg](Emanuel)(Emanuel Swedenborg), the Christian theologian and mystic who gave a spiritual interpretation of the teachings of the Bible and who claimed that the [Coming](Second)(Second Coming) of [Christ](Jesus)(Jesus Christ) had already taken place. Keller described the core of her belief in these words: * "[Frost King](The)(The Frost King)" (1891) * [Story of My Life](The)(The Story of My Life (biography)) (1903) * Optimism: an essay (1903) T. Y. Crowell and company * My Key of Life: Optimism (1904), Isbister * The World I Live In (1908) * The miracle of life (1909) Hodder and Stoughton * The song of the stone wall (1910) The Century co. * Out of the Dark, a series of essays on socialism (1913) * Uncle Sam Is Calling (set to music by [B. Story](Pauline)(Pauline B. Story)) (1917) * My Religion (1927; also called Light in My Darkness) * Midstream: my later life (1929) Doubleday, Doran & company * We bereaved.(1929) L. Fulenwider, Inc * Peace at eventide (1932) Methuen & co. ltd * Helen Keller in Scotland: a personal record written by herself (1933) Methuen, 212pp * ''Helen Keller's journal* (1938) M. Joseph, 296pp * Let us have faith (1940), Doubleday, & Doran & co., inc. * Teacher: Anne Sullivan Macy: a tribute by the foster-child of her mind. (1955), [(publisher)](Doubleday)(Doubleday (publisher)) * The open door (1957), Doubleday, 140pp * The faith of Helen Keller (1967) * Helen Keller: her socialist years, writings and speeches'' (1967) ### Archival material The Helen Keller Archives in New York are owned by the [Foundation for the Blind](American)(American Foundation for the Blind). Archival material of Helen Keller stored in New York was lost when the [Towers](Twin)(World Trade Center (1973–2001)) were destroyed in the [11 attacks](September)(September 11 attacks). ## Later life and death Keller had a series of strokes in 1961 and spent the last years of her life at her home. On September 14, 1964, President [B. Johnson](Lyndon)(Lyndon B. Johnson) awarded her the [Medal of Freedom](Presidential)(Presidential Medal of Freedom), one of the United States' two highest civilian honors. In 1965 she was elected to the [Women's Hall of Fame](National)(National Women's Hall of Fame) at the [York World's Fair](New)(1964 New York World's Fair). Keller devoted much of her later life to raising funds for the [Foundation for the Blind](American)(American Foundation for the Blind). She died in her sleep on June 1, 1968, at her home, Arcan Ridge, located in [Connecticut](Easton,)(Easton, Connecticut), a few weeks short of her eighty-eighth birthday. A service was held at the [National Cathedral](Washington)(Washington National Cathedral) in Washington, D.C., and her body was cremated in [Connecticut](Bridgeport,)(Bridgeport, Connecticut). Her ashes were buried at the Washington National Cathedral next to her constant companions, Anne Sullivan and Polly Thomson.Wilson, Scott. Resting Places: The Burial Sites of More Than 14,000 Famous Persons, 3d ed.: 2 (Kindle Locations 24973-24974). McFarland & Company, Inc., Publishers. Kindle Edition. ## Portrayals [[File:Anne Sullivan - Helen Keller memorial - Tewksbury, Massachusetts - DSC00072.JPG\|thumb\|left\|[Sullivan](Anne)(Anne Sullivan) – Helen Keller Memorial—a bronze sculpture in [Massachusetts](Tewksbury,)(Tewksbury, Massachusetts)]] Keller's life has been interpreted many times. She appeared in a [film](silent)(silent film), [Deliverance](Deliverance (1919 movie))* (1919), which told her story in a melodramatic, allegorical style. She was also the subject of the [Award](Academy)(Academy Award for Best Documentary Feature)-winning 1954 documentary [Keller in Her Story](Helen)(Helen Keller in Her Story), narrated by her friend and noted theatrical actress [Cornell](Katharine)(Katharine Cornell). She was also profiled in The Story of Helen Keller, part of the Famous Americans series produced by [Entertainment](Hearst)(Hearst Corporation). [Miracle Worker](The)(The Miracle Worker) is a [cycle](Literature cycle) of dramatic works ultimately derived from her autobiography, [Story of My Life](The)(The Story of My Life (biography)). The various dramas each describe the relationship between Keller and Sullivan, depicting how the teacher led her from a state of almost [wildness](feral)(feral children) into education, activism, and intellectual celebrity. The common title of the cycle echoes [Twain](Mark)(Mark Twain)'s description of Sullivan as a "miracle worker". Its first realization was the 1957 [90](Playhouse)(Playhouse 90) [teleplay](screenplay) of that title by [Gibson](William)(William Gibson (playwright)). He adapted it for a [production in 1959](Broadway)(The Miracle Worker (play)) and an Oscar-winning [film in 1962](feature)(The Miracle Worker (1962 film)), starring [Bancroft](Anne)(Anne Bancroft) and [Duke](Patty)(Patty Duke). It was remade for television in [1979](The Miracle Worker (1979 film)) and [2000](The Miracle Worker (2000 film))." [[File:Helen keller patty duke.jpg\|thumb\|right\|Helen Keller with [Duke](Patty)(Patty Duke), who portrayed Keller in both the play and film [Miracle Worker](The)(The Miracle Worker) (1962). In a [remake](1979)(The Miracle Worker (1979 film)), Patty Duke played [Sullivan](Anne)(Anne Sullivan).]] An anime movie called The Story of Helen Keller: Angel of Love and Light was made in 1981. In 1984, Keller's life story was made into a TV movie called [Miracle Continues](The)(The Miracle Continues). This film, a semi-sequel to The Miracle Worker, recounts her college years and her early adult life. None of the early movies hint at the social activism that would become the hallmark of Keller's later life, although a [Disney](The Walt Disney Company) version produced in 2000 states in the credits that she became an activist for [equality](social)(social equality). The [Bollywood](Bollywood) movie [Black](Black (2005 film)) (2005) was largely based on Keller's story, from her childhood to her graduation. A documentary called ''Shining Soul: Helen Keller's Spiritual Life and Legacy'' was produced by the Swedenborg Foundation in the same year. The film focuses on the role played by [Swedenborg](Emanuel)(Emanuel Swedenborg)'s spiritual theology in her life and how it inspired Keller's triumph over her triple disabilities of blindness, deafness and a severe speech impediment. On March 6, 2008, the [England Historic Genealogical Society](New)(New England Historic Genealogical Society) announced that a staff member had discovered a rare 1888 photograph showing Helen and Anne, which, although previously published, had escaped widespread attention. Depicting Helen holding one of her many dolls, it is believed to be the earliest surviving photograph of Anne Sullivan Macy. Video footage showing Helen Keller speaking also exists. A biography of Helen Keller was written by the German Jewish author [Johanna Kaeser](Hildegard)(H.J.Kaeser). A painting titled The Advocate: Tribute to Helen Keller was created by three artists from Kerala, India as a tribute to Helen Keller. The Painting was created in association with a non-profit organization Art d'Hope Foundation, artists groups Palette People and XakBoX Design & Art Studio. This painting was created for a fundraising event to help blind students in India and was inaugurated by M. G. Rajamanikyam, IAS (District Collector Ernakulam) on Helen Keller day (June 27, 2016). The painting depicts the major events of Helen Keller's life and is one of the biggest paintings done based on Helen Keller's life. In 2020, the documentary essay Her Socialist Smile by [Gianvito](John)(John Gianvito) evolves around Keller's first public talk in 1913 before a general audience, when she started speaking out on behalf of progressive causes. ## Posthumous honors [[File:Alabama quarter, reverse side, 2003.jpg\|thumb\|right\|Helen Keller as depicted on the Alabama [quarter](state)(50 State quarters). The braille on the coin is [Braille](English)(English Braille) for HELEN KELLER.]] In 1999, Keller was listed in [Most Widely Admired People of the 20th century](Gallup's)(Gallup's List of Widely Admired People). In 1999, Keller was named one of Time magazine's 100 Most Important People of the 20th Century. In 2003, [Alabama](Alabama) honored its native daughter on its [quarter](state)(50 State Quarters). The Alabama state quarter is the only circulating U.S. coin to feature braille. The Helen Keller Hospital in [Alabama](Sheffield,)(Sheffield, Alabama), is dedicated to her. Streets are named after Helen Keller in [Zürich](Zürich), Switzerland; in the U.S., in [Getafe](Getafe), Spain; in [Lod](Lod), Israel, in [Lisbon](Lisbon), Portugal, and in [Caen](Caen), France. A preschool for the deaf and hard of hearing in [Mysore](Mysore), India, was originally named after Helen Keller by its founder, [K. Srinivasan](K.)(K. K. Srinivasan). In 1973, Helen Keller was inducted into the [Women's Hall of Fame](National)(National Women's Hall of Fame). A stamp was issued in 1980 by the [States Postal Service](United)(United States Postal Service) depicting Keller and Sullivan, to mark the centennial of Keller's birth. That year her birth was also recognized by a presidential proclamation from U.S. President [Carter](Jimmy)(Jimmy Carter). Pennsylvania annually commemorates her June 27 birthday as Helen Keller Day. On October 7, 2009, the State of Alabama donated a [statue of Keller](bronze)(Statue of Helen Keller) to the [Statuary Hall Collection](National)(National Statuary Hall Collection), as a replacement for its 1908 statue of education reformer [Lamar Monroe Curry](Jabez)(Jabez Lamar Monroe Curry). ## See also * [Keller Services for the Blind](Helen)(Helen Keller Services for the Blind) * [Bridgman](Laura)(Laura Bridgman) * [of peace activists](List)(List of peace activists) * [School for the Blind](Perkins)(Perkins School for the Blind) * [Kåta](Ragnhild)(Ragnhild Kåta) ## Citations ## Further reading * Einhorn, Lois J. (1998). Helen Keller, Public Speaker: Sightless But Seen, Deaf But Heard (Great American Orators) * Harrity, Richard and [Ralph G.](Martin,)(Ralph G. Martin) (1962). The Three Lives of Helen Keller. * Herrmann, Dorothy (1998). Helen Keller: A Life. New York: [Knopf](Alfred A. Knopf). . * [Joseph P.](Lash,)(Joseph P. Lash) (1980). Helen and Teacher: The Story of Helen Keller and Anne Sullivan Macy. New York: [Press](Delacorte)(Delacorte Press). . * * [Van Wyck](Brooks,)(Van Wyck Brooks) (1956). Helen Keller Sketch for a Portrait. ### Primary sources * Keller, Helen with Anne Sullivan and John A. Macy (1903). The Story of My Life. New York: [Page & Co.](Doubleday,)(Doubleday, Page & Co.) ## External links * * * * * * * [Helen Keller and Anne Sullivan Collections](http://www.perkinsarchives.org/helen-keller-and-anne-sullivan-links.html) at [School for the Blind](Perkins)(Perkins School for the Blind) }} [ ](Category:Helen Keller) [American non-fiction writers](Category:19th-century)(Category:19th-century American non-fiction writers) [American short story writers](Category:19th-century)(Category:19th-century American short story writers) [American women writers](Category:19th-century)(Category:19th-century American women writers) [American essayists](Category:20th-century)(Category:20th-century American essayists) [American short story writers](Category:20th-century)(Category:20th-century American short story writers) [American women writers](Category:20th-century)(Category:20th-century American women writers) [births](Category:1880)(Category:1880 births) [deaths](Category:1968)(Category:1968 deaths) [from Alabama](Category:Activists)(Category:Activists from Alabama) [socialists](Category:Alabama)(Category:Alabama socialists) [anti-war activists](Category:American)(Category:American anti-war activists) [birth control activists](Category:American)(Category:American birth control activists) [Christian pacifists](Category:American)(Category:American Christian pacifists) [Christian socialists](Category:American)(Category:American Christian socialists) [Civil Liberties Union people](Category:American)(Category:American Civil Liberties Union people) [eugenicists](Category:American)(Category:American eugenicists) [feminist writers](Category:American)(Category:American feminist writers) [American memoirists](Category:20th-century)(Category:20th-century American memoirists) [people of Swiss descent](Category:American)(Category:American people of Swiss descent) [political activists](Category:American)(Category:American political activists) [political writers](Category:American)(Category:American political writers) [suffragists](Category:American)(Category:American suffragists) [Swedenborgians](Category:American)(Category:American Swedenborgians) [women essayists](Category:American)(Category:American women essayists) [women memoirists](Category:American)(Category:American women memoirists) [women short story writers](Category:American)(Category:American women short story writers) [writers](Category:Blind)(Category:Blind writers) [scholars and academics](Category:Blind)(Category:Blind scholars and academics) [at Washington National Cathedral](Category:Burials)(Category:Burials at Washington National Cathedral) [socialists](Category:Connecticut)(Category:Connecticut socialists) [writers](Category:Deaf)(Category:Deaf writers) [deafblind people](Category:American)(Category:American deafblind people) [activists](Category:Deaf)(Category:Deaf activists) [disability rights activists](Category:American)(Category:American disability rights activists) [Christian socialists](Category:Female)(Category:Female Christian socialists) [Workers of the World members](Category:Industrial)(Category:Industrial Workers of the World members) [of the Socialist Party of America](Category:Members)(Category:Members of the Socialist Party of America) [Category:Non-interventionism](Category:Non-interventionism) [from Tuscumbia, Alabama](Category:People)(Category:People from Tuscumbia, Alabama) [Medal of Freedom recipients](Category:Presidential)(Category:Presidential Medal of Freedom recipients) [of Christian feminism](Category:Proponents)(Category:Proponents of Christian feminism) [College alumni](Category:Radcliffe)(Category:Radcliffe College alumni) [socialist feminists](Category:American)(Category:American socialist feminists) [socialists](Category:Swedenborgian)(Category:Swedenborgian socialists) [film pioneers](Category:Women)(Category:Women film pioneers) [rights activists](Category:Workers')(Category:Workers' rights activists) [from Alabama](Category:Writers)(Category:Writers from Alabama) [of the American Academy of Arts and Letters](Category:Members)(Category:Members of the American Academy of Arts and Letters) [eugenicists](Category:Feminist)(Category:Feminist eugenicists) [with disabilities](Category:Eugenicists)(Category:Eugenicists with disabilities) [activists](Category:Blind)(Category:Blind activists)
Mark Twain	mark_twain	# Mark Twain Revision ID: 1160104187 \| Timestamp: 2023-06-14T12:43:34Z --- \| birth_place = [Missouri](Florida,)(Florida, Missouri), U.S. \| death_date = \| death_place = [House](Stormfield)(Stormfield), [Connecticut](Redding,)(Redding, Connecticut), U.S. \| resting_place = [Cemetery, Elmira, New York](Woodlawn)(Woodlawn Cemetery (Elmira, New York)), U.S. \| pseudonym = \| occupation = \| language = [English](American)(American English) \| period = Modern \| genres = \| subjects = \| movement = [Realism](American)(American Realism) \| years_active = from 1863 \| employer = \| notableworks = \| spouse = \| children = 4, including [Susy](Susy Clemens), [Clara](Clara Clemens), and [Jean](Jean Clemens) \| parents = \| relatives = [Clemens](Orion)(Orion Clemens) (brother) \| signature = Mark Twain Signatures-2.svg }} Samuel Langhorne Clemens (November 30, 1835 – April 21, 1910), best known by his [name](pen)(pen name) Mark Twain, was an American writer, [humorist](humorist), entrepreneur, publisher, and lecturer. He was praised as the "greatest humorist the United States has produced", and [Faulkner](William)(William Faulkner) called him "the father of [literature](American)(American literature)". His novels include [Adventures of Tom Sawyer](The)(The Adventures of Tom Sawyer) (1876) and its sequel, [of Huckleberry Finn](Adventures)(Adventures of Huckleberry Finn) (1884), the latter of which has often been called the "[American Novel](Great)(Great American Novel)". Twain also wrote ''[Connecticut Yankee in King Arthur's Court](A)(A Connecticut Yankee in King Arthur's Court)* (1889) and [Wilson](Pudd'nhead)(Pudd'nhead Wilson) (1894), and co-wrote [Gilded Age: A Tale of Today](The)(The Gilded Age: A Tale of Today) (1873) with [Dudley Warner](Charles)(Charles Dudley Warner). Twain was raised in [Missouri](Hannibal,)(Hannibal, Missouri), which later provided the setting for Tom Sawyer and Huckleberry Finn. He served an apprenticeship with a printer and then worked as a typesetter, contributing articles to the newspaper of his older brother [Clemens](Orion)(Orion Clemens). He later became a riverboat pilot on the [River](Mississippi)(Mississippi River) before heading west to join Orion in [Nevada](Nevada). He referred humorously to his lack of success at mining, turning to journalism for the [City](Virginia)(Virginia City, Nevada) [Enterprise](Territorial)(Territorial Enterprise).Thomson, David, In Nevada: The Land, The People, God, and Chance'', New York: Vintage Books, 2000. p. 35 His humorous story "[Celebrated Jumping Frog of Calaveras County](The)(The Celebrated Jumping Frog of Calaveras County)" was published in 1865, based on a story that he heard at [Hotel](Angels)(Angels Hotel) in [Camp, California](Angels)(Angels Camp, California), where he had spent some time as a miner. The short story brought international attention and was even translated into French. His wit and satire, in prose and in speech, earned praise from critics and peers, and he was a friend to presidents, artists, industrialists, and European royalty. Initially an ardent [imperialist](American)(American imperialism) who spoke out strongly in favor of American interests in the [Islands](Hawaiian)(Kingdom of Hawaii), he later became vice-president of the [Anti-Imperialist League](American)(American Anti-Imperialist League) from 1901 until his death in 1910, coming out strongly against the [War](Philippine-American)(Philippine–American War). Twain earned a great deal of money from his writings and lectures but invested in ventures that lost most of it—such as the [Compositor](Paige)(Paige Compositor), a mechanical typesetter that failed because of its complexity and imprecision. He filed for [bankruptcy](bankruptcy) in the wake of these financial setbacks, but in time overcame his financial troubles with the help of [Oil](Standard)(Standard Oil) [executive](Corporate executive officer) [Huttleston Rogers](Henry)(Henry Huttleston Rogers). He eventually paid all his creditors in full, even though his bankruptcy relieved him of having to do so. Twain was born shortly after an appearance of [Comet](Halley's)(Halley's Comet), and he predicted that he would "go out with it" as well, dying about a month before the comet passed near Earth in 1910. ## Biography ### Early life [[File:Mark Twain by GH Jones, 1850 - retouched.jpg\|thumb\|left\|upright\|Samuel Clemens, age 15 holding [type](metal)(Sort (typesetting)) in a [stick](composing)(composing stick) that spells out his first name. He understood that the photographic printing process reversed the contents of an image in the same way backwards moveable type was reversed in printing to give clear copy.]] Samuel Langhorne Clemens was born on November 30, 1835, in [Missouri](Florida,)(Florida, Missouri). He was the sixth of seven children of [Jane](Jane Lampton Clemens) (née* Lampton; 1803–1890), a native of [Kentucky](Kentucky), and [Marshall Clemens](John)(John Marshall Clemens) (1798–1847), a native of [Virginia](Virginia). His parents met when his father moved to [Missouri](Missouri). They were married in 1823.["Inventing Mark Twain"](https://www.nytimes.com/books/first/h/hoffman-twain.html) . 1997. The New York Times. Cited in Twain was of [Cornish](Cornish people), [English](English people), and [Scots-Irish](Ulster Scots people) descent. Only three of his siblings survived childhood: [Orion](Orion Clemens) (1825–1897), Pamela (1827–1904), and Henry (1838–1858). His brother Pleasant Hannibal (1828) died at three weeks of age, his sister Margaret (1830–1839) when Twain was three, and his brother Benjamin (1832–1842) three years later. When he was four, Twain's family moved to [Missouri](Hannibal,)(Hannibal, Missouri), a port town on the [River](Mississippi)(Mississippi River) that inspired the fictional town of St. Petersburg in The Adventures of Tom Sawyer and The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn. [was legal in Missouri](Slavery)(History of slavery in Missouri) at the time, and it became a theme in these writings. His father was an attorney and judge who died of [pneumonia](pneumonia) in 1847, when Twain was 11. The following year, Twain left school after the fifth grade to become a printer's apprentice. In 1851, he began working as a [typeset](typeset)ter, contributing articles and humorous sketches to the [Journal](Hannibal)(Hannibal Journal), a newspaper that Orion owned. When he was 18, he left Hannibal and worked as a printer in [York City](New)(New York City), [Philadelphia](Philadelphia), [Louis](St.)(St. Louis), and [Cincinnati](Cincinnati), joining the newly formed [Typographical Union](International)(International Typographical Union), the printers [union](trade)(trade union). He [himself](educated)(autodidact) in [libraries](public)(public library) in the evenings, finding wider information than at a conventional school.Philip S. Foner, Mark Twain: Social Critic (New York: International Publishers, 1958), p. 13, cited in Helen Scott's "The Mark Twain they didn't teach us about in school" (2000) in the [Socialist Review](International)(International Socialist Review (1900)) 10, Winter 2000, pp. 61–65, at [http://www.marxists.de/culture/twain/noteach.htm#n2] Twain describes his boyhood in [on the Mississippi](Life)(Life on the Mississippi), stating that "there was but one permanent ambition" among his comrades: to be a steamboatman. "Pilot was the grandest position of all. The pilot, even in those days of trivial wages, had a princely salary – from a hundred and fifty to two hundred and fifty dollars a month, and no board to pay." As Twain described it, the pilot's prestige exceeded that of the captain. The pilot had to "get up a warm personal acquaintanceship with every old snag and one-limbed cottonwood and every obscure wood pile that ornaments the banks of this river for twelve hundred miles; and more than that, must... actually know where these things are in the dark". [Steamboat](Steamboat) pilot [E. Bixby](Horace)(Horace Ezra Bixby) took Twain on as a cub pilot to teach him the river between [Orleans](New)(New Orleans) and St. Louis for $500 (), payable out of Twain's first wages after graduating. Twain studied the Mississippi, learning its landmarks, how to navigate its currents effectively, and how to read the river and its constantly shifting channels, reefs, submerged snags, and rocks that would "tear the life out of the strongest vessel that ever floated".Clemens, Samuel L. Life on the Mississippi, pp. 32, 37, 45, 57, 78, Harper & Brothers, New York and London, 1917. It was more than two years before he received his pilot's license. Piloting also gave him his pen name from "[twain](mark)(Depth sounding#Terminology)", the [cry](leadsman's)(Chains (nautical)) for a measured river depth of two fathoms (12 feet), which was safe water for a steamboat. As a young pilot, Clemens served on the steamer A. B. Chambers with [Marsh](Grant)(Grant Marsh), who became famous for his exploits as a steamboat captain on the Missouri River. The two liked and admired each other, and maintained a correspondence for many years after Clemens left the river.Hanson, Joseph Mills. The Conquest of the Missouri: Being the Story of the Life and Exploits of Captain Grant Marsh, pp. 24–29, Murray Hill Books, Inc., New York and Toronto, 1909. While training, Samuel convinced his younger brother Henry to work with him, and even arranged a post of [clerk](mud)(mud clerk) for him on the steamboat [Pennsylvania](Pennsylvania Steamboat). On June 13, 1858, the steamboat's boiler exploded; Henry succumbed to his wounds on June 21. Twain claimed to have foreseen this death in a dream a month earlier, which inspired his interest in [parapsychology](parapsychology); he was an early member of the [for Psychical Research](Society)(Society for Psychical Research).For a further account of Twain's involvement with parapsychology, see Blum, Deborah, Ghost Hunters: William James and the Search for Scientific Proof of Life After Death (Penguin Press, 2006). Twain was guilt-stricken and held himself responsible for the rest of his life. He continued to work on the river and was a river pilot until the [War](Civil)(American Civil War) broke out in 1861, when traffic was curtailed along the Mississippi River. At the start of hostilities, he enlisted briefly in a local [Confederate](Confederate States of America) unit. He later wrote the sketch "[Private History of a Campaign That Failed](The)(The Private History of a Campaign That Failed)", describing how he and his friends had been Confederate volunteers for two weeks before their unit disbanded. He then left for Nevada to work for his brother Orion, who was Secretary of the [Territory](Nevada)(Nevada Territory). Twain describes the episode in his book [It](Roughing)(Roughing It).Clemens, Samuel L. Roughing It, p. 19, American Publishing Company, Hartford, CT, 1872. . ### In the American West [[Twain by Abdullah Frères, 1867.jpg\|thumb\|right\|upright\|Twain, age 31](File:Mark)] Orion became secretary to [Territory](Nevada)(Nevada Territory) governor [W. Nye](James)(James W. Nye) in 1861, and Twain joined him when he moved west. The brothers traveled more than two weeks on a [stagecoach](stagecoach) across the [Plains](Great)(Great Plains) and the [Mountains](Rocky)(Rocky Mountains), visiting the [community](Mormon)(Mormon pioneers) in [Lake City](Salt)(Salt Lake City). Twain's journey ended in the silver-mining town of [City, Nevada](Virginia)(Virginia City, Nevada), where he became a [miner](mining) on the [Lode](Comstock)(Comstock Lode). He failed as a miner and went to work at the Virginia City newspaper [Enterprise](Territorial)(Territorial Enterprise),Comstock Commotion: The Story of the Territorial Enterprise and Virginia City News, Chapter 2. working under a friend, the writer [DeQuille](Dan)(Dan DeQuille). He first used his pen name here on February 3, 1863, when he wrote a humorous [account](travel)(travel literature) titled "Letter From Carson – re: Joe Goodman; party at Gov. Johnson's; music" and signed it "Mark Twain".For further information, see [Twain in Nevada](Mark)(Mark Twain in Nevada). His experiences in the [West](American)(Western United States) inspired Roughing It, written during 1870–71 and published in 1872. His experiences in Angels Camp (in Calaveras County, California) provided material for "The Celebrated Jumping Frog of Calaveras County" (1865). Twain moved to [Francisco](San)(San Francisco) in 1864, still as a journalist, and met writers such as [Harte](Bret)(Bret Harte) and [Ward](Artemus)(Artemus Ward). He may have been romantically involved with the poet [Coolbrith](Ina)(Ina Coolbrith). His first success as a writer came when his humorous [tale](tall)(tall tale) "The Celebrated Jumping Frog of Calaveras County" was published on November 18, 1865, in the New York weekly [Saturday Press](The)(The Saturday Press (literary newspaper)), bringing him national attention. A year later, he traveled to the [Islands](Sandwich)(Hawaiian Islands) (present-day Hawaii) as a reporter for the [Union](Sacramento)(Sacramento Union). His letters to the Union were popular and became the basis for his first lectures. In 1867, a local newspapers [Alta California](The)(The Daily Alta California) and [Tribune](New-York)(New-York Tribune) funded his trip to the [Mediterranean](Mediterranean Sea) aboard the Quaker City, including a tour of Europe and the Middle East. He wrote a collection of travel letters which were later compiled as [Innocents Abroad](The)(The Innocents Abroad) (1869). It was on this trip that he met fellow passenger Charles Langdon, who showed him a picture of his sister [Olivia](Olivia Langdon Clemens). Twain later claimed to have [in love at first sight](fallen)(Love at first sight). Upon returning to the United States, Twain was offered honorary membership in [University](Yale)(Yale University)'s secret society [and Key](Scroll)(Scroll and Key) in 1868. ### Marriage and children [[File:Mark Twain 1871-02-07.jpg\|thumb\|right\|Twain with American Civil War correspondent and author [Alfred Townsend](George)(George Alfred Townsend), and David Gray, editor of the rival [Courier](Buffalo)(Buffalo Courier-Express)]] [[File:Mark Twain House and Museum 2007.jpg\|thumb\|right\|[House](Twain)(Twain House) in Hartford, Connecticut]] Twain and [Langdon](Olivia)(Olivia Langdon) corresponded throughout 1868. She rejected his first marriage proposal, but he continued to court her and managed to overcome her father's initial reluctance. They were married in [New York](Elmira,)(Elmira, New York) in February 1870. She came from a "wealthy but liberal family"; through her, he met [abolitionists](Abolitionism in the United States), "socialists, principled atheists and activists for [rights](women's)(women's rights) and [equality](social)(social equality)", including [Beecher Stowe](Harriet)(Harriet Beecher Stowe), [Douglass](Frederick)(Frederick Douglass), and [socialist](utopian)(utopian socialism) writer [Dean Howells](William)(William Dean Howells), who became a long-time friend. The Clemenses lived in [New York](Buffalo,)(Buffalo, New York), from 1869 to 1871. He owned a stake in the [Express](Buffalo)(Buffalo Courier-Express) newspaper and worked as an editor and writer. While they were living in Buffalo, their son Langdon died of [diphtheria](diphtheria) at the age of 19 months. They had three daughters: [Susy](Susy Clemens) (1872–1896), [Clara](Clara Clemens) (1874–1962), and [Jean](Jean Clemens) (1880–1909). The Clemenses formed a friendship with David Gray, who worked as an editor of the rival [Courier](Buffalo)(Buffalo Courier-Express), and his wife Martha. Twain later wrote that the Grays were all the solace' he and Livy had during their 'sorrowful and pathetic brief sojourn in Buffalo, and that Gray's "delicate gift for poetry" was wasted working for a newspaper. In November 1872, Twain was a passenger on the [Line](Cunard)(Cunard Line) steamship which rescued the nine surviving crew of the British [barque](barque) Charles Ward. Twain witnessed the rescue, and wrote to the [Humane Society](Royal)(Royal Humane Society) recommending them to honour Batavias captain and the [lifeboat's](lifeboat (shipboard)) crew. Starting in 1873, Twain moved his family to [Connecticut](Hartford,)(Hartford, Connecticut), where he arranged the building of [home](a)(Mark Twain House) next door to Stowe. In the 1870s and 1880s, the family summered at [Farm](Quarry)(Quarry Farm) in Elmira, the home of Olivia's sister, Susan Crane. In 1874, Susan had a study built apart from the main house so that Twain would have a quiet place in which to write. Also, he smoked cigars constantly, and Susan did not want him to do so in her house. Twain wrote many of his classic novels during his 17 years in Hartford (1874–1891) and over 20 summers at Quarry Farm. They include The Adventures of Tom Sawyer (1876), [Prince and the Pauper](The)(The Prince and the Pauper) (1881), Life on the Mississippi (1883), Adventures of Huckleberry Finn (1884), and ''A Connecticut Yankee in King Arthur's Court'' (1889). The couple's marriage lasted 34 years until Olivia's death in 1904. All of the Clemens family are buried in Elmira's [Cemetery](Woodlawn)(Woodlawn Cemetery (Elmira, New York)). ### Love of science and technology [[File:Twain in Tesla's Lab.jpg\|thumb\|left\|Twain in the laboratory of [Tesla](Nikola)(Nikola Tesla), early 1894]] Twain was fascinated with science and scientific inquiry. He developed a close and lasting friendship with [Tesla](Nikola)(Nikola Tesla), and the two spent much time together in Tesla's laboratory. Twain patented three inventions, including an "Improvement in Adjustable and Detachable Straps for Garments" (to replace [suspenders](suspenders)) and a history trivia game. Most commercially successful was a self-pasting scrapbook; a dried adhesive on the pages needed only to be moistened before use. Over 25,000 were sold. Twain was an early proponent of [fingerprint](fingerprint)ing as a forensic technique, featuring it in a [tale](tall)(tall tale) in [on the Mississippi](Life)(Life on the Mississippi) (1883) and as a central plot element in the novel ''[Wilson](Pudd'nhead)(Pudd'nhead Wilson)'' (1894). Twain's novel ''[Connecticut Yankee in King Arthur's Court](A)(A Connecticut Yankee in King Arthur's Court)* (1889) features a [travel](time)(time travel)er from the contemporary U.S., using his knowledge of science to introduce modern technology to [Arthurian](King Arthur) England. This type of historical manipulation became a trope of speculative fiction as [histories](alternate)(alternate history). In 1909, [Edison](Thomas)(Thomas Edison) visited Twain at [Stormfield](Stormfield), his home in [Connecticut](Redding,)(Redding, Connecticut) and filmed him. Part of the footage was used in The Prince and the Pauper'' (1909), a two-reel short film. It is the only known existing film footage of Twain. Twain was a serious skeptic when it came to phrenology. He had two such examinations- one where he kept his identity secret and another where it was known. They had different results. In his autobiography, he explained that the phrenologist found a cavity where a bump should have been. And then he explained that this represented a total absence of having a sense of humor. ### Financial troubles Twain made a substantial amount of money through his writing, but he lost a great deal through investments. He invested mostly in new inventions and technology, particularly the [typesetting machine](Paige)(Paige Compositor). It was a beautifully engineered mechanical marvel that amazed viewers when it worked, but it was prone to breakdowns. Twain spent $300,000 () on it between 1880 and 1894, but before it could be perfected it was rendered obsolete by the [Linotype](Linotype machine). He lost the bulk of his book profits, as well as a substantial portion of his wife's inheritance. Twain also lost money through his publishing house, [L. Webster and Company](Charles)(Charles L. Webster and Company), which enjoyed initial success selling the [memoirs](Personal Memoirs of Ulysses S. Grant) of [S. Grant](Ulysses)(Ulysses S. Grant) but failed soon afterward, losing money on a biography of [Leo XIII](Pope)(Pope Leo XIII). Fewer than 200 copies were sold. Twain and his family closed down their expensive Hartford home in response to the dwindling income and moved to Europe in June 1891. [M. Laffan](William)(William M. Laffan) of [New York Sun](The)(The Sun (New York))* and the [Newspaper Syndicate](McClure)(McClure Newspaper Syndicate) offered him the publication of a series of six European letters. Twain, Olivia, and their daughter Susy were all faced with health problems, and they believed that it would be of benefit to visit European baths. The family stayed mainly in France, Germany, and Italy until May 1895, with longer spells at [Berlin](Berlin) (winter 1891–92), [Florence](Florence) (fall and winter 1892–93), and Paris (winters and springs 1893–94 and 1894–95). During that period, Twain returned four times to New York due to his enduring business troubles. He rented "a cheap room" in September 1893 at $1.50 per day () at [Players Club](The)(The Players (New York City)), which he had to keep until March 1894; meanwhile, he became "the Belle of New York," in the words of biographer [Bigelow Paine](Albert)(Albert Bigelow Paine). Twain's writings and lectures enabled him to recover financially, combined with the help of his friend, [Huttleston Rogers](Henry)(Henry Huttleston Rogers).Lauber, John. The Inventions of Mark Twain: a Biography. New York: Hill and Wang, 1990. In 1893, he began a friendship with the financier, a principal of [Oil](Standard)(Standard Oil), that lasted the remainder of his life. Rogers first made him file for bankruptcy in April 1894, then had him transfer the copyrights on his written works to his wife to prevent creditors from gaining possession of them. Finally, Rogers took absolute charge of Twain's money until all his creditors were paid. Twain accepted an offer from [Sparrow Smythe](Robert)(Robert Sparrow Smythe) and embarked on a year-long around-the-world lecture tour in July 1895 to pay off his creditors in full, although he was no longer under any legal obligation to do so.Cox, James M. Mark Twain: The Fate of Humor. Princeton University Press, 1966. It was a long, arduous journey, and he was sick much of the time, mostly from a cold and a [carbuncle](carbuncle). The first part of the itinerary took him across northern America to [Columbia](British)(British Columbia), Canada, until the second half of August. For the second part, he sailed across the Pacific Ocean. His scheduled lecture in [Honolulu](Honolulu), Hawaii, had to be canceled due to a cholera epidemic. Twain went on to [Fiji](Fiji), Australia, New Zealand, [Lanka](Sri)(Sri Lanka), India, [Mauritius](Mauritius), and South Africa. His three months in India became the centerpiece of his 712-page book [the Equator](Following)(Following the Equator). In the second half of July 1896, he sailed back to England, completing his circumnavigation of the world begun 14 months before. Twain and his family spent four more years in Europe, mainly in England and Austria (October 1897 to May 1899), with longer spells in London and [Vienna](Vienna). Clara had wished to study the piano under [Leschetizky](Theodor)(Theodor Leschetizky) in Vienna. However, Jean's health did not benefit from consulting with specialists in Vienna, the "City of Doctors". The family moved to London in spring 1899, following a lead by [Bigelow](Poultney)(Poultney Bigelow), who had a good experience being treated by Dr. Jonas Henrik Kellgren, a Swedish [osteopathic](Osteopathy) practitioner in [Belgravia](Belgravia). They were persuaded to spend the summer at Kellgren's [sanatorium](sanatorium) by the lake in the [Swedish](Sweden) village of Sanna. Coming back in fall, they continued the treatment in London, until Twain was convinced by lengthy inquiries in America that similar osteopathic expertise was available there. In mid-1900, he was the guest of newspaper proprietor [Gilzean-Reid](Hugh)(Hugh Gilzean-Reid) at [Hill House](Dollis)(Dollis Hill House), located on the north side of London. Twain wrote that he had "never seen any place that was so satisfactorily situated, with its noble trees and stretch of country, and everything that went to make life delightful, and all within a biscuit's throw of the metropolis of the world." He then returned to America in October 1900, having earned enough to pay off his debts. In winter 1900/01, he became his country's most prominent [of imperialism](opponent)(#Imperialism), raising the issue in his speeches, interviews, and writings. In January 1901, he began serving as vice-president of the [League](Anti-Imperialist)(American Anti-Imperialist League) of New York. ### Speaking engagements [[File:Sydney writers walk mark twain.jpg\|thumb\|Plaque on [Writers Walk](Sydney)(Sydney Writers Walk) commemorating the visit of Twain in 1895]] Twain was in great demand as a featured speaker, performing solo humorous talks similar to modern stand-up comedy.Judith Yaross Lee, "Mark Twain as a Stand-up Comedian", The Mark Twain Annual (2006) #4 pp. 3–23. He gave paid talks to many men's clubs, including the [Club](Authors')(Authors' Club), [Club](Beefsteak)(Beefsteak Club), Vagabonds, [Friars](White)(White Friars), and Monday Evening Club of Hartford. In the late 1890s, he spoke to the [Club](Savage)(Savage Club) in London and was elected an honorary member. He was told that only three men had been so honored, including the [of Wales](Prince)(Edward VII of the United Kingdom), and he replied: "Well, it must make the Prince feel mighty fine." He visited [Melbourne](Melbourne) and [Sydney](Sydney) in 1895 as part of a world lecture tour. In 1897, he spoke to the Concordia Press Club in Vienna as a special guest, following the diplomat [Tower, Jr.](Charlemagne)(Charlemagne Tower, Jr.) He delivered the speech "[Schrecken der Deutschen Sprache](Die)(The Awful German Language)" ("The Horrors of the German Language")—in German—to the great amusement of the audience. In 1901, he was invited to speak at [University](Princeton)(Princeton University)'s [Literary Society](Cliosophic)(American Whig-Cliosophic Society), where he was made an honorary member. #### Canadian visits In 1881, Twain was honored at a banquet in [Montreal](Montreal), Canada where he made reference to securing a [copyright](copyright). In 1883, he paid a brief visit to [Ottawa](Ottawa), and he visited [Toronto](Toronto) twice in 1884 and 1885 on a reading tour with [Washington Cable](George)(George Washington Cable), known as the "Twins of Genius" tour. The reason for the Toronto visits was to secure Canadian and British copyrights for his upcoming book Adventures of Huckleberry Finn, to which he had alluded in his Montreal visit. The reason for the Ottawa visit had been to secure Canadian and British copyrights for Life on the Mississippi. Publishers in Toronto had printed unauthorized editions of his books at the time, before an international copyright agreement was established in 1891. These were sold in the United States as well as in Canada, depriving him of royalties. He estimated that [Brothers'](Belford)(Charles Belford) edition of The Adventures of Tom Sawyer alone had cost him ten thousand dollars (). He had unsuccessfully attempted to secure the rights for The Prince and the Pauper in 1881, in conjunction with his Montreal trip. Eventually, he received legal advice to register a copyright in Canada (for both Canada and Britain) prior to publishing in the United States, which would restrain the Canadian publishers from printing a version when the American edition was published. There was a requirement that a copyright be registered to a Canadian resident; he addressed this by his short visits to the country. ### Later life and death "Chapters from My Autobiography", North American Review, September 21, 1906, p. 160. Mark Twain}} Twain lived in his later years at 14 West 10th Street in [Manhattan](Manhattan). He passed through a period of deep depression which began in 1896 when his daughter Susy died of [meningitis](meningitis). Olivia's death in 1904 and Jean's on December 24, 1909, deepened his gloom. On May 20, 1909, his close friend Henry Rogers died suddenly. In April 1906, he heard that his friend Ina Coolbrith had lost nearly all that she owned in the [San Francisco earthquake](1906)(1906 San Francisco earthquake), and he volunteered a few autographed portrait photographs to be sold for her benefit. To further aid Coolbrith, [Wharton James](George)(George Wharton James) visited Twain in New York and arranged for a new portrait session. He was resistant initially, but he eventually admitted that four of the resulting images were the finest ones ever taken of him.TwainQuotes.com [The Story Behind the A. F. Bradley Photos](http://www.twainquotes.com/Bradley/bradley.html) , Retrieved on July 10, 2009. In September, Twain started publishing [from his autobiography](chapters)(Chapters from My Autobiography) in the [American Review](North)(North American Review). The same year, [Teller](Charlotte)(Charlotte Teller), a writer living with her grandmother at 3 Fifth Avenue, began an acquaintanceship with him which "lasted several years and may have included romantic intentions" on his part. [[File:Autochrome of Mark Twain.jpg\|left\|thumb\|Twain photographed in 1908 via the [Lumiere](Autochrome)(Autochrome Lumiere) process]] In 1906, Twain formed the Angel Fish and Aquarium Club, for girls whom he viewed as surrogate granddaughters. Its dozen or so members ranged in age from 10 to 16. He exchanged letters with his "Angel Fish" girls and invited them to concerts and the theatre and to play games. Twain wrote in 1908 that the club was his "life's chief delight". In 1907, he met Dorothy Quick (aged 11) on a transatlantic crossing, beginning "a friendship that was to last until the very day of his death".[New York Times](The)(The New York Times), March 16, 1962, [DOROTHY QUICK, POET AND AUTHOR: Mystery Writer Dies – Was Friend of Mark Twain](http://www.twainquotes.com/19620316.html) [[File:Mark Twain DLitt.jpg\|thumb\|upright\|Twain in academic regalia for acceptance of the [D.Litt.](D.Litt.) degree awarded him by [University](Oxford)(Oxford University)]] Twain was awarded an honorary [of Letters](Doctor)(Doctor of Letters) (D.Litt.) by [University](Yale)(Yale University) in 1901. Then in 1902, the [of Law](Doctor)(Doctor of Law) by the [of Missouri](University)(University of Missouri), [University](Oxford)(Oxford University) would also award him the Doctorate of Law in 1907. Twain was born two weeks after [Comet](Halley's)(Halley's Comet)'s closest approach in 1835; he said in 1909: Twain's prediction was eerily accurate; he died of a heart attack on April 21, 1910, in [Stormfield](Stormfield), one month before the comet passed Earth that year. [[File:Graves of Olivia Langdon Clemens and Mark Twain.jpg\|thumb\|left\|Twain and his wife are buried side by side in Elmira's [Cemetery](Woodlawn)(Woodlawn Cemetery (Elmira, New York))]] Upon hearing of Twain's death, President [Howard Taft](William)(William Howard Taft) said: Twain's funeral was at the [Presbyterian Church](Brick)(Brick Presbyterian Church (New York City)) on Fifth Avenue, New York. He is buried in his wife's family plot at [Cemetery](Woodlawn)(Woodlawn Cemetery (Elmira, New York)) in [New York](Elmira,)(Elmira, New York). The Langdon family plot is marked by a 12-foot monument (two fathoms, or "mark twain") placed there by his surviving daughter Clara. There is also a smaller headstone. He expressed a preference for cremation (for example, in Life on the Mississippi), but he acknowledged that his surviving family would have the last word. Officials in Connecticut and New York estimated the value of Twain's estate at $471,000 ($ in ). ## Writing ### Overview Twain began his career writing light, humorous verse, but he became a chronicler of the vanities, hypocrisies, and murderous acts of mankind. At mid-career, he combined rich humor, sturdy narrative, and social criticism in Huckleberry Finn. He was a master of rendering [speech](colloquial)(colloquialism) and helped to create and popularize a distinctive American literature built on American themes and language. Many of his works have been suppressed at times for various reasons. The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn has been repeatedly restricted in American high schools, not least for its frequent use of the word "[nigger](nigger)", a slur commonly used for [people](Black)(Black people) in the nineteenth century. A complete bibliography of Twain's works is nearly impossible to compile because of the vast number of pieces he wrote (often in obscure newspapers) and his use of several different pen names. Additionally, a large portion of his speeches and lectures have been lost or were not recorded; thus, the compilation of Twain's works is an ongoing process. Researchers rediscovered published material as recently as 1995 and 2015. ### Early journalism and travelogues Twain was writing for the Virginia City newspaper the [Enterprise](Territorial)(Territorial Enterprise) in 1863 when he met lawyer [Fitch](Tom)(Thomas Fitch (politician)), editor of the competing newspaper Virginia Daily Union and known as the "silver-tongued orator of the Pacific". He credited Fitch with giving him his "first really profitable lesson" in writing. "When I first began to lecture, and in my earlier writings," Twain later commented, "my sole idea was to make comic capital out of everything I saw and heard." In 1866, he presented his lecture on the Sandwich Islands to a crowd in Washoe City, Nevada. Afterwards, Fitch told him: Clemens, your lecture was magnificent. It was eloquent, moving, sincere. Never in my entire life have I listened to such a magnificent piece of descriptive narration. But you committed one unpardonable sin – the unpardonable sin. It is a sin you must never commit again. You closed a most eloquent description, by which you had keyed your audience up to a pitch of the intensest interest, with a piece of atrocious anti-climax which nullified all the really fine effect you had produced. [[File:Mark Twain Cabin Exterior MVC-082X.jpg\|thumb\|left\|Cabin where Twain wrote "Jumping Frog of Calaveras County", Jackass Hill, [County](Tuolumne)(Tuolumne County, California). Click on [marker](historical)(:File:Mark Twain Cabin Marker (Close-up) MVC-068X.jpg) and [view](interior)(:File:Mark Twain Cabin Interior MVC-073X.jpg).]] It was in these days that Twain became a writer of the [School](Sagebrush)(Sagebrush School); he was known later as its most famous member. His first important work was "The Celebrated Jumping Frog of Calaveras County," published in the [York Saturday Press](New)(New York Saturday Press) on November 18, 1865. After a burst of popularity, the [Union](Sacramento)(Sacramento Union) commissioned him to write letters about his travel experiences. The first journey that he took for this job was to ride the steamer Ajax on its maiden voyage to the [Islands](Sandwich)(Hawaiian Islands) (Hawaii). All the while, he was writing letters to the newspaper that were meant for publishing, chronicling his experiences with humor. These letters proved to be the genesis to his work with the San Francisco [California](Alta)(The Daily Alta California) newspaper, which designated him a traveling correspondent for a trip from San Francisco to New York City via the [isthmus](Panama)(Panama Canal). On June 8, 1867, he set sail on the pleasure cruiser Quaker City for five months, and this trip resulted in ''[Innocents Abroad or The New Pilgrims' Progress](The)(The Innocents Abroad). In 1872, he published his second piece of travel literature, Roughing It, as an account of his journey from Missouri to Nevada, his subsequent life in the [West](American)(Western United States), and his visit to Hawaii. The book lampoons American and Western society in the same way that Innocents* critiqued the various countries of Europe and the Middle East. His next work was [Gilded Age: A Tale of Today](The)(The Gilded Age: A Tale of Today)'', his [attempt at writing a novel](first)(debut novel). The book, written with his neighbor [Dudley Warner](Charles)(Charles Dudley Warner), is also his only collaboration. Twain's next work drew on his experiences on the Mississippi River. [Times on the Mississippi](Old)(Old Times on the Mississippi)* was a series of sketches published in the [Monthly](Atlantic)(Atlantic Monthly) in 1875 featuring his disillusionment with [Romanticism](Romanticism).[Reading the American Novel 1865–1914](https://books.google.com/books?id=YaODPFP-1AQC&pg=PA29) G. R. Thompson; John Wiley & Sons, February 7, 2012; 462 pages; p. 29 Old Times eventually became the starting point for Life on the Mississippi. ### Tom Sawyer and Huckleberry Finn Twain's next major publication was [Adventures of Tom Sawyer](The)(The Adventures of Tom Sawyer), which draws on his youth in Hannibal. [Sawyer](Tom)(Tom Sawyer) was modeled on Twain as a child, with traces of schoolmates John Briggs and Will Bowen. The book also introduces Huckleberry Finn in a supporting role, based on Twain's boyhood friend Tom Blankenship. [Prince and the Pauper](The)(The Prince and the Pauper) was not as well received, despite a [storyline](Plot (narrative)) that is common in film and literature today. The book tells the story of two boys born on the same day who are physically identical, acting as a social commentary as the prince and pauper switch places. Twain had started Adventures of Huckleberry Finn (which he consistently had problems completing) and had completed his travel book [Tramp Abroad](A)(A Tramp Abroad), which describes his travels through central and southern Europe. Twain's next major published work was the [of Huckleberry Finn](Adventures)(Adventures of Huckleberry Finn), which confirmed him as a noteworthy American writer. Some have called it the first Great American Novel, and the book has become required reading in many schools throughout the United States. Huckleberry Finn was an offshoot from Tom Sawyer and had a more serious tone than its predecessor. Four hundred manuscript pages were written in mid-1876, right after the publication of Tom Sawyer. The last fifth of Huckleberry Finn is subject to much controversy. Some say that Twain experienced a "failure of nerve," as critic [Marx](Leo)(Leo Marx) puts it. [Hemingway](Ernest)(Ernest Hemingway) once said of Huckleberry Finn: If you read it, you must stop where the Nigger Jim is stolen from the boys. That is the real end. The rest is just cheating. Hemingway also wrote in the same essay: All modern American literature comes from one book by Mark Twain called Huckleberry Finn.From Chapter 1 of [Hills of Africa](Green)(Green Hills of Africa) Near the completion of Huckleberry Finn, Twain wrote Life on the Mississippi, which is said to have heavily influenced the novel. The travel work recounts Twain's memories and new experiences after a 22-year absence from the Mississippi River. In it, he also explains that "Mark Twain" was the call made when the boat was in safe water, indicating a depth of two (or [twain](wikt:twain)) [fathom](fathom)s (). The McDowell's cave—now known as [Twain Cave](Mark)(Mark Twain Cave) in Hannibal, Missouri, and frequently mentioned in Twain's book The Adventures of Tom Sawyer—has "Sam Clemens", Twain's real name, engraved on the wall by Twain himself. ### Later writing Twain produced President [S. Grant](Ulysses)(Ulysses S. Grant)'s [Memoirs](Personal Memoirs of Ulysses S. Grant) through his fledgling publishing house, [L. Webster & Company](Charles)(Charles L. Webster and Company), which he co-owned with Charles L. Webster, his nephew by marriage. At this time he also wrote "The Private History of a Campaign That Failed" for [Century Magazine](The)(The Century Magazine).Reprinted in Benjamin Griffin, ed., ''Mark Twain's Civil War. This piece detailed his two-week stint in a [militia](Confederate)(Confederate army) during the [War](Civil)(United States Civil War). He next focused on A Connecticut Yankee in King Arthur's Court, written with the same historical fiction style as The Prince and the Pauper. A Connecticut Yankee* showed the absurdities of political and social norms by setting them in the court of [Arthur](King)(King Arthur). The book was started in December 1885, then shelved a few months later until the summer of 1887, and eventually finished in the spring of 1889. His next large-scale work was [Wilson](Pudd'nhead)(Pudd'nhead Wilson)'', which he wrote rapidly, as he was desperately trying to stave off bankruptcy. From November 12 to December 14, 1893, Twain wrote 60,000 words for the novel. Critics have pointed to this rushed completion as the cause of the novel's rough organization and constant disruption of the plot. This novel also contains the tale of two boys born on the same day who switch positions in life, like The Prince and the Pauper. It was first published serially in Century Magazine* and, when it was finally published in book form, ''Pudd'nhead Wilson* appeared as the main title; however, the "subtitles" make the entire title read: The Tragedy of Pudd'nhead Wilson and the Comedy of The Extraordinary Twins''. Twain's next venture was a work of straight fiction that he called [Recollections of Joan of Arc](Personal)(Personal Recollections of Joan of Arc)* and dedicated to his wife. He had long said that this was the work that he was most proud of, despite the criticism that he received for it. The book had been a dream of his since childhood, and he claimed that he had found a manuscript detailing the life of [of Arc](Joan)(Joan of Arc) when he was an adolescent. This was another piece that he was convinced would save his publishing company. His financial adviser Henry Huttleston Rogers quashed that idea and got Twain out of that business altogether, but the book was published nonetheless. To pay the bills and keep his business projects afloat, Twain had begun to write articles and commentary furiously, with diminishing returns, but it was not enough. He filed for bankruptcy in 1894. During this time of dire financial straits, he published several literary reviews in newspapers to help make ends meet. He famously derided [Fenimore Cooper](James)(James Fenimore Cooper) in his article detailing Cooper's "[Offenses](Literary)(Fenimore Cooper's Literary Offenses)". He became an extremely outspoken critic of other authors and other critics; he suggested that, before praising Cooper's work, [Lounsbury](Thomas)(Thomas Lounsbury), [Matthews](Brander)(Brander Matthews), and [Collins](Wilkie)(Wilkie Collins) "ought to have read some of it".Twain, Mark. [Fenimore Cooper's Literary Offenses](http://etext.virginia.edu/railton/projects/rissetto/offense.html) . From Collected Tales, Sketches, Speeches and Essays, from 1891–1910. Edited by Louis J. Budd. New York: Library of America, 1992. [Eliot](George)(George Eliot), [Austen](Jane)(Jane Austen), and [Louis Stevenson](Robert)(Robert Louis Stevenson) also fell under Twain's attack during this time period, beginning around 1890 and continuing until his death. He outlines what he considers to be "quality writing" in several letters and essays, in addition to providing a source for the "tooth and claw" style of literary criticism. He places emphasis on concision, utility of word choice, and realism; he complains, for example, that Cooper's [Deerslayer](Deerslayer) purports to be realistic but has several shortcomings. Ironically, several of his own works were later criticized for lack of continuity (Adventures of Huckleberry Finn) and organization (''Pudd'nhead Wilson''). Twain's wife died in 1904 while the couple were staying at the [di Quarto](Villa)(Villa di Quarto) in [Florence](Florence). After some time had passed, he published some works that his wife, his de facto editor and censor throughout her married life, had looked down upon. [Mysterious Stranger](The)(The Mysterious Stranger) is perhaps the best known, depicting various visits of [Satan](Satan) to earth. This particular work was not published in Twain's lifetime. His manuscripts included three versions, written between 1897 and 1905: the so-called Hannibal, Eseldorf, and Print Shop versions. The resulting confusion led to extensive publication of a jumbled version, and only recently have the original versions become available as Twain wrote them. Twain's last work was [autobiography](his)(Mark Twain's Autobiography), which he dictated and thought would be most entertaining if he went off on whims and tangents in non-chronological order. Some archivists and compilers have rearranged the biography into a more conventional form, thereby eliminating some of Twain's humor and the flow of the book. The first volume of the autobiography, over 736 pages, was published by the University of California in November 2010, 100 years after his death, as Twain wished.["After keeping us waiting for a century, Mark Twain will finally reveal all" The Independent 23 May 2010](https://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/books/news/after-keeping-us-waiting-for-a-century-mark-twain-will-finally-reveal-all-1980695.html) Retrieved May 29, 2010["Dead for a Century, He's Ready to Say What He Really Meant" The New York Times 9 July 2010](https://www.nytimes.com/2010/07/10/books/10twain.html?ref=arts) . Retrieved July 9, 2010. It soon became an unexpected best-seller, making Twain one of a very few authors publishing new best-selling volumes in the 19th, 20th, and 21st centuries. ### Censorship Twain's works have been subjected to censorship efforts. According to Stuart (2013), "Leading these banning campaigns, generally, were religious organizations or individuals in positions of influence – not so much working librarians, who had been instilled with that American "library spirit" which honored intellectual freedom (within bounds of course)". In 1905, the [Public Library](Brooklyn)(Brooklyn Public Library) banned both The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn and The Adventures of Tom Sawyer from the children's department because of their language.Murray, Stuart A. P. "The Library: An Illustrated History", New York: Skyhorse Publishing, 2012, p. 189. ### Publishers Mark Twain lived for two decades in a house in [Connecticut](Hartford,)(Hartford, Connecticut) (1871–1891), and the American Publishing Company in that city published the first edition of several of his books. The same can be said about a number of [York](New)(New York City)-based companies, such as [& Brothers](Harper)(Harper & Brothers) and his nephew's [L. Webster](Charles)(Charles L. Webster) and Company. Other memorable editions were created by The Ash Ranch Press of [Diego](San)(San Diego) and [Moser](Barry)(Barry Moser)'s Pennyroyal Press. ## Views Twain's views became more radical as he grew older. In a letter to friend and fellow writer [Dean Howells](William)(William Dean Howells) in 1887, he acknowledged that his views had changed and developed over his lifetime, referring to one of his favorite works: }} ### Politics Twain was a staunch supporter of technological progress and [commerce](commerce). He was against [welfare](welfare) measures, because he believed that society in the "[age](business)(Gilded Age)" is governed by "exact and constant" laws that should not be "interfered with for the accommodation of any individual or political or religious faction". He opined that "there is no good government at all & none possible". In the opinion of [University](Washington)(Washington University in St. Louis) professor Guy A. Cardwell: }} #### Labor Twain wrote glowingly about [unions](Trade union) in the river boating industry in Life on the Mississippi, which was read in union halls decades later.Philip S. Foner, Mark Twain: Social Critic (New York: International Publishers, 1958), p. 98 He supported the [movement](labor)(labor movement), especially one of the most important unions, the [of Labor](Knights)(Knights of Labor). In a speech to them, he said: He further wrote "Why is it right that there is not a fairer division of the spoil all around? Because laws and constitutions have ordered otherwise. Then it follows that laws and constitutions should change around and say there shall be a more nearly equal division." #### Imperialism Before 1899, Twain was an ardent [imperialist](American imperialism). In the late 1860s and early 1870s, he spoke out strongly in favor of American interests in the [Islands](Hawaiian)(Kingdom of Hawaii).David Zmijewski, "The Man in Both Corners: Mark Twain the Shadowboxing Imperialist", Hawaiian Journal of History, 2006, Vol. 40, pp. 55–73 He said the war with Spain in 1898 was "the worthiest" war ever fought.Paine, ed. Letters 2:663; Ron Powers, Mark Twain: a life (2005) p. 593 In 1899, however, he reversed course. In the [York Herald](New)(New York Herald), October 16, 1900, Twain describes his transformation and political awakening, in the context of the [War](Philippine–American)(Philippine–American War), to [anti-imperialism](anti-imperialism): }} During the [Rebellion](Boxer)(Boxer Rebellion), Twain said that "the Boxer is a patriot. He loves his country better than he does the countries of other people. I wish him success." From 1901, soon after his return from Europe, until his death in 1910, Twain was vice-president of the [Anti-Imperialist League](American)(American Anti-Imperialist League),''Mark Twain's Weapons of Satire: Anti-Imperialist Writings on the Philippine-American War. (1992, Jim Zwick, ed.) which opposed the annexation of the Philippines by the United States and had "tens of thousands of members". He wrote many [pamphlets](political)(Pamphlet) for the organization. The Incident in the Philippines, posthumously published in 1924, was in response to the [Crater Massacre](Moro)(First Battle of Bud Dajo), in which six hundred [Moros](Moro people) were killed.["Comments on the Moro Massacre". by Samuel Clemens (March 12, 1906)](http://www.historyisaweapon.com/defcon1/clemensmoromassacre.html) . History is a Weapon. Many of his neglected and previously uncollected writings on anti-imperialism appeared for the first time in book form in 1992. Twain was critical of imperialism in other countries as well. In Following the Equator, Twain expresses "hatred and condemnation of imperialism of all stripes". He was highly critical of European imperialists such as [Rhodes](Cecil)(Cecil Rhodes) and [Leopold II of Belgium](King)(Leopold II of Belgium), both of whom attempted to establish colonies on the African continent during the [for Africa](Scramble)(Scramble for Africa). [Leopold's Soliloquy](King)(King Leopold's Soliloquy)'' is a [satire](political)(political satire) about his private colony, the [Free State](Congo)(Congo Free State). Reports of outrageous exploitation and [abuses](grotesque)(Atrocities in the Congo Free State) led to widespread international outcry in the early 1900s, arguably the first large-scale [rights](human)(human rights) movement. In the soliloquy, the King argues that bringing [Christianity](Christianity) to [colony](the)(Congo Free State) outweighs "a little starvation". The abuses against Congolese forced laborers continued until the movement forced the [government](Belgian)(Government of Belgium) to take direct control of the colony. During the [War](Philippine–American)(Philippine–American War), Twain wrote a short [pacifist](Pacifism) story titled [War Prayer](The)(The War Prayer), which makes the point that humanism and Christianity's preaching of love are incompatible with the conduct of war. It was submitted to ''[Bazaar](Harper's)(Harper's Bazaar)'' for publication, but on March 22, 1905, the magazine rejected the story as "not quite suited to a [magazine](woman's)(Women's magazine)". Eight days later, Twain wrote to his friend [Carter Beard](Daniel)(Daniel Carter Beard), to whom he had read the story, "I don't think the prayer will be published in my time. None but the dead are permitted to tell the truth." Because he had an exclusive contract with [& Brothers](Harper)(Harper & Brothers), Twain could not publish The War Prayer elsewhere; it remained unpublished until 1916. It was republished in the 1960s as campaigning material by [activists](anti-war)(Opposition to the Vietnam War). Twain acknowledged that he had originally sympathized with the more moderate [Girondins](Girondins) of the [Revolution](French)(French Revolution) and then shifted his sympathies to the more radical [Sansculottes](Sansculottes), indeed identifying himself as "a [Marat](Jean-Paul Marat)" and writing that the [of Terror](Reign)(Reign of Terror) paled in comparison to the older terrors that preceded it. Twain supported the [in Russia](revolutionaries)(Russian Revolution (1905)) against the reformists, arguing that the [Tsar](Tsar) must be got rid of by violent means, because peaceful ones would not work.Maxwell Geismar, ed., Mark Twain and the Three Rs: Race, Religion, Revolution and Related Matters (Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill, 1973), p. 169, cited in Helen Scott's "The Mark Twain they didn't teach us about in school" (2000) in International Socialist Review 10, Winter 2000, pp. 61–65 He summed up his views of revolutions in the following statement: #### Civil rights Twain was an adamant supporter of the [of slavery](abolition)(Abolitionism in the United States) and the [emancipation](emancipation) of slaves, even going so far as to say, "[Lincoln](Abraham Lincoln)'s [Proclamation](Emancipation Proclamation) ... not only set the black slaves free, but set the white man free also".Philip S. Foner, Mark Twain: Social Critic (New York: International Publishers, 1958), p. 200 He argued that non-whites did not receive justice in the United States, once saying, "I have seen Chinamen abused and maltreated in all the mean, cowardly ways possible to the invention of a degraded nature ... but I never saw a Chinaman righted in a court of justice for wrongs thus done to him".Maxwell Geismar, ed., Mark Twain and the Three Rs: Race, Religion, Revolution and Related Matters (Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill, 1973), p. 98 He paid for at least one black person to attend [Law School](Yale)(Yale Law School) and for another black person to attend a southern university to become a minister.Paine, A. B., Mark Twain: A Biography, Harper, 1912 p. 701 Twain's forward-thinking views on [race](Race (human categorization)) were not reflected in his early writings on [Indians](American)(Native Americans in the United States). Of them, Twain wrote in 1870: }} As counterpoint, Twain's essay on "The Literary Offenses of Fenimore Cooper" offers a much kinder view of Indians. "No, other Indians would have noticed these things, but Cooper's Indians never notice anything. Cooper thinks they are marvelous creatures for noticing, but he was almost always in error about his Indians. There was seldom a sane one among them."Twain, Mark, In defense of Harriet Shelley and Other Essays, Harper & Brothers, 1918. p. 68 In his later travelogue Following the Equator (1897), Twain observes that in colonized lands all over the world, "savages" have always been wronged by "[whites](White people)" in the most merciless ways, such as "robbery, humiliation, and slow, slow murder, through poverty and the white man's whiskey"; his conclusion is that "there are many humorous things in this world; among them the white man's notion that he is less savage than the other savages".Twain, Mark. 2008. Following the Equator. pp. 94–98 In an expression that captures his East Indian experiences, he wrote, "So far as I am able to judge nothing has been left undone, either by man or Nature, to make India the most extraordinary country that the sun visits on his rounds. Where every prospect pleases, and only man is vile." Twain was also a supporter of [suffrage](women's)(History of women's suffrage in the United States), as evidenced by his "[for Women](Votes)(Votes for Women (speech))" speech, given in 1901. [Keller](Helen)(Helen Keller) benefited from Twain's support as she pursued her college education and publishing despite her disabilities and financial limitations. The two were friends for roughly 16 years. Through Twain's efforts, the Connecticut legislature voted a pension for [Crandall](Prudence)(Prudence Crandall), since 1995 Connecticut's official heroine, for her efforts towards the education of young African-American women in Connecticut. Twain also offered to purchase for her use her former house in Canterbury, home of the [Female Boarding School](Canterbury)(Canterbury Female Boarding School), but she declined. #### Political parties Twain was a [Republican](Republican Party (United States)) for most of his life. However, in [1884](1884 United States presidential election) he publicly broke with his party and joined the [Mugwumps](Mugwumps) to support the Democratic nominee, [Cleveland](Grover)(Grover Cleveland), over the Republican nominee, [G. Blaine](James)(James G. Blaine), whom he considered a corrupt politician. Twain spoke at rallies in favor of Cleveland. In the early 20th century, he began decrying both Democrats and Republicans as "insane" and proposed, in his 1907 book [Science](Christian)(Christian Science (book)), that while each party recognized the other's insanity, only the Mugwumps (that is, those who eschewed party loyalties in favor of voting for "the best man") could perceive the overall madness linking the two. ### Religion Twain was a [Presbyterian](Presbyterianism). He was critical of [religion](organized)(organized religion) and certain elements of Christianity through his later life. He wrote, for example, "Faith is believing what you know ain't so", and "If Christ were here now there is one thing he would not be – a Christian". With [anti-Catholic](anti-Catholic) sentiment rampant in 19th century America, Twain noted he was "educated to enmity toward everything that is Catholic". As an adult, he engaged in religious discussions and attended services, his theology developing as he wrestled with the deaths of loved ones and with his own mortality.Dempsey, Terrell, [Book Review: Mark Twain's Religion. William E. Phipps](http://www.twainweb.net/reviews/phipps.html) 2004 Mark Twain Forum Twain generally avoided publishing his most controversial opinions on religion in his lifetime, and they are known from essays and stories that were published later. In the essay Three Statements of the Eighties in the 1880s, Twain stated that he believed in an almighty God, but not in any messages, [revelation](revelation)s, [scripture](holy)(holy scripture)s such as the Bible, [Providence](Divine Providence), or retribution in the [afterlife](afterlife). He did state that "the goodness, the justice, and the mercy of God are manifested in His works", but also that "[universe is governed by strict and immutable laws](the)(deism)", which determine "small matters", such as who dies in a pestilence.Twain, Mark, ed. by Paul Baender. 1973. What is man?: and other philosophical writings. p. 56 At other times, he plainly professed a belief in Providence.Phipps, William E., [Mark Twain's Religion](https://books.google.com/books?id=x2HBYrytvRoC), pp. 263–266, 2003 Mercer Univ. Press In some later writings in the 1890s, he was less optimistic about the [of God](goodness)(theodicy), observing that "if our Maker is all-powerful for good or evil, He is not in His right mind". At other times, he conjectured sardonically that perhaps God had created the world with all its tortures for some purpose of His own, but was otherwise indifferent to humanity, which was too petty and insignificant to deserve His attention anyway.Twain, Mark, ed. by Paul Baender. 1973. What is man?: and other philosophical writings. pp.10, 486 In 1901, Twain criticized the actions of the [missionary](missionary) Dr. [Scott Ament](William)(William Scott Ament) (1851–1909) because Ament and other missionaries had collected indemnities from Chinese subjects in the aftermath of the [Uprising](Boxer)(Boxer Uprising) of 1900. Twain's response to hearing of Ament's methods was published in the North American Review in February 1901: [the Person Sitting in Darkness](To)(To the Person Sitting in Darkness), and deals with examples of [imperialism](imperialism) in China, South Africa, and with the U.S. occupation of the Philippines.Mark Twain, "To the Person Sitting in Darkness", The North American Review 182:531 (February 1901):161–176; A subsequent article, "To My Missionary Critics" published in The North American Review in April 1901, unapologetically continues his attack, but with the focus shifted from Ament to his missionary superiors, the [Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions](American)(American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions).Mark Twain, "To My Missionary Critics", The North American Review 172 (April 1901):520–534; After his death, Twain's family suppressed some of his work that was especially irreverent toward conventional religion, including [from the Earth](Letters)(Letters from the Earth), which was not published until his daughter [Clara](Clara Clemens) reversed her position in 1962 in response to [propaganda](Soviet)(Soviet propaganda) about the withholding. The anti-religious The Mysterious Stranger was published in 1916. Little Bessie, a story ridiculing Christianity, was first published in the 1972 collection ''Mark Twain's Fables of Man''. He raised money to build a [Church](Presbyterian)(Presbyterian Church) in Nevada in 1864. Twain created a reverent portrayal of [of Arc](Joan)(Joan of Arc), a subject over which he had obsessed for forty years, studied for a dozen years and spent two years writing about.Paine, Albert Bigelow, [The Adventures of Mark Twain](https://books.google.com/books?id=93o7_0oICWMC), p. 281, Kessinger 2004 In 1900 and again in 1908 he stated, "I like Joan of Arc best of all my books, it is the best".Goy-Blanquet, Dominique, [Joan of Arc, a saint for all reasons: studies in myth and politics](https://books.google.com/books?id=4QkSZ7cHy38C), p. 132, 2003 [Publishing](Ashgate)(Ashgate Publishing) Those who knew Twain well late in life recount that he dwelt on the subject of the afterlife, his daughter Clara saying: "Sometimes he believed death ended everything, but most of the time he felt sure of a life beyond."Phipps, William E., [Mark Twain's Religion](https://books.google.com/books?id=x2HBYrytvRoC), p. 304, 2003 Mercer Univ. Press Twain's frankest views on religion appeared in his final work [of Mark Twain](Autobiography)(Autobiography of Mark Twain), the publication of which started in November 2010, 100 years after his death. In it, he said: Twain was a [Freemason](Freemason). He belonged to Polar Star Lodge No. 79 A.F.&A.M., based in St. Louis. He was initiated an [Apprentice](Entered)(Entered Apprentice) on May 22, 1861, passed to the degree of [Craft](Fellow)(Fellow Craft) on June 12, and raised to the degree of [Mason](Master)(Master Mason) on July 10. Twain visited [Lake City](Salt)(Salt Lake City) for two days and met there members of [Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints](the)(the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints). They also gave him a [of Mormon](Book)(Book of Mormon). He later wrote in [It](Roughing)(Roughing It) about that book:[It](Roughing)(Roughing It) – Chapter 16 ### Vivisection Twain was opposed to the [vivisection](vivisection) practices of his day. His objection was not on a scientific basis but rather an [ethic](ethic)al one. He specifically cited the pain caused to the animal as his basis of his opposition:Mark Twain, [Letter to Sidney G. Trist, Editor of the ''Animals' Friend Magazine, in his capacity as Secretary of the London Anti-Vivisection Society](https://books.google.com/books?id=-rgnCgAAQBAJ&pg=PT370) (May 26, 1899), in Mark Twain's Notebooks'', ed. Carlo De Vito (Black Dog & Leventhal, 2015). I am not interested to know whether Vivisection produces results that are profitable to the human race or doesn't. ... The pains which it inflicts upon unconsenting animals is the basis of my enmity towards it, and it is to me sufficient justification of the enmity without looking further. ## Pen names Twain used different pen names before deciding on "Mark Twain". He signed humorous and imaginative sketches as "Josh" until 1863. Additionally, he used the pen name "Thomas Jefferson Snodgrass" for a series of humorous letters.Thomas Jefferson Snodgrass, (Charles Honce, James Bennet, ed.), Pascal Covici, Chicago, 1928 He maintained that his primary pen name came from his years working on Mississippi riverboats, where two fathoms, a depth indicating water safe for the passage of boat, was a measure on the [line](sounding)(sounding line). Twain is an [archaic](archaism) term for "two", as in "The veil of the temple was rent in twain." The riverboatman's cry was "mark twain" or, more fully, "by the mark twain", meaning "according to the mark [the line](on), [depth is](the) two [fathoms]"; that is, "The water is deep and it is safe to pass." Twain said that his famous pen name was not entirely his invention. In Life on the Mississippi, he wrote: [Isaiah Sellers](Captain)(Isaiah Sellers) was not of literary turn or capacity, but he used to jot down brief paragraphs of plain practical information about the river, and sign them "MARK TWAIN", and give them to the [Orleans Picayune](New)(Times-Picayune). They related to the stage and condition of the river, and were accurate and valuable; ... At the time that the telegraph brought the news of his death, I was on the Pacific coast. I was a fresh new journalist, and needed a [de guerre](nom)(Pseudonym#Noms de guerre); so I confiscated the ancient mariner's discarded one, and have done my best to make it remain what it was in his hands – a sign and symbol and warrant that whatever is found in its company may be gambled on as being the petrified truth; how I have succeeded, it would not be modest in me to say.Life on the Mississippi, chapter 50 Twain's story about his pen name has been questioned by some, Cited in with the suggestion that "mark twain" refers to a running bar tab that Twain would regularly incur while drinking at John Piper's saloon in [City, Nevada](Virginia)(Virginia City, Nevada). Samuel Clemens himself responded to this suggestion by saying, "Mark Twain was the nom de plume of one Captain Isaiah Sellers, who used to write river news over it for the New Orleans Picayune. He died in 1863 and as he could no longer need that signature, I laid violent hands upon it without asking permission of the proprietor's remains. That is the history of the nom de plume I bear."Fatout, Paul. "Mark Twain's Nom de Plume." American Literature, v 34, n 1 (March 1962), pp. 1–7. . . In his autobiography, Twain writes further of Captain Sellers' use of "Mark Twain": I was a cub pilot on the Mississippi River then, and one day I wrote a rude and crude satire which was leveled at Captain Isaiah Sellers, the oldest steamboat pilot on the Mississippi River, and the most respected, esteemed, and revered. For many years he had occasionally written brief paragraphs concerning the river and the changes which it had undergone under his observation during fifty years, and had signed these paragraphs "Mark Twain" and published them in the St. Louis and New Orleans journals. In my satire I made rude game of his reminiscences. It was a shabby poor performance, but I didn't know it, and the pilots didn't know it. The pilots thought it was brilliant. They were jealous of Sellers, because when the gray-heads among them pleased their vanity by detailing in the hearing of the younger craftsmen marvels which they had seen in the long ago on the river, Sellers was always likely to step in at the psychological moment and snuff them out with wonders of his own which made their small marvels look pale and sick. However, I have told all about this in "Old Times on the Mississippi." The pilots handed my extravagant satire to a river reporter, and it was published in the New Orleans True Delta. That poor old Captain Sellers was deeply wounded. He had never been held up to ridicule before; he was sensitive, and he never got over the hurt which I had wantonly and stupidly inflicted upon his dignity. I was proud of my performance for a while, and considered it quite wonderful, but I have changed my opinion of it long ago. Sellers never published another paragraph nor ever used his nom de guerre again."[Autobiography of Mark Twain](http://www.marktwainproject.org/xtf/view?docId=works/MTDP10363.xml;style=work;brand=mtp;chunk.id=dv0050#pa001690) ." Volume 2; 10 September 1906, (2013, 2008), Paragraph 4. ## Legacy and depictions [[File:Mark Twain Vanity Fair 1908-05-13.jpeg\|thumb\|upright\|Caricature of Twain by [Spy](Leslie Ward) in the London magazine [Fair](Vanity)(Vanity Fair (British magazine)), May 1908]] While Twain is often depicted wearing a white suit, modern representations suggesting that he wore them throughout his life are unfounded. Evidence suggests that Twain began wearing white suits on the lecture circuit, after the death of his wife in 1904. However, there is also evidence showing him wearing a white suit before 1904. In 1882, he sent a photograph of himself in a white suit to 18-year-old [W. Bok](Edward)(Edward W. Bok), later publisher of the Ladies Home Journal, with a handwritten dated note. The white suit did eventually become his trademark, as illustrated in anecdotes about this eccentricity (such as the time he wore a white summer suit to a Congressional hearing during the winter). McMasters' The Mark Twain Encyclopedia states that Twain did not wear a white suit in his last three years, except at one banquet speech. In his autobiography, Twain writes of his early experiments with wearing white out-of-season:Next after fine colors, I like plain white. One of my sorrows, when the summer ends, is that I must put off my cheery and comfortable white clothes and enter for the winter into the depressing captivity of the shapeless and degrading black ones. It is mid-October now, and the weather is growing cold up here in the New Hampshire hills, but it will not succeed in freezing me out of these white garments, for here the neighbors are few, and it is only of crowds that I am afraid. I made a brave experiment, the other night, to see how it would feel to shock a crowd with these unseasonable clothes, and also to see how long it might take the crowd to reconcile itself to them and stop looking astonished and outraged. On a stormy evening I made a talk before a full house, in the village, clothed like a ghost, and looking as conspicuous, all solitary and alone on that platform, as any ghost could have looked; and I found, to my gratification, that it took the house less than ten minutes to forget about the ghost and give its attention to the tidings I had brought.I am nearly seventy-one, and I recognize that my age has given me a good many privileges; valuable privileges; privileges which are not granted to younger persons. Little by little I hope to get together courage enough to wear white clothes all through the winter, in New York. It will be a great satisfaction to me to show off in this way; and perhaps the largest of all the satisfactions will be the knowledge that every scoffer, of my sex, will secretly envy me and wish he dared to follow my lead. "[Autobiography of Mark Twain](http://www.marktwainproject.org/xtf/view?docId=works/MTDP10363.xml;style=work;brand=mtp;chunk.id=dv0055#pa001821) ", Volume 2, October 8, 1906 (2013, 2008), Paragraph 14 ## See also * [Twain bibliography](Mark)(Mark Twain bibliography) * [Twain in popular culture](Mark)(Mark Twain in popular culture) * [Tom Sawyer Days](National)(National Tom Sawyer Days) ## References ## Further reading * Nathan G. Alexander, ["Unclasping the Eagle's Talons: Mark Twain, American Freethought, and the Responses to Imperialism."](https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/journal-of-the-gilded-age-and-progressive-era/article/unclasping-the-eagles-talons-mark-twain-american-freethought-and-the-responses-to-imperialism/F85104CA5DCB59134C7D67CAC8BB7914) The Journal of the Gilded Age and Progressive Era 17, no. 3 (2018): 524–545. . * [Beebe](Lucius)(Lucius Beebe). Comstock Commotion: The Story of the Territorial Enterprise and Virginia City News, [University Press](Stanford)(Stanford University Press), 1954 * Louis J. Budd, ed. Mark Twain, Collected Tales, Sketches, Speeches & Essays 1891–1910 ([of America](Library)(Library of America), 1992) () * [Burns](Ken)(Ken Burns), [Duncan](Dayton)(Dayton Duncan), and [C. Ward](Geoffrey)(Geoffrey C. Ward), Mark Twain: An Illustrated Biography. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2001 () * [S. Foner](Philip)(Philip S. Foner). [Mark Twain: Social Critic](https://archive.org/details/MarkTwainSocialCritic). New York: International Publishers. 1966. * [Gregg Camfield](https://web.archive.org/web/20100527151833/https://www.ucmerced.edu/faculty/facultybio.asp?facultyid=95). The Oxford Companion to Mark Twain. New York: Oxford University Press, 2002 () * Guy Cardwell, ed. Mark Twain, Mississippi Writings, ([of America](Library)(Library of America), 1982) () * Guy Cardwell, ed. Mark Twain, The Innocents Abroad & Roughing It, ([of America](Library)(Library of America), 1984) * James M. Cox. Mark Twain: The Fate of Humor, Princeton University Press, 1966 () * Everett Emerson. Mark Twain: A Literary Life, Philadelphia: [of Pennsylvania Press](University)(University of Pennsylvania Press), 2000 () * [Shelley Fisher Fishkin](http://english.stanford.edu/bio.php?name_id=51) , ed. A Historical Guide to Mark Twain. New York: Oxford University Press, 2002 () * Shelley Fisher Fishkin, Lighting Out for the Territory: Reflections on Mark Twain and American Culture. New York: Oxford University Press, 1996 () * Benjamin Griffin, ed., ''Mark Twain's Civil War: "The Private History of a Campaign That Failed". Berkeley, California: Heyday, 2019 () [Susan K. Harris](https://web.archive.org/web/20140909004546/http://www.distinguishedprofessors.ku.edu/professor/harris-s), ed. Mark Twain, Historical Romances ([of America](Library)(Library of America), 1994) () * Hamlin L. Hill, ed. Mark Twain, The Gilded Age and Later Novels ([of America](Library)(Library of America), 2002) * Jason Gary Horn. Mark Twain: A Descriptive Guide to Biographical Sources, Lanham, MD: Scarecrow Press, 1999 () * [Dean Howells](William)(William Dean Howells). My Mark Twain, Mineloa, NY: Dover Publications, 1997 [1910] () * [Kaplan](Fred)(Fred Kaplan (biographer)). The Singular Mark Twain: A Biography, New York: Doubleday, 2003 () * [Kaplan](Justin)(Justin Kaplan). Mr. Clemens and Mark Twain: A Biography, New York: Simon and Schuster, 1966 () * J. R. LeMaster and James D. Wilson, eds. The Mark Twain Encyclopedia, New York: Garland, 1993 () * Andrew Levy, Huck Finn's America: Mark Twain and the Era that Shaped His Masterpiece. New York: Simon and Schuster, 2015. * Jerome Loving, Mark Twain: The Adventures of Samuel L. Clemens. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2010. * Bruce Michelson, Mark Twain on the Loose, Amherst: [of Massachusetts Press](University)(University of Massachusetts Press), 1995 () * Patrick Ober, Mark Twain and Medicine: "Any Mummery Will Cure" Columbia: [of Missouri Press](University)(University of Missouri Press), 2003 () * [Orwell](George)(George Orwell), ["Mark Twain—The Licensed Jester," The Collected Essays, Journalism and Letters of George Orwell, vol. 2: My Country Right or Left, 1940-1943, Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1968.](https://orwell.ru/library/reviews/twain/english/e_twain) * [Bigelow Paine](Albert)(Albert Bigelow Paine), Mark Twain, A Biography: The Personal and Literary Life of Samuel Langhorne Clemens, Harper & Bros., 1912. * [Perry](Mark)(Mark Perry (author)), Grant and Twain: The Story of a Friendship that Changed American; also published as Grant and Twain: The Story of an American Friendship, New York: Random House, 2004. * [Powers](Ron)(Ron Powers), Dangerous Water: A Biography of the Boy Who Became Mark Twain, New York: Da Capo Press, 1999. * Ron Powers. Mark Twain: A Life, New York: Random House, 2005. () * * R. Kent Rasmussen, Critical Companion to Mark Twain: A Literary Reference to His Life and Work, Facts On File, 2007. Revised edition of Mark Twain A to Z * R. Kent Rasmussen, ed., The Quotable Mark Twain: His Essential Aphorisms, Witticisms and Concise Opinions, Contemporary Books, 1997 * Gary Scharnhorst, ed., Mark Twain: The Complete Interviews, Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 2006. ** Gary Scharnhorst, ed., Mainly the Truth: Interviews with Mark Twain, Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 2009. ** Gary Scharnhorst, ed., Twain in His Own Time: A Biographical Chronicle of His Life, Drawn from Recollections, Interviews, and Memoirs by Family, Friends, and Associates, Iowa City: University of Iowa Press, 2010. ** Gary Scharnhorst, ed., Mark Twain on Potholes and Politics: Letters to the Editor, Columbia, Missouri: University of Missouri Press, 2014. * Gary Scharnhorst, The Life of Mark Twain: The Early Years, 1835-1871, Columbia, Missouri: University of Missouri Press, 2018. ** Gary Scharnhorst, The Life of Mark Twain: The Middle Years, 1871-1891, Columbia, Missouri: University of Missouri Press, 2019. ** Gary Scharnhorst, The Life of Mark Twain: The Final Years, 1891-1910'', Columbia, Missouri: University of Missouri Press, 2022. Paul A. Shackel, "America's home town: fiction, Mark Twain, and the re‐creation of Hannibal, Missouri." International Journal of Heritage Studies 17.3 (2011): 197-213. [online](https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Paul-Shackel/publication/254316024_America-s_home_town_Fiction_Mark_Twain_and_the_re-creation_of_Hannibal_Missouri/links/570ba73608ae2eb94223a774/America-s-home-town-Fiction-Mark-Twain-and-the-re-creation-of-Hannibal-Missouri.pdf) * Ben Tarnoff, The Bohemians: Mark Twain and the San Francisco Writers Who Reinvented American Literature. New York: The Penguin Press, 2014 * * Larzer Ziff, Mark Twain, New York: Oxford University Press, 2004. * ## External links * * [Western American Literature Journal: Mark Twain](http://westernamericanliterature.com/mark-twain/) * [Mark Twain](https://www.britannica.com/biography/Mark-Twain) at [Britannica](Enciclopedia)(Encyclopædia Britannica), Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. * [Mark Twain](https://sf-encyclopedia.com/entry/twain_mark) at [Encyclopedia of Science Fiction](The)(The Encyclopedia of Science Fiction). ### Online editions * * * * * * ### Libraries * [The Mark Twain Papers and Project](http://bancroft.berkeley.edu/MTP/) of the [Library](Bancroft)(Bancroft Library), [of California Berkeley](University)(University of California Berkeley). Archive of Mark Twain's papers and writings * [Mark Twain Room](https://web.archive.org/web/20140327060544/http://www.buffalolib.org/content/grosvenor/mark-twain-room) at [& Erie County Public Library](Buffalo)(Buffalo & Erie County Public Library) * [Samuel Langhorne Clemens collection of papers](http://archives.nypl.org/brg/19174) at [York Public Library](New)(New York Public Library) * [Mark Twain Original Manuscripts from 1862–1909](http://www.shapell.org/Collection/Mark-Twain) Shapell Manuscript Foundation * [Mark Twain's Mississippi](http://twain.lib.niu.edu/) at [Illinois University Libraries](Northern)(Northern Illinois University Libraries) * [Finding aid to the Mark Twain papers at Columbia University. Rare Book & Manuscript Library.](https://findingaids.library.columbia.edu/ead/nnc-rb/ldpd_4078617) * [Langhorne Clemens Collection](Samuel)(hdl:10079/fa/beinecke.clemenss). Yale Collection of American Literature, Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library. 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Rhodesia	rhodesia	# Rhodesia Revision ID: 1158515225 \| Timestamp: 2023-06-04T14:59:13Z --- \|Republic of Rhodesia}} \| common_name = Rhodesia \| status = [state](Unrecognised)(List of historical unrecognised states and dependencies) \| image_flag = Flag of Rhodesia (1968–1979).svg \| flag_alt = Flag of Rhodesia from 19681979 \| flag_type = [/>(19681979)](Flag(19741979) \| image_map = Zimbabwe (orthographic projection).svg \| capital = [Salisbury](Harare) \| largest_city = capital \| official_languages = English ([facto](de)(de facto)) \| languages_type = Other languages \| languages = \| ethnic_groups = \| ethnic_groups_year = 1969 \| demonym = Rhodesian \| government_type = \| title_leader = [Queen](Queen of Rhodesia) \| leader1 = [II](Elizabeth)(Elizabeth II) \| year_leader1 = 19651970 \| title_representative = [President](President of Rhodesia) \| representative1 = [Dupont](Clifford)(Clifford Dupont) \| year_representative1 = 19701975 \| representative2 = [Everard](Henry)(Henry Everard) ([acting](Acting president)) \| year_representative2 = 19751976 \| representative3 = [Wrathall](John)(John Wrathall) \| year_representative3 = 19761978 \| representative4 = [Everard](Henry)(Henry Everard) (acting) \| year_representative4 = 1978 \| representative5 = [Pithey](Jack)(Jack Pithey) (acting) \| year_representative5 = 19781979 \| representative6 = [Everard](Henry)(Henry Everard) (acting) \| year_representative6 = 1979 \| title_deputy = [Minister](Prime)(Prime Minister of Rhodesia) \| deputy1 = [Smith](Ian)(Ian Smith) \| year_deputy1 = 19651979 \| legislature = [Parliament](Westminster system) \| house1 = [Senate](Senate of Rhodesia) \| house2 = [of Assembly](House)(House of Assembly of Rhodesia) \| sovereignty_type = \| event_start = [Declared](Rhodesia's Unilateral Declaration of Independence) \| year_start = 1965 \| date_start = 11 November \| event1 = [Republic](1969 Rhodesian constitutional referendum) \| date_event1 = 2 March 1970 \| event2 = [Settlement](Internal)(Internal Settlement) \| date_event2 = 3 March 1978 \| event_end = [Rhodesia](Zimbabwe)(Zimbabwe Rhodesia) \| year_end = 1979 \| date_end = 1 June \| area_km2 = 390580 \| area_rank = \| area_sq_mi = 150800 \| population_census = 6,930,000 \| population_census_year = 1978 \| GDP_PPP = \| GDP_PPP_year = \| HDI = \| HDI_year = \| currency = 70)\|[dollar](Rhodesian)(Rhodesian dollar) (197080)}} \| time_zone = [CAT](Central Africa Time) \| utc_offset = +2 \| p1 = Rhodesia (19641965) \| flag_p1 = Flag of Rhodesia (1964–1968).svg \| s1 = Zimbabwe Rhodesia \| flag_s1 = Flag of Rhodesia (1968–1979).svg \| today = [Zimbabwe](Zimbabwe) \| footnotes = }} \| era = [War](Cold)(Cold War) and [of Africa](decolonisation)(decolonisation of Africa) }} Rhodesia (, ; ), officially from 1970 the Republic of Rhodesia, was an [state](unrecognised)(List of historical unrecognized states and dependencies) in [Africa](Southern)(Southern Africa) from 1965 to 1979, equivalent in territory to modern [Zimbabwe](Zimbabwe). Rhodesia was the [facto](de)(de facto) [state](successor)(Succession of states) to the [colony](British)(Crown colony) of [Rhodesia](Southern)(Southern Rhodesia), which had been [self-governing](Self-governing colony) since achieving [government](responsible)(responsible government) in 1923. A [landlocked](Landlocked country) nation, Rhodesia was bordered by [Africa](South)(South Africa) to the south, [Bechuanaland](Bechuanaland Protectorate) (later [Botswana](Botswana)) to the southwest, [Zambia](Zambia) (formerly [Rhodesia](Northern)(Northern Rhodesia)) to the northwest, and [Mozambique](Mozambique) ([Portuguese province](a)(Portuguese Mozambique) until 1975) to the east. From 1965 to 1979, Rhodesia was one of two independent states on the African continent governed by a [minority of European descent and culture](white)(White Zimbabweans), the other being [Africa](South)(South Africa). In the late 19th century, the territory north of the [Transvaal](South African Republic) was [chartered](Royal charter) to the [South Africa Company](British)(British South Africa Company), led by [Rhodes](Cecil)(Cecil Rhodes). Rhodes and his [Column](Pioneer)(Pioneer Column) marched north in 1890, acquiring a huge block of territory that [company would rule](the)(Company rule in Rhodesia) until the early 1920s. In 1923, the company's charter was revoked, and Southern Rhodesia attained self-government and established a [legislature](Southern Rhodesian Legislative Assembly). Between 1953 and 1963, Southern Rhodesia was joined with [Rhodesia](Northern)(Northern Rhodesia) and [Nyasaland](Nyasaland) in the [of Rhodesia and Nyasaland](Federation)(Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland). The rapid [of Africa](decolonisation)(decolonisation of Africa) in the late 1950s and early 1960s alarmed a significant proportion of Southern Rhodesia's white population. In an effort to delay the transition to [majority rule](black)(No independence before majority rule), the predominantly white Southern Rhodesian government issued its own [Declaration of Independence](Unilateral)(Rhodesia's Unilateral Declaration of Independence) (UDI) from the United Kingdom on 11 November 1965. The new nation, identified simply as Rhodesia, initially sought [recognition](Diplomatic recognition) as an autonomous [realm](Commonwealth realm) within the [of Nations](Commonwealth)(Commonwealth of Nations), but reconstituted itself as a republic in 1970. Two [nationalist](African)(African nationalism) parties, the [African People's Union](Zimbabwe)(Zimbabwe African People's Union) (ZAPU) and [African National Union](Zimbabwe)(Zimbabwe African National Union) (ZANU), launched an armed insurgency against the government upon UDI, sparking the [Bush War](Rhodesian)(Rhodesian Bush War). Growing war weariness, diplomatic pressure, and an extensive trade embargo imposed by the [Nations](United)(United Nations) prompted Rhodesian prime minister [Smith](Ian)(Ian Smith) to [to majority rule](concede)(Internal Settlement) in 1978. However, [elections](1979 Rhodesian general election) and a multiracial [government](provisional)(Zimbabwe Rhodesia), with Smith succeeded by moderate [Muzorewa](Abel)(Abel Muzorewa), failed to appease international critics or halt the war. By December 1979 Muzorewa had secured an [agreement](Lancaster House Agreement) with ZAPU and ZANU, allowing Rhodesia to briefly revert to colonial status pending [elections](new)(1980 Southern Rhodesian general election) under British supervision. ZANU secured an electoral victory in 1980, and the country achieved internationally recognised independence in April 1980 as [Zimbabwe](Zimbabwe). Rhodesia's largest cities were [Salisbury](Harare) (its capital city, now known as Harare) and [Bulawayo](Bulawayo). Prior to 1970, the unicameral [Assembly](Legislative)(Legislative Assembly of Rhodesia) was predominantly white, with a small number of seats reserved for black representatives. Following the declaration of a republic in 1970, this was replaced by a bicameral [Parliament](Parliament of Rhodesia), with a [of Assembly](House)(House of Assembly (Zimbabwe)) and a [Senate](Senate of Zimbabwe). The bicameral system was retained in Zimbabwe after 1980. Aside from its [franchise](racial)(Politics of Rhodesia#1961 constitution), Rhodesia observed a fairly conventional [system](Westminster)(Westminster system) inherited from the United Kingdom, with a [President](President of Rhodesia) acting as ceremonial head of state, while a [Minister](Prime)(Prime Minister of Rhodesia) headed the [Cabinet](Cabinet of Rhodesia) as head of government. ## Etymology The official name of the country, according to the constitution adopted concurrently with the UDI in November 1965, was Rhodesia. This was not the case under [law](British)(United Kingdom law), however, which considered the territory's legal name to be [Rhodesia](Southern)(Southern Rhodesia), the name given to the country in 1898 during the [South Africa Company](British)(British South Africa Company)'s [administration](Company rule in Rhodesia) of [Rhodesias](the)(Rhodesia (region)), and retained by the [colony](self-governing)(self-governing colony) of Southern Rhodesia after the end of company rule in 1923. This naming dispute dated back to October 1964, when [Rhodesia](Northern)(Northern Rhodesia) became independent from the UK and concurrently changed its name to [Zambia](Zambia). The Southern Rhodesian colonial government in [Salisbury](Harare) felt that in the absence of a "Northern" Rhodesia, the continued use of "Southern" was superfluous. It passed legislation to become simply Rhodesia, but the British government refused to approve this on the grounds that the country's name was defined by British legislation, so could not be altered by the colonial government. [Salisbury](Harare) went on using the shortened name in an official manner nevertheless, while the British government continued referring to the country as Southern Rhodesia. This situation continued throughout the UDI period. The shortened name was used by many people including the British government in the House of Commons. ## History ### Background Until after the [World War](Second)(Second World War), the landlocked British possession of [Rhodesia](Southern)(Southern Rhodesia) was not developed as an indigenous African territory, but rather as a unique state that reflected its [multiracial](Multiracialism) character. This situation certainly made it very different from other lands that existed under colonial rule, as many Europeans had arrived to make permanent homes, populating the towns as traders or settling to farm the most productive soils. In 1922, faced with the decision to join the [of South Africa](Union)(Union of South Africa) as a fifth province or accept nearly full internal autonomy, the electorate cast its vote against South African integration. In view of the outcome of the referendum, the territory was annexed by the United Kingdom on 12 September 1923.Southern Rhodesia (Annexation) Order in Council, 30 July 1923 that provided by section 3 thereof: "From and after the coming into operation of this Order the said territories shall be annexed to and form part of His Majesty's Dominions, and shall be known as the Colony of Southern Rhodesia."Stella Madzibamuto v Desmond William Larder – Burke, Fredrick Phillip George (1969) A.C 645 – Authority for date of annexation having been 12 September 1923Collective Responses to Illegal Acts in International Law: United Nations Action in the Question of Southern Rhodesia by Vera Gowlland-DebbasStella Madzibamuto v Desmond William Larder – Burke, Fredrick Phillip George (1969) A.C 645 Shortly after annexation, on 1 October 1923, the first constitution for the new Colony of Southern Rhodesia came into force.Southern Rhodesia Constitution Letters Patent 1923 Under this constitution, Southern Rhodesia was given the right to elect its own thirty-member [legislature](Southern Rhodesian Legislative Assembly), [premier](Prime Minister of Rhodesia), and cabinet—although the [Crown](British)(the Crown) retained a formal veto over measures affecting natives and dominated foreign policy. Over the course of the next three decades, Southern Rhodesia experienced a degree of economic expansion and industrialisation almost unrivaled in sub-Saharan Africa. Its natural abundance of mineral wealth—including large deposits of chromium and manganese—contributed to the high rate of conventional economic growth. However, most colonies in Africa, even those rich in natural resources, experienced difficulty in achieving similar rates of development due to a shortage of technical and managerial skills. Small, rotating cadres of colonial civil servants who possessed little incentive to invest their skills in the local economy were insufficient to compensate for this disadvantage. Southern Rhodesia had negated the issue by importing a skilled workforce directly from abroad in the form of its disproportionately large European immigrant and expatriate population. For example, in 1951 over 90% of white Southern Rhodesians were engaged in what the British government classified as "skilled occupations", or professional and technical trades. This made it possible to establish a diversified economy with a strong manufacturing sector and iron and steel industries, and circumvent the normal British protectionist policy of supporting domestic industry in the metropole while discouraging industry in the colonies abroad. As the white population increased, so did capital imports, especially in the wake of the Second World War. This trend, too, stood in sharp contrast to most other colonial territories, which suffered a major capital deficit due to revenues simply being repatriated to the metropole, leaving little capital to be invested locally. The considerable investment made by white Rhodesians in the economy financed the development of Southern Rhodesia's export industries as well as the infrastructure necessary to integrate it further with international markets. In August 1953, Southern Rhodesia merged with [Rhodesia](Northern)(Northern Rhodesia) and [Nyasaland](Nyasaland), the two other British Central African territories, to form the [of Rhodesia and Nyasaland](Federation)(Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland) – a loose association that placed defence and economic direction under a central government but left many domestic affairs under the control of its constituent territories. As it began to appear that decolonisation was inevitable and indigenous black populations were pressing heavily for change, the federation was dissolved at the end of December 1963. ===Unilateral Declaration of Independence (1965)=== Although prepared to grant formal independence to Southern Rhodesia (now Rhodesia), the [government](British)(British government) had adopted a policy of [independence before majority rule](no)(no independence before majority rule) (NIBMR), dictating that colonies with a significant, politically active population of European settlers would not receive independence except under conditions of [rule](majority)(majority rule). White Rhodesians balked at the premise of NIBMR; many felt they had a right to absolute political control, at least for the time being, despite their relatively small numbers. They were also disturbed by the chaos of the post-colonial political transitions occurring in other African nations at the time, such as the [Republic of the Congo](Democratic)(Democratic Republic of the Congo). A vocal segment of the white populace was open to the concept of gradually incorporating black Rhodesians into civil society and a more integrated political structure in theory, although not without qualification and equivocation. A greater degree of social and political equality, they argued, was acceptable once more black citizens had obtained higher educational and vocational standards. The second faction in the white community was wholly unwilling to concede the principle, much less the practice, of equality to the black population. Both groups remained opposed to majority rule in the near future. However, once Rhodesia had been introduced as a topic for discussion in international bodies, extension of the status quo became a matter of concern to the British government, which perceived the scrutiny as a serious embarrassment to the United Kingdom. After the federation was dissolved in December 1963, the then British Prime Minister, [Alec Douglas-Home](Sir)(Sir Alec Douglas-Home), insisted that preconditions on independence talks hinge on what he termed the "five principles" – unimpeded progress to majority rule, assurance against any future legislation decidedly detrimental to black interests, "improvement in the political status" of local Africans, an end to official [discrimination](racial)(racial discrimination), and a political settlement that could be "acceptable to the whole population". [Wilson](Harold)(Harold Wilson) and his incoming [Labour](Labour Party (UK)) government took an even harder line on demanding that these points be legitimately addressed before a timetable for independence could be set. In 1964, growing white dissatisfaction with the ongoing negotiations played a major role in the ousting of [Field](Winston)(Winston Field) as [Minister of Southern Rhodesia](Prime)(Prime Minister of Southern Rhodesia). Field was succeeded by [Smith](Ian)(Ian Smith), chairman of the conservative [Front Party](Rhodesian)(Rhodesian Front Party) and an outspoken critic of any immediate transition to majority rule. Smith, the colony's first Rhodesian-born leader, soon came to personify resistance to liberals in British government and those agitating for change at home. In September 1964, Smith visited [Lisbon](Lisbon), where Portuguese prime minister [de Oliveira Salazar](António)(António de Oliveira Salazar) promised him "maximum support" if he should declare independence. Aside from a common interest in maintaining security ties in southern Africa, Salazar expressed a great deal of anger at Britain's refusal to support Portugal during the [annexation of Goa](Indian)(Annexation of Goa) in 1961, admonishing Smith not to trust the British government.[Resistance to the "Winds of Change": The Emergence of an "unholy alliance" between Southern Rhodesia, Portugal, and South Africa, 1964–65](https://books.google.com/books?id=qYohAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA220), Sue Onslow, [The Wind of Change: Harold Macmillan and British Decolonization](https://books.google.com/books?id=qYohAQAAQBAJ), edited by L. Butler and Sarah Stockwell, London: Macmillan, 2013 pages 220–221 A Rhodesian Trade Office was opened in Lisbon in order to co-ordinate breaking the anticipated sanctions in the event of a unilateral declaration of independence later that year, which encouraged Smith not to compromise. In its turn, the Rhodesian Trade Office in Lisbon functioned as a de facto embassy and caused tension with London, which objected to Rhodesia conducting its own foreign policy. As land-locked Rhodesia bordered the [colony of Mozambique](Portuguese)(Portuguese Mozambique), Salazar's promise of "maximum support" from Portugal in breaking the anticipated sanctions gave Smith more grounds for self-confidence in his talks with London. Smith ruled out acceptance for all five of the British principles as they stood, implying instead that Rhodesia was already legally entitled to independence—a claim that was overwhelmingly endorsed by the predominantly white electorate in a [referendum](Southern Rhodesian independence referendum, 1964). Emboldened by the results of this referendum and the subsequent general election, the Rhodesian government threatened to declare independence without British consent. Harold Wilson countered by warning that such an irregular procedure would be considered [treason](treason)ous, although he specifically rejected using armed force to quell a rebellion by English "kith and kin", or white Rhodesians of predominantly British descent and origin, many of whom still possessed sympathies and family ties to the United Kingdom. Wilson's refusal to consider a military option further encouraged Smith to proceed with his plans. Talks quickly broke down, and final efforts in October to achieve a settlement floundered; the Smith government remained unwilling to accept the five principles of independence, and the British government argued it would settle for nothing less. [[File:Udi2-rho.jpg\|thumb\|[Smith](Ian)(Ian Smith) signing the Unilateral Declaration of Independence]] On 11 November 1965 the Cabinet of Rhodesia issued a [declaration of independence](unilateral)(Rhodesia's Unilateral Declaration of Independence) (UDI). The UDI was immediately denounced as an "act of rebellion against the Crown" in the United Kingdom, and Wilson promised that the illegal action would be short-lived. However, given its self-governing status Rhodesia had no longer been within the United Kingdom's direct sphere of influence for some time, and the facade of continued British rule was rendered a constitutional fiction by UDI. In light of these circumstances, Wilson quickly realised his ability to assert direct leverage over the incumbent Rhodesian government was limited. On 12 October 1965, the [Nations General Assembly](United)(United Nations General Assembly) had noted the repeated threats of the Rhodesian authorities "to declare unilaterally the independence of Southern Rhodesia, in order to perpetuate minority rule", and called upon Wilson to use all means at his disposal (including military force) to prevent the Rhodesian Front from asserting independence. After UDI was proclaimed, UN officials branded the Rhodesian government as an "illegal racist minority regime" and called on member states to voluntarily sever economic ties with Rhodesia, recommending [sanctions](International sanctions) on petroleum products and military hardware. In December 1966, the UN further iterated that these sanctions were mandatory, and member states were explicitly barred from purchasing Rhodesian export goods, namely tobacco, chromium, copper, asbestos, sugar, and beef. The British government, having already adopted extensive sanctions of its own, [dispatched](Beira Patrol) a [Navy](Royal)(Royal Navy) squadron to monitor oil deliveries in the port of [Beira](Beira, Mozambique) in Mozambique, from which a strategic pipeline ran to [Umtali](Mutare) in Rhodesia. The warships were to deter "by force, if necessary, vessels reasonably believed to be carrying oil destined for (Southern) Rhodesia". Some Western nations, such as Switzerland, and [Germany](West)(West Germany), which were not UN member states, continued to conduct business openly with Rhodesia – the latter remained the Smith government's largest trading partner in Western Europe until 1973, when it was admitted to the UN. Japan remained the chief recipient of Rhodesian exports outside the African continent, and [Iran](Iran) also supplied oil to Rhodesia in violation of the embargo. Portugal served as a conduit for Rhodesian goods, which it exported through Mozambique with false [of origin](certificates)(Certificate of origin). South Africa, too, refused to observe the UN sanctions. In 1971, the [Amendment](Byrd)(Byrd Amendment (1971)) was passed in the United States, permitting American firms to go on importing Rhodesian chromium and nickel products as normal. Despite the poor showing of sanctions, Rhodesia found it nearly impossible to obtain diplomatic recognition abroad. In 1970, the United States declared it would not recognise UDI "under [any] circumstances". South Africa and Portugal, Rhodesia's largest trading partners, also refused to extend diplomatic recognition, and did not open embassies in the Rhodesian capital, [Salisbury](Harare), preferring to conduct diplomatic activities through "accredited representatives".[Foreign Affairs for New States: Some Questions of Credentials](https://books.google.com/books?id=3ptWAAAAYAAJ), Peter John Boyce, University of Queensland Press, January 1977, page 13 This allowed the South African and Portuguese governments to maintain they were continuing to respect British sovereignty while also accepting the practical authority of the Smith administration. Initially, the Rhodesian state retained its pledged loyalty to [Elizabeth II](Queen)(Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom), recognising her as Queen of Rhodesia. When Smith and Deputy Prime Minister [Dupont](Clifford)(Clifford Dupont) visited [Humphrey Gibbs](Sir)(Humphrey Gibbs), the [of Southern Rhodesia](Governor)(Governor of Southern Rhodesia), to formally notify him of the UDI, Gibbs condemned it as an act of treason. After Smith formally announced the UDI on the radio, Governor Gibbs used his [power](reserve)(reserve power) to dismiss Smith and his entire cabinet from office, on orders from the [Office](Colonial)(Colonial Office) in [Whitehall](Whitehall). However, Gibbs was unable to take any concrete actions to bring about a return to lawful colonial government. Rhodesian ministers simply ignored his notices, contending that UDI had made his office obsolete. Even so, Gibbs continued to occupy his [residence](official)(official residence), Government House, in Salisbury until 1970, when he finally left Rhodesia, following the declaration of a republic.[Queen's man resigns](https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=IhdVAAAAIBAJ&sjid=cpMDAAAAIBAJ&pg=1090%2C4932581), [Age](The)(The Age), 26 June 1969 He had effectively been superseded before then; the Smith government stated that if the Queen did not appoint a Governor-General, it would name Dupont as "[Administering the Government](Officer)(Officer Administering the Government)".[Ian Smith Strips Gibbs Of All Official Privilege](https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=vzNIAAAAIBAJ&sjid=qgANAAAAIBAJ&pg=782%2C2383897), Associated Press, [Morning Record](The)(The Morning Record), 18 November 1965 Smith had intended to have Dupont named Governor-General, but Queen Elizabeth II would not even consider this advice. With few exceptions, the international community backed Whitehall's assertion that Gibbs was the Queen's only legitimate representative, and hence the only lawful authority in Rhodesia. In September 1968, the [Division](Appellate)(Appellate court) of the High Court of Rhodesia ruled that Ian Smith's administration had become the de jure government of the country, not merely the de facto one.Rhodesia Herald, Salisbury, 13 to 20 September 1968 To support his decision, Chief Justice [Hugh Beadle](Sir)(Hugh Beadle) used several statements made by [Grotius](Hugo)(Hugo Grotius), who maintained that there was no way that a nation could rightly claim to be governing a particular territory – if it was waging a war against that territory. Beadle argued that due to Britain's economic war against Rhodesia, she could not (at the same point) be described as governing Rhodesia. The ruling set the precedent that despite the UDI, the incumbent Smith government "could lawfully do anything its predecessors could lawfully have done". A Salisbury commission chaired by prominent lawyer W.R. Waley was appointed to study constitutional options open to the Rhodesian authorities as of April 1968, including on the topic of majority rule, but reopening negotiations with the British on a settlement was ruled out early on. The Waley Commission found that in practical as well as legal terms, "Europeans must surrender any belief in permanent European domination", pointing out that minority rule was not permanently sustainable. However, Waley also testified that majority rule was not desirable immediately. Talks aimed at easing the differences between Rhodesia and the United Kingdom were carried out aboard Royal Navy vessels once in December 1966 and again in October 1968. Both efforts failed to achieve agreement, although Harold Wilson added a sixth principle to the five he had previously enunciated: "it would be necessary to ensure that, regardless of race, there was no oppression of the majority by the minority or of [any] minority by the majority." Rhodesian resolve stiffened following a failure to reach a new settlement, with more radical elements of the Rhodesian Front calling for a republican constitution. During a [referendum](two-proposition)(Rhodesian constitutional referendum, 1969) held in 1969, the proposal for severing all remaining ties to the British Crown passed by a majority of 61,130 votes to 14,327. Rhodesia declared itself a republic on 2 March 1970. Under the new constitution, a president served as ceremonial head of state, with the prime minister nominally reporting to him. Some in Rhodesian government had hoped in vain that the declaration of a republic would finally prompt other nations to grant recognition. #### Impact of UDI The years following Rhodesia's UDI saw an unfolding series of economic, military, and political pressures placed on the country that eventually brought about majority rule, a totality of these factors rather than any one the reason for introducing change. In 2005, a conference at the [School of Economics](London)(London School of Economics) that discussed Rhodesia's independence concluded that UDI was sparked by an existing racial conflict complicated by [War](Cold)(Cold War) intrigues. Critics of UDI maintained that Ian Smith intended to safeguard the privileges of an entrenched colonial ruling class at the expense of the impoverished black population. Smith defended his actions by claiming that the black Rhodesian majority was too inexperienced at the time to participate in the complex administrative process of what was, by contemporary African standards, a reasonably industrialised state. At large, UDI further hardened the white population's attitudes towards majority rule and relations with the UK. A significant majority of white Rhodesian residents were either British immigrants or of British ancestry, and many held a special affection for the British Empire. However, the UK's refusal to grant them independence on their terms further confirmed their opposition to a political settlement on British terms, and fed their negative attitudes towards British interference in Rhodesian politics at large. In the years prior to UDI, white Rhodesians increasingly saw themselves as beleaguered and threatened, perpetually insecure and undermined by the metropole, unable to rely on anybody but themselves. The policy of "No independence before majority rule" transformed the white community's relationship with the UK and increased its suspicions of the British government's untrustworthiness and duplicity in colonial affairs, especially since the latter had adopted NIBMR as a formal policy - the very circumstance UDI was carried out to avoid, and which white Rhodesians had struggled to resist since the onset of decolonisation. Black nationalist parties reacted with outrage at UDI, with one ZANU official stating, "...for all those who cherish freedom and a meaningful life, UDI has set a collision course that cannot be altered. 11 November 1965 [has] marked the turning point of the struggle for freedom in that land from a constitutional and political one to primarily a military struggle." It would, however, be several years before the nationalists adopted armed struggle as their primary strategy for obtaining political power. Violent tactics at this time were intended to create opportunities for [intervention](external)(Interventionism (politics)), either by the international community or the British government, rather than seriously undermine the Rhodesian security forces. Because Rhodesian exports were generally competitive and had previously been entitled to preferential treatment on the British market, the former colony did not recognise the need for escalating the pace of [diversification](Diversification (marketing strategy)) before independence. Following the UDI, however, Rhodesia began to demonstrate that it had the potential to develop a greater degree of economic [self-sufficiency](self-sufficiency). After the Rhodesian Front began introducing incentives accorded to domestic production, industrial output expanded dramatically. A rigid system of countermeasures enacted to combat sanctions succeeded in blunting their impact for at least a decade. Over the next nine years Rhodesian companies, spiting the [of their assets and blocking of overseas accounts](freezing)(International asset recovery), also perfected cunning techniques of sanctions evasion through both local and foreign subsidiaries, which operated on a clandestine trade network. From 1968 until 1970, there was virtually no further dialogue between Rhodesia and the UK. In a [referendum](Rhodesian constitutional referendum, 1969) in 1969, white voters approved a new constitution and the establishment of a republic, thereby severing Rhodesia's last links with the British Crown, duly declared in March 1970. This changed immediately after the election of [Heath](Edward)(Edward Heath), who reopened negotiations. Smith remained optimistic that Heath would do his utmost to remedy Anglo-Rhodesian relations, although disappointed that he continued to adhere publicly to the original "five principles" proposed by Alec Douglas-Home, now [secretary](foreign)(Secretary of State for Foreign and Commonwealth Affairs). In November 1971, Douglas-Home renewed contacts with Salisbury and announced a proposed agreement that would be satisfactory to both sides – it recognised Rhodesia's 1969 constitution as the legal frame of government, while agreeing that gradual legislative representation was an acceptable formula for unhindered advance to majority rule. Nevertheless, the new settlement, if approved, would also implement an immediate improvement in black political status, offer a means to terminate racial discrimination, and provide a solid guarantee against retrogressive constitutional amendments. Implementation of the proposed settlement hinged on popular acceptance, but the Rhodesian government consistently refused to submit it to a universal referendum. A twenty four-member commission headed by an eminent jurist, [Pearce](Lord)(Edward Pearce, Baron Pearce), was therefore tasked with ascertaining [opinion](public)(public opinion) on the subject. In 1972, the commission began interviewing interest groups and sampling opinions – although concern was expressed over the widespread [apathy](Political apathy) encountered. According to the commission, whites were in favour of the settlement, and Rhodesians of [Coloured](Coloured) or Asian ancestry generally pleased, while the black response to the settlement's terms was resoundingly negative. As many as thirty black Rhodesian chiefs and politicians voiced their opposition, prompting Britain to withdraw from the proposals on the grounds of the commission's report. ### The Bush War #### Early militant activity As early as 1960, [rule](minority)(minority rule) in Southern Rhodesia was already being challenged by a rising tide of [violence](political)(political violence) led by black African nationalists such as [Nkomo](Joshua)(Joshua Nkomo) and [Sithole](Ndabaningi)(Ndabaningi Sithole). A sustained period of civil unrest between 1960 and 1965 further polarised relations between the government and the increasingly militant black nationalists. After their public campaigns were initially suppressed, many black nationalists believed that negotiation was completely incapable of meeting their aspirations. Petrol bombings by politicised radicals became increasingly common, with the Zimbabwe Review observing in 1961, "for the first time home-made petrol bombs were used by freedom fighters in Salisbury against settler establishments." Between January and September 1962, nationalists detonated 33 bombs and were implicated in 28 acts of arson, and 27 acts of sabotage against communications infrastructure. The nationalists also murdered a number of black Rhodesians who were accused of collaboration with the security forces. Nkomo's party, the [African People's Union](Zimbabwe)(Zimbabwe African People's Union) (ZAPU) announced that year that it had formed a military wing, the [People's Revolutionary Army](Zimbabwe)(Zimbabwe People's Revolutionary Army) (ZIPRA) and "the decision to start bringing in arms and ammunition and to send young men away for sabotage training" had already been implemented. As early as 1960, ZAPU's predecessor, the National Democratic Party (NDP), had established informal contacts with the [Union](Soviet)(Soviet Union) and [Czechoslovakia](Czechoslovak Socialist Republic), and discussed the possibility of obtaining military training in Eastern Europe for its members. In July 1962, Nkomo visited Moscow and discussed plans for a ZAPU-led armed uprising in Rhodesia. He made formal requests for Soviet funding and arms for ZIPRA, explaining that "for these purposes ZAPU needs arms, explosives, revolvers...the party also needs money to bribe persons who guard important installations, to carry out sabotage". The Soviets agreed to supply ZAPU with limited funds beginning in 1963, and increased its level of financial support after UDI. In 1963, ZIPRA also made its first formal request to the Soviet Union for military training. The Soviets began training ZIPRA militants in guerrilla warfare in early 1964. Nkomo's public endorsement of a violent strategy confirmed white politicians' opposition to ZAPU and fed their negative attitudes towards black nationalists at large. In response to the formation of ZIPRA, the Rhodesian government [banned](Ban (law)) ZAPU, driving that party's supporters underground. It also passed draconian security legislation restricting the right to assembly and granting the security forces broad powers to crack down on suspected political subversives. For the first time, the [sentence](death)(capital punishment) was also introduced for any act of politically inspired terrorism which involved arson or the use of explosives. The emergence of guerrilla warfare and acts of urban insurrection by the black nationalist parties in Rhodesia allowed racial politics to be elevated into an issue of law and order in white Rhodesian public discourse. To Smith and his government, black nationalists were stateless dissidents whose primary motives were not political, but crime and perpetuating lawlessness; for example, Smith preferred to describe the insurgents as "gangsters" in his commentary. The use of weapons and explosives sourced from communist states by the black nationalists also disguised the racial dynamics of the conflict, allowing white Rhodesians to claim that they were targets of Soviet-directed communist agitators rather than a domestic political movement. Smith and his supporters perceived themselves as collective defenders of the traditional values of the British Empire against the twin threats of international communism, manifested through the Soviet Union's support for black nationalist militants, and the social and political decadence of the West. Often repeated appeals to the Christian heritage of their pioneer ancestors in "defending the [world](free)(free world)" and sustaining "Western civilisation" reflected these beliefs. This was hardly an unusual opinion among white minorities in Southern Africa at the time; a dossier compiled by United States intelligence officials on the topic found that: }} ZAPU's attempts to implement its armed struggle were hamstrung by a factional split within the party between 1962 and 1963. A number of ZAPU dissidents rejected Nkomo's authority and formed their own organisation, the [African National Union](Zimbabwe)(Zimbabwe African National Union) (ZANU), with Ndabangingi Sithole as its president and [Mugabe](Robert)(Robert Mugabe) as its general secretary. By August 1964, ZANU was banned by the Rhodesian government as well, which cited widespread acts of violent intimidation attributed to its members. ZANU's agenda was left-wing and [pan-Africanist](Pan-Africanism); it demanded a one-party state with majority rule and the abolition of private property. Ethnic tensions also exaberated the split: ZANU recruited almost solely from the [peoples](Shona-speaking)(Shona people) of Rhodesia. Its chief support base was the rural peasantry in the [Mashonaland](Mashonaland) countryside. ZAPU did retain Shona members, even among its senior leadership following the split. However, thereafter it recruited predominantly from the [Ndebele](Northern Ndebele people) ethnic group. Due to ZAPU's close relationship with the Soviet Union, ZANU found itself ostracised by the Soviet bloc but soon found a new ally in the [Republic of China](People's)(People's Republic of China). Its political ideology was somewhat more influenced by the principles of [Maoism](Maoism) than ZAPU, and a sympathetic Chinese government soon agreed to furnish weapons and training for ZANU's own war effort. After UDI, ZANU formed its own military wing, the [African National Liberation Army](Zimbabwe)(Zimbabwe African National Liberation Army) (ZANLA). While ZANLA and ZIPRA both planned for an armed struggle against the Rhodesian government, their respective leadership disagreed on the means of conducting the insurgency. ZIPRA favoured Soviet thinking, placing an emphasis on acquiring sophisticated weaponry in the hopes of winning a conventional battle like the [Minh](Viet)(Viet Minh) at [Bien Phu](Dien)(Battle of Dien Bien Phu). ZANLA placed greater emphasis on the politicisation of the local populace in the areas it operated, and favoured a more irregular style of warfare. [[soldier interrogating villagers in late 1977 at gunpoint. This photograph would become one of the most enduring images of the Bush War.](File:Scoutwithgun.jpg\|thumb\|Rhodesian)] In early April 1966, two groups of ZANLA insurgents recently trained at a Chinese military facility in [Nanjing](Nanjing) crossed into Rhodesia from Zambia, having been issued vague instructions to sabotage important installations and kill white farmers. Five were arrested by the Rhodesian security forces almost immediately. Another seven initially evaded capture and planned to destroy an [pylon](electric)(Electricity pylon) near [Sinoia](Chinhoyi). Their explosive charges failed to detonate and were discovered by the security forces, who tracked the insurgents to a nearby ranch on April 28. All seven were cornered and killed after a brief firefight; this event is considered to be the first engagement of the [Bush War](Rhodesian)(Rhodesian Bush War). The action at Sinoia has been commemorated by supporters of the guerrillas since as "Chimurenga Day", and occupies a place of pride in ZANU hagiography. In August 1967, a large and better-equipped column of almost seventy ZIPRA insurgents infiltrated Rhodesia from Zambia, bolstered by recruits from an allied South African militant organisation, [we Sizwe](uMkhonto)(uMkhonto we Sizwe) (MK). The insurgents failed to cultivate prior contacts with the local populace, which immediately informed on their presence to Rhodesian officials. Within the month, the Rhodesian police and army had launched a counteroffensive codenamed [Nickel](Operation)(Operation Nickel), killing forty-seven insurgents, capturing another twenty, and driving the survivors across the border into Botswana. An even larger ZIPRA column of over a hundred insurgents was intercepted in early 1968 and annihilated by the security forces. A third ZIPRA incursion attempt in July 1969 met with similarly catastrophic results. Thereafter, ZIPRA abandoned the notion of attempting to infiltrate the country with large groups of insurgents equipped only with small arms; it limited itself to more irregular forms of warfare until it could stockpile enough heavy weaponry to mount a major conventional invasion. For its part, the ZANLA leadership criticised ZIPRA's continued fixation with winning a major conventional engagement, arguing that the failed incursions demonstrated the futility of engaging the Rhodesian military in the type of pitched battles in which it held an indisputable advantage. ZIPRA's failure to obtain support from the locals was also noted, and ZANLA began implementing a long-term covert politicisation programme to cultivate civilian support throughout its future area of operations. ### Military and political escalation (1972–1976) By December 1972, ZANLA had cached arms and established a vast underground network of informants and supporters in northeastern Rhodesia. As a result of the erosion of Portuguese authority in Mozambique's border provinces due to the [War of Independence](Mozambican)(Mozambican War of Independence), ZANLA was also able to establish external sanctuaries there. It was also in the process of cultivating a military alliance with the leading black nationalist movement in Mozambique, the [for the Liberation of Mozambique](Front)(Front for the Liberation of Mozambique) (FRELIMO). On December 21, a group of ZANLA insurgents under [Nhongo](Rex)(Rex Nhongo) crossed into Rhodesia from Mozambique and [an isolated commercial farm](raided)(Attack on Altena Farm). In the successive months, this attack was followed by a succession of raids on white farmers throughout the northeastern districts of the country and resulted in several casualties among the security forces. The propaganda value of these raids, coupled with the success of ZANLA's politicisation campaign, denied intelligence to the security forces and furnished more recruits for the insurgents. In response, the Rhodesian security forces began coordinating operations in Mozambique with the Portuguese army to intercept ZANLA insurgents before they could cross the border. The practical alliances between ZIPRA and MK, and later ZANLA and FRELIMO, prompted Rhodesia to look increasingly towards South Africa and Portugal for active assistance. Rhodesian politicians frequently reminded officials in the other two nations of common security interests based on the similarity of their restive internal situations. They saw strong parallels between their nation's position of being threatened by black nationalist insurgencies and the Portuguese predicament with FRELIMO in Mozambique, as well as to a lesser extent the insurgencies in South Africa and [West Africa](South)(South West Africa). Under the auspices of the [Exercise](Alcora)(Alcora Exercise), the three countries' bureaucracies began routinely sharing information and seeking common diplomatic positions. Lieutenant General Alan Fraser, a senior strategist in the [African Defence Force](South)(South African Defence Force) wrote in 1970, "there can be no doubt in any of our minds that we have a common enemy: we, i.e. Portugal, the RSA and Rhodesia. Unless we are to lay ourselves open to the possibility of defeat in detail, we must fight this enemy jointly—if not simultaneously." Nevertheless, aside from intelligence-sharing and some limited coordination on the operational level in Mozambique, the Portuguese could offer Rhodesia little decisive assistance. Portuguese military resources in Mozambique were preoccupied with FRELIMO and somewhat depleted by a decade of war, and little could be spared to assist a foreign ally. Rhodesia expected far more from South Africa, which possessed far greater military resources and infinitely more diplomatic influence abroad. After the collapse of Portuguese rule in Mozambique in 1974–1975, it was no longer viable for the Smith regime to sustain white [rule](minority)(minority rule) indefinitely. By this time, even South Africa's [Vorster](John Vorster) had come to this view. While Vorster was unwilling to make concessions to his own country's black people, he concluded that white minority rule was not sustainable in a country where black people outnumbered white people 22:1. In 1976, there were 270,000 Rhodesians of European descent and six million Africans. International business groups involved in the country (e.g. [Lonrho](Lonrho)) transferred their support from the Rhodesian government to black nationalist parties. Business leaders and politicians feted Nkomo on his visits to Europe. ZANU also attracted business supporters who saw the course that future events were likely to take.[Guardian](The)(The Guardian), 21 April 2000 [British Multimillionaire bankrolls Mugabe party](https://www.theguardian.com/international/story/0,3604,212767,00.html) Funding and arms support provided by supporters, particularly from the Soviet Union and its allies in the latter 1970s, allowed both ZIPRA and the ZANLA to acquire more sophisticated weaponry, thereby increasing the military pressure that the guerrillas were able to place on Rhodesia. Until 1972, containing the guerrillas was little more than a police action. Even as late as August 1975 when Rhodesian government and black nationalist leaders met [Victoria Falls](at)(Victoria Falls Conference (1975)) for negotiations brokered by South Africa and Zambia, the talks never got beyond the procedural phase.Brookings Institution: [p156, study on conflict resolution](http://brookings.nap.edu/books/0815775938/html/156.html) Rhodesian representatives made it clear they were prepared to fight an all out war to prevent majority rule. However, the situation changed dramatically after the end of Portuguese colonial rule in Mozambique in 1975. Rhodesia now found itself almost entirely surrounded by hostile states and even South Africa, its only real ally, pressed for a settlement. }} At this point, ZANU's alliance with FRELIMO and the porous border between Mozambique and eastern Rhodesia enabled large-scale training and infiltration of ZANU/ZANLA fighters. The governments of Zambia and Botswana were also emboldened sufficiently to allow resistance movement bases to be set up in their territories. Guerrillas began to launch operations deep inside Rhodesia, attacking roads, railways, economic targets and isolated security force positions, in 1976. [[File:Rhodesian Army recruitment Bush War 1976.png\|thumb\|A Rhodesian servicewoman taking aim with her [Hi-Power](Browning)(Browning Hi-Power) [9×19mm](9×19mm) [pistol](semi-automatic)(semi-automatic pistol); from a 1976 army recruitment poster]] The government adopted a [hamlet](strategic)(strategic hamlet)s policy of the kind used in [Malaya](Malayan Emergency#Comparisons with Vietnam) and [Vietnam](Vietnam War) to restrict the influence of insurgents over the population of rural areas. Local people were forced to relocate to protected villages (PVs) which were strictly controlled and guarded by the government against rebel atrocities. The protected villages were compared by the guerrillas to [camps](concentration)(concentration camps). Some contemporary accounts claim that this interference in the lives of local residents induced many of them who had previously been neutral to support the guerrillas.APF Newsletter, 1976 :[Rhodesia's "Protected" Black people.](http://www.aliciapatterson.org/APF001975/Wright/Wright17/Wright17.html) The war degenerated into rounds of increasing brutality from all three parties involved (ZANU and ZAPU, and the Rhodesian Army). Mike Subritzky, a former [NZ](New Zealand) Army ceasefire monitor in Rhodesia, in 1980 described the war as "both bloody and brutal and brought out the very worst in the opposing combatants on all three sides." A major problem for the Rhodesian state in fighting the Bush War was always a shortage of manpower. Of the 3,000 white men liable for conscription in 1973, only about 1,000 reported when called-up. In February 1978, the Rhodesian Army stated it needed a minimum of 1,041 men to continue combat operations, and of those called up, only 570 reported for duty while the rest chose to move to South Africa. White emigration increased as the state called up more and more men to fight in the war, creating a vicious circle, which gradually limited the capacity of the Rhodesian state to continue the war. In order to stop white emigration, the Smith government brought in a law in 1975 forbidding Rhodesian citizens from holding foreign currency, but the law was widely flouted. In order to encourage white emigration, the guerrillas of ZANU and ZAPU followed a strategy of attacking anything and everything that was of economic value across the country in order to force the state to call up more men, and of killing white civilians. Killing Rhodesian white citizens tended to have an "echo effect" as the ZANU and ZAPU had each estimated that for one white citizen killed, it caused about 20 to leave Rhodesia. ### End of the Bush War Rhodesia began to lose vital economic and military support from South Africa, which, while sympathetic to the white minority government, never accorded it diplomatic recognition. The South African government placed limits on the fuel and munitions they supplied to the Rhodesian military. They also withdrew the personnel and equipment that they had previously provided to aid the war effort, though covert military support continued. In 1976, the South African government and [States government](United)(United States government)s worked together to place pressure on Smith to agree to a form of majority rule. In response to the initiative of US Secretary of State [Kissinger](Henry)(Henry Kissinger), in 1976 Ian Smith accepted the principle of black majority rule within two years. The Rhodesians now offered more concessions, but those concessions, focused on reaching an "internal settlement" with moderate black leaders, were insufficient to end the war. At the time, some Rhodesians said the still embittered history between the British-dominated Rhodesia and the [Afrikaner](Afrikaner)-dominated South Africa partly led the South African government to withdraw its aid to Rhodesia. Ian Smith said in his memoirs that even though many white South Africans supported Rhodesia, South African Prime Minister [Vorster](John)(John Vorster)'s policy of [détente](détente) with the black African states ended up with Rhodesia being offered as the "sacrificial lamb" to buy more time for South Africa. Other observers perceived South Africa's distancing itself from Rhodesia as being an early move in the process that led to majority rule in South Africa itself.APF newsletter, 1976: [appraisal of Rhodesia in 1976](http://www.aliciapatterson.org/APF001975/Wright/Wright19/Wright19.html) }} In the latter 1970s, the militants had successfully put the economy of Rhodesia under significant pressure while the numbers of guerrillas in the country were steadily increasing.Time magazine, 7 August 1978: [Rhodesia faces collapse](http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,948221-1,00.html) Time magazine, 1 August 1978: [taking the chicken run](http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,915164-1,00.html) The government abandoned its early strategy of trying to defend the borders in favour of trying to defend key economic areas and lines of communication with South Africa, while the rest of the countryside became a patchwork of "[area](no-go)(no-go area)s". #### Late 1970s By the late 1970s, Rhodesia's front-line forces contained about 25,000 regular troops and police – backed up by relatively strong army and police reserves. Its mechanised contingent consisted of light armoured cars and improvised [mine-protected](MRAP) armoured personnel carriers, complemented by eight tanks (Polish built [T-55LD](T-54/T-55 Operators and variants#Poland) tanks), delivered in the last year of the war. The [Air Force](Rhodesian)(Rhodesian Air Force) operated an assortment of both [Canberra](English Electric Canberra) light bombers, [Hunter](Hawker)(Hawker Hunter) fighter bombers, older [Havilland Vampire](de)(de Havilland Vampire) jets as well as a somewhat antiquated, but still potent, helicopter arm. These forces, including highly trained special operations units, were capable of launching devastating raids on resistance movement camps outside the country, as in [Dingo](Operation)(Operation Dingo) in 1977 and other similar operations. Nevertheless, guerrilla pressure inside the country itself was steadily increasing in the latter 1970s. By 1978–1979, the war had become a contest between the guerrilla warfare placing ever increasing pressure on the Rhodesian regime and civil population, and the Rhodesian government's strategy of trying to hold off the militants until external recognition for a compromise political settlement with moderate black leaders could be secured. By this time, the need to cut a deal was apparent to most Rhodesians, but not to all. Ian Smith had dismissed his intransigent Defence Minister, [K. van der Byl](P.)(P. K. van der Byl), as early as 1976.Rhodesia Worldwide:["PK"](http://www.rhodesiana.com/rsr/rsr3-004.html) Van der Byl was a hard-line opponent of any form of compromise with domestic opposition or the international community since before UDI. Van der Byl eventually retired to his country estate outside [Town](Cape)(Cape Town), but there were elements in Rhodesia, mainly embittered former security force personnel, who forcibly opposed majority rule up to and well beyond the establishment of majority rule.Newsnet report : [saboteurs hit Zimbabwean military, partisan comment](http://www.newsnet.co.zw/index.php?nID=6941) New white immigrants continued to arrive in Rhodesia right up to the eve of majority rule.Time magazine, October 1977 : [The Land of Opportunity](http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,915681,00.html) #### Intensification of the Bush War The work of journalists such as [Richard Cecil](Lord)(Lord Richard Cecil), son of [6th Marquess of Salisbury](The)(Robert Gascoyne-Cecil, 6th Marquess of Salisbury), stiffened the morale of Rhodesians and their overseas supporters.The Guardian, 15 July 2003: [obituary of sixth Marquess of Salisbury](https://www.theguardian.com/obituaries/story/0,,998195,00.html) Lord Richard produced news reports for ITN which typically contrasted the "incompetent" insurgents with the "superbly professional" government troops.Nick Downie report: [http://www.rhodesianforces.org/Pages/Army/Rhodesia%20-%20a%20study%20in%20military%20incompetence.htm] A group of ZANLA fighters killed Lord Richard on 20 April 1978 when he was accompanying a Rhodesian airborne unit employed in Fire Force Operations.2nd Lt CJE Vincent BCR who was present when Lord Cecil was killed The shooting down on 3 September 1978 of the civilian [Rhodesia](Air)(Air Rhodesia) airliner, a [Viscount](Vickers)(Vickers Viscount) named the [Hunyani](Air Rhodesia Flight 825), in the [Kariba](Kariba, Zimbabwe) area by ZIPRA fighters using a [missile](surface-to-air)(surface-to-air missile), with the subsequent massacre of 10 of its 18 survivors, is widely considered to be the event that finally destroyed the Rhodesians' will to continue the war. Although militarily insignificant, the loss of this aircraft (and a second Viscount, named the [Umniati](Air Rhodesia Flight 827), in 1979) demonstrated the reach of resistance movements extended to Rhodesian civil society. The Rhodesians' means to continue the war were also eroding fast. In December 1978, a ZANLA unit penetrated the outskirts of Salisbury and fired a volley of rockets and [device](incendiary)(incendiary device) rounds into the main oil storage depot – the most heavily defended economic asset in the country. The storage tanks burned for five days, giving off a column of smoke that could be seen away. of petroleum product (comprising Rhodesia's strategic oil reserve) were lost.The Atlantic Monthly : [The Fragility of Domestic Energy, see page 5](http://www.rmi.org/cms/Download.aspx?id=1296&file=S83-08_FragileDomEnergy.pdf&title=The+Fragility+of+Domestic+Energy) The government's defence spending increased from R$30 million, 8.5% of the national budget in 1971 to 1972, to R$400 m in 1978 to 1979, 47% of the national budget. In 1980, the post-independence government of Zimbabwe inherited a US$500 million national debt.Selby thesis: [ZWNEWS.com](http://www.zwnews.com/3-Main%20Body.pdf) , p 88 ### End of UDI (1979) [[File:Internal Settlement.jpg\|thumb\|Signing of the Rhodesian Internal Settlement (from left: Bishop Abel Muzorewa, [Smith](Ian)(Ian Smith), [Chirau](Jeremiah)(Jeremiah Chirau) and [Sithole](Ndabaningi)(Ndabaningi Sithole))]] The Rhodesian army continued its "mobile counter-offensive" strategy of holding key positions ("vital asset ground") while carrying out raids into the no-go areas and into neighbouring countries. While often extraordinarily successful in inflicting heavy guerrilla casualties, such raids also on occasion failed to achieve their objectives. In April 1979 special forces carried out a raid on [Nkomo](Joshua)(Joshua Nkomo)'s residence in [Lusaka](Lusaka) ([Zambia](Zambia)) with the stated intention of assassinating him. Nkomo and his family left hastily a few hours before the raid – having clearly been warned that the raid was coming. In 1979, some special forces units were accused of using counterinsurgent operations as cover for ivory poaching and smuggling. Colonel [Reid-Daly](Reid-Daly) (commander of the [Scouts](Selous)(Selous Scouts)) discovered that his phone was bugged and after challenging a superior officer on this issue was court martialled for insubordination. He received the lightest sentence possible, a caution, but he continued to fight his conviction and eventually resigned his commission and left the Army. By 1978–1979, up to 70% of the regular army was composed of black soldiers (though both the army and police reserves remained overwhelmingly white). By 1979 there were also 30 black commissioned officers in the regular army. While there was never any suggestion of disloyalty among the soldiers from predominantly black units (in particular within the Selous Scouts or the [African Rifles](Rhodesian)(Rhodesian African Rifles) – RAR), some argue that, by the time of the 1980 election, many of the RAR soldiers voted for Robert Mugabe. The military provides a model for how institutions can address racism\|language=en-US\|newspaper=[Washington Post](The)(The Washington Post)\|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/outlook/2020/06/23/military-provides-model-how-institutions-can-address-racism/\|access-date=2021-01-24\|issn=0190-8286}} As the result of an [Settlement](Internal)(Internal Settlement) signed on 3 March 1978 between the Rhodesian government and the moderate African nationalist parties, which were not in exile and not involved in the war, elections were held in April 1979. The [African National Council](United)(United African National Council) (UANC) party won a majority in this election, and its leader, [Muzorewa](Abel)(Abel Muzorewa) (a [Methodist Church](United)(United Methodist Church) bishop), became the country's first black prime minister on 1 June 1979. The country's name was changed to [Rhodesia](Zimbabwe)(Zimbabwe Rhodesia). The internal settlement left control of the country's police, security forces, civil service and judiciary in white hands, for the moment. It assured whites of about one-third of the seats in parliament. It was essentially a power-sharing arrangement between white people and black people which, in the eyes of many, particularly the insurgents, did not amount to majority rule.BBC "On this day" report :[1 June 1979](http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/june/1/newsid_2492000/2492915.stm) . However, the [States Senate](United)(United States Senate) voted to end economic sanctions against Zimbabwe Rhodesia on 12 June.[Senate Votes Down A Move To Preserve Rhodesia Sanctions; Arms-Bill Veto Threatened White House Says 52-to-41 Margin Shows President Has Support to Prevent an Override](https://www.nytimes.com/1979/06/13/archives/senate-votes-down-a-move-to-preserve-rhodesia-sanctions-armsbill.html) , 13 June 1979. The New York Times. While the 1979 election was described by the Rhodesian government as non-racial and democratic, it did not include the main nationalist parties ZANU and ZAPU. In spite of offers from Ian Smith, the latter parties declined to participate in an election in which their political position would be insecure and under a proposed constitution which they had played no part in drafting and which was perceived as retaining strong white minority privilege. Bishop Muzorewa's government did not receive international recognition. The Bush War continued unabated and sanctions were not lifted. The international community refused to accept the validity of any agreement which did not incorporate the main nationalist parties. The British Government (then led by the recently elected [Thatcher](Margaret)(Margaret Thatcher)) issued invitations to all parties to attend a peace conference at [House](Lancaster)(Lancaster House). These negotiations took place in London in late 1979. The three-month-long conference almost failed to reach conclusion, due to disagreements on [reform](land)(Land reform in Zimbabwe), but resulted in the [House Agreement](Lancaster)(Lancaster House Agreement). UDI ended, and Rhodesia temporarily reverted to the status of a British colony (the 'Colony of Southern Rhodesia').Southern Rhodesia (Annexation) Order in Council, 30 July 1923 which provided by section 3 thereof: "From and after the coming into operation of this Order the said territories shall be annexed to and form part of His Majesty's Dominions, and shall be known as the Colony of Southern Rhodesia." As per the agreement, [Soames](Lord)(Christopher Soames) became Governor with full legislative and executive powers. The Lancaster House Agreement further provided for a ceasefire which was followed by an internationally supervised general election, held on [1980](February)(Southern Rhodesian general election, 1980). ZANU led by [Mugabe](Robert)(Robert Mugabe) won this election, some alleged, by terrorising its political opposition, including supporters of ZAPU, through former insurgents that had not confined themselves to the designated guerrilla assembly points, as stipulated by the Lancaster House Agreement. The observers and Soames were accused of looking the other way, and Mugabe's victory was certified. Nevertheless, few could doubt that Mugabe's support within his majority Shona tribal group was extremely strong. The Rhodesian military seriously considered mounting a coup against a perceived stolen election ("Operation Quartz") to prevent ZANU from taking over the country. The alleged coup was to include the assassination of Mugabe and coordinated assaults on guerrilla assembly points throughout the country. The plan was eventually scuttled, as it was obvious that Mugabe enjoyed widespread support from the black majority despite voter intimidation, as well as the fact that the coup would gain no external support, and a conflagration which would engulf the country was seen as inevitable. ### Republic of Zimbabwe (1980) Mugabe (and nationalists who supported his rule) were rather less concerned by Operation Quartz than by the possibility that there might be a mass exodus of the white community of the kind that had caused chaos in Mozambique five years earlier. Such an exodus had been prepared for by the South African government. With the agreement of the British Governor of Rhodesia, South African troops had entered the country to secure the road approaches to the [Bridge](Beit)(Beit Bridge) border crossing point. Refugee camps had been prepared in the [Transvaal](Transvaal Province). On the day the election results became known, most white families had prepared contingency plans for flight, including the packing of cars and suitcases. However, after a meeting with Robert Mugabe and the central committee of ZANU (PF), Ian Smith was reassured that whites could and should stay in the new Zimbabwe. Mugabe promised that he would abide strictly by the terms of the [House Agreement](Lancaster)(Lancaster House Agreement) and that changes in Zimbabwe would be made gradually and by a proper legal process. In a CBS news interview, Mugabe claimed that Rhodesian whites "...are still in control of the economy, the majority being commercial farmers." Mugabe, however, would reverse his commitment to these agreements some years later; the regime began confiscating white-owned farmlands. This is widely blamed for leading to the deterioration of the Zimbabwean economy, which plagues the country today. On 18 April 1980 the country became independent within the [of Nations](Commonwealth)(Commonwealth of Nations) as the Republic of Zimbabwe, and its capital, Salisbury, was renamed [Harare](Harare) two years later. ## Geography Rhodesia is equivalent in territory to modern [Zimbabwe](Zimbabwe). It was a [country](landlocked)(landlocked country) in [Africa](southern)(southern Africa), lying between latitudes [15°](15th parallel south) and [23°S](23rd parallel south), and longitudes [25°](25th meridian east) and [34°E](34th meridian east). It was bordered by [Africa](South)(South Africa) to the south, the [Protectorate](Bechuanaland)(Bechuanaland Protectorate) (later [Botswana](Botswana)) to the west and southwest, [Zambia](Zambia) to the northwest, and [Mozambique](Mozambique) to the east and northeast. Its northwest corner was roughly from [West Africa](South)(South West Africa) (present-day [Namibia](Namibia)), South Africa, nearly forming a four-nation [quadripoint](quadripoint). Most of the country was elevated, consisting of a central plateau (high veld) stretching from the southwest northwards with altitudes between . The country's extreme east was mountainous, this area being known as the [Highlands](Eastern)(Eastern Highlands), with [Inyangani](Mount)(Mount Nyangani) as the highest point at . ### Climate Rhodesia had a [climate](tropical)(tropical climate) with many local variations. The southern areas were known for their heat and aridity, parts of the central plateau received frost in winter, the [Zambezi](Zambezi) valley was also known for its extreme heat and the Eastern Highlands usually experienced cool temperatures and the highest rainfall in the country. The country's rainy season was from late October to March and the hot climate was moderated by increasing altitude. The country was faced with recurring droughts, and severe storms were rare.Baughan, M. (2005). Continent in the Balance: Zimbabwe-Juvenile literature. Philadelphia, PA: Mason Crest Publishers; . ### Biodiversity The country was mostly savannah, although the moist and mountainous eastern highlands supported areas of tropical evergreen and hardwood forests. Trees found in these Eastern Highlands included [teak](teak), [mahogany](mahogany), enormous specimens of [fig](strangling)(Strangler fig), [newtonia](forest)(Newtonia buchananii), big leaf, [stinkwood](white)(Celtis africana), [stinkwood](chirinda)(Celtis mildbraedii), [knobthorn](Senegalia nigrescens) and many others. In the low-lying parts of the country [trees](fever)(Vachellia xanthophloea), [mopane](mopane), [combretum](combretum) and [baobabs](Adansonia) abound. Much of the country was covered by [miombo](miombo) woodland, dominated by [brachystegia](brachystegia) species and others. Among the numerous flowers and shrubs were [hibiscus](hibiscus), [lily](flame)(flame lily), [lily](snake)(Scadoxus puniceus), [lily](spider)(spider lily), [leonotus](Leonotis), [cassia](Cassia (genus)), [wisteria](tree)(Wisteria) and [dombeya](dombeya). There were around 350 species of mammals that can be found in Rhodesia. There were also many snakes and lizards, over 500 bird species, and 131 fish species. ## Government and politics [[of the President of Rhodesia (1970–1979).svg\|thumb\|upright=1.1\|The presidential flag of Rhodesia](File:Flag)] Although Southern Rhodesia never gained full [Dominion](Dominion) status within the [of Nations](Commonwealth)(Commonwealth of Nations), Southern Rhodesians ruled themselves from the attainment of '[Government](Responsible)(responsible government)' in 1923. Its electoral register had property and education qualifications. Over the years various electoral arrangements made at a national and municipal level upheld these standards. For example, the franchise for the first [Rhodesian Legislative Council](Southern)(Southern Rhodesian Legislative Council) election in 1899 contained the following requirement: voters to be British subjects, male, 21 years of age and older, able to write their address and occupation, and then to fulfil the following financial requirements: (a) ownership of a registered mining claim in Southern Rhodesia, or (b) occupying immovable property worth £75, or (c) receiving wages or salary of £50 per annum in Southern Rhodesia. Six months' continuous residence was also required for qualifications (b) and (c). Following [Rhodes](Cecil)(Cecil Rhodes)'s dictum of "equal rights for all civilised men", there was no overt racial component to the franchise. However, the requirement excluded a majority of native black people from the electorate. Up until the 1950s, Southern Rhodesia had a vibrant political life with right and left wing parties competing for power. The [Labour Party](Rhodesian)(Rhodesian Labour Party) held seats in the Assembly and in municipal councils throughout the 1920s and 1930s. From 1953 to 1958, the prime minister was [Todd](Garfield)(Garfield Todd), a liberal who did much to promote the development of the black community through investment in education, housing and healthcare. However, the government forced Todd from office because his proposed reforms were seen by many whites as too radical. From 1958 onwards, white settler politics consolidated and ossified around resistance to majority rule, setting the stage for UDI. The 1961 Constitution governed Southern Rhodesia and independent Rhodesia up until 1969, using the Westminster Parliamentary System modified by a system of separate voter rolls with differing property and education qualifications, without regard to race. Whites ended up with the majority of Assembly seats. The 1969 republican constitution established a [bicameral](bicameral) Parliament consisting of an indirectly elected [Senate](Senate of Rhodesia) and a directly elected [of Assembly](House)(House of Assembly of Rhodesia), effectively reserving the majority of seats for whites. The office of [President](President of Rhodesia) had only ceremonial significance with the Prime Minister holding executive power. The Constitution of the short-lived [Rhodesia](Zimbabwe)(Zimbabwe Rhodesia), which saw a black-led government elected for the first time, reserved 28 of the 100 parliamentary seats for whites. The independence constitution agreed at [House](Lancaster)(Lancaster House Agreement) watered those provisions down and reserved 20 out of 100 seats for whites in the House of Assembly and 8 out of 40 seats in the Senate. The constitution prohibited Zimbabwe authorities from altering the Constitution for seven years without unanimous consent and required a three-quarters vote in Parliament for a further three years. The government amended the Constitution in 1987 to abolish the seats reserved for whites, and replace the office of Prime Minister with an executive President. In 1990, the government abolished the Senate. ### Administrative divisions [[File:Rhodesia adm location map with names.svg\|upright=1.35\|thumb\|right\|[divisions of Rhodesia](Administrative)(Provinces of Rhodesia)]] Rhodesia had a [government](centralised)(centralised government) and was divided into seven provinces and two cities with provincial status, for administrative purposes. Each province had a provincial capital from where government administration was usually carried out. ## Military [[File:Rhodesian Eland and T-55.jpg\|thumb\|260px\|Troops of the [Armoured Corps](Rhodesian)(Rhodesian Armoured Corps) in 1979]] [Rhodesia](Southern)(Southern Rhodesia) had long been distinctive among British dependencies in that it had financed and developed its own security forces and command structure. After UDI, this posed a particular dilemma for the British government, which considered and rejected various proposals aimed at ending Rhodesia's state of rebellion by force. Harold Wilson once remarked that bringing an end to Rhodesian independence "would not be a case of arresting a subversive individual. It would mean a bloody war, and probably a bloody war turning into a bloody civil war." The formidable nature of the Rhodesian security forces, as well as British fears of a direct South African intervention on behalf of the rogue colony, preempted the further consideration of military options. For much of its existence Rhodesia maintained a small professional standing army of 3,400 troops, about a third of whom were black volunteers. In the tradition of many colonial armies, it was primarily organised into light infantry battalions trained and equipped for counter-insurgency warfare or internal security actions, and possessed little artillery or armour. The [Rhodesian Air Force](Royal)(Royal Rhodesian Air Force) (RRAF) had 1,000 personnel and six squadrons of aircraft, including forty to fifty [Hunter](Hawker)(Hawker Hunter) and [Havilland Vampire](de)(de Havilland Vampire) strike aircraft and [Electric Canberra](English)(English Electric Canberra) light bombers. It also possessed a helicopter squadron, a transport squadron, and a light reconnaissance squadron. The Rhodesian military was backed by the [South Africa Police](British)(British South Africa Police) (BSAP), a well-equipped police force whose title was derived from the law enforcement division of the British South Africa Company. The BSAP had armoured vehicles of its own and a potent paramilitary capability. Domestic and external intelligence gathering were vested in the [Intelligence Organisation](Central)(Central Intelligence Organisation) (CIO). As a result of the escalating rural insurgency, the Rhodesian Security Forces began to depend more heavily on white conscripts and reservists of the Territorial Force and Territorial reserves. Regular units remained small throughout the Rhodesian Bush War but became increasingly specialised and were often able to have an effect utterly disproportionate to their size. The security forces included a disproportionate number of personnel who had seen action during the [Malayan Emergency](First)(First Malayan Emergency) as well as the [Emergency](Aden)(Aden Emergency), and their experience gave Rhodesia's defence establishment a solid grounding in counter-insurgency warfare and small unit tactics in particular. Nevertheless, the vastness of the operational area and Rhodesia's limited manpower pool left the army, air force, and BSAP constantly overstretched. Budgetary and resource restraints, coupled with manpower shortages, meant the security forces could not expand quickly enough to match the guerrilla movements, and were almost always outnumbered. Rhodesian units compensated for their disadvantage in this regard by pursuing an aggressive preemptive and counterstrike strategy, raiding neighbouring states to destroy guerrilla forces in their external sanctuaries. All white, male residents aged eighteen to twenty-three were obligated to fulfill four and a half months (later extended to nine months) of full-time [service](national)(national service). This was followed by a three-year reservist obligation. By 1974 the national service intakes had been doubled, and white men over twenty-three were also conscripted. In 1978 the Rhodesian Army had about 14,000 white national servicemen, but continued manpower shortages forced it to recruit black volunteers in larger numbers and extend compulsory military service to all white males up to sixty years of age. By the end of the Rhodesian Bush War virtually all male white residents were either serving in the military or police in a full-time or part-time capacity. The size of the Rhodesian Army had swelled to about 20,000 personnel, and the BSAP to over 40,000, including reservists. ### Biological and chemical warfare From 1975 to 1980 the Rhodesian government made several attempts to weaponise chemical and biological agents.Glenn Cross, "Dirty War: Rhodesia and Chemical Biological Warfare, 1975–1980," Solihull, UK: Helion & Company, 2017 Members of the security forces contaminated supplies before replacing them in guerrilla caches or planted them in rural stores to be stolen by the guerrillas during raids.Ed Bird. Special Branch War: Slaughter in the Rhodesian Bush Southern Ndebele land, 1976–1980. Solihull, UK: Helion & Company, Ltd. 2014. They also poisoned water sources along known infiltration routes along the Rhodesian border, forcing their opponents to travel through more arid regions or carry more water during their treks.Jim Parker, "Assignment Selous Scouts: The Inside Story of a Rhodesian Special Branch Officer". Johannesburg, South Africa: Galago Press, 2006 The chemical agents most used in the Rhodesian chemical and biological warfare (CBW) programme were [parathion](parathion) (an organophosphate insecticide) and [thallium](thallium) (a heavy metal commonly found in rodenticide).Chandré Gould and Peter Folb. "Project Coast: Apartheid's Chemical and Biological Warfare Programme". Geneva: United Nations Institute for Disarmament Research, 2002. The weapons the Rhodesians selected for use also included Vibrio cholerae (causative agent of [cholera](cholera)) and possibly Bacillus anthracis (causative agent of [anthrax](anthrax)). They also looked at using Rickettsia prowazekii (causative agent of epidemic [typhus](typhus)), and Salmonella typhi (causative agent of [fever](typhoid)(typhoid fever)), and toxins such as [ricin](ricin) and [botulinum](botulinum) toxin. Biological agents, namely Vibrio cholerae, had some impact on the fighting capability of ZANLA.Southern African News Feature: [the plague wars](https://web.archive.org/web/20131203093323/http://www.sardc.net/editorial/sanf/2001/iss21/specialreport.html) Some former officers of the Rhodesian Security Forces alleged that anthrax was used covertly during the late 1970s, but this has been disputed. Use of anthracis, ricin, or botulinum toxin was favoured during assassination attempts of prominent guerrilla commanders. ## Economy Economically, [Rhodesia](Southern)(Southern Rhodesia) developed an economy that was narrowly based on the production of a few [products](primary)(primary products), notably, [chromium](chromium) and [tobacco](tobacco). It was therefore vulnerable to the economic cycle. The deep [of the 1930s](recession)(The Great Depression) gave way to a post-war boom. This boom prompted the immigration of about 200,000 whites between 1945 and 1970, taking the white population up to 307,000. A large number of these immigrants were of British working-class origin, with others coming from the [Congo](Belgian)(Belgian Congo), [Kenya](British Kenya), [Tanzania](Tanzania), and later [Angola](Portuguese Angola) and [Mozambique](Portuguese Mozambique). They established a relatively balanced economy, transforming what was once a primary producer dependent on backwoods farming into an industrial giant which spawned a strong manufacturing sector, [iron](iron) and [steel](steel) industries, and modern mining ventures. These economic successes owed little to foreign aid apart from the immigration of skilled labour. The economy of the state of Rhodesia sustained international sanctions for a decade following the declaration of its independence, a resistance which waned as more southern African states declared independence and majority rule as well as the destruction of the [Bush War](Rhodesian)(Rhodesian Bush War). ## Demographics ### Population A central feature of the white community in Rhodesia was its transience, as white settlers were just as likely to leave Rhodesia after a few years as permanently settle; for example, of the 700 British settlers who were the first white settlers, arriving in 1890, only 15 were still living in Rhodesia in 1924. As the white population of Rhodesia had a low birth rate (18 per 1,000 compared to the African rate of 48 per 1,000), to maintain white population growth was largely dependent upon taking in new white immigrants with immigration accounting for 60% of the growth of the white Rhodesian population between 1955 and 1972. However, the American historian Josiah Brownell noted that the turnover rate for white residents in Rhodesia was very high, as Rhodesia took in a total of 255,692 white immigrants between 1955 and 1979 while the same period a total of 246,583 whites emigrated. Even during the boom years of the late 1950s, when Rhodesia took in an average of 13,666 white immigrants per year, mostly from the United Kingdom and South Africa, an average of about 7,666 whites emigrated annually. Between 1961 and 1965, Rhodesia took in an average of 8,225 white immigrants per year while also having an average white emigration of 12,912 per year. Many prospective white immigrants in Rhodesia arrived seeking economic opportunities and departed with fluctuations in the security situation as the Bush War intensified. A substantial number were uninterested in settling there permanently and did not apply for Rhodesian citizenship, despite a much-publicised 1967 campaign urging them to do so. Brownell asserted that patriotism in the white community was "shallow" due to its essentially expatriate character. He also claimed that the majority of white immigrants in the late 1960s and early 1970s were unskilled laborers who competed with the country's black African workforce and did not contribute badly needed technical or professional skills to the country, arguing that this was due to government policy aimed at making white immigration as "unselective as possible" and guaranteeing every white immigrant a job. The population of Rhodesia boomed during the late 1960s due to immigration and an exceptional rate of natural increase among its black citizens, the highest in sub-Saharan Africa at the time. ### Language White Rhodesians mostly spoke English, with a minority that spoke [Afrikaans](Afrikaans). Approximately 70% of black Rhodesians spoke [Shona](Shona language), and around 20% spoke [Ndebele](Northern Ndebele language). A majority of [Indian community](Rhodesia's)(Indians in Zimbabwe) spoke [Gujarati](Gujarati language) and a minority spoke [Hindi](Hindi). ### Religion Rhodesia predominantly adhered to [Christianity](Christianity), with [Protestantism](Protestantism) being the largest denomination. However, many native Africans still adhered to [African religions](traditional)(traditional African religions). ## Foreign relations Throughout the period of its [Declaration of Independence](Unilateral)(Unilateral Declaration of Independence (Rhodesia)) (1965 to 1979), Rhodesia pursued a foreign policy of attempting to secure recognition as an independent country, and insisting that its political system would include 'gradual steps to majority rule.' Ardently anti-communist, Rhodesia tried to present itself to the West as a front-line state against communist expansion in Africa, to little avail. Rhodesia received little international recognition during its existence; recognition only occurred after elections in 1980 and a transition to majority rule. Rhodesia wished to retain its economic prosperity and also feared communist elements in the rebel forces, and thus felt their policy of a gradual progression to black majority rule was justified. However, the international community refused to accept this rationale, believing that their policies were perpetuating racism. This attitude was part of the larger [decolonisation](decolonisation) context, during which Western powers such as the United Kingdom, France, and Belgium hastened to grant independence to their colonies in Africa. ### The UK and the UDI Rhodesia was originally a [colony](British)(British colony). Although [decolonisation](decolonisation) in Africa had begun after World War II, it began accelerating in the early 1960s, causing Britain to negotiate independence rapidly with several of its colonies. During this period, it adopted a foreign policy called [NIBMAR](NIBMAR), or No Independence Before Majority African Rule, mandating democratic reforms that placed governance in the hands of the majority black Africans. The governing white minority of Rhodesia, led by Ian Smith, opposed the policy and its implications. On 11 November 1965, Rhodesia's minority white government made a [declaration of independence](unilateral)(Rhodesia's Unilateral Declaration of Independence) (UDI) from the United Kingdom, as it became apparent that negotiations would not lead to independence under the white regime. The United Kingdom government immediately brought in legislation ([Rhodesia Act 1965](Southern)(Southern Rhodesia Act 1965)) which formally abolished all Rhodesian government institutions. This move made life difficult for Rhodesian citizens who wished to travel internationally as passports issued by Rhodesia's UDI administration were not recognised as valid;The Southern Rhodesia (Property in Passports) Order 1965 provided that they were the property of the British government, allowing them to be impounded if presented by anyone arriving at a port of entry. See [Hansard](http://hansard.millbanksystems.com/commons/1965/nov/24/passports-british-nationality#S5CV0721P0_19651124_HOC_545) , HC 5ser vol 721 col 696. in January 1966, the British issued a statement accepting as valid any passport issued before the declaration of independence and allowing six-month United Kingdom passports to be granted when they expired – provided that the bearer declared they did not intend to aid the UDI Rhodesian government.The statement is printed in Hansard. Until late 1969, Rhodesia still recognised [Elizabeth II](Queen)(Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom) as head of state, even though it opposed the British government itself for hindering its goals of independence. However she refused to accept the title Queen of Rhodesia and eventually the Smith government abandoned their attempts to remain loyal to the British Crown. In a 1969 referendum, a majority of the electorate voted to declare Rhodesia an independent republic. The hope being that this move would facilitate recognition as an independent state by the international community, but the issue of white minority rule remained and continued to hinder this effort, and like the UDI before it, the proclamation of a republic lacked international recognition. ### Sanctions After the declaration of independence, and indeed for the entire duration of its existence, Rhodesia did not receive official recognition from any state, although it did maintain diplomatic relations with South Africa, which was then under [apartheid](apartheid). South Africa did not recognise Rhodesia to preserve its fragile positions with other nations, but frequently assisted the Rhodesian state. Portugal maintained informal relations until the [Revolution](Carnation)(Carnation Revolution) of 1974. The day following the declaration of independence, the [Nations Security Council](United)(United Nations Security Council) passed a resolution ([S/RES/216](United Nations Security Council Resolution 216)) calling upon all states not to accord Rhodesia recognition, and to refrain from any assistance. The Security Council also imposed selective mandatory economic sanctions, which were later made comprehensive. [Malawi](Malawi), Israel, South Africa, Portugal and [Iran](Pahlavi Dynasty) did not comply with economic sanctions against Rhodesia. The US, despite voting in favour of the sanctions at the UNSC, violated them to buy chromium ore from Rhodesia. Kenneth Kaunda, president of Zambia, also accused western oil companies of violating the sanctions and selling oil to Rhodesia. ### International perspective Rhodesia's Unilateral Declaration of Independence from the United Kingdom on 11 November 1965 was promptly condemned by the international community. The United Nations Security Council Resolution 216 of 12 November 1965 called "upon all States not to recognise this illegal racist minority regime in Southern Rhodesia."[Nations Security Council Resolution 216](Wikisource:United)(Wikisource:United Nations Security Council Resolution 216) Rhodesia campaigned for international acceptance and invoked the doctrine of [non-intervention](non-intervention) in internal affairs as justification for rebuking external criticism of its internal policies. However, the emerging doctrine of [self-determination](self-determination) in colonial situations meant that most nations regarded Rhodesia's self-declared independence as illegitimate. [Zambia](Zambia), formerly [Rhodesia](Northern)(Northern Rhodesia), took a pragmatic approach towards Rhodesia. [Kaunda](Kenneth)(Kenneth Kaunda), heavily dependent on access through Rhodesia for his nation's copper ore exports, fuel, and power imports unofficially worked with the Rhodesian government. Rhodesia still allowed Zambia to export and import its goods through its territory to Mozambique ports, despite the Zambian government's official policy of hostility and non-recognition of the post-UDI Smith Administration. The United States, like all other Western nations, refused to recognise Rhodesia, but unlike others allowed its [Consulate-General](Consulate-General) to function as a communications conduit between the US government in Washington, DC and the Rhodesian government in Salisbury. When Rhodesia set up the [Information Office](Rhodesian)(Rhodesian Information Office) in Washington, DC, [OAS](Organization of American States) nations loudly protested. The US government responded by saying the Rhodesian mission and its staff had no official diplomatic status and violated no US laws. Portugal pursued a middle path with Rhodesia. While not officially recognising Rhodesia under Ian Smith, the government of [Salazar](António)(António Salazar) did permit Rhodesia to establish a [mission](representative)(Rhodesian mission in Lisbon) in Lisbon, and permitted Rhodesian exports and imports through their colony of Mozambique. The Portuguese government in power at that time, authoritarian and ardently anti-communist, gave active behind-the-scenes support in Rhodesia's fight against the guerrilla groups. South Africa, itself under international pressure as a white minority government, pursued a policy of [détente](détente) with the black African states at the time. These states wanted South Africa to pressure Ian Smith to accept a faster transition to majority rule in Rhodesia, in return for pledges of non-interference in South Africa's internal affairs. Prime Minister [Vorster](John)(John Vorster), believing majority rule in Rhodesia would lead to international acceptance for South Africa, used a number of tactics to pressure Smith. The South African government held up shipments of fuel and ammunition and pulled out friendly South African forces from Rhodesia. The combined loss of Mozambique and the loss of support from South Africa dealt critical blows to the Rhodesian government. ### Diplomatic relations After the UDI, Rhodesia maintained several overseas missions, including [Pretoria](Pretoria), and until 1975, [Lisbon](Lisbon) in Portugal and [Marques](Lourenço)(Lourenço Marques) (now [Maputo](Maputo)) in [Mozambique](Mozambique).[Rhodesians to quit Lisbon](https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=Z4tAAAAAIBAJ&sjid=76QMAAAAIBAJ&pg=4898%2C44571) , [Herald](Glasgow)(Glasgow Herald), 1 May 1975, page 4 Since 1961, Rhodesia had an "Accredited Diplomatic Representative" with [Africa](South)(South Africa), heading a "Rhodesian Diplomatic Mission" or [facto* embassy](de)(de facto embassy). Before South Africa left the [Commonwealth](Commonwealth of Nations) that year, the then [Rhodesia](Southern)(Southern Rhodesia) had exchanged High Commissioners with the then [of South Africa](Union)(Union of South Africa), but following the change in status, the Republic now had a "South African Diplomatic Mission" in [Salisbury](Harare). During 1965, the government of Rhodesia made moves to establish a [in Lisbon](mission)(Rhodesian mission in Lisbon) separate from the British Embassy, with its own accredited representative, having previously been able to establish its own consulate in Lourenço Marques, capital of [Mozambique](Portuguese)(Portuguese Mozambique).[John Arthur KINSEY, Esq., Consul-General for the Federation at Lourenco Marques](https://www.thegazette.co.uk/London/issue/41731/supplement/3745/data.pdf) , [Gazette](London)(London Gazette), 5 June 1959 This prompted protests from the British government, which was determined that the representative, Harry Reedman, should be a nominal member of the British Ambassador's staff.[Rhodesia's Man in Lisbon: Objective Said To Be Achieved](https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=fWxAAAAAIBAJ&sjid=iKMMAAAAIBAJ&pg=2768,3715462&hl=en) , [Glasgow Herald](The)(The Glasgow Herald), 22 September 1965. page 9 For their part, the Portuguese authorities sought a compromise whereby they would accept Reedman as an independent representative but deny him diplomatic status. The Rhodesian Information Office in [Washington](Washington, D.C.) remained open following UDI, but its director, [Towsey](Ken)(Ken Towsey), and his staff were deprived of their diplomatic status.[Goldberg Back British Stand In U.N. Session](https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=ncZaAAAAIBAJ&sjid=jmwDAAAAIBAJ&pg=5989%2C2265141) ,[Post-Gazette](Pittsburgh)(Pittsburgh Post-Gazette), 13 November 1965 Previously, there had been a "Minister for Rhodesian Affairs" operating under the aegis of the [Embassy in Washington](British)(British Embassy in Washington), as well representatives in [Tokyo](Tokyo) and [Bonn](Bonn). Following the country's independence as [Zimbabwe](Zimbabwe), Towsey became chargé d'affaires at the new embassy.[Rhodesia's Lobbyist Back for Mugabe](https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/politics/1980/06/26/rhodesias-lobbyist-back-for-mugabe/1adf000e-80d9-40f2-9ec1-a2e720ab8278/) , [Washington Post](The)(The Washington Post), 26 June 1980 The High Commission in London, known as [House](Rhodesia)(Rhodesia House), continued to function until it was closed in 1969 following the decision by white Rhodesians in a [referendum](Rhodesian constitutional referendum, 1969) to make the country a republic, along with the "British Residual Mission" in [Salisbury](Harare). Prior to its closure, the mission flew the newly adopted [of Rhodesia](Flag)(Flag of Rhodesia), considered illegal by the [Office](Foreign)(Foreign and Commonwealth Office), prompting calls by [Labour](Labour Party (UK)) MP [Hamilton](Willie)(Willie Hamilton) for its removal.[M.P. CALLS FOR REMOVAL OF RHODESIAN FLAG IN STRAND](https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=eH9AAAAAIBAJ&sjid=zqMMAAAAIBAJ&pg=2718%2C414685) , [Glasgow Herald](The)(The Glasgow Herald), 4 January 1969, page 1 In Australia, the federal government sought to close the [Information Centre](Rhodesia)(Rhodesia Information Centre) in [Sydney](Sydney),[Rhodesia Office Will Be Closed](https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=LsNUAAAAIBAJ&sjid=spADAAAAIBAJ&pg=6314%2C341488) , [Age](The)(The Age), 3 April 1972 but it remained open, operating under the jurisdiction of the state of [South Wales](New)(New South Wales). In 1973, the [Labor](Australian Labor Party) government of [Whitlam](Gough)(Gough Whitlam) cut post and telephone links to the centre, but this was [illegal](ruled)(Bradley v Commonwealth) by the [Court](High)(High Court of Australia).[Telecommunications&focus=searchwithinvolume&q=whitlam Africa Contemporary Record: Annual Survey and Documents, Volume 6](rathall+rhodesia++Minister+of+Finance+and+of+Posts+and+), Colin Legum, Africana Publishing Company, 1974 An office was also established in [Paris](Paris), but this was closed down by the [government](French)(French government) in 1977.[US Not Closing Rhodesian Office](https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=xr4gAAAAIBAJ&sjid=02kFAAAAIBAJ&pg=3922%2C4107566) , [Lewiston Daily Sun](The)(The Lewiston Daily Sun), 27 August 1977, page 8 Similarly, the United States recalled its consul-general from [Salisbury](Harare), and reduced consular staff,[US To Restrict Sales To Rhodesia](https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=apEhAAAAIBAJ&sjid=D5gFAAAAIBAJ&pg=2570%2C6764188) , [Eagle](Reading)(Reading Eagle), 12 December 1965 but did not move to close its consulate until the declaration of a republic in 1970. [Africa](South)(South Africa), however, retained its "Accredited Diplomatic Representative" after UDI, which allowed it to continue to recognise [British](United Kingdom) sovereignty as well as to deal with the de facto* authority of the government of [Smith](Ian)(Ian Smith). The South African Diplomatic Mission in Salisbury became the only such mission remaining in the country after 1975, when Portugal downgraded its mission to consul level, having recalled its consul-general in Salisbury in May 1970.[Portugal Severs Key Link With Rhodesia](https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=2nIjAAAAIBAJ&sjid=MWYEAAAAIBAJ&pg=7488%2C4326539) , [Herald-Tribune](Sarasota)(Sarasota Herald-Tribune), 27 April 1970 After Zimbabwe's independence, the new government closed its missions in [Pretoria](Pretoria) and [Town](Cape)(Cape Town), only maintaining a trade mission in [Johannesburg](Johannesburg), while the South African Diplomatic Mission in Salisbury was also closed.[Salisbury whites queue up to flee](https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=uMRYAAAAIBAJ&sjid=v5IDAAAAIBAJ&pg=5283%2C3162778) , [Age](The)(The Age), 8 July 1980 ### Results The growing intensity of the civil war and a lack of international support eventually led the Rhodesian government to submit to an agreement with the UK in 1979. This led to internationally supervised elections, won by [African National Union – Patriotic Front](Zimbabwe)(Zimbabwe African National Union – Patriotic Front) and Robert Mugabe, establishing the internationally recognised [Zimbabwe](Zimbabwe). ## Legacy In the ten years after independence, around 60% of the white population of [Zimbabwe](Zimbabwe) emigrated, most to [Africa](South)(South Africa) and to other mainly white, English speaking countries where they formed expatriate communities. Politically within Zimbabwe, the consolidation of power by Robert Mugabe continued through the 1980s. Following amendments to the country's constitution in 1987, parliamentary seats reserved for whites were abolished, and an executive presidency was created, held by [Mugabe](Mugabe). Many expatriates and some of the whites who stayed in Zimbabwe became deeply nostalgic for Rhodesia. These individuals are known as "[Rhodie](Rhodie)s". Native whites who are more accepting of the new order are known as "Zimbos". ## Culture ### Media The main newspapers were the [Herald](Rhodesia)(Rhodesia Herald) in [Salisbury](Harare) and [Chronicle](The)(The Chronicle (Zimbabwe)) in [Bulawayo](Bulawayo). Following UDI, in 1976, the state-run [Broadcasting Corporation (RBC)](Rhodesian)(Zimbabwe Broadcasting Corporation) took over the privately owned [Television (RTV)](Rhodesia)(Rhodesia Television) service, in which it had previously acquired a 51 per cent stake. Among the news magazines published in Rhodesia under UDI were the [Life Rhodesia](Illustrated)(Illustrated Life Rhodesia), while The Valiant Years by Beryl Salt told the history of Rhodesia from 1890 to 1978 entirely through the medium of facsimile reproduction of articles and headlines from Rhodesian newspapers. ### Sports Since Rhodesia was a former colony of the United Kingdom, all of the sports that were born in the United Kingdom enjoyed considerable popularity in Rhodesia; especially [cricket](cricket), [rugby](rugby football), [football](association football), [netball](netball), [golf](golf), [tennis](tennis) including the [Open Tennis Championships](Rhodesian)(Rhodesian Open Tennis Championships), [bowls](lawn)(lawn bowls), [hockey](field)(field hockey), etc. Just like neighbouring South Africa, Rhodesia was barred from both competing against and participating with [Commonwealth](Commonwealth of Nations) member countries. ## References ## Further reading * * Michel, Eddie. The White House and White Africa: Presidential Policy toward Rhodesia during the UDI Era, 1965-1979. New York: Routledge, 2018. * * * * * * Watts, Carl Peter. ''Rhodesia's Unilateral Declaration of Independence: An International History'' (Palgrave Macmillan, 2012). ## External links [Rhodesian Bush War historical research / discussion forum](https://web.archive.org/web/20100911004039/http://www.newrhodesian.net/) [Ironing the lawn in Salisbury – the last days of Rhodesia](https://www.theguardian.com/zimbabwe/article/0,2763,211420,00.html) (The Guardian) [1975 BBC report on the failure of negotiations between the Rhodesian government and the black nationalists](http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/august/26/newsid_2535000/2535825.stm) [The Brookings Institution : Managing Ethnic Conflict in Africa – Rhodesia/Zimbabwe](https://web.archive.org/web/20061005025933/http://brookings.nap.edu/books/0815775938/html/147.html) [Selby, Angus (2006) "Commercial Farmers and the State: Interest Group Politics and Land Reform in Zimbabwe, 1890–2005", PhD Thesis, Oxford University](https://web.archive.org/web/20120813050154/http://www.zwnews.com/3-Main%20Body.pdf) [Rhodesia Roll of Honour](https://web.archive.org/web/20130513032239/http://www.jrtwood.com/roll_of_honour.asp) – Those who died in defence of UDI [Rhodesian aviation and comment](http://www.a2oxford.info) [Window on Rhodesia – history archive](https://www.rhodesia.me.uk/) ### Audio and video [Audio of Ian Smith's radio address announcing UDI](http://news.bbc.co.uk/olmedia/710000/audio/_711975_udi1965.ram) * * [ ](Category:Rhodesia) [establishments in Africa](Category:1965)(Category:1965 establishments in Africa) [disestablishments in Africa](Category:1979)(Category:1979 disestablishments in Africa) [territorial entities in Africa](Category:Former)(Category:Former territorial entities in Africa) [countries in Africa](Category:Former)(Category:Former countries in Africa) [republics](Category:Former)(Category:Former republics) [unrecognized countries](Category:Former)(Category:Former unrecognized countries) [Bush War](Category:Rhodesian)(Category:Rhodesian Bush War) [and territories disestablished in 1979](Category:States)(Category:States and territories disestablished in 1979) [and territories established in 1965](Category:States)(Category:States and territories established in 1965) [supremacy in Africa](Category:White)(Category:White supremacy in Africa) [countries](Category:Former)(Category:Former countries)
David Muir	david_muir	# David Muir Revision ID: 1148889767 \| Timestamp: 2023-04-08T22:57:57Z --- \| birth_place = [New York](Syracuse,)(Syracuse, New York), U.S. \| nationality = American \| alma_mater = [College](Ithaca)(Ithaca College) ([BA](Bachelor of Arts)) \| occupation = [news anchor](Television)(Television news anchor), [journalist](television)(television journalist), [editor](managing)(managing editor) \| years_active = 1995–present \| employer = [Walt Disney Company](The)(The Walt Disney Company) \| television = [World News Tonight](ABC)(ABC World News Tonight) (2007–present)[20/20](20/20 (U.S. TV series)) (2013–present) \| term = Anchor of ABC World News Tonight \| predecessor = [Sawyer](Diane)(Diane Sawyer) }} David Jason Muir (born November 8, 1973) is an American [journalist](journalist) and the [anchor](news presenter) of [World News Tonight](ABC)(ABC World News Tonight) and co-anchor of the [News](ABC)(ABC News) magazine [20/20](20/20 (U.S. TV series)), part of the news department of the [ABC](American Broadcasting Company) broadcast-television network, based in [York City](New)(New York City). Muir previously served as the weekend anchor and primary substitute anchor on ABC's World News Tonight with Diane Sawyer succeeding her on September 1, 2014. At ABC News, Muir has won multiple [Emmy](Emmy Award) and [R. Murrow](Edward)(Edward R. Murrow Award (Radio Television Digital News Association)) awards for his national and international journalism. According to the [Report](Tyndall)(Tyndall Report), Muir's news reporting received the most airtime in 2012 and 2013. He has become one of the most visible journalists in America. As of 2019, World News Tonight with David Muir has become the most watched newscast in the United States. ## Early life David Muir was born into a [Catholic](Catholic Church) family in [New York](Syracuse,)(Syracuse, New York), and grew up in [Hill](Onondaga)(Onondaga Hill, New York). Muir has one older sibling and two younger step-siblings, as well as six nieces and three nephews. As a child he watched ABC News' flagship program each night with his family and credits longtime anchor [Jennings](Peter)(Peter Jennings) as his biggest journalistic influence. He graduated from Onondaga Central Junior-Senior High School in May 1991 and attended local [College](Ithaca)(Ithaca College), graduating magna cum laude with a [of Arts](Bachelor)(Bachelor of Arts) degree in journalism in May 1995. During high school, he interned at [WTVH-TV](WTVH-TV) in Syracuse. While in college Muir was inspired by a professor who told him he had "the cut of a TV newsman." He spent a semester at the Institute on Political Journalism at the [for American Studies](Fund)(The Fund for American Studies) at [University](Georgetown)(Georgetown University) and another semester abroad at the [of Salamanca](University)(University of Salamanca) in Spain with the [for the International Education of Students](Institute)(Institute for the International Education of Students). ## Career ### WTVH television From 1994 to 2000, Muir worked as an anchor and a reporter at [WTVH-TV](WTVH-TV) in Syracuse, New York. Muir's reports from Jerusalem, Tel Aviv, Israel, and the Gaza Strip following the 1995 assassination of Israeli Prime Minister [Rabin](Yitzhak)(Yitzhak Rabin) earned him top honors from the [News Directors Association](Radio-Television)(Radio-Television News Directors Association). The [Press](Associated)(Associated Press) honored Muir for Best Enterprise Reporting and Best Television Interview. The [Press Club](Syracuse)(Syracuse Press Club) recognized Muir as anchor of the "Best Local Newscast", and he was voted one of the "Best Local News Anchors" in Syracuse. ### WCVB television From 2000 to 2003, Muir was an anchor and a reporter for [WCVB](WCVB) television in [Boston](Boston), where he won the regional [R. Murrow Award](Edward)(RTNDA Edward R. Murrow Award) for investigative reporting and the National Headliner Award and Associated Press honors for his work tracing the path of the [hijackers](Aircraft hijacking) involved in the [11, 2001 attacks](September)(September 11 attacks). The Associated Press also recognized his news-anchoring and reporting."[News Correspondents: David Muir](http://www.abcmedianet.com/web/bios/display_bios.aspx?bio_type=news_correspondents&bio_id=148) ". ABC Medianet. American Broadcasting Companies, Inc. Accessed February 6, 2010. ### ABC News [[File:President Trump Visits Honeywell International Inc. (49863547766).jpg\|thumb\|right\|Muir interviewing [President](President of the United States) [Trump](Donald)(Donald Trump) in 2020]] [[File:P20211222AS-1254 (51898075468).jpg\|thumb\|right\|Muir interviewing [President](President of the United States) [Biden](Joe)(Joe Biden) in 2021]] In August 2003, Muir joined [News](ABC)(ABC News) as anchor of the overnight news program [News Now](World)(World News Now). He also became anchor of ABC News' early morning newscast [News This Morning](World)(World News This Morning) ([This Morning](America)(America This Morning)). Starting in June 2007, Muir was the anchor of World News Saturday. In 2006, and occasionally thereafter, he co-anchored the newsmagazine [Primetime](Primetime (U.S. TV program)). In February 2012, Muir became anchor for the weekend newscasts, and the broadcast was named [News](World)(ABC World News)* with David Muir. Muir has been silently credited with a rise in the ratings of the weekend evening broadcasts. In March 2013, Muir was promoted to co-anchor ABC's [20/20](20/20 (American TV program))* with [Vargas](Elizabeth)(Elizabeth Vargas). In September 2005, Muir was inside the [Orleans Superdome](New)(New Orleans Superdome) as [Katrina](Hurricane)(Hurricane Katrina) hit, and stayed in New Orleans to report on the unfolding humanitarian crisis. Muir's reports revealed and highlighted the deteriorating conditions inside the Convention Center and Charity Hospital, as Muir and his photographer waded through chest-deep waters for blocks to find patients trapped inside the hospital. Muir reported from the Israeli-Lebanon border in October 2006 on the [war with Hezbollah](Israeli)(2006 Lebanon War). Muir was in Gaza in March 2007 to cover the Hamas coup, reporting from inside the [Strip](Gaza)(Gaza Strip). In October 2007, Muir was dispatched to [Peru](Peru) after the [earthquake](worst)(2007 Peru earthquake) to hit that country in more than two decades. In September 2008, Muir reported from [Ukraine](Ukraine), more than two decades after the [Chernobyl](Chernobyl) nuclear accident. In April 2009, David Muir and Diane Sawyer reported a 20/20 hour about guns in America getting "disturbing results" as described by the [York Daily News](New)(New York Daily News). In May 2009, Muir's reporting on 20/20 revealed a significant increase in the number of homeless children in America. Muir made multiple trips to the [of Mexico](Gulf)(Gulf of Mexico) to investigate the [oil spill](BP)(BP oil spill). In April 2011, Muir reported from [Haiti](Haiti) after the hurricane and returned to report on the attacks against women. In January 2010, David traveled to Haiti in the wake of the [earthquake](devastating)(2010 Haiti earthquake), which orphaned tens of thousands of children and destroyed the country's buildings and basic services. More than 220,000 people died, and many others were injured in the 7.0-magnitude quake. He has returned to Haiti multiple times since the earthquake hit, uncovering attacks on women and the unfolding mental health crisis in Port au Prince. In June 2011, Muir reported from [Square](Tahrir)(Tahrir Square) during the [revolution in Egypt](political)(2011 Egyptian revolution), and from [Fukushima](Fukushima Prefecture), Japan following the [tsunami](deadly)(2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami) and [power plant accident](nuclear)(Fukushima nuclear disaster). Muir wrote about his reporting from Mogadishu, Somalia, and his subsequent return, "Inside Somalia's Crippling Famine", for the Daily Beast. Muir also anchored several hours of the [Hook Elementary School shooting](Sandy)(Sandy Hook Elementary School shooting) as it unfolded, and then reported from the scene as President Obama visited the town. Muir also reported from the [theater mass shootings](movie)(2012 Aurora, Colorado shooting) in Aurora, Colorado; from Joplin, Missouri in the aftermath of a [tornado](destructive)(2011 Joplin tornado); and from Tucson, Arizona after the [shooting](2011 Tucson shooting) of Congresswoman [Giffords](Gabby)(Gabby Giffords) that left six others dead. In November 2012, Muir served as one of ABC's lead correspondents for the [U.S. Presidential election](2012)(2012 U.S. Presidential election). Muir's interviews with Republican candidate [Romney](Mitt)(Mitt Romney) generated national headlines on the issues of economics and immigration policy in the United States. Muir's Emmy-nominated Made In America series on the American economy is a continuing feature on [broadcast](his)(ABC World News). Muir has brought the series to other television programs, including ABC's [View](The)(The View (U.S. TV series)), where he has served as guest co-host. In January 2013, Muir reported from inside Iran, leading up to the nuclear talks. Muir was the first Western journalist to report from Mogadishu, Somalia on the famine. Muir and his team came under fire while reporting from Mogadishu. In 2013, he received the [R. Murrow Award](Edward)(Edward R. Murrow Award (Radio Television Digital News Association)) for his reporting. On June 27, 2014, ABC News announced that Muir would succeed [Sawyer](Diane)(Diane Sawyer) as the anchor and managing editor of [World News](ABC)(ABC World News). Muir made his debut broadcast on September 1, 2014. In April 2015, "World News Tonight with David Muir" became the country's most-watched evening newscast, outpacing NBC Nightly News for the first time since September 7, 2009. In March 2016, Muir released a year-long report on the heroin crisis in America winning a [Golden Eagle Award](CINE)(CINE Golden Eagle Award) for his reporting. In 2021, Muir became the lead anchor of breaking news and special event coverage for ABC News, a role previously held by GMA anchor [Stephanopoulos](George)(George Stephanopoulos) from 2014 to 2020. ## Honors Muir delivered the commencement address at [College](Ithaca)(Ithaca College) in New York in May 2011; he urged graduates to use their voices. On March 13, 2015, the college awarded Muir, an alumnus, an honorary Doctor of Letters degree and the Jessica Savitch Award of Distinction for Excellence in Journalism. In 2013, [Week](TV)(TV Week) called Muir one of the "12 to Watch in TV News". He was listed as one of [magazine](People)(People (magazine))'s Sexiest Men Alive in 2014. On May 8, 2015, Muir delivered the commencement address at [University](Northeastern)(Northeastern University) in Massachusetts. During the ceremony, he was given an honorary Doctor of Media degree. On May 12, 2018, Muir delivered the commencement address at the [of Wisconsin-Madison](University)(University of Wisconsin-Madison) in Madison, Wisconsin. On May 15, 2022, Muir delivered the commencement address at [University](Syracuse)(Syracuse University) in [New York](Syracuse,)(Syracuse, New York). Syracuse University News \|url=https://news.syr.edu/blog/2022/04/21/syracuse-native-david-muir-anchor-of-abc-world-news-tonight-with-david-muir-to-address-syracuse-university-graduates-at-commencement-2022/ \|access-date=2022-05-15 \|language=en-US}} ## See also * [Yorkers in journalism](New)(New Yorkers in journalism) ## References ## External links * [ABC News: David Muir](https://abcnews.go.com/Author/David_Muir) * [births](Category:1973)(Category:1973 births) [people](Category:Living)(Category:Living people) [American journalists](Category:20th-century)(Category:20th-century American journalists) [American journalists](Category:21st-century)(Category:21st-century American journalists) [people](Category:Disney)(Category:Disney people) [News personalities](Category:ABC)(Category:ABC News personalities) [television news anchors](Category:American)(Category:American television news anchors) [male journalists](Category:American)(Category:American male journalists) [television reporters and correspondents](Category:American)(Category:American television reporters and correspondents) [University alumni](Category:Georgetown)(Category:Georgetown University alumni) [College alumni](Category:Ithaca)(Category:Ithaca College alumni) [from New York City](Category:Journalists)(Category:Journalists from New York City) [personalities from Syracuse, New York](Category:Television)(Category:Television personalities from Syracuse, New York) [of Salamanca alumni](Category:University)(Category:University of Salamanca alumni)
Bottoms _film	bottoms__film	# Bottoms (film) Revision ID: 1160198725 \| Timestamp: 2023-06-15T00:39:24Z --- \| writer = \| based_on = \| starring = \| music = }} \| cinematography = Maria Rusche \| editing = Hanna Park \| studio = \| distributor = [Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer](Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer) (United States)[Bros. Pictures](Warner)(Warner Bros. Pictures) (International) \| released = \| runtime = \| country = United States \| language = English \| budget = $14.7 million \| gross = }} *Bottoms* is a 2023 American [teen](Teen film) [comedy](sex)(sex comedy) film directed by [Seligman](Emma)(Emma Seligman) and co-written by [Sennott](Rachel)(Rachel Sennott), who also stars opposite [Edebiri](Ayo)(Ayo Edebiri). The film is produced by [Banks](Elizabeth)(Elizabeth Banks) under her [Productions](Brownstone)(Brownstone Productions) banner. It follows two high school senior girls (Sennott and Edebiri) who set up a fight club as a guise to hook up with cheerleaders. [Rose Liu](Havana)(Havana Rose Liu), [Gerber](Kaia)(Kaia Gerber), [Galitzine](Nicholas)(Nicholas Galitzine), [Domińczyk](Dagmara)(Dagmara Domińczyk), and [Lynch](Marshawn)(Marshawn Lynch) appear in supporting roles. Bottoms headlined the 2023 [film festival](SXSW)(South by Southwest) on March 11, 2023, where it received critical acclaim for its humor, characters, and satirical elements. It will be distributed by [Pictures](Orion)(Orion Pictures) through [Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer](Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer) in the United States on August 25, 2023 and internationally by [Bros. Pictures](Warner)(Warner Bros. Pictures). ## Synopsis Two high school senior girls set up a "fight club" to [up](hook)(Casual sex) with cheerleaders before graduation. ## Cast [Sennott](Rachel)(Rachel Sennott) as PJ [Edebiri](Ayo)(Ayo Edebiri) as Josie [Rose Liu](Havana)(Havana Rose Liu) as Isabel [Gerber](Kaia)(Kaia Gerber) as Brittany [Galitzine](Nicholas)(Nicholas Galitzine) as Jeff [Domińczyk](Dagmara)(Dagmara Domińczyk) [Lynch](Marshawn)(Marshawn Lynch) as Mr. G [Cruz](Ruby)(Ruby Cruz) as Hazel Miles Fowler as Tim [Johnson](Punkie)(Punkie Johnson) Lacey Dover as Cheerleader Alyssa Matthews as Fight Club Krystal Chambers as Fight Club Girl Summer Joy Campbell as Sylvie ## Production In April 2021 it was announced that Seligman and Sennott were working with [Pictures](Orion)(Orion Pictures) and [Productions](Brownstone)(Brownstone Productions), with [Banks](Elizabeth)(Elizabeth Banks), [Handelman](Max)(Max Handelman), and Alison Small producing for Brownstone, and [Mayo](Alana)(Alana Mayo) producing for Orion. It is the second collaboration between Seligman and Sennott after 2020’s [Baby](Shiva)(Shiva Baby). Whilst promoting that film, Seligman described her next project as a "campy queer high school comedy in the vein of [Hot American Summer](Wet)(Wet Hot American Summer) but more for a [Gen-Z](Gen-Z) queer audience." In April 2022, it was announced that [Edebiri](Ayo)(Ayo Edebiri), [Lynch](Marshawn)(Marshawn Lynch), [Cruz](Ruby)(Ruby Cruz), [Rose Liu](Havana)(Havana Rose Liu), [Gerber](Kaia)(Kaia Gerber), [Galitzine](Nicholas)(Nicholas Galitzine), Miles Fowler, [Dominczyk](Dagmara)(Dagmara Dominczyk) and [Johnson](Punkie)(Punkie Johnson) were added to the cast. Filming was scheduled to take place in [Orleans](New)(New Orleans) between April 18 and May 27, 2022. On September 12, 2022 it was confirmed by [New York Times](The)(The New York Times) that filming had wrapped. Sennott described the film as “two girls in a classic American football town who start a fight club under the guise of female empowerment, but it’s actually so they can have sex with cheerleaders.” Eunice Jera Lee served as costume designer on the film. She took inspiration from [Grease](Grease (film)) (1978), ''[Bueller’s Day Off](Ferris)(Ferris Bueller's Day Off)* (1986), [Heathers](Heathers) (1988), [Jawbreaker](Jawbreaker (film)) (1999), and [It On](Bring)(Bring It On (film))'' (2000). ## Release Bottoms* premiered at [by Southwest](South)(South by Southwest) on March 11, 2023. It is set for a [theatrical release](limited)(limited theatrical release) in the United States by [Pictures](Orion)(Orion Pictures) and [Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer](Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer) on August 25, 2023, before expanding on September 1, 2023. ## Reception On the [aggregator](review)(review aggregator) website [Tomatoes](Rotten)(Rotten Tomatoes), Bottoms has an approval rating of 96%, based on 24 reviews with an average rating of 8.5/10. On [Metacritic](Metacritic), which uses [average](weighted)(Weighted arithmetic mean), the film is assigned a score of 79 out of 100, based on 9 reviews indicating "generally favorable reviews". Reviewing the film for [Variety](Variety (magazine)), following its premiere at [by Southwest](South)(South by Southwest), [Gleiberman](Owen)(Owen Gleiberman) commended the direction and screenplay (particularly its characters and humor), stating: "Bottoms is unlike any high-school comedy you’ve ever seen. It’s a satire of victimization, a satire of violence, and a satire of itself. It walks a tightrope between sensitivity and insanity (with a knowing bit of inanity), and it’s full of moments that are defiantly what we once used to call incorrect". Valerie Complex of [Deadline](Deadline Hollywood) admired the lead performances and Seligman's direction, but found some faults with the screenplay, ultimately concluding: "Bottoms is fun, but with some slight tweaks this could have an epic exploration of the gray areas of queerness and what it means to stand in the center of that as an adolescent". Referring to the film as the "horniest, bloodiest high school movie of the 21st century" in a highly enthusiastic review for [Stone](Rolling)(Rolling Stone), David Fear lauded every aspect of the film, including its direction, screenplay and cast performances. ## References ## External links * [comedy films](Category:2023)(Category:2023 comedy films) [films](Category:2023)(Category:2023 films) [LGBT-related films](Category:2023)(Category:2023 LGBT-related films) [English-language films](Category:2020s)(Category:2020s English-language films) [satirical films](Category:2020s)(Category:2020s satirical films) [coming-of-age comedy films](Category:American)(Category:American coming-of-age comedy films) [high school films](Category:American)(Category:American high school films) [LGBT-related films](Category:American)(Category:American LGBT-related films) [satirical films](Category:American)(Category:American satirical films) [sex comedy films](Category:American)(Category:American sex comedy films) [teen comedy films](Category:American)(Category:American teen comedy films) [films](Category:Bisexuality-related)(Category:Bisexuality-related films) [sex in films](Category:Casual)(Category:Casual sex in films) [bisexuality in film](Category:Female)(Category:Female bisexuality in film) [comedy films](Category:LGBT-related)(Category:LGBT-related comedy films) [films](Category:Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer)(Category:Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer films) [Pictures films](Category:Orion)(Category:Orion Pictures films) [American films](Category:2020s)(Category:2020s American films)
Hasbro	hasbro	# Hasbro Revision ID: 1159992106 \| Timestamp: 2023-06-13T20:26:39Z --- \|[500](S&P)(S&P 500) component}} \| founders = \| area_served = Worldwide \| key_people = \| industry = [Toys](Toy industry) and [entertainment](Entertainment industry) \| products = \| brands = \| revenue = (2022) \| num_employees_year = 2021 \| parent = \| operating_income = (2022) \| net_income = (2022) \| assets = (2022) \| equity = (2022) \| num_employees = 5,600 \| divisions = }} \| subsid = \| former_name = \| foundation = \| location_city = [Rhode Island](Pawtucket,)(Pawtucket, Rhode Island) \| location_country = U.S. \| homepage = \| footnotes = \| owners = * [Research Global Investors](Capital)(Capital Group Companies) (9.8%) * [BlackRock](BlackRock) (8.4%) * [G. Hassenfeld](Alan)(Alan G. Hassenfeld) (6.1%) }} }} Hasbro, Inc. (; a [abbreviation](syllabic)(syllabic abbreviation) of its original name, Hassenfeld Brothers) is an American [multinational](Multinational corporation) [conglomerate](conglomerate (company)) [company](holding)(holding company) incorporated and headquartered in [Rhode Island](Pawtucket,)(Pawtucket, Rhode Island).}} Hasbro owns the trademarks and products of [Kenner](Kenner Products), [Bradley](Milton)(Milton Bradley Company), [Brothers](Parker)(Parker Brothers), and [of the Coast](Wizards)(Wizards of the Coast), among others. As of August 2020 over 81.5% of its shares were held by large financial institutions. Among its products are [Transformers](Transformers), [Joe](G.I.)(G.I. Joe), [Rangers](Power)(Power Rangers), [the Space Knight](Rom)(Rom the Space Knight), [Micronauts](Micronauts), [M.A.S.K.](M.A.S.K.), [Monopoly](Monopoly (game)), [Furby](Furby), [Nerf](Nerf), [board](Ouija)(Ouija board)s, [Play-Doh](Play-Doh), [Twister](Twister (game)), and [Little Pony](My)(My Little Pony), and with the [One](Entertainment)(Entertainment One) acquisition in 2019, franchises like [Pig](Peppa)(Peppa Pig) and [Masks](PJ)(PJ Masks). The Hasbro brand also spawned TV shows to promote its products, such as [Game Night](Family)(Family Game Night (game show)) on the [Family](Discovery)(Discovery Family) network. It is the parent of mass media and entertainment company Entertainment One. ## History ### Hassenfeld Brothers Three [Polish-Jewish](History of the Jews in Poland) brothers,[Why The Transformers Movies Are Really Stories Of Jewish Resilience and Adaptability](https://forward.com/culture/film-tv/375181/why-the-transformers-movies-are-really-stories-of-jewish-resilience-and-ada) Nathan Abrams, Forward/ Herman, Hillel, and Henry Hassenfeld, founded Hassenfeld Brothers in [Rhode Island](Providence,)(Providence, Rhode Island), in late 1923, a company selling textile remnants. Over the next two decades, the company expanded to produce pencil cases and school supplies. On January 8, 1926, Hassenfeld Brothers was incorporated; Hasbro, Inc. \|url=https://business.sos.ri.gov/CorpWeb/CorpSearch/CorpSummary.aspx?FEIN=000015908 \|access-date=2023-04-28 \|website=RI Business Portal Rhode Island Department of State, Business Services Division}} Hillel left for another textile business while Henry took charge of the corporation. They began making their own pencils when their pencil supplier began making pencil cases as well. Hassenfeld Brothers produced modeling clay and then doctor and nurse kits as their first toys, and they became primarily a toy company by 1942. Hillel died in 1943 and Henry Hassenfeld became CEO, while his son Anthony Merrill became president. The company entered the plastic fields during World War II to support its toy line. The Hassenfeld brothers, immigrants from [Ulanów](Ulanów), Poland, also spent the war years helping to rescue and employ fellow Jews from Ulanów; Jacob Klapper, a holocaust survivor born in Ulanów, recalled being told when he arrived in the United States that Hassenfeld Brothers would employ any survivor from Ulanów, no questions asked.Memoirs of Jacob Klapper (Privately Printed) Hassenfeld Brothers' first popular toy was [Potato Head](Mr.)(Mr. Potato Head), which the company purchased from [Lerner](George)(George Lerner) in 1952. In 1954, the company became a [Disney](Disney) major licensee. In 1960, Henry died and Merrill took over the parent company, and his older brother Harold ran the pencil-making business of Empire Pencil. Hassenfeld Brothers expanded to Canada with Hassenfeld Brothers (Canada) Ltd. in 1961. In 1963 the company introduced [Flubber](Flubber (material)), but reports of sore throats and rashes from the product and knock-offs prompted an investigation by the Food and Drug Administration and a voluntary recall by Hassenfeld Brothers. The company was approached in 1963 to license a toy based on [Lieutenant](The)(The Lieutenant), which they turned down because they did not want to be tied to a possibly short-lived television series. Instead, Hassenfeld Brothers produced the [Joe](G.I.)(G.I. Joe) toy in 1964 which they termed an "[figure](action)(action figure)" in order to market it to boys who wouldn't want to play with dolls. In 1964 and 1965, G.I. Joe accounted for two-thirds of Hassenfeld's sales. ### Hasbro Industries The company had previously sold toys under the Hasbro trade name, and it shortened its name to Hasbro Industries on July 12, 1968 and sold a minor stake in the corporation to the public. The unpopular [War](Vietnam)(Vietnam War) was at its height in 1969, so Hasbro redesigned GI Joe to be less militaristic and more adventure-oriented. Its promotional efforts included the catchphrase "Boy Oh Boy! It's A Hasbro Toy!" in television commercials and print ads. Also in 1969, Hasbro bought [Claster Enterprises](Burt)(Claster Television) which produced "[Room](Romper)(Romper Room)" and had just begun a Romper Room toy line. A month-long Teamsters strike and Far Eastern supplier troubles caused the company to post a $1 million loss for the year. In 1970, Hasbro began a plan of diversification and opened the Romper Room Nursery School franchise chain to cash in on President [M. Nixon](Richard)(Richard M. Nixon)'s [Assistance Plan](Family)(Family Assistance Plan) which subsidized day care for working mothers. By 1975, the company had ended the nursery chain. Hasbro also entered the cookware field with the [Gourmet](Galloping)(Galloping Gourmet) line based on a television cooking show. Two new 1970s toys were public relations disasters. One of the toys was named [Darts](Javelin)(Lawn darts) which were similar to the ancient Roman [plumbata](plumbata). On December 19, 1988, the [Product Safety Commission](Consumer)(U.S. Consumer Product Safety Commission) banned lawn darts from sale in the United States due to their hazards as a flying projectile with a sharp metal point causing multiple deaths. The other toy was named The Hypo-Squirt, a hypodermic needle-shaped water gun tagged by the press as a "junior junkie" kit. Both were recalled. Romper Room and its toy line had continued success, although [for Children's Television](Action)(Action for Children's Television) citizens group considered the program to be an advertising channel for toys. Merrill Hassenfeld took over as CEO in 1974, and his son [D. Hassenfeld](Stephen)(Stephen D. Hassenfeld) became president. The company became profitable once again but had mixed results due to cash flow problems from increasing the number of toys in the line to offset G.I. Joe's declining sales. Hasbro ended the G.I. Joe line in 1975 because of the rising prices of plastic and crude oil. In 1977, Hasbro's losses were $2.5 million, and the company held a large debt load. That same year, Hasbro acquired licensing rights to [Peanuts](Peanuts) cartoon characters. With the financial situation poor, Hasbro's bankers made the company temporarily stop dividend payments in early 1979. The toy division's losses increased Harold Hassenfeld's resentment regarding the company's treatment of the Empire Pencil subsidiary as Empire received lower levels of capital spending relative to profits than did the toy division. With Merrill's death in 1979, Harold did not recognize Stephen's authority as the successor to the chairman and CEO position. As a solution, Hasbro spun off Empire Pencil in 1980, which was the nation's largest pencil maker, with Harold trading his Hasbro shares for those of Empire. Stephen then became both the CEO and chairman of the board. Between 1978 and 1981, Stephen reduced the Hasbro product line by one-third and its new products by one-half. Hasbro focused on simple, low-cost, longer life-cycle toys like Mr. Potato Head. Hasbro thus stayed out of the electronic games field which went bust in the early 1980s. In 1982, Hasbro revived its G.I. Joe line with the help of [Comics](Marvel)(Marvel Comics), as an [anti-terrorist](Counter-terrorism) commando based on current events. The company launched the successful [Transformers](Transformers) toy line along with a [animated TV series](children's)(The Transformers (TV series)) two years later. With the toys and TV series being popular, Stephen Hassenfeld posed with the toys for a People magazine cover photo. In 1982, Hasbro produced the successful toy franchise [Little Pony](My)(My Little Pony). In 1983, they purchased GLENCO Infant Items, a manufacturer of infant products and the world's largest bib producer, and Knickerbocker Toy Company, a struggling [Communications](Warner)(Warner Communications) subsidiary. Hasbro paid 37% of its stock to Warner, which was paid into Hasbro's executive-controlled voting trust, and also received a cash infusion. In 1984, [G. Hassenfeld](Alan)(Alan G. Hassenfeld) took over as president from his brother Stephen, who continued as CEO and chairman. That same year, the company was the nation's sixth best-selling toymaker, and then acquired the [Bradley Company](Milton)(Milton Bradley Company), which was the nation's fifth best-selling toymaker. This brought [Game of Life](The)(The Game of Life), [Twister](Twister (game)), [Money](Easy)(Easy Money (board game)), and [Playskool](Playskool) into the Hasbro fold and on September 10 transformed Hasbro into Hasbro Bradley. Stephen Hassenfeld became the merged company's president and CEO, with Milton Bradley chief James Shea Jr. taking the chairman position. However, the executives clashed and Shea left after a few months, and Stephen and Alan returned to their previous positions. ### Hasbro #### 1985–2007 On June 6, 1985, the company changed its name again to just Hasbro, Inc. The Jumpstarters toys were the subject of a lawsuit in 1985 when Hasbro sued a toy manufacturer for selling toys based on their Transformers design. Hasbro won the suit. In the mid-1980s, Hasbro moved past [Mattel](Mattel) to become the world's largest toy company. Hasbro then moved to outsell Mattel's [Barbie](Barbie) in the fashion doll market with the 1986 introduction of [Jem](Jerrica Benton), a record producer/rock musician dual identity fashion doll. Jem initially posted strong sales but plummeted and was withdrawn from the market in 1987. Hasbro followed up in 1988 with [Maxie](Maxie's World#Maxie toy line), a Barbie-sized blonde doll, so that Barbie clothing and accessories would fit. Maxie lasted until 1990. Under Alan's initiative in the late 1980s, Hasbro moved to increase international sales by taking toys overseas that had failed in the US market and selling them for as much as four times the original price. This increased international sales from $268 million in 1985 to $433 million in 1988. In 1988, Hasbro purchased part of [Coleco](Coleco) Industries' indoor and outdoor children's furniture and ride-on toy product lines for $21 million including two just closed manufacturing plants in Amsterdam, N.Y. In July 1989, Hasbro acquired bankrupt [Coleco](Coleco) for $85 million. Stephen Hassenfeld died later that year with the company having gone from sales of $104 million in the year he took control to 1989 sales of over $1.4 billion. Alan succeeded Stephen as chairman and CEO. In 1991, Hasbro purchased Tonka Corp. for $486 million, along with its units [Brothers](Parker)(Parker Brothers), the maker of [Monopoly](Monopoly (game)), and [Products](Kenner)(Kenner Products). Milton Bradley and Parker Brothers were merged into one division. Alan moved to expand Hasbro overseas with new units in Greece, Hungary, and Mexico. Alan saw the Far East as an important market to expand. In 1992, Hasbro purchased Nomura Toys Ltd. in Japan, and majority ownership of Palmyra, a Southeast Asian toy distributor. These increased the proportion of international sales from 22% in 1985 to 45% ($1.28 billion) in 1995. In 1993, Hasbro lost its bid for [W. Spear & Sons](J.)(J. W. Spear & Sons), a U.K.-based game maker, to [Mattel](Mattel). In the US, Hasbro's growth since 1980 was from acquisitions and the leveraging of the new assets. New product development was not as successful except for film and TV tie-in product lines with [Park](Jurassic)(Jurassic Park (film)) and [Barney](Barney & Friends). Thus, US sales were stagnant in the early 1990s, falling from 1993 to 1995. To turn domestic performance around in 1994, Hasbro merged the Hasbro Toy, Playskool, Playskool Baby, Kenner, and Kid Dimension units into the Hasbro Toy Group. Meanwhile, Mattel purchased [Fisher-Price](Fisher-Price) and retook the top spot in the toy industry. [Interactive](Hasbro)(Hasbro Interactive) was started in 1995 and released the Monopoly game on CD-ROM. Mattel also proposed a merger that year, but was turned down by the Hasbro board in 1996 due to antitrust issues and Justice Department investigation into exclusionary policies between toy manufacturers and toy retailers, particularly ["R" Us](Toys)(Toys "R" Us). In 1998, Hasbro bought [Hill](Avalon)(Avalon Hill) for $6 million and [Galoob](Galoob) for $220 million.Fost, Dan.[Hasbro Adds Galoob to Its Toy Chest](http://articles.sfgate.com/1998-09-29/business/17730903_1_hasbro-galoob-star-wars-lucasfilm)." [Francisco Chronicle](San)(San Francisco Chronicle). Tuesday September 29, 1998. Retrieved on April 25, 2010. That same year, Milton Bradley merged with Parker Bros. to form Hasbro Games. In 1999, Hasbro paid for rights to [Pokémon](Pokémon) toys. The same year, [of the Coast](Wizards)(Wizards of the Coast) was bought in a deal worth $325 million. Wizards of the Coast is now a subsidiary of Hasbro and has Avalon Hill as its division. In 2001 money-losing [Interactive](Hasbro)(Hasbro Interactive) was sold to [Infogrames](Infogrames), a French software concern, for $100 million.[Company News; Hasbro Completes Sale Of Interactive Business](https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9F00E4DC1E3FF933A05752C0A9679C8B63&n=Top/News/Business/Companies/Hasbro%20Inc) from [New York Times](The)(The New York Times) Hasbro entered the building block toy with its [to Rule](Built)(Built to Rule) line in 2003, which did not hold together well or were too hard for the targeted age group, thus ended in 2005. #### 2008–2018 In 2008, Hasbro acquired game maker [Inc.](Cranium,)(Cranium, Inc.) for $77.5 million. The deal was announced on January 4 and closed on January 25. Hasbro and [Pictures](Universal)(Universal Pictures) signed an agreement in February 2008 to derive four films from seven Hasbro properties for production. In May, Bennett Schneir was hired to lead its [Films](Hasbro)(Allspark Pictures) division, while Hasbro also reacquired series based on their properties from [Productions](Sunbow)(Sunbow Entertainment). The year of his promotion to CEO of Hasbro, [Goldner](Brian)(Brian Goldner) was named CEO of the year by [Corp](News)(News Corporation (1980–2013)) affiliate website [MarketWatch](MarketWatch).com.{{cite news\|author=Andria Cheng\|title=Hasbro's chief transformer\|work=[MarketWatch](MarketWatch)\|date=December 4, 2008\|url=http://www.marketwatch.com/news/story/goldner-scripts-blockbuster-hasbros-chief/story.aspx?guid={978E3D48-FCD3-4ABC-BCF6-3C0242AC1622}\|access-date=December 4, 2008}} Goldner became the first person not from the founding Hassenfeld family to hold the position. In 2009, the Milton Bradley and Parker Bros. brands were retired after eleven years and eight years of Hasbro ownership respectively. That same year, [Studios](Hasbro)(Hasbro Studios) was formed for TV development, production and distribution. On December 11, 2012, Hasbro transferred all entertainment divisions to Hasbro Studios, including their LA-based film group, and Cake Mix Studio, the company's Rhode Island-based producer of commercials and short form content. Hasbro collaborated with [Discovery](Discovery, Inc.) on [Hub](The)(Discovery Family#As Hub Network (2010–2014)), a cable television network targeting younger children and families, which launched on October 10, 2010. The venture found unexpected success with the revival of the My Little Pony franchise, [Little Pony: Friendship Is Magic](My)(My Little Pony: Friendship Is Magic), which became the network's highest-rated program and attracted a significant [following](cult)(cult following) [teens and adults](among)(My Little Pony: Friendship Is Magic fandom). The Hub Network was rebranded as [Family](Discovery)(Discovery Family) on October 13, 2014 In 2013, Hasbro renewed its deal to produce [Comics](Marvel)(Marvel Comics) and [Wars](Star)(Star Wars) toys through at least 2020. In 2011, [Greenpeace](Greenpeace) accused Hasbro of purchasing paper for its packaging from ancient forests in Indonesia. Hasbro changed its paper purchasing policy, earning the company praise from Greenpeace executive director [Radford](Phil)(Phil Radford), who said: "The new Hasbro policy will also increase the recycled and Forest Stewardship Council (FSC) certified paper in its toy packaging. Hasbro's new commitments are great news for Indonesian rainforests and the people and wildlife that depend on them." By April 2011, Hasbro started 360 Manufacturing Services, a contract [OEM](OEM) game manufacturing operating out of Hasbro's USA plant. Having been absent from the building block market since the failure of the Built to Rule line, Hasbro re-entered the market with the [Kre-O](Kre-O) line in late 2011, starting with some Transformers-based sets. In 2012, Hasbro received a US$1.6 million tax credit from the state of [Island](Rhode)(Rhode Island) with a promise to create 245 new jobs in the state. Instead, they laid off more than 125 workers. This was followed in 2013 with further layoffs of North American workers, amounting to 10% of its salaried employees. Meanwhile, CEO Brian Goldner signed a new five-year contract.[Hasbro Continues To Lay Off Workers Despite Expansion Plans](http://www.golocalprov.com/business/hasbro-continues-to-lay-off-workers-despite-expansion-plans/). GoLocalProv (April 30, 2013). Retrieved on 2013-09-27.["Six-year-old schools Hasbro on gender equality"](https://web.archive.org/web/20121121032803/http://games.yahoo.com/blogs/unplugged/six-old-schools-hasbro-gender-equality-182500683.html) from "[Games](Yahoo)(Yahoo Games)" As of fiscal year 2012, Goldner had a total calculated compensation of $9,684,285.[Brian Goldner: Executive Profile & Biography - Businessweek](https://web.archive.org/web/20140722062327/http://investing.businessweek.com/research/stocks/people/person.asp?personId=1095883&ticker=HAS). Investing.businessweek.com. Retrieved on September 27, 2013. On July 9, 2013, Backflip Studios sold a 70% stake in the company to Hasbro for $112 million in cash. On November 6, 2012, it was rumored that [Walt Disney Company](The)(The Walt Disney Company) was discussing a multi-billion dollar deal to acquire Hasbro. While Hasbro declined to discuss the rumor, advisors stated there was "absolutely nothing going on" they knew of between the two companies. Business providencejournal.com \|url=http://news.providencejournal.com/business/2012/11/kostrzewa---wall-street-focuses-on-spike-in-hasbro-stock.html \|access-date=2022-10-01 \|website=The Providence Journal \|language=en \|archive-date=November 8, 2012 \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121108111012/http://news.providencejournal.com/business/2012/11/kostrzewa---wall-street-focuses-on-spike-in-hasbro-stock.html \|url-status=bot: unknown }} Additionally, financial analysts said the deal was illogical, as the rumor came out just a week after Disney had acquired [Lucasfilm](Lucasfilm). Hasbro was named by [Fortune](Fortune (magazine)) magazine as one of the top 100 companies to work for in 2013, citing that the "company enhanced its vacation policy by giving new employees three weeks off in their first year instead of having to wait five years." On November 12, 2014, it was reported that Hasbro was in talks to buy [Animation](DreamWorks)(DreamWorks Animation). The proposal reportedly calls for the combined company to take the name "DreamWorks-Hasbro" and for [Katzenberg](Jeffrey)(Jeffrey Katzenberg) to become its chairman, but as a matter of policy, neither Hasbro nor DWA publicly comment on mergers and acquisitions. Two days later, the talks were reported to have fallen through. On July 14, 2015, the company announced the intent to sell its last two factories, in Ireland and [Longmeadow, Massachusetts](East)(East Longmeadow, Massachusetts) (including its 360 Manufacturing Services), to [Cartamundi](Cartamundi). The deal was set to close in sixty days. Hasbro signed a five-year deal with Cartamundi to produce their board games at the East Longmeadow plant. With [Mattel](Mattel) adding two competing lines, and the expiration of their [Princess](Disney)(Disney Princess) license at the end of 2015, Disney gave Hasbro a chance to gain the license given their work on Star Wars, which led to a [Descendants](Descendants (2015 film)) license. DCP was also attempting to evolve the brand from one of them less as damsels and more as heroines. In September 2014, Disney announced that Hasbro would be the doll licensee for the Disney Princess line starting on January 1, 2016. On July 13, 2016, Hasbro acquired Dublin-based [Media Limited](Boulder)(Boulder Media Limited) and placed it under the control of its chief content officer. Hasbro announced that it would launch its own convention, named [HasCon](HasCon), and featuring "all things Hasbro" in 2016, with the inaugural event being held at the [Island Convention Center](Rhode)(Rhode Island Convention Center) in September 2017. On November 10, 2017, the [Street Journal](Wall)(Wall Street Journal) reported that Hasbro had made a takeover offer for [Inc.](Mattel,)(Mattel) At the time, Mattel worth was $5 billion, while Hasbro was about $11 billion. On November 15, 2017, [Reuters](Reuters) reported that Mattel rejected the offer. On February 27, 2018, [Variety](Variety (magazine)) reported in a detailed article that Hasbro came close to buying [Lionsgate](Lionsgate), but the deal fell through. #### 2018–present On February 16, 2018, [Brands](Saban)(Saban Brands) appointed Hasbro as the global master toy licensee for [Rangers](Power)(Power Rangers) with a future collaboration and option to purchase the franchise. On May 1, 2018, Hasbro agreed to purchase Power Rangers and other entertainment assets from Saban Brands for US$522 million in cash and stock with the licensing fee recently paid with credit. The sale, which also collaborated with [Pet Monster](My)(My Pet Monster), [Popples](Popples), [Jr.](Julius)(Julius Jr.),[Detectives](Treehouse)(Treehouse Detectives) and additional properties, was expected to close in the second quarter until it was finished with Saban's collab. On October 19, 2018, the company announced plans to cut jobs amounting to less than 10% of its 5,000-plus global workforce in response to changes in how consumers buy toys. In 2018, Hasbro signed a number of licensing agreements for hospitality deals based on Hasbro brands. On May 1, 2018, the Monopoly Mansion hotel agreement was announced by Hasbro, with M101 Holdings overseeing construction and M101's Sirocco Group assigned to manage the hotel when it opened in 2019. Hasbro granted Kingsmen Creatives a license to build a chain of NERF Action Xperience family entertainment centers, with the first to be opened in Singapore in fall/winter 2019. In November, the company issued a license for family entertainment centers to Kilburn Live, who were to launch a new division for the centers. That December, the company granted a license for theme parks to Imagine Resorts and Hotels, co-founded by Bruce Neviaser. Neviaser had previously co-founded Great Lakes Companies, which launched [Wolf Resorts](Great)(Great Wolf Resorts) indoor waterpark resorts. On December 18, 2019, Hasbro and [Edmonton Mall](West)(West Edmonton Mall) announced that [Galaxyland](Galaxyland) would get a makeover, with rides being redone and renamed to Hasbro properties. Construction was begun later that month and scheduled to wrap up in late 2020. On August 22, 2019, Hasbro announced its purchase of [One](Entertainment)(Entertainment One) for about US$4 billion. The deal was completed on December 30, 2019. On October 24, 2019, Hasbro announced the closing of Backflip Studios, while its Wizards of the Coast subsidiary purchased [Games](Tuque)(Tuque Games) in October. On February 28, 2020, Hasbro announced that Campbell Arnott's former CMO David McNeil had joined the company as the managing director for Pacific operations. On September 30, 2020, [Game Studios](Renegade)(Renegade Game Studios) announced they had acquired licensing for creating tabletop games for multiple Hasbro brands. Several of the games would be using the [role-playing system](5E)(D20 System#5E: Renewed popularity) owned by Hasbro's subsidiary Wizards of the Coast. On February 25, 2021, during the 2021 Investor Event, Hasbro announced a company reorganization with three divisions: Consumer Products, Entertainment, and Wizards & Digital. The [Street Journal](Wall)(The Wall Street Journal) reported that "Hasbro's net revenue fell 8% last year to $5.47 billion, due in part to retail shutdowns related to Covid-19," however, its Wizards of the Coast subsidiary "posted revenue of $816 million last year, up 24% from 2019, fueled by what Hasbro says were record years for" [& Dragons](Dungeons)(Dungeons & Dragons) and [The Gathering](Magic:)(Magic: The Gathering). [ICv2](ICv2) reported, "the WotC and Digital Gaming segment is over $112 million more than the operating profit for Hasbro's entire consumer products segment" and that "Wizards of the Coast on its own is also more profitable than Hasbro's consumer products segment [...]. From the outside, Hasbro looks like a toy company, but with these numbers, it's revealed to be a geek game company with toy and entertainment divisions". In April, 2021, Hasbro agreed to sell eOne Music unit to Blackstone for $385 million, offloading part of the Entertainment One operations that it acquired in 2019. Hasbro's longtime CEO Brian Goldner died on October 12, 2021, after a 7-year battle with cancer. Richard Stoddart served as the [CEO](interim)(Interim management) of the company following Goldner's death; Chris Cocks was named as Goldner's successor on January 5, 2022, and became CEO on February 25, 2022. Cocks was formerly the president and chief operating officer of Wizards of the Coast, a division of Hasbro. In June 2022, Hasbro defeated a board challenge from [investor](activist)(activist investor) Alta Fox Capital Management LLC. The [fund](hedge)(hedge fund) company, which owns a 2.5% stake of Hasbro, had been pushing to spin out Wizards of the Coast "into its own company in an attempt to create what they saw was more value by making a second publicly traded company with a more profitable line of business". On November 17, 2022, Hasbro announced they had put Entertainment One up for sale. This includes their film and TV business but would exclude the company's children's division, so eOne franchises like [Pig](Peppa)(Peppa Pig) would remain under Hasbro. On March 15, 2023, it was reported that [Fremantle](Fremantle (company)), [Lionsgate](Lionsgate) and [Entertainment](Legendary)(Legendary Entertainment) are interested in the buyout. However, Fremantle dropped out of the bid while [Capital Partners](CVC)(CVC Capital Partners) and [Media Group](GoDigital)(GoDigital Media Group) joined in the bid for the eOne buyout. ## Subsidiaries ### Consumer products * [Funskool](Funskool) (40%) * Hasbro Gaming *[Hill](Avalon)(Avalon Hill) (brand) HasLab (defunct in 2012, re-established in 2018) * Hasbro Pulse * [Playskool](Playskool) * [Tonka](Tonka) ### Entertainment * SCG Characters LLC * SCG Power Rangers LLC * SCG Luna Petunia LLC * Treehouse Detectives LLC * Left Foot Blue * [Family](Discovery)(Discovery Family) (40%) * [One](Entertainment)(Entertainment One) (sale pending) [Location](Secret)(Secret Location) [Mark Gordon Company](The)(The Mark Gordon Company) AutoMatik [Films](eOne)(Entertainment One#Films) * [Partners](Amblin)(Amblin Partners) (minority) [Entertainment](Amblin)(Amblin Entertainment) [Television](Amblin)(Amblin Television) [Pictures](DreamWorks)(DreamWorks Pictures) * Makeready * [Pictures](Momentum)(Momentum Pictures) * [Films Séville](Les)(Les Films Séville) * Séville International * [Sierra/Affinity](Nick Meyer) * International distribution (fully owned branches in the United Kingdom, the Ireland and Spain and joint ventures with WW Entertainment in the [Benelux](Benelux), [Pictures](Paramount)(Paramount Pictures) in Germany and [Pictures](Universal)(Universal Pictures) in Australia and New Zealand) [Television](eOne)(E1 Television) * Daisybeck Studios (United Kingdom) * Whizz Kid Entertainment (United Kingdom) * Blackfin (United States) * Renegade83 (United States) *** Round Room Entertainment ### Wizards & Digital * [of the Coast](Wizards)(Wizards of the Coast) [Entertainment](Archetype)(Archetype Entertainment) Atomic Arcade [Beyond](D&D)(D&D Beyond) Mirrorstone Books ** [Games](Tuque)(Tuque Games) ### Former * [Allspark](Allspark (company)) (formerly Hasbro Studios, LLC) ** [Pictures](Allspark)(Allspark Pictures) (formerly Hasbro Films/Hasbro Film Group) * [Studios](Backflip)(Backflip Studios) (70%) * [Media](Boulder)(Boulder Media) (sold to Princess Pictures) * [Television](Claster)(Claster Television) * [Inc.](Cranium,)(Cranium, Inc.) * Empire Pencil * eOne Music (sold to [Blackstone Group](The)(The Blackstone Group), renamed [Music Group](MNRK)(MNRK Music Group)) * [Galoob](Galoob) * [Interactive](Hasbro)(Hasbro Interactive) * [Products](Kenner)(Kenner Products) * [Larami](Larami) (name is now retired and part of the [Nerf](Nerf) brand) * [Bradley Company](Milton)(Milton Bradley Company) * [Brothers](Parker)(Parker Brothers) * [and Righter](Selchow)(Selchow and Righter) * [Brands](Saban)(Saban Brands) * [Electronics](Tiger)(Tiger Electronics) * USP Studios * [Wrebbit](Wrebbit) ## Toys and games Hasbro has several brands of toys and games aimed at different demographics. Some of its better-known toy lines (past and present) are: * [Man](Action)(Action Man) * [Beasts](Battle)(Battle Beasts) * [Beyblade](Beyblade) * [B-Daman](B-Daman) * [Patch Kids](Cabbage)(Cabbage Patch Kids) (1989–1994) * [Oven](Easy-Bake)(Easy-Bake Oven) * [Flubber](Flubber (material)) (recalled) * [Fortnite](Fortnite) (2019–present) * [Furby](Furby) (2005–2018) * [Friends](FurReal)(FurReal Friends) * [Joe](G.I.)(G.I. Joe) * [Ghostbusters](Ghostbusters) (2020–present) * [Gobots](Gobots) * [Hamtaro](Hamtaro) * [Hanazuki](Hanazuki: Full of Treasures) * [Inhumanoids](Inhumanoids) * [Darts](Javelin)(Lawn darts#Safety and bans in the U.S. and Canada) (discontinued) * [Jem](Jem (TV series)) * [Park](Jurassic)(Jurassic Park) (1993–2017) * [Kre-O](Kre-O) * [Logs](Lincoln)(Lincoln Logs) * [Lite-Brite](Lite-Brite) * [Pet Shop](Littlest)(Littlest Pet Shop) * [M.A.S.K.](M.A.S.K.) * [Legends](Marvel)(Marvel Legends) * ''[Maxie](Maxie's World)* * [Micronauts](Micronauts) * [MoonDreamers](MoonDreamers) * [Potato Head](Mr.)(Mr. Potato Head) * [Little Pony](My)(My Little Pony) * [Pet Monster](My)(My Pet Monster) * [Nerf](Nerf) * [Overwatch](Overwatch (video game))'' (2019–2020) [Play-Doh](Play-Doh) * [Pokémon](Pokémon) (1998–2005) * [Puppies](Pound)(Pound Puppies) * [Rangers](Power)(Power Rangers) (2019–present) * [the Space Knight](Rom)(Rom the Space Knight) * [Street](Sesame)(Sesame Street) (2010-2022) * Skedoodle * [Spirograph](Spirograph) * [Trek](Star)(Star Trek) (2013–2014) * [Wars](Star)(Star Wars) * [Armstrong](Stretch)(Stretch Armstrong) * ''['n Play](Talk)(Talk 'n Play)* * [Tinkertoy](Tinkertoy) * [Transformers](Transformers) (co-product with [Tomy](Tomy)) * [Trolls](Trolls (film)) * [Knights of the Magical Light](Visionaries:)(Visionaries: Knights of the Magical Light) * [Wrestling](WWF)(WWE) figure line (1990–1994) * [Watch](Yo-kai)(Yo-kai Watch) * [Zoids](Zoids) Hasbro is the largest producer of [game](board)(board game)s in the world as a result of its component brands, such as [Brothers](Parker)(Parker Brothers), [Waddingtons](Waddingtons), [Bradley](Milton)(Milton Bradley Company), [of the Coast](Wizards)(Wizards of the Coast), and [Hill](Avalon)(Avalon Hill) (all acquisitions since the 1980s). As a result, it has well known and top selling games such as: * [& Allies](Axis)(Axis & Allies) * [Battleship](Battleship (game)) * Bowl-A-Tron 300 Automatic Bowling Game * [Buckaroo!](Buckaroo!) * [Land](Candy)(Candy Land) * [Cranium](Cranium (board game)) * [(Cluedo)](Clue)(Cluedo) * [Diplomacy](Diplomacy (game)) * [Masters Trading Card Game](Duel)(Duel Masters Trading Card Game) * [& Dragons](Dungeons)(Dungeons & Dragons) (role-playing game) * [Game of Life](The)(The Game of Life) * [Grape Escape](The)(The Grape Escape) * [Who?](Guess)(Guess Who?) * [Hungry Hippos](Hungry)(Hungry Hungry Hippos) * [The Gathering](Magic:)(Magic: The Gathering) * Mirror-Mirror'' (Winner of [ITV](ITV (TV channel))'s "Design a Board Game Competition") [Monopoly](Monopoly (game)) (best selling board game ever according to the [World Records](Guinness)(Guinness World Records)) *[Trap](Mouse)(Mouse Trap (board game)) * [Operation](Operation (game)) * [Ouija](Ouija) * [Pictionary](Pictionary) (1994–2001, sold to [Mattel](Mattel)) * [Risk](Risk (game)) * [Scrabble](Scrabble) (US/Canada, all international rights owned by [Mattel](Mattel)) * [Pursuit](Trivial)(Trivial Pursuit) * [Trouble](Trouble (board game)) Hasbro also produces many variations of most of their games. For example, in addition to original [Scrabble](Scrabble), the game is also available as "Scrabble Deluxe Edition", "Scrabble Deluxe Travel Edition","Scrabble Junior", and "Scrabble Onyx Edition". Hasbro also offers [of skill](Game)(Game of skill) such as: * [It](Bop)(Bop It) * [Jenga](Jenga) They also formerly sold: * [Warp](Brain)(Brain Warp) and its sister products which include Brain Shift, Brain Bash, Death Star Escape, Hyperslide and Torx. * ''[Ball](Bull's-Eye)(Bull's-Eye Ball)* Hasbro also offers a memory game called Simon'' which involves memorising sequences of colors and lights. In 1995, Hasbro began a short-lived [game development](video)(Video game developer) and [publishing](video game publisher) venture called [Interactive](Hasbro)(Hasbro Interactive), but disbanded it in 2001 when it was bought by the now defunct [Infogrames](Infogrames Entertainment, SA). Now Hasbro develops video games based on its brands through third-party developers and licensing strategies, notably with major American companies such as [Activision](Activision), [Arts](Electronic)(Electronic Arts), and [THQ](THQ). Following the rise of [smartphone](smartphone)s and [PCs](tablet)(Tablet computer) in the 2010s, as well as major video gaming publishers cutting back on releasing games based on licensed IPs for various reasons, such as [slumps](economic)(Great Recession), several of Hasbro's brands were licensed towards mobile game developers such as [Gameloft](Gameloft), releasing their games under the label Hasbro Gaming. On February 25, 2005, Hasbro announced that it would be introducing a musical [toothbrush](toothbrush) to the market. The [Tunes](Tooth)(Tooth Tunes), released in early 2007, transmits music from the [jawbone](Human mandible) to the ear when the bristles touch the teeth. ## Criticism and controversy In 2007, a workers' rights group investigated several of Hasbro's Chinese suppliers and found that, in one instance, a toy factory in China's [Province](Guangxi)(Guangxi Province) had hired 1000 [high school](junior)(junior high school) students. The same group discovered other widespread [violations](labor)(Labour law), including unsafe working conditions, mandatory overtime, [abuse](verbal)(verbal abuse) and [harassment](sexual)(sexual harassment) of employees. Hasbro issued a statement, saying that it would "act swiftly and decisively in making any necessary changes" and had "increased the intensity of [its] ongoing safety review efforts." Critics pointed out that Hasbro had no official regulatory control of these factories. Hasbro responded by hiring independent auditors. These auditors make unannounced visits to the [Asian](East)(East Asian) subcontractors. Reports then emerged that the factory managers have been coached in how to fool the auditors.["U.S. Group Accuses Chinese Toy Factories of Labor Abuses"](https://www.nytimes.com/2007/08/22/business/worldbusiness/22factory.html?ref=business) from [New York Times](The)(The New York Times)* Hasbro has also been criticized for focusing some of its products on specific demographic groups. For example, a letter spread widely on [media](social)(social media) in November 2012 written by a six-year-old Irish girl complaining about the lack of female characters in the guessing game [Who?](Guess)(Guess Who?)["Guess Who's sexist? Classic board game's gender bias leaves six-year-old fuming](https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/home-news/guess-whos-sexist-classic-board-games-gender-bias-leaves-sixyearold-fuming-8324067.html) from [Independent](The)(The Independent) This garnered attention in the press after the girl's mother posted the exchange on her blog. Guess Who? had previously received complaints over gender and ethnic bias in its choice of 24 images. Hasbro primarily sells toys directed at either the girl or boy markets. As such, there have been criticisms that Hasbro's toys reinforce [stereotypes](gender)(gender stereotypes). For example, in December 2012, 13-year-old McKenna Pope started a campaign on [Change.org](Change.org), calling on the company to create a "boy-friendly" version of the popular [Oven](Easy-Bake)(Easy-Bake Oven) and to feature boys on their packaging and materials.["Teen starts campaign for gender neutral Easy Bake Oven"](http://gma.yahoo.com/blogs/abc-blogs/teen-starts-campaign-gender-neutral-easy-bake-oven-155338662--abc-news-topstories.html) from [Morning America](Good)(Good Morning America)["Teen girl petitions Hasbro to market Easy Bake Oven also to boys"](https://articles.latimes.com/2012/dec/04/business/la-fi-easy-bake-20121204) from the [Angeles Times](Los)(Los Angeles Times) Within a week, over 30,000 people signed her petition. Hasbro was criticized for "sexist" product design when its 2015 [Wars](Star)(Star Wars) [board game](Monopoly)(Monopoly board game) failed to feature [Rey](Rey (Star Wars)), the female protagonist in [Wars: The Force Awakens](Star)(Star Wars: The Force Awakens), while including all of the supporting male characters. Hasbro explained that Rey was left out of the Monopoly game to avoid spoilers, because the game was released months before the movies. On January 5, 2016, Hasbro announced that Rey would be included in future versions. Hasbro later stated that it struggled to distribute the updated Monopoly game that includes the Rey piece, because retailers (especially in the United States) showed "insufficient interest" after having already purchased stock of the first release. On October 2, 2015, Lorraine Markham sued Hasbro for breach of contract for failure to pay royalties to her. She was seeking a declaration from the U.S. District Court in Providence that her husband Bill Markham was the sole creator of [Game of Life](The)(The Game of Life). On August 7, 2020, Hasbro produced a DreamWorks Animation [doll](Troll)(Troll doll) device for [pre-school](pre-school) age children which had an unadvertised activator on the doll's private parts that caused the device to emit several audio recordings that were questioned by some American mothers; in particular one of them posted a [Facebook](Facebook) video stream that went [viral](Viral video). In it, she questioned whether the intent was to [groom](Child grooming) children for depravity: "It makes a gasping sound when you touch her privates. And to me it's just like sexual sounds, and it's so disturbing. This is 100% why I say that they have been GROOMING kids all along." A Hasbro senior officer for global communications quickly back-pedalled and protested that it was "not intentional" and the company removed the device from the marketplace. A writer for [Today](USA)(USA Today) opined that "We rate the claim that the doll was designed to groom children as PARTLY FALSE." In late December 2022, continuing into 2023, Hasbro and subsidiary company Wizards of the Coast fell under a fire of backlash from Dungeons & Dragons fans due to leaked information indicating the companies planned to revoke a longstanding open license and to replace it with one that imposed severe new regulations on content created under the previous license agreement. The legality of this move by Hasbro has been debated. In 2023, subsidiary Wizards of the Coast hired several [Pinkerton](Pinkerton (detective agency)) employees to seize the upcoming March of the Machine: The Aftermath card set for trading card game Magic: The Gathering from a YouTuber who had purchased them from a local game store and published their contents on YouTube ahead of release. ## Conventions ### HasCon (2017) HasCon was a fan convention created by Hasbro to promote its various licensed properties, including [Transformers](Transformers), [Joe](G.I.)(G.I. Joe), [Little Pony: Friendship Is Magic](My)(My Little Pony: Friendship Is Magic), and [The Gathering](Magic:)(Magic: The Gathering). It thus replaces the previous fan convention from [Publications](Fun)(Fun Publications), [BotCon](BotCon). However, Fun Publications' G. I. Joe Convention continued to be held as of 2017. It was subsequently announced that the first HasCon is scheduled for September 8–10, 2017, at the [Island Convention Center](Rhode)(Rhode Island Convention Center). Meanwhile, Summer Hayes, LLC., which organizes My Little Pony Fair convention, has announced that their convention will not be held for 2017, and would collaborate with HasCon instead. There was supposed to be a HasCon event in 2019 at the Rhode Island Convention Center and Dunkin’ Donuts Center in Providence, Rhode Island, but it has since been cancelled due to the [pandemic](COVID-19)(COVID-19 pandemic). ### Hasbro Pulse Con (2020–present) Hasbro Pulse Con is a virtual convention held through the Hasbro Pulse website, following the cancelation of HasCon 2019 due the COVID-19 pandemic. Since 2020, three yearly conventions were made at the moment. ### Other * [BotCon](BotCon) (1994–2002/2005–2016) * OTFCC (2003–2004) * G.I. Joe Collectors Club (by [Publications](Fun)(Fun Publications), 2005–2016) * Transformers Collectors Club (by Fun Publications, 2005–2018) ## Other media * [of comics based on Hasbro properties](List)(List of comics based on Hasbro properties) * [of content by Entertainment One](List)(List of content by Entertainment One) ** [of Entertainment One television programs](List)(List of Entertainment One television programs) * [of films based on Hasbro properties](List)(List of films based on Hasbro properties) ## See also * [of game manufacturers](List)(List of game manufacturers) * [Mattel](Mattel) * [Entertainment](MGA)(MGA Entertainment) ## References ## External links * ** [Corporate information](https://corporate.hasbro.com) [ ](Category:Hasbro) [establishments in Rhode Island](Category:1923)(Category:1923 establishments in Rhode Island) [initial public offerings](Category:1960s)(Category:1960s initial public offerings) [publishing](Category:3D)(Category:3D publishing) [companies established in 1923](Category:American)(Category:American companies established in 1923) [based in Providence County, Rhode Island](Category:Companies)(Category:Companies based in Providence County, Rhode Island) [formerly listed on the New York Stock Exchange](Category:Companies)(Category:Companies formerly listed on the New York Stock Exchange) [listed on the Nasdaq](Category:Companies)(Category:Companies listed on the Nasdaq) [companies of the United States](Category:Conglomerate)(Category:Conglomerate companies of the United States) [manufacturing companies](Category:Doll)(Category:Doll manufacturing companies) [companies established in 1923](Category:Entertainment)(Category:Entertainment companies established in 1923) [manufacturers](Category:Game)(Category:Game manufacturers) [companies of the United States](Category:Holding)(Category:Holding companies of the United States) [companies based in Rhode Island](Category:Manufacturing)(Category:Manufacturing companies based in Rhode Island) [companies established in 1923](Category:Toy)(Category:Toy companies established in 1923) [media companies established in 1923](Category:Mass)(Category:Mass media companies established in 1923) [media companies of the United States](Category:Mass)(Category:Mass media companies of the United States) [companies headquartered in the United States](Category:Multinational)(Category:Multinational companies headquartered in the United States) [Rhode Island](Category:Pawtucket,)(Category:Pawtucket, Rhode Island) [brands](Category:Toy)(Category:Toy brands) [companies of the United States](Category:Toy)(Category:Toy companies of the United States)
George R. R. Martin	george_r._r._martin	# George R. R. Martin Revision ID: 1160352163 \| Timestamp: 2023-06-15T23:31:25Z --- \| birth_place = [New Jersey](Bayonne,)(Bayonne, New Jersey), U.S. \| occupation = \| education = [University](Northwestern)(Northwestern University) ([BS](Bachelor of Science), [MS](Master of Science)) \| genre = \| spouses = \|}} \| signature = George R. R. Martin signature.svg \| website = \| notable_works = }} George Raymond Richard Martin (born George Raymond Martin; September 20, 1948), also known as GRRM, is an American [novelist](novelist), [screenwriter](screenwriter), [producer](television)(television producer) and [story](short)(short story) writer. He is the author of the series of [fantasy](epic)(High fantasy) novels [Song of Ice and Fire](A)(A Song of Ice and Fire), which were adapted into the [Award](Emmy)(Primetime Emmy Award)-winning [HBO](HBO) series [of Thrones](Game)(Game of Thrones) (2011–2019) and its prequel series [of the Dragon](House)(House of the Dragon) (2022–present). He also helped create the [Cards](Wild)(Wild Cards) anthology series, and contributed [worldbuilding](worldbuilding) for the 2022 video game [Ring](Elden)(Elden Ring). In 2005, [Grossman](Lev)(Lev Grossman) of [Time](Time (magazine)) called Martin "the American [Tolkien](J. R. R. Tolkien)", and in 2011, he was included on the annual [100](Time)(Time 100) list of the most influential people in the world. He is a longtime citizen of [Fe, New Mexico](Santa)(Santa Fe, New Mexico), where he helped fund [Wolf](Meow)(Meow Wolf) and owns the [Cocteau Cinema](Jean)(Jean Cocteau Cinema). The city commemorates March 29 as George R. R. Martin Day. ## Early life George Raymond Martin (he adopted the [name](confirmation)(confirmation name) Richard at 13 years old) was born on September 20, 1948, in [New Jersey](Bayonne,)(Bayonne, New Jersey), the son of [longshoreman](longshoreman) Raymond Collins Martin and Margaret Brady Martin. His mother's family had once been wealthy, owning a successful construction business, but lost it all in the [Depression](Great)(Great Depression), something Martin was reminded about every day when he passed what used to be his family's dock and house. The Jersey\|last=Journal\|date=November 21, 2018\|website=nj}} He has two younger sisters, Darleen and Janet. He is predominantly of [Irish](Irish people) descent; a DNA test on the series [Your Roots](Finding)(Finding Your Roots) showed him to be 53.6% "British and Irish", 22.4% [Jewish](Ashkenazi)(Ashkenazi Jews), and 15.6% "Broadly Northwestern European". Italian Roots \|url=https://www.pbs.org/weta/finding-your-roots/watch/extras/george-r-r-martin-italian-roots \|access-date=October 26, 2022 \|website=[PBS](PBS): [Your Roots](Finding)(Finding Your Roots) \|language=en}} The family first lived in a house on Broadway belonging to Martin's great-grandmother. In 1953, they moved to a federal [project](housing)(housing project) near the [docks](Bayonne)(Collins Park (Bayonne, New Jersey)). During Martin's childhood, his world consisted predominantly of "First Street to Fifth Street", between his grade school and his home; this limited world made him want to travel and experience other places, but the only way of doing so was through his imagination, and he became a voracious reader. Martin began writing and selling monster stories for pennies to other neighborhood children, dramatic readings included; he had to stop once one of his customer's mothers complained about her child's nightmares. He also wrote stories about a mythical kingdom populated by his pet turtles; the turtles died frequently in their toy castle, so he decided they were killing each other off in "sinister plots". Martin had a habit of starting "endless stories" that he never completed, as they did not turn out as well on paper as he had imagined them. Martin attended Mary Jane Donohoe School and later [High School](Marist)(Marist High School (New Jersey)). While there he became an avid comic-book fan, developing a strong interest in the superheroes being published by [Comics](Marvel)(Marvel Comics), "Mr. Martin, 62 years old, says that he grew up in a federal housing project in Bayonne, which is situated on a peninsula... "My four years at Marist High School were not the happiest of my life," the author admits, although his growing enthusiasm for writing comics and superhero stories first emerged during this period." and later credited [Lee](Stan)(Stan Lee) for being one of his greatest literary influences; "Maybe Stan Lee is the greatest literary influence on me, even more than Shakespeare or Tolkien." A letter Martin wrote to the editor of [Four](Fantastic)(Fantastic Four) was printed in issue #20 (November 1963); it was the first of many sent, e.g., Fantastic Four #32, #34, and others. Fans who read his letters wrote him letters in turn, and through such contacts, Martin joined the fledgling comics [fandom](fandom) of the era, writing fiction for various [fanzines](fanzines); he bought the first ticket to the world's first [Comic-Con](comic book convention), held in New York in 1964. In 1965, Martin won comic fandom's [Award](Alley)(Alley Award) for Best Fan Fiction for his prose superhero story "Powerman vs. The Blue Barrier". In 1970, Martin earned a [B.S.](Bachelor of Science) in [journalism](journalism) with a minor in history from [University](Northwestern)(Northwestern University)'s [School of Journalism](Medill)(Medill School of Journalism) in [Illinois](Evanston,)(Evanston, Illinois), graduating [cum laude](summa)(summa cum laude); he went on to complete his [M.S.](Master of Science) in Journalism in 1971, also from Medill.D'Mmassa, Don "Martin, George" pages 388-390 from St. James Guide to Horror, Ghost and Gothic Writers edited by David Pringle, Detroit: St. James Press, 19978 page 388. Eligible for the [draft](Conscription in the United States) during the [War](Vietnam)(Vietnam War), to which he [objected](Opposition to United States involvement in the Vietnam War), Martin applied for and obtained [objector](conscientious)(conscientious objector) status; he instead did alternative service work for two years (1972–1974) as a [VISTA](AmeriCorps VISTA) volunteer, attached to the [County](Cook)(Cook County, Illinois) Legal Assistance Foundation. ## Career ### Early writing career Martin began selling science fiction [stories](short)(short stories) professionally in 1970, at age 21. His first sale was "The Hero", sold to [Galaxy](Galaxy Science Fiction) magazine and published in its February 1971 issue; other sales soon followed. His first story to be nominated for the [Award](Hugo)(Hugo Award) and [Award](Nebula)(Nebula Award)s was "[Morning Comes Mistfall](With)(With Morning Comes Mistfall)", published in 1973 in [Analog](Analog Science Fiction and Fact) magazine. In 1975 his story "...for a single yesterday" about a post-apocalyptic timetripper was selected for inclusion in [Epoch](Epoch (anthology)), a science fiction anthology edited by Roger Elwood and Robert Silverberg. His first novel, [of the Light](Dying)(Dying of the Light (1977 novel)), was completed in 1976 right before he moved to Dubuque and published in 1977. That same year the enormous success of [Wars](Star)(Star Wars (film)) had a huge impact on the publishing industry and science fiction, and he sold the novel for the same amount he would make in three years of teaching. The short stories he was able to sell in his early 20s gave him some profit but not enough to pay his bills, which prevented him from becoming the full-time writer he wanted to be. The need for a day job occurred simultaneously with the American chess craze which followed [Fischer](Bobby)(Bobby Fischer)'s victory in the [world chess championship](1972)(World Chess Championship 1972). Martin's own chess skills and experience allowed him to be hired as a tournament director for the Continental Chess Association, which ran chess tournaments on the weekends. This gave him a sufficient income, and because the tournaments only ran on Saturdays and Sundays, it allowed him to work as a writer five days a week from 1973 to 1976. By the time the chess bubble subsequently burst and no longer provided an income, he had become much better established as a writer. ### Teaching In the mid-1970s, Martin met English professor [Guthridge](George)(George Guthridge) from [Iowa](Dubuque,)(Dubuque, Iowa), at a [fiction convention](science)(science fiction convention) in [Milwaukee](Milwaukee). Martin persuaded Guthridge (who later said that at that time he despised [fiction](science)(science fiction) and [fantasy](fantasy)) not only to give [fiction](speculative)(speculative fiction) a second look, but also to write in the field himself. Guthridge has since been a finalist for the Hugo Award and twice for the [Award](Nebula)(Nebula Award) for science fiction and fantasy. In 1998, Guthridge and Janet Berliner won the [Stoker Award](Bram)(Bram Stoker Award) for Superior Achievement in the Novel for their Children of the Dusk. In turn, Guthridge helped Martin in finding a job at [University](Clarke)(Clarke University) (then Clarke College). Martin "wasn't making enough money to stay alive" from writing and the chess tournaments, says Guthridge. From 1976 to 1978, Martin was an English and journalism instructor at Clarke, and he became Writer In Residence at the college from 1978 to 1979. ### Concentration on writing While he enjoyed teaching, the sudden death of friend and fellow author [Reamy](Tom)(Tom Reamy) in late 1977 made Martin reevaluate his own life, and he eventually decided to try to become a full-time writer. When his wife graduated from Clarke in 1979, he resigned from his job, and being tired of the hard winters in Dubuque, they moved to [Fe, New Mexico](Santa)(Santa Fe, New Mexico), in 1979, which they had "fallen in love with" after a visit the year before on their way to the [in Phoenix](worldcon)(36th World Science Fiction Convention). George R.R. Martin}} Martin is a member of the [Fiction and Fantasy Writers of America](Science)(Science Fiction and Fantasy Writers of America) (SFWA); he served as the organization's Southwest Regional Director from 1977 to 1979, and as its vice-president from 1996 to 1998. In 1976, for Kansas City's [MidAmeriCon](MidAmeriCon), the [World Science Fiction Convention](34th)(34th World Science Fiction Convention) ([Worldcon](Worldcon)), Martin and his friend and fellow writer-editor [Dozois](Gardner)(Gardner Dozois) conceived of and organized the first Hugo Losers' Party for the benefit of all past and present Hugo-losing writers on the evening following the convention's Hugo Awards ceremony. Martin was nominated for two Hugos that year but lost both awards, for the novelette "...and Seven Times Never Kill Man" and the novella The Storms of Windhaven, co-written with [Tuttle](Lisa)(Lisa Tuttle). Although Martin often writes fantasy or horror, a number of his earlier works are science fiction tales occurring in a loosely defined [history](future)(future history), known informally as "The Thousand Worlds" or "The Manrealm". In 2017, Martin recalled that he had started writing science fiction-horror hybrids in the late 1970s to disprove a statement from a critic claiming that science fiction and horror were opposites and therefore incompatible. Martin considered [Sandkings](Sandkings (novelette)) (1979) the best known of these. Another was the novella [Nightflyers](Nightflyers) (1980), whose screen and television rights were purchased by Vista in 1984, which produced a 1987 film adaptation, [Nightflyers](Nightflyers (film)), with a screenplay co-written by Martin. Martin was unhappy about having to cut plot elements in order to accommodate the film's small budget. While not a hit at theatres, Martin believes that the film saved his career, and that everything he has written since exists in large part because of it. He has also written at least one piece of political-military fiction, "Night of the Vampyres", collected in [Turtledove](Harry)(Harry Turtledove)'s anthology The Best Military Science Fiction of the 20th Century (2001). In 1982, Martin published a vampire novel titled [Dream](Fevre)(Fevre Dream) set in the 19th century on the Mississippi River. Unlike traditional vampire novels, in Fevre Dream vampires are not supernatural creatures, but are rather a different species related to humans created by evolution with superhuman powers. Critic Don D'Amassa has praised Fevre Dream for its strong 19th century atmosphere and wrote: "This is without question one of the greatest vampire novels of all time".D'Amassa, Don "Martin, George" pages 388-390 from St. James Guide to Horror, Ghost and Gothic Writers edited by David Pringle, Detroit: St. James Press, 1997 page 390. Martin followed up Fevre Dream with another [novel](horror)(horror novel), [Armageddon Rag](The)(The Armageddon Rag) (1983). The unexpected commercial failure of The Armageddon Rag "essentially destroyed my career as a novelist at the time", he recalled, and made him consider going into [estate](real)(real estate) instead. In 1984, the new editor of Baen Books, Betsy Mitchell, called Martin to ask him if he had considered doing a collection of Haviland Tuf adventures. Martin, who had several favorite series characters like [Kane](Solomon)(Solomon Kane), [Elric](Elric), [van Rijn](Nicholas)(Nicholas van Rijn) and Magnus Ridolph, had made an attempt to create such a character on his own in the 1970s with his Tuf stories. He was interested, but was too occupied with the writing of his next book, the never-completed novel Black and White and Red All Over, which occupied most of his writing time the same year. But after the failure of The Armageddon Rag, all editors rejected his upcoming novel, and desperate for money, he accepted Mitchell's offer and wrote some more Tuf stories which were collected in [Voyaging](Tuf)(Tuf Voyaging), which sold well enough for Mitchell to suggest a sequel. Martin was willing and agreed to do it, but before he got started he got an offer from Hollywood, where producer Philip DeGuere Jr. wanted to adapt The Armageddon Rag into a film. The film adaptation did not happen, but they stayed in touch, and when DeGuere became the producer for the revival of [Twilight Zone](The)(The Twilight Zone (1985 TV series)), Martin was offered a job as a writer. Working for television paid a lot better than writing literature, so he decided to move to Hollywood to seek a new career. At first he worked as staff writer for the show, and then as an executive story consultant. After the [CBS](CBS) series was cancelled, Martin migrated over to the already-underway satirical science fiction series [Headroom](Max)(Max Headroom (TV series)). He worked on scripts and created the show's "Ped Xing" character. However, before his scripts could go into production, the [ABC](American Broadcasting Company) show was cancelled in the middle of its second season. Martin was hired as a writer-producer on the new dramatic fantasy series [and the Beast](Beauty)(Beauty and the Beast (1987 TV series)); in 1989, he became the show's co-supervising producer and wrote 14 of its episodes. In 1987, Martin published a collection of short horror stories in [of His Children](Portraits)(Portraits of His Children). During this same period, Martin continued working in print media as a book-series editor, this time overseeing the development of the multi-author [Cards](Wild)(Wild Cards) book series, which takes place in a [universe](shared)(shared universe) in which a small slice of post–[War II](World)(World War II) humanity gains superpowers after the release of an alien-engineered virus; new titles are published in the ongoing series from [Books](Tor)(Tor Books). In Second Person, Martin "gives a personal account of the close-knit [game](role-playing)(role-playing game) (RPG) culture that gave rise to his Wild Cards shared-world anthologies". An important element in the creation of the multiple author series was a campaign of [Chaosium](Chaosium)'s role-playing game [Superworld](Superworld) (1983) that Martin ran in [Albuquerque](Albuquerque). Admitting he became completely obsessed with the game, he stopped writing literature for most of 1983, which he refers to as his "lost year", but his shrinking bank accounts made him realize he had to come up with something, and got the idea that perhaps the stories and characters created in Superworld could somehow become profitable. Martin's own contributions to Wild Cards have included Thomas Tudbury, "[Great and Powerful Turtle](The)(The Great and Powerful Turtle)", a powerful [psychokinetic](psychokinetic) whose flying "shell" consisted of an armored [Beetle](VW)(VW Beetle). , 21 Wild Cards volumes had been published in the series; earlier that same year, Martin signed the contract for the 22nd volume, Low Ball (2014), published by [Books](Tor)(Tor Books). In early 2012, Martin signed another Tor contract for the 23rd Wild Cards volume, High Stakes, which was released in August 2016. In August 2016 Martin announced that [Cable Productions](Universal)(Universal Cable Productions) had acquired the rights to adapt the Wild Cards novels into a television series. He noted that he himself would not write for the adaptation due to focusing on A Song of Ice and Fire. ### A Song of Ice and Fire [[File:GeorgeRRMartinCW98 wb.jpg\|thumb\|Teaching at [West](Clarion)(Clarion West), 1998]] In 1991, Martin briefly returned to writing novels. He had grown frustrated that his TV pilots and screenplays were not getting made and that TV-related production limitations like budgets and episode lengths were forcing him to cut characters and trim battle scenes. This pushed Martin back towards writing books, where he did not have to worry about compromising his imagination. (Interview [approved by GRRM](http://georgerrmartin.com/links.html#interviews) .) Admiring the works of [R. R. Tolkien](J.)(J. R. R. Tolkien) in his childhood, he wanted to write an epic fantasy, though he did not have any specific ideas. His epic fantasy series, A Song of Ice and Fire, was inspired by the [of the Roses](Wars)(Wars of the Roses), [Accursed Kings](The)(The Accursed Kings) and [Ivanhoe](Ivanhoe). Though Martin originally conceptualized it as being three volumes, it is currently slated to comprise seven. The first, [Game of Thrones](A)(A Game of Thrones), was published in 1996, followed by [Clash of Kings](A)(A Clash of Kings) in 1998 and [Storm of Swords](A)(A Storm of Swords) in 2000. In November 2005, [Feast for Crows](A)(A Feast for Crows), the fourth novel in this series, became [New York Times](The)(The New York Times) No. 1 Bestseller. The fifth book, [Dance with Dragons](A)(A Dance with Dragons), was published July 12, 2011, and became an international bestseller, including achieving a No. 1 spot on the [York Times Bestseller List](New)(New York Times Bestseller List) and many others; it remained on the New York Times list for 88 weeks. In 2012, A Dance With Dragons made the final ballot for science fiction and fantasy's Hugo Award, World Fantasy Award, Locus Poll Award, and the British Fantasy Award; the novel went on to win the Locus Poll Award for Best Fantasy Novel. Two more novels are planned in the series: [Winds of Winter](The)(The Winds of Winter) and the final volume [Dream of Spring](A)(A Song of Ice and Fire#Planned novels and future). On April 25, 2018, Martin announced the release date of his new book, [& Blood](Fire)(Fire & Blood (book)), dealing with the history of House Targaryen, which was released on November 20, 2018. Should Martin die before finishing the A Song of Ice and Fire series, former collaborators have said that they will not conclude the series for him. #### HBO adaptation of A Song of Ice and Fire [HBO](HBO) Productions purchased the television rights for the [Song of Ice and Fire](A)(A Song of Ice and Fire) series in 2007. Although busy completing [Dance With Dragons](A)(A Dance with Dragons) and other projects, George R. R. Martin was heavily involved in the production of the television series adaptation of his books. Martin's involvement included the selection of a production team and participation in scriptwriting; the opening credits list him as a co-executive producer of the series. The original pilot was shot between October 24 and November 19, 2009, on location in Northern Ireland, Scotland and Morocco. It was received poorly by HBO executives that they did not make a decision for four months after the pilot was delivered. In March 2010, HBO's decision to greenlight the series was announced, with the production of the series scheduled to start June 2010. HBO however demanded the first episode be reshot, and wanted all the scenes from Morocco scrapped. The first episode ("[Is Coming](Winter)(Winter Is Coming)") premiered on HBO in the United States and Canada on April 17, 2011. It was seen initially by 2.2 million viewers. The first season was nominated for 13 [Awards](Emmy)(Emmy Awards), ultimately winning two: one for its [title credits](opening)(Game of Thrones title sequence), and one for [Dinklage](Peter)(Peter Dinklage) as Best Supporting Actor. HBO ordered a second season of Game of Thrones on April 19, 2011, two days after the series premiere. The second season obtained a 15% increase in budget in order to be able to stage the war's most important battle, the Battle of the Blackwater, in episode nine which was written by George R. R. Martin. Filming took place during 106 shooting days. During three-quarters of those, two crews ("Dragon" and "Wolf") were working simultaneously in different locations. [Taylor](Alan)(Alan Taylor (director)) was promoted to co-executive producer and directed four episodes, including the season premiere and finale. [Petrarca](David)(David Petrarca) and [Nutter](David)(David Nutter) each directed two episodes, while series cinematographer [Sakharov](Alik)(Alik Sakharov) and filmmaker [Marshall](Neil)(Neil Marshall) directed the remaining two. The second season premiered in the United States on [HBO](HBO) on April 1, 2012, and concluded on June 3, 2012. U.S. viewership rose by approximately 8% over the course of the season, from 3.9 million to 4.2 million by the season finale. The second season won six of the twelve [Awards](Emmy)(Emmy Awards) for which it was nominated. [of Thrones](Game)(Game of Thrones) rapidly became a critical and commercial success after the second season. HBO renewed the series for a [season](third)(Game of Thrones (season 3)) on April 10, 2012, nine days after the [season](second)(Game of Thrones (season 2))'s premiere. Production began in July 2012 and concluded with the [wrap](Wrap (filmmaking)) of the unit filming in Iceland on November 24, 2012. The third season is based on the first half of the novel [Storm of Swords](A)(A Storm of Swords). Benioff had previously said that A Storm of Swords would need to be adapted in two seasons on account of its length. Benioff and Weiss also noted that they thought of Game of Thrones as an adaptation of the series as a whole, rather than of individual novels, which gave them the liberty to move scenes back and forth across novels according to the requirements of the screen adaptation. Season 3 saw the first significant use of the [languages](Valyrian)(Valyrian languages), spoken in doomed [Valyria](Valyria) and its former colonies in [Essos](Essos). The [language](constructed)(constructed language)s were developed by linguist [J. Peterson](David)(David J. Peterson) based on the few words Martin invented for the novels. Peterson had previously developed the [language](Dothraki)(Dothraki language), used principally in season 1. The third season premiered on [HBO](HBO) on March 31, 2013, and concluded on June 9, 2013. The third season was seen by 14.2 million viewers. It won 2 of the 16 [Awards](Emmy)(Emmy Awards) for which it was nominated. Two days after third season premiere, HBO ordered the fourth season on April 2, 2013, which began filming in July 2013. The season is adapted primarily from the second half of [Storm of Swords](A)(A Storm of Swords), along with elements of [Feast for Crows](A)(A Feast for Crows) and [Dance with Dragons](A)(A Dance with Dragons). [Showrunner](Showrunner)s [Benioff](David)(David Benioff) and [B. Weiss](D.)(D. B. Weiss) co-wrote seven out of ten episodes. The remaining three episodes were written by [Cogman](Bryan)(Bryan Cogman) (two episodes), and George R. R. Martin (one episode). For this season, the filming lasted 136 days and was completed on November 21, 2013. The [season](fourth)(Game of Thrones (season 4)) premiered in the United States on [HBO](HBO) on April 6, 2014, and concluded on June 15, 2014. The season was met with largely positive reviews. It won 4 of the 19 [Awards](Emmy)(Emmy Awards) for which it was nominated. With its fourth season, Game of Thrones has become the most-watched HBO series in history (surpassing the fourth season of [Sopranos](The)(The Sopranos) which had a gross audience of 18.2 million viewers), averaging 18.4 million viewers across multiple platforms, including live viewing, encores, DVR views, HBO GO and On Demand views. Up until the fourth season, Martin wrote one episode for each season. In 2022, Martin said that he had been estranged from the show during the production process of the last 4 seasons (starting with season 5). In the early seasons, Martin wrote and read scripts, consulted on casting decisions and visited sets. Over time, however, as he stepped back to focus on his long-delayed next “Thrones” novel, "[Winds of Winter](The)(The Winds of Winter)". Following the gargantuan success of the fourth season, HBO ordered the fifth season on April 8, 2014,(together with the [season](sixth)(Game of Thrones (season 6))), which began filming in July 2014. The season primarily adapts the storylines from [Feast for Crows](A)(A Feast for Crows) and [Dance with Dragons](A)(A Dance with Dragons), also with original content not found in Martin's novels. This season set a [World Record](Guinness)(Guinness World Records) for winning the highest number of [Awards](Emmy)(Emmy Awards) for a series in a single season and year, winning 12 out of 24 nominations, including [Drama Series](Outstanding)(Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Drama Series). With a budget over $100 million for the whole season, filming for the sixth season began in July 2015 and ended on December. The season filmed in five different countries: [Ireland](Northern)(Northern Ireland), [Spain](Spain), [Croatia](Croatia), [Iceland](Iceland), and [Canada](Canada). This season saw the overall plot of the show diverging from the source material. Some of the season's storyline is derived from content not yet published in Martin's [Song of Ice and Fire](A)(A Song of Ice and Fire) series, although a significant amount of material from [Feast for Crows](A)(A Feast for Crows), [Dance with Dragons](A)(A Dance with Dragons) and the upcoming sixth novel [Winds of Winter](The)(The Winds of Winter), which Martin previously outlined to [showrunner](showrunner)s [Benioff](David)(David Benioff) and [Weiss](D.B.)(D.B. Weiss), was used. The season was largely met with positive reviews. The "[of the Bastards](Battle)(Battle of the Bastards)" episode received immense critical acclaim, with many calling it one of the best television episodes of all time. U.S. viewership rose compared to the previous season, and by approximately 13 percent over its course, from 7.9 million to 8.9 million by the finale. The season won 12 of the 23 [Awards](Emmy)(Emmy Awards) for which it was nominated. Three days before the premiere of the episode "[Red Woman](The)(The Red Woman)", HBO ordered the seventh season. Due to necessary weather conditions required for filming, the production of the penultimate season of the show was delayed that year. Filming began only on August 31, 2016, at Titanic Studios in Belfast, and ended in February 2017. Unlike previous seasons, the seventh and eighth seasons largely consisted of original content not found in the source material. This season comprised only seven episodes. The showrunners stated that they were unable to produce 10 episodes in the show's usual 12 to 14 month time frame, as Weiss said "It's crossing out of a television schedule into more of a mid-range movie schedule". The average runtime of an episode in this season was approximately 63 minutes. The series received 22 nominations for the [Primetime Emmy Awards](70th)(70th Primetime Emmy Awards) and won 9 of them, including "Outstanding Drama Series". Unlike its prior seasons, the final one took a year gap for its production and filming. The eighth season consisted of only six episodes, though the average runtime of an episode was 68 minutes, the longest of all seasons, with [Long Night"]("The)(The Long Night (Game of Thrones)) consisting of 81 minutes. The season was met with mixed reviews from critics, with the performances, production values and music score were praised, criticism was mainly directed at the shorter runtime of the season as well as numerous creative decisions made by the showrunners. Many commentators deemed it to be a disappointing conclusion to the series. The season received 32 nominations at the [Primetime Emmy Awards](71st)(71st Primetime Emmy Awards), the most for a single season of television in history. It won twelve, including [Drama Series](Outstanding)(Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Drama Series) and [Supporting Actor in a Drama Series](Outstanding)(Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Drama Series) for [Dinklage](Peter)(Peter Dinklage). Three years after the show ended, a [prequel](prequel) series, [of the Dragon](House)(House of the Dragon), premiered on HBO in August 21, 2022. Based on parts of the novel [& Blood](Fire)(Fire & Blood (novel)), the series is set about 200 years before the events of [of Thrones](Game)(Game of Thrones). [Condal](Ryan)(Ryan Condal) and [Sapochnik](Miguel)(Miguel Sapochnik) served as the [showrunner](showrunner)s for the first season. Five days after its premiere, the [series](House of the Dragon) was renewed for a second season by [HBO](HBO). On September 1, Sapochnik departed as showrunner, with another veteran [of Thrones](Game)(Game of Thrones) director [Taylor](Alan)(Alan Taylor (director)) replacing him as the co-showrunner for the upcoming second season. In June 2022, it was reported that a Jon Snow [sequel](sequel) series with [Harington](Kit)(Kit Harington) to reprise his role was in early development at HBO. The [title](working)(working title) is Snow and Martin confirmed his involvement with the project and that Harington initiated the idea. Also in June, Martin said there were still three other [live-action](Live action) series in development: 10,000 Ships (written by Amanda Segal), 9 Voyages aka Sea Snake (written by [Heller](Bruno)(Bruno Heller)), and the [& Egg](Dunk)(Tales of Dunk and Egg) [prequel](prequel) series (written by [Conrad](Steven)(Steven Conrad)), tentatively titled either The Hedge Knight or Knight of the Seven Kingdoms. In January 2021, an animated drama series was announced as in development at [Max](HBO)(HBO Max). In July 2021, two more animated series were in development at HBO Max, with one being set in Yi Ti, a nation in [Essos](Essos) loosely based on [China](Imperial)(Imperial China). ### Themes Martin's work has been described as having "complex story lines, fascinating characters, great dialogue, perfect pacing" by literary critic [VanderMeer](Jeff)(Jeff VanderMeer). [Jennings](Dana)(Dana Jennings) of the New York Times described Martin's work as "fantasy for grown ups" and [Grossman](Lev)(Lev Grossman) wrote that it was dark and cynical.Lev Grossman, [The American Tolkien](https://web.archive.org/web/20051124053608/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,1129596,00.html), Time (November 13, 2005). Martin's first novel, [of the Light](Dying)(Dying of the Light (1977 novel)), set the tone for some of his future work; it unfolds on a mostly abandoned planet that is slowly becoming uninhabitable as it moves away from its sun. This story has a strong sense of [melancholy](Depression (mood)). His characters are often unhappy or, at least, unsatisfied, in many cases holding on to [idealism](idealism)s in spite of an otherwise chaotic and ruthless world, and often troubled by their own self-seeking or violent actions, even as they undertake them. Many have elements of [hero](tragic)(tragic hero)es or [antihero](antihero)es in them; reviewer T. M. Wagner writes: "Let it never be said Martin doesn't share Shakespeare's fondness for the senselessly tragic." \|first=T. M. \|last=Wagner \|work=sfreviews.net \|year=2003 \|access-date=July 8, 2014}} [[R. R. Martin by Gage Skidmore 2.jpg\|left\|thumb\|Martin in November 2016](File:George)] The overall gloominess of A Song of Ice and Fire can be an obstacle for some readers; the Inchoatus Group writes that, "If this absence of joy is going to trouble you, or you're looking for something more affirming, then you should probably seek elsewhere." However, for many fans, it is precisely this level of "realness" and "completeness"–including many characters' imperfections, moral and ethical ambiguity, and (often sudden) [plot twists](consequential)(Peripeteia) that is endearing about Martin's work. Many find that this is what makes the series' story arcs compelling enough to keep following despite its sheer brutality and intricately messy and interwoven plotlines; as TM Wagner points out:There's great tragedy here, but there's also excitement, humor, heroism even in weaklings, nobility even in villains, and, now and then, a taste of justice after all. It's a rare gift when a writer can invest his story with that much humanity.Martin's characters are multifaceted, each with intricate pasts, aspirations, and ambitions. Publishers Weekly writes of his ongoing epic fantasy A Song of Ice and Fire: "The complexity of characters such as [Daenerys](Daenerys Targaryen), [Arya](Arya Stark) and [Kingslayer](the)(Jaime Lannister) will keep readers turning even the vast number of pages contained in this volume, for the author, like [Tolkien](J. R. R. Tolkien) or [Jordan](Robert Jordan), makes us care about their fates."[Review of A Storm of Swords](https://www.publishersweekly.com/978-0-553-10663-3) by Publishers Weekly Misfortune, injury, and death (including false death and reanimation) often befall major or minor characters, no matter how attached the reader has become. Martin has described his penchant for killing off important characters as being necessary for the story's depth: "when my characters are in danger, I want you to be afraid to turn the page, (so) you need to show right from the beginning that you're playing for keeps". In distinguishing his work from others, Martin makes a point of emphasizing realism and plausible social dynamics above an over-reliance on magic and a simplistic "[versus evil](good)(good and evil)" dichotomy, for which contemporary fantasy writing is often criticized. Notably, Martin's work makes a sharp departure from the prevalent "heroic knights and chivalry" schema that has become a mainstay in fantasy as derived from [R. R. Tolkien](J.)(J. R. R. Tolkien)'s [Lord of the Rings](The)(The Lord of the Rings). He specifically critiques the oversimplification of Tolkien's themes and devices by imitators in ways that he has humorously described as "Disneyland Middle Ages", which gloss over or ignore major differences between medieval and modern societies, particularly social structures, ways of living, and political arrangements. Martin has been described as "the American Tolkien" by literary critics. While Martin finds inspiration in Tolkien's legacy, he aims to go beyond what he sees as Tolkien's "medieval philosophy" of "if the king was a good man, the land would prosper" to delve into the complexities, ambiguities, and vagaries of real-life power: "We look at real history and it's not that simple ... Just having good intentions doesn't make you a wise king." Per this fact Martin has been credited with the rise of [fantasy](grimdark)(grimdark fantasy), a modern form of an "anti-Tolkien" approach to fantasy writing which, according to British science fiction and fantasy novelist [Roberts](Adam)(Adam Roberts (British writer)), is characterized by its reaction to Tolkien's idealism even though it owes a lot to Tolkien's work. to Scottish Massacres \|url=http://www.newsweek.com/game-thrones-inspirations-george-rr-martin-hbo-tolkein-scottish-massacres-634498 \|work=Newsweek \|last=Shaffer \|first=Claire \|date=October 7, 2017 \|access-date=August 25, 2021 \|url-status=live}} The Canadian fantasy writer [Scott Bakker](R.)(R. Scott Bakker) "says he wouldn't have been able to publish his fantasy novels without the success George R. R. Martin achieved first". Similarly, [Lawrence](Mark)(Mark Lawrence (author)), author of [of Thorns](Prince)(The Broken Empire Trilogy), was inspired by Martin and impressed by his Red Wedding scene. The author makes a point of grounding his work on a foundation of [fiction](historical)(historical fiction), which he channels to evoke important social and political elements of primarily the [medieval era](European)(Medieval Europe) that differ markedly from elements of modern times, including the multigenerational, rigid, and often brutally consequential nature of the hierarchical [system](class)(class system) of [societies](feudal)(feudalism) that is in many cases overlooked in fantasy writing. Even as A Song of Ice and Fire is a fantasy series that employs magic and the surreal as central to the genre, Martin is keen to ensure that magic is merely one element of many that moves his work forward, not a generic [ex machina](deus)(deus ex machina) that is itself the focus of his stories, which is something he has been very conscious about since reading Tolkien; "If you look at The Lord of the Rings, what strikes you, it certainly struck me, is that although the world is infused with this great sense of magic, there is very little onstage magic. So you have a sense of magic, but it's kept under very tight control, and I really took that to heart when I was starting my own series." Martin's ultimate aim is an exploration of the [conflict](internal)(internal conflict)s that define the [condition](human)(human condition), which, in deriving inspiration from [Faulkner](William)(William Faulkner), he ultimately describes as the only reason to read any literature, regardless of genre. In 2018, Martin called [Lord of the Rings](The)(The Lord of the Rings), [Great Gatsby](The)(The Great Gatsby), [with the Wind](Gone)(Gone with the Wind (novel)), [Expectations](Great)(Great Expectations), [Dove](Lonesome)(Lonesome Dove), [Catch-22](Catch-22), and ''[Web](Charlotte's)(Charlotte's Web)* "favorites all, towering masterpieces, books that changed my life". ## Producing In 2017, Martin confirmed he would serve as an [producer](executive)(executive producer) of the [HBO](HBO) television series adaptation of the 2010 science fantasy novel [Fears Death](Who)(Who Fears Death) by [Okorafor](Nnedi)(Nnedi Okorafor). Martin also contributed to the 2022 video game titled [Ring](Elden)(Elden Ring)'', writing the [worldbuilding](worldbuilding) aspects for it. In February 2021, it was reported that Martin and [Vazquez](Kalinda)(Kalinda Vazquez) were developing a TV adaptation of [Roadmarks](Roadmarks)* by [Zelazny](Roger)(Roger Zelazny), which Martin pitched to HBO in 2020. Martin will be an executive producer, Vazquez the showrunner, writer and executive producer. In March 2021, he signed an overall deal with HBO. Martin will serve as an executive producer of the [Peacock](Peacock (streaming service)) TV adaptation in development of his Wild Cards book series, together with [M. Snodgrass](Melinda)(Melinda M. Snodgrass) and Vince Gerardis, Martin's manager. He will serve as an executive producer of the 2022 [AMC](AMC (TV channel)) series Dark Winds based on [Hillerman](Tony)(Tony Hillerman)'s Leaphorn & Chee books, together with the creator [Roland](Graham)(Graham Roland), the showrunner Vince Calandra, the lead [McClarnon](Zahn)(Zahn McClarnon), [Gordon](Kiowa)(Kiowa Gordon), [Eyre](Chris)(Chris Eyre), [Redford](Robert)(Robert Redford), Tina Elmo and Vince Gerardis. In 2021, Martin served as one of the producers of the short film Night of the Cooters based on the eponymous short story by [Waldrop](Howard)(Howard Waldrop). Not a Blog}} ## Relationship with fans [[File:GRRM Ljubljana (cropped).jpg\|thumb\|Martin signing books in a bookstore in [Ljubljana](Ljubljana), Slovenia (June 2011)]] Martin actively contributes to his blog, Not a Blog; in April 2018 he moved his blog from [Livejournal](Livejournal) to his own website. Martin's official fan club is the "Brotherhood Without Banners", which has a regular posting board at the Forum of the website westeros.org, which is focused on his A Song of Ice and Fire fantasy series. At the annual [Science Fiction Convention](World)(World Science Fiction Convention) every year, the Brotherhood Without Banners hosts a large, on-going hospitality suite that is open to all members of the Worldcon. Martin is opposed to [fiction](fan)(fan fiction), which he views as [infringement](copyright)(copyright infringement) and a bad exercise for aspiring writers in terms of developing skills in [worldbuilding](worldbuilding) and [development](character)(character arc). ### Conventions Martin is known for his regular attendance at [fiction convention](science)(science fiction convention)s and comics conventions, and his accessibility to fans. In the early 1980s, critic and writer [Disch](Thomas)(Thomas Disch) identified Martin as a member of the "Labor Day Group", writers who regularly congregated at the annual [Worldcon](Worldcon), usually held on or around the [Day](Labor)(Labor Day) weekend. Since the early 1970s, he has also attended regional science fiction conventions; further, since 1986, Martin has participated annually in [Albuquerque](Albuquerque)'s smaller regional convention [Bubonicon](Bubonicon), near his [Mexico](New)(New Mexico) home. He was the Guest of Honor at the [World Science Fiction Convention](61st)(61st World Science Fiction Convention) in Toronto, held in 2003. In December 2016, Martin was a key speaker at the [International Book Fair](Guadalajara)(Guadalajara International Book Fair) 2016 in Mexico where the author provided hints about the next two books in the series [Song of Ice and Fire](A)(A Song of Ice and Fire). In 2020, Martin fulfilled his duties as “[toastmaster](toastmaster)” of the [Awards](Hugo)(Hugo Awards) – science fiction and fantasy’s answer to the Oscars. During the event, he mispronounced several names, including that of [F. Kuang](R.)(R. F. Kuang), which she considered a [microaggression](microaggression). Martin later apologized for mispronouncing the names. ### Criticism Martin has been criticized by some of his readers for the long periods between books in the A Song of Ice and Fire series, notably the six-year gap between the fourth volume, A Feast for Crows (2005), and the fifth volume, A Dance with Dragons (2011). In 2010, Martin had responded to fan criticisms by saying he was unwilling to write only his A Song of Ice and Fire series, noting that working on other prose and compiling and editing different book projects have always been part of his working process. Writer [Gaiman](Neil)(Neil Gaiman) wrote on his blog in 2009 to a critic of Martin's pace, "George R. R. Martin is not your bitch". Gaiman later went on to state that writers are not machines and that they have every right to work on other projects if they want to. ## Personal life [[File:George R. R. Martin signing at LoneStarCon3.jpg\|thumb\|Martin at [3](LoneStarCon)(LoneStarCon 3) (the [World Science Fiction Convention](71st)(71st World Science Fiction Convention)), 2013]] In the early 1970s, Martin was in a relationship with fellow science fiction/fantasy author [Tuttle](Lisa)(Lisa Tuttle), with whom he co-wrote [Windhaven](Windhaven). While attending an East Coast science fiction convention he met his first wife, Gale Burnick; they were married in 1975. The marriage ended in divorce in 1979, just before they were meant to move to Santa Fe together. Instead he settled there alone from December that same year until September 1981, when what would be his longtime partner Parris McBride moved in with him.D'Amassa, Don "Martin, George" pages 388-390 from St. James Guide to Horror, Ghost and Gothic Writers edited by David Pringle, Detroit: St. James Press, 1997 page 388. Not a Blog}} On February 15, 2011, Martin married McBride during a small ceremony at their [Fe](Santa)(Santa Fe, New Mexico) home. On August 19, 2011, they held a larger wedding ceremony and reception at Renovation, the [World Science Fiction Convention](69th)(69th World Science Fiction Convention). He and McBride are supporters of the [Spirit Wolf Sanctuary](Wild)(Wild Spirit Wolf Sanctuary) in New Mexico. In early 2013, he purchased Santa Fe's [Cocteau Cinema](Jean)(Jean Cocteau Cinema) and Coffee House, which had been closed since 2006. He had the property completely restored, including both its original 35 mm capability to which was added digital projection and sound; the Cocteau officially reopened for business on August 9, 2013. In 2019, he opened a bookstore named Beastly Books, after Beauty and the Beast, next to Jean Cocteau. Martin has also supported [Wolf](Meow)(Meow Wolf), an arts collective in Santa Fe, having pledged $2.7 million toward a new art space in January 2015. In response to a question on his religious views, Martin replied: "I suppose I'm a [Catholic](lapsed)(lapsed Catholic). You would consider me an [atheist](Atheism) or [agnostic](Agnosticism). I find religion and spirituality fascinating. I would like to believe this isn't the end and there's something more, but I can't convince the rational part of me that makes any sense whatsoever." Martin is a fan of the [York Jets](New)(New York Jets), the [York Giants](New)(New York Giants) and the [York Mets](New)(New York Mets). [video here (requires Flash player)](https://www.thewrap.com/george-r-r-martin-throws-out-first-pitch-at-minor-league-game/) He is also a fan of the [Dead](Grateful)(Grateful Dead), and says that the band's music may have influenced his work. Martin made a guest appearance as himself in an episode, "El Skeletorito", of the [Swim](Adult)(Adult Swim) show [Chicken](Robot)(Robot Chicken). He also appeared in [SyFy](SyFy)'s [Nation](Z)(Z Nation) as a zombie version of himself in season two's "The Collector", where he is still signing copies of his new novel. In [3: Oh Hell No!](Sharknado)(Sharknado 3: Oh Hell No!), he is killed when watching a movie at the theatre. ## Philanthropy In 2014, Martin launched a campaign on [Prizeo](Prizeo) to raise funds for [Spirit Wolf Sanctuary](Wild)(Wild Spirit Wolf Sanctuary) and the Food Depot of Santa Fe. As part of the campaign, Martin offered one donor the chance to accompany him on a trip to the wolf sanctuary, including a helicopter ride and dinner. Martin also offered those donating $20,000 or more the opportunity to have a character named after them and "killed off" in an upcoming A Song of Ice and Fire novel. The campaign garnered media attention and raised a total of $502,549. In 2017, Martin announced that he was funding The Miskatonic Scholarship. The Miskatonic Scholarship allows a writer of Lovecraftian cosmic horror to attend the Odyssey workshop, a six-week writing workshop held at Saint Anselm College in Manchester, New Hampshire. ## Politics Growing up, Martin avoided the [draft](United States draft) to the [War](Vietnam)(Vietnam War) by being a [objector](conscientious)(conscientious objector) and did two years of [service](alternative)(Alternative civilian service). He generally opposes war and thought the Vietnam War was a "terrible mistake for America". While he did not endorse [Obama](Barack)(Barack Obama) in 2008, Martin endorsed him for re-election in 2012 calling Obama the most intelligent president since [Carter](Jimmy)(Jimmy Carter). In [2014](2014 United States Senate election in New Mexico), Martin endorsed Democratic Senator [Udall](Tom)(Tom Udall) of New Mexico. In the midst of pressure to pull the 2014 feature film [Interview](The)(The Interview) from theaters, the [Cocteau Cinema](Jean)(Jean Cocteau Cinema) in [Fe, New Mexico](Santa)(Santa Fe, New Mexico), which has been owned by Martin since 2013, decided to show the film. Theater manager Jon Bowman told the Santa Fe New Mexican, "Martin feels strongly about the First Amendment and the idea of artists having the ability to speak their minds and not having to worry about being targets." Immediately following [Sanders](Bernie)(Bernie Sanders)' defeat in the [Democratic primary elections](U.S.)(2016 Democratic Party presidential primaries), he supported Democratic nominee [Clinton](Hillary)(Hillary Clinton) in the general [United States presidential election](2016)(2016 United States presidential election), and criticized [Trump](Donald)(Donald Trump) during the election and following her defeat, commenting that Trump would "become the worst president in American history". In response to fans of Martin who compared Trump favorably to characters from A Song of Ice and Fire, Martin doubled-down on his criticism of Trump by making the case to his fans that Trump shares many personality traits in common with King Joffrey, a near-universally hated character from the series, concluding that "Trump is a Grown-Up Joffrey." In May 2019, Martin endorsed [Biden](Joe)(Joe Biden) for president in [2020](2020 United States presidential election). ## Awards and honors ### Awards and nominations ### State and academic honors ## Bibliography ### Works #### Novels A Song of Ice and Fire universe: * [Song of Ice and Fire](A)(A Song of Ice and Fire) series: # [Game of Thrones](A)(A Game of Thrones)* (1996) # [Clash of Kings](A)(A Clash of Kings)* (1998) # [Storm of Swords](A)(A Storm of Swords)* (2000) # [Feast for Crows](A)(A Feast for Crows)* (2005) # [Dance with Dragons](A)(A Dance with Dragons)* (2011) # [Winds of Winter](The)(The Winds of Winter)* (forthcoming) # [Dream of Spring](A)(A Dream of Spring)* (planned) * Prequels: ** [of Dunk and Egg](Tales)(Tales of Dunk and Egg) series: *# A Knight of the Seven Kingdoms* (2015), collection of 3 novellas: *## The Hedge Knight* (1998) *## The Sworn Sword* (2003) *## The Mystery Knight* (2010) ** The Rogue Prince & The Princess series: *# [Princess and the Queen](The)(The Princess and the Queen), or, the Blacks and the Greens* (2013), novella *# ''[Rogue Prince](The)(The Rogue Prince), or, a King's Brother (2014), prequel, novelette *# [Sons of the Dragon](The)(The Sons of the Dragon)* (2017), novella ** [& Blood](Fire)(Fire & Blood (novel)) (2018) ** Blood & Fire (forthcoming) * Companion books: ** The Wit & Wisdom of Tyrion Lannister (2013) ** [World of Ice & Fire](The)(The World of Ice & Fire) (2014), with [M. García Jr.](Elio)(Elio M. García Jr.) and [Antonsson](Linda)(Linda Antonsson) ** [Rise of the Dragon](The)(The Rise of the Dragon) (2022), with Elio M. García Jr. and Linda Antonsson Stand-alones: * [of the Light](Dying)(Dying of the Light (Martin novel)) (1977) * [Windhaven](Windhaven) (1981), with [Tuttle](Lisa)(Lisa Tuttle), [fix-up](fix-up) novel of 3 novellas: : "Storms", "One-Wing", "The Fall" [Dream](Fevre)(Fevre Dream) (1982) * [Armageddon Rag](The)(The Armageddon Rag) (1983) * [Voyaging](Tuf)(Tuf Voyaging) (1986), fix-up novel of 7 novellas/novelettes: : "The Plague Star" (novella), "Loaves and Fishes" (novella), "Guardians" (novelette), "Second Helpings" (novelette), "A Beast for Norn" (novelette), "Call Him Moses" (novelette), "Manna from Heaven" (novella) [Run](Hunter's)(Hunter's Run) (2007), with [Abraham](Daniel)(Daniel Abraham (author)) and [Dozois](Gardner)(Gardner Dozois), a heavily rewritten and expanded version of an earlier novella called Shadow Twin'' #### Children's novels "[Ice Dragon](The)(The Ice Dragon)", novelette #### Short stories Collections: * [Song for Lya](A)(A Song for Lya), or A Song for Lya and Other Stories (1976), collection of 8 short stories and 2 novellas/novelettes: : "[Morning Comes Mistfall](With)(With Morning Comes Mistfall)", "The Second Kind of Loneliness", "Override" (novelette), "Dark, Dark Were the Tunnels", "The Hero", "FTA", "Run to Starlight", "The Exit to San Breta", "Slide Show", "[Song for Lya](A)(A Song for Lya (novella))" (novella) [of Stars and Shadows](Songs)(Songs of Stars and Shadows) (1977), collection of 8 short stories and 1 novelette: : "This Tower of Ashes", "Patrick Henry, Jupiter, and the Little Red Brick Spaceship", "Men of Greywater Station", "The Lonely Songs of Laren Dorr", "Night of the Vampyres", "The Runners", "Night Shift", "...For a Single Yesterday", "And Seven Times Never Kill Man" (novelette) [Sandkings](Sandkings (short story collection)) (1981), collection of 3 short stories and 4 novelettes: : "[Way of Cross and Dragon](The)(The Way of Cross and Dragon)" (novelette), "Bitterblooms" (novelette), "In the House of the Worm", "Fast-Friend", "The Stone City" (novelette), "Starlady", "[Sandkings](Sandkings (novelette))" (novelette) [the Dead Men Sing](Songs)(Songs the Dead Men Sing) (1983), collection of 5 short stories and 4 novelettes/novellas: : "The Monkey Treatment" (novelette), "...For a Single Yesterday", "In the House of the Worm", "The Needle Men", "Meathouse Man" (novelette), "[Sandkings](Sandkings (novelette))" (novelette), "This Tower of Ashes", "[Nightflyers](Nightflyers)" (novella), "Remembering Melody" Nightflyers, or Nightflyers and Other Stories (1985), collection of 6 novelettes/novellas: : "[Nightflyers](Nightflyers)" (novella), "Override" (novelette), "Weekend in a War Zone" (novelette), "And Seven Times Never Kill Man" (novelette), "Nor the Many-Colored Fires of a Star Ring" (novelette), "[Song for Lya](A)(A Song for Lya (novella))" (novella) [of His Children](Portraits)(Portraits of His Children) (1987), collection of 5 short stories and 6 novelettes/novellas: : "[Morning Comes Mistfall](With)(With Morning Comes Mistfall)", "The Second Kind of Loneliness", "The Last Super Bowl" (novelette), "The Lonely Songs of Laren Dorr", "[Ice Dragon](The)(The Ice Dragon)" (novelette), "In the Lost Lands", "Unsound Variations" (novella), "Closing Time", "Under Siege" (novelette), "The Glass Flower" (novelette), "Portraits of His Children" (novelette) [Quartet](Quartet (short story collection)) (2001), collection of 1 short story and 3 novellas: : "Blood of the Dragon" (novella part of A Game of Thrones), "Black and White and Red All Over", "Starport" (novella), "Skin Trade" (novella) [A RRetrospective](Dreamsongs:)(Dreamsongs: A RRetrospective), or GRRM: A RRetrospective (2003), collection of 11 short stories, 21 novelettes/novellas and 2 screenplays: : A Four-Color Fanboy: "Only Kids Are Afraid of the Dark", "The Fortress", "And Death His Legacy" : The Filthy Pro: "The Hero", "The Exit to San Breta", "The Second Kind of Loneliness", "[Morning Comes Mistfall](With)(With Morning Comes Mistfall)" : The Light of Distant Stars: "[Song for Lya](A)(A Song for Lya (novella))" (novella), "This Tower of Ashes", "And Seven Times Never Kill Man" (novelette), "The Stone City" (novelette), "Bitterblooms" (novelette), "[Way of Cross and Dragon](The)(The Way of Cross and Dragon)" (novelette) : The Heirs of Turtle Castle: "The Lonely Songs of Laren Dorr", "[Ice Dragon](The)(The Ice Dragon)" (novelette), "In the Lost Lands" : Hybrids and Horrors: "Meathouse Man" (novelette), "Remembering Melody", "[Sandkings](Sandkings (novelette))" (novelette), "[Nightflyers](Nightflyers)" (novella), "The Monkey Treatment" (novelette), "The Pear-Shaped Man" (novelette) : A Taste of Tuf: "A Beast for Norn" (novelette part of Tuf Voyaging), "Guardians" (novelette part of Tuf Voyaging) : The Siren Song of Hollywood: "The Road Less Traveled" (screenplay), "Doorways" (screenplay) : Doing the Wild Card Shuffle: "Shell Games" (novelette), "From the Journal of Xavier Desmond" (novella) : The Heart in Conflict: "Under Siege" (novelette), "The Skin Trade" (novella), "Unsound Variations" (novella), "The Glass Flower" (novelette), "The Hedge Knight" (novella; series A Knight of the Seven Kingdoms* #1), "Portraits of His Children" (novelette) Uncollected short stories: * "Nobody Leaves New Pittsburg" (1976) ### Editor * New Voices in Science Fiction (1977: new stories by the [W. Campbell Award](John)(John W. Campbell Award for Best New Writer) winners) * New Voices in Science Fiction 2 (1979: more new stories by the [W. Campbell Award](John)(John W. Campbell Award for Best New Writer) winners) * New Voices in Science Fiction 3 (1980: more new stories by the [W. Campbell Award](John)(John W. Campbell Award for Best New Writer) winners) * New Voices in Science Fiction 4 (1981: more new stories by the [W. Campbell Award](John)(John W. Campbell Award for Best New Writer) winners) * The Science Fiction Weight Loss Book (1983) edited with [Asimov](Isaac)(Isaac Asimov) and [H. Greenberg](Martin)(Martin H. Greenberg) ("Stories by the Great Science Fiction Writers on Fat, Thin, and Everything in Between") * The John W. Campbell Awards, Volume 5 (1984, continuation of the New Voices in Science Fiction series) * Night Visions 3 (1986) #### Wild Cards series editor (also contributor to many volumes) * [Cards](Wild)(Wild Cards (anthology)) (1987; contents expanded in 2010 edition with three new stories/authors) * [Cards II: Aces High](Wild)(Aces High (book)) (1987) * [Cards III: Jokers Wild](Wild)(Jokers Wild (novel)) (1987) * [Cards IV: Aces Abroad](Wild)(Aces Abroad) (1988; Book I of the Puppetman Quartet; contents expanded in 2015 edition with two new stories/authors) * [Cards V: Down & Dirty](Wild)(Down and Dirty (book)) (1988; Book II of the Puppetman Quartet) * Wild Cards VI: Ace in the Hole (1990; Book III of the Puppetman Quartet) * ''Wild Cards VII: Dead Man's Hand* (1990; Book IV of the Puppetman Quartet) * Wild Cards VIII: One-Eyed Jacks (1991; Book I of the Rox Triad) * Wild Cards IX: Jokertown Shuffle (1991; Book II of the Rox Triad) * Wild Cards X: Double Solitaire (1992) * Wild Cards XI: Dealer's Choice (1992; Book III of the Rox Triad) * Wild Cards XII: Turn of the Cards (1993) * [Cards XIII: Card Sharks](Wild)(Card Sharks (anthology)) (1993; Book I of the Card Shark Triad) * [Cards XIV: Marked Cards](Wild)(Marked Cards) (1994; Book II of the Card Shark Triad) * [Cards XV: Black Trump](Wild)(Black Trump) (1995; Book III of the Card Shark Triad) * [Cards XVI: Deuces Down](Wild)(Deuces Down) (2002) * Wild Cards XVII: Death Draws Five (2006; solo novel by [J. Miller](John)(John J. Miller (author))) * Wild Cards XVIII: Inside Straight (2008; Book I of The Committee triad) * Wild Cards XIX: Busted Flush (2008; Book II of The Committee triad) * Wild Cards XX: Suicide Kings (2009; Book III of The Committee triad) * Wild Cards XXI: Fort Freak (2011; Book I of the Mean Streets Triad) * Wild Cards XXII: Lowball (2014; Book II of the Mean Streets Triad) * Wild Cards XXIII: High Stakes (2016; Book III of the Mean Streets Triad) * Wild Cards XXIV: Mississippi Roll (2017; Book I of the American Triad) * Wild Cards XXV: Low Chicago (2018; Book II of the American Triad) * Wild Cards XXVI: Texas Hold 'Em (2018; Book III of the American Triad) * Wild Cards XXVII: Knaves Over Queens (2019; Book I of the British Arc) * Wild Cards XXVIII: Three Kings (2020; Book II of the British Arc) * Wild Cards XXIX: Joker Moon (2021) * Wild Cards XXX: Full House (2022) * Wild Cards XXXI: Pairing Up (TBA) #### Cross-genre anthologies edited (with Gardner Dozois) * [of the Dying Earth](Songs)(Songs of the Dying Earth)'' (2009; a tribute anthology to [Vance](Jack)(Jack Vance)'s [Earth](Dying)(Dying Earth)* series, first published by [Press](Subterranean)(Subterranean Press)) * [Warriors](Warriors (anthology)) (2010; a cross-genre anthology featuring stories about war and warriors; winner of the 2011 Locus Poll Award for Best Original Anthology) * [of Love and Death](Songs)(Songs of Love and Death (anthology)) (2010; a cross-genre anthology featuring stories of romance in fantasy and science fiction settings, originally entitled Star Crossed Lovers) * [These Strange Streets](Down)(Down These Strange Streets) (2011; a cross-genre anthology that blends classic detective stories with fantasy and science fiction) * [Mars](Old)(Old Mars) (2013; a science fiction anthology featuring all new, retro-themed stories about the [Planet](Red)(Mars)) * [Women](Dangerous)(Dangerous Women (anthology)) (2013; a cross-genre anthology focusing on women warriors and strong female characters, originally titled Femmes Fatale) * [Rogues](Rogues (anthology)) (2014; a cross-genre anthology featuring new stories about assorted rogues) * [Venus](Old)(Old Venus) (2015 publication; an anthology of all new, retro-themed [Venus](Venus) science fiction stories) ## Filmography ### Film ### Television ### Video games ## References }} ## External links * * * * * * [George R. R. Martin](http://sf-encyclopedia.uk/fe.php?nm=martin_george_r_r) at the [of Fantasy](Encyclopedia)(The Encyclopedia of Fantasy) * [George R. R. 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Atlas Shrugged	atlas_shrugged	# Atlas Shrugged Revision ID: 1159251680 \| Timestamp: 2023-06-09T06:26:27Z --- \| published = October 10, 1957 \| publisher = [House](Random)(Random House) \| pages = 1,168 (first edition) \| awards = \| isbn = \| oclc = 412355486 }} *Atlas Shrugged* is a 1957 novel by [Rand](Ayn)(Ayn Rand). It was her longest novel, the fourth and final one published during her lifetime, and the one she considered her [opus](magnum)(magnum opus) in the realm of [fiction](fiction) writing. Atlas Shrugged includes elements of [fiction](science)(science fiction), [mystery](mystery fiction), and [romance](romance novel), and it contains Rand's most extensive statement of [Objectivism](Objectivism) in any of her works of fiction. Rand described the theme of Atlas Shrugged as "the role of man's mind in existence". The book explores a number of philosophical themes from which Rand would subsequently develop Objectivism, including [reason](reason), [right](property)(property right)s, [individualism](individualism), [libertarianism](libertarianism) and [capitalism](capitalism), and depicts what Rand saw as the failures of governmental coercion. The book depicts a [dystopia](dystopia)n United States in which private businesses suffer under increasingly burdensome laws and regulations. Railroad executive Dagny Taggart and her lover, steel magnate Hank Rearden, struggle against "looters" who want to exploit their productivity. They discover that a mysterious figure called [Galt](John)(John Galt) is persuading other business leaders to abandon their companies and disappear as a strike of productive individuals against the looters. The novel ends with the strikers planning to build a new capitalist society based on Galt's philosophy. Atlas Shrugged received largely negative reviews, but achieved enduring popularity and ongoing sales in the following decades. The novel has been cited as an influence on a variety of [libertarian](libertarian) and [conservative](conservative) thinkers and politicians. After several unsuccessful attempts to adapt the novel for film or television, a [trilogy based on it](film)(Atlas Shrugged (film series)) was released from 2011 to 2014, and two theatrical adaptations have been staged. ## Synopsis ### Setting Atlas Shrugged is set in a [dystopia](dystopia)n United States at an unspecified time, in which the country has a "National Legislature" instead of [Congress](United States Congress) and a "Head of State" instead of a [President](President of the United States). The US appears to be approaching an [collapse](economic)(economic collapse), with widespread shortages, business failures, and decreased productivity. Writer Edward Younkins said, "The story may be simultaneously described as anachronistic and timeless. The pattern of industrial organization appears to be that of the late 1800s—the mood seems to be close to that of the depression-era 1930s. Both the social customs and the level of technology remind one of the 1950s".Younkins, Edward W. "Atlas Shrugged: Ayn Rand's Philosophical and Literary Masterpiece". In . Many early 20th-century technologies are available, but later technologies such as [plane](jet)(jet plane)s and computers are largely absent. There is very little mention of historical people or events, not even major events such as [War II](World)(World War II). Aside from the United States, most countries are referred to as "People's States" that are implied to be either [socialist](socialist) or [communist](communist). ### Plot [[File:Jrb 20071024 NEW YORK CENTRAL SYSTEM train.JPG\|thumb\|left\|alt=A diesel-engine train sitting at a station\|Rand studied operations of the [York Central Railroad](New)(New York Central Railroad) as research for the story.]] [Taggart](Dagny)(Dagny Taggart), the operating vice-president of Taggart Transcontinental Railroad, keeps the company going amid a sustained [depression](economic)(economic depression). As economic conditions worsen and government enforces [statist](statist) controls on successful businesses, people repeat the cryptic phrase "Who is [Galt](John)(John Galt)?" which means: "Don't ask questions nobody can answer"; or more broadly, "Why bother?". Her brother [Jim](James Taggart (Atlas Shrugged)), the railroad's president, seems to make irrational decisions, such as buying from Orren Boyle's unreliable Associated Steel. Dagny is also disappointed to discover that the [Argentine](Argentine) billionaire [d'Anconia](Francisco)(Francisco d'Anconia), her childhood friend and first love, is risking his family's copper company by constructing the San Sebastián [mine](copper)(copper mine)s, even though [Mexico](Mexico) will probably [nationalize](nationalize) them. Despite the risk, Jim and Boyle invest heavily in a railway for the region while ignoring the Rio Norte Line in [Colorado](Colorado), where entrepreneur Ellis Wyatt has discovered large [reserves](oil)(oil reserves). Mexico nationalizes the mines and railroad line, but the mines are discovered to be worthless. To recoup the railroad's losses, Jim influences the National Alliance of Railroads to prohibit competition in prosperous areas such as Colorado. Wyatt demands that Dagny supply adequate rails to his wells before the ruling takes effect. In [Philadelphia](Philadelphia), self-made steel magnate [Rearden](Hank)(Hank Rearden) develops Rearden Metal, an alloy lighter and stronger than conventional steel. Dagny opts to use Rearden Metal in the Rio Norte Line, becoming the first major customer for the product. After Hank refuses to sell the metal to the State Science Institute, a government research foundation run by Dr. [Stadler](Robert)(Robert Stadler), the Institute publishes a report condemning the metal without identifying problems with it. As a result, many significant organizations [boycott](boycott) the line. Although Stadler agrees with Dagny's complaints about the unscientific tone of the report, he refuses to override it. To protect Taggart Transcontinental from the boycott, Dagny decides to build the Rio Norte Line as an independent company named the John Galt Line. Hank is unhappy with his manipulative wife Lillian, but feels obliged to stay with her. He is attracted to Dagny, and when he joins her for the inauguration of the John Galt Line, they become lovers. On a vacation, Hank and Dagny discover an abandoned factory with an incomplete but revolutionary motor that runs on atmospheric [electricity](static)(static electricity). They begin searching for the inventor, and Dagny hires scientist Quentin Daniels to reconstruct the motor. However, a series of economically harmful directives are issued by [Mouch](Wesley)(Wesley Mouch), a former Rearden [lobbyist](lobbyist) who betrayed Hank in return for a job leading a government agency. Wyatt and other important business leaders quit and disappear, leaving their industries to failure. From conversations with Francisco, Dagny and Hank realize he is hurting his copper company intentionally, although they do not understand why. When the government imposes a directive that forbids employees from leaving their jobs and nationalizes all patents, Dagny violates the law by resigning in protest. To gain Hank's compliance, the government blackmails him with threats to publicize his affair with Dagny. After a major disaster in one of Taggart Transcontinental's tunnels, Dagny returns to work. On her return, she receives notice that Quentin Daniels is also quitting in protest, and she rushes across the country to convince him to stay. [[File:Ouray, Colorado.JPG\|thumb\|right\|alt=Photo of the town of Ouray\|[Colorado](Ouray,)(Ouray, Colorado) was the basis for Rand's descriptions of Galt's Gulch.]] On her way to Daniels, Dagny meets a [hobo](hobo) with a story that reveals the motor was invented and abandoned by an engineer named John Galt, who is the inspiration for the common saying. When she chases after Daniels in a private plane, she crashes and discovers the secret behind the disappearances of business leaders: Galt is leading a strike of "the men of the mind". She has crashed in their hiding place, an isolated valley known as Galt's Gulch. As she recovers from her injuries, the strikers explain their motives, and she learns that the strikers include Francisco and many prominent people, such as her favorite composer, Richard Halley, and infamous pirate [Danneskjöld](Ragnar)(Ragnar Danneskjöld). Dagny falls in love with Galt, who asks her to join the strike. Reluctant to abandon her railroad, Dagny leaves Galt's Gulch, but finds the government has devolved into dictatorship. Francisco finishes sabotaging his mines and quits. After he helps stop an armed takeover of Hank's steel mill, Francisco convinces Hank to join the strike. Galt follows Dagny to New York, where he hacks into a national radio broadcast to deliver a three-hour speech that explains the novel's theme and Rand's [Objectivism](Objectivism).[II, G.](Stolyarov)(Gennady Stolyarov II) "The Role and Essence of John Galt's Speech in Ayn Rand's Atlas Shrugged". In . The authorities capture Galt, unsuccessfully attempt to persuade him to lead the restoration of the country's economy, and torture him when he refuses. The government collapses, and the novel closes as Galt announces that the strikers can rejoin the world. ## History ### Context and writing [[File:Ayn Rand (1943 Talbot portrait).jpg\|thumb\|upright\|alt=Photo of Ayn Rand\|[Rand](Ayn)(Ayn Rand) in 1943]] Rand's stated goal for writing the novel was "to show how desperately the world needs prime movers and how viciously it treats them" and to portray "what happens to the world without them". The core idea for the book came to her during a 1943 telephone conversation with her friend [Paterson](Isabel)(Isabel Paterson), who asserted that Rand owed it to her readers to write fiction about her philosophy. Rand disagreed and replied, "What if I went on strike? What if all the creative minds of the world went on strike? … That would make a good novel". After the conversation ended, Rand's husband [O'Connor](Frank)(Charles Francis O'Connor), who had overheard, affirmed to Rand, "That would make a good novel." Rand then began Atlas Shrugged to depict the [morality](morality) of rational self-interest, by exploring the consequences of a [strike](strike action) by intellectuals refusing to supply their inventions, art, business leadership, scientific research, or new ideas to the rest of the world. Rand began the first draft of the novel on September 2, 1946. She initially thought it would be easy to write and completed quickly, but as she considered the complexity of the philosophical issues she wanted to address, she realized it would take longer. After ending a contract to write screenplays for [Wallis](Hal)(Hal Wallis) and finishing her obligations for the film adaptation of The Fountainhead, Rand worked full-time on the novel that she tentatively titled The Strike. By the summer of 1950, she had written 18 chapters; by September 1951, she had written 21 chapters and was working on the last of the novel's three sections. As Rand completed new chapters, she read them to a circle of young admirers who had begun gathering at her home to discuss philosophy. This group included [Branden](Nathaniel)(Nathaniel Branden), his wife [Branden](Barbara)(Barbara Branden), Barbara's cousin [Peikoff](Leonard)(Leonard Peikoff), and economist [Greenspan](Alan)(Alan Greenspan). Progress on the novel slowed considerably in 1953, when Rand began working on Galt's lengthy radio address. She spent more than two years completing the speech, finishing it on October 13, 1955. The remaining chapters proceeded more quickly, and by November 1956 Rand was ready to submit the almost-completed manuscript to publishers. Atlas Shrugged was Rand's last completed work of fiction. It marked a turning point in her life—the end of her career as a novelist and the beginning of her role as a popular philosopher. ### Influences [[File:J. Robert Oppenheimer at the Guest Lodge, Oak Ridge, in 1946 4.jpg\|thumb\|upright\|alt=Photo of J. Robert Oppenheimer\|Rand used interviews with scientist [Robert Oppenheimer](J.)(J. Robert Oppenheimer) for the character Robert Stadler.]] Rand biographer Anne Heller traces some ideas that would go into Atlas Shrugged back to a never-written novel that Rand outlined when she was a student at [State University](Petrograd)(Petrograd State University). The futuristic story featured an American heiress luring the most talented men away from a mostly communist Europe. The heiress would have had an assistant called Eddie Willers, the name of Dagny's assistant in Atlas Shrugged. To depict the industrial setting of Atlas Shrugged, Rand conducted research on the American railroad and steel industries. She toured and inspected a number of industrial facilities, such as the [Steel](Kaiser)(Kaiser Steel) plant, visited facilities of the [York Central Railroad](New)(New York Central Railroad), and briefly operated a locomotive on the [Century Limited](Twentieth)(20th Century Limited). Rand also used her previous research for an uncompleted screenplay about the development of the [bomb](atomic)(atomic bomb), including her interviews of [Robert Oppenheimer](J.)(J. Robert Oppenheimer), which influenced the character Robert Stadler and the novel's depiction of the development of "Project X". Rand's descriptions of Galt's Gulch were based on the town of [Colorado](Ouray,)(Ouray, Colorado), which Rand and her husband visited in 1951 when they were relocating from Los Angeles to New York. Other details of the novel were affected by the experiences and comments of her friends. For example, her portrayal of leftist intellectuals (such as the characters Balph Eubank and Simon Pritchett) was influenced by the college experiences of Nathaniel and Barbara Branden, and Alan Greenspan provided information on the economics of the steel industry. Libertarian writer [Raimondo](Justin)(Justin Raimondo) described similarities between Atlas Shrugged and [Garrett](Garet)(Garet Garrett)'s 1922 novel [Driver](The)(The Driver (novel)), which is about an idealized industrialist named Henry Galt, who is a transcontinental railway owner trying to improve the world and fighting against government and socialism. Raimondo believed the earlier novel influenced Rand's writing in ways she failed to acknowledge, although there was no "word-for-word plagiarism“ and The Driver was published four years before Rand emigrated to the United States. Journalist Jeff Walker echoed Raimondo's comparisons in his book [Ayn Rand Cult](The)(The Ayn Rand Cult) and listed The Driver as one of several unacknowledged precursors to Atlas Shrugged. In contrast, [Matthew Sciabarra](Chris)(Chris Matthew Sciabarra) said he "could not find any evidence to link Rand to Garrett" and considered Raimondo's claims to be "unsupported". [Liberty](Liberty (libertarian magazine)) magazine editor [W. Bradford](R.)(R. W. Bradford) said Raimondo made an unconvincing comparison based on a coincidence of names and common literary devices. ### Publishing history [[File:Bennett Cerf.jpg\|thumb\|left\|upright\|alt=Photo of Bennet Cerf\|Random House CEO [Cerf](Bennett)(Bennett Cerf) oversaw the novel's publication in 1957.]] Due to the success of Rand's 1943 novel [Fountainhead](The)(The Fountainhead), she had no trouble attracting a publisher for Atlas Shrugged. This was a contrast to her previous novels, which she had struggled to place. Even before she began writing it, she had been approached by publishers interested in her next novel. However, her contract for The Fountainhead gave the first option to its publisher, [Company](Bobbs-Merrill)(Bobbs-Merrill Company). After reviewing a partial manuscript, they asked her to discuss cuts and other changes. She refused, and Bobbs-Merrill rejected the book.Ralston, Richard E. "Publishing Atlas Shrugged". In . Hiram Hayden, an editor she liked who had left Bobbs-Merrill, asked her to consider his new employer, [House](Random)(Random House). In an early discussion about the difficulties of publishing a controversial novel, Random House president [Cerf](Bennett)(Bennett Cerf) proposed that Rand should submit the manuscript to multiple publishers simultaneously and ask how they would respond to its ideas, so she could evaluate who might best promote her work. Rand was impressed by the bold suggestion and by her overall conversations with them. After speaking with a few other publishers from about a dozen who were interested, Rand decided multiple submissions were not needed; she offered the manuscript to Random House. Upon reading the portion Rand submitted, Cerf declared it a "great book" and offered Rand a contract. It was the first time Rand had worked with a publisher whose executives seemed enthusiastic about one of her books.Ralston, Richard E. "Publishing Atlas Shrugged". In . When the completed manuscript exceeded 600,000 words, Cerf asked Rand to make cuts, but backed off when she compared the idea to cutting the [Bible](Bible). With 1168 pages in the first edition, Atlas Shrugged is Rand's longest published book.Lipp, Ronald F. "Atlas and Art". In Random House published the novel on October 10, 1957. The initial print run was 100,000 copies. The first paperback edition was published by [American Library](New)(New American Library) in July 1959, with an initial run of 150,000.Ralston, Richard E. "Publishing Atlas Shrugged". In . A 35th-anniversary edition was published by [P. Dutton](E.)(E. P. Dutton) in 1992, with an introduction by Rand's heir, [Peikoff](Leonard)(Leonard Peikoff). The novel has been translated into more than 30 languages.}} ### Title and chapters [[File:Atlas holding up the celestial globe - Guercino (1646).jpg\|thumb\|upright\|alt=Painting of Atlas holding a sphere\|The title refers to the mythological [Atlas](Atlas (mythology)).]] The working title of the novel was The Strike, but Rand thought this title would reveal the mystery element of the novel prematurely. She was pleased when her husband suggested Atlas Shrugged, previously the title of a single chapter, for the book. The title is a reference to [Atlas](Atlas (mythology)), a [Titan](Titan (mythology)) in Greek mythology, who is described in the novel as "the giant who holds the world on his shoulders".}} The significance of this reference appears in a conversation in which Francisco d'Anconia asks Rearden what advice he would give Atlas if "the greater [Titan's](the) effort, the heavier the world bore down on his shoulders". With Rearden unable to answer, d'Anconia gives his own advice: "To shrug".Minsaas, Kirsti. "Ayn Rand's Recasting of Ancient Myths in Atlas Shrugged". In . The novel is divided into three parts consisting of ten chapters each. Each part is named in honor of one of [Aristotle](Aristotle)'s [of logic](laws)(law of thought): "Non-Contradiction" after the [of noncontradiction](law)(law of noncontradiction); "Either-Or", which is a reference to the [of excluded middle](law)(law of excluded middle); and "A Is A" in reference to the [of identity](law)(law of identity).Younkins, Edward W. "Atlas Shrugged: Ayn Rand's Philosophical and Literary Masterpiece". In . Each chapter also has a title; Atlas Shrugged is the only one of Rand's novels to use chapter titles.Seddon, Fred. "Various Levels of Meaning in the Chapter Titles of Atlas Shrugged". In . ## Themes ### Philosophy The story of Atlas Shrugged dramatically expresses Rand's [egoism](ethical)(ethical egoism), her advocacy of "[selfishness](rational)(Rational egoism)", whereby all of the principal virtues and vices are applications of the role of reason as man's basic tool of survival (or a failure to apply it): rationality, honesty, justice, independence, integrity, productiveness, and pride. Rand's characters often personify her view of the archetypes of various schools of philosophy for living and working in the world. [James Bidinotto](Robert)(Robert Bidinotto) wrote, "Rand rejected the literary convention that depth and plausibility demand characters who are naturalistic replicas of the kinds of people we meet in everyday life, uttering everyday dialogue and pursuing everyday values. But she also rejected the notion that characters should be symbolic rather than realistic." and Rand herself stated, "My characters are never symbols, they are merely men in sharper focus than the audience can see with unaided sight. ... My characters are persons in whom certain human attributes are focused more sharply and consistently than in average human beings". In addition to the plot's more obvious statements about the significance of industrialists to society, and the sharp contrast to [Marxism](Marxism) and the [theory of value](labor)(labor theory of value), this explicit conflict is used by Rand to draw wider philosophical conclusions, both implicit in the plot and via the characters' own statements. Atlas Shrugged caricatures [fascism](fascism), [socialism](socialism), [communism](communism), and any state intervention in society, as allowing unproductive people to "leech" the hard-earned wealth of the productive, and Rand contends that the outcome of any individual's life is purely a function of their ability, and that any individual could overcome adverse circumstances, given ability and intelligence.Peikoff, Leonard. "Introduction to the 35th Anniversary Edition". In . ### Sanction of the victim The concept "sanction of the victim" is defined by Leonard Peikoff as "the willingness of the good to suffer at the hands of the [evil](Good and evil), to accept the role of sacrificial victim for the '[sin](sin)' of creating value".Leonard Peikoff, "The Philosophy of Objectivism" lecture series (1976), Lecture 8. [http://aynrandlexicon.com/lexicon/sanctionofthevictim.html] Accordingly, throughout Atlas Shrugged, numerous characters are frustrated by this sanction, as when Hank Rearden appears duty-bound to support his family, despite their hostility toward him; later, the principle is stated by [Conway](Dan)(Dan Conway (Atlas Shrugged)): "I suppose somebody's got to be sacrificed. If it turned out to be me, I have no right to complain". John Galt further explains the principle: "Evil is impotent and has no power but that which we let it extort from us", and, "I saw that evil was impotent ... and the only weapon of its triumph was the willingness of the good to serve it". ### Government and business Rand's view of the ideal government is expressed by John Galt: "The political system we will build is contained in a single moral premise: no man may obtain any values from others by resorting to physical force", whereas "no rights can exist without the right to translate one's rights into reality—to think, to work and to keep the results—which means: the right of property". Galt himself lives a life of [laissez-faire](laissez-faire) capitalism. In the world of Atlas Shrugged, society stagnates when independent productive agencies are socially demonized for their accomplishments. This is in agreement with an excerpt from a 1964 interview with [Playboy](Playboy) magazine, in which Rand states: "The action in Atlas Shrugged takes place at a time when society has reached the stage of dictatorship." Rand also depicts [choice theory](public)(Public choice), such that the language of [altruism](altruism) is used to pass legislation nominally in the public interest (e.g., the "Anti-Dog-Eat-Dog Rule", and "The Equalization of Opportunity Bill"), but more to the short-term benefit of [interests](special)(Advocacy group) and government agencies.Caplan, Bryan. "Atlas Shrugged and Public Choice: The Obvious Parallels". In . ### Property rights and individualism Rand's heroes continually oppose "parasites", "looters", and "moochers" who demand the benefits of the heroes' labor. Edward Younkins describes Atlas Shrugged as "an apocalyptic vision of the last stages of conflict between two classes of humanity—the looters and the non-looters. The looters are proponents of high taxation, big labor, government ownership, government spending, government planning, regulation, and redistribution".Younkins, Edward W. "Atlas Shrugged: Ayn Rand's Philosophical and Literary Masterpiece". In . "Looters" are Rand's depiction of bureaucrats and government officials, who confiscate others' earnings by the implicit threat of force ("at the point of a gun"). Some officials execute government policy, such as those who confiscate one state's [grain](seed)(seed saving) to feed the starving citizens of another; others exploit those policies, such as the railroad regulator who illegally sells the railroad's supplies for his own profit. Both use force to take property from the people who produced or earned it. "Moochers" are Rand's depiction of those unable to produce value themselves, who demand others' earnings on behalf of the needy, but resent the talented upon whom they depend, and appeal to "moral right" while enabling the "lawful" seizure by governments. The character Francisco d'Anconia indicates the role of "looters" and "moochers" in relation to money: "So you think that money is the root of all evil? ... Have you ever asked what is the root of money? Money is a tool of exchange, which can't exist unless there are goods produced and men able to produce them. ... Money is not the tool of the moochers, who claim your product by tears, or the looters who take it from you by force. Money is made possible only by the men who produce." ## Genre The novel includes elements of [mystery](Mystery fiction), [romance](romance novel), and [fiction](science)(science fiction). Rand referred to Atlas Shrugged as a mystery novel, "not about the murder of man's body, but about the murder—and rebirth—of man's spirit". Nonetheless, when asked by film producer [S. Ruddy](Albert)(Albert S. Ruddy) if a screenplay could focus on the love story, Rand agreed and reportedly said, "That's all it ever was". Technological progress and intellectual breakthroughs in scientific theory appear in Atlas Shrugged, leading some observers to classify it in the genre of science fiction. Fictional inventions such as Galt's motor, Rearden Metal, and Project X (a sonic weapon) are important to the plot.Riggenbach, Jeff. "Atlas Shrugged as a Science Fiction Novel". In . Science fiction historian [J. Pierce](John)(John J. Pierce) describes it as a "romantic suspense novel" that is "at least a borderline case" of science fiction, specifically [science fiction](libertarian)(libertarian science fiction) based on its political themes. The novel's focus on philosophical issues, including [ethics](ethics) and [metaphysics](metaphysics), marks it as a [novel](philosophical)(philosophical novel).[Alan](Gotthelf,)(Alan Gotthelf). "Galt's Speech in Five Sentences (and Forty Questions)". In .Salmieri, Gregory. "Discovering Atlantis: Atlas Shrugged Demonstration of a New Moral Philosophy". In . ## Reception ### Sales [[Rand (1957 Phyllis Cerf portrait).jpg\|thumb\|right\|upright\|alt=Photo of Ayn Rand\|Rand in 1957](File:Ayn)] Atlas Shrugged debuted at number 13 on [New York Times* Best Seller list](The)(The New York Times Best Seller list) three days after its publication. It peaked at number 3 on December 8, 1957, and was on the list for 22 consecutive weeks. By 1984, its sales had exceeded five million copies. Sales of Atlas Shrugged* increased following the [crisis of 2007–2008](financial)(financial crisis of 2007–2008). The novel's sales in 2009 exceeded 500,000 copies, and it sold 445,000 copies in 2011. As of 2022, the novel had sold 10 million copies. ### Contemporary reviews Atlas Shrugged was generally disliked by critics. Rand scholar [Reisel Gladstein](Mimi)(Mimi Reisel Gladstein) later wrote that "reviewers seemed to vie with each other in a contest to devise the cleverest put-downs"; one called it "execrable claptrap", while another said it showed "remorseless hectoring and prolixity". In the [Review](Saturday)(Saturday Review (U.S. magazine)), Helen Beal Woodward said that the novel was written with "dazzling virtuosity" but was "shot through with hatred". In [New York Times Book Review](The)(The New York Times Book Review), [Hicks](Granville)(Granville Hicks) similarly said the book was "written out of hate". The reviewer for [Time](Time (magazine)) magazine asked: "Is it a novel? Is it a nightmare? Is it Superman – in the comic strip or the Nietzschean version?" [Chambers](Whittaker)(Whittaker Chambers) wrote what was later called the novel's most "notorious" review for the conservative magazine [Review](National)(National Review), where he called it "remarkably silly" and said it "can be called a novel only by devaluing the term". He predicted that practicing Rand's [godless](atheism) ideology would lead to a dictatorship similar to [Nazism](Nazism) or [Stalinist](Stalinist) [Communism](Communism), and said that within the novel "a voice can be heard ... commanding: 'To a gas chamber—go!. There were some positive reviews. Richard McLaughlin, reviewing the novel for [American Mercury](The)(The American Mercury), described it as a "long overdue" polemic against the welfare state with an "exciting, suspenseful plot", although unnecessarily long. He drew a comparison with the antislavery novel ''[Tom's Cabin](Uncle)(Uncle Tom's Cabin), saying that a "skillful polemicist" did not need a refined literary style to have a political impact. Journalist and book reviewer [Chamberlain](John)(John Chamberlain (journalist)), writing in the [York Herald Tribune](New)(New York Herald Tribune), found Atlas Shrugged'' satisfying on many levels: as science fiction, as a "philosophical detective story", and as a "profound political parable". ### Influence and legacy Atlas Shrugged has attracted an energetic and committed fan base. Each year, the Ayn Rand Institute donates 400,000 copies of works by Rand, including Atlas Shrugged, to high school students. According to a 1991 survey done for the [of Congress](Library)(Library of Congress) and the [of the Month Club](Book)(Book of the Month Club), Atlas Shrugged was ranked second among the books that made the most difference in the lives of 17 out of 2,032 Book-of-the-Month club members who responded, between the [Bible](Bible) and [Scott Peck](M.)(M. Scott Peck)'s [Road Less Traveled](The)(M. Scott Peck#The Road Less Traveled). [Library](Modern)(Modern Library)'s 1998 nonscientific [poll](online)(online poll) of the 100 best novels of the 20th century found Atlas rated No. 1, although it was not included on the list chosen by the Modern Library board of authors and scholars. The 2018 [PBS](PBS) Great American Read television series found Atlas Shrugged rated number 20 out of 100 novels, based on a [YouGov](YouGov) survey "asking Americans to name their most-loved novel". Rand's impact on contemporary [libertarian](libertarian) thought has been considerable. The title of one libertarian magazine, [Reason](Reason (magazine)): Free Minds, Free Markets, is taken from John Galt, the hero of Atlas Shrugged, who argues that "a free mind and a free market are corollaries". In a tribute written on the 20th anniversary of the novel's publication, libertarian philosopher [Hospers](John)(John Hospers) praised it as "a supreme achievement, guaranteed of immortality". In 1997, the libertarian [Institute](Cato)(Cato Institute) held a joint conference with [Atlas Society](The)(The Atlas Society), an Objectivist organization, to celebrate the 40th anniversary of the publication of Atlas Shrugged. At this event, Howard Dickman of ''Reader's Digest'' stated that the novel had "turned millions of readers on to the ideas of liberty" and said that the book had the important message of the readers' "profound right to be happy". Rand's former business partner and lover [Branden](Nathaniel)(Nathaniel Branden) expressed differing views of Atlas Shrugged. He was initially quite favorable to it, and even after he and Rand ended their relationship, he still referred to it in an interview as "the greatest novel that has ever been written", although he found "a few things one can quarrel with in the book". However, in 1984 he argued that Atlas Shrugged "encourages emotional repression and self-disowning" and that Rand's works contained contradictory messages. He criticized the potential psychological impact of the novel, stating that Galt's recommendation to respond to wrongdoing with "contempt and moral condemnation" clashes with the view of psychologists who say this only causes the wrongdoing to repeat itself. The [School](Austrian)(Austrian School) economist [von Mises](Ludwig)(Ludwig von Mises) admired the unapologetic [elitism](elitism) he saw in Rand's work. In a letter to Rand written a few months after the novel's publication, he said it offered "a cogent analysis of the evils that plague our society, a substantiated rejection of the ideology of our self-styled 'intellectuals' and a pitiless unmasking of the insincerity of the policies adopted by governments and political parties ... You have the courage to tell the masses what no politician told them: you are inferior and all the improvements in your conditions which you simply take for granted you owe to the efforts of men who are better than you."[Mises, Ludwig](von)(von Mises, Ludwig). Letter dated January 23, 1958. Quoted in [Rothbard](Murray)(Murray Rothbard), another Austrian School economist, wrote a letter to Rand in 1958 in which he praised the book as "an infinite treasure house" and "not merely the greatest novel ever written, [but] one of the very greatest books ever written, fiction or nonfiction". Rothbard soon distanced himself from Rand due to various disagreements in philosophy, and in the early 1960s he wrote a satirical one act play titled Mozart Was a Red that spoofed Rand (as the character Carson Sand) and the novel (as Sand's book The Brow of Zeus). In the years immediately following the novel's publication, many [conservatives](American)(Conservatism in the United States), such as [F. Buckley, Jr.](William)(William F. Buckley, Jr.), strongly disapproved of Rand and her Objectivist message. In addition to the strongly critical review by Whittaker Chambers, Buckley published a number of critical pieces: [Kirk](Russell)(Russell Kirk) called Objectivism an "inverted religion"; [Meyer](Frank)(Frank Meyer (political philosopher)) accused Rand of "calculated cruelties" and called her message an "arid subhuman image of man"; and [Wills](Garry)(Garry Wills) regarded Rand a "fanatic". [[holding a poster that says "I am John Galt"\|A protester's sign at a 2009 Tea Party rally refers to the character John Galt.](File:TDTP08.JPG\|thumb\|left\|alt=Man)] In the 21st century, the novel was referred to more positively by some conservatives. In 2005, [Republican](Republican Party (United States)) [Congressman](United States House of Representatives) [Ryan](Paul)(Paul Ryan) said that Rand was "the reason I got into public service", and he required his staff members to read Atlas Shrugged, although in 2012 he said his supposed devotion to Rand was "an urban legend". In 2006, [Thomas](Clarence)(Clarence Thomas), an [justice](associate)(Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States) of the [Court of the United States](Supreme)(Supreme Court of the United States), cited Atlas Shrugged as among his favorite novels. Following the [crisis of 2007–2008](financial)(financial crisis of 2007–2008), conservative commentators suggested the book as a warning against a socialistic reaction to the crisis. Conservative commentators [Boortz](Neal)(Neal Boortz), [Beck](Glenn)(Glenn Beck), and [Limbaugh](Rush)(Rush Limbaugh) offered praise of the book on their respective radio and television programs. In January 2009, conservative writer [Moore](Stephen)(Stephen Moore (writer)) wrote an article in [Wall Street Journal](The)(The Wall Street Journal) titled "Atlas Shrugged From Fiction to Fact in 52 Years", and two months later Republican Congressman [Campbell](John)(John B. T. Campbell III) said, "People are starting to feel like we're living through the scenario that happened in Atlas Shrugged." Outside of the US, the novel has been cited as an influence by politicians such as [Jensen](Siv)(Siv Jensen) in Norway and [Shaked](Ayelet)(Ayelet Shaked) in Israel. References to Atlas Shrugged have appeared in a variety of other popular entertainments. In the first season of the drama series [Men](Mad)(Mad Men (season 1)), [Cooper](Bert)(Bertram Cooper) urges [Draper](Don)(Don Draper) to read the book, and Don's sales pitch tactic to a client indicates he has been influenced by the strike plot. Less positive mentions of the novel occur in episodes of the animated comedies [Futurama](Futurama), where it appears among the library of books flushed down to the sewers to be read only by grotesque mutants, and [Park](South)(Chickenlover), where a newly literate character gives up on reading after experiencing Atlas Shrugged. The critically acclaimed 2007 video game [BioShock](BioShock) is widely considered to be a response to Atlas Shrugged. The story depicts a society that has collapsed due to Objectivism, and significant characters in the game owe their naming to Rand's work, which the game's creator [Levine](Ken)(Ken Levine (game developer)) found "really fascinating". In 2013, it was announced that Galt's Gulch, a settlement for libertarian devotees named for John Galt's safe haven, would be established near [Santiago](Santiago) in Chile, but the project collapsed amid accusations of fraud. ### Awards Atlas Shrugged was a finalist for the US [Book Award for Fiction](National)(National Book Award for Fiction) in 1958, but lost to [Wapshot Chronicle](The)(The Wapshot Chronicle) by [Cheever](John)(John Cheever). In 1983, it was one of the first two books given the [Award](Prometheus)(Prometheus Award)s' Hall of Fame Award for [science fiction](libertarian)(libertarian science fiction), alongside [Moon Is a Harsh Mistress](The)(The Moon Is a Harsh Mistress) by [Heinlein](Robert)(Robert Heinlein). ## Adaptations ### Film #### Early attempts [[File:John Aglialoro.jpg\|thumb\|upright\|alt=Photo of John Aglialoro\|[Aglialoro](John)(John Aglialoro) optioned the film rights in 1992.]] A film adaptation of Atlas Shrugged was in "[hell](development)(development hell)" for nearly 40 years.[Jeff](Britting,)(Jeff Britting). "Bringing Atlas Shrugged to Film". In . In 1972, [S. Ruddy](Albert)(Albert S. Ruddy) approached Rand to produce a cinematic adaptation. Rand insisted on having final script approval, which Ruddy refused to give her, thus preventing a deal. In 1978, Henry and [Jaffe](Michael)(Michael Jaffe) negotiated a deal for an eight-hour Atlas Shrugged [television](television) [miniseries](miniseries) on [NBC](NBC). Screenwriter [Silliphant](Stirling)(Stirling Silliphant) wrote the adaptation and obtained approval from Rand on the final script. When [Silverman](Fred)(Fred Silverman) became president of NBC in 1979, the project was scrapped. Rand, a former Hollywood screenwriter herself, began writing her own screenplay, but died in 1982 with only one-third of it finished. Her heir, [Peikoff](Leonard)(Leonard Peikoff), sold an [option](Option (filmmaking)) to Michael Jaffe and [Snider](Ed)(Ed Snider). Peikoff would not approve the script they wrote, and the deal fell through. In 1992, investor [Aglialoro](John)(John Aglialoro) paid Peikoff over $1 million for an option with full creative control. Two new scripts – one by screenwriter [Fitzgerald](Benedict)(Benedict Fitzgerald) and another by Peikoff's wife, Cynthia Peikoff – were deemed inadequate, and Aglialoro refunded early investors in the project. In 1999, under Aglialoro's sponsorship, Ruddy negotiated a deal with [Network Television](Turner)(TNT (U.S. TV network)) (TNT) for a four-hour miniseries, but the project was killed after TNT merged with [Time Warner](AOL)(AOL Time Warner). After the TNT deal fell through, [Howard](Howard Baldwin) and Karen Baldwin obtained the rights while running [Anschutz](Philip)(Philip Anschutz)'s [Entertainment](Crusader)(Walden Media). The Baldwins left Crusader to form Baldwin Entertainment Group in 2004 and took the rights to Atlas Shrugged with them. [Burns](Michael)(Michael R. Burns) of [Gate Entertainment](Lions)(Lionsgate) approached the Baldwins to fund and distribute Atlas Shrugged. A draft screenplay was written by [V. Hart](James)(James V. Hart) and rewritten by [Wallace](Randall)(Randall Wallace), but was never produced. #### 2011-2014 trilogy Atlas Shrugged was made into a film trilogy, released between 2011 and 2014. ##### Atlas Shrugged: Part I [[File:Taylor Schilling at Paley Fest Orange Is The New Black.jpg\|thumb\|upright\|alt=Photo of Taylor Schilling\|[Schilling](Taylor)(Taylor Schilling) played Dagny Taggart in Atlas Shrugged: Part I.]] In May 2010, [Patrick O'Toole](Brian)(Brian Patrick O'Toole) and Aglialoro wrote a screenplay, intent on filming in June 2010. [Polk](Stephen)(Stephen Polk) was set to direct. However, Polk was fired and principal photography began on June 13, 2010, under the direction of [Johansson](Paul)(Paul Johansson) and produced by Harmon Kaslow and Aglialoro. This resulted in Aglialoro's retention of his rights to the property, which were set to expire on June 15, 2010. Filming was completed on July 20, 2010, and the movie was released on April 15, 2011. [Schilling](Taylor)(Taylor Schilling) played Dagny Taggart and [Bowler](Grant)(Grant Bowler) played Hank Rearden. The film was met with a generally negative reception from professional critics. [aggregator](Review)(Review aggregator) [Tomatoes](Rotten)(Rotten Tomatoes) gives the film a score of 12% based on 52 reviews, with an average score of 3.8 out of 10. The film had under $5 million in total box office receipts, considerably less than the estimated $20 million invested by Aglialoro and others. The poor box office and critical reception made Aglialoro reconsider his plans for the rest of the trilogy, but other investors convinced him to continue. ##### Atlas Shrugged: Part II On February 2, 2012, Kaslow and Aglialoro announced they had raised $16 million to fund [Shrugged: Part II](Atlas)(Atlas Shrugged: Part II). [photography](Principal)(Principal photography) began on April 2, 2012; the producers hoped to release the film before the [presidential election](US)(2012 United States presidential election) in November. Because the cast for the first film had not been contracted for the entire trilogy, different actors were cast for all the roles. [Mathis](Samantha)(Samantha Mathis) played Dagny, with [Beghe](Jason)(Jason Beghe) as Hank and [Morales](Esai)(Esai Morales) as Francisco d'Anconia. The film was released on October 12, 2012, without a special screening for critics. It earned $1.7 million on 1012 screens for the opening weekend, which at that time ranked as the 109th worst opening for a film in [release](wide)(wide release). Critical response was highly negative; Rotten Tomatoes gives the film a 4% rating based on 23 reviews, with an average score of 3.2 out of 10. The film's final box office total was $3.3 million. ##### Atlas Shrugged: Part III: Who Is John Galt? The third part in the series, [Shrugged Part III: Who Is John Galt?](Atlas)(Atlas Shrugged Part III: Who Is John Galt?), was released on September 12, 2014. Dagny was played by [Regan](Laura)(Laura Regan), with [Morrow](Rob)(Rob Morrow) as Hank, [Polaha](Kristoffer)(Kristoffer Polaha) as John Galt, and [de Almeida](Joaquim)(Joaquim de Almeida) as Francisco. The movie opened on 242 screens and grossed $461,179 on its opening weekend; the final box office total was $851,690. It was reviewed unfavorably by critics, holding a [at Rotten Tomatoes](0%)(List of films with a 0% rating on Rotten Tomatoes) based on 10 reviews, with an average score of 1.8 out of 10. #### Future In 2015, the New York Times reported that Ruddy had come to an agreement with Aglialoro to make a new version of Atlas Shrugged. On November 17, 2022, producer [Boreing](Jeremy)(Jeremy Boreing) announced that conservative media company [Daily Wire](The)(The Daily Wire) optioned the rights to Atlas Shrugged. The company plans to create a series based on the novel for the DailyWire+ [on demand](video)(video on demand) service, in cooperation with the [Legend](Bonfire)(Bonfire Legend) movie studio and Aglialoro's Atlas Distribution Company. ### Stage Atlas Shrugged has been adapted twice as stage plays in German. In 2013, , director of the [Köln](Schauspiel)(Schauspiel Köln) in [Cologne](Cologne), staged (The Strike), a four-hour adaptation co-written by Bachmann and . Bachmann had begun the adaptation eight years earlier, but the theaters he worked for prior to Schauspiel Köln were dismissive of the idea. In January 2021, director [Stemann](Nicolas)(Nicolas Stemann) presented a three-hour musical adaptation, also titled , in [Zürich](Zürich), Switzerland. Stemann's version of the story from the novel is presented as a [within a story](story)(story within a story) being staged by a "Church of Ayn Rand" that is associated with the [alt-right](alt-right) and [supremacy](white)(white supremacy). ## See also * [and libertarianism](Objectivism)(Objectivism and libertarianism) ## Notes ## References ### Works cited * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * ## Further reading * Reprinted by [Objectivist Center](The)(The Atlas Society) as a booklet in 1999, . * * ## External links * * [Atlas Shrugged on Goodreads](https://www.goodreads.com/book/show/662.Atlas_Shrugged?ac=1) * [Free Online CliffsNotes for Atlas Shrugged](http://www.cliffsnotes.com/literature/a/atlas-shrugged/book-summary) * [Page about Atlas Shrugged](https://aynrand.org/novels/atlas-shrugged/) from the Ayn Rand Institute * [Timeline of major events in the novel](https://www.atlassociety.org/post/atlas-shrugged-timeline) * [Atlas Shrugged Essay Contest](https://programs.aynrand.org/prog/2020-21_atlas_shrugged_essay_contest/) * [Atlas Shrugged](https://www.shmoop.com/study-guides/literature/atlas-shrugged) study guide, themes, quotes, literary devices, teaching resources [American novels](Category:1957)(Category:1957 American novels) [science fiction novels](Category:1957)(Category:1957 science fiction novels) [novels adapted into films](Category:American)(Category:American novels adapted into films) [philosophical novels](Category:American)(Category:American philosophical novels) [political novels](Category:American)(Category:American political novels) [science fiction novels](Category:American)(Category:American science fiction novels) [about capitalism](Category:Books)(Category:Books about capitalism) [critical of modern liberalism in the United States](Category:Books)(Category:Books critical of modern liberalism in the United States) [critical of religion](Category:Books)(Category:Books critical of religion) [violence in fiction](Category:Domestic)(Category:Domestic violence in fiction) [novels](Category:Dystopian)(Category:Dystopian novels) [books](Category:English-language)(Category:English-language books) [science fiction books](Category:Libertarian)(Category:Libertarian science fiction books) [about businesspeople](Category:Novels)(Category:Novels about businesspeople) [about rail transport](Category:Novels)(Category:Novels about rail transport) [about suicide](Category:Novels)(Category:Novels about suicide) [by Ayn Rand](Category:Novels)(Category:Novels by Ayn Rand) [set in Colorado](Category:Novels)(Category:Novels set in Colorado) [set in New York City](Category:Novels)(Category:Novels set in New York City) [books](Category:Objectivist)(Category:Objectivist books) [House books](Category:Random)(Category:Random House books) [fiction novels adapted into films](Category:Science)(Category:Science fiction novels adapted into films) [novels](Category:Utopian)(Category:Utopian novels)
The Dark Knight Rises	the_dark_knight_rises	# The Dark Knight Rises Revision ID: 1159746901 \| Timestamp: 2023-06-12T08:35:51Z --- \| screenplay = \| story = \| based_on = \| starring = \| music = [Zimmer](Hans)(Hans Zimmer) \| cinematography = [Pfister](Wally)(Wally Pfister) \| editing = [Smith](Lee)(Lee Smith (film editor)) \| production_companies = \| distributor = Warner Bros. Pictures \| released = \| runtime = 165 minutes \| country = \| language = English \| budget = \| gross = $1.081 billion }} *The Dark Knight Rises* is a 2012 [film](superhero)(superhero film) directed by [Nolan](Christopher)(Christopher Nolan), who co-wrote the screenplay with his brother [Nolan](Jonathan)(Jonathan Nolan), and the story with [S. Goyer](David)(David S. Goyer). Based on the [Comics](DC)(DC Comics) character [Batman](Batman), it is the final installment in Nolan's [Dark Knight* trilogy](The)(The Dark Knight trilogy), and the sequel to [Dark Knight](The)(The Dark Knight)* (2008). The film stars [Bale](Christian)(Christian Bale) as [Wayne / Batman](Bruce)(Bruce Wayne (The Dark Knight trilogy)), alongside [Caine](Michael)(Michael Caine), [Oldman](Gary)(Gary Oldman), [Hathaway](Anne)(Anne Hathaway), [Hardy](Tom)(Tom Hardy), [Cotillard](Marion)(Marion Cotillard), [Gordon-Levitt](Joseph)(Joseph Gordon-Levitt), and [Freeman](Morgan)(Morgan Freeman). Eight years after the events of The Dark Knight, the revolutionary [Bane](Bane (DC Comics)) forces Bruce Wayne to resume his role as Batman and save [City](Gotham)(Gotham City) from nuclear destruction. Christopher Nolan was hesitant about returning to the series for a third film, but agreed after developing a story with his brother and Goyer that he felt would conclude the series on a satisfactory note. Nolan drew inspiration from Bane's comic book debut in the 1993 "[Knightfall](Batman: Knightfall)" storyline, the 1986 series [Dark Knight Returns](The)(The Dark Knight Returns), and the 1999 storyline "[Man's Land](No)(Batman: No Man's Land)". Filming took place from May to November 2011 in locations including [Jodhpur](Jodhpur), [London](London), [Nottingham](Nottingham), [Glasgow](Glasgow), [Angeles](Los)(Los Angeles), [York City](New)(New York City), [Newark](Newark, New Jersey), and [Pittsburgh](Pittsburgh). Nolan used [IMAX](IMAX) [film](70 mm)(70 mm film) cameras for much of the filming, including the first six minutes of the film, to optimize the quality of the picture. A vehicle variation of the [Batplane](Batplane) and [Batcopter](Batcopter) termed the "Bat", an underground prison set, and a new [Batcave](Batcave) set were created specifically for the film. As with The Dark Knight, [marketing](viral)(viral marketing) campaigns began early during production. When filming concluded, Warner Bros. refocused its campaign, developing promotional websites, releasing the first six minutes of the film, screening theatrical trailers, and sending out information regarding the film's plot. The Dark Knight Rises premiered in New York City on July 16, 2012. The film was released in the United States and the United Kingdom on July 20, 2012. The film received positive reviews from critics who deemed it a satisfying conclusion to the trilogy. The film grossed over $1 billion worldwide, making it the second film in the Batman film series to earn $1 billion, and the highest-grossing Batman film to date. In addition to being Nolan's highest-grossing film, it became the [is the peak position the film achieved, not the current. Please do NOT adjust!-->seventh-highest-grossing film of all time]( Eight years after the death of District Attorney Harvey Dent, [Bane](Bane (DC Comics)), a former member of the [of Shadows](League)(League of Shadows), leads an attack on a [CIA](Central Intelligence Agency) plane over [Uzbekistan](Uzbekistan) to abduct nuclear physicist, Dr. Leonid Pavel, and fake Pavel's death in the crash. Meanwhile, [crime](organized)(organized crime) has been eradicated in [City](Gotham)(Gotham City) by legislation, the "Dent Act", giving expanded powers to the police. [commissioner](Police)(Police commissioner) [Gordon](James)(James Gordon (character)) has kept Dent's killing spree as "[Two-Face](Two-Face)" a secret and allowed the blame for his crimes to fall on [Batman](Batman). Bruce Wayne, still mourning the death of [Dawes](Rachel)(Rachel Dawes), has become a recluse and [Enterprises](Wayne)(Wayne Enterprises) has stagnated. Bane enlists businessman John Daggett to buy Bruce's fingerprints. Cat burglar [Kyle](Selina)(Catwoman) steals Bruce's prints from [Manor](Wayne)(Wayne Manor) for Dagget, but he double-crosses her and she alerts the police, who pursue Bane and Daggett's henchmen into the sewers while Kyle flees. The henchmen capture Gordon and take him to Bane, but he escapes and is found by officer John Blake, an orphan who has deduced Bruce's secret identity and persuades him to resume his vigilantism. Bane attacks the Gotham Stock Exchange; though the attack appears unsuccessful when Batman resurfaces while intercepting Bane and his subordinates, he uses the fingerprints in a series of fraudulent transactions, leaving Bruce bankrupt. Fearing Bruce will get himself killed fighting Bane, his butler, [Pennyworth](Alfred)(Alfred Pennyworth), resigns in the hope of saving him, after admitting that he burned a letter that Rachel left for him saying she was going to marry Dent. Bane expands his operations and kills Daggett while Bruce and Wayne Enterprises' new CEO Miranda Tate become lovers. Kyle agrees to take Batman to Bane, but instead leads him into a trap under Wayne Tower. Bane gloats that he intends to fulfill [al Ghul](Ra's)(Ra's al Ghul)'s mission to destroy Gotham City, then defeats Batman in combat, breaking his back as a final blow. Bane takes the crippled Bruce abroad to an underground prison cave in [Jodhpur](Jodhpur), where Ra's al Ghul's child was born and raised before escaping — the only prisoner to have done so. Back in Gotham, Bane traps the police forces in the sewers, destroys all but one bridge surrounding the city, kills Mayor Anthony Garcia, forces Pavel to convert a [reactor](fusion)(fusion reactor) core into a decaying [bomb](neutron)(neutron bomb) before killing him, reveals to the city of Harvey Dent's crimes thus undermining the city's legal system, releases the prisoners of [Penitentiary](Blackgate)(Blackgate Penitentiary), and takes over the city. Meanwhile, Gotham's elite are exiled and killed in [courts](kangaroo)(Kangaroo court) presided over by [Crane](Jonathan)(Scarecrow (DC Comics)). Bruce recovers from his injuries five months later, escapes captivity, and returns to Gotham. As Batman, he frees the police, and together, they clash with Bane's army in the streets. During the battle, Batman overpowers Bane, but Tate stabs Batman, revealing herself as [al Ghul](Talia)(Talia al Ghul), Ra's al Ghul's daughter. Unable to activate the bomb's detonator due to Gordon blocking the signal, Talia leaves to find the bomb. Kyle returns, killing Bane and helping Batman pursue Talia, hoping to bring the bomb back to the reactor chamber where it can be stabilized. Talia's truck crashes, but she remotely floods and destroys the reactor chamber before dying. With no way to stop the detonation, Batman, after revealing his identity to Gordon, uses his aerial craft, the [Bat](Batplane), to haul the bomb far over the bay, where it safely explodes. In the aftermath, Batman is presumed dead and honored as a hero. Wayne Manor becomes an orphanage, and Bruce's estate is left to Alfred. Gordon finds the [Signal](Bat)(Bat Signal) repaired, while [Fox](Lucius)(Lucius Fox) discovers that Bruce had fixed the Bat's malfunctioning auto-pilot. In [Florence](Florence), Alfred discovers that Bruce is alive and in a relationship with Kyle, and they silently acknowledge each other. Blake, whose legal first name is revealed as [Robin](Robin (character)), resigns from the GCPD and receives a package from Bruce leading him to the [Batcave](Batcave). ## Cast * [Bale](Christian)(Christian Bale) as [Wayne / Batman](Bruce)(Bruce Wayne (Dark Knight trilogy)):A billionaire socialite who dedicates himself to protecting [City](Gotham)(Gotham City) from its criminal underworld, as a feared vigilante. Nolan has stated that, due to the eight-year gap between [Dark Knight](The)(The Dark Knight) and The Dark Knight Rises, "he's an older Bruce Wayne; he's not in a great state." Bale employed a martial arts discipline called the [Fighting Method](Keysi)(Keysi Fighting Method), now modified for Wayne's current state and Bane's style. Bale has stated that The Dark Knight Rises will be his final Batman film. Bale acknowledged that Batman is "not a healthy individual, this is somebody that is doing good, but he's right on the verge of doing bad". Bale clarifies that "He doesn't want to forget [parents' deaths](his). He wants to maintain that anger he felt at that injustice". Bale felt bittersweet about leaving the franchise, saying that it was like "saying goodbye to an old friend." * [Caine](Michael)(Michael Caine) as [Pennyworth](Alfred)(Alfred Pennyworth):Bruce's trusted butler and confidant, who acts as a father figure to Wayne but is unable to accept Wayne's desire to revive his Batman persona, even resigning from his position to impress the seriousness of his position upon him. Christopher Nolan emphasized the emotional bond between Pennyworth and Wayne, stressing its importance in the previous films and predicting that the relationship will be strained as it never has before. * [Oldman](Gary)(Gary Oldman) as [Gordon](James)(James Gordon (character)):The Commissioner of the [City Police Department](Gotham)(Gotham City Police Department), and one of the city's few honest police officers. Oldman described the character's work in cleaning up Gotham City as having left him world-weary and slightly bored, likening Gordon to a soldier who leaps at the chance to be on the front lines. His life has taken a turn for the worse since The Dark Knight; his wife has left him and taken their children, and the mayor is planning to dismiss him from his job. Gordon feels guilty over his role in covering up Harvey Dent's crimes and is prepared to resign from his position as Commissioner over it, but then senses that Gotham is about to come under threat. * [Hathaway](Anne)(Anne Hathaway) as [Kyle / Catwoman](Selina)(Catwoman):A professional cat burglar, grifter, and [fatale](femme)(femme fatale) who establishes a playful, teasing relationship with Wayne that "takes some of the somberness away from his character", and pursues a "clean slate" (a computer program rumored to be able to erase a person's criminal history) when she crosses paths with both Wayne and Batman. Hathaway auditioned not knowing what role she was being considered for. Hathaway described the role as being the most physically demanding she had ever played, and confessed that while she thought of herself as being fit, she had to redouble her efforts in the gym to keep up with the demands of the role. Hathaway trained extensively in martial arts for the role, and looked to [Lamarr](Hedy)(Hedy Lamarr)—who was the initial inspiration for the comic book character—in developing her own performance. [Begins](Batman)(Batman Begins) and The Dark Knight writer [S. Goyer](David)(David S. Goyer) had previously ruled out in 2008 including Catwoman in a third film for having already [appeared](Selina Kyle (Batman Returns)) in [Burton](Tim)(Tim Burton)'s [Returns](Batman)(Batman Returns), portrayed by [Pfeiffer](Michelle)(Michelle Pfeiffer). * [Hardy](Tom)(Tom Hardy) as [Bane](Bane (DC Comics)):A mysterious and physically imposing [revolutionary](revolutionary) villain who was excommunicated from the [of Shadows](League)(League of Shadows) and portrays himself as a "liberator of pain". He is desperate to continue Ra's al Ghul's legacy by destroying Gotham. The character was chosen by Christopher Nolan because of his desire to see Batman tested on both a physical and mental level. According to [designer](costume)(costume designer) [Hemming](Lindy)(Lindy Hemming), the character wears a mask that supplies him with an [analgesic](analgesic) gas to relieve pain he suffers from an injury sustained "early in his story". Hardy intended to portray the character as "more menacing" than [Swenson](Robert)(Robert Swenson)'s version of the character in [Schumacher](Joel)(Joel Schumacher)'s [& Robin](Batman)(Batman & Robin (film)) and that in order to do so, his portrayal entailed creating a contradiction between his voice and body. Hardy gained for the role, increasing his weight to . Hardy based Bane's voice on several influences, which include [Gorman](Bartley)(Bartley Gorman) and the character's [book heritage](comic)(Santa Prisca (DC Comics)). Bane claims that his revolution's enemies are the rich and the corrupt, who he contends are oppressing "the people", when in reality this was a ruse in order to exploit the citizens of Gotham City for the League of Shadows' ultimate goal in destroying Gotham City. * [Cotillard](Marion)(Marion Cotillard) as [Tate / Talia al Ghul](Miranda)(Talia al Ghul):The current CEO of [Enterprises](Wayne)(Wayne Enterprises) who encourages a still-grieving Bruce to rejoin society and continue his father's philanthropic works but is later revealed to be the daughter of Ra's al Ghul and Bane's accomplice. Cotillard also does her own dub-over voice in both the European and Canadian French dubs of the film. ** [King](Joey)(Joey King) as young Talia al Ghul * [Gordon-Levitt](Joseph)(Joseph Gordon-Levitt) as John Blake:A young police officer whose instincts lead him to believe that there is trouble on the horizon and is promoted to detective by Gordon when the elder cop saw something of himself within the younger. Blake represents the idealism that Gordon and Bruce Wayne once held, but soon lost in their battle against crime in the city. The film reveals his legal name to be Robin John Blake, an homage to Batman's sidekick in the comics, [Robin](Robin (character)). * [Freeman](Morgan)(Morgan Freeman) as [Fox](Lucius)(Lucius Fox): The ex-CEO turned executive vice president of Wayne Enterprises, who runs the company on Wayne's behalf and serves as his [armorer](armourer) for the [Batsuit](Batsuit), providing him with high-tech equipment and discreetly developing cutting-edge technology and weaponry, even as Wayne Enterprises starts losing money. * [Modine](Matthew)(Matthew Modine) as Peter Foley: Gordon's second-in-command who disdains Batman. * [Mendelsohn](Ben)(Ben Mendelsohn) as John Daggett: A rival billionaire socialite who employs Bane in his plan to take control of Wayne Enterprises. * [Gorman](Burn)(Burn Gorman) as Philip Stryver: Daggett's assistant and senior executive vice president of Daggett Industries. Philip Stryver is named after [Stryver](Stryver) from [Tale of Two Cities](A)(A Tale of Two Cities), the novel that The Dark Knight Rises directly drew influence from. * [Carbonell](Nestor)(Nestor Carbonell) as Anthony Garcia: Gotham City's mayor. Carbonell reprises his role from The Dark Knight. * [Temple](Juno)(Juno Temple) as Jen: Selina Kyle's friend and accomplice. * [Stewart](Josh)(Josh Stewart) as Barsad: Bane's right-hand man. * [Aboutboul](Alon)(Alon Aboutboul) as Dr. Leonid Pavel: A [Russian](Russians) nuclear physicist who is kidnapped by Bane and the League of Shadows in order to convert a fusion reactor funded by Bruce Wayne and Miranda Tate into a weapon to be used for the destruction of Gotham City. * [Gillen](Aidan)(Aidan Gillen) as Bill Wilson: A CIA operative who was tasked with [extracting](Extraction (military)) Pavel from Uzbekistan and tracking down Bane for terrorist activities before his appearance in Gotham City. (Bill is referred to solely as "CIA" in the film's dialogue; the character's name is revealed in the film's novelization.) * [Cullen](Brett)(Brett Cullen) portrays Byron Gilley, a U.S. congressman who is kidnapped by Kyle. Brett Cullen would go on to portray [Wayne](Thomas)(Thomas Wayne) in the 2019 DC Comics adaptation [Joker](Joker (2019 film)). * [Ellis](Chris)(Chris Ellis (actor)) as Father Reilly, a priest at the orphanage that Blake grew up in. * [Conti](Tom)(Tom Conti) as Prisoner: An unnamed prisoner who serves as Bruce Wayne's caretaker in Bane's underground prison, The Pit. * [Sunjata](Daniel)(Daniel Sunjata) as Mark Jones, a U.S. Special Ops officer who leads a task force into Gotham to assist Gordon and the GCPD in freeing the city from Bane's rule. * [Neeson](Liam)(Liam Neeson) as [al Ghul](Ra's)(Ra's al Ghul): Liam Neeson reprises his role from Batman Begins in a cameo appearance; he also appears in a brief flashback. ** [Pence](Josh)(Josh Pence) as young Ra's al Ghul. He appears in scenes set thirty years before the events of Batman Begins. * [Murphy](Cillian)(Cillian Murphy) as Dr. [Crane](Jonathan)(Scarecrow (DC Comics)): Cillian Murphy reprises his role from Batman Begins and The Dark Knight. * India Wadsworth as the wife of Ra's al Ghul and the mother of Talia al Ghul. * [Nolan](John)(John Nolan (British actor)) as Douglas Fredericks, a board member of Wayne Enterprises. John Nolan is Christopher Nolan's uncle and he reprises his role from Batman Begins. * [Devane](William)(William Devane) as the President of the United States. Other cast members include [Brown](Rob)(Rob Brown (actor)) and [Harrington](Desmond)(Desmond Harrington) as police officers; [Judge](Christopher)(Christopher Judge) as one of Bane's henchmen; and [Gugliemi](Noel)(Noel Gugliemi) as an ex-prisoner who is in charge of exiling corrupt elites during Bane's revolution. [Lennon](Thomas)(Thomas Lennon), who had appeared as a doctor in Nolan's 2000 film [Memento](Memento (film)), once again plays a doctor. United States Senator [Leahy](Patrick)(Patrick Leahy), who had made a cameo appearance in The Dark Knight, returned in The Dark Knight Rises, as a Wayne Enterprises board member. Several members of the [Steelers](Pittsburgh)(Pittsburgh Steelers) have cameo appearances as members of the fictional Gotham Rogues football team in the film, including [Roethlisberger](Ben)(Ben Roethlisberger), [Ward](Hines)(Hines Ward), [Polamalu](Troy)(Troy Polamalu), [Colon](Willie)(Willie Colon (American football)), [Pouncey](Maurkice)(Maurkice Pouncey), [Wallace](Mike)(Mike Wallace (American football)), [Miller](Heath)(Heath Miller), [Smith](Aaron)(Aaron Smith (American football)), [Clark](Ryan)(Ryan Clark (American football)), [Farrior](James)(James Farrior), [Woodley](LaMarr)(LaMarr Woodley), and [Hampton](Casey)(Casey Hampton), and former Steelers head coach [Cowher](Bill)(Bill Cowher) as the head coach of the Rogues. Pittsburgh mayor [Ravenstahl](Luke)(Luke Ravenstahl), a kicker in college, appears as the kicker for the Rogues' opponents, the Rapid City Monuments. In 2008, the [family](Rooney)(Rooney family) sold a minority stake in the team to [Tull](Thomas)(Thomas Tull), the CEO and president of [Pictures](Legendary)(Legendary Pictures), which produced The Dark Knight Rises. [Eckhart](Aaron)(Aaron Eckhart) expressed enthusiasm in returning for a sequel if asked, although he later stated Nolan verified that his character, [Dent / Two-Face](Harvey)(Two-Face), was dead, and only archive footage of Eckhart from The Dark Knight appears in the film. ## Production ### Development In 2005, [S. Goyer](David)(David S. Goyer) confirmed that he wrote treatments for two [Begins](Batman)(Batman Begins) sequels involving the [Joker](Joker (The Dark Knight)); the first would involve [Batman](Bruce Wayne (Dark Knight trilogy)), Harvey Dent and Commissioner Gordon hunting the Joker, while the second would have the Joker scarring Dent and turning him into [Two-Face](Two-Face) during his trial. The third treatment ended in the same way as the final version of The Dark Knight Rises. Other aspects of the third treatment were incorporated into [Dark Knight](The)(The Dark Knight). However, [Ledger](Heath)(Heath Ledger)'s family stated that he was planning on reprising his role as the Joker before his death, a notion supported by Ledger's co-star [Eckhart](Aaron)(Aaron Eckhart), who portrayed Two-Face in that film. A deleted subplot from The Dark Knight involved [Jai White](Michael)(Michael Jai White)'s Gambol surviving his encounter with the Joker to enable Jai White's character to return in a future film to try to take [City](Gotham)(Gotham City) over, but these plans were scrapped after Ledger's death and the film was edited to delete Gambol's subplot and have him killed off in the scene where the Joker originally simply mutilated him. After Ledger's death, [Nolan](Christopher)(Christopher Nolan) decided not to recast the role out of respect for his performance, and initially was hesitant to make a third film. Warner Bros. president of production Jeff Robinov had hoped a third film would be released in 2011 or 2012. Nolan wanted the story for the third installment to keep him emotionally invested. "On a more superficial level, I have to ask the question," he reasoned, "how many good third movies in a franchise can people name?" Nolan said that he never even thought a third film was possible in the foreword for his book The Art and Making of the Dark Knight Trilogy. Nolan only agreed to a third film on the basis of finding a worthwhile story, fearing that he would become bored halfway through production if he discovered the film to be unnecessary. By December 2008, Nolan completed a rough story outline, before he committed himself to [Inception](Inception). Later in December, [F. Horn](Alan)(Alan F. Horn) confirmed that while discussions with Nolan about a third film were ongoing, no casting had been done, and Horn denied all such rumors. Before Nolan confirmed his involvement, Gary Oldman had said he was confident Nolan would return. Following the success of [Joker](the)(Joker (character)) in The Dark Knight, studio executives wished for [Riddler](the)(Riddler) to be included as the primary villain as he was considered a similar character and encouraged the casting of [DiCaprio](Leonardo)(Leonardo DiCaprio). However, Nolan wanted the antagonist to be vastly different from the previous incarnations and committed to using [Bane](Bane (DC Comics)) instead, citing the need for a character with a physical presence within the film. He was initially unfamiliar with the character's [back-story](back-story), but pointed out the appeal of an archetype, labeling it as "the extreme of some type of villainy". When comparing the choice of Bane with the Joker, Nolan highlighted the Joker as an example of "diabolical, chaotic anarchy and has a devilish sense of humor", juxtaposing him against Bane, whom he likened to "a classic movie monster [...] with a terrific brain." Nolan has said that his draft of the script was inspired by [Dickens](Charles)(Charles Dickens)' 1859 novel [Tale of Two Cities](A)(A Tale of Two Cities), which centers around the [Revolution](French)(French Revolution). This homage to Dickens was briefly illustrated by having Bane inconspicuously finger knit [paracord](Parachute cord) in the film, symbolizing [Defarge](Madame)(Madame Defarge), the villain of [Tale of Two Cities](A)(A Tale of Two Cities), and more overtly by Commissioner Gordon's eulogy for Bruce Wayne, which is taken directly from Dickens' novel. On February 9, 2010, it was announced that Nolan had "cracked" the story and was committed to returning to the project. Shortly afterward, it was announced [S. Goyer](David)(David S. Goyer) and Jonathan Nolan were working on a screenplay. Goyer would leave the project during pre-production to begin work on [of Steel](Man)(Man of Steel (film)); Jonathan continued writing the script based on the story by his brother Chris and Goyer. Nolan said that his brother's original draft was about 400 pages. The film's storyline has been compared with the Batman comic book series' story arc "[Knightfall](Batman: Knightfall)" (1993), which showcases Bane; the miniseries [Dark Knight Returns](The)(The Dark Knight Returns) (1986), in which Batman returns to [City](Gotham)(Gotham City) after a ten-year absence; and the story arc "[Man's Land](No)(Batman: No Man's Land)" (1999), which depicts a Gotham cut off from the rest of the world and overrun by gangs. The nickname "the Dark Knight" was first applied to Batman in Batman #1 (1940), in a story written by [Finger](Bill)(Bill Finger). Nolan confirmed the Joker would not return in the third film, and dismissed rumors that he considered using unused footage of Ledger from The Dark Knight. The Dark Knight Rises reunited Nolan with many of his past collaborators, including cinematographer [Pfister](Wally)(Wally Pfister), production designer [Crowley](Nathan)(Nathan Crowley), editor [Smith](Lee)(Lee Smith (film editor)), costume designer Lindy Hemming, special effects supervisors Paul Franklin and [Corbould](Chris)(Chris Corbould), and composer [Zimmer](Hans)(Hans Zimmer). ### Filming [[File:Batmobile on set.jpg\|thumb\|right\|A [Tumbler](Batmobile) on the set of The Dark Knight Rises in [Pittsburgh](Pittsburgh)]] During location scouting in December 2010, Nolan began searching for locations such as India, Romania, and Michigan. According to the Romania Insider, Nolan was interested in [Bucharest](Bucharest)'s historical centers, Edgar Quinet Street, the [of the Parliament](Palace)(Palace of the Parliament), and the [salt mine](Turda)(Salina Turda). The film had an estimated budget of $250–300 million, coming down to about $230 million after tax credits. Nolan elected not to film in [3-D](3-D film), but instead stated that he intended to focus on improving image quality and scale using the [IMAX](IMAX) format. The Dark Knight Rises featured over an hour of footage shot in IMAX (by comparison, The Dark Knight contained 28 minutes). Nolan had several meetings with IMAX Vice-president David Keighley to work on the logistics of projecting films in digital IMAX venues. Wally Pfister had expressed interest in shooting the film entirely in IMAX, but because of the considerable noise made by IMAX cameras, [mm](35)(35 mm movie film) and [mm](70)(70 mm film) cameras had to be used for shooting the film's dialogue scenes, as dialogue had to be dubbed when shot with IMAX cameras. Chairman and president of the [Corporation](IMAX)(IMAX Corporation) Greg Foster stated that IMAX planned to run the film in its theatres for two months, despite only being contractually committed to run the film for two weeks. Nolan also bypassed the use of a [intermediate](digital)(digital intermediate) for the film, resulting in less manipulation of the filmed image and higher [resolution](film)(film resolution). Filming was scheduled to start in May and conclude in November 2011. [photography](Principal)(Principal photography) commenced on May 6, 2011, in [Jodhpur](Jodhpur), India, at the [Fort](Mehrangarh)(Mehrangarh Fort) before moving to [Pittsburgh](Pittsburgh), where it operated under the working title Magnus Rex to reduce the visibility of the production. Shooting locations within the city included [Field](Heinz)(Heinz Field), the site of an [football](American)(American football) game, with members of the [Steelers](Pittsburgh)(Pittsburgh Steelers) playing the Gotham Rogues football team. More than 11,000 extras were used to depict the shot sequence. Filming in Pittsburgh also took place at the [Institute](Mellon)(Mellon Institute of Industrial Research) and [Engineering Institute](Software)(Software Engineering Institute) at [Mellon University](Carnegie)(Carnegie Mellon University). A letter sent out to residents and business owners detailing road closures revealed that the streets of the city would be featured "as the start of [the] film". [9-1-1](9-1-1) operators were told to expect an increase in calls related to gunshots and explosions in the film's production. The Pittsburgh leg of production wrapped after three weeks on August 21, 2011. The next portion of the filming began in Los Angeles in late August and finished up on October 23 after nine weeks of filming. New York and New Jersey were the next places of filming. The [Tower](Trump)(Trump Tower (New York City)) replaced the [J. Daley Center](Richard)(Richard J. Daley Center) as the location for the headquarters of [Enterprises](Wayne)(Wayne Enterprises). In November 2011, shooting shifted to [New Jersey](Newark,)(Newark, New Jersey). [City Hall](Newark)(Newark City Hall) and [Park](Military)(Military Park (Newark)) were among the locations used for filming. Other shooting locations include London and [Glasgow](Glasgow), the latter of which was used for "additional exterior filming". Principal photography concluded on November 14, 2011. The external waterfall scene at the end of the film was shot at [Henrhyd](Sgwd)(Sgwd Henrhyd) falls, on the edge of the [Beacons](Brecon)(Brecon Beacons) National Park in [Wales](Wales). Production photos from filming in Pittsburgh showed a second [Tumbler](Batmobile#Batman Begins, The Dark Knight and The Dark Knight Rises) chassis after the first was destroyed, indicating that a new Batmobile would be in the film, following the destruction of the first in The Dark Knight. Further set photos revealed a "new vehicle" being transported to [Tunnel](Wabash)(Wabash Tunnel), prompting speculation as to its nature. In June 2011, Autoblog confirmed the presence of the new [Aventador](Lamborghini)(Lamborghini Aventador) on the film set. [[File:Wollaton Hall Nov2010.jpg\|thumb\|[Hall](Wollaton)(Wollaton Hall) in Nottingham was used as [Manor](Wayne)(Wayne Manor), Bruce Wayne's residence.]] Several accidents occurred during the production of the film. While filming at [Hall](Wollaton)(Wollaton Hall), [Nottingham](Nottingham), a [tractor-trailer](Semi-trailer truck) crashed into the main entrance, though no one was injured. A stuntman [parachutist](Parachuting) later crashed through the roof of a home in Cairngorm Gliding Club, Feshiebridge in [Scotland](Scotland), and became wedged there after a failed landing during a skydiving stunt; he was not seriously injured. While filming scenes in Pittsburgh, Hathaway's stunt double crashed into an IMAX camera while filming a sequence that required her to ride a [Batpod](Batcycle#Live-action films) down a flight of stairs during a riot. There were no injuries, but the camera was destroyed. A second accident took place in Pittsburgh when the truck carrying the then-unidentified vehicle later termed "the Bat" went off-course and crashed into a lighting array, damaging the model of the aircraft. Production was delayed while the model was repaired. Shortly before Christmas of 2011, Christopher Nolan invited several prominent directors, including [Wright](Edgar)(Edgar Wright), [Bay](Michael)(Michael Bay), [Singer](Bryan)(Bryan Singer), [Favreau](Jon)(Jon Favreau), [Roth](Eli)(Eli Roth), [Jones](Duncan)(Duncan Jones) and [Daldry](Stephen)(Stephen Daldry), to [CityWalk](Universal)(Universal CityWalk)'s IMAX theatre for a private screening of the first six minutes of The Dark Knight Rises, which had been shot on IMAX film and edited from the [camera negative](original)(original camera negative). Nolan, feeling that the use of [stock](film)(film stock) in cinema was being phased out due to the introduction of [cinematography](digital)(digital cinematography) and projection, used this screening to make a case for the continued use of film, which he asserts still offers superior image quality to any digital format, and warned the filmmakers that unless they continued to assert their choice to use film in their productions, they may eventually lose it as an option. Nolan explained; "I wanted to give them a chance to see the potential, because I think IMAX is the best film format that was ever invented. It's the gold standard and what any other technology has to match up to, but none have, in my opinion. The message I wanted to put out there was that no one is taking anyone's digital cameras away. But if we want film to continue as an option, and someone is working on a big studio movie with the resources and the power to insist [on] film, they should say so. I felt as if I didn't say anything, and then we started to lose that option, it would be a shame. When I look at a digitally acquired and projected image, it looks inferior against an original negative anamorphic print or an IMAX one." ### Design #### Costume design [[Tom Hardy5.jpg\|thumb\|upright\|A digitally mapped model of Tom Hardy's face and skull was used to design and construct Bane's mask.](File:Bane)] [designer](Costume)(Costume designer) [Hemming](Lindy)(Lindy Hemming) explained that Bane uses a mask to inhale an [analgesic](analgesic) gas, which, in director Christopher Nolan's words, "keeps his pain just below the threshold so he can function." In designing Bane's costume, Hemming needed it to look "like an amalgam of all sorts of bits and pieces he cobbled together, as he passed through some very remote places. We made parts of his vest, for example, from fragments of an old military tent. His clothes are militaristic, but are not in any way a uniform." Hemming also designed Bane's mask to look "animalistic". Costume effects supervisor Graham Churchyard created a three-dimensional model of actor Tom Hardy's face and skull to design the mask, allowing the mask to perfectly conform to the contours of Hardy's face. Hemming personally designed Bane's coat, which she admitted took two years to complete. Taking inspiration from a [army](Swedish)(Swedish Army) jacket and a [coat](frock)(frock coat) from the French Revolution, it was designed to make Bane look equal parts dictatorial and revolutionary. The design was difficult as Hemming struggled to find a tailor in Los Angeles who could work with [shearling](shearling). The [Batsuit](Batsuit) consisted of 110 separate pieces, each of which had to be replicated dozens of times over the course of the production. The base layer was made of a [polyester](polyester) mesh that is utilized by the military and high-tech sports manufacturers because of its breathability and moisture-wicking properties. Molded pieces of flexible urethane were then attached to the mesh, to form the overall body armor plating. Carbon fiber panels were placed inside the sections on the legs, chest and abdomen. The cowl was sculpted from a cast of Bale's face and head to become a perfect fit for Christian Bale. The suit remained unchanged for the film since The Dark Knight. In creating Selina Kyle's catsuit, two layers of material were used, the outer layer being [polyurethane](polyurethane)-coated spandex embossed with a hexagonal pattern. The catsuit also consisted of [gloves](elbow-length)(evening glove), a [belt](utility)(utility belt), and [boots](thigh-high)(thigh-high boots) with spike heels. #### Production design [artist](Concept)(Concept artist) Tully Summers commented on Nolan's style of [cinematography](cinematography) when asked about the difference between his designs for this film and fantasy-based designs for [in Black 3](Men)(Men in Black 3): "The difference for me was Christopher Nolan's visual style. One of the things that makes his Batman movies so compelling is their tone of plausibility. He will often prefer a raw, grittier design over one that is very sleek and product design pretty. It's sort of a practical military aesthetic. This stuff is made to work, not impress shoppers. The Dark Knight Rises is a war film." Producer [Thomas](Emma)(Emma Thomas) stated this Batman film has a different visual aesthetic from the first two Nolan-directed features, explaining that "it's meant to be winter in Gotham, so that right there is going to lend a whole different look to the film." The film introduces a vehicle that has been compared with the [Batplane](Batplane) and the [Batcopter](Batcopter), dubbed "the Bat". In designing the Bat, Nathan Crowley approached it as if it were an actual military project, emphasising the need for it to "fit into the same family" as the Tumbler and the [Batpod](Batpod). The final version of the Bat takes its design cues from the [jump jet](Harrier)(Harrier jump jet), [Boeing V-22 Osprey](Bell)(Bell Boeing V-22 Osprey) and the [AH-64 Apache](Boeing)(Boeing AH-64 Apache). Chris Corbould described the Bat's size and shape as presenting a major challenge for filming given Christopher Nolan's emphasis on practical effects over [imagery](computer-generated)(computer-generated imagery). In order to make the Bat "fly", it was variously supported by wires, suspended from cranes and helicopters, and mounted on a purpose-built vehicle with hydraulic controls to simulate movement. When designing the [Batcave](Batcave) set, Crowley and fellow production designer Kevin Kavanaugh hit upon the idea of flooding the Batcave and having Batman's equipment, the [Batsuit](Batsuit) and a [supercomputer](supercomputer) rise from the water. Another set was designed at [Cardington](Cardington, Bedfordshire) as an "underground prison", a rough-hewn labyrinth of stone cells in a vast abyss with a vertical shaft leading to the surface. Exteriors above the prison were filmed in [Jodhpur](Jodhpur), [India](India), chosen because the "forbidding landscape added to the desolation". ## Music In an interview in October 2010, composer [Zimmer](Hans)(Hans Zimmer) confirmed that he would be returning to score The Dark Knight Rises. [Newton Howard](James)(James Newton Howard) was offered to return and write the score with Zimmer as he did for Batman Begins and The Dark Knight, but he chose not to because he noted that the chemistry established between Zimmer and Nolan during the making of Inception would make him seem like a "third wheel". Zimmer included several cues from the earlier scores but explained that he wanted to go in a "completely different direction" for Bane's theme. The film features a prevalent chant of the phrase "Deshi Basara". In November 2011, Zimmer [crowdsourced](crowdsourcing) online audio recordings of the chant to be used in the film's score. When asked about the chant for clarification, Zimmer said, "The chant became a very complicated thing because I wanted hundreds of thousands of voices, and it's not so easy to get hundreds of thousands of voices. So, we tweeted and we posted on the internet, for people who wanted to be part of it. It seemed like an interesting thing. We've created this world, over these last two movies, and somehow I think the audience and the fans have been part of this world. We do keep them in mind." Just like Batman Begins and The Dark Knight, the film's main theme consists in just two notes repeated, representing Batman's pain and guilt. Many times is also reprised in small parts "Molossus", Batman's main action theme in the trilogy. ## Marketing The official website launched in May 2011, introducing a viral marketing campaign similar to the one used to promote The Dark Knight. The website streamed an encrypted audio file described by users as chanting. Users decrypted the audio to the Twitter hashtag, "#TheFireRises". Warner Bros. removed a pixel from the webpage for every tweet using the hashtag. The website revealed the first official image of Bane. In July 2011, a teaser trailer [online](leaked)(internet leak) before its official release with [Potter and the Deathly Hallows – Part 2](Harry)(Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows – Part 2). The studio released the teaser three days after the leak. The trailer received mixed responses; Stephen Spencer Davis of [Slate](Slate (magazine)) wrote it successfully built hype, while Kofi Outlaw of [Rant](Screen)(Screen Rant) showed disappointment, claiming it was more of an "announcement trailer" than an actual teaser trailer. Outlaw criticized the quality, writing that a scene depicting Commissioner Gordon in a hospital bed was overly dramatic, had "hammy" dialogue, and was difficult to understand due to Gordon's labored breathing. Outlaw wrote that the sweeping shot of Gotham City had poor CGI and was too reminiscent of the Inception trailer. The theatrical trailer leaked online, like the teaser trailer, before being released the following week attached to theatrical prints of [Holmes: A Game of Shadows](Sherlock)(Sherlock Holmes: A Game of Shadows). Critics noted political undertones with dialogue foreshadowing the theme of [inequality](income)(Economic inequality) and an "[Gotham](Occupy)(Occupy movement)" campaign within the world of the story. Receiving more than 12.5 million views in the first 24 hours after its release, the trailer set the record for most combined downloads from [iTunes](iTunes), beating the previous record held by [Avengers](The)(The Avengers (2012 film)). However, the second trailer for The Avengers again set the record with 13.7 million downloads. Warner Bros. attached a second theatrical trailer for The Dark Knight Rises to theatrical prints of The Avengers. An "unnamed" Warner Brothers executive clarified that "We see this placement as a good strategic decision. We always want our trailers to be seen with films that people want to see—and a lot of people will be going to The Avengers!" The executive also commented that the trailer will "provide the best potential exposure for TDKR." Warner Bros. released the trailer online on April 30, 2012, approximately four days before they attached it to theatrical prints of The Avengers. Continuing a method used with The Dark Knight whereby the opening sequence of the film was attached to IMAX prints of [Am Legend](I)(I Am Legend (film)) seven months before release, a six-minute prologue of The Dark Knight Rises was attached to 70mm IMAX prints of [Impossible – Ghost Protocol](Mission:)(Mission: Impossible – Ghost Protocol), again approximately seven months before release. Critical reaction to the prologue was positive. Addressing the issue in an interview with [Weekly](Entertainment)(Entertainment Weekly), Nolan said "I think when people see the film, things will come into focus. Bane is very complex and very interesting and when people see the finished film people will be very entertained by him." [[File:Batsignal at Highmark building.jpg\|thumb\|The [Bat-Signal](Bat-Signal) being projected against the [Avenue Place](Fifth)(Fifth Avenue Place (Pittsburgh)) during filming in [Pittsburgh](Pittsburgh)]] Viral marketing campaigns for the film continued as magazine companies [Empire](Empire (film magazine)) and [Wired](Wired (magazine)) received "[CIA](Central Intelligence Agency) documents" concerning a "Dr. Leonid Pavel", with its mugshot connected to actor Alon Abutbul. According to the first document, Pavel is a missing Russian [physicist](nuclear)(nuclear physics), while the second document appears to be an edited transcript of a conversation discussing the handover of Dr. Pavel to the CIA by Georgian separatists, but with most of the conversation redacted. These were later shown to be plot elements of the six-minute prologue. The official Twitter account later linked to another censored document, this time, referencing "Operation Early Bird". A website of the same name was discovered, revealing a countdown timer. When the countdown finished, the site presented a map showing all available theaters that would be screening the film's prologue earlier than its release. Various websites received a package that included a cylinder map of "strike zones", and a "fire rises" [T-shirt](T-shirt). In April 2012, the film's official website was updated with a "dossier" on a suspect named "John Doe" also known as "the Batman" for an arrest, with a list of several accusations. The premise of the campaign starts when the mayor of Gotham City "redoubles" the effort to capture Batman and anyone supporting his return in preparation for the upcoming "Harvey Dent Day". The site also includes an extensive list of real-world locations where "graffiti related to movement in support of the vigilante's return" is located. For each tweet of a specific location marked on the list, a frame of the second theatrical trailer for the film was released on a separate website. In January 2012, six months prior to the film's release, tickets for midnight IMAX showings in New York, San Francisco, and Los Angeles went on sale and sold out immediately. Purchased tickets surfaced for sale online for over $100, compared with their original price of $17.50. [[File:2012 British GP - Lotus.jpg\|thumb\|Formula One team [F1](Lotus)(Lotus F1) carrying a special livery to promote The Dark Knight Rises at the [British Grand Prix](2012)(2012 British Grand Prix)]] At the [International Toy Fair](American)(American International Toy Fair), [Mattel](Mattel) unveiled figures for Batman, Bane, Catwoman, and Batman's flying vehicle, the Bat. The Mattel figures were also released in the "Movie Masters" line, featuring more highly detailed and articulated presentation, and Quiktek versions that feature interchangeable accessories. [Lego](Lego) released building sets and mini-figures based on the film and incorporating other DC Comic characters. Additionally, [Funko](Funko) released a series of [plush](plush) toys, [Toyz](Mezco)(Mezco Toyz) released vinyl figures, and [Hornby](Hornby Railways) released the Batman Tumbler car. Other partners include [Pacific](Jakks)(Jakks Pacific), who created novelty and large-scale figures and plush toys, and PPW Toys, who created a Batman themed [Potato Head](Mr.)(Mr. Potato Head). Various clothing items including shoes, T-shirts, hats and wallets were also produced. A video game of the same name was released on the same day as the release of the film for the [iOS](iOS) and [Android](Android (operating system)) devices for promoting the movie. It was made by [Gameloft](Gameloft). The game features an [world](open)(open world) with primary focus on stealth and combat. The combat system of the game is inspired from [Asylum](Arkham)(Batman: Arkham Asylum) and [City](Arkham)(Batman: Arkham City). It takes place in Gotham City, with a somewhat similar but still significantly different plot from that of the movie. [IGN](IGN) gave it a mediocre score of 5.5/10. The film [novelization](novelization), written by author [Cox](Greg)(Greg Cox (writer)) and published by [Books](Titan)(Titan Books), was released alongside the film on July 24, 2012. Warner Bros. partnered with [Dew](Mountain)(Mountain Dew) to do a cross-promotion that included a special paint scheme on the number 88 [Impala](Chevrolet)(Chevrolet Impala#NASCAR) owned by [Motorsports](Hendrick)(Hendrick Motorsports) and driven by [Earnhardt Jr.](Dale)(Dale Earnhardt Jr.) in the [NASCAR](NASCAR) [Cup Series](Sprint)(Sprint Cup Series). On June 17, 2012, the car won the [Quicken Loans 400](2012)(2012 Quicken Loans 400) at [International Speedway](Michigan)(Michigan International Speedway). On July 4, 2012, the studio signed a deal with [One](Formula)(Formula One) team [F1](Lotus)(Lotus F1) to have the film's logos appear on the [E20](Lotus)(Lotus E20)s driven by [Räikkönen](Kimi)(Kimi Räikkönen) and [Grosjean](Romain)(Romain Grosjean) at the [British Grand Prix](2012)(2012 British Grand Prix). Räikkönen and Grosjean went on to finish the race in fifth and sixth place respectively. Warner Bros. had previously followed a similar promotion at the [British Grand Prix](2008)(2008 British Grand Prix), when the now-defunct [F1](Toyota)(Toyota F1) carried a livery to promote The Dark Knight. Two digital comic books entitled Batman Origins and The Dark Knight: Prologue were released exclusively for [Lumia](Nokia)(Nokia Lumia 900) devices. A special movie application has also been released, featuring trailers, wallpapers, movie schedules and Batman trivias. Limited editions of the [710](Lumia)(Nokia Lumia 710), [800](Lumia)(Nokia Lumia 800) and [900](Lumia)(Nokia Lumia 900) were also released featuring a laser-etched Batman logo. ## Release On July 6, 2012, [Bros.](Warner)(Warner Bros.) held a special [IMAX](IMAX) screening of The Dark Knight Rises for more than one hundred reporters and critics. However, technical issues with the computer device synchronizing the sound and picture forced the studio to postpone the screening by a day. Hollywood\|date=July 6, 2012}} The film later premiered on July 16 at the AMC Lincoln Square Theater in New York City, followed by a European premiere on July 18 at [Square](Leicester)(Leicester Square) in London, England. The film was released in Australia and New Zealand on July 19, and was later released in North America and the United Kingdom on July 20. ### Colorado shooting On July 20, 2012, during a midnight showing of The Dark Knight Rises at the Century 16 cinema in [Colorado](Aurora,)(Aurora, Colorado), a gunman wearing a [mask](gas)(gas mask) opened fire inside the theater, killing 12 people and injuring 58 others. Police responding to the shooting apprehended a suspect later identified as 24-year-old [Eagan Holmes](James)(James Holmes (mass murderer)) shortly after arriving on the scene. Initial reports stated that Holmes identified himself as "the [Joker](Joker (comics))" at the time of his arrest, although this has been debunked. [Bros.](Warner)(Warner Bros.) cancelled the Paris, Mexico, and Japan premieres of The Dark Knight Rises, and suspended the film's marketing campaign in Finland. Several broadcast networks also suspended television ads for the film in the United States. The trailer for [Squad](Gangster)(Gangster Squad (film)), another Warner Bros. movie included in the screening of The Dark Knight Rises, was removed as it contains a scene which shows gangsters shooting submachine guns at moviegoers through the screen, similar to the shooting in Aurora. Director Christopher Nolan released a public statement calling the shooting "unbearably savage". Other stars of the film released statements expressing their condolences, with star Christian Bale paying a personal visit to the survivors and the memorial in Aurora. ### Home media The Dark Knight Rises was released on November 28, 2012, in Hong Kong and New Zealand. On December 3, it was released in the United Kingdom, and on December 4, it was released in the United States. It is available on [Blu-ray](Blu-ray), DVD, and as a [download](digital)(Digital distribution). Coinciding with the release of this film, a box set of The Dark Knight Trilogy was released. The Dark Knight Rises was released on [UHD Blu-ray](4K)(Ultra HD Blu-ray) on December 19, 2017. ## Reception ### Box office Hours before the midnight release of the film, several box-office analysts suggested as much as a $198 million domestic opening weekend. However, in the wake of the [shooting during a midnight screening of the film](mass)(2012 Aurora, Colorado shooting), Warner Bros. decided to not report further box-office figures for the movie until Monday, July 23, 2012. As a result, other distributors also delayed the release of their official estimates as well. The shooting is also speculated to have hurt the ticket sales as [Online](E!)(E! Online) reported that a [Carolina](North)(North Carolina) audience member had stated that "this theater was kinda empty". Some reports released on July 21, 2012, said that rival studios estimated that the film grossed $75 million to $77 million on its opening day. Warner Bros. shortly after released a statement to [News](ABC)(ABC News) stating that they delayed the release of their estimates for the opening day total of the film "out of respect for the victims and their families," and added "Warner Bros. Pictures will not be reporting box office numbers for The Dark Knight Rises throughout the weekend. Box office numbers will be released on Monday." The Dark Knight Rises earned $448.1 million in North America, and $632.9 million in other countries, summing up to a worldwide total of $1.081 billion. Worldwide, it became the [film of all time](seventh-highest-grossing)(List of highest-grossing films) and the third-highest-grossing film of 2012. It had a worldwide opening weekend of $248.9 million. The film set a worldwide IMAX opening-weekend record with $23.8 million (overtaken by [Age of Ultron](Avengers:)(Avengers: Age of Ultron)) and also broke the record for the fastest movie to make over $50 million in IMAX theatres. IMAX CEO Richard L. Gelfond explained this by claiming, "Audiences are clearly seeking out and embracing the film the way it was meant to be seen – in IMAX." On the 2012 Labor Day weekend, it became the third film distributed by [Bros.](Warner)(Warner Bros.) and the thirteenth film in cinematic history to cross the $1 billion mark. The film also became the second movie (after Avatar) to reach $100 million in worldwide IMAX grosses. #### North America The Dark Knight Rises opened on Friday, July 20, 2012. It earned an estimated $30.6 million in midnight showings, which was the second-highest midnight gross behind [Potter and the Deathly Hallows – Part 2](Harry)(Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows – Part 2) ($43.5 million). It did, however, set an [IMAX](IMAX) midnight-gross record with $2.3 million (overtaken by [Age of Ultron](Avengers:)(Avengers: Age of Ultron)). The film made $75.8 million during its opening day, achieving, at the time, the third-highest single and opening day tally of all time. On July 23, 2012, it was announced that the film grossed $160.9 million for its debut weekend, which was the third-highest opening weekend ever, at the time, behind ''[The Avengers](Marvel's)(The Avengers (2012 film))* ($207.4 million) and Deathly Hallows – Part 2'' ($169.2 million). However, it did set an opening-weekend record for a [2D](2D computer graphics) film (previously held by [Dark Knight](The)(The Dark Knight)) and an IMAX opening-weekend record with $19.0 million (previously held by ''Marvel's The Avengers''). The film also held the top spot at the box office for its second and third weekends. In North America, it is the thirteenth-highest-grossing film, the third-highest-grossing 2012 film, as well as the sixth-highest-grossing superhero film and film based on comics. [Office Mojo](Box)(Box Office Mojo) estimates that the film sold more than 55 million tickets in the US. #### Other territories Outside North America, the film opened with $88.0 million from 7,173 theaters in just 17 markets. It was in first place at the box office outside North America for four consecutive weekends. Its three largest markets are the UK, Ireland and Malta ($90.3 million), where it is the highest-grossing superhero film, China ($52.8 million) and Australia ($44.2 million). ### Critical response The Dark Knight Rises* received highly positive reviews from critics. In a Metacritic review of year-end lists from 133 critics, 17 placed the film in their top ten. Film review aggregator [Tomatoes](Rotten)(Rotten Tomatoes) gave The Dark Knight Rises an approval rating of based on reviews, and a rating average of . The web site's critical consensus reads, "The Dark Knight Rises is an ambitious, thoughtful, and potent action film that concludes Christopher Nolan's franchise in spectacular fashion."}} [Metacritic](Metacritic), another review aggregator, assigned the film a weighted average score of 78 out of 100, based on 45 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews". [CinemaScore](CinemaScore) reported that audiences gave the film an average grade of "A" on an A+ to F scale. [Collin](Robbie)(Robbie Collin) of [Daily Telegraph](The)(The Daily Telegraph) granted the film a maximum score of five stars, stating that it is "a superhero film without a superhero" and praising Hardy's performance as well as the film's intricate plot and narrative. [Turan](Kenneth)(Kenneth Turan) of the [Angeles Times](Los)(Los Angeles Times) thought the film was "potent, persuasive and hypnotic" and that it was "more than an exceptional superhero movie, it is masterful filmmaking by any standard." The Playlists Todd Gilchrist wrote "A cinematic, cultural and personal triumph, The Dark Knight Rises is emotionally inspiring, aesthetically significant and critically important for America itself – as a mirror of both sober reflection and resilient hope." [IGN](IGN) gave it a 9 out of 10, noting similarities in tone and theme to Batman Begins over the trilogy's second installment, The Dark Knight, but also describing Bane as "that bit less interesting to watch" than Ledger's Joker, despite praising his "menacing voice" and "body language-driven performance". Film critic [Roeper](Richard)(Richard Roeper) gave the film an "A", calling it "a majestic, gorgeous, brutal and richly satisfying epic", and citing the final scenes of the picture as "the best five minutes of any film this year." The London Film Review gave the film a B and said "Nolan's film is a reminder that superheroes aren't merely a frivolous distraction, but an embodiment of our best selves." [Guardian](The)(The Guardian) scored the film four out of five stars, calling it a film of "granite, monolithic intensity", yet also calling it a "hammy, portentous affair". Andrew O'Hehir of [Salon](Salon (website)) writes "if The Dark Knight Rises is a fascist film, it's a great fascist film, and arguably the biggest, darkest, most thrilling and disturbing and utterly balls-out spectacle ever created for the screen". [Ebert](Roger)(Roger Ebert) of the [Sun-Times](Chicago)(Chicago Sun-Times) gave the film three out of four stars, stating "the film begins slowly with a murky plot and too many new characters, but builds to a sensational climax." It was selected for the American Film Institute's [10 films of 2012](top)(American Film Institute Awards 2012#Top 10 Films). [CNN](CNN)'s Tom Charity said the film was a "disappointingly clunky and bombastic conclusion to a superior series" and called it Nolan's worst film. Anthony Lane of [New Yorker](The)(The New Yorker) says that the "story is dense, overlong, and studded with references that will make sense only to those intimate with Nolan's previous excursions into Batmanhood". In reaction to fan backlash to some of the negative reviews, Rotten Tomatoes chose to disable user commentary for the film leading up to its release. Some fans had threatened violence against critics while others threatened to take down the websites of movie critics who had given the film a negative review. Outside of the positive critical and audience reception that The Dark Knight Rises has received both upon release and retrospectively, certain retrospective reviews have been mixed or negative. ### Analysis Writing in [Salon](Salon (website)), [Sirota](David)(David Sirota), a [progressive](Progressivism in the United States) political commentator, compared The Dark Knight Rises and the game [of Duty](Call)(Call of Duty) to 1980s popular culture reflecting the political period of the time, accusing them of perpetuating a conservative agenda: "Just as so many 1980s pop culture products reflected the spirit of the [Revolution](Reagan)(Reagan Revolution)'s conservative backlash, we are now seeing two blockbuster, genre-shaping products not-so-subtly reflect the [Party](Tea)(Tea Party movement)'s rhetorical backlash to the powerful [Wall Street](Occupy)(Occupy Wall Street) zeitgeist." An article in Variety reported Chuck Dixon, the cocreator of the Bane character, as saying that Bane is "far more akin to an Occupy Wall Street type if you're looking to cast him politically." Catherine Shoard of the center-left British publication [Guardian](The)(The Guardian) said the film "is a quite audaciously capitalist vision, radically conservative, radically vigilante, that advances a serious, stirring proposal that the wish-fulfilment of the wealthy is to be championed if they say they want to do good." In contrast, liberal commentator [Chait](Jonathan)(Jonathan Chait) opined in [York](New)(New York (magazine)) that "What passes for a right-wing movie these days is The Dark Knight Rises, which submits the rather modest premise that, irritating though the rich may be, actually killing them and taking all their stuff might be excessive." Writing in [Today](USA)(USA Today), Bryan Alexander called Bane "the ultimate occupier" and reported that Christian Bale was amazed that the script had "foreseen" the Occupy movement. Nolan has denied that the film criticizes the Occupy movement, and insists that none of his Batman films are intended to be political: "I've had as many conversations with people who have seen the film the other way round. We throw a lot of things against the wall to see if it sticks. We put a lot of interesting questions in the air, but that's simply a backdrop for the story. What we're really trying to do is show the cracks of society, show the conflicts that somebody would try to wedge open. We're going to get wildly different interpretations of what the film is supporting and not supporting, but it's not doing any of those things. It's just telling a story. If you're saying, 'Have you made a film that's supposed to be criticizing the Occupy Wall Street movement?' – well, obviously, that's not true." Slovenian philosopher [Žižek](Slavoj)(Slavoj Žižek) pointed out that the film was inspired by the [Revolution](French)(French Revolution) as portrayed by novelist [Dickens](Charles)(Charles Dickens). ### Internet meme In 2011, [Gillen](Aidan)(Aidan Gillen)'s character in the film, CIA operative Bill Wilson, became the subject of an [meme](Internet)(Internet meme) popular among [4chan](4chan) users known as "Baneposting", which references the dialogue between Wilson and Bane in the film's opening plane scene. ### Accolades The film received numerous accolades, including a nomination for [Visual Effects](Special)(BAFTA Award for Best Special Visual Effects) at the [Academy Film Awards](British)(66th British Academy Film Awards), four nominations at the [Choice Awards](Critics')(18th Critics' Choice Awards), two [Awards](Satellite)(Satellite Awards), five [Awards](Saturn)(Saturn Awards) (winning one), and a [Award](Grammy)(2013 Grammy Awards). It also received nominations for five [Choice Awards](Teen)(2013 Teen Choice Awards) (winning one),[2013 Teen Choice Awards: Miley Cyrus, 'Glee,' 'Twilight' win big](http://popwatch.ew.com/2013/08/11/2013-teen-choice-awards-winners/) Entertainment Weekly, Retrieved August 12, 2013 six [Movie Awards](MTV)(2013 MTV Movie Awards) and a [Choice Award](Kids)(2013 Kids' Choice Awards). It was named one of [top 10 films of 2012](the)(American Film Institute Awards 2012) by the [Film Institute](American)(American Film Institute). ## Notes ## References }} ## External links * (Warner Bros.) * (DC Comics) * * * * }} [films](Category:2012)(Category:2012 films) [superhero films](Category:American)(Category:American superhero films) [sequel films](Category:American)(Category:American sequel films) [superhero films](Category:2010s)(Category:2010s superhero films) [action thriller films](Category:American)(Category:American action thriller films) [action thriller films](Category:British)(Category:British action thriller films) [action thriller films](Category:2012)(Category:2012 action thriller films) [sequel films](Category:British)(Category:British sequel films) [*3](Category:The Dark Knight Trilogy) [about bomb disposal](Category:Films)(Category:Films about bomb disposal) [about coups d'état](Category:Films)(Category:Films about coups d'état) [about Delta Force](Category:Films)(Category:Films about Delta Force) [about identity theft](Category:Films)(Category:Films about identity theft) [films about revenge](Category:American)(Category:American films about revenge) [about terrorism](Category:Films)(Category:Films about terrorism) [about the Central Intelligence Agency](Category:Films)(Category:Films about the Central Intelligence Agency) [about nuclear war and weapons](Category:Films)(Category:Films about nuclear war and weapons) [about prison escapes](Category:Films)(Category:Films about prison escapes) [about secret societies](Category:Films)(Category:Films about secret societies) [directed by Christopher Nolan](Category:Films)(Category:Films directed by Christopher Nolan) [produced by Charles Roven](Category:Films)(Category:Films produced by Charles Roven) [produced by Christopher Nolan](Category:Films)(Category:Films produced by Christopher Nolan) [produced by Emma Thomas](Category:Films)(Category:Films produced by Emma Thomas) [with screenplays by Christopher Nolan](Category:Films)(Category:Films with screenplays by Christopher Nolan) [with screenplays by Jonathan Nolan](Category:Films)(Category:Films with screenplays by Jonathan Nolan) [scored by Hans Zimmer](Category:Films)(Category:Films scored by Hans Zimmer) [set in Florence](Category:Films)(Category:Films set in Florence) [set on fictional islands](Category:Films)(Category:Films set on fictional islands) [set in India](Category:Films)(Category:Films set in India) [set in Uzbekistan](Category:Films)(Category:Films set in Uzbekistan) [set in prison](Category:Films)(Category:Films set in prison) [shot in Glasgow](Category:Films)(Category:Films shot in Glasgow) [shot in Highland (council area)](Category:Films)(Category:Films shot in Highland (council area)) [shot in London](Category:Films)(Category:Films shot in London) [shot in Los Angeles](Category:Films)(Category:Films shot in Los Angeles) [shot in Newark, New Jersey](Category:Films)(Category:Films shot in Newark, New Jersey) [shot in New Jersey](Category:Films)(Category:Films shot in New Jersey) [shot in New York City](Category:Films)(Category:Films shot in New York City) [shot in Nottinghamshire](Category:Films)(Category:Films shot in Nottinghamshire) [shot in Pittsburgh](Category:Films)(Category:Films shot in Pittsburgh) [shot in Powys](Category:Films)(Category:Films shot in Powys) [shot in Rajasthan](Category:Films)(Category:Films shot in Rajasthan) [shot in Wales](Category:Films)(Category:Films shot in Wales) [films](Category:IMAX)(Category:IMAX films) [Pictures films](Category:Legendary)(Category:Legendary Pictures films) [thriller films](Category:Superhero)(Category:Superhero thriller films) [Inc. films](Category:Syncopy)(Category:Syncopy Inc. films) [Bros. films](Category:Warner)(Category:Warner Bros. films) [shot in India](Category:Films)(Category:Films shot in India) [based on A Tale of Two Cities](Category:Films)(Category:Films based on A Tale of Two Cities) [violence in fiction](Category:Gun)(Category:Gun violence in fiction) [English-language films](Category:2010s)(Category:2010s English-language films) [American films](Category:2010s)(Category:2010s American films) [British films](Category:2010s)(Category:2010s British films)
Boris Yeltsin	boris_yeltsin	# Boris Yeltsin Revision ID: 1159612460 \| Timestamp: 2023-06-11T12:41:29Z --- \| image = Борис Николаевич Ельцин-1 (cropped) (cropped).jpg \| image_size = \| caption = Official portrait, \| order = \| office = [of Russia](President)(President of Russia) \| vicepresident = [Rutskoy](Alexander)(Alexander Rutskoy) \| primeminister = \| term_start = 10 July 1991 \| term_end = 31 December 1999 \| predecessor = Himself as Chairman of the Supreme Soviet \| successor = [Putin](Vladimir)(Vladimir Putin) \| office2 = [Chairman](List of leaders of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic#Heads of state) of the [Soviet](Supreme)(Supreme Soviet of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic) of the [SFSR](Russian)(Russian SFSR) \| term_start2 = 29 May 1990 \| term_end2 = 10 July 1991 \| predecessor2 = [Vorotnikov](Vitaly)(Vitaly Vorotnikov)(as Chairman of the [Presidium](Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic) of the Supreme Soviet) \| successor2 = [Khasbulatov](Ruslan)(Ruslan Khasbulatov) \| office3 = First Secretary of the [City Party Committee](Moscow)(Moscow City Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union) \| term_start3 = 23 December 1985 \| term_end3 = 11 November 1987 \| predecessor3 = [Grishin](Viktor)(Viktor Grishin) \| successor3 = [Zaykov](Lev)(Lev Zaykov) \| birth_name = Boris Nikolayevich Yeltsin \| birth_date = \| birth_place = [Butka](Butka, Russia), [Oblast](Ural)(Ural Oblast (1923–1934)), [SFSR](Russian)(Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic), [Union](Soviet)(Soviet Union) \| death_date = \| death_place = Moscow, Russia \| resting_place = [Cemetery](Novodevichy)(Novodevichy Cemetery), Moscow, Russia \| nationality = [Soviet](Soviet nationality law) (1931–1991)[Russian](Russian nationality law) (1991–2007) \| party = [Independent](Independent (politician)) (after 1990) \| otherparty = [CPSU](Communist Party of the Soviet Union) (1961–1990) \| spouse = \| children = 2, including [Yumasheva](Tatyana)(Tatyana Yumasheva) \| alma_mater = [State Technical University](Ural)(Ural State Technical University) \| signature = Yeltsin signature.svg \| module = \| footnotes = ---- }} Boris Nikolayevich Yeltsin (, ; 1 February 1931 – 23 April 2007) was a Soviet and Russian politician who served as the first [of Russia](president)(president of Russia) from 1991 to 1999. He was a member of the [Party of the Soviet Union](Communist)(Communist Party of the Soviet Union) from 1961 to 1990. He later stood as a [independent](political)(Independent politician), during which time he was viewed as being ideologically aligned with [liberalism](Liberalism in Russia) and [nationalism](Russian)(Russian nationalism). Yeltsin was born in [Butka](Butka, Russia), [Oblast](Ural)(Ural Oblast (1923–1934)). He grew up in [Kazan](Kazan) and [Berezniki](Berezniki). After studying at the [State Technical University](Ural)(Ural State Technical University), he worked in construction. After joining the Communist Party, he rose through its ranks, and in 1976 he became First Secretary of the party's [Oblast](Sverdlovsk)(Sverdlovsk Oblast) committee. Yeltsin was initially a supporter of the [perestroika](perestroika) reforms of Soviet leader [Gorbachev](Mikhail)(Mikhail Gorbachev). He later criticized the reforms as being too moderate, and called for a transition to a [multi-party](Multi-party system) [democracy](representative)(representative democracy). In 1987 he was the first person to resign from the [of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union](Politburo)(Politburo of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union), which established his popularity as an anti-establishment figure. In 1990, he was elected chair of the [Supreme Soviet](Russian)(Supreme Soviet of Russia) and in 1991 was [elected](1991 Russian presidential election) president of the [Soviet Federative Socialist Republic](Russian)(Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic) (RSFSR). Yeltsin allied with various non-Russian [nationalist](nationalism) leaders, and was instrumental in the formal [of the Soviet Union](dissolution)(dissolution of the Soviet Union) in December of that year. With the dissolution of the Soviet Union, the RSFSR became the Russian Federation, an independent state. Through that transition, Yeltsin remained in office as president. He was later reelected in the [election](1996)(1996 Russian presidential election), which was claimed by critics to be pervasively corrupt. Yeltsin transformed Russia's [economy](command)(Economy of the Soviet Union) into a capitalist [economy](market)(market economy) by implementing [shock therapy](economic)(shock therapy (economics)), [exchange rate](market)(Exchange rate) of the [ruble](Russian ruble), [privatization](nationwide)(privatization in Russia), and lifting of [controls](price)(price controls). Economic volatility and inflation ensued. Amid the economic shift, a small number of [oligarch](Russian oligarchs)s obtained a majority of the national property and wealth, while international monopolies came to dominate the market. A [crisis](constitutional)(1993 Russian constitutional crisis) emerged in 1993 after Yeltsin ordered the unconstitutional dissolution of the [parliament](Russian)(Supreme Soviet of Russia), leading parliament to [impeach](Impeachment in Russia) him. The crisis ended after troops loyal to Yeltsin stormed the [building](parliament)(White House (Moscow)) and stopped an armed uprising; he then introduced a [constitution](new)(Constitution of Russia) which significantly expanded the powers of the president. Secessionist sentiment in the [Caucasus](Russian)(North Caucasian Federal District) led to the [Chechen War](First)(First Chechen War), [of Dagestan](War)(War of Dagestan), and [Chechen War](Second)(Second Chechen War) between 1994 and 1999. Internationally, Yeltsin promoted renewed collaboration with Europe and signed [control](arms)(arms control) agreements with the United States. Amid growing internal pressure, he resigned by the end of 1999 and was succeeded as president by his chosen successor, [Putin](Vladimir)(Vladimir Putin), whom he had appointed [minister](prime)(Prime Minister of Russia) a few months earlier. He kept a low profile after leaving office and was accorded a [funeral upon his death in 2007](state)(Death and state funeral of Boris Yeltsin). Domestically, he was highly popular in the late 1980s and early 1990s, although his reputation was damaged by the economic and political crises of his presidency, and he left office widely unpopular with the Russian population. He received praise and criticism for his role in dismantling the Soviet Union, transforming Russia into a representative democracy, and introducing new political, economic, and cultural freedoms to the country. Conversely, he was accused of economic mismanagement, corruption, and sometimes of undermining Russia's standing as a major world power. ## Early life, education and early career ### 1931–1948: childhood Boris Yeltsin was born on 1 February 1931 in the village of Butka, [District](Talitsky)(Talitsky District), [Oblast](Sverdlovsk)(Sverdlovsk Oblast), then in the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic, one of the republics of the [Union](Soviet)(Soviet Union). His family, who were ethnic Russians, had lived in this area of the [Urals](Ural Mountains) since at least the eighteenth century. His father, Nikolai Yeltsin, had married his mother, Klavdiya Vasilyevna Starygina, in 1928. Yeltsin always remained closer to his mother than to his father; the latter beat his wife and children on various occasions. [[of Eltsin.JPG\|thumb\|left\|upright=0.7\|Yeltsin with childhood friends](File:Youth)] The Soviet Union was then under the dictatorship of [Stalin](Joseph)(Joseph Stalin), who led the [state](one-party)(History of the Soviet Union (1927–1953)) governed by the Communist Party of the Soviet Union. Seeking to convert the country into a [society](socialist)(Socialist mode of production) according to [Marxist–Leninist](Marxism–Leninism) doctrine, in the late 1920s Stalin's government had initiated a project of [rural collectivisation](mass)(Collectivization in the Soviet Union) coupled with [dekulakization](dekulakization). As a prosperous farmer, Yeltsin's paternal grandfather, Ignatii, was accused of being a "[kulak](kulak)" in 1930. His farm, which was in Basmanovo (also known as Basmanovskoye), was confiscated; and he and his family were forced to reside in a cottage in nearby Butka. There, Nikolai and Ignatii's other children were allowed to join the local [kolkhoz](kolkhoz) ([farm](collective)(Collective farming)), but Ignatii himself was not; he and his wife, Anna, were exiled in 1934 to [Nadezhdinsk](Serov (town)), where he died two years later. As an infant, Yeltsin was christened in the [Orthodox Church](Russian)(Russian Orthodox Church); his mother was devout, and his father unobservant. In the years after his birth, the area was hit by the [of 1932–1933](famine)(Soviet famine of 1932–1933); throughout his childhood, Yeltsin was often hungry. In 1932, Yeltsin's parents moved to [Kazan](Kazan), where Yeltsin attended [kindergarten](kindergarten). There, in 1934, the [OGPU](Joint State Political Directorate) state security services arrested Nikolai, accused him of [agitation](anti-Soviet)(Article 58 (RSFSR Penal Code)), and sentenced him to three years in the [Dmitrov](Dmitrov) labor camp. Yeltsin and his mother then were ejected from their residence and were taken in by friends; Klavdiya worked at a garment factory in her husband's absence. In October 1936, Nikolai returned; in July 1937, the couple's second child, Mikhail, was born. That month, they moved to [Berezniki](Berezniki), in [Krai](Perm)(Perm Krai), where Nikolai got work on a [potash](potash) combine project. There, in July 1944, they had a third child, the daughter, Valentina. Between 1939 and 1945, Yeltsin received a primary education at Berezniki's Railway School Number 95. Academically, he did well at primary school and was repeatedly elected class monitor by fellow pupils. There, he also took part in activities organized by the [Komsomol](Komsomol) and [Lenin All-Union Pioneer Organization](Vladimir)(Vladimir Lenin All-Union Pioneer Organization). This overlapped with [involvement in the Second World War](Soviet)(Eastern Front (World War II)), during which Yeltsin's paternal uncle, Andrian, served in the [Army](Red)(Red Army) and was killed. From 1945 to 1949, Yeltsin studied at the municipal secondary school number 1, also known as [High School](Pushkin)(Pushkin High School). Yeltsin did well at secondary school, and there took an increasing interest in sport, becoming captain of the school's volleyball squad. He enjoyed playing pranks and in one instance played with a grenade, which blew off the thumb and index finger of his left hand. With friends, he would go on summer walking expeditions in the adjacent [taiga](taiga), sometimes for many weeks. ### 1949–1960: university and career in construction In September 1949, Yeltsin was admitted to the [Polytechnic Institute](Ural)(Ural State Technical University) (UPI) in [Sverdlovsk](Yekaterinburg). He took the stream in industrial and civil engineering, which included courses in maths, physics, materials and soil science, and draftsmanship. He was also required to study Marxist-Leninist doctrine and choose a language course, for which he selected German, although never became adept at it. Tuition was free and he was provided a small stipend to live on, which he supplemented by unloading railway trucks for a small wage. Academically, he achieved high grades, although temporarily dropped out in 1952 when afflicted with [tonsillitis](tonsillitis) and [fever](rheumatic)(rheumatic fever). He devoted much time to [athletics](Sport of athletics), and joined the UPI volleyball team. He avoided any involvement in political organizations while there. During the summer 1953 break, he traveled across the Soviet Union, touring the [Volga](Volga), central Russia, [Belarus](Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic), [Ukraine](Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic), and [Georgia](Georgian Soviet Socialist Republic); much of the travel was achieved by hitchhiking on freight trains. It was at UPI that he began a relationship with [Iosifovna Girina](Naina)(Naina Yeltsina), a fellow student who would later become his wife. Yeltsin completed his studies in June 1955. Leaving the Ural Polytechnic Institute, Yeltsin was assigned to work with the Lower Iset Construction Directorate in Sverdlovsk; at his request, he served the first year as a trainee in various building trades. He quickly rose through the organization's ranks. In June 1956 he was promoted to foreman (master), and in June 1957 was promoted again, to the position of work superintendent (prorab). In these positions, he confronted a widespread alcoholism and a lack of motivation among construction workers, an irregular supply of materials, and the regular theft or vandalism of materials that were available. He soon imposed fines for those who damaged or stole materials or engaged in absenteeism, and closely monitored productivity. His work on the construction of a textile factory, for which he oversaw 1000 workers, brought him wider recognition. In June 1958 he became a senior work superintendent (starshii prorab) and in January 1960 was made head engineer (glavni inzhener) of Construction Directorate Number 13. At the same time, Yeltsin's family was growing; in September 1956, he married Girina. She soon got work at a scientific research institute, where she remained for 29 years. In August 1957, their daughter Yelena was born, followed by a second daughter, Tatyana, in January 1960. During this period, they moved through a succession of apartments. On family holidays, Yeltsin took his family to a lake in northern Russia and to the [Sea](Black)(Black Sea) coast. ## CPSU career ### 1960–1975: early membership of the Communist Party In March 1960, Yeltsin became a probationary member of the governing Communist Party and a full member in March 1961. In his later autobiography, he stated that his original reasons for joining were "sincere" and rooted in a genuine belief in the party's socialist ideals. In other interviews he instead stated that he joined because membership was a necessity for career advancement. His career continued to progress during the early 1960s; in February 1962 he was promoted chief (''nachal'nik'') of the construction directorate. In June 1963, Yeltsin was reassigned to the Sverdlovsk House-Building Combine as its head engineer, and in December 1965 became the combine's director. During this period he was largely involved in building residential housing, the expansion of which was a major priority for the government. He gained a reputation within the construction industry as a hard worker who was punctual and effective and who was used to meeting the targets set forth by the state apparatus. There had been plans to award him the [of Lenin](Order)(Order of Lenin) for his work, although this was scrapped after a five-story building he was constructing collapsed in March 1966. An official investigation found that Yeltsin was not culpable for the accident. Within the local Communist Party, Yeltsin gained a patron in , who became the first secretary of the party [gorkom](gorkom) in 1963. In April 1968, Ryabov decided to recruit Yeltsin into the regional party apparatus, proposing him for a vacancy in the [obkom](obkom) department for construction. Ryabov ensured that Yeltsin got the job despite objections that he was not a longstanding party member. That year, Yeltsin and his family moved into a four-room apartment on Mamin-Sibiryak Street, downtown Sverdlovsk. Yeltsin then received his second [of the Red Banner of Labor](Order)(Order of the Red Banner of Labor) for his work completing a cold-rolling mill at the Upper Iset Works, a project for which he had overseen the actions of 15,000 laborers. In the late 1960s, Yeltsin was permitted to visit the West for the first time as he was sent on a trip to France. In 1975, Yeltsin was then made one of the five obkom secretaries in the Sverdlovsk Oblast, a position that gave him responsibility not only for construction in the region but also for the forest and the pulp-and-paper industries. Also in 1975, his family relocated to a flat in the House of Old Bolsheviks on March Street. ### 1976–1985: First Secretary of the Sverdlovsk Oblast [[File:Leonid Brezhnev Portrait (1).jpg\|thumb\|right\|In 1976, Yeltsin was interviewed by [Brezhnev](Leonid)(Leonid Brezhnev), General Secretary of the Communist Party, who decided that he was an appropriate choice to become First Secretary of the party's Sverdlovsk obkom.]] In October 1976, Ryabov was promoted to a new position in Moscow. He recommended that Yeltsin replace him as the First Secretary of the Party Committee in Sverdlovsk Oblast. [Brezhnev](Leonid)(Leonid Brezhnev), who then led the Soviet Union as [Secretary](General)(General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union) of the party's [Committee](Central)(Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union), interviewed Yeltsin personally to determine his suitability and agreed with Ryabov's assessment. At the Central Committee's recommendation, the Sverdlovsk obkom then unanimously voted to appoint Yeltsin as its first secretary. This made him one of the youngest provincial first secretaries in the RSFSR, and gave him significant power within the province. Where possible, Yeltsin tried to improve consumer welfare in the province, arguing that it would make for more productive workers. Under his provincial leadership, work started on various construction and infrastructure projects in the city of Sverdlovsk, including [subway system](a)(Yekaterinburg Metro), the replacement of its barracks housing, new theaters and a circus, the refurbishment of its 1912 opera house, and youth housing projects to build new homes for young families. In September 1977, Yeltsin carried out orders to demolish the [House](Ipatiev)(Ipatiev House), the location where the [Romanov](House of Romanov) royal family [been killed](had)(Execution of the Romanov family) in 1918, over the government's fears that it was attracting growing foreign and domestic attention. He was also responsible for punishing those living in the province who wrote or published material that the Soviet government considered to be seditious or damaging to the established order. Yeltsin sat on the civil-military collegium of the [Military District](Urals)(Urals Military District) and attended its field exercises. In October 1978, the [of Defence](Ministry)(Ministry of Defense (Soviet Union)) gave him the rank of [colonel](Colonel (Eastern Europe)). Also in 1978, Yeltsin was elected without opposition to the [Soviet](Supreme)(Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union). In 1979 Yeltsin and his family moved into a five-room apartment at the Working Youth Embankment in Sverdlovsk. In February 1981, Yeltsin gave a speech to the [CPSU Congress](26th)(26th Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union) and on the final day of the Congress was selected to join the Communist Party Central Committee. Yeltsin's reports to party meetings reflected the ideological conformity that was expected within the authoritarian state. Yeltsin played along with the [cult](personality)(personality cult) surrounding Brezhnev, but he was contemptuous of what he saw as the Soviet's leader's vanity and sloth. He later claimed to have quashed plans for a Brezhnev museum in Sverdlovsk. While First Secretary, his world-view began to shift, influenced by his reading; he kept up with a wide range of journals published in the country and also claimed to have read an illegally-printed [samizdat](samizdat) copy of [Solzhenitsyn](Aleksandr)(Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn)'s [Gulag Archipelago](The)(The Gulag Archipelago). Many of his concerns about the Soviet system were prosaic rather than ideological, as he believed that the system was losing effectiveness and beginning to decay. He was increasingly faced with the problem of Russia's place within the Soviet Union; unlike other republics in the country, the RSFSR lacked the same levels of autonomy from the central government in Moscow. In the early 1980s, he and Yurii Petrov privately devised a tripartite scheme for reforming the Soviet Union that would involve strengthening the Russian government, but it was never presented publicly. By 1980, Yeltsin had developed the habit of appearing unannounced in factories, shops, and public transport to get a closer look at the realities of Soviet life. In May 1981, he held a question-and-answer session with college students at the Sverdlovsk Youth Palace, where he was unusually frank in his discussion of the country's problems. In December 1982 he then gave a television broadcast for the region in which he responded to various letters. This personalised approach to interacting with the public brought disapproval from some Communist Party figures, such as First Secretary of [Oblast](Tyumen)(Tyumen Oblast), Gennadii Bogomyakov, although the Central Committee showed no concern. In 1981, he was awarded the [of Lenin](Order)(Order of Lenin) for his work. The following year, Brezhnev died and was succeeded by [Andropov](Yuri)(Yuri Andropov), who in turn ruled for 15 months before his own death; Yeltsin spoke positively about Andropov. Andropov was succeeded by another short-lived leader, [Chernenko](Konstantin)(Konstantin Chernenko). After his death, Yeltsin took part in the Central Committee plenum which appointed [Gorbachev](Mikhail)(Mikhail Gorbachev) the new [Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union](General)(General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union), and thus de facto [leader](Soviet)(List of leaders of the Soviet Union), in March 1985. ### 1985: relocation to Moscow to become Head of Gorkom Gorbachev was interested in reforming the Soviet Union and, at the urging of [Ligachyov](Yegor)(Yegor Ligachyov), the organisational secretary of the Central Committee, soon summoned Yeltsin to meet with him as a potential ally in his efforts. Yeltsin had some reservations about Gorbachev as a leader, deeming him controlling and patronising, but committed himself to the latter's project of reform. In April 1985, Gorbachev appointed Yeltsin as the Head of the Construction Department of the Party's Central Committee. Although it entailed moving to the capital city, Yeltsin was unhappy with what he regarded as a demotion.Leon Aron, Boris Yeltsin A Revolutionary Life. Harper Collins, 2000. page 132. There, he was issued a [nomenklatura](nomenklatura) flat at 54 Second Tverskaya-Yamskaya Street, where his daughter [Tatyana](Tatyana Yumasheva) and her son and husband soon joined him and his wife. Gorbachev soon promoted Yeltsin to secretary of the Central Committee for construction and capital investment, a position within the powerful [Central Committee Secretariat](CPSU)(Secretariat of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union), a move approved by the Central Committee plenum in July 1985.Leon Aron, Boris Yeltsin A Revolutionary Life. Harper Collins, 2000. pg. 739; . [[File:Gorbachev (cropped).png\|thumb\|left\|The reformer [Gorbachev](Mikhail)(Mikhail Gorbachev) took office as the General Secretary of the Communist Party in 1985; he soon promoted Yeltsin to a job in Moscow.]] With Gorbachev's support, in December 1985, Yeltsin was installed as the first secretary of the [gorkom of the CPSU](Moscow)(Moscow City Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union). He was now responsible for managing the Soviet capital city, which had a population of 8.7 million. In February 1986, Yeltsin became a candidate (non-voting) member of the [Politburo](Politburo of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union). At that point he formally left the Secretariat to concentrate on his role in Moscow. Over the coming year he removed many of the old secretaries of the gorkom, replacing them with younger individuals, particularly with backgrounds in factory management. In August 1986, Yeltsin gave a two-hour report to the party conference in which he talked about Moscow's problems, including issues that had previously not been spoken about publicly. Gorbachev described the speech as a "strong fresh wind" for the party. Yeltsin expressed a similar message at the 22nd Congress of the CPSU in February 1986 and then in a speech at the House of Political Enlightenment in April. ### 1987: resignation On 10 September 1987, after a lecture from hard-liner [Ligachyov](Yegor)(Yegor Ligachyov) at the Politburo for allowing two small unsanctioned demonstrations on Moscow streets, Yeltsin wrote a letter of resignation to Gorbachev who was holidaying on the Black Sea.Conor O'Clery, Moscow 25 December 1991: The Last Day of the Soviet Union. pgs 71, 74, 81. Transworld Ireland (2011); . When Gorbachev received the letter he was stunned – nobody in Soviet history had voluntarily resigned from the ranks of the Politburo. Gorbachev phoned Yeltsin and asked him to reconsider. On 27 October 1987 at the plenary meeting of the Central Committee of the [CPSU](Communist Party of the Soviet Union), Yeltsin, frustrated that Gorbachev had not addressed any of the issues outlined in his resignation letter, asked to speak. He expressed his discontent with the slow pace of reform in society, the servility shown to the general secretary, and opposition to him from Ligachyov making his position untenable, before requesting to resign from the Politburo, adding that the [Committee](City)(Moscow City Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union) would decide whether he should resign from the post of [Secretary of the Moscow Communist Party](First)(First Secretary of the Moscow Communist Party). Aside from the fact that no one had ever quit the Politburo before, no one in the party had addressed a leader of the party in such a manner in front of the Central Committee since [Trotsky](Leon)(Leon Trotsky) in the 1920s. In his reply, Gorbachev accused Yeltsin of "political immaturity" and "absolute irresponsibility". Nobody in the Central Committee backed Yeltsin. [[File:RIAN archive 37106 Boris Yeltsin and Raisa Gorbachev.jpg\|thumb\|Yeltsin with [Gorbacheva](Raisa)(Raisa Gorbachova)]] Within days, news of Yeltsin's actions leaked and rumours of his "secret speech" at the Central Committee spread throughout Moscow. Soon fabricated [samizdat](samizdat) versions began to circulate – this was the beginning of Yeltsin's rise as a rebel and growth in popularity as an anti-establishment figure. Gorbachev called a meeting of the Moscow City Party Committee for 11 November 1987 to launch another crushing attack on Yeltsin and confirm his dismissal. On 9 November 1987, Yeltsin apparently tried to kill himself and was rushed to the hospital bleeding profusely from self-inflicted cuts to his chest. Gorbachev ordered the injured Yeltsin from his hospital bed to the Moscow party plenum two days later where he was ritually denounced by the party faithful in what was reminiscent of a [show trial](Stalinist)(Stalinist show trial) before he was fired from the post of [Secretary of the Moscow Communist Party](First)(First Secretary of the Moscow Communist Party). Yeltsin said he would never forgive Gorbachev for this "immoral and inhuman" treatment. Yeltsin was demoted to the position of First Deputy Commissioner for the [Committee for Construction](State)(State Committee for Construction). At the next meeting of the Central Committee on 24 February 1988, Yeltsin was removed from his position as a Candidate member of the Politburo. He was perturbed and humiliated but began plotting his revenge.The Strange Death of the Soviet Empire, p. 86; His opportunity came with Gorbachev's establishment of the [of People's Deputies](Congress)(Congress of People's Deputies of the Soviet Union).The Strange Death of the Soviet Empire, p. 90; Yeltsin recovered, and started intensively criticizing Gorbachev, highlighting the slow pace of reform in the Soviet Union as his major argument. Yeltsin's criticism of the Politburo and Gorbachev led to a smear campaign against him, in which examples of Yeltsin's awkward behavior were used against him. Speaking at the CPSU conference in 1988, Yegor Ligachyov stated, "[you are wrong](Boris,)(Boris, you are wrong)". An article in [Pravda](Pravda) described Yeltsin as drunk at a lecture during his visit to the United States in September 1989, an allegation which appeared to be confirmed by a TV account of his speech; however, popular dissatisfaction with the regime was very strong, and these attempts to smear Yeltsin only added to his popularity. In another incident, Yeltsin fell from a bridge. Commenting on this event, Yeltsin hinted that he was helped to fall by the enemies of [perestroika](perestroika), but his opponents suggested that he was simply drunk.[В России появились запретные темы](http://www.kommersant.ru/doc.aspx?DocsID=60792) // [Коммерсантъ](Коммерсантъ), № 186 (409), 29 сентября 1993 On 26 March 1989, Yeltsin [elected](was)(1989 Soviet Union legislative election) to the [of People's Deputies of the Soviet Union](Congress)(Congress of People's Deputies of the Soviet Union) as the delegate from Moscow district with a decisive 92% of the vote, and on 29 May 1989, he was elected by the [of People's Deputies](Congress)(Congress of People's Deputies of the Soviet Union) to a seat on the [Soviet of the Soviet Union](Supreme)(Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union). On 19 July 1989, Yeltsin announced the formation of the radical pro-reform faction in the Congress of People's Deputies, the [Group](Inter-Regional)(Inter-Regional Group) of Deputies, and on 29 July 1989 was elected one of the five co-Chairmen of the Inter-Regional Group. On 16 September 1989, Yeltsin toured a medium-sized grocery store ([Randalls](Randalls)) in [Texas](Texas). Leon Aron, quoting a Yeltsin associate, wrote in his 2000 biography, Yeltsin, A Revolutionary Life (St. Martin's Press): "For a long time, on the plane to Miami, he sat motionless, his head in his hands. 'What have they done to our poor people?' he said after a long silence." He added, "On his return to Moscow, Yeltsin would confess the pain he had felt after the Houston excursion: the 'pain for all of us, for our country so rich, so talented and so exhausted by incessant experiments'." He wrote that Mr. Yeltsin added, "I think we have committed a crime against our people by making their standard of living so incomparably lower than that of the Americans." An aide, Lev Sukhanov, was reported to have said that it was at that moment that "the last vestige of Bolshevism collapsed" inside his boss. In his autobiography, Against the Grain: An Autobiography, written and published in 1990, Yeltsin hinted in a small passage that after his tour, he made plans to open his own line of grocery stores and planned to fill it with government subsidized goods in order to alleviate the country's problems. ## President of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic On 4 March 1990, Yeltsin was elected to the [of People's Deputies of Russia](Congress)(Congress of People's Deputies of Russia) representing Sverdlovsk with 72% of the vote.Leon Aron, Boris Yeltsin A Revolutionary Life. Harper Collins, 2000. page 739-740. On 29 May 1990, he was elected chairman of the [Soviet](Supreme)(Supreme Soviet of the Russian SFSR) of the [Soviet Federative Socialist Republic](Russian)(Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic) (RSFSR), in spite of the fact that Gorbachev personally pleaded with the Russian deputies not to select Yeltsin. He was supported by both democratic and conservative members of the Supreme Soviet, which sought power in the developing political situation in the country. A part of this power struggle was the opposition between power structures of the Soviet Union and the RSFSR. In an attempt to gain more power, on 12 June 1990, the Congress of People's Deputies of the RSFSR adopted a declaration of sovereignty. On 12 July 1990, Yeltsin resigned from the CPSU in a dramatic speech before party members at the [Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union](28th)(28th Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union), some of whom responded by shouting "Shame!" ### 1991: presidential election [[Yeltsin 22 August 1991-1.jpg\|thumb\|Yeltsin on 22 August 1991](File:Boris)] During May 1991 [Havel](Vaclav)(Vaclav Havel) invited Yeltsin to [Prague](Prague) where the latter unambiguously condemned the Soviet intervention in 1968. On 12 June Yeltsin won 57% of the popular vote in the democratic [elections for the Russian republic](presidential)(1991 Russian presidential election), defeating Gorbachev's preferred candidate, [Ryzhkov](Nikolai)(Nikolai Ryzhkov), who got just 16% of the vote, and four other candidates. In his election campaign, Yeltsin criticized the "dictatorship of the center", but did not suggest the introduction of a market economy. Instead, he said that he would put his head on the railtrack in the event of increased prices. Yeltsin took office on 10 July, and reappointed [Silayev](Ivan)(Ivan Silayev) as [Chairman](List of heads of government of the Soviet Union) of the [of Ministers](Council)(Government of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic) of the Russian SFSR. On 18 August 1991, a [against Gorbachev](coup)(1991 Soviet coup d'état attempt) was launched by the government members opposed to perestroika. Gorbachev was held in [Crimea](Crimean Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic) while Yeltsin raced to the [House of Russia](White)(White House of Russia) (residence of the Supreme Soviet of the RSFSR) in Moscow to defy the coup, making a memorable speech from atop the turret of a tank onto which he had climbed. The White House was surrounded by the military, but the troops defected in the face of mass popular demonstrations. By 21 August most of the coup leaders had fled Moscow and Gorbachev was "rescued" from Crimea and then returned to Moscow. Yeltsin was subsequently hailed by his supporters around the world for rallying mass opposition to the coup. Although restored to his position, Gorbachev had been destroyed politically. Neither union nor Russian power structures heeded his commands as support had swung over to Yeltsin. By September, Gorbachev could no longer influence events outside of Moscow. Taking advantage of the situation, Yeltsin began taking over what remained of the Soviet government, ministry by ministry—including the Kremlin. On 6 November 1991, Yeltsin issued a decree banning all Communist Party activities on Russian soil. In early December 1991, [Ukraine](Ukraine) voted for independence from the Soviet Union. A week later, on 8 December, Yeltsin met Ukrainian president [Kravchuk](Leonid)(Leonid Kravchuk) and the leader of [Belarus](Belarus), [Shushkevich](Stanislav)(Stanislav Shushkevich), in [Pushcha](Belovezhskaya)(Belovezhskaya Pushcha). In the [Accords](Belavezha)(Belavezha Accords), the three presidents declared that the Soviet Union no longer existed "as a subject of international law and geopolitical reality," and announced the formation of a voluntary [of Independent States](Commonwealth)(Commonwealth of Independent States) (CIS) in its place.Прайс М. [Телевидение, телекоммуникации и переходный период: право, общество и национальная идентичность](http://www.medialaw.ru/publications/books/mp/6.html) [[File:RIAN archive 848095 Signing the Agreement to eliminate the USSR and establish the Commonwealth of Independent States.jpg\|thumb\|left\|[of the Soviet Republics](Leaders)(Republics of the Soviet Union) sign the [Accords](Belovezha)(Belovezha Accords).]] According to Gorbachev, Yeltsin kept the plans of the Belovezhskaya meeting in strict secrecy and the main goal of the dissolution of the Soviet Union was to get rid of Gorbachev, who by that time had started to recover his position after the events of August. Gorbachev has also accused Yeltsin of violating the people's will expressed in the referendum in which the majority voted to keep the Soviet Union united. On 12 December, the Supreme Soviet of the RSFSR ratified the Belavezha Accords and denounced the 1922 [Treaty](Union)(Treaty on the Creation of the USSR). It also recalled the Russian deputies from the [of the Union](Council)(Soviet of the Union), leaving that body without a quorum. While this is regarded as the moment that the largest republic of the Soviet Union had seceded, this is not technically the case. Russia appeared to take the line that it was not possible to secede from a country that no longer existed. On 17 December, in a meeting with Yeltsin, Gorbachev accepted the [accompli](fait)(Point of no return) and agreed to dissolve the Soviet Union. On 24 December, by mutual agreement of the other CIS states (which by this time included all of the remaining republics except Georgia), the Russian Federation took the Soviet Union's seat in the United Nations. The next day, Gorbachev resigned and handed the functions of his office to Yeltsin. On 26 December, the [of the Republics](Council)(Soviet of Nationalities), the upper house of the Supreme Soviet, voted the Soviet Union out of existence, thereby ending the world's oldest, largest and most powerful Communist state. Economic relations between the former Soviet republics were severely compromised. Millions of ethnic Russians found themselves in the newly formed foreign countries. Initially, Yeltsin promoted the retention of national borders according to the pre-existing Soviet state borders, although this left ethnic [Russians](Russians) as a majority in parts of northern [Kazakhstan](Kazakhstan), eastern Ukraine, and areas of [Estonia](Estonia) and [Latvia](Latvia). ## President of the Russian Federation ### 1991–1996: first term #### Radical reforms [[File:RIAN archive 52076 Leonid Kravchuk, Stanislav Shushkevich and Boris Yeltsin.jpg\|thumb\|left\|Yeltsin shortly after signing the [Accords](Belavezha)(Belavezha Accords) with [Kravchuk](Leonid Kravchuk) and [Šuškievič](Stanislav Shushkevich), 8 December 1991]] Just days after the dissolution of the Soviet Union, Yeltsin resolved to embark on a programme of radical economic reform. Improving on Gorbachev's reforms, which sought to expand democracy in the socialist system, the new regime aimed to completely dismantle socialism and fully implement capitalism, converting the world's largest command economy into a free-market one. During early discussions of this transition, Yeltsin's advisers debated issues of speed and sequencing, with an apparent division between those favoring a rapid approach and those favoring a gradual or slower approach. On January 1, 1992, Yeltsin signed accords with U.S. President [H. W. Bush](George)(George H. W. Bush), declaring the [War](Cold)(Cold War) officially over after nearly 47 years. A visit to Moscow from Havel in April 1992 occasioned the written repudiation of the Soviet intervention and the withdrawal of armed forces from Czechoslovakia. Yeltsin laid a wreath during a November 1992 ceremony in Budapest, apologized for the [Soviet intervention in Hungary](1956)(1956 Soviet intervention in Hungary) and handed over to president [Göncz](Árpád)(Árpád Göncz) documents from the Communist Party and KGB archives related to the intervention. A treaty of friendship was signed in May 1992 with [Wałęsa](Lech)(Lech Wałęsa)'s Poland, and then another one in August 1992 with [Zhelev](Zhelyu)(Zhelyu Zhelev)'s Bulgaria. [[File:President and Mrs. Bush show Russian President Boris Yeltsin the South Grounds of the White House and stop at the... - NARA - 186451.jpg\|thumb\|left\|Yeltsin with U.S. President [H. W. Bush](George)(George H. W. Bush) and First Lady [Bush](Barbara)(Barbara Bush) at the [House](White)(White House), Washington, D.C., 1992]] On 2 January 1992, Yeltsin, acting as his own [minister](prime)(Prime Minister of Russia), ordered the liberalisation of [trade](foreign)(foreign trade), [price](prices control)s, and currency. At the same time, Yeltsin followed a policy of "macroeconomic stabilisation", a harsh austerity regime designed to control inflation. Under Yeltsin's stabilisation programme, interest rates were raised to extremely high levels to tighten [money](Russian rouble) and restrict [credit](credit (finance)). To bring state spending and revenues into balance, Yeltsin raised new taxes heavily, cut back sharply on government subsidies to industry and construction, and made steep cuts to state welfare spending. In early 1992, prices skyrocketed throughout Russia, and a deep credit crunch shut down many industries and brought about a protracted depression. The reforms devastated the living standards of much of the population, especially the groups dependent on Soviet-era state subsidies and welfare programs. Through the 1990s, Russia's GDP fell by 50%, vast sectors of the economy were wiped out, inequality and unemployment grew dramatically, whilst incomes fell. [Hyperinflation](Hyperinflation), caused by the [Bank of Russia](Central)(Central Bank of Russia)'s loose monetary policy, wiped out many people's personal savings, and tens of millions of [Russians](Russians) were plunged into poverty.[Treisman](Daniel)(Daniel Treisman), "Why Yeltsin Won: A Russian Tammany Hall", Foreign Affairs, September/October 1996. [[of Russia since 1989.svg\|thumb\|Most of Yeltsin's time as president was plagued by economic contraction.](File:GDP)] [[oil prices since 1861.png\|thumb\|Crude oil prices continued to fall during the 1990s, following the trend during the late 1980s.](File:Crude)] Some economists argue that in the 1990s, Russia suffered an economic downturn more severe than the United States or [Germany](Weimar Republic) had undergone six decades earlier in the [Depression](Great)(Great Depression). Russian commentators and even some Western economists, such as [Goldman](Marshall)(Marshall Goldman), widely blamed Yeltsin's economic programme for the country's disastrous economic performance in the 1990s. Many politicians began to quickly distance themselves from the programme. In February 1992, Russia's vice president, [Rutskoy](Alexander)(Alexander Rutskoy) denounced the Yeltsin programme as "economic genocide." By 1993, conflict over the reform direction escalated between Yeltsin on the one side, and the opposition to radical economic reform in Russia's parliament on the other. #### Confrontation with parliament Throughout 1992 Yeltsin wrestled with the [Soviet of Russia](Supreme)(Supreme Soviet of Russia) and the [of People's Deputies](Congress)(Congress of People's Deputies of Russia) for control over government, government policy, government banking and property. In the course of 1992, the speaker of the Russian Supreme Soviet, [Khasbulatov](Ruslan)(Ruslan Khasbulatov), came out in opposition to the reforms, despite claiming to support Yeltsin's overall goals. In December 1992, the 7th Congress of People's Deputies succeeded in turning down the Yeltsin-backed candidacy of [Gaidar](Yegor)(Yegor Gaidar) for the position of [Prime Minister](Russian)(Prime Minister of Russia). An agreement was brokered by [Zorkin](Valery)(Valery Zorkin), [of the Constitutional Court](chairman)(Chairman of the Constitutional Court of Russia), which included the following provisions: a national referendum on the new constitution; parliament and Yeltsin would choose a new head of government, to be confirmed by the Supreme Soviet; and the parliament was to cease making constitutional amendments that change the balance of power between the legislative and executive branches. Eventually, on 14 December, [Chernomyrdin](Viktor)(Viktor Chernomyrdin), widely seen as a compromise figure, was confirmed in the office. The conflict escalated soon, however, with the parliament changing its prior decision to hold a referendum. Yeltsin, in turn, announced in a televised address to the nation on 20 March 1993, that he was going to assume certain "special powers" in order to implement his programme of reforms. In response, the hastily called 9th Congress of People's Deputies attempted to remove Yeltsin from presidency through [impeachment](Impeachment in Russia) on 26 March 1993. Yeltsin's opponents gathered more than 600 votes for impeachment, but fell 72 votes short of the required two-thirds majority. [[File:President Bush and Russian President Boris Yeltsin sign the Start II Treaty at a Ceremony in Vladimir Hall, The... - NARA - 186462.tif\|thumb\|Yeltsin during the signature ceremony of the [II](START)(START II) in Moscow, 3 January 1993]] During the summer of 1993, a situation of [power](dual)(dual power) developed in Russia. From July, two separate administrations of the [Oblast](Chelyabinsk)(Chelyabinsk Oblast) functioned side by side, after Yeltsin refused to accept the newly elected pro-parliament head of the region. The Supreme Soviet pursued its own foreign policies, passing a declaration on the status of [Sevastopol](Sevastopol). In August, a commentator reflected on the situation as follows: "The President issues decrees as if there were no Supreme Soviet, and the Supreme Soviet suspends decrees as if there were no President." ([Izvestia](Izvestia), 13 August 1993).Executive decree authority, by John M. Carey & Matthew Soberg, [p. 76](https://books.google.com/books?id=2k9iI91GVt4C&dq=yeltsin+decree+1400+1993&pg=PA76) On 21 September 1993, in breach of the constitution, Yeltsin announced in a televised address his decision to disband the Supreme Soviet and Congress of People's Deputies by decree. In his address, Yeltsin declared his intent to rule by decree until the election of the new parliament and a referendum on a new constitution, triggering the [crisis of October 1993](constitutional)(1993 Russian constitutional crisis). On the night after Yeltsin's televised address, the Supreme Soviet declared Yeltsin removed from the presidency for breaching the constitution, and Vice-President [Rutskoy](Alexander)(Alexander Rutskoy) was sworn in as acting president. Between 21 and 24 September, Yeltsin was confronted by popular unrest. Demonstrators protested the terrible living conditions under Yeltsin. Since 1989, GDP had declined by half. Corruption was rampant, violent crime was skyrocketing, medical services were collapsing, food and fuel were increasingly scarce and life expectancy was falling for all but a tiny handful of the population; moreover, Yeltsin was increasingly getting the blame. By early-October, Yeltsin had secured the support of Russia's army and ministry of interior forces. In a massive show of force, Yeltsin called up tanks to shell the [White House](Russian)(Russian White House) (parliament building). The attack killed 187 people and wounded almost 500 others. As the Supreme Soviet was dissolved, elections to the newly established parliament, the [Duma](State)(State Duma), were held in December 1993. Candidates associated with Yeltsin's economic policies were overwhelmed by a huge anti-Yeltsin vote, the bulk of which was divided between the [Party](Communist)(Communist Party of the Russian Federation) and ultra-nationalists. However, the referendum held at the same time approved the new constitution, which significantly expanded the powers of the president, giving Yeltsin the right to appoint the members of the government, to dismiss the prime minister and, in some cases, to dissolve the Duma. #### The riddle of NATO The US [of State](Department)(Department of State) seemed to confuse Yeltsin over [re-unification](German)(German re-unification) and dismemberment of the [Final Act](Helsinki)(Helsinki Final Act) and ensuing [for Peace](Partnership)(Partnership for Peace) (PfP) push for [expansion](NATO)(NATO expansion). There is some question as to the involvement of his Minister of Foreign Affairs [Kozyrev](Andrei)(Andrei Kozyrev), who in August 1993 was painted by [Wałęsa](Lech)(Lech Wałęsa) (after his failed attempt to hoodwink Yeltsin by one-on-one subterfuge) as a saboteur of Polish aspirations for NATO membership but was regarded by domestic opponents as suborned by Uncle Sam. In Yeltsin’s letter to [Clinton](Bill)(Bill Clinton) dated 15 September 1993 he strongly favours "a pan-European security system" instead of [NATO](NATO) and warns: After his August visit to Warsaw, Yeltsin saw the explosion of fright over NATO in the old guard and thereafter the window of détente slammed shut. By December 1994, the month in which was signed the [Memorandum](Budapest)(Budapest Memorandum), Clinton began to understand that Russia had concluded that he was "subordinating, if not abandoning, integration [Russia](of) to NATO expansion." In July 1995 by which time the Russians had signed up to PfP, Yeltsin said to Clinton "we must stick to our position, which is that there should be no rapid expansion of NATO.. it’s important that the [OSCE](OSCE) be the principal mechanism for developing a new security order in Europe. NATO is a factor, too, of course, but NATO should evolve into a political[-only] organization." #### Chechnya In December 1994, Yeltsin ordered the military invasion of [Chechnya](Chechnya) in an attempt to restore Moscow's control over the republic. Nearly two years later, Yeltsin withdrew federal forces from the devastated Chechnya under a 1996 peace agreement brokered by [Lebed](Alexander)(Alexander Lebed), Yeltsin's then-security chief. The peace deal allowed Chechnya greater autonomy but not full independence. The decision to launch the war in Chechnya dismayed many in the West. [magazine](Time)(Time (magazine)) wrote: Then, what was to be made of Boris Yeltsin? Clearly he could no longer be regarded as the democratic hero of Western myth. But had he become an old-style communist boss, turning his back on the democratic reformers he once championed and throwing in his lot with militarists and ultranationalists? Or was he a befuddled, out-of-touch chief being manipulated, knowingly or unwittingly, by—well, by whom exactly? If there was to be a dictatorial coup, would Yeltsin be its victim or its leader? #### Norwegian rocket incident In 1995, a [Brant sounding rocket](Black)(Black Brant (rocket)) launched from the [Space Center](Andøya)(Andøya Space) caused a high alert in Russia, known as the [rocket incident](Norwegian)(Norwegian rocket incident). The Russians were alerted that it might be a [missile](nuclear)(Trident (missile)) launched from an American [submarine](Ballistic missile submarine). The incident occurred in the post-Cold War era, where many Russians were still very suspicious of the United States and [NATO](NATO).Geoffrey Forden, "Reducing a Common Danger." Policy Analysis Paper #399 (2001) [online](https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/resrep04948.pdf). A full alert was passed up through the military chain of command all the way to Yeltsin, who was notified and the "[briefcase](nuclear)(nuclear briefcase)" (known in Russia as [Cheget](Cheget)) used to authorize nuclear launch was automatically activated. Russian satellites indicated that no massive attack was underway and he agreed with advisors that it was a false alarm.Forden (2001) #### Privatization and the rise of "the oligarchs" [[File:Press Conference with President Clinton & President Yeltsin.webm\|thumb\|thumbtime=05:55\|start=05:50\|Yeltsin and [Clinton](Bill)(Bill Clinton) share a laugh in October 1995.]] Following the dissolution of the Soviet Union, Yeltsin promoted [privatization](privatization in Russia) as a way of spreading ownership of shares in former state enterprises as widely as possible to create political support for his economic reforms. In the West, privatization was viewed as the key to the transition from Communism in Eastern Europe, ensuring a quick dismantling of the Soviet-era command economy to make way for "free market reforms". In the early-1990s, [Chubais](Anatoly)(Anatoly Chubais), Yeltsin's deputy for economic policy, emerged as a leading advocate of privatization in Russia. In late 1992, Yeltsin launched a programme of free vouchers as a way to give mass privatization a jump-start. Under the programme, all Russian citizens were issued vouchers, each with a nominal value of around 10,000 rubles, for the purchase of shares of select state enterprises. Although each citizen initially received a voucher of equal face value, within months the majority of them converged in the hands of intermediaries who were ready to buy them for cash right away. In 1995, as Yeltsin struggled to finance Russia's growing foreign debt and gain support from the Russian business elite for his bid in the 1996 presidential elections, the Russian president prepared for a new wave of privatization offering stock shares in some of Russia's most valuable state enterprises in exchange for bank loans. The programme was promoted as a way of simultaneously speeding up privatization and ensuring the government a cash infusion to cover its operating needs.' However, the deals were effectively giveaways of valuable state assets to a small group of tycoons in finance, industry, energy, telecommunications, and the media who came to be known as "[oligarchs](Business oligarch)" in the mid-1990s. This was due to the fact that ordinary people sold their vouchers for cash. The vouchers were bought by a small group of investors. By mid-1996, substantial ownership shares over major firms were acquired at very low prices by a handful of people. [Berezovsky](Boris)(Boris Berezovsky (businessman)), who controlled major stakes in several banks and the national media, emerged as one of Yeltsin's most prominent supporters. Along with Berezovsky, [Khodorkovsky](Mikhail)(Mikhail Khodorkovsky), [Potanin](Vladimir)(Vladimir Potanin), [Bogdanov](Vladimir)(Vladimir Bogdanov), [Viakhirev](Rem)(Rem Viakhirev), [Alekperov](Vagit)(Vagit Alekperov), [Smolensky](Alexander)(Alexander Smolensky), [Vekselberg](Viktor)(Viktor Vekselberg), [Fridman](Mikhail)(Mikhail Fridman) and a few years later [Abramovich](Roman)(Roman Abramovich), were habitually mentioned in the media as [oligarchs](Russia's)(Russian oligarchs). #### Korean Air Lines Flight 007 On 5 December 1991, [Jesse Helms](Senator)(Jesse Helms), ranking member of the Minority on the U.S. Senate Committee on Foreign Relations, wrote to Yeltsin concerning U.S. servicemen who were POWs or MIAs: "The status of thousands and thousands of American servicemen who are held by Soviet and other Communist forces, and who were never repatriated after every major war this century, is of grave concern to the American people."Moscow Bound: Policy, Politics, and the POW/MIA Dilemma, John M. G. Brown, Veteran Press, Eureka Springs, California, US (1993), Chapter 14. Yeltsin responded with a statement made on 15 June 1992, whilst being interviewed on board his presidential jet en route to the United States, "Our archives have shown that it is true — some of them were transferred to the territory of the USSR and were kept in labour camps... We can only surmise that some of them may still be alive." On 10 December 1991, five days after Helms had written to Yeltsin regarding American servicemen, he again wrote to Yeltsin, this time concerning [Air Lines Flight 007](Korean)(Korean Air Lines Flight 007) (KAL 007) requesting information concerning possible survivors, including Georgia Congressman [McDonald](Larry)(Larry McDonald), and their whereabouts. of the entire Cold War. However, now that relations between our two nations have improved substantially, I believe that it is time to resolve the mysteries surrounding this event. Clearing the air on this issue could help further to improve relations. \| author = Sen. Jesse Helms \| source = writing to Yeltsin, 10 December 1991 }} In March 1992, Yeltsin handed over KAL 007's [box](black)(Flight recorder) without its tapes to South Korean President [Tae-woo](Roh)(Roh Tae-woo) at the end of the plenary session of the South Korean National Assembly, saying "We apologize for the tragedy and are trying to settle some unsolved issues." Yeltsin released the tapes of the KAL 007's black box (its digital flight data recorder and cockpit voice recorder) to the [Civil Aviation Organization](International)(International Civil Aviation Organization) (ICAO) on 8 January 1993.ICAO State Letter LE 4/19.4 – 93/68 (Summary of Findings and Conclusions) For years the Soviet authorities had denied possessing these tapes. The openness of Yeltsin about POW/MIA and KAL 007 matters may also have signalled his willingness for more openness to the West. In 1992, which he labelled the "window of opportunity", he was willing to discuss biological weapons with the United States and admitted that the [anthrax leak](Sverdlovsk)(Sverdlovsk anthrax leak) of 2 April 1979 (which Yeltsin had originally been involved in concealing) had been caused as the result of a mishap at a military facility. The Russian government had maintained that the cause was contaminated meat. The true number of victims in the anthrax outbreak at Sverdlovsk, about east of Moscow, is unknown. #### 1996 presidential election [[File:Boris Yeltsin 4 April 1996.jpg\|thumb\|Yeltsin at an election rally in [Belgorod](Belgorod), 1996]] In February 1996, Yeltsin announced that he would seek a second term in the [Russian presidential election](1996)(1996 Russian presidential election) in the summer. The announcement followed weeks of speculation that Yeltsin was at the end of his political career because of his health problems and growing unpopularity in Russia. At the time, Yeltsin was recuperating from a series of heart attacks. Domestic and international observers also noted his occasionally erratic behavior. When campaigning began in early 1996, Yeltsin's popularity was close to being non-existent.[CNN, Russian presidential candidate profiles, 1906](http://edition.cnn.com/WORLD/pivotal.elections/1996/russia/candidate.html) Meanwhile, the opposition [Party](Communist)(Communist Party of the Russian Federation) had already gained ground in parliamentary voting on 17 December 1995, and its candidate, [Zyuganov](Gennady)(Gennady Zyuganov), had a strong grassroots organization, especially in the rural areas and small towns, and appealed effectively to memories of the old days of Soviet prestige on the international stage and the domestic order under state socialism. Panic struck the Yeltsin team when opinion polls suggested that the ailing president could not win; some members of his entourage urged him to cancel the presidential elections and effectively rule as a dictator from then on.[Россия Ельцина](https://www.wsj.com/article/SB117736605879579568-search.html?KEYWORDS=russia&COLLECTION=wsjie/6month) // The Wall Street Journal, 24 апреля 2007 Instead, Yeltsin changed his campaign team, assigning a key role to his daughter, [Dyachenko](Tatyana)(Tatyana Dyachenko), and appointing Chubais as campaign manager. Chubais, acting as both Yeltsin's campaign manager and adviser on Russia's privatization programme, used his control of the privatization programme as an instrument of Yeltsin's re-election campaign. [[belt in Russian 1996 presidential elections.svg\|thumb\|left\|The results of the second round of the 1996 elections. Grey highlighted regions where Yeltsin won.](File:Red)] In mid-1996, Chubais and Yeltsin recruited a team of a handful of financial and media oligarchs to bankroll the Yeltsin campaign and guarantee favorable media coverage to the president on national television and in leading newspapers.Daniel Treisman, "Blaming Russia First", Foreign Affairs, November/December 2000. In return, Chubais allowed well-connected Russian business leaders to acquire majority stakes in some of Russia's most valuable state-owned assets.See, e.g., Led by the efforts of [Lesin](Mikhail)(Mikhail Lesin), the media painted a picture of a fateful choice for Russia, between Yeltsin and a "return to totalitarianism." The oligarchs even played up the threat of civil war if a Communist was elected president.[Борис-боец](http://www.inosmi.ru/text/stories/07/04/24/3509/234270.html) // [New York Times](The)(The New York Times), 30 апреля 2007 The American president, [Clinton](Bill)(Bill Clinton), also committed himself to the campaign. American advisors were sent, on instruction from the White House, to join the campaign team of the sitting Russian president to teach new electoral techniques. Several European governments also showed their support for Yeltsin. French Prime Minister [Juppé](Alain)(Alain Juppé) visited Moscow on February 14, the day Yeltsin's candidacy was announced, and said he hoped the election campaign would be "an opportunity to highlight the achievements of President Yeltsin's reform policy." On the same day, German Chancellor [Kohl](Helmut)(Helmut Kohl) visited Moscow, where he presented Yeltsin as "an absolutely reliable partner who has always respected his commitments." Yeltsin campaigned energetically, dispelling concerns about his health, and maintained a high media profile. To boost his popularity, Yeltsin promised to abandon some of his more unpopular economic reforms, boost welfare spending, end the war in Chechnya, and pay wage and pension arrears. Yeltsin had benefited from the approval of a US$10.2 billion [Monetary Fund](International)(International Monetary Fund) loan to Russia, which helped to keep his government afloat.[CNN Interactive: Pivotal Elections: Russian Elections; Candidates: Boris Yeltsin](http://edition.cnn.com/WORLD/pivotal.elections/1996/russia/candidate.html) (1996) [[presidential campaign](File:PreobrazhenskaiaPloshad96.JPG\|thumb\|Yeltsin)] Zyuganov, who lacked Yeltsin's resources and financial backing, saw his strong initial lead whittled away. After the first round on 16 June, Yeltsin appointed a highly popular candidate [Lebed](Alexander)(Alexander Lebed), who finished in third place in the first round, secretary of the [Council of Russia](Security)(Security Council of Russia), sacked at the latter's behest defence minister [Grachev](Pavel)(Pavel Grachev), and on 20 June sacked a number of his [siloviki](siloviki), one of them being his chief of presidential security [Korzhakov](Alexander)(Alexander Korzhakov), viewed by many as Yeltsin's [grise](éminence)(éminence grise). In the run-off on 3 July, with a turnout of 68.9%, Yeltsin won 53.8% of the vote and Zyuganov 40.7%, with the rest (5.9%) voting "[all](against)(blank vote)". ### 1996–1999: Second term [[File:President Bill Clinton with President Martti Ahtisaari of Finland and President Boris Yeltsin of Russia.jpg\|thumb\|180px\|Yeltsin (right) meeting with President [Clinton](Bill)(Bill Clinton) (left) and President [Ahtisaari](Martti)(Martti Ahtisaari) (middle) in Helsinki, Finland on March 21, 1997]] Yeltsin underwent emergency [heart bypass surgery](quintuple)(Coronary artery bypass surgery#Number of arteries bypassed) in November 1996, and remained in the hospital for months. During his presidency, Russia received US$40 billion in funds from the [Monetary Fund](International)(International Monetary Fund) and other international lending organisations. However, his opponents allege that most of these funds were stolen by people from Yeltsin's circle and placed into foreign banks. [[protests](File:Ba-meeting-october-1998-people.jpg\|thumb\|left\|Anti-Yeltsin)] In 1998, a political and economic crisis emerged when Yeltsin's government defaulted on its debts, causing financial markets to panic and the [rouble](Russian ruble) to collapse in the [Russian financial crisis](1998)(1998 Russian financial crisis). During the [Kosovo War](1999)(Kosovo War), Yeltsin strongly opposed the [NATO](NATO) military campaign against [Yugoslavia](Serbia and Montenegro), and warned of possible Russian intervention if NATO deployed ground troops to Kosovo. In televised comments he stated: "I told NATO, the Americans, the Germans: Don't push us towards military action. Otherwise there will be a European war for sure and possibly a world war." Yeltsin said that [bombing of Yugoslavia](NATO’s)(NATO bombing of Yugoslavia) "trampled upon the foundations of international law and the United Nations charter." On 9 August 1999, Yeltsin fired his Prime Minister, [Stepashin](Sergei)(Sergei Stepashin), and for the fourth time, fired his entire Cabinet. In Stepashin's place, he appointed [Putin](Vladimir)(Vladimir Putin), relatively unknown at that time, and announced his wish to see Putin as his successor. In late 1999, Yeltsin and U.S. President Bill Clinton openly disagreed on the war in Chechnya. At the November meeting of the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe, Clinton pointed his finger at Yeltsin and demanded he halt bombing attacks that had resulted in many civilian casualties. Yeltsin immediately left the conference. [[File:Vladimir Putin with Boris Yeltsin-5.jpg\|thumb\|180px\|Yeltsin with [Alexy II](Patriarch)(Patriarch Alexy II of Moscow) and Prime Minister [Putin](Vladimir)(Vladimir Putin)]] In December, whilst visiting China to seek support on Chechnya, Yeltsin replied to Clinton's criticism of a Russian ultimatum to citizens of [Grozny](Grozny). He bluntly pronounced: "Yesterday, Clinton permitted himself to put pressure on Russia. It seems he has for a minute, for a second, for half a minute, forgotten that Russia has a full arsenal of nuclear weapons. He has forgotten about that." Clinton dismissed Yeltsin's comments stating: "I didn't think he'd forgotten that America was a great power when he disagreed with what I did in Kosovo." It fell to Putin to downplay Yeltsin's comments and present reassurances about U.S. and Russian relations. #### Attempted 1999 impeachment On 15 May 1999, Yeltsin survived another attempt of impeachment, this time by the democratic and [communist](Communist Party of the Russian Federation) opposition in the [Duma](State)(State Duma). He was charged with several unconstitutional activities, including the signing of the [Accords](Belovezha)(Belovezha Accords) dissolving the [Union](Soviet)(Soviet Union) in December 1991, the [in October 1993](coup-d'état)(1993 Russian constitutional crisis), and initiating the [war](First Chechen War) in [Chechnya](Chechnya) in 1994. None of these charges received the two-thirds majority of the Duma required to initiate the process of [impeachment](Impeachment in Russia) of the president. #### Mabetex corruption [[File:Boris Yeltsin 31 December 1999.jpg\|thumb\|180px\|Yeltsin on the day of his resignation, together with Putin and [Voloshin](Aleksandr)(Aleksandr Voloshin)]] With [Borodin](Pavel)(Pavel Borodin) as the Kremlin property manager, Swiss construction firm [Mabetex](Mabetex) was awarded many important Russian government contracts. They were awarded the contracts to reconstruct, renovate and refurbish the former [Federation Parliament](Russian)(White House, Moscow), the Russian Opera House, [Duma](State)(State Duma) and the [Kremlin](Moscow)(Moscow Kremlin). In 1998, the Prosecutor General of Russia, [Skuratov](Yuri)(Yuri Skuratov), opened a bribery investigation against Mabetex, accusing its Chief Executive Officer [Pacolli](Behgjet)(Behgjet Pacolli) of bribing Yeltsin and his family. Swiss authorities issued an international arrest warrant for Pavel Borodin, the official who managed the Kremlin's property empire. Stating that bribery was a common business practice in Russia, Pacolli confirmed in early December 1999 that he had guaranteed five credit cards for Yeltsin's wife, Naina, and two daughters, Tatyana and Yelena. Yeltsin resigned a few weeks later on 31 December 1999, appointing Vladimir Putin as his successor. Putin's first decree as president was lifelong immunity from prosecution for Yeltsin. #### Resignation On 31 December 1999, Yeltsin issued a televised resignation speech. In it, he praised the advances in cultural, political, and economic freedom that his administration had overseen although apologised to Russia's people for "not making many of your and my dreams come true. What seemed simple to do proved to be excruciatingly difficult." By some estimates, his approval ratings when leaving office were as low as 2%. Polling also suggests that a majority of the Russian population were pleased by Yeltsin's resignation. ## Electoral history ## Heart disease and alcoholism Yeltsin suffered from heart disease during his first term as President of the Russian Federation, probably continuing for the rest of his life. He is known to have suffered heart problems in March 1990, just after being elected as a member of parliament. It was common knowledge that, in early 1996, he was recuperating from a series of heart attacks and, soon after, he spent months in hospital recovering from a quintuple bypass operation (see above). [[File:Vladimir Putin 1 February 2002-2.jpg\|thumb\|left\|Boris and Naina Yeltsina with President [Putin](Vladimir)(Vladimir Putin) and [Lady](First)(First Lady of Russia) [Lyudmila](Lyudmila Putina) on Yeltsin's 71st birthday, 2002]] According to numerous reports, Yeltsin was alcohol dependent until 1996, when his worsening health made him give up heavy drinking.Colton, ch. 15.Jerrold M. Post, "Boris Yeltsin: against the grain." Problems of Post-Communism 43.1 (1996): 58–62. The topic made headlines abroad during Yeltsin's visit to the U.S. in 1989 for a series of lectures on social and political life in the Soviet Union. A report in the Italian newspaper [Repubblica](La)(La Repubblica), reprinted by [Pravda](Pravda), reported that Yeltsin often appeared drunk in public. His alcoholism was also the subject of media discussion following his meeting with [Deputy Secretary of State](U.S.)(United States Deputy Secretary of State) [Talbott](Strobe)(Strobe Talbott) following Clinton's inauguration in 1993 and [incident](an)(Boris Yeltsin circling over Shannon diplomatic incident) during a flight stop-over at [Airport](Shannon)(Shannon Airport), Ireland, in September 1994, when the waiting Irish prime minister, [Reynolds](Albert)(Albert Reynolds), was told that Yeltsin was unwell and would not be leaving the aircraft. Reynolds tried to make excuses for him in an effort to offset his own humiliation in waiting in vain outside the plane to meet him. Speaking to the media in March 2010, Yeltsin's daughter, [Yumasheva](Tatyana)(Tatyana Yumasheva), claimed that her father had suffered a heart attack on the flight from the United States to Moscow and was therefore not in a position to leave the plane. [[File:Boris Yeltsin 24 September 2006.jpg\|thumb\|upright\|Yeltsin with tennis player [Tursunov](Dmitry)(Dmitry Tursunov) in 2006]] According to former deputy prime minister of Russia [Nemtsov](Boris)(Boris Nemtsov), the bizarre behavior of Yeltsin resulted from "strong drugs" given to him by Kremlin doctors, which were incompatible even with a small amount of alcohol. This was discussed by journalist [Tregubova](Yelena)(Yelena Tregubova) from the "[pool](Kremlin)(Kremlin pool)" in connection with an episode during Yeltsin's visit to Stockholm in 1997, when Yeltsin suddenly started talking nonsense (he allegedly told his bemused audience that Swedish meatballs reminded him of [Borg](Björn)(Björn Borg)'s face), lost his balance, and almost fell down on the podium after drinking a single glass of champagne.[Tregubova](Yelena)(Yelena Tregubova) Tales of a Kremlin Digger (, 2003; [Full text in Russian](https://web.archive.org/web/20040706185734/http://www.az-design.ru/Projects/AZLibrCD/290/c2ebe/books/001btoc.shtml). [German translation](http://www.perlentaucher.de/artikel/3350.html)). In his memoirs, Yeltsin claimed no recollection of the event but did make a passing reference to the incident when he met Borg a year later at the World Circle Kabaddi Cup in Hamilton, Ontario, where the pair had been invited to present the trophy.Boris Yeltsin, Midnight Diaries, New York, p. 344 He made a hasty withdrawal from the funeral of King [of Jordan](Hussein)(Hussein of Jordan) in February 1999 to use the facilities. After Yeltsin's death, Michiel Staal, a Dutch neurosurgeon, said that his team had been secretly flown to Moscow to operate on Yeltsin in 1999. Yeltsin suffered from an unspecified neurological disorder that affected his sense of balance, causing him to wobble as if in a drunken state; the goal of the operation was to reduce the pain. [Clinton](Bill)(Bill Clinton) claimed that on a 1995 visit to Washington, Yeltsin was found on Pennsylvania Avenue, drunk, in his underwear and trying to hail a taxi cab in order to find pizza. Yeltsin's personal and health problems received a great deal of attention in the global press. As the years went on, he was often viewed as an increasingly drunk and unstable leader, rather than the inspiring figure he was once seen as. The possibility that he might die in office was often discussed. Starting in the last years of his presidential term, Yeltsin's primary residence was the Gorki-9 presidential [dacha](dacha) west of Moscow. He made frequent stays at the nearby government sanatorium in [Barvikha](Barvikha). In October 1999, Yeltsin was hospitalized with flu and a fever, and in the following month, he was hospitalized with [pneumonia](pneumonia), just days after receiving treatment for [bronchitis](bronchitis). ## Life after resignation [[File:Boris Yeltsin 1 February 2006.jpg\|thumb\|upright\|Yeltsin with his wife [Naina](Naina Yeltsina) on his 75th birthday, 2006]] Yeltsin maintained a low profile after his resignation, making almost no public statements or appearances. He criticized his successor Putin in December 2000 for supporting the reintroduction of the tune of the [national anthem](Soviet-era)(National anthem of Russia). In January 2001 he was hospitalized for six weeks with [pneumonia](pneumonia) resulting from a viral infection. On 13 September 2004, following the [school hostage crisis](Beslan)(Beslan school siege) and nearly concurrent terrorist attacks in Moscow, Putin launched an initiative to replace the election of regional governors with a system whereby they would be directly appointed by the president and approved by regional legislatures. Yeltsin, together with [Gorbachev](Mikhail)(Mikhail Gorbachev), publicly criticized Putin's plan as a step away from democracy in Russia and a return to the centrally-run political apparatus of the Soviet era. In September 2005, Yeltsin underwent a hip operation in Moscow after breaking his [femur](femur) in a fall while on holiday in the Italian island of [Sardinia](Sardinia). On 1 February 2006, Yeltsin celebrated his 75th birthday. ## Death and funeral [[of Boris Yeltsin-1.jpg\|thumb\|left\|250px\|Yeltsin's funeral](File:Funeral)] Yeltsin died of [heart failure](congestive)(heart failure) on 23 April 2007, aged 76. According to experts quoted by [Pravda](Komsomolskaya)(Komsomolskaya Pravda), the onset of Yeltsin's condition began during his visit to [Jordan](Jordan) between 25 March and 2 April. He was buried in the [Cemetery](Novodevichy)(Novodevichy Cemetery) on 25 April 2007, following a period during which his body had [in repose](lain)(lying in repose) in the [of Christ the Saviour](Cathedral)(Cathedral of Christ the Saviour) in Moscow.BBC News [Yeltsin to lie in state in Moscow](http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/6586181.stm); retrieved 24 April 2007. Yeltsin was the first Russian head of state in 113 years to be buried in a church ceremony, after Emperor [III](Alexander)(Alexander III of Russia).[Tony Halpin. "Yeltsin, the man who buried communism"](http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/europe/article1695880.ece) The Times. 24 April 2007 He was survived by his wife, [Iosifovna Yeltsina](Naina)(Naina Yeltsina), whom he married in 1956, and their two daughters Yelena and [Tatyana](Tatyana Yumasheva), born in 1957 and 1960, respectively. [[of Boris Yeltsin-23.jpg\|thumb\|Vladimir Putin, Bill Clinton, and George H. W. Bush appeared at Yeltsin's funeral.](File:Funeral)] President Putin declared the day of his funeral a [day of mourning](national)(national day of mourning), with the nation's flags flown at [half-staff](Half-mast) and all entertainment programs suspended for the day. Putin said, upon declaring 25 April 2007 a [of national mourning](day)(National day of mourning), that: Shortly after the news broke, former Soviet leader [Gorbachev](Mikhail)(Mikhail Gorbachev) issued a statement, saying: ## Ideology During the late Soviet period, Yeltsin's ideological worldview began to shift. Colton argued that [populism](populism) and "a non-ethnic Russianism" had begun to enter Yeltsin's thinking while he was First Secretary of Sverdlovsk. In the late 1980s, Yeltsin told the Athens daily newspaper [Kathimerini](Kathimerini) that "I regard myself as a social democrat", adding: "Those who still believe in communism are moving in the sphere of fantasy." Linking Yeltsin with "liberal Russian nationalism", Alfred B. Evans described Yeltsin as having "exerted a crucial influence on the development of Russian nationalism." Yeltsin helped to channel the aspirations of [nationalism](Russian)(Russian nationalism) in ways that did not lead to clashes with the nationalisms of other national groups within the Soviet Union. As head of the [SFSR](Russian)(Russian SFSR), he stressed the specific interests of the Russian republic within the broader Soviet Union. Evans compared Yeltsin's turn away from the "empire-building" of the Soviet Union to the ideas of the writer and dissident [Solzhenitsyn](Aleksandr)(Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn), who had called in the 1980s for Russia to extricate itself from the Soviet Union. However, Evans thought that Yeltsin still appeared to believe by 1990 that the Ukrainians and Belarusians, as fellow East Slavic nationalities, would want to remain politically united with Russia in federal form. By 1991, it was obvious that this would not occur as the Ukrainian population favored full independence. Over the course of his presidency, he made increasing concessions to right-wing ethnic Russian nationalism by expressing growing concern over the fate of ethnic Russians in neighboring countries. ## Personal life Colton described Yeltsin as a man who "teemed with inner complexities", who exhibited both a "mathematical cast of mind" and a "taste for adventure", noting that Yeltsin had "the intuition for grasping a situation holistically". Colton thought Yeltsin could be bullheaded, and restless. Evans noted that in Yeltsin's autobiography, the leader appeared to view himself as more of a Soviet person than a Russian. Throughout his life, Yeltsin sustained a number of health problems which he would usually try to conceal. As a child, he sustained both a broken nose and a maimed hand, physical attributes he remained self-conscious about; in public he would often conceal his left hand under the table or behind his tie. He was also deaf on the right side due to a middle-ear infection. Although his mother was a devout Orthodox Christian, Yeltsin did not grow up as a practitioner, only becoming so in the 1980s and 1990s. Yeltsin stated that his "style of management" was "tough" and that he "demanded strict discipline and fulfilment of promises". Yeltsin was a workaholic; at UPI university, he developed the habit of sleeping for only four hours at night. He was punctual and very strict regarding the tardiness of his subordinates. He had an excellent memory, and enjoyed reading; by 1985 his family had around 6000 volumes in their possession. At UPI university, he was known for enjoying practical jokes. He enjoyed listening to folk songs and pop tunes, and from youth could play the [lozhki](Spoon (musical instrument)) spoons. Until poor health stopped him in the 1990s, Yeltsin enjoyed swimming in icy water, and throughout his life started each day with a cold shower. He also loved using the [banya](Banya (sauna)) steambath. Yeltsin also enjoyed hunting and had his own collection of hunting guns. He liked to give watches and other keepsakes to his employees, often as a means of motivating them to work harder. He disliked people swearing, and when frustrated or angry, he was known to often snap pencils in his hand. Yeltsin had a high tolerance for alcohol, and by the 1980s he was drinking alcohol at or above the average for the party elite. Yeltsin's favorite writer was [Chekhov](Anton)(Anton Chekhov), although he also enjoyed the work of [Yesenin](Sergei)(Sergei Yesenin) and [Pushkin](Alexander)(Alexander Pushkin). Colton described Yeltsin as having a "husky baritone" voice. Doder and Branson noted that Yeltsin was "a hero for young Russians, a cult figure to those who were not necessarily anticommunists but who were filled with bitterness and apathy" from the Brezhnev years. They noted he was "ebullient, almost outrageously open", and also "charismatic". They added that Yeltsin presented himself as "a true working-class hero" when challenging the Soviet administration. Yeltsin had nevertheless always wanted a son. Yelena briefly married a school friend, Aleksei Fefelov, against her parents' wishes. They had a daughter, Yekaterina, in 1979, before separating. Yelena then married an [Aeroflot](Aeroflot) pilot, Valerii Okulov, with whom she had a second daughter, Mariya, in 1983. Yeltsin's other daughter, Tatyana, married fellow student Vilen Khairullin, an ethnic Tatar, while studying at Moscow State University in 1980. In 1981 they had a son, named Boris after his grandfather, but soon separated. Tatyana then married again, to Leonid Dyachenko, and for a while they lived with Yeltsin at his Moscow apartment during the mid-1980s. Yeltsin was loyal to his friends. As friends, Yeltsin selected individuals he deemed to be professionally competent and morally fastidious. Aron noted that Yeltsin could be "an inexhaustible fount of merriment, exuberance and hospitality" among his friends. ## Reception and legacy Evaluations of Yeltsin range from highly positive to highly negative, with not much in the middle. Former [States Ambassador to Russia](United)(United States Ambassador to Russia) [McFaul](Michael)(Michael McFaul) emphasizes the range pro and con: :Yeltsin certainly deserves credit for monumental achievements. On his watch, the Communist Party of the Soviet Union was destroyed, the largest empire on earth was peacefully dismantled, and electoral democracy was introduced into a country with a thousand-year history of autocratic rule....Yeltsin invites and eludes a ringing assessment. Was he a heroic revolutionary, or an erratic reformer? An astute politician and a committed democrat, or a populist improviser with little interest in the hard work of coalition building? Was he a daring economic reformer, or a blundering tool of the oligarchs? ...Does he emerge as a larger-than-life leader who rose to unprecedented challenges, or as a figure overwhelmed by the enormity of change? The answer, not surprisingly, is that Yeltsin was all of the above.Michael McFaul, "Yeltsin's Legacy" The Wilson Quarterly 24#2 (2000), pp. 42–58. [online](http://www.jstor.org/stable/40260037) Colton suggested that "Yeltsin leaves nobody indifferent. He needs to be understood if we are to understand the age we inhabit". Aron characterised him as "Russia's first modern leader". Colton understood him as "a hero in history", albeit one who was "enigmatic and flawed". He expressed the view that Yeltsin was part of "the global trend away from authoritarianism and statism" that occurred in the 1990s, comparing him to [Mandela](Nelson)(Nelson Mandela), [Wałęsa](Lech)(Lech Wałęsa), [Havel](Václav)(Václav Havel) and [Gorbachev](Mikhail)(Mikhail Gorbachev). In the years following his presidency, there was comparatively little interest among biographers and historians in researching Yeltsin's life. [[File:BorisYeltsinMemorial.JPG\|thumb\|right\|Yeltsin's tomb with monumental grave stone in [cemetery](Novodevichy)(Novodevichy cemetery)]] [[File:Yeltsin-center-day.JPG\|thumb\|[Center](Yeltsin)(Boris Yeltsin Presidential Center) with the memorial sculpture ]] During his career as a figure in the Soviet Union, Yeltsin received ten medals and awards for his service to the state. In April 2008, a new memorial to Yeltsin was dedicated in Moscow's [cemetery](Novodevichy)(Novodevichy cemetery), to mixed reactions. At the memorial service, a military chorus performed [national anthem](Russia's)(Patrioticheskaya Pesnya) – an anthem that was changed shortly after the end of Yeltsin's term, to [the music](follow)(National anthem of Russia) of the [Soviet anthem](old)(State Anthem of the Soviet Union), with lyrics reflecting Russia's new status. Ryabov, who was formerly a close ally of Yeltsin's, claimed that his actions in the 1990s revealed that he was a [turncoat](turncoat). [[File:Tallinn - Dompark - Gedenktafel für Boris Jelzin.jpg\|thumb\|Memorial to Yeltsin in [Estonia](Tallinn,)(Tallinn, Estonia)]] In 2013, a memorial sculpture in relief, dedicated to Yeltsin, was erected on Nunne street, at the base of the Patkuli stairs in Tallinn, for his contribution to the peaceful independence of Estonia during 1990–1991. In 2015, the [Yeltsin Presidential Center](Boris)(Boris Yeltsin Presidential Center) was opened in [Yekaterinburg](Yekaterinburg). ### Public opinion in Russia Yeltsin's legacy has remained a controversial topic in Russia.Paul J. Saunders, ["U.S. Must Ease Away From Yeltsin"](http://www.nixoncenter.org/publications/articles/pjs-newsday.htm) , Newsday, 14 May 1999.Johanna Granville, ["Dermokratizatsiya and Prikhvatizatsiya: The Russian Kleptocracy and Rise of Organized Crime,"](https://www.academia.edu/5597850/The_Russian_Kleptocracy_and_Rise_of_Organized_Crime)Demokratizatsiya (summer 2003), pp. 448–457. A [VCIOM](Russian Public Opinion Research Center) survey carried out in 2001, over a year after Yeltsin's resignation, showed the public's mostly negative perception of the former President at the time: Another VCIOM survey, carried out in 2010, showed the continuing unpopularity of Yeltsin three years after his death: ## Honors and awards Russian and Soviet * Russia: ["For Merit to the Fatherland"](Order)(Order "For Merit to the Fatherland"), 1st class (12 June 2001) – a particularly outstanding contribution to the establishment and development of the Russian state * Soviet Union: [of Lenin](Order)(Order of Lenin) (January 1981) – for services to the Communist Party and Soviet state and his fiftieth birthday * Soviet Union: [of the Red Banner of Labour](Order)(Order of the Red Banner of Labour), twice; August 1971 – for services in carrying out a five-year plan January 1974 – for achievements in the construction of the first stage of cold rolling shop at the Verkh-Isetsky Metallurgical Plant in [Sverdlovsk](Yekaterinburg) * Soviet Union: [of the Badge of Honour](Order)(Order of the Badge of Honour) (1966) – for achievements in implementing the seven-year plan targets for construction * Russia: ["In Commemoration of the 1000th Anniversary of Kazan"](Medal)(Medal "In Commemoration of the 1000th Anniversary of Kazan") (2006) * Soviet Union: [Medal "In Commemoration of the 100th Anniversary of the Birth of Vladimir Ilyich Lenin"](Jubilee)(Jubilee Medal "In Commemoration of the 100th Anniversary of the Birth of Vladimir Ilyich Lenin") (November 1969) * Soviet Union: [Medal "Thirty Years of Victory in the Great Patriotic War 1941–1945"](Jubilee)(Jubilee Medal "Thirty Years of Victory in the Great Patriotic War 1941–1945") (April 1975) * Soviet Union: [Medal "60 Years of the Armed Forces of the USSR"](Jubilee)(Jubilee Medal "60 Years of the Armed Forces of the USSR") (January 1978) * Soviet Union: Gold Medal, Exhibition of Economic Achievements (October 1981) * Russia: Medal – "In memory of the army as a volunteer" (March 2012, posthumous) – for a high contribution to the remembrance of the Great Patriotic War, with respect for the history of the Russian state, and for his contribution to the preservation of names of victims in conflicts in defence of the homeland Foreign awards * Belarus: [of Francysk Skaryna](Order)(Order of Francysk Skaryna) (31 December 1999) – for his great personal contribution to the development and strengthening of Belarusian-Russian cooperation * Kazakhstan: [of the Golden Eagle](Order)(Order of the Golden Eagle) (1997) * Ukraine: [of Prince Yaroslav the Wise](Order)(Order of Prince Yaroslav the Wise), 1st class (22 January 2000) – for his significant personal contribution to the development of Ukrainian-Russian cooperation * Italy: Knight Grand Cross with collar of the [of Merit of the Italian Republic](Order)(Order of Merit of the Italian Republic) (1991) * Latvia: [of the Three Stars](Order)(Order of the Three Stars), 1st class (2006) * Palestine: Order "Bethlehem 2000" (2000) * France: Knight Grand Cross of the [of Honour](Legion)(Legion of Honour) (France) * South Africa: [of Good Hope](Order)(Order of Good Hope), 1st class (1999) * Lithuania: Medal of 13 January (9 January 1992) * Lithuania: Grand Cross of the [of the Cross of Vytis](Order)(Order of the Cross of Vytis) (10 June 2011, posthumous) * Mongolia: Order "For Personal Courage" (18 October 2001) Departmental awards * Russia: Gorchakov Commemorative Medal ([Foreign Ministry](Russian)(Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Russia)), 1998) * International Olympic Committee: Golden [Order](Olympic)(Olympic Order) ([Olympic Committee](International)(International Olympic Committee), 1993) Religious awards * Russia: [of Saint Blessed Grand Prince Dmitry Donskoy](Order)(Order of Saint Blessed Grand Prince Dmitry Donskoy), 1st class (Russian Orthodox Church, 2006) * Greece: Chevalier of the Order of the Chain of the Holy Sepulchre ([Orthodox Church of Jerusalem](Greek)(Greek Orthodox Church of Jerusalem), 2000) Titles * Honorary Citizen of Russia: [Oblast](Sverdlovsk)(Sverdlovsk Oblast) (2010, posthumous) Russia: [Kazan](Kazan) (2005) Russia: [Oblast](Samara)(Samara Oblast) (2006) Armenia: [Yerevan](Yerevan) (2002) Turkmenistan: [Turkmenistan](Turkmenistan) (1993) Greece: [Corfu](Corfu) (1994) ## See also * [of Russia (1991–present)#"Shock therapy"](History)(History of Russia (1991–present)#"Shock therapy") * [of the Soviet Union](History)(History of the Soviet Union) * [Doctrine](Shock)(Shock Doctrine) * [Still Loves You Boris Yeltsin](Someone)(Someone Still Loves You Boris Yeltsin) * [Boris](Spinning)(Spinning Boris), film based upon the story of American consultants advising the campaign ## Notes ## References ## Sources and further reading * * Aslund, Anders. ''Russia's capitalist revolution: why market reform succeeded and democracy failed* (2007) [excerpt](https://www.amazon.com/Russias-Capitalist-Revolution-Succeeded-Democracy/dp/0881324094) * Barnes, A. "Property, Power, and the Presidency: Ownership Policy Reform and Russian Executive–Legislative Relations, 1990–1999" Communist and Post-Communist Politics 34#1 (2001): 39–61. * Barylski, Robert V. The Soldier in Russian Politics: Duty, Dictatorship, and Democracy under Gorbachev and Yeltsin (Routledge, 2018). * Bialer, Seweryn. "The Yeltsin Affair: The Dilemma of the Left in Gorbachev’s Revolution." Politics, Society, and Nationality Inside Gorbachev’s Russia (Routledge, 2019) pp. 91–119. * Biryukov, N., & S. Sergeyev. Russian Politics in Transition: Institutional Conflict in a Nascent Democracy (Ashgate, 1997). * Boltunova, Ekaterina. "The President has entered the building! The Boris Yeltsin Presidential Center and memorial tradition in contemporary Russia." Ab Imperio 2017.3 (2017): 165–193. [online](https://www.academia.edu/download/55436496/AI-2017.pdf) * Breslauer, George W. Gorbachev and Yeltsin as leaders (Cambridge UP, 2002). * Breslauer, George W. "Personalism versus proceduralism: Boris Yeltsin and the institutional fragility of the Russian system." Russia in the New Century (Routledge, 2018) pp. 35–58. * Brown, Archie et al. Gorbachev, Yeltsin, and Putin: political leadership in Russia's transition (2002) [online](https://archive.org/details/gorbachevyeltsin0000unse) * Brown, Archie, and Lilia Shevtsova, eds. Gorbachev, Yeltsin, and Putin: political leadership in Russia's transition'' (Carnegie Endowment, 2013) [excerpt](https://books.google.com/books?id=8rCyLNphJpcC&dq=Boris+Yeltsin+&pg=PR2). * Colton, Timothy J. "Boris Yeltsin, Russia's all-thumbs democrat." Patterns in post-Soviet leadership (Routledge, 2019) pp. 49-74. * Depoy, Erik. "Boris Yeltsin and the 1996 Russian presidential election." Presidential Studies Quarterly 26.4 (1996): 1140–1164. [online](https://www.jstor.org/stable/27551676) * * Ellison, Herbert J. ''Boris Yeltsin and Russia's democratic transformation'' (2006) [online](https://archive.org/details/borisyeltsinruss0000elli_d6h2) * * Forden, Geoffrey. "Reducing a Common Danger." Policy Analysis Paper (CATO #399, 2001) [online](https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/resrep04948.pdf) * Gill, Graeme. "The Yeltsin Era." in Routledge Handbook of Russian Politics and Society (Routledge, 2015) pp 3–12. * Goldgeier, James. "Bill and Boris: A Window Into a Most Important Post-Cold War Relationship (August 2018)." Texas National Security Review (2018). [online](https://repositories.lib.utexas.edu/bitstream/handle/2152/72425/TNSRVol1_Iss4_Goldgeier.pdf?sequence=2) * Jackson, Camille. "Legislation as an Indicator of Free Press in Russia: Patterns of Change from Yeltsin to Putin." Problems of Post-communism 63.5–6 (2016): 354–366. [online](https://www.academia.edu/download/46968549/Legislation_as_an_Indicator_of_Free_Press_in_Russia.pdf) * Kagarlitsky, Boris. Russia Under Yeltsin and Putin: Neo-Liberal Autocracy (2002) * Kimura, Hiroshi. Japanese-Russian Relations Under Gorbachev and Yeltsin (Routledge, 2016). * Lane, David. "Political elites under Gorbachev and Yeltsin in the early period of transition: a reputational and analytical study." in Patterns in Post-Soviet Leadership (Routledge, 2019) pp. 29–47. * Lynch, Allen C. "The influence of regime type on Russian foreign policy toward “the West,” 1992–2015." Communist and Post-Communist Studies 49.1 (2016): 101–111. [online](https://krytyka.com/sites/krytyka/files/lynch_0.pdf) * Malinova, Olga. "Political Uses of the Great Patriotic War in Post-Soviet Russia from Yeltsin to Putin." in War and Memory in Russia, Ukraine and Belarus (Palgrave Macmillan, Cham, 2017) pp. 43–70. * Marples, David R. The collapse of the Soviet Union, 1985–1991 (Routledge, 2016). * Mason, David S., and Svetlana Sidorenko-Stephenson. "Public opinion and the 1996 elections in Russia: Nostalgic and statist, yet pro-market and pro-Yeltsin." Slavic Review 56.4 (1997): 698–717 [online](https://digitalcommons.butler.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1129&context=facsch_papers). * Medvedev, Toy. Post-Soviet Russia: a journey through the Yeltsin era (Columbia UP, 2000) * Minaev, Boris. Boris Yeltsin: The Decade that Shook the World (2015), detailed popular biography based on numerous interviews [excerpt](https://www.amazon.com/Boris-Yeltsin-Decade-Shook-World/dp/1784379239) * O'Brien, Thomas A. ["The role of the transitional leader: A comparative analysis of Adolfo Suárez and Boris Yeltsin."](https://web.archive.org/web/20221006012051/https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.976.6310&rep=rep1&type=pdf) Leadership 3.4 (2007): 419–432; compares Suárez of Spain. * Ostrovsky, Alexander. [Глупость или измена? Расследование гибели СССР. (Stupidity or treason? Investigation of the death of the USSR.)](https://ru.bookshome.net/book/1137525/d94429) М.: Форум, Крымский мост-9Д, 2011. — 864 с. ISBN 978-5-89747-068-6. * Ostrovsky, Alexander. [Расстрел «Белого дома». Чёрный октябрь 1993. (The shooting of the "White House". Black October 1993.)](https://my-files.su/otgo2w) — М.: «Книжный мир», 2014. — 640 с. ISBN 978-5-8041-0637-0 * Rivera, David W., and Sharon Werning Rivera. "Yeltsin, Putin, and Clinton: presidential leadership and Russian democratization in comparative perspective." Perspectives on Politics (2009): 591–610 [online](https://digitalcommons.hamilton.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1063&context=articles). * Satter, David. The Less you know, the better you sleep. Russia’s road to terror and dictatorship under Yeltsin and Putin (Yale University Press, 2016). * Shevtsova, Lilia. Russia lost in transition: the Yeltsin and Putin legacies (2007) [online](https://archive.org/details/russialostintran0000shev) * Shevtsova, Lilia. ''Yeltsin's Russia: Myths and Reality. Washington: Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, 1999. [excerpt](https://www.scribd.com/document/22070994/Yeltsin-s-Russia-Myths-and-Reality) Skinner, Kiron, et al. The Strategy of Campaigning: Lessons from Ronald Reagan and Boris Yeltsin (U of Michigan Press, 2010). * Smith, Kathleen E. Mythmaking in the new Russia: politics and memory during the Yeltsin era (2002) [online](https://archive.org/details/mythmakinginnewr00kath) * Spohr, Kristina, and Kaarel Piirimäe. "With or without Russia? The Boris, Bill and Helmut Bromance and the harsh realities of securing Europe in the post-wall world, 1990–1994." Diplomacy & Statecraft 33.1 (2022): 158–193. * Stanger, Allison K. "Courting the Generals: The Impact of Russia’s Constitutional Crisis on Yeltsin’s Foreign Policy." Russia and Eastern Europe After Communism (Routledge, 2019) pp. 297–313. [online](https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/09592296.2022.2041816) * Strickland, David A. "Overriding Democracy: American Intervention in Yeltsin’s 1996 Reelection Campaign." Footnotes: A Journal of History 4 (2020): 166–181. [online](https://journals.uair.arizona.edu/index.php/UAHISTJRNL/article/download/23567/22426) * Talbott, Strobe. "Clinton and Yeltsin." Diplomatic History 42.4 (2018): 568–571. * Yeltsin, Boris. Against the Grain. (London: Jonathan Cape, 1990), a primary source. * Yeltsin, Boris. The Struggle for Russia. (New York: Times Books, 1994), a primary source. [online](https://archive.org/details/struggleforrussi00yelt) * Zezina, M.R. et al. A Man Of Change–A study of the political life of Boris Yeltsin'' (2014) [online](https://archive.org/details/manofchangestudy0000unse/page/n3/mode/2up) ## External links * [CNN Cold War — Profile: Boris Nikolayevich Yeltsin](https://web.archive.org/web/20080613043952/http://www.cnn.com/SPECIALS/cold.war/kbank/profiles/yeltsin/) * [Archival footage of Boris Yeltsin](https://www.net-film.ru/en/found-page-1/?search=qyeltsin) on [Net-Film Newsreels and Documentary Films Archive](https://www.net-film.ru/en/) * [Yeltsin and Post-Soviet Problems](https://web.archive.org/web/20121215070149/http://repository.library.georgetown.edu/handle/10822/552653) from the [Dean Peter Krogh Foreign Affairs Digital Archives](https://web.archive.org/web/20120312181034/http://repository.library.georgetown.edu/handle/10822/552494/browse?type=title) * }} }} }} }} \|years=6 November 1991 – 25 December 1991}} }} }} }} \|years=25 December 1991 – 15 June 1992}} }} \|years=16 March 1992 – 18 May 1992}} [ 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